•^

>^^

:■< *

Af-

4 ,^ „.

r

1.-

A

i

\
^

,r^.;

> 'Y

x^-

^T^

■ft'

rV^

'"^-'^..^

^

fl^l

..

-^^e

Y J

<,"

,/*7-

^'^

LIBRARY

OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS

AGRICULTURAL

COLLEGE

NO., J_6.&7 .__ DATE.d:i<36e__.
SOURCE H-a-tcJx..£uncL

'652:2

CHAPEL

^ 4^.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

VOLUME THE SECOND.

(third series.)

JULY TO DECEMBER, DCCCLII.

LONDON :
PUBLISHED BY ROGERSON AND TUXFORD, 246, STRAND.

MAY BE HAD »Y ORDER THROUGH ALL BOOKSELLERS.

LONDON: i O r ""' '2^

Printed by Cogerson and Co., 246, Strand.

INDEX

A.

Agriculture and the Rural Population abroad.

From the Special Correspondent of the Morning

Chronicle, 42, 248, 351, 544
Agriculture, Hints in aid of, 239
Agriculture, Meeting of the Prussian Association

of, 170
Agriculture, the Effects of the Gold Fields on, 346,

394, 522
Agriculture ? What has Science done for, 457
Agriculture of the Bible, 525
Agricultural Biography, 95, 207, 301, 429, 491
Agricultural Calculations, 168
Agricultural Experiments, 510
Agricultural Districts of England. By the Times

Commissioner, 71,313, 440, 518
Agricultural Implement Association, 541
Agricultural Intelligence, 183, 276, 372, 408, 500
Agricultural Lectures, their Benefit, 490
Agricultural Reports, 85, 181, 272, 308, 406, 559
Agricultural Societies —

Bath and West of England, 29

Chertsey, 563

Yorkshire, 277,241.
Anmial Instinct, 550
Averages, Imperial, 93, 190, 283,380, 569

B.

Bark, Price of, 94, 190, 284, 570

Bee, Honey, singular Circumstance, 411

Beer, Ropy, Cure for, 366

Beetroot, practical Observations on the Culture of.

By James Reeve, 295
Bridgnorth Industrial Schools and Gardens, 364
Butter, Cheese, &c.. Prices of, 94, 190^ 284, 380,

569

C.

Canada, Agricultural Census of, 551
Cattle, on the Structure and Foroiation of various
Breeds, 317"

Cattle-trade, Review of the, 86, 182,272, 369, 467,

559
Chicory, Price of, 190, 284, 380, 569
Coprolites and Guano v. Farm-yard Manure, 124
Corn Trade, Review of the, 88, 185, 279, 375, 470,

564
Cottage Gardening in Cornwall, 32, 238
Cow, Short-horned, Description of a, 191
Crops, Climatic Influences on the Production and

Harvesting of, 326
Crops that might be cultivated in Great Britain,

and which are not, commonly, 512
Crops, the Principle of Manuring, 456
Currency per Imperial Measure, 93, 189, 283,

379, 568

D.

Daniel O'Rourke, Description of, 475
Ducie, Earl, Memoir of, I

Farm Buildings, Description of Plate, 110

Farm, Prize of the Manchester and Liverpool

Agricultural Society, 490
Farm, Remodelling of, and Improvements of

Homesteads, 486
Farm Valuation, 113

Farmers' Clubs —

Chippenham Hundred, 457

Croydon, 113

Hadleigh, 75

London, 17, 499

Sparkenhoe, 118, 445

Winchester, 35
Farming, Hill or Light Land, 35
Farming, Pleasures of Gentleman, 443
Farming, Suggestions for a uniform System of

experimental and practical, 162
Fixtures, the Law of. Important Decision, 555
Flax Industry of Ireland, 500

INDEX.

Flax, on the Cultivation of (Premium, the Gold
Medal). By Richard Hodgson, 413

G.

Grass-lands— Hay. By J. Towers, 105

Gold Fields, Farming near the, 552

Grazing, 56

Guano and the Rot, 550

Guano Diggings, the, 406 ,

Guano, its application, 60

Guano, on the Discovery of an Artificial Manure as

Fertilizing as, 173
Guano Question, the, 61, 392

H.

Hail Storms, severe, 1 75
Hay, Price of, 284, 570
Hereford Cow, Description of, 475
Hereford Ox, Description of, 95
Hereford Steer, Description of, 285
Hide and Skin Markets, 94, 190, 284, 474, 570
Highland and Agricultural Society, 223
Hop Market, 93, 190, 284, 380, 474, 569
Horticulture, Calendar of, 84, 180, 271, 365, 463,
556

I.

Ireland, Royal Agricultural Improvement Society,

218, 328, 542
Irrigation and Liquid Manure. By Cuthbert W.

Johnson, Esq., 444

Kent Cattle Show, a Challenge for the next, 48

L.

Labour and the Poor, 106, 245, 338, 451, 530

Lambs, on Weaning, 254

Land, Burdens on, 118

Land, on the Beneficial Investment of Capital in,

161, 270, 334
Lewes Show of the Royal Agricultural Society of

England, 127
Lime, its Use and Abuse in Agriculture. By J.

C. Nesbit, Esq., 499
Lime, Phosphate of, 62

M.

Manures, Prices of, 380, 474, 670

Manuring, the Science of. By Thomas Rowland-
son, 6, 192, 289, 397

Meadows of the Duke of Portland at Clipstone
Park, Mansfield, 311

Meteorology, its connection with the Cultivation of
the Soil. By C. W. Johnson, Esq., 3, 103,
382, 558

Meteorological Diary, 83, 179, 278, 367, 465

N.

Newminster, the Winner of the St. Leger, Descrip-
tion of, 191

O.

Oats, Deep-ploughing Lea for, 410

Oats, on the Cultivation of. By Thomas Ro«r-

landson, 475
Oils, Price of, 94, 380

P.

Plants, on the Diseases of, 337

Poppy, the Wild, 412

Potato Disease, Report on the, and its Cure, 554

Potato Disease, the, 166

Potato, the, our Friend, 535

Potato Markets, 284, 474, 569

Potato, Observation on a New Kind of, 226

Poultry, the Importance of to Farmers, 445

R.

Ram, Cotswold, Description of a, 382

Reapers, Mowers, Sec, Trial of, in the United

States, 388
Reaping (American) Machines, iGo
Reaping Machines, 363
Royal Agricultiu-al Society of England, 49, 127,

255, 539

S.

Seeds, Price of, 93, 190, 283, 380, 569

Sheep-Feeder, his Present Position, 111

Short-horned Cow, Description of, I

Short-horns, Sales of, 46 1

Short-horns, Sale of the Killerby, 371

Soil, on the Resources of the, 345

Southdown Ram, Description of, 285

Spurry, how to Destroy the, 299

Steam Power, on the Comparative Advantages of
Fixed and Portable, as applicable to the Pur-
poses of a Farm (Premium, Gold Medal). By
James D. Ferguson,

Stubble-!, Autumn Clearing of, 439

T.

Tallow, Price of, 284, 570

Teeth of Horses and Cattle, on the, 358

INDEX.

Timber, Price of, 284, 570

Tiptree Hall Gathering in 1852, 165

Trees suitable for Planting in Public Walks and

Promenades, 164
Tull, Jethro. By C. W. Johnson, Esq., 285
Turnip Culture, on, 26
Turnip Fly, the, 33
Turnijjs, a New Method of Hoeing. By Philip

Pusey, Esq., 335

W.

Weeds, on the Eradication of, 350
Wellington, Duke of, Short Sketch of, 381
Wheat Sowing. By C. W. Johnson, Esq., 204
Wool Crop, Influence of the late Spring on, 40
Wool Markets, 94, 184, 190, 284,380, 474, 570
Woollen and Worsted Manufactures, their Growth,
63

THE EMBELLISHMENTS.

Page

Portrait of Earl Ducie . . . . .

1

Short-horned Cow

. 1

Hereford Ox .

. 95

Plan of Farm Building. By C. P. Tebbutt .

. 110

Short-horned Cow

. 191

Newminster, Winner of the St. Leger

. 191

Plan of a Husbandman's House

. 217

Engraving of a Baines-hooded Shock or Stock

- 242

Hereford Steer

. 285

Southdown Ram

. 285

Plan of Farm . . . .

. 304

Short-horned Bull

. 317

Short-horned Cow

. 321

Portrait of the Duke of Wellington .

. 381

A Cotswold Ram

. 381

Ketchum's Mowing Machine

. 389

Manny's Mower

. 389

Rugg's Propeller

. 390

Sections of the Blades of Mowers

. 390

Burrall's Reaper

. 391

Atkins's Self-Raker

. 392

Illustrations of Harrows for Stubbles

. 439

Hereford Cow .

. 475

Daniel O'Rourke

. 475

1^ M

"I ^'-^0^K%.''

_^ssACI-i

f AGRICULTURAL

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

JULY, 1852.

PLATE I.

PORTRAIT OF THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE EARL OF DUCIE.

ENGRAVED BY J. B. HUNT, FROM A PAINTING BY G. V. BBIQGS, R.A.

PLATE 11.
SHORT HORNED COW

The subject of our second plate is a Shorthoined Cow, the property of the Right Honourable
Lord Feversham, of Duncombe Park, Hehnsley, Yorkshire, to which was awarded the first prize of
Twenty Sovereigns in Class 8, and a Silver Medal at the Smithfield Club Cattle Show, in December last.

THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE EARL OF DUCIE

Henry George Francis Reynolds Moreton
Baron Ducie and Moreton, of Tortwortli and
Woodchester, in the county of Gloucester, was
born in the spring of 1802, and succeeded his
father as Earl of Ducie in 1840; having married
in 18'2G, Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Lord Sher-
borne, by whom he has a numerous family. The
Ducies, according to "The Peerage," are no new
creation, for they rini directly back to the times of
our first Charles, when one Sir Robert Ducie, a
banker and Lord Mayor of London, had his loyalty
and devotion to the luckless monarch taxed at a
high price — losing, it is said, eighty thousand
pounds in his support of the king's fortunes. The
title, however, was not made out sooner than l/^O,
the second adopted, according to usage, by the heir
of the house, being acquired by marriage with the
Moretons, a family of long standing at Moreton, in
Staffordshire.

In thus tracing the pedigree of the President of
the Royal Agricultural Society, we come to find that,
independently of his own individual taste and deter-
mination, there was every ]n'omise of his taking
high rank as an agriculturist. Somewhere about

OLD SERIES.]

the commencement of the seventeenth century the
then head of the Ducie family had entered so fully
into the business of the farm, and advanced so far
before the spirit of his times, as to employ the cele-
brated JethroTuU as his steward, and to support him
in all those experiments and improvements which
have made the latter's name so famous. This,
however, is so well introduced, and the perseveraudo
motto of the Ducies — past and present— so well ex-
emplified in a paper before us, that we can very
becomingly and appropriately re-produce it here.
In a lecture given by Mr. W. H. Hyett, of Pains-
wick, to the Gloucester Farmers' Club, in 1842,
on the benefits which agriculture has derived from
science, the speaker thus touches on our theme: —
" I am not wishing to persuade any of you to be
a TuU : I know too well the difficulties and embar-
rassments which he had to encounter, to urge my
practical neighbours to enter on so bold a system
of innovation ; but when the experiments of those
who are justified in making them, shall have demon-
strated the certainty of success, however bold the
first innovation, and whatever the misfortunes of its
author, it is to be hoped we shall hereafter at least
B No. 1.— VOL jixxvn.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZLNE.

be a little less slow in admitting into practice such
principles as those involved in the drilling and horse-
hoeing husbandry of TuU. In thus touching on
some of poor Tull's difficulties it will be pleasing,
though perhaps not immediately to the point, for
us who hve in a county where exactly what he did
for light soils, is now doing on one of our heavy
vale farms (the Example Farm), by a spirit as en-
terprising as he possessed himself, to notice as we
pass a source from which he received sympathy and
encouragement. I found by accident the following
quaint passage in the Gentleman's Mar/azine for
1764 :— ' Mr, Tull employed himself assiduously in
training of servants, and in accommodating the in-
struments proper for his new husbandry to their
limited capacities : and this work he found much
harder to accomphsh than he at first expected; it
was less easy to drive the ploughman out of his
way, than to teach the beasts of the field to perform
the work. The late Lord Ducie Moreton, who fol-
lowed Mr, Tull, or rather accompanied him in this
laborious and vexatious business, has very frequently,
if I have been rightly informed— to correct the awk-
wardness of his ploughmen, or overcome their ob-
stinacy— stript himself of his dignity, and put his
hand to the plough himself ; and yet with all this
condescension in his lordship, and with all the vigi-
lance, activity, and ingenuity of Mr, Tull, who was
a most excellent mechanic, they were both forced
at last, after a world of money expended to very
little eftect, to relinquish the project, and to content
themselves with farming their lands in the ordinary
way, except some small portions of it, which they
reserved for further experiments.' The example of
a nobleman lending a hand in so characteristic a
way to encourage in his difficulties one of the most
scientific and enterprising farmers this country ever
knew, cannot but excite our admiration, but not
the surprise of those who are fortunate enough to
be acquainted with his counterpart in a living de-
scendant,"

" The living descendant " here alluded to is the
nobleman whose portrait graces our present num-
ber. One who, whatever his success may have
been, has set an example as a landlord that few in-
deed for practical utility or earnestness of attention
have ever attempted to pursue. Placed in a dis-
trict generally remarkable but for the apathy and
imbecility with which the cultivation of land was
carried on, as it long had been from one generation
to another, his lordship resolved to incite his neigh-
bours to the achievement of better things. The
means whereby he sought to accomplish this are
now, as they should be, well known, though we
hardly know whether they have always been so
fully appreciated. The Whitfield farm, for instance,
was long the target for attack, especially with

those adjacent to it. In answer to one of these.
Lord Ducie himself has so ably demonstrated what
he intended, and what he did not, in the establish-
ment of the Example Farm, that we think it but
justice to let him speak for himself: —

" I must explain what my real motives were in
estabhshing Whitfield farm. I did not establish it
as an example for the enlightened agriculturists in
that neighbourhood — a neighbourhood unfor-
tunately where ignorance is rife, and not only rife
as to agriculture, but to other things as to which
intelligence is of value. My object was to endea-
vour to open the eyes of such farmers to the value
of improvements in agriculture. It was rather to
arouse them to use their energies in preference
to their easy chair ; but I never intended to
show an example to such farmers as Mr. Peter
Matthews, or Mr. John Nicholls. Far from
it. My only wish was to rouse my neighbours
and tenants from a state of lethargy, and to
infuse amongst them a spirit of enterprise and
improvement. I am happy to say that the under-
taking has been attended with the best results,
of which a good evidence is given in the fact that we
are establishing a farmers' club atWickwar, hitherto
one of the least enterprising districts in the county.
As I have already said, I did not establish Whit-
field farm as an example to the enhghtened agri-
culturist ; neither did I consider, when I undertook
to drain a large portion of the land (for I knew, as
Mr. Matthews remarked at Cirencester, that it was
not every one who was able to lay out the capital),
that I was giving an example to the renting farmer
or men without capital; but I intended to give
an example to the neighbouring landlords, I
wished to open the eyes of the owners of the soil
to the advantages which would accrue from the
proper application of capital. I wished to show
them that they would secure a much larger return
by such improvements than they could derive
from buying railway shares ; and in this re-
spect I am happy to say that my farm has not
been a bad example ; for 1 can state that many
landlords, amongst others, Mr, Miles and Mr.
Murray, are establishing farms for the benefit of
their tenants, and of the farmers in the immediate
neighbourhood,"

Although for some period the Lord Moreton of
those days had perhaps more repute as a master of
foxhounds and a determined sportsman than a
scientific farmer, his lordship very early in life took
from six to seven hundred acres into his own oc-
cupation, and has never since been without some
considerable quantity of land under his own ma-
nagement. The Example Farm he began with
about the year 1836, and continued to hold it him-
self for five or six years from that period, when^

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

3

liaving brought it into a high state of cultivation,
he h t it to Mr. John Morton, who has occupied it
up to the present season, when his lordship once
more entered upon it.

The Uley works, another means of aid and ex-
ample for the stand-still agriculturist, were opened
by Lord Ducie in 1841. The object of these was
the manufactory of improved implements, adapted
to the country in which the works were erected.
Whatever diversity of opinion may have existed as
to the success of the Example Farm, there can be
none as to the great benefit derived from the Uley
establishment. Gradually, but certainly, " the
cultivator" and other instruments have come into
general request : while time and experience only
confirm their value and utility. Having thus
thoroughly answered their intention, by the general
introduction of a superior description of agricul-
tural implement into the country, the Uley works
have now been discontinued, though the lasting
improvement they have efl*ected will ever remain as
a tribute to the spirited and really patriotic man
who originated them.

It is not only, however, by good buildings, first-
rate machinery, improved imjjlements of husbandry,
thorough drainage, or any other liberal and judi-
cious outlay, that Lord Ducie has distinguished
himself as a good landlord and a good practical
farmer. Perhaps the very strongest point in his
character is the judgment and spirit with which he
has continued to advance in the quality of his stock.
That same quickness of eye and steadiness of pur-
pose which ensured him one of the best stables of
hunters, and as fine a pack of fox-hounds as ever
were drawn from a kennel, nas served his lordship
equally well in that, perhaps, more worthy vocation
to which he has since devoted himself. Few ama-
teurs, or indeed practical farmers, can give more
correctly the good points in an animal, as none

have evinced moie care or attention to them. It
might be doubted whether any of even our best
shepherds could be better relied on to cull from a
pen of sheep ; while his lordship's bid at a short-
horn sale may be taken as equally good evidence of
there being something worth having at the hammer.
* Price then rarely stops him — a liberality which,
backed with his own good judgment, nearly always
shows a fitting return at his annual sales of young
stock. But Lord Ducie's aim, here again, is the
common good, more particularly of the neighbour-
hood in which he resides ; for in addition to the
benefit to be derived from crossing with such su-
perior stock, he for several years put his name
down for a premium of £50, to the Gloucestershire
Agricultural Society, for the best bull exhibited.
The application of this handsome contribution to
the prize list has latterly been in some measure
altered from the original terms in which it was
ofl^ered, but the fact stands ecjually well to the
credit of the good neighbour who gives it.

We think we have said enough to prove Lord
Ducie's claim to that high position he at present
occupies, viz., the president's chair of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England. During his year
of ofl[ice we have every authority for saying his
lordship has given the greatest possible satisfaction
to those associated with him; applying himself
earnestly and i)ractically, as in all he undertakes,
to the business of the society, and ensuring the re-
spect of everyone who has been engaged in it with
him. On the fifteenth of this month he completes
the round of his duties by presiding over the society's
dinner at the Lewes meeting, when we trust all who
can, will by their presence do him that honour he
has so fairly earned, as a liberal high-minded
nobleman, a good "example" landlord, and a
really excellent practical farmer.

METEOROLOGY, ITS CONNECTION WITH THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.

BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S.

In a previous volume of this valuable Periodical, | varying influence of atmospheric phenomena upon the
(vol. 34, Old Series, p. 287,) I had occasion to make i ordinary products of the soil— and how much these
some preliminary and general remarks upon the influenced the operations of the farmer. lu this

* Take only some of his purchases, within these
very few years ; at the Wiseton sale, in 1848, the
Bull " Usurer " was knocked down to his Lord-
ship for 400 gs.; at the same sale a two-year-old hei-
fer, Volage, for 200 gs.; and at the famous Kirk-
levington sale, in 1850, he gave close on a thousand
gs. for six animals— Duke of York, Duchess 55th,

Duchess 59th, Duchess 64th, O.vford 6th, and
Oxford nth, two of them being young calves.
While for proof of return, on the other hand, we
know that three hundred guineas has been refused
for the produce of one of these— Duke of Glouces-
ter, a Bull Calf, from Duchess 59th.

B 2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

1S47.

1818.

the Quarters cudiuft-

Mar. 31.

Juue30.

Sept. 30.

Tnuo . .

■IG.5

11.7

9.1

12.5

Exeter . .

30.G

9.5

S.l

8.9

Chichester

20.8

9.5

7.6

10.2

Uckfield .

17.0

7.1

7.8

11.7

paper I purpose to go a little more into detail, and
to confine my observations to the varjaug amount of
rain falling in different districts of England.

lu commencing our examination of the depth of
rain, m liicli falls annually in different portions of the
Kingdom, it -will perhaps be a convenient course to
traverse it in the first instance in a direction from
West to East in lines, as direct as the situation of
the places where rain gauges have been kept Avill
admit, since by this means Ave keep as much as pos-
sible in the same latitude. Having thus crossed the
Island in two or three different lines we can after-
wards proceed from the South to the North of the
Island, with the same objects in view. Let us then
commence with the line of the Southern coast, and
take the records kept at Truro, Exeter, Cliichester,
and Uckfield. Wc here find that in the years 1817
and 1818, there fell in these places a depth of rain
(in inches) ef[ual to (Phil. Mag )

9.1
8.9

Thus the mean depth of rain falling at Truro iu
these two years was 50.7 inches, at Exeter 33.1, Chi-
chester 38.5. Showing a gradual decrease, as we
leave the grass growing counties of Cornwall, Devon,
and Somerset, and approach the corn producing
districts of Hampshire and Sussex. But the mean
depth of rain must in our enquiry be viewed iu con-
nection (amongst other facts) with the seasons of
the year and number of days on which the amount
of rain occurred. Now in these places the days on
which any rahi fell were as follows : —

Dec. 31.
3

0

In this table the returns arc incomplete, no record
of the rain falling days were kept at Chichester, (I
have inserted a return from Brighton in its place,)
rard at the two last toM'ns only for the two first
quarters of the year 1818. Yet still, an evident de-
crease, in the number of days in wliich raui fell, is
perceiveable in our i)rogrcss from West to East along
the Southern shores of England.

Let us next iu a similar direction traverse the
Island, starting at Beckington, about a degree fur-
ther to the North than the line with which we com-
menced.

1817.

ISIS.
Quarters ending

Mar. 31.

J line 30.

Sept. 30.

Truro . .

152

f)0

45

45

Exeter . .

150

55

42

52

Brighton .

133

57

39

Uckfield .

121

IS

11

45

This tour will include Beckington in Somerset-
shire, and Greenwich iu Kent. The rain which fell
at these places in the years 1847 and 1848 was

1847.

Beckington
GreeuAvich

28.7
17.G

1848. _ u!.:

Quarters ending, vi;

Mar. 31.|trune30.|Sept.30.
9.5 9.3 I 12.7

7.9 ! 7.3 '; 8.7

Dec. 31.
11.7

7.3

The mean of the two years being equal to 28.4 inches
at Greenwich, and 35.9 at Beckington — of rain days
in the same period there were at

Beckington|
Greenwich |

151

128

58
49

46
46

59
61

56
50

Giving a mean of the 2 years of 185 days at Beck-
ington, and 167 at Greenwich. In both the amount
and the frequency of raiu, the grass growing pastures
of the banks of the Somerset Avon, have a more
considerable supply than the arable soils of the
metropolitan districts.

In still advancing to the North of England, and in
traversing the kingdom from West to East, we have
for comparison the rain gauges of Liverpool, Derby,
and Highfield in Nottinghamshire. In these the
depth of rain collected in the years 1847 and '8 were

1817.

1848.

Quartei

ending

Mar. 31.

June 30.

Sept. 30.

Liverpool

31.6

7.9

7.9

8.9

Derby . .

28.2

11.8

8.5

11.8

Highfield >
House . S

25

8.4

8.3

11.7

Dec. 31

7

8.1

hi

\U

Shewhig a mean fall of raiu in these two years of
31.65 inches at Liverpool, 34.2 at Derby, and 32.6
at Highfield. The days at which rain fell were

Liverpool
Derby . .
Hicrhfield

177

52

47

54

169

56

47

53

178

71

54

58

51
64
66

Thus the mean of these two years was 190.5 days
at Liverpool, 191 at Derby, and 213.5 at Highfield^
shewing that as we approach the Midland and North-
ern portions of the island the dissimilarity between
the deptli of rain and the rainy days on its Western
and Eastern sides diminishes. The districts which
a line draAni from Liverpool to Derby and Highfield
intersects it will be noticeable, some of the most
extensive cheese and growing districts of the kingdom
— those of Chester, Derbyshire, and Nottingham.

We now approach the Northern limits of Euglaud,.
and we ha\e here the gauges of Whitehaven on the
Western side of the island, and those of Durham,
and Newcastle, iu nearly a parallel latitude on the
East. The number of days on which rain fell ^U;
these places iu the years 1817 and 1848, was .a^
follows :— /i .IV J bioltadT ,7

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

1847.

Whitehaven
Durliam .
Newcastle

191
134
130

1S4S.

Quarter eudiiig

Mai-.31.jJuue30. Scpt.30.! Dec. 31.

59

41

38

41

41

3G

50
39
31

53

42

Being a mean number of 200 at Whitehaven, 152.5
at Durham, and 140 at Ne\ycastle. Tlie dcptli of
rain during tliis period was in inclies

14.1

Whiteliaven 42.9

IG.l

0.2

11

Durliam . 15.9

7.5

0.2

0.8

Newcastle i 24.7

ll.S

0.()

7.9

10.4

Being a mean depth of 44.75 inches at Whiteliaven,
21.8 at Durham, and 30.2 at Newcastle. It is no-
ticeable that the same greater prevalence of pasturage
on the Western side of the island still exhibits itself,
whilst he have on the Eastern, or drier portion of
the island, the same fine arable system of cultivation
wliich seems to follow its comparatively drier atmos-
pheres from the county of Kent, thence to those of
Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Lincoln, York, Durham, and
Northnniberland, to Edinburgh and Aberdeenshire.
It is difficult to believe that in all this range of
coiuitry, it is not the depth of raiu which influences
the general mode of cultivation adopted by the far-
mer— wherever we find (drawing a line from Truro
to E.Keter, from thence intersecting Beckington, and
Derby, and Liverpool,) — the larger mean depth of
rain falling, there we find in general the majority of
the lands devoted to grass. lu confirmation of
this conclusion let us next examine the Western
and Eastern raiu gauges in juxtaposition, and for
that purpose let us traverse the island in a North-
ernly and Southeruly direction.

Here we shall observe the same result — facts not
difficult of explanation. For as Mr. J. H. Belville
remarks in his valuable little manual on the Thermo-
meter, "England is subject to a variable climate,
not only from its insular form, but it is liable to
further violent changes from the never-ceasing anta-
gonism of a warm maritime climate on its western
side, with a cold coutiuential climate on its Eastern.
The great Atlantic, which washes the West and
South-west shores of England, produces in those
counties exposed to its influence, a warm moist
atmosphere, for the Westerly winds which constantly
prevail there carry thither the warm air from over
the sea, and the vapour with which it is laden is
condensed, as it reaches the colder laud, in a misty
scud, which drenches every object with moisture,
although no drops of raiu may fall. The wide diff'er-
ence in the amount of moisture falling on the two
sides of the island may be seen from the records of
a single year, viz., 1844. In the following table the
monthly depth in inches is given. In col. I. at
Exeter ; II. Liverpool ; III. Kendal ; IV. London ;
V. Thetford; VI. North Shields ;~

AVestem side.

.January
February
March .
April . .
May . .
June . .
.July . .
August .
Sept. . .
October
Nov. . .
Dec. . .

I.

2.940
2.400
2.900
0.300
0.000
1.700
1.030
2.740
1.400
2.020
3.420
2.100

II.

2.5.30
3.450
2.700
1.200
0.810
3.100
5.270
3.550
2.990
2.990
1.270
0.120

III

5.804
4.540
0.015
2.801
0.143
3.757
3.249
3.448
5.385
4.212
3.129
0.409

Eastern side.

IV.

2.700
2.345

2.884
0.381
0.335
1.481
2.885
2.885
1.423
3.975
3.020
0.425

V.

2.070;

2.485
1.050
0.215
0.395
1.700
1.275
1.945

VI.

2.184
1.004
1.097
0.720
0.470
1.70S
1.927
1.840
1.300 2.030
3.940; 1.470
2.480' 1.310
0.590; 0.000

Mean . 23.790 30.100 43.012i24.37ei20.105ll7.72S
The effect of this widely different supply of raiu
may be regarded in another point of view. Every
inch of raiu is equal to a weight of rather more than
one hundred Ions per each imperial acre. So that
the mean annual weight of rain falling on the West-
ern counties, exceeds the mean amount of the raiu
of the Eastern counties, by several hundi-eds of tons
per acre.

In connection with the fall of rain, another import-
ant question, closely related to our enquiry, presents
itself — viz., — 1st, the Season of the Year, in which
these phenomena occurred ; and secondly, the (listance
of time which \isually intervenes between one day of
rain, and another. Let us then again cross the island
in a Northerly direction, and examine these facts,
and see what depths of rain and what number of
rainy days occurred at three distant stations, viz.,
Chiswick, Boston, and Orkney, in the spring months
(March, April, and May), and the summer months
of .Tune, July, and August, of the years 1847 & 1848.

1847.

Spring.

Summer.

Spring.

Summer.

Days Ins.

Days

Ins.

Days

ins.

Days Ins.

Chiswick

37 3.08

41

3. 87

40

0.39

01 10.11

Boston . .

34 7.75

28

5.17

35

5.50

48 10.89

Orkney .

47 l7.ie

42

8.48

44

5.72

47 8.08

1848.

The consideration of facts like these (and iu a fu-
ture paper, I hope to add more of the same kind to
aid the English Farmer,) is fraught with interest to
the agriculturist. Many conclusions may be drawu
by the cultivator from the patient observations of
the Meteorologist : for instance, it is evident that the
Scotch Farmers possess a considerable superiority of
climate over theii- Southern neighbours for the
growth of oats and turnips, whilst their English
brethren have greater advantages for the cultivation
of barley and mangel wurzel — that these observa-
tions to some extent also apply to the Easteni and
Western sides of England — and that a soil which is
of medium fertile moisture in the Eastern counties,
would be too wet for some crops if placed on the
Western side. Such researches too, add other links
to the chain of evidence, which demonstrates the
great importance of science to agriculture.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE SCIENCE OF MANURING,

BY THOS. ROWLANDSON, C.E., F.G.S,
CHAPTER II.

The Inorganic Constituents? of Plants.

Having shown the mode by which the inorganic
constituents of plants are introduced into and
assimilated by the vegetable organism, it is now
necessary, in order duly to appreciate the relative
value of each particular mineral constituent, to
examine the respective quantities of each description
found in the various crops more commonly culti-
vated. For this purpose the following tables are
given, drawn up by Professor Johnston.

Potatoes.
Calculated without Calculated with
. Carbonic Acid, Carbonic Acid.

Potash 43-18

Soda 3-20

Lime 1-80

Magnesia 3-17

Oxide of iron .... 0-44

Sulphuric acid .. 15-24

Phosphoric acid .. 8'6l

Chlorine 4-81

Silica 1-94

Carbonic acid 18-29

100-68

52-40
3*88
2-20
3-85
0-53
18-50
10-45
5-84
2-35

100-00

Proportion of Water, of Organic, and Inorganic Matter in the Potato Top.

BY Professor Johnston.

In the Stem.

Cold dry.

In the Leaves.

Cold dry.

"Water

89-73
8-49
1.78

82-67

17-33

Water

85-22

12-51

2-27

Organic matter

Inorganic matter

Organic matter

Inorganic matter

84-55
15-45

100-00

100-00

100-00

100-00

Of the Inorganic Part of the Potato Tuber.
(a) The young tuber.

1. 2.

Buffs from South

Mid Lothian. Americans.

Ash per cent 0-80 116

Do. calculate dry 4-32 5-42

(b) The full-grown tuber,

I. 2.

Buffs from Red Potato

Mid Lothian from Lanark.

Ash per cent 0-78 0-96

Do. calcul ted dry 3*36 4-01

(c) In successive periods of growth.

Ash-leaved

Kidneys.

0-95

4-45

White Potato

from East Lothian.

0-75

3-75

Ash per cent

Do. calculated drv

buffs from mid LOTHIAN.

Old Sets.

May 30
0-64
5-52

2

June 13

0-65

19-88

3

June 27

0-705

12-940

New Potatoes.

4

July 25

0-80

4-32

5

Aug. 8

0-70

3-90

6 I 7

Aug. 15 I Aug. 22

0-78 i 0-79

3-36 ; 4-70

Aug. 29
1-93
5-35

The average of a number of analyses of the Potato gave —

For the dry potato 3-57

Potato in the natural state . . . . . . . . 0-87

per cent, of inorganic matter.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 7'

Average of Water, Ash, &c., in Turnips, according to Messrs. Way and Ogsten.

water.

ash.

ASH DRY.

Highest.

Lowest.

Mean.

Highest.

Lowest.

Mean.

Highest.

Lowest.

Mean.

Bulb

Top

92-7
90-0

86-0
79'0

90-0
85-5

1-13
2-64

•48
i-19

-73
1-84

10-90
18-00

4-00
8-00

7-30
12-98

According to the analyses of Professor Way a crop of 20 tons of bulbs or roots, and 4 tons of leaves
of turnips, mangold wurzel, and carrot, will respectively withdraw from the soil, or, in common
parlance, e.xhaust it, to the extent here set forth, viz : —

Turnips.

Phosphoric acid 45 lbs.

Sulphuric acid 50 „

Lime 90 „

Magnesia 14 „

Potash 140 „

Soda 33 „

Chloride of sodium (salt) 57 „

429 „

Mangold

Wurzel.

Carrots.

21

lbs.

39 lbs.

22

57 „

21

197 „

22

29 „

133

134 „

70

103 „

160

85 „

449

»

664 „

An average crop of wheat will remove from an
imperial acre : —

Sihca 84 lbs.

Phosphoric acid . . . . 20

Lime . . 8

Magnesia 6

Peroxide of iron . . . . 1

Potash 23

Soda 1^

143J
Twelve tons of potato, tubers will remove of —

Potash 150 lbs.

Soda 12 „

Lime 9 ,,

Magnesia 20 „

Sulphuric acid 60 „

Phosphoric acid . . . . 33 „

Chlorine • 18 „

202

From which Fromberg calculates that a ton of
artificial manure, composed only of the mineral
ingredients, for the potato crop, ought to be pro-
portioned as follows : —

Potash 1180 lbs.

Magnesia 87 „

Soda 77 „

Lime 50 „

Sulphuric acid 416 „

Phosphoric acid . . . . 235 „

Chlorine .. .. ,. .. 195 „

2240 „

At a future period we will examine how far the
above proportions agree with the amount of manure

(either farm-yard or special) applied to the crops
ordinarily cultivated.

Having thus given a brief review of some of the
physiological circumstances connected with the
growth of plants, and also tolerably copious tables
of the inorganic constituents of some of our usually
cultivated plants, the reader will be now prepared to
understand the rationale of the action of manures.
It is not my intention to enlarge on the sources
whence the organic constituents of plants are
derived, it being taken for granted that all such as
consist merely of carbon and hydrogen, as oils, or
carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, as woody fibre
(lignin), starch, sugar, gum, organic acids, &c.,
are formed by the decomposition of carbonic acid
and water, perhaps also occasionally by the ab-
sorption of oxygen from the atmosphere. There
are, however, other substances in plants, of great
importance in the vegetable economy, which, in
addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, contain
another constituent — azote or nitrogen, and in a few
instances phosphorus and sulphur also, the latter
being found in the seeds of cruciferous plants. It
has been attempted by Liebig and others to prove
that if plants are adequately supphed with their
mineral constituents, nitrogen will be absorbed from
the atmosphere. It is possible that this theory may
be true in part; but every-day observation shows
that a moderate application of azotised manures is
invariably followed by a luxuriant crop, provided
the inorganic constituents essential for fertility are
also present ; it would, therefore, be by no meani
safe for the farmer to abandon the use of substances
containing nitrogen. We shall defer the consider-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINR.

ation of this subject for the present, as we shall
have abundant opportunities of recurring to it
when occupied with the question of farm-yard
liquid and special manures.

On Farm-yard Manurk.

Seeing that by withdrawing crops from a field
we take away a certain amount of substances es-
sentially requisite to the formation of vegetable
organisms, it will be obvious that by returning the
same to the soil we again restore it to the original
state. This, however, cannot be done in practice
by relying only on the ordinary manure heap of the
farmstead, as a constant waste takes place annually
on every farm by the sale of corn, wool, meat, and
bone in cattle and sheep, milk, cheese, &c., leaving
commonly the most bulky but least valuable
articles, as hay and straw, at home to make manure;
an evident waste therefore takes place on every farm,
and, in addition thereto, there is also constantly
carried away a portion of fertalizing substances by so-
lution in rain water,* even after farm-yard manure
has been applied to the soil. In part, this is in some
degree replaced by fresh mineral ingredients being
set free from soils by the slow but certain and
constantly decomposing action of carbonic acid and
moisture ; notwithstanding this aid from nature, it
is well known that in practice it takes the produce
of many acres to restore fertility to one that has
been exhausted. One source of loss has just been
indicated ; but there are others much more serious,
which will be hereafter alluded to. On reflection,
it must also be obvious to all, that manure, to be of
the greatest efficacy, ought to be in that state which,
whilst not of too great solubihty, yet is sufficiently
so to be decomposed during the time occupied by
the growth of the crop to which it is applied.

In preparing a manure heap, the farmer ought
therefore to be careful, in the first place, to preserve
and collect all matters containing the organic and
inorganic constituents of the crops which he cul-
tivates ; and, 2ndly, if the matters so collected are
not in a form likely to be absorbed by plants, to
render them so by artificial means. The course
usually pursued for the first object, is to collect all
the excrements (usually mixed with straw) voided
by the animals in the cattle sheds, styes, stables,
straw yards, &c., throwing the whole into a heap,
where it remains until carted to the field. Generally,
little care is taken to preserve the urine voided by
cattle, &c., except such as may be absorbed by the
straw.

* Perhaps this loss is not so great as is com-
monly imagined ; at least. Professor Way's ex-
periments on the absorptive properties of soils
point to such a conclusion.

Much has been written with respect to the
second object— such as turning over the heaps
periodically, in order to promote a greater and more
equal fermentation. This plan has had both
strenuous advocates and adversaries ; amongst the
latter is Boussingault, who states : " From what
has now been said, it will be understood how de-
structive to good manure is the custom which
obtains in certain countries of turning dungheaps
frequently— of airing them as it were, in order to
hasten their decomposition. Treated in this way,
stable litter does, in fact, decompose much more
rapidly; but it does so — and I own I do not myself
clearly perceive the object proposed by it — at the
expense of the quality ; for it is very evident that
the volatile principles must be dissipated and lost in
the same proportion as their points of contact with
the air are multiplied." I am inclined to doubt
that so serious a dissipation of the volatile principles
(ammonia) of farm-yard manure takes place in con-
sequence of turning over the heaps as stated by the
F'rench chemist, and am more inclined to agree
with the advocates of old fermented manure, that
the loss sustained principally consists of carbonic
acid and moisture ; in fact, Boussingault admits on
the authority of Thaer, that air collected from the
surface of a dungheap undergoing moderate fer-
mentation, does not contain much more carbonic
acid than that which is taken from the mass of the
atmosphere. Neither does a vessel containing
nitric acid, when placed upon the fermenting mass,
produce those dense white vapours which are certain
indications of the presence of ammonia. In pre-
paring farm-yard manure, the quick decay of vege-
table fibre is of great importance, for two reasons —
viz., it prepares the straw, so that it can be easily
broken by the fork or cut by the spade, in which
state it is also easier worked into the ground by the
plough ; .vhilst, at the same time, the inorganic
constituents of the straw, &c., are set free. The
due fermentation, therefore, of the whole mass of
the dungheap is of primary importance. In con-
ducting this, some circumspection is required ; for,
if allowed to acquire too high a temperature, the
mass becomes what is commonly termed " fire-
fanged," and sometimes actually inflames; in either
case, httle more than the inorganic constituents
remain. It may be here remarked, that the cir-
cumstances just stated ought to be conclusive
evidence against the truth of the theory, that we
have only to place upon our fields the inorganic
constituents of the crops which we draw from them,
in order to produce perpetual fertility ; otherwise,
firefanging in our dungheaps would be a benefit
rather than an injury ; but all practical farmers
know that the contrary is the case. The opposite
circumstance — the non-production of sufficient

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

S6

heat — is attended with the disadvantage of leaving
the straw in a tough state, so as aot to be easily
worked. .70 fir ,7]

I shall only at present briefly notice what appears
to be the general opinion : it is borne out by the
best writers, and agrees with my own experience,
viz., that, in preparing a manure heap, too great
care cannot be taken to mix intimately the produce
of stables, cattle sheds, styes, &c. ; for the mixture
is always found to produce that slow but perfect
fermentation most advantageous to the objects of
the farmer. This might be anticipated, as horse
manure is known to be prone, especially in hot
weather, to heat violently, and frequently if care is
not taken, to fire ; on the other hand, the manure
from cattle sheds does not ferment readily. For
the due preparation and economising farm-yard
manure it is indispensably necessary that it should
be sheltered. It cannot be a matter of indifference
whether the surface of a manure heap is kept at 90
deg. in the shade or 120 deg. in the sun for days to-
gether; and, with respect to rain, it must be evident
to all that every drop which falls, and subsequently
exudes from the heap, must rob it of some of its
fertilizing ingredients. I have ascertained by ex-
periments that the first oozings from a manure
heap contain the greatest amount of inorganic sub-
stances as well as the largest quantity of ammonia.
Allusion is here made to the liquid running from a
heap in the fresh or unfermented state ; it may also
be remarked, that a considerable portion of the
salts which exude at this period are in the state of
carbonates. The drainings from a manure-heap that
has fermented a few days, and collected after a shower
of rain, possess a dark-brown appearance, and, if
allowed to settle, will become tolerably clear. When
this occurs, and it takes place during the fermenta-
tion of all manure heaps, it is an indication that in
the process of decay, humic acid has been formed,
which, combining with the ammonia or the fixed
alkalies, exude in the state of brown-coloured
humates : in this manner one-third, probably one-
half of the value of farm-yard manure, as ordinarily
prepared, is lost. If the phenomena attending the
fermentation of manure heaps is investigated, it will
be found that humic acid must be produced during
the decay of woody fibre with the simultaneous
formation of carbonic acid and water, accom-
panied by the disengagement of the alkalies j)otash
and soda, which immediately combine with the
humic acid, forming humates : these being very
soluble are carried away by the first shower of rain
that falls, unless precautionary measures have been
taken to prevent such waste, which unfortunately
is seldom the case. Were it not for some counter-
acting causes, manure heaps exposed during an
entire winter would lose the whole of their fer-

tilizing properties. The counteracting causes arise
from the property which the insoluble humates of
lime, magnesia, &c., and also some black insoluble
carbanaceous compounds possess of retaining am-
monia and the alkalies to a certain extent. Were it
not for this circumstance, our manure heaps as or-
dinarily prepared would become destitute of all
their valuable substances, with the exception of the
almost insoluble neutral phosphates of lime and
magnesia, sulphate of lime, &c. It is true that
the fermentation of manure heaps cannot proceed
without the aid of moisture; but ordinarily formed
farm-yard manure contains sufiicient moisture when
taken out of the offices for its adequate fermenta-
tion, if it is not subsequently allowed to evaporate
by too free an exposure to the sun and wind. A
shed would remedy this evil. Moisture is not the
only circumstance necessary to produce fermenta-
tion in a manure heap : oxygen must also be pre-
sent, and this is afibrded by the atmosphere.

If a manure heap is surrounded with an atmos-
phere of carbonic acid gas, scarcely any fermentation
will take place, whatever degree of moisture may
exist therein. If, therefore, means are devised for
limiting the admission of the atmosphere, we shall,
to a certain degree, obtain a control over the fer-
mentation of the heap, by which means the evils
arising from the formation of much humic acid
will, in a great degree, be remedied.

The fermeutatiou of manure heaps depending as it
does on the joint presence of heat, moisture, and
the atmosphere, the skilful farmer will avail himself
of the means in his power to promote or retard fer-
mentation, by dispensing with, or admitting, one or
other of these agents as the case may require. Tliis
can be done in several ways : to enumerate and ex-
plain all would, however, take up too much space; I
shall therefore confine myself to a few general rules,
and to modes of proceeding which arc witliin the
capacity of the humblest cottager.

The free admission of the atmosphere is one of the
principal causes of excessive fermentation, and Bous-
singaidt, although he does not state this to l)c the
<r<vf«^, admits that " it is of much importance that
the heap be pretty solid, in order to prevent too
great a rise of temperature and a too rapid fermen-
tation, which is always uijurious. At Buhelbronu,
our dung-heap is so firmly trodden down in the
course of its accumulation, by the feet of the work-
men, that a loaded waggon drawn by four horses can
be taken across it without very great difiicidty."
Notwithstandmg what has just been stated, many
able writers on this matter have asserted that tramp-
ling down manure is injurious ; — each party is right
according to circumstances. If a mcaniu'e heap is
requii'ed for almost immediate use, nothing is more,
certain than that a free admission of air is necessary.

10

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ill order to promote rapid fermeiitation'; but this is
done at the expense of a considerable amount of its
volatile contents. On the other hand, if intended to
lie for some months, (as is frequently the case,) pres-
siu'e, and consequently more limited admission of
atmospheric air, is advantageous, fermentation being
by this means retarded, and consequently proceeds
more equally throughout the mass.

At some periods of the year it is a matter of con-
siderable importance to the farmer that he should
have the means of converting his fresh into well fer-
mented manure in a short time.

It is particularly recommended that all extraneous
moistui'e other than the draiuings of the offices
should be kept from the manure heap, and these
ought to be conveyed to the pit through tunnels : no
water should be permitted to enter, unless thrown
on for some special purpose.

By restricting the admission of the air, a direct
command is obtained over the fermentation of the
manure heap ; but practically this can only be accom-
plished by placmg the manure in pits ; if a rough
covering is given to it, so much the better. The
usual form of a manure heap is either a cube or a
parallelopipedon, each being a figure of six. sides, five
of which are exposed to the influence of the atmos-
phere, the bottom only not being surrounded by it.
By using pits this order will be completely reversed :
one side — the top — only being exposed to the
atmosphere; with this additional advantage, that from
the altered position of the heap, in relation to the
air, the top being the only surface directly exposed
to its influence, is precisely that by which it can pene-
trate with the greatest difficulty ; as it can only
enter to fill up the vacuum caused by the gradual
evolution of carbonic acid, vapour, and heated air ;
whilst with ordinarily formed dung-heaps the atmos-
phere can freely penetrate through the sides, thus
causing a di-aught, accompanied by the more rapid evo-
lution of vapour and carbonic acid thi-ough the top of
tiie mass, the free admission of oxygen causing the
heat to still further increase, in consequence of which
a more vigorous fermentation ensues — fire-fanging
being the frequent result.

To prevent the evils arising from the present mode
of forming manure heaps, it is recommended that
farm-yard manure should be invariably thrown into
pits either dug out of the ground or partially so, and
walled romid to the height of about four feet from
the surface. Fire-fanging is unknown in pits so
formed ; and this mode has the further advantage
that the manure, commonly called cold, such as
those from the cow-house, which only slowly decom-
pose, has the rotting process hastened owing to the
caloric evolved in closed pits being only slowly dis-
persed, and consequently conducing by its prescence

to the required decay. Pits have therefore the
double advantage of retarding fermentation in cases
where that is likely to be injurious, and retaining
heat where it is most required.

It sometimes occurs that pits so made become
filled above their tops, in which case the superioi'
portions will be in the condition of ordinarily formed
dung-heaps. When this has happened I have not un-
frequently observed that it was requisite to remove
the upper portions, or turn it over in order to prevent
firing. It is also worthy of observation that where
the manure is heaped up above the level of the pits,
and the sides are consequently exposed to the action
of the atmosphere, the manure so made never has the
same appearance as old fermented manure. This
cannot be accounted for from the shorter period that
has elapsed since the upper portion exposed to the
air has been gathered, for I have often carefully ob-
served and marked the time requisite to produce
the appearance of well-fermented farm-yard manure
placed in pits, and exposed in the ordinary manner,
and I have invariably remarked that a more perfect
and uniform decomposition takes place in that placed
in pits, and also in less time.

It might be supposed that a considerable amount
of ammonia escapes. Such, however, is not the case ;
neither is much heat evolved from manure pits. I
have often been present at the removal of manure
from pits constructed as here recommended, the heat
from which is seldom so great as that found in ordi-
narily formed heaps ; but, unlike the latter, it is not
confined to the centre, whilst the sides are compara-
tively cool : on the contrary, an equable temperature
pervaded the whole mass, no smeU of ammonia was
perceptible, but vapoiu- of water was being copiously
given off.

These facts strongly confirm the con-ectness of
the opinion that in order to produce a speedy and
equable decay of manure, it ought to be thrown
into pits, instead of being exposed in the ordinary
manner.

Another advantage derived from using pits is, that
iu winter the caloric arising from the fermentation
of the heap is not so speedily dissipated when sur-
rounded by a cold frosty atmosphere.

It is well known that winter-made manure does
not ferment freely. So well is this understood tliat it
has become an axiom that one load of manure formed
iu summer is worth two made in winter. I need not
enlarge as to any particular mode of constructing the
pits here recommended, as every sensible farmer,
when convinced of the correctness of the system,
will easily select the fittest place, and tiie best mode
of constructing them, as adapted for his own peculiar
circumstances. As a general rule they ought to be
impervious, if the soil will permit it : if not, they

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

11

ought to be made so. A rough covering, though
not indisjieusably requisite, Avoiild be a great improve-
ment. Pits made as just described will convert the
ordinary mixture of cattle and horse manure into well
fermented farm-yard manure in the course of three
weeks or a month in summer, and in winter in about
six or eight weeks, — advantages sufficient to induce
every careful farmer to adopt the system, by which
means the fertilizing ingredients will be preserved
with a smaller amount of loss of its volatile and fixed
valuable contents than by the method usually pur-
sued.

During some years on large farms no inconsidera-
ble amount of animal matter, such as vermin, &c.,
is thrown away, thus polluting the atmosphere ;
whereas if they were thrown into a close pit, amidst
twitch, weeds, &c., and mixed with fresh horse manure,
they would add materially to the quantity and value of
the heap, besides assisting in making away with a
quantity of rubbish : from experience I know that
the germinating property of twitch can be thus
destroyed.

By whatever mode farm-yard manure is prepared,
under all circumstances a large quantity of humic
acid is formed. The manner in which humic acid,
which forms soluble salts with several alkalies, be-
comes by lengthened fermentation converted into
a black substance insoluble ia alkalies, is only at pre-
sent imperfectly if at all understood. The result of
my own observation is this, that in heaps formed in
the open mode a larger amount of humic acid is
formed, which is found soluble in alkalies, than when
made in close pits having a more limited access of
air : in tlie latter case some humic acid is formed.
In both cases the soluble humic acid so formed is
identical with the humic acid which exists so abund-
antly in barren peat mosses or turbaries ; which
humic acid has a strong tendency to unite with the
alkalies potash, soda, ammonia, &c., forming the deep
brown-coloured solutions, which are invariable seen
to ooze from manure heaps after rain. Seeing that
every drop of brown-coloured liquid, so oozing, con-
tains ill solution a greater or less amouirt of salts of
potash, soda, or ammonia, it must be evident that
from this cause alone a very serious diminution of
the valuable constituents of the manure heap is con-
stantly taking place. Placing the manure in pits will
in a great measure remedy this evil ; at all events, it
will prevent the liquid running to waste. It is not,
however, here meant to convey the impression that
this brown-coloured liquid possesses any great fertili-
zing properties, for such is not the case. It can, how.
ever, be easily made so, by using a little well-slaked
lime m small quantity ; as the Ume will then combine
with the humic acid, and set the alkali free : no escape
of ammonia will take place, provided the lime is iised
in small quantities, in the form of milk of lime. It

may be here remarked that the insoluble compounds
of humic acid with lime, as well as those carbonace-
ous compounds formed during the decay of straw,
&c., which are insoluble, appear to possess the pro
perty of absorbing and retaining very appreciable
quantities of alkalies and alkaline salts, and ammonia-
cal substances, in a manner analogous to charcoal ; it
is on this property that the value of the carbonaceous
matters of farm-yard manure principally depends ;
and probably also, as a slow and continuous source of
carbonic acid, it may indirectly be a source of ferti
lity. In stating this, however, it is not meant to
convey the impression that the carbonic acid thus
formed is dkectly absorbed by ])lants, and thus causes
a greater luxuriance of growth ; for all experiments
prove that if the other conditions requisite for fer-
tility are present, the carbonic acid of the atmosphere
is always in sufficient abundance to supply the re-
quisite amount of carbon. Repeated and carefully
performed experiments, have however proved, that
after silica (sand), granite, &c., have been subjected
for a lengthened period to the action of boiling mu-
riatic acid, in order to dissolve out the whole of their
alkaline contents, the residue has been acted on
by carbonic acid. The carbonaceous substances of
the manure heap are therefore indirectly som-ces of
fertility, in consequence of their giving off carbonic
acid slowly but continuously during their decay,
which carbonic acid acts on the minerals existing in
the soil, to a limited extent rendering them soluble,
and consequently fit for absorption by the spongioles
of the roots of plants.

The following analyses of farm-yard manure are
given : they will have to be referred to occasionally
when we compare the value of farm-yard manure
with the recently introduced and more portable
substances, which are generally classed under the
generic title of special manures.

The first analysis I shall give is one by Dr.
Richardson, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne; it was made
on farm-yard manure taken just previous to being
applied, and was found to consist as follows : —

Fresh.

Water 64-9G

Organic matter 2471

Inorganic salts 10' 33

100-00

Dried at 212°.

Carbon 37-40

Hydrogen. , 5*27

O.vygen 25-52

Nitrogen 1'76

Ashes 30-05

100-00

12

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Inorganic Matters.

A. Portion soluble in loater.

Potash 3 22

Soda 273

Lime 034

Magnesia 0'26

Sulphuric acid 3"27

Chlorine 3'15

Silica 0-04

13-01

B. Soluble in muriatic acid.

Silica 27-01

Phosphate of lime 7-1 1

Phosphate of magnesia .... 2-26

Phosphate of iron 4-68

Carbonate of lime 9*34

Carbonate of magnesia .... 1-63

Sand 30-99

Carbon 0-83

Alkali and loss 3-14

86-99

A. Portion soluble 13-01

B. Ditto insoluble 86 99

100.00
By Messrs. Alien and Greenhill, pupils of Mr.
Nisbet.

Farm-yard

manure
from Kent.

Farm-yard

manure
frm Surrey.

Per centage of ash

9-2

9-6

Silica

79-79
3-32
0-92
6-90
0-56
1-43
2-04
1-53
1-89
1-58

a trace

7r32

Potash

5-14

Soda

1-68

Lime

12-32

Magnesia

0-82

Common salt

1-22

Phosphate of iron

Phosphate of alumina. . . .

Sulphuric acid ....

Phosphoric acid

Manganese

2-03
2-54

1-57

1-27

99-76

99.91

It is very important to observe that of the entire
mass of farm-yard manure carted on to the land,
about 65 per cent, of it is only water, and of the
remaining 35 per cent. 25 is inert carbonaceous
matter, only serviceable as a source of carbonic
acid, for which purpose a mixture of peat and lime
will answer equally well, leaving only 10 per cent.
of inorganic substances, and 0.6 per cent, of ni-
trogen as true fertilizing matter. Of the 10 per
cent, of inorganic substances, there are only three
that are of much value, either as regards their com-
mercial price or relative scarcity : we can obtain in
abundance, and at a cheap rate, the followng sub-
Btances, viz, ; — jfirno iisriJ r

■iUfed I

o

a
X
O

<

o

o
U

+ + +

+ +

o J2 3 ^

■ «2

i;3 s o

aa.B .2 .S.S

nl rS

■r3 'O

.2 .5 •-

V <u 9

be be O. u

^ b9; {hae.

n

o o

CO S

.a 3

'-a

§ o

s 2

<u 00

I3^

"S §

CO -3

CS
o o

O ra
u. CO

•• C

■3

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

13

It will be observed that there is a marked differ-
ence between the per-centage of silica in the ash
analyzed by Dr. Richardson and those of Mr.
Nisbet's pupils ; this may be accounted for by the
manure which Dr. Richardson analyzed having
originally been composed of a less proportion of
straw, whilst at the same time the superior amount
of phosphates in the first analysis maybe attributed
to a larger amount of grain having been used by
the cattle or horses. The superior amount of
potash in the manure from Surrey, may arise from
the fact that a large part of it had been gathered
from cattle that had been fed upon turnips or
similar green food, as it must be always remem-
bered that the manure voided by animals will differ
in quality according to the food that has been given
to them ; the quality will also vary according to
the circumstance whether the animals are young or
fattening, manure from the latter being much more
valuable than manure from theformer, and is easily
accounted for. Young and growing animals con-
stantly require an addition of inorganic substances
for the development of their frame, muscles, and
tissues ; phosphoric acid and lime, with a small
quantity of potash, magnesia, and common salt,
being the principal substances that are required. It
must be apparent to every one that a much greater
amount of inorganic substances exist in the full
four-year-old ox than in the calf; but the ox had no
means of obtaining these organic substances other
than from its food. When a full-grown ox is put
up to fatten, with fully developed muscle, bone,
tissue, &c., little or no extra inorganic matter will
be required for its further development ; conse-
quently, instead of a portion of the inorganic con-
stituents of its food being required for assimilation
by the animal organism, the whole are voided in the
excrements, which, if all source of loss could be
prevented, would (coeteris paribus) on being applied
to the soil restore it to the same state of fertility
in which it existed at the period of sowing the pro-
duce which the animal thus consumed. In fatten-
ing animals there is scarcely any source of loss in
the inorganic constituents of the food, and of the
organic matters merely carbonic acid, and a small
quantity of nitrogen exhaled by the lungs and skin ;
of these the only loss which is of practical impor-
tance is nitrogen, which however is exceedingly
small, and if the urine and excrements are carefully
collected and stored, very little nitrogen, either in
the form of ammonia or otherwise, will escape.
Carbonic acid being abundantly supplied to vege-
tables by the atmosphere, its loss is therefore of
little consequence. The reason why so little loss
of the inoi'ganic and nitrogenised constituents of
vegetables takes place in fattening cattle arises from
the circumstance that whilst fattening they are only

forming fat, which is a combination of hydrogen
and oxygen, therefore not requiring for its forma-
tion either nitrogen or inorganic substances : these
oleaginous matters are derived principally from the
sugar, starch, &c., of their food ; there is therefore
a sound reason for the farmer's assertion, that it is
the last pound of fat that pays the best. From the
decreased action of the lungs a less consumption of
the carbon of the food (evolved as carbonic acid by
the lungs) takes place; whilst at the same time nearly
the whole of the nitrogenous and inorganic sub-
stances of the food are voided in the liquid and
solid excrements. The superiority of the manure
from fattening cattle, irrespective of the better
quality of the food consumed, is thus accounted for.
A fact of some importance, both as regards rearing
and feeding cattle, as well as concerning the eco-
nomy of the manure heap, may here be mentioned.
It is well known that young, commonly called store
stock, will thrive with food on which fattening cat-
tle would scarcely hold their own, or possibly de-
teriorate : this remark holds good whether it has
respect to pasturage or shed feeding. Matured well-
fed cattle will lose condition if placed on the com-
mon white turnip, whereas yearlings will do well
with them. This observation applies also to hoggets
and wether sheep, the greater vital enei'gy of young
animals rendering them able to derive nutriment
from food which the weaker digestive powers of a
maturer age appears incapable of assimilating. In
some instances it has been observed that young
animals have improved more rapidly when fed on
the common white turnip, than when served with
the more nutritious swede ; and this can be ration-
ally accounted for. Whilst there is a material dif-
ference between the feeding properties of the com-
mon white and Swedish turnip, the proportion of
ash to the root is nearly equal. To obtain an equal
amount of nutriment, animals feeding on the com-
mon and less nutritious turnip, are compelled to eat
a larger quantity, at the same time injecting a
greater amount of inorganic substances, which are
assimilated by the growing tissues, bones, muscles,
&c. ; from which drawbacks it might be theoretically
assumed that manure from growing stock cannot
possibly be of equal value with that derived from
fattening cattle. In a somewhat similar manner
manure from milch cows is not of equal value with
that formed by dry cattle, in consequence of the
phosphoric acid and alkalies removed by the milk.
From the tables given, of the composition of the
inorganic matters of farm-yard manures, it \/ill be
seen that more than eighty per cent, consisted of
substances of little money value, and can be had
from the mineral kingdom both in abundance and
at little cost. Of the remainder, potash, phos-
phoric acid, and their compouncis, form the greater

14

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

part, the proportions of which may be respectively
taken at

3'5 per cent, phosphoric acid on the ash, or '35
on the manure.

3'5 per cent, potash on the ash, or '35 on the
manure.
In other words, in an average of farm-yard manure
there will be found 7'8 lbs. of potash and 7"8 lbs.
of phosphoric acid to each ton. Now, 7'8 lbs. of
potash is equal to 14"3 lbs. of sulphate of potash,
which can be bought at the rate of about l6s.
per cwt.,* commonly known as sal enixium. The
7'8 lbs. of phosphoric acid would be equivalent to
the quantity found in 56 lbs. of common bones ;
therefore in estimating the value of the inorganic
constituents of ordinary farm-yard manure, it will
be seen that

14 lbs. of sulphate of potash (sal en- s. d.
exium), at l6s. per cwt. will cost . . 2 0

65 lbs. of bones, at 5s. per cwt 2 6

Value per ton of inorganic constitu-
ents of farm-yard manure .... 4 6
To which perhaps ought to be added,

for sulphate of lime, salt, &c 0 6

Total value of inorganic substances

in farm-yard manure 5 0

Having shown the value of the inorganic con-
stituents in farm-yard manure, we have next to
examine the value of the organic constituents.
Hydrogen is obtained from water ; oxygen can be
obtained from either the atmosphere or water;
with regard to carbon, reasons have already been
given to show that it can only indirectly be a means
of fertility, viz., as a source of carbonic acid ;
nitrogen, in the form of ammonia or nitric acid, is
undoubtedly, as daily experience testifies, an ex-
cellent fertilizer. Judging from the analysis, there
is good reason to suppose that the sample of manure
analyzed by Dr. Richardson was of a quahty above
the average ; I shall, therefore, assume the amount
of nitrogen contained in the average of farm-yard
manure at 0*5 per cent,, in which proportion there
would be 11*2 lbs. of nitrogen in a ton of manure,
which would be equivalent to 13"6 lbs. of ammonia,
or equal to 68 lbs. of the common sulphate of
ammonia of commerce, which may be procured for
about 6s. 6d. ; from which it will a])pear that the
value of a ton of farm-yard manure, comparing it
with the commercial price of like substances, would
be as follows :— Per Ton.

Inorganic substances 5s. Od.

Nitrogen (valued as sulphate of ammonia) 6s. 6d.

Total, o

. lis. 6d.

* The wholesale prices may be something less
than this, but the farmer will not obtain it in
quantities of a ton or two at a lower rate.

— a price considerably higher than that ordinarily
placed on manure made in the farm-yard, the
general value in agricultural districts not being es-
timated at more than 5s. to 6o. per ton, to which
has to be added from Is. to 2s. per ton more for
labour in carting, spreading, &c. From these
calculations it certainly appears that farm-yard
manure ought to be the means of promoting a
greater degree of fertility than that which we are
accustomed to see. On this subject we shall have
more to say when we come to the consideration of
special manures. One great source of loss arises
from the circumstance that a large portion of its
soluble contents (ammonia, potash, &c.), is washed
away by rain.*

It has sometimes been disputed whether it is
most profitable to vise fresh made or old fermented
manure; an opinion, however, greatly preponder-
ates in favour of the latter mode, and in which we
concur. There are cases, however, in which fresh
made manure may be advantageously used ;
amongst the crops to which it may be applied with
the greatest benefit we may name potatoes.

There cannot be a doubt that, weight for weight,
old manure is better than new ; but if it takes
three tons of new to make two tons of old, little
advantage can be practically derived, unless the two
tons of old will produce as much fertility as the
three tons of new. One very obvious cause of old
manure being of better quality than new is the fact
that the inorganic constituents are more concen-
trated : in other words the manure is, weight for
weight, proportionably richer in the elements of
fertility. Another cause arises from the circum-
stance that thf woody fibre being decayed, the
inorganic constituents are partially set free ; whilst
in fresh manure all undecayed vegetable fibre has
to undergo decomposition before the inorganic sub-
stances contained in it can be rendered soluble.

With respect to the liquid manure, which is al-
lowed so generally to run to waste from our farm-
steads, it may be here remarked, that if carefully
conveyed by tunnels to manure pits such as pre-
viously recommended, and a rough covering placed
over the latter, equal care being slso taken that the
rain-water from the roofs aud yards is kept out, it
will be found in practice that the liquid manure
will not amount to more than is required to keep
the whole heap tolerably moist; if any quantity
should accumulate a good plan is to have a pump
placed so that the urine, &c., can be occasionally
pumped over the top, by which means undue
heat may be checked, whilst at the same time it
will tend to convert the whole mass into an equal
quality. Having shown the composition and prin-

* Professor Way and Mr. Thompson's experi-
ments throw some doubt on this point.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

15

ciples which ought to be jnirsued in collecting and
managing that valuable adjunct of the farm, we
shall defer treating on the relative quantities that
ou^ht to be applied to different crops until the
whole subject of manuring is reviewed, at which
period the matter of special manures will also be
taken into consideration. It is admitted on all
hands that a large part of the most valuable matters
of farm-yard manure is lost by the present method
of forming open manure heaps, which leads us to
the consideration of the preservation and applica-
tion of liquid manure.

CHAPTER III.

On LiauiD Manures, and the Construc-
tion OF Tanks or Reservoirs for their
Preservation.

It has already been observed that, under proper
management, the liquid manures from our stables,
&c., if kept free from admixture with extraneous
water, is no more than sufficient to keep the dung-
heap in a moist state. As, however, the subject of
liquid manures at present occupies considerable
attention, it is not deemed unfitting here to make a
few remarks on the subject, particularly as it is
calculated to further illustrate the best mode of
preserving the fertilising substances produced on
the farmstead.

The following details of experiments made by
Professor Johnston will serve to confirm the re-
marks made previously whilst describing the best
mode of managing manure heaps : —

1. The liquid first experimented on consisted of
the drainings from heaps of cow-dung exposed to
rain. It was dark coloured, containing what the
rain-water is capable of washing out of similar
dung heaps. It was neutral ; but ammonia was
given off when it was boiled, or when quicklime
was added.

An imperial gallon of these drainings, when
evaporatfed to dryness, left about 480 grains, or a
troy ounce weight of dry solid matter. The solid
matter consisted of Grains.

Ammonia 9*6

Organic matter 200'8

Inorganic do. (ash)... 268"8

479-2
The inorganic portion consisted of

Grains.

Alkaline salts - • , 207*8

Phosphates of lime and magnesia, with

a little phosphate of iron 25*1

Carbonate of lime ] 8*2

Carbonate of magnesia and loss 4*3

Silica and a little alumina 13*4

268-8

From this analysis it appears that the rain is
capable of washing out much valuable matter from

common cow-dung. The ammonia is not so large
in quantity as in many other forms of liquid
manure, because most of the substances voided by
the cow which are capable of producing ammonia
pass off with the urine. On the other hand, the
urine of the cow contains no phosphate?, whilst
these washings contain a considerable quantity.

2. The second liquid analysis consisted of the
drainings of farm-yard manure when watered with
cow's urine. This was also neutral ; but gave off
ammonia copiously when boiled or when mixed
with quick-Hme. An imperial gallon, when evapo-
rated, left 617^ grains of dry matter, considerably
more than the former liquid ; and this matter con-
sisted of Grains.

Ammonia 215

Organic matter 77'6

Inorganic matter, or ash 518*4

617*5
The inorganic matter contained in this liquid
consisted of

Alkaline salts 420'4

Phosphates of lime and magnesia .... 44"5

Carbonate of lime 3 1 • 1

Carbonate of magnesia and loss 3*4

Silica and a little alumina 19*0

518-4

It thus appears that, unless means are employed
to preserve the urine, &c., thrown over dung-heaps,
the loss is not confined to the urine alone, but
includes other fertilizing substances carried off in
solution.

The average quantity of urine annually voided by
man, the cow, and the horse, amounts as fol-
lows : —

Man 1,000 lbs., contains of solid matter 67 lbs.
Cow 13,000 „ „ „ 900 „

Horse 1,000 „ „ „ 60 „

As an illustratiou of the loss sustained by a farmer
who allows his liquid maniu'e to run waste, let an
example be taken of what occurs ou a farm of 500
acres, consisting of 400 acres of arable and 100 of
pasture, aud the stock on such a farm to be about
50 head of oxen, 20 horses, and 60 pigs, besides
sheep, leaving out of • the calculation the urine from
sheep, aud confining it to the other stock named.
45,000 lbs. weight, or upwards of 20 tons of dry
fertilizing matter, is contained in the liquid excre-
ments of these animals, wjiich, if valued at the price
of guano, viz., £10 per ton, would be worth £200
sterling per annum. The urine of the horses would
yield au amount equal to 1,200 lbs., or nearly
11 cwts., worth £5 10s. From the pigs nearly two
tons, worth £20. The value of the urine of a cow
for twelve months is estimated in Flanders to be
worth £2 per head; calculated at the preceding

16

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ratio it would appear to be equivalent to about
double tiuit sum.

The liquid manure from the stables, &c., ought to
be conveyed in covered conduits from the respective
offices, by which means it will be preserved from
becoming too diluted in consequence of mixture with
rain-water. In Flanders a practice obtains of mixiug
the liquid manure with five times its weight of
water in order to dilute it, this manure being found
too ])owerful when used undiluted. It is also found
from experience, that to obtain the greatest amount of
benefit from liquid mauui'e, it should, previous to its
application to the soil, have undergone the putrefac-
tive fermentation ; this will be hastened by pre-
serving the liquid manure as undiluted as possible
prior to its immediate use.

The best mode of constructing tanks will vary
according to the character of the rock, soil, gravcL
or other material out of which it will have to be ex-
cavated. The ground best adapted for this purpose
is a stiff clay ; in such a soil nothing can be easier
than the construction of a manure tank. A rubbly
wall, or boards closely jointed, so as to form a sup-
port to prevent the falling in of the clay, will answer
all the purposes desired when covered, which may
be done with an arched roof, or ])y strong rough
planks. In cases where the clay is somewhat per-
meable the tank may be made tight be means of
puddling. In constructing walls for tanks common
mortar ought not to be employed, as it is somewhat
speedily destroyed by the action of the liquid manure ;
for such purposes a hydraulic cement, or water
mortar, ought to be used. In some districts this
can be easily obtained ; but in the majority of in-
stances it will be found somewhat expensive. It
may, therefore, be well to mention Jiere that a good
\iseful hydraulic mortar can always be made wherever
clay and lime can be had. By igniting clay and lime
together an excellent hydraulic mortar will be ob-
tained. This hint may be found useful in the cou-
structiou of many agricultural offices besides manure
tanks.

The ordinary mode of distri))uting liquid manure
is by means of an old oil or wine cask mounted on
wheels, with an irrigating apparatus similar to that
applied to common street watering carts. A better
mode is by means of hose with a rose, if the
place to be irrigated is within a moderate distance ;
in any case, however, irrigation by liquid manure will
be found most economical by applying it to the fields
adjacent to the point of collection.

A means of applying liquid manure has been re-
cently suggested, of a somewhat novel nature, viz.,
by what is called sub-irrigation. Experiments on
this subject arc, however, as yet too few to fairly test
its merits. The mode has many advantages ; but, on
the otlier baud, there arc also many disadvantages.

When possible, liquid maniue ought to be applied
to the surface cither preceding or following rain
(but not in very rainy weaHier). In the absence of
such opportunities periods of heavy dews may be
taken advantage of. An attention to meteorological
thcnomcna is of much consequence in applying liquid
manure. An ordinary pump will be found the best
mode of drawing liquid manure from tanl<.s. When,
however, a tank is elevated some height above the
level of the surrounding fields, plans may casDy be
devised to save considerable labour by applying
liquid manure in tlie manner of ordinary irrigation.
If a steam-engine is on the farm its scr\ices may be
used in a variety of ways, to the saving of both
manual and horse labour.

As guano will probably still remain a monopoly,
the result of the recent deputations to the govern-
ment having proved nugatory, it now more than
ever behoves farmers to economize every possible
description of fertilizer. In many cases it may be
found much more convenient to save the liquid
manures of the farmstead by means of absorbent
materials rather than by the construction of tanks or
similar receptacles for its preservation and distribut-
ing it in a liquid form. For this purpose peat earth,
where it can be obtained, is an admirable material i
it ought not, however, to be used alone, but invari-
ably intermixed with claj'^, chalk, or a small quan-
tity of lime ; if the latter material is used the com-
j)ost ought to be made up at least a fortnight
previous to use. Peat earth, mixed with chalk,
makes an admirable material for this purpose;
when peat cannot be obtained, ditch scrapings,
hassock, or other rough sods abounding with car-
bonaceous matters will serve the purpose. Clay
should not be used alone if it can be avoided, but
always mixed with a little chalk or lime, the latter
to be preferred. The rationale of the last recom-
mendation may be explained by reference to the
phenomena indicated by Professor Way in his
recent lectures on " the absorbent properties of
soils," to which the reader must be referred
for full particulars. It may, however, be here
briefly noticed that the talented Professor, to whom
the agriculturists of Great Britain are so much
indebted, in the lectures alluded to proved that the
absorptive powers of soils, more especially in
retaining the principal fertilizing substances, as
ammonia, &c., was due to the existence in the
soil of a bydrated double silicate of alumina and
lime. The mixture recommended is calculated
to fulfil those conditions. The use of absorbents
for the preservation of liquid manures is, in many
respects, more generally adapted to ordinary
lilnglish farming than the construction of tanks.
To obtain the whole of the benefit that may be
derived from absorbent materials will, however,
necessitate the formation of dung pits with a rude
covering akin to that indicated in a former part of
the present paper.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

17

LONDON FARMER'S CLUB

The subject for discussion at the usual monthly
meeting of the London Farmers' Club on Monday,
June 7, was, " To what extent can landlords afford
substantial relief to their tenantry in the jiresent
emergency, without involving any considerable
outlay of capital?" It will be seen from the report
which appears in our columns this day, that doubts
were cast upon statements made by the opener in
reference to two important agricultural operations,
draining and thrashing. In respect to draining,
the proposition affirmed was that, " draining may
be effected with Fowler's plough at about 30s. per
acre." In order to arrive at a proper interpretation
of this statement, it must be observed, that the
question of expense forming a most important ingre-
dient in the case, the cheapest mode was suggested,
and which would not be applicable in all cases, al-
though, seeing that the heavy clay lands are those
which now need draining to the largest extent, the
mode pointed out would be appUcable to a con-
siderable proportion of the land requiring drainage.
It cannot be doubted that it is an important ques-
tion, whether land can be drained with Fowler's
plough, or by any other means, at 30s. per acre.
Now in order to elucidate this question, we request
attention to the following extract from Mr. Pusey's
report on tlie agricultural implements shown at the
Great Exhibition, which appears in the 28th
number of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society : —

" But for the American reapers, Mr. Fowler's draiuing
plough would have formed the most remarkable feature iu the
agricultural department of the Exhibition. Wonderful as it is
to see the standing wheat shorn levelly low by a pair of horses
walking along its edge, it is hardly, if at all, less wonderful,
uor did it excite less interest or surprise among the crowd of
spectators when the trial was made at this place, to see tw o
horses at work by the side of a field, on a capstan which, by an
invisible wire rope, draws towards it a low framework, leaving
but the trace of a narrow slit on the surface. If you pass,
however, to the other side of the field, which the framework
has quitted, you perceive that it has been dragging after it a
string of pipes, which, still following the plough's snout, that
burrows all the while four feet below the ground, twists itself
like a gigantic red worm in the earth, so that in a few minutes,
when the framework has reached the capstan, the string is
withdrawn from the necklace, and you are assured that a drain
has thus been invisibly formed under your feet."

After some remarks upon the improvements
which have been effected in this machine, Mr.
Pusey goes on to observe —

" As to the economy of using the draining plough, it is too
expensive to purchase, unless for a large landowner ; but it
may be hired by the year or month. Its inventor is also ready
to execute work at his own risk by contract, at a saving of
from one-third to two-thirds iu hand labour ; the greater the
depth the greater being the saving. I have only seen the
actual cost of two drainages that have been made by this
plough. They were both without tiles and shallow, being only

2i feet deep. Taking the highest of them, and adding the
cost of tiles, the price of tile-draining land at that depth, and
at 33 feet apart, would be 143. only for work, and with IJ-inch
pipes at 15s. per 1,000 — 18s. 9d. for tiles — altogether £1 138.
'Jd., including horses and hire of machine. The plough goes
as well, however, at a depth of 4 feet, nor would the additional
cost be material. The plough has worked on the following
farms : —

Acres.

Depth,
ft. in.

Mr. Fowler, Melksham 14 2 6 with pipes,

Mr. Newman, ditto 10 2 0 ditto.

Mr. Blandford, near ditto 30 3 6 ditto.

Mr. Purch, Dowu Ampuey 100 without pipes.

Mr. Hall, Brentwood 200 2 6 w. & wt. pipes.

Wormwood Scrubbs. . 40 2ft.to4ft. with tiles.

Mr. Harris, Darlington (now working) 3 6
In clay subsoils, with a gentle fall, the success of this new im-
plement seems to be beyond a doubt ; and iu all circumstances
the inventor is ready to undertake the risk of the execution."

This report fully bears out the statement that
" with Fowler's plough drainage may be effected at
about 30s. per acre."

The other disputed question was in respect
to the cost of thrashing, the opener of the
discussion having said, " I am informed by a
practical man, an agent, that he has known as
much as 10s. per acre difference in the thrashing
of corn upon two adjoining farms." Now it must
be here observed that it is not stated that 10s. per
acre could be saved generally, but that such a dif-
ference in the different modes of performmg that
operation had been observed. In contradiction to
this statement it was asserted that 2s. per qr. was
the average price for thrashing wheat. Upon this
question we will also refer to some authorities. Mr.
Raynbird, in his essay on " Measure Work," pub-
lished in the 7th volume of the " Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society," states the price of
thrashing wheat to be from 2s. 6d. to 3s. per qr.
Mr. Pusey, in the report above referred to, in
treating of the several steam-thrashing ma-
chines, of the comparative merits of which a
trial had been made, remarks, " The price of
thrashing wheat by flail varies with the yield
and the district from 2s. 6d. to 4s. a quarter.
Three shillings then will not be an unfair average.
If the rick hold 40 quarters we must add 5d.
for barning, and the cost will be 3s, 5d. per quarter."
After making a calculation of the expense of
thrashing a rick of corn — which with the horse-
machine would occupy three days, but which by
steam might be thrashed in one day — he goes on to
observe, " The cost of steam-thrashing will be 9d. ;
the saving, as compared with hand-thrashing,
2s. 8d.; or, with horse-thrashing. Is. 3d. — an
average of 2s. per quarter on wheat." It may
further be observed that Mr. Raynbird, in his

18

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Essay on Agriculture, in a comparative statement
made from actual experience, makes the cost of
thrashing by horse-power Is. 6d. per quarter; by
steam-power, lOd. per quarter. Mr. Bravender, in
his Prize-essay on the Farming of Gloucestershire,
states the cost, by Mr. Morton's machine, to be
lOid. per quarter, in the following terms : "The
machine not only thrashes the corn, but shakes the

straw, winnows the corn, and causes it to pass
down a spout to the ground-floor, to which spout a
bag is attached, which, when full, is removed by an
attendant, the corn being winnowed, screened,
cleaned, bagged, and ready for the market." He
further adds, that "the wear and tear of the ma-
chine and engine" are included in the price stated —
lO^d. per quarter. — Mark Lane Express.

LONDON FARMER'S CLUB.

"TO WHAT EXTENT CAN LANDLORDS AFFOED SUBSTANTIAL RELIEF TO THEIR TENANTRY IN THE
PRESENT EMERGENCY, WITHOUT INVOLVING ANY CONSIDERABE OUTLAY OF CAPITAL?"

The usual monthly meeting took place at the Club
Rooms, Blackfriars, on Monday evening, June 7, Mr.
W. F. Hobbs in the chair.

The subject for discussion was introduced by Mr.
Shaw, and was thus stated on the card : — To what Exter.t
can Landlords afford Substantial Relief to their Tenantry
in the present Emergency, without involving any consi-
derable Outlay of Capital ?

The Chairman said the subject which was about to
be introduced was one of great importance, not only to
the tenantry of this country, whom everyone must
admit to have been placed in great difficulties for a long
period, but to the agricultural interest generally ; and if
Mr. Shaw could mark out any course whereby the land-
lords of the country could give the tenantry substantial
relief, he would be conferring a great boon on all classes
concerned.

Mr. Shaw said — Before proceeding to lay before you
the observations which I have prepared on the question
for discussion, 1 wish to make one or two introductory
remarks, in order to prevent misapprehension. In the
first place I would refer to an observation made by the
chairman, who has spoken as if I had undertaken to
bring forward this subject with the view of pointing out
to landlords how they might substantially benefit their
tenantry. Now, I beg leave to state, that I am actuated
on this occasion by the motives which have influenced
me on former occasions of the same kind, when I have
introduced subjects important in themselves, not with the
expectation of being able to make any valuable sugges-
tions myself, but with the view of eliciting from practical
members of the club observations which could not fail to
be useful to the agricultural body. That I should make
any novel suggestions of my own is not probable. If I
have been able to collect together a sufficient number of
points of discussion so as to elicit the truth, the end which
I seek will have been attained. I wish it to be under-
stood, then, that I bring forward the subject merely for
the purpose of provoking discussion, and any suggestions
which may be advanced by me are not proposed as a re-
medy for the difficulties by which agriculturists are at
present surrounded. (Hear, hear). In the next place,
I would observe that the view which I have taken of the
subject is based upon low prices. I have assumed in
my own miad that low prices are to continue ; and there-

fore, although some of my suggestions may appear rather
trivial, this will be owing to the fact that when men
find themselves in great difficulties, they are sometimes
disposed to grasp at straws in the endeavour to save
themselves. (Laughter). Having made these remarks for
tlie purpose of preventing misapprehension, I will now
proceed to submit for your consideration the question
" To what extent can landlords afford sub;-<tantial relief
to their tenantry in the present emergency, without
involving any considerable outlay of capital ?" Al-
though the subject may seem to be of a limited cha-
racter, yet upon examination it branches out into so
much detail that it will be impossible to do more than
refer to it generally without exceeding the bounds which
are usually prescribed in introducing subjects for discus-
sion at these meetings. Whatever may be the opinion
entertained in reference to the necessity or propriety of
the great change aflfecting agriculture which has been ef-
fected by recent legislation, I apprehend few, if any,
will be disposed to deny thut a revolution, of a much
more serious character than even those who advocated
that change had anticipated, has been produced. There
are many large landed proprietors who have for a con-
siderable period expected such a result, and have been
preparing themselves for it ; while a great number, who
entertained a different opinion, being taken by surprise,
are suffering most severely from its effects. Looldng
at the constitution of the legislature, we cannot come to
any other conclusion than that however severe may have
been the pressure from without, the proprietors of the
soil became consenting parties to this great legislative
change, afi'ecting themselves and their tenantry, for the
purpose of protecting their own property; and hence, in-
asmuch by far the heavier weight of the blow falls upon
the tenantry, I hold that the landlords are in duty
bound to make every reasonable sacrifice to lessen the
intensity of that blow. Were the relations of landlord
and tenant based upon .sound and independent princi-
ples, it might not have been necessary to expect such an
amount of consideration from the landlord ; but having
regard to the dependent and unsatisfactory position of
the tenantry generally, large concessions are expected,
and must be made. The landowners, constituting, as
they do, a majority of, or, at all events, commanding a
majority in the legislature, have it in their power to

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

19

make such improvements in the laws afFecUng real in-o-
perty, as will enable tenants for life, trustees, and cor-
porate bodies, to make abiding contracts with tenants,
and exercise other acts of ownership calculated to per-
manently benefit their estates. The principle has al-
ready been admitted in regard to drainage and the
erection of buildings upon entailed estates ; and there is
no doubt but that necessity will, in due course, further
reforms of a similar character. Large landed proprietors
whose property is unencumbered, whose estates have
been well managed, and whose land has been let upon
moderate terras, will find no difficulty in meeting and
surmounting the difficulties they have to encounter.
The owners of large estates which although unincum-
bered have been badly managed, and though moderately
let are badly farmed, will, of course, have more diffi-
culties to contend with than those before referred to ;
but as in such cases there will be no obstacles to obtain-
ing funds, a judicious and careful system of manage-
ment will enable them fo grapple with " the present
emergency." If, in either of the cases referred to, the
land had been let at rents fully proportionate to the for-
mer value of agricultural produce, a reduction com-
mensurate with the depreciated value of produce must be
made. When the reduction involves a re- valuation, the
greatest care is requisite, or that step may be the cause
of working great injustice to an improving tenant, who
by expending capital on improvements has brought his
farm into good condition, and has consequently ren-
dered it more valuable, but has not yet received a re-
turn for his outlay. The previous remarks will apply to
small properties similarly situated, with this difference,
that, inasmuch as the owners of smaller estates being less
subjected to family charges, and the income of the estate
being mainly applied to the necessary expenditure of
a family and establishment, there will be a margin af-
forded for reduction of rent, through the reduced price
of the necessaries of life. The great and serious diffi-
culty will be experienced in those cases, whether of large
or small properties, which are more or less encumbered,
where the property has been badly managed, the build-
ings suffered to fall into decay, the tenants disheartened,
and probably the land in bad condition — a necessary result
of want of care and attention on the part of the landlord ,
Now, we would here premise, as thefirst and most important
step to be taken by the landed proprietor, who, from
his rank in society, want of practical experience, or
general engagements are such that he cannot superintend
the management of his property, to employ an experi-
enced practical agent, who is capable not merely of col-
lecting the rent at quarter-day, but who is competent to
judge of the extent to which buildings require addition
or amendment, and the most economical mode of effect-
ing such repairs, and who has such experience in the
practice of farming as will enable him to prescribe such
a course, or suggest to the tenants such improvements
in their system of management as are in conformity with
the best practice of the day. There are few estates in
such good condition that an agent of experience and
ability will not be able to suggest some positive improve-
ment. To meet my view of the case the agent must be

a practical man, one who, if he be an occupier of land
himself, can set an example of what may be done by
skilful maniigeir.ent. A friend of mine, who has a very
extensive business as manager of estates at this moment,
keeps 8 cows, 50 sheep, and 5 horses the year through,
on 16 acres of land, and only 6 of it arable : had he
more arable he could do much more. The most fatul
mistake made by landed proprietors is that of regarding
the office of agent as one which affords them an op-
portunity of providing for some private friend, utterly
incapable of performing the duties of the office, except
so far as integrity and correctness at the rent- audit
is concerned. Another egregious piece of folly is
that of supposing that the legal ability which enables
a man to make a correct draft of a lease clogged with
antiquated covenants qualifies him pre-eminently for
the post of land-agent. I believe that to no circum-
stance so much as to this may be ascribed the impedi-
ments interposed to improvements in agriculture by
binding the tenants to obsolete systems, utterly unfitted
to the practice, experience, and exigencies of the present
day. Where the estate is not of sufficient magnitude as
to require the entire services of an agent, the advice of
such a party should be taken as to the course of ma~
nagement to be adopted ; and it would in most cases
amply repay the small proprietor to secure thepeiiodical
supervision of a competent agent. Where ample capital
is at command there will be no difficulty with the assist-
anc3 of an experienced agent to bring an estate into
good condition ; but the great difficulty which I fear has
to be encountered, and to a very great extent, in " the
present emergency" is to afford assistance to the te-
nantry where the means of the proprietor are limited ;
and hence it is desirable, nay, I might almost say abso-
lutely necessary, that the object should be attained " with-
out involving any considerable outlay of capital," and it
is upon this point I am anxious to obtain the opinion of
the members of the club. Having secured the assistance
of a competent adviser, the first point for consideration,
and the readiest, if the estate will admit of it, is, as it
seems to me, to grant a lease of twenty-one years, with
liberal covenants, or enter into an agreement, giving
stipulated compensation for certain improvements, to be
particularised, which may be effected by the tenant,
should he be required to quit before he has reimbursed
himself for his outlay. I am well aware of the disincli-
nation to take leases which has been evinced hitherto by
English tenants in a great many counties ; but I am in-
clined to believe that in the altered state of circum-
stances in which we are now placed there will be less
disinclination in future than there has hitherto been.
In respect to the proprietor, if he seeks to obtain his
object " without incurring considerable outlay of capital"
he must make a sacrifice. And here I would observe
that so serious do I consider " the present emergency"
that I regard it the duty, as well as the interest
of the reversioner or other party interested, with-
out whose assent leases could not be granted, per-
manent agreements made, timber cut down, and other
similar acts performed, to willingly give his con-
currence to measures so eminently calculated

c 2

20

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

to benefit all parties, and which from peculiar
circumstances have become absolutely necessary. As-
suming, then, that an estate is capable of improve-
ment by draining, by the removal of hedge-rows, thereby
adding from 10 to 20 per cent, to the acreage of the
farm, independently of the economy of labour obtained by
straight fences and good-sized fields, instead of crooked
fences and small fields, and by chalking or liming, or,
where there is a command of water, by irrigation upon
the catch-meadow system described by Mr. Robert Smith
and others in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society, I incline to the belief that by fixing a moderate
rent, and consequently at a small sacrifice, the landowner
may avoid that " considerable outlay of capital" which
would be necessary were he to put the farm into condi-
tion by executing all these improvements at his own ex-
pense. Should there be any inferior grass land upon
such a farm, the permission to break it up will be ad-
vantageous immediately to the tenant, and ultimately to
the landlord. The removal of the hedge-rows and tim-
ber will further benefit the occupier, by preventing the
damage to crops which is occasioned to such an enor-
mous extent where the land is encumbered with them.
In order to show that this is no theoretical notion of
mine, and that tenants will effect great and permanent
improvements where security is given for the investment
of capital, I will refer to the discussion of a question
brought before this club by Mr. Robert Smith in April,
1848, in which he designates the security to capital
afforded by a lease, or agreement giving compensation
for unexhausted improvement, " the union of landloid
and tenant." Having previously referred to the im-
provements in theLothians, and in Norfolk, he observes —

" I could wish that a similar union of interest between land-
lord and tenant pervaded the whole empire, and which it would
be easy to accomplish if the landlords of England would more
generally meet the enterprising tenantry of our country, by
giviag them a guarantee against the vicissitudes of uncertain
tenure. The laying out of equitable fields, the straightening
of fences, the removal of hedge-row timber, are also important
points to be adjusted, and may readily be accomplished by a
union of interests. The importance of breaking up inferior
grass lands is a subject but little understood, at the present,
by the landlord, and requires to be noticed; as, from the
knowledge I have of the subject, I am convinced that immense
results follow the judicious application of the plough to certain
inferior soils, by which means the whole arable part of the
farm shares in the increased manure thus afforded ; hence sup-
plies more food for our increasing population, gives increased
employment to the agricultural labourer and artisan, and,
lastly, improves the farm for letting to a future tenant many
shillings per acre ; as, while poor grass-land is the bane of a
farm, new arable land is an acquisition. In fact, the straw
grown upon some lands, after breaking up, is worth more than
the herbage when in previous grass. But in thus recom-
mending the breaking up of certain grass-lands as au acquisi-
tion to the farms, I must beg distmctly to state, that it should
alone be granted to those tenants whose farms are in a
healthy state of cultivation, and thus require more employ-
ment ; but in no instance to those parties that merely ask the
favour, that they may linger on a little longer in their already
neglected occupation. The reclaiming of open districts and
commons is a subject of national importance, and is profitably

accomplished by liberal leases, as adopted by the late Earl of
Leicester in reclaiming the Norfolk sands. The improvement
of water-courses, roads, and irrigation, when performed by
the tenant, is another proof of the importance of giving pro-
tection to the investment of capital. And though last, not
least, I may meutiou the immense results that would follow,
by the increased demand for labour, and consequent reduction
of the poor-rates, as also the moral condition of the whole
district improved. Another feature of importance occurs in
the economy of manual labour, by having the labourers
located upon the farms, which is readily accomplished by the
tenant paying the landlord a per-centage on the outlay for
building cottages, or by security to the tenant when he is re-
quired to build them ; but in either case the landlord should
allow the tenant full control over them, or in time they might
possibly become the greatest pests of the occupation. In thus
detailing the leading movements of the farm as briefly as pos-
sible, it leads me to the real position of the subject under dis-
cussion, as in every instance it is shown that upon a union of
interest between landlord and tenant hinges the increased pro-
ductions of the soil ; and from the practical knowledge I have
had of the various customs of tenure throughout the country,
I am prepared to show that such union is strength, and that it
is best supported and carried out by long leases, or security
for unexhausted improvements ; under which agriculture has
made rapid strides, tenants have flourished, aud the property of
the landlord doubled in many inatances ; in support of which
I would for a moment direct your attention again to the
county of Norfolk, where, by the union of landlord and tenant,
under long and liberal leases, the blowing sands of Norfolk
have become rich and fertile fields ; and the result in both a
rural and national point of view is apparent to the common
observer, as we frequently notice the majority of the cattle
supplies in Smithfield market quoted under the head of
Norfolks. Again, under the security of tenure practised in
the north of Lincolnshire, we find not only the rabbit-warren
and heath converted into splendid arable fields, but that the
barren and neglected hills of the Wolds have also been brought
into the highest possible state of cultivation ; and that while
they abound in abundance of corn, and supply the greatest
weight of mutton per acre of any districl in England, the
whole has been successfully accomplished under ' security for
unexhausted improvements,' or what is commonly called
' tenant's-rights ;' and I may venture a remark (which is of
the utmost consequence), that the whole has been accomplished
without the landlord scarce knowing what has been going on,
beyond the daily improved appearance of his estate, and that
while on the one hand it has cost him nothing, beyond the
nominal guarantee, the estate has been improved by the
tenant's capital at least 300 per cent."
If, however, the proprietor chooses to execute the drain-
ing and erect buildings himself, leaving the other im-
provements only to the tenant, he can effect these ob-
jects by the assistance of the General Land Drainage
and Improvement Company, who will execute the whole
upon moderate terms, repayment being made by a small
per-centage extended over a long period, the greater part
of which he will be annually reimbursed by the increased
rental which he will receive for his estate. I have rea-
son to believe that (he advantages offered by these com-
panics in draining land and erecting buildings is not suffi-
ciently known and appreciated by the landowners of the
kingdom. Much will depend upon the character of an
estate, the size of the farms, and the condition of the
tenantry both as to capital and progress in agricultural

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

21

improvements. It is manifest that several measures may
be adopted for aiding the tenants of small or moderate-
sized farms, which would be inapplicable to those of
magnitude, where the tenants have capital at command,
and possess skill and experience to apply it advantage-
ously. In respect to buildings, it is asserted upon com-
petent authority that a covered yard can be erected at
the cost of one year's rent of a farm. Such an outlay
effected by the assistance of the General Land Improve-
ment Company, the repayment being spread over a num-
ber of years, would not " involve a considerable outlay
of capital." I believe draining may be effected with
Fowler's plough at about 303. per acre, and if on a farm
of 300 acres 30 were drained every year it would not in-
volve a large outlay. Where chalk or lime has not been
used, but is applicable to the soil, and within reasonable
distance, an expenditure for either of these articles, to be
applied under the advice of the agent, would not be
costly, yet would be productive of lasting benefit. The
same remark will apply to guano and other artificial
manures where they are not generally used. I believe
that boxes for cattle may be erected at from ^3 10s. to
£i each : two or three constructed yearly on a mode-
rate-sized farm, if required, would not involve much
expense, and yet if added every year would soon afford
ample accommodation to the tenant. The purchase of
a portable steam thrashing machine for the use of the
tenantry, they paying only such small sum as may be
necessary to keep it in repair, " does not involve a large
outlay," and yet may be a saving to the landlord in
barn- room and the number of barns, and to the tenant
in the cost of thrashing his corn. I am informed by a
practical man, an agent, that he has known as much as
10s. per acre difference in the thrashing of corn upon
two adjoining farms. The same remark will apply to
cider-mills in the cider counties, the cost of which, I
believe, ranges, when fixed, at from £50 to ^75 each
and involves the necessity of an additional building on
each farm. The reaping machine will afford landlords
another opportunity of aiding their tenantry in some
districts at a small expense ; and there are many agri-
cultural implements, the use of which might be intro-
duced most advantageously, if the landlord were to
provide them, and place them at the disposal of his te-
nantry. Again, in districts where little attention is
paid to the quality of the stock bred, the keeping a
stallion or bull or boar for the use of the tenants might
be adopted with advantage. Where practicable, drain-
ing tiles may be manufactured by the landlord, and
given to the tenants, without incurring a heavy outlay.
In such cases, however, the drainage should be effected
under the immediate superintendence of the agent, or
some competent person selected by him. The construc-
tion of a tank to prevent the liquid manure from
running to waste, and the spouting the buildings to pre-
vent injury to the manure and too much dilution to the
liquid part, may be executed at a small expense. In
such cases, I should suggest the absorption of the ma-
nure by the dungheap, or the mixture of some dry
material with it, as a preferable mode to applying it in
a liquid form. The coastruction of a single road will

frequently afford material assistance, by reducing the
cost of horse-labour in bringing in the crop, and carting
out manure. By the judicious arrangement of an ex-
perienced hand, a road may frequently be made, if ma-
terials are at hand, at a very moderate expense. I have
before remarked that I consider, " in the present emer-
gency," landed proprietors are called upon to make
sacrifices where they are needed ; and I know of none
which can be more easily, effectively, and philanthro-
pically made than the discontinuance of the costly, ob-
noxious, and demoralizing system of game-preserving.
I have been furnished with a statement by which it is
clearly shown that, upon an estate the rental of which is
£5,000 per annum, the cost of gamekeepers, with the
necessary appurtenances, allowance to tenants for the
destruction caused by the game, and a very moderate
allowance for injury done for which compensation was
never made, amounted to upwards of 20 per cent, upon
the income. Is it too much, under existing circum-
stances, that a landlord should be called upon, for his
own benefit and that of his tenantry, to forego an indul-
gence of which the costly part to himself is the least
objectionable, and which tends to increase, by its en-
couragement of poaching, the poor and county-rates
imposed on the district ? I am aware that these sugges-
tions may be regarded as trifling expedients, and may
excite a smile on the countenances of farmers conducting
their business on an extensive scale, who keep pace with
the times in improvements — who procure the best stock,
and provide the best implements ; but it must be borne
in mind that there is a great extent of land occupied by
farmers who are not in such a position either as regards
capital or intelligence.

Mr. Ambrose said he rose, as a practical man, to ask
for some explanation. Mr. Shaw had stated that drain-
ing might be performed with Fowler's plough for 30s. au
acre. He wished to know whether that sum included
the filling up. In his own case the tiles alone had cost
45s. per acre.

Mr. Beadel thought he could give the explanation
required. The amount stated by Mr. Shaw was perfectly
correct; when Fowler's plough was used on strong clay
land.

Mr, Walton wished to make a few observations.
He entirely agreed with Mr. Shaw that it was necessary
that as much as possible should be done to improve the
position of the tenant-farmer. In considering this sub-
ject it was necessary to take a retrospective view. He
believed that many landlords who had left their estates in
a dilapidated condition had positively received as good
rents as they might have expected had the case been
otherwise. He knew many estates on which not a
shilling had been laid out for thirty or forty years, and
he was himself on an estate of that kind at that moment.
Landlords had received protection-prices without having
made any proportionate outlay. At the commencement
of 1851 Lord Derby said there was no hope or chance
of a return to protection, and at the same time he ob-
served that there had been an increase of i^SjOOO.OOO a-
year in rentals, owing to the outlay which landlords had
made on their estates. Now he (Mr. Walton) al-

THE FARMER'S Mx\GAZINE,

together denied what his lordship asserted. He maintained
that not one landlord in fifty had expended one per cent.
By far the greater part of the burden of improvement
had fallen on the tenantry, and even those landlords who
were called scientific men generally received five per cent,
upon their outlay. As a tenant-farmer of twenty-sL^
years' standing he asserted that nearly the whole of the
improvements which had taken place during that period
had been made with the floating capital of the tenantry.
Nine-tenths of the farms of England were at that moment
untenantable owing to the bad condition of the buildings.
He quite agreed with Mr. Shaw, that it was necessary
that landlords should take care to have first-rate prac-
tical men to manage their estates ; and if they neglected
to do so, they must not be allowed to throw the odium
of bad management on their tenants. As to draining,
he was of opinion that, notwithstanding free-trade, the
tenantry had still capital enough to effect a great deal of
improvement, provided they had sufficient security.
During the last three years more money had been ex-
pended by the tenantry of England than in ten times
the period previously. With respect to free-trade, he
thought the Duke of Newcastle was right in declaring
it to be a landlord's question ; and it rested with land-
lords, in a great degree, to say whether the tenantry of
England should prosper or not.

Mr. AicHEsoN anticipated great benefit from the
discussion of that evening. Mr. Shaw had brought for-
ward many topics which could scarcely be introduced
too often, for it was only by reiteration that they could
hope to gain their object. He must confess, however,
that some of the observations of the last speaker seemed
to him rather astounding. (Hear, hear). If the land-
lord was to pay for everything, how was he to get any
return from his property and to support his family ?
(Hear, hear). He thought there was a medium between
the two extremes. When estates were well managed,
there could be no difficulty in arranging draining, and
everything else in the way of improvement, on the prin-
ciple of enabling the tenant to take proper care of him-
self under his agreement. (Hear, hear). He had let
lai'ge tracts of land ; and when a tenant had come to
him to ask for tiles or other materials, he had said,
"Now, which would you prefer — to leave me to make
the improvements and pay aper-centage,or to make them
yourself, and at the end of your term to have a just
allowance for what you have invested?" Now, he con-
tended that the fault mentioned by the preceding speaker
did not rest altogether with the landlords : it was shai-ed
in by tenants who rushed into the occupation of land
without having obtained proper agreements (Hear,
hear). Under such circumstances, the tenant said to the
landlord, " You must do this and that ;" and the land-
lord very naturally replied, " I gave ^30,000 for my
estate, and though I do not expect to get 5 per cent., I
certainly do expect to obtain 2^ as a return." As re-
garded land agents, he did not mean to assert that they
were all honest and straightforward men ; but he cer-
tainly did not believe that many of them would advise a
tenant farmer to sink his capital merely for the purpose
of aggrandizing his employer. In truth, the question

was not a landlord's question alone ; they must look at
both sides (Hear, hear). He was one of the oldest
members of that club, and had always been of opinion
that it was desirable to lay down a scale with respect to
unredeemed improvements : he had always thought that
the tenant quitting his occupation should have so much
at the end of three years, so much at the end of four,
and so on, for actual improvements which he had made ;
and that at the end of a certain period he should be held
to have received sufficient compensation for his outlay
(Hear, hear).

Mr. Bennett, on rising, said he would not detain the
meeting at any length, although if his friend, Mr.
Shaw, should succeed at the present juncture in
proposing a system of relief to agriculture, it would be
a most valuable boon ; and he was free to admit that the
suggestions he had made, as far as they were applicable
to the state of the country, were doubtless very useful.
But he must say that he thought Mr. Shaw, in introdu-
cing the subject, had fallen into the too general error
that wide, crooked, and wasteful hedge-rows, studded
with useless timber and old pollards, were the rule, and
not the exception, in the country. Wherever these
nuisances — for he must call them so — were still found,
they were doubtless a great discouragement to agricul-
ture ; and to remove them, and replace them with a few
nice, neat, straight hedges, was most desirable. But he
(Mr. Bennett) thought that a person could not be very
observant of what had been going on fo(r the last twenty
years not to have perceived to what extent these im-
provements hadbeen already effected (cheers). In several
counties, he knew well, scarcely any such barbarous old
fences were now to be found, and in others they were
certainly the exception ; so that it seemed to him to be
rather begging the question, to regard such a proposition
as a novel or untried improvement. The breaking up
of poor grass land, under certain limitations, was very
desirable ; this, also, had been practised very extensively
of late years. But even this hobby might be ridden too
hard, more especially while wheat ranged at present and
late prices. Such land, for the most part, in its present
state, bore some rent, and with scarcely any cost yielded
about the same amount of profit to the occupier.
Whereas,if the soil were a poor tenacious clay, they might
succeed in raising a few crops while the turf was left ; but
that gone, they had a poor, intractable, exhausted soil
to contend with, and, with wheat at or under 5s. the
bushel, ruinous for the tenant to farm, and incapable of
yielding scarcely any rent to the owner. He (Mr. Ben-
nett) would not deny, however, that by selecting the
more unprofitable tracts of grass land, where the soil,
when ploughed, was convertible, and would, by the appli-
cation of labour and capital, bear good root crops — such
laud was doubtless far more profitable under tillage. But
what he contended for was that this is no new disco-
very. Our more intelligent and skilful farmers had
long been directing attention to these points, aided, as
they have been, in many cases, by landlords requiring
less stringent covenants as to the mode of farming. He
would be glad to see the encouragement general. These
improvements doubtless admitted of extension ; but if this

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

38

subject was introduced as a panacea for the cure of the ills
inflicted on Britisli agriculture by recent legislation— as
the term, " in the present emergency," seemed some-
what to indicate — he (Mr. Bennett) would be no party
in propagating such an illusion, the more so as these
improvements were now inapplicable pretty well to nine-
tenths of the country as they now saw it (Hear, hear). It
was proper enough that landlords should lend a helping
hand by every possible means to enable the tenantry to
grapple with their difficulties ; many landlords, however,
had not the means of doing so to any sufficient extent.
To render the tenant assistance in providing steam-
thrashing machines was no bad suggestion ; but Mr.
Shaw had surely stated the savings beyond the ordinary
cost at far too much, when he made it 10s. per acre.
If they took the article of wheat, and took it at four qrs.
per acre, at 28. 6d. per qr. under the old system, the entire
cost was but 10s. ; while, if the steam-engine were even
provided gratis, they could hard!y work it and keep it in
repair for nothing ; so that t!i<>ir friend (Mr. Shaw) —
though not intentionally — had stated his case too strongly
as to the extent to which tenants might be relieved in
this way. There could be no question but what covered
homcstalls were a great benefit ; but he could not go
the whole length with Mr. Shaw and others, when they
represented that these may be erected at the mere cost of
one year's rent (Hear, hear) ; or if so, such homestalls
must be of the most temporary kind. Far be it from
him, however, to deny that by the mutual co-operation
of landlord and tenant much might be effected ; but he
had a very strong objection to statements emanating
from that Club which might appear extravagant or im-
practicable ; he entirely acquitted Mr. Shaw of inten-
tionally doing so. He (Mr. Bennett) could not, how-
ever take his seat without demurring much more strongly
to many of the observations which had fallen from the
gentleman just sat down. There were, doubtless, un-
generous and arbitrary landlords, as well as men of that
character among all other classes of society . But when
Mr. Walton represented the land of the country as having
been improved by the tenantry some two or three hun-
dred per cent., and they (the landlords) pocketing the
whole, while they had contributed nothing towards those
improvements, he for one had no sympathy with such
statements, they were ill-adapted to strengthen the bond
of union between landlord and tenant, and thereby pro-
mote the general improvement of agriculture, the object
for which that Club, he believed, had been mainly esta-
blished (cheers).

Mr. Beadel did not think it came within the limits
of the objects of that Club to abuse either landlords on
the one side, or tenants on the other (Hear, hear) ; and
he hoped that in future, whatever might be their private
feelings, members would abstain from making remarks
like those which had been so justly commented upon by
Mr. Bennett (Hear, hear). Mr. Bennett had objected
to Mr. Shaw's remarks on the subject of hedge-rows
and other similar obstructions to cultivation. Mr.
Shaw had, he thought, very properly avoided entering
into detail ; but, if any gentleman who doubted the
existence of examples of what was described, let him go

into Kent or Surrey, and he would soon find some (Hear,
hear). The remarks of Mr. Shaw on that subject might
not be applicable to Cambridgeshire, but they were
nevertheless to be applied according to the varying cir-
cumstances of the country. Again, Mr. Bennett had
called in question the accuracy of Mr. Shaw's statement,
that a covered homestall could be erected for one year's
rent. Now, it happened that he (Mr. Beadel) had
had a good deal to do with the erection of covered
homestalls; and he had no hesitation in telling
Mr. Bennett that he could have erected a co-
vered homestall, sufficient for the accommodation
of from twenty to thirty beasts, at an expense of
from two to three hundred pounds. That remark was
not applicable to a farm of 40 or 50 acres. He took
as the basis of his calculations the average extent of the
occupations throughout the country (Hear, hear). He
did not know any better means by which a tenant could
be assisted. Not only did it lessen the consumption of
food, not only did it put the animal in an improved
position for fattening, but it also enabled the tenant to
make the best of his manure, so that eight loads would,
as experience proved, supply the place of sixteen under
other circumstances. By means of covered yards, dung
was made in the most complete manner, and was always
kept in the best possible state for being put on the land.
As regarded the question of improvements, he must say
that many tenants expected landlords to do all, and
were unwilling to do anything themselves (Hear, hear).
In repeated instances,' when a tenant had come to him
asking for improved buildings, drainage, and other im-
provements, he had tested him with this simple ques-
tion, " What are you willing to give in consideration of
these improvements being made ?'' and in the majority
of cases the tenant had expected the improvements to
be carried out without his undertaking to give anything
at all to compensate the landlord in his outlay (Hear,
hear). He could not regard the landlord and tenant of
a farm as holding a different relative situation from the
landlord and tenant of a house. If a tenant chose to
take land without considering the obligations and risks
which he thereby incurred, or without being
prepared with the capital necessary for its cul-
tivation, the blame of that ought not to be visited
upon the landlord. He had often heard it said
that the sole object of landlords was to obtain
tenants who would give them the greatest amount of
rent, without caring to enquire whether or not they had
sufficient capital to cultivate the farm. Now he begged
to say that his experience did not bear out that state-
ment. At the same time, if tenant farmers generally
would set their faces against land being let to men who
had not capital enough to farm it, he was satisfied that
that would do a great deal of good (Hear, hear). Hav-
ing some knowledge of practical farming, he did not re.,
collect a single suggestion in Mr. Shaw's address which
might not be carried into practice. There were a va-
riety of instances in which landlords might relieve their
tenants without any material outlay ; various means had
been suggested by which that might be done ; and he
was quite convinced that landlords generally would be

24

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

found ready to do their duty if tenants would do
theirs.

Mr. Walton said — Having been attacked by three
gentlemen for the remarks which he had made on land-
lords, he begged to say that he did not wish to retract
nne word that he had uttered. He believed that many
landlords were annually receiving two or three hundred
per cent. ; and if they reduced their rentals one-half
they would do but little to extend to their tenants com-
pensation for what they had lost.

Mr. Sidney said the position which he occupied in
that room was that of one who came to learn, and not
to teach, andhe certainly had had the advantage of becom-
ing acquainted there with many important facts. Now,
having had various opportunities of witnessing the skill,
theindustry,theenergy, and the perseverance, which tenant
farmers brought to bear on the cultivation of the land,
he had often wondered at the very small influence which,
as a class, they exercised in the state in comparison with
other interests, which were certainly not more wealthy,
not more intelligent, not more energetic. But he
thought he had discovered, after attending a few meet-
ings of the club, why it was that tenant-farmers exercised
so little influence in the country ; it was because when a
third party was concerned they went to all points of the
compass, and applied for assistance in all quarters except
that in which it could be obtained. Now, for example,
Mr. Shaw had that evening mentioned certain diflSculties
in the way of good cultivation, and had pointed out
means by which they might be removed ; and for doing
that he had been exposed to a good deal of criticism,
because parties were unwilling to admit that they had
anything to learn. Mr. Bennett had asserted, in a very
positive manner, that from one end of the country to
the other it was quite unusual to meet with crooked
hedges and fences. Now it was not necessary to be a
farmer in order to pronounce an opinion on that point.
He (Mr. Sidney) happened to have hunted in about
ten English counties ; and he must remark, that if
Mr. Bennett would but cast his eyes towards North-
amptonshire and some parts of Cheshire, or if he went
down to Devonshire and Somersetshire, he would find
an extensive crop of such objects (Hear, hear). It
almost invariably happened, however, that when an evil
was pointed out which required the efforts of the tenant-
farmers for its removal, up rose two or three persons to deny
its existence, or at least to declare that it was very partial
in extent. He was surprised to hear Mr. Bennett speak
as he had done of the old baronial lords and squires ; for
his own part, agreeing with preceding speakers, that
landlords as a class were not worse than any other class,
he also thought that among old landlords and new ones
were to found the same differences of character. Take,
for example, the case of the Middleton estate, now in the
hands of Mr. Peto, member for Norwich. As long as
that estate remained in the hands of the old baron it was
undrained ; and there were tumble-down buildings upon
it, which were never repaired, the rule being, when the
tenant asked for repairs, to offer him a reduction of rent.
The estate passed into the hands of Mr. Peto, a gentle-
man who had plenty of money (he did not believe him

to be any better than other people), who was a busi-
ness-like man, and he proceedi d to put it in good order.
There were three things which appeared to him especially
necessary for tenants : first, that they should know their
rights ; secondly, that they should be disposed to main-
tain them ; thirdly, that they should have landlords who
had sufficient money and intelligence to effect improve-
ments. They would never get what they required so
long as they adhered to the old principle of considering
everything that was done by the landlord a concession
and a favour. If tenant-farmers placed themselves in
the same position as other kinds of tenants they would
have similar advantages. He was afraid that as yet
nine-tenths of the landlords knew scarcely anything about
agriculture. Their intentions were good, perhaps; but
whenever a question was put to them about a farm, they
referred the matter to their agent ; and the result was
often anything but what could be desired. Farmers had
too often to deal with those who had no sympathy
with them. The landlord had very frequently no idea
how the farmer got his living (Hear, hear, hear) ; how
he managed to pay his rent, and what return he was
able to obtain for his skill and outlay. He regretted to
see such landlords selected by farmers as their repre- 1
sentatives, when a man like Mr. Pusey, whose life had "
been devoted to agriculture, was made the drunkard's
song.

Mr. Trethewy said, he had not intended to make
any observations that evening, but the discussion had
taken such a turn, that he could not refrain from saying
a few words. It appeared to him that the thing re-
solved itself into a small compass. He did not see any
difference in principle between a tenant-farmer taking a
farm of a landlord, and any other kind of tenant making
a bargain with his landlord. There must always be two
to a bargain ; although they had been told, in effect, that
evening, that the tenant was obliged to accept whatever
terms the landlord chose to dictate. As an agent, he
could bear testimony not only to the willingness of land-
lords to encourage improvement, but to their practical
knowledge ; and he was not disposed to join in the
general outcry against them. He agreed, too, with
Mr. Bennett, that the older landlords — he meant men
who had inherited estates from their ancestors — would
generally be found more liberal with their tenants than
men who had bought land recently as an investment.
Any person who had had much experience on the sub-
ject would bear him out in that view (Hear, hear).

Mr. Shaw replied : As Mr. Bennett had left the
room, he would make only one remark in reference to
that gentleman's observations on the subject of hedge-
row timber. It would be in the recollection of the
meeting that he (Mr. S.) pointedly drew a line of dis-
tinction between those estates, and consequently between
those parts of the country which had been well
farmed and well managed and those which had
not ; and that he also said that his observations
were mainly applied to persons and to farms which were
backward as regarded the management and cultivation
of land, compared with the intelligence and energy
displayed in other parts of the country. He was not

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

25

so absurd, nor had he so little personal knowledge of
different districts, as to advise that hedgerows should be
removed in Wiltshire or Cambridgeshire ; but he
thought that if they traversed the kingdom from north
to south, and compared the estates which were well
managed with those which were ill managed, they would
find abundant room for improvement in that respect.
(Hear, hear.) He was glad to find Mr. Beadel confirm-
ing his statement with regard to Fowler's plough. He
had made it on the authority of a practical man ; and
he had said nothing to induce any one to suppose that
he referred to tile draining as ordinarily practised. To
show the permanency of this mode of draining, he
would mention to the meeting a circumstance which
had occurred recently. A very short time ago his
friend Mr. Hobbs and himself, together with some
other parties, went down to Gloucester, for the pur-
pose of selecting the site for the Royal Agricultural
Society's Show in the ensuing year ; and a field was
shown them, which although they did not think it
sufficiently drained for the purpose contemplated, namely,
the show-yard, yet upon opening one of the drains, which
had been made ten years previously, with a mole plough
it was found to be in a most perfect state. The landlord
who had an estate, and wanting capital had not that in-
terest in the estate which would enable him to raise
money upon it for the purpose of improvement, was
situated just as other men were, and had to encounter
just the same diflSculties as those who were hampered for
want of capital in any other pursuit, and he must adopt
the most available expedients to extricate himself. An
observation had been made with reference to the price of
thrashing, to which he (Mr. Shaw) also desired to advert
for one moment. Now, generally speaking, when a man
wished to make his case pretty strong, he was apt to give
himself the advantage of something above what would be
the average state of things ; and in the present instance
he felt that 2s., which had been stated as the price for
thrashing wheat, was not a fair average (dissent). True,
it might be at the present moment ; but he believed it
would not be affirmed that, a few years ago, taking the
country through, wheat could ordinarily be thrashed at
2s. a quarter. (" No," and " Yes.")

Mr. Trethkwy : Four shillings would be nearer the
figure.

Mr. Shaw : What he had stated was on the authority
of as practical a man as any in the room. And sup-
posing 3s. to have been paid, which was no uncommon
price, then he concluded that by the use of a steam
thrashing-machine it was perfectly clear that when the
produce of wheat was 5 qrs. an acre, lOs. an acre might be
saved. Nay, if any confidence were to be placed in the
statements of persons who had given a great deal of at-
tention to the use and effect of machinery, he might go
further. A fixed machine was in some measure different
from a portable machine ; but he had seen a machine in
Gloucestershire, by the use of which he was assured the
wheat might be taken in from the stack-yard, and the
whole process completed at a cost of not more than 9d.
a quarter. Then, again, if he referred to the most re-
cent account which had been given of the saving to be

effected by means of steam in thrashing, he found it in
an excellent article by Mr. Pusey, which appeared in the
"Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society," and which
stated the priceeven lower than that — he believed about 7d.
or 8d. per qr. If that were so, then he did not think
he had exceeded the mark in the figures he had laid be-
fore the Club ; and though in some respects that had
arisen which he had anticipated, viz., that his statement
of details had not carried conviction home to the minds
of all, nevertheless he was glad to believe, from the ob-
servations of his friend, Mr. Beadel — a very competent
judge — that he had in some measure attained the end he
had in view — that of pointing out the particular objects
to which the attention of landlords should be directed in
the work of assisting their tenantry to effect improve-
ments. Even though his only success had been to have
his statements objected to, and perhaps refuted, still that
would be useful, because he felt himself to be somewhat
in the position of the author who, when his book was
sent to be reviewed, and no notice was taken of it, ex-
claimed, " Pray give it a review. If you cannot do any-
thing else, abuse it." He should be satisfied, therefore,
if he had only succeeded in fixing attention on this im-
portant subject (Hear, hear), and showing that there
were very many things which the landlord might do in
particular localities, " without involving any considerable
outlay of capital," where the tenants were men of neither
sufficient capital nor sufficient intelligence to keep pace
with the times. He well knew that in the neighbour-
hood where he used to reside, if a man wanted a colt
or a calf, it mattered not to him what was the breed of the
horse or bull to which the mare or cow was sent. The
sole question was as between a half-crown and a half-
guinea, or any larger sum, and generally the half-crown
carried it (a laugh). Even in that respect he thought the
landlord might render valuable assistance to his tenantry
by keeping male animals for their use, and so improving
their breed of stock. In conclusion, Mr. Shaw proposed
the following resolution . — " That, although improve-
ments on land cannot be so speedily, effectively, and
economically carried out where ample capital is not at
command, nevertheless great improvements may be made
by the co-operation of landlord and tenant ' without in-
volving a considerable outlay of capital,' provided com-
pensation for unexhausted improvements be secured to
the tenant."

Mr. AiTCHEsoN seconded the resolution.

Mr. Trethewy, being of opinion that the nature of
the aid to be given by the landlord should be more
definitely expressed, submitted that the resolution would
be in a more preferable form if it stood thus : " That it
is in the power of landlords, without any great outlay of
capital, to afford some relief to their tenantry by allowing
old hedge-rows to be grubbed up and inferior grass-lands
to be ploughed, and by giving compensation to their
tenants for unexhausted improvements, upon a scale
which should be set forth in the agreement."

The Chairman (Mr. Hobbs) said there could be no
doubt that the great difficulty in farming in the present
day was want of capital. In many cases neither tenant
nor landlord had capital at command ; bat it had been

26

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

suggested to-night that there were means of obtaining
the capital required by going to a Drainage Company.
Other points bad been ineutioned also, in which the land-
lord might assist liis tenantry, and these were — Fowler's
plough, guano, cattle-boxes, thrashing by steam-power,
stailions, bulls, and boars ; but Mr. Trethewy had
omitted all these from his resolution, which he confined
simply to grubbing-up all hedge-rows and ploughing
inferior grass lands ; in fact, he did not attempt to era-
brace any wider question than was included in the ques-
tion of tenant-right. Now he (Mr. Hobbs) was of
opinion that the subject of discussion was of a more
comprehensive nature than tenant-right, and might be
shown to embrace every description of improvement to
be made in agriculture. Last week he was down in
Herefordshire, and while there visited Lord Somers's
estate, upon which that noble lord had introduced two
steam-engines, with thrashing-machines and mills. These
were for the use of the tenants of from 2,000 to 3,000
acres of land ; and by charging the tenants £50 a-year
for them he was enabled to pay the interest upon the
capital employed, and the cost of the wear and tear :
at the same time that he did this, he saved the tenantry
ten per cent, upon their rental, or nearly that amount,
according to their own calculation. Now that was one
point in which the landlords, by a small outlay of capital,
might benefit their tenants to a great degree, and this
without injury to themselves. Again, in breeding dis-
tricts, if they introduced a good breed of stallions, bulls,
and boars, very considerable advantage would also re-

sult, from the improvement which would then necessarily
take place in the stock. These were points which land-
lords ought not to overlook. (Hear, hear.) With re-
gard to the Drainage Society, of which he (Mr. Hobbs)
was a director, he was happy to say that they were doing
a vast deal of business with landlords who had no capital
at command, or were possessed of a life interest only in
an estate. They entered into arrangements with the
society, who thereupon erected new buildings and made
new roads for them. Upon one estate alone, at that
moment, the society were constructing new roads, which
would cost upwards of ^1,200. They were also en-
gaged in the drainage of estates ; and he had little doubt
that in the course of time both landlords and farmers
would find it generally advantageous to employ such
companies as that. As Mr. Shaw had justly observed,
he thought these companies were not yet sufficiently
known ; but when they became known, he was certain
they would be appreciated.

Mr. W. Bennett objected to Mr. Trethewy's pro-
position that it would be partial in its operation, and
apply only to certain districts. He admitted that in
those districts it might be beneficially carried out, but
he could not consent to its going forth to the country
that the club entertained the opinion that that would
prove an effectual means of relief to the farming interest. |

Mr. Trethewy having consented to withdraw his pro- 1
posal, the resolution of Mr. Shaw was then agreed to
unanimously, and the meeting separated.

ON TURNIP CULTURE.

BY A PRACTICAL FARMER.

In May, at the furthest, twifallow thy laad.
Much droiig'iit may else after cause plough for to stand;
This tilth being done, ye have passed the worst ;
Theu after who ploujrhet!!, plow thou with the first !

TUSSER.

Tuoser was an advocate for early fallowing — he wrote
about 300 years ago. We think with liim, that a good
" tilth being done" in May, the worst is passed, and
we have tlie season in hand. We can then await the
proper time for sowing, and any favourable change in
weather, or progress in our farm business, and adopt
our course accordingly. In making our observations
on Turnip Culture, wc shall decline remarking upon
the preparation of the soil to any extent, having re-
cently done so in our papers upon the Culture of
Potatoes and Mangold Wurzel and on Fallows. We
will, however,in passing, observe, that it is imperatively
necessary to profitable turnip culture, that as fine a
tilth as possible be obtained, and that every expedition
be pursued in getting in the seed, so soon as the season
and the circumstances of the farm lead to a desirable
commencement.

Thcrnip Soils. — Turnips will grow advantageously
upon all properly-prepared soils. Clay soils will pro-
duce good common turnips, under suitable culture;
and, under careful and judicious management, they

may be fed from these soils with profit to the farmer.
We have frequently done it ourselves, and chiefly by
the aid of sheep-shelters, well bedded with stubble. It
makes good lairage, and also good manure. In this
way we often make from 200 to 300 loads of valuable
manure in wet or precarious seasons ; but, in fine, dry
winters, like the last, these prepared lairs arc quite un-
necessary. We commend a trial to clay land farmers.
The best turnip soils are all those having an open
tendency from the richest loams downwards ; but we
scarcely know any variety of soil not calculated to
produce a turnip crop of one kind or another ; or, we
again repeat, that may not profitably be fed off from
such soils, under proper care and management. The
great difficulty to be provided against is, dry and
healthy lairage for the sheep. The worst of these soils,
we think, may be readily prepared for future cropping by
adopting suitable modes of culture. Early feeding off,
and winter ploughing (awy subsoil drained land), will
nearly suffice for the most adhesive clays; and the
exposure to frosts and other aerial influences will, for
the most part, correct the bad effects of trampling or
treading done by the sheep on every soil ; at any rate,
a little extra culture and fallow-working bestowed upon
the land in the spring will more than counterbalance
the injury thus sustained.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

27

Varieties of Turnips, — The varieties or kinds and
subvarieties of turnips are almost beyond belief, to
sucb a gratifying extent lias its cultivation and im-
provement arrived. We, bnwever, think that they
may be classed under three or, at most, four distinct
kinds — i. e., the Swedish Turnip , the Common Turnip,
the Hybrid Turnip, and the Tankard Turnip. We have
before us the names and professed qualities of many
varieties, extending in description far beyond the
length to which we intend to limit this paper. We
cannot even enumerate their names, and shall there-
fore merely confiue ourselves to a very short notice of
those kinds we have cultivated on our own occupation
— Swedish turnips.

Skirving's Purple-iop Swede is a large free-growing
sort, of irregular form, rather too long necked, but of
good quality, and peculiarly well adapted for culture
on thin turnip soils, and land of inferior quality. For
these it is almost invaluable; but on rich loams, or
land highly manured, it grows too coarse, and, we
think, loses in quality of flesh. A capital sort ! ! !

Matson's Pwple-top Swede. — This is a very good
variety, and most of excellent quality ; it is well-formed,
growing deep in the ground, with but little neck and
not much leaf, and is very hardy. It is best suited for
good turnip lands. A very good sort ! !

Clarice's Purple-top. — This is a kind obtained from
the preceding two, and combines the quality and hardi-
ness, and beauty of the latier, with much of the size
and substance of the former. It was crossed in the
first instance by planting the finest bulbs of both
varieties in squares ; the corners being Matson's
variety, and one large Skirving's in the middle ; sub-
sequently, and for several years, the finest bulbs par-
taking most of the combined qualities in proportion
as named, have been planted; and from this a fine
stock has been produced. We do not know a better! !!

Laing's Purple-top Swede — This is a beautiful
variety in appearance, and is readily distinguished by
its peculiar or brocoli-shaped leaf hanging over a
small well- shaped turnip. We cannot, however, re-
commend its cultivation even on the best soils : it
does not produce a crop of sufficient weight.

Hillyard's Thorpeland Swede. — We grew a small
screed of this variety some years since, but found it so
dwarfish in size and unproductive as to cause us to
abandon its growth at once.

Matson's Green-top Swede. — We have grown two
varieties under this name ; the one, a very beautifully-
shaped little bulb, of first-rate quality, with a very
short neck and moderate quantity of leaves. (We never
saw a finer crop, to all appearance, than was obtained
some years since from this variety. It was sold, in
lots, by auction, to be consumed on the land, and
realized from £11 to £12 per acre). The other was a
much coarser sort, but still of very good quality, and
preferable for general cultivation — being quite as hardy,
and producing a much heavier crop. A truly good
variety ! ! !

We have also at different periods tried many plots of
the new and popular varieties of awedes — both purple

and green-top — as they were brought before the public
by various parties; and amongst them many from our
decidedly popular seedsmen. But from our own ex-
perience, and also observation, (and we have paid much
attention to this point in business), we should deem it
wrong to recommend any particular variety by name :
we would only say, choose from a good stock, and in
accordance with the richness and value of the soil to
be sown. For thin soils, the freest and largest variety
known ; and for fair turnip lands, any well-approved
sort of hardy nature and bulky growth.

T/ie Common Turnip. — By the common turnip we
mean all those kinds possessing a white flesh and the
common globular form. These we have grown under
names peculiar to the parties producing them ; and
much credit is due to parties whose names we might
introduce, for the care they take in their selection and
growth ; but we can here only deal with the varieties.
We have grown in our ordinary farm practice the Red
Round, Green Round, V/hite Globe, White Stone, and
many, as we think, subvaiieties of the same kinds — as
the Pomeranian Globe, the Norfolk Sugar-loaf, the
Stubble Turnip, the Green Globe, &c., &c.,&c.: many
produced by parties whose names they bear.

The Red Round Turnip.— This variety is chiefly
distinguished by its pinky purple rind, or rather that
portion of the rind growing above ground ; that por-
tion in the ground being white. It grows deeply into
the soil, is of a fine globular shape, and the quality of
flesh firm and sweet. According to our experience, it
is the most hardy of the common varieties, and best
suited to good turnip lands ; we are almost inclined to
say the only common sort well suited to rich loams.

The Green Round Turnip. — This is very similar to
the above. Its colour is green instead of pink; it is
of somewhat larger growth, stands more out of the
ground; it is preferred on the medium turnip soils to
the Red Round. We think it is not so hardy nor so
firm and sweet fleshed.

The White Globe. — This variety possesses a white
rind, is of large globular shape, grows more freely than
either of the above sorts; its flesh is not so firm, but
it will produce a large crop, and of course is better
adapted to poor soils ; on rich loams it grows too fast,
and becomes "fuzzy" and worthless.

The White Stone. — This is one of the smaller, or
garden, varieties, brought into field culture. It is not
very productive, but is very sweet and hardy; it has
a white rind, and in its growtli buries itself deeply
into the soil. This sort is the best adapted ior late
sowing of any of the common varieties ; and the same,
we think, known as the Stubble Turnip.

We have cultivated in plots many common sorts
under various names, but the chief distinctive quali-
ties and kinds are the four named above. Of others,
some vary a little in shape, some in size, some in
shade of colour ; some bury themselves deeply iu the
soil, others more on the surface; some, again, grow
very fast, and yield a large bulb and pithy flesh ; others
slowly, and yield a small bulb and firm flesh, and so
on, for these minor distinctions are very numerous,

28

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and ofter well worth the grower's attention, as in the
course of business he may frequently have to choose
his kind for sowhig according to the state or progress
he has made in preparation for his turnip crop, and
the time he is enabled to get it in.

The Hybrid Turnip.— In this class of varieties we
include all those sorts which have apparently been
produced by crossing, although we are not conversant
with the fact. We name amongst them all the yellow
fleshed kind with the rough leaf. Amongst these we
have grown the Green-top Scotch Yellow, the Red-top
or Aberdeen Yellow, Dale's Hybrid Yellow, Ox-heart
Yellow, and plots of others under various names, as
Hanoverian Yellow Globe, Gordon's Yellow Bullock,
Skirving's Yellow Bullock, and others; the distinctive
qualities being the same in kind as those just named
in the white sorts.

The Green-top Scotch Yellow. — It grows to a large
size, is well formed, though not a perfect globe, being
rather flat at top, very little neck, and not too much
leaf. Its flesh is firm and good, and it will retain its
quality through a winter of medium severity. It excels
the Aberdeen Y'ellow in weight of crops.

The Aberdeen Yelloiv. — This has a red or purple
rind. It is similar to the Green-top Yellow in growth,
but not so productive ; it is, however, more hardy, and
will generally abide a severe winter, burying itself
deeply in the ground, and the tops being rather abun-
dant fall over the bulb and aid in its preservation.

Dale's Hybrid Turnip. — This has a green rind, and
is a known cross between the Green-top Swede and
White Globe. It is a free-growing variety, and may be
sown late in the season ; it is rather variable in shape
and has much foliage. It is said to be hardy, but we
think not equal to the Aberdeen Yellow.

Ox-heart Yelloic. — This is a good variety, but
requires to be consumed early in the winter. It grows
fast and attains great weight, but is not quite so hardy
as those already named.

Hanoverian Turnip. — A large size, growing high
out of the ground ; not hardy enough to stand a severe
winter, but very productive.

Yellow Globe. — This is rather a small sort, and
grows deeply in the ground, consequently hardy ; it
has a light green rind, and leaves small and spreading,

Gordon's Yelloiv Bullock. — This is one of the best
and hardiest of the yellow-fleshed varieties, and a
known crop between the Swede and Aberdeen Yellow.

Shirting's Yellow Bullock. — This is a very good
turnip, and an improvement upon the Aberdeen Yellow,
which it much resembles.

The Tankard Turnip. — We have made a class of
this sort, and we think properly so, as they ai e so dis-
tinctive in their characteristics, the growth and form
being dissimilar to the other varieties, and they must
be biought into consumption before winter. We have
grown the Green and Yellow Tankard, and the White
and Green Tankard Turnips. Their growth is so similar
that we shall place them together ; the two first named
Rre yellow-fleshed varieties, and the latter are white-

fleshed kinds. They all grow in form like a " tankard,"
and much out of the ground ; they produce very heavy
crops, and are well adapted for late sowing and early
consumption. The yellow sorts are the most hardy,
but neither is hardy enough to bear severe frosts :
their great value lies in their early maturity and abun-
dant produce. We highly recommend their cultiva-
tion on turnip lands intended for wheat in the follow-
ing year, or on rich loams for a similar purpose when
the sowing is of necessity late. We think a crop of
this variety might often be obtained to advantage in
place of dead or bare fallow ; it would require to be
got in early, and then be eaten off" for wheat, leaving a
large deposit of manure as made by the sheep in feed-
ing it off", besides the profit on the sheep.

Cultivation. — We have, in our papers on potatoes,
mangolds, and fallows, said so much upon the prepara-
tion of the soil as to render any observations on that
head superfluous now : we therefore take the land as
being properly fallowed and made quite ready to receive
the seed, and for S^vedish Turnips we take it to be
neatly ridged at twenty-five inches apart, and manured
with about fourteen two-horse loads of good fold-yard
manure, all rolled down ready for drilling. We there-
fore (in this paper) commence with drilling Swedes.
We invariably drill in with the seed some artificial
manure or compost ; the cheapest, and that most com-
monly used by us, is about two bushels of decomposed
night-soil mixed with twelve bushels of loamy soil, and
about forty bushels of ashes burnt from twitch, roots,
sods, turf, or other available vegetable matters that we
can convert into ashes ; these we drill in with the seed,
and the rapidity with which this compost forces the
young turnip plant " out of harm's way" is both sur-
prising and satisfactory. The night-soil is best mixed
with loam a year or more previous to its being required
for use : we aid the mixture by adding strong manure
from the piggeries, the dove-cot, and cess-pools, &c.,
&c. We next prefer a mixture made from dissolved
bones at the rate of four bushels per acre, and fifty
bushels of ashes. Our next application as to preference
is the application of about two-and-a-half cwt. of guano
with the above quantity of ashes ; this application we
drill in with double spouts or coulters. Guano must
not come into contact with the seed in the act of ger-
minating ; if it does, it is sure to die ! We have also
used bone-dust, rape-cake, British guano (well made),
nitrate of soda, urate, &c., &c., and with good eff'ect.
Almost any fertilizing matter thus appUed will produce
most satisfactory results. We do not know of any plan
for preventing the ravages of the turnip-fly so good, or
so certain in its success, as to drill in with the seed some
fertilizing substance, taking great care that it be not too
strong, rancid, or acrid, in its nature ; germinating
seeds cannot withstand such contact, but if the applica-
tion is judiciously made, the growth of the plant is not
only greatly promoted, but the vegetation of the seed
itself is quickened, and possibly the plant also may, by
these kind of applications, be rendered distasteful to
these little voracious insects, and in this way prevent
injury. The quantities we drill in is from four to five

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

29

pounds of turnip seed, and from forty-five to seventy
bushels of compost and ashes per acre.

Common Turnips, — The common turnip we prefer
putting in at the latter end of June, and " upon the
flat," not upon ridges ; common turnips sown on ridges
grow much too fast, and become very large and " fuzzy,"
or dry and pithy. In late sowings we should not object
sowing them upon ridges provided they can be consumed
before the winter's frosts attack them : they are, how-
ever, much the best upon level, well prepared soil ; they
can bury themselves deeply in the soil, and being less
exposed keep their quality much better, and are much
more easily preserved for winter use. We drill about
four pounds of seed to the acre at twelve-inch intervals,
and about sixty bushels of compost and ashes ; the land
is rolled down prior to drilling, and in this case, as also
in drilling swedes, we leave the drills open provided the
weather is wet and genial, but if it is dry and unpro-
mising we again roll all down closely.

SuBSEauENT Management. — This will consist in re-
peated horse-hoeings and harrowings done to the swedes,
and recommended for mangolds, and in hand-hoeings,
weeding, and singling, done to both swedes and common
turnips. We prefer setting out the turnips with an
eleven-inch hoe. In ridge work we would refer our
readers to our description of these hoeings, &c., given
in our paper on mangolds. In setting out our common
turnips we use a twelve-inch hoe on account of our rows
being drilled at narrow intervals. We first broad-hoe them as
soon as they are fairly up, that is, to hoe the land without
meddling with the plants. We do this not only with a view
to cleaulmess, but to promote the more rapid growth of the
plants. In a few days we proceed to set them out. The hoers
take one row each, and bending down and taking short hold
of the hoe, strike or chop as regularly as possible along the
row, leaving, if possible, but one good plant between each
stroke. Each hoer is followed by a lad if the plants are large
enough for singling, to weed and single them out ; or it may
be desirable to wait a few days to allow time for large growth,
and the disturbed plant to obtain a more secure hold, or many
will be drawn up inadvertently by the lads. Turnips should
he repeatedly hoed ; nothing tends more to enhance their
growth. Those on the ridges may be horse-hoed or ridge-
harrowed, so long as a horse can get down the rows without
doing serious injury to the plants ; and those on the level soil
or flat will amply repay for hoeing, so long as it is possible to

draw a hoe amongst them. We are careful not to go amongst
thera in wet or unfavourable weather ; to avoid this it will be
requisite to have plenty of help at hand, and at every suitable
time to make use of it with all the hands that can be spared.
Should any thin places occur in the crop, it is far preferable to
fill thera up with rape or cabbage than to transplant turnips.

On ridges where much manure is used, a partial vacuum will
occasionally be found by the decay of tlie manure. The roll
in this case should again be passed over them, and no heed or
fear need arise respecting the plants if the time of rolling is
properly chosen, which should be just immediately before set-
ting out, or when they are about four inches in height. The
subsoil and surface-soil being thus brought more closely into
contact, moisture is drawn from the soil, and the plants im-
prove faster than before. This we have often proved in dry
weather, and it is good practice on all lands heavily manured
On all rich loams it is best to wait till the middle of June be-
fore sowing swedes, as they are very liable to catch mildew,
but on all meadow soils the sowing may take place from the
middle of May to the third week in June. For common tur-
nips from fourteen to twenty-one days later witt be about the
proper time of sowing for such soils respectively. We fre-
quently roll our common turnips if the land is highly manured
and the weather is dry ; consolidation of the loose soil arising
from fallowing is necessary, and no injury is done to the tur-
nip plant, which will certainly grow the faster for it in such
weather. We have no hesitation in recommending the rolling
of the turnip crop in dry seasons, and the best stage in their
growth for this rolling is when the plants are in full broad leaf,
and before setting out. The steeping of seed is recommended,
and in particularly obnoxious mixtures, with the view of mak-
ing the plant unpalatable to the fly. We cannot think this
plan of much service, but combined with rancid manures, it
possibly may be of some avail. The great, and as we think the
only, safe remedy is in obtaining a perfect tilth, giving it a
plentiful supply of stimulating manure to force the young
plants, and then to follow this up by frequent and early
hoeings. We also strongly advocate early preparation of the
laud, and then to wait awhile for a favourable time for sowing,
wheu, as we stated in our paper on Mangolds, all the ap-
pliances of the farm should be brought to bear upon it, and the
whole got in at once. We need not say we also strongly
advocate a thick seeding, certainly not less than four pounds
per acre. Adopting these precautions we generally succeed
in getting a good crop, and can scarcely remember a failure
either in mangold or turnips. We confidently recommend a
similar course, and the adoption of similar precautions and
appliances to our readers.

FIRST GREAT MEETING OF THE BATH AND WEST OF ENGLAND
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The annual meeting was held at noon, on Wednesday,
June 9, Lord Portman presiding.

The following report was read by H. St. John
Maule, Esq., the Secretary:

REPORT.
In submitting a report of the proceedings of this Society to
its members, according to the 6th rule, it will not be necessary
to detail the reasons which have caused the Society, in the 75th
year of its existence, to hold, for the first time, its annual meet-
ing in the summer at a distance from the city m which it was

originally founded. Another opportunity may present itself
for giving some account of the past history of the oldest agri-
cultural society in England. It may suffice to say, on this
occasion, that the present plans of operation bid fair to fulfil
the original purpose of its establishment more completely than
ever. Actuated by this conviction, the members of the So-
ciety as originally constituted decided at their annual meeting,
held in Bath, on the 3rd December, 1850, to take into consi-
deration a plan for extending the operations of the Society by
holding a summer meeting for the exhibition of breeding
stock and implements at different places in successive years.

30

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

A provisional committee was then appoiuted, who entered into
communication with the Devon County Agricultural Society.
The negociation terminated in a union formed between the
two societies. The Council feel bound to acknowledge the
valuable aid furnished by Mr. R, Dymond, the late Secretary
of that Society. A communication was then opened with the
trustees of the surplus remaining from the fund raised for the
reception of the Royal Agricultural Society at Exeter, which
surplus had been set aside for " the advancement of agricul-
tural science," by some means to be determined at a public
meeting of the subscribers. The interest of that fund has, at
present, been placed at the disposal of this Society ; but the
capital remains in the hands of the trustees, who can only deal
with it under the authority of another public meeting of the
subscribers. A report was then drawn up, containing a re.
commendation of a new code of laws. This report was finally
adopted on the 30th August, 1851. The new code of laws
which it contained thereby became the laws of the Bath and
West of England Society, under which it has been adminis-
tered since that date.

In accordance with the suggestions in the report, thirty-
six members of the Council were appointed at three meetings,
held succesively at Bath, Taunton, and Exeter. Since then,
however, three vacancies have occurred by the resignation of
gentlemen so appointed, which must now be filled up, and
twelve more are to be appointed to complete the full number
of forty-eight, who will continue in office till the annual
meeting to be held during the year 1853 in the western
district.

The Council held their first meeting at Taunton, and, in
pursuance of the general powers entrusted to them for carrying
the new plans into effect, nominated Lord Portman president
for the current year. Those noblemen and gentlemen then
acting as the vice-presidents of this society were continued in
office, and other noblemen and gentlemen were added to the
list, with a view to preserve the balance between the western
and eastern districts without resorting to the uncourteous steps
of requesting any of the former V.P.'s to retire. And although
the number is unusually large, it is hoped that no inconve-
nienre will permanently result. It is proposed to summon
to the council only such V.P.'s as intimate their willingness to
attend. The council appointed as their secretary the gentle-
man who was acting as hon. secretary : they assigned to him
a salary of 50 guineas, and his services for the past year have
been far more thaa adequate to such salary.

Two treasurers have been appointed, one for the eastern,
the other for the western district, who undertake the trouble
gratuitously.

Several gentlemen have kindly promised to act as local cor-
respondents in the various districts, and to use their influence
in extending a knowledge of the society and increasing its
income. They have been authorized to receive subscriptions.
It is much to be desired that a local correspondent should be
formed in or near every market town, as the punctual collec-
tion of subscriptions is one of the most urgent necessities, and
unhappily one of the greatest difficulties, of agricultural
societies.

The number of subscribers has considerably increased, and
now is about 420 ; but it is very much to be desired that a
further increase should take place. The whole amount which
the council can at present calculate upon receiving from sub-
scribers may be estimated at about £550 16s. 6d., besides
donations and life contributions to the extent of £150. The
amount of cash already received is £809 43. 5d. This sum
includes the sura of £200 contributed by the town of Taunton,
and £100 paid over by the Devon Society, which will not recur

in future years. A further vote has also been promised by the
Devon Society.

The towns of Taunton and Bridgwater promptly and libe-
rally responded to the proposal to hold the summer meeting
at one of those places. It was decided that the Society's first
meeting should be held at Taunton.

A local committee was there formed for the purpose of
taking active steps to prepare for the exhibition, and to make
such general arrangements as should be deemed expedient for
carrying the same into effect. Mr. H. Blandford, of Orchard
Portman, offered in the most liberal manner the gratuitous
use of a piece of land for the trial of instruments. His offer
was gladly accepted, and a vote of thanks to the Council was
communicated for the same.

After frequent meetings of the Council, the list" of prizes
was ultimately settled, and ordered to be published. The
prizes therein offered amount in the whole to £484, distributed
in the following manner, viz. : — £148 for cattle; £99 for
sheep; £30 for pigs; £40 for horses; and £167 for imple-
ments, which last item includes a prize which is a new and
striking feature in agricultural exhibitions, peculiar to this
Society, being the prize of £20 for the most economical collec-
tion of implements suited to tenants occupying arable land
not exceeding 100 acres. It has been responded to by the
implement-makers, and it is hoped that it will be productive
of much practical utility, especially to those whose funds for
the purchase of implements is necessarily limited. The Coun-
cil delegated the selection of judges to a committee of five,
from whom they have received the following report, which
they trust will be satisfactory to the members generally.

Your Committee have to report that the names of 126 ex-
hibitors have been entered for competition, consisting of 77
exhibitors of stock and 49 exhibitors of implements. There
are 238 entries of stock, and the entries of implements are up-
wards of 400.

The number of head of cattle amounts to 379.

The number of exhibitors of stock and implements in each
district is as follows : —

NUMBERS OF EXHIBITORS, WITH THE DISTRICTS FROM

WHENCE THEY

Name of district, county,

STOCK.

East Somerset ....,-

COME.

or city.

No. in each.
5

West ditto

40

North Devon ,

22

South ditto

2

Dorset

1

Cornwall

1

Wilts

4

Gloucestershire ....

1

Bristol

1

Total . , .

77

IMPLEMENTS.

East Somerset

5

West ditto

13

North Devon

13

South ditto

2

The following gentlemen have consented to give their active
services in the various departments of the exhibition : — Mr.
Hussey, of Waybrook, Exeter, director of the show-yard.
Stewards of the stock: Mr. Webb King, Bridgwater; Mr. C.
Gordon, Winscombe ; Mr. W. Porter, Hembury Fort, Honiton.
Stewards of the implements : Mr. H. Paramore, North Pether-
ton ; Mr. H. Blandford, Orchard Portman ; Mr. S. Pitman,
Rumwell Lodge, Taunton.

The Committee appointed to select the judges beg leave to
report that the following gentlemen have consented to act— For
Devons, and long-woolled sheep : Mr. Trethewy, of Grampound,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

31

Cornwall; Mr. Partridge, of Bow, Devon; Mr. Robert Smith,
Emmett's Grange, Somerset. For other cattle : Mr. Gray, of
KingwestoD, Somerset; Mr. Leech, of Kilmington, Wilts;
Mr. Beavis, of Chard, border of Dorset and Somerset. For
implements: Mr. Amos, Consulting Engineer of the Royal
Agricultural Society ; Mr. Outhwaite, an officer of the York-
shire Society and one of the Jury of the Exhibition of 1851 ;
Mr. Willis, of Dinnaton, near Barnstaple ; Mr. Salter, of
Combe Farm, Crewkerne. The last-named gentleman being
disabled by severe illness from acting, Mr. May, of Dunsford,
is ready to act in his place.

Tlie committee cannot but congi-atulate ths society on hav-
ing succeeded in obtaining the services of men of so much
ability, reputation, and experience as Mr.'AmosandMr. Outh-
waite, to aid them in placing their first exhibition of imple-
ments on a good footing. In associating with those gentlemen
two practical farmers vesidmg witliin the district, the object
has been, not so much to aid them in deciding on the mecha-
nical merits of the different implements, as to ensure the prac-
tical wants of the West of England farmer being fully taken
into consideration.

The committee recommend that the following instructions
be communicated to the judges : —

" That they be requested generally to bear in mind the ob-
ject of this societj- — namely, to benefit the agriculture of the
West of England ; and, therefore, that those animals and im-
plements should be encouraged which are suited to the soil,
climate, and other peculiarities of the district.

" With regard to cattle and sheep and pigs, not to take into
consideration the present value to the butcher of the animals
exhibited, but to decide according to their relative merits for
the purpose of breeding ; therefore, that particular attention
should be given to those points which indicate a tendency to
produce offspring with healthy constitutions, with due regard
to symmetr}-, size, and such other points as afford the best
prospect of profit.

" With regard to horses, to consider especially the qualifica-
tions for farmers' work iu a hilly country, whether as agricul-
tural horses or as hackneys.

" With regard to implements, to bear iu mind that in the
West of England farms are generally of small extent ; to give
especial attention to small implements for the cultivation of
green crops and for the preparation of food for stock, and
generally to give the preference to implements of simple con-
straction, light weight (with due regard to strength), handy
for use in a coimtry iu which stony ground is very common.

" With regard to all classes of stock and implements, to give
no prize in any class iu which the articles exliibited do not
possess sufficient merit to deserve a recommendation."

Your committee report that the management of the exhi-
bition of poultry, &c., has been left in the hands of the local
exhibition committee. Your committee also desire to record
the warmest encomiums for the alacrity, skill, and energy
displayed by Mr. Gillett, the chairman, and the other gentle-
men comprising the local exhibition committee, in their
arduous task in providing for the details of, as your committee
trust, a most efficient display, the result of the endeavours of
the council and the various sub-committees to whom the
affairs of the society have been entrusted.

Your committee cannot conclude without recording a hearty
acknowledgment of the handsome and liberal manner in
which their call has been responded toby the town of Taunton,
whose co-operation and liberality has far surpassed their most
sanguine expectations ; and they hope that the occurrence of
this first summer meeting of the Bath and West of England

Society may long be remembered with gratitude for their
hospitable reception.

Your committee beg to suggest that the office of president
for the ensuing year should be offered to Sir Thos. Dyke
Acland, Bart., M.P., of Killerton, Devon ; and they place
before you the names of the following .t;entlemen, namely,
for the eastern division, II. Blandford, Orchard Portraan ; S.
Pitman, Rumwell, near Taunton ; W. Sturge, Bristol ; John
Gray, King Weston ; W. B. Naish, Stone Easton ; T. Danger,
Hunstile, Goathurst ; T. C. Colthurst, Tliurloxton, Bridge-
water ; for the western division, H. Trethewey, Grampound ;
Capt. Buller, Whimple ; R. II. Clarke, Bridwell, CoUumpton ;
T. A. KnoUys, Buckland Filleigh ; A. Acland, J. F. P. Phil-
lips, Broomborough ; J. Widdicombe, Ugborough ; J. Belfield,
Blagdon, near Paington ; C. A. Saunders, Stoke Hill, Exeter.

PRIZES FOR CATTLE, &e.
Judges:— For Derons, long woolled sheep— Mr. Trethewy, of
Grampound, Cornwall; .'^!r. Partridge, of Bow, Devon ; Mr.
Robert Smith, Emmett's Grange, Somerset. For other cattle
—Mr. Gray, of Kingweston, Somerset; Mr. Leach, of Kil-
mington, Wilts; Mr. Beavis, of Chard.
CLASS 1.— Mr. J. Tucker, of Staplegrove, a 4 years and 4 months

Devon bull, bred by the Rev. C. Boucher. First prize, £12.
Mr. T. Webber, of Halberton Court, a 4 years and 2 months old
pure Devon bull, bred by Mr. J. Duckham, of Hnlberton.
Second prize, £5.
Mr. C. Gibbs, of Bishop's Lydeard, a 4 years and 7 months old
Devon bull, bred by Mr. W. M. Gibbs, of Bishop> Lydeard.
Highly commended.
Mr. S. Farthing, of Stowey Court, a 3 years and 5 months old

Devon bull bred by himself. Commended.
CLASS 2.— Mr. R. Wright of Moor Farm, a 2 years and 4

months Devon bull, bred by himself. First prize, £12.
Mr. J. Quartly, of Charapsen Molland, a 1 year and 5 months

Devon bull, bred by himself. Second prize, £.5.
Mr. C. GibbP, of Bishop's Lydeard, a 1 year and 11 months
Devon bull, bred by the Rev. C. Smith, of Bishop's Lydeard.
Commended.
CLASS 3.— Mr. W. I\I. Gibbs, of Bishop's Lydeard, a 1 year and

5 months Devon bull, bred by Himself. The prize, £3.
Mr. J. Quartly, of Champsen Molland, a 1 year and 6 montlis

Devon bull, bred by himself. Commended.
CLASS 4.— Mr. S. Farthine, of Stowey Court, a 3 years and 2
months Devon in-milk cow, bred by himself. First prize £;0.
Mr. J. K. Farthing, of Nelher Stowey, a 3 years and 5 months

Devon in-milk cow, bred by himself. Second prize, £5.
Mr. T. W. Fouracre, of Durston, a 5 years and 6 months Devon

in-milk cow, bred by himself. Highly commended.
The Rev. C. Smith, of B'Shop's Lydeard, a 5 years and 6

months Devon in-milk cow, bred by himself. Commended.
Mr. J. Hole, of Knowle House, an 8 years and 3 months Devon

cow, bred by himself. Commended.
Mr. J. Tucker, of Staplegrove, a 3 years and 4 months old Devon

in-calf cow, bred by himself. CommeHded.
CLASS 6.— Mr. W. M. Gibbs, of Bishop's Lydeard, a 2 years
and 6 months old in-milk Devon heifer, bred by himself.
First prize, £10.
Mr. W. M. Gibbs, of Bisliop's Lydeard, a 2 years and 7 months

in-milk Devon heifer. Second prize, £5.
CLASS 6.— Mr. J. Hole, of Knowle House, a 1 year and 6 months

Devon yearling heifer, bred by himself. First prize, £5.
Mr. W. Baker, of Bishopsnympton, a 1 year and 8 months Devon

yearling heifer, bred by himself. Higlily commended.
Mr. W. M. Gibbs, of Bishop's Lydeard, u 1 year and 6 months
Devon yearling lieifer, bred by himself. Highly commended.
CLASS 7.— Mr. C. Hardcastle Ablot, of Long Ashton, a 3
years and 1 month short-horned bull, bred by the represen-
tatives of the late Sir J. Smyth, Bart., of Ashton Court. First
prize, £12.
The Hon. P. Bouverie, of Cannington, a four years and 1 month

bull, bred by Mr. Grant, of Stoke. Second prize, £5.
Mr. I. Niblett, of Fellan, a 2 years and 10 months bull, bred
by the Right Honourable Viscount Hill. Commended.

32

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

CLASS 8.— Mr. E. Stratton, of Bishop's Hintoti, a 1 year and 4

months bull, bred by liimself. First prize, £12.
Mr. J. S. Bult, of Kingston, n 2 years and 4 months short-
horned bull, bred by the Rev. I. Vane. Second prize, £b.
CLASS 9.— Mr. R. Stratton, of Bishop's Hinton, a 1 year and 1

month bjll, bred by himself. The prize, £5.
CLASS 10.— Mr. R. Stratton, of Bishop's Hinton, a 4 years and

8 months co.v, bred by himself. First prize, £10.
Mr. R. Stratton, of Bishop's Hinton, a 3 years and 2 months

bull, bred by himself. Second prize, £5.
CLASS U.— Mr. R. Stratton, of Bishop's Hinton, a 2 years and

4 months heifer, bred by himself. First prize, £10.
Mr. R. Stratton, of Bishop's Hinton, a 2 years and 3 months

heifer, in calf, bred by himself. Second prize, £5.
CLASS 12. -Mr. Richard Stratton, of Bishop's Hinton, for two

1 year and 4 months yearling heifers, bred by himself. First

prize, £5.
CLASS 13.— Mr. O. Radmore, of Thorverton, a Leicester shearling

ram, 16 months, bred by himself. First prize, £5.
Mr. J. Bodley, of Stoekley Pomeroy, a long-wooUed ram, 14

months, bred by himself. Second prize, £3.
Mr. G. Radmore, of Thorverton, a Leicester shearling ram, 13

months old, bred by himself. Commended.
Mr. G. Radmore, of Thorverton, a Leicester shearling ram, 16

months, brel by him elf. Commended.
Mr. G. Radmore, of Tliorvcrton, a Leicester shearling ram, 16

months, bred by himself. Commended.
CLASS 14.— Mr. J. Moon, of Lapford, a Leicester ram, 51

months, bred by himself. First prize, £5.
Mr. J. Bodley, of Stoekley Pomeroy, a long-woolled ram, 26

months, bred by himself. Second prize, £3.
Mr. J. Bodley, of Stoskley Pomeroy, a long-woolled ram, 35

months, bred by himself. Commended.
Mr. G. Turner, of Barton, a ram, 42 months, bred by himself.

Commended.
Mr. G. Turner, of Barton, a ram, 42 months, bred by himfelf.

Comniendel.
Mr. G. Turner, of Barton, a ram, 54 months, bred by himself.

Commended.
Mr. S. Partridge, of LandforJ, a Leicester ram, 27 months.

Commended.
CLASS 15. — Mr. G. Limbriek, of Orton, near Chipping Sodburr,

a pen of 6 ewes, bred by himself. First prize, £5.
Second prize not awarded.
CLASS 16. — Mrs. E. Bond, of Chedden Filzpaine, a pen of five

long-woollsd shearling ewes, 16 months old, bred by herself.

First prize, £5.
CLASS 17. — Mr. J. Moore, of I'ewsey, a Southdown yearling

ram, 16 months old, bred by himself. First prize, £5.
Sir J. Kennaway, of Ottery St, Mary, a Southdown yearling ram,

16 months, bred by himself. Second prize, £3.
CLASS 18. — Mr. J. Moore, of Pewsey, a Southdown ram, '.iV

months, bred by himself. First prize, £5.
Mr.Watts, of Freshford, a Southdown ram, 42 months, bred

by Mr. Deer, of Dwinford, Wilts. Second prize, £3.
CLASS 19. — Mr. J. Risdon, of Birkham, a pen of five South-
down ewes, bred by Mr. S. Mills. First prize, £5.
Mr. T. B. Morle, of Bridgwater, a pen of five Southdo.vn ewes,

bred by himself. Second prize,' £3.
Mr. J. Moore, of Pewsey, a pen of five Southdown ewes, bred

by himself. Commended.
CLASS 20. — Sir J. Kennaway, of Ottery Saint Mary, a pen of

six Southdown shearling ewes, 16 months, bred by himself

First prize, £5.
CLASS 21.— Mr. T. Danger, of Huntstile, a yearling ram, 17

mouths, bred by himself. First prize, £5.
Mr. T. Danger, of Huntstile, a yearling ram, 17 months, bred

by himself. Second prize, £3.
CLASS 22. — Mr. G. Coombe, of Creech St. Michael, a Dorset ram,

53 months, bred by himself. First prize, £5.
Mr. W. Kidner, of Milverton, a ram, 54 months, bred by Mr.

W. Biffin. Second prize, £3.
CLASS 23.— Mr. J. Culverwell, of North Petherton, a pen of

five Dorset ewes, bred by himself. First prize, £5.

Mr. G. Coombe, of Crcecli St. Michael, a pen of five Dorset

ewes, 53 months, bred by himself. Second prize, £3.
CLASS 24.— Mr. G. Coombe, of Creech St. Michael, a pen of

five Dorset shearling ewe.s, 17 months, bred by himseU'. First

prize, £5.
Mr. J. Culverwell, of North Petherton, a pen of five Dorset

shearling ewes, bred by himself. Commended.
CLASS 25.— Mr. J. Nurcombe, of Hopcott, a mountain ram, 40

months, bred by Mr. James Quartly, of MoUand. First

prize, £4.
Mr. J. Nurcombe, of Hopcott, a mountain ram, 64 months, bred

by Mr. James Quartly, of Molland. Second prize, £2.
CLASS 26.— Mr J. Quartly, of Molland, a pen of five pure

Exmoor ewes, 52 months, bred by himself. First prize, £4.
Mr. J. Nurcombe, of Hopcott, a pen of five pure Exmoor ewes,

28 months, bred by himself. Second prize, £2.
CLASS 27.- Mr. H. Blandford, of Sandridge, a Berkshire boar,

1 year and U months, bred by himself. First prize, £4.
Mr. H. r.landford, of Orchard Portman, a boar, 2 years and 5

months, bred by himself. Second prize, £2.
CLASS 28.— Mr. H. Blandford, of Sandridge, a Berkshire sow,

10 months, bred by himself. First prize, £4.
Mr. H. Blandford, of Orchard Portman, a breeding sow, 1 year

and 5 months, bred bj himsel''. Second prize, £2.
CLASS 29.— Mr. H. Blandford, of Orchard Portman, a pen of

three breeding sows, 4 months, bred by himself. First prize, £2.
A second prize, same person, £1.
CLASS 30.— Mr. Northey, of Lake Lifton, a boar, 2 years and

6 months, bred by Mr. Rogers. First prize, £4.

Mr. J. Risdon, of Birkham, a Leicester boar, 1 year and 11
months, bred by himself. Second prize, £2.

Mr. G- Turner, of Barton, a boar, 2 years and 6 months, bred
by himself. Commendod.

Mr. J. Moon, of Lapford, a boar 8 months, !.bred by himself.
Commended.

Mr. J. Radmore, of Thorverton, a boar, 9 months, bred by him-
self. Commended.

CLASS 31.— Mr. Nonhey, of Lake Lifton, a breeding sow, 3
years, bred by Mr. W. Rogers. First prize, £4.

Mr. J. Moon, of Lapford, a breeding sow, 1 year, bred by him-
self. Second prize, £2.

Mr. R. Mead King, ofPyrland Hall, a breeding sow, U montlia,
bred by Mr. Thomas Dyke Acland. Commended.

CLASS 32. — .Mr. J. Moon, of Lapford, a pen of three breeding
sows, 7 months, bred by himself. First prize, £2.

Mr. W. Northey, of Lake Lifton, a pen of three breeding sows,

7 months, bred by himself. Second prize, £1.

CLASS 33. — Prize withheld, because not of suflBcient merit.
CLASS 31.— Mr. Edmund Wilcox, of Mear, near Wells, a cart

mare, 6 years and 1 month old, bred by himself. First

prize, £10.
Mr. R. Corner, of Torweston, a mare and foal about 10 years.

Second prize, £5.
CL.4.SS 35.— Mr. C. Champeney, of Theale, a thorough-bred

horse, bred by Mr. William White, of Yeovil. First prize, £10.

The Judges of Classes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 18, 14, 15, 16, 33, 34,
and 35, were Messrs. Henry Nethen, John Partridge, and Robert
Smith.

For Classes 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 34,
25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 82, the Judges were Mr. John Gray,
Mr. Joseph Lush, and Mr. John Peville.

COTTAGE-GARDENING IN CORNWALL.—
Many cottagers in this neighbourhood have their "green-
house." These are generally on a small scale, and of a
simple construction — nay, some of them are even a little
rude in workmanship. Nevertheless, they are green-
houses ; and as such, in many instances, they are con-
sidered a great acquisition, being looked upon as adding
very materially to the pleasures derived from their little
gardens. We may take it for granted, all classes o^

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

33

persons who take much interest in plants suited for
either the greenhouse or flower-garden decoration do
value at a high rate tender productions, especially when
such are reared under their own care and management.
There are many pleasing features belonging to this vrry
interesting department of cottage economy and recrea-
tion— indeed, many more than I can take upon myself
to describe. In attempting to select, it is not so much
what to leave out as where to begin, so that a good ge-
neral view may be comprised, without trenching unduly
upon time and space. Although many might be in-
stanced as worthy of notice, and highly creditable to the
growers, viewing circumstances as they are, I think the
first and one of the most pleasing tendencies relating to
this department of cottage-gardening is the encourage-
ment given to study vegetable nature, its beauties and
development, at least in so far as relates to those plants
immediately under their care. Before entering more
into detail, I may just observe that the majority of these
greenhouses differ at least in one thing from what green-
houses are in other parts of England — in that of being
without any heating apparatus. Towards the south
coast there has not been, for years past, sufficient frost
to injure common greenhouse plants, such as those ge-
nerally grown by cottagers here. This is one advantage,
and a great inducement to build greenhouses, as it is
free from that annual expense and care entailed upon
those who erect houses where they require a good fire,
perhaps for weeks together, to keep out the frost during
the winter. It is interesting to see a few of these green-
houses. Those I allude to generally belong to the in-
dustrious classes — tradespeople — who invariably attend
to them themselves. Their collections for the most part

are composed of soft-wooded plants. We all know
many of these are easily grown, and, with judicious ma-
uagemeut, may be had in flower every month of the
year. Of these are Geraniums, Fuchsias, Petunias,
Verbenas, Chinese Primroses, Cinerarias, Calceolarias,
Balsams, Roses, Camellias, Cacti, Cupheas, and a few
other things. Although equally hardy, few try Heaths and
Epacrises. We have no peat earth here. — G. Dawson.
[It is a point not sufficiently attended to, as we think —
that is, the wide difference between the condition of
plants along the coast, and the same kind of plants more
inland. There are gardens along the west coast of Scot-
land even, where more than two or three degrees of frost
is never known. So also, in Cornwall, the climate is
still milder, and the frosts still more feeble. This, then,
is what we especially refer to. Any person writing and
discussing the treatment and culture of tender plants, in
relation to such a climate, as compared with that which
prevails in most of the midland counties, where few
winters pass with less than fifteen or more degrees of
frost — and this may be attended with a variety of adverse
and aggregated circumstances, besides bemg prolonged
for weeks or months— it can be no guide to the ordinary
operations of a midland gardener to know that certain
plants live through the winter without protection in such
situations, or that, with little care and less forethought,
early Peas, wall-fruit. Cauliflowers, and other crops
come to maturity and attain perfection with much less
risk and care than is required at a distance from the sea-
coast ; and no fair comparison can be made without a
correct knowledge of these circumstances ; hence the
necessity of stating these particulars, as in the instance
before us.]

THE TURNIP FLY.

If the prevalence of insects on the beans and peas,
on the gooseberries and peaches, is to be taken as
any criterion of the mode in which other crops are
likely to be dealt with, we may expect this to be an
" insect year." We mentioned, when speaking of
the bean weevil a few weeks ago, that the preva-
lence of east winds had long been considered
favourable to insect development, and this is also
the case with the bulk of dry seasons. The year
1852 has, so far, been extremely dry; the preva-
lence of really wet days has hardly been known,
while even showers have been at a distance between
each other, unusual in this climate. We have good
reason to remember the awful struggles which the
farmer had to undergo in the dry seasons of
1826-7-S, and the tremendous heat and want of
moisture seemed to be aggravated by the myriads
of insects which appeared to delight in sucking up
the juices of the poor enfeebled plants. The en*

tire crop of turnips was taken off, and the same
with the second, and even the third sowing,
especially in the year 1827. Turnip seed rose in
price to a very great extent. All the old seed of
two or three years old went up, and it was only
when the new seed was grown and sown — so late
in the season, indeed, that the insects became
feeble, and possibly less numerous — that a few poor,
feeble turnips were obtained. Now, though the
dryness of the present year may be hoped to have
partially passed off by the advent of the recent
genial rains, there is every reason to expect a some-
what vigorous attack from the "turnip fly,*" as it
is generally called, but more properly the " turnip-
jlea beetle."

On the swedes, in the latter end of May we
generally begin to observe its first ravages. In the

* The Haltioa Femorun',

34

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

first week in June it seems particularly energetic
and active. About the last week in June it seems
somewhat more sluggish ; while in the first and
second weeks in July it becomes decidedly feeble,
and after that period can scarcely be said to do any
injury.

The attack of a field, be it one or a score of
acres, seems to be made simultaneously by
thousands ; and every plant has, in a bad year, its
two, three, or four beetles. The plant may come
up well and regular, the seed-leaves begin to ex-
pand, and the plumula begins just to form, when a
sluggishness seems to seize the plant, and the next
morning perhaps there are endless thousands of
fleas devouring the leaves. They eat up the whole
substance of the fibres and mass of leaves, leaving
neither vestige of the one nor the other.

Where can they come from ?

Endless have been the theories of their develop-
ment ; and if ever an insect seemed to favour the
vision of equivocal generation, surely it is the
turnip flea. One writer insisted that the eggs must
be deposited on the seed, and hence advised oleagi-
nous and saline steeps ; and a very old remedy —
attempt at prevention we should say — was practised
in 1827-8 by the admixture of flour of sulphur
with the seed. It did not succeed. Some thought it
did a little good where the insects had a choice, and
that they would select undoclored plants in pre-
ference to those whose seed had been treated with
the nostrum.

A Mr. Sutton imagined them to be bred in the
soil, and their development aided by the frequent
turning up of the soil. Hence he advised the land
to be perfectly still for three weeks, or, if possible,
a month before sowing. That this would have a
favourable influence on the plant there can be no
doubt. It would secure it a plentiful supply of
moisture in a dry time, and so be highly conducive
to its rapid development.

But the real natural history of the insect has been
brought to light by Henry Le Keux, Esq. The
insects begin to pair in the month of April, and
continue to do so till September. The female de-
posits her eggs in the under-side of the turnip
plants, as soon as they appear above ground. In
a few days these hatch, and form maggots, which
burrow in the interior of the cotyledon-leaves,
feeding on the pulp. These are invisible, and ac-
count for the slow growth of plants before the
perfect beetle begins to appear in any numbers.
They continue in this state about sixteen days, and
then drop into the earth and foi-m chrysalides, and
continue so fourteen days longer. Thus the char-

lock forms a nursery for the insects which attack
the swedes, and the swedes for those which prey
upon the white and yellow turnips.

Mr. Le Keux kept the beetles from July to
February, so that they are not so short-lived as
many insects; and hence they are always more
ready to attack, but they only produce but few
larvae. As little as one egg per day was deposited
by those Mr. Le Keux had, at least in confine-
ment. They are most active in dry, hot days.
With a sunny day, and the thermometer at 70 deg.
in the shade, they will leap upwards of 200 times
their own length — a leap which, if accomplished by
a man, would be some 400 yards ! We shall not
attempt to describe this " skipjack" — he is, un-
happily, by far too familiar to every farmer — but
rather to endeavour at describing those plans which
have been found most successful in practice in pre-
venting or modifying the severity of their ra\'ages.

The first obvious process is by all means to
hasten the early development of the plant. A very
old, and often successful, plan is to sow large
quantities of seed. This is favourable for two rea-
sons. Like numerous trees in a forest, in their
early growth they draw each other up, and so get
more rapidly out of the way of the fly ; but what is
more, there are but a definite number of parents,
which can only deposit a limited number of eggs,
so that the chances are the food will be in excess
of the insects.

This, however, is only a jjalliative process. Ar-
tificial and highly-soluble manures, which push on
the plant rapidly, are very favourable. We never
yet saw an instance, where the land was fine and
moist — conditions always necessary to turnip-
development — and when dissolved bones have been
judiciously used, that the insect was able to de-
stroy the crop. They may attack, they may be
numerous ; but the plants will, as far as our ex-
perience and observation go, always beat them.

The cleaner the land is kept of charlock, the
fewer will be the chances of the insects' propaga-
tion early in the month, and the greater the chances
of the escape of the swedes.

We never, moreover, knew an instance where
swedes sown as early as the 13lh of May were ever
destroyed. This is another important fact, and, in
swede cultivation, must be borne in mind, as well
as the circumstance that so great is the vital power
of the swede, that, if the whole of the cotyledons
are eaten, the stump, the plumula, will often strike
out new leaves.

When the " rough leaf" sets in, the crop is out
of danger.

I

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

35

But if the crop is threatened by an actual visita-
tion, let no time be lost in dusting the whole with

quick-hme. It may not quite prevent the insects' | Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal.

eating the plants ; but they will nibble so slightly
as to (jive time, and the crop may be saved. —

WINCHESTER FARMERS' CLUB.

The monthly meeting of the club was held on
Saturday, the 1 0th April. Mr. E. Bennett and Mr.
W. Pain, laie of "VVoodmancot, proposed at the last
meeting, were duly elected members of the club.
Mr. Hinton Bailey proposed Mr. Thomas Godwin,
of SJackstead, near Winchester, to be a member.
The motion was seconded by Mr. James Reeves.

Mr. W. Stratton said he had been requested
by some agriculturists to intimate their desire to
form a branch association in connection with the
Winchester Farmers' Club. After a short discus-
sion, Mr. W. Pain, the secretary, expressed his
readiness, if it was the wish of the members, to go
to Basingstoke for the purpose of atFording any in-
formation which might be required for carrying
the object into effect. Mr. Stratton agreed to
commucicate this to those desirous of forming the
society.

The Secretary announced that the subject for
discussion at the next monthly meeting of the club
would be, "The present position of the British
farmer, and his duty at the coming election," by
Mr. T. Pain.

The Chairman then said that the subject for dis-
cussion on that evening was one which he was con-
fident all would be pleased to be informed on ; and
for his own part he should be doubly pleased if
Mr. Stratton should be enabled to prove that hill
country was advantageous to a farmer, or that
farming on any land was so at present. He would,
therefore, not detain them now by offering any ob-
servations, but call upon Mr. Stratton to enter
upon the subject for discussion : — " Hill or Light
Land Farming — its Advantages and Disadvantages
on Heavy Land."

Mr. W. Stratton said, that in bringing this
question forward, it was quite out of place to suppose
that he could supply any information to those he
was now addressing. It would be his aim to show
what had been the results of his own practice, and
that of other persons u^hose experience could be
relied on. He would endeavour to show, as far as
he was enabled, the most advantageous mode of
cultivation, to save them from loss of money, but
not to shew them any profit. It would be impossi-
ble for him to advance anything new on the subject
of hill farming, after what they had heard on a
former occasion fi"om the worthy chairman, or to
go into stock farming, which had been so ably

brought forward by Mr. William Pain, or to describe
the means of culture, after Mr. Nesbit's intelligent
lecture on the use and adulteration of manures.
The hill land of this county and of the adjoining
one were so nearly allied, that they were almost
identical with each other. Many farms in this
county varied, some consisting of light land, and
others of strong land. The strong land, as they
were aware, required deeper ploughing and more
cultivation than the former. The general mode of
cultivating the land was the four-field system in all
cases ; but in this they would be guided by their
own judgment, according to the quality of the
land, which might be strong or sour. The four-
field system they all knew consisted of wheat, tur-
nips, barley, and grass ; but it would be folly in a
man to follow that system in all cases. If, for in-
stance, he had fed off strong land swedes late and
in wet weather, it would be impossible for him to
bring it into barley with any sort of profit, as the
land would be in an unkind state, and would not
work. Chalking on heavy and sour land must be
beneficial and a permanent improvement, by im-
parting to it a friable nature, and rendering it easier
to cultivate and better for stock. The expense of
chalking varied from thirty to thirty-five shillings
per acre, of eighteen bushels to a pole, of which the
landlord ought to bear his part, or give to his tenant
that security which he was entitled to, and not ex-
pect him to ask for alms when benefiting his land.
With respect to light land, it ought to be made
more adhesive, by means of salt or artificial ma-
nures, and by pressing to get it firm. He knew a
gentleman who lived near Salisbury, who had a
great proportion of water meadow and some portion
of pasture land, who formerly pursued the four-field
system, but the last few years has sown it in a five-
field system ; and the returns were about a quarter
of wheat and one quarter and a half more of barley
per acre. One circumstance which he would men-
tion was, that land which lay at a distance on the
hills might be successfully treated by the croj)
being threshed out, and leaving the straw spread
on the ley ground in the autumn. In proof that
the five-field system was pretty nearly right, if they
looked about this neighbourhood they would find
that the best and most successful farmers sowed
about one-third or two-fifths of their land with
corn. They saved a great amount in the expense

D 2

36

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of seed and tillage, and were remunerated by the
quantity of sheep which they kept extra ; and there-
fore to them turnips were a very essential crop.
His experience had told him that on light land once
ploughing in the autumn, and scarified in the
spring, was better than stirring, as it kept in the
moisture, and there was more certainty that it
would stand free from fly, and produce a greater
crop. Mangold wurzel was beneficial to a stock
farmer, as it was useful in the spring and summer
part of the year, it being a cooling sort of a root ;
but to cultivate it to a large extent in Hampshire
he believed would be wrong. A friend of his, who
lived in Pewsey Vale, used to grow a hundred acres
of it, but he had now very much decreased the
quantity. With regard to sainfoin, which was be-
lieved to be a most essential and valuable root to a
farmer, it must be cultivated according to the ex-
tent of land occupied, and the quaUty of the soil —
two- fifths on a poor land farm, and even up to a
third was advisable ; but if they had a greater pro-
portion of water meadow, pasture, or down, and
the soil better, then they would not require so
large a proportion. It was a hardy j^lant certainly,
for no frost had been known to attack sainfoin hay
or its roots ; therefore it was the first great leading
article which they ought to cultivate in this county,
because it provides food for the sheep, and pro-
duces manure at the least possible expense. The
quantity of seed used on an acre was about five
bushels; many sowed six, others only four; but
four bushels per acre drilled were equal to five
sown, because the seed was deposited at a more
equal depth. In breaking up, some advocated one
plan, and some another. That which he conceived
to be the best mode was that if it be strong hill
country land, flinty and brashy, it should be
ploughed and pressed, and well harrowed and clod
crushed, to prevent the vvireworm. If on light
down land, he should prefer stifle-burning, which
was an experiment rather new in this part of the
country, though it was one which had been adopted
for several years. He stifle-burnt a piece of land
two years ago under most favourable circumstances.
Last year it was in oats, and produced a fair crop
— three or four quarters to the acre more than on
land prepared in the usual way. His mode was to
rafter and cut it in the usual way, and let it remain
until it began to dry, then either scarify it with
some of the drag tines taken out, or a nine-share
with every other tine out, as keeping all the tines
in made it too fine and dusty, besides driving it up
together. When dry all through, rake it in heaps
about the usual size, putting a twist of straw in the
middle of the heaps from the bottom, pointing up-
wards, to come out at the windward side. When
the straw is well lighted, the hole where it came

should be stopped; and when the smoke steams
all out round the bottom part, it should then be
covered all over with the dry mould to stifle in the
smoke; the heaps should be looked after to see that
they do not go out, and will burn out in two or
three days. By this process we got a better quality
of ashes, and improved the land. From time to
time the leases have been drawn up, covenanting
that the four-field should be the system of cultiva-
tion pursued. But on a farm of any extent the
land frequently varies so much that it is ridiculous
that any particular system should be laid down, by
so doing the skill and capital of the occupier is
locked up to the detriment of all parties. With re-
gard to the advantages of farming, he believed them
to be very few. The improvements in machinery
and artificial manures are beneficial ; but when they
came to view the disadvantage in which a farmer
was placed with his capital invested in the soil, oc-
cupying land without security, and under a lease
which prohibits him from exercising his talent — he
was in a condition little better than a state of abject
slavery. They had heard much about high farm-
ing, and Adam Smith's remark that he who made
two blades of grass to grow where only one grew
before, deserved well of his country, had been often
quoted in support of it ; but to this he would reply,
that he who grew a blade of grass which cost him
five-and-twenty shillings, and for which he could
only get twenty shillings, was a fool. The farmer
had to contend with that abominable law, called
the Game Law ; and had the blessed benefit of
keeping the poacher in gaol, and his wife and family
during the time. He had also to bear the weight
of the county rates, which were heavily increased in
consequence of the expense incurred in building
police houses, &c., which ought to be borne by the
landowners, and not by the occupiers of the soil.
Mr. Stratton then noticed the altered position in
which the farmers stood, remarking that many
hundreds had invested their capital in the soil under
the faith of the laws of this country; but they had
been deceived by the very persons on whom they
depended, who had turned their backs on them.
Had they English blood in their veins would they
again submit to such an imposition ? Would they
suffer a second wreck to be torn from them by those
they had sent to Parhament, and who ought to have
acted justly and honourably towards them ? If he
knew the character of Enghshmen, if not bound
down by the trammels of tyranny and injustice,
they would take care, when the opportunity ofFered,
to obtain for this great nation a just representation
in Parliament. He hoped the time was shortly
coming when they would do their best to return
such men, not only for Hampshire, but throughout
the kingdom, as would advocate their interests

I

THE FARiMER'S MAGAZINE.

37

The farmers had had protection withdrawn from
them. If a five shilling duty would only give us
two shillings increased price, it is of little conse-
quence whether we have it or not. But those we
send to parliament should endeavour to relieve us
in other ways, instead of seeking for place, pension,
and power.

Mr. W. Si'EARiNG said he was much pleased
with the manner in which Mr. Strattonhad brought
the subject forward, and agreed with him as to the
most beneficial mode of cultivating light lands.
He had found the best mode to be, in breaking up
old sainfoin, to plough and press the land, and, if
for a wheat crop, to dung it in the winter, and sow
the wheat in the month of September. He per-
fectly agreed that no particular system of cultiva-
tion ought to be dictated by a landlord to a tenant.
He advocated the four-course system of barley,
grass, wheat, and turnips. With regard to stirring
for turnips, he agreed with Mr. Stratton as to his
plan. He had been at Marsh field, in Gloucester-
shire, and had seen the operation of stifle-burning,
and was nearly stifled by the smoke. He had
never taken any interest in it, and had not tried it,
because he did not think it would be of any advan-
tage to our light lands, although he admitted that
in Gloucestershire it might be beneficial. In allu-
sion to Mr. Stratton's remark on persons who paid
25s. and only got 20s., he would say he was one of
those fools. He fully concurred with Mr. Stratton
that their means of defence were taken away, and
that they ought not to be afraid of their landlords,
but express their opinions freely, and choose such
men as would fairly represent them in Parliament.
If the tenant farmer was to be bound down, he had
better be a slave than placed in such a degrading
position,

Mr, CuNDELL observed that as stifle burning
was comparatively a new system in Hampshire, he
could not speak on the subject from any ex-
perience of his own; but he could speak of the
lower part of Berkshire, the Vale of White Horse,
where a friend of his took a farm of 700 acres of
land, on which four farmers had successively failed.
He set about stifle-burning : the consequence was
that he had an increased crop of corn and turnips,
which he attributed to stifle-burning. He men-
tioned this circumstance to show that it was bene-
ficial to light lands. Mr. Stratton had spoken of
the four-field system. On this he would observe
that farmers were placed in a very different position
than they were some years ago. They were now
on a broader and more commercial situation, and
ought to take their farms as tradesmen took their
shops, and not be confined to any particular system.
Instead of being limited to sowing two wheat crops,
thev should buy the soil, and use it as any other

commercial men do, in what manner they conceived
to be most advantageous to them. He condemned
the restrictive covenants in leases, and fully con-
curred in the observations which Mr. Stratton had
made.

Mr. Garrett was pleased with some of the re-
marks which Mr. Stratton had made, and there
were some which perhaps he would explain. With
respect to land in Wiltshire, it differed from that
in this county, and comparing the quantity of pro-
duce brought to market, there must also be some
difference. With regard to stifle-burning, in allu-
sion to the remark made by Mr. Spearing, he would
say that there was no smoke at all, except when the
heaps were first lighted, because the object was to
confine the smoke as much as possible, on account
of the great benefit derived from it. He knew se-
veral farmers in Wiltshire who had adopted the
system for several j^ears, and still followed it up,
which was a proof that they found it to be advan-
tageous.

Mr. Walton said he was sure that the members
had great reason to thank Mr. Stratton for the able
discussion which they had just heard. He held in
his hand a card from the Bridge-street Hotel, where
the London Farmers' Club was held, announcing a
discussion on a similar subject, to be introduced on
Monday; he was therefore pleased to see that
Hampshire men were anxious that their club should
take the lead in all subjects of advantage, not only
to the agricultural classes, but to the world in ge-
neral. A good deal had been said about culti-
vating the soil on the four and five-course system,
and on the growth of sainfoin. He had always un-
derstood that burning the soil was very injurious.
If they burnt the rug and litter, that might be ad-
vantageous and beneficial. He had derived great
benefit from the use ofCrosskill's clodcrusher, which
destroyed the eggs oi the wireworm, grubs, and
everything injurious to the growth of corn, and got
rid of the rug. He found that in stifle-burning
they did not do so, but burnt a great deal of the
land. By keeping the smoke in the large heaps
they retained the most valuable part ; for, in his
opinion, it became soot, which operated very ad-
vantageously on the land. In Essex, on the other
side of Saflfron Walden, where there was strong
clay land, the system was found to be most advan-
tageous. On a piece of ley ground on Pitt Down
he had burnt part of the field, and the remaining
part was ploughed and pressed. He sowed the
whole with wheat, and where he ploughed and
pressed he grew four quarters per acre, and only
three quarters where he burnt. He thought that
they had not arrived at perfection in the cultivation
of any sort of soil. In a county well known to
him, he meant the Yorkshire Wolds, where they

38

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

were not more than four inches from the chalk, they
farmed expressly in no other way than on the four-
course system. The farmers there got money, and
brought up their children, but they never sowed
sainfoin, rye, or vetches. He last year sowed 111
acres of winter oats and vetches for sheep, which
he found co be expensive, and it also put him back
in the wheat season. This was a great preventive
of the growth of turnips, which he believed was a
principal reason why the farmers in the Yorkshire
Wolds did not sow them; in addition to which
sainfoin, vetches, and other things, encouraged the
grub, wireworm, and slug, which were great enemies
to the turnip crops. In Yorkshire, the farmers
breed all they fat, and fat all they breed. These
men sowed half their land with corn every year ;
they had been boning for the past 60 years, and
they found that one pound an acre expended on
artificial manures would do more than all the four-
course system. Last year he had 95 acres of back-
ward turnips, and was obliged to buy hay, which
cost him from £3 3s. to £4 10s. a ton, and it might
have cost him £400. He found, if he sowed after
turnips, he could grow wheat a great deal better.
In his opinion the four-course system, with a suffi-
cient number of sheep and a clod-crusher, was the
grand secret in getting turnips on light land, which
ought to be kept together as close as possible, kept
clean from rug, and not exhausted. The best plan
was to work the land well, and clod-crush it ; they
might then be able to grow wheat. Having recom-
mended the use of salt, Mr. Walton contended that
the farmers had not been deceived by the govern-
ment, but by their landlords. They had been de-
ceived by those who professed to have formed the
present government; they had been deceived
under false pretences. It gave him great
delight to see that his brother farmers had left off
their leading strings, and were looking forward to
their own interest, and would no longer be abused
by stewards or any underhngs, and that they were
influenced by far more honourable motives than
the aristocracy or the government, and sought to
obtain no advantage over any other interest in the
country.

Mr. W. Pain said he had endeavoured to follow
Mr. Stratton through the leading portions of his
motion, and had made some notes on the subject.
He had stated that strong land was heavier to cul-
tivate than light, and he certainly felt that this had
been his own case. He h".d been farming strongland
for fourteen years, and f nnd that he was obliged
to double the number of his horses at the work
which he would do were they employed on light
land, and the number of men were increased in
consequence. The system of cultivation which he
pursued was the four-course system, and he gene-

rally left thirty or forty acres of land that had been
fed off with swedes to come in with some green
crop to feed with sheep, such as summer vetches,
rape, or forward turnips, and afterwards sowed the
land with wheat in the autumn, instead of en-
deavouring to get a crop of barley or oats that year,
by which he was enabled to keep more sheep, and
generally grew a good crop of wheat. With regard
to beans, perhaps he had sown them three or four
times in the spring, but must say it never answered
his purpose. He had never sown winter beans,
although he had seen it done with wonderful success
by some of his neighbours. He found chalking
the best thing he could do on the strong land.
Where he had chalked a piece of land twelve years
ago, he could plainly distinguish it at a distance.
He had never sown a ci'op in that field which had
not been evidence of its good effects by the abund-
ant crops compared with the remaining part of the
field. With regard to light land, in this county
especially, instead of the four-course the five-course
system had been pursued by some, and they had a
two years' ley ; but they were now backing out of
it ; for it had been proved that one year's ley was
better than two years, as with the great variety of
artificial manure very light land will grow wheat
once in four years. With regard to mangoid-
wurzel, he had sown it, and had fed pigs on it
entirely through the months of July and August,
till they got on to the stubble after harvest, and
never had pigs done better; he had also used it with
great success with sheep and lambs. With respect
to the cultivation of light land, he thought it a good
system to keep one-fifth part of the farm in sain-
foin, and to adopt the four-course or alternate
system of cropping as far as possible, and leaving
a portion of the land fed oflF with swedes to come
in for a green crop, to be followed by wheat, ^s by
so doing it obviated the necessity of getting in the
seeds with the sheep in the spring before they
had time to grow. In the breaking up of old sain-
foin he would recommend ploughing and pressing.
He generally had 20 or 30 acres to break up
every year, which he ploughed and pressed, and
gave it as much work as it was possible to do. It
should, if possible, be sown in dry weather, because
they could get the land more firm than they could
in a wet season, as they could use Crosskill's clod-
crusher. As to burning, he thought it might
answer on light land ; but he had tried it on strong
land, and it had certainly been very injurious to
him. Two piecps which he had burnt had never
borne such good crops since that had been done,
as the remaining part of the field. As for any par-
ticular system to be laid down for the cultivation of
the soil, in his opinion it was quite out of the ques-
tion, because, situated as they were, with such

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

39

a variable climate, it could not always be
acted on. Mr. Stratton had headed his subject on
hill farming, but he thought the discussion had
taken a more general range, and this he believed
was that gentleman's idea in bringing the subject
forward, for the purpose of discussing the advan-
tages and disadvantages of light land farming. On
hills they generally found the strong land, and on
the sides and in the vales the light land. Mr. Wal-
ton had mentioned that in Essex they objected to
burning, and he certainly had heard it very much
spoken against by an Essex man ; but when they
spoke of stifle-burning, and he heard the names of
many practical men who had tried it with success,
and from the remarks made in that room, he thought
there must be some advantage in it. Mr. Walton
had noticed the system pursued in Yorkshire, and
he (Mr. P.) had seen a great deal of it in that county;
and so much did he approve of it, that if ever he
should farm on light land he would try it on a
small scale, to ascertain whether it wovild answer.
He was quite sure it was impossible in this part of
the country to keep sheep entirely without hay, and
he thought the climate in this county had a great
deal to do with it. In the Yorkshire Wolds the
atmosphere was much drier than in this county ;
during a dry season he had kept his sheep a consi-
derable time without hay. He had 700 couples
which went on a piece of turnips of about 13 acres,
on which he put about a waggon-load of hay, all
of which was not consumed, several trusses havmg
been brought back again. But since the weather
had changed within the last ten days, and the wind
had got more to the southward, the air had become
moister, and he had lost four sheep and twenty-one
lambs from the scour. Whether it was the want
of hay deranged the stomach of the sheep he could
not tell. In conclusion, he sincerely trusted that
whatever subjects were brought forward at the
club would be always as honourably and fairly dis-
cussed as they had hitherto been, and he hoped
this would continue to be the case, whether the
subjects introduced were of a political or an agri-
cultural nature.

Mr. J. Reeves fully concurred with Mr. Stratton
in what he had said respecting the four-course and
five-course system. His plan was to divide his farm
into two parts, and to sow a large proportion of
wheat, nearly one-fifth. He found that under this
system he could grow as many sacks of wheat as
he could of barley. He thought that in the case
of breaking sainfoin up, the best way was to plough
and press it. If stifle-burning was so beneficial, it
was a question whether they should not burn the
turf about the hedges.

The Chairman said, if they took the subject as
it had been placed before them— hill country farm-

ing and light land farming — he thought that, taking
a general view of it, hght land must be less expen-
sive to cultivate, and enabled the occupier to keep
a larger number of sheep, and in harvesting the
crops the casualty was not so great. This he took
to be the advantage of hill farming. Then, on the
other hand, if they looked to the disadvantages, it
would be found that some who overstocked their
land with corn got less produce. Taking both to-
gether, the question would be whether there was
not an advantage in farming light land. He quite
agreed that no particular system of culture could
be laid down for a farmer to follow, yet he believed
it to be right that he should have some system in
view. He had heard that there were many farmers
in tliat county who long had a system which they
still continued to pursue ; and, if they did not con-
sider it to be profitable, they would not do so.
Sainfoin was a crop which they could depend on
when they had no grass. He knew a case where a
farm, consisting of 600 acres of light land, had
been taken on a lease, in which it was stipulated
that one-sixth should be sown with sainfoin, that
was 100 acres ; 100 acres of wheat, 100 of turnips ;
half came in with barley and clover and grass the
next year, so that there was a complete rotation
once in eight years. Now whether that system
was better than the four-field one, to bring in the
barley after turnips, was the question. This system,
as he had before stated, had been practised by
many old agriculturists, who continued it, and he
beheved it to be profitable ; therefore he thought
no man ought to be confined to any particular
system of cultivation, because he could not always
get the land to work. In the four-field system, the
regular rotation was wheat, turnips, barley, and
grass. The old field system, he beheved, had be-
come quite obsolete on light lands. He was quite
sui'prised to hear the great expense which Mr.
Walton had incurred in the purchase of hay. He
had no doubt that farmers in all cases must be
guided by the seasons and by circumstances. On
light lands they could never err in providing amply
for live stock, for it was impossible to grow an
average crop of corn unless they kept a sufficient
number of live stock. He quite agreed in opinion
as to the utility of sainfoin, and the necessity of
taking advantage of the dry season to break it up.
There was not a more useful implement on a light
farm than Crosskill's clod-crusher, for nothing was
so well calculated to consolidate the ground, and it
might be used to advantage on sainfoin ley at the
spring of the year. They often complained of the
wire- worm on the land when there was no worm at
all. If the land was properly consolidated, there
would be no loss of plant. He believed it to be
essential that they should keep an ample stock, and

40

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sow a quantity of green food, and take care well to
consolidate the land. Whether a four, five, or six-
field system be adopted must be left to the better
judgment of the occupier, who ought to be at
liberty to sow as he pleased, and by his skill and en-
ergy beenabledtoturnittothebest advantage. With
regard to the utility of stifle-burning, Mr. Nesbit
said it would prevent the ammonia from flying out.
He (Mr. P.) supposed that the system they adopted
in this county in burning grass or couch was some-
thing similar to stifle-burning. He believed the
reason why they found it to be so advantageous in
Gloucestershire was because there was a tile-stone
in the soil, which became a sort of lime when burnt.
Now the question was, whether in this county a
similar benefit would be derived. His impression
was, that where it was practised in Hampshire it
made the land sour, and not so kind for artificial
grasses after. It was best to decompose all vege-
table matter, and bury it, and exclude it from the
action of the air. He believed Mr. Stratton's in-
tention was to confine his subject to hght land,
although, as Mr. Pain had observed, there was a
good deal of strong land which would require very
different treatment. He quite agreed that farmers
must keep in view, and pursue the system which
was most advantageous to them, by which they
could grow large crops at the least cost. He was
very much pleased with the observations he had
heard during the discussion, which convinced him
that it is in the power of every farmer to benefit his
brethren, if he would take pains to impart the re-
sult of his experience to them. He trusted that the
discussions brought forward at the club had been
conducted in a fair and open manner, whether re-
lating to practical agriculture or to political affairs
connected with its interests.

Mr. Stratton, in reply, said, that in bringing
the subject forward, he was aware that strong land
was situated on the tops of hills, and light land on the
sides ; therefore that was the reason why he drew
the distinction between the four and five-field
system. He believed the four-field system to be
very good ; but it could not be practised on all
farms. It would be better to abandon the old sys-
tem of burning in this county, and adopt the mode
of lighting the heaps pursued in Gloucestershire.
When he spoke of stifle-burning, he meant to con-
vey that it was adapted to light, and not to strong

land. He noticed that Mr. Stephen Mills, who
occupied 4,000 acres or more on Salisbury Plain,
had 100, which he was breaking up ; and Mr.
Harding, of Orcheston, in the same parish, had a
piece of plate given to him for introducing stifle-
burning in that neighbourhood. Having noticed
the expense of feeding on oil-cake, Mr. Stratton
said he was pleased that Mr. Pain had fallen into
his views. Thanking them for the kind attention
with which they had listened to his observations,
he would conclude by proposing the following reso-
lution : —

" That the chief advantage arising from the cul-
tivation of ahill or light land farm as compared with
a heavy land farm is the reduced expense of cul-
tivation, and the large number of sheep that can
be kept on the former at all seasons of the year ;
whereas on a heavy land farm sheep can only be
kept in particular seasons; and that the keeping
of sheep is the grand foundation of good, if not
profitable farmmg, with the present low prices of
corn."

The motion was seconded by Mr. W. Pain, who
previously read the resolution.

The Chairman then read the resolution, pro
forma, which was put and carried unanimously.

Mr, CuNDELL observed that they would be very
remiss if they left the room without tendering their
thanks to Mr. Stratton for the very able manner in
which he had brought the subject forward. He
himself had come there in the hope of learning
something, and had been amply repaid, and many,
no doubt, would leave the room with a conscious-
ness that two hours had been past that evening
which had not been mis-spent. He hoped that
the club would go on prosperously, increase the
number of its members, and prove beneficial to all
classes.

Mr. James Reeves seconded the motion, which
was put and unanimously agreed to.

Mr. Stratton returned thanks for the compli-
ment, and said, if his humble efforts had been the
means of producing useful discussion, he was
amply repaid.

Mr. Walton proposed a vote of thanks to the
chairman, which was seconded by Mr. Garrett,
and agreed to unanimously.

The Chairman made an appropriate acknow-
ledgment, and the members then separated.

INFLUENCE OF THE LATE SPRING ON THE WOOL CROP.

The peculiarities of the spring are showing them- been more affected by the season than would at first
selves in a variety of ways. They seem to have { sight appear. Many flock-masters have had much
affected more plants than one. The wool, con- | fault found with them by the wool-staplers that
sidered by some amongst that class of beings, has I their sheep had been badly washed. But the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

41

ordinary care had been taken — the fleece appeared
on the sheep's back as white as everj still the
unmistakeable shears showed it to be a bad colour.
A little closer inspection proved that something
new had occurred in the fleece. The outer wool
was perfectly clean and white as usual, the wool
next the skin was also the same; but the
intermediate part was dark coloured, and had on
it a sort of dirt on which the water seemed to pro-
duce no impression.

This is unusual. It is not very easily accounted
for. Some account for it by assuming that the
very dry state of the atmosphere in the months of
February and March, accompanied by the east and
north-east winds, had driven the March dust into
the fleece, to which it had adhered, and that the
water had now difficulty in ridding the wool of its
contamination. That the injury seems to have
been inflicted in that month there can be no doubt ;
but it seems no more probable that a sand or dust
acquired in that month should not give way to
washing any more than at any other period, unless
it were pecuhar.

The outside — the early grown, the wool most
exposed to the action of the weather and dust — is
easily cleaned; the wool adjoining the skin — the
last grown — is also easily washed white; the fault
is with that which may be supposed to have grown
in February and March, for it has the whole of it
had applied to it the self- same water. Nor is the
faiUng in the back or sides, or any particular part
of the fleece — it seems entirely the same over the
whole animal. Nay, more ; the interior of the
wool may have had the same rubbing and care —
must have had, indeed ; and yet the one is clean
and the rest is dirty.

We think it probable that the cause is deeper.
The wool of the sheep, if healthy, will furnish a
soap to wash itself. In good health, it will, if sup-
plied with a sufficient running stream of clean
water, and moderately rubbed, always wash white.
And this year it has done the same, as regards the
exterior and the interior wool, but the intermediate
part of the fleece is still dirty. The yolk of the
wool is that fuller covering of the skin which con-
stantly exudes that most delicate and luxurious
hair oil to the fleece of the animal. Vauquelin
found it to have a saponaceous consistence, con-
taining potash and soda, combined with carbonic
and acetic acid. Now a single unhealthy check
depraves or diminishes this secretion. It is in-
sufficient or imperfect, and hence does not supply
the soap to the water to wash out the dust it
accumulated at the period of its growth. In all

such cases we may expect the wool to be dirty and
discoloured. The past spring has been dry
indeed, but cold. The prevailing winds have been
east and north-east, and these have been cold and
piercing. No one who has carefully observed the
sheep in health can have failed to observe the care-
ful selection of a shelter in a north wind which all
flocks of sheep strongly manifest. They are im-
patient of cold wind, and especially from that
quarter, and this because it is unhealthy. Too
many sheep fed on turnips have no shelter what-
ever. Theyai'e fenced oft' by hurdles or nets, both
before and behind ; and to see their collecting
together for mutual defence from a determined
north-wester is really pitiable.

Now we believe it is a fact that the sheep who
have suff'ered most from this influence are precisely
those fed on the exposed and hedgeless wolds of
Lincolnshire and of Yorkshire; for there are in-
numerable instances where the upland sheep have
had the disaster in their fleeces to which we have
alluded — those fed on the low lands have escaped.
And more instances have occurred, where a party
has, early in spring, purchased wold sheep, and
turned them into his own flock ; and his own have
washed perfectly clean, while the others have been
dark and dirty.

Now there is no very obvious cure at the present
period. Where practicable, a second washing will
be highly desirable : a second turn may wash out
the dirt softened, it may be supposed, by the
previous ablution. But as the absence of the soapy
matter at the period when the dirt was deposited
was the primary cause of the evil, we do not see
how, in its absence, anything can replace it.

But cannot the yolk be artificially supplied ?
When a large running river is the medium of the
wash, it will be impossible ; but a small stream is
often dammed up into a pond, in which they ars
washed with but little overflow. In this case, a
little soda, which is very cheap, will be of great
value. A few stones of the common soda of com-
merce, dissolved in hot water, and poured into the
pond or dam, will have a wonderful effect in
supplying the deficiency of the yolk in the wool ;
and this is a course too obvious to be omitted by
any flockmaster who has any regard for the
superiority of his clip.

The probable deficiency of wool, from the
Australian gold diggings absorbing the shepherd
population and clippers, should be a spur to the
British farmer to supply the deficiency as much as
possible. And although the wool which more
immediately supplies the place of AustraUan is

42

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

more the Southdown than the Cotswold, the
Leicester, or the Teeswater, still wool of all kinds,
as such, will doubtless be scarcer than the interests
of the manufacturers require; and hence it is the
duty, as well as the advantage, to have as much
care as possible bestowed on the wool, to bring to

market as much as possible to sujjply the wants of
the market. An ill-coloured dirty wool from the
animal's back will uncommonly ill replace the fine
and silky wools of Australia, but it will be more
or less useful to the manufacturer threatened with
scarcity. — Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal.

AGRICULTURE AND THE RURAL POPULATION ABROAD.

FRANCE.— No. XXII.
The camargue — its rice plantations and wild cattle,
[from the special correspondent op the morning chronicle.]

I

I have already mentioned the Camargue as con-
stituting the western portion of the great plain
through which the Rhone debouches on the Medi-
terranean and I have contrasted its humid and
swampy features with the dry aridity of the Craue.
The boundaries of the former tract are easily fixed.
About a mile above Aries the Rhone divides into two
principal branches— the main stream flowing south-
ward and eastward to the sea; the smaller, or
Petite Rhone, inclining to the westward, and em-
bracing a wide sweep of country, ere it falls into
the Mediterranean some fifty miles west of the
mouth of the larger stream. The island thus formed
is strictly the Camargue. The country, however, near
the sea, to the east of the Rhone proper, and to the
west of the Little Rhone, preserves the features of
the actual delta; and the latter tract, interspersed
with salt ponds, lagoons, and marshesj is known as
the Petite Camargue. The Camarf;ue may be de-
scribed as consisting of about one-third land, one-
third water, and one-third marsh, of so amphibious
a character as to be neither land nor water. The
soil is, of course, almost perfectly level, dipping,
however, v/ith an imperce])iible slope towards the
sea ; so that the fiulher south you go the more
wet and swampy becomes the ground, tmtil at
length, from tolerably firm clay and loam, it fades
away into morasses and jungles of water-v.-eeds,
and finally becomes a labyrinth of banks, islands,
peninsulas, and headlands, lacing the coast of the
Mediterranean — the most tortuous and puzzling
ponds, lakes, firths, bays, lagoons, and gulfs of salt
water, stretching and winding inland, among
swamps covered over with impenetrable jungles of
huge water-weeds, long narrow stripes of rank her-
bage, anddeserts of sand, overspread with a stunted,
prickly red plant, called locally the " tariska," and
frequently, after a hot summer's-day, encrusted with
a white coating of pure salt. The principal lake of
the Camargue is called the Etang des Valcare. It
is a vast shallow muddy pool, studded with low
islands and surrounded by swamps. The region
which I have sketched is, as may be imagined, an
uninviting and dreary one — so much so indeed,
that, although its extent cannot but embrace three
or four hundred square miles, it possesses but two
or three miserable fever-haunted villages, the princi-
pal of which, Les Saintes Maries, lies near the sea,
at the mouth of the Petite Hhone. For all this, how-
ever, the Camargue is, agriculturally, a district full

of interest. In soil, climate, and productions, it is
rather African or Asiatic than European : and the
agriculture practised comprises savage customs
which one would hardly expect to find yet lurking
in Christendom.

I have sketched the odd features of difference be-
tween the Camargue and the Craue — the incessant
irrigation of the one, the incessant drainage of the
other. The main portion of the Camargue is a little
Holland, defended from the water by huge dykes.
On either side the Rhone runs fully as high as, and
the river be at all flooded, higher than, the general
level of the land ; while in front the sea is kept out,
partly by artificial mounds, partly by the sand and
shingle barrier which its own waves throw up. The
almost utter absence of stones on the Camargue
is one of its curious characteristics. There is
many a square mile in which you could with diflli-
culty find a dozen of the minutest pebbles. You
would trudge from black rich loam to stiff wet clay,
over tracts of bog, and wastes of livid liver-coloured
sand — a ghastly looking sort of soil — and find
nothing beneath your feet harder than clods, burnt
dry and powdery by the sun. The result upon
the roads, when rain does come down, may be
imagined. A few hours' wet seems to turn them
into dreary tracts of clotted and tenacious mud,
through which a heavy wheeled carriage has the
greatest difficulty in clearing its way. During the
latter part of the winter neither gig nor cart can ad-
venture forth ; the roads then become canals ; the
drainage of the field oozes into them ; the ditches
on either side overflow, and the only means of
communication is on horseback,the animal flounder-
ing for miles together, belly deep, in mire and
water. The upper portion of the Camargue is
almost entirely ploughed land, bearing, with imper-
fect tillage, good crops of wheal, oats, and haricot-
beans. Vines, although little suited to the nature
of the soil, grow in the more sandy portions, and
furnish the rough full-bodied wine which is used
in the country. The water in common use is ex-
cessively hard, and is regarded as being the cause
of fever. There are no such things as springs, ex-
cept salt or brackish ones, to be found; and the
palatable water is either that brought, at consider-
able expense, from either branch of the Rhone — and
hard, muddy stuflfit is — or that which flows through
the ditches, partly the surface drainage, partly the
oozings of the distant river.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The grand agricultural features of the Camargne
are, however, its rice plantations, and its herds of
wild cattle— bulls and cows, and white horses.
The upper portion of the ])lain may be described
as mainly arable — a patch of natural meadow land
here and there intervening, with strips and some-
times wastes of sand, furze, and prickly heath.
The medium portion towards the sea — the general
level of which is lower, and^the earth more saturated
with water— is the belt best fitted for the cultivation
of rice ; vast quantities of which are grown by the
companies recently established — one of them by the
way, partially set in motion by English capital and
managed by an Englishman — while the swamj)y
labyrinths of pasture land lying among the pools
near the sea afford rich and rank grazing for the
wild cattle in question. I was anxious to see some
of the latter in their native solitudes ; but as I found
that days of wandering through swamp and bog
might possibly have to be gone through ere a satis-
factory view could be obtained of either horses or
horned cattle, I was fain to be content with inspect-
ing three young cows of the breed in the abattoir at
Aries, and picking up as much information as pos-
sible respecting the curious class of animals in
question. The rice plantations were of more easy
access, and to the principal of these — the large es-
tate of Chateau d Avignon — 1 made my way from
Aries.

The property embraces some twelve or fifteen
square miles, stretching back and along the banks
of the Little Rhone in the lower portion of its course.
The road — the condition of which after rain, and
as it was when 1 traversed it, I have already de-
scribed— proceeds through the principal corn dis-
tricts of the Camargue. Right and left the country
spreads out into enormous flat fields, occasionally
traversed by stunted hedges and rows of hard wood
and willow trees, all bent and distorted by the fury
of the mistral. Ploughed and stubble land lying
fallow, commons of sandy clay overgrown with
prickly bushes, and stripes and patches of natural
grass land, alternate around. On the pasture, and
sometimes in the fallow, considerable flocks of
fiheep were feeding, each attended by a red-mantled
shepherd. These animals seem to be kept princi-
pally for the sake of their manure. The breed is
small and unprofitable, and no eflforts are made to
improve it. The lambs and wool are bought
yearly by agents who go from farm to farm for the
purpose. The former fetch from four to seven
francs, according to their age; the price of the
fleeces averages from one and a half to two francs.
Unless when enclosed in a moveable fold, these
sheep are generally brought home to the farm-yard
at night, and penned up in large wattled structures
entirely formed of wood, woven reeds, and branches :
the walls are low, not more than four or five feet
in height, so that tlie erections look entirely roof.
A proportion of the sheep feed in summer upon the
Piedmontese Alps, and also find winter grazings in
the Camargue, where the salt-flavoured herbage
agrees well with them. In my trip to the Chateau
d'Avignon I overtook many flocks proceeding to
their winter quarters. The ewes had lambed to a
great extent, and the youngest and most delicate of
their offspring were being carried comfortably along

tied to the pack-saddles of the donkeys, who as usual
led the troop. The price of grazing is, I am in-
formed, similar to that which I have stated as exist
ing in the Craue.

The land is partially, but by no means perfectly
drained. At intervals of a mile or two, the princi-
pal drains or ditches cross the road— many of them
considerable fosses, three or four feet broad at the
surface of the water, and a few of the largest class
as big as ordinary navigable canals. Thi-ough each
and all a sluggish current flows seaward. These
large or main ditches are made at the expense of
the commune ; the subsidiary fosses being dug of
course by the proprietors of the soil, who have al-
ways an outlet for the perfect drying of their land,
if they choose to go to the necessary expense. The
communes keep, I was told, a regular corps of can-
tonniers, to attend to the public drains ; but the
smaller and private ditches are comparatively few,
and inadequate to the drainage of so great an ex-
panse of spongy soil. Sluices and reservoirs may
here and there be setn, intended for the flooding of
artificial meadows, the practice having been intro-
duced from the Craue. I did not hear, however,
that it had made much way.

The farm-houses of the Camargue are large,
gaunt structures, generally far apart, the land being
for the most part divided into large portions— often
upwards of 600 acres each. Many of the steadings
in question appeared to be formed out of dismantled
chateaux and desecrated churches — the massive
towers and crumbling belfrys rising above the
clusters of mean farm buildings with which they
were surrounded. The ordinary plan of laying out
a farm-house hereabouts, is to erect a large plain
shell of a square building of stone. About one-
third or one-fourth of this is appropiated to the living
rooms of the family. The outer door is always
overshaded by trellis- work of vines. The other and
larger portion of the building contains the vast shady
stables and cart-houses common in the south.
According to the number of sheep, pigs, and other
live stock, outhouses are erected round the princi-
pal building, invariably composed, as I have hinted,
of wattlework sujiported upon wood. The space
between the buildings and the farm roads for some
distance is pretty sure to be littered with reeds cut
from the nearest marsh, and laid out to be trampled
into manure. A clump of portly old trees is often
dispersed roimd the whole.

The key to Camargue farming may be given in
few words. It consists of an unbroken routine of
alternate grain crops and fallow, the sheep being
partly fed upon the natural meadows and commons,
and partly— and as much as possible — upon the
stubble land in repose for the next crop, and on
which a tolerable harvest of juicy weeds and wild
grass alwavs springs up. 1 am told that nothing is
more rare than any attempt either to break through
the orduiary routine of operation, or to change the
quantity of soil laid out as corn, grass, and com-
mon land. A Camargue farm is generally so situa-
ted as to comprise about one-third of arable ground
the remainder being composed of pasturage, com-
mon, and swamp. Much of the latter could no
doubt be reclaimed; but as the farmer has the
land handed to him, so invariably does he hand it

44

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

back again. The spirit of energy and improvement
visible in the Craue has not as yet decended upon
the Camargue — always with the exception of the
rice plantations which I shall presently describe.
The number of metayers is small, but this tenure
is not unknown. The greater portion of the culti-
vators, however, pay a fixed yearly rent ; much of
the common, swampy ground being held at as low
a price as one or two francs per hectare, the more
valuable portion being rented at from 15f. to 30f or
40f, Leases are common : they confer the holdings
for periods of six, eight, or ten years, and are often
full of stipulations and conventions, amounting
merely to a recapitulation of the mode of culture
practised in the district, and which the farmer is
bound not to depart from. In other cases the land
is held upon word-of-mouth agreement^ the con-
ventions and stipulations in question being perfectly
understood on both sides. The proprietors of the
Camargue never live upon and seldom come near their
estates, so that the farmer invariably occupies the
campagne, or mansion. The prevalence of fever in
the summer months is the usual plea for the sys-
tematic absence and neglect of the landlord. The
fever in question is seldom, however, fatal ; but it is
harassing and weakening, and in some constitutions
necessitates an absolute change of climate. The
malady is a species of intermittent fever and ague
recurring ever alternate or every third day.
It frequently lingers in the system with more or less
virulence, according to the season, for as much as
a year before the patient becomes acclimatised, and
conquers the unpleasant tendency of the miasma.
Few or no settlers in the Camargue escape a season-
ing— generally in the first summer or autumn of
their residence. Unwholesome, however, as is the
district, I could see no particular appearance of
bad health in the aspect of the peasants, who are
the same sun-burnt, black-eyed, and bristly-bearded
generation as all their brethren in the south. 'J'o
return for a moment to the farmers. Comparatively
large as are the rents which many of them pay,
they are one and all mere ignorant peasants, often
speaking little save patois, which hereabouts bears
the same resemblance to Italian as that of the
Pyrenean valleys does to Spanish ; eating with
their servants, and in short, perfectly upon a level
with mere plough-men and carters. The country
is thinly peopled, and farm-work is, except at har-
vest, performed exclusively by servants hired by
the year, the number of small proprietors being
very trifling. Of the farm servants the shepherd
and the men in charge of the carts are the principal,
receiving from 300f. to 400f. and their food — four
meals a day in summer, and three in winter
— the fare being, as usual, mainly made up of
messes of vegetables, soups, stews of pork or bacon,
and not unfrequently, in this part of the world,
strong rank salt cod. The marshes and canals
yield shmy flat-fish and eels, which help to furnish
forth the country table, while semi-eatable sea birds,
flamingos in especial, great flocks of these frequent-
ing the coast— are consigned, when they can be
knocked over or caught in traps, to the pot au feu.
In winter the countless flocks of wild ducks, which
resort to the marshes, furnish abundance of fishy,
rancid flesh, which is, however, by no means dis-

dained ; and all these dainty dishes are very often
dressed up with snail sauce — a luxury not uncom-
mon in the South of France, and hereabouts, I am
told, especially in request.

In the drive from Aries to the Chateau d' Avig-
non, a distance of near 20 miles, comprising views
of great extent, over ranges of flat fenny country,
I did not see, I should think, above half a dozen
cottages, and the majority of these were clustered
together at one particular point. They were more
of the wigwam nature than anything one would
expect to find in Europe— built in the same fashion
as the sheep cots, and outhouses of the larger farms,
entirely of wattle or hurdle work, roofed with layers
of reeds from the swamps. There was a savage
look about these habitations which in some sort
was increased by the exceeding neatness of the
handiwork which had woven together the walls and
laid the rushes for the roofs, putting one in mind of
the specimens of workmanship which one sees from
the South Sea Islands. These cottages were almost
invariably circular, and boasted of no windows what-
ever. The door, at least that which was in use
during the day — invariably constructed in what
would be the lee side of the cottage during the
mistral — was composed of a coarse sheet of canvas,
often festooned up so as to expose to view the single
round chamber inside,littered with humble furniture
and farm utensils. In several of these botheys there
were stone chimneys ; and altogether, miserable as
were their materials, there was not wanting an air
of snugness, derived perhaps from the neat handi-
work of their builders, to commend them. The
round and pointed roof was always surmounted
by a rude cross. If the cottage, instead of being
circular, is oblong, the cross always decorates the
windward end. The inhabitants of these rush-built
dwellings were persons renting, at very low rates,
patches of communal ground in which they grew
sorry harvests of oats and buckwheat. The land
they tilled was sandy clay, reclaimed by themselves
and fenced with brushwood. I saw a portion of the
cultivating process going forward — a tiny morsel
of a donkey dragging a wooden plough through
the soil, one man holding the single stilt, and two
others following with baches io deepen and complete
the mere scratched-up furrow.

Approaching the territory of the Chateau d'Avig-
non, you see, upon three far distant points of the
horizon, three factory-like chimneys pointing to the
clear blue sky. These appertain to the three en-
gine houses by which the water of the little Rhone
is pumped from its bed, and flung over the rice
beds. When the river is tolerably high, the ser-
vices of the engines are not required; but as in the
long summer droughts the stream shrinks to scanty
dimensions, and as rice requires to be kept con-
stantly soaked in water, the use of machinery is
found to be indispensable. The plant in question
is, indeed, to all intents and purposes, aquatic.
With the exception of reaping time, and the small
interval which elapses ere the earth be ploughed,
and the seed again deposited in the ground, the
rice fields are mere sheets of water, out of which the
herb shoots richly. Ere the Chateau d'Avignon
Company took up the speculation, the great expan-
ses of flat which are now covered with their rizieres

THE FARiMER'S MAGAZINE.

4S

were deserts of morass, overgrown with jungles
uf fen, huge bulrushes, and all manner of rank,
slimy, half putrid vegetation. Amid these swamps
fed vast herds of wild cattle, all of which, when
the property was jjurchased, had to be got rid of
for what they would fetch. The company then pro-
ceeded vigorously with their operations. The
Chateau d'Avignon — a massive old house, built by
a receiver-general of the time of Louis Q,uinze —
was their head quarters ; the offices and director's
residence being placed there, surrounded at some
little distance by the principal establishments for
the farm servants, mills for thrashing and clearing
the grain from the husk, and the main pumping
estabUshments supplying the great canal. The
germ of this canal had previously, I believe, existed
for drainage purposes. It is now put to quite a
diflerent use — that of flinging on the land even
more water than it was originally blessed with.

Vast as is the quantity of irrigational moisture al-
ways required by rice, fully double the amount was
in the present case necessary. In Italy it is calcula-
ted that about SJ metres, or nearly 12 feet deep of
water, are annually poured upon a rice field. In
the Camargue, not only had this ordinary quantum
to be provided, but as much again was requisite for
the purpose of counteracting the eflTect, and sweep-
ing away the particles of salt brought by the power
of evaporation to the surface of the soil. The saline
nature of the ground is, in effect, one of the great
hindrances to the profitable cultivation of the
Camargue ; and in the case either of rice or wheat,
different expedients to get over the difficulty have
to be made use of. So long as the salt lies in
moisture beneath the roots of grain, no harm is done;
but the wet, evaporating, carries up the saline jiar-
ticles dissolved in it, enters into and corrupts the
sap of such tender vegetation as grass and corn, or
clogs the surface with an incrustation in which no
wholesome or kindly plant can thrive or live. In
the case of wheat the remedy resorted to is simple.
After the seed has been placed in the ground, the
field is strewed over with abundance of straw, the
litter being most thickly laid down in the spots
where the farmer's experience tells him that the
ground is most affected by the oozings of the sea.
This covering shelters the earth from the power of
the solar rays, and evaporation to any great extent is
prevented. As the young corn begins to sprout
out through the straw, the shelter afforded is of
course increased ; and, as the crop progresses and
advances to ripeness, the straw rotting forms ma-
nure and nourishment to the harvest which it first
protected. The method is simple, but is said to be
tolerably efficacious.

In the case of rice, as I have said, the treatment
pursued is different — copious floods of water being
employed to dilute to harmlessness, or carry clean
away, the pungent particles. The double neces-
sity, therefore for canals, ditches, and forcing pumps
will be apparent. Collecting, then, all their agricul-
tural forces, the company proceeded to clear away
vast portions of the mass of rushes and wild water
plants which formed the useless harvestof their do-
main. Ditches, with corresponding dykes and
sluices, were everywhere run backwards and for-
wards over the land, mapping it out into square

tables or patches, each so managed as to be under
easy control, and capable of being flooded and
drained at pleasure. The aspect of this rice wild-
erness is, as may be conceived, particularly after
harvest time, wild and dismal in the extreme.
Standing in or near the central part of the property
you see spreading for dozens of miles around you
a putrid-looking, black waste, doited here and there
at great distances by scraggy rows of half drowned
poplars or pollard willows, running in dismal
single file from one point of the horizon to another
and marking the course of some main canal or,
feeder. Here and there the eye catches the dusky
masses of far-away structures of woodwork and
thatch — brown lifeless-looking spots — the district
farm houses and storing places of the company.
All round you perceive a labyrinth of raised dykes,
affording a crumbling footing, intersected here and
there by a muddy cross road, repaired by means of
branches flung across it in the mire ; and between
these dykes and cross roads the rice fields them-
selves, on a lower level — shallow excavations, in
fact, they appear, some of them dry ; the coarse
white stubble growing in clumps and clusters from
the black hardened mud. Others — those which
have been already ploughed, and sown for the next
harvest — are shining sheets of still, muddy water,
having gradually overflowed as the drurnly fluid
gurgles lazily through a sluice or aperture in
the dyke, and disposes itself on the fat rank soil.
Beds of enormous bulrushes and weeds, " twisted
and knotted like water snakes " — foul, fungous
looking growths, putting one in mind of the de-
scription of rotting vegetation in the " Sensitive
Plant " — flourish in patches, and along the fat
sluggish canals ; while the only appearance of
human life is when the eye catches the distant
form of a solitary labourer in coarse greyish-brown
clothes, the colour of the clayey mud, and great
boots reaching up to his thighs, regulating the
flow of water from the ditches into the rizieres. A
more expulsive looking landscape I never looked
upon.

Rice, unlike corn, is grown year after year with-
out the soil requiring any other aid than that which
it obtains from unlimited supplies of muddy water
rendered more than lukewarm by the fierceness of
the sun. Five succesive years is a common period
in which to raise rice when the ground is naturally
suited to it. The Chateau d'Avignon Company are
at present only at their third crop ; but their plan
of management includes an occasional rotation of
harvest. Thus several fields were pointed out to
me which had borne rice the previous year, and
which were, when I saw them, ploughed for wheat.
The facility with which water can be thrown q^as
well as ore any individual patch of land favours this
system, and I was told that the wheat crops pro-
duced were excellent. The work, except about
harvest time, when an army of auxiharies are called
in, is performed by the regular servants of the
company, nearly all unmarried men. They are
distributed over the estate in large farm houses
placed at convenient points, and kept by a married
couple, the wife having the charge of the meals of
the labourers and the general household matters.
I visited and inspected two of these little agricultu-

46

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ral ban'acks. One was a lone dreary station far
in the heart of the rice marshes, on the banks of
the great canal, which, by the way, seems as much
a navigable river as an irrigating ditch. The
settlement was composed of three buildings — large
barn-looking structures, each composed of wood
and wattlework with thatched roofs. One was for
the pigs, numbers of which are reared — a thin,
long-legged lanky race, almost entirely for home
consumption ; and the second was the cattle stable
a very spacious and well ventilated shed, provided
with abundant litter, and having racks furnished
with chopped straw, running along either side from
one end to the other. There were at least a couple
of score of oxen in this vast hangar, all of them
comfortably couched upon the litter. They were
partly ploughing oxen, and partly animals for fat-
tening and sale. The prices which they fetched
varied from 600 to 800 francs. The breed, however,
was a bad one for the shambles — rough in the hide
and big in the bone. Besides chopped rice-straw
and hay, the animals had oil-cake; but none of
them appeared to me to be in more than tolerable
condition, at the very best. Next to the cow-shed
was the living and tool house. It contained one
large, and two small apartments ; the latter filled
with such stores as haricots, onions, garlic, bacon,
and salt cod — with the minor class of farm imple-
ments, properly arranged. The large room had
the usual vast peasant chimney — a long table, with
benches for eating, on one side; ranges of dressers
and rough kitchen furniture on the other. The
general aspect of the place was primitive in the
simplicity of its garniture, but cleanly and airy. A
rudely coloured wood-cut or two were pasted on
the beams of the wooden wall. The floor was of
hard stamped earth. Three or four men discussing
their dinners — vegetable messes with bread and
soup — had abundance of wine in coarse earthen-
ware jugs, each holding at least a couple of quarts.
The room up-stairs — the general sleeping-place —
was enclosed by the slanting walls of the roof, the
heath and reeds of the thatch showing between the
rafters. The beds were decent-looking pallets
enough, with sufficient bed-clothes; and altogether
the place was not uncomfortable, but dreary-looking
in its forlorn desolateness of situation, and the want
of anything like the family bustle of a large farm es-
tablishment. Outside, a row of good ploughs Eng-
lish made, was drawn up. The rice at this station is
thrashed by driving horses over the sheaves in a
manner I shall explain presently. At the central es-
tablishment the grain is separated from the straw by
steam-thrashing machines. I do not know any-
thing more curiously indicating the extremes of
agricultural progress which you find in this part of
the country — in which science and capital have all
at once leaped, as it were, fully grown and armed,
into the centre of ignorance and rudeness — than
the fact t have stated, that on this one estate which
I am describing, the grain is thrashed in one locality
by galloping troops of wild horses over it, and
in another by steam driving mills made in the manu-
factory of Messrs. Ransome, of Ipswich !

I have said that the company of the Chateau
d'Avignon estate are as yet only at their third har-
vest. The enterprise is therefore still in the nature

of an experiment, and as yet no positive commer-
cial result can be said to have been established.
The company had many difficulties to encounter —
much to teach, and also much to learn. The out-
lay upon machinery and irrigating works was im-
mense. Italian rice growers had to be imported to
instruct the native population ; the practical quali-
ties of the soil, its peculiarities and anomalies, had
to be studied, harvest after harvest, and the modes
of culture adopted in other parts of the world to be
altered and varied to suit the capabilities of the new
rice-growing district. I believe, however, that the
management at the Chateau d'Avignon now see
their way to the full and satisfactory accomplish-
ment of a great agricultural achievement, and to
the accomplishment also of as full and satisfactory
a commercial success.

The wild cattle form the second main agricultu-
ral feature of the Camargue. Their range, as I
have said, is confined to the seaboard ; and the la-
byrinth of promontories, peninsulas, necks and
stripes of land, dividing the salt lagoons and
marshes into the fantastic and capricious shapes in
which they appear. Wild as these cattle are called,
they ai'e not so wild as not to have proprietors.
Each estate, or large farm, in the lower portion of
the Camargue, has attached to it a range of marsh
pasture land, on which wild horses and cows feed
amicably. The former are invariably perfectly
white — the latter, nearly as invariably perfectly
black, except perhaps a few which may be fawn-
coloured. These flocks are attended not by shep-
herds, but by men called gardiens, one or more of
whom, according to its extent, watch every flock.
The gardiens are always capitally mounted upon
the best Camargue steeds, and are admirable horse-
men. From the saddle, which they are in from
morning till night, hangs a coil of noosed rope, a
lasso in fact ; and each gardien is armed with a tri-
dent or three-pronged spear with a hght strong shaft
some eight or ten feet in length. Thus equipped
the functionary in question starts upon his duties,
patrolling the marshes, every square acre of which
he must be acquainted with, keeping the herds of
his proprietor withing their due bounds, chasing out
intruders, rescuing the cattle stuck in the morasses
— no very unfrequent occurrence — and generally
performing such shepherd-like duties as can be ren-
dered to so wild and unmanageable a flock. The
business of a gardien of the wild cattle of the
Camargue is one which, to ensure efficiency, must
be followed from youth ; the natural consequence
is, that the occupation is all but hereditary.

The heavy limbed peasants who wield thebeche,
or hold the plough, never dream of becoming the
accomplished cavaliers and the dexterous lasso men
required to cope with a Camargue wild bull. In
perfect horsemanship, intimate acquaintance with
the habits and the mode of fighting of the crea-
tures whom they have to manage— in trained cool-
ness of brain, quickness of eye, and steadiness of
hand, I am told that these gardiens rival the taurea-
dores of Spain. Their knowledge of the morasses
is wonderful. With their long lance-like tridents
held erect — or perhaps now and then dug into the
reeking flanks of a bellowing troop of cows, rushing
madly on in front — the gardien of the Camargue,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

47

driving hither and thither his master's cattle,
must be no bad imitation of the old Scottish moss-
trooper, pricking his way through Border swamps
with a score or so of Cumberland black cattle
lowing before him. The Frenchman, however, is an
honest farm servant, mounted by his master, and
gaining a house and good wages — about a third
above those of the best gargons de ferine — by his
adroit and manly toil. When a bull or cow is
stuck fast in a bog, a cast of the lasso round the
horns, and the efforts of the horse, who understands
his business just as well as his rider, generally
suffice to drag the roaring detenu out of the reluc-
tant mud. Cattle are still, however, sometimes
suffocated in the fathomless sloughs. Every spring
the calves are branded on the hind quarters with
the initials of their proprietors' names. The occa-
sion forms the yearly festival of the Basse Camargue.
The landlord or farmer invites his friends and neigh-
bours to a convenient spot fixed upon among the
marshes. Tents and marquees are erected ; mules
and donkeys laden with provisions garnish them
handsomely ; and for once in the year the solitude
of these dismal swamps is broken by the merry cla-
mours of the junketing party. Meantime the^'ar-
diens have been at work, charging the herds with
levelled lances, like so many Paladins, separating
the calves from their dams, flinging the lasso over
the horns of the former, and dragging them
struggling and roaring to the camp, where they are
picqueted in lines. When a sufficient number has
been collected, the branding operation commences
Each calf is disengaged from his toils in succession,
and led up to the fire at which the irons are heat-
ing. A strong-muscled gardien takes him by the
horns, and with one desperate wrench flings him
over on his side. In a moment the fiery stamp is
apphed to the creature's hide. Up he leaps with
the instinct of sudden pain. A bound and a roar,
and he is careering towards his marshy solitudes
again — stamped, however, as property for the rest
of his days.

Generally at about three years of age, the wild
cattle are consigned to the butcher. The gardiens
select the fattest of the herd, and by dint of good
horsemanship and skill with their tridents separate
the fatted beasts from the flock, and drive them, as
may be believed, with many delays and many detours
occasioned by the escapades of the cattle — to the
slaughter-houses of Sainte Marie or Aries. Two
or three gardiens are generally sufficient force to
drive from half-a-dozen to a dozen wild bulls and
cows before them, the sharp prongs of the tridents
being the persuaders used to make the animals ad-
vance. In cases of determined recalcitrance the
lasso is sometimes flung over the neck of the cul-
prit, and he has his choice of moving on or of
being throttled. Occasionally the milder induce-
ment of an ordinary tame ox or cow is resorted to,
the wild animals generally following it with suffi-
cient docility. At the abattoir at Aries I saw three
young Camargue cows, which had just been driven
up by their gardiens, and which were now for the
first and the last time beneath a roof. They were
small black cattle, very much resembling the
mountain breed in the North of Scotland, exces-
sively quick and fierce of eye, and moving rather

like deer than with the usual heavy shuffling gait
of creatures of the bovine family. The animals
were confined together in a large, well littered, and
unstalled stable close to the slaughtering place.
Their savage instinct of terror was evidently
throughly roused. With drooping heads, but keen
glancing eyes, they stood with their muzzles to-
gether, occasionally butting nervously round and
round their prison, and uttering short moans and
grunts, evidently moved by both fear and v/rath.
At the fatal moment, the butcher approached them
very cautiously with a strong noosed rope in his
hand ; one end of the cord being held by a crowd
of amateurs of the slaughter-house — men, v/omen,
and children, who watched at the half open door.
It was long before the man could fix his noose over
the horns of any one of his victims. They slipped
out of its folds, flung them aside, and sometimes
made short rushes at their tormentor, who, how-
ever, took the matter very coolly, and merely
stepped aside, when the animals would pause again,
lash their sides with their tails, and gaze fixedly at
him. At length the noose fell well o\-er the horns
of one of the three, and was in a moment pulled
tight by the assistants, who forthwith proceeded by
main strength to lug the unfortunate brute to his
death, dragging him forward by jerks, while he
plunged and roared, and lashed out with fore and
hind hoofs. At last however, when hauled into
the slaughter house, the creature became more
ungovernable. It made mighty rushes hither and
thither, was checked by the rope, flung off its legs
and rolled over and over upon the pavement. In a
pause of the animal's excitement, the crushing blow
was struck, and repeated as it came to the ground.
The slaughterman was then leisurely producing
his knife, when up sprung the wretched beast again
upon its legs, its coat bristling, and shaking in
every limb. The butcher forthwith acted like a
man of dicision. He caught up his hammer, leap-
ed on the creature's back, and another blow finished
the matter. The flesh of these wild cattle is tough
and stringy, and fetches a lower price than that of
oxen who have worked in the plough or cart. The
creature I saw killed was not worth more than from
100 to 120 francs. Some attempts have been made,
but unsuccessfully, to tame these wild cows so far
as to induce them to permit themselves to be
milked.

Afterwitnessing theendof the poor little Camargue
cow, I inspected the abattoir, which is quite new, and
built with all the latest improvements. It is an
admirably designed and kept establishment, cover-
ing three sides of a large square. The central and
highest part of the building contains the slaughter
place for large horned cattle, with the stables in
which they are bestowed opening from the corners.
The stone floor is so sloped that all the blood runs
speedily away through gratings into drains be-
neath ; and abundant machinery of ropes, pulleys,
and windlasses is provided for the convenience of
the butchers in cutting the animals up. The place
is lighted from the glass roof of a square central
tower above, round which, approached by stairs and
galleries, are shops or store-houses, in which the
butchers keep their hides, tallow, horns, and so forth.
For this accommodation each of the tradesmen in

48

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

question pays eight francs per montli. Below they
have cupboards for keeping their tools. Separate
apartments, furnished with jiens in the vicinity, are
provided for slaughtering sheep and pigs. In the
death place of the cattle are furnaces, boilers, and
stone troughs for scalding. The walls bristle with
the necessary hooks for hanging up the meat.
The place is kept beautifully clean, washed
thoroughly out twice a daj^, and again after each
deed of blood. The butchers using it are bound to
kill the animals they bring within 24 hours after their
arrival. The general practice is that the beasts
are introduced late in the evening, when water is
given to them, and killed early next morning. The
slaughterman of an ox or cow claims the muzzle,
entrails, and hoofs, as perquisites. The prices or
rents paid by the butchers are as follow : For
killing an ox, 3 francs ; a cow, 2 francs ; a calf, 1 h
fra,ric ; a pig, | a franc ; a sheep or a lamb, ]- of a
franc.

The horses of the Camargue are about the size
of what we call Galloways, and, judging from the
specimens I saw, they make good, sprightly road-
sters. They have small well-set heads, and are al-
together a pretty compact race of horses. These
creatures, when caught young, are easily broken in,
and even the veterans do not oppose any very stub-
born resistance to the rough-rider. The handsom-
est of every flock are soon laid hold of for saddle
horses — secured by the lasso pitched round their
necks. Their principal duty, however, is the very
primitive one of thrashing the corn. The opera-
tion always takes place in the open air, near the
farmhouse. Sometimes a space is regularly paved
with bricks for the purpose. This is the fashion
followed at the out-lying stations of the Chateau
d'Avignon estate. fAs often, however, the operation
is performed upon a bit of the hardest and firmest
ground which can be found. The gardien upon
the appointed day drives up a troop of some ten or
twelve horses, the creatures being usually pretty
docile, unless any one attempts to mount them.
The corn is then arranged round a ring, just like
sawdust in a circus. The horses are haltered by
long ropes ; the manager of the proceeding takes
his place in the centre of the ring ; assistants, armed
with whips for behoof of the horses, and wooden
pitchforks to keep the corn in proper order, attend
about, and some dozen or so of wild white horses
are speedily plunging at a gallop round the ring.
The indurance of the animals at this fatiguing
work is, I am told, very remarkable. They keep
it up all day, with the exception of an hour or so
at noon, when they rest and have some water, hay
and chopped straw, but never corn. At night they
are turned loose, to ramble at their will; but they sel-
dom stray far, and are easily found and brought
back to the ring the next morning. From all this
it will be seen that the horses of the Camargue can
only be said to be wild in a partial and modified
sense of the term. They are branded just like the
horned cattle, and when broken in are invalua-
ble coajutors to the gardiens, from their former ac-
quaintance with all the hostile tricks of their old
comrades of the pasture— the black bulls and
cows.

Attached to each wind or water mill in this part

of the world, as well in the Craue as in the Camargue
is generally to be found a species of flat stone-
paved terrace, surrounded by a low ridge of ma-
sonry, and sloping to a southerly exposure. The
lower surrounding line of mason-work is broken
here and there by gangways to allow the water to
run oft'. Near this plateau is placed a large stone
trough well supplied with water. The use of this
apparatus is as follows : the farmers, after selling
their best wheat, regularly keep the damaged and
diseased portions — and smut hereabouts is very
common — for home consumption. Before being
ground, therefore, the healthy grain has to be se-
parated from the rest. This is performed by flinging
the whole into the trough in question ; the damaged
corn floats, and is skimmed of with edgeless sieves.
The water is then drawn away, and the sound
grains — which after they become saturated, sink —
are removed in wheelbarrows with wire bottoms,
and spread to dry on the terrace or plateau in
question.

A CHALLENGE FOR THE NEXT KENT
CATTLE SHOW.

Mr. Edwd. Beard, of Bougbtou Monchelsea, has the fol-
lowing statement respecting the show of Sussex-bred stock
at the next Kent Cattle show : " It will be remembered
that after the cattle-show dinner held December last,
at the Corn Exchange, Maidstone, Mr. Neame (Selling)
offered a challenge to show some Sussex-bred stock, of
different ages, from a cow down to a calf, for any sum of money,
with any member of the Kent Cattle Show, to be shown at the
next show held at Maidstone ; which challenge, it will also be
remembered, I accepted at the time ; but on entering into
articles, found Mr. Neame to mean that no animal was to be
shown only what was bred in the county, and consequently it
ended only in smoke. But as that challenge was given pub-
licly, and not understood by many of the members of the Kent
Cattle Show, I now give this challenge publicly through your
journal to Mr. Charles Neame, to show seven pure Sussex-
bred animals, for £5 per head; every animal must have been
in the possession of the exhibitor prior to the last cattle-show
held at Maidstone, excepting the calves under one year old,
which are to be bred by the owner ; and the judges of the
bullocks at the show to be the judges between Mr. Neame and
myself, and that they shall give their award to the best animal,
making especial allowance for age, &c.

No. 1. Best fat Sussex cow.

2. Best Sussex cow in calf.

3. Best Susses heifer in calf, under S-years old.

4. Best Susses yearling heifer.

5. Best Sussex heifer calf.

6. Best Sussex bull calf.

7. Best Sussex yearling bull.

Should Mr. Neame still feel disposed to have everything his
own way, and still make an objection to the two firat, I will
show the five latter with him, on the same terms, nil of which
are bred by myself.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

49

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND

A M'ei;ki-y Council nas held at the Society's House
ill Hanover-squ'ire, on Wednesday, the 12th of May,
Mr. Pusey, M.P., Trusfee, in the Chair ; when the fol-
lowing Lecti-.i-e was delivered before the Members l)y
Mr. Trimmer, the Author of the Society's Prize Essay
on Agricultural Geology :

The True Relations of Geology to Agriculture form
tlie subject on which I am to have the honour of address-
ing you to-day. There ought to be an intimate con-
nexion between them — between the art of cultivating
the earth, and the science which treats of the materials of
whJc'i the earth's crust is composed and the order in
wliich they are arranged. The connexion is often denied.
It is denied, or doubted, however, only by those who
know nothing of geology, or who have heard only of its
theoretical researches. They have been told much about
the wonders which it has revealed respecting the ancient
natural history of the earth ; but the mass of facts
capable of ajipjication to the useful arts, and more es-
pncially to agriculture, have been kept of late too much
out of sight by geologists. They may therefore thank
themselves, if they are very generally regarded as a set
of visionary enthusiasts, who go about the country,
hnmracr in hand, collecting " curiosities" for museums,
or breaking stones, as Walter .Scott said, " like
road-makers run daft." The earlier researches
of geology were est^entially practical. Werner ap-
plied his discoveries to mining ; Smith, the father j
of English geology, applied his to mining, general j
engineering, and agriculture. Were I called upon |
to prove the services which geology can render to
the art of cultivation, I might appeal to the many
instances of its successful application by Smith. I
presume, however, such an audience as this to be
sufficiently aware of these facts ; and I would rather draw
your attention to the remarkable circumstance, that all
these triumphs of applied geology were achieved by one
man, in the infancy of the science, and that scarcely any
thing of a similar kind has beeneflected by the many more
highly-accomplished geologists who have succeeded him.
This has been, not because the resources of geology
are exhausted, but because the field has been neglected,
or very imperfectly cultivated. Smith was a practical
man, conversant with agriculture; of agricultural origin,
the son of a yeoman farmer ; agricultural in his occu-
pation, which was that of a land-suiveyor, eng;igcd in
surveying and valuing for enclosures, draining land, and
forming water meadows. His practice extended also to
the construction of canals (the railways of his day), and
the superintendence of collieries — branches of engineer-
ing which now constitute separate departments, rarely fol-
lowed conjointly by the same inc.ividui\l. The only pro-
fessional men who have since cultivated geology have been
engaged in mining : the Duddlcs, the Taylors, and the
Sopwi'hs, who have cultivated it so successfully. Prac-
li<vti men wl'io nwp "'mith's npporl'initips of apjilving-

it to agriculture, have neglected it too much ; and the
majority of the geologists who have succeeded him have
been naturalists and philosophers, occupied more with
theoretical than practical questions. It may be as well
to define, before we proceed, the sense in which I use
the terms "practical geology," "applied geology,"
" theoretical geology," and " geology of the surface."

Practical or descrlji/ive geology directs its re-
searches to fads — to the structure of the earth's
crust, the materials of which it is composed,
the order in which they are arranged, the areas occu-
pied by their several varieties, the unstratified rocks
most commonly associated with certain parts of the
stratified series, the useful metals and minerals peculiar
to each, the changes which the intrusive igneous rocks
have produced in the texture and composition of the
strata with which they are in contact, the direction in
which the strata dip, the angles at which they dip, the
height to which they have been thrown up by disturb-
ances which produced our chains of hills and moun-
tains, the faults or fractures which have broken the
continuity of the strata ; with the other accidents to
which they have been subject, and which atlect the
drainage of certain areas.

By (ippUed or economic geulogi/ I mean the employ-
ment of the knowledge of these fncts in aid of the miner,
the engineer, the architect, and the farmer.

Thcoreiical or speculative geology investigates the
causes of phenomena, and is occupied with such questions
as the following : the processes by which the stratified
and unstratified rocks were formed, the nature of the
agencies by which they have been disturbed and altered,
the successive races of plants and animals which have
p'opled the earth at different stages of its existence,
their relHtiors to existing races, the changes of climate
which they indicate, the causes which produced those
changes, and the causes which effected the extinction of
the lost races — whether they died out one by one, or
were cut oft' suddenly by physical convulsions ; the
geographical distribution of certain organic forms
during the ancient periods of the earth's history, and
the modes in which their migrations were effected in
past geological epochs, as well as during the present.

The geology of the surface constitutes a department of
the science hitherto much neglected, but of greatiraport-
ance to agriculture. It treats of the superficial deposits,
formerly calhd diluvium, but now better known by the
names of drifts or erratic tertiaries — deposits which are
excluded from geological maps as at present constructed.
This, like the geology of the substrata, may be divided
into practical and theoretical. The former investigates
the depth, composition, and distribution of the super-
ficial deposits ; the latter endeavours to discover the
agencies which produced them.

Smith's great discovery that strata may be identified
hv their fos«ils under a romplete chan2:e of mineral tvpe,

80

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

was a discovery of great practical utility. It has con-
tributed, nevertheless, to lead geologists away from
practical to theoretical questions. It is, in effect, a
discovery that there have been several successive crea-
tions of plants and animals before that creation of which
man forms a part. Geologists have been fascinated by
the wonders thus brought to light, and by the strange
forms which they have disinterred from the depths of
the earth. They have thus been led to pursue palseon-
tology, or the science of ancient natural history, with
• such avidity that it has almost superseded geology, and
has led many besides farmers to doubt whether there is
anything practical in geology itself.

Geologists, moreover, have not only cultivated iheo-
retical researches too exclusively ; but, when they have en-
deavoured to apply their science to agriculture, they have
applied them on erroneous principles. They have at-
tempted to construct a system of agricultural geology,
not upon soils, subsoils, and substrata, as they exist in
nature, but upon the conventionalities of geological maps.
Those maps exclude the superficial deposits ; they sink
the mineral variations of the strata which they represent
as the surface, both those which take place vertically and
those which take place horizontally ; and they convey by
their colours no other information than that within cer-
tain areas certain groups of clays, sandstones, and lime-
stones are to be found, which contain a peculiar group of
fossils not to be met with higher or lower in the series,
and which remain constant, however the mineral charac-
ters of the beds containing them may change. These
changes of mineral character are often so rapid and so
great, that in a distance of one hundred miles, or even
less, clay will have passed into sandstone on the one
hand, and into limestone on the other. Let us illustrate
this by one example — that of the greensand. A belt of
bright green stretches across our geological maps, from
the coast of Dorsetshire to the banks of the Humber.
Another girdles the Weald of Kent and Sussex, at the
base of the North and South Downs. These belts add
much to the beauty of our maps. They have caused
many an animated discussion at the Geological Society
on questions now set at rest. They have afforded much
sport to the lossil hunters, and have enriched their cabi-
nets with many beautiful specimens. But what informa-
tion do they convey to the owners and occupiers of the
estates which lie within them ? Merely that they are
upon the greensand. And what is the greensand ? It
consists of an upper and lower sand separated by the
gault, a calcareous clay. The upper sand is generally
calcareous, passing upwards into the chalk, and down-
wards into the gault. The lower sand is chiefly ferrugi-
nous and siliceous, with concretions of cherty beds, and
beds of calcareous stone. It also contains, locally, beds
and nodules of phosphate of lime. This is the southern
form of the greensand, but the upper greensand does not
extend further to the north than Cambridgeshire, nor the
lower greensand than Lincolnshire. In the latter county
and in Yorkshire, the upper greensand is represented by
red chalk containing greensand fossils ; and at the
northern termination of the chalk ranges in Yorkshire,
the white chalk rests immediately on blue a id green clay

(Speeton clay) the upper portions of whicli represent the
gault, and the lower the Kimmeridge clay. The majority
of geological maps include the three subdivisions of the
greensand under one colour. The maps of the Govern-
ment Geological Survey distinguish them by different
tints. Even these maps, however, excellent as they are,
fail to convey any useful agricultural information ; for
they do not show the variations of soil on each subdivi-
sion, and the lower greensand alone includes the ex-
tremes of barrenness and fertility. As examples of
fertility we have the rich grazing grounds of the Vale of
Aylesbury, the valuable hop-grounds of Farnham and
Maidstone, the celebrated gardens of Sandey and Big-
gleswade. As examples of sterility, there are Dersing-
ham Heath, in Norfolk ; Leith Hill and Hind Head,
Surrey ; with parts of Woolmer, and Alice Holt Forest,
Hampshire. Similar examples might be adduced from
most of the other groups of strata which our geo-
logical maps represent as constituting the surface.
And yet we are told these maps represent the variations
of soils, and that the agricultural characters of a district
may be known by the bare inspection of them.
Every intelligent farmer, who has paid any attention to
strata and geological maps, knows that this is not the
case. He knows that on every group of strata united
by the possession of a common assemblage of fossils
there are a great variety of soils of very different values.
He knows that these are intermixed with the utmost ir-
regularity, and he sees no traces of such variations on
the maps respecting which he is told such wonders. Is
it surprising, then, that farmers treat geology as a de-
lusion or an imposture ? Is it surprising that the ques-
tion should have been lately raised in a farmers' club,
whether a knowledge of geology is of any use to the far-
mer, and that it should have been decided in the nega-
tive ? If properly cultivated, however — if directed to
practical questions — and if made to combine the geology
of the surface with that of the substrata — geology is of
the utmost value to agriculture. Had I been present at
this discussion, I should liave met the question by a
series of other questions. I should have asked, for in-
stance, Is it of any advantage to the farmer to know any-
thing of the composition and qualities of the soils and
subsoils which he cultivates? All the discrepancies
which prevail in the practice of different and often ad-
joining districts, and all the discordant results of agri-
cultural experiments, are attributed to certain undefined
mysterious peculiarities of soil and climate. Surely it
would conduce much to the improvement of the art of
cultivation to know in what these peculiarities consist.
I would have asked, again — Is it of any advantage to
the farmer to be able to classify soils and to describe
them by names which shall be intelligible beyond his
own immediate neighbourhood .-' What would conduce
more to the improvement of agriculture than to obtain a
knowledge of the most successful practices of the best
cultivated districts, and to know which are capable of
general, and which capable of only local application ?
But when farmers in different districts describe the suc-
cessful or unsuccessful results of certain processes of
cultivation or of certain manures, it is essential that we

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

hi

should know whether the soils to which they are applied
are the same or different. Ho(v can we know this, so
long as they use names for them which convey no mcau-
iag, or names which convey a meaning the very reverse
of that intended ? They use names which convey no
ideas beyond very limited districts, where they employ
such provincial terms as redland, whiteland, blackland,
woodland, woodcockland, deaf-land, rammel, foxbench,
clum, clunch, cledge, keale, pinnock, hassock, stone
shatter, malm rock, coombe, and blackhover, with many
others, not forgetting bearsmuck. They use expressions
which convey ideas the very reverse of thos3 intended,
when they employ the ordinary terms, sand, loam, and
clay, in so vasue and loose a manner, that what one man
calls sand is the loam of another, and the clay of a third,
as the soil described happens to be more or less tenacious
than the average of a district in which strong or light
soils prevail. I would have asked, again, whether it is
of any advantage to the farmer, looking out for
a farm, to know anything of the distribution of
soils, that is to say, in what districts he may
expect to find the most extensive tracts of laud
suited to his particular requirements, whether he wants
strong wheat and bean land, light dry soils for stock
farming on arable land, rich grazing land for the fatten-
ing of cattle, or ordinary pasture for the dairy and for
rearing young stock. This is a kind of knowledge which
most farmers consider it part of their business to acquire
from personal opservation respiting their own immedi-
ate neighbourhood. They know the qualities of all the
farms in their own and the adjoining parishes, under the
system of cultivation to which they have been ac-
customed. They possess some general knowledge of the
quality of the land in i-emoter portions of the district in
which they reside, and to which their business occasionally
leads them. However they may despise geology, they
are thus unconsciously, and for a limited district, ge-
ologists. Agricultural geology merely combines and
generalises the knowledge of other observers equally
competent J and why should that be regarded as useful,
practical knowledge so long as it is confined to a parish,
or a county, and be scouted as "all theory" when it
embraces many parishes and counties, or even takes a
wider range, and investig;ites the agricultural capabilities
of Australia and North America ? Such knowledge is
valuable to the farmer whose operations are confined to
one locality, who, like the Vicar of Auburn, has " never
changed, nor wish to change his place:" it is more
valuable to the landowner whose property lies in dif-
ferent counties un-ler difl:erent conditions of soil and cli-
mate ; and to the land-agent, who frequently represents
several such landowners, and whose business it is to
develope to their full extent the property under his care.
Such knowledge is valuable to the farmer in an old
country : it is more valuable to the settler in a new
country where cultivation is only commencing. The
competition which arises from the consolidation of
farms, and the increase of the farming class, both from
within and by accessions from other classes from without,
is driving many farmers and sons of farmers to look to
new fields of enterprise in the British colonies and the

United States. If it is advantageous to those v.ho cannot
make up their minds to emigrate, to know where they
will find, within our own shores, land similar to that
which they arc leaving, and in the cultivation of which
they have had the most experience : such knowledge is
more valuable to a settler in a new country, where the
quality of the soil cannot be known from the appearance
of the crops, and where the spontaneous vegetation,
being different from that to which the settler has been
accustomed, cannot be relied upon as an indication of
fi-rtiiity, except after long observation. Geological
structure, however, may be relied on, all the world over.
Tiie mineral characters of the I'ocks when free from a
covering of transported matter, and the substances com-
posing tliat covering when present, are indications of
the figricultural capabilities of a country immediately
and implicitly before a plough has been put into the
ground, and while every plant which springs up on its
surface is a stranger to the settler.

The lecturer then pointed out the connexion of
geology with the three principal modes of improving
hind — draining, irrigation, and the use of mineral
manures. The importance of geological knowledge
to the success of operations, undertaken for the pur-
pose of obtaining a supply of water by means of
Artesian wells, was insisted on. Reference was made
to Mr. Prestwich's work on the water-bearing strata
round London, and to his p'an for supplying the
metropolis by means of deep Artesian wells carried
down to the lower green sand, like that of Grenelle, neat
Paris. The importance of such wells, in an agricultural
point of view, was also shown in the event of the exten-
sive adoption of the use of liquid manure, one great im-
pediment to which, in some situations, would be the
want of water to dilute it sufficiently. The value of
geological knowledge was next adverted to, in enabling
the farmer (including in the term the landowner and
land-agent) to decide questions which would often come
before him ; namely, where the best and cheapest ma-
terials for erecting farm buildings, filling drains, and
repairing roads, were to be procured. Two extensive
districts were pointed out, in which the greatest im-
provement?, as well as economy, had resulted from the
use of road materials brought from a distance of 100
miles; and, on the other hand, an instance was shown
of wretched clay roads converted into good metalled
roads by the discovery of beds of stone at an accessible
depth in the Weald clay. Lastly, it was shown how
geological structure affects the value of land by the
non-agricultural employment to which it gives rise, the
masses of population which it causes to congregate on
certain localities, and the consequent demand created
for agricultural produce. The three industrial districts
of England dependent on geological structure were
traced— the eastern or purely agricultural ; the central
or coal district, agricultural, manufacturing, and min-
ing ; and the western, a district of mines and mountain
pasture. The agricultural characters of each district
were referred to the joint influence of the stratified
and unstratified rocks on the one hand, and
the superficial deposits on the other. The order of 8UC=

t

52

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

cession, the dip and outcrops of tlie strata, were illus-
trated b)' a series of books laid in an inclined position.
Their relation to the uiisfratitied rocks which have dis-
turbed tliem from their original horizontal condition
were explained by means of a large root of mangold
wurzel, against which the books leaned, and which re-
presented tlie intrusive rocks forming the axis of a
mountain chain. The distribution of the superficial de-
posits which form the loose covering of the rocks was
represented by some wheat scattered irregularly over the
books, thinnest on the slopes and summits, and deepest
in the depressions between the hills. The superficial
deposits, again, were described as of three classes —
those produced by existing aqueous currents, acting at
the present levels ; those produced by marine currents,
acting independently of e.xisting levels and lines of
drainage, and having power to transport large blocks
hundreds of miles from their parent-rocks; and lastly,
a class of deposits which indicate a less degree of trans-
portaion, but which still acted irrespectively of present
lines of drainage and levels, and have mixed and spread
over the surface of hills and plains the materials of se-
veral adjoining formations.

If, continued the lecturer, we e.\amine the agri-
cultural character of any of these districts in detail,
we shall find them to depend on three geological
conditions — the mineral composition of the rocks ;
the height to which they have been thrown up by
local disturbances ; and the depth, composition, and
distribution of the covering of transported matter.
All soils are composed of the fragments of the stratified
and un&tratified rocks — either of the rocks immediately
below, or the fragments of other rocks lying at various
distances, which have been transported by currents of
water now in action, or by currents which have ceased
to act. The changes from heat to cold, from wet to
dry, from frost to thaw, separate the particles of the
hardest and most compact rocks. Some decompose
more rapidly than others, but all crumble more or less.
Now, if the crumbling matter derived from each rock
remained on the rock from which it was derived, the
composition of the soil would always be identical with
that of the rock below. Sandstones would then in-
variably be covered with sandy soils ; clays, shales, and
clay-slates with clayey soils ; and limestones with cal-
careous soils ; and the only modifying influence oould
be that of elevation and aspect. But the fragmentary
matter produced by the weathering of rocks does not
remain on the spots where it is formed. The rains wash
it into the brooks ; the brooks convey it to the rivers ;
the rivers transport it to the sea. Wherever, from
the diminished declivity of the river-bed, the cur-
rent slackens, there the stream deposits the matter
which it is hurrying along. The coarser frag-
ments are deposited the nearest to their source
in the form of gravel : particles of smaller size travel
farther, and fall down as sand, while the finest particles
are borne to the greatest distances to form silt and mud.
In this way those rich alluvial flats which border our
rivers have accumulated, when in seasons of flood the
furb'd WTtor' ovrrflnw thrir ordin;u-v channrl-- and

leave a rich sediment behind them. Again, where the
tide and the freshets meet near the mouths of rivers, a
further deposit takes place. In this way have been
formed those alluvial marshes near the mouths of the
Humber, the Thames, and the Severn, many of which,
from the human remains and works of art contained in
them, must have been formed since the Roman invasion.
Besides the soils produced by this drifting and mixing
of the materials of different rocks along the e.\isting
lines of drainage, and at present levels, by causes still
acting, there is another class of deposits of older date,
which exhibit proofs of a much more extensive trans-
portation by currents which have ceased to act, and
which acted independently of the present lines of drain-
age. These currents had power to transport great
blocks of stone weighing many tons, to points distant
hundreds of miles from their parent rocks. In an essay
in your Journal, which you recently honoured with
your prize, I described these deposits in great
detail ; I described their distribution, depth, and
composition, so far as it is known in the present
neglected state of the geology of the surface ; I de-
scribed the heights to which they extend up our moun-
tain chains, and the districts most free from them ; I
pointed out also the evidence of their having been formed
beneath the sea by the submergence of the land, and of
that sea having been an icy sea which overspread a large
portion of the northern hemisphere. I will not go over
that ground again, but will content myself with pointing
out oa the map as briefly as possible the different lines
along which the transported matter has travelled, in
order to impress you more strongly with the extent of
these deposits, and the influence which they have exerted
over large areas, in masking or modifying the characters
which the rock immediately below would have imparted.
I have thus pointed out five lines of drift north of the
Thames influenced by the position of the mountains
and hills : — 1, That east of the chalk range; 2, that
between the chalk and the oolitic chain ; o, that between
the western escarpment of the oolites and the Penine
chain — the great central chain of England ; 4, that be-
tween the Penine chain and the Cotswolds on one side,
and the Cambrian and Cumbrian chains on the other ; 5,
that on the western side of the Cambrian chain. I have
shown also the interlacing of the difierent lines of drift,
by the transport of detritus at certain points across the
chains, so that fragments of granite and other well-
defined rocks, easily recognized, have been carried from
Cumberland to the shores of the CJerman Ocean, and
there blended witli others from the cast of Scotland and
Norway. I have shown how fragments of ihc red chalk
of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire have been carried to
Moreton-in-the-lMarsh, and there mixed with peculiar
pebbles derived from the Bromsgrove ijickey, and
spread over the midlandcounties. These quartz pebbles
have also been carried across depressions in the oolitic
range into the valley of the Thames, and the gravel-pits
of Hyde Park ; while fragments of the peculiar chalk of
the county of Antrim have been transported, in Ireland,
as far south as M e.vford, and across the bed of the Irish
Chaiinrllo ( V,rnarvi)ti»hirr :ut(] IVmbrolifshirennjugfJiJi

THK FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

68

Tiie district south of tlie Tliamcs innst be considered
separately. It is evlensively covrred with siqierlicial ac.cw-
uiulations, but tliey are of a difl'erent kind. Besides the
marine strata which were formed on the bed of the
erratic sea, there is another class of superficial deposits,
which is only beginning to e.vcite the attention which
tiiey deserve, and whicli have e.\ercised an important
influence on the distribution of soils. There are certain
districts, both on our own island and on the continent,
in which we find no traces of the erratic tertiaries. but
which appear to have been subject to aqueous operations
of some kind or other, which have produced a certain
degree of local transport dift'erent from the effects of
ordinary marine action, different from ordinary atmo-
spheric ui'tion, and different from that peculiar marine
action which is characteristic of the erratic tertiaries.
They consist of thin deposits of clay, loam, and sand,
containingaiiaular fragments of the subjacent and neigh-
bouring rocks. They are spread irregularly over tlie
surface, being deepest and most free from coarse frag-
ments on thephiins; thinner and more mixed with them
on the slopes and tlat summits of hills; entirely absent
from steep sides and sharp ridges. Tliey appear to have
been formed subsequently to the desiccation of the bed
of the erratic sea, for they are spread (when the two de-
posits are present in the same district) over its denuded
surface. In the meantime, England appears to have
been repeopled, by mauy of the species of laud animals
now e.xtinct, which lived there before the erratic sub-
mergence. Whenever shells are found associated witli
these deposits, which are chiefly those of the land
and fresh water, tUey belong to existing spe-
cies, and with nnr or two c:<ception^, to the
very sppcies now iuhabitinv tlir, iici'jfliliuniliiiarl.
These deposits conlainiiiL' an;^ulur dttrilu.s, and fli.ii
rrtect on the variations of suil, were lirst desciibcd by
uie in your Juurnal, us they txi--t in XorfoUc. .*<nljsc-
i,aenlly, in u jupt r jct uiipitblislif.d, wl)i(;h wa? written
hV<i yrais bince, at llic reque^t K>i .Sir Henry iJr !a
Beche, lur the .Memoir.^ of the < luvt-riiuicnt Geological
Society, [ described them us they exist in .South Wales ;
dnd in the Journal of the Geological .Society for last
year, I described them as they exist in North Kent, i
called them "warp." They have since been described
by Mr. Austen for Devonshire, under the name of
"head;" and by Sir 11. Murchison and AFr. Prestwich,
for Sussex and the neighbourhood of Calais. Sir K.
Murchison calls them " angular tlint-drift." Of the
nature of the agencies which produced them we know
nothing ; and I will not detain you by enumerating the
conflicting opinions which prevail on that subject. The
points of agricultural interest are their existence, their
extensive distribution, and their influence on the varia-
tions of soils. These facts are quite independent of
theories regarding their origin. The district south of
the Thames is one in which we have no traces of the
most peculiar of the erratic deposits—the till, boulder
clay, or lower erratics — though it comes down to the
north side of London. There are, however, some beds
of partially-rolled gravel, which I think may be a mo-
dification gf the upper erratics of the district north of

the Thames, overlapjjing the lower. Be this as it may,
these beds of gravel are extensively distributed, varying
in their maximum depth from fifteen to thirty feet. But
the greater poition of the superficial deposits in that re-
gion consist of that "warp" or " angular flint-drift,"
which exhibits a certain amount of mixing of the ma-
terials of more than one foimation, but not so great a
degree of transport as the erratic tertiaries. This an-
gular drifted matter is spread indifferently over flat-
topped hills, over their long slopes, and over plains, on
w hich last it is the deepest. The coloured tection of
a road-cutting near Hartley Rectory (for the use of
which I am indebted to the kindness of the Council
of the Geological Society) exhibits this deposit as
it exists on the chalk of North Kent. A diagram of it
was repeated, by their permission, in your .louriul. For
the two other colon icd sections, I have to thank Sir
lloderick Murchison, as well as the Council of the Geo-
logical Society. They exhibit two instances of this de-
posit ; in one case on the chalk of Shakespeare's clift',
in the other on the outcrops of the chalk and greensand
near Folkstone. The Weald denudation, beliveen the
North and South Downs, enjoys the reputation of being
a district wholly free from transported matter, and of
being composed of soils derived exclusively from the
rocks below. In the essay on the " Agricultural Geo-
logy of England and Wales" in your Journal, I ex-
pressed an opinion, founded on my own observation, that
it contained more matter, indicating some degree of
transport, than is generally supposed. In corroboration
of this, I cited some notices of such deposits from Dr.
IVIantell's " Geology of the S.E. of England." These
views havn been since contirmed by two papers recenthr
piibliidud l.y Sir i;. Murchison and Mr. ilartin, ^.l'
I'lilbomn^li. I'nim lliesc it appears that the detritus
of iiii,> district i> arranged in east and west zones — iliat
two of those /.oiie.^ are exterior to the escarpments of
tlie chalk, both on the north and oa the south, and luo
wiliiiu the Jeiivniation ol the weald whicli is boiinJcd by
theui. The outermost of tlie.-e c\terior /.ones it lie-
sciibed, Ijy Mr. Martin, as composed of iligiitly worn
flints mi.\ed with many rolled pebbles, derived iVom thr
older tertiaries of the l.,ondon clay series. These are
the beds which I consider a modification of the upper
erratics of the north of the Thames. That nearest to the
chalk escarpment is described as composed either exclu-
sively of angular and subangular flints, or of the same ma-
terials sparingly mixed near tertiary outliers with their
rolled pebbles before mentioned. It is this which
prevails on the chalk of the Sussex coast. The two
zones within the chalk escarpment are called by
Mr. Martin the subcretaceous and the wealden zones.
In the subcretaceous zone there are many localities,
both on the north and south of the central ridge of iron
sand, covered with heaps of drifted and sharply fractured
flints, mixed with chert, ironstone, and sandstone derived
from the neighbouring and subjacent rocks. They fill
hollows in the eroded surface, and are piled uji in heaps
at heights varying from thirty to three-hundred feet
above the existing drainage. 'I hey are mixed with a few
rounded pebbles, resetpbling ihoge of the tertiary d«^

a4

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

posits. The lower chalk, the upper green sand, and
the gault, which lie between the lower green sand and
the chalk with flints, are generally free from this detritus,
hut a spread of flints occurs at intervals. From this Sir
R. Murchison infers that they were not derived from the
chalk escarpments on the north and south, but were
transported by currents from the west, where the ranges
of the North and South Downs unite. The transverse
gorges by which the waters of the Weald escape north-
wards to the Thames and southwards to the sea, also
contain considerable accumulations of clay, sand, and
fragmentary chalk. With respect to the wealden zone of
detritus, the slopes of the hills and the valleys of the
really central ridge of iron-sand are described as desti-
tute, or nearly so, of chalk-flints, or other extraneous
fragments ; but the valleys occasionally present thick
accumulations of reaggregated clay or loam, derived
from the adjoining hillE. Sir R. Murchison notices the
effect of these deposits in modifying the sterile character
of the Weald clay by an admixture of loam, and also in
producing the rich, arable plain of Little Hampton and
Bognor, composed of the same materials as the thinner
deposits on the higher slopes of the Downs, but mixed
in different proportions. The flints which prevail on
the hills are more sparingly mixed with loam and clay in
the low grounds, where loam prevails ; and between the
thin deposits of the hills and the deep deposit of the
plains, he declares that it is impossible to draw any line
of separation. This is virtually identical with the state-
ment I had previously made in your Journal and in the
Journal of the Geological Society, as to the dependence
of the variations of soils in Norfolk and North Kent on
contours, and ou the varying depth and composition of
the " warp," i. e,, the " angular drift" Sir R.
Murchison. I therefore hail with great satisfaction the
acceasion of so powerful an ally. I have been engaged
or five years in a struggle for the advancement of agri-
cultural geology against those geologists who regard
fossils as the all-in-all of their science, and whose specu-
lative views respecliug the distribution of plants and
animals require that soils should be formed from the
rocks on whicti they rest by the sole influence of atmos-
pheric action. Those views prevent ihcm from " recog-
nising warp as a distinct deposit." It is now proved,
however, on the evidence of some of our best field
geologists, with Sir Roderick Murchison at their head,
that by whatever name we call it, and however unable we
may be to explain the causes which produced it,
there is such u deposit, and that it extrcises an
important influence ou the distribution of soils.
It results, then, from the collection and generalisation
of our present stock of facts respecting the superficial
deposits, that there is scarcely a district in England and
Wales exempt from some kind of transported matter,
in which are blended the materials of more than one
formation, when even the thinnest are of sufficient depth
to form the soil, and in many cases the subsoil also.
To be useful to agriculture, thei'efore, geological maps
must include the geology of the surface as well as of the
substrata. We must lay down soils and subsoils as
they actually exist, and then deter coine their relations to

the rocks beneath : not deduce the former hypothetically
from the latter. Such maps may be of two kinds. We ,,,
may have maps of estates on the large scale of the tithe ■
maps. On these the variations of soil may be denoted
by colours after a plan which I proposed about two
years since. The depth of soil and subsoil, and of the
substrata down to the rocks, which form the assumed
surface of ordinary geological maps, may be indicated
by a system of figures and of conventional signs. The
mineral characters of the rocks may also be shown by
words written along the strike — as sandstone, clay, lime*
stone, &c. The fossiliferous group to which they be-
long, may be shown by words written in another character
across the strike — as coal measures, lower greens sand,
&c. From their minuteness of detail these maps would
be of great practical utility, and could not fail, if exe-
cuted by competent persons, to furnish much information
respecting the agricultural capabilities of the property,
and to lead to the development of dormant resources.
They should always accompany, if not be preliminary to,
draining operations. By combining the two the expense
of the mapping will be reduced, since the trial holes
necessary for the draining will give much of the infor-
mation required for the maps. The remainder will be
furnished in greater detail during the cutting of the
drains. Inferior to these maps in practical utility, but
more interesting to science — because they would con-
dense and epitomise information which, on the larger
scale, would be too much diffused for general and com-
pi'ehensive views of the surface geology of large districts
— would be the Ordnance sheets coloured like the map
of Norfolk before you, to represent the variations of soil.
These would be maps of the surface geology, as
companions to the Government maps of the substrata.
On a scale so small as that of the Ordnance maps it is
impossible to combine the geology of the substrata with
that of the surface : they must be shown by separate
maps. On the larger maps of estates they may be ex-
hibited together, by the plan indicated above. In illus-
tration of these three methods of constructing geolo-
gical maps, let us suppose the floor of this room to be
composed of different kinds of wood — fir, oak, elm,
mahogany, &c. — arranged alternately. These will re-
present the strata. The carpet which covers them will
represent the superficial deposits, which comprise the
soils and subsoils of agriculture, except where holes in the
carpet expose the floor. By means of these holes, and
of our knowledge of the strike of the strata, which is at
right angles to their dip or inclination, andishei'e repre-
sented by the direction in which the planks lie, we ob-
tain the data on which our geological maps are con-
structed. We represent the strata as they would be if
the carpet were removed. Such maps, therefore, can
convey very little information respecting soils and sub-
soils, unless accompanied by another map, showing
their variation ; that is to say, the pattern of the carpet.
On the Ordnance sheets I give a separate plan of the
carpet. The Government maps give a plan of the floor.
On the larger maps of estates I purpose to exhibit the
pattern, thickness^ and composition of the carpet. By
means of the mineral characters of the strata, written

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

65

along the strike, and of the fosslUfevous groups to which
they belong, written across the strike, I propose to
render this map of the carpet transparent, so that he
construction of the floor may be seen through it. In
the outset of such an undertaking the want would be
felt of a systematic nomenclature of soils, capable of
general application. The authors of the reports to the
Board of Agriculture complain repeatedly of the diffi-
culty of describing soils, or of laying them down on
maps, from the confusion existing as to nomenclature,
as well as from the irregularity and intricacy of their
distribution. Allow me to ask, how many of the local
names which I enumerated in the early part of this ad-
dress you understand? I would ask a Kentish man,
what idea he attaches to the terms rammel, fox-bench,
keale, and bears' muck ; and on the other hand, I would
ask a farmer from Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, or
Cheshire, what he supposes to be meant by pinnock,
hassock, stone-schatter, cledge, and blackhover. Soils
require a double classification — chemical and geological.
The chemical classification would arrange them, and
name them in conformity with their composition, divid-
ing them into sands, sandy loams, loams, clay loams,
clays, marls, calcareous and vegetable soils, according
to the proportion of sand, separable by washing, of lime,
and of vegetable matter which they contain. The
geological classification would express their relations,
on the one hand, to the rocks on which they
rest, and on the other to the superficial de-
posita. I know of no system which would answer the pur-
pose so well as that which divides them into alluvial, erratic,
and local. Alluvial soils will be those formed as I have de-
scribed by existing aqueous action along existiug lines of
drainage. Erratic soils will be those which were formed by
currents which have ceased to act, aud which acted irrespec-
tively of the present drainage. Local soils will be those com-
posed exclusively of the material of the rock on which they rest.
Under this double classification we should have local, erratic, aud
alluvial sands, loams, aud clays, &c., on the chalk, oolite, green-
sand, &c. These particulars, together with the depth and colour
of the soil and the depth aud compositiou of the subsoil, might
he concisely expressed by signs aud symbols iu a manner Vr-hich
would convey more information than could be gained from
whole lines of description, or from heaping together such
epithets as line, deep, rich, mellow, putrid loam — or poor, cold,
sour, hungry, barren clay. Such information, with notices of
the elevation aud aspect of the laud and its elevation, would
be nearly all that is required to enable a judgment to he
formed respecting the present quality of the soil, its future
capabilities, aud the available means of improvement. The
test by which to discriminate between local and erratic soils,
when the rock is covered only by a thin film of the latter,
is this : — Do they, or do they not, contain any pebbles or frag-
ments of stone which are not found in the rock below, and
which could not have reached tiiem by ordinary atmospheric
action ? If any coarse foreign detritus is present, we may be
sure that it is present also in finer particles; and that the soil
differs somewhat in composition from the subjacent rock. Tried
by this test, I believe that local soils will be found extremely
rare. To establish such a system we should require the co-

operation of many agricultural surveyors conversant with soils
to map their variations on different geological formations ;
they sliould act in conjunction with a central body of agri-
culturists, che iiists, and geologists, in order to insure
uniformity of colours, signs, aud nomenclature. A sys-
tematic study and classification of soils such as this is
intimately connected with those researches which Professor
Way is carrying on with so much success respecting the
absorptive powers of soils. Is it too much to hope that some
of the most perplexing anomalies of agricultural practice and
agricultural experiment will disappear before accurate and
systematic researches of this kind? I have occupied you very
long; but there is one point connected with the superficial
deposits to which before I conclude I must beg leave to draw
your attention, in consequence of its bearings on the vexed
question of the best distance aud depth ol drains. You will
observe in the sections before you, by Sir R. Murchison aud
myself, as well as in some others which I formerly gave in
your Journal, in a paper on the Geology of Norfolk, the manner
in which the " warp" or angular drift which forms the surface
soil, fills cavities in the subsoil on which it rests. Most of
these cavities are the transverse sections of furrows which
communicate with the deeper cavities, which are of the form of
cylinders and inverted cones. These cavities are most con-
spicuous where the warp rests on chalk, but they are also
found when it rests on sandstone or clay. Mr. Austen has
lately stated in a paper read before the Geological Society that
iu the neighbourhood of Guildford a loamy soil, requiring to
be drained, rests on clay, the surface of whicli is furrowed in
this manner. He states also that the farmers have found that
drains cut across these furrows lay dry a much larger area than
when they are cut parallel with them. This is precisely what
might have been expected. These furrows act as so many
parallel natural drains, and the artificial drains crossing them
become subraains. Perhaps some of the contradictory state
raents v/hich are made respecting the superior efficacy of deep
and shallow drains might be reconciled by examining the re-
lations of the drains to these furrows, and determining whether
they were cut across them or parallel to them, and whether
they extended into the impervious clay much below these natural
subterranean channels, or just coincided with their average
depth. That average depth I apprehend would be the most
effective depth, whether more or less than three or four feet.
I throw out these views as suggestive of inquiry. I may add
that when acting in Ireland, in 1847, as Government Inspector
of the Cavan Union under the Temporary Relief Act, I had
few opportunities for geological research, I could not avoid
observing, iu traversing the county, fresh sections of the
stil and subsoil laid open by the Relief Road cuttings of
the Board of Works. Sections abounded exhibiting this
irrcular junction of the soil with a retentive subsoil ; aud
I observed that the surface-water drained out along this irre-
gular line of junction, whether it extended to the depth of four
feet or was only two feet deep. I have since made similar ob-
servations in fresh radway cuttings in this country.

On the motion of Lord Berners, seconded by Sir
John V. B. Johnston, Bart., M.P., the best thanks of
the meeting were voted to Mr. Trimmer for his kind
trouble in preparing, delivering, and illustrating by spe-
cial diagrams, the interesting lecture they had then
htard.

THE FARMER*S MAGAZINE.

•i'H .iiann& svi

itiow Haw ^)*>'-T

ON GRAZING.

BY A PRACTICAL FARMER.

'The profit of the earth is for all; the king himself is serverl by the field." — EucTjUS.

That department of farm practice connected with the
management of cattle, sheep, horses, &c., commonly
called "live stock," during their consumption of the
products of the farm, is denominated "grazing."
It includes the management of the grass lands and
other pasturage on the farm ; and also fallow crops,
so far as their consumption is concerned — this is
winter grazing. We, however, in this article intend to
confine ourselves to the stocking and depasturage of
grass lands and other pasturage during the summer, i. e.,
summer grazing.

Summer Grazing. — The Pastures. — Grass L'lnds. —
Clover and other seeds ought invariably to be cleared of
stock and " laid in" " at perfect rest" on or before the
month of February, otherwise the trampling of the stock
will seriously injure as well as retard the growth of the
grasses and herbage, which at this period is just in that
state most likely to receive injury from the treading of
s-tock and the floods peculiar to the month. It is of es-
sential importance to promote the early growth of the
grasses ; nothing should be allowed to check them, espe-
cially in their early stages. A vigorous start in the
spring will generally secure a good pasture, which under
ordinary care may be preserved throughout the summer.
.\ ^ood grazier will not stock his laiitl till the pasturage
!■ plpntifn! ; otherwise, the stock having to pass to and
tVO ."■0 frequently iu search of their daily food, tread down
and destroy mucli young herbage, and the eontinned
cropping of the young grass prevents it getting suHicient
bad to insure a free and rapid growlh. Secure a good
pasture, and stock it lightly ; the stock will then genlly
and pleasantly take their food, and lay themselves quietly
down to rest; (here is no unnecessary trampling of the
grass— it has consequently a far better chance of im-
provement— the pasture soon abounds and becomes lux-
uriant— the grazier crowds in more stock — the pasture
keeps its lead — the stock thrive — the grazier is contented.
On the other hand, by stocking a bai-e pasture it is always
kept bare — the stock, as we have said, are continually on
foot, looking out for every blade of grass, apparently
bent upon preventing their growth — they become rest-
less and lose their condition, and nearly a whole sum-
mer is lost before they regain it. No plant can thrive
under continued cropping of its leaves, much less so if
it be those it first throws out ; but let it gain a fair, if
not a vigorous shoot, and it will bear much. Just so
with field grasses ; if they are continually cropped in
their earliest stages, a most unsatisfactory summer pas-
ture is certain to be the result ; and, of course, the gra-
zier's profit equally so. On clay lands, good spring
pastures are indispensable before they are stocked, else
tiiS drought of •jummei" &ad hej*t of the sun cause the

herbage to burn up ; whereas, a good pasture, carefully
preserved, will last the whole summer : the land being
covered with grass prevents by its shade the penetrating
rays of the sun from absorbing too much moisture (rom
the subsoil ; a refreshing influence is kept up ; the pas-
ture retains its luxuriance, and the quality of the grass
is very nutritious and fattening, quite equalling that on
the better loams ; and in moist seasons, accompanied by
heat, they are better, being le?s laxative : fine loams
grow too fast.

Cattle Orazing. — The Stocking of Pasture Lands.
— This depends upon the quality of the land to be
grazed. The Ijtsl lands are commonly known as " bul-
lock lands," and are those capable of fatting cattle from
the richness of their grasses : these best lands are gene-
rally appropriated to the grazing of cattle. These lands
are " laid in" in the early part of the winter. As soon
as u good pasture is obtained, which will be about the
close of April or the beginning of May, the bullocks are
put thereon — the number depending upon the state of
the pasture and geniality of the season. Fatting cattle
must have good pasturage, and every care must be taken
to keep the pasture in what is called a feeding state. As
the grass increases more cattle may be put on ic ; and
iu luxuriant seasons horses may be i)ut on, at the I'ate oi
about one to seven acres ; but sto«;king with sheep tuu-
joiutly, on the " best bullock land.-," should be avoided:
the sheep pick out much of the fine growing grasse-^,
leaving of course the coarser for the cattle, but the
horses more generally feed upon the short bare places,
roadways, footways, and the like. 'J'hey are not consi-
dered detrimental in a fatting pasLuic in the early part
of the season, but should be removed soon after raid-
summej-, or whenever the pasture begins to fall off. It
has become a common practice iu many districts to give
fatting cattle an allowance of four pounds of linseed cake
upon their pastures : it is either given iu small tubs, or
the dust or small pieces are sifted out, and the larger
ones are thrown upon the ground, from which they are
readily gathered, and without waste. This allowance of
cake is, we think, highly advantageous, and in two ways
— it will give that peculiar quality of hand to the animal
which is so desirable, and the pasture upon the average
will carry or fatten one head of cattle more upon every
seven acres. The writer of this paper has for several
years witnessed the good effects of this system upon two
fields of ten acres each, and has practised it on others.
These fields, prior to the introduction of the plan of
giving cattle cake upon gras.i, were usually stocked with
ten cattle (large oxen) in each field, or one per acre;
now, each field will fatten with greater rapidity twelve,
by having the ol^ove jUowapee of cuke — thus makin|;a

THE FARMER'S iMAGAZINE.

67

diffeiencc of one bullock to five acres, ^^'e believe this
mode well woith adoption, and give it our most unqua-
lified leeommendalion ; it is a most effective wiiy to im-
prove grazing lauds — the catlle thrive much faster, and
are soon ready to give place to others.

In stocking these " best lands," much attention
should be given to the projior choice of the stock to be
d'ipasturcd upon them. It i* uioit advaiicageous to
chooju animals of good fatteuing quality, suite'l in ah:o
and weight according to the fertility of the land, and in
good and thriving condition ; indeed, almost fat — thtse
will speedily be fit for the butcher. Ou being sold oft",
the land should be very heavily stocked with store cattle
and store sheep, so as to feed the whole oft' in the shortest
time possible, and then to bo again " laid in" for a suf-
ficient time to obtain pasturage preparatory to a renewed
slocking. In this way, " two runs" of cattle may be
fatted off every summer. ISIany graziers, however, pre-
fer ea>ing other i)astures by taking oft' store or lean
stock, and leaving them thereon for more raj)id improve-
ment, 'liie droppings of the cattle ought to be re-
peatedly knocked and spread, and it is a good practice
to mow some portion of the rough places every day in
order to their being eaten more readily. This will keep
the pasture more even, and materially improve the
herbage of these plhces, and in what aie called " giass"
years (highly productive years) the cattle will be bene-
fited by eating the partially dried herbage, for which
they manitVst frequently a decided preference. Those
animals affected with purgin'^ will resort to it, and be
benefited in tliis respect. If these rough places are left
uneaten during a whole summer, they becomo a huge
lussac of grass, which nothing will cat afterwards ; they
destroy the finer herbage or gia>sts near them, and ar(^
finally rottfd down in the, ensuing winter. In slocking
jjastures on the lands not known as the " be-t lands,"
l)Ut still good enoiigli to latti'ii cattle of medium size and
ijuality, and which are known as sscond-rate " bullock
land.-,'' the same (bourse may be advantageously ptirsucd
-■-the great difi'erencd will be in the choice of the ani-
iuals. The br'>t lands will fatten oxen of great weight ;
and their value is thus coinmonly eatimatcd : — "That
field will fatten an ox of a hundred stones weight — this
one of seventy stones." If we come below seventy
stones, it is then considered to be in the class of second-
rate bullock lands. These lands are generally stocked
with cattle of less weight, or, if stocked with large cattle,
they ought to have an allowance of cake daily. The
more common mode is to stock them with the smaller
Scotch or Welsh cattle, small Devons, and the like; in-
deed, any breed not likely to exceed fifty or sixty impe-
rial stones in weight. Heifers, drape cows, and two
years old steers, thrive very fast on such lands ; the for-
mer are much sought after by the yrazier for this pur-
pose. Lands of moderate fertility will advantageously
graze stock, though put on in low condition, if it is
allowed time to get a lead. The old adage says," Twenty-
four hours for the sheep, twelve days for the ox" : this
adage may be satisfactorily explained on studying the
process " of rumination — the herbage should be suffi-
ciently Igng to be easily gathered by the ox — he will

then soon lay down, and the process of rumination im-
mediately proceeds." One of the modern improvements
in summer grazing is the fattening of cattle in byres,
hovels, or fold-yards. This introduction has materially
lessened the annual value of the best summer-fed bul-
lock lands, inasmuch as it provides a substitute. It is
but a very few years since that the meat markets were
supplied, durin!^ the months of June, July, and August,
almct exclusively from these lauds, and conseiiuently
the j.ricc of meat was proportionately higher in these
months ; this led to the adoption of the above mode of
fattening cattle. It is now very generally practised by
a great number of our best farmers, and with extraordin-
ary benefit, not only derived from the fattening of the
cattle, but in providing an immense store of valuable
manure. This system is more beneficial to poor soils
than others, becau-e a crop of clover and other artificial
grasses is thus made to produce as large a quantity of
meat as the rich pasture lands, and also large supplies
of manure to be applied in raising the corn crops. We
say that it thus jiroduces as large a quantity of meat as
the richer soils — the assertion, we think, is correct. It
is an indisputable fact that if any herb or root is left to
grow undisturbed, to throw out its leaves and stalks to
catch every favourable influence, atmospheric or other-
wise, it will yield a larger plant, and a greater amount of
herbage; just so with the artificial grasses — they must
be left till they are ready for the .scythe ; they are then
cut and carried into the fold-yard. Besides, in this
partly matured state they are better and more substantial
food than tiie young natural grasses fresh from the field,
at a few hours' growth. We desire to guard ourselves
and readers here : the quality and nutritive value of the
grasses depend mainly upon the fertility of the soil upon
which they are grown. V\'e therefore mean that upon
these poor soils the grasses requisite to fatten cattle mu.st
be of a highly nutritive quality, and as poor soils will
not natur-dlly jjroduce such, they must be aided by arti-
ficial means, aud which is now universally the case. The
common mode of management it to stock the hovels,
byres, or fold yards, with cattle in hiuh condition, mow
and give to t^hem daily sueh ijuanlily of food as they re-
quire, and in addition to supply them with meal or cake.
We think that meal (by which we mean bean or pea
meal), in this mode of fattening, is preferable; it can be
administered economically in the crib, and is an excel-
lent corrective against strong succulent food. About six
pounds of meal given in chaft" is a good allowance, and
should be given in two feeds — moining and evening.

We cannot stay now to argue the point as to the uni-
versal adoption of this measure ; but we will, by the way,
just say that our opinion is decidedly in favour of it.
We believe the " best lands," if so applied, would pro-
duce an astonishing quantity of most valuable herbage,
and could be made, under arlijiclal grass culture, to
fatten a much larger amount of cattle than in the present,
system of ordinary grazing on natural grass pasture.
Perhaps at some future time we may give our views upoQ
this point.

Having hastily noticed some of the modes of stocking
h*nds for the fattening of cattle, we wuet now say awor4

58

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

or two relative to summer grazing Slore Stock, and as
our limit is nearly filled up, we must leave Sheep Graz-
ing for another paper. By " store stock" we mean all
those cattle, young and old, not intended for fattening at
this season, i e., cows, breeding and suckling cows and
heifers, young steers and heifers, calves, and working
oxen. Milch cows certainly must have good pastures,
but if put on good " bullock lands" they will incline to
make themselves fat rather than yield much creamy
miilk. We prefer putting them thinly on the best sheep
lands, taking care to keep a full pasture. Breeding and
suckling cows and heifers should have the next advantage
in the distribution of our pasturage. These we run
thinly over our sheep -breeding pastures, and on these
should be turned the working o.xen, because coming
hungry from their work, they lay greedily hold of such
pasturage as the more lazy and fastidious animals may
leave. The young steers and heifers we place next in
the distribution of our pasturage, and run them on lands
amongst young sheep, on the inferior pastures. We
also make use of them, along with the sheep, in " mob-
bing" up our " bullock pastures," prior to relaying them
in a second time; indeed, this kind of stock we place
just where we have room, and change them about to ease
or stay our pastures as we deem requisite. The calves
we take great care of — they are put upon the " sweetest"
and most healthy pasture we have, and are carefully
watched and changed according to circumstances ; even
a day lost, through inattention while a calf is scouring,
may cost its life. Cows are very subject to purgative
affections : when this is the cas?, a change of pasture and
dry food should immediately be resorted to. We shut
them up a day or two to hay, and give but little water.
We had two cows the other day violently affected, so
much so as to fall off full three-fourths in their milk.
They were shut up in a warm hovel two days, to hay or
clover hay, and then turned out recovered. In every
great change of weather, in heavy thunder storms or con-
tinued rains, much care is required in overlooking the
whole herd: " The eye of the master grazeth the ox :"
it is indeed upon his busiuess-like judgment that success
must depend ; and in variable seasons it must and will
be in constant exercise. We say the great characteristic
in the mind of a farmer and grazier ought to be judg-
ment ; it is brought into requisition under every change
and circumstance of his business, but more particularly
so in the disposition and management of his live stock.

Sheep Grazing. — This department of grazing will in-
clude every other kind of pasturage on the farm not
qualified to fatten cattle, or not usually so appropriated.
The inferior grass lands, grass seeds, clovers, tares, tre-
foils, sainfoins, lucernes, &c., are all more or less con-
signed to the grazing of sheep. Those lands named as
the second-rate " bullock lands," are exceedingly well
adapted to the fattening of sheep, and they are for the
most part applied to this purpose, being found to leave
a larger margin of profit from grazing sheep than if
grazed with cattle. The better class of these lands will
fatten from four to seven sheep per acre, according to
their breed, s'ze, and age, and the peculiar tendency of
the variety of sheep to lay on fat. We deprecate dog-

matism upon any subject, and therefore beg our readers
to view favourably the opinion we here advance (as it
were in a parenthesis) upon the comparative merits of
bheep— we think it correct. We do it with a view to
their guidance, or at least to call to it their attention.
We think these good sheep lands vi'iW fatten sheep of the
various and most approved breeds in nearly the following-
proportions : — Heavy long-woolled sheep, five per acre ;
Lincolns and large Leicesters, eleven to two acres ; small
Leicesters, six per acre ; Hampshire downs, thirteen to
two acres ; small downs, seven per acre ; half-bred long
wools and downs, six per acre ; half-bred Leicesters and
downs, thirteen to two acres. We also think that the
lighter breeds of sheep possess still greater propoitionate
advantages in their propensity to fatten, and their quick-
ness in fattening ; but this is in some degree retarded by
their more restless habits and greater tendency to rove
or roam about the field, than in the larger and heavier
breeds — they certainly are by no means so docile, nor
do they rest so quietly or so long on their lair as the
larger breeds. We offer no opinion further as to the
relative merits of different breeds. Our own aim is to
breed that kind of sheep from which we can obtain the
most mutton and wool of the greatest money value, at
the least expense, and in the shortest time. We think
a large breed of sheep of quick growth best for our pur-
pose, and have adopted it, but it is by no means appli-
cable in all cases. However, without saying more upon
this point, we do urge our readers to think much upon
this subject, as upon the proper stocking of grass lands
depends the profit of grazing. We think the grazier in
proceeding to stock his lands ought to be guided in some
measure upon the principle we have named— the relative
value and adaptation of the breed of sheep and the land
to be stocked, and the site or locality in which it is
situate, also the design of such stocking, whether it be
for folding or otherwise. These and various other con-
siderations will of course have due weight with the grazier
in determining his course of procedure.

The best Sheep Lands. — These lands should be treated
in precisely the same mangier recommended relative to
"bullock lands" — the sheep being kept on turnips or
similar food to as late a period in the spring as possible.
They should then be stocked in accordance with the
principle named above. As soon as the grass shows
signs of taking a decided lead, young cattle should be
put thereon, at the rate of one for every five acres; the
cattle will graze upon the strongest growing places, and
thus keep the pasture level and good. Care must be
taken to remove them so soon as the pasture declines —
for fatting sheep, as for fatting beasts, it must at any
sacrifice be kept right, neither too full nor too short.
In some seasons almost daily changes of the young stock
may be found requisite to keep the pasture in its most
feeding state. This is a point not to be neglected, if
profitable grazing is to be insured. If the sheep are not
made fat, the summer's grazing is nearly thrown away,
and ultimately resort must be had to turnips or rape, to
effect in winter what ought to have been done in
summer.

The inferior Grass Lands. — In tliis class of gracing

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

39

lands we include down ov hill pastuies, as well as all
other grass lands of inferior quality. These are be^t to
be stocked with the leanest and most inferior sheep ou
the furm, or, if the grazier has to purchase sheep for
them, he must take tare not to obtain such as have been
well fed, or have been grazed upon superior pasturage.
The rule is progression — from worse to better, from
better to better still. As the sheep improve in condition,
they will not only be constitutionally strong enough for
removal to a good and more nutritive pasture, but will,
in fact, require it to promote their progress; if not, they
will retrograde : and as their pasture falls off in the
autumn, they should be supplied with cabbage or tur-
nips to a moderate extent ; or, failing these, corn or cake
should be substituted. By due attention to supply the
flock, when needed, with artificial aid of this kind, the
inferior grass lands may be made to fatten vast numbers
of sheep, and the extra food thus supplied will tend very
much towards the permanent improvement of such lands.
The most beneficial purpose, however, to which such
lands can be applied, is in grazing breeding sheep, and
young sheep, together with a proportionate number of
young cattle. These will graze advantageously in con-
junction, and the pasturage be kept in a far better feed-
ing state, than if either were alone to be depastured upon
it. The proportion we recommend in tliis kind of stock-
ing is, one young steer or heifer to five young sheep or
four breeding sheep (ewes and lambs) ; and if the season
is a very abundant one, the proportion of young cattle
may be still larger. The pasture ouglit on no account
to be allowed to grow too fast, to get too rough or gross,
90 as to become unpalatable to the stock — a full comple-
ment of young cattle will always prevent this. They con-
sume chieflyallthc strongest grown or " benty" pasturage
— the sheep the finer and shorter pasturage, and thus all
is kept in a fruitful and nutritious state. We like to see
pastures properly grazed, it argues well for the occupier
— we at once pronounce him to be a man of judgment
and sagacity ; there is neither loss in stock nor waste in
grass — all is freely and profitably consumed. But wc
cannot sufficiently deprecate the conduct of the careless
occupier, who will allow the best of a summer's grass
to gro-v, and remain unconsumed till the succeeding
spring — it will destroy the finest pasture. We have at
this precise time about forty cattle engaged in the con-
sumption of this kind of pasturage, and on land of ex-
cellent quality too. It was allowed by the occupier to
get a- head of his stock ; and the season being a growing
one, he could not from his own resources supply means
to keep it down, nor get any aid from other quarters,
This spring he has been glad to accept from the writer of
this paper a number of young cattle, at a moderate price
per head per week, to eat the grass of the last summer's
growth ; and from tussacs similar to the tufts in forest
herbage, a very slight examination will prove the great
injury done to the pasture — the fiorin, cocksfoot, smoolh-
stalkedj meadow grass, broom grass, and other strong
growing grasses, having destroyed the finest herb-
age grasses, had rendered the field thin of plant, and the
pasturage consequently comparatively unproductive. All
pastures ought, at some period between Midsummer and

Michaelmas, to be completely eaten up, so that no rough
or old glasses are left for the winter. We think the
best time for clearing up the pastures is during the
month of harvest, beginning with some single field ; this
field or iields (as may be required) we would lay-in for
a time, to take in that portion of the fatting stock we ile-
sire to push forward ; the others, as they are fed oft", we
would lay-in for winter service, by turning the stock on
to the stubbles, where for a time they will do well —
breeding ewes, for instance, will do exceedingly well
upon stubbles, and we think it is advantageous to them,
inasmuch as at this period, when their lambs are taken
from them, they require a change, t > dry up their milk.
The lambs upon being taken from their dams will re-
quire the best of the inferior grass pastures, and on
which, and not on stronger, they should be put. As
they grow and gain strength, they may be placed on
weak-land eddishes or aftermaths ; or what perhaps is
still more preferable, if they are not too luxuriant, on the
young clover eddishes, and from these to turnips, or
other winter food. The ewes, after they have partially
run over the stubble lands, should be returned to their
summer pastures to gain condition and such forward-
ness as will prepare them earlier to receive the ram.
These laid-in pastures are admirably adapted to benefit
the breeding flock at this period, and ought invariably
to be prepared for this purpose. No fioekmaster will
ever repent making due provision for his ewe flock at
this time— it will insure him from barren ewes, and yield
him a large fall of lambs. The young or yearling sheep
may remain on the stubble lands at convenience, care
being taken that they do not lose condition : from these
they should go to their winter pastures, or other winter
keeping, as the grazier may require for them.

Hill and Down Pastures. — In stocking hill ar down
pastures, we should choose from those varieties of sheep
well calculated to travel — hill and vale graziers generally
require their slieep for folding purposes on the arable
lands ; no heavy sheep will profitably perform this ser-
vice. The active Southdown is, we think, just the very
animal for this purpose — his light gallop, and gicat per-
severance in search of food, make him invaluable for this
department of grazing. The ewe flock, in particular, we
prefer for this use. They like to travel over much
ground, and to select their food as they best can. No
lambs are ever found to thrive so well as those having a
large breadth of surface to roam over, and no breed of
sheep bear folding better.

Grass Seeds. — In grazing grass seeds we should adopt
the same course as we would pursue in stocking and de-
pasturing inferior grass lands, except putting on so much
cattle. We tliink a somewliat heavier stocking with
sheep would answer every purpose, and the whole of the
herbage would be by them profitably and without waste
consumed ; but we see no objection to a fair proportion
of cattle, if required by the economy of the farm.

Clovers. — These wc think should be wholly grazed
and consumed by sheep, and we prefer partial folding for
this purpose. Clovers should be allowed to attain
some strength of herbage before stocking : it is best
for t'le plant — it is best for the stock. If the young

60

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

clover is kept constantly cropped, it will not carry
much stock; but if permitted to get into bloom, it is
almost impossible to over-stock it, and the stock will
not only eat less, but thrive much faster. Our
practice is, to divide our clover fields into compart-
ments, and stock them successively, as our judgment
dictates. We first mow for hay, and only consume the
eddish or aftermath ; but if the retjuirements of our farm
.yere less, and \V3 could afford to gra^e the whole crop,
Yre should prefer adopting the same course. Clovers
must be well grown before stocking, or much loss will
ensue to both stock and crop.

Tares. — This is a far more succulent crop than the
clover, and can never be grazed to its best advantage
without folding ; it ought on no account to be stocked
till it has well grown, and then only with sheep. In a
moist and fruitful season this crop will grow very rapidly,
and will require nmch care in grazing it. We think a
field may be well grazed in two parts : we allow the
crop to get plant and a fair amount of herbage, and then
heavily stock the one part whilst the other is growing,
and as we finish off the one part change to the other, and
so on through the summer, or till such time as we re-
quire the field for other purposes, or rather to sow with
turnips. It is very desirable in grazing tares to supply
the stock with dry food for them to take at pleasure ;

I

bean or pea haulm, or even wheat straw will be useful ;
but bean or pea meal, or similar food, is of great
value.

Trefoilx. — These we would graze and treat precisely
as clovers ; but as the lands are generally inferior upon
which they are grown, we would recommend as much ,
adventitious aids to be given as the grazier can afford.

Sainfoins and Lucernes. — These are not often grazed,
but mown for hay. We would merely say, that if a
grazier is, by force of circumstances, compelled to graze
them, he must avoid close grazing.

Chicory, Burnet, ^"c. — These are in some separate
localities adapted to grazing purposes. The former we
are acquainted with, and know that it will produce a
good crop for the scjthe, but not for grazing. Burnet
we also know is so unproductive as to be of little value
to the grazier.

We have thus cursorily and hastily run through some
of the departments of grazing. We feel that we have
not done common justice to the subject — it is one that
might in detail fill volumes. (Jur aim is to set our
readers thinking, and we caie not if it is even at our
absurdities, if so it should strike them. We wish to ad-
vance every interest connected with agriculture, and if
our very humble efforts are of the slightest avail in this
respect, we shall be sincerely gratified.

P E R U ^' I A N G U A N O — IT S APPLICATION.

The^discovery of deposits of manure from i,ime to
time is one of the favourable events of a period of
agricultural struggle and development. The fossils
of the green sand, tlie unapproachal>le ]iho>|)l)oiitf
of Estremadura, are nothing, liowever, fo the im-
portance of the discovery of giianu. \N lieii w t
speak ot disi-arery, we du nut leter to it^ use for su
many renliiries hy {\ic Permlans on their nati\i'
hills: this was an adoption; but we retVi- inovt-
particularly to the discovery of burrt-u islands in
rainless tract.s, rich in deposits of the refuse uf sea-
fowl, deposited layer after layer in the lapse of
ages. In our own island the same thing takes
place. In the clitts of Dover, of Fiamboro', and
other places, wliere large ledges of rock present
themselves, deposits of the dung of sea-fowl con-
tinually occur ; but, both in colour and quantity, as
well as value, it is far inferior to the guano im-
ported— even of the lowest quality, 'i'here may be
many reasons for this. The birds are constantly
disturbed by man's love of sport, or of destructive-
ness, if the term be jjreferred ; and hence deposits
are thinner — more scattered, and the accumulations
altogether more exposed to the action of the at-
mosj)here than when the quantities are larger and
the strata thicker. But more : the rains of this
country are constantly washing out the most
valuable parts ; and thus, if the deposits were much
jnpre extensive and inipoitanf than they are, they

would always bear a value low in comparison with
guano deposited in rainless latitudes.

'i'iic isl<)i)d of Ichaboe was one of these im-
purhiiit discoveries: and if was soon compleiely
( curieti ufl" by Hritisli tnterjnise. The cargoes of ii-
giuiiiu--a lilllc inferior fo the iVniviun — were st>ld
ar fruni t"6 lOs.tu £^ prr tun, according tuquantils
laid the inarkt-ts at the pt^riuil. SkAv. two otlier
islands urt' thf I'enu'ian C(jast, \ i/... Lobos dc- 'I'iei'ia
and Lolios Afuera. very lich in this deposit, haw
been brought into notice. Tiiese islands are un-
inhabited, are destitute even of the means of sus-
taining life, have neither ivutemox food upon them,
and, consequently, are not likely to be inhabited,
nor have they been owned. The Peruvian Govern-
ment, it is true, have stated that they have exercised
over them rights of ownership. Their fishermen
have used them for a landing-place, and for mend-
ing or drying their nets. But this cannot be in any
sense called ownership ; and, if ever islands,
hitherto neglected, useful neither for being in-
habited nor for defence, belonged to the world and
its adventurers, these are the places.

If the Peruvian fishermen made it useful,
they may do so after its deposits are transported
away ; and, it no more constitutes property in the
islands than if an English ship had called to take
water at Ichaboe, it could have constituted that
island the sele property of the British,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

61

The Peruvian (iovernincut liaviiif^ the monopoly
of all tlie trustworthy jruano at present in use, jiut
up the price at a very higii figure. Now, tliougli
the ojiening of the Lobos Islands would give a
license to adulterating and un])rincipled traders to a
very great extent, still it would reduce Peruvian
guano probably to £5 or £6 per ton in this country.

Now it is almost impossible to calculate the ex-
tent of real and tangible relief this would be to the
farmer. There are but a few farms where some of
the land would not benefit from an application of
guano — nay, more, there arc few farms to which
an entire (fressiii// of guano would not be a real ad-
vantage. The Avliole grass land of the country,
alluvial I'iver-side land excejited, would do well
with its assistance. On some soils it would make
such a difference in the crop as to be a distinction
between rent and no rent. At j)resent, a moderate
dressing costs, at the field, £1 per acre. Let it be
reduced one-half, and it will cost but ]0s. 7 ere
sliillhtgs per acre relief, on all lands where guano
is beneficial, is not a trifle !

And now a word on guano itself, and its ajipli-
cation. It is not only the very material on which
plants feed, but it is supplied in that form in which
it is the most readily assimilable. It is equally
good for wheat, barley, grass, and roots. It in-
creases both straw and corn — both leaf and bulb —
and often makes all the difference, in weedy land,
between a smothering crop of cultivated plants,
and a wild, choking cover of weeds. Excepting,
})erhai)s, carbonized materials, of which most soils
])ossess already sufficient, it contains the whole of
the materials necessary for building up the struc-
tures of plants; and no drain is required on their
vital energies to dissolve its affinities, so loosely
does it hold the hidden wealth.

In applying guano, though experience has taught
most persons, there are some who still require in-
formation. It will not 1)6 amiss, surely, to re-
capitulate the results of experience in its applica-
tion.

Mix it always with the soil intiinaiehj. To drill
it is both unnecessary and injudicious. It places
too much together, and often, by its decomposition
in the soil, destroys the seeds. It is far the best
to sow it broadcast, and plough it in, or, at any
rate, to mix it with the soil.

Sow it, where practivfthle, alone. It is only ne-
cessary to beat and sift it, and, when very dusty,
to damp it a little ; but it is often ruined and
wasted by using it with ashes or other alkaline
mixtures. Parties little know the injury they do
by such heterogeneous doctoring.

If ns ft tirp-dressiiiff, sow, if possible, before rain.
This may be generally secured ; and it is of far
more importance to sow it when rain is pretty cer-
tain than to regard the season. If the signs should
fail, and the rain should not descend as expected,
the land should be hanowed, or rolled and bush-
harrowed ; but that will be great loss. It is safest
to sow it during rain, to be certain.

Where it is undesirable to sow it broadcast,
owing to the prevalence of weeds, and where drill
husbandry is adopted, so%o it after the drill by
hand, broadcast. It will thus fall over ihe grain
or seeds, and drop into the indentations the drill
has made, and so encourage the seed more than
the weeds between, and still not injure the former
by contact.

We hope the Country will strongly memorialize
the Government to secure the opening of the Lobos
Islands; and no time should be lost. — Gardeners'
and Tavmers' Journal.

THE (i U A N O QUESTION.

(prom the mark lank express.)

The guano question continues to attract great
interest. An energetic correspondent, Mr. Benja-
min Goullon, of (iedney Marsh, Lincolnshire, in a
letter inserted elsewhere, asks, " Are there not ten
thousand farmers to be found in ICngland who
are spirited enough to subscribe a sovereign each
for the purpose of fitting out an expedition — say a
couple of schooners — and sending them to the
Lobos Islands for guano :" If ten thousand far-
mers could be found to thus co-operate, it would
form a new era in the history of the British farmer.
^^ e should then have some hope, not of their
settling the issue raised in respect to the sovereignty
111 tlu I.<i1mi- Inland'-' ]»\' -iicli an inidfiic*' of co-

operation, but of their attaining that jiosition of
real independence as a class without which they
ne\er will acquire the power and influence amongst
other classes in the state which the extent of their
capital and the importance of their occupation
should command. Another correspondent says —
*' So great is the value of guano, that I have no
hesitation in saying that a reduction of .)() per cent.,
or £.") per ton, would be a greater ad\'antage to the
tillage farmer than a 5s. duty on wheat." And he
exhorts the tenant farmers and farmers' clubs to
I^estir themselves in the matter. A movement is.
as it seems, being made in Scotland ; and in
l>('V(in^bin prl;ti(in= l<i ihi llnu'^r of Commons

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

are now in course of signature. It will be seen
by our parliamentary report that the subject was
referred to by Lord Stanley in the House of Com-
mons on Thursday last, when the noble lord stated
that the Lobos Islands were formerly held to belong
to the Spanish provinces, and that, on the separa-
tion of Peru from Spain, they passed to the Go-
vernment of Peru without any specific mention ;
that the Government were not prepared to send
ships of war to these islands, but they entertained
a hope that some arrangement would be made to
secure a supply of guano. Nevertheless, the ques-
tion should be agitated, and, if the islands really
belong to Peru, measures should be taken to induce
the Peruvian Government to lowerthe price of guano.
It is well known that from the reduction in the price
of freights, a larger profit per ton is now made
upon the article than formerly ; and there is no
doubt that a reduced price would lead to an increased
consumption. The sulphur monopoly in Sicily was
broken down by the persevei'ance of Lord Palmer-
ston, when Foreign Secretary ; and we have no
doubt but that energetic remonstrances would have
an effect upon the Government of Peru. If the
opinion of our correspondent, "A Tenant Farmer,"
be correct, the Derby Government may avoid the
diflSculty and yet secure the advantages of a duty
of five shillings upon foreign corn by procuring a
reduction ot the price of guano to five pounds
per ton. The following remarks upon this subject
appeared in the City Article of the Times this
morning : —

" A supplemental statement on the Lobos Islands question
was made on Friday night by Jjord Stanley to the elfecc that the
ship-of war sent to the islands by the British Admiral on the
Pacific station had uot beeu despatched direct, but was to call
at them incidentally in connexion with a visit to Ecuador.
His lordship also took the opportunity to add that the
Admiral had expressed an opinion that the Lobos Islands are
as much an integral part of the Peruvian Republic as the
Scilly Islands are of Great Britain. With regard to the first
of these statements, it is satisfactory that a visit to the islands
is to be made by the same vessel that has beeu sent to
Ecuador, because light will thus be thrown on the allegation,
which has reached us only through the American newspapers,
that the piratical expedition of General Flores had been per-
mitted to make them points of rendezvous. Such an act
would appear too flagrant to be credited except on unquestion-
able testimony ; and it must therefore not be assumed to have
taken place without further proof. If it should be shown that
while Peru is professing to have exercised " acts of sovereignty"
by keeping a few Indian catamarans from disturbing the birds,
she has allowed a band of many hundred ruffians, organized
for the purpose of attacking a neighbouring and friendly state,
to make these islands, or either of them, a place of refuge, the
fact will be important. An assertion of sovereignty which
consists in saying that the good which the islands might do to
the world shall be prevented, but that they may be used to in-
flict misery upou it by affording facilities to pillage and rapine,

could, it may be presumed, hardly be considered valid. On
this point, however, notwithstanding the partially known
complicity of Peru in tlie Fiores e.Kpedition, it would be use-
less to dwell without something beyond the loose allegations
at present possessed. With regard to the opinion of the Ad-
miral oa the station, that the possession of the islands on the
part of Peru has some analogy to our own possession of the
Scilly Islands, it is difficult to comprehend on what it is
founded. The assertion that the Lobos Islands are open
to the world rests upon the fact of their being desolate,
and of their never having been turned to any good account.
In relation to the Scilly Islands, oa the contrary, England has
performed all those duties which can alone confer a right of
possession. They are inhabited by fishermen and pilots, a
lighthouse is maintained upon them, and they are regularly
fortified; iu addition to which, they are actually nearer to Eng-
land than the Lobos Afuera is to Peru. It is not, therefore,
by an off hand comparison of this sort that the question can
be settled. As far as the national welfare is immediately con-
cerned (if the statements about their amount of guano are
not, as it is possible they may be, wholly erroneous), the aflfair
involves considerations far more important than belonged to
the Oregon question, and it is too much to expect that it is to
be concluded by an irrelevant ansu er to a casual interrogatory
in the House of Commons. The main point is whether any
country can seal up a valuable product placed by Providence
for the benefit of the world on an uninhabited island far dis-
tant from its own shores, and urge the fact of such sealing up
as a proof of title. The natural impulse would be to
regard such a step uot only as no proof of title, but as even
involving a forfeiture of title if one had previously existed,
and in the case of the inhabitants of Japan, although at all
events they i^se their country for their own comfort, it has
actually come to be questioned whether they have a right,
looking at the natural and inalienable duties of nations to-
wards each other, to enforce that it shall be limited to that
end. The next thing to be determined, supposing any claim
to be allowed, is the degree of proximity that is sufficient
to warrant such claim. If, contrary to the received opinion of
jurists, the fact of neighbourhood within 40 miles is sufficient,
is that to be the limit; and if not, shall it be 100 miles, 400,
or any other fixed distance ? The Lobos Afuera is not the
only uninhabited island in the Pacific, and as anything now
determined will constitute a precedent, it is of the highest
moment, in view of the traffic which is destined speedily to be
witnessed on that ocean, to arrive as soon as possible at some
precise and intelligible conclusions.

PHOSPHATE OF LIME.— At a meeting of the
Royal Dublin Society, held lately, Mr. Davey read a
highly interesting paper on the subject of Native
Phosphate of Lime, and its Application to Agri-
culture. He produced some specimens of the ma-
nure, which had been found in the state of New
Jersey, and transmitted to him within the last month
by Ralph Leigh Clare, Esq. A very extensive forma-
tion of the manure had been recently discovered, there ;
and an analysis had been made of it by Messrs. Pilking-
ton and Wilson, the eminent chemists at Liverpool,
who had found it to contain from 70 to 90 per cent, of
phosphoric acid. He also bad made an andysis of it ;

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

61

*ind the result was nearly the same. Its application to
agriculture was quite new ; but it was known to be
highly beneficial as a manure, containing as it did large
quantities of phosphoric acid in combination with lime.
Mr. Clare was unable, as yet, to state what the e.xact
cost of the manure would be ; but, from the calculations
which he had made, he believed it would be about £&

per ton— that was to say, 50s. per ton cheaper than
Peruvian guano, and from 15s. to 30s. cheaper than the
phosphates of lime at present manufactured from bones.
That gentleman was e.xceedingly anxious that the ma-
nure should be tried by some of the extensive Irish
agriculturists, and for that purpose he was willing to
send over specimens free of expense (applause).

GROWl^H OF THE WOOLLEN AND WORSTED MANUFACTURES.

It is now about 150 years since Gregory King
estimating the annual productive power of the
nation, put down the value of the wool used at two
millions sterling per annum ; and the value of the
whole manufacture at eight millions sterling. There
is no doubt that this estimate was a careful and
sober one, as compared with the extravagant guesses
of many of the political economists and arithme-
ticians of that period ; still there are many data
now existent, which render it exceedingly probable
that the estimate was considerably too high. For
the sake, however, of our present object, let it be
assumed to be correct. At that period a d. 1700,
the woollen and worsted manufactures were in a
comparatively rude state ; the use of steam was un-
known, and, except for fulling, water power was
not applied in any process. The art was indeed
little removed from its primitive form, the manipu-
lation of cloth was slow and expensive, and the
eight millions which is named as the value of all
the fabrics annually produced, did not probably
represent one-fourth the quantity which would be
represented by that sum now; the style and charac-
ter of the later fabrics being, besides, far superior.
In this state the art continued for the greater ])art
of the last century, until by slow steps the steam
engine of Watt and the carding and spinning ma-
chine of Arkwright and Hardgreaves, first applied
with such marvellous results in the cotton manu-
facture, came to be applied to the manufacture of
wool. Arthur Young, the celebrated writer on
agriculture, states that in 1796 there were six or
seven steam engines in Leeds, and adds, " the ma-
chines tvhich have done so much for the cotton trade
are fast being introduced here.'' It was, in fact, the
adoption, in the West Riding of York, of the steam
engine, and the adaptation of the machines which
had given so vast an impulse to the cotton trade,
to the processes of the woollen manufacture, that
led to the final transfer of the woollen and worsted
trades from Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk, to the for-
mer county. The growth of the manufacture was
increased correspondingly with the improvement of
its processes ? and in 1800 Mr. Luccock, a well
known and esteemed merchant of this town, wrote
an elaborate treatise on wool, one great object of

which was to establish a basis for calculating the
value and importance of the woollen manufacture
by a careful estimate of the quantity of wool pro-
duced in England and Wales. Subsequently — that
is, in 1828, the late Mr. James Hubbard, of Leeds,
in conjunction with the worthy candidate for this
borough, Sir, George Goodman, on examination
before the Lords' Committee on Wool, brought up
the calculation to that year— assuming most of
Mr. Luccock's data, as to the number of sheep per
acre, Sfc, in the several counties to be correct. No
estimates at all pretending to the same care and
accuracy have appeared since these two, until Mr.
Thomas Southey, one of the oldest and most re-
spected wool brokers in the city of London, and who
was already known to the public by several labo-
rious and useful works on colonial wools and on
the statistics of our Austrahan colonies, published
a continuation of his works, bringing down all the
authentic data, as to imports and exports, to the
end of 1850. In this work, Mr. Southey gives a suc-
cinct but very clear detail of certain inquires which
he had set on foot, in order to ascertain, as near as
may be without actual enumeration, the number of
sheep in the United Kingdom, and the average an-
nual weight of shorn and skin wool, available for
the purposes of the woollen and worsted trades.
The result of these inquiries may be briefly stated.
Mr. Southey concludes, on what he considers good
and reliable evidence, that " we annually clip forty
millions of sheep, whilst the fleeces of fifteen
millions more, slaughtered, pass through the hands
of the fellmongers, to the consumer." The
basis of the manufacture, then would be about
275,000,000, lbs. of home grown wools, or, de-
ducting 10,000,000 lbs. exported, 265,000,000 lbs.,
besides 70,000,000 lbs. of imported wools.

The four estimates refered to will be best under-
stood in connection with what we have to add, by
way of comment, in the following tabular form : —

Great Britain and Ireland.
Growth of Wool. Population.
Estimate. a. d. lbs.

Gregory King's 1699... 50,000,000... 8,500,000 supposed,

Mr. Luccock's 1800. ..92,544,000. ..16,000,000 actual.

Messrs. Hubbard

& Goodman's 1828...111,623,729...23,000,000calculated,

Mr. Southey's 1850...275,000,000,.. 30,000,000 actual.

64

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

It is o1)vious, at a <);lance, that the population and the
growth of wool have not advanced at equal rates
since ISOO; the rate of increase in the former being
about 85 per cent., and of the latter nearlj' 200 per
cent., whilst during the same period the imports
of wool have increased from 9,000,000 lbs. per
annum to 72,000,000, lbs. or eight fold. The calcu-
lation of Mr. Southey more than doubles that of
Mr. M'Cnlloch, writing in 184G, and therefore
demands collateral proof of its correctness.

It may be observed, then, that Mr. M'Culloch
made his calculation on proximate data; Mr. Southey
after inquiries of practical and intelligent men —
landowners, farmers, woolstaplers, and manufactu-
rers. One general conclusion established by the
answers of Mr. Southey's correspondents is this,
that Mr. Luccock's estimate, in 1800, was below the
mark. Now the calculations of Messrs. Hubbard
and Goodman in 1S2S assumed the correctness of
Mr. Luccock's principal data, only allowing for in-
crease of weight in the fleece and the number of
sheep, by the more general cultivation of long wool
and by better methods of stocking and farming.
Mr. M'CuUoch took the combined data of 1800
and 1828, and reasoned from them, without any
separate and independent investigation of all the
facts. Mr. Southey re-opened the inquiry, and, on
what he holds to be sufficient evidence, gives a
very different result. It would be out of place, in
an article such as this, to give, in detail, the results
of his inquiries ; but we can add collateral proofs
of the correctness of his conclusions.

It is now generally admitted that Mr. Luccock,
who took extreme pains in his estimate, erred on
the side of caution, and under-estimated the quan-
tity of wool produced in 1800. But admitting his
estimate to have been correct, other considerations
will show that the quantity now produced must be
far greater than Mr. M'Culloch's estimate. It is
obvious that if at any particular moment of tune the
number of persons employed in the fabrication of a
particular raw material, and the M-eight of raw ma-
terial used up by them annuallj', are known quanti-
ties; then, if at another and subsequent moment of
time, the number of persons so employed, and the
increase of productive jiowcr, arising from improved
machinery, are also known quantities, the weight
of raw material used in the latter jieriod is a demon-
strable thing. It is not jjossible, however, to arrive
at minute accuracy in either of the two great ele-
ments of the calculation— namel)', the increase of
the number of persons employed in the woollen
trade, comparing 18.')0 with Isoo, and the relative
amount of productive power, man for man, at each
period. But approximations are possible, and
are most useful.

Thr inrrca<?e of the cntirr population i^ Hsc(>rtaina-

ble, and so is that of the principal county in
which the woollen and worsted trades are carried
on, viz., the West Ridmg of York. The increase
of the population of Great Britain between 1801
and LSol, was 93 per cent.; and the increase in the
West Riding of York, 132 per cent. Supposing
then, that the manufactures of wool are relatively
to population as much in demand now as in 1801,
(and, considering the enormous production of
worsteds since 1831, there can be no doubt on that
point), it is clear that the weight of raw material
reijuired would be doubled, even if no advance in
skill had been made.

But the fact of a mighty increase in the produc-
tive power of all classes of producers since 1801
is one of the great facts of the age. Within the last
70 years, hand scribbling and carding have given
place to the huge sciibbler and carder driven by
steam power. The one-thread wheel has been dis-
placed by the jenny and the mule; the dubbing
board and the shearboard have been superseded by
the gig, the Lewis, and the perpetual ; and although
in the woollen trade the hand loom is still retained
almost exclusively, the worsted trade numbers its
32,517 power looms, a number probably equal to
that of all the jjower-looms used in all trades in
1825. It is, indeed, true that improvements in
machinery have led to greater elaboration in the
textures which issue from our looms, and thus far
have counteracted the tendency to increase the de-
mand for raw material. It is also true that the in-
troduction of machinery has created vast trades,
subsidiary to, and dependent on the textile manu-
factures, such as engine and machine makers, ma-
nufacturers of spindles and jjower looms ; and
that in estimating the increase of productive power
the persons employed in these trades must be in-
cluded along with the workmen directly engaged
in any particular manufacture, in order to a just
comparison with 1800.

Admittmg these things, it is palpably within the
mark, that the j)roductive power (man for manj is
now doulde that of 1800. Combining, then, the
two elements of a double jjopulation, and a double
productive i)ower, and assuming woollen and \\'ors-
ted goods to be relatively to population as much in
demand as in 1801, it is obvious that the quantity
of wool recjuired in 1850 will be four-fold that
used in Isoo. The quantity then used, including
imported wools, was in round numbers 101,000,000
lbs., and therefore the manufacturer will now re-
quire 404,000,000 lbs. Mr. Southey's calculation
is 33 3,000,000 lbs. only; and is, for the reason .sta-
ted, considerably under the probable consumption
of home, colonial, and foreign wools, in this
CO untry.

(I mav l»r trij^uod (hat :ilthoui/h the jJopuUilioii

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

65

of Great Britain has increased 98 per cent, since
1800, and that of the West Riding of York 132 per
cent., it may still be true that the increase in the
nvimber of persons engaged in the woollen and
worsted trades is not commensurate. We doubt
that exceedingly. There are, however, no positive
data.

It has already been stated that Leeds had six or
seven steam engines in 1796, when probably Brad-
ford might have had one or two, and the West
Riding some two or three score. No statistics of
the number of factories exist prior to 1834, and
since that year two further enumerations have been
made, namely, in 1839 and 1850. They show the
following figures : —

Woollen and Worsted Mills, Steam Power, &c.

united kingdom.

Mills. Horse Power.

1834. 1839. 1850. 1839. 1850.

Wool'en, -1 ,„o,, 1322 1497 20627 22144

Worsted.;^'*'" 416 501 7176 11515

WEST RIDING OF YORK.

Mills. Horse Power.

1834. 1839. 1850. 1839. 1850.

Woollen trade 1 ^f,, 613 880 10241 12153

Worsted trade J 348 418 5791 9389

Number of Persons Employed.

UNITED kingdom.

■1834. 1839. 1850.

Woollen \ »io-,. 5401S 74443

Worsted J" '^^'* 31628 79737

WEST RIDING OF YORK.

1834. 1839. 1850.

Woollen \ .f.oQn 27548 40611

Worsted J ^""^" 26603 71334

INCREASE.

all ENGLAND.

Horse Power. Persons Employed.

1839 to 1850. . 1834 to 1850. 1839 to 1850.
Woollen trade... 7^ per ceut. 1 n ^ „„_ „^. 37 per cent.
Worsted trade... 60 „ j Jib per cent. ^-2 „

WEST RIDING OP YORK.

Woollen trade... 19 ;.^er cent. 1 ,~, , 48 per cent.

Worsted trade... 110 „ |i/^ percent, jgg ^^

Admitting that the steam factories erected since
ISOO have to a considerable extent simply replaced
the primitive weaving sheds and cropping shops,
in which the processes of the woollen manufacture
were at that time carried on, the above data, show-
ing so prodigious an augmentation in the num-
ber of persons employed, in the short space of
1? years, combined with the previous ra])id growth
of mills and population in the valleys of the Aire
and Calder, and around the centres of Bradford
and Huddersfield, leave no room for doubt, that
notwithstanding the transference of the woollen
and worsted trades from other counties to the West
Riding, and the comparatively stationary condition
of those trades for some years in Wiltshire, Glouces-
tershire, and Somersetshire, there has not been less
than a four-fold increase in the total products be-
twixt 1800 and 1850.

In a subsequent article, we shall develope certain
interesting and important conclusions which this

fact of progress establishes, particularly as respects
the national position and value of the manufacture
of wool, the interest of agriculture and of our Aus-
tralian Colonies, the employment of labour, and the
great question of free trade.

No. II.

In our last week's paper, data were given which
fully warrant the conclusion that the consumption
of wool in the various departments of its manufac-
ture is not less than 325,000,000 lbs., that is,
260,000,000 lbs. of British wool, and 65,000,000
lbs. of foi'eign and colonial wool ; allowing for the
quantity of each kind exported. It must be noted
that Alpaca and Angora wool are included in the
estimate of the weight of the foreign wool used.
Proximately, then, a calculation may be made of the
value of the manufacture, though, in the existing
state of national statistics, such calculation is neces-
sarily based on probabilities, or, at best, indirect
evidence. The value of the princi])al element, the
raw material, is not difficult to estimate ; but there
is considerable difficulty in determining what addi-
tional value is put on the raw material in the woollen
and the worsted trades respectively, and still
greater difficulcy in determining the respective
quantities of wool used in those trades. The fac-
tory returns alone do not furnish a sufficient basis
for determining either the relative weights of wool
used, or the relative value of these two great
branches of the manufacture. The Occupations
Abstract of the census of 1841 is of little use in
determining this point ; and to render the calcula-
tion more difficult and complex, it is necessary to
number the artizans employed in fabricating the
steam engines, spindles, looms, &c., &c., used in
the manufacture, whose labour, indirectli/, forms
an integral part of the value of a yard of woollen
cloth, or stuff, or carpeting respectively. On actual
data, however, extending over a period of several
years, the following have been ascertained to be the
proportions of the several items which constitute a
j^ard of woollen cloth of the v^alue of 9s., wholesale
price. Dividing the whole into 100 parts, the pro-
portions would be —

Wool 47

Other raw material — say oil, so;ip,

dye wares, &c 10

Wages, direct 24

Wages, indirect ; rent, wear and tear,
and interest of caj^ital 19

100
It may not, perhaps, be ■wide of the truth to infer
that a yard of woollen cloth, when it leaves the
wholesale dealer in the finished state, is just double
the value of the wool of which it is composed.
Relative to worsted fabrics, we are not in possession

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of such derinite data, and from the minute sub-
division of labour in that manufacture, a calculation
similar to the above is not easily to be obtained.
There are few worsted mills, if any, in which all the
processes are carried on, from the combing to the
dyeing and pressing, and it would only be practi-
cable, by an extended and complex induction, to
frame a scale of proportions.

Amongst practical and expei'ienced men, too, the
differences of opinion are so great, that an average
result, on which any strong reliance can be placed,
is almost unattainable. It will not, however, bean
over-calculation to assume that a pound of wool
made into a stuff fabric doubles in value. One es-
timate which we have had makes it only half that,
but there are facts which show that the estimate
cannot be correct. Taking the immber of spindles
employed in the woollen and the worsted maimfac-
tures respectively, it is reasonable to conclude that
tiirecrfil'ths of all the wool consumed in Great Bri-
tain is made into woollen cloths, carpets, &c., and
two-fifths into stuffs. Now, if the calculation be
correct, that the value of a pound of wool is aug-
mented only fifty per cent, by the processes of the
worsted manufacture, it would follow that the en-
tire value of that trade is not more than ten millions
sterling. But the stuff fabrics and worsted yarns
exported amount to eight millions sterling ; and it
is out of the question that the stuffs consumed at
home are not more than two millions sterling in
value. Either, then, the value added to a pound of
wool wrought into stuff is very much more than
fifty per cent, on the cost of that pound, or the
quantity of wool so wrought up forms more than
two-fifths of the whole quantity annually consumed,
or the latter is much understated. On a careful
consideration of conflicting data, the conclusion
which appears to reconcile and harmonise all the
facts is, that the value of the worsted manufacture
is more than double the value of the Vi'ool used. If
so, without settling, or attempting to settle the pro-
portions of woollen and worsted fabrics, the follow-
ing figures will give the total value of the manufac-
tures of wool : —

Raw Materials.
lbs. £.

260,000,000 of British wool, at lid.

per lb 11,958,333

65,000,000 of foreign and colonial
wool, Alpaca and Angora,
at 1 s. 8d. per lb 5,416,666

17,374,999
Value added in manufacturing — say,
other raw material, wages, wear and
tear of machinery, rent, profit of
capital, &c i 7,374,999

£34,749,998

Gregory King, in 1699, estimated the value of
the woollen manufactures at eight millions sterling,
or four-fold the value of the raw material. In
1844, Mr, M'Culloch estimated it at twenty-four
millions sterling. In round numbers, then, the
value has increased three-fold betwixt 1699 and
1844, and neaily four-fold betwixt 1699 and 1852;
population in the mean time, having increased in a
nearly corresponding ratio. But if quantity, not
value, be regarded, the proportions are vastly dis-
crepant. In 1699, the weight of wool manufac-
tured was estimated at 50,000,000 lbs. ; in 1852,
the estimate is 325,000,000 lbs., nearly seven-fold !
Relatively to population, the quantity of wool manu-
factured in 1852, compared with 1699, is as 7 to 4 ;
and if regard be had to the character of the fabrics
now produced, of which a large proportion are
adapted for female wear, there can be little doubt
that the mass of commodities produced, estimated
in yards, is augmented in a degree greatly ex-
ceeding the simple increase in the quantity of wool
used, or of the money value, v/hilstin design, finish,
colour and texture, the later fabrics are incompara-
bly superior.

Relatively to the other great staple manufacture
of this country, the total value of the woollen manu-
facture stands as 3 j to 5 ; a very eminent authority
in Manchester estimating the cotton manufactures
at fifty millions sterling per annum. Relatively,
however, to the value of each manufacture, so far
as that value arises from the use of British labour
and capital, the difference is not so great as these
figures indicate.' The cotton manufacture includes
twenty millions sterling as the. value of the raw
material, and thirty millions as the wages and pro-
fits of British industry, applied in its fabrication.
The woollen manufacture includes £17,374,999 —
being the wages and profits of British manufacturing
industry, and £11,958,333 — being rent, farmers'
profit, and labourers' wages, in the production of
wool. Considering these simply as British pro-
ducts, the value of the two staple manufactures will
stand thus : —

The cotton manufactures £30,000,000

The woollen and worsted do. . . 29,332,332

The difference is far less in favour of the cotton
trade than has usually been supposed. The error
of calculation has arisen, in part, from the fact that
the woollen manufacture, in its various branches of
woollens (properly so called), stuffs, hosiery, car-
pets, flannels, and shoddies, is indigenous to almost
every county of the British Isles, whilst the cotton
manufacture is chiefly located in Lancashire, Ren-
frewshire, and Lanarkshire; and in i)art, too, from
the under estimate of the production of English
wool, by all statists, until the correction by Mr.
South ey.

1

tHE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

67

Assuming the correctness of the preceding figures,
it will follow tliat the woollen manufacture is of the
annual value of about twenty millions sterling, and
the worsted of fifteen millions. As export trades,
however, these figures give a very imperfect idea of
their relati\'e importance. On the average of 1820
and 1S24, the value of woollens and worsted goods
exi)orted was as follows : — ■

Woollens ." . . . £4,082,788

Worsteds 1,560,929

Total (3,243,717

In the last year (1851) the values were resjiec-
tively : —

Woollens £1,920,000

Worsteds 6,064,859

Total 8,584,859

There was also an import of yarn (worsted) in
1.S51, amoimting to £1,451,093, making an aggre-
gate of worsted exports of upwards of £8,100,000,
against less than £2,000,000 exports of woollens.
The causes of this mighty change are somewhat
complicated, but it does not admit of doubt that
tlie facilities with which the processes of worsted
drawing, spinning, and loeaving, admit of the appli-
cation of machinery, combined with the enterprise
of the manufacturers . of Bradford, Keighley, and
other towns in the worsted district, in devising new
styles, have principally contributed to this result.
From certain difHculties which attach to the pecu-
liarity of the woollen thread, it has not been found
practicable to apply the mule and the power-loom,
to any great extent, in the manufacture of cloths.
The manufacture remains, therefore, very much in
a primitive form, and the finished article has not
been reduced in cost, in a degree at all correspond-
ing to the reduction in the cost of worsted and stuff
goods. A curious illustration of this is afforded by
Smith, in his " Memoir of Vr'^ool," who states that
in 1738 a pack of wool made into cloth, would em-
])loy 53 persons a week, earning £19 8s., or 6s.
Sd.cach; whilst a pack of wool made into stuff
would employ 158 persons, earning £33 12s., or 4s.
3d. each per week. Taking the pack of wool at £9
in that year, the value would be enhanced upwards
of 200 per cent, if made into woollen cloths, and
370 per cent, if made into stuffs. The higher cost
in the case of stuffs would doubtless arise princi-
pally from the cost of com.bing and sjjinning, at
that time done on the one-thread wheel. The
smaller addition now made to the value of a pack
of wool, converted into woollen cloths or worsted
stuffs respectively, measures the saving of labour
by the introduction of machinery ; whilst the actual
and large increase of money wages per head paid
to the fewer persons who can now work up a pack
of wool, combined with the vast augmentation of

the (piantity fabricated, and of the popukiLion em-
ployed on it, unanswerably demonstrates the un-
soundness of the theory which ascribes to machi-
nery the diminution of wages and population alike.
As an illustration of the immensely increased pro-
duction of worsted fabrics, it may be stated that, m
1820, the exports of tlie class described as " Wool-
lens mixed with cotton," was 407,716 yards, and in
1849 it was 42,115,401 yards; and that the export
oi Stuff Pieces, properly so called, was 828,901 in
1820, and 2,003,595 in 1849 ; and it must be espe-
cially noted that in the latter year the texture,
quality, and style of the fabrics exported were im-
measurably superior, too, as compared with 1820,
and that as respects stuff goods, the substitution
of the broad piece for the old three quarters, makes
the 2,000,000 pieces exported in 1849 equivalent to
an export of 4,O0O,O00pieces,ascomparedwithl82O,
We must reserve for another article the promised
notice of the effect on the employment of labour,
and on the interests of agriculture, and on the
Australian Colonies, consequent on the enlarge-
ment of the woollen manufacture, concluding the
present with facts of great interest as to the present
supply of wool.

From the time of Edward the Third to the year
1824, the cry of the woollen and worsted manufac-
turers of England was — "No Export of Wool'' —
believing that British wool was essential to the pro-
per manufacturing of cloth, and that if foreign na-
tions were debarred from its use, England would
make woollens for the world. Now, the cry is—
where shall we get wool enough for our use? — and
as it is useless to ask other nations to send us wool'
while prohibiting the export of our own, the trade
is now free, and wool goes in and out, according to
the fluctuations of price, and the necessities of the
manufacturers.

In 1800, the whole import of foreign wool was
8,609,793 lbs., of which nearly 8,000,000 lbs. were
from Spain and Portugal. In the last year the im-
port was 81,063,679 lbs., of which 51,000,000 lbs,
were colonial wools ; and the cry is still, like that
of the leech, give ! give! we want more! Large
as is the increase in the growth of English wool, it
does not meet our wants ; the world must be ran-
sacked, and every nook and corner explored to
supply our need. It is a curious and instructive
fact, that in ISOO the only foreign nations which
sent us wool, in addition to Spain and Portugal,
were Norway, Prussia, Germany, Holland, Italy,
Turkey, and the United States ; and from these the
aggregate import was only about 500,000 lbs. less
than is now imported from semi-barbarous Egypt ;
and that almost every state in the four • quarters of
the world now sends its quota to feed our spindles
and looms,

T. 9.

es

THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE.

Some of the facts of our present supply are re-
markable. After the peace of 1815 the greater
part of the supply was from the continent of
Europe ; and in one year, 1825, the import of
German wools alone was near 29,000,000 lbs.
Since that year the entire import of all foreign
wool has sunk to that figure, and as before stated,
the import of colonial wool has risen to 51,000,000
lbs.

As in the cotton manufacture, so in the woollen,
raw material is the desideratum, and the world is
taxed to supply it. The most remarkable fact, as
to that supply, is furnished in the history of the
Australian colonies. In 1810 the number of sheep
in New South Wales, then the only settlement in
New Holland, was 25,888 ; in 1849, the number of
sheep in that settlement, and in the other settle-
ments of South and West Australia, and Van Die-
men's Land, was upwards of 1 5,000,000. In 1816
the entire import of Australian wools was 13, Gil
lbs., and in 1849 36,000,000 lbs. The increase in
the supply from other parts of the world is only
less remarkable, as the following statement will
show : —

lbs. lbs.

South Africa .. 1816 9,623 .. 1849 5,377,495

India 1821 18,175 .. 1849 4,182,853

South America . . 1820 88,407 .. 1849 6,014,425

Large as is the supply the demand is commen-
surate ; nay more, the demand under a continuance
of peace will be a rapidly augmenting quantity.
Great as were the improvements in manufacturing
art betwixt 1760 and 1800, their progress since
1820 has been even more remarkable. The steam
engine, the mule, the carding and roving machines,
and more recently the application of machine
power to the process of combing, by Donisthorpe's
patent, have wrought an entire revolution in the
manufacturing arts, and it is only possible to limit
the power of production by exhausting the power
of the soil on the one hand, or the desires of man
on the other.

No. in.

The fact of an immense increase in these trades
being proved (as we consider may now be assumed)
in our two preceding articles on this subject, it only
remains now to notice — 1. The efficient cause of
ihat increase; 2. The effects it has produced on
several important interests ; and 3. Its bearing on
the great question of free trade.

The one simple efficient cause of the increase in
the manufactures of wool, as in all other textile ma-
nufactures, is to be looked for in the progress of
science, as applied to the manufacturing arts. In
the ])rogress of the population, by the force of a
natural law, growth in all branches of production
was to be expected, except some impediment stood

in the way, such as a resort to inferior soils com-
pelling the application of a larger proportionate
share of the labour of the community to procure its
food ; less remaining thereby available for the pro-
duction of other things. It is, in fact, to an increase
in production, not pro rata to population, but in a
ratio relatively greater than that of the population,
that we shall refer throughout this article ; for we
have shown that, man for man, the increase in the
woollen and worsted trades, within the last 1 50
years, is moderately estimated at nearly double.

Why then are all manufactured goods more
abundant relatively to the population now, than in
1700 ? The answer lies in a nutshell, viz., because
every man now works with better tools, and more
manual skill and dexterity, than in 1700; because
all modes of transit have been improved, thus facili-
tating the transmission of goods, either raw material
or finished, and thereby reducing one great element
of the price — the cost of carriage ; and because,
further, the facility of transport has rendered ex-
change practicable and easy where formerly it was
impossible, thus actually creating new industries ;
whilst it has much diminished the outlay in dead
stock, necessary to carry on a trade, which practi-
cally is equivalent to a reduction in the price of all
articles of general consumption. And to whom, or
to what do we owe the more perfect appliances of
the present day. Unquestionably and primarily to
such men as Watt and Arkwright, Crornpton and
Hargreaves, Kay and Cartwright, in the depart-
ment of mere mechanical appliances — the steam-
engine, the carder, the mule, and the power- loom,
being the great types of this department ; and sub-
sequentljs to our Brindleys and Stephensons, our
Sharps and Fairbairns, in the the department of
transit — the canal, the railroad, and its great king,
the locomotive engine, the steamboat, the railway
tunnel, and the viaduct, being its chief types. Nor
should injustice be done to a thousand other names
in every department of productive art. It would
fill a volume to enumerate the men who have applied
some known principle in a novel and extraordinary
manner, or combined several in previously un-
thought of modes of action, or made actual dis-
coveries of new forces or applications of forces, such
as galvanism in the blasting of rocks, and electricity
in the communication of thought.

Nor would volumes suffice to describe the million
inventions, in themselves wonders, if not eclipsed
by still greater achievements, but of which it may
still be said that not one but has had its influence
in the general progress, and of not a few that I hey
were the indispensable and connecting links in the
mighty evolutions of some great principle in me-
chanical and chemical science ; for it must not be
forgotten, that it is not one great leap in discovery

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

69

which has made pi oductive art what it is, but an in-
finite number of toilsome efforts by inilUons of
thinking and patient men.

What, then, has progress in manufacturing art,
looking only to the woollen and worsted trades,
done for the land of Great Britain ? It has (speak-
ing generally) doubled its production of wool in
proportion to j)opulation ; and probably quadrupled
the proportion of sheep, because the sheep of 1850
is a very different animal in weight and value to the
sheep of ] 700. Looking to rent alone, Gregory
King estimated the rental of England in that year
at 12 milUons, and in 1850 it was 48 millions, not-
withstanding that enormous masses of the land of
1/00 had passed, betwixt that year and 1850, into
other categories — railways, mines, quarries, towns,
mills, &c., to meet the demands of the manufac-
turing classes — a transference which has put untold
millions of the fee simple of 1700 into the pockets
of the landowners.

It is not contended that the mere increase of the
woollen and worsted manufactures has done all this ;
but it is indubitable that the increase in the textile
manufactures, of which these are more than a fourth,
has done it, and just because of that progress of
the manufacturing interest which for the last thirty
or forty years has been regarded with so much
jealousy by the territorial interest; and to which,
it is presumed, reference was recently made by the
nolile earl, the premier of this countrj^ when he
stated his intention not to carry out the parlia-
mentary reform measure of the ex-minister, because
it would disturb the balance of the constitution —
we presume the relative power of the one interest,
and of the other, in the House of Commons. He
is content to take all the disturbance of that balance
which flows from manufactures in the shape of in-
creased rental — non-content to concede that equali-
sation of political power, which altered social rela-
tionships demand.

What the progress of these trades has done for
the operative class is soon told. Cheaper clothing
has enabled them to bear up against dear food, and
how dear food was from 1790 to 1830 especially,
our readers need not be told. It has immensely
augmented the demand for labour, as it has opened
up new channels of foreign trade ; and thus obviated
what otherwise would have been inevitable, the
ten-ible evils of a growing population struggling
with a limited surface of soil — evils of which the
most prominent are moral degradation, pauperism,
and crime. It has demonstrated, by the/acf of an
unprecedented increase of population, concentrated
just where machinery has been most largely used
and most rapidly improved, that machinery does not
supersede labour, but simply adds to its efficiency ;
in one word, that it is not the perfection of the instru-

ment with which a man works that determines the
extent of his employment, but the limitedness or
u?dimitedness of the field to which he has access for
food. In the judgment of thinking men, this ques-
tion was settled half a century ago ; but the last four
years have demonstrated it to the parties most im-
mediately concerned, the operatives, by the force,
not of reasoning, but of plain facts — the facts
being, that at a moment when mechanical and che-
mical science had made each man, woman, and
child, simply considered as producers, four, eight,
or ten fold more efficient than 150 years ago, and
with a population the most dense and concentrated,
all efficient labour is in greater demand, wages are
higher in money amount, and still more so as mea-
sured in commodities, than at any former period,
and more especially at that period when the instru-
ments with which man wrought retained the stamp
of the earliest era of manufacturing art. Within
150 years, implements which retained the closest
resemblance to those used by the earhest nations of
the world, the people of Central and Western Asia,
have been displaced by the prodigious power of
steam, the mule spindle, and the power-loom ; and
yet population, during the displacement, has gone
on with a geometric ratio of increase, and there ap-
pears no limit to the progress, either of population
or of m.anufacturing art, but the limit of the earth's
surface to supply food.

The bearing of the great increase of the wool
manufactures on the past progress and future pros-
pects of Australia is most important. It is little
more than 60 years since New South Wales was
founded as a colony, by 1,030 persons, of whom
800 were convicts. South Australia was founded
in 1835; W'estern Austraha in 1829; and Van
Diemen's Land came into notice as a colony about
1817- The joint population of these four colonies
in 1839 was 170,676, in 1848 it was 333,764, and
at this moment it is more than probable that it ex-
ceeds 400,000. In 1816 the exports of wool to
Great Britain amounted to 13,611 lbs.; in 1839 they
amounted to 35,774,671 lbs., as under: —

New South Wales 26,966,219 lbs.

South Australia 3,665,758 „

Western AustraUa 143,65 1 „

Van Diemen's Land .... 4,999,043 „

In 1810, New South Wales had 25,888 sheep; in
1849 the number in all Australia was 15,087,903,
distributed as under : —

New South Wales 12,102,540 lbs.

South Australia 1,088,400 „

Western Austraha 144,000 „

Van Diemen's Land 1,752,963 „

Supposing one shepherd sufficient for each 500
sheep (an extreme limit), 30,000 male adults will
be employed in tending the flocks. How many

70

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

more persons are indirectly employed in the annual
shearing of the wool, its transit to the coast, the
])acking, &c., cannot be ascertained ; but there can
•be little doubt that at least one-fourth of the gene-
ral population derive employment and subsistence
from the breeding of sheep, which in Australia is a
secondary consideration, the produce of the fleece
being the ultimate object of by far the larger por-
tion of the sheep breeding. The rapidity of increase
in the export of wool will be shown by the following
short statement : —

1816 13,6lllbs.

1821 -. 175,433 „

1831 2,541,205 „

1841 12,399,090 „

1849 35,774,671 »

It is palpable that, as an object of local enterprise
and profit, the growth of wool is absorbing more
and more the attention of the colonist. The induce-
ments still further to extend the culture are not
likely to diminish so far as the demand for this
country is concerned. As in the cotton, so in the
woollen and worsted trades, there is a growing
anxiety as to the future supply of raw material — all
the tendencies of manufacturing art being still, as
from 1760 to the present day, to intensify the de-
mand for raw material. IVue, the demand is some-
what checked by the tendency to elaborate the make,
pattern, and colour, proportionately as the mechani-
cal processes of roving, spinning, and weaving are
rendered more rapid in evolution and less costly;
but these again are undergoing the same process of
improvement, and it cannot be doubted that the
call foi wool for the next ten years will exceed by
very much the call of the last twenty or thirty
years, relatively to the population of the respective
periods. Nor must it be forgotten, that whilst the
v/hole import of foreign wools (as distinguished
from colonial) was less in 1849 than in 1819, the
re-export of wool to the continent of Europe
(chiefly colonial) was upwards of twelve miUion lbs.;
furnishing decisive proof of an augmentation in the
demand for wool on the continent of Europe, as
v.'ell as in Great Britain ; the proof of a large in-
crease in the production of continental wools, es-
pecially in the states of the Zollverein, being ample
and authentic.

How far the Australian gold fever may divert
labour in the Australian colonies, from the pas-
turage of sheep to gold digging, remains to be seen.
But it may safely be said that, however mischievous
the diversion of labour may be for a time, it cannot
be a permanent mischief, nor, in the long run, pre-
vent the increasing and urgent wants of English
spinners from being supplied by Australian flock-
masters. Either the gold fields of Australia and
California will continue to yield as abundantly as

now, or they will not. In either case, it needs no
deep sagacity to perceive that the period will soon
come at which gold will bear a value just propor-
tioned to the cost of production, and will draw to it
just so much capital and labour as will suflice to
supply the demand. It is obviously im/JossiiZe that
an article of production, in no possible form avail-
able for man's subsistence or clothing, which never
can form the staple raw material even of the tools
he works with, and the use of which, hitherto, has
mainly been as a medium of exchange, simply be-
cause of its scarcity and high value (a use, on" one
supposition, it must soon cease to have), or, as the
material of v/orks of mere art and luxury, can con-
tinue long to draw to it such a number of persons
as will interfere with the production of the great
necessaries of life, or those articles of clothing,
taste, and comfort, which now employ 999 out of
every thousand of those who work !

It only remains to notice the relation which the
growth of the woollen and worsted manufactures
has to Free trade. Retrospectively a most impor-
tant and significant one. Both trades have been
the j)tts of Protection. Agriculture never was pro-
tected as was the woollen trade, when it was felony
to export a pound of wool, or even of fullers' earth,
for fear the m.onopoly of supi)lying the world with
cloths by English clothiers should be destroyed.
Up to 1824, the prohibition continued, and was
only removed after a strong and somewhat vehe-
ment opposition on the part of the worsted spinners
and manufacturers. It was proj)hesied that if
English wool was exported, the sun of Great Bri-
tain's glory would soon set, and Bradford streets,
like those of Harwich now, grow grass for sheep to
eat! Well, we know the result. The worsted dis-
trict of the West Riding of York is precisely that
spot in the whole empire in which, since 1824 (the
date of the repeal against exportation) the progress
of population, mills, machinery, and wealth has
been the most rapid and wonderful. So then the '
free export of wool has not ruined the manufac-
turers, whilst it has opened up an export trade of
upwards of eleven million pounds of English wool
to the home agriculturists, besides several millions
of pounds in the form of yarn.

Prior, however, to the Free Trade step, hi favour
of themselves, which a landlord majority secured in
Parliament, by opening up the foreign market for
their wool, they had succeeded, in virtue of the
same majorit}', in imposing a duty of sixpence in
the pound on foreign wool imported. They imitated
the conduct of the manufacturers of bye-gone times
— that is, they secured a right to export what they
produced, and the right to restrict the import of
similar commodities, the product of foreign nations.
We know the results, here again. English wool

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

71

fell in price during the operation of the protective
duty in its favour; the woollen and worsted trades
languished, for the simple reason that the duty was
a premium to foreign manufacturers in the market
of the world, and a check to production at home ;
and in 1823, after a lengthened inquiry and debate
by the Commons, the obnoxious duty was reduced
to one penny per lb., which was ultimately abolished
on the motion of Sir Charles Wood. Well, the re-
sult has been that from that year the accelerated
growth of both the woollen and worsted trades has
gone forwards, with many halts, however, caused
by the dead weight of a corn law coming down in
years of deficient harvest on the springs of industry;
lhe demand for English wool, and English mutton
too, has gone on increasing ; and. the two steps in
favom- of free trade already named, having been
succeeded by the great measure of free trade in
food, the progress of both trades has been without
any parallel in the past, and it is needless to say,
so far as wool and mutton go, without any parallel
as respects the advantage of the agriculturists in
their supply.

Vv'ernust not trespass bej'ond a few sentences,
as to the prospective bearing of our subject on free
trade.

Betwixt one- fourth and one-fifth of the supply
of the raw material of the woollen and worsted
manufactures is of foreign or colonial growth. At
the past rate of increase, in a quarter of a century

more at the furthest, one half the supply will be
foreign and colonial. Suppose a war with some
powerful continental nation, or with a conibination
of them, and this supply must he to a great extent
stopped ; and the demand for goods being checked
by the double action of interrupted exchange and a
higher price consequent on the risks of sea transit,
the demand for employment will be immensely dis-
turbed, and the consequences on our vast and con-
centrated town population may bo imagined, but
cannot be described.

A few months of this condition of affairs (a few
years would induce a perfect chaos of society) would
convince all men, in England at least, that M-ar and
free trade are incompatible things. Free trade sup-
poses an identity of hiterest betwixt nations, and a
commingling, as of one family ; and cannot co -exist
with the idea or practice of war, which supposes
antagonistic interests, someivhere, as betwixt one
nation or family, and all the rest. Deliberately,
then, is the conclusion formed, that, this country,
in enacting free trade has committed itself to a state
which it can only maintain, ultimately, by securing
the recognition of it by other nations ; and the first
step now to effect that is to show by her attitude
on all international questions, that she has only
just, wise, and world-wide ends of benevolence in
view, and that she seeks no other means to effect
them than the peaceable one of free unfettered com-
merce with the world's families.™ Leeds Mercury.

THE AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND.

[from the times' commissioner.]

Northampton, February, 1851.

As a breeder of short-horned cattle and new
Leicester sheep the name of Mr. John Beasley, of
Chapel Brampton, is well known beyond the county
he resides in. A detailed description of the ma-
magement of his farm at Overstone will, we are
confident, prove generally useful and instructive.
It contains altogether about 727 acres, 420 of which
are arable, and 300 pasture. Three-fourths of the
whole pre a " convertible" soil, a good red loam upon
a substratum of red sandstone, which is in parts
very near the surface. Some portions have a con-
siderable admixture of sand, and the soil there is
consequently weaker. The remainder of the farm
is a strong sod lying on very stiff clay.

The whole of this portion of the farm, the clay-
land, has been underdrained. The drains are made
in straight lines, seven yards apart, without any re-
gard to the old high-backed crooked lands. They
lire dug to a depth of three to four feet, a pipe-
tile aid at the bottom, and over it broken stones
about nine inches in depth. The drains being
\ery narrow at the bottom, few stones are required,
a cartload sufficing for four chains in length, and,
as the stones are got on the farm from the red land.

the cost is not much increased. The whole expense
amounts to £4 10s. an acre. When the land is
drained it is ploughed, harrowed, scuffled, and
worked across the high-backed crooked ridges,
M'hich are thus gradually levelled, and there is said
to be no perceptible difference between the crops on
the ridges and furrows. If the stones on the tiles
answer no other purpose, they assist the drainage in
the first two or three years, for the water does not
find its way very quickly to a depth of three or four
feet on strong clay soils, which perhaps have never
before been moved more than four inches. By
degrees the clay soil will crack to a considerable
depth, when the air has been secured an entrance,
and that is materially assisted by the subsequent
processes of deep ploughing and subsoiling. If the
draining is inade more efficient by the addition of
the stones for the first two or three years the ex-
pense v/ill be repaid, and the drain is not so liable to
accident by the breaking of a tile, or the sto])ping up
of one. Where the stones can be cheaply got
this practice may be advisable; but any advantages
it possesses are not sufficient to justify any consider-
able outlaj', as it has been abundantly proved that
tile-drains at this depth and distance will, if pro-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

jierly constructed, effect perfect drainage. The
drainage is carried off by a brook, in which an in-
creased fall has been obtained by making it deeper,
wider, and straight in its course, and which has at
the s \me time greatly improved the drainage of the
adjoining land. This land is now perfectly dry, and
can be worked at ahnost any season of the year.
One field was trenched or dug vvith spades to the
depth of 14 inches. It was first manured, the la-
bourers digging-in the manure and picking out any
twitch or weeds as they went on. It was not
touched again until the end of April, when it was
drilled on the flat with mangold-wurzel, and pro-
duced a good crop where anything approaching to a
good crop of vegetables had never before been seen.
The digging cost £2 per acre, and suppUed work at
a time when it was very scarce. Some of the men,
by working hard, earned 10s. a-week.

Over the whole of the arable land the old fences
have been taken up and new ones planted, and the
fields made of the same size, 21 acres each. Five
of these fields, or 105 acres, are in the same descrip-
tion of crop every year; three adjoining fields on
one side of the farm and two on the other. The
same description of work is thus always being carried
on at the same place. The hedges are kept very low
and neatly trimmed, occupying the smallest portion
of land. There are no ditches, tile-drains supplying
their place where necessary. The fields are all
square, being the same width at both ends, except
where a public road interferes, when the unequal
side is put next to the road, so that the field is
ploughed square up to a small portion of the last
part. So perfectly square are these fields that the
ridges for the turnips, as well as the drills for the
corn, are frequently commenced in the middle of
the field and finished on each side up to the hedges,
the last row running in a perfectly straight line with
the hedge. The old and bad trees have all been
grubbed up; the best oaks, and they are very fine,
having been left in the open fields, wherever they
happen to have stood, with excellent effect.

The whole of the farm is managed on the four-
course rotation — turnips, barley, clover, wheat, 105
acres of each. On the heavy land, now that it is
drained, white turnips are giown, to be eaten off
early, and mangold and cabbage answer very well.
The general management begins with the wheat
stubbles, which are ploughed early in the autumn
six inches deep, with the common Scotch iron
plough with two horses abreast. About one-third,
or as much as can be got through in a season, is sub-
soiled with Grey's subsoil-plough eight inches,
making in all 14 inches. The horses attached to
the common plough walk on the unploughed land
so as not to trample on the furrow which has been
subsoiled. The land is left in this state through the
winter. In spring, when it is sufficiently dry, a
scufHer is drawn across the furrows, which, where
the land has been subsoiled, will M'ork to the same
depth it has been ploughed. The land is then
rolled and harrowed, and the twitch brought to the
surface and ])icked off. The whole force of the
farm is applied to one field at a time; and when the
whole of the twitch, brought to the surface, has been
removed, the field is left for a time. It is again
ploughed, thea scuffled, harrowed, and picked as

before; and this is repeated until it is perfectly
clean. The practice of autumn cleaning adopted
by Mr. Outhwaite of Bainesse, and described in a
former letter, might, we have no doubt, be intro-
duced here with great advantage, as such repealed
turning over and exposure of a dry sqil in the hot
sunny weather of April or May must sometimes
render a plant precarious. When the turnip-sow-
ing commences the land is ploughed into ridges 25
inches apart, and 20 loads of good rotten farmyard
dung is placed in the ridges and covered up. The
seed (2 lbs. per acre) is then drilled on them with
Hornsl)y's drill, with concave rollers, made in the
shape of an hour-glass, and which give a good finish
to the work. Part of the dung which is made in
the autumn and early part of winter is carted out
upon the cleanest wheat stubbles, and immediately
spread and ploughed in. This saves a great deal of
labour at the turnip-sowing time, and expedites the
work.

The dung is never removed from the yards except
to be apphed directly to the land. 'In the yards it
is -trampled very firmly by an unusual number of
cattle: the buildings are all spouted, and drains are
laid from all the yards and feeding-houses to the
liquid-tanks. The manure heaps are carefully
levelled on the top every day, and, if too dry in the
spring of the year, the liquid from the tanks is
thrown over them. When turnip-sowing commences
the top of the manure heap is laid aside, and the
rest carted away and at once put into the ground.
The top of the heaps and the spring-made manure
are thrown up and turned over to cause fermentation,
and so get them suflUciently decomposed for applica-
tion to the turnip crop. No artificial manure is used
for turnips ; linseed cake, beans, and barley being
consumed by fattening cattle to a considerable,
extent, and the farm-yard dung being thus all of
good quality.

About 20 acres of the wheat stubbles are sown in
the autumn with vetches, a slight dressing of dung
being first applied. They are drilled at' the rate of
three bushels to the acre, and the young plants are
watered with liquid manure in the winter and
spring. A small portion of these vetches are cut
for the horses, the remainder are fed off early with
sheep, \^'hich are kept in folds, the vetches being
mown and put into cribs. The land is then
ploughed, and cleaned for turnips.

About two-thirds of the green crop land are sown
with swedes, the remainder with white turnips,
mangold, cabbage, and potatoes. The first swedes
are sown about the last week in May, and the whole
are completed by the beginning of July, Earlier
sowing is found to be attended with much greater
risk of mildew in autumn. The crops average up-
wards of 20 tons an acre, and when all eaten on the
land are found equal to the keep of 20 sheep an
acre for 20 weeks. They are hand-hoed three times
at a cost of 8s. per acre, and horse-hoed four times
at a cost of 4s., by which perfect cleanliness is at-
tained, there not being a weed or a particle of
twitch to be seen in the autumn. In November
and the beginning of December the swedes are
pulled up, cleaned, thrown into conical heaps on
the field, and covered with soil, a light coat-
ing of stubble being previously laid on. When

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

73

the turnips are stacked without any straw between
them and" the soil, they are found to be very dirty
in wet weather, and in that state they jjurge the
sheep. This operation costs Gs. per acre. Every
third heap is carted off and consumed in the fold-
yards by cattle ; the rest are eaten by sheep on the
ground, the turnips being cut with Gardner's turnip-
cutter and given in troughs. The whole of the
sheep have chopped hay or clover with their turnips,
and the fattening sheep cake or corn also. The
hoggets and ewes have neither, except some weak
ones ; but the sheep which have cake or corn ex-
change peas regularly with those which have only
lurniiJS and hay, that the land may be equally
manured.

In preparation for barley, the land, as the turnips
are consumed, is ploughed five inches deep. Barley-
sowing commences in the first week of March, and
is finished about the 5th of April. Three bushels
and a half of Chevalier barley are drilled to the acre,
and the average produce for the last eight years has
jjeen 45 bushels 1 peck, the quality good, weighing
55 lbs. per bushel, and fetching the highest market-
price.

The grass seeds sown with the barley consist of
the following mixture :— Two-fifths or three-fifths
with 10 lbs. of red clover, 3 lbs. of white clover,
3 lbs. of trefoil, 1 peck of Italian rye-grass, and
half a peck of common rye-grass jier acre. The
remainder is sown wiih 10 lbs. of white clover, and
the same quantity of trefoil and rye-grass as above.
Beans and [)eas have been tried in the place of
clover, to produce a more varied course ; but the
^rops were light, the land being too dry for them,
and the wheat was much lighter than when sown
upon the clover ley, solidity of soil being considered
of the first importance to wheat on this kind of
land. Two of the five clover fields are mown for
hay, and three depastured with sheep and young
calves. The sheep are folded during the night.

For wheat, the ploughing of the clover ley begins
about the 10th of September, and the wheat is gene-
rally all in by the 20th of October. The first sown
is drilled at eight inches apart with '2h bushels, the
last with 3 bushels an acre of Valpin's red Spald-
ing wheat, which is the only sort now grown on
this farm, having been found most productive and
of good quality, weighing 62 lbs. per bushel. The
average crop for the six years preceding 1849 has
been 341 bushels an acre. The crops of 1849 and
1S50 are not yet thrashed, but are estimated at
much more. Immediately after the wheat is sown
the land is pressed with Crosskill's clod- crusher,
and, if the weather admits, it is again pressed in the
same way in spring. Eight cwt. of salt to the acre
is sov\-n upon the wheat, four cwt. in autumn, and
four cu't. in spring. This is found to give solidity
to the land, while it checks the weeds, prevents
mildew, blight, and rust, and improves the quality
and increases the produce of the crop. On the
clav soil portions of the farm the application of salt
has been discontinued, as it was found to keep
the land too damp and sad, and to give the wheat
a starved and unhealthy appearance. The wheat is
always hoed between the rows, but Mr. Beasley is
of opinion that if the land could be kept perfectly
clean without hoeing it would be better, as the hoe-

ing, by cutting the small fibres, has a tendency to
let the wheat fall.

We must make a short digression to explain Mr.
Beasley's reason for sowing so thickly on land in
every way so well prepared and in such high con-
dition. He does it on the principle that corn ought
not to tiller. If the jjlants are sufficiently thick in
spring they at once send up the stalk ; but if the
roots are thin they send out lateral shoots, which
strike in the earth and produce new plants. The
first jdant is weakened by having to produce aux-
iliary plants, and the ])lants of the second growth
do not come to maturity so early as the original or
parent plant. The quality of the crop is thus in-
jured, as there are always more light and defective
corns in a thin-sown than in a thick-sown crop;
besides that there is less seed to meet the contin-
gencies of wireworm, grub, or very severe weather.

The accommodation of the stock and crop is pro-
vided for in. a set of farm buildings, which have
been erected, at a moderate cost, out of the mate-
rials of two old ones, with the aid of larch timber
and stone procured on the estate. The buildings
are on a large scale, but compact, and in the centre
of the Overstone farm. They include a house for
a steam-engine which drives thrashing machinery,
millstones, saw-mill, and turnip-cutter. The waste
steam can be used for steaming food. The thrash-
ing and dressing of the corn, including coals and
oil, costs Is. 3d. per quarter. The feeding-houses
are 15 feet wide, with a manger, rack, and water-
trough at the head of the cattle. The cattle are
tied by the neck in pairs, in stalls 8 feet wide.
They are well littered and kept perfectly clean.
The water is supplied by a pipe from the well in
the yard, and when one trough is full it supplies
the next until all are full. The young stock are
kept loose in yards, with shelter-sheds, and the in-
calf heifers and cows are kept in the yards, where
the manure from the feeding-houses is emptied,
which they compress by treading.

The stock is of the improved short-horn breed,
bred with much care for many years, chiefiy from
the stock of the late Earl Spencer, and crossed
with bulls from Sir Charles Knightley and other
eminent breeders. About 35 cows and heifers are
kept for breeding, 40 calves being reared every
year, a few of the best that can be got being bought
to make up this number. The calves begin to fall
in February, and continue till Midsummer. About
siv of these are sold for bulls by the time they are
a year old. For the first fortnight the calves have
new milk, for another fortnight half new and half
skim ; afterwards skim milk, mixed with linseed
porridge. They are turned out into the young
clover very early, returning to open sheds at first
for the night, where they receive bruised oats, or
cake, as soon as they will eat, and until they are
able to gather a living for themselves by grazing.
The first winter the calves are kept in four pad-
docks, in each of which there is an open shed, in
which they are fed with turnips and hay, and the
youngest with 2 lbs. of cake a-day in addition. In
spring they are turned out to grass with the ewes
and lambs, and remain on the pastures till Christ-
mas, when they are brought into the foldyard to
straw and turnips. They are kept in the same way

74

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

for another year, and, when nearly three years old,
they are placed in the feeding pastures, which are
not very good, and in autumn in the aftermaths.
In November they are tied up in their stalls in the
feeding-houses, when, after a short time, they are
placed upon full feeding. They are fed four times
a-day, and their daily supply consists of

s. d.

7 lbs. of linseed cake, at 3| farthings

per lb 0 6

] gallon of beans ground into meal, at

3-2s. per quarter, including grinding 0 6
I ])ushelof swedes, at 3d. (iGs. per ton) 0 3

8 lbs. of hay, at £3 10s. per ton 0 3

1 6,

or 10s. 6d. per week for the last eight or ten weeks.
Ill the middle of February they are sold by auction
on the faim with the fat sheep. The average price
last year was £22 2s. 2d., including some old cows,
but they scarcely made 5d. per lb. At this price it
is very doubtful whether this mode of rearing and
feeding is profitable. Eai Her maturity, we are con-
vinced, would pay better, and we have often seen
cattle of inferior breeding, and on no better land,
made fat in half the time— certainly not the same
weight, but fetching greatly more than half the
money.

We now come to the management of the sheep
stock, which are of the new Leicester breed, bred
from the best flocks since the days of Bakewell.
Tlie ewes, 350 in number, rear about the same
number of lambs, but they are for the most part
bad nurses, and, the lambs being consequently
small, are taken early from their dams and put
upon clover or good pasture until November, when
they are placed upon turnips during the winter, as
already described. In the spring the ewe hoggets
are j>iit into a store pasture, and the wethers are
grazed upon vetches and clover. In the autumn
the draught ewes and theaves, and the whole of the
wethers, are put to turnips, when they also receive
a pint of beans or a pound of linseed cake per day,
whichever is to be had cheapest. As many shear-
ling wethers are bought in summer as are required
to consume the turnips, besides those bred on the
farm. They are all treated alike, and are sold fat
in February by auction. Last year the average
])iicewas 4Gs. 7d. These sheep clip on an average
6 lbs. of fine long wool.

The whole stock on the farm in February, 1S38,
was 71 cattle, 525 slieep, and 25 pigs. In February,
1849, there were 184 cattle, 879 sheep, and 33 pigs.
The farm was then 520 acres in extent. 200 acres
have since been added; and in February, 1851,
there were 202 cattle, 1,017 sheep, and 70 pigs.
Mr. Beasley intends to increase the sheep stock to
1,300, and to diminish the number of cattle in the
same proportion.

The labour of the farm costs 19s. 6d. an acre for
the whole, or 28s. an acre for the arable, and 7s.
for the pasture. The labourers are receiving

9s., 10s., Us., and 12s, per week, according to
their ability, character, and the time they have
worked upon the farm. They have all been re-
duced Is. per week since last year. Much of the
work is done as task work. With the excejition of
the strong land, the farm is light and easy to
manage, and the arrangements of the fields and
buildings greatly facilitates and economizes labour.

A leading object on this farm has been to make
as much good manure as j)ossible. To effect this
a very large stock is kept, all of which are well fed,
and a considerable quantity of artificial food is con-
sumed. Where the relative values of different
kinds of food do not greatly differ, feeding cattle
will generally thrive best upon a variety. One-
third of all the turnips grown upon the farm are
consumed in the stalls and yards by cattle. These,
with fiO acres of meadow-hay, 40 acres of clover,
and the straw from all the corn crops, make up the
materials for the manufacture of manure. The
quantity made has gradually increased, and the
crops are likewise increasing. The condition of the
farm is aided by the sheep being partly fed with
artificial food. It has been now brought to a point
of cleanliness and condition that the corn croj>s
scarcely admit of increase. If the barley crop is
made much more luxuriant the straw will be more
productive than the corn, and the quality will be
apt to deteriorate. It therefore becomes a question
whether the four course should be continued, or
whether the farm has now reached the point at
which successive corn crops might be occasionally
taken with advantage.

The experienced reader cannot fail fo remark the
lengthened jieriod which this very high bred stock
takes to arrive at maturity. This is somewhat
unusual, and appears to us the most vulnerable
point in Mr. Beasley's management. The chief
excellence of short-horns consists in their earlier
maturity than any other breed, for which we are
willing to sacrifice in some degree the quality of the
meat ; but if we are to keep them till four years
old we lose this advantage, and might as well feed
West Highlanders or Welsh runts, as they would
get fat at that age, and be of much primer q'.iality.
The high bred Leicester sheep, too, have the failing
of being bad nurses, and not prolific. They do
not a[)pear to have any countervailing advantage,
as, with the same feeding and at the same age, any
of our good crosses would give as much money.
It would thus appear thet merely for feeding pur-
poses it is unnecessary to spend money on very
highly bred stock, as Mr. Beasley, with the best
short-horn and the purest Leicester blood in Eng-
land, gets neither earlier maturity nor greater
wegihts than many farmers with stock of very
inferior breeding.

We make no apology for occupying so much
space with a detailed description of Mr. Beasley's
farm. It comprises within itself an instructive
little treatise on agriculture, aflfording much matter
for reflection, and many points of comparison to the
skilful practical farmer.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

75

HADLEIGH FARMERS' CLUB AND ASSOCIATION.

The annual show of this society was lield at
Hadleigh, on Friday, the 14th of May last, in Mr.
Strutt's meadow, and was a most excellent one.
The horse stock attracted the greatest share of at-
tention, being particularly good, especially in the
department of the geldings. Mr. Robt. Kersey's
two-year-old and year-old fillies, by Mr. Catlin's
Royal Windsor Duke, were much admired. Of
cattle there wasa short supply; but some capital
animals were exhibited by the Rev. J. Y. Cooke,
and others. There were several pens of superior
sheep ; the Downs were of prime quality, but were
deficient in keep. The swine were not altogether
first-rate, but there were one or two very excellent
animals in this class. The jndges of stock were
Mr. H. Crosse, of Boyton Hall ; Mr. B. M. Lu.ng-
le}', of Boxford; and Mr. Clover, of Greeting.

The ploughing took place partly in a field of
Mr. Caleb Kersey, and partly on Messrs. Rand's
occupation, and v;as well executed, but the land
was in such a state that the work could not be
seen to any advantage. The shearing was well
performed .

■ In the afternoon about SO gentlemen partook of
an excellent dinner at the newly-erected Town Hall,
of which this meeting was the inauguration. R.
Kersey, Esq., the Chairman of the club, presided,
and was supported, right and left, by the High
Sherifi'of the Connty (J. L. Anstruther, Esq.), the
Hon. and Rev. F. De Gre}', the Rev. H. B. Knox,
the Rev. J. Y. Cooke, the Rev. W. E. Downes,
R. Baker, Esq. (Writtle), — Barker, Esq.
(Chairman of the Ramsey Farmers' Club), J.
Crowse, Esq., and several of the professional gen-
tlemen of Hadleigh, and the principal farmers in
the district.

The cloth being removed,

The Chairman said they were assembled in the
Town Hall for the transaction of business connected
with the agricultural association established in
Hadleigh; and he thought tlrey could not have a
convivial meeting in that room for a betler object
than that which they were met to promote. He
would give the health of our gracious sovereign,
and as it was the first time the toast had been pro-
posed in that hall, he would call upon the meeting
to drink it with three times three.

'•' Prince Albert, the Prince of Wales, and the rest
of the Royal Family ;" " the Army and Navy,"
were next given.

The CrfAiRMAN said it aftbrded the members of
the aijsociation great pleasure to see their esteemed

and worthy rector always coming amongst them on
these occasions. He was very glad to see that none
of his ministerial duties, or any other engagements,
real or feigned, ever prevented his attending the
annual meetings to promote the objects of the as-
sociation. He could wish that the society had suf-
ficient powers of attraction to bring all the clergy
in that part of the diocese to meet them at their
annual gatherings ; still there were more of them
present on this occasion than in some former years.
He was pleased to find m.any of the clergy and
gentry now giving their patronage and supjiort,
which were so calculated to encourage the members
to increased efforts to carry out the objects of the
association, "The Clergy of the Diocese,"
was then given, coupled with the health of Mr.
Knox (loud cheers).

The Rev. H. B. Knox, in acknowledging the
toast, said it must be some occasion, disagreeable
indeed in itself, which would keep him from being
present on such occasions as this. He always made
it a point to attend the meetings of the association
as a matter of duty, as well as of inclination
(cheers). He was always proud to support Mr.
Kersey in this, or in any other cause, and where
that gentleman so v/ell led he was happy to follow
(cheers). There had been usually some remarks
made at these meetings as to the paucity of clerg}--
men present — he was happy to find the number in-
creased this year ; but though many were not with
them, he believed he might say with truth that their
hearts were with an association, the object of v.'hich
was to promote the interests of agriculture, and
more esjjecially the welfare and happiness of the
labouring classes. While these associations stood
up for those classes, the clergy, he was sure, would
stand up in supi)ort of these associations (loud
cheers).

The Chairman thought that lie might congratu-
late-the meeting upon the growing interest mani-
fested towards the objects of this association, when
they found they had the honour and pleasure of
having the High Sheriff of the County amongst
them (loud cheering). As he was compelled to
speak in that gentleman's presence, he should do
so in as delicate a manner as possible ; but he mutt
say that he was held in the highest estimation by
the public generally for the very impartial manner
in which he was discharging the duties of his high
office. If he were to express his feelings in respect
to the high sheriff, in terms commensurate with
those feehngs, Mr. Anstruther perhaps might be

76

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

led to suppose that he was oflFering him something
hke an unnecessary compUment; but he certainly
should do no less than justice, while proposing his
health, in saying that he was one of the best land-
lords in the county of Suffolk (great and continued
cheering). He might be forgiven if, in Mr.
Anstruther's presence, he took the opportunity of
conveying to his mind the high estimation in which
he was held by his tenantry (loud cheers) ; for he
could honestly say that he scarcely ever attended a
social meeting amongst the farmers in that locality,
without hearing his tenants proposing the high
sheriff's health, in language which he should not
attempt to repeat. This fact, and the fact of his
filling so high an office in the county, would justify
him in giving the health of the high sheriff with
three times three (one cheer more was heartily
added).

The High Sheriff begged to thank the meet-
ing most sincerely for the high honour which had
been paid to him. He felt that Mr. Kersey had
really placed him in a most difficult position, for he
had introduced the toast with observations which
he felt he was not worthy of (cries of " No, no!).
He gladly availed himself of the opportunity af-
forded him of expressing his high gratification in
witnessing the interesting exhibition that day. He
thought the stock show a most meritorious one,
and highly creditable to the locality ; he was sure
the gentlemen who were fortunate enough to gain
prizes had great reason to be proud ; while those,
on the other hand, who were unsuccessful, had no
reason to be ashamed ; he knew that their want of
success woidd only stimulate them to greater
efforts, and he would, therefore, only wish they
might be more successful in future. He had had
great pleasure in again enrolling himself as a
member of the association. He regretted that his
absence from home had prevented his attending
their meetings as he could wish to have done ;
but he rejoiced to have heard that the asso-
ciation was in a flourishing condition. He thought
it particularly creditable that, notwithstanding the
unpropitious events of late years, such should be
the case. He considered that these societies were
deserving of every possible support, and he hoped
it would be accorded to them, because they were
instrumental in doing a great deal of good, not
only by promoting harmony in the neighbourhood,
but by exciting rivalry and emulation, in stimula-
ting to exertions which must tend to the advantage
of agricultural science generally. He rejoiced that
the prizes of this association were not confined to
stock, but that a great portion of them were as-
signed to the industrious agricultural labourer;
this was a class of men who, he feared, were gene-
rally too much overlooked, and it was therefore

highly creditable to the association that it paid so
much attention to this peculiar object. On the
grounds he had mentioned he would urge upon all
to lend their assistance to the association in every
possible way (cheers).

The Chairman said that whatever differences of
opinion there might be on political subjects, there
would be no difference as to the sentiment he was
about to express, which was that the members for
the County of Suffolk had acted as most consistent
men, and had never compromised their principles
(cheers). He thought he might say they had dis-
charged their Parliamentary duties with a firmness
of intention, and with an honesty of heart and pur-
pose, that were deserving, at all events, of the
thanks of the constituency (cheers). They had
always endeavoured to aim at what he had no
doubt they thought most calculated to promote the
interests of tlie country on the one hand, and the
interests of the constituency on the other. He
would propose the healths of " the Members for
the County " (loud cheers).

The Chairman then said that having had the
pleasure of proposing the Clergy in the Diocese, he
would now give the healths of the Clergy out of
the Diocese, and amongst their- number he was
very happy to introduce to the meeting the Hon.
and Rev. Frederick De Grey, a gentleman who had
recently joined their association (cheers). He con-
gratulated the members on such an accession, and
he would take the liberty at the same time of con-
gratulating Mr. De Grey on joining such an as-
sociation (cheers).

The Hon. and Rev. Mr. De Grey, in returning
thanks, said he sincerely congratulated himself on
having the honour of belonging to so interesting
an association as that. He had heard of the society
for many years, and had oo two or three occasions
attempted to be present at its meetings, but had
always hitherto been thwarted when the day came.
He felt more particularly gratified in belonging to
the association, from the circumstance of finding
that three or four of the prizes to be awarded that
day were gained by farmers in his parish — a fact
extremely gratifying to him, almost as much so as
it must be to the gentlemen themselves (cheers).

The Chairman would propose the health of a
practical as well as an experimental agriculturist,
and whom they had had the pleasure before of
seeing at their meetings — Mr. Robt. Baker, of
Writtle (loud cheers).

Mr. Baker, in returning thanks, assured them
that whatever position he might be placed in, so
long as he found that position to be amougst agri-
culturists and farmers, he felt more especially
happy in it than in any other. His lot was cast
amongst agriculturists, and he trusted that he

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

should so conduct himself through life as to be
always received by them with the same pleasure as
he hoped he had been received with that day.
There was a rule on all occasions like the present,
which would prohibit him from speaking on a sub-
ject which he should most like to touch upon —
namely, the position of the farmer. But amongst
other matters which might jjroperly be discussed,
there was one which had rather impressed itself on
his mind — it was the comparative position of the
farmer in the present and in the past periods. The
Times' Commissioners had entered into an investi-
gation upon this point, and had published some
very valuable and interesting documents, which
those who had not hitherto seen might read in a
book which had been published containing the
report of the Commissioners ; the general conclu-
sion was arrived at, on a comparison of prices
between 1770 and the present time, that wheat at
the present time was some fifteen or twenty [ler
cent, cheaper than in 17/0 ; but the Commissioners
went on to meat, butter, and cheese, and these were
some thirty to forty per cent, higher in price ;
therefore those who grazed most meat, and pro-
duced most butter and cheese, would probably
succeed more than those who produced a large
quantity of wheat. Now all farmers could not
adapt their cultivation to these particular articles ;
but it was a most important subject, and one which
required the consideration of every one, why meat
should be dearer at the present period than in
1770; and still grazing was not a profitable part of
farming? It was said by some that it was because
the farmers bought the lean animal too dear. That
might be one reason ; but there was another which
overruled that, viz,, that there was an improvement
in the race of animals in the present day over those
purchased 100 years ago ; and, in the period during
which he had been a farmer and grazier, that which
it formerly took eight or nine months to effect was
now elTected in three or four months; the im-
proved mode of feeding animals and the improve-
ment in stock had given considerable advantage in
this respect. Every one was aware of the great
improvement in neat stock in the last 50 years, and
in sheap stock ; every one knew that early maturity
might now be introduced into the breed of an
animal so as to ensure an opportunity of fattening
it in half the usual time. With all these opportu-
nities why was the grazier placed in such a difficult
position ? Because the introduction of the turnip,
mangel wurzel, and the root crop was so great, and
the introduction of guano had so accelerated the
growth of them, that the demand for lean animals
had doubled ; the quantity of fat meat had likewise
doubled without double the demand for it, so that
in the latter respect the market was over glutted.

while in lean animals there was not sufficient
production to meet the demand. He held that if
the farmers, even in these districts, were to pay
sufficient attention to the rearing of stock and
to the fattening of that stock, they would to
some extent overcome the difficulty complained of.
It was said that it took so long a process to rear
stock, and that the land in these districts was not
adapted to it, and therefore that it was much better
to purchase and fatten than to rear stock. AVith
the little experience he had had he would contradict
this assertion, for he was sure that with an im-
proved race of animals, such as had that day been
exhibited, and if those animals could be procured
for the purpose of breeding from, which they
might be, their early maturity was such that
animals of very superior quality, not only in point
of condition and fatness, but likewise in point of
size, might be produced and got to market in the
short space of twenty-four months. He was not
speaking on mere assertion, but from sound prac-
tical experience. He had effected this object him-
self; and a gentleman on his left (the Rev. Mr.
Cooke) he was sure would corroborate the fact that
anirhals of from £15 to £20 value might be pro-
duced in that period, if properly reared, and if a
proper mode of fattening were pursued, by keeping
on in a progressive state of improvement ; there-
fore if the breeder had any advantage over the
grazier, that advantage might be obtained by the
party who filled both positions. (Hear, hear). He
always held that meetings of this character should
be practical and useful ; it was no use to meet
for improvements in stock and horses, unless the
farmers met also for the improvement of them-
selves ; there was no use in progress as regarded
the animal, unless it were carried out as regarded
the man — if that were not the aim sought to be at-
tained, such meetings would be to no purpose
(cheers). It was the most important part of the
business of a farmer in the present day to make
the most he could from his farm ; and he was sure,
whatever was the condition of his occupation, such
were the opportunities of producing root and green
crops, that every farmer would be in a position to
rear enough stock necessary for his farm to main-
tain. (Hear, hear). He had seen the plan he re-
commended pursued with advantage, and, to a
great extent, on farms where formerly no stock was
usually kept. In Essex, the practice of the farmer
hitherto had been to sell his calves, and to attend
the market nearest him to buy an inferior descrip-
tion of animal, reduced to the lowest stage of
poverty, which it took half as long to put into a
condition to fatten for the shambles as it would
take to rear one ; on the other hand, he had pur-
chased the best calves that could be produced, over

7S

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and above those he had reared, and he had sold
animals, two years of age, averaging from 80 to
100 stone, and which had never had anything not
jjroduced on the farm, except a small portion of
oil-cake. With a purchased animal, if the grazier
obtained £5 or £6 over the pm'chase-money for the
keep of it, it was considered that he made a tolerable
profit on the grazing ; but if he reared amimals,
and the calves were well managed, he contended
they might be. made to produce on a moderate cal-
culation from £10 to £15 each. If they thought
£5 a good profit on a full-grown animal purchased,
and could realize £15 on that which was only a
calf when they first commenced with it, he would
ask which was the best practice? (cheers). Al-
though he came from a distant county he did not
attend the meeting with a view of laj'in/,^ down
precepts and principles in which he was quite sure
they were more experienced than himself, but when
Sir Robert Peel on various occasions addressed his
tenants and talked of their rubbing their minds
together, he did so with the same object as he (Mr.
Baker) had in view in making his present remarks.
He did not aspire to know more than they did, or
to communicate anything to men more practical
than himself; but there were many common things
on which they might not have fixed their attention,
in consequence of their being too common to be
noticed. The farmers were too much creatures of
habit, too apt to tread in the path their forefathers
walked in, and to adopt a particular system ; but
circumstances were so altered now that farmers
must look about them. The introduction of rail-
ways and the facilities of water-carriage made dis-
tant places approximate now to London, which
before had not been the first market for their meat.
Scotland could send animals to London on as easy
terms as the farmers of Suffolk, and could compete
with them in that market; the consequence was
that they kept the best of their stock now to fatten
for the London market, and introduced their worst
descrijition of animals into these counties to be
sold for fattening. There was one subject which
hevished to advert to — the propagation of the beet
root for the purposes of brewing. He himself had
applied it so extensively as to be able to speak con-
fidently on the subject. He would say that every
farmer might produce sufficient beet root on half
an acre of land to supply all his labourers and
household with beer — not ordinary, but good beer
— under proper management as good as from malt
itself. The workmen on his farm had drunk it for
the last five or six months, and they were all per-
fectly satisfied with it. He drunk it in his own
house, and he found his friends often asking him
where he bought his porter, and a gentleman from
London declared it was better than either beer or

])orter from malt. He thought the farmer would
be benefited by using beet for this purpose. (A
Voice: "What shall wa do with the barleys:'")
He was glad that question was asked, because ha
thought he could answer it in a way perfectly sa-
tisfactory to the majority of those present. It was
well known that if there were no malt-tax there
would at the present moment be double the quan-
tity of malt consumed in this country. He had.
shov/n them how to produce an article free from the
tax ; if malt made from l)arley were as cheap as it
might be if the tax were not added, he should noCl
tliink the adoption of the beet for beer of any ad-
vantage to the farmer ; but in consequence of thel
malt from beet not being taxed the beer could bej
procured 200 per cent, cheaper than if made witbl
malt from barley. The use of beet for beeAvouldl
go far to promote the repeal of the malt-tax, and ifJ
that tax were taken oil' to-morrow, he was sure thafi
double the quantity of barley now grown or maltec
would not be sufficient. Let them avail themselves
of a useful article for their own benefit, and that of
their servants, and they could do so where no cthefl
individuals could, and he was convmced that itl
would eventually jjrove a boon to the farmers'
(cheers).

Mr. Joseph Rand proposed the health of their
esteemed Chairman, Mr. Kersey — (loud cheers) —
remarking how much the Association was indebted
to him for the great interest he took in its pros-
perity, and for the admirable manner in which he
conducted the duties of its presidency. He trusted
they might see that gentleman for many years to
come, occupying the office which he now so ably
filled. He would couple with Mr. Kersey's health
the toast of Prosperity to the Hadleigh Farmers'
Club and Association.

Mr. Kersey rose amidst much cheering, and,
in returning thanks, expressed the great interest he
felt in the success of the association, and in the
promotion of its objects. He considered that, when
the members came together on occasions like the
present, they met to stamp a kind of dignity upon
labour, and to pay a species of tribute and respect
to good character and to industry. It was most
gratifiying to have been in the ploughing field, and
to witness the competition there. It had convinced
him that very day of the striking connection there
was between the employer and the employed, be-
tween the master and the servant, and as he might
also take the opportunity of stating, between
capital and labour. He would just ask what would
l)e the condition of our agricultural districts, or
what the condition of the masses of England, if
they had not such a thing as remunerative
labour? If there were no remimerative labour in
this country and in our districts, and if capital were

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

79

extinquislieLl or withdrawn, it woulil pauperise every
family, every parish, and, he contended, every
county. A meeting such as that regarded the
hibouring class with the greatest interest, looking
on them as men of sterling character and of great
worth, associated with themselves and with the
higher classes, in rearing up the social fabric of the
country and giving stability to its institutions; but
just withhold remunerative labour, and the seeds of
discord and discontent would be sown, and would
ripen eventually to a harvest of dissolution and
bloodshed. Whenever he returned home from
meetings of this association, he could never help
regarding his men, and every man who had been a
competitor for prizes, as casting a kind of moral
inlluence amongst his fellow-men on the farm — it
reminded him of the time when he was a boy stand-
ing on a bank, and casting a stone into the water —
the rippling spread over its whole surface; just the
same was tlie influence which such men extended
over the minds of their fellow-men when brought
into contact with them. The best workman on a
farm, the most successful labourer, was always the
man who in other respect set the noblest example
to his fellow-labourers (cheers). They frequently
heard, in conversation on the state of the country,
while there was an admission of the poverty and
pauperism extending on the right and left, and of
the fearful consequences springing therefrom, a
kind of panacea suggested for the removal of those
ills ; a great cry was made throughout the length
and breadth of the land, and re-echoed, of "educate,
educate, educate!" He would educate too — he
would place within the reach of every man the
means of acquiring good, sound, practical know-
ledge ; but in doing so he would endeavour to im-
plant in his bosom the principles by which he might
know how to exercise that moral power with which
he was invested ; he would give him every oppor-
tunity to increase in practical knowledge ; he would
have no mind uncultivated, and no understanding
unenligVitened; but, at the same time, what was
education without employment?— what would be
the state and condition of their labourers, however
enlightened they might be, whatever knowledge
they might acquire, without that remunerating
labour which was essential to their domestic com-
fort and happiness ? He would merely conclude
his obstrvations by expressing a hope that long
might the Hadleigh Farmers' Club and Association
prosper, long might its members continvie to sup-
port it, and hundreds yet to come share in the
blessings it was calculated to bestow (cheers).

The llcv. H. B. Knox in complimentary terms
proposed the health of the Vice-President, Mr. Joseph
Eand. (Cheers.)
. Mr. Rand returucd thanks. He had becu much

delighted at that day'y exliibitiou, for ho liked to see
good stock reared and brought to early maturity, and
he was glad to find so much competition, lie did
not recollect au occasion when he had been Icta foi--
tuuatc in obtaiuing prizes ; but, as his esteemed laud-
lord, the High Sheriff, had observed, the vuisuccc-yful
competitors had uo reason to be ashamed of tln-ir
stock: still, they must put their shoulders to (he
wheel again, instead of being cast do\n\ in conse-
quence of being once beaten : he could only say it
would make him more energetic in the productiuu cf
good animals. (Cheers.)

The prizes for long servitude, shcavhig, ])lougliing,
&c., were then distributed : —

Samuel Bloyse, having subscribed 47 years to an
enrolled benciit society, 2/. ; John King, 50 ycarb'
service with Mr. Hugh Green, Boxford, 21. ; John
Whyman, -47 years' service with Mr. Eobert Par-
tridge, 21.; Ann Jarrod, Hi years' service-with Mr.
Cook, 2/. SIiej)Ji('r(h. — Samuel Alderton, liaving
reared 260 lambs from 161 ewes, with the loss of 4
ewes, 1/. 10s. ; William AVriglit, 210 lambs from 185
ewes, 4 lost, 1/. ; Charles Wiseman, 292 from 192
ewes, 10 lost, 10s. Shearers. — John Dcaves, 1/. 10s.;
James Ramplin, 1/. ; William Goss, 10s. Tlomjh-
vieii. Chts>i 7.— John Sage, 21. ; William Sage, II.
10s. ; George Wright, 1/'. Class II. — John Green,
1/. rSs. ; Thomas Pratt, 1/. 5s. ; William Barton, 15s.
Boi/s. — James Munson, 1/. ; Charles Hasell, 15s

The following were the prizes awarded for Stock,
&c. : — Cart stallion, Mr. James Warren, 21. Brood
cart mare, Mr. Robert Kersey, 21. ; second best ditto,
Mr. James Gentry, 1/. Gekling, ditto, 1/. lOs. (AU
the other geldings were commended.) Cart colt or
gelding, Mr. J. Everitt (Polstead), 1/. Cart Tilly,
Mr. Robert Kersey, 1/. Cart colt or gelding, Mr.
Thomas Partridge," 15s. Cart filly, Mr. R. Kersey,
15s. Bull, Rev. J. Y. Cooke, 1/. 10s. Horned cow,
ditto, 11. Polled cow of any breed, Mr. Cable Ker-
sey, 1/. Shearling Southdown Tup, Mr. T. Partridge,
IS's. Southdown tup, of any age, Mr. Thomas Haw-
kins, 15s. Shearling short-wool tup, uo exhibitor.
Tup of any age, of short-wool breed, Messrs. R. and
J. Rand, ISs. Long-wool shearling tup, ditto, ISs.
Long-wool tup of any otlicr age, Mr. H. Partridge,
15s. Five Southdown wether hoggets, Mr. T. Haw-
kins, 1/. Five ewe hoggets, ditto, 1/. Five wether
hoggets, of any other short-wool breed, Mr. John
Halving, 1/. Five ewe hoggets, of any other short-
wool lireed, ditto, 1/. Five wether hoggets, long-
wool breed, ditto 11. Five ewe hoggets, long-wool
breed, ditto, 11. Pleece of hogget sliort-\yool, Mr.
Thomas Cooper, Ardley Wick," 15s. ; fleece hogget
long-wool, ditto, 15s. Boar, large breed. Rev. J. Y.
Cooke, 15s. ; ditto, small breed, Mr. Warren, 15s.
Breeding Sow, large breed. Rev. J. Y. Cooke, 15s. ;
ditto, small breed, Mr. H Partridge, 15s. Pat hei-
fer. Rev. J. Y. Cooke, 1/. 10s. ; second-best ditto,
Messrs. R. and J. Rand, 1/.

Mr. RocEM Ranb proposed the health of "the
Judges of the Stock."

Mr. H. Caossii:, in returuing thanks, said the stock
exhibited was very much above that which he wit-

80

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

nessed tlu'ee or four yccai's ago ; the horses and the
colts were decidedly superior. He at that time had
made the remark tliat there was a want of quaUty,
but he must now remark that if they attended too
much to quahty he feared they woukl lose size. Li
much of the stock exhibited there was beautiful qua-
lity, great activity, and perhaps good constitution,
but hardly enough force, he should think, for the
strong soil of this country. In the sheep depart-
ment the Judges had great difficulty in satisfying
themselves, particularly as to the tups, which were
first shewn in the wool and then shorn, and which
were in competition with some shorn a month ago
from a misunderstanding as to the rules. The wind
being very high, they so stuck up their backs that
they could not be judged of so well, and seemed so
horribly cold that he did not like the look of them
half so much as before. Some of the neat stock
were remarkably good. In awarding the prizes for
cows, they had ventured, perhaps wrongly, to pick
out one or two poor animals, with every disposition
to fatten if they had the chance, but which for their
milking qualities were Ukely every night and morn-
ing to bring in profit to their owners. He woidd
remark that the Judges would have liked to have
seen more of the hoi'scs' heads, but many of them
were so covered up with brass, and the dutfins were
so large, that they could not be seen.

Mr. EoBT. Partridge proposed the health of Mr.
Grimwade, the able Secretary to the Association.

Mr. Grimwade returned thanks. It must be gra-
tifying to the members to sec, at a time like the pre-
sent, such an exhibition of stock, and a meeting so
well attended. He hoped that this would inspire
them with courage, and be an augury of greater pros-
perity for the future.

Mr. Norman proposed the health of Mr. Clayden,
the Treasurer.

Mr. Clayden acknowledged the comphment, and
had the pleasure of stating that on this, as on former
occasions, his coffers were pretty well lined. (Cheers.)
He felt pleasure also in having the opportunity of
bearing testimony to the great advantages of this
Association, and he would mention an interesting
fact. One of the recipients of their bounty last year
came to liim : he was a man whom he had known
since he had been in Hadleigh, and had always look-
ed on as a most honest and well-principled individual.
When he first knew him he was the occupier of a
small portion of Aldham Common, under Mr. Pretty,
now of Bury. The poor man fell into difficulties,
having had the loss of a horse, and a cow or two,
but he managed to pay up what was due except a
sovereign. This matter had been forgotten by Mr.
Pritty, who had regarded the man as not likely to be
able to pay it. Well, the man came to him, as he
bad stated, and asked liitn to remit, out of the money

he had taken for a prize, the sovereign to Mr. Prit.ty
which he had owed him so many years, and he added
that, though Mr. P. was entitled to interest, yet per-
haps he would forgive him a portion thereof. He
had attended to the request, and had received from
Mr. Pritty the following letter :

"Bury St. Edmunds.
" Dear Sir, — I am obliged by yoiu- communica-
tion enelosmg 1/. from Howes, and am very much
pleased with the sterling honesty of his character
which it manifests. It had quite escaped my atten-
tion that he was indebted to me that sum, though I
now remember it ; but of course it is so bug since
the debt was contracted that I could not have en-
forced the payment of it, so that it was become a
debt of honour. It strikes me that the appropriation
of the whole or part of the prize which he obtained
is so much to his credit that it deserves to be made
honoiu-able mention of to the Association that gave
him the prize ; and as the amount passed through
your hands I shall be obliged if you will, at the en-
suing yearly meetiug of the Society, mention the
circumstance, as it appears to be one worthy of com-
mendation."

He thought the members could hardly fail to be
pleased that a prize had been awarded to a man of
such sterling worth: the circumstance certainly
showed a degree of honour and honesty rarely to
be met with in the higher classes. He thought
while they were enabled by their small contributions
to reward such deserving characters, they would
be happy to continue their subscriptions.

Mr. Thos. Hawkins proposed the health of
Mr. Daking, and the successful competitors. He
knew no one who had received more prizes that
day, or brought a better lot of sheep into the yard,
than Mr. Daking had done. They must all feel
gratified at the way in which the Judges had
awarded the prizes, though he certainly could not
agree with his friend Mr. Crosse that the day was
much too cold for them to examine the sheep. He
thought if they judged by the eye rather than by
the touch, they would make but a poor hand of it.
Whether a sheep were shorn a month or only two
or three hours before, a person could tell where the
bones were, without trusting much to the eye in m
that particular. *:

Mr. Daking returned thanks, and congratulated
the members on the success of the association,
which he considered did a great deal of good.

Mr. Crosse explained that the Judges did ■
handle the sheep, and his remarks had reference W
only to the appearance they presented. He believed
they did not judge a single animal without touching
him.

Mr. Postans proposed the health of the senior
member of the association — Mr. Robert Partridge,
sen., who acknowledged the compliment.

Mr. J. Everett proposed the health of Mr.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

81

Barker, the very excellent Chairman of the Ramsey
Farmers' Club (cheers).

Mr. Bakker returned thanks. He had enjoyed
very much the excellent exhibition of stock in the
cattle yard, and he had been greatly pleased with
the remarks made to the meeting, and more parti-
cularly with the anecdote narrated by Mr. Clay den.
He believed that in the labouring class there was
more sterling honesty and worth than in any other
class in the kingdom ; and when he looked at the
comforts those above them enjoyed through the in-
strumentality of that class, he felt too much could
not be done to promote ther comfort and well-
being. Mr. Baker had told the farmers that they
should rear their own stock, and that they pur-
chased their animals for^ fattening at too dear a
rate. For some time he (Mr. Barker) had reared
his own stock, beginning with the calf and ending
with the bullock, beginning with the Iamb and end-
ing with the fat sheep. As his was not a stock
farm, he was obUged, of course, to resort to many
expedients. At this time of the year he had gene-
rally about a hundred head of young stock ; but
although this was a very good principle to adopt,
he thought that if Mr, Baker had pursued it he
would find that, if the profits were nothing on cattle
purchased, they were very small indeed on those
which the farmer reared (Hear, hear). He knew
that a great many dodges were put forth as pana-
ceas for the depression of agriculture, such as high
farming, increased machinery, drainage, &c. ; but
he would observe that all these things must be de-
pendent upon circumstances, upon the character of
the occupation, and so forth. From draining he
himself had received no benefit. All these princi-
ples, a])plied singly, under favourable ch'cum stances,
were very advantageous ; but they were not of
general benefit. If Mr. Baker's system were gene-
rally adopted, meat would become so low in price
that the object would be defeated. If all were to
rear their own cattle, the quantity ofmeat would be
so large that the profits would be smaller than now.
In reference to the observations of the chairman as
to the abstraction of capital from the soil, he was
convinced that one of the evils we laboured under
v/as that abstraction of capital — we had laboured
under it for the last five years, and should do so still.
He maintained that the country iiad not the capital
employed in the soil to produce so much corn as was
produced five years ago, by one-fourth ; and he be-
lieved that Sir Fitzroy Kelly was right at a late elec-
tion, when he made a statement respecting the re-
duction of the quantity of corn giown within the
'iraits of this kingdom. He (Mr. Barker) fully
believed that the production of corn in this county
was not equal to what it was six years ago — ad-
verse seasons and other circumstances had reduced

the quantity grown to more than the amount of
our importations. It might be asked then why
there were such low prices ? He would reply that
all speculation was paralyzed, and no one would
purchase corn except from hand to mouth, which
made low prices ; and while the ports were open
they must expect low prices, and the consequences
must ultimately exhibit themselves. He was con-
vinced that in the county of Essex the farmers did
not grow so much corn by a quarter per acre as
they did six years ago. He himself had taken some
pains to instil a spirit of improvement among his
brother farmers, but he must say they wanted
something practical— they wanted remuneration.
It was all very well to say " Cultivate, cultivate !"
but he would say " Remunerate, remunerate !"
that there might be a better return for the outlay of
capital than there had lately been (cheers).

Mr. Bakeb said it was a question, having a
given quantity of food, how it was best to apply it
to advantage. He contended that if it were applied
to the rearing of young stock and keeping them to
fatten, it would be better than the purchasing of
stock for grazing purposes. There was another
advantage which he did not mention. To purchase
first-class stock for the purpose of grazing required
a large capital ; to stock a farm with young stock
required a small amount of capital; therefore it
would be found that the profits were larger in that
point of view than in stock purchased to graze. As
far as he had seen and heard, the breeder had the
best end of the stick ; the man who reared sheep
or animals and sold them to his neighbours got
more than the man who fattened ; then let the far-
mer rear his own cattle, and if the profit were more
at one end than the other, let him have it.

Mr. Barker agreed with Mr. Baker that the
best application of the food of a farm was in the
rearing and fattening of stock ; but he thought also
that if they reared and fattened to a very great ex-
tent they could not do so without remuneration,
and that the system would not relieve them from
the depression under which they laboured.

The Chairman proposed the liealth of Mr.
Bale, of Harhng.

Mr. Bale, iu reiuruiiiy thanks, said he believed
that the slow progress agriculture had liitherto made
as a science was to be attributed to a want of educa-
tion on the part of the cultivators of the soil, and to
ignorance of the connection between agriculture and
chemistry ; but a new and brighter period was dawn-
ing ; the farmers were beginning to know that they
need be scholars to follow the plough. When they
saw Imidloids and stewards providing such inade-
quate farm buildings, and letting farms without any
security of temire, not even allowing the tenants to
think fur themselves as to the best mode of cidtiva-

G

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tiug their farms, biudiug them down to obsolete
systems of cropping for every description of soil, it
was time they slionld be sent to college to learn the
why and the wherefore. (Cheers.) There was no
question that science a])plied to agricidture under
proper regulations wuidd promote the interests of
agriculture; science would be the polar star, and
practice would carry it through. These two sorts of
knowledge — science and practice — required two or-
ders of mind, but excellent practical farmers would
not dispute the principles upon which practice was
founded. He was glad to say that many farmers
were arousing from the sleep in which they had been
so long slumbering, and in which many of their
brethren were reposing, and were rubbing theif eyes
and waking up to a sense of then- position ; but there
were many practical farmers who imderstood effects
but did not understand causes ; they could tell that
on some lands clay would produce effect, and on
others none ; that white crop after white crop should
not be introduced ; that land would become sick of
clover, and so forth. But few were aware of the
causes which produced these effects, and they might
be sure that, unless they knew something of causes,
they would work at a disadvantage. Farmers should
know something of the soil they cultivated; and earth
air, and water bemg the agents with which they
worked, geology and chemistry should be understood
by them. Mathematical analysis had done much for
astronomy; and in like manner chemical analysis
would be beneficial, for it would enable the farmer to
put into the land what was necessary to produce any
crop he pleased, even to the growing of turnips and
potatoes ; it told them there was no soil so barren,
no rock so steep, but that the sinews of our noble
labourers could render it productive and capable of
sustaining life ; and that that which used to embar-
ras and perplex woidd vanish as soon as science and
chemical skill were put to it — that the barren heath,
the indigenous clay, and the bog, might be wrought
to become rich and fertile for the benefit of man.

Mr. Gruhvade proposed the healths of the pro-
fessional gentlemen of Hadleigh. — oVIi-. Gkowse, Mr.
Robinson, and Mr. Last severally retui-ned thanks.

Mr. Bahkek proposed the healths of the Com-
mittee, and Mr. Paexridge acknowledged the toast.

Mr. Clatden proposed the health of Mr. Strutt,
with thanks to him for the use of his meadow. Mr.
Strutt retm-ncd thanks.

Mr. Last proposed "Success to Agiiculture,"
couplmg with the toast the name of Mr. Caleb
Kersey. (Cheers.)

Mr. C. Kersey, in returning thanks, said, in refer-
ence to the remarks of Mr. Bale, that he was rather
doubtful whether chemistry could do much good for

»

the farmers. He thought there must be a good deal
of the old system as well as of the new to ensiue
prosperity through an increased quantity of corn.
He was one who thought that land could not be
made to produce more than a certain quantity. He
had observed that the application of some artificial
manures would in the spring time have such an effect
on the blade as to lead him to look for a most luxu-
riant crop ; but he had noticed that, at harvest, tliere
was not more corn in consequence of the application,
and in some cases not so much. (Hear, hear !) He
did not mean to say this applied to all artificial ma- m
nures : still he thought, from all he had heard, and '
especially from what he had seen done by a gentle-
man whose name he need not mention, but who had
met them at some of then- annual musters, and whose
balance-sheet he needed not go into — (laughter) — •
that they ought to be very guarded indeed in the ex-
penditure of their money in this shape. (Cheers.)
There must be a cautious selection of those artificial
manures, and the use of all advisable means to ensure
as far as possible good crops. But, after all, in this
country they were subject to such fluctuations of
seasons that what would answer perfectly well at one
time would not at another, when, if they had not put
the expense mto the land, the crop would have been
better. He did not think there could be laid down
any unerring system, either for rearing stock or for
the management of a farm. They must farm on their
own judgment as far as they could, with the assist-
ance of the advice of their neighbours, and especially
such as they heard from time to time offered tliem
at the monthly meetings of the Hadleigh Farmers'
Club.

The Rev. J. Y. Cooke proposed the toast of
"Trade in general" coupled with the name of Mr.
Cook, who acknowledged the toast.

Mr. Robinson proposed the healths of " the La-
bouring Classes."

The High Sherife gave " The Press," coupling
therewith the name of Mr. Horace Barker, of the
Bmy Fost, who returned thanks.

Mr. Everett proposed the healths of " the Judges
of the Ploughing." Mr. Fidgett acknowledged the
toast, and in high terms, as a practical ploughman
himself, commended the execution of the work, and
expressed his opinion that in the ploughing depart-
ment the district round Hadleigh coidd not be beaten
in the whole world.

"The health of Mrs. Knox and the Ladies of Had-
leigh," was next given, and acknowledged by the
Rev. H. B. Knox, who took occasion to pay some
graceful compliments to the exceUeut lady of the
worthy Chaii'man ; and after this the meeting broke
up.— Norwich and Bury Post.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

83

METEOROLOGICAL DIARY.

Barometer.

Thermometer.

' Wind and State.

Atmosphere.

Weath.

Day.

8 a.m.

in. cts.
30.02

10p.m.

Min.

Max.

lOp.m

Direction.

Force,

8 a.m.

2 p.m. 10p.m. 1

May 24

in els.

29.97

45

61

55

Easterly

lively

cloudy

fine cloudy

dry

25

29.97

29.87

50

59

52

N. East

lively

cloudy

cloudy cloudy

dry

26

29.80

29.84

48

52

50

E.N.E.

lively

cloudy

cloudy cloudy

rain

27

29.89

29.87

48

53

47

North

ixentle

cloudy

cloudy cloudy

rain

28

.9.78

29.78

46

56

52

E. by N.N.E.

i^entle

clouvly

cloudy cloudy

rain

29

29.72

29.63

45

50

43

E. by North

j/entle ,

cloudy

cloudy fine

rain

30

29.65

29.73

35

56

45

Eastly.W.byS.

i/entle

fine

cloudy cloudy

dry

31

29.83

29.83

41

57

46

W. by .'South

gentle

fine

fine fine

dry

June 1

29..S3

29.88

41

64

49

S. West

lively

fine

fine fine

rain

2 29-91

29.83

49

61

51

S.S.W.

brk.stg

fine

cloudy fine

rain

3 29.77

29.93

48

57

47

S.S.W.

gentle \

cloudy

cloudy cloudy

ram

4 29.76

29.68

44

64

49

S.W., West

lively

cloutly

fine fine

rain

5 29.97

29 93

45

69

56

S. by East

var.

fine

sun cloudy

rain

6 29.88

29.73

54

69

58

S. West

jentle

cloudy

sun fiiie

rain

7 29.69

29.58

57

63

53

S.E., var.

gentle

cloudy

cloudy cloudy

rain

8 29-60

29.62

52

65

55

S.E., S.W.

var.cal.

cloudy

cl udy hazy

rain

9 29.61

29.55

54

61

56

S. Westerly

gentle cloudy

cloudy cloudy

rain

10 29-55

39-55

53

57

46

N.W., S.W.

gentle cloudy

cloudy cloudy

rain

11 29.52

29.58

43

61

47

W. by North

lively cloudy

cloudy fine

rain

12 29.64

29.72

42

59

50

Westerly

gentle

cloudy

cloudy cloudy

rain

13 29.73

29.52

45

59

49

S. West

var.bk.

cloudy

cloudy cloudy

rain

14| 29.28

29.32

47

63

50

S.W.,Wly.byN

var.

cloudy

cloudy cloudy

rain

15 29.46

29.58

47

64

51

Westerly

var.

cloudy

cloudy cloudy

rain

16 29.40

29.44

48

64

53

S. West

lively

cloudy

fine

cloudy

rain

17

29.44

29-50

50

65

52

S.S.W.

lively

cloudy

fine

cloudy

rain

18

29-54

29.58

48

64

52

South

lively

cloudy

fine

cloudy

rain

19

29 59

29.71

51

66

55

W. by S.W.

lively

cloudy

fine

fine

rain

20

29.80

29.75

50

69

55

S.W., South

gentle

cloudy

fine

cloudy

rain

21

29.64

29.64

54

66

53

S. West

1

1

brisk

cloudy

i

sun

fine

dry

estimated averages of JUNE.

Barometer. I Thermometer.

High. I Low. High. I Low. I Mean.
30746 I 29.60 I 90 I 37 I 58.7

real average temperature of the period.

Highest. I Lowest. I Mean.

61.17 I 47.60 I 54.38

Weather and Phenomena.
May 24 — Some sun; fine p.m. till 7 o'clock.
25 — Fresh wind. 26 — Cold day; wet evening.
27, 28 — Overcast; drizzle. 29 — Much small rain.
30 -Fin?; superb golden sunset ; black illuminated
clouds. 31 — Fine.

Lunation. — First quarter, 26th day, 3 h. 38
m. afternoon.

June 1 — Heavy clouds, 2 — Pretty fine ; cirrus.
3 — Very rainy. 4 — Fine: a few drops. 5— Fine,
warm, and airy ; cirro-stratus modification. 6 —

Fine growing temperature, 7 — Wet day ; rain set
in, 8 — Fair morning, rainy afternoon, 9— Pro-
fusely rainy, 10 — Same, till 4 p,m, 11 — Change-
able; wet noon; fine evening. 12 — Dark, cold
morning. 13— Changeable ; rainy evening. 14 —
One clap of thunder, several showers. 15 — Fine
morning and evening ; showery mid-day. 16 —
Windy and rainy forenoon. 17— Some hours fine ;
evening showery, with wind. 18— Showery and
changeable; wind at sunset. 19 — Showers;
gleams ; three rolls of distant thunder at 3, wind
veering with it ; fine ; clearing. 20 — Fine genial
noon; changeable and wet afternoon. 21 — Windy;
gleams ; finer ; no rain.

Lunations,— Full moon, 2nd day, 6 h, 26 m.
morning. Last quarter, 9th day, 3 h, 15 ra, after-
noon. New moon, 17 th day, 4 h. 47 m. afternoon,

N.B. In cases of doubt, the degrees of tempera-
ture are comi)ared with those of other readings off.

a 2

84

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

REMARKS REFERRING TO AGRICULTURE.

So long a period of thorough wet weather is not
within our recollection since 1 799 — 25 days, with
scarcely an exception, since the 2Gth of May I
True it is that many weeks of drought during
the spring preceded this deluge, and thus a com-
pensation has been made. The crops, and indeed
vegetation of every sort, progress astonishingly, and

are superlatively luxuriant. Wheat was seen —
partially — in ear ten days since — so was barley ;
still we must consider the season as late : and much
depends upon a powerful sun and a tranquil atrao-
shere. The first crop of mixed grasses I saw in
heavy swarth about the 19th.

J. Towers.
Croydon.

CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.

Plant Houses.
Conservatory. — In addition to the general syringings
in this house, which are so necessary for the health and
cleanliness of the plants, it will be found of great benefit
to go over such things as Camellias, Oranges, Ficus elas-
tica. Rhododendrons, and other thick-leaved plants, and
wash off with a sponge and water the impurities arising
from dust and other causes, which are sure to become
encrusted on the leaves. It is astonishing how this will
improve them both in health and general appearance. A
continuance of such weather as we have lately experienced
will be a good time to attend to these things. Let the
operator be instructed to be careful of the young growth,
as it will not bear washing at this time. Attend con-
stantly to the necessary fumigations for the destruction
of insects, which appear this year to be more than usually
numerous ; and the best directions as well as the best
exertions are entirely nugatory if their destruction is not
attended to in every department of plant- growing.

Greenhouse. — As the early Pelargoniums go out of
flower, let them be placed out of doors on coal ashes, in
a eheltered place, but exposed to the sun, in order to
ripen and mature the wood. Calceolarias are now going
out of flower, and as they become unsightly, should be
removed to a situation under a north wall. Unless re-
quired for seed, let the flower stems be removed imme--
diately, and be very careful that they do not become
saturated with water. This remark will apply to all
plants now standing out of doors in pots, as irreparable
injury is often done for want of attention to this. The
best plan is to turn on their side all those most likely to
suffer, but by all means endeavour to give the choicest
and best plants the protection of a cold pit, under glass.
Balsams and other conservatory annuals should now be
advancing into bloom to take the place of the calceola-
rias. Fuchsias also will now be coming in very useful,
and must be kept neatly trained out, and encouraged to
bloom fine. Too much pot-room is not desirable, as if
the roots are rather cramped than otherwise, it will in-
duce a flowering habit ; and occasional supplies of liquid
manure will keep the blooms well up in size and bril-
liancy of colour. See that the plants of Campanula
pyramidalis are not suffering for want of pot-room and
nourishment — they will be invaluable in a month or so.
Put in cuttings of the same, or young offsets, for another
season's blooming. Train out the branches of the
Coral Tree, Erythrina crista galli, and let them have free

exposure in fine weather, but shelter from drenching
rains. Scarlet Geraniums, Petunias, Tropseolum Lob-
bianum, &c., for late blooming, should have a final
shift, and be kept growing freely. Keep them in a cold
pit near the glass, with a very free circulation of air. See
that the potted Chrysanthemum cuttings get a very free
circulation of air, and dust them with sulphur. If this
cloudy, sunless weather should bring on mildew, keep
them also well stopped for the next three weeks, after
which it is not safe to do so.

Forcing Houses.
The last three weeks have been very unfavourable for
operations in this department. In the Pineries, if this
weather continue, be careful of using too much water,
and also to moderate the fire heat, for too much stimu-
lation, under such unfavourable circumstances, will cause
a weakly, elongated growth ; but if bright and powerful
sun should come on, let them have full advantage of it ;
still, for a few days it may be necessary to apply a slight
shading during the period of its greatest power, say from
12 to 3 o'clock. The cold, sunless weather has had a
bad effect on grapes about colouring. The interior
should be kept dry, and a temperature ranging about 75
deg. kept up, so as to allow of a free circulation of air.
Later houses, with the fruit swelling off, must have less
water thrown about the house, until more favourable
weather. Look out for mildew, which is not unlikely to
be induced by sucli a long continuance of dull, damp
days, and dust with sulphur, as soon as perceived ; if it
appears on a large scale, by all means use Epps*^ large
sulphurator, one of which should be kept in every gar-
den , as it is useful for the application of sulphur to more
than mildewed vines ; for peaches and other trees on walls
it is most excellent, also for roses.

Flower Garden.
The lamentations with regard to the continued rain
and absence of sun are nowhere more severely felt than
in this department, as it is next to impossible to main-
tain a thorough neatness. Weeds are springing up by
thousands, and the ground cannot be effectually moved
to destroy them. However, no exertions must be spared
when the ground is dry to keep the surface soil in the
borders generally, as well as amongst the bedded-out
plants, very often stirred about. At present budding
plants have made very poor progress — a week or two of
warm sunny weather will be quite necessary before we
can expect much display from them. Keep them nicely

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

85

i trained out and pegged down, to guard against high
winds. In the herbaceous garden a great amount of
labour will be necessary to keep all neat. The foliage
of the bulboxxs kinds must be removed as it decays, and
if any large vacancies are produced, they may be filled up
with Asters, African and French Marigolds, Zinnias,
and also with some of the spare bedding-plants, such as
Cupheas, dwarf Scarlet Geraniums, Heliotropes, Ver-
benas ; take care also to distribute plenty of the different
varieties of Salvias all through the mixed flower garden ;
they will make a glorious display in the autumn. Look
out for cuttings of the choice varieties of herbaceous
Phlox, as the present is a good time for putting them in.
Take care that roses are properly secured from the
] winds, and that they are not overloaded with wood ; thin
! out the blooms of such as are required extra fine. Budding
may be commenced immediately on such stocks as have
acquii'ed sufficient consistency to bear the knife.

Kitchen Garden.
Let there be no delay in getting in ihe main crops of
Celery immediately, and plant a row of Bath Cos or
other sorts of Lettuce down the middle, between each
row of celery — they will be off long before the celery
will require earthing up. Strew salt over Sea Kale and
Asparagus beds in wet weather, so that the rain may
carry the salt down to the roots. Plant out successional
crops of Cape Broccoli, Cauliflower ; also, for later crops
of winter greens of all sorts. See also that a sufficient
stock of hardy Broccolis for spring use are planted out.
Plant a good breadth of Cabbage for autumn use ; and
in dry weather keep the ground well stirred amongst ad-
vancing crops of all descriptions. Keep up successional
sowings of Lettuces, Radishes, Salading, Turnips, and
Spinach. Make a sowing of green and white curled and
Batavian Endive. Keep Tomatoes well nailed up, as
they are very liable to be injured by the wind. — C.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT
FOR JUNE.

During the first three weeks of this month an
unusually large quantity of rain fell in all parts of
England, and, at one period, fears were entertained
lest considerable damage would be sustained by
the growing crops. It is, however, highly gratify-
ing for us to observe that an important change has
latterly taken place in the weather, and that our
advices from nearly all quarters in reference to the
general appearance of the wheat, as well as spring
corn, are very favourable. It is evident, however,
that the heavy lands were so completely saturated
with wet that some time must elapse ere they com-
pletely recover themselves ; but light soils have
unquestionably derived great benefit from super-
abundant moisture. Prior to the rains com-
mencing, the land was, in many instances, almost
bare of grass, whilst the grain and potato crops
had a most unpromising appearance. But a very
speedy change took place about the 15th, since
which date vegetation in general has progressed at
a very rapid rate. In our forward counties wheat
is now in blossom, hence we have arrived at what
may be termed the most critical period of its
growth, Heavyrains, accompanied with strong gales
of wind, would have a most prejudicial effect upon
the plant. As yet, however, nothing has transpired
to warrant the belief that the total yield will in any
way prove deficient. As regards barley, oats,
beans, and peas, we may observe that they give
promise of a large return, although it is stated that
in some quarters beans are suffering from blight.

As yet, the supplies of new potatoes disposed of
in the metropolitan and provincial markets have
been small, yet their general quahty has proved re-

markably good. They are now steadily increasing
in size, under the influence of a warm temperature.
The return of cold and wet weather might prove
very injurious to the whole crop. At present, no
signs of disease have presented themselves. From
the immense consumption during the last six
months, and the limited nature of the imports from
abroad, we may safely conclude that last year's
crop was imusually large. The present one
promises to be equally e.xtensive. The stock now
left is very small, and the valu3 of it somewhat
difficult to understand ; indeed, for some time past
sales have been made at very irregular quotations.
An import of about 100 tons of new has taken
place from the continent, and we learn that im-
mense quantities are about to follow.

In the neighbourhood of the metropolis, hay-
making has been commenced ; but the return of
damp weather on the 25th has put a stop to cutting.
We perceive that the grass on most good lands has
become '"' full-bottomed ;" hence, should we be
favoured with a fine dry atmosphere during the first
fortnight or three weeks of July, a large crop will
be secured in good order. The late period at which
operations have beeii commenced render it very
doubtful whether the second-cut will be worth the
expense of cutting. The demand for both hay and
straw — owing to the large quantities of green food
— has been by no means active ; nevertheless,
prices have slightly advanced.

Notwithstanding the difficulties experienced by
parties in Austraha to obtain a sufficient number
of hands to man their homeward-bound vessels,
the arrivals of wool from the colonies have exceeded
38,000 bales, making the total stock in London
about 50,000, the whole of whiclr will be submitted

86

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

to public competition in a few weeks. It must be
satisfactory to the dealers to learn that the above
supplies have come to hand in excellent condition,
and that they exhibit no traces of the want of ade-
quate labour. The continuous advance in the value
of colonial wool has, of course, had considerable
influence upon the holders of Enghsh qualities.
Up to the present time, the rise in the quotations
has been from 0|d. to id. per lb.; but our im-
pression is, looking to the great demand for ship-
ment to the continent, the great acti/ity in our
manufacturing districts, and the rapid increase in
our export trade, higher rates will rule as the season
progresses, although this year's chp has been a
large one.

The demand for guano has now become very
inactive, but we may observe that nearly or quite
the whole of the season's import has found buyers,
for home use and shipment to the continent. We
are glad to perceive that efforts have been made to
destroy the monopoly in this article, but we are not
satisfied t' at the rijiht course has been adopted.
Lord Derby has asserted that the Lobos Islands
belong properly to Peru ; but, assuming that such
is the case, we would have a direct communication
opened with the Peruvian government itself; we
would have the agriculturists "take a leaf" out of
the books of the gentlemen in Capel Court, and
there would be no diffiLuUy in proving to that
governm-mt that competition in the article would
be beneficial to the interests of Peru.

The stocks of home-grown wheats in the hands
of our farmers are now much reduced, whilst those
of all spring corn are unusually small. In the
general features of the corn trade very little change
has taken place; yet prices have somewhat hardened,
from the fact that the supplies of foreign produce
in our warehouses are smaller than for a series of
years past. This circumstance, however, has in no
way induced speculation, dealers in general being
indisposed to increase their stocks with the prospect
of steady arrivals from abroad. Most of the advices
from the continental ports are to the effect that the
trade has continued in a very inactive state.

In Ireland and Scotland a very limited business
has been doing in most kinds of grain, the prices of
which have been with difficulty supported. The
shipments of grain to England have been on a very
moderate scale.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE
DURING THE PAST MONTH.

Notwithstanding that the supphes of beasts on
offer in Smithfield in the month just concluded
have been seasonably extensive, and, for the most
pairt, in full average condition, the demand for

that description of stock has ruled somevvhat active,
and prices have advanced fully 4d. per 8lbs. This
improvement is, in some measure, attributed to the
rajjid rise in the value of barrel provisions for the
Austrahan shipping, and the great scarcity of salted
pork, not only in London, but likewise at the out-
ports. The numbers of sheep have exhibited a j
considerable falling off, compared with those at the
corresponding period in 1851; but their generalj
weight has been good. On the whole the lam^
trade has continued in a very inactive state ; whils
calves and pigs have not varied much in value.

Our advices from the whole of the grazing dis-
tricts are very favourable as regards the health of
the stock. The supply of dry food has become
very limited, but this is now a matter of little mo-
ment, as the pastures show unmistakable signs of
the beneficial effects of the late seasonable rains.
The various fairs have been fairly supplied with
both beasts and sheep, for which the inquiry has
ruled steady, at fair quotations.

On the whole, the imports of foreign stock have
been good ; but we have observed very little im-
provement in quality. Those into London have
been as under: — Head.

Beasts 2,035

Sheep 9,784

Lambs .... 965

Calves 2,145

Pigs 227

IMPORTS AT CORRESPONPING PERIODS.

June, June, June, June, June.
1847. 1S4S. 1849. 1850. 1851.

Beasts. .

4,594

2,044

] ,300

1,515

1,413

Sheep . .

29,430

9,591

7,631

7,398

7,987

Lambs. .

995

74

386

302

593

Calves. .

844

1,692

1,459

1,600

1,331

Figs ..

—

—

2

125

65,1

The total supplies exhibited in Smithfield have
consisted of : —

Head.

Beasts , . 18,209

Cows 531

Sheep and lambs 134,160

Calves 2,781

Pigs 2,820

SUPPLIES AT CORRESPONDING PERIODS.

June. June, June, June, June,

1847. 184S. 1849. 1850. 1851.

Beasts .. 16,222 17,452 15,899 16,608 17,805

Sheep and

lambs . 148,660 152,730 153,320 182,620 169,420

Calves . . 3,064 3,846 2,667 2,453 2,275

Pigs 2,488 2,641 2,322 2.475 2,6U

Since our last, the arrivals of beasts from Norfolk,
Suffolk, Essex, and Cambridgeshire have amounted
to 8,000 head, against 9,900 do. in 1851; 2,450
from other parts of England, against 2,200 in 1851 ;
and 2,350 from Scotland, against 2,300 in 1851.
We may observe that, owing to increasing compe-

THE FARMER'S MAGEZINE.

87

tition, numbers of beasts are now shipped at Aber-
deen to Newcastle, and thence forwarded to Lon-
don per railway. The saving by this mode of con-
veyance is estimated at 2s. per head.

Newgate and Leadenhall markets have continued
to be well supplied with each kind of meat, yet the
trade has ruled steady, and prices have had an up-
ward tendency. Beef has sold at from 2s. 6d. to
3s. 6d. ; mutton, 2s. 8d. to 3s. lOd. ; lamb, 3s. lOd.
to 4s. lOd. ; veal, 3s. to 3s. lOd. ; pork, 2s. 6d. to
3s. 8d. per 8lbs. by the carcass.

SOMERSETSHIRE.

Afier an unusually dry spring, we have almost an ex-
treme wet summer, as far as it has gone. The wheat
has stood the excess of wet well as to its standing up,
and the late dry weather appears to have stiffened the
straw. The early pieces have been some time in ear, and
the blossom has pared off, though it is unpropitious wea-
ther for its kerning, and the quantity here will no doubt
be lessened : the ears are fine, and the wheat is thick
on the ground, and should it take up fine the later
wheat will be a large crop. Among the beans there is
an extensive blight, which will no doubt, as regards
the winter ones, much lessen the crop ; it is so bad in
some instances that they are not worth standing. The
vetch crop is more extensively injured, and there ap-
pears likely to be but few worth preserving for seed.
Spring beans are now in blossom, and may escape the
blight ivhich has attacked the winter ones : if not they
are likely to suffer more. Oats have come up nicely.
It has been too wet for some of the early pieces of bar-
ley, as they are laid by the heavy rain. We have alto-
gether a good plant of mangold-wurtzel, and the swedes
are well come up ; the sowing has been retarded by the
wet. The flax sown this year will be enough in quan-
tity, but rather coarse. Some of the artificial grass has
been cut and spoiled in making, and others have been
over ripe. These few fine days have encouraged the
commencing on a more extensive scale. The crop ap-
pears thin, but have grown up high, and will be quite an
average. There is also a very fair appearance of hay in
the meadow land, but very backward, and we are likely,
with all our harvest, to be beyond the average period.
Potatoes have grown in haulm, but they have not grown
in the tubers, and are watery ; there has been some men-
tion of the blight, but cannot tell to a certainty. We
have had an improved demand for meat, which has ad-
vanced fully ^d, to Id. per lb., with a very good clear-
ance. Beef, 8s. to 8s. 6d. ; mutton, 6d., out of their
coats ; the best lamb, 7d. Poor stock, but more espe-
cially sheep, have sold at higher prices, and are relatively
higher than last year. Wheat has advanced from 5s. to
5s. 3d., red 5s. 6d., and white 5s. 6d. to 5s. 9d., the best
is held for 6s. Flour, 30s. to 32s. Beans, 48. to 48.
3d., and new 49. 6d. No barley offering. Oats, 2s.
9d. to 3s. per bushel. Short supply of wheat, and very

good sale for flour. Very little done in wool, prices
Is. to Is. 2d. ; no briskness in the trade, the holders
are looking higher than dealers like to venture on.

LEICESTERSHIRE.
The operations of the husbaudman depend so greatly upon
atmospheric influences that his exertions are fiequently marred
from the adverse state of the weather. The public are not apt
to receive this as any apology for farmers when they are dis-
posed to grumble at the dispensations of Providence in this
respect, or to attribute the failure of his crops from the same
cause. The present year has been one of great trial to those
engaged in the cultivation of the soil, and we only hope that
the future of this season may prove a contrast to what they
have at present experienced. Long intervals of dry weather
in our climate, uncertain though it be, are frequently followed
by continued rain ; such is the case at the present time, and
we have great reason to be thankful for this seasonable supply
of moisture. We have had nearly as much rain fallen within
the last seven days as in the months of March, April, and
May : in those months we registered 1.67 inches, and in the
week ending to-day 1.25 inches. The effect of the long
drought upon vegetation was baneful iu the highest degree,
especially to pasture land, for, whether it was laid for mowing
or grazed, the ungenial and dry spring checked its progress to
that degree, and to such a late period, that no subsequent
weather can bring the crops up to an average state of produc-
tiveness. Those which have been lightly stocked since the
commencement of the rainy season have greatly improved, but
where a full amount of stock has been kept, they are still very
deficient ; and even ou the best feeding land great complaints
are made to the same effect. The graziers say that their beast
were never known in such a backward state at this season of
the year, and, from the present state of their pastures, they
intimate that the supply of beef from our grazing district will
be very light for some time to come. The state of our weekly
markets exemphfy this, for we never recollect so few of our
home-fed beast exhibited as at the present time ; on some
market days not half-a-score of these can be found, and the
chief supply is brought by jobbers from a distance. In conse-
quence of this deficiency, beef has advanced full |d. per lb.,
and superior qualities rather more, which is now worth 5^d.
per lb., but the great bulk of stock is sold at 5d. We have
been fully supplied with mutton, a large number of fat sheep
arriving every week from Lincolnshire, but from our own pas-
tures the supply is not large. The price may be quoted the
same as beef. The condition of store stock is below its usual
state, as they have been severely punished in the spring, and,
though the pastures have greatly improved, they do not thrive
so well as could be wished from the continued rain. We re-
gret to remark that there are more symptoms of disease
amongst our herds than for some time past, though we do not
hear of many pleuro imeumonia cases, but it is the complaint
which effects the feet and mouth, and it is proved, beyond aU
doubt, that those which have once had it are not free from a
second attack. The consequences of the long drought will be
felt more severely in the next winter, for such mischief has
been done, both to clover and grass crops, that, under any
circumstances, they will be exceedingly light; and we cannot
estimate the amount of fodder for the next winter at more
than one-half the quantity of last year's growth. Many crops
of clover and rye-grass, though very light, have arrived at

83

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

maturity and require cutting ; in fact, they would have been
gathered iu by this time had the weather permitted, but no
one will venture to mow his seeds while the present showery
weather continues, and we have only seen one small patch or
two cut within the last two days, which have been rather
finer. A sunless June is a very bad time for haymaking, and
is not au ordinary occurrence in our variable clime, yet such
has in a great measure been the case, as we find that the ave-
rage amount of clouds for the day has been in the proportion
of seven out of ten. We have great pleasure in reporting that
the drought has not had that injurious tendency as regards
the corn crops compared with those of grass. We believe the
early sown barley will in the end be the worst ; it received so
severe a check, and of such long continuance, that it began to
shine into ear prematurely, and, in many instances, will be a
thin and short crop. The latter sown, nay, even the latest,
which lay a long time before making its appearance, has of
late made extraordinary progress, and looks very flourishing,
and, we believe, will come to an average, when at one time a
very low estimate was formed of its ultimate yield. The same
remark will in some respects apply to oats ; but we do not
think, under the adverse circumstances of a long drought, and
then constant rain for three weeks, either of these crops will
yield an average produce. Beans are short in the straw at
present, and the winter variety went into bloom prematurely ;
the spring sown have blossomed where very short, but with
tine growing weather there is yet time for both to make great
progress. The most gratifying portion of our report will be
with reference to the wheat crop, which is of the greatest im-
portance to the inhabitants of this country. A deficient supply
or an inferior quality of bread is one of the greatest calamities
which can befall them, and, notwithstanding the adverse
season, the wheats generally present a promising appearance.
This plant, though a hardy one, is, like all others, though in a
less degree than most, subject to atmospheric influences, less
go in its early stages, being sown in autumn, than when ap-
proaching its matiirer age ; thus we find it has progressed
through the drought rather slowly, but the fine raius we have
lately had have stimulated it in a high degree. Though in
some situations the effects of the drought will be visible
when the crop falls before the reaping machine or the sickle,
find will not give a great bulk ; still, generally speaking, this
will only be the exception to the rule. The early sown is
now coming well into ear, but there will be a considerable
difference between this and the late sown as to the time of
cutting, and we eicpect upon the whole that the harvest will
be rather late. As regards this much depends upon the

weather, but, were we to hazard an opinion, we have great
fears in respect to the next two months ; after four such com-
paratively dry mouths as February, March, A pril, and May,
we expect much rain in July and August. We hope we may
he wrong. The culture of land for green vegetable crops was,
from the dry spring, iu a forward state, and the planting of
cabbage and potatoes, and the sowing of mangold and carrots
commenced in good time. From the lack of rain the two latter
lay in the ground a very long time before they made their
appearance, in fact only in some moist favourable spots did
they sprout at all till the rain came. The cabbage required
repeated watering to keep them alive, and the potatoes grew
slowly — all these have made much progress during the last
four weeks, and are now growing rapidly. It is not the custom
ju this county to sow Swede turnips generally till the middle of
June, though on the stronger soils about the last week in May
is the time to commence. We have seen some sown at this time
and the first week in June which came up well, and we have
not heard any complaint of fly. On the light turnip soils very
little had been done, as the rains for the last ten days prevented
any extensive sowing; however, in this week sowing has begun
in good earnest, and during the last three days a great breadth
has been put in with every prospect of speedy growth, the land
being generally well cleansed from filth during the dry weather,
and is now in the best possible state to receive the seed. The
weather has not been favourable for getting the sheep shorn,
and the wool is liable to be in a damp state where caution is
not used, but we believe it is of good quality, generally speak-
ing. The hopes of our flockmasters are raised, as regards the
price they are likely to obtain for their wool. Little has beeu
sold at present, but as the stocks of old wool are light, both
in the bauds of the growers and the staplers, a brisk demand
is anticipated, and great competition to purchase is expected
at our wool fair, which is fixed for the 30tU instant, at Leices-
ter. No doubt there will be a good demand, and the price,
in consequence of what we before mentioned, combined with
the hazardous state of the flocks in Australia, will bring our
wool into greater request, and we think it will be the fault of
the sellers if a considerable advance upon the prices of last
year is not realized. We have heard of 323. per tod being
offered, but we suspect the lot to be a superior one ; however,
sellers have nothing to do but to ask a good price, and be firm,
and there is no doubt but they will obtain it. We have had
more labourers out of employment these last two months than
for some time past, but this in a great measure has been owing
to the late and ungenial spring. Wuges range from 93, to
12s. per week, according to merit. — June 23rd,

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF JUNE.

When vre last addressed our readers the appear-
ance of the growing grain crops was such as to
aflFord grounds to anticipate more than usual
abundance ; but the weather has since been of a
character to render it doubtful whether the early
promise will be realized. Up to the present period
no actual mischief of consequence has perhaps
been done by the great quantity of rain which fell

the first three weeks in the month, in all parts of
the kingdom ; still this, and the absence of sun-
shine, have certainly given rise to imeasiness re-
specting the ultimate result of the harvest.

The wheat plant, notwithstanding the drought
in February, March, and April, grew very rapidly
during the spring; the showers and increased
warmth experienced in May further stimulated its

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

89

growth, and it became somewhat rankly luxuriant.
The subsequent heavy rains in June were, there-
fore, far from favourable, and in some localities the
plant has been partially beaten down ; with an
interval of dry weather it would probably regain an
upright position, but a recurrence of wet would
be attended with great danger. Tlie spring-sown
crops are not so readily injured by rain as wheat,
and we are inclined to think tliat all kinds of Lent
corn would give a good return if the remainder
of the summer should prove tolerably propitious.
We are unable, however, to give the same opinion
in regard to the autumn-planted beans : up to
blooming time all appeared to be promising ; but,
from some cause or other, the blossom has dropped
off without setting, and we fear that large breadths
will have to be ploughed up as wholly unproduc-
tive. This failure we are disposed to attribute
to the long continued drought in spring. Tares
are said to have suffered severely from blight ; and
the reports respecting the potato crop are not so
encouraging as could be desired. The hay harvest
meanwhile stands in some jeopardy ; even in the
immediate neighbourhood of London cutting has
hardly yet been commenced, and unless the weather
should prove dry and hot for some weeks, great
difficulty will be experienced in securing this crop
in anything like good order. The prospects for the
farmer cannot, therefoie, be regarded as very en-
couraging. We trust, however, that the fears en-
tertained may be soon dissipated ; for a bad harvest
and free trade prices would seal the doom of the
British agriculturists. The extent to which foreign
countries can afford supplies was unquestionably
underrated when the corn-laws were repealed. We
have repeatedly attempted to show that the effect
of admitting the produce of the rest of the world
into Great Britain free of duty would be per-
manently to lower prices, and this opinion has been
fully borne out by the experience of the last half-
dozen years ; the only chance, therefore, which our
farmers have of competing with the foreign growers
is by obtaining the greatest possible quantity from
an acre of ground — a deficient harvest would, con-
sequently, prove the severest calamity which could
befall them. The shortness of the home produce
could not, under existing circumstances, be ex-
pected to cause a corresponding increase in value,
for so soon as a sufficient rise had taken place to
pay the Continental and American growers to ship
to this country we should speedily be overwhelmed
with supplies. So thoroughly are those best in-
formed satisfied of this fact, that little influence has
been produced on the trade by the unsettled, and
in some respects unfavourable, weather recently
experienced. With comparatively moderate ar-
rivals from abroad, and by no means free deliveries

from our growers, supplies have proved sufficient
to satisfy the demand, purchasers having in general
deemed it prudent to limit their operations to such
quantities a s they have required for immediate
use. Speculation has been quite paralyzed owing
to the almost unusually unfavourable results of the
investments which have from time to time been
entered into since the trade has been thrown open.
A similar position to that in which this country is
at present placed would, in former times, have
caused a rapid rise in quotations ; but doubtful
weather, moderate stocks, and last, though not
least, abundance of capital, fail to hold out any
inducement to meddle with an article in which
those who have been sanguine enough to operate
have suffered severe losses. How long this may
coni inue to be the case will depend on the season ;
if nothing further should occur to create uneasiness
quotations would probably undergo little variation
between this and harvest ; but the effect of un-
favourable weather would, in the first place, be to
cause foreign holders to keep back supplies in
hopes of higher prices, and it is, therefore, quite
possible that we might have a period of temporary
excitement, to be followed by overwhelming im-
portations.

What has lately taken place in regard to oats
affords a fair criterion for forming a judgment of
what would probably occur in case of a rise in the
value of wheat. That the stocks of home-grown
oats in the United Kingdom were reduced into an
unusually small compass early in spring, in conse-
quence of the extra consumption caused by the
shortness of all kinds of green food, is certain ; and
this naturally led to a rise in prices. It was
thought that the near continental ports would not be
in a position to afford large supplies, as all the ac-
counts from the other side agreed in stating that
the same cause which had operated to produce
high rates here had been felt to fully as great an
extent there, the drought in spring having been
general all over Europe ; but what has been the
result ? No sooner had quotations here risen suffi-
ciently to tempt the foreign shippers, than supplies
reached our ports from all quarters, prices were
speedily depressed, and the article is now cheaper
than it has been at any period for some months
past. We are, therefore, incUned to think, if
the remainder of the summer should unfortunately
prove of a character to lead to serious fears respect-
ing the probable yield of the wheat crop, and
prices should in consequence rise 5s. to Ss. per qr.
— which they would be very likely to do — that our
own growers would derive little benefit from the
advance, as the upward movement would, in all
probability, be checked by foreign arrivals on a
large scale just about the time that the English

90

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

farmer might be expected to be in a position to
avail himself of the improvement, viz., about or a
little after harvest. This view of the future is not
very encouraging ; but we deem it better to state
our unbiassed opinion, however unpalatable, rather
than to hold out delusive hopes. Let us trust that
the threatened mischief may be averted, and a
plentiful harvest give our farmers the only chance
which can enable them at all to compete with the
continental producer. Latterly the weather has
certainly improved ; the higher range of tempera-
ture which has been experienced since the longest
day, and the steady rise in the barometer, are
favourable signs. As the future range of prices
must depend wholly on the characterof the weather,
it would be unsafe to enter into predictions ; but
there is certainly nothing in the present position of
affairs to lead to the expectation of a material fall
in the value of wheat.

Stocks of barley of home-growth appear to be
quite exhausted, and rather an extensive consump-
tion of foreign is now going on for feeding pur-
poses. The supplies from abroad have, however,
thus far kept pace v;ith the demand ; and as rather
large receipts are expected from the Danish islands.
&c., we do not calculate on any further advance.
Oats have of late come forward freely at several of
the ports on the east coast, as well as into London ;
the bulk of the supply has been from the near ports,
and as yet only one or two cargoes have arrived
from Russia. The usual supply from thence may
now be shortly expected ; and it seems doubtful,
therefore, whether the value of this grain will re-
cover from the decline caused by the late plentiful
receipts.

Beans and peas have advanced rapidly in all
parts of the kingdom, owing to the reported failure
of the first-named crop, and the somewhat un-
favourable aspect of the latter.

Business at Mark Lane has been quiet during the
greater part of the month ; and though the value
of wheat has crept up, the rise has not been either
rapid or important. The arrivals of this grain
coastwise into the port of London have been mode-
rate, and the show of samples by land-carriage from
the neighbouring counties has not been larger than
usual at the corresponding period of the year. The
offers from the east coast have fallen off, the Lin-
colnshire and Cambridgeshire farmers having be-
come dissatisfied with the prices current here. The
total quantity of English wheat received has, there-
fore, been rather under than over an average sup-
ply ; but the millers have conducted their opera-
tions with much caution, and nothing like scarcity
has been experienced. On the first Monday in the
month (7th inst.) the Essex and Kent stands were
cleared with some difficulty at the rates current at

the close of the preceding month, but since then
the demand has gradually improved ; on the l4th
an advance of about Is. per qr. was established, and
a similar improvement was realized on that day
se'nnight. The improvement which has since
taken place in the weather has tended to check the
upward movement, and sales have during the last
few days progressed somewhat slowly at the en- ■)
hanced terms. Good red Kentish and Essex sam- «
pies, weighing 63 to 64lbs. per bush., are at pre-
sent worth 41s. to 42s., and heavier descriptions Is.
to 2s. per qr. more, whilst the finest white would
bring 50s. to 52s. per qr. The arrivals of wheat
from abroad have not much exceeded 25,000 qrs.
during the month, which is less than what frequently
reaches us in a single week. The demand has not
at any period been active, and importers have been
unable to establish any improvement on previous
prices. Stocks in granary are, however, becoming
very reduced, and a considerable proportion of what
remains on hand consists of inferior qualities.
There is consequently no reason to suppose that
the finer kinds will give way in price, and holders
have shown no particular anxiety to realize. The
sale of foreign wheat has no doubt been a good deal
interfered with by the arrivals of flour, the latter
article having been obtainable relatively cheaper
than the raw material. During the first fortnight
in June a considerable number of wheat-laden ves-
sels arrived from ports east of Gibraltar off the
coast. At first sellers were unwiUing to make any
concession, but finding that buyers were not in-
clined to pay former terms, they subsequently be-
came more reasonable, on which a fair extent of
business ensued ; and there are now comparatively
few arrived parcels remaining undisposed of. The
prices paid have been, for Egyptain 29s. to .30s.,
Polish Odessa red 33s. 6d. to 34s. 6d., and Ghirka
from 37s. up to 39s. per qr., cost, freight, and in-
surance. Since then the inquiry has rather im-
proved, and purchases could now scarcely be made
at the rates named.

The nominal top price of flour has not varied
since our last, and quotations of country flour have
undergone little change. The demand has been
slow for both descriptions, buyers having been de-
terred from purchasing largely owing to the risk of
warm weather aftecting the condition. The arrivals
from the continent of Europe have not been large,
but from America upwards of 40,000 brls. have
come to hand. The latter article has met with some
little attention both here and at Liverpool, with a
view of holding over, and having also had a fair con-
sumptive demand, prices have, notwithstanding the
somewhat liberal character of the supply, been
tolerably well supported. Good brands have not
been parted with below 21 s., and fine have been

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

91

held at 22s. per brl., and even higher. These
rates leave no margin for profit on recent ship-
ments from the United States ; still, we may-
expect further arrivals frrm thence during the
summer.

English barley has come forward very sparingly;
but neither maltsters nor distillers buy much at
this season of the year, and, trifling as have been
the supplies, they have about kept pace with the
demand. In the absence of business of the slight-
est importance, quotations have remained nomi-
nally unaltered.

The arrivals of this grain from abroad have
proved tolerably good ; and though we have had a
steady inquiry for grinding qualities, previous rates
have scarcely been supported. The fall has been
confined to light and ill-conditioned jjarcels, and
has not exceeded 6d. to Is. per qr. ; but the turn
has, nevertheless, been rather in favour of the pur-
chaser. At present, barley weighing 48 to 50lbs.
per bushel may be bought at 25s. Heavier sorts
vary in value from 26s. to 28s. per qr., but the
last-named price could only be obtained for very
fine weighty samples. The stocks on hand are not
particularly large ; we are, however, likely to have
fair arrivals from abroad, which renders buyers in-
disposed to purchase more than they consider re-
quisite for immediate use.

The business done in malt during the month
has not been by any means extensive ; and quite
sufficient having been brought forward to supply
the requirements of the trade, the tendency of
prices has been rather downward, but not so de-
cidedly so as to render it necessary to alter quota-
tions, which we consider much the same as they
were at the close of the past month.

The arrivals of oats coastwise have been scanty
in the extreme, and the receipts from Ireland (con-
sidering that we have had a fortnight of westerly
wind) less than might have been expected. The
smallness of the home supplies has, however, been
more than compensated for by the extent of the
receipts from abroad. Up to the 1 9th inst., nearly
60,000 qrs. of foreign oats arrived at this port; and
though the su])plies have since fallen off, the quan-
tity now in the port of London is sufficient to
satisfy the consumption for some time to come.
The pressure on the market at one time was very
great. Prices had begun to tend downwards be-
fore the close of last month ; and from that period
up to the 21st inst., a further fall of Is. 6d. to 2s.
per qr. took place, the reduction being greater on
secondary and inferior sorts than on good fresh
corn ; indeed, the latter has suffered comparatively
little depreciation in value, owing to its rela-
tive scarcity. Of the late arrivals from abroad,
scarcely one cargo out of half-a-dozen has come to

hand without being more or less heated; and it has
been this circumstance which has rendered im-
porters so anxious to realize from on board ship,
it being well known that the expense of landing,
and the loss of measure which almost invariably
attends the process of restoring heated corn to
condition, render sales from on board more advan-
tageous, even at comparatively low rates, than a
higher price after going to granary. Within the
last week or two, the pressure on the market has
somewhat abated, but no part of the reduction has
yet been recovered. Light foreign feed might still
be had at I7s. to 18s., and good corn at 19s. to
20s. per qr. Dutch beans and Polands have been
held at 20s. to 20s. 6d., al which rates it has been
very difficult to make progress. English and
Scotch oats have, in consequence of their scarcity,
brought relatively high prices : fair Lincoln feed
are still worth 20s. to 21s., and fine Scotch 22s. to
23s. per qr.

The reports of blight in the bean crop, to
which we have already alluded, have given rise to
an active demand for this article, and the supplies
having been short of English as well as of foreign,
prices have risen considerably : tick beans are at
present worth 30s. to 32s., harrows 33s. to 35s.,
and pigeon 36s. up to 38s. per qr. : these rates are
about 5s. per qr. higher than those current a month
or six weeks ago ; and the advance on foreign has
been nearly as great — Egyptian in granary having
lately sold at 26s. to 27s., and French would pro-
bably bring 30s. per qr. That the advance will
lead to rather large importations from the near con-
tinental ports is more than likely; and we there-
fore regard i)resent prices as somewhat hazardous
for investments : still orders to some extent have
been sent out to those places where the article is
most likely to be procured.

Peas of home growth are very scarce in all parts
of the kingdom, and the London splitters have
experienced considerable difficulty in obtaining the
quantity they have required to keep their regular
customers supplied. White boilers have been sold
at 3Ss., and really fine samples v.'ould readily bring
that price, or perhaps Is. to 2s. per qr. more. Grey
cannot be bought below 32s. to 33s., and maples
are held at 34s. to 35s. per qr. Peas appear to be
nearly as scarce abroad as with us, and we do not
anticipate large supplies for some time to come.

Indian corn was in rather active request in the
commencement of the month for Irish account,
and nearly the whole of the cargoes which arrived
off the coast from the Black Sea, &c., were taken
for that destination at rising prices — as much as
32s. to 33s. per qr., cost, freight, and insurance,
having at one time been paid for Galatz, and cor-
res]^ ding rates for other descriptions. Latterly

92

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the demand has slackened, and a slight reaction
has taken place in quotations, both here and at
Liverpool. Stocks of this article are reduced into
a narrow compass at most of the Irish ports ; but,
should the potato crop turn out well, the consump-
tion would diminish materially so soon as the new
potatoes appear freely at market. It is the know-
ledge of this fact which has rendered buyers of
Indian corn averse to purchasing cargoes that may
be some time on the voyage, and the diffei'ence in
price given for those close at hand and those at a
distance has been rather important.

The wheat trade abroad has not varied materially j
the weather on the continent has been similar to
that experienced in this country. So long as the
rain continued, holders showed a disposition to
raise their pretensions; but the British demand
not having been active at any time, the advance ac-
tually established has not been of much importance.
The foreign merchants seem determined to specu-
late on the possibility of an indifferent harvest in
England, and have thus far manifested great un-
willingness to give way so as to allow prices to
recede sufficiently to bring them under our quo-
tations ; wherefore few of the orders sent out from
hence from time to time have been executed, and
the shipments from the Baltic since the commence-
ment of the spring up to this period have been
comparatively trifling.

At Danzig prices have all along been relatively
higher than with us, more especially for fine quali-
ties ; and as recently as the 21st inst, fine old high-
mixed wheat in granary there was still held at 46s.
per qr.

The arrivals from Poland had been on a moderate
scale, better prices having been paid at Warsaw
than could have been realized at Danzig. The
quality of the Polish wheat of last year's growth
is described as considerably inferior to that of 1850,
and few of the parcels received had reached the
weight of 60 lbs. per bushel. For a small lot of
very fine, weighing 62 lbs., equal to 46s. per qr.,
free on board, had actually been realized.

The weather in the neighbourhood of Danzig
had been dry, and it was feared that the spring-
sown crops had suffered from drought. Most of
thevessels previously arrived having been chartered,
freights had rather advanced, and 2s. 6d. per qr.
had been paid for London. The feeling was strongly
in favour of a rise in the value of wheat, and very
little encouragement from hence would be almost
certain to lead to excitement there.

Advices from Stettin of the 22nd inst. inform
us that the weather had for some days been ex-
ceedingly wet, which had encouraged sellers of
wheat to demand higher prices ; and some extent
of local speculation having taken place, rather more

money had been realized than could have been
obtained earlier in the month.

The reports from Rostock are of a similar cha-
racter ; indeed, the general tendency in the Baltic
markets was towards an advance, and good 61 lbs.
to 62 lbs. qualities of red wheat, which might have
been bought in the early part of the month at about
37s. 6d. to 38s. per qr., free on board, had risen
ls.to2s.perqr.. Freights continued low, the number
of vessels arrived out having been greater than
had been able to obtain cargoes. The export demand
for barley and oats had fallen off, and prices had
consequently given way more or less. Beans and
peas bad, on the other hand, been in active request ;
of the former liardly any stocks remained, and the
suppHcs of the latter had been quite trifliug — at
Stetthi 30s. per quarter, free on board, had been paid
for fair boilers.

The most recent advices from Hamburg inform
us that holders of wheat had attempted to establish
an advance on wheat, but tliat the export demand
had not l}een sufficiently active to enable them to
succeed in this object, and prices had remained much
the same as before, say 38s. 6d. to 39s. 6d. per quarter,
free on board at Lower Baltic ports, for 611bs. quality.

Ill tlie Diitcli markets some very singular trans-
actions have taken place, wheat having been boiight
there for shipment to England, at prices actually
higher than those current in our markets.

These purchases have been going on for some time,
and have created a good deal of surprise both in this
country and in Holland. Last week 48s. per quarter,
free on board, was paid at Amsterdam, for white
Konigsburg of 621bs. weight, and at Rotterdam 42s.
per quarter was realized for Sandomirka wheat.

In the French markets, prices have been influenced
a good deal by the weather. About the middle of
the month a rise took place in the value of wheat
and flour at the principal markets; but subsequently
the demand slackened, and the latest advices from
thence state that the buyers had become unwilling
to continue their purchases at the enhanced terms
previously paid.

The accounts from the Mediterranean generally
speak well of the prospects for the harvest in that
quarter, and but little consumptive demand having
been experienced, the tendency of prices had been
rather downwards.

The letters from Odessa, Galatz, &c., also give
favourable reports respecting the growing crops, and
as far as any judgment can be formed at present,
there is reason to believe that the produce of wheat
will be good abroad as well as in this country.

From America we leai'n that the suppUes of flour
from the interior at the ports on the coast had fallen
short of expectation ; which circumstance, and the
receipt fiom time to time of orders from Great

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

03

Uritaiu, kad caii.scd pricca to be well supported. At
New York good brands of Western Canal had not
been offered below li dollars per barrel, which with
Is. 3d. to Is. 6d. freight to Liverpool will bring the
cost there somewhat over the present value of the
article in that market. Shipments to a fair extent
were nevertheless being made for England weekly,
and wc may calculate on regular supplies from the
other side of the Atlantic.

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE.

ShilUng^s per Qimrter.

Wheat, Essex and Kent,'whlte 40 to 44 fine up to 51

Ditto ditto old ..40 44 „ 51

Ditto ditto red, new 38 40 „ 42

Ditto ditto old 38 40 „ 43

Norfolk, Luicoln, & Yorksh., red. . 39 41 „ 42

Ditto ditto old, none „ —

Ditto ditto white new 41 43 „ 45

Ditto ditto old none „ —

Barley, malting-, new 28 32

Clievalier 32 33

Distilling 26 29

Grinding- 25 27

Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, new 51 53 extra 58

Ditto ditto old 43 46 „ 49

Kingston,Ware,andto\\iimade,new58 59 „ 62

Ditto ditto old 48 51 „ 53

Irish feed, white 19 20 line 22

Ditto, black 18 19 fine 21

Oats, Enghsh feed 18 19 fine 21

Ditto Potato 20 23 extra 25

Scotch feed 20 22 fine 24

Ditto Potato 22 24 fine 25

Rye 27 29 old 27 29

Beans, Mazagan 31 32 „ 32 33

Ticks 32 33 „ 33 34

Harrow 32 34 „ 33 35

Pigeon 35 36 „ 37 38

Peas, white boilers 35 38 „ 35 38

Maple 32 34 „ 32 34

Grey 30 32 „ 32 34

Flour, town made, per sack of 280 lbs. — — „ 35 40

Country Households — — „ 33 35

Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship — — „ 28 31

FOREIGN GRAIN.

Sliilliiig-a per (Quarter.

Wheat, Dantzic, mixed. . 41 to 43 high mixed 45 47 extra 53

Konigsberg 41 43 „ 44 45 „ 47

Rostock, new 40 41 fine old 43 45 „ 47

Pomera.,Meckbg.,andUckennk.,red 39 40 extra 42 45

Silesian „ 39 40 white 42 44

Danish and Holstein „ 37 39 „ 39 41

Rhine and Belgium „ 39 41 old 41 43

French „ 37 39 white 39 43

Odessa, St. Petersburg and Riga. . 33 35 fine 37 39

Barley, grinding 25 27

Distilling 28 29

Malting none — —

Oats, Dutch, brew, and Polands 19 21

Feed 17 19

Danish and Swedish feed 18 21

Stralsund 20 21

Russian 20 21

French 18 20

Beans, Friesland and Holstein 28 31 Konigsberg 33 35

Peas, feeding 30 32 fine boilers 34 36

Indian Corn, white 28 30 yellow 28 31

Flour, French, per sack 28 32 fine 33 35

American, sour per barrel 18 19 sweet 20 22

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Fo

Week Ending :

May 1 15, 1852..

May 22, 1852. .

May 29, 1852. .

June 5, 1852. .

.hme 12,1852..

June 19, 1852..
Aggregate average
of last six weeks
Comparative avge.
same time last year
Duties

R THE

Wheat.

s. d.

41 3

40 6

40 5

l40 7

I 40 11

40 9

LAST Six Weeks.
Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans i Peas.

s. d. I s. d. 1 s. d.! s. d. 8. d.

28 3 19 10,30 0,31 0 29 2

27 10 20 1 30 5j31 6 30 9

27 11 20 1 30 0 31 7 27 2

27 5 20 8 [30 6^31 0 31 0

27 G 20 0'29 8 31 lo'si 2

27 5j20 2 30 732 0;31 9

40 9 27 9 20 2130 231 7130 2

39 4
1 0

124 3 20 1 25 9 29 11|27 3
1 0 1 O! 1 0 1 01 0

COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES
OF CORN.

Averages from last Friday's

Wheat. .
Barley. . .
Oats . . ,

Rye

Beans . . .
Peas . . .

Gazette.

Qrs.

100,671 ..

3,354 ..

12,124 ..

27 ..

3,118 ..

464 ..

Av.
d.
9
5

Averages from the correspond-
ing Gazette in 1851. Av.

Wheat. ,
Barley. .
Oats . ,
Rye....
Beans . .
Peas . .

Qrs.

92,905

2,297

9,667

15

4,311

294

DIAGRAM SHOAVING THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE
AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT during the six

WEEKS ENDING JUNE 19, 1852.

Price.

May 15

May 22.

May 29.

June 5.

June 12.

June 19.

4 Is. 3d.

.. 1

.. 1

, ,

40s. lid.
40s. 9d.

•• r
■ ■ 1

.. L

-- ::.«

408. 7d.
40s. 6d.
408. 5d.

.: L

~ L

• • r

• . i

••

PRICES OF SEEDS.

BRITISH SEEDS.
Lhiseed (per qr.). . sowing 50s. to 55s. ; crushing 45s. to 48a.

Lhiseed Cakes (per ton) £3 Os. to £8 10s.

Cow Grass (per qr.) (nominal) . . 60s. to 70s.

Trefoil (per c\\'t.) (nominal). . 21s. to 26s.

Rapeseed (per last) new £21 to £24 old £21 to £24

Ditto Cake (per ton) £4 5s. to £4 10s

Mustard (per bushel) .... white 5s. to 6s. ; brown, 7s. to 9s,

Coriander (per cwt.) new lis. to 13s., old 10s. to 12s

Canary (per cwt.) new 38s. to 403. ; old 39s. to 418

Tares, Winter, 28s. to 30s. p. qr. ; Spring. 3s. 6d. to 4s. p. bush

Carraway (per cwt.) new, 3os. to 34s. ; fine 368

Turnip, white (per bush.) Swede (nominal)

Cloverseed (per c^vt.) red 40s. to 44s., fine 48s. to 50s

FOREIGN SEEDS, &c.
Clover, red (duty 5s. per cwt.) 40s. to 48s. per cwt., super. 50

Ditto, white (duty Ss. per cwt.) 40s. to 46s. per cwt

Linseed (per qr.). . . . Baltic, 44s. to 47s. ; Odessa, 46s. to 48s

Linseed Cake (per ton) £7 to £9 10s. Os

Rape Cake (per ton) £4 5s. to £4 lOs

Hempseed, small, (per qr.) 32s. to 34s., Do. Dutch, 363. to 37s

Tares (per qr.) small 28s. to 30s., large 30s. to 328

Rye Grass (per qr.) 28s. to 35s

Coriander (per cwt.) lOs. to 133

HOP market!
BOROUGH, Monday, June 28.
The few Hops on offer meet with a steady sale, at the
improved quotations noticed in our last report.

Sussex pockets 112s. to 128s.

Weald of Kent ditto 130s. to 1478.

Mid and East Kent ditto . . 140s. to 250s.
With few exceptions throughout Kent and Sussex the
hop bine is growing rapidly. In some cases the leaves
show a tendency to turn yellow. Fine warm weather
will now be looked for with anxiety.

94

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

PRICES OF BUTTER,

CHEESE, HAMS, &c

s. s.
Double Gloucester,

per cwt 46 to 56

Single do 42 48

York Hams 60 70

Westmoreland do.. . 60 66

Irish do 56 62

American do 28 3ti

Wiltshire Bacon,

green 60 62

Waterford Bacon . . 56 60

Hamburgh do 54 57

American — —

BELFAST, (Friday last.)— Butter : Shipping price, 65s. to
77a. per cwt. ; firkins and crocks, 7d. per lb. Bacon, 483.
60s.; Hams, prime, 58s. to 628. ; second quality, 50s. to 52s.
per cwt. ; mess Pork, 86s. per brl. Irish Lard, in bladders,
543. to 56s. ; kegs or firkins, 52s. per cwt.

Friesland, per cwt. 70 to 72

Kiel 66

70

Dorset new 76

80

Carlow „ —

70

Waterford. ... „ —

68

Cork „ —

66

Limerick .... „ —

60

Sligo „ —

64

FrenchButter,perdoz. 8

10

Cheshire Cheese, per

cwt 50

70

Chedder do 56

68

Butter.

Bacon.

Dried Hams. Mess Pork.

June

per cwt.

per cwt.

per cwt. 1 per brl.

24.

s. d. s. d.

s. d. 6. d.

s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

1848

80 0 8-2 0

68 0 6-2 0

66 0 72 0 80 0 84 0

1849

67 0 68 0

48 0 60 0

68 0 75 0, 76 0 78 0

J85(t

60 0 6S 0

37 0 42 0

65 0 70 O' 60 0 62 0

1831

70 0 74 0

45 0 47 0

62 0 66 0 6t 0 66 0

1852

74 0 78 0

48 0 50 0

56 0 60 0 77 6 82 0

HULL COMMERCIAL MARKETS.

Linseed : The diminished consumption going on in con
sequence of mill-stoppage causfS an extremely light business
to be done from day to day, and the few transactions are about
the quotations of last week. In Rapeseed no business
passing. For Linseed Oil the demand for the home trade
has been well sustained, and for export t ) the continent sales
are also made ; the demand exceeding the supply. Rape Oil
has not altered in value. Of Olive Oil the lew parcels here
are either disposed of or withdrawn. Seal Oil : All the recent
arrivals from Greenland are cleared, and £32 10s. to £33, in
casks, is now required. Tallow has advanced to 393. 6d.
for Petersburg first sort Y.C., and little business going for-
ward. Linseed Cakes are in very limited demand, as the
season for feeding fat stock is about over. Rape Cakes
have been taken less freely for present consumption, and 93s.
to 92s. 6d. cannot be exceeded for fine foreign oblong to keep
over. Guano : The season is approaching to a close, but
still sales are making of Government Bolivian. Of Bones
we have good supplies from recent arrivals ; buyers are, how-
ever, more scarce for the existiag season, and a slight declin.' in
price has occurred. — Hull Herald.

HIDE AND SKIN MARKETS.

s. d. s. d.

Market Bidet, S6 to etlbt o o<oo ]jperlb.

Do. 64 72lbS 0 If 0 2 „

Do. 72 SOlbs 0 2 0 2J „

Do. 80 Biilbt 0 2j 0 2J „

Do. 88 Oeibs 0 2^ 0 3 „

Do. 06 lOilbt 0 8| 0 3^ „

Calf Skint, light 10 2 6 each.

Do. full 3 6 4 6 „

Porte Hides 5 0 U 0 „

Shearlings Oil 12 „

tamb Skins 18 2 9 „

"" BARK.

Per load of 45 cwt.

Bnglish Tree £11 Q 0 to £13 10 0

Cojipice 12 0 0 14 0 0

Mimosa per ton 10 0 0 II 0 0

Yalonia , 14 0 0 16 0 0

OILS.

Linseed, 283. per cwt.; Rapeseed, English refined, 32s.
to 323. 6d. ; do. foreign, 32s. 9d. to 33s. ; brown, 31s. ;
Gahpoli, per tun, 45Z. ; Spanish, 45Z. ; sperm, 87^ to
89?.; do. bagged, 86?.; South Sea, 33?. to 36?.; Seal,
pale, 83?. IDs.; do., coloured, 80?.; Cod, 84?.; Pilchard,
28?. to 30{.; Cocoa Nut, per ton, 88?. to 40?. ; Palm, SOs. 6d.

WOOL MARKET.

BRITISH WOOL.

BRIDGNORTH.— At our wool fair last week the prices
ranged from Is. Id. to Is. 4d. per lb.

DONCASTER, (Saturday last.)— There was a very large
supply of Wool — upwards of 500 sheets. The morning being
wet, very little business was done early on, and the weather
operated against the sellers. We note no alteration in value
from last week, where wool was dry. Fine qualities of hog
wool were most in request, and low qualities of ewes and
wethers not so free sale. The following are the quotations :
Locks and cotts, 8s. 6d. to lis. 6d. ; ewes and withers, 123.
6d. to 13s. 6d. ; Lincolnshire, one-third to one-half hosr, 14s
to 14s. 6d. ; Nottinghams and Yorks, fine, 15s. 6d. to 17s.

HULL, June 22. — This was the first wool market dinner of
the season, and, be:ng rather late, there was a good show, up-
wards of 150 sheets being pitched, and nearly all sold. The
market had a good attendance of buyers. All hog, 14s. to
153. 6d. ; half hog and ewe, 13s. 6d. to I4s. ; all ewe, 128. to
13s.; locks aud cots, 7s. to 8s. 6d. per stone.

LEEDS, June 25. — Stocks of combing wool at market con-
tinue very light. There is a steady demand to supply the im-
mediate wants of the manufacturers. Prices are firm at last
week's rates, with an upward tendency ; but it is impossible to
realize quotations in proportion to the high rates asked by the
farmers for new wool.

NEWPORT (Monmouthshire) — We never sawso much
wool pitched in Newport as there was on Wednesday Trade
was dull, and prices did not exceed ISs. per stone. — Gloucester
Chronicle.

YORK, June 24. — At this, our sixth market for the new
clip, we had about 620 sheets of wool, being 100 more than
last week, and 40 above the corresponding week of last year ;
600 sheets were sold, and 20 remained on hand. Among the
prime lots of wool shown were 33 sheets by Mr. D. Sellers, of
Octon Lodge, wliich was admired for its dean condition and
li^ht flaky quality. The following were the quota! ions, being
the same as last week : — Hog and ewe fleeces, Masham, 9d.
to lOd. and lid. ; all ewe, good bred, lOd. to lid. one-third
hog and ewe, lid to ll|d. ; two-ihirds ditto, lid. tol2d.;
all super hog, 12d. to 12^d.; ditto, if of super super quality,
and in very clean condition, \2\i\. to 13d. per lb. Lucks and
cots are eagerly sought after, at the following prices: — Locks,
7id. to 8jd.; CO! ted fleeces, 9d. to lOd. per lb. The supposed
influence of the Au-tralian wool question, upon the prices of
Yorkshire wools, seems to have died away.

LIVERPOOL, June 26.
Scotch. — There has been some demand for Laid
Highland Wool this week, and some superior clips sold
at very full rates. No White Highland in the market.
Good Cheviots and Crossed are naore inquired for ; mid-
dling and inferior kinds are still difficult to dispose of.

8. d. s. d.

Laid Highland Wool, per -.iilbi..,,. 9 3 to 10 3

While Highland do . ,12 6 14 0

Laid Crossed do... unwashed .... 10 6 12 0

Do. do.. .washed 11 0 12 6

Laid Cheviot do..,ii :w,.sl<.o 11 6 13 0

Uo. do., washed...... 12 6 15 0

White Cheviot do... do. ...... 22 0 26 0

Foreign. —The arrivals this week appear considera-
ble, but the greater portion are Alpaca, nearly all sold
to arrive. The stocks of all kinds of Wool are light,
consequently little to do, or were there a better choice
more would be doing.

FOREIGN WOOL.
LEEDS, June 25. — There has been considerable inquiry
since the close of last sales for all descriptions of foreign aud
colonial wool. Prices are well maintained.

WHALEBONE.

Polar, per ton £180 0 0 to £0

Printed \>j Rogerson and Tuxford, 246, Strand, London.

•rf^

_

CD

aa

MS eL

^1

o

-.J
G

13

".J

7^

THE FAEMER'S MAGAZINE.

AUGUST, 1852.

PLATE I.

A HEREFORD OX.

The subject of our firat plate is a Hereford Ox, the property of Mr. William Heath, of Ludham
Hall, near Norwich, for which the first prize of Thirty Sovereigns and a Silver Medal were awarded at
the Smithfield Club Cattle Show, in December last.

PLATE II.
PLAN OF FARM BUILDINGS

BY MR. CHAS. P. TEBBUTT.

(For description see page 110.^

AGRICULTURAL BIOGRAPHY

It has been often observed that nations are very
considerably advanced in civilization before they
commit to writing records or memorials of any
kind, and that a much greater progression has
been made before any notice has been bestowed on
the most simple and necessary of all the arts of
practice, in the use of the earth for procuring the
necessaries of life. The very imaginative philo-
sophy of the Greeks, who were the first historians,
scarcely condescended to bestow a glance on
the art of obtaining the fruits of the earth ; a very
few incidental notices aiford an imperfect gleaning
from the field of practice which they had adopted,
and their speculative conceptions continued to lead
astray their minds from the useful arts oi life till
their political and moral grandeur svmk and was
extinguished in the western hemisphere. Even the
more practical acuteness of the Roman people,
who succeeded the splendour of the Greeks, did
not adopt agriculture as a topic of illustration till
the period of the Christian era, when their gran-
deur had passed its zenith and the radiance had
begun to wane. The records they made are few,
and the knowledge was scanty and imperfectly con-

OLD SERIES.]

veyed. In Britain the long period of fifteen cen-
turies had elapsed before the practice of agriculture
was honoured with a written notice, when the dis-
covery and use of printing had begun to diftuse its
blessings, and to show the effects of the mightiest
power that has yet been given to man. So long a
time was required to emancipate the human mind
from the fetters of bondage with which it was
manacled by the dominion of feudal power, and to
escape from the meshes of a closely-woven net-
work thrown over it by the darkening bigotry of a
most intolerent religious superstition. When these
barriers of degradation and buftbonery were re-
moved, the dignity of the human mind was soon
revealed, and exhibited its inherent splendour.

Learning received advantages from the invention
of printing, which spread the dominion of know-
ledge to an immeasurable distance beyond its
former limits ; there soon appeared a necessity of
collecting and condensing the widely-scattered
materials into such limited forms as were easy of ac •
cess and distinctly correct. Hence have arisen the
dictionaries, lexicons, and bibliothecs of modern
times ; and not for the interpretation of words, for
H No. 2.— VOL. XXXVIT,

96

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

these were always frequent, but for the explanation
of things.

In tracing the progress of an art from the lives
and writings of the inventors and improvers, the
practical knowledge is derived which sees the
foundation of the system that has arrived, and per-
ceives the difficulties that are to be overcome, and
the contentions that are to be encountered in
making any deviation from estabhshed usages.
In biographical notices the most prominent cir-
cumstances are selection, compass, and arrange-
ment. The alphabetical order is very justly pre-
ferred to any other method, and has obtained a
universal adoption ; but our special purpose differs
from general compilations — in these no order is
attempted of any particular object : the descriptions
are general, and relate to persons, and not to any
specific point. Our attention is directed to the
gradual progress of agriculture as it received as-
sistance and illustration from the writings of theo-
retical and practical men ; and the view is more
turned to the art than to the person, and to the
result than to the originator ; not that the prime
mover will be neglected—on the contrary, that
person is entitled to the first consideration; but
successive improvers must be regarded, and the
advancement which the art received from their
labours.

This very important consideration, and the im-
possibility of finding the date of the birth of the
writers, and the scanty memorials that can be got
of their worldly sojourn, has induced the chrono-
logical arrangement by the date of the published
work, and of the first work when more than one
came from the same author. This order continues
the gradation of improvements, and tends to show
the assistance which may have l)een in any case
derived by an author from a preceding treatment of
a subject. This is a cl'ronological list of the steps
in the ascent of the art, and not of the births or
lives of the authors ; it shows how the foundations
were laid, and by what means the edifice has been
reared. The dates compose the chronology in the
notice of the authors ; and there is added, in the
common way, an alphabetical list of the authors by
the initial letter of the surname, so that the notice
of any author can be found at the page of the book
that is attached.

The difficult point of selection is summarily dis-
missed, for our list comprehends every British
author of whom any notice can be found from the
most careful and patient research ; we shall thus
escape the charge of partiality and nationality in
choosing and rejecting names for notice, and will
only incur the risk of showing favour or neglect as
our narrative proceeds. Much attention is due to
the age or j)eriod when the author lived ; and a fair

allowance should be made, and a just proportion
observed, of the ease and abundance with which
the materials are procured as the times of existence
approach our own days. It is true that the subject
becomes much more interesting in the more ad-
vanced stages of progress than in the early dawn,
but greater caie is due on that account to the in-
vestigation of the causes of movement.

The compass, or extent to be allowed in such
works, is a point of value, as biography will cer-
tainly bear of being written much at large, and the
more minute it is, it often becomes the more en-
tertaining and instructive when judiciously handled.
Here again our special object is intruded — a series
of finished and full-sized portraits, or a set of cha-
racteristic sketches in miniature, is not the aim ;
but a gradual tracing of the progress of the most
necessary of all the arts that are practised by
mankind. Consequently, the first attention is the
relative merit of the writer in the department which
he occupied, and joined with the manner in which
he was first formed to his art or profession, and the
gradations by which he rose to excellence. The
principal events of his life shall not be overlooked,
nor his moral and intellectual qualities, but related
with all the accuracy that conciseness will allow.
There will be higher claimants which require a
diffuseness, and an inferior rank that will obtain a
more brief notice. The materials to be got will
chiefly influence the compass of our notice of the
rural authors ; the researches of former enquirers
shall have our gratitude expressed, and the accu-
racy and impartiality will not be doubted, especially J
when confirmed by mutual agreement. The sub- I
stance of different narrations will be melted into \\
one, the several parts proportioned, and the cha-
racteristic features carefully marked and stamped
by an unbiassed judgment, which may aspire at
least to the rank of original writing. The gratitude
of mankind is most justly due to the useful labours
of industry, which has benefited the human race,
and has held out the lamps of genius and of expe-
rience to show the paths to future enquirers, and
to warn the dangers of ill-directed employments;
a re-union is formed with existence in its most
excellent state, and nothing is felt to be dead in the
past while the sympathies are retained that only re-
quire to be awakened. The labour is not without
its difficulty of assigning the due proportion of
attention and respect which may be owing to the
competitors of fame, as the risks of falling into
errors are much more numerous than the means of
avoiding them. It is very difficult to decide be-
tween the merits of invention and improvement,
as no precise line can be drawn between the two
exertions of intellect. The history of the human
mind does not present anything more curious than

1

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

97

to trace the operations of an inventive talent
working its way, often without any foreign aid, and
deriving from its own resources the means of over-
coming the successive difficulties which thwart its
progress. It is in such a process that the dis-
tinguishing powers bestowed upon man are most
surprisingly exerted, and that the superiority of one
individual over the common mass is most lumi-
nously displayed. The exercise of the faculties in
an original path is entitled to the first considera-
tion, and the successive improvers are not much
beneath original talent in the merit of pushing for-
ward the gradual advances of a particular pursuit
till a very imcommon excellence was attained. A
vigorous exertion of the faculties is required, and a
most energetic and persevering industry, in order
to confer an addition so considerable as to deserve
a special commemoration. A just title to have the
name perpetuated may belong to the person who
has reached an uncommon excellence without
showing any originality or improvement, since it
shows a very large use of the rational powers, and
affords animating examples of the possibility of
effecting extraordinary things. Many names of
high reputation are included in this class, and have
been noticed accordingly.

A man is his own monument, and must be esti-
mated by the foundation which he has laid, and by
the duration of the superstructure. A very large
attention is due to the time in which he lived, and
to the circumstances by which he was surrounded
— to the education of the age, and to the policy of
the political and social rule that existed. The ad-
vancement of arts and sciences depends as much
on these establishments as on individual exertion ;
and the stirrings of the human mind require im-
pulses in the two-fold capacity of a recipient and
an exponent. These circumstances shall be duly
noticed at the periods of occurrence, and will be
attended with appropriate observations.

Necessity compels our being indebted to former
biographers for notices and events ; but in every
case of the books being accessible to our research
the private opinion of professional judgment will
be used, and an impartial criticism bestowed. The
particular attention will be directed to the merits of
the author as an original thinker, an arduous im-
prover of adopted ideas, or the follower of a beaten
path, which he has rendered more even and of
greater width than when he entered upon the track.
When no opinion can be formed, the relations of
other writers will be stated, and the authorities
given. To trace the gradual progress of the art is
the main object of our purpose, and to that end the
chief attention will be directed. The introduction
to agricultural biography need not be more ex-
tended—a large book is the harbour of ignorance.

and compression is even more powerful than ex-
pansion. The preface to a book has been com-
pared with the porch to a house, as both provisions
denote a good cheer and commodious treatment
within the edifice. Yet lengthy prefaces and
clumsy dedications are only suited to the huge
quartos within which ignorance, bigotry, and
superstition, have ever been irrepugnably en-
trenched, and have bid defiance to the attacks of
the lighter bulks of matter. Truth and reason are
the best patrons of a book, and form a monument
much more lasting than brass. Patterns are ex-
hibited of acquiring a power over all external ob-
jects, and of maintaining

And

" That strong divinity of soul
Which conquers chance of fate."

" Lives of great men all remind us

We can make our lives subhme.
And, departing, leave behind us

Footsteps on the sand of time —
Footprints that perhaps another.

Sailing o'er life's solemn scene,
A forlorn and shipwreck'd brother,

Seeing, may take heart again,"

Our chronological record begins with a name
that is not strictly connected with practical agri-
culture, but whose profession very much contri-
buted to lay the foundation of the laws of real pro-
perty, of which land is the chief type. Without
a foundation on which to rest firmly and securely
agriculture could not have progressed, nor could
improvements have been rewarded by the maxims
of justice and equity.

I. — Lyttleton, 1480,

Thomas Lyttleton was a celebrated English
judge, and was born about the beginning of the
fifteenth century. His father was Thomas West-
cote of the county of Devon, who, by marrying the
daughter and sole heir of Thomas Littleton, or
Lyttelton, of Frankley, in Worcestershire, inherited
an estate of land, and the issue assumed the name
that belonged to it. The family has risen to the
title of Lord Lyttelton of the present day. Our
author studied the law, and soon became eminent
in the profession ; and, after passing through
several offices, was appointed in 1466 one of the
Judges of the Court of Common Pleas, He en-
joyed much esteem till his death in 1481,

The memory of Judge Littleton is preserved by
his " Tenures," of which the numerous editions
evince the estimation. Twenty-four editions were
printed from 1539 to 1639. The original composi-
tion of this celebrated work is justly esteemed as
the principal pillar on which the superstructure of
the law of real property in this kingdom is sup-
ported ; and it has been much commented upon

H 2

98

THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE.

by Coke and others. There was a book written in
the reign of Edward III., which is called " Old
Tenures " to distinguish it from Littleton's book.
It gives an account of the various tenures by which
land was holden, the nature of estates, and some
other incidents relating to landed j^roperty. It is a
very scanty tract, but has the merit of having led
the way to Littleton's famous work.

The copy of "Tenures," in George the III.'s
library in the British Museum, is in vellum of 1 671,
and printed in opposite columns of French and
English. It is thought that the work was first
published in French, and that the English addition
was pubhshed by the author himself the year (1480)
before his death (1481).

II. — Grosthead, 1500.

Robert Grosthead, Grouthead, or Grosseteste,
for the name had no less than twelve different
spellings, was Bishop of Lincoln in the thirteenth
centur}', and a person of note in those times. He
is reputed to have been born in ] 1 75, of honest
parentage, at Stradbrook, in the county of Suffolk.
He rose to the bishopric more rapidly than many
others through the minor gradations of office,
and proposed many alterations and reforms in the
then very gross abuses of the Romish church ; but
he was wholly overborne by clamour and upset by
prejudices, as the time of reformation was not then
come. He died in 1253.

Grosthead was a most voluminous writer, and on
a great variety of subjects. His works are stated
at 200 in number, of which few have been pub-
lished, and hence may not have been thought to be
worth the publication. The old catalogue of the
Peterborough library ascribes to the Bishop " Liber
qui vocatur Housbondrie," or "A Treatise of Hus-
bandry, which Mayster Groshede, some time
Bishop of Lincoln, made and translated out of
French into English." It has been supposed that
the bishop only translated it from French; and,
otherwise, that he first wrote it in French and then
rendered it into English. Somebody has turned it
into Latin. Among Bishop More's works, in the
public library at Cambridge, is a 4to " Buke of
Husbandry." Under this title, on a scroll, is the
cut of a person standing in a wood or park giving
orders to a woodman who is felhng a tree. It con-
tains 18 leaves. " Hero begynnetli a Treatise of
Husbandry, which Mayster Groshede, sometyme
Byshop of Lyncoln, made and translated out of
Frenshe into Englyshe, which techeth all manner
of men to governe theyr lands, tenements, and
demenes ordinatly, as by the chajiytres evidently is
shewed." It concludes with, " Here endeth the
buke of husbandry, and of plantyngeandgraffynge
trees and vynes." No date or printer is mentioneil

This book is not found in the library of the
British Museum, nor is mentioned among the
bishop's works in the "Bibliotheca Britannica."
The late Mr. Loudon has stated that the book is a
4to volume, and printed by Wynkin de Worde ;
but he has not mentioned if he had himself seen the
work, or had conversed with any person who had
examined it. We are, therefore, unable to give an
extract from the book, or to quote any opinion of
its contents. " The Buke of Husbandrie," 4 to,
appears in the list of books printed by Wynkin de
Worde, but no date nor author is mentioned.

III. — FiTZHERBERT, 1532.

Sir Anthony Fitzherbert was born at Norbury,
in Derbyshire, where his family enjoyed a landed
patrimony, and held a very respectable position in
society. The date of his birth is uncertain. After
receiving the usual education for the legal profes-
sion he was called to be Serjeant-at-law in 1511,
in 1516 he received the honour of knighthood, and
in 1523 was appointed one of the Justices of the
Court of Common Pleas. He soon began to show
an independent eminence in his profession — openly
opposed Cardinal Wolsey in the height of his
power ; and, on his death bed, most earnestly
pressed his children to accept no grants, nor to
make any purchases of church lands. The death
of his elder brother John left him the possession of
the family estate, which enabled him to make a
good provision for his numerous family. He died
in 1538, and was buried in his own parish church
of Norbury. The Fitzherbert family, in the dif-
ferent branches of it, continues to flourish chiefly
in Derbyshire and Staffordshire. The late Mrs.
Fitzherbert, of court notoriety, was a descendant of
the family.

The legal works of the learned Judge of the
Court of Common Pleas were numerous and
valuable. In 1532 there appeared "The Book, or
Boke, of Husbandry, very profitable and necessary
for all persons," which was afterwards often re-
printed without date. In 1539 there appeared " Of
the Surveying of Lands," in a small Svo, contain-
ing 120 pages in black letter, imprinted for Berthe-
let. This treatise consists of instructions to noble-
men and gentlemen who are the managers of their
own estates, and to land stewards, bailiffs, &c.,
who are under them. It sets forth likewise the
nature of tenants' tenures, and the laws of court
baron, court hundred, chartuaries, &c., being a
sort of commentary on an old statute named
" Extenta Manerii."

The " Boke of Husbandrie " of Sir Anthony
Fitzherbert is the first work in the English language
which treats expressly on the subject of practical
agriculture. It has been supposed that his brother,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

9d

who lived on the landed eslate, had written the
matter of the book, and that the iudc^;> had revised
the contents, as he states it to be the production of
a forty 3'ears' exjierience. Others think that the
intervals of his legal employments were devoted to
rural pursuits, and that he mentions the period of
his attention to have been in that number of years.
The copy of the book in the British Museum is
dated in 1548, and contains 180 duodecimo pages.
It describes the ploughs then in use, and the dif-
ferent articles of tillage, and which specially belong
to a team of horses. The wheels of carts and wag-
gons are recommended to be shod with iron,
whence it may be inferred that in those days these
vehicles were altogether composed of wood. The
author prefers oxen to horses for rural labour, and
at the same time frankly admits that horses will go
much faster than oxen on even and light land, and
that they are quicker for all sorts of carriage work.
It required the enlightened progress of nearly three
centuries after the time of Fitzheiljert to banish
this prejudice anent oxen and horses, though nature
has very sufficiently settled the point in the mus-
cular formation of the animals. It lingers now
only in some parts of South Britain, where latent
barbarisms of the mind, as in flail threshing, ap-
pear to be more deeply rooted than in other soils.
It would seem that the husbandman in Fitzher-
bert's days combined a knowledge of every pro-
fession ; for among the appendages of a plough we
fine an axe, hatchet, hedge-bill, auger, flail, spade,
and shovel very particularly enumerated. It is
also recommended that young husbandmen shor.ld
learn to make their yokes, ox bows, stools, and all
manner of plough gears, lest the purchase of thesa
articles be too costly for them. He advises that
the huswifes, or the wives of farmers, perform all
manner of work, in baking and brewing, winnow-
ing corn, driving and filling the dung carts, and
attending the grinding mills whei'e the different
flours are made. The wives of the present day will
not much relish this advice.

As Fitzherbert's book is the first expressly prac-
tical work on agriculture, we are induced to give at
length the contents as arranged in the edition of
1543.

HUSBANDRIE.

Here begynneth the Boke of Husbandrie, and,
furste, where bye husbandmen do lyve.

Folio.
Dyvers manner of plowes • . . . . . 1

To knowe the names of all the partes of the

plowe. . . . . . , . . . . , 2

.The tempyring of plowes . . . . . . 3

The necessary thynges that belong to a

plonghe, carte, and wayne . . . . . . 4

'"Whether is better a plough of horses or a

plough of oxen ., .. ,. .. -^

Foli
The diiigencG and the attendance thit a hus-
band shoulde givelo his trade, in manner of
another prologue, and the speciall grounde
of all this treatyse . .
How a man shoulde plowe all manner of landes

all tynies of the year. .
To plowe for pease and beanes
Iloue to sow bothe pease and beanes
Sethe of discrecion

How all manner of come shoulde be sowen,
and how much an acre of grounde is by
statute
To sow barley whereof there be three kyndes
To sowe otes . .
To harowe all manner of comes
To falowe in what time is beste
To cary out dounge and mucke, and to spreade

it

To set out the shepe folde

To carry woodde and other necessaries

To know divers maners of wiedes

How to wiede corne

The fyrste furryng of the falowes

To mowe grasse

Howe forkes and rakes should be made

To tedde and make hey

Howe rie shoulde be shorne . .

Howe to sheve wheate . . . . . .

To mowe or sheve barley and otes

To reape or mov/e pease and beanes . .

Howe all manner of cornes shoulde be tythed

Howe all manner of corne shoulde be covered

To lode corne and nioowe it . .

The fyrst furryng

To sowe wheate and rye

To thrcshe and Vv^ynowe corne

To sever pease, beanes, and fytches . .

Of shepe, and what tyme of the yere the

rammes shoulde be put to the ewes
To make a ewe to love hir lambe
What tyme lambes shulde be wajmed
To draw shepe and sever them in dyvers

places. .
To belte shei)e . .
To grease shepe
To medle tarre . .
To make l)rome salve . .
If a shepe have matflies
Blyndenes of shepe and other dyseases, and

remedies therefor
The income in the shepe's fote, and lielpe

therefor
The fiscude, and remedy if one come betyme
The pockes, and remedy therefor
The inoode cuyff (sickness), and leir.edy
To washe shep-e
To shere shepe . .
To draw and sever the badde shepe frome the

good . .
What thynge rotteth shepe . .
To know a rotten shepe
To bye leane cattell
To bye fatte cattell
Dyvers sycknesses of cattell and remedies

therefor, and fyrst of murren
Long sought (sicknes-), and remedy . .

10
11
12

12
13

14
15
IG
16
18
18
19
19
20
21
21
22
22
22
23
24
•24
24
24
26

26

27

28

28
29
•29
30
30
30

31

31
32
32
32
33
33

33
33
34
35

35

36
36

100

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Beinborne, and remedy therefor
Ryson upon, and remedy therefor
The turne, and remedy therefor
The many flebes, and remedy therefor
The foute, and the remedy therefor . .
The goute is without remedy . .
To rere calves . .
To gelde calves . .
Horses and mares to drawe . .
The losse of a lambe, calfe, or fole

Folio.

.. 37

.. 37

.. 38

.. 38

.. 39

.. 39

.. 39

.. 40

.. 40

. . 42

What cattell shuld go together in one pasture 42
The properties of horses . . . . 44 & 45

The diseases of horses. . . . . . 45 to 50

Of swyne . . . . . . . . . . 51

Of bees 51

How to kepe beastes and other cattell . . 52

To get settes, and set thereon . . . . . . 53

To make a bythe . , . . . . . . 54

To make a hedge . . . . . . . . 54

To plash a hedge . . . ■. . . . . 55

To mende a bye-waye . . . . . . . . 56

To remove and sette trees .. .. .. 56

Trees to be set in without rootes and graine. . 57

To fell woodde for use and to sell . . . . 57

To shrede, lop, and croppe trees . . . . 58

Chesemen shuld shrede, lop, and croppe trees 58

To sell woodde and timber . . . . . . 59

To kepe sporyng woodde . . . . . . 60

Necessary thynges belongyng to grafFyng . . 60

What fruyte shuld be fyrste graffed . . . . 61

Howe to gratFe . . . . . . . . . . 61

To graife between the barke and the tree .. 62
To nourysshe all maner of stone fruits and

nuttes . . . . . . . . . . 62

A shorte information for a young gentyleman

that entendeth to thryve . . . . . . 63

Lesson made in Englishe verses, that a gen-
tylpman's servant shall forget none of his

duty and tyme . . . . . . . . 64

A prologue for the year's occupation. . . . 65

A lesson for the wise . . . . . . . . 65

What thynges a wyfe is bounden to dooe of

nyghte . . . . . . . . . . 66

What markes the wyfe oughte to dooe gene-
rally . . . . 66

To kepe measure in spendynge . . . . 69

To rise with the lebure . . . . . . 70

Show a lesson to the husbande .. ..71

How men of hye degree do keep mesure . . 71

Prodigality in costly array . . . . . . 71

Of delycious meates and byakos . . . . 72

Of outragious plays and games . . . . 73

A prologue of the sayng of the philosopher . . 74

A diversity between predication and doctrine 74

What is rychesse . . . . . . . . 75

What is the property a ryche man . , . . 76

What joyes and pleasures are in heaven . . 77

What offryng pleaseth God best . , . . 77

What be God's commandments . . . . 78

How a man shuld serve God and please Him 78

How a man shuld serve his neyghbour . . 79

Of prayer that pleaseth God very much . . 79

What thynge fetteth prayer . . . . . . 80

How a man shuld praye . . . . . . 80

A meane to put away ydle thoughts in praing 82

A meane to avoyde temptation. . . . . . 83

Folio.
Almes deedes pleseth God much . . . . 84

The fyrst maner of almes . . . . . . 85

The seconde maner of almes. . .. .. 86

The thyrde maner of ahnes . . . . . . 87

What is the greatest offence that a man may
dooe and offend God in . . . . . . 88

The last page of the book contains these words : —
" Thus endeth the ryghte profytable Boke of
Husbandrye, compyled sometyme by Mayster
Fitzherbarde, of charitee and good zele that he have
to the weale of this most noble realrae, which he
did not in his youth, but after he had exercised
husbandry, with greate experience, forty years."

In the information given to the young gentleman
the author says — " And over and beside all this
boke, I will advise him to rise betime in the morn-
ing, according to the verse before spoke of—' Sanat,
Sanctificat, et ditat surgere mane ' — and to go about
his closes, pastures, fields, and specially by the
hedges ; and to have in his purse a payre of tables,
and when he seeth any thing that wolde be amended
to wryte it in his tables — as if he fynde any horses,
mares, beastes, shepe, swyne, or geese, in his pas-
tures that be not his owne ; and, perauventure,
thoughe they be his owne, he wolde not have them
to go there ; or to fynde a gap, or a sherde in his
hedge, or any water standynge in his pasture uppon
his grasse, wherby he maye take double herte,
bothe losse of his grasse and rotting of his shepe
and calves ; and also, of standynge water in his
corne fieldes at the landes endes or sides, and howe
he would have his landes plowed, donged, sturred,
or sowen; and his corne weded or shorne, or his
cattell shifted out of one pasture into another ; and
to loke what dyching, quicsettying, or plashing, is
necessary to be had ; and to oversee his shepeherd
how he handleth and ordreth his shepe, and his
servantes how they plowe and do their workes ; or
if any gate be broken down, or want any stawes,
and go not lyghtly to open and tyne, and that it do
not traise, and that the windes blowe it not open,
with many mo necessary thynges that are to be
looked upon. For a man alwaye wanderynge, or
goings aboute, fyndeth or seeth that is amysse and
wolde be amended ; and as soone as he seeth any
suche defautes than let hym take oute his tables and
wryte the defautes ; and when he comraeth home
to dinner, supper, or at nyglit, than let hym call
his bayley, or his heed servante, and soo shewe hym
the defautes that they may be shortly amended ;
and, when it is amended, than let hym put it out
of his tables. For this used I to doo X or XI
yeres and more, and thus let hym use dayely, and
in shorte space he will sette moche thynges in
good order, but dayely it wyll have mendynge ;
and yf he canne not wryte, lette hym nycke the
defautes uppon a stycke, and to shewe his bayely.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

lul

as I sayde before. Also take hede, both erly and
late, at all tymes, what maner of people resorte and
coinme to thy house, and the cause of theyr com-
mynge, and specially if they brynge with them
pitchers, cannes, tancardes, bottelles, bagges, wal-
lettes, or bushell pokes ; for if thy servantes be not
true they raaye doo thee great hurte, and them-
selfe lyttel avauntage, wherefore they wold be
well looked uppon. And he that hath two true
servantes, a man servante and an other a woman
servants, he hath a great treasure, for a trewe ser-
vante wyll do justly hymself, and if he see his
felowes do amysse he wyll byd them do no more so,
for if they do he wyll shewe his master therof — and
if he do not this he is not a trewe servante."

The directions given in folio 64 to a gentle-
man's servant, that he may leave nothing behind
him at an inn, are worth transcribing : —

" Purse, dagger, cloke, nyghtcap, kerchief,
boryng bonne, baget and shoes, speare, mase,
hoode, halter, saddel clothes, hatte, with thy horse
combe, bowe, arrowes, sworde, buckler, borne,
leifshe, gloves, stringe, and tliy bracer; penne,
paper, inke, parchesmente, readwayes, pommes,
cakes, thou remerabre ; penknyfe, combe, thymble,
nedle, threde, poyntee, lest thy gaUhe breake ;
bodkyn, knyfe, fyngel; give thy horse meate ; see
he be stowed well ; make raery ; sing if you can ;
take hede to thy gere that thou lose none."

Fitzherbert seems to have understood the word
" husbandry " in the enlarged and proper mean-
ing, as he gives directions in the husbandry of
moral and religious conduct as well as in the
husbandry of the ground. Husbandry relates to
every action and vocation of life, as does economy
to the rules and regulations of all enterprizes and
performances, and by no means to the pinching
niggardliness of the necessary appliance, as is
generally understood. Husbandry relates to all
the members of the employment — economy directs
the applications to every special point.

Our lengthy notice and quotations from Fitz-
herbert's book are intended to show the reader a
specimen of the writing contained in the first Eng-
lish work on practical agriculture, and also to the
heads of the divided matter which forms the
volume. The author was the first native of Britain
that studied the nature of soils and the laws of
vegetation with philosophical attention. On these
he formed a theory confirmed by experience, and
rendered the study pleasing as well as profitable by
reahzing the principles of the ancients to the
honour and advantage of his country. These
books, being written at a time when philosophy and
science were but just emerging from that gloom in
which they had so long been buried, were doubt-
less replete with many errors, but tliey contained

the rudiments of true knowledge, and revived the
study and love of agriculture.

IV.— Beniose, 1535.

Sir Richard Benese was Canon of Marton
Abbey, near London. No memorials exist of this
writer except the book on measuring land, to which
his name is affixed. The copy in the British
Museum is without date, and in black letter. The
title page is " The Boke of Measuring Land, as
well as of Woodland, and Pastime in the Field ;
and to Compt the True Number of Acres of the
Same." Newly corrected and compiled by Sir
Richarde de Benese. Lnprinted at London, by
Thomas Colwell.

The book contains 112 duodecimo ])ages, figures
of the shape of lands, the dimensions, and the
contents. Two short chapters are added on mea-
suring timber and stones. Three editions were
published— in 1535, 1538, and the last without
date, which is now mentioned.

v.— TussER, 1557.

Thomas Tusser was born about the year 15 IS,
at Rivenhall, near "NVitham," in Essex, where his
father, William Tusser, married a daughter of
Thomas Smith, of Rivenhall, by whom he had five
sons and four daughters. Hence our author re-
ferred to the heralds' book for the gentility of his
family, and says he " was born of lineage good
and gentle blood." The name and race, however,
have long been extinct. He was educated as a
musician, and was soon placed as singing boy in
the collegiate chapel of the castle of Wallingford ;
and, after frequent change of places and enduring
many hardships, he was admitted into St. Paul's,
where he attained considerable proficiency in
music. He was sent to Eton school, and thence to
Cambridge, where sickness interrupted his studies,
and, having left the University, he was employed
about court, probably in his musical capacity,
by the influence of his patron William Lord Paget.
He appears to have been a retainer in this noble-
man's family, and he mentions his lordship in the
highest terms of panegyric.

He remained ten years in this situation, and
then, retiring into the country and marrying, be-
came a farmer at Cattivvade, in the parish of Bran-
tham, county of Suffolk, near the river Stour.
Here he composed his l^ook on husbandry, the
first edition of which was published in 1557, and
dedicated to his patron Lord Paget. This rude
essay, in " one hundred points of good husbandry,"
was the gem of his future and more elaborate work,
and must have required at least several years'
acquaintance with rural afifairs. He may have ex-
perienced a reverse in farming, as he is found in
Ipswich, where his wife died, at West Dereham, and

102

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

at Norwich. He married a second time, but did not
add to his happiness. He next obtained a singing-
man's place in the cathedral of Norwich, then
tried farming again at Fairsted, near his native
place ; and, again faiUng, he repaired to London,
and, flying from the plague in 1574, he went to
Cambridge. When the scourge abated he re-
turned to London, and died there, as is generally
supposed, about 1580, and was buried in St. Mil-
dred's Church, in the Poultry, with an epitaph by
himself, as recorded by Stow —
" Here Thomas Tusser, clad in earth, doth lie.
Who some time made the Points of Husbandry;
By him then learn thou mayst, here learn we must.
When all is done, we sleep and turn to dust ;
And yet, through Christ, to heaven we hope to go :
Who reads his books, shall find his faith was so."

Tusser's second work, " Five Hundred Points of
Good Husbandry," appeared in 1580, and must
have been well received, as above twelve editions
were printed within the first fifty years, and many
others since that time. The best editions are of
1580 and 1585, but they are very scarce. In 1812
Dr. Manor published a new edition, carefully
collated and corrected, with a series of notes,
georgical, illustrative and explanatory, a glossary,
and other improvements.

Tusser's book is written in quatrains, or stanzas
of four verses each, in doggrel rhyme, and very
obsolete. He gives the corn harvest, equally divi-
ded into ten parts : —

*■' 1. One part cast forth, for rent due out of hand ;

2. One other part, for seed to sow thy land ;

3. Another part, leave parson for his tithe ;

4. Another part, for harvest, sickle, and scythe,

5. One part, for plough-wright, cart-v/right,

knacker, and smith ;

One part, to uphold thy teams that draw there-
with ;

One part, for servant, and workman's wages
lay ;

One part, likewise, for fill-lx^lly, day by day;

One part, thy wife for needful things doth
crave ;

Thyself and child the last one part would have.

" Who minds to quote

Upon this note,
May easily find enough ;

What charge and pain,

To little gain,
Doth follow toiling plough.

" Yet farmer may

Thank God and say.
For yearly such good hap.

Well fare the plough.

That sends enow,
To stop so many a gap."

For an author, the vicissitudes of the life of
Tusser present a very uncommon variety of inci

G.

9.

10.

tincture of careless imprudence, and yet his de-
sultory character did not thrive in any vocation.
He failed in farming as his chief pursuit ; and,
although he may have been a good theorist for thd
time, his practice was much behind. He is said tc
have been a good-natured, cheerful man, a lover of
economy, and far from meanness, as appears inl
many of his precepts, and always condemns the!
policy that would rather lose a pound than spend al
shiUing. He has been thought an able farmer,!
and placed on a level with Yarro, Columella, and!
Palladius, and probably more aptly with Hesiod.j
Both wrote in the infancy of husbandry, and gavel
good general precepts without going into detail,!
though Tusser has more of it than Hesiod. They]
address the minds as well as the lands by recom-
mending industry and economy, and used verse ds|
the more effectual means to propagate their doc-
trine.

The precepts of Tusser are excellent, and showT
very much cool collected sense ; but the tempta-
tions and perplexities of life very frequently over-
turn the maxims and resolutions of prudence, and
create a wide discordance between the very best
intentions and the results of circumstantial neces-
sity. Cultivated minds and lively imaginations do
not always oflJer the steadiest and most effectual
resistance to the shocks of adversity, and the rebuff
that attend ahnost every enterprize ; and Tusser's
singing gentility and courtly breeding may not
have well accorded with the frugal care and per-
severing industry which are most essential to the
success of every agricultural undertaking. Beyond
most other employments farming requires the most
active and energetic perseveiance, combined with
the most minute and careful attention.

The following head-piece appeared in 1G41 : —

" Tusser, they tell m.e, when thou wert alive.
Thou, teaching thrift, thyself could never thrive;
So, like the whetstone, many men are wont.
To sharpen others, when themselves are blunt."

Tusser divides the gross produce of the lands
into ten purposes, of which the rent is only one
distribution. He allows three-tenth parts to the
farmer's maintenance, and the full half of the pro-
duce for expenses. These proportions differ vastly
from the ratios which now obtain between the land-
owner, the farmer, and the expenses, in which the
former gets from a fourth to one-half of the gross
produce, or one-third in the average, and the
farmer is left with two-thirds for himself and the
expenses. The landowners nov/-a-days would look
very shy at one-tenth part of the produce for rent ;
and Tusser seems to have had no idea of the
interest of capital, or of allowing for the farmer's
time. He calculates only for the maintenance of

dent. He had no vicious extravagance, or any | the farmer, which in hia time may have been all

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

lOJ

that was expected from such empliiyments as farm-
ing. The increase of population and of ca])ital has
completely overturned and reversed the arrange-
inents of the primeval days of British agriculture.
' At the early age of literature in which Tusser
lived it was a grand conception of his mind to
write agriculture in poetry, and dignify the art
with that refinement. He probably thought to

grace an art that has never been adorned, and also
to build its palace in its verse — 'an idea that has
never since that time occurred to the many would-
be decorators of agriculture, but which may pro-
bably, in no great distance of time, be done in
heroic verse by the writer of this biography, and
thus join the company of Ilcsiod, Virgil, and
Tusser.

METEOROLOGY, ITS CONNECTION WITH THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.

BY CUTHBERT \V. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S.

At p. 3, vol. ii., of this widely circulating mag-
azine, I had an opportunity of making a few re-
marks upon the intimate connection which exists
between the meteorological phenomena of a dis-
trict, and the modes of cultivating the soil which
the inhabitants of the locality are induced to adopt.
In this paper I propose to follow the branch of the
inquiry which relates to the fall of rain, a little
more in detail, before we proceed to other branches
of an inquiry so vitally important to the skilful far-
mers of our islands.

There are a few general observations with regard
to the depth of rain falling in different districts
which appear to be applicable to most countries.
For instance — the quantity of rain falling in hilly
districts is, in general, much more considerable
than in low-lying countries. In the level district
of Egypt it rarely rains, although in the adjoining
'mountainous land of Abyssinia the rains are
■'copious and frequent; at Lima, in South America,
-it hardly ever rains, whilst amongst the adjoin-
ing great mountaia-cliain of the Andes the rains
are incessant. In England the driest counties are
the level districts of Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk —
the wettest, the hilly county of V/estmoreland.

The amount of rain which fell in

1550, in the level district of
Clnswick, near London, was
equal to a depth of (Garc?. Chroa.,

1551, p. 8) 18.23 inches.

In the same year at Y\'hitehaven,

in Cumberland, it was equal to

[Mr. J. F. Miller, Trans. Roy.

Soc, 1851, p. 625) 40.473

At Gatesgarth, in the same district,

290 feet above the sea 108.84 „

At Seathwaite, in Borrowdale, 368

feet above the sea 143. 90 „

The mean depth of rain falling in each month at
Chiswick, during the 23 years, and at Applegarth,
• in Dumfrieshire, for the 20 years previous to 1848,
''was—

At At
Chiswick. Applegarth.

January 1.59 2.60

February 1.95 2.04

March 1.36 2.35

April 1.47 1.76

May 1.84 1.69

June 1.88 3.1G

July 2.36 3.91

August 2.41 3.60

September 2.68 3.13

October 2.56 3.56

November 2.56 3.60

December 1.53 2.94

Rain-drops vary in size from about the 25th of
an inch in diameter to one-third of an inch. From
25 years' observations made at (ireenwlch (from
1815 to 1839) by Mr. J. H. Belville (Manual of
Barometer, p. 33), it appears that the greatest ave-
rage quantity of rain falls in October, and the least
in February— the heaviest rains being those of
the summer (when an inch and a-half will some-
times fall in an hour) and early autumnal montlis,
whilst in the winter that quantity will occupy
many hours in falling. The average depth of
a winter-day's rain seldom exceeds one-tenth of an
inch per hour. A fail of snow is equal to one-tenth
of its depth of water. In the following table by
Mr. Belville, of the Greenv/ich Royal Observatory,
column I. gives the month; II., the average
monthly fall of rain, in inches ; III., the greatest
quantity of rain recorded in one month ; IV., the
least recorded uantity. The average of the year,
at -Greenwich, is about 25 inches.

I.

January . .
February . .
March . . . .
April . . . .

May

June . . . .

July

August . ,
September
October . .
November
December

II.

IIL

1.57

4.833

1.56

3.690

1.71

3.450

1.83

4.790

2.01

4.160

1.91

4.260

2.41

6.650

2.33

4.655

2.50

4.795

2.52

5.070

2.49

4.330

2.25

4.540

IV.

0.30
0.04
0.40
0.06
0.50
0.59
0.10
0.07
0.65
0..53
0.85
0.08

104

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

In considering the value and the quantity of rain,
as Lord Lovelace truly remarks [Jour. R. A. S.,
vol. ix., p. 330), we all know that the amount is of
less consequence than the frequency of it, and the
periods over which it is spread. At Lancaster,
Penzance, and Truro, there are commonly 159.5
days in the year in which it rains ; along the coast
of France, 139.7; in Northern France and Germany,
144.9; Italy, north of the Apennines, 104.2;
Southern France and Italy, 91.2 days. The ave-
rage fall in a rainy (lay in England is '2322 inch ;
in Western France, '2122 ; Northern France, '1847;
Northern Italy, -3853 inch. At Paris, the mean of
the intervals hetween rainy days, as for the whole
year, is 4 days ; at Orange, 4.6 ; at Niccolosi, in
Sicilj'-, 10.8 days. From some observations made
on the rivers Volga and Elbe, it had been concluded
that as their depth of water was decreasing, so the
annual amount of rain was less. As far, however,
as can he inferred from registers kept in different
parts of the continent, it is lather the reverse of
this. For 100 years from 16S9, the annual fall at
Paris was 18.38 inches — during the last 40 years it
has been gradually increasing : it is now 20.86
inches. At Milan, from 1763 to 1849, it has in-
creased from 36.81 inches to 40.66 inches. In the
valley of the Rhone, the mean of decennial periods
has been— 1787, 33.14 inches; 1797, 35.39; 1807,
36.45; 1817, 40.66 inches.

In order to ascertain the depth to which rain
penetrates, M. Gasparin instituted some experi-
ments, from which he concludes, that through a
perfectly dry argillo-calcareous soil, in a state of
fallow, rain descends in one day six times the depth
of the quantity fallen. Thus a fall of 4-lOths of an
inch will sink in a day through nearly 2| inches.

in viewing the connection between the mean
amount of rain falling in any district, and the gene-
ral system of cultivation adopted by its farmers, the
nature of the soil on which that rain occurs forms
a very material jiortion of th.e inquiry, especially
with relation to the power which those soils possess
of absorbing and retaining moisture. This section
of our examination may be conveniently divided
into two divisions — First, the amount of rain-water
which certain soils can retain without allowing any
portion to escape by drainage; and, secondly, the
relative rapidity with which they allow that mois-
ture to be absorbed by the air, or evaporated by
the conjoined action of the sun and winds. These
are evidently facts of considerable importance, since
it is evident that a soil, for instance, which in Corn-
wall or Devonshire would, in their moister climate,
be deemed too retentive of water for the successful

cultivation of the cereals, and fit only for the pro-
duction of grass, in Suffolk or Norfolk would be
deemed excellent corn-producing land; because
there the fall of rain is so much less, and from the
greater prevalence of drying winds, the evaporation
so much greater at certain seasons of the year
than on the western side of the island. The
amount of water which a cubic foot of various
soils can contain before they allow any of it to run
off, was determined by M. Schubler {Jour. R. A.
S., vol. i., p. 184). He ascertained that a cubic
foot of —

Siliceous sand held of water .... 27.3 lbs.

Calcareous sand 31.8 „

Sandy clay 38.8 „

Loamy clay 41.4 „

Stiff clay or brick earth 45.4 „

Arable soil 46.8 „

Garden mould 48.4 „

The relative degree of rapidity with which rain-
water is evaporated from these soils, when exposed
on a thin surface in a closed room, was determined
by the same philosopher : he found that by e.x-
posing 200 parts of each earth in a temperature of
65f of Fahenheit, for 4 hours, that of every TOO
parts of water absorbed, were lost from the —

Siliceous sand 88.4 parts.

Calcareous sand 75.9 „

Sandy clay 52.0 „ h

Loamy clay 45.7 „ I

Stiff clay or brick earth 34.9 „

Arable soil 32.0 „

Garden mould 24.3 „

The tenacity with which the later retained por-
tion of the moisture resisted the drying powers of
the atmosphere will be found in the following table,
which shows the times required for 90 parts of
water to evaporate from 100 parts of water con-
tained in various earths, the temperature of the
room in which they were placed being still 65f.
It required from —

Hours, mins.

Siliceous sand 4 4

Calcareous sand ....,, 4 44

Sandy clay 6 55

Loamy clay 7 52

Stiff clay or brick earth. .. .V . 10 19

Arable soil 11 15

Garden mould 14 49

There are other valuable facts connected with
the retentive nature of soils, which are too impor-
tant to be discussed at the conclusion of an essay ;
these, therefore, must form the subject of another
and separate inquiry, in which I propose to accom-
pany the inquiring English farmer.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

105

GRASS LANDS. — HAY.

BY J. TOWERS, MEMBER R.A.S., H.S. OF LONDON, ETC.

The extraordinary seasons of the present year
have produced corresponding effects ; and these
have induced me to write on a subject which might
be supposed to possess httle interest from any new
facts which could present themselves. However, it
may prove otherwise upon the review of past and \n-e-
sent circumstances. During a portion of January
a very considerable quantity of rain fell, and to an
extent which produced injurious floods in some
localities. February was a fine month, with little
of the usual falling v.'eather, no snow, and scarcely
any frost. But March was consistently dry, from
beginning to end ; aflfbrding a complete contrast to
the corresponding month of 1851. If the reader
refer to the meteorological diaries of this magazine,
he will not be at a loss to determine the fact that
the actual state of the weather to the last day of
June has been so peculiar and anomalous, as to
defy any attempt to discover a parallel within the
preceding half-century.

To say nothing of the season for spring corn,
and restricting our views to the grass lands, the
farmer might be something to this effect — What
question which naturally suggested itself to the hay
must result from an almost unremitting continu-
ance of a parching, easterly wind, with many frosty
nights — from the 2nd of March, to the 27th of April
inclusive (above eight successive weeks), during
which there were only four days when any rain at
all fell ? But this was not all: dry and sunny weather
continued till the 25lh of May — relieved only by
a fev\' showers at the end of April, and the gentle
and little penetrating rains about the middle of May.

At that time the prospect of any thing like a croj)
of hay was almost hopeless : the seed began to
form ; the bottom or sward was green, but so thin
that persons expressed despair of a hay season.
The cereal grasses — even the hardy wheats were
either so thin, poor, or tardy in growth (though
still in a healthy condition) as to render it nearly
certain that the harvest must be late.

The wind, however, went to the west and south-
west on the 30th; rain approached on the 31st, and
from that day to the end of June there were only
three dry days. The temperature improved, but it
was upon the whole below the estimated average.
Some hay, of mixed rye and artificial grasses, began
to be cut at the close of June, and finally
was safely carried early in the present month,
proving a far better crop than could have been ex-
pected. From what has been said, and by recur-
ring to meteorological tables and the report ob-

tained from provincial notices, it must be evident
that the season has been periodical in its weather,
and by no means fitful and changeable according to
the \i'ont of our variable climate.

July has always been considered the only month
of the year which is visited by periodical rains ;
yet, in East Surrey, where I write with my diary
before me, I find that not one drop of rain has yet
fallen — that the atmosphere has been cloudless, the
sun brilliant, and so powerful as to have brought
the maximum temperature to 85 degs. and the
average mean of nine days and nights at 10 p.m.
to 73.3 degs.

Under these extraordinary conditions it is not
surprising that the hay has been cut, made, and
carried with great rai)idity.

The general yield fell, doubtless, short of a good
average ; but so great was the influence of a bulk
of rain during nearly five weeks, amounting to sa-
turation, that a better return has been gathered
than could have been anticipated.

Facts simple and bald as the above would scarcely
have warranted the notice thus taken of them;
but I have been induced by the peculiar nature of
weather and its striking contrasts so to introduce
the mention of a fine and inestimable crop of mea-
dow hay that was cut, I think, on Monday and Tues-
day, 5th and 6th, and ricked on the 8th. The
meadow is one of ordinary pasture, on a strong,
hard loam : under a former possessor, it and seve-
ral acres adjoining did not yield together a corres-
ponding crop. The present occupier, thoroughly
versed in agricultural practice, made it his object
to compare the fertilizing pov.'ers of the best home-
produced stable and bone manure, and of Peruvian
guano at £9 per ton.

He set apart a certain })ortion of the meadow
for each. The guano was scattered before shutting
up for hay — at the rate of 2h tons per acre ; of the
weight of dung, I could not obtain definite infor-
mation ; but a preference was given to grass pro-
duced by guano — with this drawback however, that
by a thorough and liberal manuring of manure
more permanent effects were produced ; whereas
the guano acted only for one season. Another
gentleman has now also a very heavy crop of grass
by using superphosphate of lime : so I was assured,
but had not opportunity to inspect the land.

It is evident that guano properly applied, if of
genuine and sound quality, is an admirable manure
for pasture grasses, as it combines the phosphate
of lime in a state of infinitely minute division.

106

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and with it ammonia as a saturating base of several
acids, but it is deficient in bulk of those vegetable
and animal substances which dung comprises, and
which, I contend, are required by every kind of
land, as containing the element that, during fer-
mentation, develops those electricities that attend
every process of chemical decomposition and com-
bination. The subject is deep and mysterious, but
it merits the utmost attention of our analytic phi-
losophers. Still guano ranks as the very first of our

comprehensive natural manures. It would repar the
farmer for all his sacrifices could he obtain it pure at
£5 or £0 per ton ; and any government which pre-
tends to do justice to agriculture, and yet could
neglect to overlook the importance of the guano
question, in all its legitimate bearings, would have
little claim on the confidence of the country.

July 10th 1852.

(Heat at this afternoon 79 degs. to 80— in the
night 63 degs.— brisk lively air and powerful sun.)

LABOUR AND THE POOR.— THE RURAL DISTRICTS,

THE STONE QUARRIES OF SWANAGE.

Letter XXVIII.
(From the Morning Chronicle.)

Before proceeding to describe the condition of
the agricultural labourer in the counties forming
the south-eastern angle of the kingdom, it may not
be amiss that I should present the reader with a
brief account of the quarries andquarriers of Swan-
age. Such a task may appear to be somewhat
episodical in a series of coinmuriications having
more especial reference to the state and circum-
stances of the agricultural labourers, with Vv'hom the
parties in question cannot properly be classed.
But if they cannot be strictly so classed, it requires
no very great latitude of construction to bring their
occupation within the category of labour in the ru-
ral districts. It is only thus that, like t!;e miner
and the fisherman, they can be biought within the
range of the present inquiry ; v/hilst their singular
position, peculiar habits, and anlicjuated fashion of
transacting business, render them more interesting
as a study than even the laborious excavator in the
mine, or the hardy adventurer who braves all wea-
thers in pursuit of the mackerel, the herring, and
the pilchard.

A little to the east of St Alban's Head the coast
of Dorset treads suddenly in a northerly direction.
From the north side of the entrance to Poole Har-
bour it makes again to the eastward, stretching to-
wards the Isle of Wight in a waving line, that ter-
minates with the long point of sand, on the extremity
of which, commanding the entrance to the Solent,
stands the historic fortalice of Hurst Castle. The
town of Svvanage, v.'hich is in the bight of Swanage
Bay, is situated aljout midway between St. Alban's
Headand Poole Harbour,having thus an easterly look-
out, with the Isle of Wight visible in the distance,
when th.e day is at all clear. The district of high
land which rises abruptly behind the town, and
stretches back for some miles in the direction of
Corfe Castle and Kingston, is also known by the
name of Swanage. This district comprises the
stone quarries in question.

On approaching Swanage from the direction of
Studland, the whole district behind it, sloping ra-
pidly up from the sea, presents to the stranger the ap-
pearance of one huge rabbit-warren. It has a
varied aspect, from the surface being in some places
tolerably well cultivated, and in others still covered
with down. But what strikes one most is the

number of holes with which it appears to be per-
forated, and the quantity of rubbish which has been
thrown up in the immediate vicinity of each.
These are to be seen, in all directions, scattered not
only over the face of the downs, but also amcngss; the
fields which have been enclosed and cultivated. They
impart to the district the singular appearance alluded
to ; and the stranger, ignorant of is real character
might, on approaching, fancy it a spot in which
game of all kinds had enjoyed a succession of jubi-
lees, ever since the estabhshment of the New Forest
itself.

But these are far from being the tokens of the
abandonment of the land either to game or vermin.
They are the signs of busy industry, the results of
the toil of generations of honest and hardworking
men. The chief vame of tlie district is not in its
surface, but in that which is beneath. The holes
v/hich so thickly i.tud the hill side are the means
l)y which the quarriers get at its hidden treasures.
The small mounds beside the holes consist partly
of the produce of their labours, and partly of the
debris which they ncLCssarily accumulate in the
conduct of their operations.

The district in question is part and parcel of the
Isle of Purbeck, so long celebrated for its marble
and its different varieties of stone. The most south-
erly of the chalk ridges, which dips into the sea at the
Needles, emerges from it again at the point known
as Old Harry, immediately to the north of Swanage
— this point, indeed, forming the northern bound-
ary of the bay. From this point it proceeds inland
towards Corfe Castle, stretching towards Dorches-
ter and the borders of Devon, near which some of
its spurs again dip into the sea. The strip of land
lying between this chalk lidge and the Channel,
and including Swanage, the greater part of the Isle
of Purbeck, and the whole of the Isle of Portland,
is rich in sandstone, and here and there in that pe-
culiar species of marble which has entered so
largely into the ornamental part of our ecclesiastical
architecture. About Swanage and the Isle of
Portland, the sandstone comes near the surface,
and is easily quarried. Proceeding north \vard from
the coast, it soon dips under the chalk — where, of
course, it cannot be worked.

Swanage has long been celebrated for its quarries

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

107

and its quarriers. Almost from time immemorial
has stone been extracted from the hills which sweep
around the bay, until now the whole country, for
miles back, is so perforate.l and imderuiined as to
resemble one huge catacomb. From the earliest
period, too, the quarriers have existed as an organ-
ized body— bound together, not only by the lie
naturally created amongst those engaged in com-
mon jmrsuits, but also by a number of ancient
and revered articles, which they have invariably
treated as a charter of incorporation. Indeed, for
centuries they were known in their corporate capa-
city as the Company of Marblers. They still retain
the articles, to which even to this day they pay es-
pecial reverence, and they still keep up to some
extent the organization of former times. That to
which they now cling, however, is more the form
than the substance of bygone privileges — the skele-
ton of their organization being still perfect, although
the flesh and muscle have long since dropped away
from it. But much as the general objects of the
original association have been departed from, there
are still some points in respect to which they are to
this day rigidly enforced.

Originally, the body of stone quarriers constituted
a species of copartnery — each member being in-
terested in the profits, and liable, pro rata, to make
good the losses of the body. When such was the
case, wardens were annually elected, under the ar-
ticles, whose business it was to exercise a general
supervision over the interests of the body, to dis-
pose of the produce of its labour, and divide the
proceeds amongst its members. The wardens thus
chosen by the quarriers were invariably members
of their own body; and during their tenure of office
they were relieved from all duties, except such as
pertained to the post which they were called upon to
fill. Some of these are still performed by the wardens
— for, to the extent of electing these ancient officers,
at least, the old organization is still kept up. They
are not, however, so numerous now as formerly, for
the simple reason that their duties are more limited.
The number now elected does not exceed two,
who with the secretary (whose position is perma-
nent), constitute the entire official staff of the body.
The quarriers have still common interests to
watch over and promote ; and in the furtherance of
these they still act in their united capacity.
But the general partnership of past times no
longer exists — each, so far as his labour is concer-
ned, being at hberty to promote his own individual
interests, whilst it is competent for as many as please
to unite in groups for the same object.

One of the main objects of the original associa-
tion was to secure a monopoly of the quarrying
trade of the district. To effect this it was made one
of the articles that none but such as were made free
of the company should be permitted to enter its
works, or to have any share whatever in the bu-
siness which it pursued. As it scarcely ever hap-
pened that any were made free of the company but
the children of its existing members, it followed
that strangers were effectually excluded, and that
the business of stone quarrying, in that neighbour-
hood at least, remained a complete monopoly in the
hands of a certain number of families. If antiquity
be an essential element of true nobility, there are

families at this moment in Swanage, with unbroken
genealogies, extending back far beyond those of
half the nobles in the realm. One can understand
both the institution and the jealous maintenance of
such a provision, so long as the whole body con-
stituted one company witli common interests and
liabilities. But now that the partnership is effec-
tually broken up, and the business is pursued in-
dividually, and not as a corporate concern, it may
be easier to account for, than to justify, their con-
tinued adhesion to the rule for the exclusion of
strangers from the quarries. They themselves
have free warren of the wide field of competition
around them, of which many of them, impatient of
labour in the quarries, take advantage, and obtain
employment in the metropolis, or wherever else Go-
vernment works may be in progress — for it is gene-
rally to these that they flock. Should they tirj of
this, or should occupation elsewhere fail them, the
quarries at Swanage are open to them on their re-
turn— for "once a quarrier always a quarrier" is
the rule. It is this that renders so invidious their
jealous exclusion of the stranger from their own
pecuhar field. They avail themselves of the right
to compete with him on his ground, but will not suf-
fer him to meet them on theirs. They have, of
course, no legal right to exclude him. Any man
who chooses may, if he can get a lease from the lord
of the soil, take a quarry at Swanage, and work it.
But there are a thousand ways in which they could
annoy him and put him at a disadvantage ; and to
remain, under such circumstances, for any length
of-time amongst them, a man would require to be
possessed of some means, and of an uncommon
stock of fortitude. They are particularly jealous of
the Portland men, who, on the other hand, are
equally jealous of them. If a master-quarrier em-
ploys any stranger in his quarry, he is liable to a
fine of £5— the mode of exacting which will be af-
terwards alluded to. In some cases there might be
a mitigation of the penalty, but the fine would, in
all instances, be inflexibly enforced if the interloper
could be traced back to Portland. Indeed, the rule
is, never to remit, and seldom to mitigate, the fine
— a knowledge of which on the part of the quarriers
generally renders the necessity for its imposition a
matter of rare occurrence. An amusing instance of
the extent to which the jealousy in question is
carried, and particularly as regards strangers of
their own order elsewhere, was I'elated to me by a
Swanage man who had attempted to smuggle him-
self into the quarries in Portland. When they find
a stranger at work in the latter place they generally
permit him to work for a week, at the end of which
time they presume that he has earned enough to
carry him out of the island. They then, when cir-
cumstances will admit of it, present a very ugly
alternative to him — namely, to walk a plank, partly
projecting over a cliff, or to quit Portland, never to
return to it. My informant told me that, for the
first week, he was treated with every possible con-
sideration; indeed, he could not conceive of greater
kindness than thatwhichheexperienced, particularly
from the man who worked next to him — " Yet that
was the very man v/ho laid the plank for me when
the week was out," said he; giving me to understand
that the alternative alluded to was then quietly, but

108

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

seriously, offered to him. As a sensible man, he
preferred quitting the island to walking over a cliff
into the sen. " And would yoa serve a Portland
man in the same way ?" I asked him. " Well, I
am not sure that we would," he said ; " but we
would lead him such a dog's life of it, that he
would soon be glad enough to be otF." The system
of exclusion is, perhaps, not now so rigidly adhered
to in Portland as in Swanage — the Government
works which have recently been carried on at the
former place having tended, more or less, to break
it down, from the large and constant intiux of
strangers which they have occasioned.

A quarrier c:'.nntjt be made free of the company
until he is twenty-one. lie may be apprenticed at
any age at which he may be found capable of work-
ing ; but at whatever time that may be, his proba-
tion does not cease until he comes of age. It is to
his father that he is generally apprenticed, or, if the
latter is dead, to his nearest male relative, being a
quarrier. It is not necessary, however, that the
master should be at all related to the apprentice.
It is to the father, however, that in the great ma-
jority of cases he is apprenticed, the business re-
gularly descendmg from father to son. Indeed,
the veriest infants, when males, are generally
treated by their parents as the raw material
for future quarriers. The father is entitled
to the whole profits of his son's labour during the
entire period of his apprenticeship. Should the
father die during the term, the apprentice does not
necessarily become his own master. In that case,
the mother's interests are provided for — she being
conditionally entitled to the profits of his work un-
til he attains the age at which he can be admitted
a free man. The condition on which this right is
secured to her is a very simple one, and one easily
performed, being neither more nor less than the
payment of a shilling into the funds of the com-
pany on the day of her marriage. This condition,
which is within the reach of every couple, is
almost universally complied with. The ceremony
of admission takes place but once a year. The
grand gala-day of the quarriers is Shrove Tuesday.
On that day they meet at Corfe Castle for the ad-
mission of new members and the general manage-
ment of their affairs, so far as they are still regu-
lated in common. The apprentices who have com-
pleted their term, and are otherwise unexceptionable,
are then admitted, and on payment of 6s. 8d. are
enrolled freemen 'of the company, being thence-
forth entitled for life to all the privileges which that
honour confers upon them. On this occasion, the
quarriers manage to combine festivity and amuse-
ment with business. I have already alluded to the
condition on which the mother, in case of the
father's death, is entitled to the son's earnings
whilst he remains an apprentice. The last couple
married during the year have to provide a foot-ball,
which is regarded as tantamount to the shilling
paid by others — the woman who provides the foot-
ball being entitled to all the privileges of those pay-
ing the shilling. As soon as the young men who
are found qualified have been admitted and enrolled
members of the company, they are sent out to
amuse themselves with a game at foot-ball, in which
they very heartily engage. The articles of the

company, some of which are supposed to date back
as far as the reign of Richard II., are then read by
the secretary to the seniors, who remain in conclave
behind, the newly made members not being admit-
ted to so great a privilege until the following )'ear.
If there are any matters of general interest to be
talked over they are then discussed, after which
the elders adjourn to join the young men at their
game. The festive Ijoard is not a feature overlooked
amongst the ceremonies of the day, which gene-
rally, however, to the credit of those concerned,
closes without riot or disorder. Such is the prin-
cipal ceremony enacted at these annual meetings —
a ceremony which has now reference more to the
commemoration of past privileges than the main-
tenance of present ones.

The secretary is a man of no little authority with
them. The iniluence which the present incumbent
of that office wields is more of a personal than an
official character. His name is Webber. He is
at present chief clerk and book-keeper in the office
of the Messrs. Pike, formerly alluded to as the
principal clay merchants in the neighbourhood of
Wareham. His original occupation was that of a
stone-mason, which he still occasionally pursues,
during his leisure hours, by way of recreation.
His labouis on such occasions generally take a fu-
nereal turn — the carving of gravestones being his
forte as regards the chisel. Having received some
education in his youth, he has turned it to the best
advantage ; not only thereby improving his own
position, but acquiring an almost unbounded influ-
ence over the body to whom he originally pertained.
He is not only their chief official, but also their
friend and counsellor. " Mr. Webber," they will
teil you, "is an understandin' man. He knows
more about us than we do ourselves. He keeps
us all right. Whenever we get into difficulty we
always go to he." To the qualities of the intelli-
gent observer and shrewd man of business, Mr.
Webber superadds some touch of the poetic fire,
as the file of the Poole Herald can testify.

The quarriers are now divided amongst themselvei
into two classes — the master quarriers, and the ordi-
nary quarriers, who give their labour for hire. This
classification goes evidently no further back than
the termination of their original arrangement, by
which all the quarriers were upon an equal footing.
The difference between a master and an ordinary
quarrier is purely accidental — the two classes not
existing as distinct orders amongst them. A mas-
ter quarrier is he who takes and works a quarry ;
and there is nothing to prevent an ordinary work-
man from taking a quarry if he pleases, and if the
lord is wilhng to give him a lease. Many of the
quarries are taken and worked by a single quarrier,
all the aid which he receives in his operations being
in the shape of hired labour. In other cases, seve-
ral join together in a kind of partnership, working
a quanybetweenthem— being sometimes employed
alone, and at others having hired labour in aid of
their own. When one or more intend to take a
quarry, the first thing to be done is to obtain a
lease from the lord. This is generally granted
without much difficult}', the lessees selecting tlieir
own ground, unless some good reasons exist for
confining them in their choice. By the terms of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

109

the lease the hmdlord becomes, as it were, a part-
ner in the adventure ; his rent dependinjr, as to
amount, upon the quantity of stone yielded I)y the
qnarry. At Swanage the stone produced is t^cue-
rally of two kinds — the soUd block and the Hat
psLvlnfT stone. The lord's dues are regulated by the
number of superficial feet excavated in the one
case, and generally by the number of cubic feet
excavated in the other. They amount to a shilling
I for every hundred superficial feet of paving, and
I the same for every hundred cubic feet of solid stone.
The lord has thus an interest not only in the good-
ness of the quarry, but also in the industry of the
quarriers. One of the conditions of the lease,
therefore, is, that the quarry shall be worked —
a condition sometimes only complied with as re-
gards its letter, when it is not the interest of the
lessee or lessees either to work it constantly, or to
give up the lease. It is seldom that anything in
the shape of a written document passes between
the parties, the leases having been verbal ones from
time immea:orial. And when a lease is once granted,
the lessees cannot be dispossessed so long as they
comply with the condition already alluded to. As
to the scene of operations, too, they are only limited
as regards the shaft; but, having sunk the shaft at
the point selected when the lease is granted, they
are at liberty to work under ground in any direc-
tion they please, and as far as they please, provided
they do not transgress the bounds of the landlord's
property, nor come within a hundred feet of ano-
ther quarry which is being then actually worked.
If they go beyond the bounds within which it is
competent for the landlord to license them to work,
and trespass upon another man's land, the party
thus aggrieved has his remedy, as in ordinary cases.
If they go within the forbidden distance of ano-
ther quarry, the parties whose rights are thus inva-
ded look not for their remedy to the law of Eng-
land, either common, statute, or ecclesiastical, but
to the code peculiar to the locality, and which may
be designated as Swanage law.

For amongst the other peculiarities of this sin-
gular district, it must be borne in mind that its
peo])le have their own code of laws, and their own
mode of giving them effect. It is possible, no
doubt, theoretically, that an English writ might
issue into a Swanage quarry; but English law has,
generally speaking, very little to do with the prac-
tical administration of Swanage justice. When a
party is suspected of trespassing in the manner
alluded to upon the rights of his neighbours, a
meeting of the whole body is called, by whom the
accusation is heard, and if a prima facie case is
made out, a deputation is appointed to descend into
the quarry and examine into the real state of the
case. This deputation is not a mere committee of
investigation, whose simple duty it is to inquire
and re];ort — for it is contingently armed with ad-
ministrative powers, which it is enjoined to j)ut in
force, should such a course be necessary, to do
justice between the {)arties. Thus combining minis-
terial with judicial functions, the deputation de-
scends into the quarry, provided with compasses
and other appliances necessary for ascertaining the
truth. If there is no ground for the accusation,
the charge is dismissed, and the matter goes no

further, unless the accusation be repeated ; but if
there is ground for it, and a trespass has actually
been committed, a fine is imposed upon the delin-
quent party, according to the extent of his trans-
gression. If the trespass is one which is likely to
be persevered in, it is the business of the deputa-
tion to take such steps as to render it impossible
that it should be so. To eft'ect this, it is armed
with very summary powers, which it invariably
exercises whenever a necessity arises for jmtting
them in force. The mode of ])roceeding in such
case is to destroy the portion of the quarry in which
the offence is otherwise likely to be continued.
This is done by breaking down the roof, or other-
wise destroying the " lane " or level from which
the stone is being excavated. When this process
is not likely to answer the pur]iose, or when its
execution might be attended with considerable risk
or trouble, the end is more speedily eftected by
walling up the lane with mason work, and thus
preventing the delinquent from having further in-
gress into it. It is seldom that the offence is re-
peated after this, at least in the same direction ; for
the culprit is not certain that, should he again be
caught trespassing in the same quarter, he himself
might not be walled bodily in as a warning to
others. So tenacious are the quarriers of the privi-
leges which remain to them, that I am not sure
that public opinion in Swanage would not sanction
such a mode of procedure with one who should
prove himself incorrigible in their infraction. One
reason for enforcing the rule in question is that, if
they approached nearer each other, they might
mutually endanger the stability of their works, as
will be seen when their mode of working is de-
scribed.

For all purposes of action as a body, their orga-
nization is essentially democratic. They settle no-
thing by delegates — all matters of common interest
being canvassed and determined in their primary
assemblies. It is only when the time for action
comes that they delegate their powers. Whenever
a question arises which it is necessary for them to
settle, the two stewards or wardens of the body go
round to all the quarries — not exactly with the fiery
cross — but with a notification to all the members
of the body to" attend a general meeting thereof
at a time and place then mentioned. Nor is
this a notification to be disregarded with im-
punity, the attendance being compulsory. The
absentee, unless detained by sickness or other
unavoidable cause, is hable, for non-attend-
ance, to a fine of 3s. 4d. ; and this being more
than the average value of a whole day's work, it is
seldom that any who can attend are absent for the
sake of gaining half a day, which is the time usually
occupied by such meetings. The place of meeting
is generally the neighbourhood of some well-known
quarry in as central a position as possible. At the
mouth of most quarries there is a ca])stan used in
drawing the stone out of the mine. The meeting
is constituted under the presidency of the session
warden, whereupon the business of the day is im-
mediately entered upon. The assembly is usually
addressed from the capstan, which is mounted by
the diflTerent orators in succession. Sometimes the
utmost order is preserved ; at others, the assembly

no

THE FARMER*S MAGAZINE.

is somewhat disposed to be disorderly. " At
times, sir," said one of tliem to me, " they do be
all talking^ at once, except the warden, who keeps
all the time calling ' silence!' " The matter, what-
ever it may be, being fully laid before the meeting,
the next thing to be done is to come to some reso-
lution respecting it. That being attained, the last
business of the meeting is to devise the means of
carrying its resolution into action. When the case
is one of trespass, the mode of procedure is gene-
rally such as has been already described. When
the body is called together to adjudicate upon the
case of an interloper, the master-quarrier chargt d
with having employed him is regularly put upon
his trial. Should he be found guilty, he is con-
demned, as already intimated, to pay a fine of £5.
Should he afterwards refuse to pay the fine, another
meeting is convened, at which the whole matter is
re-heard — when, if the former judgment is affirmed,
the power of levying the fine, per force, if neces-
sary, is delegated to a certain number of the body.
These, after having given him sufficient time to re-
consider his determination, proceed, if they find
him still contumacious, to his quarry — and, without
further warrant than the behest of the tribunal
which appointed them, seize all the stone they can
lay their hands upon, to the value of the fine im-
posed. A more lawless proceeding can scarcely be
imagined — rendering, as it does, every man engaged
in it liable to a civil action at least, if not to be
criminally indicted, for the part he takes in it Yet
it is generally regarded in Swanage as one of the
ordinary channels through which justice takes its
course. Again, the body may be called together
to consider respecting some real or fancied invasion
of their privileges, or some nuisance which may
have been instituted to their injury. The question
then to be determined is, whether they will resist
the innovation or abate the nuisance ? If the case
is one which admits only of passive resistance, the
result is a simple resolution to resist; but if it is
one calling for active measures, the means for
taking them are immediately provided. It is but
a short time ago since a case of this kind occurred.
The grievance assumed the double aspect of the in-
vasion of a right, and a jiositive nuisance. The of-
fending object was neither more nor less than a
weigh-bridge, which had recently been established
upon a road over which the quarriers had long en-
joyed the right of conveying as heavy loads as they
pleased. They looked with the greatest suspicion
upon the appearance amongst them of this appli-
ance of civilized life, and iminediately summoned a
meeting to canvass its nature and consider its ten-
dencies. The one they soon determined to be at
least suspicious, and the other to be indisputably
bad ; so they resolved, by one and the same act,
both to vindicate their right and abate the nuisance.
The course determined upon was the very energetic
one of demolishing the weighbridge, to effect which
an executive commission was extemporized on the
spot. This commission, armed with sledge ham-
mers, was proceeding in the most orderly manner
to the execution of its duty, when it was met by
the merchants of Swanage— a set of men who will
be afterwards alluded to — who did all in their power
to divert it from its jiurpose. But all their en-

treaties were of no avail, until they at length j)ledged
themselves that the offending object should be re-
moved. On this the commission desisted, and the
weigh-bridge was afterwards removed. The quar-
riers thus carried their point, and to this day they
convey their loads over the road in question with-
out being subjected to the annoyance of having
them weighed, and of virtually paying a double
toll — one for passing through the gate, in the
neighbourhood of which the obnoxious machine
was placed, and the other for the purpose of weigh-
ing. This may suffice to show how primitive is
the state of development which society has as yet
reached in Swanage.

(To he concluded in our next.)

PLAN OF FARM BUILDINGS.

BY MR. CHAS. P. TEBBUTT.

No. 196, Class 9, in the Exhibition, is a model
of a farmstead for 250 or 300 acres, by Mr. Charles
P. Tebbutt, of Bluntisham, Huntingdonshire. It
comprises stabling for 10 horses, well -sheltered
yards for about 40 beasts, cattle-boxes for fatting
cattle, cow-house for 6 cows, pigsties, &c. The
designer is probably known to many of our readers
as the author of an interesting article on farm
buildings, in the 1 1 th volume of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society's Journal.

GENERAL REMARKS.

In this design the principal objects kept in view

have been

To secure for all the cattle yards the best possible
position.

To provide a fair number of loose boxes for fatting
cattle and cows, well arranged with relation to
the food-preparing place.

To provide a stable ample and convenient for the
farm horses, with shding doors to stalls, so that
the horses may lie loose at night.

To arrange the buildings generally in such a way
that they may be conveniently placed, having re-
gard to their relations to one another.

To obtain these advantages at a moderate cost.
Fixed steam threshing machinery should be

placed in or near the east end of the present barn,

when it will be conveniently situated with regard

to chaff-cutting and the grinding-house.

ESTIMATE OF COST.

227 yards cube digging foundation,

at4d £ 3 15 8

52 1-12 rods superficial reduced brick-
work, at £6 10s. per rod 338 1 2 0

152 3-10 squares roofing (woodwork),

at 25s 190 7 6

150 3-10 slating (including ridge), at

23s 172 16 11

516 yards brick flooring, at Is 25 16 0

47 doors, at 30s 70 10 0

28 boxes, fittings, at 30s 42 0 0

Stable fittings 20 0 0

Granary floor and fittings 20 0 0

Barn-doors (shding) 10 0 0

Sundries, including front gates, spout-
ing, lead for pipes, and valleys, &c.. . 106 1 11

£1,000 0 0

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Ill

THE PRESENT POSITION OF THE SHEEP FEEDER,

The question for stock-feeders used to be, how
to raise the greatest possible amount of pounds of
animal food i>er acre at the least possible cost. But
somehow or other the question, as regards sheep at
least, has assumed a somewhat new form. The
time was when the largest and the fattest sheep
commanded the best price. To take a small and
not over-fed joint of mutton into one of the large
towns of Yorkshire or Lancashire— to Birmingham,
Wolverhampton, or Leicester, was to run the risk
of having the commodity neglected. But now it is
difterent. The half-bred Scot or the Down, or at
least half-Down, is the only kind of mutton which
will meet a market.

The time was when a large joint of fat mutton
was put over a dish of potatoes. The meat went
to the head of the family ; the potatoes, saturated
with the fat and gravy, were the savoury meal of the
junior members. Thousands in the manufacturing
and mining districts have for years been brought
up in this way. But now they will have the small
fleshy joints, with less fat; or they will buy them at
an inferior price. The feeders of the larger kind
of sheep are therefore in a worse position. The
"good sheep" — once the favourites — from 22 to
28 lbs. per quarter, have now to go a-begging, and
the feeder of small half-bred animals gets almost as
much money for his once-despised but now fashion-
able breed.

This will soon tell on our best breeds ; and it will
cease to be an axiom that it is an advantage to gain
the most pounds of food at the least cost ; but it
will be the production of that kind of food which
will realise the best price, and therefore peculiar
rather than good quality will be the desideratum,
and the demand will cease for beauty and symme-
try, for early maturity and disposition to feed,
and will run wild after the ungainly forms of
black and grey faced " rannocks," setting defiance
to domestication and low fences. Those who won-
der what could be the object of the high banks of
Norfolk, and ths hedges at the top, will be suc-
cseded by men who wonder what men could mean
by such low and useless fences as disgrace all our
newly improved farm.s. The facts of the case are
beyond dispute. We will suppose a farmer pur-
chasing a score of the Leicester and Cheviot hogs
at the same period, feeding them the same time on
the same food, and the results will be somewhat as
follows : —

20 Leicester hogs, at 33s., bought in spring.i;'33 0 0

Then say 7 lbs. each of wool, at
an average price of Is. Id, per
lb,, 7s. 7d, each, or £7 13 8

Sold off fat, say at Christmas,
weighing 24 lbs. per quarter, at

5d. perlb 40 0 0

47 13 8

The 20 sheep will leave for food and profit. .£li 13 8

20 Cheviot hogs, at 20s i;20 0 0

Then say 3 lbs, of wool each, at

Is, Id £5 5 0

Sold oft" fat, 18 lbs. per quarter,

at Gd 36 0 0

39 5 0

The sheep will leave for food and profit .. ..£19 5 0

Nor is this all. The case may be put in a much
stronger light. The Cheviots and half-breds will
live and thrive on a poorer quality and smaller
quantity of food. And why ? Because the taste
will not allow them to be fed so fat. It is old
flesh or muscle, small joints and light fat, which is
the real desideratum in the manufacturing towns
where the great bulk of our sheep is disposed of.

And a still further and more important view may
be taken of the question: — More sheep per acre
may be fed, by one or two animals, on the same
land, of the one than of the other.

Thus we have smaller capital employed, less
risk, more kei)t, inferior pastures stocked, a more
ready market and greater profit by the fattening of
those which were once considered the inferior
breeds of sheep. Public taste in the shape of appe-
tite, and public taste in the matter of symmetry and
beauty, are at variance ; but the former will triumph,
for it will j)ay the best.

To the breeders of Leicester and of the sheep
peculiar to Lincolnshire, called improved Leices-
ters — to the Cotswolds, and all that class of sheep,
this is a ••' heavy blow and great discouragement."
The pains and care and struggles of centuries are
being set aside by the luxurious tendencies of our
manufacturing population, and we hardly see our
way clearly as to what they can do. It was hoped
that when the alleged cause of the change — the
failure of the potato — had passed away, the people
would return to their old habits ; but, as Sam SUck
says — " Once accustom a man to a luxury, and he
is done — you will never get him to give it up."

I

lie

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The potato is at least cheaper and more plentiful,
but the large, fat mutton, is not returned to : it still
sells at an inferior price, and we fear it is likely to
do so.

What are the breeders to do ? There are two
classes — those who breed pitre, and those who
breed crossed animals. The former are the best
men of the day in showing fine specimens : they
cannot change shape and quality— a beau ideal is
before them, and woe to him who violates it ! But
they must adapt themselves. They might at least
have a smaller animal — they must sell him before
he gets so fat. Their breeds will be mature young
— they must sell their hogs at one shear, and by
rapid changes adapt their animals to the wants of
the market.

But to those who are less scrupulous, a cross
with a Southdown — the ewes being of the latter,
and the ram of the Leicester bred — will produce a
very marketable cross. A Bamboroughshire com-
pact ewe, with a Cotswold ram, we have not seen
bred, but we venture to predict a useful and sale-
able cross.

And let the breeders of the northern breeds look
put to improve symmetry and beauty by judicious
and patient selection. Why not always breed from
the best ? Why not buy the gimmers and hire the
rams, which won the Highland Society's prize, for
a few years, and make the old despised north sheep
symmetrical ?

Though there is every probability of the most fa-
voured kinds of sheep, as they have been viewed of
late, going downwards in public estimation, because
they did not grow the kind of mutton whicli sells
best in the market, yet still all our great Agricul-
tural Societies adhere to them as the best kinds —
the Leicesters are at the head of every prize list ;
and though the great improvements in the South
Downs have given them of late a much higher range
in public estimation, and they are supposed to be
a local rather than a general bi-eed, still they are
gradually advancing in pubhc favour. Mr. I/awes
instituted a series of inquiries as to the abstract
food and increase in weight of these sheep in them-
selves, and also as compared with the Hampsldre
Howns, assuming the Sussex Down to be the type of
the original South Down sheep. The latter is the
sheep of Mr. Jonas Webb, R. Elhnan, and the Duke
of Richmond : the former is a heavier frame and
larger weight — is a fatter and more early mature
sheep than the latter.

The two varieties may therefore be considered as
a type of the small and the large sheep, and Mr.
Lawes made several experiments as to the food and
increase of each.

One disadvantage was that they had to be fed on
dry food — they had oil cake and clover chaff. At

llrst they had food supplied in given quantities, and
proportioned to their weight ; the quantity given per
day to the Hampshires was one pound of each — while
to the Sussex Downs it was only Jib. of each per
day. The former weighed 113|lb., and the latter
only 881bs. Swedes were also given ad libitum, but
from quantities previously weighed. The sheep
were fed for 26 weeks ; the Hampshires consumed
1249 lbs. of oil cake, 11201bs. of clover hay, and
lG,995lbs. of swedes, and the increase of live weight
was 42Slbs. So much for the large sheep. The smaller
or Sussex Downs in fact consumed 965lbs. of oil cake,
9261bs. of clover hay, and 12,445 of swedes, and
gave an increase in live weight of 324lbs.

To put it in a more striking light, it required to
produce lUOlbs. increase in live weight, the foUowing
quantities of each kind of food in the Hampshires :r—

lbs.

oz.

Oil cake . .

. 294

0

Clover hay .

. 259

12

Swedes . . .

. 3941

0

Or a total food of all kinds 4494 12

Whereas the Sussexes required, to produce lOOlbs.
hve weight, the following quantities : — •

lbs. oz.

Oilcake . . . 314 4

Clover hay . . 304 3

Swedes .... 40S6 0

Or a total food of all kinds 4704 7

The Sussex sheep reqiiii-ed therefore in 26 v/eeks,
201bs. 4oz. more oil cake, 441bs. 7oz. more clover
hay, and 145lbs. less swedes, to produce lOOlbs.
live weight, or about 7 per cent, more oil cake,
17i per cent, more clover, and 3| per cent, more
Swedish turnips, for the same result. The taste
indicated a difference in the animals: the Sussex sold
at about 3s. 2d. per stone of 81bs., the Hampshire
only 2s. 10|d. per stone; and after paying their way,
and allowing for the purchased food, the cake and
hay, the forty Hampshire sheep left a profit, as well
as the increase, of 63. 7id., and the Sussex of 6s. Ojd.
per head. The oil cake is, however, reckoned at
only £6 15s. per ton — a price we are afraid it sel-
dom can be bought for — and the clover hay at £4.
per ton. Nothing is charged for attendance.

As far, therefore, as this was a paying speculation,
neither seemed to answer. The swedes, the attend-
ance, the washuig, shearing, and the other et-ceteras,
would diminish the profit to less than ;///, but this
was hardly the object of J\Ir. Lawcs. As an expe-
riment it required that care and that control which
it is not desirable to give in ordinary experience,
and therefore ought not to be taken as an invariable
conclusion j but it may go so far as to demonstrate

THE FARMER*S MAGAZINE.

113

that it may not be always the best to drive too far
the increase of artificial food.

The forty Hampshires consumed i9i tons of
swedes, and tlie Sussex only 36 1-lOth. The latter
were, however, much the smaller, and more would
be consumed to the acre.

Mr. Lawes puts, however, the case in another
light. He says, " Suppose then that in both cases 100
tons of swedes had been eaten, we should have had
consumed with them, and paid for by the increase of
the animal — Oil Cake, lbs. Clover, lbs.

By the Sussex sheep . . 17,374 and 16,676

By the Hampshire . . . 16,470, 14,767

904 1,909

That is to say, in consuming 100 tons of swedes
(and the dry foods), Sussex sheep would, according
to our experiments, have given the increase from
9041bs. more oil cake, and 19091bs. more clover
than the Hampshires. To have consumed the quan-
tities of food supposed above, however, in 26 weeks,
there would have been required 80 Hampshire and

about 110 of the Sussex sheep." Now this is what
we placed as the real position of the sheep feeder
in the previous part of this article. The larger sheep
make more flesh, from a given area of ground they
consume less food for the mutton and fat they elabo-
rate and deposit, but being worthless per pound it
is really an advantage in money matters generally to
graze the inferior kind as regards the production of
fat and mutton.

Though the cases experimented upon by Mr.
Lawes do to a certain extent make out the princi-
ple we laid down, still it admits of exceptionable fea-
tures. The large sheep are in the north the im-
proved ones : it is the reverse with the Downs, the
small are the improved. And this only strengthens
our position. It takes the Sussex Downs out of
the category of unimproved breeds, and thus places
the smaller sheep in a position of undue advantage.

It is a very serious question, will the farmer go
on, and how long, growing an unpopular kind
of mutton ? Alas for the luxury of the age !—
— Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal.

FARM VALUATIONS.— CROYDON FARMERS' CLUB.

The secretary of some farmers' club in an adjoining
county made out a quaint document the other day, pro-
fessing to give a debtor and creditor account of the year's
transactions. Were we engaged to make a " valuation"
of the Croydon Club's doings, we should say the discus-
sion of May 29th, on the tenure of land, was in
itself an ample offset to the year's subscriptions, and
the labour of attendance; for it has again brought before
the public the system of half-dressings, &c., which is not
so much a burden on land, though it is that too, as
a monster- grievance on the tenantry in the southern
counties— a grievance, too, of the very worst descrip-
tion, for like the traders' income-tax it falls with iron
weight on the honourable man, whilst the cunning of
grasping avarice frequently enables the dishonest occu-
pier to make an enormous profit out of his unsuspecting
successor. It is highly satisfactory to find that only one
voice is raised in the Croydon Farmers' Club in defence
of the system of charging for half- dressings, &c. ; and
though we could have wished that that was the voice of
a gentleman less able than Mr. Churcher, we cannot
help thinking that an occasional loss had better be borne
by the outgoing farmer — and this, we admit, must some-
times happen — than the constant heart-burnings and
frightful wrongs which are the inevitable results of the
present system. We cordially and heartily respond,
too, to that which was the universal sentiment of the
meeting, to let valuations be based on the prin-
ciple OF PAYING FOR WHAT CAN BE SEEN. Were

that the principle adopted, we might not have to ad-
vertise so many farms to let ; but we should be amply
compensated by the increased prosperity of the southern
counties, by the improvement of agriculture— the result
of an actual enlargement of the tenants' capital, and by

the consequent development of the reflouroes of the
southern counties.

In the absence of the Chairman (Mr. Page) Jonah
Cressingham, Esq. (Carshalton), was unanimously called
on to preside; Mr. Rowland (Coulsdon) being Vice-
Chairman. On the motion of Mr. Churcher, Mr. Albert
Stringer was unanimously elected a member of the club.

Mr. Churcher (West Wickham) then addressed the
club as follows : — Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen,— I
should not have presumed to bring forward the subject
I am about to do, were it not for the diffidence of many
members more able than myself to do justice to it, and
better able to communicate their ideas than I can do ;
but I hope, gentlemen, you will see the justice of my
views both to landowners and tenants, although you may
differ from me on some points, and I hope every one
will give his opinion on this important subject, viz. —
" The best mode of letting and taking land for the en-
couragement of good cultivation." In the first place,
I will briefly mention that everything in and on the land
that is valued and paid for on entering, should be so on
quitting ; this, I think, every one will agree to ; it is a
subject of great importance as to the mode of valuing
land (especially arable), so as to keep it in a good state
of cultivation, both for the landlord, the tenant, and the
prosperity of the country. I think a lease for 21 years
is the best letting or taking, subject to leave at the end
of the first seven or fourteen years by either party giving
two years' notice, when a lease is not granted to hold
under a three years' agreement to quit ; and I would
have the following as a basis : —

First Clause.— Id valuing all the hay, 6traw, and hanlm
that is grown iu the last year of the tenancy, to be valued at
a market price. .\ll the manure made in the last year, and all

I 2

lU

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

manure brought on the laud, in lieu of hay, strax, or green
crops, taken off with sheep-folding, and making of fallows, to
lie valued at full price. All dressings, half-dressings, half-
fdllows, seels (where there is a plant), leys, and underwood to
be valued at their full value.

Second.-— VisUiie land not to be paid for in taking or leaving.

Thii-d. — All the corn, chaff, cavil to belong to the outgoing
tenant, with the use of the barns, and joint use of the rick
yard, to the 1st of June, nine months after the end of the terra.

Fourth — The valuation to be paid for as soon as concluded,
or on givicg up possession ; if not paid for then, interest to be
paid on the valuation at 5 per cent, from the time of giving up
possession.

Fifth. — In case the tenant should become a bankrupt, the
lease or agreement to be cancelled, and everything to be valued
and paid for the same as at the end of the term.

Sixth.— Coin or linseed-cake fed on the laud the last year
to be paid for at one-third of the cost price, if no crop is taken
a!"ter ; if one crop is taken off, then one-sixth of the cost price.

Seventh. — Tenants not to sow mote than two white crops in
succession ; tares, beans, or peas not to be considered a white
crop.

Eighth. — If tares, rye, or other green crops are fed off before
the 25th of June ; the fallow to be valued the same as clean
fallow; but where cut or folded off the land, not to be allowed
rent and taxes.

Ninth. — Landlords to put the house and buildings in good
repair, and tenant to keep them so, by being found rough
timber and materials within five miles of the buildings, by
giving three months' notice in writing to the landlord. In
case of fire, tempeet, or natural decay (not through the tenant's
neglect), the landlord to re-build forthwith.

Tenth. — Thelandlord to have the liberty to come on the pre-
mises when he pleases, or send his servants to inspect the
state of repairs, and if any is wanted, to give three mouths'
notice (in writing) that such must be done forthwith.

Eleventh. — Hares and rabbits to belong to the tenant ; if
not, landlord to pay the damage done by them (Hear)

Twelfth. — Buildings erected by the tenant at his own cost,
the landlord to have the liberty to take them at a fair valu-
ation, or not, at his option ; if not taken, the tenant to have
the liberty to move them during the time he holds possession
of the barns.

Thirteenth. — Tenant not to make less than ten acres of
clean fallow out of every one hundred and not more than
twenty acres out of every one hundred during the last year,
such fallow to be sown with root crops where it is necessary.

Fourteenth. — Tenant to have the liberty to carry and sell off
the land hay, straw, green crops, and root crops, by bringing
back one waggon load of good dung for every 72 trusses of
straw, or 36 trusses of hay, every half an acre of green crops,
and every quarter of an acre of root crops, or for the tenant to
spend as much money on artificial manures for dressing as he
Bells the hay, &c., for in the same year.

Fifteenth. — The tenant to give fourteen days' notice to the
landlord before cutting any underwood : none to be cr.t under
eight years' growth, or above IG years.

Sixteenth. — Draimng and chalking laud best left to private
arrangement ; but I will merely suggest tenants to pay half
and landlords half the expenses, and the tenant to pay 4 per
cent, on the capital expended by his landlord. Such an
arrangement would, I think, be fair for both parties ; but if
the tenant should leave in less than seven years, he should be
paid one half his outlay.

Under such a system I think the valuations of the
iDajority of arable land vrould be about ^600 for 100

acres ; and half the valuation to belong to the landlord
and half to the tenant. This would secure the landlord,
and enable the tenant to have more capital and less lying
dead ; or on the other hand, all the capital might belong
to the landlord, and the tenant pay a higher rent, amount-
ing to four per cent. ; or all the capital might belong to
the tenant, and be would then pay a lower rent in pro-
portion; but I think half the valuation to belong to
each party would be the best. The landlord would se-
cure a tenant with capital, and the tenant would have au
interest in the land, and would keep it in good cultiva-
tion, and by so doing the produce would be increased;
and when possession was given up, the valuation would
be moi"e for each party, and if the land was in worse
condition the tenant would have less to receive, thus
spending his own capital. But in many valuations,
where the tenant holds under half a year's notice, or
under lease with only one year's notice to quit, at the
end of seven or fourteen years, and the labour on manure
and feeding price for the straw and hay is paid for, it
often falls with great injustice to a tenant on leaving, for
if he leaves double the quantity of manure, hay, and
straw, he is not paid for liis improvement. On the
other hand, if a tenant takes a farm with 600 cart-loads
of manure on it, and only pays the labour on it, and on
leaving there should be only 300 cart-loads with being
paid the labour on it, there is an injustice d ne to the
landlord. This mode of letting and valuing I think is
therefore bad, and that it discourages good farming.
There is one thing seems very preposterous to me,
at many public meetings — the advising tenant-farmers
to farm higher, and use more capital, when the
government have passed measures to take that capital
from them, and transfer it to other quarters. If
the landlords were to tell the tenant-farmers at such
meetings, that, as their produce was now selling at one-
third less price, they would grant them fair covenants to
farm under, and reduce their rents one-third, I think
that would be much more encouragement to tenant-
farmers, and not detrimental to landlords in the main ;
or else it is like taking a man and chucking him over a
bridge, and saying " I wish you good luck" (a laugh).
It is mere mockery. Where tenants paid fair rent seven
years ago, there ought to be a reduction of fully 30 per
cent, to enable tenants to keep their position and farm
well ; but if such is not done, I think good farming
must— and will — degenerate from want of capital, under
present prices. There are some who say " Leave your
farm then, if it does not pay;" but I am one of those
who will not easily be driven from the battle-field like a
coward, I would sooner fight for the rights of the
tenant-farmers than run ; it is a calling I have been
brought up to, and if I do not get £1 per cent, for my
capital I will stick to it, and let our motto be " England
for the English, and Englishmen for the Queen and Con-
stitution" (cheers).

The Chairman thought they were much indebted to Mr.
Churcher for bringing fonvard this important question. He
believed tlii;t the time had arrived when it was absolutely
essential that the nature of the agreements between landlords
and tenants should be perfectly undersfood by both parties;
and that as an important feature iu their agreements the rela-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

115

tions between the incoming and outgoing tenants should be
carefully reviewed. It certainly should be the object of the
laadlord to aid the farmer in every possible way, and if iu this
case it could really be shown that whilst a considerable amount
of relief might be given to the tenant, by a reform in the sys-
tem of valuation no loss would besusfaiued by the landowner,
the subject certainly did appear to demand their earnest and
immediate attention (loud applause).

Mr. Walkkr — In making a valuation for a tenant, I would
have nothing included which I could not see. 1 think the^e
half-dressings and half-fallowings give scope for all manner of
frauJ (applause). Let a roan keep his straw and ma'iureas he
Jikes, and be paid for what he has by the incoming tenant. If
you could get the landlord to lay down half the capital as Mr.
Churcher suggests, it would be a capital scheme, if it did not
lead to squabling at the expiration of the tenancy, but the
question is, would the landlord not say then, "You have not
farmed as you ought." If the landlord thouglii. he could get
a good tenant, and knew he was short of capital, he could ad-
vance him so much on tlie lease, and that would prevent wrang-
ling. As to allowing tivo white crops, I never take m're
than one.

Mr. CiiURCUER urged tliat the valuer did see the half-fal-
lows and half-dressings. Where seeds were sown, and they
were clean, and fallowed with turnips the year before, the in-
coming tcnatit did see value for his uouey. As to capi'al
lying dead, if out of the valuation of £600 on every 100 acres
£300 belonged to the landlord, the tenant would have to make
that good before he received anything, so that there was no rea-
son for any document at all ; for a tenai;t must surely leave
his farm in half as good condition as he took it in.

Mr. "Walker : I took a farm subject to dressing and half-
dressings. I said, there was no dressing at all about it ; it was
as poor as it Cjuld be. I said, "I see no tillage at all, and I
object to tliese half-tillages." They said, there was so much
manure here, and so much there, and they made out a valua-
tion of £2,500, of which £.500 were for half-dressings. I say,
I would do away with all that ; it is a perfect robbery. Let a
man pay for all he can see and nothing more. Thvow the dung
in heaps, and the straw in stacks, and let the valuer go round
and see it ; btit here the practice is, as soon as you can get it
on the land to shovel it iu, and then the valuers take the evi-
dence of the interested party as to its value. All men were
more or less selfish, and he would not lead them into tempta-
tion.

Mr. CiiURCHER : You are subject to just the same robbery
in your fallows and your dung the last year.

Mr. W.VLKER : I can't see it, and I don't want to pay for it.
Mr. Ciuirciier: But you must pay for the last year, and
I say, the valuers can see it the year before.

The Vice Chairman : I think Mr. Walker's propo.^ition
the best. If you take a farm very much out of condition, of
course you have a right to say t ) the landlord, " You must pay
me when I go out, as I paid you when I came in." But if I was
landlord I would have none of these half-dressings. He would
get more rent for his farm, and get a better tenant. If you go
and look at a piece of seeds, where it was well done for turnips,
and there was only one crop, a man who was a good judge
would see at once a half-dressing ; but in the valuation, prac-
tically, what did they find ? A man would say. This was dressed
and ploughed so many times, when, in fact, it was fidl of couch
(Hear, hear).

Mr. Walker : I find a poor worn-out farm has just as much
valuation on it as one in very good condition. You all know
the place I took. The valuation was £2,500 10s., and I w oidd
have defied any one to have got £1,000 out of it.

Mr. CiiiRciiER : Don't you tliink the valuation would be
more now?

Mr. Walkicr : No, I don't know if I left that I should get
a sliilling more.

Mr. Churcher : Yes, if you had more straw and more ma-
nure.

Mr. Richards (solicitor), said that landlords were very
fortunate now if they got £3 per cent, on any large purchHse
of land. In the West of England, a man could take as good a
farm for £2,000 as he could here for £5,000, and generally
speaking, he thought the man of moderate capital understood
his business better than the tenant with a large one. The
former was a practical man, bat the man with £5,000 or
£10,000 liked to enjoy himself, and employed a good bailiif. la
Surrey, Kent, and S'isse.K, it had been the custom to have a
large valuation, aud the first thing to be done wss to gft rid
of it. How W8S that to be doiiC ? Every tenant who left a
farm v,aa entitled to the same valuation as he paid on entering.
You went in according to the custom cf the country ; the
two valuers called iu ditfered, and you were at the mercy of
the third man, who too often decided by dividing the dif-
ference between the parties, so that one or other suffered con-
siderably. Any alteration would find very strong opponeiita
in the valuers ; for were it effected, a portion of their occupa-
tion was gone. It was impossible now to leave a farm without
employing a valuer ; not so in other counties. Here the out-
going tenant tells his valuer he put en so rduch (his year, and
so much the year before ; aud when they went into half-
dressings aud half-f«l!ow3, the former, he would not say de-
signedly, fancied he had put on, say thirty loads of m.inure.
He had not taken any great account pcrliaps, not thinking he
was going to leave, and he fixed on this as what he thinks near
the thing. Then John or Thomas was called in, and the
farmer says, '•' Do you recollect how many loads we put on
Broad Oaks or some other field — it must have been twenty
loads?" John, of course, says, "yes, it wur." The farmer
went on, '■ and we ploughed that twenty-acre piece, when we
finished this headland, three times ?" John thinks that's
about it ; the man gives way to his master, aud down it goes
as three times ploughing. He knew an instance where the
man would not give way ; these things were not wilfully done,
but men fell into mistakes, especially when they did not mean
to leave.

Mr. Churcher : But my agreement requires a two years'
notice.

Mr. Richards : That was a matter of private arrange-
ment entirely. The landlord always appeared to him to let as
advantageously to the tenant as possible ; and he thought it
would be the greatest benefit to these counties to get rid of
the valuations altogether. Of course the landlord would have
to pay every outgoing tenant for everything he had done on
his farm according to his lease, for it was quite immaterial to
the tenant whether he received it from the incoming tenant or
his landlord. The landlord would know the amount of capital
he had paid for that valuation, and he would find 20 tenants
with £2,000 more easily than one with treble that amount.
He would theu charge the incoming tenant with so much for
rent, including the valuation. It was like letting a farm tithe
free ; if there was no tithe, the rent was higher, and if there
was no valuation to pay, the tenant must pay so much more
rent. If a landlord bought up his valuations, and let his farms
at an increase, say even of £4 per cent., the interest on that
capital would pay him better than that invested iu the land,
because no landlord could buy land to pay £3^ per cent. ;
and no tenant could object to pay £4 per cent, on the valua-
tion in addition to the rent now paid. It would answer his

lie

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

purpose to pay even £5 percent., because if he were enabled
to apply the capital he would siDk ia the valuation to the
purchase of stock ; he would expect to get, and would get,
more tlian £4 or £5 per cent. It was quite as much to the
advantage of the landlords as the tenants to get rid of these
valuations altogether. You would thus get rid of a great deal
of suspicion and, not to say fraud, of a great deal of unpleasant
feeling. The incoming tenant fancied, as Mr. Walker had
said, that, if not cheated, he had paid a great deal too much.

Mr. Walker ; Well, I think I am.

Mr. Richards : When a man saw a good yard full of rot-
ten dung, and stacks of straw, he didn't object to pay for it ;
but he did object to pay for half-dressings and half-fallows
which he could not see. If a man said he had put on 20 loads
of rotten dung per acre, and he had sown seeds, and those
seeds had missed, how was the valuer to know whether the
dung had been put in or not. There was nothing to show
whether the land had been properly cultivated or not. It was
the same with turnips, and how often did they miss ? What
was there then, for the valuer to see to value ? He must go
entirely by the statement of the outgoing tenant. It was a
very, very common case for seeds to miss, and the result must
often be that the tenant paid for the cultivation of good crop
of turnips, and, perhaps, there was not a ton per acre. If the
incoming tenant paid at all, let him pay for the roots — let him
pay for what he could see. The question required the consi-
deration of both parties ; and as to covenants generally they
must be guided by the locality. He would not euter into
those suggested by Mr. Churcher, but he was sure the present
system was a complete bar to getting good tenants (Hear,
hear).

Mr. Stenning felt very much obliged to Mr. Churcher,
who had brought the subject forward in a most creditable way.
He thought the first question was, what remuneration they
were to receive for their cultivation. He hoped Mr. Churcher
would not think him personal, but when he said he would take
£1 per cent, on his capital rather than be driven out of the
country, did he mean to say that he had made £1 per cent. ?
He (Mr. Stenning) could answer for himself that he had not
(Hear, hear).

Mr. Churcher : I have not.

Mr. Stenning : Very well, then, if they were told they
were not cultivating the land in the way they ought, he
thought, after that reply from Mr. Churcher — aud many
others could say the same — they could hardly be expected to
carry farming to the pitch of improvement desired. He quite
agreed in the necessity for doing away with half-fallows and
half-dressings ; for there was so much deception and robbery
going on in what you couldn't see, that even nine-tenths of
the valuers themselves wished them done away with. They
said, " We are obliged to take our clients' statements, though
really they do not appear correct." Mr. Churcher said that
he had provided for a two-years' notice; and he (Mr.
Stenning) should like also to see the incoming tenant have the
privilege of the control of the fallows, that the work might be
done at proper times. We must all admit that, during a
tenant's last year, he studied how to employ his horses to the
best advantage, so as to make a valuation ; and therefore he
(Mr. Stenning) advocated this control. Keally, however,
matters of detail seemed scarcely worth consideration, when
their very existence was at stake. They had all seen how
Lord Derby, last Monday night, when beset on all sides, had
asserted their cause ; and he would now read them the re-
marks in Wednesday's Times. It was one of the most cruel
aud heartreuding articles he had ever seen ; and it was really
a ^ueatioa with him, whether they should abandon the culti-

vation of the land, or endeavour to adopt any means for im
provhig their position, Mr. Churcher did not like to be
driven away, nor did he (Mr. Stenning) ; but it was most dis-
couraging and disheartening to go on. So they were to be-
lieve that neither the price of corn nor anything else had any
effect upon them; and it was clearly proved that this was a j
landlord's question only. Now, really, when they found they
were not making £1 per cent., he thought it was far beyond a
landlord's question — he thought it was a question for tenant-
farmers. The tenant-farmer wished to act with unanimity
with his landlord ; for the one couldn't go without the other.
If they took away all the capital of the tenant, they must do
away with all valuations, as Mr. Richards recommended.
Hitherto the farmer's credit had stood well, because he could
not enter without a valuation; and that valuation being paid,
had given him credit and stability, and consequently the
means of raising money, if he was a little short, more easily
than a man in trade could. He should be sorry to see men
enter without a valuation ; for it would cause competition for
farms from men without capital. As it was, men entered
farms without anything to fall back upon ; and the complaint
was, in trading circles, that men took too much laud in pro-
portion to their capital. That system would be increased,
were valuations done away with. Mr. Churcher had said the
£600 were required for every 100 acres of land. He alluded
peculiarly to the four-course system land.

Mr. Churcher. — To arable land.

Mr. Stenning. — Where you are taking barley, clover, &c.?
In high cultivation ?

Mr. Churcher. — In good cultivatiou.

Mr. Stenning. — But taking a farm on the five-course sys-
tem much less capital is required than on the four-course. It
seemed to him a large amount in the present state of things.
Mr. Churcher proposed that £300 should remain, the tenant
paying an advanced rent. He thought there should be one
uniform system,

Mr. Churcher merely meant that the valuation should be
half and half.

Mr. Stenning thought that principle very good, for it
relieved the tenant, and left the landlord perfectly secure. He
agreed with Mr. Churcher that there should be a valuation,
and a full valuation ; but he did not agree with him as to the
half-fallows and half-dressings. As to £30 per cent, abatement,
was it possible, even with that reduction, we could maintain
the best cultivation ?

Mr. Churcher. — On the best lands we could.

Mr. Stenning. — I should question that very much myself.

Mr. Churcher. — I know land now where, i^ the tenant
had an abatement of £20 per cent., he could keep on with it.
With a reduction of £40 per cent, a man might hold on the
worst ; at least if it was not worth that, it was not worth any-
thing.

Mr. Stenning. — I do not leel myself I could. Would £30
per cent, on the rent be a remuneration on a farm which now,
confessedly, does not pay £1 per cent. ?

Mr. Churcher. — But I look to better times; this haj
been the worst year, I hope, we shall have.

Mr. Stenning, on the contrary, thought the last year one
of the most favourable which the farmer, under the present
system, could expect. They had had more than an average
crop at home, and they had a fearful failure — in fact a famine
—on a great portion of the continent. He thought he under-
stood from Mr. Churcher — for he (Mr. Stenning) made no
secret of his own intentions to do so — that he (Mr. Churcher)
was about to appeal to the income tax commissioners. He
(Mr, Stenniai;) had hoped that he should have been in a posl-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

«|7

tiou to pay some iucome tax, but he found, on going through
his accouuta, that he was uot in a position to show he iiad any
profit — not one sixpence (loud cries of" Hear, hear").
A Member : I should wonder if you were.
Mr. Stenning : As Mr. Churcher had said, they had been
advised to try high farming ; but how could they do this
unless they were in a better position ? As to the rents, the
landlords might be anxious to keep good tenants, but they
did not meet them in a way to keep them on their estates. It
would be very much better for the landlords to come forward
boldly and meet their tenants ; for it must otherwise be use-
less to tellns how to cultivate the land, and to do justice to
the landlord. Men said they were reluctant to farm as they
were doing, but .still they must look to their own interest, and
not sacrifice everything they had got (applause).

Mr. Walker : I want the half-dressings done away with ;
and as to shaws, 1 would have them grubbed up.

Mr. Brown was satisfied that landlords were generally op-
posed to this system of half-fallows and half-dressiugs. If it
continued, with the present system, how were they to get their
sons into farms, with such heavy valuations ?

Mr. EiciiARDS said, they very seldom heard of tenant-
farmers becoming bankrupts, bnt if so it was a question if the
valuation would not go to the creditors generally and not to
the landlord. The latter would have to come in as a common
creditor with other parties. A Voice : And a good job, too
(laughter). Mr. Richards did not think so : if a man lent
money on mortgage at £4 or £5 per ceut., he was entitled to
be paid, because it was advanced for their beuetit ; but half the
valuation would be merely personal security, and not such as
many landlords would like to take. It would be better to re-
duce the amount of the valuation, so that there might be no
question of credit between the landlord and the tenant but the
rent.

Mr. Johnson could not agree with Mr. Churcher, because
on his system one of the evils very much complained of — the
excessive amount of Surrey valuations — would be increased,
for he brought in several things having that tendency. As to
Mr. Richards doing away with valuations, it would do away
with all the security of the landlord, and the observations
made as to tenants without capital entering on farms, had, he
thought, a good deal of force. You had no hold at all on a
man without capital. Half-dressings and half-fallows, and
paying for leys, had, he thought, been very much done away
with already. He might appeal to Mr. Richards if it was
not so.

Mr. Richards : I think it is.

Mr. Stenning : It is getting so more and more, from year
to year.

Mr. Johnson thought that a step in the right direction;
but there should be some valuation to pay. If a tenant had
not capital to take a farm, he had better uot take it.

Mr. Richards : I did not mean to do away with valua-
tions ; it was only the half-dressings and half-fallows.

Mr. Johnson : Then, as to dressing in the land when the
turnip crop had failed, it was still there, and to deprive the
tenant of payment for it would uot do at all. The best prac-
tical mode of letting a farm was by a very short agreement,
not fettering the tenant hand and foot, but binding him not to
exhaust the land by successive white crops, and if he sold
roots, to bring in something in return. If a man farmed well,
he would increase his produce, and have more straw and more
manure ; and that would in some measure compensate him,
though not fully, for the greater exertions and improvements
he had made. They couldn't defiue everything between a
landlord and tenant, however they did it, and the fewer clauses

they liad the better, so as not to harass the tenant, and pre-
vent his exertions. Mr. Churcher's clauses were rather com-
plicated ; they would leave room for doubt, aud there might
be some difiiculty at the end of the term.

Mr Churcher then rose to close the discussion by his
reply, no other member wishing to speak. He quite agreed
with Mr. Richards, that, were no capitjl required, landlords
would find double the tenants.

Mr. Richards : Not with " no" capital, but not so much.

Mr. Churcher knew a farm by him tsAen by a man of no
capital at a high rent ; he farmed it very badly, aud he had
been obliged to leave. If, as he (Mr. Churcher) proposed, the
landlord would let half the capital lie, that would meet Mr.
Richards's argument. If a tenant took to 100 acres of good
half-dressing, and only left 50, the landlord suft'ered a great
loss. If he were not to be paid for the half-dressing, he would
leave as little as he could; he would do nothing at all; and
that would be a discouragement to that " good cultivation,"
which, by the terms of the question before them, they were
bound to consider. He looked upon the valuers as respectable
men; and he didn't look on farmers as all rogues— cheating
everybody they could (laughter). If they were so, however,
the sooner they were swept from the face of the earth the
better. It was not unusual now to find 50 acres of gooi seeds,
on a tarm of 350 acres, ready for wheat ; but if he was not to
be paid for them he would not leave them, and that would be
a discouragement to good farming. It was quite at a person's
option to take a farm ; and the landlord would find the man
who took to the valuation a better tenant than one who did
not. As to fallows, if a man had 40 acres of fallow, and he
dunged it well, let it come a dry season aud there might be no
crop ; but it had cost the outgoing tenant just the same to get
a bad crop as a good one. It depended on the season and on
Providence ; and the tenant must take the chance of that, aa
he did of a good crop of straw and hay for the last year. If
he took 10 acres of fallow, aud left 20, was he not to be paid
for it ; and was there not value for the incoming tenant's
money ?

Mr. Walker: They told me so (loud laughter).

Mr. Churcher : That was your fault, you saw the farm.
Mr. Johnson had said that they should not be allowed to take
two white crops iu succession. He (Mr. Churcher) should not
like to be tied to sow only one white crop, for he could very
often sow an extra crop of oats after wheat, could fold it to
advantage with his ewes and sheep, and make a good thing of
it. He did not think the incoming tenant should have control
over the fallows, so as to see that the ploughing was done at
the proper times and seasons.

Mr. Johnson : There might be no work done in wet
weather if that were so.

Mr. Stenning: I can only appeal to you whether you
you would send out your own horses in wet weather ?

Mr. Churcher didn't see much advantage could be taken in
that way ; perhaps there might be on wettish land. The valuers
could always give more.

Mr. Stenning: I think they have just one system to go
on : for so many ploughings it is the rule to allow so much.

Mr. Richards agreed with Mr. Johnson that the agree-
ment should be as short and simple as possible, but it should
stipulate that the tenant should properly cultivate and sow so
many acres of seeds and turnips and then he would do it by
his agreement whether he were going to leave or not. It would
be his interest to have his seeds as good as possible.

Mr. Churcher: If he pays so much when he takes, and
receives as much when he leaves, where's the difference?

Mr. Walker bad seen as good farming without half-dress-

118

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ings aa with, and as few bankrupts. If a maa did his duty, he
very seldom missed a crop. The question was, would having
£2000 locked up in half-tillages make the tenant more respect-
able ? It was just having so much more invested than the
business really required.

Mr. Juggins was happy to be one of those farmers not
paying for dressing ajjd half-dressings — for fallows and half-
fallows. He thought he was in a much better situation with-
out them. It required less capital, and would decrease the
" farms to let" in Surrey. Mr. C'hurcher wouldn't believe that
there was any robbery under the present system, and Mr.
Richards said it was too hard a term. But I (said Mr. Jug-
gins) assert that it is quite mild enough. In my neighbour-
hood, a person who took a farm lately was complaining that
he could not see the manure which the man said he had put
on. " Get along with the ploughman," said a friend ; '• treat
him with a pot of beer, and he'll tell you." The incoming
tenant did so, and he saved by tliat pot of beer half the money
he was charged : for when he went to his own appraiser, he
found he knew nothing but what he might be told by the out-
going tenant. So he said to him, " I saw Tom go into the
Plough, and in the coiu'se of conversation he told me there
were only so many loads of dung on that field, and so many
on this, for he was the man that drove it on." The appraiser
told him to fetch Tom. Tom came in, and the appraiser said,
" You drew the dung on such a field — how many loads did you
take ?" Tom told him instantly. " I know," said his master.

" it was so many." The man said, " No," and his word was of
course taken. Now, if that isn't a robbery, what is ? and that
is the reason many of you Surrey farmers are so tied up. I
agree it is very proper you should pay for what you do see,
and not for what you don't (loud cries of " Hear, hear"). In
Hertfordshire there is no such thing. Men keep their own
capital there, and find themselves much better off with it in
their pocket than locked up in dressings and half-dressinga
(loud applause).

The C'n.\iRMAN felt Mr. Churcher was entitled to their
thanks for having brought forward in the way he had, a sub-
ject which had led to so very interesting a discussion. The
landlords were all but universally anxious to make such ar-
rangements as would benefit their tenants. Tl\eir knowledge,
however, was often imperfect, so that they were compelled to
call in other parties to assist them. Hence some good might
arise from the publicity given to this discussion, for nothing
tested the value of a practice so thoroughly as submitting it
to intelligent and practical men. He thought if the landlords
read the report of their proceedings that night they would be
much edified on the subject of the discussion. He very cor-
dially moved a vote of thanks to 'Sir. Churcher for his able
paper (loud applause).

Mr. Stenning : I have much pleasure in seconding it.

The motion was carried by acclauiation, and the meeting
separated.
• — Sussex Express.

BURDENS ON LAND.
MEETING OF THE SPARKENHOE FARMERS' CLUB.

The quarterly meeting of this Society was held at the
Dixie Arms Inn, ST.arket Bosworth, on Wednesday,
June 9th. The President (John Buckley, Esq.) occu-
pied the chair. Owing to a heavy rain commencing
early in the morning, and which continued nearly up to
the hour of meeting, there was but a small attendance of
members, but this was partly compensated for by the
enrolment of the following additional subscribers, pro-
posed by the Chairman : — William Brooks, Esq., Croft ;
and M.essrs. R. Pratt, W. Gilbert, Pougher, Baker, J.
Mayne, jun., W. T. Norman, and Cox. Proposed by
Mr. Mayne — Messrs. R. Faux (Twycross), C. Lowe
(Sheepy), S. Pilgrim (Burbage), J. Tavernor (Hartshill),
James Hollier (Bosworth), J. Choyce (Twycross), Gar-
dener (Twycross), Choyce (Upton Park), Wm. Bourne
(AtherstoneJ, Roadknight (Atherstone), Thorpe (Shen-
ton), Joseph Lea (Shenton), Bacon (Ratcliffe), H. Sale
(Atherstone), Wood (Ratcliffe), and Campion (Sham-
ford). Mr. Bucknill proposed Messrs. Messenger
(Bosworth), T. Moxon (Bosworth), and J. Grundy
(Bosworth). The candidates were duly seconded, and
unanimously elected. Amongst those present we no-
ticed, in addition to the Chairman, Messrs. G. Kilby,
Harrison, Bucknill, Mayne, Whitby, Webster, Hubbard,
Tavernor, Hollier, Timms, Lowe, and the Rev. — Jones.

The Chairman, in opening the business, regretted
the small attendance, which no doubt was owing to the
unfavourable state of the weather. He called on Mr.
Kilby to read his paper " On thpse taxes, whether local

or imperial, which press unfairly upon the occupiers of
land, and what measures can be adopted to remove or
mitigate such burdensome and unjust imposts."

Mr. KiLUY, on rising, expressed the pleasure he felt
in appearing before the members of the Sparkenhoe
Club, and considered the subject set down for their dis-
cussion to be of paramount importance to the occupiers
of land throughout the country. After a few prepara-
tory remarks he proceeded to say — I am confident all
of you will agree with me that there are taxes and rates
which do press unfairly upon farmers, and which never
were so severely felt as at this moment. When we were
in a prosperous condition, and were remunerated for the
application of our labour and capital in the cultivation
of the soil, we complained not ; but when we find, from
causes which the ingenuity of man cannot control, we
are placed in an opposite position, can it be wondered
that we do complain ? or can it be said that we have not
cause to do so ? By the policy which our rulers have
thought proper to adopt, we find ourselves compelled to
compete in the produce of the soil with all the world ;
and, for the most part, with nations which, compared
with our own, are lightly taxed. I think, therefore, we
are perfectly justified in calling upon our legislators to
assist us in our difficulties, as an important class of the
community, by reducing those national imposts which
fall so heavily, and I may say exclusively, upon us. 1
will first speak of those public taxes which I consider to
be unfairly levied upon the land j and

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

119

THE LAND TAX,

being the most ancient, will claim priority. This is a
direct tax, which is levied exclusively upon the land, and
is tantamount to a property tax, as far as ic goes ; and
certainly while that tax exists it is an unfair impost, as
it makes the land ))ay a double property tax. At any
rate it is what Mr. Disraeli calls " a tax upon the taw
material,"and therefore, on the commercial principle that
no raw material ought to be taxed, it should be remitted.

tenant's income tax.
As the land tax falls directly upon the owner, the next
to which I will call your attention is one which falls ex-
clusively upon the occupier — the tenant's income tax.
I can safely appeal to this meeting, and ask whether the
majority of tenant farmers have for the last three years
been making any profit which ought to subject them to
the arbitrary mode of having an income made for them
by Act of Parliament ? The matter was very different
in time of war, when iMr. Pitt imposed the income tax.
Farmers were then renmnerated for their exertions, and
made a profit on their holdings ; but the case is now re-
versed ; and it was a great oversight in the late Sir R.
Peel when he followed the example of his predecessor,
and estimated the income of the tenant at half the
amount of his rent ; and it was cruel that he should
have allowed it to remain after he had repealed the corn
duties. Since that time many a tenant has been made
to pay for an income when he has suffered a positive loss;
and upon a principle so outrageously unju-t was the
assessment made at the will and caprice of the tax sur-
veyor that, in many instances, the tenant paid upon a
greater rent than his landlord received, and in such cases
he absolutely paid the landlord's as well as the tenant's
tax upon the sum over the actual amount of rent. Sup-
pose the original rent was ^^400, but, in consequence of
the reduction in the price of produce, the landlord re-
turned 10 per cent., which would be ,£40, the landlord
paid property tax upon the sum he received — .£360, but
the tenant paid not only his own tax, but that of the
landlord's also — upon the £"40 returned. This was a
state of things which none but farmers would tamely
have submitted !o.

the HOI' DUTY.

The next tax to which I shall call your attention is a
heavy duty levied upon an artiile of limited production
as regards the English farmer, but to those who fall
under its operation is a burden of great magnitude, and
in excessive tax upon the raw material. The article to
which I allude is hops. There can be no doubt but the
high duty paid upon hops has the tendency of diminish-
ing their culture, and consequently withdrawing a large
capital which, if they were free from duty, would be expend-
ed in employing labourupon the land, and has an injurious
effect in those districts where hops are grown. From a
Parliamentary return with which I have been favoured, I
find that in 1837 the number of acres under this culture
was 56,322, and in last year, 1851, it only amounted to
43,246, beuig a falling off of more than 25 per cent, in

15 years. The average duty per acre in 1850 was £9
17s., and the total amount of duty for 1851 was
£236,623. This is certainly what Mr. Disraeli would
pronounce an excessive tax upon the raw material.
There is something very unfair in levying this duty at the
same amount for all qualities, when some are worth from
25 to 30 per cent, more than others.

THE malt tax.
The next item of our fiscal imports is of considerable
magnitude, and of great importance to the occupiers of
land, and is one of imperial taxation which I honestly
believe presses with singular severity upon agriculture.
This is the malt-tax. Malt being an article which is ma-
nufactured from that grain which is only second in im-
portance which the land of England produces, we might
have supposed that it would have been touched with a
light hand by the tax-gatherer, in order that its culture
might be encouraged, rather than retarded by heavy im-
posts ; but the contrary is the case. I shall not, gentle-
men, trust to my own opinion and conviction as regards
the heavy duty which that grain bears, a crop which
such a large quantity of land in this kingdom is calcu-
lated to produce. But I shall quote to yovi the opinions
of a high authority in order to prove that this tax is a
burden which unfairly presses, both directly and indi-
rectly, upon the occupiers of land. [Mr. K. then quoted
from a speech delivered by Mr. Disraeli at Aylesbury,
showing the injurious operation of the malt-tax on the
land, and proceeded to say] — Here we have an exposi-
tion from high quarters as to the magnitude of the bur-
den imposed upon one crop, which is only second to that
of wheat, and cogent reasons are given for its repeal, j
think this opinion, expressed by such a man, must give
us every encouragement to exert ourselve?, in order that
we may get rid of this tax, which presses so unjustly
upon the farmers of England. That 10 or 11 millions
sterling should be raised from barley alone by taxation,
must of necessity greatly lessen the demand, lower its
value, and impede its culture. Down to the year 1829,
there was a duty of 5s. per barrel on beer, and the con-
sumption was I bushel 6 gallons per head ; but this tax
being repealed that year, an impetus was given at once
to consumption — Ihe average of 1831 was increased to 2
bushels 2f gallons, or about 30 per cent. In 1840, 5
per cent, was added to the duty, and the consumption
fell to 1 bushel 7 gallons, at which it has, with little va-
riation, remained ever since ; but I find in 1850 the
actual consumption was only 1 bushel 2 gallons and 14-
pints, taking the population at 20 millions. From these
figures it is clear that the increased duty diminishes the
consumption, and a less quantity of barley is required,
and the price in consequence decreased. Cutting oflt"
this extra demand by an excess of taxation is highly in-
jurious to the growers of bailey, and tends to lower the
price of the raw material ; and if the tax was repealed,
more land would be placed under barley culture, and by
a greater demand would be increased. Supposing that
as much malt per head was consumed, should the duty

130

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

be repealed, as was 100 years back, that is, 5 bushels per
head, and that our population is now 20 millions, it
would require I25 millions of qrs. to meet the demand ;
but supposing we take it at 3 bushels per head, the con-
sumption would be 71 millions instead of 4f . This, no
doubt, would create a brisk and extensive demand for
barley, and benefit the farmer to a considerable extent ;
as he might then, as he is recommended, turn his atten-
tion to growing that crop, instead of so much wheat.
The opinions given before a committee of the House of
Lords, by some eminent agriculturists, bear me out in
this supposition. Mr. Baker, of Writtle, said — "If tlie duty
were abolished, 1 think 50 per cent, more woiUd be sold for
malting p\n"poses." Mr. Jonas says — " I consider tliat,
generally speaking, the malt-tax discourages the growth of
barley, and no doiibt, if it was repealed, its growth woiUd be
greatly increased." Mr. Hudson, of Castleacre, says — "If the
malt-duty was removed, the demand for barley woidd be con-
siderably increased for all general purposes." And I think
our friend JMr. Chamberlain has said, if malt paid no duty, he
believed the average price of barley would be raised 10s. per
quai'ter. These are the opniions of men wlio ought to have
great weight in the controversy. I have hitherto only dis-
cussed tliis question as it affects the producer, but surely we
have some right to complam of it as consiuners, and more par-
ticularly in the way of feeding our stock on malt ; and it is a
great injustice done to farmers in not being allowed to malt
then' inferior barley as food for stock, and agriculture is injined
thereby to a considerable extent. I may go further than tliis,
and say, if this tax were repealed, a further advantage woidd
be given to us. I tlrink no one can deny but that the farmer
is unfairly treated, and considerable injury is thereby doue to
the agriculture of this coimtry. I do not mean to say, ex-
cepting m this instance, that the consumer's tax presses un-
fairly upon the occupiers of hud, because every person pays
the same proportion who uses articles manufactiu-ed from bar-
ley ; but even this tax remitted woidd be some relief to the
farmer as a consumer. Supposing he pays £5 per annum duty
upon the malt he consumes for every hundred acres of land he
occupies, this woidd be a sa^•ing of Is. upon each acre. I
tliink when the free-trade policy was adopted, we ought to have
been relieved of this biu-den, or the principles of free-trade
were not fairly carried out. \Vlien we were protected by im-
port duties the case was very different ; but now, when we
have to meet the whole world in competition, it is cruel to
fetter us with restrictions which paralyze our energies, and
prevents us coping with the foreigner on fair and equal tenus.
I am constrained to make a few short quotations from states-
men on this point. Mr. "\Hlier3, the great champion of corn-law
repeal, says : — " Would the landed interest be wiUing, if the
malt-tax were taken off, to release the country from the tax on
corn ; for of this he was sure, that all those who were now in-
jured by the corn-laws would be ready, nay be anxious to get
rid of it (the malt-tax). By according to those terms, the
produce as we should malt barley of a coarser kind — that
grown on strong soils, and give to our labourers more beer,
and get the harvest in at a cheaper rate. Also, it would have
the effect of inducing farmers to keep more servants in the
house, and feed them on the produce of the farm, and thereby
improve their social condition ; for it must be admitted, that
great evils ensue from young men neither boarding nor lodging
in] the house of their master — the beer-shop is too fi-equently

their resort in the evening instead of the farmer's kitchen, and
their bemg free from aU restraint leads to vicious habits, which
frequently ends in ruin. I cannot but say, that I think the
greatest iujustice is doue the farmer on the first pomt — not
being allowed to malt liis inferior barley as food for stock. It
does appear an uitolerable hardship that the English farmer
should be prohibited from using his produce by any mode of
preparation which would improve its nutritious qualities,
whereby his stock would be more quickly fattened ; but this
is not the worst of it. Since the importation of stock has
been free of duty, he is obliged to compete with the foreigners
in our liome markets, who is under no such restrictions. He
can malt his barley, feed liis stock upon it, transport them to
our shores, and undersell us, because he has no duty to pay
upon his malt — in this matter I of the malt-tax would be lost
to the revenue, no doubt. Four millions and a-half is a small
sum indeed, compared with what might be raised through the
medium of taxation, if the energy of the coiuitry were allowed
its fidl and natural play." Here is an admission from an
enemy, that the nation would ordy consider it an act of justice
that we should be set free from tins burden if the corn-laws
were repealed. Mv. Cayley said — " If the malt-duty was re-
pealed, we might fairly e.xpect the consumption to be
TREBLED." The Earl of Ripon said — "If the government
did away M'ith protection, there must be no exception ; the
farmer must be allowed to grow his own tobacco, beet-rool,
sugar, and make his barley into mall free of duty." Sh James
Graham said — " He was comiuced that if they repealed the
corn laws, the tnall tax would not sm'vive a single year." Sir
Robert Peel said — " As a farmer to the free-traders, let me
grow my own tobacco ; let me manufacture and consume my
own malt untaxed. The articles that I wear at present are aU
taxed, from the sole of my shoe to the crown of my hat. If
the article I raise and sell is to be exempt from protection, let
the article I buy be exempt also." With these great
authorities my own convictions perfectly coincide; and if ever
we are to obtain justice, tlie time has nearly arrived when we
should make an effort to do so ; and, I firmly believe, if the
appeal be made when the present ministry hold office, with
the sanction of the comitry, they cannot resist granting it. In
whatever way we view the question, one caimot fad to see
that the malt-tax inflicts a grievous, impolitic, and un-
justifiable mjury on the farmer, and that sound policy and
even-handed justice demand the " total repeal of this
obnoxious tax."

TRANSFER OF LAKD.

I think this a subject which ought to engage the attention
of the legislature ; but as to the benefits which may accrue to
the occupiers of land from auy change in the law on this sub-
ject, I think they are rather remote.

LOCAL TAXATION.

The first question imder this head is the money collected for
the relief of the poor, and, when I consider its enormous
amount, it certainly is worthy of the consideration of the oc-
cupiers of land, who are such large contributors towards this
rate. I find in the last twenty-two years the largest sum was
levied in 1832, amounting to £8,622,930, and in the last year
the amount was £6,778,914, being a reduction of £1,844,016,
so, at the first glance of these figures the farmer may imagine
that he is actually benefited to that extent. I will take the
equivalent of these sums in quarters of wheat, and then con-
trast the amount you have really paid in the produce of your

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ISl

farms at those two periods. In 1832, the average price of a
quarter of wheat was 63s. 4(i., and to raise the sum paid in
that year for the relief of the poor, it required 2,723,027
quarters: in the year 1831, the average price of wheat was
393. lid. per quarter, and to raise the amount paid to the
poor, it required 3,396,533, behig an addition of G73,506
quarters, or 20 per cent, more than to pay the lesser sum in
1851, than the larger you paid in 1832. I think this places
the matter in a true light, and proves that the burden of the
poor's rates upon the occupiers of land was last year actually
more by 20 per cent, than it was 20 years back, when the sum
collected was 22 per cent, higher, while all other classes are
benefited to the full amount of tlie reduction, the occupiers
of land are paying 20 per cent, more, taking the price of wheat
as the standard of their ability. I must consider this as an
effect produced by the repeal of the import duties upon foreign
agricultural productions ; and consequently, as relates to the
maintenance of the poor, has thrown an unjust share of that
bm-den upon farmers, which our rulers ought to endeavour to
free us from. Mr. Kilby then gave a sketch of the early his-
tory and introduction of the Poor Law under the 43rd of
Q,ueen Elizabeth. Now this statute (43rd Ehzabeth) defines
the property which it renders liable to be rated to the poor, as
" land, houses, coal mines, saleable underwood, and tythes," —
and, though the words of the statute arevery loose and general,
still it mentions personal property locally visible, and produc-
tive within the parish — so that, it is tolerably clear that all
productive property, at that period, was intended to come
within the scope of this Act. I thmk no one will dispute that
this principle is a fair and just one, but from the change in
property it does not strictly apply in the present day. Siuce
the enactment of this law other property has accumulated in
tliis nation which could not have been contemplated by the
wisest legislators of that period. Why, who at that time could
have imagined that there would have been created a new
species of property, yielding an annual amount of profit of
between 27 and 28 millions sterling ? — or had it been in ex-
istence when this law was passed, would it have escaped being
rated for the relief of the poor ? I trow not— yet such is the
income derived from om: National debt of 800 millions ! !
which at this present moment pays nothing towards the relief
of the poor. Why, when this law was passed, the whole public
revenue of England only amounted to half a million, notwith-
standing the magnificence and pomp of the Court of good
Queen Bess — ^while at this time it exceeds 50 millions. This
shows the altered state of our financial circumstances ; and,
certainly, with this great chauge, the charge towards the
maintenance of the poor ought not to remain in the same state
it was 300 years back ; while it does so, the owners of that
kind of property originally rated, suffer a great injustice. Mr.
Kilby then read some extracts from Mr. Disraeli's speech, to
show how unfairly the land was burdened with poor's rates,
and proceeded. — Here we have the authority of that great
statesman the present Chancellor of the Exchequer, for main-
taining, that under the present mode of assessment, the land
is paying 8 millions ovit of 13 collected, and that this is more
than fairly falls to its share by 6 millions, or 1 0 per cent, upon the
whole rental of thecountry. If wecouldget thislOpercent. taken
off our shoulders, which m justice we ought to have, it would
be some relief, and though small, yet, as contained in one
item, I would gladly receive it. The inequality of rating to the
poor in different parishes is another great evil, inherent in the
present system. One parish may pay 6d. ia the pouud, aud

the next as many shillings, and this has partly arisen from the
selfishness of individuals, and has proved a source of oppression
upon the poor. When a parish belongs entirely to one person,
he may have used his influence in ejecting the poor man and
liis family, pulling down his cottage, and driving him into an-
other parish where he could obtain a dwelling ; and here
settlements have been increased, and in the other diminished,
when in fact, as nuich labour may be required in the one as in
the other — this is a very common occurrence, aud in my judg-
ment is fraught with many evils. My humble opinion is, that
all property ought to bear an equal share of this burden ; for
as all classes are benefitted by labour, so all ought to contribute
according to their means, towards the support of the sick,
destitute, infirm, aud aged poor. 1 do not tliink it any fair, at
least no tenable argument, that the fmidholders should be ex-
empt from this charge, because he employs no labour. What
would the sum be worth inscribed in his name in the books at
the bank of England if it were not for the industry and enter-
prise of those who create oiu: national wealth, which finally
yields the interest paid to the public creditor — then who can
say that the labourer is not employed to his advantage ? and
ought he not to contribute towards the support of the poor
man when he can no longer work for his bread ? Mr. Kilby
then discussed the question of a general system of rating hold-
ing to the opinion that all property ought to contribute to the
relief of the poor, either by a county or national system. He
read some extracts from the e\idence of Mr. C. Lewis, who was
in favour of a national tax. Upon this Mr. Disraeli observed
— " Such are the opinions put forth, under the authority of the
Government, by ]Mr. Cornewall Lewis, who has thus aiTived,
after full consideration, at the trulh upon the subject — recog-
nised not only in this house, but in the country generally."
He further says — " Nothing but the difficulty of reaching any
particular kind of property should establish an exemption from
contributing to the poor-rate." I believe there is one and only
one way in which they can be removed, and that is by adopting
the principle of an Income-tax to raise an annual fund from
which all reUef to the poor should be paid. In a tax laid for
this purpose I do not hold with exceptions ; but every person
above the condition of a common labourer should contribute
towards it according to his means. I well know the great ob-
jection to a tax of this kind is its inquisitorial character ; but
we bear all this now it is imposed as an Imperial tax, and, I
believe, the public generally would bear this anoyance more
cheerfully if they knew it went for the relief of the poor, rather
than into the national exchequer. j\lr. Kilby then referred to
a letter published in Jmie, 1850, by Lord Malmesbury, ou
Parochial Assessments. As Lord jMalmesbiuy is now a
cabinet minister, he hoped the plan he suggested would be
carried out. I am thus far strongly inclined to beUeve that
such a poor-tax, or national rate if you please, would be of
great benefit to the occupiers of land ; and, in my opinion,
would saddle no imjust share of the burden upon others ; and
by distributing it over all descriptions of property, would ren-
der it very light uideed.

L.4.W OF SETTLEMENT.

There is another question which is intimately connected
with relieving the poor from a general fund— that is the law
of settlement, and it appears that one is the natural conse-
quence of the other ; but Lord Malmesbmy has hit upon a
plan which does not render this absolutely necessary. For my
1 ft, I would rather see free scope given to a measure of this

122

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

kind, and that every Englishman, who should happen to be
destitute, should be relieved wherever his residence might be
within the kingdom. The present law of settlement entails a
majs of evils upon the labom'er, and prevents him from obtain-
ing employment, which he might do, if he were free to take
his labour where it was most required. I could wish to see
him emancipated from all restrictions of this kind, for, if we
are to have free trade for the employers, let us adopt the same
principle for the employed. A national settlement would pre-
vent that ill-feeling which prevails amongst different classes
as regards parochial settlements. The inhabitants of large
towns accuse the landowners of pulling down the cottages of
the labouring mechanics, and driving them fi-om their ruraj
abodes into the towns. The lando\nier, on his part, retorts
and says the manufacturer employs his workmen just as long
as suits his convenience, and then turns them up for the land
to maintain, which seems a great hardship, as the occupier of
land has received no benetit from their labour. Both these
complaints may be true to some extent, but the proposed change
in the law would dispel all complaints of this kind. Though
the money expended in litigation has nuich decreased since the
passing of the New Poor Law, still it is now considerable, and
a national settlement would prevent all expenses of this kind.
I find in the years 1813, 1814, and 1815, no less a sum than
£977,000 was spent in law alone to determine the settlement
of paupers. From 1800 to 1834 the sum was from £280,000
to £300,000 annually, and in the year ending the 25th of
March 1835, it was £202,527, and in 1836 it had decreased
to £172,431— for England and Wales. For the comity of
Leicester the sum stood thus — in the year 1835, £3,808, and
ill 1836, £3,771 ; the whole expenditure for the relief of the
poor being— in 1835, £83,986 ; in 1836, £70,077 ; and in the
last year the amount is £65,201. I must conclude with the
opinion that a system which would do away with these charges,
and prevent such contests between different parishes, would be
a great improvement upon the present law. Just let us hear
the ophiion of Mr. Disraeli on this subject : — " I^t me remind
the house that, while the owners and occupiers of land have
been adnsed to employ more labour and more capital, their
efforts are restricted by two codes of law, the very object o^
which is to restrict the application of labour and capital. Be,
fore you give them that advice, why do you not deal with the
Law of Settlement? For five years we have been taimted with
not employing more labour, when you have an ancient code in
your Statute Book which prevents us, and forces us to em-
ploy the least efficient."

COUNTY RATE.

As regards this charge, I do not see any injustice in its
being levied upon the land, excepting the defect in rating
which is applicable to the Poor's Bate, liecause it is paid out
of that fimd. The inhabitants of large towns have to provide
their own police, to build and maintain their prisons, and
pay for the prosecution of felons ; therefore, it would not be
fair to subject them to pay any share of the county rates,
and it is only as to the irresponsible power which is vested in
those who have the levying and expending of these rates to
which I object. The system of committing the rating of the
inhabitants of corporate towns to elected authorities has been
legally established, and I must ever contend that the same
principle should be conceded to coimties. Why shoidd we be
denied having a voice in electing those who expend the money
collected for us for county purposes, as we have in the choice

of those who administer relief to the poor? It is no valid ar-
gument to say that this fimd is watched with the most scru-
pulous regard to economy by the magistrates in this coimty ;
because, if it be so here, we know there are complaints and
great dissatisfaction expressed in many others. But still,
perhaps, I may be permitted to remark that, did the ratepayers
possess that constitutional control over the authorities who levy
and expend the county funds, and which I believe to be their due,
the public debt of tlie coimty woidd not have been so large as
it is at the present time.

WHAT MEASURES CAN BE ADOPTED FOR RELIUF.

By what means can we, the occupiers of land, get those
measures adopted by which we hope to obtain some relief
from this oppressive taxation ? We all know that it can only
be effected through parliament, and depends upon the will of
our legislators, and it becomes us seriously to consider what
influence we, the only suffering class, can use with our repre-
.«entatives in the House of Commons. 1 contend the different
classes, and nearly every individual, which constitute the two
houses of legislature in this kingdom, are at present materially
benefited by the adoption of the free-trade policy, and " they
know the reason why." Perhaps there are a few who may be
rather large occupiers of land, and so far they will be sufferers,
but they are only a small number, and in all probability, from
possessing large estates, their loss by farming is of no conse-
quence to them ; therefore, there is no real inducement from
self-interest for them, and less for others, to wish for any
change. I am convinced if the owners of land were suffering
to the same extent as the occupiers, we should soon get relief
from some of these taxes which oppress us. But what, gen-
tlemen, is the casual return of 10 per cent, upon the rental of
a nobleman's or gentleman's large estate compared with the
advantage he receives by the reduction of 30 per cent, upon aU
articles he consumes in his establishment ? Now let us look
at the position of those who are out of parliament, and form
the electoral body ; 1 am persuaded they also, at present, are
benefited by free-trade, with the solitary exception of that
large body who are occupiers of land. Tlie farmers are the
only class suffering from the abrogation of import duties upon
foreign agricultural produce, and I fear, though in this un-
pleasant position, we have little sympathy from the public —
by about one-half we are considered as ignorant, stupid
beings, not possessing sufficient judgment or skill to manage
our business as we ought, and by the other, hypocrites — I only
wish I was an hypocrite in this respect. In this dilemma,
gentlemen, we must fight our own battle, and the time is at
hand which will give us an opportunity of exerting the in-
fluence we possess in returning men to parliament who will in-
sist upon justice being done to the occupiers of land. We
are ou the eve of a general election, therefore it behoves us to
use great caution and judgment in the exercise of that privi-
lege which our constitution gives us, in electing those who are
to represent us in the next parliament. Remember, the next
parliament is that from which we hope to get some remission
of that load of taxation, whether imperial or local, which we
now unjustly bear, aiid if this opportunity is neglected, we
need never expect to get any relief whatever. I well know
candidates are verj' chary of giving their candid opinions upon
particular measures, and much less willing to give distinct
pledges. I think the time has arrived when the farmers of
England should demand to know the sentiments of those who
solicit their votes as to those burdens which now oppress

THE FARMER'S MAGEZINE.

123

them, and it would be well that the following questions should
be put, and distinctly answered by every candidate before a
single \ote is promised : — Will you support a measure which
will exempt the teuaut-fanuer from payment of income-tax, if
he proves that he does not gain a profit of £150 per annum by
his farm, which were the terms of the original act ? Will you
vote for the repeal of the malt and hop duties ? Will you give
yoiur support to a measure for lessening the expense in
borrowing money upon, and the transferring by sale of land?
Will you vote for charging all descriptions of property to the
poor's-rate, and for a change in the law of settlement ? AMU
you support and vote for a measure which shall give to the
county rate-payers the priA'ilege of electing a portion of that
body which shall have the power of levying and expending
such rates ? If these questions are answered in the affirma-
tive, well and good, but if in the negati\e, refuse your vote,
for if you are afraid to act independently, you do not desene
to be reUeved from those burdens of which you complain.
The only way to be safe is to demand such pledges from can-
didates, and also a promise that, when in parliament, they will
favour a rcA ision of our whole financial system ; and more-
over, that they will insist upon economy and retrenchment in
tlie public expenditure. If excuses are made that the public
revenue cannot spare so large a sum as the repeal of the taxes
I have named would abstract from it, read to them the words
of the present Chancellor of the Exchequer, addressed to tlie
South Buckingham Agricultural Society in October last : —
" Vi'eW, then, I am asked what good is there in stirring in these
questions ? Are six millions of local taxes to be taken off
land, e\ en if it does unjustly contribute it V Is it possible tliat
they can be taken off in the present state of the finances of
the country ? Is it possible you can do without the malt-tax
and the laud-tax, because they are opposed to the principles of
financial justice and fiscal equity ? My answer is — There is

A GREAT INTEREST SUFFERING, IN CONSEaUENCE OF

YOUR LEGISLATION. It is iieccssary for lue to discover what
are some of the causes of its sufferuig ; and I am not to teach
you how you are to pay your bills — how you are to discharge
your debts — but I am to show on the part of the agricultural
interest, whom you acknowledge to be the only suffering in-
terest, aud who are suffering in consequence of undue taxa-
tion ; and it is for politicians, and statesmen, and persons ivho
represent (he community, that are revelling, we are told, in
every degree of prosperity — it is for them to devise how they
can meet their engagements in the most easy and convenient
inamier for themselves" (cheers). These sentiments do credit
to the present Chancellor of the Exchequer ; the farmers of
Bucks might well cheer him when he gave utterance to
them ; and I hope he will never forget them. [Mr. Kilby
then read extracts from the address of Mr. Disraeli to his con-
stituents.]

I hav« now, Sir, given this meeting of the Sparkenhoe
Farmers' Club my sentiments at too great a length I am well
aware (but when you set me the task to open the discussion
on such important matters you set yourself the task to hear
me) on those burdens which press unfairly upon the occupiers
of land, aud have pointed out, as clearly as I can, in what
manner I conceive they may be mitigated. I know that great
difference of opinion may exist even amongst us on these
weighty subjects ; aud I can only say that I consented to
lead this discussion ui the hope that the greatest freedom
would be taken with my remarks, in order that, if they be in-
correct, or not founded upon reason and justice, they might

be refuted ; and I assure you, gentlemen, that I am not so
bigotted to my own opinions but that I am open to conviction,
and will gladly embrace any plans which may be better calcu-
lated to give us relief under our present difficulties. I have
quoted largely from !Mr. Disraeli, and I have done so that the
sentiments he expressed, and the sympathy which he evinced
for our unfortunate position, when he was in Opposition,
should be impressed upon your minds ; and I hope he will
not act contrary to those opinions (which are in unison with
my own on almost every wrong of which I have complained),
now beholds tlie important office of Her Majesty's Chancellor
of the Exchequer. Surely we have mucli to expect at his
hands ; aud as the Prime jNIiuister has plainly told us that he
cannot restore Protection unless the country wills it at the
next election, and he has also candidly admitted in his place in
Parliament that his opinion was such a majority in favour of
that measure would not be obtained to warrant the attempt.
I only wish he may be mistaken ; but, with such an avowed
opinion before us, from what source are we to expect relief,
except in the removal or mitigation of those taxes, whether
local or imperial, which press unfairly upon us, the producers?
wlio, I firmly maintain, thus far, is the only important class
which suffers from the adoption of the free-trade policy. This,
in my humble opinion, is the only chance left for us ; and with
the recorded opinions which I have quoted of the Chancellor
of the Exchequer as to the WTongs we endure, can it be doubted
that he will, by ^ irtue of the office which he holds, in conjunc-
tion with his colleagues, devise some remedy to emancipate
the occupiers and tillers of the sod of old England from their
present state of suffering ?

The C H AIRMAN, in proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. Kilby
for his very elaborate paper, said the lecturer had observed that
as they had set him the task of preparing a paper, they must
also set themselves the task of listening to it ; for his own part,
instead of it being a task, it had been a great pleasure to him,
and he had no doubt it had been the same to the company.
(Hear, hear.) He should rejoice to eee Mr. Kilby as one of
their representatives, for he was sure he would make a good
one ; and if he would allow himself to be put in nomination at
the ensuing election, there was little doubt but he would get
in. They had been continually told the malt-tax coidd not be
spared, but it was his opinion that if the government could
not do without it, after having placed them in the position
they had, they were not fit to remain at the head of affairs.
Tliey could lavish money on the Caffre and Burmese war, and
because the days were not long enough, they must begin to
fight on Easter Sunday. Some raised an objection to the re-
peal of the malt-tax because. that numerous body — the excise-
men and supervisors — would have to be pensioned off. They
might readily get rid of them by paying their passage to the
gold diggings. He should not attempt to follow ilr. Kilby in
his arguments for the repeal of the malt-tax, but he must ex-
press his strong opinion against the injustice of paying a tax
on their own produce. Little had been said about Protection,
because it was said to be dead and buried ; but if a farmer
bought a Paris hat in France, or purchased bis wife a silk dress,
he had to pay a duty on it before he could get it home. Then
why should not the farmer be protected in the same w ay, or
suffer his raw material — the land — to be untaxed ?

The Rev. Jones seconded the vote of thanks. Al-

tho\igh not a farmer, he knew sufficient, from going amongst
them, that they were burdened with more than they were able
to bear.

124

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Mr. Harrison had turned over the subject in his mind
that morning, but not for the first time. There was a decided
injustice done to the farmer on many points, and it was their
duty to consider what means could be adopted to remove
those grievances. In the first place it seemed to be necessary
that the farmer should be properly rated on the value of his
land, and nothing more. He considered there was a law on
the stattite book — the law of distraint — which more particu-
larly alfected the rating. A man who had capital, and was
disposed to invest it in the farm he occupied, was prevented in
some cases because a man who had no capital might go to the
landlord and say, " I will give you so much for such a farm."
The landlord might say to the tenant A, that B had been to
him and offered him so much more, which must be the rent at
which he should let the land. Was that fair to the individual
who had capital to manage the land ? The evil did not stop
there, for the rates were regulated according to the rent, and
the man who fanned his o\\ti land was saddled with additional
and unfair rates. He was an advocate for all property to be
equally rated. He knew of a tradesman who, whilst lie was
in business, hardly paid any rates ; but directly he retired, he
invested some money in land, and as soon as he became a lord
of the soil, he found out he had heavy rates to pay. He con-
cluded by moving the following resolution : — " That this meet-
ing is of opinion that the taxation of this country bears un-

fairly upon the occupiers of land, and therefore a revision of
our imperial and local taxation by Parliament is required, and
that a more equal distribution of those burdens is necessary
to relieve the occupiers of land from those which unfairly op-
press them." Mr. H. agreed with Jlr. Kilby as to the local
management of county rates, and believed the farmer would
be much benefitted by such an alteration. The fimd-holder
ought not to be exempt from contributing to the rehef of the
poor.

Mr. BoswoRTH believed that an example had been set by
the " Bosworth Parhament," in agitating some of the questions
under discussion. The questions to candidates hardly went
far enough for him. In addition to getting rid of the ob-
noxious law of distraint, he should go one step further and ask
for a tenant-right.

Mr. M.w'NE considered that when the legislature repealed
the duty on com, it was guilty of a great injustice to the
farmer in not equalizing the burdens on land.

Mr. BucKNiLL expressed his thanks to Mr. Kilby for his
very able paper.

Mr. Kilby acknowledged the vote of thanks, and a vote of
thanks to the Chairman ha'\'ing been proposed by that gen-
tleman and seconded by Mr. Webster, the meeting broke up.

The next meeting of the Society will be held on the 1st of
September.

ON THE RELATIVE MERITS OF COPROLITES AND GUANO
AGAINST FARMYARD MANURE.

The Yorkshire Agricultural Society has for
several years past instituted a series of experiments
for the working out of practical facts adapted to the
soils and climate of that large county. Knowing
the modifying effects of climate, soil, and pecu-
liarity of situation, the council have year after year
set about a studied and arranged set of trials, which
tend to establish some one or other of the prin-
ciples of agricultural truth. For this purpose,
careful selections are made of practical and skilful
farmers in various localities of the county, presenting
variations of aspect, of climate, of altitude, and also
of soil and geological formation ; and to these is
given respectively one and the same experiment, to
try one manure on one crop; and all the results,
brought to the test of the bushel and the scale, are
registered and arranged for the information of the
society's members.

But more : we all know one year's trials, even
in diflFerent circumstances, is not sufficient to
stamp a fact with undoubted accuracy. Hence, in
some cases, two and even three years are required.
Light sometimes breaks in in the first year, which a
second either darkens or improves. The experi-
ments of 1850 were on the relative merits of
coprolites and guano against farmyard manure ;
the experiment committee arrived at the conclusion
that, "in certain cases, turnips may be grown
more cheaply with properly selected hand tillage

than by heavy dressings of farmyard manure."
To confirm, or to modify that opinion, the council
sent out a set of manures, dissolved coprolites and
Peruvian guano, supplied by Mr, T. Pearson, of
Leeds, and the experiments were arranged under
the following heads : —

1. To show the natural produce of the land,
one part was to have no manure whatever.

2. Was to have twelve tons per acre of farm-
yard dung.

.3. Was to have six tons of dung, and one cwt.
each of guano and dissolved coprolites ; and

4. Was to have 2 cwts. of guano and 2 cwts. of
the coprolites.

Other substances might be tried as additions,
but these were to be the standard experiments.
The names of the parties who tried them were a
guarantee for their accuracy and trustworthiness.
They were Mr. Charnock, of Holmfield j Mr. H.
Cholmeley, of Brandsley; Mr, T. C, Johnson, of
Chenel; Mr. W, Mauleverer, of AinclifFe; Mr.
Newham, of Edlington ; Mr. Outhwaite, of
Bainesse ; Mr. Scott, of Broom Close ; and Mr.
Wailes, of Husthwaite.

We shall not repeat the valuable tabular results
given — the foundation of a vast mass of agricul-
tural information— but simply go through the
gross results of the application, as regards weight
of crop, with these /our experiments.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

125

Mr. Cholmeley's turnips, grown on a loamy clay,
had the heaviest crop on No. 3, the dung coprolite
and /jfuano beating the farmyard manure by some
6f tons per acre.

Mr. Johnson's experiments were tried with
various manures, singly ; and his Peruvian guano
gave the greatest weight of the class of sub-
stances tried, but 10 cubic yards of farmyard
manure had previously been applied to the whole
land.

Mr, Mauleverer's heaviest weight, when the
manures were also applied singly, was with the
12 tons of dung, but only 14 cwts. more than the
dressing with 2 cwts. of coprolites. This soil was a
hght clay.

Mr. Newham's, on a limestone soil, were the
heaviest with No. 3 — the same as Mr. Cholmeley's
— and were 16 cwt. heavier than an appUcation of
dung alone.

Mr. Outhwalte's, on a hungry gravel, were the
heaviest, with 91 tons of dung and 2 cwt. of guano,
for all the land had been dunged at this rate, and
exceeded Hj tons of dung by 2 tons 9 cwt. per
acre.

Mr. Scott's were the heaviest on No. 4 — the
guano and coprolites, and 1 ton 7 cwt. more than
20 tons of dung— his soil was a strong loam,

Mr. Wailes's were the heaviest, with 4 cwts. of
guano and 4 cwts. of coprolites, showing an in-
crease over 20 tons of dung of 2 tons 9 cwts. per
acre; the soil a useful loam.

The first fact which strikes the observer is that,
as a general rule, there is not only an addition to
the crop by the addition of these artificial manures,
but there is, in some cases, more absolute crop pro-
duced by them than by farmyard manure alone.

Now, to bring this to the test of figures, the
copi'ohtes at £5 per ton, and the guano at £10 per
ton, will be at the rate of 2 cwts. of each — £1 10s.
per acre. Now, assuming this to be equal to 20
tons of dung per acre, we should require to be able
to produce the dung at Is. 6d. per ton, to cost us
the same money. But it can be neither produced
nor purchased at any such money. In the whole
of the cases referred to the manure would be most
valuable, and yet we find that hardly in any case
is there not an addition to the crop, of say two to
three tons of turnips per acre, by such increase of
manure. Now, if a ton of turnips be worth 10s.,
or even 8s., there is at once an element of repay-
ment ; for, if a soil is in a condition to give a large
crop of turnips, it is almost certain to be capable of
giving a large crop of any other plant to succeed.

Mr. Charnock — whose turnips, however, in the
severe insect season of 1851, suffered from the fly,
80 as to render the trial unfit for a test— gives it as
the result of his practical experience, that 4 cwts.

of Peruvian guano, without manure, is the cheapest
and best mode of growing turnips ; but the general
testimony seems to be decidedly in favour of what
all farmers find it the best and easiest to do, viz.,
to add a small quantity of artificial manure to the
manure which the farm will supply, and so to
spread the whole manure over the land, rather than
put all the dung in one place, and the rest to be
manured with artificials alone.

Continuing our observations on the valuable
experiments of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society
on the substitution of Peruvian guano and dissolved
coprolites in whole or in part for farmyard manure
in the growth of turnips, which subject is by no
means exhausted; we see the experiments bring to
light a great variety of facts.

We see, for instance, in Mauleverer's experiment
that 2 cwt, of coprolites alone produced within

14 cwt. of turnips as many as 12 tons of dung per
acre. This is, we believe, however, on a newly-
improved farm, where the phosphates might be
expected to be somewhat deficient : 2 cwt. of guano
produced little more than one-third of the weight
on the same land.

Another strong fact, on the well-managed farm
of Mr. T. C. Johnson, is, that the very best
turnips he grew on his experimental strip were ma-
nured with the nitro-phosphate of Messrs. Hodgson
and Simpson, of Walton, near Wakefield. While
a specimen of stuff" called guano produced only
9 tons 3 cwt, and 6 st. of turnips ; and a pure
specimen of Peruvian guano supplied by Pearson,
of Leeds (whose chemical knowledge enabled him
to supply a faithfully-analyzed sample), only 14
tons 6 cwt. and 6 st. ; the nitro-phosphate produced

15 tons 9 cwt. and 7 st.— 15J tons nearly per acre!
We have heard of other equally striking circum-
stances of this combination of phosphoric acid and
nitrogen, in the shape of substances probably de-
signated ammonio-phosphate and nitro-phosphate.
A name written on a wheat field on the chalk in
the neighbourhood of Driflfield, in Yorkshire, might
be read a mile off"; and on these chalks — so liable
to have the phosphates washed out and the am-
monia dissipated — an addition like this would be
not unlikely to produce such an eflTect.

The experience of Mr. Charnock, of Holmfield,
goes further ; and he states as a fact that the dis-
solved bones are, for manurial purposes, far pre-
ferable to dissolved coprolites. But Mr. Charnock
is a scientific man, and probably prepares his bones
in a scientific manner ; whereas too many farmers
ruin them by ill-advised and unskilful mixtures or
modes of solution. With them the coprolites or
mineral phosphates aflPord a far better form of
soluble bi-phosphate, when treated with acid by a
skilful manufacturer, thantheoddandheterogeneous

126

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

mixtures too often used by fanners ill-instructed
in chemistry.

We hardly dare venture to name a few of the
mistakes they commit. Some add ashes to the
bones as soon as dissolved, or rather treated with
the acid to neutralise its effects, or at any rate
reduce them to a mere disintegration of the bone.
Others, wishing to see heat and bubbling, add too
mucli water to the acid, already of a low specific
gravity, and so impair its action on the bones, and
lessen the rapidity of that action, if not the very
energy it ought to exercise. But all sorts of mix-
tures are added to the bone, salt — which will rather
increase their solubility — if an additional quantity
of acid be used ; and, even ashes are used in some
cases, and the confusion and bubbling of the gases
escaping during the union of the sulphuric acid
and alkalies of the ashes are mistaken for a great
impression being produced on the bones.

The best mode, doubtless, is to drill them in the
liquid form ; if not, earth or sawdust, or stick-
heap bottoms, are the best substances to mix. But,
to those who have the means by a Chandler's or
some such efficient drill, the liquid is the best of
all forms of application. Mr. Cholmely dissolves
the bones in a tub, and uses 15 lbs. of acid and
7h lbs. of water — the acid being, of course, the
commercial acid for farmers, and not that of the
shops — to 1 bushel of bones. The bones are first
satui-ated with water, and then the acid added :
this remains two days. This is carried to the field,
and then reduced with tank liquor in given pro-
portions. The liquid being under 1,000 gallons
per acre and the bones 4^ bushels. He finds, what
is perhaps the best possible evidence of the value
of the solution, that turnips drilled with the liquid
manure drill are ready for hoeing at least a week
earlier than by any other method. In a dry time,
moreover, beyond the mere advantage of drought
being overcome, the liquid is the very best form in
which to apply any manure, if the water does not
bear too great a proportion to the manurial matter.

Incidentally, an experiment is mentioned of a
mixture of clay and manure. Mr, Scott took out
300 loads of farm-yard manure, and covered it with
soil ; and the same quantity, and mixed it with
clay previously comminuted by mixing with ashes.
The latter, however, would probably just do as
much with their alkalies to dissipate the am-
monia as the clay did to detain it. The result, there-
fore, was the first lot had 15 and the latter 14 tons
per acre. On the whole, the committee say, " They
have stated, on the authority of numerous e.\-
periments (tried now for three successive seasons),
that turnips can be grown more cheaply by hand
tillages than by manure. This, of course, only
applies to those cases where both have to be bought ;

and, since all farmers must keep more or less stock,
and convert their straw into manure of some sort,
good farmers will do their best to make good manure,
and so far as the average quantity of home-made
farming and manure is concerned, the alternative
of hand tillages does not apply. But over and
above that amount of manure which is produced
by ordinary good management, much expense is
frequently incurred in fattening cattle on corn, oil-
cake, &c., without any prospect of profit, but solely
for the sake of adding to the value of the manure
heap, and thus increasing the acreage and the yield
of future root crops. In such cases, the perusal
of the experiments detailed in this and the last No.
of the Transactions, is calculated to afford valuable
information, and to lead all who fatten cattle to
consider whether, at the present price of beef, it
would not be wise to retrench large sums now laid
out in feeding stuffs, and whether every £100 so
economized might not be adequately made up to
the manure heap by the outlay of £50 in guano and
coprolites." — Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal.

THE TRANSMISSION OF FOREIGN SEEDS
IN SOIL. — At a recent meeting of the Edinburgh
Botanic Society, Mr. M'Nab read a paper in which he
stated tlint he had been long hi the belief that the
transmission ot fruits and seeds in a fit state for ger-
mination would be better accomplished by I)eing
paclied in soil than by any otlier known method. This
experiment was I'ully testtd by himself during 1831,
when lie brought over tlic seeds of many of tlie rarer
American Oaks and otlier tress in boxes filled with
soil, wliile portions of the same kinds of seeds packed,
both in brown paper and cloth bags, were, in many in-
stances, totally u^^elcss. The method lie adopted for
the American tree seeds, was as follows : — He pur-
cliased several strong deal boxes about 14 inches in
diameter, and made of J inch wood. He afterwards
procured a quantity of soil taken from a deptli of
eight or ten inches under tlie surface so as to possess
only a natural dampness. A layer of the soil two
inches deep was pluced on tlic bottom of the boxes,
above which a layer of seeds was distributed ; another
lajerof soil and then seed, and so on till the boxes
were full ; tlie whole was pressed very firmly
down, when the lids were nailed on, allowing no pos-
sible room to sliake about. Wlien they reached Edin-
burgh, December, 1834, the seeds and soil were sown
over tiie surface of shallow pans and boxes. During
the following spring they grew freely ; while of those
brought home in the paper and cloth bags, compara-
tively few of the varieties grow, the acorns being with-
out an exception perforated with insects. The kinds
which grew were from four to five weeks later of ve-
getating than those brought home in soil. Acorns
brought home in a box of sphagnum moss, after the
superfluous moisture had been wrung from it, were
equally successful with those in soil.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

127

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

THE LEWES SHOW,

Hitherto the Country Meeting of the Royal
Agricultural Society has engrossed the attention ol
the leading agriculturists of the kingdom during
the week in which it is held, but the elections for
counties, which as observed by Lord Palmerston
at the Pavilion Dinner, " naturally excite a peculiar
interest amongst those who have turned their at-
tention to agricultural pursuits," taking place at
the same time, could not fail to operate prejudi-
cially upon the number of visitors. Regarding
the Windsor Meeting as an exception, it will be found
that the numbers who visited the show-yard are
below the average of several previous years. We
are not aware to what extent returning officers
have a discretion in fixing tbe day of election in
counties, but we have heard it asserted that the
election for East Sussex might have been held
this week had those who have the power of ap-
pointing the time been so disposed. If such be
the case, we think the adoption of that course
would have evinced a sounder discretion, so far as
regards the promotion of the objects of the
society. There may perhaps have been other
interests to serve, which were regarded as para-
mount to the interests of the society. Some
persons appear inclined to infer that the fall-
ing oflf on this occasion of the number of visitors
is indicative of a waning interest in the objects of
the society; we have no hesitation in expres-
sing our conviction that such a conclusion is
erroneous. No circumstance has occurred, no
reason exists, to cause such a revulsion of
feeling. Day by day the desirabihty, nay the
necessity, of adopting every economical im-
provement in farm management becomes more
apparent ; and if we look to the means whereby
the Royal Agricultural Society seeks to promote
agricultural improvement, we shall find that they
have been more efficient than at any period since
its establishment. The necessity of "adopting
every economical improvement in farm manage-
ment," so as to raise agricultural produce at the
smallest possible cost, has long been inculcated upon
general principles, not only by persons independent
of pohtical parties, but by the free-traders and
those who advocated cheapness, as essential to our
national prosperity. Within the last few days, an
honourable gentleman, a great political light, a

high authority with a large portion of the agricul-
tural class, has given the same, hitherto not alto-
gether palatable, advice. He observes — " I say, in
accordance with the spirit of the age and the temper
of the country, let your produce now be raised
upon the cheapest possible principle." If then
" we look to the means whereby the Royal Agri-
cultural Society seeks to promote agricultural im-
provement" we shall find that neither in the va-
ried and sound practical information contained in
the pages of the Journal, in the value of the lec-
tures delivered by its professors, in the character of
the objects for which prizes are offered, or in the
growing excellence of its shows of cattle and imple-
ments, more especially the latter, are there any
symptoms of deterioration. Valuable as those
which preceded it have been, we beheve the last
number of the Society's Journal to afford more
available practical information to the farmer than
will be found in any previous number. Excellent
as have been the lectures previously deUvered at
the Society's rooms, we hold that none have
equalled those delivered by Professor Way during
the year, in describing the connection subsisting
between the science and practice of agriculture.
Generally useful as have been the objects for which
prizes have been offered from time to time, we are
persuaded that none aflford promise of such im-
portant results as the prize of one thousand pounds
and the gold medal, offered at the instance of Mr.
Fisher Hobbs, for the discovery of a manure equal
in fertilizing properties to the Peruvian Guano, and
of which an unlimited supply can be furnished to
the English farmer at a rate not exceeding £5 per
ton. And rapid as has been the progress of improve-
ment in agricultural implements and machinery,
never has it advanced in the beneficial direc-
tion of simpUcity and cheapness with such speed
as since the last exhibition at Exeter. As
regards the arrangements at Lewes, it is not
too much to assert that more general satisfac-
tion was expressed by those who are placed
in a situation to be most aflfected by their effi-
ciency or inefficiency than upon any former
occasion. We allude more particularly to that diffi-
cult but most important branch of the proceedings,
the trial of implements, the result of which was
satisfactory to all parties. In respect to the pro-

K

12@

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ceedingG at the great dinner, ably and efficiently
presided over by Earl Dacie, the President of the
Society, it will be seen, by a perusal of the speeches,
that in point of intellectuality they will not lose by
a comparison with those delivered upon any former
occasion. The stewards and judges of the Show
went through their laborious duties with an energy
and determination which must command success.
The honorary director of the Show, Mr. Brandreth
Gibbs, was, as usual, indefatigable in the perform-
ance of the arduous, task which upon these occa-
sions devolves upon him ; and the secretary, Mr.
Hudson, maintained the reputation which he has
so long enjoyed, of being, as expressed by the noble
president, " the right arm" of the Society. We
trust we have said enough to show that not only is
the Society not declining in the successful prose-
cution of the great objects for which it was estab"
lished, or in the estimation of those who will most
profit by its auccess — the people of these realms, of
every class and denomination. — Mark Lane
Express.

(from a cokrespondent.)

The annual show of the Royal Agricultural Society
enjoyed last year peculiar advantages ; sufficient, in fact,
to insure a bumper meeting, almost altogether inde-
pendent of the Exhibition's real merits or attractions.
People were already drawn into a focus, as it might be,
on the spot ; and, with this declared business of sight-
seeing in full vogue, it would have been strange indeed
had the receipts not been heavy. Though not perhaps
in a proportionate degree, the Society suffers this year
from concomitant causes, as it profited by them on the
occasion of its last anniversary. A general " county"
election week was about the very worst opposition a
national agricultural association could have had to en-
counter, and the party colours flying in Lewes town
itself spoke plainly enough as to the reason for any
falling-off in the attendance at the show-yard.

In some respects, as will be seen on reference to the
notice of the Implement Department, this Show was
indisputably above the average ; while in others
it can be scarcely said to reach the strength of
former years. In two or three classes the animals
entered would fairly bear comparison with any preceding
catalogue. Take the stock generally, however, and
the report can hardly be so clearly in its favour.
At a meeting held in the heart of the Sussex Downs, it
would be only natural to expect to find the Southdown
amongst the most prominent and best features of this,
department. And here the visitor, either neighbour or
stranger, could not well be disappointed. He must
have been bard to please if he was. The show of this
now most fashionable of our breeds of sheep quite
equalled last year's at Windsor, though the great credit
of it is not due to the Sussex men themselves. Again,
we had Mr. Jonas Webb first, and first in indisputable
advance of his fellows ; one of the most formidable of

his competitors, Mr. Rigden, of Hove, being quite out
of luck ; and the strength of the home- party centred
this season in Lord Chichester's flock, who must have
every reason to be satisfied with the places he obtained
in so good an entry.

After the sheep, Sussex would seem chiefly to pride
itself on a breed of cattle almost peculiar to the county,
and but lately admitted to a class in the prize list of
the society. The poor show of these animals last
season appeared hardly to warrant such a grant ; nei-
ther did they command much general admiration
on this occasion. Of course they abounded in the yard,
and local judges went from Catt's to Denman's or
Smith's, with evident appreciation of the animal. The
more common public, on the other hand, have yet to learn
their value, resting as it does perhaps more on their
utility for the yoke than their appearance in the stall.
They were " coarse, rough looking beasts," and wanted
the round, neat, thorough-bred look of their more dis-
tinguished relative, the Devon. The show of the latter
was not so "even" as it previously has been : this was
especially observable in the prize beasts, where the
purity of Messrs. Quartley, George Turner, and others,
had to succumb to the substance of Mr. Farthing's
variety of the breed. This gentleman, a Somersetshire
man, contrives like the Sussex to make more of the
animal, and the judges on this occasion went entirely
with him. It is still a question, however, whether
in the course of future proceedings this judgment
may not be reversed. With so eminent a breeder as
Lord Ducie for President, the short-boms lost none
of their customary popularity ; the contest, however,
was all, this time, with our friends farther north ;
ending indeed in a very close race for the first prize.
With many good — though not official— judges Mr.
Fawkes' white bull was the favourite; they are both,
though, magnificent specimens of the sort, and are well
supported by Mr. Towneley's prize cows, about whose
superiority there could be no mistake. The same gen-
tleman's prize heifers, again, were as justly admired; in
fact, such signal success from one herd has been but
rarely attained ; Mr. Towneley taking four prizes with
only five animals exhibited. With the exception of
the Southdown sheep, which above all others should
have here been no exception, it is remarkable to
observe how generally the prizes go to those districts
in which the different varieties were first established.
The shorthorns or improved Durham all yet come
best from the north ; the Devon premiums go to Devon
and Bridgewater ; and Mr. Price, a name long asso-
ciated with the excellence of this stock, still asserts
the supremacy of Hereford for Herefords. The Here-
ford bull, however, was not this year " the lion" of the
yard : in fact, the class generally were somewhat neg-
lected—more certainly from the heat of the weather and
its effects on beasts so highly " made up" than from any
deterioration in the quality of the animal. Who, as the
noble president urged, may be the first " to immolate
himself upon the altar" and show store stock as store
stock, is a question more or less answered already. It
is very evident there are many large breeders anxious to

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

129

do so ; but at present they know it must be at a saeri-
Jice. A striking instance of this disposition was seen in
some of the Romney Marsh sheep-pens, Sir Edward
Dering's, the winners, as generally as Mr. Sanday's
were in the Leicesters, being certainly beautifully got
up for the Show. There is no doubt either as to
their being the best of the class ; but the contrast between
them and Mr. Jeremiah Smith's, which were penned
close by, was very remarkable. Mr. Walter Dawes,
who took a prize for his ewes, also exhibited more on
the strength of his breed than his feed ; but we fear these
gentlemen will not make many converts. The tendency
to brush up a little on the occasion of any display is but
human nature after all. Mr. Sanday's place on the list
sj)eaks for itself; but it certainly is remarkable to ob-
serve how ably he sustains the character of the Holme-
Pierpoint " Leicester." That Mr. Burgess so aus-
piciously commenced, Mr. Sanday would promise as
becomingly to carry out.

So far the introduction of the poultry premiums into
the list promises but little success : like the pigs, they
remind one more of the winter or Christmas shows, and
whei'e they will always be seen to most advantage. It
is a question, too, whether Birmingham has not a lead
here that it might be as well to leave where it is. Of the
pigs sent — and the exhibition in this respect was not a
remarkable one — the improved Essex or Fisher Hobbs'
sort had quite the call ; although it will be seen the
prizes taken by them now travel to all parts of the coun-
try— a tolerably sure sign of their general efficacy. In
concluding this part of our notice, we must not omit to
mention the very capital entry of horses — of the Suffolks
more particularly. They were almost all, without ex-
ception, good, and some really wonderful for the judg-
ment displayed in breeding them. In no department
have the exhibitions of the Royal Agricultural Society
improved more of late years than with this kind of horse.
Of the Norfolks there were comparatively but few,
though amongst these three or four very clever animals.

This Meeting has been one at which a great advance
has been exhibited in several of the important machines
used in the cultivation of the soil, in the preparation
of produce for market, and in the manufacture of the
green and root-crops into meat, thereby providing
manure for the farm.

I purpose looking at the progress of the past year in
a somewhat systematic way, and as the plough stands
first, we will deal with it first.

It is true that the plough of this year is not much bet-
ter than that of last year ; but, by going to the cheapest
market, as good a plough can be obtained at 25 per cent,
less money — and that, in these times, is cheering, as it
affords strong hopes of matters adjusting themselves
to circumstances.

In common harrows there have been no impro\rements
of great importance ; but they have been made more
perfect in the details of the improvements of last year.
There was an excellent light harrow for covering-in
clover and grass-seeds among grain crops after being

hoed. It is constructed on the principle of the horse-
rake, with two rows of teeth working mdependently of
each other. But this implement is superseded by
the advanced improvements made in Mr. Garrett s
horse-hoe, which render it all that can well be desired
by the farmer. He has attached a sowing apparatus to
the front of the horse-hoe, with pipes to conduct the
seed down, and spreading it broadcast between the drills
of grain, so that none of it is depcsited in the rows of
the growing crop, where there would be no chance of
its growing ; the hoes following, cut up and loosen the
soil to a very shallow depth ; and two light teeth, work-
ing vertically, and independently of each other, follow in
each row, teazing and amalgamating the soil cut up by
the hoes— thus ensuring the destruction of the weeds
and the covering of the seeds.

In the clod-roller there have been some well-designed
attempts to beat Crosskill ; but he has still maintained
his place as the captain of them all.

In the Norwegian harrow there has been no progress
made ; in fact, it has been rather damaged by the ma-
chinery that has been applied to raise it from the ground
when turning, which appendage has more than doubled
the cost.

In scarifiers there have been considerable improve-
ments made in simplifying them, and also a very great
reduction in the cost of many of them.

Mr. Crosskill has introduced a new smooth roller of
first-rate construction : it has a number of wheels eight
inches wide, strung upon an axle, with holes two or three
inches more in diameter than the axle ; so that each
wheel can drop into hollows or pass over heights, and
all parts are equally pressed, thus filling up the place
that has long been most inefficiently occupied by all
sorts of imperfect rollers.

In harvesting machines and implements there has
been an extraordinary advance, inasmuch as the reaping
machine, which has been so long used in Britain, has
been brought before this Society as the invention of
Brother Jonathan, after having the model sent over to
him, which we must give him credit for calling our at-
tention to, and exciting the present generation to study
the improvement of that which their forefathers have
spent so much time in endeavouring to effect. Mr.
Howard was, I believe, the only one that made the at-
tempt to deliver the cut crop in quantities large enough
for a sheaf. He has not yet succeeded, still the attempt
has many feasible features in it.

The trial of these important machines took place on
Tuesday morning, on a piece of rye, which was (through
the able management of W. F. Hobbs, Esq., the stew-
ard) divided into long pieces of about half an acre each,
by mowing a swarth out betwixt the pieces. Each reap-
ing machine was started on its own piece, for which they
had drawn lots, which, so far as the crop or ground was
to be considered, was unnecessary, as one lot was as like
another as it was possible for them to be ; but owing to
the dew being heavy, those machines that started first
had not so easy work in cutting, as the wet and the green
stateof the crop combined caused the straw to clog the
knives; but afterwards Mr. Ransome's machine began,

K 2

130

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

which worked well so far as the cutting went, though
the men being novices at the work, and the horses being
driven at an American pace, the delivery of the
straw was badly done. M'Cormick's reaper was
then tried, and worked well, but cut much higher
than the others : it was managed by an Ameri.
can, who perfectly knew how to use it, and the work
was satisfactory as far as the delivery was concerned ;
but the grass (growing on the side of a footpath, which
had to be crossed by them all) seemed to clog the knives
for an instant, so that a little of the rye was not cut
just after crossing the path. The power required to
draw this machine was much greater than Hussey's ;
the stubble left was too high for low cutting, and too low
to admit of mowing it. After this M'Cormick's was the
favourite until Mr. Crosskill's, which was set too low,
and got some flints amongst the knives, which put a
stop to it for a few minutes, in order to sharpen the
knives injured, when it went off in good style, with the
horses at a more moderate pace, but still far too fast.
Mr. Garrett then came into the field with his man,
who managed everything in such style, that he asto-
nished everybody ; at first he was not able to keep
time with the horses, which were going at a trot ; but
after being reduced to a walk, things went on more
satisfactorily, and the man was able to lay the stuff ofi"
in a very fair state, the horses were not driven any-
thing like so hard as with M'Cormick's machine, an-
other of which was tried with a man not much used to
it, and it was evident that he was as little at home at
the work as any of the others were with Hussey's, and
did not lay the stuff off in any better style, if so well.

After a second trial of Mr. Crosskill's, Mr. Garrett's,
and Mr. McCormick's (Mr. Ransome withdrew in favour
of Mr. Garrett), the horses were kept at apace of about
three to four miles per hour, and then the men were able
to lay the stuff off in a good form, and the cutting of both
of Hussey's was excellent, that of McCormick's was
too high ; but from what was to be seen by this trial
there must be something done to obviate the necessity
of the horses travelling so fast : two to two-and-a-half
miles per hour is quite fast enough for farm horses to
walk, and the man would be able to deliver the cut crop
in pieces large enough for making a sheaf each. Those
parties who have reaping machines must not give up
faint-heartedly, but persevere, and there is but little
doubt that the work will be satisfactory, after the
horses know what they are about, and the men get into
the proper method of managing the machine. On examin-
ing the machines it was found that several important
improvements had been made by Mr. Garrett in the
manner of raising and lowering the machine to make it
cut high or low as required ; and his machine was
finished off in the most superior way, every part of the
iron work exposed to friction being polished, which
gives it a great advantage. Mr. Crosskill has increased
the speed of bis knife, so that it cuts one-fourth oftener
than the one introduced from America, which will allow
of the horses travelling at a more moderate pace ; but
his machine was not got up in the superior way in which
Mr. Garrett came out with his.

In the harvesting carts there has been very little ad-
vance made since the Norwich show, but the price of iron
stack stands has fallen above 20 per cent., and a new ma-
terial has also been introduced without being sufficiently
noticed, namely, glazed earthenware pillars, with any
rough timber that is come-at-able, and as hedgerow tim-
ber is of but little value it might be cut down and used
for this purpose.

In the thrashing machines there have been great im-
provements made by combining the operations of thrash-
ing, shaking of the straw, riddling out the short straw,
and blowing out the chaff, all at once, by the power of
that great agent, steam ; thus making a great saving in
the expense of thrashing.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England has much
to be proud of, in so stimulating our agricultural engine
makers. The talent of Mr. Hornsby has brought be-
fore the public an engine that can work up to its full
power with 4flbs. of coal per horse power, without using
an expansion valve ; thus eclipsing the great commercial
and manufacturing engine makers — and proving to the
world that this Society has done more than the com-
bined societies of the manufacturing interest.

In the chaff-cutting engines, Richmond and Chandler
have given a complete go-by to everything that has been
produced before, inasmuch as his new machine does the
same amount of work with forty-five per cent, less
power in the same time ; thereby reducing the expense of
this important work. This machine also has an im-
portant appendage for sharpening it by merely turn-
ing two screws, and giving the machine a few turns
backwards.

In the turnip-cutters, Messrs. Ransome and Sims
have attached a crushing apparatus to Gardner's machine
for preparing the roots for mixing with chaff.

Messrs. Burgess and Key have brought out a root
cutter on an excellent principle ; but it requires some
slight alteration in its details, which the able engineer of
the society kindly showed them how to effect.

In the drills some important simplifying alterations have
taken place, and it was gratifying to find that our two
champions, Hornsby and Garrett, keep running each
other so close with their drills and thrashing machines,
but they have got other formidable opponents in Messrs.
Clayton and Shuttleworth and Messrs. Ransome and
Sims.

It is believed that the long desired mill to cut or grind all
sorts of grain and pulse into fine meal is now realized,
in the patent metal mill invented by Mr. Hurwood, and
made by Ransome and Sims. It grinds with fifty per
cent, less power than stones.

An important appendage might be made by putting
one of Kase's force-pumps over one of Crosskill's liquid
manure carts to be used in spreading the manure ; and,
if always kept full of water, would serve the purpose of
a fire-engine. It throws forty gallons per minute to the
distance of forty feet.

From the above remarks, it will be seen that the
implements and machinery exhibited this year were of
a more practical nature, and gave the judges, in many
cases, greater difficulty to decide which was the best.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

131

But, in the trial-yard, Mr. Amos with his testing
dynamometers settles the matter of the power required
to do the work, and to this are we indebted for the rapid
stride that has been made in our machinery. Since
he has become the Society's engineer it is to be hoped that
he will turn his almost inexhaustible talents to bringing
out a more accurate dynamometer, so that the field im-
plements might be tested as to their draft, as it appears
that those ploughs that have the longest turn- furrow have
the heaviest draft, and as the fashion runs in the direc-
tion of increasing the length of the turn- furrow or mould-
board. L.

THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL

SOCIETY.

THE LEWES SHOW.

(abridged from the times.)

LEWES, Tuesday, July 13.— The annual country
meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society cjmmences
at this place to-morrow. Before the prize lists of im-
plements and stock overtake us, and while we are still
fresh upon the ground, it may be worth while to state
shortly what the Royal Agricultural Society is, how it
works, what good it has done, what its faults are, and
how it may be made more useful for the future. The
survey thus proposed is rendered the more appropriate
at the present moment when the last decisive battle be-
tween Free Trade and Protection is, with no doubtful
issue, being fought to its close, and when some instruc-
tion may be derived by contrasting the fruits of a great
political contest with the unostentatious labours of a
body of men endeavouring to develope the oldest, the
most necessary, and perhaps the greatest, of the useful
arts.

The Royal Agricultural Society of England was
incorporated in 1839 for a variety of objects. It was
to embody such information contained in agricultural
publications, and in other scientific works, as had been
proved by practical experience useful to the cultivators
of the soil. It was to correspond with agricultural
horticultural, and other scientific societies, both at home
and abroad. It was to encourage experimental agricul-
ture, to promote improvements in implements and in
the construction of farm -buildings and cottages, to de-
velope the science of agricultural chemistry, to ascertain
the best means of eradicating weeds and of destroying
insects injurious to vegetable life, to help the discovery
and introduction of new varieties of useful plants, to
raise the standard of education among the agricultural
classes, to assist in improving the veterinary art, and to
encourage the best modes of cultivation and the best
breeds of stock, and, finally, to contribute as far as pos-
sible to the comfort and welfare of the labourer. It
will be admitted that the society had a wide enough field
of exertion thus opened up to it. Let us see how it
went to work therein. Its operations may be collected
from the privileges of membership (with a Journal pub-
lished in half-yearly parts), the services of a consulting

chemist, the town meetings of the council, at which
lectures are read and discussions take place on all sub-
jects of interest included within the scope of the society 's
charter, a library for reference, the annual country
meetings, which include a show of stock and imple-
ments, and, finally, some advantages in connection with
the Royal Veterinary College. The society may also
claim such credit as is due to it for having promoted the
Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester — an institu-
tion which may yet prove of great value in supplying an
enl'ghtened body of land-agents competent for the care
of those important interests with which they are in-
trusted. The college, however, has now no connexion
with the society, and is merely mentioned incidentally.
Of the different means thus adopted by the Society for
the promotion of agriculture, the Journal is certainly
one of the most valuable and successful. It has a cir-
culation considerably in excess of the number of mem-
bers in the society, notwithstanding that the gratuitous
distribution to them raises the price to the public to
an exorbitant amount. In this last respect the
arrangements do not appear to be at all on a
satisfactory basis; and the Council, if they do not
speedily make some change, may find private enter-
prise depriving them of a means of usefulness
which cannot be too much prized. There are hun-
dreds of farmers who would willingly become subscribers
for the Journal if the sale of it had not been converted
into a practical monopoly for the purpose of securing
additional members. The price of each part is 10s., so
that in the year the general public are mulcted for it as
much as if they had joined the society. Of the value of
this periodical in the information which it contains it is
difficult to speak too highly. Its pages possess an interest
which will often prove attractive to the least professional
reader; and while visionary theories are rejected on the
one hand, and the bigotry of routine discountenanced on
the other, the successful applications of science to prac-
tice are elucidated with the greatest care and by the
best authorities. Take, for example, the two parts
issued last year as specimens. The first opens with an
article on agricultural chemistry by Mr. Lawes, of Roth-
amstead, and Dr. Gilbert ; Mr. Pusey writes an account
of M'Cormick's reaping machine, and Professor Way
treats on superphosphate of lime, and Mr. J. A. Clarke
gives an excellent account of the farming of Lincoln-
shire. In the second part, Mr. Lawes is again found
recording an elaborate series of experiments on the com-
parative fattening qualities of different breeds of sheep.
There is a very remarkable essay by Mr. Joshua Trim-
mer, on the Agricultural Geology of England and Wales
— one which opens up an entirely unexplored field of
science, and which, pursued in conjunction with Pro-
fessor Way's researches into the different qualities of
soils, will no doubt yet throw very extensive light upon
the practice of agriculture. The part concludes with a
report, drawn up by Mr. Pusey, on the agricultural im-
plements in the Great Exhibition. Copious extracts
from that report were published in the Times when it
first appeared, and the whole forms a most comprehen>
slve statement of the valuable aod increasing aids which

132

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the mechanical ingemiity of the age is so rapidly placing
at the disposal of the cultirators of the soil. No person
who refers to that report, or to the ahle lecture deli-
vered on the same subject before the Society of Arts by
Professor Wilson, can fail to be struck with the pro-
gress which has been made, and is still making, in this
direction, and Mr. Pusey puts the practical results at
once truthfully and well, when he says that "the efforts
of agricultural mechanists have been, in all the main
branches of farming labour taken together, to eiTect a
saving on outgoings of little less than one-half;" that
the new mechines have, in addition to that saving, " the
merit of very great cheapness," and that they "have
given to farming what it most wanted, not absolute in-
deed, but comparative certainty." Looking back to the
few years during which the Journal has been in exis-
tence, one cannot help being struck with the freshness
and value of the information which it has conveyed.
Every new fact or practice connected with agriculture
and included in the scope of the society's objects, has
found therein a ready medium of publicity. The state
of cultivation in each county, and the capabilities of
the soil, have been carefully described, experiments have
been minutely detailed, and the peculiar systems of
widely separated districts, and even countries, recorded
for the common benefit and instruction of all. The
catch-water meadows of Devonshire, the warp lands of
the Trent, the great level of the Fens, drained by wind-
mills and steam-engines, are, perhaps, among the most
remarkable developments of English agriculture; and it
is reassuring, in times of distrust like those which we
have lately passed through, to have the attention directed
to results which, through many difficulties, and pursued
during a long course of years, enterprize and
energy have achieved.

The employment of a consulting chymist by the
society adds greatly to the usefulness and dignity of its
Inbours ; fo.-, however the ignorant may deride the still
obscure teachings of chymical knowledge, a time will
come, and is already more than foreshadowed, when the
laboratory will form a usual appurtenance of the farm,
and when scientific analysis and experiment shall super-
sede the rule of thumb, by which our fields have been
cultivated and our food supplied. The society has felt
and still feels all this. Besides those elaborate investi-
gations into the qualities of manures and of soils to
which we have already adverted, and which have yielded
practical results of the highest value, many examples
may be found in the records of the society's proceedings
of the unexpected aids which chymistry affords. We
may quote as an instance the treatment of flax straw as
a substance adapted for manufacture; hut the most re-
markable proof of the interest felt in this department,
and the large expectations entertained from it, is the
announcement made a few days ago that the Society
would confer a prize of jfc'1,000 for the discovery of an
artificial manure as fertilizing as Peruvian guano, and
apable of being sold at £^ per ton, Such a discovery
is not deemed impossible, and yet the effect of it would
be an average increase of production which Mr. Hudson,
of Castleacre, told the Earl of Derby recently would

be more than equal to any protective duty the Govern-
ment could place upon corn.

The town meetings of the council, and the lectures
which are read and the discussions which arise therein,
form a prominent feature of the Society's means of
action. The subjects treated usually possess the interest
of novelty, or of circumstances which have arisen to fix
attention upon them. Here the business of the society
is chiefly conducted by the most active and enterprising
landowners and farmers, their continuance in the council
being made dependent, to a large extent, upon the punc-
tuality with which they attend the proceedings. So far
the result is satisfactory, and the working of the society
efficient ; but it is a necessary consequence of the
present constitution of the council that its members
have facilities for remaining in office to a degree incom-
patible with that character for freshness and vigour
which s'lould mark the governing bodies of voluntary
associations like this. Let an impression once get
abroad that the affairs of such an association have fallen
into the hands of a clique, and farewell to its usefulness.
The Royal Agricultural Society has been more open
to this charge than it is at present, and, we be-
lieve, perceives its own danger with regard to it.
The ordinary meetings of tlie councils at Hanover-
square necessarily command no great variety in the
attendance ; but means might be adopted, by the
formation of committees from the general body
of members on special subjects, or by a union with the
local societies, similar to that which has recently been
organized by the Society of Arts, for giving all parts of
the coimtry a practical share in the operations of the so-
ciety, and thus enlisting them by their own services in
the cause of agricultural progress. A few of the leading
farmers of England are active members of the society ;
but the great majority still regard it as a landlord's in-
stitution, given over to an amateur spirit of improve-
ment, and comparatively regardless of those cconomlol
considerations from which practical men cannot afford
to have their attention diverted. This we believe to be
a narrow-minded view of the objects of the society, but
as long as it exists a great barrier of opinion and feeling
is presented to its usefulness. Such facts do not escape
observation, as the large proporlion of members in the
council who come from the very county in which the
present year's meeting is held.

Wednesday, July 14. — Between the excitement of a
contested election and preparations for the agricultural
show, the inhabitants of this usually quiet town are
thrown into no small state of bewilderment. They have
decorated their streets with banners and evergreen
arches. In the neighbourhood of the yard long lines of
tents for refreshments have been erected, and from the
depths of some of these proceed sounds indicating a due
desire to keep the occasion joyously and mirthfully.
Everybody in the place seems astonished that it should
suddenly become such a centre of attraction, and all
appear to feel impressed with the necessity of carrying
the town creditably through so momentous an epoch in
its history. Nor is there any reason to doubt that their
efforts in this direction will be crowned with complete

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

133

success. The Ecorching heat of the weather will deter
some, and the cares of electioneering will absorb others;
but there is no reason to fear that these drawbacks, or
the retited position of Lewes, will interfere seriously
with the success of the show. To-day, it is true, the
attendance has not been encouraging : but to-morrow,
which is the great day, it is hoped will go off well. So
intense was the heat during the afternoon that not even
a squeak could be heard from the pig-pens, and half-a-
dozen indefatigable game cocks and two Cochin-china
fowls had a perfect monopoly of the noises usual in the
stockyard. One could not help thinking that the blazing
sun had succeeded in inspiring the animals of the society
with something of that respect for his rays which, in tro-
pical regions during the heat of the day, renders forests
filled with wild beasts and birds, endless in the variety
of their calls, as silent as the grave.

The proceedings of the society may be said not to
have commenced till this morning, for, though Professor
Siraonds last night delivered aa interesting lecture on
the diseases of cattle, arising from parasites within or
without the body, the implement yard was not opened
till to-day, and the current of public interest v/ill hardly
have set in strongly until to-morrow. The display of
implements justifies all the expectations entertained of
it, and exhibits a decided advance in many important
respects upon those of previous years, A list of prizes
which is appended shows, that all the best and largest
makers have been again in the field, and have main-
tained their already established positions. Messrs. Ran-
somes and Co., after a temporary indiiference to these
exhibitions, in which they long held a leading place,
have re-entered the arena of competition this year with
renewed energy and with proportionate success. The
pre-eminence of their firm is maintained in the manu-
facture of the plough, which may be considered as beirg
to other agricultural implements what "the Queen of
weapons" is to arms. Messrs, Garrett and Son, while
tlicy divide with Hornsby and Son the prizes for drills,
and with Messrs. J and F. Howard those for horse-hoes,
extend the reputation of their firm, first, by some very
valuable improvements in the construction of Hussey's
American reaping-machine, and, secondly, by exhibiting
an entirely new manure-distributor — a machine very
mucli wanted now that guano and other substances of
an expensive character are so extensively used as dress-
ings. The importance of this invention will be readily
understood when it is remembered that 10s. worth of
seed corn is sufiicient for an acre of land, and that,
with reference to that outlay, drills have come into
general use ; whereas, for light artificial manures,
laid on at a cost of 30s, per acre, no mechanical
facilities have hitherto existed for distributing them
equally. It seems odd that the list of prizes awards
only a paltry sum of £5 for so useful a machine.
Messrs. Hornsby and Son distinguish themselves most
in the portable steam-engine shown by them, which ex-
hibits a very remarkable economy of fuel, consuming
only 4§lbs. of coal per horse-power per hour. This may
appear incredible to many engineers, but the experi-
ments whieh prove the fact have been conducted under

the personal superintendence of Mr. Amos, the society's
consulting engineer, and cannot be doubted. The im-
mense improvements effected by Messrs. Hornsby and
other makers in the construction of these portable
steam-engines have removed some of the objections
which the advocates of fixed engines have urged against
them, and it cannot be doubted, from tlie increasing
spirit of competition which is every year shown in refer-
ence to them, that they are approved by many of our
most enlightened agriculturists. Mr. Crosskill, of
Beverley, maintains his long-established position in the
society's show-yard, though his name figures less promi-
nently than usual in the prize list. Outside the show-
yard Mr. Fowler exhibited to-day his draining plough,
which now sets admirably, and for the flat and clay land
districts of the country escpecially is a machine of the
highest importance and value. The inventor deserves
great credit for the steady way in which he has
brought this clever adaptation of the principle of
the old mole plough into practical bearing — per-
severing through many difficulties, and at length
receiving an acknowledgment of his success from
the most sceptical. Within the last three months
he states that his machines have ploughed 2,000 acres of
land, at a price varying from 25s. to 42s. per acre, with-
out tiles ; the relative cost of the same work done by
baud labour being from ^3 10s. to £b lOs., so that
the saving effected is very considerable. Mr. Fowler
thinks that in districts of uniform stiff soil, like the
Boothings of Essex, tiles may be dispensed with, for
the mole in passing through the ground makes a
pipe drain perfectly efficient for many years, and in 12
years the interest on the price of the tiles will come to
more money than the cost of redrainiug. For grass lands
this machine presents extraordinary advantages, pene-
trating as it does to a depth of from 3 to 4 feet, and de-
positing the tiles with far more accuracy and firmness
than is possible by manual labour, without the slightest
injury to the sward on the surface. In the thrashing-
machines some important improvements have been ef-
fected, and that exhibited by Messrs, Clayton and Shut-
tleworth finishes and weighs the corn in a state fit for
the market. Among the minor novelties and improve-
ments of the present show may be mentioned a very
excellent chaff-cutter, exhibited by Messrs. Richmond
and Chandler, of Salford, which effects a saving of
power of not less than from 40 to 45 per cent. There
is a small but interesting show of dynamometers, in-
cluding those of Bcntall and Morin ; and attention is
directed to these instruments because the use of them,
first introduced by Mr. Amos, has tended greatly to
remove any suspicions of partiality in nearly all the
most important departments of the implement-yard.
A mechanical lest is, as the lawyers say, " without
prejudice j'" and the society may fairly be congratulated
on having that test, for nothing short of it would
satisfy. Looking at the implement-yard as a whole, one
cannot help being impressed with the enormous aids
held out therein to practical agriculture. Thirteen years
of experience have exercised a most salutary influence
on tlie desciiption of macliines brought forward, and,.

131

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

whereas formerly there was much useless rubbish,
now the practical requirements of the farm are taken
as the true guides of invention. Perhaps no more
remarkable evidence can be afforded of this than the
case of reaping machines, of which no less than seven-
teen specimens are exhibited, the best makers being
competitors. From among them, Messrs. Garrett and
Son have deservedly borne away the palm, not only by
their selection of Hussey's machine, demonstrating its
superiority over that of M'Cormick, which gained
the council medal at the Great Exhibition last year, but
introducing a very simple improvement in the construc-
tion of the scissor-like knives, which is thus described
in the catalogue :—

" la the machines brought over from America the cutters
were bevilled on both sides, similar to a common axe, which
was found — in cutting soft crops, such as barley and oats —
to have the effect of bendiug the straw between the guards in
which the cutters work, and pulling it off instead of cutting
it. By the improved form of cutter, registered by R. Garrett
and Son, bevilled on one side only, and cutting against a keen
square edge guard made of steel, similar to a pair of shears or
scissors, this defect has been completely remedied, and crops
of any kind may be perfectly cut with equal precision and
lacility. It is adapted for lands ploughed flat, as well as for
stetches or ridges, and may be worked either lengthways or
across the furrows, as required."

This wonderful machine promises to effect a complete
revolution in our harvesting operations, for it cuts every
description of standing crop with an evenness and regu-
larity unknown to hand labour, and it works at the rate
of an acre and a-half per hour ; so that, in addition to
the mere economy of money, there is the equally im-
portant one of time, a farmer being rendered far less de-
pendent on those two very precarious things, harvest
weather and harvest hands, than he used to be. The
attention which this machine has attracted is one of the
most favourable and encouraging signs that have yet been
displayed of the increasing intelligence and enterprise
among the agricultural body. It is calculated that,
within the year, 1,500 of them have been made to order
in this country — a sale of a new implement quite
unprecedented. Another impression which must be pro-
duced on the mind of every attentive visitor to the show-
yard of the Royal Agricultural Society is the extra-
ordinary attraction which the manufacturers of
machinery for the use of the farm feel and own towards
these annual exhibitions. At great expense, they con-
tinue year after year to compete with each other ; and so
strong is the spirit of rivalry which pervades them, that
a blacksmith (not long ago in a very small way in this
neighbourhood) exhibits goods to the value of £'2,000.
Many of these men, who now employ hundreds of hands,
commenced business like this blacksmith, and they have
risen by degrees till their business at length embraces
a variety of mechanical details, and calls forth an in-
genuity which makes it not only an important branch of
our national industry, but a prominent feature in that
great system of labour economized by machinery, which
is the chief source of our wealth as a people.

In concluding thiis notice of the Implement-yard, it

is due to the two stewards, Mr. Fisher Hobbs and Mr.
Hammond, to speak favourably of their praiseworthy
exertions and successful arrangements.

THE GREAT ANNUAL DINNER.

Theattendance at the show-yardson Thursday, July 15,
was much larger than the peculiar circumstances under
which the exhibition takes place in the present year,
could have reasonably led any one to expect. The ar-
rivals of visitors commenced with early dawn, and in
spite of the broiling rays of the sun, and the attractions
of a contested election for the county, vast numbers of
persons were whisked into the town of Lewes by the
railway trains from various directions, and a rare scene
of excitement and an unwonted amount of bustle and
animation ensued thereon. At four o'clock the great
pavilion dinner of the members of the society was held
— the Earl of Ducie, as president, occupying the chair,
and the Earl of Chichester the vice-chair. Upwards of
800 gentlemen partook of the banquet, and at the high
tables we observed—

The Earl of Ducie, president; the chief officer of
Lewes, Viscount Palmerston, his Excellency the Che-
valier Bunsen, his Excellency the Hon. Abbot Lawrence,
the Right Hon. Sir John Pakington, Bart., M.P., the
Earl of Carlisle, his Excellency the Marquis d'Azoglio,
his Excellency the Baron Bentinck, Major General Sir
Harry Smith, Bart., his Excellency General Count
Groeben ; the Earl De la Warr, Lord Walsingham, the
Earl of Sheffield, Lord Berners, Lord Hastings, the
Earl Talbot, Count Perponcher, the chairmail of the
Maryport and Carlisle Railway, M. Richard von Holt-
zendorf-Viel-Mansdorff, Mr. Hampton Langston,M. P.,
chairman of the South Eastern Railway, Mr. Chaplin,
M.P., chairman of the South Western Railway, Mr. Fay
(from the United States), the chairman of the Eastern
Counties Railway, Mr. E. Vernon Harcourt, Sir Edward
Baker, Bart., Mr. Davey (late chief officer of Lewes),
the Earl of Leicester, Viscount Gage, Sir Henry Sliiff-
ner, Bart., Colonel Davies, the High Sherifif of Sussex,
Professor Simonds, Professor Way, junior chief officer
of Lewes ; Captain Stanley Carr, Sir Archibald Mac-
donald, Bart., Captain Hepburn, Baron Martens, Mr.
Lower (late chief officer of Lewes), Mr. Wood (of Cul-
mington). Lord Rivers, M. Malezieux, Captain Mark
Huish, Mr. C. A. Saunders, Mr. R. Moseley, Mr.
Slight, Mr. Sturt, Mr. Bridgeman Simpson, the Earl
of Darnley.

The Hon. R. H. Clive, M.P., Sir J. V.B.Johnstone,
M.P., Mr. W. Shaw, of London, and Sir J. V. Shelley,
M.P., acted as stewards of the dinner.

Grace having been said.

The noble President rose and gave "The Health of
her Majesty the Queen, as Patroness of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England."

The toast was drunk with three times three and one
cheer more.

His Lordship then gave " The Health of Prince
Albert, as ' one of us^r British farmer' (cheers) ; the

THE FARMER'S iMAGAZINE.

135

Prince of Wales, and the other Members of the Royal
Family" (loud cheers).

The noble Chairman next called upon the meeting
to drink a bumper to the health of the representative? of
foreign countries, who had done honour to that anniver-
sary by their presence. He (Lord Ducie) felt thankful
to the great Disposer of all events that, at this moment,
such a cordiality and such harmony existed amongst all
civilised nations, as enabled so many representatives of
foreign states to be present (cheers). With this toast he
was delighted to couple the name of a distinguished in-
dividual who, while he was an honest and efficient servant
of the crown he represented, had endeared himself to
all classes in this country by his earnest advocacy of
many ji work of charity and benevolence, by his skilful
developments of science, and by his continual manifes-
tations of religious piety (cheers). Before he mentioned
the name of this much respected gentleman, he must
say that the county in which they were assembled owed
him a particular debt of gratitude, inasmuch as to him
British fed South Down mutton had been introduced to
the city of Hamburg (cheers). He meant the Chevalier
Bunsen, the Prussian Ambassador, who had been re-
warded very lately by the excellence of South Down
mutton he had eaten in that cily (cheers and laughter).
With the toast also he would associate the distinguished
names of Mr. Abbot Lawrence, the representative of the
United States, and the Marquis d'Azeglio, the Sar-
dinian Ambassador (loud and long-continued cheering.)

The Chevalier Bunsen was received with loud and
prolonged cheering. In returning thanks he described
the interest with which he and his colleagues entered the
show-yard yesterday, and examined the magnificent
exhibition of cattle and the improved show of imple-
ments. There was nothing of politics at these meetings
— politics were banished (laughter and cheers) ; but they
felt that this was a great national, and he might add a
great international, concern ; it was a harbinger of peace
and a sign of concord to the world, strengthening the
feeling of relationship generally between man and man.
With the same feelings they had entered this hall, where
they saw united at this festive board, not landlords and
tenants merely, but warriors and civilians, and states-
men of all political parties, meeting with the tenant-
iarmers for good and for great purposes. They had
thus entered into the very heart and core of British life ;
and he was sure he would not be contradicted by his
excellent colleague when he said that in the midst of all
the efforts of their common brethren, the Anglo-Saxon
race, there was nothing so important as agricultural im-
provement and progress. So it had been from the begin-
ning. What was it that nerved the ancestors of the
people of the United States, when they brought to anew
hemisphere the honoured British name ; what had made
them strong, and able to govern themselves, but their
devotion to the hardy and ennobling pursuits of agri-
culture ? They were not a people who dug in the
crevices of the rocks for dirty gold (laughter), but they
solicited, as was done here, the innocent mother earth
to yield her best blessings and her choicest fruits to the
labours of the ploughshare (cheers). And nc one knew

better than his noble friend, the Sardinian repre-
sentative, that it was the same on the other side of the
Alps, a-.d that it was agriculture which had made the
men of Piedmont the brothers and colleagues of the
Anglo-Saxon race in the determination to uphold their
independence and liberty both in peace and war (loud
cheers). And, though lastnotleast, his own native country
— the native home of the whole Anglo-Saxon race— the
part of Germany which he now represented, the kingdom
of Prussia, was more and more occupied with agriculture,
and in all matters of improvement they looked to Eng-
land for a model. There was also present with them
to-day an individual who forty years ago had fought the
battles of his country, who had fought side by side with
some of their fathers, and it might be with some of
themselves— certainly he liad fought side by side with
the noble duke (Richmond) whom he saw present
(cheers)— he alluded to General Count Groeben, who
had now exchanged his sword for a ploughshare, and
who had come here to witness for himself the course
of agricultural improvement. For himself, ke had had
the happiness of attending the meetings of the Royal
Agricultural Society fourteen years ago, and he would
never forget the kindness with which he was received.
In fact, he was the spoiled child of the society (Hear,
hear) ; and the kindness with which his observations
were listened to made it impossible for him to shrink
from the flattering duty that had been imposed upon
him, which was to propose, " Prosperity to the Royal
Agricultural Society of England" (cheers). After
eulogizing the journal of this society, which he said was
read with equal interest on the banks of the Rhine as on
the Thames, and the value of the annual shows, he said
that in his opinion they were carrying on a greater work
still — they had brought the landlord, the tenant, and
the labourer into a closer union than they had ever been
in before. This process he had seen going on during the
fourteen years that he had been acquainted with them.
This was not a blessing for this country alone, but he
believed it was intimately connected with the peace, the
liberty, and the happiness of mankind all over the
world (cheers). If all this were not enough, he might
point to the fact that they had assembled in the middle
of a great election, which, as was remarked by a great
statesman, in any other country would have shaken the
foundations of society, but here it scarcely ruffled the
surface of its waters (cheers). They had met without
any feeling of party heats or animosities (continued
cheering). What might their efforts then be expected
to be for the future ? On this head he might appeal to
the signs of the times, which appeared to him to have
been assuming a particular significancy during the last
two or three years. He wished to speak, not politics,
but history. If he was not mistaken, more than one
great emigration had taken place among nations, and
had changed the face of the world. And now in the
sister island they saw the same process of emigration
again going on, almost systematically. Yet the people
were not driven away by the force of man — for this
country had given them just laws and an equal adminis*
tration of justice (cheers). But in consequence of that

136

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

emigration the English farmer would come in (cheers),
and with the English farmer would come English ca-
pital, English industry, English order, English respect
for law, the beautiful confidence and trust of the Eng-
lish in each other, their determination to work and pull
in the same direction — and there could be no doubt that
English piety and love for the true religion would ac-
company them (cheers). In providing for this change
in the face of that unhappy country, there were many
agencies at worii ; but he looked upon this society as one
of the most important of them. They had done much to
extend the country on which they worked — not in ex-
tending it beyond the waves, though to some extent
they had done that too — but did they not double the
land when they doubled its productive power (cheers) .'
He was satisfied they would extend the same energy to
Ireland, and therefore he said that this society had a
great career before it. He proposed, " Prosperity to
the Royal Agricultural Society of England" (cheers).

Sir J. Pakington, M.P., who on rising was greeted
with general and prolonged cheering, said : My Lord
Dacie — I beg leave, with your permission, to propose a
toast which the committee have done me ihe honour of
entrusting to my charge, and which I assure you I
propose with the greatest possible pleasure. The toast
to which I beg to call your attention is the " Health of
our noble and escelleut President, the Earl of Ducie"
(loud cheers). My distinguished friend, the Chevalier
Bunsen, who has just addressed you with so much ability,
has remarked, in the coarse of his speech, that anything
like party politics is banished from meetings like the
present (Hear), I assure you that not one word shall
fall from me in contravention of this excellent, and,
indeed, most necessary rule ; and I am happy to say
that we must all feel that, although duiing the last few
years there have been subjects upon which the friends of
British agriculture have been divided in opinion, there
have been also other subjects and other considerations,
and those coasiJerutions connected immediately with the
objects of this society and the objects of this great
meeting, upon which every friend of the English soil
and every friend of the British farmer h?s been cordially
and entirely unanimous (cheers). We must all feel that
the highest considerations of national policy — that the
interest of the landowner and the interests of the tenant-
farmer, all alike require that we should combine in de-
voting our utmost endeavours, by every possible im-
provement in agriculture, by every possible exercise of
agricultural skill, to produce from our soil the largest
crops which it can bring forth (Hear, hear). Such I
believe to be the object of this admirable society ; and I
am sure you will agree with me, that no men arc so fit
to preside from time to time over these annual meetings
as those who have rendered themselves conspicuous by
their exertions in the cause of agricultural science, and
that I am not indulging in the language of mere compli-
ment— that I am saying no more than is required by the
strictest justice and the most rigid truth, when I say that
amongst those who have cheered the British farmer by
good example, and contributed to the science of agricul-
ture the greatest possible amount of skill and the most

liberal expenditure of capital, there are few, if any, who
stand so conspicuously eminent as our noble chairman,
the Earl of Ducie (loud and vehement plaudits). It is
very fortunate to live ia a county adjacent to that which
has the benefit of claiming Lord Ducie among its resi-
dent proprietors ; and I can assure the noble earl that
the reputation he has acquired by his model farm, and
by his exertions in procuring the construction of the best
implements, is not confined to the county of Gloucester.
We hear much of those exertions in the county of Wor-
cester. His fame is spread throughout the length and
breadth of the land (loud cheers). And I believe there
is no man who could be more properly selected on
account of his great exertions in the cause of agriculture,
his skill in that science, and the improvements he has
iatroduccd, to preside over a meeting like the present
(cheers). I will detain you no further — I know you
will concur v;ith me in this just eulogium upon the
example which Lord Ducie has s;t to all who are con-
nected witli the land, and I ask you to join with me in
drinking, with three times tliree, " The Health of the
Noble Earl," with our best thanks to him for presiding
over us on this occasion (loud cheers).

The toast was drunk with all the honours.

The President returned thanks, lemarking face-
tiously that the colonial experience of the right hon.
gentleman had had a perceptible efi'ect in sweetening his
compliments (cheers and laughter). With regard to the
show, he might say that in his opinion the cattle were
about the average, while the implements were decidedly
something more. He believed that there never had
been before so useful and so instructive an exhibition of
implements (cheers), and that if he were to take a prac-
tical farmer and a practised engineer through it, the one
would not be able to suppress his asto'nishment at the
wonderful aJaptation of the implements to his wants,
whilst the other would be equally surprised at the sim-
plicity and perfection of their mechanism (loud cheers).
The only drawback which he (Earl Ducie) saw in the
show was the state of fatness to which some of the ani-
mals were brought. He had not heard of any stock
which had become beef since the assembling of the ex-
hibition, but he had heard of many pigs that had become
pork (laughter). Tliis exhibition not only drew together
the best animals, but the best purchasers ; anJ, if they
were disappointed in their purchases, they would soon
cease to come (Hear, hear). The advantage of showing
the animals in a more natural state hardly required an
■iirgument; ant1, as it was scarcely fair to ask tlie judges
to act positively in this matter, seeing that the public
had a prejudice in favour of fat, he should therefore
suggest having a store stock class (cheersi). The pur-
chasers would go to that class ; and where the money
went, there the breeders would gather together (cheers).
This society had done its best to promote the progress of
agriculture, and nothing hud tended more to that object
than the admirable lectures of Professors Way and Si-
monds, a summary of which was so admirably given in
the society's journal, by that light-hand man of the so-
cii;ty, Mr. James Hudson (cheers). The council had,
he was happy to say, turned its attention to the enormous

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

187

price paid by farmers for guano (Hear). A deputation
had lately waited on the Prime Minister with reference
to this subject. It had been most courteously received,
and Lord Derby had promised to do all in his power.
He (Earl Ducie) did not, however, believe that that
"all" amounted to much, as the noble lord on his
left (Viscount Palmerston) had, when in office, been
often applied to on the subject, and had expressed
the same incapacity. The society, therefore, had
taken the matter into their own hands, and pro-
posed a premium of £'1,000 and a gold medal
for the production of a manure of equal value v.ith
guano (cheers). If the price of that manure could be
reduced one. lialf it wouldbe the greatest boon that could
be conferred on the farmer (cheers). He had only one
other remark to make, and that was that the prizes for
poultry were not oflered for fancy, but for useful, birds,
in order to open a new source of profit to the tenant-
fai'mer (cheers).

Lord Walsingham proposed the toast, " Prosperity
to agriculture, manufactures, and commerce," interests
which he held to be mutually dependent upon one an-
other, and which he hoped would in future pull better
together than they had yet done. But it couLl not be
denied that the foundation of them all was agriculture.
Who ever heard of the establishment of a manufacturing
colony (cheers and laughter) ? It was not till agricul-
ture hadprcpared the way, and provided the raw material,
that manufactures and commerce could flourish (an-
plause).

The toast having been cordially drunk,

Lord Palmerston rose, and was received with voci-
ferous applause, which was renewed several times after
silence had been established, and when he was about to
speak. He said — My Lord Ducie and gentlemen, I beg
leave to piopose a toast, which I am sure you will ac-
cept with pleasure, and drink with the greatest cordiality.
I propose to you to drink "Prosperity to the borough
of Lewes, and thanks to the worthy m;igistrate who has
so greatly assisted the operations of this day." (Cheers.)
I am persuaded, gentlemen, that those who have had to
do with the management of the arrangements of this
meeting will do ample justice to the authorities of
Lewes, and v.'illsay that at no other place, and at no
former period, were greater facilities afforded for the
arrangements necessary for a raeetiug of this kind
(cheers) ; and upon that account I am persuaded, inde-
pendently of any other consideration, you will feel plea-
sure in offering your testimony of acknowledgment to
the chief magistrate of the town of Lewes. But, in-
deed, gentlemen, this town has peculiar claims to consi-
deration. For I believe it is one of the most ancient
towns in the whole island. (Hear, hear.) I believe that
it has traditions of historical events which carry back
our recollection even to the time of the Romans. Now,
gentlemen, the Romans, as we know, were a great
people, unsurpassed in some things— in literature and
the arts— a people who made great works. Those
great works, indeed, were, as we have been told —
" Imperial wot^ders wTought by natiojis spoiled ;"
and though we cannot, perhaps, surpass them in

literature, or in the fine arts, yet I think we may boast
that we have surpassed them in our public works.
(Hear, hear). They could boast of nothing to compare
with the railroads which multiply the communications of
this country ; and those railroads, instead of being the
work of " nations spoiled," are the works of individuals
who, I trust, have not been spoiled (laughter), but will
be ample gainers by their investments. (Cheers and
laughter). Now, gentlemen, the Romans also were
great agriculturists, and I believe they drew great sup-
plies of grain from this island. But to them was closed
that wonderful book of knowledge which the scientific
investigations of the present day have opened to you in
that mysterious science of chymistry, which to them was
an unknown book ; and if ever there were a case in which
it was true that " knowledge is power," that maxim is
peculiarly true in reference to the aids which chymistry
affords to agriculture. My noble friend has alluded to
the question of guano, and he has mentioned what is
perfectly true, that when I held an office which would
have enabled me, if it had been possible, to assist the
farmer with regard to guano, my endeavours proved
fruitless. In fact, the Peruvians were not more disposed to
let us put a price on their guano than the British farmer
would be disposed to let them put a price upon his corn.
(Great laughter). But, gentlemen, I cannot but think
that the progress of chymical science, and the appli-
cation of that science to practical agriculture, may lead
you to something which will render you less anxious and
solicitous about this same guano, and that instead of
sending to the other end of the world for more manure
for our fields, we shall find something nearly, if not
quite, as good witliin a few hundred yards of our dwell-
ings. (" Hear, hear," and cheers). Now, gentlemen,
I have heard a definition of dirt. I have heard it said
that dirt is nothing but a thing in a wrong place.
(" Hear," and laughter). Now, the dirt of our towns
precisely corresponds with that definition. (Hear). The
dirt of our towns ought to be put upon our fields, and if
there could be such a reciprocal community of interest
between the country and the towns — that the country
should purify the towns, and the towns should
fertilize the country (laughter) — I am much disposed to
think the British farmer would care le;s than he docs,
though he still might care something, about Peruvian
guano (Hear, hear, and cheers). Now, we all acknow-
ledge that there are certain laws of nature, and that
those who violate those laws invariably suffer for it.
Well, it is a law of nature that nothing is destroyed.
Matter is decomposed, but only for the purpose of again
assuming some new form, useful for the purposes of the
human race. But we neglect that law (Hear, hear).
We allow all decomposed substances in towns to pollute
the atmosphere, to ruin the health, to produce prema-
ture misery, to be pestilent to life, and destructive of
existence. Well, gentlemen, if, instead of that, there
could be a system devised by which these substances,
which are noxious where they now are, could be trans-
ferred so as to fertilize I he adjoining districts, I am
persuaded that not only would the health of the town
populations be thereby greatly improved, but the

138

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

finances of the agricultural population would derive
considerable benefit from the change. You all know,
gentlemen — all who have attended to the subject and
read recent publications must know — that for an expen-
diture per acre far less than that which produces one
manuring of Peruvian guano, you may establish perma-
nent arrangements by which, bringing from the towns
fertilizing liquids, you would improve your property,
and a permanent improvement would be made in the
land at a far less expense than is now required to pro-
duce a single crop (Hear, hear). I therefore recom-
mend you, gentlemen, to ponder the maxim that
"knowledge is power;" and, as the diffusion of the
most useful kind of knowledge is one of the main ob-
jects for which the Royal Agricultural Society was
established, I am persuaded it will tend mainly and
most efficiently to the advancement of the interest
and the power of the agricultural class of the
country (cheers). Now, gentlemen, there is only
one other topic to which I shall take the liberty
of adverting ; and it is a topic which has already
been alluded to by my respected friend the representa-
tive of the kingdom of Prussia. I remember to have
read in a book published by a foreigner, who visited this
country at a period when Parliament had been dissolved,
an account of the dreadful disorders of an English elec-
tion. Here we are, gentlemen, in the midst of an Eng-
lish election (Hear, hear), and I would ask any man who
should have dropped from a balloon and found himself
in the Showyard, and thence have come to this meeting,
whether he could have supposed it possible that there
was any topic of discussion or difference existing among
the people of England (" Hear," and cheers). It is our
good English rule, gentlemen, for men to shake hands
before they fight (cheers, and laughter), and if they have
no malice in their hearts they shake hands after the fight
is over (renewed laughter). But, gentlemen, we are
shaking hands in the midst of the fight (cheers and
laughter), for during the elections— aye, and during the
elections for the counties, which, for reasons that I shall
not dilate upon, naturally excite a peculiar interest
among those who have turned their attention to agricul-
tural pursuits (great laughter) ; in the midst of the
county elections, which take place all over England in
the course of this week, here you have assembled men of
all parties, differing upon every possible subject, and I
would defy any man who came as a stranger among you
to find any difference whatever, except as to the merit
of some particular machine, or as to the over fatness or
indifferent breeding of some animal which has been ex-
hibited (cheers and laughter). Well, I say this is a glo-
rious day, if on that account alone, for the Royal Agri-
cultural Society, and it is a fine moral lesson given to
the world, to show that Englishmen, however they may
differ on subjects which are deeply interesting to them
in a material point of view, yet can lay aside all their
party animosities, and can meet upon common and neu-
tral grounds, as brethren and as mutual friends, with no
party but their country and no interest but that of the
nation (loud and long-continued cheering). I now give
you the " Health of the Chief Magistrate of Lewes."

Mr. Neal returned thanks.

Lord Berners, in proposing the " Stewards of the
Yard and the Judges of the Show," stated that the
council had thought it necessary to appoint Professor
Simonds to ascertain whether any animal introduced
into the yard was suffering from infectious disease, and
whether they exhibited any malformation. The labours
of the judges themselves had been more onerous on this
than on any former occasion, in consequence of the
introduction of reaping machines, and the great number
of steam-engines that had been brought forward. He
had no hesitation in saying that better times were in
store for agriculture, and that the Royal Agricultural
Society would be one of the principal causes for intro-
ducing those better times, coupled with the great skill
and the indomitable energy of the British farmer
(cheers).

Mr. Thompson said : In returning thanks for the
compliment that had been paid to the stewards and
judges of the show, I beg to state that the great object
of the stewards has been to make such arrangements as
should secure to every exhibitor a fair field and no fa-
vour ; and the judges have endeavoured to make their
awards strictly in accordance with the merits of the
animals or the implements brought before them, Ic
will not be difficult to convince those who have visited
the yard (and who has not?) that there has been a great
deal of work to do, and in some classes considerable
difficulty in arriving at a satisfactory decision ; but the
labour has been cheerfully gone through, and will be
sufficiently rewarded if it is generally considered that
the duties of the stewards and judges have been effi-
ciently performed. The opinion they have formed re-
specting the general character of the show is, that though
in the classes of shorthorns and Herefords the numbers
are not so great as on some previous occasions, the
horses, sheep, and pigs about make up the deficiency ;
and the quality of the stock in some classes is remark-
ably good, especially the Herefords, the female classes
of shorthorns, some classes of Devons, and the South-
down sheep. In the implement department the stewards
and judges are unanimous in thinking that the present
is decidedly the best show that has yet taken place ; that
not only is there less rubbish, but that many of the
standard implements have had important improve-
ments made in them which add much to their
value without at all increasing their cost. On the
whole, therefore, it may be considered more than an
average show. The facilities given by the town and
neighbourhood deserve to be gratefully acknowledged by
those who have taken any part in the arrangements ;
and I am only aware of one cause of complaint, viz.,
that the elements should have conspired with our good
friends in Sussex, and lent their aid in giving an un-
usually warm reception. I wish now to call your atten-
tion to a few striking facts connected with my own
department, which give strong evidence of the rapid im-
provement now going on in agricultural machinery, and
its equally rapid rise in public estimation. Two of the
most prominent features of the implement yard are the
reaping machines and thrashing machines ; and it is well

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

139

worthy of note, though not more thun twelve months
have elapsed since the first trial in this country of the
present form of reaping machine, 1,400 orders have
been received by four manufacturers of these imple-
ments, involving a cost of more than ^30,000. These
machines have been materially improved since last year,
especially in the form of the cutting knives. As we are
indebted to our American brethren for having sent us
these machines in working form, I wish to point out the
exact nature of our obligation to them. Nearly twenty
years ago I saw a reaping machine at work in Scotland,
which did its work fairly; and so far back as 181G a
machine was constructed in the north of England, not
very dissimilar in appearance to the present machines,
the maker of which, not being patronized here, emigrated
to America. The question will naturally be asked how
it happened that they were not further improved and
brought into general use in this country, but were
adopted and put into better form in America. I believe
that the higher price of produce here, and the greater
scarcity of labour there, will explain this fact. If the
use of this machine in its less perfect state caused a loss
of a bushel of wheat per acre, worth in this country 7s.
per bushel, the loss was greater than the gain ; whereas,
the waste of a bushel of wheat in America, worth on
the farm 2s. 6d., would be abundantly compensated by
the saving of manual labour, avowedly the most ex-
pensive item in American farming. In saying thus
much, I am far from wishing to undervalue the im-
provements made in the machine by our Transatlantic
brethren, but merely that the case should be under-
stood. I consider it not as a cause of jealousy, but as
an additional bond of union between us ; long may such
ties continue in full force, and long may our only rivalry
consist in striving which nation can most readily adopt
that which is good in the sister country, and which can
most quickly send it back again better than it came.
The next greatest improvement is in the thrashing ma-
chines. The best machines exhibited on this occasion
have made a decided step in the right direction, viz., in
reducing the cost of preparing the grain for market. A
few days ago I had the pleasure of seeing at work on
the farm of a neighbour in Yorkshire, a thrashing-ma-
chine made by Messrs. Clayton and Shuttleworth, and
the owner of the farm informed me that this machine
thrashed, winnowed, and weighed the corn into sacks at
a cost of Id. per bushel. Now, by the old process of
flail and winnowing machine, the cost would have been
on an average about 6d. per bushel, making a difference
of 12s. 6d. per acre on a crop of 30 bushels merely in
preparing the corn for market. No long period has
elapsed since the time when, throughout a large district,
not many days' journey from the fair town of Lewes, if
any farmer was rash enough to set up a thrashing-ma-
chine he was pretty sure to receive notice of a speedy
visit from a certain Captain Swing ; whereas at the pre-
sent time it is difficult to find a farm of any size where a
thrashing machine is not used. Twenty years ago the
flail was universally recognized as one of the standard
emblems of agriculture ; in twenty years more, if any-
one curious in antiquities should wish to see a flail, be

will have to seek it in a museum, where it may possibly
be found side by side with the bows and arrows of the
ancient Britons, or other similar relics of by-gone days.
These proofs of rapid progress might be extended to con-
siderable length, but I will confine myself to one which
I should be sorry to omit, because it involves a principle
of importance, viz., the adaptation of the more impor-
tant implements to the means of small farmers. Three
years ago we were told it was impossible to reduce the
price of the better class of implements ; but we live in
an age which makes us doubt whether the word impos-
sible ever ought to have been admitted into the English
language. Messrs. Garrett have this year brought out
a drill, small but effective, and at such a price as really
to bring it within the means of small occupiers. This
step having been taken, I trust its success will be such
as to lead to its being generally followed by the other
implement makers. I beg to express our sincere thanks
for the compliment that has been paid to the stewards
and judges (applause).

The Earl of Carlisle— My Lord Ducie and gentle-
men, I am sincerely glad that the toast with which I
have the high honour to be charged explains its own
purpose, and carries with it its own recommendation.
It is termed the " Labouring classes " (cheers). Now,
if there is any one feature of the times in which we live
which ought to give us peculiar gratification, and which I
should be tempted to rank above those striking and mar-
vellous improvements in the progress and science of agri-
culture, and, indeed, in every other branch of human in-
dustry and skill, that feature is the increase of thought,
care, and honour which are bestowed upon labour and
the labourers (cheers). With respect to labour, I be-
lieve it is every day more and more viewed and felt to
be a Divine appointment— the Heaven-ordained means
and main material of human worth, human happiness,
and human virtue (loud cheers). With respect to the
labourer, I feel there are few indeed who would not
now recognize the truth that the workman should rank
in value above the work — (Hear, hear) — that he should
not, on the one hand, be considered by the merely feudal
reckoning as an item in the retinue of the lord, or, on
the other hand, in the mercantile light of a machine out
of which so much work has to be extracted (cheers) ;
but that as he does much for others, so others should do
much for him (loud and prolonged cheering). I feel
sure, to bind ourselves only to that fair county in which
we are met, that, whether upon the breezy uplands of
Goodwood, or under the castle keep of Arundel, or be-
fore the stately front of Petworth, not to mention other
conspicuous instances, the matter which people now feel
to be of real importance to inquire about is, not which
is the greatest number of works of art, or the most
splendid apartments, or the most costly furniture, but
where the labourer is most cared for— (loud cheers) —
where his dwellings are kept in the best repair, and
where are the most efficient and well-conducted schools
(renewed cheers). And, gentlemen, let me also remind
you that the legislature itself has shown by a recent
enactment that it entertains no unworthy jealousy of the
English labourer (cheers). It has shown that it does

140

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

not scruple to put arms in his hands, ami to entrust to
him the d'.fcnce both of our humblest and our proudest
homes ; and though at present we need entertain no ap-
prehension of unfriendly intentions on the part of
foreign nations, and though we are much more pleased
to see their honoured representatives at such a
friendly board as this — (cheers) — yet if, as upon
this very southern shore of old first the Roman,
next the Noraaan Conqueror did land — so, if any
hostile forces should in future disembark, I know that
we might trust to the men of Sussex to take the post of
honour, and be the first to prove that if as invaders they
came, as conquerors they should not depart (loud and
reiterated cheering). But we all, as one man, feel that
we had rather see them engaged in the honourable pur-
suits of peaceful industry than a horrible and bloody
strife, even in the most righteous of causes, and I know
it is with the sincerest of wishes for their real and per-
manent welfare that you will drink the toast of the
labouring classes (cheers).

Mr. Abbot L.\wrence then rose, and was received with re-
iterated cheering. He said, you know as well as I do that it
reqiui-es no small share of confidence at this late hour, and after
the intellectual treat which we have had from the great orators
of your laud (cheers), to rise even for the purpose of proposing
a toast ; but in the presence of British farmers I shrink fi-om
no duty imposed upon me (cheers). I rejoice in this opportu-
nity of meeting British agriculturists on their own groimd, be-
cause I beheve, not only in England, but in every country of
any consideration whatever, that life, and liberty, and property,
and in fact the great foundations of society, rest mainly upon
the agricultural classes (loud cheers). It is emuiently so in
Great Britain, particidarly m England (Hear, hear). And why
is it so ? For one plam and simple reason. The owners of
laud reside on their land (cheers), and the owners and occupiers
of land are neighbours and friends (cheers). They miderstaud
their mutual rights, they both assert them. I hear nothing
of laiuUords oppressing their tenants ; I hear nothing and see
nothuig of difficulties between tenant and landlord ; and I take
it for granted that landlords and tenants hve in amity, and
peace, and firiendship (cheers). I do not, however, rise to make
a speech, hut to propose a toast (loud cries of "Go on").
That toast is one of very extensive significance, " The Agi-i-
cultiu'al Societies throughout the world" (loud cheers). And I
give it \vith the more pleasm-e because I know that the Royal
Agricidtural Society of England, by its constitution, is only
bounded by the horizon (loud cheers). I know your premiums
are open to all the world. I know that my honoured colleagues
on both sides of me (the Chevahcr Bmisen and the Marquis
d'Azegho), representmg farming coimtries, come hither to see
your stock and implements ; and I know that they can com-
pete with yours (cheers). I say, then, that the science that
has been, and is, applied to agriculture in England eventually
spreads itself tlu'oughout the world by means of yom- society
and those of other countries ; and I therefore ask yon to toast
foreign societies (loud cheers). Three times have I had the
honour of being invited to your meetings, and as this occasion
may be the last (No, no), I beg to present my thanks to you
and to the farmers of England, not only for the hospitahtyand
kuidness they have shown me, hut for that oftentimes extended
to my countrjTnen who cross the Atlantic, and visit every part
of England to carry back your implements and your stock to

the western world (cheers). I present to you the heaitfelt
sympathies of the farmers of the United States, and I hope and
trust that the feeUngs of amity now so happily commenced be-
tween you vaay continue for ever (cheers). There never waa
any real reason for aUenatiou between the two countries, and if I
had my way, and if I could govern and regulate matters (cheers),
with the aid of my friend here on my right (laying liis hand
affectionately on the shoulder of Lord Palmerstou amidst the
enthusiastic and reiterated cheers of the assembly) and with the
kind feelings that I know exist in the heart of another eminent
individual, who, now, occupies a place in the present Cabi-
net, we v.'oidd, I say, never have wars or even rumours of wars
(loud aud long-continued cheers). I return you my thanks for
the past ; and if in the future we should, as I hope we may, meet
ag.ain, we will not forget to sing "Auld Lang Syne" (great
cheering).

The toast was tlien drunk with applause.

Mr. Shaw then proposed "The Eailway Companies, aud
thanks for their co-operation in promoting the objects of the
society" (cheers).

Mr. Chaplin, M.P., returned thanks.

The Earl of Cuiciiestek, who was in the vice-chair, then
proposed the health of the President elect. Lord Ashburton
(cheers), and apologised for his absence.

llie toast having been didy honoured, a general cry arose for
the Duke of Richmond, who however had previously left the
pavilion, and the proceedings terminated.

Friday, July 16. — The proceedings of this year's
country meeting terminated to-day, and in a pecuniary
point of view the results are less satisfactory and suc-
cessful for the Society than they have been for many
years past. Partly owing to the situation of Lewes,
which certainly was not a happy selection as the scene
of such a display ; partly owing to the extreme heat,
which rendered locomotion, even in its most convenient
forms, oppressive, and sight-seeing, however attractive,
a bore ; chiefly, however, on account of the elections,
which naturally pre-occupied everybody's attention, this
show has gone off with less than the usual eclat. Not
more than 5,000 people visited the yards yesterday, and
to-day the numbers could not have much exceeded
15,000, though the charge for admission was only a
shilling, and stock and implements were both on view.
There was no crowding round favourite animals or novel
machines, no dexterous and eager handling to ascertain
the prospective qualities of beef, mutton, or pork ; no
twisting of tails, poking of sides, and other devices
to make recumbent prizes stand, pigs squeak, and
penkeepers sullenly indignant at the exactingness of
public curiosity. A languid listlessness pervaded
both the animals and their visitors ; the shaded
sides of the stalls were alone frequented ; people
sauntered about the yards, turning gratefully to every
puff of wind that blew ; straw hats and " wideawakes"
of the coolest construction abounded, and it was no un-
usual spectacle to see pigs and their keepers snoozing
comfortably together under the shelter of the tarpaulin.
Natural laws cannot be violated with impunity, as Lord
Paimerston rightly said yesterday, and some of the over-
fattened beasts died from the excessive heat, or were

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

141

killed to save them the trouble. One immense South-
down ram, n victiir, of sun strok?, weighed ro less than
4851b. per quarter. A remarkable cftect of the weather
was its tendency to send the country wights into the re-
freshment booths rather than the showyard. The former
wcrelargely patronizcdby the smock frocks, whoseemcd to
think their contents wonderful and far more desirable than
the accumulated triumphs of the stock breeder and the
implement maker. The truth would seem to be that,
apart from the unfortunate concurrence of the elections,
Lewes was an injudicious selection 'as the site for the
Society's country meeting. Brighton would have been
a far mere convenient and appropriate choice. Standing
midway between the eastern and western divisions of the
county, its position would have enabled the Society to
do justice to both, while the extensive railway accom-
modation would have been a great facility to visitors,
and the proximity of the sea would have helped people
to keep themselves cool. Instead of this, the society
and its friends have been doing penance for a week on
the side of a chalk hill, singularly well placed to develope
the full force of the sun, in a quiet country town, undis-
turbed by any ambition of progress, and with a raiser-
able little temporary railway station at command — where
the arrangements were not very good nor the officials
over obliging. The worthy inhabitants of Lewes did the
best they could under the circumstances however, and
the society, while it has gained little financially, has
fairly sustained its reputation for utility. It would
serve no purpose to re enter upon the distinctive features
of the show yard, as these have already.been described in
sufficient detail ; but to agriculturists the publication of
the prize list for implements in a complete form will, no
doubt, prove acceptable. The awards of the judges in
this department were not finished till late last night, and
not announced till this morning.

LIST OF PRIZES.

SIIORT-HORNS.

Judges.— Messrs. John Gkey, Wm, Smith, and Thomas
Short.

Class I. — Bulls calved previously to the 1st of January,
1850, aui not exceeding 5 years old.

First prize of 40^ to Mr. Thomas Crisp, of Hawkhill, near
Aluwick, Northumberland, a 4 years and 4 months old short-
horned bull, bred by himself.

Second prize of 20/. to Mr. F. H. Fawkes, of Farnley, near
Otley, Yorkshire, a 3 years and 5 mouths old pure short-
horned bull, bred by himself.

Class II. — Buhs calved since the 1st of January, 1850,
and more than 1 year old.

First prize of 251. to Mr. John Booth, of Killerby, near
Catterick, Yorkshire, a 2 years and I month old short-horned
bull, bred by himself.

Second prize of 1 5Z.' to Mr. John Kirkham, of Hagnaby,
near Spilsby, Lincoln, a 2 years and 2 months old pure short-
homed bull, bred by himself.

Class III. — Cows in-milk or in-calf.

First prize of 201. to Mr. Charles Towneley, of Towneley-
park, near Burnley, Lancashire, a 3 years and 2 months old
pure short-horned in-milk and in-calf cow, bred by himself.

Second prize of 101. to Mr. Charles Towneley, of Towneley-
park, near Burnley, Lancashire, a 4 years and 4 months old
pure short-horned in-milk cow, bred by Mr. Bannerman.

Class IV. — Ileifers in-milk or in-calf not exceeding three
years old.

First prize of 15/. to Mr. Richard Booth, of Warlaby, near

Nortliallcrton, Yorkshire, a 2 years and 5 mouths old sliort-
hnrMcd ii:-calf heifer, bred by himsilf.

Second p.ize of 10/. to Mr. Charles Towmley, of Towml.'y-
park, near iJuruley, Laucasliirc, a 2 yrara and 10 months old
piiie short-horned in-milk and iu-ca'f heifer, bred by Mr.
Turner, of Ireland.

Class V. — Yearling Heifers.

First prize of 10/. to Mr. Charles Towneley, of To»vueley
Park, near Burnley, Lancashire, a 1 year and G months old
pure short-horned yearlin;; heifer, bred by himself.

Second prize of 5/. to Mr, Richard Booth, of Warlaby, near
Northallerton, a 1 year and 5 months old short-horned ycarhng
heifer, bred by himself.

IIEREFORDS.
Judges.— Messrs. H. Chamberlain, H. Trethbw y, and

J. E. Jones.

Class I. — Bulls calved previously to the 1st of January, 1850,

and not exceeding 5 years old.

First prize of 40/. to Mr. Edward Price, of the Court House,
near Perabridge, Hereford, a 4 years and 5 months old Here-
ford bull, bred by himself.

Second prize of 20/. to the Right Honourable the Earl of
Radnor, of Coleshill, near Faringdon, Berks, a 3 years and 4
months old Hereford bull, bred by Mr. Stedman, of Bedstone-
hall, Herefordshire.

Class II. — Bulls calved since the 1st of January, 1850, and
more than 1 year old.

First prize of 25/. to Mr. George Brown, of Avehury, near
Marlborough, Wilts, a 1 year and 6 months old Hereford bull,
bred by Mr. Yeoman, of Stretton Court, near Hereford.

Second prize of 15/. to the Right Honourable Lord Berwick,
of Cronkhill, near Shrewsbury, Salop, a 2 years 6 months and 3
days old Hereford bull, bred by his lordship.

Class III. — Cows in-milk or in-calf.

First prize of 20/. to the Right Honourable Lord Berwick,
of Cronkhill, near Shrewsbury, Salop, a 3 years 7 months and
15 days old Hereford iu milk and in-calf cow, bred by his
lordship.

Second prize of 10/. to Mr. Philip Turner, of the Leeu, near
Leominster, Herefordshire, a 3 years 9 months and 15 days
old Hereford in-milk andiucalf cow, bred by himself.
Class IV. — Heifers in-milk or in-calf not exceeding 3 years
old.

First prize of 10/. to the Right Honourable Lord Berwick,
of Cronkhill, near Shrewsbury, Salop, a 2 years 7 months and
17 days old Hereford in-calf heifer, bred by his lordship.

Second prize of 5/. to the Right Honourable Lord Berwick,
of Cronkhill, near Shrewsbury, Salop, a 2 years 8 months and
24 days old Hereford in-calf heifer, bred by his lordship.
Class V. — Yearling Heifers.

First prize of 10/. to Mr. Walter Maybery, of Penlan, near
Brecon, Brecknockshire, a 1 year and 9 months old Hereford
yearling heifer, bred by himself.

Second prize of 5/. to the Right Honourable Lord Berwick,
of Cronkhill, near Shrewsbury, Salop, a 1 year 6 months and
19 days old Hereford yearling heifer, bred by his lordship.

DEVON S.

Judges. — Messrs. Taos. Hartshorne, Tiios.Toavnsend

and E. Pope.

Class I. — Bulls calved previously to the 1st of January, 1850,

and not exceeding 5 years old.

First prize of 40/. to Mr. Samuel Farthing, of Stowey Court,
near Biidgewater, Somerset, a 3 years and 6 months old pure
Devon bull, bred by himself.

Second prize of 20/. to Mr. Thomas Bushby Mode, of
Canniugton-park, near Bridgwater, Somerset, a 3 years and 6|
months old pure Devon bull, bred by Mr. John Quartley, of
MoUaud, South Molton, Devon.

Class II. — Bulls calved since the 1st of January, 1850, and
more than 1 year old.

First prize of 25/. to i\Ir. James Hole, of Knowle-house, near
Dunster, Somerset, a I year aud 9 mouths old ptrre Devon
bull, bred by himself.

Second prize of 15/. to the Right Hon. the Earl of Leicester,
of Ilolkham, near Wells, Norfolk, a two years aud 6 months
old North Devon bull, bred by his lardsbip.

Class III. — Cows in-milk or in-calf.

First prize of 20/. to Mr. Samuel Farthing, of Stowey

142

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Court, near Bridsjewater, a 3 years and 4 months old pure
Devon in-milk aud incalf cow, bred by himself.

Second prize of 10/. to Mr. James Quartley, of Mollaiid,
near South Molton, Devon, a 10 years aud 6 months old pure
North Devon in-milk cow, bred by himself.
Class IV. — Heifers in-milk or in-calf not exceeding three years
old.

First prize of 15?. to Mr. Samuel Farthinjr, of Stowey Court,
near Bridgewater, Somerset, a 2 years and 3 months old pure
Devon in-calf heifer, bred by himself.

Second prize of lOl. to Mr. James Quartley, of Molland,
near South Molton, Devon, a 2 years and six months old pure
North Devon in-calf heifer, bred by himself.
Class V. — Yearling Hei'^ers.

First prize of lOZ. to Mr. George Turner, of Barton, near
Extter, Devon, a 1 year and 8 mouths old North Devon year-
ling heifer, bred by himself.

Second prize of 5/. to Mr. Wm. Baker, of Bishops' Nymp-
ton, near South Molton, a 1 year aud 7 mouths old North
Devon jearling heifer, bred by himself.

SUSSEX.

JuDGKS. — Messrs. E. L. Franklin, Wm. Cox, and John
Williams.

Class I. — Bulls calved previously to the 1st J&nuary, 1850,
and not exceeding 5 years old.

First prize of 201. to Mr. Arnold Denman, of Stoneham
Mailing, near Le\Tes, Sussex, a 3 years and 5 months old Sus-
sex bull, bred by himself.

Second prize of lOZ. to Mr. William Botting, of Westmes-
ton, near Hurstperpoiut, Sussex, a 4 years and 6 months old
Sussex bull, bred by himself.

Class II. — Bulls calved since the 1st of January, 1850, and
more than 1 year old.

A prize of 1 0/. to Mr. Josiah Pitcher, of Westhara, near
Eastbourne, Sussex, a 1 year and 6 months old pure Sussex
bull, bred by himself.

Class III. — Cows in-milk or in-calf.

First prize of 10/. to Messrs. Arthur aud Thomas Barton,
of BexhUl, near Battle, Sussex, a 6 years and 4 months old
Sussex in-milk and in-calf cow, bred by themselves.

Second prize of 5/. to Mr. Henry Catt, of West Firle, near
Lewes, Sussex, a 6 years and 4 months old Sussex in-calf cow,
bred .by himself.

Class IV. — Heifers, in-milk or in-calf, not exceeding three
years old.

A prize of 10/. to Mr. Arnold Denman, of Stoneham Mai-
ling, near Lewes, Sussex, a 2 years and 5 mouths old Sussex
in-calf heifer, bred by himself.

Class v'. — Yearling Heifers.

A prize of 5/. to Mr. James Gorringe, of Selmeston, near
Lewes, Sussex, a 1 year and 8 months old pure Sussex yearling
heifer, bred by himself.

CATTLE OF ANY OTHER BREED.

Judges, — Messrs. H. Chamberlain, H. Trethewy, and
J. E. Jones.

Class I. — Bulls calved previously to the 1st of January, 1850,
and not exceeding 5 years old.
A prize of lOZ. to Captain William Inge, of Thorpe Con-
stantine, near Tamworth, Stafford, a 4 years and 5 months
old long-horned bull, bred by Mr. Baker, of Rollright, Ox-
fordshire.

Class II. — Bulls calved since the 1st of January, 1850, and
more than one year old.
A prize of 10/. to Mr. J. G. Watkins, of Woodfield, near
Droitwich, Worcester, a 1 year and 4 months old Channel
Islands bull, bred by himself.

Class in. — Cows in-milk or in-calf.
A prize of 10/. to Captain William Inge, of Thorpe Con-
stantiue, near Tamworth, Stafford, a 7 years and 2 months
old long-horned in-milk cow, bred by himself.

Class IV. — Heifer in-milk or in-calf.
A prize of 51. to Mr. William Tod, of Elphinstone Tower,
near Tranent, Haddington, a 2 years and 11 months old West
Highland in-calf cow, bred by Mr. M'Donald, of Inverness-
shire.

Class V. — No entry.

HORSES.

Judges. — Messrs. Wm. Greaves, Thos. Capon, and W.
F. Karkeek.

Class I, — Stallions for agricultural purposes, foaled previously
to 1st January, 1850.

First prize of 30/. to Mr. William Stearn, of Elmsett
Hall, Lcar Hadleigh, Suffolk, a 3 years old pure Suffolk stal-
lion, bred by Mr. Arthey, of Lindsey, Suffolk.

Second prize of 15/. to Mr. Samuel Clsydon, of Linton,
Cambridgeshire, a 3 years old Suffolk stallion, bred by him-
self.

Class II. — Stallions for agricultural purposes, foaled since the
1st of January, 1850.

First prize of 20/. to Mr. Thomas Catlin, of Butley, near
Woodbridge, Suffolk, a 2 years old pure Suffolk stallion, bred
by himself.

Second prize cf 10/. to Mr. William Wilson, of Ashbocking,
near Ipswich, Suffolk, a 2 years old Suffolk stallion, bred by
Mr. James Garnham, of Earl Stouliara, Suffolk.
Class III. — Roadster Stallions.

A prize of 15/. to Mr. John Baxter, of Wiggcnhall, St.
Peter's, near Lynn, Norfolk, a 4 years old roadster stallion,
bred by himself.

Class IV. — Glares and Foals, for agricultural purposes.

First prize of 20/. to Mr. Nathaniel George Barthropp, of
Crettingham Rookery, Woodbridge, Suffolk, a Suffolk mare
and foal ; the mare bred by Mr. R. Pease, of Laxlield ; sire of
foal belonged to himself.

Secoud prize of 10/. to Mr. Frederick Barlow, of Hasketon,
near Woodbridge, Suffolk, a Suffolk mare and foal ; the mare
bred by Mr. Garnham, of Henley, Suffolk, and is 6 years old ;
sire of foal belonged to Mr. Wilson, of Ashbocking.
Class V. — Fillies, two years old.

First prize of 15/. to Mr. Samuel Wrinch, of Great Holland,
near Colchester, Essex, a 2 years old Suffolk filly, bred by
the Hon. and Rev. F. De Grey, of Copdoek, near Ipswich

Secoud prize of 51. to Mr. Samuel Wrinch, of Great Hol-
land, near Colchester, Essex, a 2 years old Suffolk filly, bred
by himself.

LEICESTERS.

Judges. — Messrs. W. Bartholomew, N. C. Stone, and

W. Tindall.

Class I. — Shearliug Rams.

First prize of 30/. to Mr. William Sanday,of Holme Pierre-
point, near Nottingham, a 16 months old Leicester ram, bred
by himself.

Second prize of 15/. to Mr. William Sanday, of Holme
Pierrepoint, near Nottingham, a 16 months old Leicester ram,
bred by himself.

Class II. — Rams of any other age.

First prize of 30/. to Mr. William Sanday, of Holme Pierre-
point, near Nottingham, a 40 months old Leicester ram, bred
by himself.

Second prize of 15/. to Mr. William Sanday, of Holme
Pierrepoint, near Nottingham, a 28 months old Leicester ra^n,
bred by himself.

Class III. — Shearling Ewes.

First prize of 20/. to Mr. William Sanday, of Holme Pierre-
point, near Nottmgham, a pen of five 16 months old Leicester
ewes, bred by himself.

Second prize of 10/. to Mr. William Sanday, of Holme
Pierrepoint, near Nottingham, a pen of five 16 months old
Leicester ewes, bred by himself.

SOUTH DOWNS.
Judges. — Messrs. Hart, Hy. Fooks, and P. Purves.

Class I. — Shearling Rams.

First prize of 30/. to Mr. Jonas Webb, of Babraham, near
Cambridge, a 17 months old South Down ram, bred by
himself.

Second prize of 15/. to Mr. Jonas Webb, of Babraham,
near Cambridge, a 16 months old South Down ram, bred by
Jiimself.

Class II. — Rams of any other age.

First prize of 30/. to the Right Hon. the Earl of Chichester^
of Stanmer, near Lewes, Sussex, a 40 months old South Down
ram, bred by his lordship.

Second prize of 15/. to Mr. William Sainsbury, of West

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

vCOAPK^^f

148"

Lavington, Wilts, a 29 months old South Dowu ram, bred by
himself.

Class III.— Shearling Ewes,

First prize cf 20/. to the Right Hon. the Earl o( Chichester,
of Staiinier, near liBwes, Sussex, a pen of five 16 mouths old
South Down Ewes, bred by his lordship.

Second prize of 10/. to his Grace the Duke of Richmond, of
Goodwood, near Chichester, Sussex, a pen of five 16^ months
old South Down ewes, bred by his Grace.

LONG WOOLS (NOT Leicesters.)

JuuGES.-^Messrs. J. Abbott, H. Aylmer, and P.

Richardson.

Class L — Shearling Rams.

First prize of 20/. to Mr. "William Lane, of Eastington, near
Northleach, Gloucestershire, a 16 months old Cotswold ram,
bred by himself.

Second prize of 10/. to Mr. "Wiliiam Game, of Aldsworth,
near Northleach, Gloucestershire, a 16 months old Cotswold
ram, bred by himself.

Class II. — Rams of any other age.

First prize of 20/. to Mr. William Lane, of Eastington,
Northleach, Gloucestershire, a 40 months old Cotswold ram,
bred by himself.

Second prize of 10/. to Mr. Robert Beaman, of Moreton-in-
the Marsh, Gloucestershire, a 40 months old true Cotswold
ram, bred by himself.

Class III, — Shearhng Ewes.

First prize of 10/. to Mr. William Lane, of Eastington,
near Northleach, Gloucestershire, a pen of five 16 months old
Cotswold ewes, bred by himself.

Second prize of 5/. to Mr. William Lane, of Eastington,
near Northleach, Gloucestershire, a pen of five 16 months old
Cotswold ewes, bred by himself.

ROMNEY MARSH, OR KENTISH SHEEP.

JuDGER. — Messrs. J. Abbott, H. Aylmer, and P.

Richardson.

Class I. — Hams of any age.

First prize of 20/. to Sir Edward C. Dering, Bart., of Sur-

renden Dering, near Ashford, Kent, a 39^ months old Rom-

uey Marsh ram, bred by himself.

Second prize of 10/. to Sir Edward C. Dering, Bart., of Sur-
reuden Dering, near Ashford, Kent, a 4 years and 3 months
old Romney Marsh ram, bred by himself.

Class II. — Four-toothed Ewes with their lambs.
A prize of 10/. to Sir Edward C. Dering, Bart., of Surren-
den Dering, near Ashford, Kent, a pen of five 2 years and
3 months old Romney Marsh ewes with their lambs, bred by
himself.

Class III. — Ewes of any age.
A prize of 10/. to Mr. Walter W. Dawes, of Ewhurst,
near Hurst Green, Sussex, a pen of five 4 years and 3 months
old Romney Marsh ewes, bred by the late Mr. Thomas Dawes
and himself.

PIGS.

Judges. — Messrs. W. Hesseltine, J. Clavden, and J.

Clarke.
Class I. — Boars of a large breed.
First prize of 15/. to Mr. Henry Blaiidford, of Sandridge,
near Melksham, Wilts, a Berkshire boar, 2 years and 1 day
old, bred by liimself.

Second prize of 5/. to Mr. Moses Cartwright, of Stanton-
hill, near Burton-on-Trent, Stafford, a Stanton-boar, 1 year
and 2 months old, bred by himself.

Class II. — Boars of a small breed.
First prize of 15/. to Mr. Samuel Druce, jun., of Eynsham,
near Oxford, an Oxfordshire and Essex boar, 1 year and 2
weeks old, bred by himself.

Second prize of 5/. to ]Mr. Timothy Town, of Keighly, York-
shire, a small boar, ."? years and 1 month old, bred by Mr. John
G. Sudden, of Steeton Hall, near Keighley, Yorkshire.
Class III. — Breeding Sows of a large breed.
A prize of 10/. to INIr. William Abbott, of Woodhoi\se, Carr,
near Leeds, Yorkshire, a large sow, 3 years and 9 months old,
bred by Mr. John ^ladgley, of ]\Icar Wood.

Class IV. — Breeding Sows of a small breed.
A prize of 10/. to Mr. Mark Stainsby, jun., of 30, Lady
Pitt-lane, Leeds, Yorkshire, a Devonshire sow, 1 year and 2

months old, bred by Mr. Johi B4rtiett'of Lifton, near Lauu-
ceston, Devon.

Class v.— Breeding Sow Pigs of a large breed, above 4 and
luider 8 moitths old.

A prize of 10/. to Mr. Samuel Munro, of,Salford, Lancaslme,
a pen of three large sow pigs, 7 months and 1 week old, bred
by himself.

Class VI.— Breeduig Sow Pigs of a small breed, above 4 and
under 8 months old.

A prize of 10/. to Mr. John Moon, of Lapford, near Credi-
ton, Devon, a pen of three Essex sow pigs, 7 months and 2
weeks old, bred by himself.

POULTRY.

Judges.— The Hon. and Rev. S. W. Lawley, Mr. J.
Bailey, and Mr. T. B. Wright.

Class I.— Cocks and Hens of the Dorking, Surrey, or old Sus-
sex or Kent breeds.

First prize of 5/. to Mr. Tliomas Townley Parker, of Sutton
Grange, St. Helens, Lancashire, a grey Dorking cock and two
hens, 15 months old, bred by himself.

Second prize of 3/. to Mr. Henry Blandford, of Sandridge,
near Melksham, Wilts, a speckled Dorking cock and two hens,
4 months and 2 weeks old, bred by himself.

Third prize of 21. to IMr. James Lewry, of Handcross,
Slaughham, near Crawley, Sussex, a Dorking cock and two
hens, 5 mouths and 2 weeks old, bred by himself.

Class II.— Cocks and Hens of the Malay, Cochin-China, or

other Asiatic breeds.
First prize of 3/. to Mr. Henry B. Higgs, of Hill-lodge, near
Southampton, Hants, a Cochin-China cock and two hens, 5
mouths and 1 week old, bred by himself.

Second prize of 21. to Mr. Henry B. Higgs, of Hill-lodge,
near Southampton, Hants, a Cochin-China cock and two hens,
4 months old, bred by himself.

Class III.— Cocks and Hens of the Spanish, Hamburgh, or
Polish breeds.
First prize of 3/. to Mr. George C. Adkins, of Edgbaston,
near Bii-mingham, Warwick, a black Polish cock and two hens,
about 12 mouths old, breeder imknown.

Second prize of 2/. to Mr. Joseph Tuley, ofMatcldess-house,
near Keigliley, Yorkshire, a golden-spangled Hamburgh cock,
26, and 2 hens, 14 months old respectively, bred by Mr. John
Driver of Coin.

Class 4. — Cocks and Hens of any other piu:e breed.
First prize of 3/. to Mr. Joseph Tidey, of :Matchless-housc,
Keighley, Yorkshire, a Bolton grey cock and two hens, 26
months old, bred by himself.

Second prize of 2/. to Mr. William Ludlam, of Bradford,
Yorkshire, a piure silver pheasant cock and 2 hens, 24 months
old, bred by himself.

Class V. — Cocks and Hens of any mixed breed.
A prize of 3/. to Mr. Henry Thomas Leigh, of Turuham-
green, Middlesex, a golden bantam (of Sir John Sebright's
breed) cock and t^vo hens, about 24 months old, bred by
himself.

Class VI, — Turkeys. No prize awarded.
Class VII.— Geese.
First prize of 3/. to Mr. Thomas Towneley Parker, of Sut-
ton Grange, St. Helens, liancashire, a Toulouse gander and
two geese, 3 months and 2 weeks old, bred by himself.

Second prize of 21. to Mr. Robert Glover, of Holt Hall, near
Fazeley, Staffordshire, a white gander and t\vo geese, age uu«
knowni! bred by the Rev. Jolui Robinson, of Widmerpool.
Class VIII.— Ducks of the Aylesbury, or any other wliite
variety.
A prize of 2/. to Mr. Robert Glover, of Holt Hall, near
Fazeley, Staffordsliire, a white Aylesbury drake and two ducks,
about 2 years old, bred by liim.

Class IX. — Ducks of any variety.
First prize of 2/. to Mr. Thomas Towneley Parker, of Suttou
Grange, near St. Helens, Lancashire, a Rouen drake and two
ducks, 12i months old, bred by himself.

Second "prize of 1/. to the Right Hon. the Earl of March,
of Molcoinb, Chichester, Sussex, a wild variety drake and two
ducks, the drake 2 years, and ducks 10 months old, bred by
his lordship.

Hi

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

COMMENDATIONS.

SHORTHORNS.

Highly commended. — Mr. Eichard Booth's cow and Mr,
John Kirivham's heifer.

Commended. — The Right Hon. Lord Feverahani's bull,
the Right Hon. Lord Berner's heifer, Mr. Charles Towneley's
heifer, and Mr. Kirkham'a heifer.

HEREFORDS.

Highly commended. — Mr. Wm. Perry'a bull, Mr. John
Walker's bull, the Executors of the late Rev. J. E. Smythiea'
cow, and Mr. Walter Maybery's heifer.

Commended. — Mr. Joseph Crndock's bull, Mr. William
James' cow, and the Executors of the late Rev. J.R. Sniythies'
heifer.

DEVONS.

Highly commended. — Mr. George Turner's heifer.
Commended. — Mr. Samuel Anstey'a bull, the Earl of Lei-
cester's cow, and Mr. James Hole's heifer.

SUSSEX CATTLE.

Commended. — Mr. Robert Chatfield's bull and Mr. Tho-
mas Child's bull.

CATTLE OF ANY BREED.

Highly commended. — Mr," R. J. Webb's bull and Mr.
Wm. Tod's bull.

Commended. — Mr. John Boswell'g bull and ?.Ir. G. D.
Badbam's bull.

HORSES.

Highly commended. — Mr. H. D. Seymour's stallion and
Mr. Thomas Addington's mare and foal.

Commended. — Mr. Edward Browning's stallion, Mr.
Jacob V/atson's mare and foal, the Hon. and Rev. J. Norton's
filly, and Mr. N. G. Barthropp's filly.

SHEEP (LEICESTERS).

Highly commended.— Mr. W. Sanday's ram, Mr. T. E.
Pawlett's ram, and Mr. W. Sanday's ram.

Commended.- Mr. Wm. Sanday's ram and Mr. T. E.
Pawlett's raras.

SHORT W'OOLLED.

Highly commended, — Two of Mr. Jonas Webb's rams,
Mr. Thomas Robinson's ram, Mr. Wm. Sainsbury's ram, Mr.
Wm. Rigdeu's pen of ev.'es, and Mr. Henry Lugar's pen of
ewes.

Commended.— Mr. Wra. Sainsbury's ram. His Grace the
Duke of Richmond's ram, and Mr. Thomas Ellman's pen of
ewes.

ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP.

Commended. — Two of Sir Edward Dering's rams.

PIGS.

HioiiLY COMMENDED. — Mr. Wm. Hewer's boar, Mr.
Wm. Hainworth's boar, Mr. John Moon's boar, Mr. John
■Hillman's sow, Mr. Samuel Druce's (jun.) sow, Mr. George
Mangle's sow, and Mr. John Moon's sow.

Commended. — Mr. G. E. Taylor's boar, Mr. Samuel Um-
ber's boar, Mr. James Gorringe's boar, Mr. Wm. Ludlam's
boar, Mr. John Hiilman's sow, Mr. Joseph Tuley's sow, Mr.
Samuel Druce's (jun.) sow, Mr. W. M. Barber's sow, the Rev.
E. Elmhirst's sow, Mr. Samuel Mnnro's sov,', Mr. Wm. Bar-
ber's pea of sows, Mr. Robert Eooke's pen of sows, and Sir
John Conroy's, Bart., pen of pigs.

POULTRY.

Highly commended. — Mr. James Lewry's pen of Dork-
ing fowls.

Commended. — Mr. H. Blandford's pen of Dorking fowls
and Mr. Wm. Ludlam's pen of fowls.

PRIZES FOR IMPLEMENTS.

For the plough best adapted for general purposes, 77. —
Messrs. Ransome and Co.

For the plough best adapted for deep ploughing, 71. — Mr.
William Busby.

For the best one-way or turnwrest plough, 71. — Messrs.
Ransome and Co.

For the best paring plough, £5.— Mr. Thomas Glover.

For the best subsoil pulverizer, £5. — Messrs. J. Gray and
Co.

For the best drill for general purposes, £10. — Messrs. E.
Hornsby and Son.

For the beat steerage com aud turnip drill, £10.— Measrs.
R. Hornsby and Son.

For the best drill for small occupations, £5. — Messrs. R.
Garrett and Sou.

For the best and most economical small-occupation seed and
manure drill for flat or ridged work, £5. — Messrs. R. Garrett
and Son.

For the best turnip drill on the flat, £10. — Messrs. R.
Hornsby and Son.

For the best turnip drill on the ridge, £10. — Messrs. R.
Hornsby and Son.

For the best drop drill, for depositing seed and manure,
£10. — Messrs. R. Garrett and Son.

For the best manure distributor, £6. — Messrs. R. Garrett
aud Son.

For the beat portable s! cam eugine, not exceeding 6-borse
power, applicable to thrashintj cr other agricultural purposes,
£40 — Messrs. R. Hornsby and Son ; for the second best ditto
ditto, £20 — Messrs. Barrett, Exall, and Andrewcs.

For the best fixed steam engine, not exceeding S-horse
power, applicable to thrashing or other agricultural purposes,
£20 — Messrs. Barrett, Exall, and Andrewes ; for the second-
best ditto ditto, £10 — Messrs. Ransome.

For the best portable thrashing machine, not exceeding
2-hor£e power, for small occupations, £10 — Messrs. R. Garrett
aud Son.

For the best portable thrashing machine, 'not exceeding
6-horse power, for larger occupations, £20. — Messrs. Garrett
and Son.

For the best portable thrashing machine, not exceeding
6-horse power, with shaker and riddle, to be driven by steam,
£20.— Messrs. Clayton and Co.

For the best fixed thrashing machine, not exceeding 6-horse
power, with straw-shaker, riddle, and winnower, that will best
prepare the corn for the finishing dressing machine, to be
driven by steam, £20. — Messrs. Garrett and Sou-

For the best corn-dressing machine, £10. — Messrs. Hornsby
and Son.

For the best grinding-mill for breaking agricultural produce
into fine meal, £10. — Mr. Hurwood.

For the host linseed and corn-crusher, £5. — Mr. Stanley.

For the best chaff-cutter, to be worked by horse or steam
power, £10. — Messrs. Richmond and Chandler.

For the best chaff-cutter, to be worked by haud-power"'
£5.— Mr. Cornes.

For the best turnip cutter, £5 — Mr. Samuelson.

For the best oilcake breaker for every variety of cake, £5 —
Mr. Hornsby.

For the best one-horse cart for general purposes, 10^ — Mr.
Wm. Busby.

For th.e best light waggou for general purposes, equal merit
—Mr. CrosskiU and Mr. W. Ball.

For the best machine for making draiuiug-tiles or pipes for
agricultural purposes, 20?. — Mr. T. Scragg.

For the best instruments for hand use in drainage, 31.—
Messrs. Mapplebeck and Lowe.

For the best heavy harrow, 51. — Mr. Wm. Williams.

For the best light harrow, 51. — Messrs. J. aud F. Howard.

For the best cultivator, grubber, or scarifier, 101. — Messrs.
Ransome and Co.

For the best pair-horse scarifier, 51. — Mr. Ch. Hart.

For the best horse-hoe on the flat, 10/. — Messrs. Garrett
aud Son.

For the best horsc-hoe on the ridge, 51. — Messrs. J. and F.
Howard.

For the best horse-rake, 57. — Messrs. J. and F. Howard.

For the best gorse- bruiser, 51. — Messrs. Barrett, Exall, and
Andrewes.

For the best and most economical steaming apparatus for
general purposes, 51. — Mr. W. P. Stanley.

For the best dynamometer, especially applicable to the trac-
tion of ploughs, 51. — Mr. Eentall.

For the best plough to fill in the soil cast cv t of drains,
with not more than four horses, two aud two abreast (offered
by Mr. R. S. Slauey, M.P.), 10?. -No merit.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Reaping machine, silver medal — Messrs. R. Garrett and Son.
Improvement in plough wheels, silver medal — Messrs. J.
and F. Howard.

Well machinery, sdver medal — Messrs. Tasker aud Fowle.

_

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

U6

DiggiiiS- forks and famn tool.', silver nicJui — Measrs. Bur-
gess an ^ Ki ,-.

Patei't (lovible uiill for hand power, silver medal — Messrs.
Ransome mid Co.

The following Articles were Highly com-
MENDEK: — Norn-efiian harrow, exhibited by Mr. Kearsley;
Aniericau digging forks and farm tools, exhibited by Messrs.
Mapplebeck and Lowe ; combined broadshare and snbsoil
plough, exhibited by Mr. Bentall ; reaping machine, exhibited
by Mr. Crosskill ; drill for general purposes, exhibited by
Messrs. R. Garrett and Son ; drill for turnips and mangold
wurtzel on the ridge, exhibited by Messrs. R. Garrett and Sou ;
portable steam engine, exhibited by Messrs. R. Garrett and
Son ; portable steam engine, exhibited by Mes.srs. R. Hornsby
and Son ; portable steam engine, exhibited by Messrs. Clayton
and Co. ; injecting instrument, exhibited by Mr. Read ; eccen-
triclever hinges for gates, exhibited by Mr. H. A. Thompson ;
corn and seed drill, exhibited by Messrs. R. Garrett and Son;
small weighing machine, exhibited by Messrs. Hill and Co. ;
window frame and fastener, exhibited by Messrs, Barnard and
Co.; fixed steam engine, exhibited by Messrs. Hornsby and
Son.

The following Articles were commended: —
Haymaking machine, exhibited by Messrs. Smith and Ashby;
sack holder, exhibited by Mr. Cooch ; odometer, exhibited by
Messrs. Cottam and Hallcn ; gravel screen, exhibited by Mi.
John Smith, of Uxbridge ; hurdle, exhibited by Messrs. Hill
and Co. ; root washer, exhibited by Mr. Crosskill ; garden en-
gine, exhibited by Mr. Read; Ail erican churn, exhibited by
Rurgess and Key ; gate, exhibited by Messrs. Hill and Co. ;
hames, exhibited by Mr. H. A. Thompson ; pr rtable steam en-
gine, exhibited by Mr. Eaton ; patent trussed iron whipple-
trees, exhibited by Messrs. Ransome and Co. ; one horse seed
harrow, exhibited by Messrs. Holmes and Son ; flax seeding
machine, exhibited by Messrs. W. Dray and Co. ; portable
steam engine, exhibited by Messrs. Ransome and Sims ; por-
table steam engine, exhibited by Messrs. Clayton and Co. ;
portable steam engine, exhibited by Messrs. Tuxford and Sons,

DRAINING PLOUGH.

The implement which attracted the greatest interest
was the draining plough invented by Mr. Fowler, of
Bristol. This plough was in constant operation in a
field outside the show-yard during the whole day. We
quote the following from Mr. Pusey's report of the
agricultural implements shown at the Great Exhibition,
addressed to his Royal Highness Prince Albert : —

" But for the American reapers, Mr. Fowler's draining
plough would have formed the most remarkable feature ia the
agricultural department of the Exhibition, Wonderful as it is
to see the standing wheat shorn levelly low by a pair of horses
walking along its edge, it is hardly, if at fdl, less wonderfid,
nor did it excite les3 interest or surprise among the crowd of
spectators when the trial was made at this place, to see two
horses at work by the side of a field, on a capstan which, by
an invisible wire -rope, draws towards itself a low frame- work,
leaving but the traces of a narrow sht on the surface. If you
pass, however, to the other side of the field, which the frame-
work has quitted, you perceive that it has been dragging afte
it a string ot pipes, which still following the plough's snout,
that burrows all the while four feet below ground, twists itself
like a gigantic red worm into the earth, so that in a few
minutes, when the framework has reached the capstan, the
string is withdrawn from the necklace, and you are assured
that a drain has thus been invisibly formed under your feet-
The jury decided as follows : — The implement went through
the trial very well, laying in the tiles with great apparent ease,
worked by two horses, with a capstan which was firmly and
easily fixed into the ground, and afforded a firm traction to the
plough by means of a wire-rope and pulley. Progress has
been made, since the implement was exhibited at Exeter, in
rendering the level of the drains in a degree independent of
the level of the surface ; but there is still room for further im-
provement in giving to the dram an uniform incline. The
award, therefore, of the jury was honourable mention. Since
that trial, I have thought it right to make further inquiry
into the work of the draining plough. In the first place

the trial drains were opened and laid bare from eud to end.
Straightncss is of course one requisite, and the pipes were
laid straight ; closeness of contact another, and they were per-
fectly joined. In level, the point on which the jury doubted
the perfection of the work, there was some deficiency which,
on entirely flat ground such as this, was a decided fault. That
fault, however, has since been remedied, for clay-land at least.
As the plough was shown last year at Exeter, it could not
possibly lay a level drain, because its under and upper parts
being fixed at an unvarying distance, any unevenness of an
undulatory surface must be faithfully copied by an undulating
drain below. This year the two parts were so connected that
the workman, by turning a screw, can raise or lower the under-
ground snout which burrows out the drain. But at the trial
the use of this screw depended on the workman's judgment,
which cannot give the drain absolute accuracy. A balanced
level, however, has now been added to the plous^h, by which
the changes of surface are made plain to his eye. Other im-
provements have also been made in the implement. The
horse-power required has been reduced by a fourth, and the
windlass at which the horses work need now be shifted only
once in the day. As to the economy of using the draining-
plough, it is too expensive to purchase, unless for a large land-
owner."

The accounts of Mr. Pusey and of the jurors were fully
borne out by the experiments here, and we were glad to
hear that this wonderful machine was now beginning to
be appreciated, the patentees having drained in the
months of March, April, and May last, no fewer than
2,000 acres on the estates of LordPortman, Mr. Oakley,
and other gentlemen, at a cost of from 25s. to 42s. per
acre without tiles. The cost of this draining under the
old hands system would have been from £3 1 Os. to £b
10s. per acre ; and we were assured by Mr. Oakley that
in any case the saving was never less than ^£^1 per acre,
and in many cases much more. In clay-lands, " the in-
visible drain" so graphically described above by Mr.
Pusey, requires no pipes, and will last for 30 years,
while the interest on the cost of the pipes thus saved will
amount to a sum sufficient to pay the expenses of cutting
new drains every twelve years. In sandy and loose
soils, however, pipes are indispensable. In ordinary
soils the cost of draining by this machine is about 32s.
per acre (including main drains), and the land drains
eight yards apart. — Post.

REAPING MACHINES.

Great interest was taken in the reaping machines, of
which, as we stated yesterday, no fewer than 19 were
exhibited, all of which were, in a greater or less degree,
modifications of the American machines of M'Cormick
and Hussey. The prizes of the Royal Agricultural So-
ciety are always fixed in the preceding August, and it
therefore happens that no money prize was offered for
machines of this description. It was understood, how-
ever, that the society's medal would be given to the
best, and the competition excited great interest, inas-
much as, by the result, the vexed question of the pre-
eminence of the two ii^achines was expected to be settled.
The trial took place yesterday, and after a lengthened
competition the medal was awarded to Hussey 's reaping
machine, exhibited by Mr. Garrett. The cutting appa-
ratus of this implement consists of a series of knives
which, by a lateral motion, obtain a cutting power simi-
lar to that of a pair of shears ; while M'Cormick's
machine, on the contrary, operates on the saw prin-
ciple. M'Cormick's machine being designed only for
American farming, is not calculated to cut the crop
without leaving the stubble at the height of six or seven
inches. Hussey's however (at least Garrett's specimen
of it) in the trial of yesterday, left scarcely two inches
of stubble ; and by a peculiarity in the construction of
Garrett's machines' (shared, we understand, by those of
Ransome and May, the two being identical in that

L 2

146

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

respect) there is no doubt by a somewhat more expen-
sively made cutter, they might be applied with equal
advantage to the mowing of grass as to the reaping of
corn. Indeed, we are informed that one gentleman had
cut 40 acres of grass this season with Garrett's machine.
As a proof of the estimation in which these implements
are already held, we may mention the fact that no fewer
than 1,500 have been sold this season, and that the best
manufacturers have more orders than they can execute.
This sale is perfectly unprecedented in the history of
agricultural machinery. We ought to mention that
Mr. Crosskili, of Beverley, exhibited a reaping machine
that did its work remarkably well.

The best of these reaping machines will, with two
horses, clear from an acre to an acre and a-half per hour
—Ihid.

SUSSEX STOCK.

(from the SUSSEX EXPRESS.)

The breed of Sussex cattle is distinct in its character,
and possesses some qualifications in a more eminent de-
gree than any other. It is more or less spread over the
whole county of Sussex and the Weald of Kent. The
locality in which the Sussex are bred is in the neigh-
bourhood of Mayfield, Rye, Pevensey, Lewes, Bramber,
Petworth, and Midhurst — indeed, the whole of the land
lying at the foot of the Downs from Eastbourne to
Arundel ; and, for the purposes to which they are ap-
plied, they are entitled to rank, as Young states,
"amongst the best in the kingdom." And although
the improving spirit of the age has excited considerable
hostility to yoked oxen, still experience, our great
teacher, has not yet satisfactorily proved that, either in
point of economy or excellence, they can in all situa-
tions be superseded by horses. The trial has been
made ; and the horse, on the side-hill, has been com-
pelled to yield his place to the quiet, contented ox-team.
Let no stranger, therefore, who sees eight oxen drawing
a waggon on a level road fancy that this is a mere ab-
surdity ; for the ox-team is not always engaged in such
easy draught. Let him direct his view to the side-hills
of the Downs, often nearly perpendicular, and remember
that this team has to scale these heights laden with four
tons of manure ; and the attachments which men of high
pretensions as agricultural improvers have to their ox-
teams will at once be solved, and will furnish a fact
which has been too inconsiderately neglected by those
who have condemned the ox as an animal of draught.

The great improvement which has been effected in
the breeds of the national stock commenced, probably,
about the period of Bakewell. There was then a great
want of distinctness of character ia the Sussex breed.
The black prevailed in some districts, but there were
also found all tbe intermediate gradations of colour be-
tween that and the red. The red breed, however, was
even at this period in the greatest request : the black, it
is supposed, was intioduced at a previous period by a
cross with the Welsh. This stain on the purity of the
Sussex breed it took the breeders very many years to
exterminate ; but by great attention and perseverance
they succeeded. As the principles of breeding became
better understood, and its results tested by experience,
the Sussex breeders adhered strictly to the dark red cha-
racter, which, at the present time, is looked upon as an
evidence of thorough breed. In fact, the Michelham
and May's blood, in all our modern exhibitions, has suc-
ceeded in taking the prizes. This arose from a pecu-
liarly excellent breed of stock, of dark red colour, from
the herds of I he late Mr. Fuller, of May's Farm, and
Mr. Child, of Michelham, which has been dispersed
throughout the county, and is traceable at the present
day. For the parent stock, however, whence all the
best blood in the county was derived, we must go to the

rich marsh land in the neighbourhood of Eastbourne.
It was in that locality that Mr. Auger and Mr. Alfrey
laboured so perseveringly and so successfully in the im-
provement of the breed, that the late Mr. Denman, of
Willingdon, on one occasion gave the latter no less than
180 guineas for a bull and two cows, and thus laid the
foundation of one of the best herds in the county.
These, too, were the sources whence originated the fa-
mous Mays and Michelhaoj blood, to which we have
already referred— carrying all before it at our Sussex
cattle shows. It would be most unjust, however, in any
notice of Sussex stock, not to refer to the splendid
breed for which the county is indebted to Mr. Selmes,
of Knelle, near Beckley. Undoubtedly, his well-
known challenge to Earl Spencer was the first step
towards that national reputation, which has this
year secured the Sussex breed a separate class
in the premiums allotted by the Royal Agri-
cultural Society. For this result, the county is
also unquestionably indebted to Mr. Gorringe, who
carried off the second prize with a Sussex animal at the
Exeter meeting. It would be invidious to particularise,
but we may add that in Mayfield, Ticehurst, and that
district, as well as in Rolven^en, and many of the pa-
rishes in the Weald of Kent, there are breeders whose
stock need fear no competition either in the county or
out of it. The late John Ellman, Esq., who devoted
great attention to this breed, recorded their character as
follows : — " Nose k)lerably wide, of a golden colour,
thin between the nostril and the eye, the under jaw
thin, eye raJiier prominent, wide across the forehead,
neck neither long nor short, but clean under, with a
small dewlap, the top part nearly straight to the head
(not what is commonly called ewe-necked), top of the
plate bones not too wide and open, sides straight, no
projection at the point of the shoulder, wide and open
in the breast, which should project forward ; fore legs
straight, rather thin, and neither long nor short; no
hollowness on the back, behind the shoulder blades,
which will be the case if the shoulder blades be very
wide ; the body as round as a barrel, chine bone straight,
the ribs broad, space between the first rib and hip bones
narrow, loin flat, and nearly as wide at the fore-end as
the hind, each side of the loin to lie on a level with the
chine and nearly parallel, which will be the case when
the first rib springs well ; hip bones wide between and
broad, lying nearly or quite as high as the chine, the
rump flat, long, and wide at the setting on of the tail,
which should drop in between what is generally called
the first touch, or tip of the rump ; the outside of the
thigh flat, and no fulness behind ; the leg fine, neither
long nor short ; full inside the thigh, or what is called
the tivist. The feeding qualities are judged of from the
hair being rather long and silky, and handling mellow
under the skin ; these generally feed well. The steers
are taken into work when three years old (at which age
the heifers generally produce their first calf), and are
worked till six or seven years old, when they are turned
off to fatten. Care should be taken that, in their work,
they are kept in good condition, for if the oxen are
worked till they become very low in flesh, they seldom
feed well afterwards ; the best breeders of cattle seldom
suffer them to be much reduced.

' ' The average weights of oxen
are from 130 to 150 stone of
come to 180 or even 200 stone.

" The difference between the
Devon is not very striking ; they
to the grazier, and as working
unrivalled. The colour of both
are supposed originally to be of
Devon show most good breeding,
the Sussex cattle,"

, when fat for market,
81bs. ; some, however,

Sussex and the North
are equally profitable
cattle they both stand
breeds is red, and they

the same breed. The
but are not so large as

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

147

The age at which the farmers usually turn oft' their
oxen from work is at six or seven years old, although
they are in some cases still longer kept to the yoke.
Instances are recorded where they have been continued
in the plough until they are ten years old. The late
Earl of Egremont worked a pair until eleven years old,
and for the previous seven years they had done as much
work as any two horses. After that time they were
fattened with even greater advantage than beasts of
earlier age.

After spring- sowing is over it is the common prac-
tice, about May, to turn the oxen into the brook-pastures
or marsh lands during the summer, in order to prepare
them for stall-feeding in the winter. Those who have
not accommodation for resorting to this system are in the
habit of disposing of their ox-team in the fairs held at
this period. At the Lewes May Fair there are generally
several of these teams for sale, and formerly there were
more than at present. Where the meadows are rich
and the herbage luxuriant one acre will readily support
one ox in a thriving state for six months, turning them
out in the middle of May. It is not unusual, in the
eccnomy of the Southdown farmers, to have attached to
their farms a quantity of the marsh lands for fattening
their sheep and oxen. In the Weald the meadows,
although not so rich as those in the marshes, are still
sufficiently luxuriant to enaable the farmer to graze his
stock, which come to mai-ket in equal condition ; show-
ing that the excellence of stock does not depend upon
any peculiar richness in the soil.

One of the good qualities in the Sussex cattle is the
propensity to fatten kindly. The hide of the best sorts
yields a mellowness in handling, and it possesses a firm-
ness and sleekness which is the characteristic of good
cattle, and is an infallible criterion of a healthy habit.
There are still a few animals to be met with which have
not been improved, and these have coarse, rough, thick
hides, which are a mark of hardness of flesh, as firmness
and closeness of grain convey to the feel a fine texture
in the hide. The condition of the Sussex cattle is very
much to be known by attending to this appearance in
the hide, and it depends in a great measure upon the
pile and growth of the coat ; the shorter and sleeker the
coat, the more thriving the beast ; as on the contrary,
in proportion to length and hardness, is its unthriftiness.

The average weights of oxen when fat for market, are
from 130 to 150 stones of eight pounds ; some have ex-
ceeded these v^eights, rising from 180 to 200 stones.
One animal, which weighed 216 stones, measured as fol-
lows : — Length from crown to rump, 9 ft. 6 in, ; girt
before shoulders, 9ft. 5 in. ; girt behind, 9 ft. ; girt round
the middle, 10 ft. ; girt at flank, 9 ft. From nostrils
to tip of tail bone, 14 ft. 8 in, ; length of solid sides,
6 ft. 7 in. The Sussex beef is in higher repute in Smith-
field than any other ; it is beautifully marbled, finely
grained, and its flavour is rich. The value of its fifth
quarter renders it a great favourite with the butcher. The
material object in the cattle system of Sussex is the
breeding and rearing of stock for working and fattening ;
the dairy is but an object of secondary consideration.
Upon some farms nearly as many fat oxen are annually
sold as there are cows kept. In quantity of milk they
are not to be compared with some other breeds, but the
quality is very superior. The Sussex cows keep them-
selves almost beef whilst they give milk. We may in-
stance that a cow of this breed, three weeks after wean-
ing, gave lOlbs. of butter per week for some weeks, and
the next year 9J lbs. for several weeks, nine for several
more, and then for the rest of the summer 8 to S^lbs.,
and till the hard frost set in 71bs., and during the frost
41bs. per week. At the height of milking she gave lOlbs.
of butter and 121bs. of cheese each week, but never at
any time gave more than five gallons of milk in a day.

A CATALOGUE OF IMPLEMENTS

EXHIBITED AT THE SHOW.

William Crosskill, of the Beverley Iron Works,
near Beverley, York.

A patent serrateJ roller or clod crusher, invented, improved,
and manufactured by the exliibitcr (awarded the prize of £20
and silver medal at Southampton, £10 at Shrewsbury, the
special award of the Council gold medal at Newcastlo, ami
included in the award of the Council great medal at the Great
Exhibition) ; an improved Belgian iron roller, and au im-
proved Norwegian harrow, improved and manufactured by the
exhibiter (awarded the head prize at the Royal York Meet-
ing, and included in the award of the Council great medal at
the Great Exhibition) ; a Dude drag harrow, or Uley culti-
vator, invented by Mr. John Morton, of Whitfield, improved
by Mr. Richard Clyburn, of Uley, and manufactured by the
the exhibiter (awarded the head prizes of forty-five sovereigns
by the Royal Agricultural Society) ; a "Champion" American
reaping machine, invented by Obed Hussey, of Baltimore,
U. S., improved and manufactured by the exhibiter ; (new im-
plements) two improved reaping machincj, improved and
manufactured by the exhibiter ; four sets of patent cart wheels
and axles, invented, improved, and manufacturej by the ex-
hibiter (awarded a medal at the Derby meeting, and a
second medal, for further improvements, at the Newcastle
meeting, and included in the award of the Council Great
Medal at the Great Exhibition) ; a set of cart wheels and axles,
invented by Mr. Lister, of Dunsa Bank, improved and manu-
factured by the exhibiter; a pair-horse improved waggon ;
invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter
(awarded the head prize of £10 at the Norwich meeting, also
the head prize of £10 at the following Exeter meeting iu
1851, and commended as the best waggon at the Great Exhi-
bition) ; a Newcastle model one-korse plank cart and harvest
cart, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter (awarded
the head prize at the Newcastle meeting) ; a Norwich and
Exeter one-horae cart and harvest cart; improved by Mr.
Lister, of Dunsa Bank, and mauufactured by the exhibiter
(awarded the prize at the Norwich meeting, and also the prize,
for further improvements by Mr. Lister, at the Exeter meeting) ;
a " Great Exhibition" one-horse cart and harvest cart
(awarded the Council great medal at the Great Exhibition,
and since further improved) ; and an improved one-horse cart
and harness cart, improved and manufactured by the exhi-
biter; an improved iron liquid manure cart or distributer
(awarded a medal at the Cambridge meeting, since greatly
improved) ; and an improved portable metal pump, with flexible
hose pipe, &c., invented, improved, and manufactured by the
exhibiter; (new implement) a patent sweeping machine, for
turnpike roads, &c., invented by J. B. Blundell, of London,
improved and manufactured by the exhibiter ; specimens of
Crosskill's portable farm railway (awarded the silver medal
at Norwich) ; and a package of farm railway, for delivery,im-
proved and manufactured by the exhibiter ; specimen of per-
manent farm railway ; and a two-horse power portable thrash-
ing machine and straw shaker, invented, improved, and mauu-
factured by the exhibiter ; an improved corn-dressing machine
and blower, and an improved portable four-horse thrashing
machine, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a six-
horse power improved portable patent steam engine, invented,
improved, and manufactured by Messrs. Hornsby and Son, of
Grantham (awarded the Council great medal at the Great
Exhibition) ; a six-horae power fixture steam engine (awarded
a prize medal at the Great Exhibition) ; a three-horse power
patent eccentric mill (awarded the Couucil great medal at the
Great Exhibition, since greatly improved) ; and (new imple-
ments) a four-horse and eight-horse power patent eccentric mills,
invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter; an
improved horse-power driving part, improved and manu-
factured by the exhibiter ; an Archimedean root washer, in-
vented by Captain Carr, of Tuschenbeck, improved and manu-
factured by the exhibiter (awarded the silver medal at the
York meeting) ; a patent iron fixture pig trough, invented by
Wm. Torr, Esq., of Aylesbury, improved and manufactured
by the exhibiter.

G. A. Pike and Co., of Framfield, near Hurst Green,
Sussex.

A cultivator, grubber, and scarifier, for a rough fallow, and

148

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

for peas, oats, aud wheat gratteus, improved by Mr. Stone,
and manufactured b}' Mark Banuister and Wm. Hills, of
Frainiield ; (new implement) a pair-horse scarifier, invented
and manufactured by A. Eade, of Biixted ; (new implement)
a turnwrest plough, improved aud manufactured by the exlii-
biters ; (new implement) a drill for small occupations, invented
and manufactured by the exhibiters.

Charles Wykeham Maktin, M.P., of Leeds Castle,
near Maidstone, Kent.
A Mid-Kent turnwrest plough, improved by the exhibiter,
and manufactured by Thomas Jenner and John Swan, of
Broomfield, Lenham, Kent.

F. M'Neill and Co., Patent Felt Works, of BuahilU
rovr, Finsbury- square, London.
The patent asphalted felt for roofing houses and every de-
scription of farm buildings, for linuig damp walls, particularly
granaries, as vermin will not touch it) as a light ceiling, to 1)6
fixed underneath rafters, as, from its non-conducting qualities,
it counteracts the heat of the sun, and totally excludes the
frost of winter ; weather-boarded roofs which have become im-
perfect can be made tight with a covering of this felt), im-
proved and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a portable rick-
stand, of a very cheap construction, and an excellent check to
vermin, invented by J. F. Williams, Patent Felt Works,
Bunhill-row ; models and specimen framings, illustrating
various cheap constructions of roofs for the application of the
felt, also showing its use for ceilings, lining damp walls, co-
vering flats, &c.

Bernhard Samuelson (Successor to the late James
Gardner), Banbury, Oxford.
Several sizes of Samuelson's patent Gardner's turnip-cutters
(double action), invented by the late James Gardner, of Ban-
bury, improved by Alexander Samuelson, of Banbury, and ma-
nufactured by the exhibiter (this implement obtained the prize
medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851) ; a chaff-cutter, for
hand-power, invented by William Riley, of Neithrop, im-
proved and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a chaff-cutter, for
hand-power, improved and manufactured lay the exhibiter ; a
universal crushins: or bruising mill, invented by the late Mr.
Stratton, of Bristol, improved and manufactured by the exhi-
biter ; a bean-splitting mill, invented, improved, and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; an oilcake-breaker, manufactured by
the exhibiter; (new implement) a M'Cormick's patent
American reaper, invented by Cyrus Hale M'Cormick, of
Chicago, and manufactured by the exhibiter (this reaper ob-
tained the Council medal at the Great Exhibition, 1851); a
registered subsoil plo'igh, invented by William Smith, Esq.,
of Little Woolstone, and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a
five-tine horse-hoe, and a three tine horse-hoe, invented by
William Busby, of Bedale, and manufactured by the exhibiter ;
two sizes of Anthony's patent American churn, invented by
Charles Anthony, of Pittsburg, United States, and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter (it took a silver medal at the Society's
meeting at Exeter, and a prize medal at the Great Exhibi-
tion) ; two sizes of a registered atmospheric churn, invented
and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a Kase's patent force aud
suction pump, double action, invented by — Kase, of the
United States, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter ;
a semicircular-bottomed pig-trough, manufactured by the ex-
hibiter ; three sizes of Budding's lawn-mowing machine, in-
vented by E. Budding, of Dursley, improved and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; two sizes of garden rollers,
manufactured by the exhibiter.

Clayton, Shuttleworth, and Co., of Lincoln.

A three-horse power, a four-horse power, a five-horse
power, and a six-horse power portable steam engine, im-
proved and manufactured by the exhibiters ([this latter engine
received a prize of £25 at the Royal Agricultural Society's
meeting held at Norwich, 1849 ; £25 at Exeter, 1850 ; and a
prize medal at the Great Exhibition of All Nations, in 1851) ;
a six-horse power and a four-horse power fixed steam engine,
improved and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a pair of re-
gistered portable Derbyshire millstones, driven by steam
power (this grinding mill received the prize of £10 at the
Royal Agricultural Society's meeting held at Norwich, in
1849, also at Exeter, 1860) ; a portable circular saw and
bench; (new implement) a registered combined portable

thrashing, straw-shaking, riddling, and winnowing machine,
and (new implement) a set of fixed barn works, invented, im-
proved, aud manufactured by the exhibiters.
Rev. S. Smith, Lois Weedon, near Towcester, North-
amptonshire.

A presser drill, and a rough roller aud hoe iiuple'.iient, in-
vented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by W. Gascoigne,
of Weston-by. Weedon ; a scarifier with five tines, invented
aud manufactured by W. Gascoigne, of Weston-by-Weedon,
Towcester.

Freeman Roe, 70, Strand, Loudon, and at Bridgfield,
Wandsworth, Surrey.

(New implement) a hydraulic ram, for raising water to
supply farms, mansions, &c., invented by Moutgolfier, of
France, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter ; (new
implement) a liquid manure and fire pump, for spreadmg the
liquid, &c., invented, improved, and manufactured by the ex-
hibiter ; (new implement) a syphon, with piston to exhaust
the air, invented by Lord Camoys, of 12, Dorset-square, aud
manufactured by the exhibiter ; a lift pump, manufactured by
the exhibiter ; a liquid manure pump, improved and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; a gutta percha suction and pipe, to
convey water, &c., improved and manufactured by the Gutta
Percha Company, of City-road ; a water-gauge, manufactured
by the exhibiter ; (new implement) a wrench, invented by
George Davis, of 52, Baukside, Southwark, aud manufactured
by the exhibiter ; a four-horse portable steam engine, manu-
factured by the exhibiter ; an hydrant, or street fire-cock, im-
proved by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Grimes, of
Rotherham ; a sluice-cock for stopping liquid manure, manu-
factured by the exhibiter.

William Prockter Stanley, of Peterborough,
Northamptonshire.
Three sizes of Stanley's registered roller mill (prizes were
awarded to this mill at the Royal Agricultural Society's Show
at York and Exeter — also at the following local shows, viz. :
Peterborough, Huntingdon, Wisbech, Boston, Lincoln, North
Stafford, North Lancashire, Northumberland, Durham, Cleve-
land, Brigg, Liverpool and Manchester, Preston, Farnham,
Yorkshire, &c., &c. ; this machine obtained the award of a
medal at the Royal Exhibition of 1851) ; a Stanley's oat, beau,
aud universal mill ; a Stanley's rape and linseed cake breaker;
three sizes of Stanley's registered farmer's steaming apparatus,
for cooking food for cattle, &c. (prizes were awarded to the
above at the Royal Agricultural Society's Shows at York,
Norwich, and Exeter ; and at the following local shows, viz.,
Peterborough, Wisbech, Northampton, Boston, Huntingdon,
North Stafford, Lincoln, Brigg, North Lancashire, Liverpool
aud Manchester, Northumberland, Durham, Cleveland, South
Lancashire, &c., &c.) ; aud a Stanley's improved chaff ma-
chine, with patent safety improvements, all invented, improved
and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a patent apparatus for
manufacturing gas for domestic and other purposes, and for
generating steam for cooking food for cattle, or for driviug a
small engine, invented and patented by Webster, of Leicester,
improved and manufactured by G. Bower, of St. Neots, Hunts.

Thomas Glover, Thrussington, near Loughborough,

Leicestershire.
A turf and stubble paring plough, invented improved, and
manufactured by the exhibiter (this implement gained a prize
of £4 at the Royal Agricultural Society's Show at Liverpool
in 1843, a prize of £5 at the Derbyshire Agricultural Society's
Show at Chatsworth iu 1843, a prize of £5 at the Royal
Agricultural Society's Show at Northampton in 1847, a prize
of £2 and a silver medal at the Yorkshire Agricultural Society's
Show at Scarborough in 1847, a prize of £5 at the Royal
Agricultural Society's Show at York iu 1848, a prize of £5 at
the Royal Agricultural Society's Show at Norwich in 1849,
and a prize of £5 at the Royal Agricultural Society's Show at
Exeter in 1850.)

Richard Hornsby and Son, Spittlegate Iron Works,
near Grantham, Lincolnshire.
A six horse and a four horse power improved patent portable
steam engine (this engine received the Council Medal at the
Great Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, held at the
Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, London, 1851 ; likewise the first

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

149

prize of £50 as the best aud most ecouomical engine exhibited
at the raeetinfj of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eugland,
held at Exeter, July 1S50; also the first prize of £50 at the
Royal Meetiii>!; held at York, July 1848); an ei^ht horsepower
horizontal fixture steam engine ; a patent improved corabiued
thrashing machine ; a patent corn dressing or winnowing ma-
chine (this machine received the Couuril Medal at the Great
Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, l.e!d at the Crystal
Pa'.ace, Hyde Park, Loudon, 1851 ; also the lirst prize of £10
at the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,
held atExeter, July 1850; £10 at Norwich, July 1849 ; £10
at York, July 1848; £3 at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, July
1846) ; a drill machiue for corn and general purposes (this
drill received the first prize of £15, as the best exhibited at the
meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, held at
Norwich, July 1849; £15 at York, July 1848; £15 at
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, July 1846 ; £15 at Shrewsbury, July
1845 : £10 at Derby, July 1813 ; £30 at Bristol, July 1842 ;
and £25 at Liverpool, 1841); a patent corn and seed drill, on
an improved principle (this drill received the Council Medal at
the Great Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, held at
the Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, Loudon, 1851 ; likewise the
first prize of £10 as the best exhibited at the meeting of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England, h( Id at Exeter, July
1850 ; as well as a prize medal for the introduction of the
patent ludia-rubber tubes, for conducting the seed to the
ground, and for patented improvements iu the fore carriage
steerage) ; an improved patent forejcarriage steeiage ; a patent
four-row drill for turnips or mangold wurtzcl seed with ma-
nure (this drill received tiie Royal Agricultural Society's first
prize of £10 at the Exeter Meeting, 1850; £10 at Norwich,
1849 ; and £10 at Shrewsbury, 1845) ; a two-row patent ridge
drill for turnips or mangold wurtzel seed, with manure (this
drill received the Council Mtdal at the Great Exhibition, 1851;
also the first prize of 101. at the Exeter Meeting, 1850 ; the
prize medal at Norwich, 1849; Wl. at York, 1848; 10?. at
Shrewsbury, 1845 ; the prize medal at Derby, 1843 ; aud 10/.
at Liverpool, 1841) ; a patent drop drilling machine for ridges
or flat ground (this drill received the Council Medal at the
Great Exhibition, 1851); a drill machiue for distributing
pulverized manures broadcast (this diill received the first prize
of 10?. at the Y'ork Lleeting, 1848) ; a patent small occupation
corn drill ; and a four horse power portable thrashing machine,
all invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiters ;
an improved patent turnip cutter, invented and improved by
Messrs. Burgess and Key, of London, aud manufactured by
the exhibiters (received the Prize Medal at the Great Exhibi-
tion, 1851) ; a double cake breaking or crushing machine (re-
ceived the Council Medal at the Great Exhibition, 1851 ; it
also had the first prize at the Shrewsbury Meeting ; 51. at
Southampton ; and 51. at Derby); and a single cake breaking
or crushing machine, invented, improved, aud manufactured
by the exhibiters.

Richard Coleman, of Chelmsfoid, Essex.
Three sizes of the patent drag harrow, cultivator, or scari-
fier, invented and manufactured by the exhibiter (the prize
medal was awarded to this implement at the Great Exhibition
of 1851) ; (new implement) a patent two horse drag harrow,
or scarifier, invented by the exhibiter ; a patent expanding
lever harrow (a prize of 51. was awarded to this implement at
the Newcastle Meeting, 1846) ; three sizes of the patent ex-
panding harrow (the Prize Medal was awarded to this imple-
ment at the Great Exhibition of 1851) ; a patent subsoil har-
row or pulverizer ; (new implement) a one way or turnwrest
plough ; and (new implement) a paring and moulding plough,
invented aud manufactured by the exhibiter.

William Harper, of BeccleS; Suffolk.

(New implement) a cultivator, invented and manufactured
by the exhibiter ; a chaflt cutter, improved and manufactured
by the exhibiter ; (new implement) a horse power machinery,
and (new implement) a cake crusher, invented and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter.

Robert Holmes, of Durrington, near Worthing,
Sussex.

A horse hay rake, improved and manufactured by the exhi-
biter.

Frederick Mason, Eagle Foundry, Ipswich, Suffolk.
(New implement) a registered English reaping machine, and

(new implement) a double-winded dressmg macliine, invented
and n\auufactured by the exhibiter.

Thomas Allcock, Ratcliff-on-Trent, Nottingbamtihire.
A chaff-cutter with three knives, a chall'-cutter with two
knives, two sets of circular wrought-iroii harrows, an iron
plough with two wheels, and a horse drug rake, all invented,
improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter.

William TASKERand George Fowle, Waterloo iron
Works, Andover, Ilampsliire.
A four-horse-power portable thrashing machine, invented,
improved, and mauufactuied by the exhibiters ; a set of well
machinery, for drawing water, with iron cistern and sslf-actin^
tipping apparatus (a silver medal was awarded at the Society s
meeting al Southampton, 1844), aud (new implement) a con-
vex wheel roller and clod crusher, invented and mamifactured
by the exhibiters; a corn-dressing machine, improved and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; a drill machine fi.r corn and
general purposes, a Y' D 3 iron two-wheel plough, a D 3 Light
one-wheel plough, and an 18-inch iron field roller, invented aud
manufdctured by the exhibiters; an improved la iid presser,
improved and manufactured by the exhibiters; aud a grinding
and bruising mill (double action), invented and manufactured
by the exhibiters.

Edward Hammond Bentall, of Heybridge, near
Maldon, Essex.
Several sizes of Bentall's patent iron beam broadshare and
subsoil plough, cultivator, or scarifier, combined in one imple-
ment (the prize of £5 was awarded to this implement at the
Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society at Exeter, in 1850,
as the best pair-horse scarifier ; a prize medal was awarded to
it also at the Great Exhibition as a cultivator; and at tlie same
time a prize medal was awarded to the same imphiinent as a
subsoil plough), two sizes of his patent subsoil plough., a patent
light broadshare plough, three kinds of the patent iniingel or
ridge hoe, a patent double torn plough, an origirialGuldhanger
plough, a patent NGH plough, a turnwrest or one-way plough,
several patent parallel double-angle iron beam ploii;.;hs, a pa-
tent dynamometer (this instrument, for testing thu draught of
ploughs, gained a prize medal at the Great Exhibition), and a
self-computing dynamometer, all invented and manufactured by
the exhibiter; a hand turnip-cutter, improved and manufactured
by the exhibiter ; a Bentall's oilcake mill, invented anl manu-
factured by the exhibiter ; three oblong cattle water troughs,
a round cattle water or feeding trough, eight round hog
troughs, and two stack pillars and caps, manufactured by the
exhibiter.

William C. Cambridge, of Bristol, Somersetshire.
A portable ste.im engine of five horse power (at the Meeting
of the Royal Agricultural Society held at Bristol, in 1842, a
prize of £15 was awarded ; it also obtained a prize of £10 at
Derby, 1843; ditto £5 at Southampton, 1844; ditto £5 at
Shrewsbury, 1845 ; ditto £50 at Northampton, 1847), (new
implemeiit) a registered straw shaker with portable bolting
thrashing machine, a portable patent four-horse power horse
work, a patent portable two-horse power thrashing machine,
and five sets of the patent press wheel roller and clod crusher,
all invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter.

Cha^rles Barnard and John Bishop, of Norwich,
Norfolk.
Three sizes of strong wrought iron garden chairs, and a
strong wrought iron garden seat, invented and manufactured
by the exhibiters ; two wrought iron folding garden stools,
with elastic galvanized wire seat, and a wrought iron folding
garden chair, with elastic galvanized wire seat and back, im-
proved and manufactured by the exhibiters ; several specimens
of light japanned and galvanized wire hare and rabbit proof
netting, specimens of extra strong japanned wire sheep netting,
also specimens of japanned sparrow proof wire netting, ten
wire net plant or tree guards, and a roll of ornamental wire
garden border, all invented and manufactured by the exhibiters ;
two wrought iron bedsteads with dovetail joints, improved aud
manufactured by the exhibiters ; a wrought iron folding or
portable bedstead, invented and manufactured by the exhibi-
ters ; a patent self-rolling mangle, invented by Charles Bar-
nard, of Norwich, and manufactured by the exhibiters; a cot-
tage mangle, invented and manufactured by the exhibiters; a
wrought iron garden gate, manufactured by the exhibiters ;

150

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

three specimeus of oruameutal wrought irou garden gates, an
ornamental wrought iron carriage gate, and a plain wrought
iron carriage gate, designed and manufactured by the exh'bi-
ters ; two six bar wrought iron iield gates, a seven bar strong
wrought iron field gate, a three bar, a four bar, and two five
bar iron hurdles, an iron hurdle, two six bar iron hurdles, a five
bar portable iron hurdle, several specimens of iron hurdles for
cattle and sheep, made hare and rabbit proof, with upright
rods, and an ornamental wire game hurdle, all invented and
manufactured by the exhibiters; a length of strained wire
fencing for horses and heavy cattle, invented, improved, and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; two improved wrought iron
standards for strained wire fencing, an improved iron standard
for strained wire deer fencing, invented and manufactured by
the exhibiters ; wrought iron garden stakes, manufactured by
the exhibiters ; strong wrought iron garden stakes, with cast
iron points, improved and manufactured by the exhibiters ; two
cast iron window frames and casements, invented and manu-
factured by the exhibiters ; iron pig trouglis, improved and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; (new implements) two Nor-
folk pig troughs, made of cast and wrought iron, invented and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; a strong wrought iron hay
rack, a barrow wheel, a wrought iron sheep fold hurdle on
wheels, improved and manufactured by the exhibiters ; (new
implement) a circular wrought iron rick stand, with cast iron
pillars, and (new implement) an oblong wrought iron rick stand,
with cast iron pillars, invented and manufactured by the exhi-
biters ; and two iron rick stand pillars improved and manufac
tnred by the exhibiters.

James White, of 266, High Holborn.
A patent gorse reducer, invented, improved, and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; two steel mills for grinding wheat,
and dressing the flour, in one operation (it was praised by her
Majesty and Prince Albert at the Great Exhibition^, a steel
mill for grinding wheat by power, and a steel mill for splitting
beans, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a steel
mill for splitting beans, fixed on post ; another steel mill for
splitting beans, mounted on a cast-iron frame, which renders it
portable, manufactured by the exhibiter ; a registered roller
mill, improved and manufactured by Messrs. Turner and Co.,
of Ipswich ; (new implement) a hand chaff machine, with re-
volving fork, invented by E. R. Turner, of Ipswich, and manu-
factored by Messrs. Turner and Co., of Ipswich ; a wheel chaff
machine in a neat iron frame, and a chaff machine, manufac-
tured by Richmond and Chandler, of Salford, Manchester ; a
small roller mill, manufactured by Messrs. Turner and Co., of
Ipswich ; a universal mill for grinding corn for stock feeding,
and two universal mills fixed on posts, manufactured by the
exhibiter; a White's inllermillfor crushing corn, &c., improved
and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a steel mill for grinding
linseed, to be fixed to a post, and a hand-power wheel, manu-
factured by the exhibiter ; a one-horse patent gear work for
turning mills, chaff-cutters, &c., invented and manufactured
by Barrett, Exall, and Andrews, of Reading, and an interme-
diate motion, manufactured by Messrs. Turner and Co., of
Ipswich.

Richmond and Chandler, of Richmond-square,
Salford, near Manchester, Lancashire.
A patent sack-holder, invented by Henry Gilbert, of St.
Leonard's, Sussex, improved and manufactured by the exhibi-
ters ; a patent sack-holder and barrow combined, invented by
Henry Gilbert, of St. Leonard's Sussex, improved by Joshua
Cooch, of Harleston, and manufactured by the exhibiters ; an
improved chaff-cutting machine ; (new implements) four newly
registered chaff cutting machines ; a registered tooth roller
chaff cutting machine; corn crusher, Nos. 1, 2, and 3 ; a grain
and linseed crusher, Nos. 2 and 4 ; an improved root masher,
and an improved steaming apparatus, all invented, improved,
and manufactured by the exhibiters (the last obtained a prize
of £5 at Derby, Southampton, and Shrewsbury.)

Joshua Cooch, of Harleston, near Northampton.
Two sizes of an improved patent corn-dressing machine, in-
vented by the late John Cooch, of Harleston, improved and ma-
nufactured by the exhibiter. This machine obtained the prize
of £10 at the Liverpool Meeting, July, 1841, also a prize of
£15 at the Northampton Meeting, July, 1847 ; a barley hum-
meller (this obtained the prize of £3 at the Derby Meeting,
1843, also a silver medal at the Southampton Meeting, 1844

aud a plough, iuveuteJ, improved, and manufacturedjby the ex-
hibiter ; four of the patent sack-holders, invented by Henry
Gilbert, of St. Leonard's-ou-Sea, improved and manufactured
by the exhibiter.

Thomas Bigg, of Leicester House, Great Dover-street,
South vyark, Surrey.
Two sizes ofthe sheep-dippingapparatua, invented, improved,
and manufactured by the exhibiter.

James Hayes, of Elton, near Stilton, Huntingdon-
shire.
Two specimens of a grinding mill, invented and manufactured
by the exhibiter.

Terry and Son, of Hailsham, Sussex.
A one-way turnwrest foot plough, improved and manufac-
tured by the exhibiters.

J. and A. Armitage, of Bury, near Ramsey,

Huntingdonshire.
A brick and tile machine, invented and manufactured by
the exhibiters.

Grace Cheai. and Sons, of Southover, near Lewes,
Sussex.
A four horse, a three horse, and a two horse power portable
thrashing machine, improved and manufactured by the exhi-
biters; a four hand power portable thrashing machine ; a corn
dressing or winnowing machine, and a small occupation seed
and manure drill ; improved and manufactured by the exhi-
biters.

Thomas Beale Browne, of Hampen, AndoverforJ,
Gloucestershire.
(New implement) a new clod crusher and pulverizer for
elevating the clods and breaking them, and (new) a first-rate
tarpaulin, including patent ceilet-holes, all complete, invented
and manufactured by the exhibiter ; (new) a four-bushel sack
without seam, (new) a five-bushel sack for corn or flour, and
(new implement) a flax tube to convey liquids, invented by the
exhibiter ; (new) a coal sack, all of long hemp, without seam,
sown up at the bottom by power ; (new) a cheap patent cloth
for all parties, made of flax and wool ; flax belting for driving
machinery, cheap and strong, and (new) a peculiar kind of sail
cloth, applicable to many things, invented and manufactured
by the exhibiter ; some flax seed, grown by the exhibiter, and
some flax in different stages — not picked samples.

James and Frederick Howard (sons and successors
of John Howard), of Bedford.
Three patent iron ploughs, with two wheels (marked X,
XX, and XXX), invented and manufactured by the exhibiters.
Prizes awarded by the Royal Agricultural Society of England
to Howard's patent ploughs : the first prize of £5 at the Liver-
pool Meeting; the first prize of £5 at the Bristol Meeting;
the first prize of £10 at the Shrewsbury Meeting; a double
first prize af £20 at the Newcastle Meeting ; also at North-
ampton, 1847, at York, 1848, at Norwich, 1849, and at
Exeter, 1850, the first prices were awarded to Messrs. Howard
for the best plough. At the Great Exhibition of all Nations,
the prize medal was also awarded for a two-horse plough, and
also the prize medal for a four-horse plough. A patent iron
Kent or Sussex plough, with two wheels (marked XXX) ; a
patent iron swing plough (marked X) ; a patent iron plough,
with two wheels, (marked JA) No. J — this is the original
" Champion" plough of Messrs. Howards', which gained nine
first premiums at the annual meetings of the Royal Agricultu-
ral Society ; a patent iron plough, with two wheels (marked
JD) No. 1 ; a patent iron turnwrest plough, with two wheels;
an improved Northumberland ridge, or double-breast plough
(marked DB), and a new patent subsoil plough, or sub-pulve-
rizer, all invented andmanufacturedby the exhibiters; a Read's
patent iron subsoil plough or sub-pulveriver, invented by the
late John Read of London, improved and manufactured by the
exhibiters ('the Royal Agricultural Society has awarded the
following premiums to this implement : the first prize of £10
at the Southampton Meeting, in 1844 ; the first prize of £10
at the Shrewsbury Meeting, 1845; the first prize of £1 0 at
the Newcastle on-Tyue Meeting, in 1846 ; the first prize of
£10 at Northampton, 1847 ; and the first prize of £5 at the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

151

Exeter Meetiug, ] 850, was awarded to the eihibiters for their
improvements )n|this plough); sets of patent four-beam harrows,
with whippletree's, markedNos. 12andl4(theRoyalAgricultural
Society of England has awarded to the exhibiters the following
premiums for harrows : Derby Meeting, 18-14, first prize of 5/. ;
York Meeting, 1848, firsit prize of 5Z. ; and the first prize at
Exeter, 1850) ; a set of patent three -beam harrows, with whip-
pletree (marked No. 11) ; sets of new patent jointed harrows,
with whippletrees, marked Nos. 10, 12, 13, and 15 (the prize
for the best set of harrows was awarded by the Royal Agricul-
tural Society of England to a similar set at the York Meeting,
1848; also at Exeter, 1850) ; and a set of patent iron drag
harrows, with whippletree (marked No. 17), all invented by
William Armstrong and James Howard, of Bedford, aud ma-
nufactured by the exhibiters ; an improved wrought-iron scari-
fier, or cultivator (with 9 coulters), improved and manufactured
by the exhibiters ; a set of improved trussed whippletrees, in-
vented by Egertou Harding, Esq., of Old Springs, improved
and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a set of improved equal-
izing whippletrees, aud a set of improved steelyard
whippletrees, improved aud manufactured by the exhibi-
ters ; an improved iron horse hoe, invented aud manufactured
by the exhibiters ; an improved iron horse hoe, improved and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; a patent horse drag rake, in-
vented and manufactured by the exhibiters (the Royal Agri-
cultural Society awarded the prize to this implement at Exeter,
1850; at the Great Exhibition of All Nations, the exhibiters
gained the prize medal for their patent horse rake) ; an im-
proved Bedfordshire one-horse cart; specimens of new patent
ploughshares, manufactured by the exhibiters, and sundry
models of implements.

James Howard, of Bedford, and Geo. Stacey, of
Uxbridge.
An improved patent " British" reaping aud mowing ma-
chine, invented by the exhibiters, and manufactured by George
Stacey, of Uxbridge ; and an improved patent " British"
reaping aud mowiug machine, invented by the exhibiters, and
manufactured by J. and F. Howard, of Bedford.

Richard Read, No. 35, Regent Circus, Piccadilly,

London, Middlesex.
A patent subsoil pulverizer, invented by the late John Read,
and manufactured by the exhibiter (a prize of £10 was awarded
for this implement at Southampton in 1814, Shrewsbury 1845,
Newcastle-on-Tyne 1846, and Northampton 1847) ; a patent
double action agricultural fire engine, complete, invented by
the late John Read, and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a
patent agricultural fire engine, smaller (a silver medal was
awarded for this engine at Exeter, July, 1850), and a patent
watering engine, invented, improved, and manufactured by the
exhibiter ; a patent injecting instrument and tube, complete
for horses, cattle, &c., and a hollow probang, for relieving
hoven or choked cattle, invented by the late John Read, im-
proved and manufaetured by the exhibiter ; a hollow probang
for relieving hoven sheep, calves, &c., iuvented and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; two patent hand watering machines,
invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter; a
double action greenhouse pump, invented and manufactured
by Samuel Nye, of Newiugton Butts; and a horticultural to-
bacco fumigator, invented by Captain Brown.

William Newzam Nicholson, Newark-on-Trent,
Nottingbamshire.
Three machines for breaking oilcake for beasts aud sheep
(had a prize of £5 awarded at the Norwich Show), and two
machines (or breaking oilcake for beasts and sheep, and rape-
cake for tillage (received the prize of £5 at t e Exeter Show,
and the prize medal at the Great Exhibition, London), in-
vented, improved, aud manufactured by the exhibiter ; a ma-
chine for grinding beans, oats, malt, barley, &c., and a win-
nowing or corn dressing machine, improved and manufactured
by the exhibiter ; (new implement) a corn roughing or win-
nowing machiue, and (new implement) a winnowing or corn
dressing machine, which may also be used as a blower, in-
vented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a bar-
ley awning or hummelling machine, improved and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; two cottage cooking ranges, with
patent improvements (had a prize of £5 awarded at the York
Show, and a further prize of £5 at the Exeter Show), a cook-
ing range, adapted for a small farm kitchen or bailiff's cottage.

a cooking range for farm kitchens, a superior range for farm
kitchens, two cottage cookiug grates, two Anglo-German cook-
ing stoves for cottages (had a silver madal awarded at the
Exeter Show), a cottage grate for bedrooms, a cosmopolitan
cooking stove, a cottage pump and sink, with drain trap, &c.,
and a chatf engine, all invented, improved, and manufactured
by the exhibiter.

James Comins, South Molton, Devon.
A plough for general purposes, a paring plough, two regis-
tered one-way turnover or turnwrest ploughs, and a horse hoe
on the flat, invented, improved, aud manufactured by the ex-
hibiter ; (new implement) a pair horse scarifier, invented and
manufactured by the exhibiter ; a cultivator, grubber, or sca-
rifier, two subsoil pulverizers, two small horse hoes, and a
horse hoe, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhi-
biter ; a horse hoe, invented and manufactured by the exhi-
biter (awarded the prize medal at the Great Exhibition) ; a
set of heavy harrows, a pair of light harrows, and a filling-in
plough, invented, improved, aud manufactured by the exhibiter;
two sets of pair-horse whippletrees, manufactured by the exhi-
biter.

George Cottam and Samuel Hallen, 2, Winsley-
street, Oxford-street, London.
A sample of stable brackets for hanging saddles on, a sam-
ple of bridle hooks, rack chains, halter chains, pillar chains
with spring hooks, a galvanized dog trough, a stable bucket, a
stable sash or bull-eye light, and a sack holder, manufactured
by the exhibiters ; a stable fork, manufactured by Messrs.
Lyndon and Co , of Birmingham ; a sack truck, a skid pan and
drag chain, a stable lanthorn with plate glass, another stable
lanthorn, a stable pump, and a length of suction pipe six feet
long, all manufactured by the exhibiters ; a length of stable
gutter six feet long, an angle piece of the above, a T-piece of
the above, a stable grate and frame, a horse pot, and a mare
pot, all manufactured by the exhibiters ; an improved horse
pot, improved by Mr. Cottam, aud manufactured by the exhi-
biters ; two carriage setters, a registered manger rack and
water trough, a manger and wrought-iron rack, and a double
improved corner manger, invented by G. Cottam, and manu-
factured by the exhibiters ; two cast iron mangers, iron work
for the partition of a stall, two wrought-iron corner hay racks,
a sample of cottage sashes with ventilators, a set of hand
glass frames, and a cast-iron enamelled washhand basin, ma-
nufactured by the exhibiters ; an odometer or land measure,
aud a dynamometer or draught gauge, invented by George
Cottam, of 2, Winsley-street, and manufactured by the exhi-
biters ; a set of draining tools aud a rick stand, manufactured
by the exhibiters; two sizes of serrated chain harrow, invented
by James Smith, of Deanstou, improved by George Cottam,
of 2, Winsley-street, and manufactured by the exhibiters ;
three sizes of the mowing machine, invented by Mr, Bud-
ding ; and a reaping machine, invented by Mr. Hussey ;
two wheat mills and dressing machines, and two sizes
of liquid manure pumps, invented by George Cotlam,
of 2, Winsley-street, and manufactured by the exhibiters ;
an assortment of metallic churns, invented by Mr. John-
son, of London, and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a
turnip cutter, an oat bruising machine, a chaff machine, a saw
table and boring machine, and a saw table, invented by George
Cottam, of 2, Winsley-street, and manufactured by the exhi-
biters ; a skim or paring plough, manufactured by the exhi-
biters ; a scarifier or grubber, invented by Mr. Coleman ; a
Norwegian harrow, invented by Mr. G. E. Frere, F R.S , of
Roydon, and manufactured by Messrs. Stratton, of Bristol ; a
wmnowing machiue, invented by Samuel Wheatley, of Rad-
clitf, aud manufactured by the exhibiters (awarded a prize of
£10 at the Shrewsbury Show, July, 1845) ; two samples of
strained wire fence, two samples of sheep hurdles, a sample of
light cattle hurdles, and a sample of strong cattle hurdles, ma-
nufactured by the exhibiters.

J. Gray and Co., Uddington, near Glasgow, Lanark,
N. B.
Two sizes of an improved Scotch one-horse farm cart, im-
proved and manufactured by the exhibiters (awarded the prize
medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851) ; a parallel lever sub-
soil pulverizer (commended at the Exeter Meeting), an im-
proved subsoil pulverizer, a strong deepsoil plough, for three
or four horses, two sizes of an improved two-horse Scotcli

U2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

swing plough, asid a iiiirallel five-tiued drill grubber or pul-
verizer, invented and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a paral-
lel ex|):!nsiou horse-hoe for drill crops, a light drill scuffle or
horse hoe, and a light drill scuffle or horse hoe, improved and
manufactured by the exhibiters; an improved equalizing three-
horse yoke for working abreast and two two-horse yokes.

Mapplebeck and Lowe, of Birmingham, Warwick-
shire.
Several sizes of a platform weighing machine, of improved
conbtruction, invented and manufactured by W. and T. Avery,
of Birmingham ; a set of new pattern iron weights, a portable
kibbling mill on a frame, a portable bean splitting mill on a
frame ; and a portable malt mill, on a frame, manufactured
by t!ie exhibiters ; three sizes of the two-knife chaff-cutter,
invented and manufactured by J. Cornes, of Barbridge ; a
two-kniftj chaff-cutter, a turnip-slice, and an iron field roller
18 inches diameter, manufactured by the exhibiters ; (new
implement} a chain barrow, invented aad manufactured by
MV. Vaughan, of Oxley ; and a donble mouldboard plough,
manufactured by W. Vaughan, of Oxley ; (new implement) an
expanding cultivator or scarilier, invented and mauufactured
by W. Simpson, of Birminjfham ; an iron hurdle (the " Glas-
gow" pattern), two other iron hurdles, an improved sheep
ifolding hurdle, manufactured by the exhibiters ; several rolls
of wire hare and rabbit netting, and a rjll of poultry uettiug,
manufactured by the exhibiters ; two sets of bright draining
tools, invented by Josiah Parkes, Esq., of London, and ma-
uufactured by W. A. Lyndon, of Birmingham (the prize of
£5 was awarded to the exhibiters for these tools at the North-
ampton meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1847) ;
three sets of draining tools, and a set of bright draining tools
for clay laud, manufactured by W. A. Lyndon, of Birmingham;
two sets of b.-ight draining tools for clay laud, mauufactured
by the exhibiters (these tools obtained the prize of £3 at the
Norwich meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1849,
and the prize of £3 at the Exeter meeting of the Royal Agri-
cultural Society, 1850); two sets of steel Americau diggingforks,
a three-pro5!g steel manure fork, and a four-prong steel manure
fork, a three-prong steel manure fork with long handle ; a dia-
mond-shaped three-proug steel manure fork, a diamond-shaped
four-pronged steel nianurefork.a round three-prong steel m;iuure
fork, a rciuid four-prong stee! manure fork, a cast-steel potato
fork, a cast-steel " Minerva" digging fork, a cast-steel " Yel-
lowley" digging fork ; and a cast-steel " Slllett's" digging fork,
improved and manufactured by W. A. Lyndon, of Birmingham ;
a set of farm labourers' tools, a set of cottager's allotment
tools, and a set of hoes, mauufactured by Hunt and Co., of
Birmingham ; a bundle of No. 4 fencing wire, mauufactured
by the exhibiters ; a Budding lawn mowing machine, with re-
gistered improvements, iuveated by E. Budding, of Dursley,
improved and manufactured by Ferrabee and Sons, of Stroud;
a cattle tube and mouth piece, and a sheep tube and mouth
piece, invented hy Dr. Monro, of Birmingham, manufactured
by Jones and Co., of Birmingham ; a set of tickles, reaping
hooks, &c, mauufactured by R. Butterley, of Sheffield; and
a stand of model?.

Joseph Maryciiukch, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire.
A small occupation nine-row corn- drill, and a fore carriage
steerage, manufactured by the exhibiter ; an improved lever
horse drag rake, improved aud manufactured by the exhibiter;
an iron plough, and (new implement) a patent American
cheese press, mauufactured by the exhibiter ; an aiiriel barrel
churn, improved aud manufactured by the exhibiter; a turnip
cutter, invented by Charles Phillips, of Bristol, aud manu-
factured by the exhibiter ; a turnip cutter, invented partly by
Chas. Phillips, of Bristol, and partly by the late James Gardner,
of Banbury, mauufactured by the exhibiter; a double-action
turnip cutter, invented by Jas. Gardner, of Banbury, im-
proved by Charles Phillips, of Bristol, and manufactured
by the exhibiter ; a turnip cutter, invented by James
Gardner, of Banbury ; manufactured by the exhibiter ; (new
implement) a patent grate for cutting the last piece of turnip,
shewn in a turnip cutter, invented by Charles Phillips, of
Bristol, manufactured by the exhibiter.

James Smyth and Sons, Peaseahall, near Yoxford,
Suffolk, and Witham, Essex.
A patent one-row, a three-row (this drill was awarded a prize
of £10, and a silver medal, at Southampton,in 1844), and a five-

row turnip and mangold wurzel seed and manure drill ; a
patent three-row, and five-row turnip and mangold wurzel seed
drill ; a patent manure drill ; (for this drill a prize of £10 was
awarded at the Rojal Agricultural Society of England's meet-
ing, at Liverpool, in 1S41); a patent seven-row cum drill; a
patent ten-row corn drill ; a patent eleven-coulter corn drill ;
(a prize of £5 was awarded for this drill at the Royal Agricul-
tural Society's meeting at Derby, 1813) ; a patent twelve-row
corn drill ; a patent thirteeu-row corn aud seed drill ; a patent
fourteen-coulter corn and clover seed drill ; a patent fifteen-
coulter corn drill; a patent thirteen aud tsvo-coulter corn drill;
and a patent broad-cast manure distributor ; all invented, im-
proved, and manufactured by the exhibiters.

William Ball, of Rothwell, near Kettering, I^orth-
amptonshire.
An iron plough ; invented by the exhibiter. A prize of £5
was awarded to this plough for general purposes, at the Royal
Agricultural Society's meeting at Norwich, 1849 ; and a prize
of £7, at Exeter, 1850 ; and also a prize medal at the Great
Exhibition of All Nations, 1851. Five iron ploughs; an iron
subscil pulverizer; a light waggon for two horses ; a one-horse
cart, for general purposes; a pair horse scarifier; and light
iron harrows; all invented, improved, and manufactured by the
exhibiter; aud a set of whipple-trees for plough.

Henry Bennett, of 34, London Road, Liverpool,
Lancashire.
An improved chaff machine. No. 10; (new implement) a
strong and improved gorse aud chaff cutting machine. No. 1 ;
(new implement) a smaller gorse and chaff cutting machine.
No. 3 ; an improved bean aud oat mill. No. 7 ; an improved
mill for crushing oats, malt, aud linseed. No. 8 ; and an im-
proved mill for kibbling beans, Indian corn, peas, oats, &c..
No. 9 — all invented by Cartmell, of Doncaster ; improved
and manufactured by the exhibiter. (New implement) a small
post mill for kibbling beans, Indian corn, peas, oats, rnalt,&c..
No. 5, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter;
a stroug steel mil! for grinding flour. No. 3, improved and
manufactured by the exhibiter; (new implement) a three horse
power bone mill. No. 4, and (new implement) a bone mill for two
men. No. 1, invented and manufactured by the exhibiter; a
strong three-knife double-action turnip sheer for sheep and
cattle. No. 1, and (new implemeni) a smaller double-action
turnip &c. cutter, for sheep and cattle. No. 3, invented by
Jno. Cartmell, of Liverpool, improved and manufactured by
the exhibiter ; a small single-action turnip &c. slicer, for cattle
only, No. 4, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter;
(new implement) a steamhig apparatus for cattle. No. 4|-,
invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter;
new implement) strong clod-crushing and general roller. No.
10, invented by Dr. Z. Sillar, of Rainford Hall, improved aud
manufactured by the exhibiter; a stroug circular pig trough.
No. 5, mauufactured by the exhibiter, a strong manure
pump and a stroug sack-truck, improved and mauufactured by
the exhibiter; a new mill for crushing sugar and grinding
chicory and cocoa, invented by Cartmell, of Liverpool, im-
proved aud manufactured by the exhibiter ; and a box contain-
ing three samples of pure ground bones ground by the new
mill. No. 4, ground by the exhibiter.

Thomas Attwood, Lewes, Sussex.

Four different sizes of the Sussex metallic churn aud pan,
improved and mauufactured by the exhibiter; four specimens
of the horse singeing apparatus, invented and mauufactured by
the exhibiter; an iron stable pail, a galvanized iron stable
pail, an improved galvanized iron pail, and a galvanized iron
garden wheelbarrow, manufactured by the exhibiter ; (new
implement) a high narrow-top galvanized iron corn bushel
measure, a high galvanized iron ha'f-bushel corn measure, and
a broad-top galvanized iron corn bushel, invented and manu-
factured by the exhibiter.

Gibson and Richardson, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
Northumberland.

(New implement) a " Northumberland" clod-crusher, in-
vented by Matthew Gibson, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and
inanufactuied by the exhibiters (this implement gained the
prize medal at the Great Exhibition, No. 43 in the prize-
sheet).

THE FARMER'S MAGEZINE.

153

William Drav and Co., of Swan-lane, London.

Two circular pig trouLfhs, an euainelled manger, an
enainelleJ corner manger, a galvanized iron stable pail, several
M'rough*^-iron painted pails, three plate-glsss safety stable lau-
teiiis, three garden stools, and four rustic chairs, all invented
and manufactured by tlie exhibiters; (new implement) a
hand-hoe, invented and manufactured by George Walker, of
Barningham, Richmond, Yorkshire ; three chaflf-engines, two
corn-crushers, and au improved linseed mill, No. 2, invented
by Richu)ond and Chandler, of Salford ; (new implements) two
registered prize winnowing machines, and (new implement) a
registered machine for riddling, blowing, and seed-separating,
invented by J. Comes, juu., and manufactured by the ex-
hibiters; two (new implements) registered chaff and lit-
ter cutters, with two knives, for steam or other power,
and (new implement) a horse drag rake, invented and
manufactured by the exhibiters; a Corne's registered
plough, (new implement) a scarifier and cultivator for
two horses, a horse-hoe with three cutters, a perpen-
dicular stroke double-action balance churn, and a perpen-
<licular stroke single-action balance churn, invented by J.
Cornes, jun., and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a com-
pound lever cheese press, (new implement) a mangle for public
use, and a mangle for private families, invented and manufac-
tured by the exhibiters ; (new implement) a disc thrashing
tiincliiue, or barn-work, invented by J. Cornes, jun., and manu-
factured by the exhibiters; a mill for grinding and kib-
bling all kinds of grain, invented and manufactured by
the exhibiters; (new implement) five sizes of Dalphin's
patent chum, invented by J. Dalphin, of America, and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; an iron wheelbarrow, a
wr.iught-iron liquid manure pump, a weighing machine, (new
implement) the Kentish chamjiion plough, and (new imple-
ment) au iron turnwrest plough, invented and manufactured
by the exhibiters ; a cart and cattle machine, to weigh
from lib. to 3 tons, a five-sack and a three-sack weighing
maehine, a 22 inch dormant Fairbank's weighing machine, a
steelyard with bushel measure, and an improved bean and oat-
bruiser, invented and manufactured by R. Forshaw and Co.,
of Liverpool; a patent drying machine, invented and manu-
factured by Manlove, Allcott, and Co., of Lenton Works,
near Nottingham ; three Boyd's patent double-action or self-
Uiljustiug scythes, invented by J. Boyd, of Thames-street,
London, and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a flax seeding
machine, and a flax seed and corn-dressing machine, invented
and manufactured by R. Robinson, of Belfast ; an enamelled
Mst-lron manger and water trough, with rack, invented and
manufactured by Cottam and Hallen, of London ; a portable
forge, and a portable engine for farm or garden purposes, in-
vented and nianufacturod by the exhibiters ; (new implement)
a model of Corues's patent disc thrashing machine ; a Bud-
ding's patent lawn mowing machine, invented by Budding,
\nd manufactured by the exhibiters ; (new implement) a grind-
stone v.ith treadle, and (new implement) a washing machine
on cradle, invented and manufactured by the exhibiters ; two
Sussex churns, manufactured by the exhibiters ; (uew imple-
ment) an engine adapted for hop-grounds, atid a farm fire-
eii:iine, with tank, invented and manufactured by the ex-
hibiters ; (new implement) a horse-barrow, for levelling uneven
ground, &c., &c. ; iron circular tables for lawns, and other
iron tables, invented and manufactured by the exhibiters;
iron hurdles, and galvanized wire netting for fencing, manufac-
tured by the exhibiters ; a sack-barrow, a wrought-iron wheel-
barrow, and two garden seats, invented and manufactured by
the exhibiters ; a tile-machine, invented and manufactured by
W. Williams, of Bedford ; a hay-rack (front), and a hay-rack
(corner), manufactured by the exhibiters ; (new implement) a
liquid manure cart, inventt- d and manufactured by the ex-
hibiters, and (uew implement) an American reaper, invented,
improved, and manufactured by Obed Hussey, of Balti-
more, U. S.

Henry Kearsley, of Ripon, Yorkshire.

(New implement) an iron tile machine, invented and ma-
nufactured by the exhibiter (this machine gained a prize of
a sUver medal, in 1851, at Burlington Show, and the Liver-
pool and Manchester Agricultural Society awarded £5 and a
silver medal ; also a prize of £2 was awarded to it at the
Wetherby Show) ; (new implement) a Ducie's drag and scari-
fier (wrought-iron), invented by Ducie, improved and manu-

factured by the exhibiter (this imidemeut gained a prize of
£3 at Burlington, 1851 ; the Liverpool and Manchester Society
awarded a prize of £5 and a silver medal ; it also gained a
prize at Wetberby, 1851) ; (new implement) a Norwegian har-
row (the Meeting of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, held
at Thirsk in 1850, awarded a prize to the above ; the Liver-
pool and Manchester Society awarded it a prize of £1, and the
Wetherby Show, 1851, a prize of £2, as the best implement
shown) ; (new implement) a press for bricks and pantilt:*, (new
implement) a horse-rake, and (new implement) a wrought-iron
horse-hoe, for turnips, potatoes, or beans, invented aiiil ujanu-
factured by the exhibiter.

Thomas Scragg, of Calveley, ueav Tarporley,

Cheshire.
A single-action machine for making draining pipes and
tiles, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter,
and a single-action tile machine.

William Busby, of Newton, Bedale, Yorkshire.

Two one-horse carts, invented by W. Lister, Esq., of Dunse
Bank, Yorkshire, improved and manufactured by the exliibiter
(the prize of £10 was awarded to this cart at the Exeter Meet-
ing in 1850 ; it was also included in the awards of the Coun-
cil medals of the Great Exhibition 1851), and a one or two-
horse cart, invented by the same person; an improved niiuket
cart, invented by Mr. T. Scott, of Ripon, and manufactured oy
the exhibiter ; a two-wheeled deep plough (this plough re-
ceived the prize of £10 at the Society's Meeting at North-
ampton in 1847, £10 at York in 1848, and was include i in
the Ccsr.cd medals of the Great Exhibition 1851), and a two-
wheeled plough for general purposes, invented, improved, and
manufactured by the exhibiter (this plough received the
award of the Council's medal at the Great Exhibition 1831) ;
two two-wheeled ploughs, invented by the exhibiter; a plough
with one wheel, a swing plough, a Norwegian harrow, a two-
horse scarifier and cultivator, a turnip-sheer, three horse hoes,
a horse-hoe with screw to alter the tines to any declivity while
at work, a horse-hoe on the ridge, a horse-hoe with five tines,
a light horse-hoe, a subsoil plough, invented and improved by
the e.ihibiter, and a horse-rake.

James Cornes, of Barbridge, Nantwich, Chester.
A registered chaff-cutting machine, with three knives, and
one with two knives, invented by John Cornes, of Barbridge,
improved and manufactured by the exhibiter (this nuichiue
gained a prize of £10 at the Royal Agricultural Society's
Meeting at Shrewsbury, in 1845 ; at Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
in 1846; at Northampton, in 1847; the Society's silver
medal at York, in 1848 ; £10 at Norwich, in 1849; £10 at
Exeter, in 1850 ; and the prize medal of the Great Exhibition
in 1851); five other chaff-cutting machines, invented by John
Cornes, of Barbridge, improved and manufactured by the ex-
hibiter; and a curd mill, invented and manufactured by the
exhibiter.

William Crowley and Sons, of Newport Pagnell,
Buckinghamshire.
A light one-horse cart for general purposes, a set of New-
port hsmes for general purposes, a horse-hoe for one row on
the ridge and on the flat, a horse-hoe with steerage for 5 or
7 rows, invented, improved, and manufactured by the ex-
hibiters; and a box containing models of cart and hoe.

Charles Hart, of Wantage, Berkshire.
The barn-work of a thrashing machine, driven by steam
power, a four-horse power portable thrashing machine, a t vo-
horse power portable thrashing machine, a two-horse scarifier
and skim plough, a five-tined registered scarifier and skim
pi' ugh, a seven-tined registered scarifier and skim plough, and
a liquid manure water-cart, all invented and manufactured by
the exhibiter.

Wm. Smith, Kettering, Northamptonshire.
(New Implement) an improved double blasted winnowing
machine, invented by Nathaniel Smith, of Kettering, improved
and manufactured by the exhibiter ; (new implement) a steer-
age horse hoe, with double bar, and (neiv implement) an im-
proved steerage horse hoe, with single bar, invented, improved,
and manufactured by the exhibiter.

Alfred Sparke, of Norwich, Norfolk.
A poitable five horse power steam engine, manufactured by

154

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Sparke and Co., of Norwich ; and a portable thrashing ma-
chine, with shaker and colder riddle, invented and manufac-
tared by Sparke and Co.

Thomas Davis, of Battle, Sussex.
(New implement) a plough for general purposes, improved
and manufactured by the exhibiter.

Richard Garrett and Son, of Leiston Works, near
Saxmundham, Suffolk.
A drill for general purposes (prizes were awarded to this
drill at Liverpool, 1841, £10; at Derby, 1843, £30; at
Southampton, 1844, £20 and a medal ; at Northampton,
1847, £15; at Exeter, 1850, £10; and at the Great Exhibi-
tion of 1851, included in the award of the Council Medal) ; a
drill for turnips and manure on the flat (prizes were awarded
for this drill at Cambridge, 1840, £10 ; at Northampton,
1847, £10 ; at York, 1848, £10 ; and at the Great Exhibi-
tion 1851 included in the award of the Council Medal) ; a drill
for turnips and mangold-wurtzel with manure on the ridge,
improved and manufactured by the exhibiters (prizes were
awarded for this drill at Bristol, 1842, £20 ; at Northampton,
1847, £10; at Norwich, 1849, 10?.); a patent drop drill for
turnips and other seeds with raanureon the flat or ridge (prizes
were awarded for this drill at Norwich, 1849, 101. ; and at
Exeter, 1850, lOl.) ; and (new implement) a three-row econo-
mical drill for turnips, &c., with manure on the flat or ridge,
invented and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a broadcast
manure distributor, invented by II. E.BIythe, Esq., of Burn-
ham, Norfolk, and manufactured by the exhibiters; a 15-row
lever corn drill, a 12-row lever corn and seed drill, and a 10-
row lever corn and seed drill (a prize was awarded for this drill
at Norwich, 1849, 10/.), all improved and manufactured by the
exhibiters ; a 9-row lever corn and seed drill (a prize of 10/.
was awarded at the Exeter meeting in 1850 for this drill), a
hand lever seed drill (a prize of 3/. was awarded for this drill
at the Exeter meeting, 1850), and a hand-barrow seed drill
(this seed drill was included in the award of the Council
Medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851), all invented and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; a Garrett's patent horse hoe.
No. 5 and No. 9, invented, improved, and manufactured by
the exhibiters (prizes were awarded for this implement at
Liverpool, 1841, 5/. ; at Bristol, 1842, lOZ.; at Derby, 1843,
a medal; at Southampton, 1844, a medal ; at Northampton,
1847, a medal ; at York, 1848, a medal ; at Norwich, 1849,
10; atExter, 1850, 10/.; at the Great Exhibition 1851 a
Comicil Medal) ; a two-horse-power portable thrashing me-
chine, and a four- horse-power open -drum thrashing machine,
invented and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a four-horse-
power bolting thrashing machine barn work (prizes were
awarded for this machine at Newcastle, 1846, 25/. ; at North-
ampton, 1847, 20Z. ; and at York, 1848, 20/.), a fixed thrash-
ing machine, fixed with straw shaker, screen, and winnowing
apparatus for steam power (prizes were awarded for this ma-
chine at Norwich, 1849, 25/., and at the Great Exhibition,
in 1851, included in the award of the Council Medal), and a
portable thrashing machine, fitted with straw shaker and
screen for steam power (prizes were awarded for this machine
at Norwich, in 1849, 25/., and the Great Exhibition, in 1851,
included in the award of the Council Medal), all invented,
improved, and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a portable
steam engine (prizes were awarded to this engine at Norwich,
1849, and at the Great Exhibition 1851 included in the award
of the Council Medal), a five-horse power portable steam-
engine, a seven-horse power fixed steam engine, and a portable
stone mill, all improved and manufactured by the exhibiters ;
a corn dressing machine, invented and manufactured by the
exhibiters ; a corn dressing machine, a linseed, malt, oatj and
bean mill, a chaff cutter for horse or steam power, a chaff cut-
ter for horse or hand power, a chaff cutter for hand power, and
a rape and linseedcale crusher, all improved and manufactured
by the exhibiters ; a double action turnip cutter, invented by
the late James Gardner, of Banbury, manufactured by the ex-
hibiters ; (new implement) an American reaping machine, in-
vented by Obed Hussey, of Baltimore, U. S., America, im-
proved and manufactured by the exhibiters ; (new implement)
registered skim cultivator, invented by Kev. E. H. Johnson, of
Gravelye, Linfield, Sussex, manufactured by the exhibiters; a
patent drag harrow and scarifier, invented by Richard Cole-
man, of Chelmsford, and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a
double-action hay-making machine, and a patent lever drag

rake, improved and manufactured by the exhibiters; awrought-
iron corn rick stand, invented by the late J. Springhall, of Ips-
wich, and manufactured by the exhibiters (a medal was awarded
for this rick stand at the Southampton meeting) ; a patent
drain pipe and tile machine, invented by Rich. Welter, of Capel,
Dorking, Surrey, and manufactured by the exhibiters (a prize
of 5/. was awarded for this machine at Newcastle, in 1846.)
Smith and Ashby, of Stamford, Lincolnshire.
A patent improved double-action haymaker, on patent
wrought-iron wheels, invented, improved, and manufactured
by the exhibiters (obtained a prize of 5/. at the Royal Agri-
cultural Society's Meeting at Newcastle in 1846, 5/. 5s. at the
Great Yorkshire Meeting in 1846, 5/. 5s. at the Derbyshire
Meeting in 1846, at the Great Yorkshire Meeting in 1847, the
Royal Agricultural Society's medal at York in 1848, at the
Great Yorkshire Meeting in 1849, 5/. at the Royal Agricultu-
ral Society's Meeting at Norwich in 1849, 5/. at the Royal
Agricultural Society's Meeting at Exeter in 1850, the prize at
the Great Yorkshire Meeting in 1850, and the prize medal of
the Great Exhibition of 1851) ; (new implement) a patent im-
proved two-horse double-action haymaker, an improved patent
horse rake (all iron) for hay, corn, stubble, twitch, and light
scarifying purposes ; a patent lever wheel hand rake for hay,
corn, stubble, twitch, &c. ; an improved prize cultivator,
grubber, or scarifier (No. 2), of wrought-iron (awarded the
medal of the R. A. S., at Newcastle, in 1846, and the prize
of 10/. at Norwich in 1849, 5/. 5s. at the Great Yorkshire
Meeting in 1849, 10/. at the Royal Agricultural Society's
Meeting at Exeter in 1850, the Great Yorkshire prize of 5/.
in 1850, and the prize of the Royal North Lancashire Show
in 1850) ; an improved prize patent safety chaff and litter cut-
ter, No. 1 (awarded the prize medal of the Great Exhibition
of 1851) ; a patent safety portable chaff and litter cutter, a
No. 3 3-knife patent safety chaff-cutting machine, a No. 4 3-
knife patent safety chaff-cutting machine (highly commended
by the judges of the Royal Agricultural Society at Exeter in
1850), a No. 4 3-knife patent safety chaff-cutting machine, a
No. 5 2-kuife patent safety chaff-cutting machine, a patent
park or luggage cart, on springs, for pony or small horse ; a
newly-invented one-horse cart, for harvest work and general
purposes ; and an improved one and two-horse cart, with pa-
tent improvements ; all the above were invented, improved,
and manufactured by the exhibiters ; and a sample of Smith
and Ashby's patent wrought-iron wheels and axles, invented
and manufactured by the exhibiters.

TrxFORD and Sons, of Boston and Skirbeck Iron
Works, near Boston, Lincolnshire.

A six-horse power and two four-horse power patent portable
housed steam engines (these engines are on the same principle
as the one to which the prize medal was awarded at the So-
ciety's Meeting in connection with the Great Exhibition of
1851), a six-horse power fixed steam engine for agricultural
purposes, a fixed steam engine for agricultural purposes, two
patent combined thrashing, shaking, and blowing machines, a
patent perforated table straw shaker, a mill for grinding meal
for agricultural purposes, and a saw table for agricultural pur-
poses ; all the articles on this stand were invented, improved,
and manufactured by the exhibiters.

John Smith, of Uxbridge, Middlesex.

A four horse thrashing machine with shaker and riddle, a
three horse thrashing machine with horse works, a four horse
works complete on wheels, and a double oat and bean mill for
power, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a double
oat and bean mill for hand power, a bean crusher, an oat
bruiser, an oilcake mill, and a one-horse power gear work, ma-
nufactured by the exhibiter ; (new implement) a patent digging
machine, invented and improved by Martin J. Roberts, Esq.,
of Gerrard's Cross, and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a
wrought iron skim plough with patent movement, a Lomax
patent chaff cutter, and a Lomax chaffcutter,No.3, for power,
invented by William Lomax, of Uxbridge, and manufactured
by the exhibiter ; a barley hummeller, improved and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; a cylindrical cinder sifter on wheels,
invented by A. K. Smith, of Exminster, and manufactured by
the exhibiter ; a one-horse hoe, a skim plough with wood
frame, a winnowing machine, a blower, and a strong wooden
wheelbarrow, manufactured by the exhibiter ; a straw shaker
for thrashing machine, invented by William Lomax, of Ux-
bridge, and manufactured by the exhibiter.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

155

Wm. Hensman and Son, of Castle Works, near Wo-
burn, Beds.
A patent eight-row cup and steerage corn and turnip drill,
with self acting hopper (awarded a silver medal at the York
Meeting in 1848, and a prize medal was also awarded to it at
the Great Exhibition of 1851), a patent six-row cup and
steerage drill for small occupations, a turnip drill and horse-
hoe on the flat, combined ; a plough for'general purposes, and
a plough for deep ploughing (awarded the prize medal at the
Great Exhibition of 1851), invented, improved, and manufac-
tured by the exhibiters ; a horse-hoe on the ridge, improved
by G. W. Baker, of Woburn, and manufactured by the exhi-
biters; a patent vandyke hand thrashing machine, and an im-
proved land presser with drill and hoes attached, improved and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; a turnip drill on the ridge,
improved by G. W. Baker, of Woburn, and manufactured by
the exhibiters ; a patent portable thrashing machine of two-
horse power, improved and manufactured by the exhibiters ;
two patent portable bolting thrashing machines of five-horse
power, with a shaker to add (awarded 20/. at the Exeter Meet-
ing ill 1850, also a prize medal at the Great Exhibition, 1851),
invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a
five-horse portable steam engine, improved and manufactured
by the exhibiters ; a small hand turnip drill, invented and im-
proved by G. W. Baker, of Woburn, Beds, and manufactured
by the exhibiters ; and a turnip cutter for cattle, manufactured
by the exhibiters.

Edward Hill and Co., of Brierley Hill Iron Works,
near Dudley, and 53, Watling-street, City, London,
and London-road, Derby.

Two wrought-iron skim or pair-horse scarifiers, invented,
improved, and manufactured by the exhibiters (this implement
obtained the first prize of its class at the Derby meeting, and,
after trial at the Exeter meeting of the Society, was com-
mended by the judges) ; (new implement) a wrought-iron
pair-horse scarifier for small occupations, invented and manu-
factiired by the exhibiters ; eight different kinds of registered
wrought-iron expanding horse-hoes, invented, improved, and
manufactured by the exhibiters (obtained the Society's silver
medal at the Exeter meeting) ; a wrought-irou sheep-rack, on
four wheels, invented, improved, and manufactured by the ex-
hibiters (at the Derby meeting of this Society, a silver medal
was obtained by thia implement) ; another wrought-iron
sheep-rack, on iour wheels, invented and manufactured by the
exhibiters ; a wrought-irou sheep-trough, on wheels, gal-
vanized, a wrought-iron sheep-hurdle, on wheels, and wrought-
iron garden-seats. No. 3 and 4, invented and manufactured
by the exhibiters ; three different sizes of wrought-iron rick-
stands, on cast-iron pillars, improved and manufactured by the
exhibiters ; two patent 5-cwt. weighing machines, invented
and manufactured by Day and Co., of Birmingham; a
wrought-iron field-gate and wrought-iron posts, invented, im-
proved, and manufactured by the exhibiters (at the Derby
meeting of this Society, a silver medal was awarded to this
gate and posts) ; three wrought-iron field-gates, invented and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; several wrought-irou field-
gates, fitted to cast-iron pillars, two wrought-iron ornamental
entrance-gates, with fluted cast-iron pillars, several wrought-
iron ornamental hand-gates or garden-gates, and a wrought-
irou footpath-gate, invented and manufactured by the exhi-
biters ; a length of eave-guttering, for farm or other buildings,
and a length of rain-water pipe, manufactured by the exhi-
biters ; a sheep-hurdle for general purposes, invented and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; a cattle-hurdle for general
purposes ; and a wrought-iron ox-hurdle, manufactured by the
exhibiters; several couple of wrought-iron sheep-feeding
hurdles, manufactured by the exhibiters ; several specimens of
wrought-iron ox-hurdles, made game-proof, and a wrought-
iron sheep-hurdle, made game-proof, manufactured by the ex-
hibiters; several wrought-iron game-proof garden-hurdles,
manufactured by the exhibiters ; a length of premium conti-
nuous sheep-fence, several lengths of wrought-iron premium
continuous cattle-fence, two lengths of wrought-iron premium
continuous deerfence, a wrought-iron garden-barrow for ge-
neral purposes, a wrought-iron barrow, with apparatus for
heating gas-tar, &c., a specimen of wire game-proof netting,
consisting of six rolls, painted, specimen of game-proof plant-
guards, consisting of six, and a set of cast-iron stable furni-
ture, invented and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a cast-

iron ornamental garden-seat for four persons, and a cast-iron
ornamental table, with flower-stand ; a length of invisible
strained wire ox-fence, invented and manufactured by the ex-
hibiters.

John Holmes and Sons, of Norwich, Norfolk.

An improved portalle six horse power steam engine; and
an improved portable thrashing, shaking, and ridalitig ma-
chine, invented, improved and manufactured by the exhibiters
(at the Great Exhibition the first prize medal was awarded to
this implement) ; a combined improved thrashing, shaking,
riddling, winnowing, and hummelling machine, portable or
fixed, improved and manufactured by the exhibiters ; an im-
improved five horse power portable thrashing machine, with
improved horse gear complete, invented and manufactured by
the exhibiters ; a model of J. Holmes and Son's Exhibition
prize medal thrashing machine, with winnowing apparatus
attached; (new implement) a Royal Society's Exeter
prize manure distributor ; a nine row lever corn drilling ma-
chine ; and a three row lever manure, turnip, and mangold
drilliug machine, invented, improved, and manufactured by the
exhibiters ; (new implement) a lever harrow, to be drawn by
one horse, invented and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a
corn dressing or winnowing machine ; and a barley aveler or
hummelling machine, invented, improved, and manufactured by
the exhibiters ; a one row lever manure, turnip, and mangold
drill invented and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a Royal
Soiiety's prize hand barrow two row lever drill, invented, im-
proT id, and manufactured by the exhibiters (this drill had the
Rcy a) Agricultural Society's prize awarded to it at Norwich) ;
a c: e row lever hand turnip, and mangold drill, invented, im-
prc" cd, and manufactured by the exhibiters); (new imple-
mc. t)a corn reaping machine, improved and manufactured by
the exhibiters.

John Eaton, of Woodford, near Thrapstone, North-
amptonshire.

(New implement) a six-horse power portable steam engine,
on wheels, invented and manufactured by William Batley, of
Bridge-street Works, Northampton ; an Eaton's patent one-
horse cart, with harvest-raves complete, for general purposes,
invented and manufactured by theexhibiter (a prize of £5 was
awarded to this description of cart at the meeting held at
York, 1848) ; (new implement) a registered economical and
ornamental sheep crib, invented by William Knight, Esq., of
Titchmarsh, improved and manufactured by theexhibiter;
(uRW implement) an improved circular sheep crib, invented by
William Knight. Esq., of Titchmarsh, improved by Mr. Toplis,
of Boxted Farm, near Colchester, and manufactured by theex-
hibiter ; and (new implement) a pair of hand seed dibbles, for
wheat and other seeds, invented, improved and manufactured
by the exhibiter.

Edward R. Turner and Co., of St. Peter's Foundry,
near Ipswich, Suffolk.

A new linseed and corn-crushing machine ; and a Turner's
registered roller mill, for crushing linseed, oats, malt, &c., and
breaking beans, invented and manufactured by the exhibiters ;
two sizes of a roller mill for crushing linseed, oats, malt, &c.,
invented by Bond, Turner, and Hurwood, of Ipswich, improved
by Hurwood and Turner, and the exhibiters, and manufactured
by the exhibiters (the prize of £5 was awarded for this mill to
Hurwood and Turner at the Norwich Meeting of the Royal
Agricultural Society) ; a Turner's registered roller mill (No.
2), for crushing linseed and corn, and breaking beaus, invented
and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a small hand crushing
mill, for oats and beans ; a hand-mill for breaking beans ; and
a hand-box chaff cutter, with revolving fork, invented and ma-
nufactured by the exhibiters.

William Williams, of Bedford, Bedfordshire.

Six sets of patent four-beam diagonal iron harrows (these
harrows obtained a prize at the Meeting of the Royal Agricul-
tural Society at Derby, 1843; at Southampton, 1844; at
Shrewsbury, 1845; at Northampton, 1847 ; at Norwich, 1849;
and at Exeter, 1850; the prize medal was also awarded for
these harrows at the Great Exhibition of 1851) ; and a patent
horse rake, [invented by Samuel Taylor, of Cotton End, im-
proved and manufactured by the exhibiters (a prize was awarded
for this implement at the Meeting of the Royal Agricultural
Society at Southampton, 1844 ; at Norwich, 1849 ; and at the
Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland's Meeting at Dublin,

156

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ICol) ; two \M-ouf;lit iron acuffleis or scariliera, iuTented, itn-
f roved, and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a three-kuife chaff-
engine; a two-knife chaff-engine; and a chaff-engine with two
knives, eight inches wide in the mouth-piece, improved and ma-
nufactured by the exhibiter ; two patent wrought iron ploughs,
with two wheels, for general purposes ; a mill for grinding
beans and peas, and sn improved iron corn mill, invented, im-
proved, and manufactured by the exhibiter ; two sizes of a ma-
chine for nialiing draining; pipes and tiles, invented by Messrs.
Sanders and Williams, of Bedford, improved and manufactured
by the exhibiter (awarded '251. at the Northampton Meeting
in 1847, and at Dubhu in 1851) ; and two sizes of a wronght-
iron horse hoe for one row, invented, improved, and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter.

Burgess and Key, 103, Newgate-street,
London.

A patent reaper, invented by Cyrus Hall M'Cormick, of
Chicago, U.S., and niannfactnred by B. Samuelson, of Ban-
bury, for the exbibiters, the agents to Mr. M'Cormick (re-
ceived the Council Medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851) ; a
model of a patent reaper, invented by C. H. M'Cormick, of
Chicago, U.S., and manufactured by B. Samuelson, of Ban-
bury, foi the exhibiters ; three sizes of a patent turnip cutter,
invented by William Burgess, of London, and manufactured
by Messrs. Hornsby and Son, of Grauthara, Lincolnshire (ob-
tained the prize medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851) ; (new
implements) five sizes of a new patent lift pump for liquid ma-
nure or water, invented by Robert Urwin, of London, and ma-
nufactured by the eshibiters ; two sizes of a patent force and
suction pump for gardens, invented by Mr. Kase, of the United
States, improved and manufactured by the eshibiters ; two
gutta percha pump?, invented and manufactured by the Gutta
Perch Company, of London ; a galvanized iron lift pump,
on trjpod stand, improved and manufactured by the exhibiters;
two psiianized iron lift pumps on tripod stands, invented, im-
proved .and manufactured by the exhibiters; a registered
tooth-r<jller chaff cutter, a patent chaff cutter, and a bean and
oat mill, invented and manufactured by Richmond and
Chandler, of Manchester, agents to the exhibiters ; a mode! of
a patent turnip cutter, invented by Wm. Burgess, of London,
and manufactured by the exhibiters ; (new implement) an im-
proved winnowing machine, and (new implement) a grain
cradle, or hand reaper, invented and manufactured by J. G.
Grant, of Junction, U.S. — agents, the exhibiters ; an Ame-
rican plough. No. 1, an American plough. No. 4, an
American side hill or turnwrcst plough, and an American
subsoil plough, invented and manufactured by N. B. Star-
buck, of Troy, U.S. — agents, the exhibiters; several spe-
cimens of a patent churn (American), invented by C. .1.
Anthony, of Pittsburgii, U.S., and manufactured by the exhi-
biters (obtained the prize medal at the Exeter Meeting in
1850, and a prize medal at the Great Exhibition of 1851) ;
several rolls of gntta percha tubing, and several specimens of
gutta percha suction pipe, invented and manufactured by the
Gutta Percha Company, of London; several rolls of canvas
hose, lined and coated with gutta percha, invented and manu-
factured by the exhibiters; a gutta percha corn sower, in-
vented and manufactured by the Gutta Percha Company, of
London : a roll of leather hose, manufactured by Messrs.
Hepburn and Sons, of London ; several specimens of gutta
percha union-joint for connecting hose, invented by the exhi-
biters, and manufactured by the Gutta Percha Company, of
London ; three gutta percha jets and spreaders for distributing
manure, invented and manufactured by the Gutta Percha Com-
pany, of London ; a brass jet and spreader, manufactured by
the exhibiters ; several rolls of patent band for driving ma-
chinery, invented by Mr. Haines, of Old Ford, and manufac-
tured by Messrs. Smith and Son, of Bow ; three bundles of
digging forks, a bundle of hay forks, a bundle of pitching
forks, and a steel spade, invented by Mr. Parkes, of Birming-
hani, and manufactured by Messrs. Winter and Sons, of Bir-
jninghani ; two gutta percha stable pails, and four rolls of flat
gutta percha baud for machinery, invented and mannfactured
by the Gutta Percha Company, of London ; a sack holder, in-
vented and manufactured by Richmond and Co., of Manches-
ter ; two self-adjusting scythes, invented by Mr. Boyd, and
manufactured by Messrs. Dean, Dray, and Co., of London ;
three coils ot round gutta percha band, invented and manufac-
tured by the Gutta Percha Company, of London.

Hugh Carson, Warminster, WiUshire.

A seven-share scarifier, invented, improved, and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; a subsoil plough, invented and manu-
factured by the exhibiter ; a wrought iron one-wheel plough
(nmrked No. 7) for strong land, and a wrought iron one-wheel
plough for light lauds (marked No. 8), improved and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; a set of sLx iron harrows, invented and
manufactured by the exhibiter; a wrought iron scuffling
plough, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibi-
ter; a chaff and litter engine, improved and manufactured by
the exhibiter ; a chaff engine (No. 2), invented and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; a patent turnip cutter, invented by
Edmund Moody, of Maiden Bradley, improved and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; a corn crusher, an oilcake crusher,
a double cheese press, and a single cheese press, improved and
manufactured by the exhibiter ; a malt mil), invented, improved,
and manufactured by the exhibiter.

John Every, jun., of Levies, Sussex.
An iron land roller 3 feet diameter, one 2 feet 6 inches, one
2 feet diameter, and one 1 foot 6 inches diameter, improved
and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a two-wheel land presser,
with iron frame, invented and improved by J. Every, sen., of
Lewes, and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a five-wheel land
l)resser, manufactured by the exhibiter ; a wrought iron cattle
crib, invented and improved by Mr. Thomas Lambe, of Wil-
mington, Sussex, and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a large
iron cattle trough, manufactured by the exhibiter ; two large
turnip cutting engines for steam or horse power, improved by
J. Every, sen., and manufactured by the exhibiter.

Thomas Freer, of Uppingham, Rutlandshire.
A plough for general purposes, and a plough for deep plough-
ing, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter.

Thomas Nixon, of Rothwell, near Kettering, North-
amptonshire.
A one-light garden frame, and a two light garden frame, the
method of glazing same registered, (new implement) a 24-inch
garden frame, and (new implement) a 21-inch metallic garden
hand frame, on a new construction, invented and manufactured
by the exhibiter ; a 19 inch metallic garden hand frame, manu-
factured by the exhibiter ; a specimen of Nixon's registered
metallic self ventilating garden and skylight bar, invented and
manufactured by the exhibiter; a specimen of zinc eaves
gutter, manufactured by the exhibiter ; a valise of samples,
containing specimens of Nixon's oil stain, invented and manu-
factured by the exhibiter.

Abraham Pridmore, oi Thorpe Satchville, near
Melton Mowbray, Leicestershire.

(New implement) a double blast winnowing machine, for
dressing all kinds of com, invented by Pridmore and Son, of
Thorpe Satchville, improved and manufactured by the exhibi-
ter ; a double blast machine for dressing all kinds of corn and
small seeds, invented by the exhibiter.

William Carpenter, of Banbury, Oxfordshire.

A patent anti- attrition bolting thrashing box, improved and
manufactured by the exhibiter ; a patent four horse gear work,
invented and manufactured by Barrett, Exall, and Andrews, of
Reading.
RicH/VRD Pitts, of Kcnn, near Exeter, Devonshire.
(New implement) a one-way or turnwrest plough, invented
by the exhibiter; and a light plough for general purposes, in-
vented and improved by the exhibiter, and both manufactured
by John Eddy, of Kenford.

Barrett, Exall, and Anbrews, of Katesgrove

Works, near Reading, Berkshire.
(New implement) a six horse power portable steam engine,
(this engine obtained the commendation of the Society at Exe-
ter, and the prize medal of the Great Exhibition, 1851), a four
horse power portable steam engine, an eight horse power fixed
cylinder engine, a five horse power fixed cylinder steam engine,
a three horse power fixed cylinder steam engine, and a six
horse power portable thrashing machine, invented and manu-
factured by the exhibiters ; a six horse power thrashing ma-
chine, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiters;
a four horse power portable thrashing machine, a four horse
power thrashing machine, with straw shaker, a three horse

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

167

patent iron thrashing machine and patent safety horse gear, a
two horse portable patent thrashing machine and patent safety
horse gear (it had awarded to it the comraeudation of the So-
ciety at Exeter, and the medal of the Great Exhibition, 1851),
a patent hand powtr thrashing m chine, a patent one horse
power or hand thrashing machine, a patent two horse safety
gear, a one horse power patent safety gear, a pair of 24-inch
peak stones for grinding, (new implement) a new raelal mill for
grinding, a mill for crushing oats, malt, and linseed, a mill for
ccnshiug oats, raalt, and linseed, a paragon or universal grain
mill, a paragon or universal mill for crushing grain, and (new
implement) three specimens of a patent paragon chaff cutter,
invented and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a chaff cutting
machine, invented by Mr. John Comes, of Barbridge, and
manufactured by the exhibiters (this machine has gained seve-
ral prizes from the Royal Agricultural Society) ; two oilcake
crushers, a double action crusher for rape and other cake, a
gorse bruising machine (this machine obtained tlic prize of this
Society at York, also at the Society's meeting at Norwich, of
£5 eacli time, and was commended by the judges at the Great
Exhibition, 1851), a corn cleaner or blower, a com cleaner or
blower with feed rollers, ra improved winnowing machine, a
barley hummeiler for hand power, a barley hurameller for hand
or one horse power, and a double cylinder field roller, all in-
vented and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a patent clod
crusher or press wheel roller, invented by W. C. Cambridge, of
Bristol, and manufactured by the exhibiters ; (new implement)
a patent horse rake for hay, &c., and a registered haymaking
machine, invented and manufactured by the exhibitera ; an
Uley cultivator, invented by Mr. John Morton, of Whittield,
improved by Mr. R. Clyburn, of Uley, and mannfactured by
the exhibiters ; a set of patent iron harrows with whippletree,
invented by W. Armstrong, of Bedford, ard manufactured by
the exhibiters ; a set of jointed iron harrows, invented by W.
Armstrong, of Bedford, improved by J. Howard, of Bedford,
and manufactured hy the exhibiters ; a set of light iron drags
and whippletree, and a set of heavy iron drags and whippietree,
invented by W. Armstrong, of Bedford, and manufactured by
the exhibiters ; (new implement) an XL iron two wheel and
swing plough, invented and manufactured by the exhibiters ;
an XL two wheel iron plough for deep ploughing, invented,
improved, and manufactured by the exhibiteis; a two wh.eel
Berkshire plough, G.A.B., and A.D.P. 2 one ^hcel plough, in-
vented and manufactured by the exhibiters (.this last plough
obtained the prize of £5 at the Royal Agncnltural Society at
Liverpool, as the lightest of draught) ; a patent subsoil plough,
invented by Mr. John Read, of London, improved and manu-
factured by the exhibiters (this plough obtained the following
prizes awarded by the Royal Agricultural Society : — £10 at
Southampton, Shrewsbury, Newcastle, Ncrthamptou, and
York) ; a two share subsoil plough, and a model of patent
safety horse gear, invented and manufactured by the exhi-
biters.

Robert Ransome (for Self and Partners), Ipswich,
Suffolk.
Several patent iron ploughs, with two v/heels, invented, ire-
proved, and manufactured by the exhibiters (awarded the prize
of 10/. and silver medal as the best heavy land plough ; a prize
of 10/. and silver medal as the ,best light land plough, at the
Royal Agricultural Society's meeting at Southampton ; also a
prize of 10/. at the Royal Agricultural Society's meeting at
Northampton ; and the Council Medal of the GreatExhibition,
with this plough as made by Busby) ; several patent iron
ploughs with one wheel, invented, improved, and manufactured
by the exhibiters ; a patent iron plough with two wheels,
marked Y S H, invented and manufactured by the exhibiters,
improved by H. Dickson, of Welling, Kent ; a patent iron
plough, fitted with wheels and skim coulter, marked YL, in-
vented by the exhibiters, improved and manufactured by W.
Busby, of Bcdale, Yorkshire (obtained the prize at the Great
Exhibition as the best heavy land plough) ; (new implements)
two new patent iron plniighs with two wheels, invented, im-
proved, and manufactured by the exhibiters; a double furrow
plough, with patent trussed beams, invented, improved, and
manufactured by the eihibiters ; a patent iron subsod plough,
Y. Rackheath, invented by Sir E. Stracey, of Rackheath, im-
proved and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a patent iron
cae-way Lowcock's plough, with two wheels and skim coulters,
marked LP, invented by Henry Lowcock, of Westerlaud, im-

proved and manufactured by the exhibiters (obtained a prize
of 5/. at the Koyal Aericnltural Society's meeting at Sout'n-
ampton); a patent iron double mould-board plough, with one
wlieel, marked YDF, invented, improved, and manufactured
by the eihibiters ; a patent trussed beam iron universal plough,
marked YUL, uivenicd by J. Clarke, of Long Sutton, improved
and mannfactured by the exhibiters (obtained the silver medal
at the meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society at Norwich,
1849) ; three patent iron universal ploughs as a moulding
plough, invented by J. Clark, of Long Sutton, improved and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; an improved Kent two-horse
plough, with wood beams and handles, gollowscs, and wheels,
marked WSR, invented by William Smart, of Rainhara, Kent,
improved and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a plough with
wood beam, double handles, and wheels, marked A, another
marked NL and a plough with wood beam and handles, and
one wheel, marked BIT, invented and manufactured by the cs-
hihitcrs ; an iron broad-share plough and scarifier, marked
BUL, invented by Mr. Woods, of Stowmarket, im-
proved and manufactured by the exhibiters; an iron
skim or paring plough, a patent trussed beam iron plough,
called the Y trenching or draining plough, a patent iron broad-
share plough, scarifier, and snbsoiler, and a trussed beam sub-
soil plough, marked ZUL, invented, improved, and manufac-
tured by the exhibiters ; a new double torn or moulding plough
(Dickson's), invented by W. Dickson, of Welling, Kent, im-
proved and manufactured by the exhibitors ; a registered Ten-
nant's grubber, invented by John Tenuant, of Shields, Ayr-
shire, improved and manufactuied by the exhibitors ; a stt of
patent trussed iron Whippletrees, invented, improved, and ma-
nufactured by tl'.e exhibiters (obtained the Royal Agricultural
Society's silver medal at Southampton) ; two "sets of Biddell's
j>atcnt wrought-iron scarifiers, grubbers, or cultivators, marked
No. 2, invented by Arthur Biddell, of Ipswich, improved and
manufactured by the exhibiters (awarded the Royal Agricultu-
ral Society's prize of 10/. at Liverpool, at Northampton, at
York, at Norwich, and the prize medal at the Great Exhibi-
tion, 1851); a wrought-iron suspension harrow and light
scarifier, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibi-
ters ; a CroskiH's patent clod crusher (size 6 ft.), invented, by
W. Crosskill, of Beverley, manufactured by the exhil iters ; a
Husscy's reaping machine, with registered improvements, in-
vented by Hussey, of America, improved by Richard Garratt,
of Leistou, and mannfactured by the eshiciters ; a Smith's
patent lever horse ralie, invented by Smith and Son, of Stam-
ford, and manufa"tured by the exhibiters ; (new implement) an
eight-horse portable steam engine, (new implement) a six-horse
portable steam engine, (new implement) a four-horse portable
steam engine, ('new implement^ an eight-horse power stationary
steam engine, ('new implement^ a three-horse powtr horizontal
stationary steam engine, ('new implement^ a seven-horse power
horizontal stationary steam engine, ('new implement^ a portable
steam engine and corn ruill combiued, a two-horse portable
thrashing machine, a three-horse thrashing machine, a four-
horse portable bolting thrashing machine, ('new implement^ an
improved portable or fixed six-horse boltingthrashir.g machine,
with straw shaker, winnowing machine, a No. 2 dressing
machine, a barley awner. No. 2, a patent chaff engine
with two knives, two patent iron chaff engines, a hand power
chaff cutter with one knife, ('new implement^ a chaff cutter.
No. 17, for hand power, with two knives, ^new implement^ a
horse power chaff cutter. No. 16, and ('new implement^ an iron
chaff cutter. No. 19, with two knives, all invented, improved,
and manufactured by the exhibiters; a Gardner's turnip cutter,
for sheep, with grated hopper, and a Gardner's double action
turnip cutter, for sheep and beasts, invented by Mr. Gardner,
of Banbury, improved and manufactured by th? exhibiters ;
(new implement^ a turnip cutter, fitted with bruising rollers,
invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a
Hurwood's patent 12-inch metal mill, invented by George
Hurwood, of Ipswich, and manufactured by the exhibiters
Cthis mill obtained a prize medal at the Great Exhibition of
1851 ;) a patent double mill No. 8 for horse power a No. 6
patent double crushing mill for hand power, a patent double
mill No. 7, a spiral oat mill No. 2 for hand power^ a spiral
bean mill No. 2 for hand power, a h^nd power linseed mill,
and an oilcake breaker No. 8, invented, improved, and manu-
factured by the exhibiters ; a bean mill for hand power. No.
9, invented by Samuelson, of Banbury, improved and mannfac-
tured by the exhibiters ; a set of two-horse horse works, and

158

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

an irou uuiversal iutermeJiate motion, inventeH, iraprovei], and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; a 19-inch Budding's grass
cutting machine, invented by Budding of Duisley, and manu-
factured by the exhibiters ; an improved one-horse Scotch cart,
complete, with harvest raves, and an improved Cumberland
cart, with harvest raves, invented, improved, and manufactured
by the exhibiters ; a pair of Sillett's forks, invented by Sillett,
of Kelsale, improved and manufactured by the exhibiters ; a
patent corn and seed depositor, invented, improved and
manufactured by the exhibiters ('this implement was awarded
a silver medal at Norwich, and the prize medal at the Great
Exhibition of 1851J.

George Hurwood, Ipswich, Suffolk.

Several specimens of Hurwood's patent metal mill (B), in-
vented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Ransorae and
Sims, of Ipswicti (obtained prize medal at the Great Exhibi-
tion, 1851) ; a case containing four specimens or models of
patent ventilating windows, invented and manufactured by the
exhibiter (obtained honourable mention at the Great Exhibi-
tion, 1851) ; a case containing various models in brass of Hur-
wood's patent window movements, invented by the exhibiter
(obtained honourable mention at the Great Exhibition, 1851) ;
a case containiu? model plate and stand of Hurwood's patent
mill, invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Ransome
aud Sims, of Ipswich.

Thomas, Robert, and J. Reeves, of Bratton, near
Westbury, Wilts.

A patent liquid-mauure distributor or cart (obtained a prize
of 10/. at the Royal Aj^ricultural Society's meeting at Exeter,
1850, also a prize medal at the Great Exhibition, 1851), and a
patent liquid-mauure drill (obtained the silver medal at the
Royal Agricultural Society's Meeting at York, 1848, since
which time it has been much improved ; also the prize of 5/,
at the Royal Agricultural Society's Meeting at Norwich, as a
liquid distributor ; and also a prize medal at the Great Exhi-
bition, 1851), both invented by Mr. Thomas Chandler, of Ald-
bournc, and improved and manufactured by the exhibiters ;
(new implement) a registered guard frame pig trough, invented
by John Keable, of Larabourne, Berks, and manufactured by
the exhibiters ; (new implement) an irou plough for general
purposes, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhi-
biters.
Robert Cogan, of 48, Leicester Square, London.

A selection of glass milk pans ; a collection of dairy articles
in glass, invented and manufactured by theexhibiter; acoUection
of lactometers in sets of 4 in a wooden stand, graduated to de-
note the quantity or per-centage of cream produced from milk ;
a syphon, invented by Lord Camoys, of Henley-on-Thames,,
aud manufactured by the exhibiter ; glass tiles and slates for
farm purposes, aud flat stout glass for ditto, farmers' lanterns,
and vario\is other dairy glass.

Henry Atwood Thompson, of Lewes, Sussex.

Double cylinder land rollers, 14, 16, 18, and 20 inches in
diameter, with pair oak rods, and extra strong double cylinder
land rollers, 18, 20, 22, 21, aud 26 inches diameter, with
double rods for horses or oxen, all invented and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; a patent serrated roller or clod crusher,
invented by William Crosskill, of Beverley, manufactured by
Ransomes and Sims, of Ipswich (this implement was awarded
a prize of 20/. and silver medal at Southampton, 10/. at Shrews-
bury, and the special award of a gold medal at Newcastle ; two
Norwegian harrows or clod crushers, invented by G. E. Erere,
Esq., of Roydon Hall, Norfolk, and manufactured by Strattou
aud Co., of Bristol (a prize of 10/. was awarded to it at Shrews-
bury, as a new implement ; also a prize of £5 at Newcastle) ;
a two-wheel seam pressor, invented, improved, aud manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; a two-wheel, five-wheel, and seven-
wheel seam presser, manufactured by the exhibiter ; a Biddell's
patent scarifier, grubber, or cultivator, invented by Arthur
Biddell, of Playford, and manufactured by Ransomes and
Sims, of Ipswich (this implement obtained the prize of 10/. at
Liverpool, 10/. at Northampton, and 10/. at York) ; (new im-
plement) a Johnson's patent skim or broadshare cultivator,
and (new implement) a one-horse cart and Johnson's skim
cultivator combined, both invented by Rev. E. H. Johnson, of
Gravelye Lindfield, Sussex, and improved and manufactured
by the exhibiter ; an improved one-horse Scotch cart, complete

with harvest ravts, manufactured by Ransomes aud Sims of
Ipswich; a one-horse improved Scotch cart, manufactured by
William Crosskill, of Beverley ; (new implement) au improved
water and liquid-manure cart and irrigator, invented by H.
Wood, Esq., of Ovendean, Sussex, and improved and manu-
factured by the exhibiter ; a lever drill fur corn and seeds,
manufactured by R. Ilornsby and Son, of Grantham, Lincoln-
shire ; a drill for general purposes, and a patent lever horse-
hoe, both manufactured by Garrattaud Sons, of Saxmundham,
Suffolk ; a swing steerage horse-hoe, three single-row drills for
seeds aud manure, a two-row expanding drill for seeds, and a
barrow broadcast drill, all manufactured by the exhibiters ;
(new implements) two American reaping machines, invented
by Hussey, of America, and manufactured by Wm. Dray aud
Co., of London ; a lever horse-rake, invented by Samuel Tay-
lor, of Cotton End, and manufactured by William Williams,
of Bedford (this was awarded a prize of 5/. at Southampton,
and 5/. at Norwich) ; a lever horse-rake, invented by Smith
and Co , of Stamford, and improved and manufactured by Ran-
somes and Sims, of Ipswich ; a lever horse-rake, manufactured
by Barrett, Exall, and Andrews, of Reading ; a double action
hay-making machine, and a double action hay-making machine
with guard board, both invented by Robert Wedlake, of Horn-
church, and improved and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a
hand power patent thrashing machine, a two-horse power port-
able patent thrashing machine aud patent gear work, aud a
three-horse power portable patent thrashing machine aud
patent gear work, all manufactured by Barrett, ExaU, and An-
drews, of Reading ; an improved winnowing machine, a much-
improved winnowing machine, and a corn blower or cleaner,
all manufactured by the exhibiter ; a barley aveler or hum-
meller, manufactured by Barrett, Exall, and Andrews, of Read-
ing ; a barley aveler or hummeller, luanufactuied by Garratt
and Sons, of Saxmundham, Suffolk; a barley aveler or hum-
meller, a patent trussed beam Iron plough (marked YE) with
one wheel, a patent trussed beam iron plough (marked YFL)
to swing, and a patent trussed beam irou plough (marked YFL)
with two wheels, all manufactured by Ransomes and Sims, of
Ipswich ; a patent trussed beam iron plough (marked YLL)
with two wheels, invented, improved, and manufactured by
Messrs. Ransomes and Sims, of Ipswich (awarded the prize of
10/. and silver medal as the best heavy land plough, a prize of
10/. and silver medal as the best light land plough at the R. A.
Society's meeting at Southampton, also a prize of 10/. at
Northampton, and the Council Medal of the Great Exhibition,
with this plough as made by Busby) ; three patent trussed
beam irou ploughs (marked YL) with double wheels, and a
patent trussed beam iron plough (marked YSH) with double
wheels, both manufactured by Ransomes and Sims, of Ips-
wich ; a patent irou plough (marked JA) with two wheels,
manufactured by Howard aud Son, of Bedford ; an improved
pulverizing plough, invented by Mason, of Warwickshire, and
manufactured by the exhibiter ; a double furrow plough with
patent trussed beams (marked YRR), manufactured by Ran-
somes and Sims, of Ipswich ; a patent trussed beam iron
plough, called " Lowcock's Patent Plough," invented by Henry
Lowcock, of Waterland, and manufactured by Ransomes and
Sims, of Ipswich (this plough obtained a prize of 5/. at South-
ampton) ; a palent trussed beam iron snap plough with oue
wheel, aud a plough with wood beam, double handles, aud
gallowses (marked WSR), both invented by William Smart, of
Rainham, Kent, and manufactured by Ransomes and Sims, of
Ipswich ; a plough with wood beam, double handles, and gal-
lowses (marked DP 2), manufactured by Barrett, Exall, and
Andrews, of Reading ; a Hampshire wheel plough (marked T),
manufactured by Ransomes and Sims, of Ipswich ; a wood
beam Sussex turnwrest plough, with wheels aud gallowses, and
(new implement) a strong wood beam Sussex turnwrest plough
with wheels and gallowses, both manufactured by the exhibi-
ter ; (new implement) a swing Sussex turnwrest and surface
drain plough, invented by John Catt, Esq., of Stoneham,
Sussex, improved and manufactured by the exliibiter ; a wood
beam Kent turnwrest plough (marked TRL), manufactured by
Ransomes and Sims, of Ipswich ; a Read's subpulveriziug
plough (a prize of 10/. was awarded to this implement at
Shrewsbury), and a Read's subpulveriziug plough with scari-
fier, both invented by Johu Read, of Regent's Circus, Loudon,
aud manufactured by the exhibiter ; (new implement) wrought-
irou subpulveriziug plough, manufactured by the exhibiter ; a
subsoil plough called the " Rackheath," invented by Sir Ed-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

159

ward Stracy, Bart., of Sackheaih, and mannfactured by Ran-
Bomes Bad Sims, of Ipswich ; a subsoil plough, manufactured
by the eshibitt-i-; a plough, with wood beam, double liandics,
find wheels {Uia.iked A), a plough with wood btaiu aud double
bandies (uiatkeu S G), aud a moulding or double torn plough
(marked DT}, all raauufactured by Kansomes aud Sims, of Ips-
wich; a Clarke's universal ridge plough (marked YUL), in-
vented by John Clarke, of Long Sutton Marsh, aud manufac-
tured by Ransomes and Sims, of Ipswich ; a patent broad-
share and subsoil plough combined, invented and mauufac-
turcdbyE. H. Bentall, of Heybridge, Essex ; a broadshare
and subsoil plough combined (marked ZUL), manufactured by
Ransomes and Sims, of Ipswich ; a turf and stubble paring
plough, manufactured by Thomas Glover, of Thrussington,
Leicestershire ; an iron broadshare plough and scarifier
(marked DUL), invented by Mr. Woods, of Stowmarket, aud
manufactured by Ransomes and Sims, of Ipswich ; a wrought-
iron horse-hoe scarifier, aud a strong wrought-irou horse-hoe
scarifier, both manufactured by the exhibiter ; a horse-hoe
plough, with wood beam, manufactured by Ransomes aud
Sims, of Ipswich ; a wood beam expanding horse-hoe, and two
wrought iron horse-hoes, both manufactured by the exhibiter;
a set of one-horse, two-horse, and three-horse patent diagonal
iron harrows, invented by Samuel Taylor, of Cotton End, and
manufactured by William Wilhams, of Bedford ; a set of patent
trussed ircu whippletrees, manufactured by Ransomes and
Sims, of Ipbwich ; three skim coulters, manufactured by the
exhibiter ; hand-power chaff cntters, with one knife, two
knives, and three knives, invented and manufactured by Ran-
somes and Sims, of Ipswich ; chaff engines, with two knives
and three knives, manufactured by Richmond and Chandler,
of Salford -, a hand-power Guillotine chaff engine, raauufac-
tured by John Gillett, of Brailes, near Shipston-on-Stour ;
a registered Cam chaff-engine, mannfactured by Barrett, Exall,
and Audrewes, of Reading ; hand-power chaff-engines, with
one and two knives, invented and manufactured by Ransomes
and Sims, of Ipswich ; a hand or horse-power chaff-engine,
with one knife, manufactured by the exhibiter; registered
chaff-engines, with two and three knives, invented and manu-
factured by John Comes, of Barbridge, Cheshire (this machine
gained a prize of £10, at Shrewsbury, at Newcastle, at North-
ampton, and at Norwich, and the Society's silver medal at
York) ; a hand-power bean mill (No. 9), invented by Mr.
Samuelson, and manufactured by Ransomes and Sims, of
Ipswich ; a baud-power bean mill, invented by Mr. Seamniens,
and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a linseed or oat-crushing
mill, and a linseed or oat-crushing mill for horse power, manu-
factured by the exhibiter ; the " paragon" universal grain
mill, manufactured by Barrett, Exall, and Andrews, of
Reading; a patent double crushing mill for hand power, manu-
factured by Ransomes and Sims, of Ipswicli ; a duplex flour
mill, invented by Luke Hebert, and manufactured by Ran-
Eomes and Sims, of Ipswich ; a flour mill with stones, an oil-
cake breaker, an oilcake breaker, a double roller oilcake
breaker, and a lever turnip cutter, manufactured by the
exhibiter ; a disc turnip cutter on stand and a disc turnip
cutter on barrow, manufactured by Ransomes and Sims, of
Ipswich ; a Gardner's patent turnip cutter, invented by James
Gardner, of Banbury, aud manufactured by the exhibiter; a
double action Gardner's turnip cutter, invented by James
Gardner, of Banbury, and manufactured by Ransomes and
Sims — a prize of £5 was awarded to this machine at
Norwich; a double action disc turnip cutter, a revolving root
washer, (new implement) a portable steam generator, and (new
implement) a paragon portable steaming apparatus, manufac-
tured by the exhibitor ; (new implements) improved portable
coppers to hold eight aud sixteen gallons, invented and manu-
factured by the exhibiter ; (new article) a sample of four gal-
vanized cast-iron furnaces, invented and manufactured by More-
wood and Rodgers, of London ; an improved cheese and cider
press, a cast-iron cider press, a waggon-liftiug screw jack, two
coal-weighing machines with iron hopper, an improved weigh-
ing machine for sacks, and an improved granary weighing
machine, manufactured by the exhibiter; a patent sack holder,
invented by Henry Gilbert, of London, and manufactured by
the exhibiter ; an iron sack barrow, two iron corn screens, a
navigator's iron wheelbarrow, an iron garden wheelbarrow, au
iron stable wheelbarrow, a wrought-iron heating barrow, a
cast-iron garden roller, and a large garden roller for pony, all
manufactured by the exhibiter; a Budding's grasg cutter,

invented by Budding, of Dursley, and manufactured by Fer-
rabee and Son, of Stroud ; e garden engine iis v. oo.l pail, a •
gasdcu engine in oval tub ou wheels, and a large garden
engine in oval tub on wheels, manufactured by Warner and
Sons, o f London ; a steel daisy rake, manufactured by Hunt
aud Sons, of Birmingham ; (new implement) an improved daisy
Rake, invented by W, B. Thomas, of Ratton, Sussex; improved
and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a steel tooth hand rake,
manufactured by the exhibiter ; a lever hand rake, invented
by Smith, of Stamford, and manufactured by Ransomes and
Sims, of Ipswich ; a registered hand cultivator and Drill hoe.
and a patent hand seed dibble, invented by Dr. Newington, of
Frant, Sussex, and manufactured by Wedluke aud Thompson,
of Horiichurch — this last implement gained the prize of £3 at
Norwich in 1849; a two steel breast or dentshare plough,
manufaclured by Hunt and Sons, of Birmingham ; two seta of
steel draining tools, manufactured by W. A . Lyndon, of Bir-
mingham; the "Markly" Draining Tool, invented by George
Darby, Esq , of Markly House, Sussex, improved by the exhi-
bier, and manufactured by Hunt aud Sons, of Birmingham;
an assortment of draining tools, manufactured by Hunt and
Sons, of Birmingham ; an assortment of steel digging and
dung forks, manufactured by Harry Wintcn, of Birmingham ;
an assortment of steel hay prongs, manufactured by Hunt and
Sons, of Birmingham ; a set of wrought steel waggon haraes,
manufactured by the exhibiter; a draining level, called the A
level, invented by Bailey Denton, of London, and manufactured
by Messrs. Jones, of London ; a Blundell's improved draining
level, inveited by Blundell, and manufactured by Home,
Thornthwaite, and Wood, of London ; a specimen of three
small-sized, three middle-sized, and three large-sized wrought
iron pails, and a wroughv iron trug basket, each small
and large, manufactured by the exhibiter; (new implement)
a set of bright cast steel measures for corn or seed*,
invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter;
a wood bushel measure of four qualities, manufactured by W.
Ranford, of London ; (new implement) three improved tin
square box churns, invented, improved, and manufactured by
the exhibiter ; four improved Susses churns, manufactured by
the exhibiter; a tin Ballyclare churn, invented by John Rowan
and Sons, of Ballyclare, manufactured by Hichard Robinson,
of Belfast (this principal churn obtained a prize of 51'. at New-
castle, aud 51. at Northampton) ; three improved wood-box
churns, and (new implement) an improved barrel churn for
horse or hand power, all manufactured by the exhibiter;
(new implement) a specimen of three enamelled wrought-iron
milk pans, manufactured by Walton and Co , of Wolverhamp-
ton ; four cast-iron well pumps, manufactured by the exhibi-
ter ; (.new implement) four sizes of Warner's patent iron pump,
manufactured by Warner and Sons, of London ; two sizes of
a portable liquid manure pump, aud a cast-iron bquid manure
pump for a fixture (six-inch), all manufactured by the exhi-
biter; (new implement) a Warner's patent portable force
pump, manufactured by Warner and Sons, of London ; (new
implement) a portable iron pump on tripod stand, with flexi-
ble hose, invented and manufactured by the exhibiter ; (new
implement) a Warner's patent portable force pump on carriage,
manufactured by Warner and Sons, of London; (new imple-
ment) a liquid manure irrigator and farmer's fire engine, in-
vented and manufactured by the exhibiter ; (new implement)
the fumer's fire enaiue, an i-on frame with force pump, an en-
gine frame for working a single barrel pump in a deep well, a
o-inch brass deep well pump, and a patent brass force pump on
plank, manufactured by John Warner and Sons, of London ; a
water ram, invented by J. M. Montgolfier, aud manufactured
by John Warner and Sons, of Loudon ; several sized cattle
w ater troughs, several sizes of cast-iron stall troughs, (new im-
plement) a cast-iron pig trough with feeding door, ca^t-irou
circular pig troughs, for 5, 6, or 8 pigs, cast-iron mangers 3
and 6 feet long, a cast-iron corner manger, a cast-iron hay
rack, and a cast-iron corner hay rack, all manufactured by the
exhibiter ; (new implementj a round wrought irou cattle crib,
invented byMr.Thos.Larabe,of Wilmington, Sussex, improved
and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a square wrought iron
cattle crib, manufactured by the exhibiter; (ne.v implement) a
round wrought iron sheep crib, invented by Mr. Richard Wood-
man, of Glynde, Sussex, improved and manufactured by the
exhibiter ; a set of 9 cast-iron rick stinds, a wrought iron rick
frame on cast-iron stands, a sample of 3 cast-iron cottage caiC-
ments, a cast-iron gotbic top casement, a sample of 6 ca«t-irou

160

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

diamond quarry casements, two pair of fancy cast-iron case-
ments to ope;i, (naw implement) a sample of three galvanized
wrought iron fancy lodge casements, one and two-light cast-
iron cucumber frame, a cast-iron hand glass frame of five sizes,
two wrought iron Scotch field gates and standards, a fancy
wrought iron wicket gate and standards, a cast-iron gothic
wicket gate and st:indards, a cast-iron Grecian gate and
standards, a cast-iron gothic gate with staiubids, and a pair of
cast-iron gothic entrance gates with standards, all manufac-
tured by the exhibiter; (uew i:apiemcut) two improved wood
and iron trussed field gates, invented, improved, and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter; (nen' implerapnt) an improved wood
and iron trussed purk g;ite, (new implement) a set of three im-
proved entrance gates with cast-iron piers, several specimens
of wrought iron hurdles, specimens of bowed park fence for
wood posts, (new implement) a specimen of improved invisible
wire feLice, (new implement) a specimen of ornamental wire
park fence, and an improved wrought iron step stile, all raanu-
lactured by the exhibiter ; a bundle of the best charcoal iron
feucuig wire, mauufaetnred by the proprietors Df Tintern
Abbey Works ; a bundle of wire peg lattice, 18 and 24 inches
wide, and a bundle of galvanized wire peg lattice, 24 inches
wide, both manufactured by Bedford and Co., of London ; two
ornamentidiroiif^ardtu arches, two umbrella v;ire flowertrainers,
a balloon wire-flower trainer, an improved sweat-pea trainer,
a strong wrought iron tree guard, and an umbrella wire florver
trainer, manufiictured by the exhibiter ; a cottager's stove,
invented by John Grant, of London, manufactured by Bailsy
and Co., of London.

Edward Crav/ley, of 157, Upper Whitecross- street,
London.

A steam engine, invented by \V. K. Whytehead, of 69.
Cornhill, and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a patent sluice
cock, invented by Mr. Ovid Topham, of London, and manu-
factured by the exhibiter.

James V/oods, of Stowmarket, Suftblk.

(New implement) a four-horse power thrashing machine,
improved and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a one-horse
power for driving machinery; a Suffolk one-horse cart, and
harvest cart combined ; and an emigrant's one-horse cart, in-
vented and manufactured by the exhibiter ; (new implement)
an improved broadshare and general cultivator, called the
Gloucestershire broadshare; and (new implement) an improved
cultivntor or scarifier, improved end manufactured by the ex-
hibiter ; a reaping and mowing machine, invented by Hussey,
of America, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter;
(new inip'emciit) a set of scarifying harrows, invented,
improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter ; two
iron ploughs for general purposes, invented and mauufectured
by the exhibiter ; two crushing and grinding mills, improved
and manufactured by the exhibiter ; an improved weighing ma-
rjliiue, and a bean mill on iron frame, invented and manufac-
tured by the exhibiter ; a universal plough or horse hoe, i?i-
rented by John Clark, of Long Sutton, improved and manu-
factured by the exhibiter.

Daniel Baker, of Shoreham, Sussex.

Three light harrows ; and three heavy harrows, invented
and manufactured by the exhibiter.

Michael Joseph John Donlan, of Hammersmith,
Middlesex.

A farmers' flax machine, invented and manufactured by the
exhibiter.

J. DuLEY and Sons, of Northampton.

(New implement) a large farm kitchen range (patented), in-
vented, improved, and manufactured, by the exhibiters ; (new
implement) a very complete farm kitchen range ; (new imple-
ment) a range calculated for a farm house or bailiff's cottage ;
(new implement) a range adapted for a small farm ; (uew im-
plement) a cottage range; (new implement) two sizes of a
patent cottage range; (new implement) a patent small cottage
range for farm labourers ; and (new implement) a patent self-
acting efHuvia trap for drains of all kinds (registered), all in-
vented and improved by John Duley, of Northampton, and
manufactured by the exhibiters.

Charles H. Gabriel, of 24, Arundel Street, Strand,
London.

Ahorse drill; a manure distributor; and a single-wheel

manure distributor, invented by S. Newlngton, Esq., of Tice-
hurst, and manufactured by H. Bex, of Lamberhurst.

John James and Co., 24, Leadenliall Street, London.

(New implement) a 10-ton weigh bridge; a 4-ton; a 3-ton
(this implement obtained a prize of £10 at each of the So-
ciety's meetings at Derby, Shrctvsbury, Newcastle, and North-
ampton); a 21-c\vt. ; a 10-cwt.; a d-cwt. ; and two 3-cwt.
weighing machines, all invented and mauufaetnred by the ex-
hibiters.

Thomas Peterson, Trinity Chambers, London.

A case of 12 glass milk pans, imported from Germany by
the exhibiter; patterns of seamless canvass hose and fire
buckets, improved and manufactured by Burbach Brothers, of
Horselgan, Germany; and a case of samples of linseed and
other oilseed cakes.

William Pierce, of Jermyn Street, London, Mid-
dlesex.
Several specimens of a cottager's grate, made of fire clay and
fire lump, invented and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a fire
lump grate for warming two rooms, invente.l, improved, and
manufactured hy the exhibiter ; a plain grate with the back of
fire linnps, and an improved grate for warming two rooms, im-
proved and manufactured by the exhibiter ; two warming and
ventilating stove grates (this stove grate has been honoured by
the large silver medal of the Society of Arts in June, 1849),
and a new fire lump grate for burning either wood or coals, in-
vented and manufactured by the exhibiter ; a cottage range
with oven and boiler, a strong range adapted for a bailiff's
cottage, and a superior range adapted for a farm kitchen, in-
vented and manufactured by W. Nicholson of Newark ; a neat
pattern grate for bedrooms with fire lump back, improved and
manufactured by W. Nicholson, of Newark ; aud an iruproved
sink, drain trap, and pump, invented and manufactured by W.
Nicholson, of Newark ; two sets of stable fittings for a loose
box in stable, two ventilating stall divisions for a stable, and
tn'o improved sets of stable fittings, improved and manufac-
tured by S. Hood and Co., London.

Joseph Simmons, of Rainham, near Sittingbourne,
Kent.
An improved turnwrest plough adapted for heavy and light
lands, and an improved turnwrest plough ad.ipted for light
soils, improved by Mr. Wm. Smart, of Kainham, manufactured
by the exhibiter ; a five rowed corn and seed drill, and a carrot
drill, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter.

John Tilman, of Lewes, Sussex.
(New implement) a hand drill, invented and manufactured
by the exhibiter ; (new implement) a blower, manufactured by
the exhibiter ; a chafi' cutter for hand power, (new implement)
a small turuij) or mangel drill, a corn dressing machine, and
(new implement) a three borse portable thrashing machine, in-
vented and manufactured by the exhibiter ; and a hand thrash-
ing machine to be worked by four men, improved and manu-
factured by the exhibiter.

C. Halsted and Sons, of Chichester, Sussex.
(New implement) an iron plough (mark HI), invented and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; two iron ploughs (mark H 3
and H 4), an iron plough, a one wheel plough, a two wheel
plough, a one wheel plough (mark H 5), a four horse power
thrashing machine, and an oilcake breaker, improved and ma-
nufactured by the exhibiters ; a patent chatT cutter, and an im-
proved chaff cutter, invented and mauufactured by Richmond
and Chandler ; an iron sack cart, manufactured by the exhibi-
ters ; a cast iron stall trough, invented and mauufsctured by
the exhibiters ; a cast iron feeding pan, and a wrought iron oat
bin, manufactured by the exhibiters ; a galvanized iron sheep
feeding trough, improved and mauufactured by the exhibiters;
a patent broadcast manure distributor (registered), invented by
E. Fogden, of Eastdeau, manufactured by the exhibiters ; a
broadcast sowing machine, invented and manufactured by E.
Fogden, of Eastdean ; and a crushing mill, invented and manu-
factured by Barrett, Exall, and Andrews, of Reading.

Whitmee and Chapman, of 18, Fenchurch Buildings,
City, 70, St. John Street, Cierkenwell, and 11, Ray-
Street, Clerkenwell, London.
(New implements) two steel roller corn crushers, (new imple-

THE i'AllMER'S MAGAZINE.

161

raeul) a coru criisLer, (uew iinplemeut) a stcc! flour mill, (. cw
uuiilement) a flour laill with French burr ttones, (new iniplc-
iT-ciit) a fljur mill to attach to power, aii'i (new imiilemcnt) a
flo\!r will with horse power attached, all invented, improved,
and manufactured by the exhibiters ; and a kibbling mill, im-
proved and manufactured by the exhibiters.

CtiARLEs D. Young and Co., of 19, Great George-
street, Westminster, Middlesex.
A reaping machine, invented by Mr. Hussey, of America,
improved and manufactured by the exliibiters ; a wrought and
cast iron rick stand, 16 feet diameter, another 12 feet iii
diameter, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhi-
biters ; a specimen of iron hurdles, manufactined by the exhi-
biters ; (new implements) two sizes of a patent anti-metallic
chum, invented by P. R. Drummond, of Perth, improved and
manufactured by the exhibiters ; and a patent lever wrought
and cast iron cheese press, improved and manufactured by the
exhibiters.

Alexander Kennedy Smith, C.E., of Comnaercial-
road, Exeter, Devonshire.
(New implement) three sizes of a registered rotary screening
machine, for screening ashes and other manm-es for drilling
with turnips, wheat, &c., invented, improved, and manufactured
by the exhibiter.

Fenwick de PoRauET (under the name of Mary Wtd-
lake and Co.), of 118, Fenchurch-street, City.

Two sizes of a chatf cutter, invented by the late Thomas
Wedlake, of Fairkytes Works, Hornchurch, improved and ma-
nufactured by the exhibiter ; a utilitarian or twin machine, in-
vented by L. Fenwick de Porquet, of 11, Tavistock-street,
Cerent Garden, and manufactm'ed by Mary Wedlake and Co.,
of 118, Fenchurch-street, City ; an oat crusher, made of wood
and iron, invented by Mary Wedlake, of Fairkytes Works,
Hornchurch, improved and manufactured by the exhibiter ; an
oat crusher all of iron, for oats and beans, invented by Mary
Wedlake, of Fenchm-ch-street, and manufactvured by the exhi-
biter ; an improved haymaking machine, invented by the late
Thomas Wedlake, of Faii-kytes Works, Hornchurch, improved
by Mrs. Mary Wedlake, and manufactm-ed by the ex-
hibiter (obtained the silver medal at the meetmg of the Royal
Agricultiual Society at Derby, 1843 ;) and a gorse or furze
crushing machuie for hand or horse power, invented and manu-
factured by the exhibiter, improved by Mr. J. Elliot, of
Islington.

George Chivas, of Chester.

Specimens of the " uew orange jelly" tuniip, raised by the
exhibiter, and specimens of 160 varieties of grasses in a green
state, in flower, with the time of flowering and ripenmg, as
well as the green and dry weight per acre attached to each.

Charles Thomas, of Stratford-on-Avon, Warwick-
shire.

Three registered flexible hmiting saddles, invented by Abra-

ham New land, of Stralford-on-Avon, improved and manufac
tursd by thn exhibiter ; and a curb Pelham, invented and
mauufaciured by th" exhibiter.

George Bruce, 52, NeUon-strect, Liverpool.
A specimen of black japan \'arnish, a specimen of blue-
coloxired composition, a specimen of a red-coloured composi-
tion, a specimen of a green-coloured composition, a specimen
of a stone-coloiu-ed composition, and a specimen of transparent
varnish, all invented, improved, and manufactured by the
exhibiter.

J. Bailey Denton, of 52, Parlianoent-street, London
(New implement) a workman's draining level, called the A
level, invented by the exhibiter, and manufactured Jones and
Co., of .30, Holborn, London; (new implement) a foreman'*
drainuig level, called the improved A level, invented and im-
proved by the exhibiter, and manufactured by Jones and Co.,
of 30, Holborn, London ; a specimen of model mapping, for
the drainage of land, with instruments for ascertaining heights
and distances, and tables for computing the cost of drainage
works, invented, improved, and manufactured by the exhibiter.

Thomas Mathews Hare, of 3, Arundel-street,
Strand, London.

A registered farmer's economic lamp, invented and maau-
factured by Tylor and Son, of Warwick-lane, London ; (new
implement) a registered portable fire or garden engine, invented
and manufactured by WiUiara Baddeley, of 3, Arundel-street,
Strand.

Frederick Bell and Co., of 7, Noble-street, London.
A ventilating waterproof cloth, invented, improved, and
manufactured by the exhibiters.

Alexander Hett, of 28, Bridge-street, Southwark,
Surrey.
(New implemeut) a microscope, with a set of injected ob-
jects, invented and prepared by the exhibiter, microscope ma-
nufactiu-ed by ^Messrs Smith and Beck, of London.

ToMLiN and Co., of Kettering, Northamptonshire.

Sickles for reaping corn, improved by W. Tomlin, and ma-
nufactured by the exhibiters (awarded a prize medal at the
Great Exhibition, 1851.

Thomas Gibbs and Co., the Seedsmen to the Society,
Corner of Half Moon-street, Piccadilly, London.
A collection of dried grasses, wheats, barleys, oats, &c., the

seeds of the above, and a general collection of several hundred

kinds of agricultural and other seeds.

Captain K.emmerer, of Prussia (Agent, Ed. vom Hof,
43, Bedford-row.
A universal sowing, drilling, and dibbling machine, inV6ilt«d
and manufactured by the exhibiter.

THE BENEFICIAL INVESTMENT OF CAPITAL IN LAND.

We have enumerated various modes in which capital
may be safely and profitably employed in the improve-
ment of land. They have reference chiefly to works
which ought to be performed by the landlord, in order
to place the land in a condition to receive the full benefit
of the capital and bkill of the tenant. Tenants, how-
ever, are frequently debarred from availing themselves
of these improvements by the want of sufiicient capital
to turn them to account when the landlord has made
them. Instead of having money to spare for the pur-
pose of increasing returns, which can only be increased
by a preliminary outlay, the majority of tenants have
not capital sufficient for the ordinary cultivation of the
land under the older and ruder, the less expensive but
less [profitable, systems to which they have been accus-

tomed. To this cause may be traced no small portion
of the opposition which improved processes experience.
They are inconvenient, from requiring more capital than
the farmer possesses ; they are, therefore, voted theore-
tical, new fangled, and unprofitable. The man who
cannot buy a thrashing machine will find a hundred ex-
cellent reasons for continuing to use the flail, though he
could save ten shillings an acre in the cost of his wheat
crop by abandoning it. He who cannot afi'ord a drill
will be a stout advocate for the superiority of broad-
cast crops. Are there no methods by which the present
abundance of capital may be made available to the
tenant-farmer ? If a merchant or trader requires
to extend his business beyond the limits of his own cap-
ital, he finds no difficulty, if in good credit, in obtaining

M 2

id-2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the necessary accommodatioa ; and he employs tiiis
accommodation si'.ccessfuUy, pro.iJtii his tiaiisaitions
•with borrowed money are confined within prudent bounds.
It is not so with the farmer. We have heard this enu-
merated in the list of agricultural grievances — that while
lbs commercial diss can get bills discounted at 2^
per cent., farmers have difficulty in borrowing money at
double that rate of interest. They forget that for such
accommodation good credit is necessary, and that the
agricultural body have damaged their credit by the cTy of
agricultural distress which lias prevailed more or less for
the last 35 years. They are in the position of a butcher
of whom we heard his son say—" My father must have
been a rich man once, for he has been buying sheep and
bullocks for the last forty years and he says he loses by
every one he buys." This butcher was a thriving man,
and he could afford to be a grumbler; had he wanted to
borrow money, he would not have grumbled. To de-
clare ourselves insolvent, and our business incapable of
yielding a profit, except under impossible conditions, is
not the way to inspire confidence in an interest so sensi-
tive as the moneyed interest. Independently, howerer,
of this disadvantage under which farmers and landowners
labour, which is of their own making, and which they
alone can remove, there are others inherent in the very
nature of farming. In commerce, money is returned
twice, thrice, four times in the year, and even oftener. The
trader who requires accommodation requires it only for a
shoit period. He goes to his banker and deposits bills
to be discounted. And with what funds does the banker
afford the accommodation .' With the deposits of his
customers, a certain portion of which, it has been found
by experience, may be so employed without danger of
its being called for while placed beyond the banker's
reach ; and should an emergency arise, there are the
bills on which the advances have been made, which can
be re-discounted. The returns of the farmer, on the
other hand, are for the most part made only cnce in the
year — of some parts of his outlay he does not reap the
full benefit for several years— and his business affords
no such convertible securities, on which to raise money,
as bills of exchange. Advances to a farmer, therefore,
for the purpose of efiecting tenant's improvements, par-
take too much of the nature of a " lock up" to find fa-
vour with bankers.

The same objection applies with great- r force to land-
lord's improvements ; but in their case it has in a great

measure been remcu-ed by the Private Loan Drainage
Act uikI the Private Acts of different Drainage Compa-
nies, under which the owners of settled estates are eai-
powered to charge them v^ith annuities for money
expended in improving their value. Much, hov/ever,
yet remains to be done. The more the legal cobwebs
which have been woven round the transfer of land
can be removed, the greater facilities will land-
owners find in availing themselves of the accumu-
lated capital of other classes for effecting improvements
which are equivalent to doubling and tripling the
area of their estates. Can nothing, we repeat, be
done to place within reach of the tenant-farmer some of
that money which is at pi-esent a complete drug in the
commercial world ? Farmers require accommodation for
longer periods than are consistent with prudence on the
part of the lender in ordinary banking operations.
They require banks of their own — agricultural banks —
which shall only receive and employ money deposited
as a permanent investment, or with the understanding
that it would not be withdrawn for several years. It
has been objected, that too great facilities for borrow-
ing money are not advantageous to farmers. The ease
with which money could be obtained formerly of the
paper issuing Local Banks, and lately of the Joint
Stock Banking Companies, has led, it is said, many
farmers to their ruin by tempting them to embark in
hazardous speculation. Those speculations, however,
were either foreign to the actual business of farming,
and consisted in the purchase of corn or live stock to be
held for a rise which never came, or they were
railway trausactions. On the other hand, if the loan
had been invested in the improvement of their farms,
the money had been lent them out of the deposits of
ordinary banking, and was sunk in the land, where it was
not convertible when the panic came, when the
bank stopped payment, and its creditors pressed their
claims on those who were indebted to it. There are
means by which undue speculation may be checked,
while every facility for borrowing money for the legiti-
mate purposes of farming is secured to the farmer.
There are means by which the present amount of farming
capital may be doubled. Both methods have stood the
test of long experience locally, and only require more
general adoption. The consideration of them must be
reserved for a future article. T.

THE ROYAL FORESTS ! ! SUGGESTIONS TOWARDS PROMOTING AN UNIFORM
SYSTEM OF EXPERIMENTAL AND PRACTICAL FARMING.

PRACTICAL F A R M E R.

We have for many years advocated the adoption of j
an uniform system of experimental farming, with the j
view of improving the agriculture of these kingdoms — |
we say an uniform system of experimental farming. By I
this we mean a system devised, arranged, and carried |
out, or effected, under one direction, board of directors, i
or order of management. We think this would be more j
beneficial, and a much more likely mode of arriving at a i

clear and accurate conclusion relative to any experiment
to be tested, than if made by never so many individuals,
however located, or however careful and intelligent they
may be. We want to see an uniform system of agricul-
tural experiments carried on under the superintendence
of one head, or committee of direction ; these experi-
ments to be simultaneously commenced, continued, and
systematically proceeded with in several parts of the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

163

cduntry, so as to bring all the tests of soil, cliiaate, cul-
ture, and general management, to bear upon the parti-
cular subject or object of the experiments at one and the
same time ; the results to be carefully noted, in order
that a fall and accurate report maybe given to the pub-
lic. This much for experimental farming.

In practical farming we would adopt and test the
great improvements brought into modern practice in all
their varieties : in culture, in grazing, in grain, in pulse,
in seeds, iu vegetables, in grasses, &c. ; also in the se-
lection of cattle, in sheep, in pigs, &c., for fatting; in
horses for sale or for work; in cattle for work, or cows
for milking properties, &c. But we are anticipating j
we will, therefore, proceed to give our suggestions. The
Queen having most laudably placed all her royal forests
at the disposal of the Commissioners of Woods and
Forests for the benefit of the nation, we suggest
that suitable portions of them be allotted, and
be laid out in convenient farms in each district
in which they are situated, and that they be cultivated
upon a sound and good system of agriculture, com-
bining the best principles of practical farming with a
fair modicum of experimental farming. For this pur-
pose, we would select suitable sites in the various fo-
rests, in accordance with our views. We have in the
south the New Forest, in Hampshire; in the interior,
Whitchwood Forest, in Oxfordshire ; or Whittlewood
and Salby Forests, in Northamptonshire ; or again, a
little further west, we haveDeane Forest, Gloucestershire ;
again, eastward, we have Waltham or Epping Forest.
We might, again, name the many farms in various parts
of the country called Crown farms or Crown lands, which
might, as occasion required or the leases fell in, be
brought into requisition ; so that we might have model
or experimental farms in almost every district of the
kingdom. We are not acquainted with the royal do-
mains either of Scotland or Ireland ; but the revenues
from the Scothud estates are about ^£'25,000, and of
Ireland £'60,000 annually ; so that, if desirable, similar
institutions may undoubtedly be established there. The
farms should be governmental ; the direction or ma-
nagement under the superintendence of the public agri-
cultural societies — i. e., of the Royal Agricultural So-
ciety of England, the Highland Society of Scotland, and
the Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, each in their
respective countries. These respective societies to
choose well-qualitied individuals to take the practical
management of the farms, to consist of one director for
each country, and one bailiff for each farm. The di-
rectors and bailiffs to have a fixed income from Govern-
ment, and a proportion or per-centaga upon the annual
profits of the farms under their respective direction;
the directors a per-centage upon the whole. Agricul-
tural schools might also be attached to some one or
other of them, if desirable on the whole ; or they might
be made serviceable in educating agricultural engineers,
bailiffs, and other very useful orders of workmen.

The council or committee of each society shall,
through their chairman, communicate with the Commis-
sioners of Woods and Forests, and arrange all prelimi-
nary proceedings relative to the apportionment of the

land; the erection of buildings, and the disposition of
management of the farms. They shall also be the
medium through which the directory reports shall be
transmitted, and proceeds of the farms shall be paid to
the commissioners. From them shall emanate sugges-
tions relative to the principal management, and direc-
tions as to the experiments to be tried and mode of
trying them ; indeed, from them all general orders
and directions are to proceed, to be executed by the
director.

Tlie directors shall be entrusted with the sole manage-
ment of the farms in their respective countries, under the
committee or council, and in conjunction with the
councils of the societies above-named to appoint a bailiff
for each farm. The director shall be empowered (under
proper securities) to draw upon the Commissioners of
Woods and Forests for funds required to carry on the
business of the farm. On him will devolve the keeping
of the accounts as received from the bailiffs, the prepa-
ration of the annual report, and record of experiments
and farm-practice for the information of the councils.
The director should be a zealous, practical man, well
versed in the science of agriculture, and without preju-
dice, as upon him so much will depend. The whole will
be continually under his inspection, so that from his own
observation, as also the reports of the bailiffs, he would
give the account of every proceeding and the result.

The bailiffs' duties will be to act under the suggestions
and carry out the orders of the directors, to superintend
every practical operation going on upon the farms ; to
do their best to conduct every experiment fairly ; to
make full, accurate, and practical reports of every day's
proceedings, and from these to condense a clear monthly
report for the use of the directors ; to pay the
workmen and keep a clear debtor and creditor
account of the proceeds of the farm, and as a
check to the director; to attend assiduously to the
management of the various live stock kept on their
farms ; their management m fatting, in breeding, or in
siclmess, the varieties of food, the medicines given;
and the treatment adopted in each particular case, with
their own remarks and notes upon the many and various
cases, ciperimenls, and proceedings, they are called
upon to attend to, and carry out; so that the director
may be able to present to the public a true and faithful
record of the different modes of management pursued in
respect to the various soils, crops, manures ; the expe-
riments instituted to test the relative values of various
sorts of gram, of pulse, of seeds, grasses, vegetables ; as
also the fattening and other profitable qualities of cattle,
sheep, pigs, poultry, &c., &c., &c., by which is to be
shewn the cause of success or failure, either from soil
or management, as also the adaptation of certain crops,
of certain breeds of cattle, of sheep, of pigs, to locality,
soil, climate, culture, or management.

We would further suggest that accommodation should
be provided in the residence of each bailiff for a stated
number of youths (as pupils), who shall take part in the
duties of the farm, as also study the science of agriouU
ture; such pupils to be nominated by the council or
committee, and to be by them transferred from farm to

164

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

farm in such mauner as may tend best to promote their
education. Premium to be moderate, and an equitable
portion thereof to be paid to tbo bailiffs for their maia-
tonance. These youths to make a monthly report, or
produce a journal of proceedings to the director on his
periodical visit of superintendence.

Lectures on geology, chemistry, and scientific agri-
culture generally, to be provided from the balance of the
reserved premium.

We propose that the great and vastly important
modern practice of agriculture be carefully and fully
tested ; and, if possible, to make the improvement of
whatever kind manifest to the public.

We propose that selections from the best varieties of
grain, of pulse, of seeds, of vegetables, of grasses, &c.,
be grown upon these farms, under every kind of soil and
varieties of manures when requisite, and the result ac-
curately noted, in order to prove the peculiar adaptation
of each variety to the soil, the manure, and the climate
where grown, as also to the course of culture pursued.

We propose, further, that approved kinds of cattle,
sheep, &c., be selected and grazed, in order to prove
which is best adapted to the particular pasture and
district in which they are grazed, as also the relative
values of the kind of herbage upon which they are
grazed, as grass, clover, lucerne, tares, or other arti-
ficial grasses. The whole to be carried out in such
varied ways as are likely to lead to the most practical
and beneficial results.

We further propose, that such kinds of cattle, sheep,
and pigs, &c., be fatted in hovels, boxes, layers, or
yards, upon the diflFerent varieties of vegetable and arti-
ficial food now in general use, and under such approved
modes of management as may from time to time be
thought desirable for experiments. This, to prove the
relative value of each kind of food, and the most expe-
ditious mode of fattening under every circumstance and
condition of trial. Instance — The director purchases
fifty head of cattle ; he sends lots of ten each to five
different farms to be fed in precisely the same manner ;
he purchases other 50 and distributes them in the same
way, to be fed in five different courses, and under
different circumstances ; it may be one lot in hovels,*
one in boxes, one in byres, one in open yards, and one
ia sheltered yards ; these to be supplied with different
kinds of food, either singly or in lots, as appears most
likely to prove the best mode of fattening, or best food
for that purpose. Many are the modes that an intelli-
gent superintendent or director would adopt to prove
such relative values, and the result of course to be given
to the public. The same with sheep and pigs. In this
way, much might be learned as to what food has fatted
fastest, what soil, and what culture has produced the
best quality of food, and what treatment has been most
advantageous to the animals under experiment. Added
to this, much may also be gathered as to what varieties
of turnip*, mangolds, or other vegetables are suited to
the different soils and districts under the order of man-
agement ; the same with respect to grain, seeds, &c. , &c. ;
80 that such knowledge is widely and speedily diffused
throughout the country, whereby any real improvement

is promoted, anil errors and mismanagement checked.
The diffusion of practical information thus obtained by
actual experiment accurately noted would guard the pub-
lic against the introduction of erroneous practice either
ia the culture, crops, or applications of improper or use-
less manures. Upon the latter much depends, and
much information is needed ; we would, therefore,
have this part of our plan attended to with the
greatest care ; as by the proper application and
adaptation of artificial manures, our agriculture will
ultimately be mainly sustained and perfected, the details
of which we need not enter upon here. We would also
have different courses of management pursued to prove
their economy and adaptation to the crops and soil un-
der cultivation ; we would also attempt to prove the
relative value of working cattle or horses, and of imple-
ments, and modes of using them ; we would attempt to
prove the relative value of appliances for drainage, irri-
gation, subsoiling, and methods of execution; nor
would we exclude flax culture and management, or the
growth of tobacco, chicory, &c.

In pursuance of this plan, we would have the whole
course carried out in a steady business-like practical
way, with the view of realizing the greatest possible
profit; because, after all, the diffusion of knowledge
would do but little to encourage a general adoption of
the proposed measures unless a fair amount of profit
can be shown, due allowance being made for failures
which some of the experiments might cause.

We are confident that the fundamental grounds of
this plan may be so judiciously and fully wrought out
as to leave a good profit upon the farming department
alone, and at the same time be the medium through
which a vast amount of agricultural knowledge would be
given to the world.

We are confident that a most satisfactory improve-
ment in land revenue would be the result, and much em-
ployment of labour and increase of national wealth, in-
dependent of the great stimulus it will give to every
department of British agriculture.

We are confident that our beloved Queen would most
heartily rejoice in the knowledge that her munificent
gift was thus made the means of elevating a most de-
pressed agriculture, and in contributing so essentially in
promoting the happiness and prosperity of that portion
of her subjects, " The British Yeomanry."

TREES SUITABLE FOR PLANTING IN
PUBLIC WALKS AND PROMENADES.— The tree
most commonly used for planting in public walks is
the Elm (Ulraus campestris). It will grow in almost
any soil, but prefers a light to an argillaceous one.
The Lime (Tilia latifolia) is also much employed. It
has a very graceful form, and bears pruning well. But
there is an objection to its use in the shortness of the
time its foliage retains its beauty, which is only from
the end of April to the middle of June ; and as, after
this time, its leaves are continually falling, it occasions
much labour to keep the ground in its neighbourhood

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

165

however, be greatly diminished by employing Tilia
sylvestris instead of T.latifolia. The Pyramidal Poplar
(Populusfastigiata), on account of itsform, and the height
it attains, is often planted. It is said to impoverish the
soil for a considerable distance, as its roots are jirin-
cipaliy superficial ; but this would scarcely be felt as
an inconvenience in towns. One of the most beautiful
of the trees commonly planted is the Acacia (Robinia
pscud-Acacia) ; but it is so liable to injury from the
wind, on account of the dry nature of its wood, that
it is not desirable. The Kobinia inermis is less ob-
jectionable. The Sycamore and Maple (Acer Pseudo-
Platnnus and A. Plataiioides) aro valuable on account
of their hardiness and ready adaptation to any kind of
soil, but are very liable to be attacked by insects. Left
to themselves, they snon become unsightly, and do not
well sustain pruning. The Common Horse-Chcstnut
is, with jrood reason, a favourite tree. When its fine
clean. This inconvenience, as well as the former, might,
and numerous flowers expand upon Its beautiful foliage

in the vernal season, it seems to chase away v,'iuter,
and bring back spring with her flowery train. It dis-
likes a damp or compact soil, but grows freely in that
wliich is of a light and dry character, and bears
pruning well. There is no tree which, for its vigour,
its hardiness, and its beauty, deserves more consi-
deration than the Aiianthus glandulosa. It grows ex-
tremely fast, and very straight ; and its wood, which
is of a fine grain, is useful for many purposes. Added
to this, it is by no means particular about soil. Another
tree wliich claims our particular notice is the White
Poplar (Populus alba). To the advantages of elegant
form, beautiful foliage, and rapid growth, it joins that
of never being attacked by insects. The three things
to bo kept in view in planting trees for promenades are,
their adaptation to the soil, their capability to sustain
pruning, and the arrangement of them in such an
order as that those species only may be together which
expand and shed their leaves at or about the sam.e lime,
— Revue Horlicole.

THE TIPTREE-HALL GATHERING.

(from a correspondent.)

Mr. Mechi is at length occupying his proper position
in the agricultural world. And it must be the better
for all parties, pleasanter for himself and fairer for his
contemporaries the longer he continues in that rank
which he now appears willing to fall into. The Sir
Oracle of a few years since gradually softens into the
enthusiastic experimentalist, the heaven-born dictator
into the striving student. The common course of things
would generally lead us to reverse this career, but from
the days of Phaeton there have been many apt to go a
little too fast at starting, and to arrogate at once a lead ere
experience had qualified them for the direction they
assumed to.

We could wish Mr. Mechi, for a short season at any
rate, had been content to watch and follow ; or that
from the first his experiments and his deductions had
been offered in that spirit we are now ready to receive
them. We aie quite certain, had this been the case,
that his popularity and success with that interest for
which he professes so much, would have been far greater
and far more eatisfactory than we fear it now is. What
is more too, and still more to be regretted, his labours,
insomuch as they are beneficial, are yet comparatively
ineffeclive. The practical tenant farmer, the working
man of the audience, to whom of all others you must
come for the test, has grown weary of a lecturer who has
said so much and proved so little. Of one, be it remem-
bered, who commenced by assuring his auditory that
they knew nothing and he everything ; that they were
fast asleep, but he himself wide awake; and that wheie
they might make a living, he would make a fortune.

To use a common expression, "it took the breath
away" from men who had been years following, and
who perhaps fancied they understood something of their
own business. They saw before them a gentleman who

[ had already proved himself singularly successful in that
pursuit he had devoted himself to, boldly declaring that
he was going to do as much again with theirs. They
heard him reiterate his intentions and operations as a
simple matter of business — of pounds, shillings, and
pence — of return for outlay, and clear profit on the pro-
ceeding. His was to be no theory, no playing at farm-
ing, no wealthy citizen's amusement, but a downright
good thriving trade. This was the way ; he could and
would show it, and the farmers who did not at once fol-
low him wanted, of course, spirit, capital, science, sense,
and so on. Landlords took it up, they could hardly
well avoid it with so much looming in the future ; and
so sent their tenants to Mr. Mechi, or brought Mr.
Mechi to their tenants.

We all know how this has ended ; we all know how
'that much-abused, apathetic individual, the tenant-
farmer, craved and clamoured for the balance of this
simple matter of business ; and we all know now how
to look on the Tip-tree Hall operations. Mr. Mechi
knows it too ; and the American minister truly summed
it up in one of his excellency's well-balancid, high-
sounding sentences ; as "it not being for us to ask the
profit or loss upon all this." On this very understand-
ing the majority of a numerous attendance must have
reached Tiptree on Wednesday last. Ready to be pleased
with the energy and good intentions of "an amiable en-
thusiast," as another distinguished visitor styled his host,
rather than to examine too closely into the efi'ect of
what was attempted. We can only repeat our regret that
this understanding had not been sooner arrived at, and
that Mr. Mechi had not been sooner placed in that posi-
tion as an agriculturist which alone he is yi t quaUfied to
occupy. As it is, the farmers of this country may
not now give the attention to some of his undertakings

idij

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and experiments which they in reality deseive. The
fault here, however, has been bis own, not theirs ; and
the comparatively small number of them, amongst the
many other classes assembled round bis hospitable table
on Wednesday last, strengthens as in this opinion. Year by
year they give place to other names and faces less familiar
to us, until at length we begin to fancy it will be a
Society of Arts, and not a Society of Agriculture, that
will be called upon to pronounce as to the good or evil
accomplished on Tiptree Heath.

The business of the day commenced, as usual, with a
round of inspection, and a halt every now and then to
hear some peculiar system explained. Thorough drain-
age, thin-sowing, hedge- row removals, and other things
acting on the crops examined, were, of course, in the
catalogue of the active, good-humoured showman's spe-
cifics. Still, they only came in for secondary considera-
tion. There was a new topic, a new panacea, just at
present the pet project, that entirely eclipsed all ethers.
Wherever you went, it was with odour of liquid manure ;
whatever you saw had some reference to liquid manure ;
whatever was done well, was done with liquid manure.
The pipes lay about the fields in profusion ; and ever
and anon a highly- charged shower was played off, for
the equal benefit of the visitor and the proprietor. The
wheats, generally good, and here and there very even,
owned to some taste of it ; the swedes and mangold con-
fessed, though not so openly, its rffreshing influence ;
while the clover, and cabbage more especially, flourished
under the favour of Mr. Mechi's recent applications.
But it did not end here. Again in the banquet-room
was there a free entrance and ready hearing for so all-
absorbing a topic. A metropolitan sanitary deputation
was there to support it with their presence ; and Lord
Ebringtou, taking his cue from another noble lord at
Lewes, tired even the London reporters in his praises of
it. Mr. Chadwick again echoed these praises at nearly
equal length ; and Mr. Mechi himself, of course, had
the liquid manure as a chief point in his own speech.
Beyond this one toast of " Sanitary Reform," proposed
and replied to as just mentioned, the toast list requires •

but little comment. The American Minister replied to
" Agriculture — British and Foreign," proposed by »
gentleman — one of the rejected of Essex, we believe —
who had the unhappy taste to introduce po'.ilical topics
into his address, but which the meeting with more
breeding suffered to pass unnoticed. Mr. Raymond
Barker then responded to " The Royal Agricultural So-
ciety," proposed by Sir James Duke. Lord Fortescae
gave '• The Chairman" ; and Mr. White, another Ameri-
can, closed the evening's entertainments with a genuine
Yankee oration.

It will be observed that on this occasion no practiciai
farmer was called on to give his opinion of the day's
proceedings. We can remember meetings at Tiptree
when it was otherwise ; and we fear the value of these
gatherings can only suffer from the want of such an esti-
mate. In the field, such as were present had more oppor-
tunity— not only of canvassing the merits of the crops,
but, as is customary, in the trial of some implements of
agriculture. The great feature amongst the latter was
again the reaping machines, the result only farther
confirming the superiority of Hussey's, that is as now
matured under the auspices of Messrs. Gai'rett. It
worked both with wheat and clover most admirably ; and
no implement introduced into the operations of the farm
promises to make its way with less prejudice or oppo-
sition.

In concluding this notice, we will add — though it per-
haps may be scarcely necessary — that we write in the
fullest spirit of fair-play. We thank Mr. Mechi heartily
for his hospitality ; we admire equally with any one hia
enthusiasm and activity ; and we admit readily the advan-
tage some of his experiments — this of liquid manure
for one — may afford in the cultivation of the country.
On the other hand, we can look on him only as an en-
thusiast and experimentalist, and not as that heaven-
born authority some theorists, and theorists only, would
wish to proclaim him. In considering his works and
visiting his place, the bond fide farmer must act as Mr.
Lawrence says America does towards England —
" merely copy that which suits his condition/' -•

THE POTATO DISEASE

There seem to be again some symptoms tending
to show that the potato disease is renewing the
unmistakeable indications it before manifested when
we had more or less partial and general destruction
of the crop. Not that we by any means expect a
visitation at all equal to "the year" of the potato
rot ; but there are indications that we are not yet
at least free from its ravages. Some of the early
kinds in several counties have e.xhibited symptoms
of the disease— the peculiar brown decay under the
semi-transparent cuticle ; and the same form, of dis-
ease has, we fear, attacked the winter beans in seve-
ral localities.

Now all experiments on the potato disease up to

the present moment have hardly established one
single fact tending to a settlement either of its
cause or its cure. The facts are these. The dis-
ease usually attacks the potato in its stage nearest
maturity. In the case of hot-house plants it occurs
in May and in June, in the early exposed kinds it
frequently is delayed till July, and in the ordinary
kinds it is August before any serious extent of
damage is done. It commences, as a rule, in thfl
south first, in the north last. Sometimes it occurs
in spots on the stems, and sometimes on the leaves,
as if sulphuric acid had dropped from the clouds.;
but it occasionally attacks the tubers first, snd not
unfrequentiy so thoroughly infects a single field as

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

le?

to sweep over the whole a.s if it liail been bhiekeued
by an October frost. This has usually occurretl
in the north in the middle of August, and was al-
ways accompanied by a peculiar misty suffocating
vapour, not frosty, but rather hot, and in three
days the whole breadth of the potato district was
one mass of putrefaction. The celebrated Irish
potato commission which was appointed by the late
Sir Robert Peel, is only a monument of the impo-
tence of scientific research, and was one of the
unfortunate steps of that prime minister which
ended in a farce and an abortion. They discovered
nothing, they taught nothing, and their recommen-
dations were remarkably worthless. It required a
year or two to register fact-. There were wonder-
escapes. We carefully noted the whole. We
found that under the influence of the sea they often
escaped. We found that in soils of the magnesian
limestone they did the same; and we found that on
peaty soils they sometimes resisted the influence,
be it what it might. Now we imitated these. Sea
influences we could not have, but we salted the
land with a considerable dose of salt ; we had not
a soil of magnesian limestone, but we gave it a
considerable dose of that materi.al ; and we selected
a peat soil whereon to try the experiment. We
staved off, we fancied, the disease : the crops were
taken up whole, but they diseased sadly afterwards.
And this is a phase which the disease is now assum-
ing, even when a visitation in the field is entirely
escaped. We have, for instance, had in several
years to sort and sort and dry In open sheds for
several weeks ; and we have found so many bad in
the spring that we have had to open the pits long
before the time they were required for use, in order
to save a few from utter destruction. Our plants
in the autumn of 18.51 were free from the appear-
ance of taint : our tubers were entirely free from
disease : they were carefully dried and sorted.
But the work began; and five-sixths of the wliole
went off before Christmas.

Now, whatever may be the cause of the disease,
whether electrical condition, araraoniacal vapour,
acid accumulations, or whatever else, it is clear we
have so far no remedy. Elaborate eflbrts have
been made to show the disease to be a fungus, and
so it certainly developes itself, before it has been
long in possession of the plant ; but the fungus
adheres to a diseased plant, and is only a secondary
symptom. Nor can it be the aphis of Mr. Smee,
when potatoes sound at taking-up time —in October
and in November— become diseased and die in De-
cember, and this not from contact nor heating,
but from some diseased tendency either organic or
atmospheric.

Observing the tendency to disease in December,
we determined to try the antiseptic power of the

Irish peat charcoal. On the 19th of December we
selected three lots of potatoes which we will for
clearness designate by the numbers :
No. 1. Consisted of potatoes infected with disease.
No. 2. Do. very slightly tainted.

No. 3. Do. quite free from disease.

One half of each lot was taken out and immersed
in peat charcoal, the rest preserved, each lot sepa-
ratelj', and all in the same circumstances. On the
19th of June they were all taken out ; and the fol-
lowing was the result

IN PKAT WITHOUT

CHARCOAI.. CHARCOAL.

No. 1 . (Ci u i t e All dead. All dead.

diseased)
No. . (Slightly One-tilth dead; one- One-fifth dead ; all
diseased') fifth slightly af- the rest sotmd.
lected ; all the rest
sound.
N'o. .3. (Free from Free ft'om disease. Free from disease,

disease)

Now, to say the least, we have this negative evi-
dence — that as far as arresting the progress of the
disease, or curing, it in potatoes tending to disease
after being raised, so far as these experiments go, it
has no advantages whatever.

The experiments are of some value at least in
tending to establish this negative evidence ; and
they go further, and tend at least to oppose the no-
tion indulged in by some, that the disease arises
from aramoniacal vapour. For so great is the
antiseptic power of the charcoal that there seema to
be some difhculty in imagining how a merely ammo-
niacal state of the atmosphere could in any way af=
feci potatoes immersed in the dry charcoal.

We have no doubt several parties will try the
planting of potatoes in drills in which peat charcoal
has been used, but we must say we see no great
chance of the application being very beneficial, nor
can we say what will stay its progress.

Of the bean disease we know even less. It is a
plant most subject to climatic influences, and a
most diflicult one to cultivate under any circum-
stances. But the winter bean has hitherto resisted
the " dolphin" and the " weevil" so fatal to the
spring bean, and now to have it diseased is a new
feature in bean cultivation.

As an experiment we would advise the tops all
at once to be cut off with a sickle the moment the
disease makes its appearance, and a dusting of
quick lime might be tried. We would also advise
our readers to watch their spring-sown beans, to
detect the fir.st appearance of the invader, for the
mere fact of its being free will by no means prove
that it will never be attacked ; and it is most likely
that when the spring beans attain the same degree
of maturity, tliey will suffer in the localities where
winter beans are attacked. — Gardeners' and
Farmers' Journal.

168

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

AGRICULTURAL CALCULATIONS.

Sir, — There can be little doubt that a few years ago,
if a writer wished to illustrate the inherent power of
soils and climates, and the adaptation of some to the
production of special objects, he would have chosen
sugar for his text. Nothing could well exceed the con-
tempt with which the first efforts of the French to ex-
tract sugar from beet were regarded by the supercilious
theorists of this country. A clear insight into the phy-
siology of plants, as well as into the working of the
gases, first explained by Lavoisier, has now changed the
relative position of the beet and cane for the production
of sugar, and each comes before the calculating producer
on the ground of its real merit; that is to say, what
amount of capital is required to make either successful
over its rival.

People easily forget the stages of mind through which
improvements pass before they are fully adopted. It
will therefore soon appear odd to many clever men to
be told that there was a time when it was scientifically
demonstrated that competition with the West India
planter, in sugar producing, was not a matter of capital.
We happen, however, within a few weeks to have seen a
pamphlet from the pen of a late but ardent worshipper
of soils. Professor Hancock, of Dublin, whose work
written in the sense of the school of which he is a
disciple, was calculated to retard the introduction of the
sugar-beet cultivation in these islands. The pamphlet
in question is a melancholy record of the disposition of
men to follow up views that they must feel are erroneous,
in the confidence that their position will screen them
from exposure. In this case the result was a different
one. The name of a French manufacturer of eminence
was used by Professor Hancock. Calculations were put
forward as coming from M. Hamoir of Valenciennes,
which excited well founded suspicions on the part of
Mr. Digby Seymour, of the Inner Temple, whose atten-
tion had been drawn to the subject of beet-root sugar.
In reply to a letter from Mr. Seymour, M. Hamoir sent
.an unqualified contradiction to calculations which he
denied all knowledge of, and which it excited some dis-
gust to see coupled with his name. He also sent figures
of a very different kind from these, which M. Hancock
had had published under his name, and it becomes
necessary, in order to leave no doubt on the farmer's
mind regarding this very interesting crop, to reproduce
the figures and the contradiction of Mr. Hamoir, from
Mr. Digby Seymour's interesting pamphlet, here. For,
although Professor Hancock, in the latest publication of
his views, thought proper to quote from this pamphlet,
yet he very unfairly extracted neither the disavowal of M.
Hamoir of his whole statement, nor the corrected figures
supplied from the experience of the French factory.*

♦ We deem Mr. P. Hamoir's letter important enough to
insert it (translated) at length: —

(Translation.)

Valenciennes, Isl Oct., 1851.
Sir,— I have duly received your letter of 22nd ultimo, to

Professor Hancock, as the nominee and representative
of the Archbishop of Dublin (whose views of political
economy he faithfully transmits), is in too important a
position not to be exposed to criticism. It is as much
on that account that his work is here specially intro-
duced, as because it affords an excellent warning on the
subject of agricultural calculations in general. The dif-
ference between Professor Hancock's estimate of the
probable yield of beet in sugar, and that given by Mr.
Digby Seymour, as founded on the correction of M.
Hamoir, amounts to no less than from a heavy loss to a
jn-qfif of 100 per cent. To results so widely asunder
will a selection of factors in the formula offered to
calculators lead ! The two calculations for the manu-
facturer's prospects are the following : —

which I regret not having been able to reply sooner, and beg
you will excuse me,

I have no knowledge, whatever, of the pamphlet published
by Dr. Hancock, and beg you will procure it for me, that I
may learn what it contains relative to statements put forward
as mine by that gentleman. I must acknowledge my surprise
on this head, since I do not remember that, during my stay
in Ireland for the purpose of studying the economical side of
the introduction of the beet sugar manufacture into Ireland, I
ever had the smallest communication with Dr. Hancock.
During my stay at Dublin I frequently saw Dr. 0'Sullivan,Ho
whom I communicated some very important information on
the subject.

******

If my business should call me to London, I will do myself
the pleasure of calling on you. At present I confine myself to
answering the questions, and trust that will suffice.

1. The price of beet-root varies in diiferent parts of France;
iu the north it remains steady, at 18 francs the 1,000 kilos, or
ton.

2. The yield of the land varies also in different localities.
In our neighbourhood it is 40,000 to 45,000 kilos, per hectare
(16 to 18 tons per acre). This is considered a large crop, and
many manufacturers obtain much less, while very few ex-
ceed it.

3. The cost of manufacture of the sugar per ton is also va-
riable according to the system followed ; but it is generally
presumed to be about 12 to 15 francs per ton. The yield in
sugar is, with good work, on the old principle, 6 per cent., of
the quality of that shown at the Exhibition : on our system
ive obtain 7 per cent.

I have already said that I have studied this matter iu rela-
tion both to England and Ireland, and believe I can assure ycu
that sugar-making will offer good results to both these coun-
tries— not that I have any great faith in the efforts now
making in that quarter, because I do not see any man of suf-
ficient knowledge at the head able to bring them to a good re-
sidt. This is a very unfortunate circumstance, for it is to be
feared that it will mislead people greatly as to the chances of
siicces?, aud will prevent other and better-judged attempts.
The society to which I belong in France would most willingly
have co-operated on a large scale ; because (I repeat it) I have
faith iu the matter itself. We should, however, iu any case,
follow the dictates of our long experience, which I have often
been surprised to see thought lightly of by different people to
whom it was communicated. I hope I have met your wishes
by replying in this manner, takinpr, as I do, the greatest in-
terest in the experiments made in Ireland, and shall be glad of
any information respecting them. — I have the honour to be,
sir, yours, &c., Paul HAiioiR.

To Mr. W. D. Seymour,
2, Inner Temple Lane, London.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

169

Dr. Hancock's i Mb. Seymour's.

£. ». d.l £. s. d.

61,607 tons of '61,607 tons of

beetat ISs. 6d. beet at 10s.

per ton 46,080 0 0! per ton 30,803 10 0

Cost of mauu- Cost of manu-
facture at 159. I facture at lis.
per ton 39,900 0 0: per ton 33,883 17 0

85,980 0 0! 64,687 7 0

Produce of 4^ IProduceof 7per

per cent, of su-
gar at 283. per
cwt 81,430 0 0

cent, of sugar
at 28s. per
cwt 136,767 10 9

Loss .... £4,550 0 O' Profit . . £72,080 3 9

Now it must be clear that the difference in these two
conflicting estimates turns upon the capital and its ap-
plication ; first to the soil, by which the greatest weight
of beet and the richest root is produced ; and next to
the manufacture, in order to produce 7 per cent., or
more, instead of 4J per cent. This last figure Professor
Hancock should not have printed after reading Mr. P.
Hamoir's letter.

Our main object in going into these details is to shew
how the influence of capital is traceable on all soils and
in all climates.

But we must remind the reader that capital is by no
means a convertible term with money, it comprises,
as before said, knowledge, skill, and freedom from pre-
judices. In many cases a large capital is thrown away
from ignorance of the value of refuse, which nobody
would buy, and yet which could not be bought in the
ordinary way at market. The cultivation of beet de-
pends above all things on knowledge.

Skill ia the choice of manures is the most essential
thing. Various chemical salts are injurious to the for-
mation of the sugar in the root. Nitrate of potash is
most damaging in this respect. To manure the soil
with substances which contain the elements of sugar is
the great point : the farmer in Germany, therefore, who
applies his liquid manure — which he imagines is an uni-
vesal remedy for sterility — to beet, undoubtedly will get
a heavier weight of root ; but he will find the juice yield
less saccharine matter than it would with a better chosen
manure.

Lime which assimilates with carbon, whether in the

shape of the mineral or as mineral charcoal, is the best
immediate manure ; and when mixed with the fibrous
matter and albumen which remain in the lefuse after the
sugar is extracted from the root, offers nearly all the
component parts of the beet-root. The carbon required
to complete the plant, is assimilated from the moisture
contained in the soil, or from the carbonic acid gas im-
bibed by the leaves.

From this short explanation, it must be clear that the
new process adopted at Valenciennes and Waghaiisel,
of which it is clear that Professor Hancock was most in-
nocently ignorant, gives the beet-growing farmer a ma-
nure which he could get by no stock -feeding. By the
improved process the root, after being cut up into
pieces, is thrown into air-tight cylinders, and well
mixed with quick-lime. Steam is passed through these
cylinders, and, under the pressure of an air-pump, ex-
tracts, far more effectually than the hydraulic press used
at Mount Mellick, the juice from the root. This juice
is then immediately heated for the extraction of the
sugar; the refuse left in the cylinder contains, however,
all the elements above-described, as essential to the for-
mation of the sugar beet-root. It ought, therefore,
after allowing a little fermentation to render the decom-
position active, to be put to land in which beet is next to
be grown. The nitrogenous manures, guano, stable-
dung, &c., and the free alkalies, ought to be taken out
of the soil by crops of grain and of flax, leaving the
third year for the beet. In this manner we can account
scientifically for the largest and most profitable yield
that any soil can produce. The part which water plays
in the formation of the carbon is plain, and since this
must to a great extent be absorbed by the small fibres of
the root, it is evident that a moist climate suits the pro-
duction of sugar in roots; hence England and Ireland
are, by nature, beet-growing countries. Where the
carbon has to be assimilated altogether through the leaf,
nature has provided a bulky, wide-spreading plant like
the cane, the palm, or the sugar-maple. We shall next
examine the relative claims of all these plants, with the
demands which each makes upon the soil and on the
capitalist.

I have the honour to be. Sir, yours, &c., B.

AMERICAN REAPING MACHIN ES. — H ARVESTERS.

Under this division, 15 patents have been granted. For the
last two years much attention has been given to this class of
agricultural macbines. At first, they were confined to the
cutting of grain chiefly, then to grain and grass, and now they
have been extended to almost every herbaceous growth of the
soil. Thus we have grain and grass harvesters, corn harvesters,
corn-stalk harvesters, cotten harvesters, cotton-stalk harvesters,
clover-head harvesters, hemp harvesters, &c. I shall notice
several of these, as they present something of interest to
prairie farmers especially. The first machine that I shall men-
tion in this class, is a machine to harvest cotton-stalks in the
fields. It is a machine having two horizontal shafts, runuitig
from side to side. The uppei aud forward one has radial

knives or beaters, which rotate rapidly, aud beat down the
stalks, while the rear shaft is supplied with radial longitudinal
knife-edges extending from side to side ; and aa the blades
come down, they chop the stalks in pieces. The second ma-
chine noticed under this division, is a grain and grass harvester,
presenting two principal points of invention. First, tlie cutters,
which co',:sist of two horizontal saw blades, lying flat upon each
other, with the teeth looking forwards, aud vibrating upon
each other as the face of the saws is pushed forward against
the standing grass. The peculiarity of these teeth consists in
their being made concave en their inner faces, so that when
they sUde past each other, they cut somewhat ou the
scisiors principle, and are, to some extent, self-iharpening.

170

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

Second, there are what are called cyuia-reversa liagers, working
in combination with certain rdke-teeth, designed to hold the
charge while the fingers take it, and deposit it on the ground.
The third machine of this division is a corn-stalk harvester,
the frame of which resembles a low three-wheeled truck, and
bearing upon its upper surface, near its middle part, two
broad metallic discs, armed with teeth on their peripheries
which teeth slightly overlap each other, and are capable of
seiiing and holding within their grasp any herbaceous matter,
and, as the machine moves forward, to tear it up by the roots.
Tae meeting of these teeth is near the central part of the ma-
chine, anterior to which the space is perfectly clear, so that
when the machine is driven over a row of the corn-stalks, the
latter are successively brought against the teeth of the metallic
discs, and drawn out of, and deposited upon the ground. The
fourth machine is an ingenious contrivance for distributing the
(^\5t grain of a harvester into suitable parcels for bundles, by
the weight of the grain. It is called a grain binder. It con-
sists of a self-regulating rotary cylinder, mounted on the rear
end or extreme right si le of the machine, and having its axle
parallel with the rear end of the machine. This cylinder is
supplied with catches and springs, and so arranged that when
a certain weight of grain is received into oue of its three com-
partments, it performs a third part of the revolution, and de-
posits the amount received for a bundle, while the next com-
partment of the cylinder is being charged for a second bundle,
and 80 on. One patent has been granted for a machine to
har/est hemp, a prominent peculiarity of which consists in the
method ef severing the stalk, by means of an oblique chop
stroke of the cutters falling obliquely across the spaces between
the fiugers, and upou the edge of the finger on the further ex-
tremity of the finger space ; the oblique stroke being given by
the »haft on which all the cutters are arranged, which shaft is
semi-rotated in screw-thread bearings, so that the shaft in so
rotating and re-rotating as to raise and depress the cutters,
should, in performing this operation, give the oblique motion
which severs the stalk, as set forth. Two machines, adapted
to harvest maize, have been patented. The first of these con-
tains a thresher to husk and shell the grain. The harvester
consists of a machine, in its general arrangemetit, not unlike a
elover-head harvester. But it has a series of pairs of rollers,
one pair between every pair of teeth, to seize the stalks and

pull them downwards, until the ear is drawu against tlw tope^
of the fingers, by which the ear is severed from' the stalk. Th^
ear then rolls down an incline plane to the thresher. A second
maclnnc for hurvestiny maize or f/rain lias also been patented,
The gist of this invention consists in the construction of the
grain reel, made with rows of fingers, projecting radially, and
rotating over or through the standing grain. The stalks being
received between the fingers, the ears are pulled oft' and depo-
sited on an inclined endless apron. A grass harvester of a
novel coastruction haa been pateuted, which it will be difficult
to describe without the aid of drawings. Some idea of its
general character, however, may be formed, by supposing a
flat washer-like ring of metal to be cut out of a sheet of metal,
and placing it in a horizontal position. Now place upon its
surface, symmetrically, a series of sharp razor blades, a few
inches apart, having the shank confined to the ring by a screw
or rivet, and the ends of the blades projecting beyond the
periphery of the ring. If now the ring be rotated, so that the
cutting faces of the blades be forward, and in this state be
brought against the standing gr^iss, it is contended by the
inventor that the machine will be a successful instrument The
cutting-blades are supported in their position by suitable con-
trivances, and the ring with its cutters has also suitable devices
for supporting it, and rotating it as the carriage moves forward,
which it is unnecessary to refer to here. Horse Rakes. — Only
one apparatus under this division is regarded worthy of special
notice, although six patents have been granted. This inven-
tion is denominated a machine for binding grain. The frame
of it resembles the platform of an ordinary harvester, so con-
structed that the curved rake-teeth, projecting upward throngh
the floor, and passing across the same from side to side, collect
the grain at the opposite side where it is brought against a
curved arm, between which arm and teeth the grain is pressed ;
and at the same moment another curved figure rises through
the floor from behind, to support that half of the bundle, while
at the same time the curved rake-teeth, by means of the ma-
chinery, fall backward through the floor, and are carried back
to the opposite side of the platform, or to the starting-place,
for a new charge. The only duty required of the attendant
with the machine is, to tie the band for each bundle or sheaf. —
From the American Patent-office Report for 1850-51, in the
Mechanic's Magazine for Jan., 1852.

GRAND MEETING OF THE PRUSSIAN GENERAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF AGRICULTURE,

AND RE-UNION OF THE FOUR AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES FOR THE PROVINCE OF PRUSSIA

AT KONIGSBERG.

(from our own correspondent.)

The revolution of 1848, and the years of agricultural and
commercial derangement that preceded and succeeded it, had
entirely prevented, for many years, the usual annual meeting
of the Prussian Agricultural Society. Several attempts were
made by the central committee, but a complete failure was the
issue. The improved state of the country during the past
year, however, caused them once more to renew their efforts
early this spring ; and these were responded to so warmly by
numerous estate-proprietors and stock-owners, that the present
grand meeting is the result. Circulars were addressed to all
tte principal landed proprietors ; the committees of the four

provincial societies were organized ; sub-committees formed,
and the whole proceedings were placed in train ; and Konigsberg
was fixed on as the city for the re-opening exhibition. At
length, on the 15th ult., the general committee, having fixed
its head-quarters at the Hotel du Nord, issued a programme
of arrangements. The four united societies are — 1, The Chief
Society of West Prussian Agriculturists at Marienwerder ; 2,
Agricultural Central Society at Danzig ; and 3, 4, Agricul-
tural Central Society for Lithuania at Gumbimien, and for
East Prussia at Konigsberg. The association has four ob-
jects : — The free competition of all breeders, inventors, and agri-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

171

culturist3, with their cattle, machines, and [Toductious ; the
exhibition of specimens of all races of cattle breeding of the
province ; tiie show and prizing of mares belonging to l.i-
bourers ; the trial of agnricultural implements aud machines by
practical application. For the promotion of these purposes,
prizes of medals, money, and other honorary rewards, will be
distributed ; and the funds arise from — 1,000 thalers voted by
the Ministry for Agi-icultural Affairs ; the State's funds, 830
thalers for labourers' prizes ; 2,500 thalers, to be raised by
the sale of 5,000 lottery shares, for the purcliase of exhibited
articles as prizes ; 1,000 thalers, being the contribution of 250
thalers from each of the provincial societies ; and the funds
arising from the sale of tickets and admission to the cattle-
show. The chief president of the association is general coun-
cillor of the Chamber of Agriculture, Herr Jachniann ; general
secretary, Herr Kiider.

FIRST DAY (Wednesday).

Though the meeting was nominally to commence to-monow,
yet it may virtually be said to have opened to-day with the
trial of ploughing implements ; indeed, tlie whole city has
presented such an appearance of festivity that we may be ex-
cused for anticipating the actual beginning. During the jiast
week the note of preparation has busily sounded. The rura-
iruttee lias sat daily at the Hotel du Xord, for the transaction
of general business, as well a«sub-eon\mittees of arrangements,
information, reception, &c. As it vias anticipated that, in con-
sequence of the number of v isitors, all the liotels woidd be
overcrowded, a lodging committee was formed to receive ad-
dresses, so as to provide visitors with comfortable apartments,
stables, and other accommodation. A very reasonable price of
admission to the cattle show (5 sgr.), and subscription to the
society (1 thaler, admitting to all the meetings &c.), was also
resolved on ; and it was likewise decided to foiuid a lottery,
with about 500 prizes of every description, from a horse, value
60 Friedrichsd'or, to pots of flowers wortli 10 silbergroschen :
the holders of these tickets (15 sgr. each sliare) to be admitted
to the various shows, but not to the sectional or general lueet-
iugs, or excursions, which are only open to the subscribers of
1 thaler and upwards.

Konigs-Garten had been selected Ijv the committee (and
granted by the city authorities) as the place of exhibition. It
is a large open square in the centre of the town, used as the
parade ground, and where Kiss's grand bronze statue of the
late king was last year inaugurated by his present Majesty.
During the week this spot has been the scene of great bustle
and activity. A great number of workmen have l)een employed
preparing the divisions for the different classes of cattle, &c. ;
for sheep (the great production of the province), a very exten-
sive covered pavilion has been prepared on the south of the
square. The large exercise-house has been arranged and di-
vided for the reception of machines, implements, and agricul-
tiiral productions ; aud the arrangement of these is nearly
completed. Tli.c Horticultural Society of Konigsberg has un-
dertaken the decoration of the entire ground ; and a mass of
gardeners and labourers are busily preparing garlands, flowers
of every description, floral trophies, gigantic bouquets, &c-
Not only the neighbourhood of Konigs-Garten, but the whole
city looked more as if adorned for the reception of some sove-
reign potentate, or for the celebration of some civic festival.

The proprietors of the various public gardens are using all
efforts to render these places of resort as attractive as possible.

by concerts aud ofher amusements. The director of the
theatre is also not behhid-hand ; and the usual opera, ballet,
and dramatic company, is aided by the performance of the
well-known Flora Fabbri, the dnuseum; who is starring here.

The judges of stock, machines, productions, S:c., are the
estate-proprietors— Herren Douglas, Kleist, Papendilck, Fritre,
Ostcndorff, Heinfurt, aud Minden. The general committee
and commission is \ ery large, including many members of the
agricultural nobility ; and from these the ofiicers of the dif-
ferent sections are selected. According to the progTamme,
the number of papers and subjects to be read and discussed
before the general and sectional meeting is 38 ; on the fol-
lowing subjects :— How is the necessary capital for agricul-
tural improvements to be made accessible V On land-drainage :
How is the necessary (but at present deficient) country
police -force to be mamtained ? On farm - laboiu- : On
the best means for the proper representation of the
agricultural interests : Respecting the continuation or
abolition of the Sound duties, and their effect on agriculture ;
On the duties on iron : Alteration of the cabinet order of June
11, 1825, respecting the free delivery of stones for the forma-
tion of Macadamised roads : Discussions on ploughing ma-
chines : The cultivation of the carrot : Of maize : Artificial
miuuii-es— Guano, bone-dust, oil-cakes: Threslnng machines:
CiUtivatioii of lucerne : Discussions — In what way is the new
railway connection of most advantage to the farmers of the
province, with respect to animal production ? 7.v it advisable
to establish u fat cattle market hi ihe province V Whether in
the country breedijig-stud?, by the breeding and selection of
stallions, it is advisable under present circumstances to pay
particular attention to the breeding of working horses? : On the
potato cidtivation : Distilling applications : Cidtivation of the
Ijeet-root : On frnit trees : On flax cidtivation : And various
other subjects connected with agi-icultiire, and agi-icultural
improvements.

The weather is very propitious: the sale of subscription
tickets has been extensive, and nearly all the lottery shares
are sold. The list of arrivals of the liigher nobility and gentry,
who have announced themselves at the bureau, is extremely
large, amongst the names, (many of whom are well-known to
English Agricvdturists,) n\ay be mentioned— Herren Von
Simpson-Georgenburg, Von Simpsoii-Wensowen, ^'on Stutter-
heim. Government President (^retiredi. Von Salzwedel ; Baron
Von Hoverbeck, Colonel Xow Stutterheim, Baron Stromberg,
Herr ^'on Below-Lugow cu, I-ieut.-Gen. Baron Von Krafft,
Stud-Inspector Rost, Herr "Von Knoblauch-Pilwen, Graf
Klinckowstrom of Hohenfelde, Graf Klinckowstrom of Kork-
lack, Graf Von Schliebeu of Sauditten, Professor Volkmann,
Baron Brederlow ; Herren Von Sauden, A^on Janson, Von
Schon-Dirschkeim, Von Schou-Daniellen, Von Putthammer,
Von Kries ; Councillor Schirrmeister, Baron Von Bahl, Coun-
cillor Baron Aon Buddenbrock, ^Nlajor Von Bronsart ; Herren
Von Saucken-Tarputschen, Schlenther ; Councillors Von Gott-
berg, and Von Heyden ; Herren '^'on Tyszka, A'on Heiligen-
stiidt, ^'ou Marquadt, Von Kalksteim, Von Neumann, Von
Glasow, Von Weiss, Estate-Inspector Aon Graszhoff, Inspector
Messerachmidt, and about 200 others of the land owner.^ from
all other parts of the province.

In the afternoon, carriages were in waiting to convey the
committee to the ground for the trial of the ploughing imple-
ments, a field in the neighbourhood of the city (Steiudemer
Thor) granted for the purpose, by Herr Bubolt-Trenk. TV

172

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

brilliant weather attracted a great concourse of the visitors.
A large number of machines of every description of construc-
tion, new and old, were put in motion, and the result was most
satisfactory. Among them were a number of English (Bayley),
Scotch, and American ploughs : The latter are coming fast
into use throughout Prussia. The trial was conducted by the
Herren Caspar-Radnickeu, and Fritze-Fuchshofen, and was
continued tiU a late hour this evening. The judges were
Baron Von Hoverbeck, Herren ^^ou Heiligenstadt, Papendieck,
Padlech, and Winkler.

SECOND DAY.— (Thursday.)

The business of the association was formally opened this
morning at 9 o'clock, by the President, Herr Jachmaun, in the
Hall of the DeutscJieii Eessoitrce, after which the various sec-
tions commenced their labours under the charge of their re-
spective officers, Herr Conrad Frantze, Herr Papendieck-Liep,
Councillor Gamradt, and Dr. Dreszler. The papers and sub-
jects mentioned in the report of yesterday's proceedings were
read and discussed with great spirit and ability. (Particulars
in om' next.) The sections were all very numerously attended,
and the meetings were adjourned at about half-past one ; when
the members and their friends proceeded to dinner. At the
various hotels and restaurants ordinaries were prepared, and
presided over by some of the officers of the association, and
mirth and good-humour prevailed in eveiy circle.

At 5 o'clock, a large party under the conduct of Herren
Bnsolt and Fritze proceeded to the Hufen to witness vai-ious
experiments, and a further trial of implements. Ploughuig,
mowing, and other machines were then exhibited at work, to
the general satisfaction of the spectators. Judges : — Hen-en
Jachmann, Siegfried, Von Kries, and Ammon. Some Scotch
and Belgian implements excited gi'eat interest.

It had been intended to close the day's proceedings by a
general meeting in the Friedericischen-garten, with concert,
&c. ; but owing to the luifavom-able state of the weather, the
meeting was held in the Deutschen R«3source, where papers of
interest were read, and music and refreshments given tlurough-
out the evening. Several smaller circles were aho formed.

During the day the exhibition of implements, machines, and
agricultural productions held in the exercise house, Konig's-
Garden, was thronged by a mass of nsitors.

The tasteful and elegant display made by the Konigsberg
Horticultural Society, in this and other departments excited
great surprise and admiration. Flowers of every description,
cut and in pots, filled the tents, and the arrangement of the
machines was delightfully relieved by the finest horticultural
specimens ; an enumeration of which it would be impossible to
give in this general report. The judges were engaged during
the whole afternoon in deciding on the merits of then- respec-
tive classes. The fruits and vegetables exhibited were all
particularly fine.

The day's list of ai-rivals is very large, and includes the
names of Baron Von Kendell, Baron Vou Meyendorf, Graf
Von den Grbben, Graf Dohna, Captain Von Bergfeld, Major
Behrendt de Couvry, Councillor Schleuther, Baron Hensche-
Pogrimmen, and De Terra-Lauth, Herren Gutsbesitzer, Von
Below-Hohendorf, Von Scharfenorth, Von Wunck, Vou
Oldenburgh, Comicillor Von Pequilhen, Von Esebeck, Von
Tyszka-Kibben, Von Kalkstein, Von Den Goltz, Von Neus-
chutz. Von Gotzen, Von Bieberstein, Von Wangenheim,
Ogilvie, Fink, Skott, Guttzeit, Valentine, &c. &c.

THIRD DAY.— (Friday.)

The proceedings were opened this morning, at half-past 9,
by a general meeting of the members in the Grand Hall of the
Deutschen Ressource, presided over by Herr Jaclmiann, gene-
ral councillor of the Chamber of Agriculture, and president of
the association, who delivered a very interesting address on the
origin and state of the association, and the present position
and interests of agriculture in the province. The address was
listened to with great interest by a very crowded assembly.
The report of the general secretary was then read and adopted,
as well as those of the respective sectional secretaries of the
preceding days' meetings. Other papers and subjects belong-
ing to the general meeting were then duly discussed, and after
some speeches of interest, and a vote of thanks to the chair-
man, the meeting adjourned at 1 o'clock.

At this time the general committee proceeded to Konigs-
Garten, for the pui-pose of opening the cattle-show. The gar-
den was only opened to the committee, the exhibitors, a few
specially imited guests, and the judges for the cattle-show,
who contumed their duties during the afternoon, notwithstand-
ing the fearful inclemency of the weather.

As on the preceding day, ordinaries were formed at the
hotels, &c., each under the guardianship of some " choice
spirit;" and as the weather was so unpropitions for out-of-door
amusements, the company at each was select and nmnerous.

In the ing, shortly after 6 o'clock, the weather having
cleared up, a steamboat excursion ^as made to Holstein on
the Pregel, v, liere a concert, &c., was held The company rc-
lurucd to town at a late hour. Throughout the city a nrious
entsrtainments and aiiusements were held.

Amongst to-day's arrivals are — Graft Kleist, Government
( Xlicial Kosmark, Comicillor of Justice Nebelung. Baron \'on
Pauden-Kiuschen, Colonel Gregorowins, Councillor Lausser
iVoin Riga, Councillor Groddeck ; Herren Gutsbesitzer "^'on
'■chan. Von Spies, Padleck-Pillz, Burgomaster BeVireudt,
Lieutenant A'on-Reinicker, Von Sasz, Vou Gottsberg, A''on
Go'zheiin, Schulz, Warkeutin, Von Ziegler-Bolhan, \r>n
Ziegler-Johannisthal, Von Frankenburg, Von Braiult-Rossen,
'\'on Braudt-Pellen, ^'on Brandt-Hasselbusch, Von Masseii-
bach. Von Heydeii, Von Kleist, Knnise, Georgesohn, Sinipson-
Berkincken, and about 150 others. Numerous of the highest
nobility were guests of the city officials.

FOURTH DAY.— (SATrRUAY.)
The sun shone brilliantly tlus morning on the hastily-deco-
rated area in which the cattle-show was to be held, and the
whole city v.as alive with expectation as to the ''grau ! d;iy" of
the festivity. So early as 7 o'clock the gates were opened for
tlie exhibitors, subscribers, and visitors ; shortly afterwards
the judges and commissioners arrived. During the morning
an immense concourse of ^dsitors, of both sexes, arrived ; in-
cluding many of the highest civil and military authorities of
Konigberg, amongst whom may be mentioned his Excellency
Herr Eichm anil. Chief President of the Province; his Excel-
lency General Graf Dohua, Commander-in-Chief; their Ex-
cellencies General Von Belou, General Graf Schndorff, General
Von Plehive, with their Adjutants ; Herr Sperling, chief ma-
gistrate of the city, several of the consuls, and numerous
others. Tlie ladies of Konigsberg were also in full force, and
contributed much to the gaiety of the scene.

At 11 o'clock the gates were opened for the admission of
the general public, when the procession of prize cattle and

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

173

distribution of prizes commeuced. At this moment Kbnig's
Garten presented a most animated scene : flags and banners of
every description, size, colour, and design waved from all parts
of the space, and wherever horticultnral effects could be dis-
played the eye rested on groups of flowers and garlands. A
cliair of state for the President was erected against the grand
statue of his late Majesty, snrrouuded by tribunes for the civil
8)id miUtary authorities, and a complete show of ladies, with
many other invited guests. The prize cattle, decorated with
flowers, were led past the chair of the President, General
Councillor Jachmaun, who then delivered the prizes in a short
but appropriate speech. Most of the company soon left the
gardens, but the exhibition was kept open till 6 o'clock.

The show may be considered in most respects as very satis-
factory, both as regards the quality and quantity of animals
exhibited. In Prussia, the principal attention is bestowed on
the breed of horses, so many being required for military and
government purposes, the entire conveyance of breeders being
in the hands of the government postal authorities. The
royal training studs are very extensive, and the labourers
throughout the country are encouraged to i)ay particular at-
tention to this branch of agricultural science. On the present
occasion, the royal training stud at Trakehnen (famed also
for its racing horses) contributed 3(3 tirat-rate animals, amongst
which were three very superior conditioned mares, with foals,
and some fillies of great promise. The supply of labourers'
horses was very large, particularly some fine working stallions,
and six prizes were bestowed on them. The stables of the
Hen-en Von Simpson, Hensone-Pogrimmen, Graf Keyserling,
Herren Von Kendell, Von Below, and others also contribnted
their full share. A splendid lot of fillies, belonging to the
latter, drew much attention. In this country but little atten-
tiou has as yet been paid to the breeding of fat cattle, and
beasts as witnessed at English prize cattle shows are here not
to be seen. Good working animals claim mucli attention, and
beyond these but little can be said of the black cattle. There
were, however, four ^ ery curious specimens of a sort of Bufi'alo-
oxen, from the estate of Graff Keyserling, which attracted
great notice ; they are said to be a breed from the south of
Russia ; the colour is completely black, the hide being totally
devoid of hair, except long bushes hanging down from each
side of the head. Tliere were some fine litters of young pigs,
and several good boars of English breed. With regard to
sheep, the only pomt here considered is the quality of the
wool, for which Prussia (and Saxony) is so world-renowned.
The number of animals in this department was very numerous,
the finest being from Bellschvidtz, the estate of Baron Von
Briiniieck, and one of the most extensive in the province,
producing amiuaUy about 120 cwt. of the finest wool. The
latter gained the medal at the Great London Exhibition of
1851, also the medal of the Paris AgTicultiu-al Society, of
which body Baron Von Briinneck has been elected a member.
A list of the prize holders in my next.

At 3 o'clock, the grand banquet took place at the City
Assembly Room (Kneiphofschen Jimkerhof), and was at-

tended by moat of the officers of the association, and a very
large party of the nobility and gentry. We have not space
to enumerate the toasts that were drunk, and speeches which
were made ; suffice it to say that every one is delighted at the
re-establishment of the association, as au evidence of improve-
ments in agricultural affairs, which it is hoped future similar
attempts will increase. For the benefit of your German
readers, I give a list of some of the "good things" at the
banquet, consisting of about sixteen courses, the caterer
being Herr Berger, of this city. Suppe von Indiauischen
Vogelnestern ; Bceiif au naturel mit Capern und Anchovy
Sauce ; Kartoffeln a la Strasbourg, Fisclisautees ; Leipziger
AUerlei mit Roillirten Sardinen ; Spargel mit Kalbssaut^es ;
Fricassee von Aal; KoiUirte Aiihner und Tauben mit
Rimoulad Sauce; Zand au four, Apfelsinens; Mehlspeise;
Leudenbraten mit Sellerie salat ; Junge Giinse mit Compot,
Chocoladen-Creme ; Eis a la Nesselrode ; Vanille-Creme ;
Cradin von Fischen mit Mnschel-sance ; Italienischer Salat ;
Pudding a la Figaro. Dessert : Ananas, Kase, &c. ;
Friichte von alien Sorten ; thirty Sorten der feinsten Weine.

During the banquet, the Amateur Musical Society enlivened
the scene by the execution of a number of cliarming gleea,
quartets, and other vocal music.

Shortly after 6 o'clock the company separated, in order to
be present at the drawuig of the lottery prizes, which had
commenced under the inspection of Councillor Krause. This
was a scene of great mirth and amusement, and lasted a con-
siderable time. A large body of visitors met at Bauer's
Garten, in the Tragheim, and the evening was passed here
and in other circles in the most festive manner.

Thus ended, with great satisfaction, the first grand re-iuiion
of the four societies of the Prussian Agricultural Association.

It had been intended on Sunday to have formed a party of
visitors to proceed to Fuchsberg, near Kcinigsberg, the estate
of Herr Oppenheim, for the purpose of viewing the draining
operations in progress there, luider the conduct of M. Le
Clerc, the Belgian government engineer, but the works were
not in a sufficient state of forwardness to justify the excursion.
Drainage is, however, begriming to engage the attention of the
government, as well as land- owners. The Prussian Chamber
of Agriculture appointed a government engineer to proceed to
England last year for the piurpose of acquiring a thorough
knowledge of the English draining system. This gentleman,
Herr AV. Liicke, has since been engaged in draining
Trebnitz, the estate of Graf von Briiimeck, near Berlin,
and is now similarly occupied in the extensive property
at Bellschwitz, the seat of Baron A^on Briinneck, and is
also in general request throughout the province, his ap-
pointments to the various estates being directly from the
government. Wiiitehead's machine is used for making the
tubes.

In my next I shall give you the list of prizes and prize
holders, and some account of the sectional meetings.
Yours obediently,

H. M. M.

ON THE DISCOVERY OF AN ARTIFICIAL MANURE AS FERTILIZING AS

PERUVIAN GUANO.

Can a manure to sell at £5 per ton in large
quantities ever be discovered equal to guano in its

fertilizing qualities ? This is a question which must
henceforth engage practical agricultural chemists.

174

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

for the Royal Society of England snd Wales ha^
offered— or, at least, agreed to offer, and submitted
to a cotriiuifctee the conditions of the competition —
a premium of one thousand pounds and the So-
ciety's gold medal for the discovery. Soon as
these conditions are published, every chemist will
have to set his wits to work to put nature and
ecience on the rack to discover if any compound of
the skill of man can equal the natural deposit guano.

On the fertilizing pi'operties of guano it is now
ridiculous to dilate. It is proved to be one of the
best, if not the very best, of manures; and it is only
the fearful ten pounds j)ev ton which makes it so
comparatively little used. Now it is pretty well
known, that guano contains certain definite quan-
tities of but a few chemical compounds— salts of
ammonia, phosphates, organic matter, a small pro-
portion of alkaline salts, and some small quantity of
sand and moisture. The organic and ammoniacal
parts are about one-half; the phosphates about one-
third ; the water and sand about one-eighth. Nor
are these salts in any very complicated combination.
They are rather free than tixed by any powerful
affinities, and are kept freer, dissipating by exposure,
mainly, from the small amount of moisture they
contain.

Now, there is not an agricultural chemist in t,he
kingdom who cannot get all the elements of guano
and mix them and make a manure as good as guano
itself, if he were to be regardless of cost. But the
materials will cost him a considerable amount.

His ammoniacal salts will cost 7?. (kl. per stone.

His phosphates Is. Od. ,,

Hisorganic matter, at lea^t, Is. Gd. ,,

And these are not perhaps so purely manurial, but
mixed with other 7natters, so as to make a ton of
the mixture scarcely equal to a ton of guano.

But where can he get his supplies ? The am-
moniacal matters he can get from the refuse of a
variety of manufactures. The salts of the ladies'
smelling bottles were one day obtained from the
drainage of the stable. Now, however, they are
obtained from the gas water, from the manufacture
of alum, and from a great variety of substances.
Ammonia comes from the refuse and the dross, and
may therefore be easily imagined to be cheap. And if
it could be successfully used as it separates, it would
be so ; but it cannot. It is mixed with a thousand
foreign matters. It has to undergo a variety of
costly processes — processes involving time and
labour and materials ; and hence it costs money to
obtain it in a state moderately pure ; and here the
manufacturer, the bleacher, the dyer, and a variety
of others come and claim it, and give for it an
amount which the farmer cannot afford. This is
just the case with sulphuric acid. The farmer must
buy it impure, ('ondensed by water in its forma-

tion, it has again to be separated from that water
for which it haa considerable affinity. To drain
this off is costly ; but, to drain the last portion is
highly so; and here the farmer finds it good
economy rather to pay for a certain ])er-centage of
water than pay for its final extraction. It would
be so with ammonia in any of its forms, as muriate,
sulphate, or carbonate.

Take, again, the phosphates. They are perhaps
somewhat more easily obtainable, but not in a very
pui'e state. If taken as they exist in bones -in a
very favourable form — they can hardly be got,
thoroughly pulverized, for less than £6 or £6 lOs.
per ton ; and of this, a somesvhat large per-centago
is water; and the alkaline salts of Ume, for instance,
will exceed the proper proportion for guano making.
Hence, it is hardly possible to obtain bones at the
price necessary to procure them, as a considerable
constituent of the extemporaneous guano.

With the mere organic matter there might be lesfe
difficulty ; possibly the blood of the slaughter-
houses might be mixed with bones, and so both be
supplied, the organic matter and the phosphates.
But, it must be remembered, it must be thoroughly
dry to come into the composition ; must be dried
by artificial heat; and must, therefore, be a costly
material — say, over £8 per ton, including moderate
carriage.

Guano being ready-made— made without cost,
and only having a monopoly between its owners and
tlie farmers— is the readiest combination of the ma-
terials of fertilisation ; and, as these materials come
into no competition in that state, with the wants of
manufacturers, they fall by common consent to the
farmer in the growth of his crops.

Now, the coprolites are perhaps the only materials
where the farmer can get phosphates cheap ; but
they are so impure, if used to mix for guano, that
they would cost as much purifying for the purpose,
us if we had recourse to the bone phosphate at once.

Hence we see, we fear, little prospect of the prize
ever being successfully claimed. That competitors
will arise ; that the conditions will be practical and
stringent, and sufficient to test the qualities of the
manure we doubt not, but we fear it will be like
the large premium of the Highland Society for the
successful application of steam-power to agri-
culture—be a standing subject for some years to
com*.

Not that we for one moment disparage the
jUtempt. It will do good. The mere stimulus of
the scientific mind to the subject will bring out
discoveries of some hidden stores of manure now
jiossibly unthought of, and possibly have the effect
of beating down at least the Peruvian monopoly,
and reducing the price of guano itself. By docu-
ments pubhshed by the House of Commoiis, we
]ieiceive] they estimate the guano deposits at
■2 7,024,493 tons ; so there need be no fear of a rapid
exhaustion.

The agitation of the subject must be beneficial.
— Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

175

S E ^' E 11 E HAIL S T OEMS

Although in some seasons instances occur of
serious and extensive damage to crops by hail in
one or two districts, it rarely happens that the
disastrous consequences of these visitations are ex-
tended so generally throughout the kingdom as in
the present season. The first storm occurred on
the 5lh June; others, and the most serious, in the
month of July. The crops are now rapidly advan-
cing to maturity, but farmers should not lull them-
selves into security on that account. The storm
which did such awful damage in 1843 occurred on
the 9th of August.

It will be seen by I'eference to the advertisement
that the cost of insuring the ordinary crops is only
sixpence per acre.

Nearly eighty persons who were insured in the
Royal Farmers' Office have experienced losses;
but they will of course have these losses reinstated.
They are resident in the counties of Berks, Somer-
set, Hants, Cambridge, Suffolk, Gloucester, Wor-
cester, Bucks, York, Northampton, Oxon, Norfolk,
Wilts, and Warwick.

Storms op June 5tii, 14tii, and 15th.

Sutton (Kent). — The recent hailstonns liave visited this
part of the country. A field of eight acres of peas, the pro-
perty of Mr. Richard Marsh, of St. Clements, Sandwich, situate
at Sutton Farm, has been injured to some extent. Fortunately
Mr. Marsh is covered by insurance against hail in the Royal
Farmers' Office. A great deal of damage has been done by the
same storm in the Isle of Tlianet, the parties, we understand,
not being insured.

Stow Bakdolph (Norfolk). — Oneoftliemos airful
hailstorms ever seen in this part of England ocenrred here
ou Monday, Jmie 14, at one o'clock. The stones which fell
were as large as marbles, and the crops wherever they fell were
cut to pieces. Mr. Wm. Betts, of Park Farm, Stow, has had
great damage done to his corn. How'ever, in consequence of
his having had the precaution of insuring with j\lr. Mumford,
of Do\vnham, the respectable agent of the Royal Farmers'
Insurance Office, his loss will be promptly paid by that
company.

Leckuajipstead (Bucks). — On the same day this part
of Buckinghamshire was visited by a very heavy hailstorm.
A field of winter beans and peas, the property of Mr. \Vm.
Henry Brickwell of the Home Fanu, Leckhampstead, was
seriously injured ; but luckily the party was insured in the
Boyal Farmers' Office, tlu'ough Mr. James Harrison, jun., of
Buckingham.

Brentwood. — On Tuesday, June 15, a very severe hail-
storm, accompanied with thmider and lightning, passed over
Brook-street, and part of South Weald, destroying a great
mmiber of windows. The haUstoues were -very large, some
being picked up near Brentwood as large as moderate sized
walnuts. In the brick-fields much damage was done, in one
instance to the extent of £50. Tlie fniit-trees have suffered
severely.

Ely (Cambridgeshire). — A very heavy hailstorm oc-
curred within three miles of Ely. We have not heard the ex-
tent of damage done to the crops, but we believe it was severe,

Noktha.mptox. — On June 14th a heavy storm passed
over a part of this county, doing considerable damage to the
crops, more particidarly in the neighbourhood of Daventry.
Tlie hail fell heavily in the vicinity of Bradfield-on-the-Green,
The principal portion of the cropping damaged was not insured.
Some beans, belonging to Mr. Dowaiing, were damaged. They
have since been surveyed, and the amount of damage paid by
Mr. Wetton, of tliis town, agent to the Royal Farmers' Hail
Insurance Company, in whcse institution the crop was insured.
— Northampton Herald.

Lynn, Norfolk.— A thunderstorm passed over Lynn on
the same day without, however, doing any damage. The hail
at Stradsett and its neighbourhood was unusually severe ; and
we are informed that the crops on two or three farms have
been very seriously injured, particularly the beans. — Cam-
hridge paper.

Stoke Ferry. — The neighbourhood of Stoke Ferry was
visited with a very violent tempest on the same day, when
two cows w ere killed by the lightning, and a tree shattered.
The crops of ilr. Curtis, of Cavenham, and Mr. Newman of
Stradsett, are also reported to have suffered to a very great ex-
tent from the hail, which fell in miusual quantities, and ui
lumps of considerable size. We hope they were insured. —
Norfolk paper.

CoRBY. — A tlnmderstonn passed over Covby onthe same day,
about noon, accompanied with hail. At Hawthorpe, the hail
fell in great quantities, as large as marbles, and did much da-
mage to the crops. After tlie storm, the gromid was covered
to such an extent with hailstones, that they could be gathered
by wheelbarrows-full. — Lincoln Chronicle.

Pymoor and Oxlode. — Hail Storm. — On the same day,
about 12 o'clock at noon, Pymoor and Oxlode were visited by
a terrific hailstorm. Several acres of wheat and beans were
completely beaten down ; trees were stripped of their foliage,
and have now the appearance of the latter end of autumn.
The hailstones were of an extraordinary size, and we fear much
damage has been done by the stonn. Ijoud claps of thimder
and vivid flashes of hghtning made it the more awfid. — Cam-
hridye Independent.

On the same day a very severe hailstorm, accompanied
with thunder and lightning, passed over Brook-street, and the
southern part of South Weald, destroying a great number of
H'indows. The hailstones were very large, some ha^'ing been
picked up near Brentwood as large as moderate sized walnuts.
In the bean fields much damage was done ; in one instance,
we learn, to the extent of £50. The fruit-trees have suffered
severely. Amongst the sufferers at Brook-street, are Mr.
Goodchild, ]\Ir. Morgan, Mr. Pabby, Mr. Shipman, whose
windows are broken, and the fruit trees much damaged. In
a garden belonging to Chas. Porter, the peas, beans, and pota-
toee appear as if they had been mown off. The gardens of
nearly all the cottagers are more or less damaged. — Chelmsford
Chronicle.

Storm of June 21st.

Petworth. — During the sitting of the bench, we were
visited by one of the severest storms we have had for many
years. The lightning was very forked, and so vivid that the
court-house was completely illuminated at the time with the
flashes ; the rain and hail poured down in a complete deluge.
The corn is knocked down a good deal m places, and many
fields have had a great quantity of soil washed away. — Sussex
Express.

Wakefield. — A terrific thunder storm passed over this
place on Monday, Jiuie 21, accompanied with the most severe
hail storm that has visited us for years past, some of the hail-
stones being nearly the size of ordinary marbles. The damage
done to the crops, we understand, is very great. In the villages
of Birstwith, Hampsthwaite, Hartwith, Bishop Thornton, and
Marliington,the damage done is, we \mderstaud, very serious, —
Leeds Mercury.

N

176

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Shaw Mills, near Kipon, aiul tlie adjacent neiglibourhood,
were visited on the sauie day by a tremendous thunder-storm
It commenced at half-past three p.m., and continued without
intermission for upwards of two hours. The lightning was
truly terrific, accorapinied with a perfect deluge of rain, and
hailstones of extraordinary size. — Ibid.

Driffield. — On iMonday last we had some heavy thunder-
showers of rain and hail, some of the hailstones being as large
as horse-beans. — Hull Packet.

KETTERii\G.~On Monday morning last, at about ten
o'clock, Kettering and its vicinity were visited by a heavy-
tbunder-storm, the first of the season. As the storm approached
the liglituing was very rivid, in a zig-zag form, and the thunder
loud and of an unusually crackling kind. Torrents of hail and
rain fell, but the storm appeared more in a southerly and
south-westerly direction. — Dedfurd Times.

On Monday last, Chester anditsneighboin-hood were visited
by a thunder-"?torm so awfully grand that of it could be truly
said by every one, "I never saw such a thing in my life." Up
to noon the weather was fine, but the tokens of a storm were
then thickening, and soon after one o'clock the lightnings be-
gan to flash, and the thunders to roar, and hailstones fell, some
of which measured near'y tv/o inches in circumference. Sky-
lights and windows in abundance were broken, and many of
the streets were flooded. In Manchester and its ne'ghljour-
hood a considerable quantity of property has been injured. —
Chester Chronicle.

On Monday afternoon began over the township of Biistwith
such a btorm of thunder, haO, and rain, as is not in tliT re-
membrance of the oldest person living in the neighbourhood.
During the morning distant thunder had been occasio:!a!ly
heard, but at tvio o'clock the storm commenced and remained
stationary over that part of the parish near the Wreaks village.
At that time the rain began to pour down, mingled with hail-
stones, which kuocked against our windows like flintstones,
and the loudest peals of thinider accompanied the lightning's
flash ; all the while the rain descended in torrents, and the
darkness was most remarkable, for our rooms looked gloomy
as a winter's evening. The storm continued with the utmost
vehemence until about half-past four o'clock, and the efi'ects
in the roads and fields have been very disastrous. The waters
collected and flowed in a breast, bearing diwu the most sub-
stantial wall fences, and in the roads ploughing up the liardest
surfaces to the depth of several feet, and carrying away the
largest stones to considerable distances. At length, a bright-
ness appearing in the west, and the wind risuig a little, the
stonn abated, when it was soon discovered that great damage
had been done to property in this township, both on the roads,
fields, and gardens, by this awakening visitation of Almighty
God. — A Correspondent of the Leeds Intelligencer.

The Carlisle Patriot, iu alluding to the number of hail-storms
reported from various parts of tbe country round, states as
follows : " Many parts of the country have been visited by
heevy hail-storms, accompanied by terrific thunder and hght-
ning, aad caxising a. prodir/ioiis amount of damage. Fortunately,
in this locality we have been exempted from such a visitation.
On Monday, iu some of the manufactitring districts, very
serious damage was done by the hail. The mills and other
workshops, with conservatories and hothouses, were completely
riddled ; and fruits and vegetables have suffered very severely,
over miles of country."

MANC'iiESTEn. — Considerable damage has been done
to property in the town and neighbourhood of Manchester
by a storm of hail, accompanied with thunder and
lightning. Property in Pendleton, Eccles, and Patricroft,
appear to have suffered most, and in these places mill and
gi-ecnhouse windows must have been destroyed to the extent
of some thousands of pounds sterling. At Patricroft the
storm commenced shortly before three o'clock, and the hail
descended in crystallized pieces of ice nearly the shape ol
pears. Messrs. Naysmith and Gaskell's works, called the
Bridgewater Foundry, had between 2,000 and .3,000 squares
of glass broken in the skylights over the sheds. Mr.
Naysmith gives an interesting accoiuit of these crystals, some
of which were more than an inch in length, v.hich he says had
evidently fallen the heavier end downwards. Augmenting in
size as they descended, the successive layers of the crystals

being clearly perceptible, the thickness of the stones had in-
creased at an angle of 35, which is that at which water
crystallizes. Three of the hailstones picked up at Eccles
weighed an ounce and three quarters. At Eccles the cotton
mill of Messrs. .John Chadvvick and brothers suffered to the
extent of upwards of 5,000 squares of glass in the weaving
sheds, besides glass broken in other parts of the mill. It is
estimated that £200 will scarce make good the damage. The
silk mill of Mr. Thomas Ainsworth, also at Eccles, had from
1,500 to 2,000 squares of glass broken in the weaving sheds.
Here the pieces of silk in the looms suffered great dsniage,
not only from the descending hailstones, which wetted the
fabric and destroyed the colours for nearly a yard in length in
each of about 2.30 looms, but from the pieces of glass knocked
through upon them, cuttnig and otherwise damaging the silk
goods they came in contact with. No estimate had been
formed of the total damage in this mill, but it will be con-
si'ierable. j\lany of the market-gardeners wiU have suffered
much in this vicinity. Mr. Hindley had glass broken in his
greenhouses to the value of £20. Mr. Charles Noyes, market
gardener, Sandy-lane, had glass destroyed to the extent of
nearly 2,000 squares in his gi-eenhouses ; Mr. James Fyldes
had 3,000 squares of glass broken in his greenhouses ; and
jir. BoarJman of Barton, a market gardener, is said to have
suffered a loss, in glass and fruit, to the extent of nearly £400.
The hail has made sad havoc with fruit, especially with pears,
apples, goosebeiTies, strawberries, and other kinds, in exposed
situations, which are not only knocked from the trees, but cut
to pieces in an extraordinary manner. The fruit in the
pineries, at the seats of Sir John Potter, Bade Hill; Mrs.
Cooke's, Sandy -lane ; Mr. Edward Tootal, of Weaste Lodge,
and other gentlemen, have suffered very seriously. Their
greenhouses and other garden buildings are reported to have
sustained the loss of many thou.sand squares of glass. The
storm reached Pendleton about a quarter pait three o'clock,
and hailstones were picked up nieasming three inches in cir-
cumference. These fell with great force, and many persons
struck by them were much hiurt. In the weavhig sheds of
Sir Elkauah Armitage's mill about 1,500 squares of glass were
broken, and at his residence, which is near the mill, about 300
squares of glass in the gi'eenhouse were broken. The dark-
ness was so great during the storm that the machinery had to
be stopped and the hands to leave off work. At the mill of
Messrs. T. and J. Ashworth, Pendleton, about 1,380 squares
of glass were broken over the weaving sheds, and they
describe the hailstones here as being conical-shaped and
crystallized at the thicker end. Some of them were fully an
inch in diameter. The storm is described at all these places as
having come from the west. It did not reach Manchester until
about four o'clock, but it lasted until nearly five. The hail was
not heavy at Manchester, however, though ram fell in torrents.
The upper part of a chimney belonging to the Old Q,uay
Carrying Company, at their premises on the left bank of the
Irwell, in Water-street, ilanchester, was struck by the
lightning at about half-past four o'clock. About 30 feet of
the chimney, which was about 75 feet high, was entirely torn
down, and fell through the roof of a four-story warehouse
below and an engine-house adjoining. The fall of the
materials, about six tons weight of which fell upon tbe floor of
the top story of the warehouse, was partially broken by a
quantity of oats with which the floor was covered; neverthe-
less a portion of the bricks broke through into the third story.
The roof of the engine-house also gave way under the weight
of tli^ falling bricks, and considerable damage was done to the
engineman's furniture. It is believed that the engine has not
been injured, but it has been stopped till the rubbish iu which
it was buried has been cleared away. The engine is a small
one, used to work the cranes in this warehouse, and in another
about 25 yards distant. The total damage may be about
£100. No person was injured by the accident except one of
the porters, who was on the premises, and who Vias shghtly
hurt by a falling brick. He was able to return to his work
the next day. About two-thirds of the glass in a hothouse,
about 30 yards long, at the residence of ]\Ir. Robert Gardner,
in Swinton-road, near Pendleton, was broken. Apiece of ice,
about three inches long, was found among the fragments of
glass by the gardener ; and another large piece, which came
through a kitchen window, struck the arnr of a servant girl
^ritll great force, by which she was considerably frightened,
and at first thought the limb was broken, The glass in a

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

177

dome light and in several skylights in Mr. Gardner's house
was also broken. Several otlicr hothouses in the same road,
including those of Sir Benjamin Heywood, Bart., Mr. Oliver
Heywood, Mr. Barton, and Mr. Atherton, have sustained con-
siderable damage.

On Thursday, June 21, about three o'cloek, a storm of
thunder and lightning, accompanied by hail and heavy wind,
passed over Bristol. At Lower Ea?toii, St. George's, and their
neighbourhood, a good deal of damage was done to the
gardens, trees, &c. la the grounds of ilr. J. Parsons, market-
gardener, upwards of 100 cap-glasses were destroyed, many
tine fruit-tree* broken or rooted up, and general injury done to
the crops. Mr. Hobbs and ]\Ir. Gerrish, market gardeners,
wer3 also sufferers, but not to so large an extent. On
ths estate of W. Bevan, Esq., and in other parts, several
trees were brokeu ; and at the house of a gentleman named
Bloomlield, a window was completely forced Id. — Wells
Journal.

Hail Storm or July Stu.

DoNCASTER. — A violent thunder storm passed over this
town on Monday last. The heavy rain was accmnpanied by a
storm of hail, and many of the hailstones were, weuuderstarul,
as large as ordinary-sized marbles ; cutting the leaves in their
descent, and renderuig the progress of pedestrians almost im-
possible. In the pastures, the cattle and sheep, alarmed by
the fearful storm, sought for safety beneath the trees, along
the lee of the hedge-rows, or wherever protection might be
aflorded. But in no instance, we believe, has a single animal
been struck by the lightning. The lal)oura of the scythe and
of hay-making were suspended ; and the corn crops, particu-
larly the wheats, wliich are remarkably luxuriant and heavy,
have, to some extent, been laid.

Trentside. — On the same day, in the Isle of Axholme, a
fearful hailstorm fell. One of the most splendid crops of flax
in the Isle of Axholme, some stalks of which are nearly tive
feet in length, is completely flattened. Tlie crop alluded to
is growmg in Mr. Robert Brown's parks, to the south of the
highway leading from Butterwick to Belton, and has been old
swarth from the memory of man. At the commencement of
the first storm, hailstones of an extraordinary size were seen
in several places; at Ferry several squares of glass were
broken. Crops on low badly- drained laud will of course suffer
most.

Ollerton. —The thunder storm, accompanied with hail
and rain, passed over this place and ueighbourliood on Monday
last. The rain was very heavy and accompanied at intervals
by hailstones of large size. The storm was at its greatest
heiglit from five o'clock to half-past, and from begnming to
end lasted two hours. The damage done is, it is feared, most
extensive ; but it will not probably be correctly ascertained
for some days. But no lives have been lost. In Ollerton, se-
veral squares of glass in the hot-houses aud skylights have been
broken. It is feared, however, that the crops have been much
injured in the district over which the storm passed, as well as
the fruit trees in the several gardens.

WiiiTWELL. — In the afternoon of Monday last, such a
storm of hail, rain, and wind, as has not been witnessed scarcely
in the memory of man, \isited this place. The full force of
the storm seemed to fall at this place, and in the surrounding
places we have heard it was not so severe.

Hov\'DEN. — At Knedlington, a \illage about a mile from
Howden, the hail has done considerable damage to the shrub-
beries aud glass in the garden of T. Clarke, Esq., and also
several windows have beeu broken in the village by the hail-
stones, which were as large as marbles.

GooLE. — About four o'clock in the afternoon of Monday,
we were visited with a severe storm of thunder, with a heavy
fall of rain interspersed with hail. It is to be feared that we
shaU hear of damage done in the surrounding district.

DoDwoRTH. — A tree was struck, and several windows
broken by the hailstones.

Stratford-on-Avon. — On Jlonday afternoon this town
was visited by a dreadful thunder-storm ; torrents of rain fell,
and there was some heavy hail. Considerable damage has
been done in the neighbourhood. — Banbury Guardian.

Stamford and its neighbourhood were visited by a severe
thunder-storm on Monday. Near Easton and other places in
that vicinity, rain mixed with very heavy hail— pieces of ice,
in fact— poured down in continuous streams, damaged the
crops, and destroyed quantities of glass in the villages west-
ward of Stamford. A correspondent writing from Thistleton,
says—" On Monday last, a tremendous thunder-storm passed
over this neighbourhood, in a north-easterly direction ; the
rahi fell in torrents, floodmgthe streets in a few minutes ; hail-
stones nearly as large as pigeons' eggs fell at Exton, breaking
many windows. At Greethain, many trees were broken down,
and several crops of corn severely injured." — Lincolnshire
Chronicle.

The hail-storm on Monday last did a great amount of da-
mage in the neighbourhood of Oxford. A large quantity of
glass is destroyed, aud the entire crop of corn in fields is cut
to pieces. — Banhuru Guardian.

On Monday, Derby aud its neighbourhood were visited by a
severe thunder-atorm. Rain mixed mth heavy hail poured
down in continuous and unmitigated streams, and within a
short time the btreet, roads, and thoroughfares were converted
into river-courses, and for a long period they were nearly im-
passable, and property received injury in several instances.

Hail Storji of July 13tu.

BERKSHIRE.— On last Tuesday, considerable damage was
done by the hail-storm at Cole Henleigh, near Newbury. The
crops of Mr. Joseph Bailey were much injured.

NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.— Geddington, near Rothwell,
was likewise visited by the storm of Tuesday. Mr. Thomas
Bell, of that place, had his peas and beans damaged.

HAMPSHIRE.— The storm o' Tuesday visited Whitchm-ch,
Overton, Waltham, and Andover-road, doing very considerable
damage to the crops. But few of the sufferers were insured.
Messrs. Knight, Brothers, of Whitehall farm, in the Parish ot
Overton, had 70 acres of wheat, and 10 acres of barley mjured.

WILTSHIRE.— Chippenham and its neighbourhood shared
in the destruction caused by Tuesday's hail-storm. ]Mr. John
]\I orris of Foxham, in the parish of Christian Malford, and Mr
John Bethel, of Kellaway, adjoining Mr. Morris's farm, had
their crops injured to some extent. The storm is described by
a coiTcspondent as having been " most destructive." Several
other persons were sufferers to a great exteut.

BUCKS. — This county has also been visited by the destruc-
tive storm of Tuesday. The crops of Mr. William Cox, at his
farm of Moreton, in the Parish of Durton, suffered severely
from the heavy hail.

The persons above named were fortmiately insmed n the
Royal Fanners' Oftice ; and we understand steps have been
taken to value the damage. Many other farmers in those dis-
tricts whose crops were injured were not insured.

CALNE. — This town and neighboiu-hood were visited on
Tuesday last with another violent storm of rain and hail, ac-
companied with thunder and lightning ; the country for some
miles to the north and east of the town expeiienced the most
violent raging of the storm. A lump of ice was picked up
about a mile from Calne, which measured 4^ inches in circum-
ference. The greenhouses belonging to G. H. Walker
Heneage, Esq., at Compton Bassett, were much damaged. —
Wilts Mirror.

ANDOVER— On Tuesday afternoon, about three o'clock,
this town and neighbourhood were visited by a sudden
and very heavy storm of thunder and lightning, accom-
panied by hail, which fell in very large pieces aud caused
serious damage to wmdows, conservatories, &c., but more
particularly to the growing crops of corn. In the neighbour-
hood of Wiiitchurch, Longparish, aud Hurstbourne Priors, the
storm raged with terri6c fury, and devastated the crops of
corn to a most serious extent. Mr. G. Oborue, of Hurstboiume
Priors, is said to be a sufferer to the extent of £5C0. The
ears of com were completely stripped off the wheat, barley,
&c., as clean as though thrashed with the flail. Turnips were
forced from the ground and earned away by the floods. The
rain descended in torrents, and.filled the streets of this town
to overflowing. The Star Hotel was inundated, as were also

N 2

178

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

several other houses iu that vicinity. At Audover Road sta-
tion the water overflowed the railway, and was stated to be
upwards of two feet in depth. For a considerable tiuie the
trains were unable to proceed. — Wills County Mirror.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE.— On Tuesday evening the pretty
little town of Newent ^^•as visited with one of the most
awful and destructive storms that liave e\'er occurred within
living memory. It commenced about half-past 6 o'clock, and
continued to rage with extraordinary violence till nearly 8. The
day had been intensely and almost insupportably hot, and Ijcfore
the storm burst forth in all its fury the thunder had been
rumbling and grumbling in the distance for some time ; biit no
indications of the frightful scene wliich subsequently occurred
had presented themselves, when suddenly the whole hemis-
phere as it were became shrouded in thick darkuess — darkness
that might almost be felt : lurid lightning flashed about in
every direction, flash after flash succeeding each otlicr with
fearful rapidity, followed by such roars of thunder as seemed
to shake the firm earth to its very foundation, and filled the
stoutest with dismay and apprehension. At the onset of the
storm a perfect deluge of rain descended, but that was soon
followed by such a torrent of hailstones as no living thing could
safely face, scattering destruction in every direction. We re-
gret to say that very considerable damage has been done.
Nearly every house in the town has been injured more or less,
and the glaziers, who are in great request, will reap a plentiful
harvest. Nearly every window in the Independent Chapel (a
neat and ornamental building, which was recently erected by
subscription) was Ijroken. The worthy minister had many
windows in his house demolished. Nearly the whole of jNIr
Edmunds's splendid conservatories at the Pigeon-house are
destroyed, and the windows at the back of Captain Parry's
house, which were exposed to the full fury of the tempest, re-
semble those which at no distant period were to be commonly
seen in sundry parts of Paris, when the great coup d'etat was
struck by the Prince President. The crops in the immediate
neighbourhood have been sadly handled. The greatest suf-
ferers are Mr. Probyn, of Southerns ; ]\Ir. Thompson, of the
Moat-house ; and the master of the harriers, Sir. Richard Fo-
ley Onslow. This monimg the hailstones which had fallen
were gathered up by pailfuls, and many of them were as large
as waltuits. The inhabitants of Newent will long remember
the storm of l\iesday, the 13th of July, 1852.

YORKSHIRE. — On Tuesday and Wednesday evenings
last, Keighley and neighbourhood were visited by very
severe thunder and hail-storms. The former evening it com-
menced about ten, and continued until after midnight. The
lightning was almost continuous, flash succeeding flash with
scarcely any interruption, lighting up the valley of the Aire
with a brilliancy indescribable. On Wednesday night the
rain descended in torrents, mixed with hail, and caused consi-
derable damage to the wheat crops in the neighbourhood.

Hail Storm of July 16.

(Abridged from the Worcester Chronicle).

On Fiiday night there was as tremendous a storm as any
remembered by the oldest man living, though not of longest
duration. The heat durmg the afternoon had been most in-
tense; towards seven o'clock apreviously bright and unclouded
sky became suddenly overcast, and clouds heavily charged with
electricity were observed travelling rapidly across the heavens,
as if making for a common centre. Apparently but a few
miles westward of Worcester, the thunder claps were tndy
awful, and, it may be said, pealed forth in a continuous roll
which lasted more than half-an-hour ; the lightning beuig even
more vivid and alarming than that of the preceding days. The
storm was accompanied by a violent hurricane, or what per-
haps might not be inaptly termed a young tornado, and the
damage it occasioned, we regret to record, is of the most seri
ous, and for these parts unusual character. The storm, as far
as we have been able to ascertain, gathered and first vented its
fury in the district between Leigh and North JNIalvern, from
thence taking an easterly direction, it appears to have ex-
hausted itself in the neighbourhood of Alcester and Inkber-
row, having Upton for its outer boundary to the south, and
Stourport and Kidderminster on the north. At the Great
House Fami, Leigh, belonging to Mr. Robert HiU, a crop of
barley, which woidd have been fit for the sickle in a fortnight,
was injured to the value of £250, and scarcely six bushels per

acre will be realized where ten times that quantity might have
been expected. Other crops at this place also suffered severely,
cottages were unroofed and trees blown down. At Hoptou
Court, the residence of A. S. Featherstonhaugh, Esq., nearly
the whole of the windows of the mansion and outbuildings
were demolished by large hailstones. The gardens and con-
servatories on the ri'siug ground at Henwick were also greatly
injured. At Ombersley, the hailstones measured more than
two inches in circumference, the road being immediately inun-
dated with rain to the depth of several inches. The injury to
the crops generally in the districts visited is fearful, but to
particularise the whole of the damage already under our no-
tice would occvqiy too great a space. The neighbourhood of
Stourbridge — Oldswiuford, Hagley, and Clent — has shared in
the damage ; considerable quantities of glass and other pro-
perty have been destroyed at several residences. In some in-
stances, we regret to add, the corn and pulse have suffered, the
hail having completely severed the ears firom the stalks. At
Mr. Addeubroke's, several hundred panes of glass were broken,
and a portion of the garden wall, with stone foundation, also
washed do\vii. At Ilagley Hall, the damage was extensive,
upwards of 2,000 panes being destroyed, some of which were
of strong plate glass. At Elmlej', Cropthorne, and Netherton,
the crops, both of corn and fruit, have sustained considerable
damage, particularly at the latter place, on the farm of Mr.
Pearce, whose windows were also broken by hail, and pieces of
ice of various forms and size, some of which were found two
inches across, the following day. At Chaddesley Corbett the
tempest came on from the west about 6 o'clock, the wind at
the same time blowing from the east. This continued for
about an hour without rain, when the wind gradually veered
round to tl'p west, and a fearful storm of hail, or rather ice,
immediately began, and contuiued for about twenty minutes.
The stones had the appearance of broken ice, being perfectly
transparent, irregularly shaped, with jagged edges, varying
from four to six inches in circumference. The loudness of the
thunder, tlie vividness of the lightning, and the fury of the
dangerous missiles which were carried with the broken glass
to <ke extremity of the rooms gave terrible evidence of
;;eleii?i slfury. As the hail abated the rain came down in
/ t<5iV ». j.id fears being entertained of a land flood, the sluices
at tne .n'iferent pools were opened. The storm finally went
off' toward Hagley about 8 o'clock. All the windows in tlie
palish fiicing the storm are completely gutted. The generality
of them being small squares, the lead in most instances is also
considerably damaged. The church has the glass in the belfry
and one of the west windows entirely demolished : the other
window, being protected by wire lattice, escaped. Not a
whole pane is left in the vicarage nor at the new girls' school.
A. Turner, Esq., of Pleneraore, has lost 800. The greenhouses
at Winterfold (Rev. T. Harward's) are also destroyed ; 48
large panes at Rushock rectory were broken. Not less than
ten thousand panes iu the village are gone. Mr. Peter Bough,
having the most w indo\\s, has suffered to the nvuuber of 500,
and Mr. Samuel Bough, at the Talbot, 250 ; wiiile the crops
of beans, peas, &c., in their gardens are destroyed. Such was
the force of the hailstones that whole fields of wheat and bar-
ley were laid, only an ear here and there remaimng. The
straw being completely broken in the middle, and the ears em-
bedded by the fury of the rain, the crop is rendered compara-
tively worthless. The stems of the potatoes were cut through,
and the fruit knocked ofl" the trees in heaps. The only damage
done by the lightning was at the Lower House Farm, where an
oak was split down. Several apple trees at the same place
were blown down. The total damage in the parish will amount,
it is estimated, to £4,000. The first strangers who appeared
after the storm were two countrymen on Saturday morning.
Being imacquainted with the modus operandi, they gazed from
house to house with undisguised astonishment, opening their
eyes and mouths in sympathy with the gaping windows. At
length their ommous silence was broken with " Lor, Jim, what-
ever have 'em been up to here !" "Ugh, only onejof them ere
'lectioneering tricks depend on't." "I 'spose so, but I wonder
what side 'em be on." "Doant know, but 'era has done it
nicely however, and no mistake."

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

170

METEOROLOGICAL DIARY.

Barometer.

Thermometer.

Wind and State.

Atmosphere.

Weath.

Day.

8 a.m.

10p.m.

Min.

Max,

lOp.m

Direction.

Force.

8 a.m.

2 p.m

. 10 m.

June22

in. cts.
29.66

in. c(s.

29.67

47

65

53

S. West

brisk

fine

cloudy

i
fine

rain

23

29.72

29.82

49

71

52

w.s.w.

gentle Ifine

sun

fine

dry

24

29.95

30.06

49

68

55

W., var.

gentle fine

sun

fine

rain

25 30.05

29.85

48

74

60

SW., SE., SW.

var. .fine

sun

cloudy

dry

26 29.75

29.80

55

68

55

S.E., S.W.

\'ar. cloudy

cloudy

fine

rain

27 29.85

29.78

52

68

55

S. West

lively cloudy

cloudy

fine

rain

28; 29.78

29.80

52

66

55

S. West

gentle , fine

cloudy cloudy

rain

29, 29.80

29.77

54

67

53

S. West

liv.var. cloudy

sun

fine

rain

30 29.80

29.92

53

69

55

Westerly

forcibl. |fine

sun

fine

rain

July 1 29.99

30.10

50

70

57

W. by S. or N.

var. fine

sun

fine

dry

2 30.10

30.12

52

69

56

W. S. W.

lively fine

sun

fine

dry

3 30.17

30.16

51

75

62

S. West

gentle fine

sun

fine

dry

4; 30.12

30.00

59

79

70

S. by East

soft br. fine

sun

fine

dry

5 29.95

29.90

66

85

73

S.E., South

same fine

sun

fine

dry

6 29.88

29.90

65

81

72

East

lively 1 fine

sun

!fine

dry

7 29.94

30.02

64

74

64

East

lively fine

sun

fine

dry

S; .30.06

30.C5

56

7Q

&7

East

lively fine

sun

fine

dry

9 30.05

30.02

59

84

70

S. byE. byW.

gentle fine

sun

fine

dry

10 30.05

30.10

, 63

80

65

N.W., East

var. [fine

sun

fine

dry

11 30.16

30.14

59

74

63

Easterly

lively fine

sun

fine

dry

12 30.14

30.08

62

71

66

Easterly

brisk cloudy

sun

cloudy dry

13 30.08

30.05

63

75

&7

Easterly

brisk

clouay

sun

fine

dry

14 30.02

29.96

63

77

65

Easterly

var.

cloudy

sun

fine

drops

15 29.95

29.95

69

80

69

Van, S.W.

liv. cal.

cloudy

sun

fine

dry

16 29.95

29.82

60

80

73

East, below

brisk

cloudy

sun

cloudy

rain

17 29.80

29.80

67

73

63

S. Westerly

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

fine

dry

18 29.86

29.90

56

73

63

Westerly

gentle

fine

sun

fine

dry

19

29.95

30.00

57

76

59

S. by ^^'est

gentle

fine

sun

fine

dry

20

30.05

30.02

61

73

63

Westerly

gentle

cloudy

sun

cloudy

dry

21

30.02

30.05

59

75

63 1

W. by North

gentle cloudy

cloudy

fine

showery

22

30.05

30.12

57

70

69

N. West

gentle cloudy

sun

fine

dry

estimated
Barometer.

High. I Low.

30r3 29.39

averages of JULY.

Thermometer.

High. I Low.. I Mean.

76 42 61

real average temperature of the period.

Highest. I Lowest. I Mean.

73.94 I 57.32 I 65.63

Weather and Phenomena.

June 22 — Heavy clouds at noon. 23 — Fair and
warm day. 24 — Heavy, thunder-like clouds;
warm sun; fine evening. 25 — Summer-like cirro-
cumulous clouds. 26 — Profuse rain last night ;
finer day; sunny gleams. 27 — Brisk showers.
28 — Showery; wet evening. 29 — A shower;
bright evening. 30— Sharp shower ; wind lulls ;
and a clear evening.

Lunation. — First quarter, 24th day, 8 h. 47
m. evening.

July 1 — Commencement of settled weather ; the
temperature increases, under the infiuence of an
almost cloudless sun, till the 11th. 12 to 14, in-
clusive— A steady east current lulling towards

sunset. 15 — Wind becomes fluctuating; air op-
pressive; sun-heat excessive. 16 — Very hot;
lower current east ; clouds collect at west at
6 p.m. ; vivid and unremitting electric corrus-
cations from 8 to 10; a little very distant thun-
der, and a fine rain follows. 17 — Wet morn-
ing ; since when the temperature has been summer-
like, and by no means oppressive.

Lunations. — Full moon, 1st day, 3 h. 28 m.
afternoon. Last quarter, 9th day, 8 h. 6 m. morn-
ing. New moon, 17 th day, 4 h. 15 m. morning.

Remarks connected avith Agriculture.
— The weather has this year been periodical— June
was completely wet; July to this date very dry and
hot. The sun has in a degree scorched the wheat.
We have seen this corn and several fields of barley
approaching to ripeness, and in a week or so will
be completely mature. Never was a stronger or
more promising crop of corn seen by me ; but hay
is rather short, though fine. Potatoes are very
health)', yet the ground requires moisture. Roots
can scarcely grow. J. Towers.

Croydon.

180

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.

Plant-Houses.
Greenhouse plants of all sorts still requiring a diift
must be attended to immediately, as it is important
that they should be gradually brought into a state of
rest. Such as have been sometime shifted, and have
made a good growth, must now be exposed to ail but
Yery powerful sun, in ordei' to harden the tissues, and
to induce a free flowerinff habit. The Chinese and
Indian Azaleas ought now to be sufficiently hardened
to bear a free exposure to the sun, and will only require
to be protected from heavy drenching rains. Be par-
ticularly careful that they do not want for water at tiie
roots, but avoid saturating thein, which is even more
injurious than giving them too little writer. In the
conduct of these operations observe if there is any
appearance of obstructed drainage, and let it be re-
medied immediately before the plants go to rest for the
•winter. The necessary attention to the drainage of
plants required to be so long a time in a comparatively
dormant state is probably one of the most important
directions which a calendar writer can press upon the
imperative consideration of plant growers; because,
the efiVct of water applied to the roots (when applied
in a greater quantity than is necessary to preserve their
vitality) is to excite into growth; and tlierefore if the
drainage is so imperfect that tbe water does not pass
off freely and quickly, and that the ball of earth is as
it were compelled to retain more than is necessary, the
action of the roots will take place, and this will pro-
duce a corresponding reaction in the foliage; which,
taking place at the lime when temperature and other
external conditions are only conducive to a state of
perfect repose, cannot but be very injurious to the
well- doing of the plant. As the season is approaching
when it will be necessary to bring most plants into that
state of dormancy or rest, v»hich modern gardeners
know to be one of the greatest essentials to good cul-
tivation, it will be well to turn our attention to the
subject with more than ordinary care; and depend
upon it, the state of the roots, and more particularly
root-moisture, is one of the most important items in
the management of plants through the winter. Oxalis
Boweana treated as formerly reco'iimended is now one
of the most beautiful and ornaniental of conservatory
plants. Let it be liberally supplied with water and
sometimes some diiuad liquid manure, which will also
be of great benelit to Fuchsias, Balsams, late-fiowerin^^
Geraniums, Petunias, and alsoTropaeolum Lobbianum,
Look well to the state of the Chrysanthemums, and
keep them growing in a vigorous manner, by frequent
applications of liquid manure. They must have free
exposure to the sun, and, remetnbor, no more stojiping.
If mildev,' apjicar."-, dust tliom well with sulphur.

FORCING-HOUSKS,

Pineries.— The vast amount of solar heat we have
lately been favoured with has been highly favourable
to these plants in their various stages, both for fruiters
and successions. For all, except ripening fruit, care
must be used to keep up a good supply of air moisture,
and a free circulation of air, and still to pay the re-
quisite attention to the state of the bottom heat, and
see that it does not get too high. Look to the state of
the roots of growing successions, and when they fill
the pot give them a shift, anel if into fruiting pots, let
the shift be a roomy one. Continue the application of
liquid manure to the roots. With regard to the ripen-
ing olf the fruit, it will be well to remember that the
slower the process the greater will be the flavour : any
attempt to hasten the process by exposure to an un-
naturally high temperature and too much drought, will
not only lessen the weight of the fruit, but the sugary
secretions will be partly converted into acid, and the
flavour much deteriorated.

Vineries. — The borders of the later houses now
swelling, the fruit will be benefited by copious supplies
of liquid manure. Keep the houses in which the fiuit
is colouring free of atmospheric moisture, and let them
have free ventilation night and day. The earliest
houses now bare of fruit must be freely opened; in
fact, keep the whole of the ventilators open to their
utmost extent, and continue to check as much as pos-
sible the tendency to late growths. The same rule
must be followed with the Peaches and Cherries, in
order to get the whole of the wood thoroughly ma-
tured, as it is important to keep the foliage healthy
to as long a period as possible. If mildew, thrips, or
red spider appear, syringe then\ well with hydro
sulphuret of lime, prepared according to Orison's
directions as follows : — Mix intimately one pound of
sulphur with a like volume of quick lime, and blend
them with five pints of water, and boil ten minutes.
When settled, pour the clear liquid off, and add to it
from thirteen to fifteen gallons of water, slir it well,
and syringe with it irameeliately. It may also be
used with good efft!ct on Peaches and Vines on the
open walls,

Pils and Frames. — Melons and Cucumbers for late
purposes must have attention paid to bottom heat,
which, whether obtained from hot water, or by means
of dung linings, must be maintained at 75 degrees.
Keep the bines well thinned out, and practise stopping
continually. Setting must also be resorted to for the
late fruit. Cucumbers and Vegetable Marrows out of
doors must be plentifully supplied with water in the
absence of a good supply of rain.

THE FARMER'S MAGEZLNE.

181

F/.OWER Gakden.
See that beJding ]>lants are contined to their propev
limits, b}'^ pruning off exuberant growth around the
edges, or by pegging in. The borders in the mixed
flower garden s>houhl be kept hoed frequently ;
stakes applied in time to every thing requiring it; and
all past flowering stems and other decaying foliage con-
stantly removed. The work of propagation for another
season must be gone into forthwith. Such things as
Scarlet Geraniums, Salvias, and other free rooting plants,
will do well put thickly into 24-pots in soil composed
of half . "liver sand, and placed in a frame with a north
aspect. I find an excellent plan to follow with Ver-
benas is to pnt in at once several handglasses fall on

a south border. Shade and water well until rooted ;
then give free exposure, and keep constantly stopped ;
early in September pot them three in a four-inch pot.
We thou place them on a shelf in a large pit, which is
occasionally heate<l in \ery severe weather, and they
will supply any number of very fine strong cuttings
early in the spring. Pinks which Iiavc been struck
under handlights must have free exposure, to harden
tliem for planting out. Lose no time in getting a good
stock of Cloves, Carnations, and PIcotees layered.
Prick out Queen and Biompton Stocks into nursery
beds. See that the Viola arboria la reserve beds are
abundantly supplied with water, C.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT
FOR JULY.

With a continuance of remarkably fine weather — ■
even after making clue allowance for the usual
changes in the atmosphere, the result of excessive
heat — the progress of the crops towards maturity
this month has been rapid, and for the most part
satisfactory, F"rom all parts of England, even from
what may be termed the poor districts, very favour-
able accounts have reached us in reference to the
v.iieats. The blooming season, invariably a period
of great peril to the crop, passed off remarkably
well J and it is gratifying to be enabled to state that
the ears are well and fully formed ; and, further,
thcit \ cry few instances of blight have been met
v.ith. Thus far there is everything to liope from
the future, because it must be evident to all en-
gp.ged in agricultural pursuits that the yield pro-
mises to be quite equal to last year, both in point
of vvci^ht and quality. As might be anticipated,
therefore, the amount of business doing in all kinds
of wheat in the various markets of the United
Kingdom has been wholly confined to immediate
wants— millers refusing to add to their stocks,
uader the impression that the value of wheat has
not seen its lowest point — which, owing to the
large arrivals of flour from the United States, a!id
tha numerous forced sales of that article, have been
uii usually limited. The fall in the quotations, how-
ever, has not exceeded 2s. per quarter ; but this
amount of decline upon a low price must prove a
great drawback to progressive improvement. The
barley crop has wonderfully recovered from its
somewhat uneven and sickly appearance we have
noticed in some previous reports. The yield will,
no doubt, be a full average one ; though, from the
comparatively limited breadth of land under culture
this season, compared with our actual v.'ants, it is
evident that it will fall considerrcblv beneath -con-

sumers' wants. Should the weather prove fine
during harvest work v/e may anticipate a better
supply of malting parcels than was the case in
1850 or 1S51. As regards oats, the produce will,
v/e conceive, be rather in excess of last season.
The fields generally show an abundant produce;
but we regret to state that in most parts beans have
suffered severely from blight, which attacked the
bloom shortly after it made its appearance, and
completely destroyed the prospects of the growers;
hence many thousand acres of land have been
ploughed up from the crop not being worth the
expense of cutting and carrying. Peas are well
spoken of with scarcely any exception — the late
fine I'ains having materially added to the yield.

A few patches of land have been cleared of their
oats in the West of England, as well as in Kent ; and
we understand that wheat harvest will be partially
commenced in the Isle of Thanet on the 2nd of Au-
gust ; but it cannot be general for the next fortnight,
or, perhaps, three weeks. In the neighbourhood of
the metropolis the whole of the crop of hay has
been secured in the best possible condition. Con-
trary to almost general expectation, its produce has
turned out a fair average one, though, in our opi-
nion, it has not equalled that of 1851, which, it will
be recollected, was extremely abundant. It is pro-
bable, however, that the second cut will quite make
up the deficiency observed up to the present time.
In the Midland and Northern counties it willj
doubtless, prove in excess of the Southern and
Western districts, because cutting is always a
fortnight or three weeks later than in the latter
portions of the country. The stock of old hay
iiaving become much reduced higher prices have
been obtained for it ; whilst the value of strav/,
from the increased demand for thatching and other
necessary purposes, has had an upward tendency.
As is al'vays the cn'^e at this reason of the yenr —

182

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

certainly ever since the severe losses sustained in
1847 — numerous reports have got abroad to the
effect that the potato disease has made some rather
extensive ravages even upon the best lands. On
this subject we have made the most careful in-
quiries, and the result is that, up to the present
time, no losses worthy of notice have been sus-
tained. True it is, that the disease is to be met
with in some localities ; but we have not the
slightest hesitation in saying that the crop never
presented a more promising appearance than during
the whole of the month. From the continent the
imports of new potatoes this season have been only
about 2,000 tons, against fully 3,000 to 4,000 tons
in 1850 and 1851 ; nevertheless, our markets have
been very heavily supplied with home-grown quali-
ties in the best possible condition, and which have
sold at prices varying from 3s. Gd. to 7s. per cwt.
—the latter figure being for kidneys.

The quantity of home-grown v/heat now on hand
is, perhaps, smaller than at any corresponding
period during the last three years. This circum-
stance has had scarcely any effect upon the buyers,
whose wants have been, and are likely to be, well
met by the foreigner. The supplies of produce at
this time in warehouse from the continent and else-
where are very limited ; but this is chiefly attributed
to the anxiety manifested for some time past by
the importers to sell on board, rather than incur
the expenses of landing and warehousing. Should
this system continue to be generally acted upon,
we shall look in vain for any improvement in our
quotations.

From Sussex and Kent our reports, in reference
to the appearance of the hop bine, are favourable ;
but from Worcester we learn that the promise of a
crop is a very moderate one. The bine has grown
rapidly, and the duty has been estimated at
£180,000, against only £75,000 at this time last
year. All kinds of hops have met a very dull sale,
and prices have ruled almost nominal.

The crop of seeds is likely to prove a good one.
On the 26th transactions were reported in new
rape seed, at Mark Lane, at £24 per last. Both
carrots and turnips are looking remarkably
healthy.

Although prices of live stock have been some-
what more remunerative, the supplies on offer in our
leading markets have been far from extensive.
The deficiencies in those of English beasts, sheep,
and calves have been freely made good from
abroad. The pastures being well covered, the
supply of green food has contmued large ; hence
the demand for cake has been trifling, notwith-
standing the low prices at which it has been offered.
Linseed has well maintained its previous value,
although we learn that the Greek houses have sold

not less than 200,000 quarters, to be shipped to
England from the Black Sea, from May to October,
at 40s. per quarter.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE
DURING THE PAST MONTH.

Although the imports of foreign stock have
been on a liberal scale, the aggregate supplies of
stock exhibited in Smith field since we last wrote
have been by no means large, the time of year con-
sidered; but their general quality has proved good.
The " season" from Norfolk and Suffolk has now
been concluded, whilst that from the northern dis-
tricts has commenced, and from which upwards of
5,000 beasts have already come to hand. The hot
weather having prevented the transmission of dead
meat, the metropolis has been almost wholly sup-
plied from the live cattle market ; hence, the busi-
ness doing has been somewhat extensive, and
prices have been well supported. Amongst the
outport arrivals has been one at Portsmouth of an
entire cargo of oxen from Portugal. This importa-
tion has proved the best ever received ; but, from
the want of buyers at the above port, nearly the
whole has been brought to London, and disposed
of at comparatively high rates. Another cargo
will shortly arrive on account of the same importers,
who have paid £1,000 freight money for the two
voyages. The experiment so often tried of en-
deavouring to fatten foreign stock in this country
has been wholly abandoned; but we have noticed a
decided improvement in the Aveighing qualities of
the late arrivals, especially amongst the sheep, most
of which now arrive hither with their tails cut.
The following are the imports into London : —

Head.

Beasts 3,6 1 3

Sheep 17,400

Lambs 2,555

Calves 2,157

Pigs 1,283

Total 27,003

Do in 1851 24,082

During the corresponding period in 1850, we re-
ceived 16,089; in 1849, 16,412; and in 1848,
12,379 head.

The total supplies of stock exhibited in Smithfield

have been as under : — Head.

Beasts 18,404

Cows 680

Sheep and lambs 160,190

Calves 3,746

Pigs 3,067

THE FARMER'S iMAGAZINE.

183

SUPPLIES AT CORRESPONDING PERIODS.

July. July, July, July, July,
1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851.

Beasts .. 15,773 16,878 15,576 16,741 18,492
Cows .. 586 495 470 451 470

Sheep and

lambs .153,290 147,290 162,900 178,550 188,170
Calves.. 3,693 4,033 2,615 2,908 2,520
Pigs . . 2,228 2,350 2,044 2.168 2,800

The bullock supplies from the north have
amounted to 5,900 ; from other parts of England,
5,800; and from Scotland, 1,050 head.

The prices of beef have ranged from 2s. 4d. to
3s. lOd.; mutton, 2s. 8d. to 4s.; lamb, 4s. 2d. to
5s, 2d.; veal, 2s. 6d. to 4s.; and pork, 2s. 6d. to
3s. 8d. per Slbs. to sink the offals.

COMPARISON OF PRICES.

July, 1848. July, 1849.

s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

Beef . . from 28 to 42 28 to 40

Mutton .... 3 8 to 5 0 3 0 to 4 0

Lamb 4 6 to 5 6 4 0 to 5 0

Veal 3 4 to 4 4 3 2 to 3 10

Pork 3 6 to 4 6 3 2 to 4 0

July, 1850. July, 1851.

s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

Beef .. from 24 to 38 24 to 38

Mutton 2 10 to 4 0 2 6 to 3 10

Lamb 3 8 to 4 10 4 0 to 5 0

Veal 2 6 to 3 6 2 6 to 3 8

Pork 3 2 to 4 0 2 6 to 3 8

Newgate and Leadenhall markets have been very
scantily supplied, whilst the demand has ruled

steady, at full prices. Beef from 2s. 4d. to 3s. 4d. ;
mutton, 2s. 8d. to 3s. lOd.; lamb, 4s. 2d. to 5s.;
veal, 2s. 8d. to 3s. lOd. ; pork, 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d.
per Slbs. by the carcass.

LIMERICK COUNTY.

The month of June and first vvf tk of July were so wet, as to
cause the tillage farmer much anxiety and delay. The large
quantity of rain that fell iu June, and small amount of sun-
shine, were nuprecedentej for the season. We now have the
long-wished-for summer weather, with heavy showers occa-
sionally, and nothiti^^ seems the worse for the continuous rains
of last month, and certainly grass has been much improved.
The little injury that early potatoes have suffered was confined
to those planted in sheltered gardens and deep rich soils. The
samples that have been brought to market for the last week
have not shown any disease, and the main crop is still in a
healthy state. As might be expected, we had the potato
blight alarm ; but it was not like the regular disease, which is
produced from atmospheric causes, and first attacks the leaves
and stem, descending from them to the tuber ; but iu this case
the root was first diseased, whicli makes it thought that exces-
sive moisture was the cause. Many of the operations con-
nected with green cropping have been retarded by the state
of the weather, such as earthing potatoes, sowing turnips,
cleaning mangolds, carrots, and parsnips, &c. ; but all has now
been put to rights, and no failure in them has been spoken of.
The mower is hard at work, and more cannot be said for the
weight of the crop than that it is good. Wheat, barley, and
oats are all of full average promise. The gnizing farmers are
now beginning to fear that their profit on each animal will be
light ; there is so little difference between fat and lean stock in
price. — July 17.

AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, EAIRS, &c.

BERWICK FORTNIGHTLY MARKET.— There was but
a small show of both cattle and sheep. The beasts, being of
inferior quality, brought about Ss. 3d. per st. ; mutton a shade
more than 5d. per lb. There was a small show of lambs. The
number of pigs was small ; there beiug few buyers prices were
rather lower. The following are the prices : — Beef, from 4s.
to 53. 3d. per st. ; mutton 4Jd. to Sd , lamb 6d. per lb. ; pork
43. 6d. per st. Fat beasts 10, lean do. 60, milch cows 10,
sheep and lambs 508, and pi'S 32.

DUNSE LAMB TRYST.— The supply of lambs at our
tryst on Tuesday was larger than last year, and prices may be
quoted as imder : — Half-bred lambs from 13s. to IGs., three-
parts bred from ISs. to 17s. 6d., aud bred lambs from l/s. to
19s. 6d. There were two small lots which sold at 203. The
show of sheep was small, and sales from 21s. to 21s. 6d. for
Dinraonts. Mutton sold from A\A. to 5^d. per lb. ; the de-
mand great, aud all sold off, averaging from Is. to Is, 6d.
above last year's prices, la our wool market the demand was
good, and a considerable quantity disposed of at the following
prices : — All ewe clip from 2 la. to 25s. 6d., mixed ewe and
hogg from 2G3. 6d. to 283., do. all hogg clip from 293. to 30s.
per stone.

GLOUCESTER CHEESE AND WOOL MARKETS.—
Although the elccliou for the western division materially in-
terfered «itli these markets on Monday last, yet they were
tolerably well supplied and attended. Of cheese, about 100
tons were pitched, the wlio'.e of which was sold at the follow-
ing prices : — Best singles 40s. to 44s., seconds 34s. to 37s.,
skim 21s. to 233. per cwt. Of wool about SOO tods came to
market, and the quality being superior the whole was disposed
of early at from 28s, to 31s. pertoJ.

GLOUCESTER MONTHLY MARKET was indifferently

supplied with beef ; the trade was steady at from 5d. to 5|d.
per lb. The few sheep penned sold readily at from 5^d, to
5|d. per lb., and a perfect clearance was effected. Lambs, of
which there was a limited supply, sold well at from 6d. to 6|d.
per lb., aud at an early hour the whole of the stock was dis-
posed of.

HORSHAM LAMB FAIR.— This fair was not so nu-
merously attended as last year, but nearly the whole of the
lambs penned (about 13,000 in number) were sold at from ISs.
to 263. There was about the usual number of horses in the
fair, but not a great many changed hands. Pigs were tolera-
bly cheap, and moved off pretty freely. Good mutton, fit for
the butcher, made about ds. per stone.

JEDBURGH FAIR.— A good deal of business was done
in wool, on terms similar to St. Boswell's and other recent
wool markets.

KIRTON LINDSEY FAIR was more numerously at-
tended than was anticipated. Good horses and useful nags
were in great request, but of each there was but a moderate
show. Several lots of ponies (principally Irish) met a very
brisk sale, and a great many changed hands at prices varying
from £8 to £9, £16 being paid for the better sort. A great
quantity of inferior horses on sale, the demand for which was
very limited. With beasts we were only thinly supplied, and
but litt!e business was transacted.

NEWARK FAT STOCK MARKET was very moderately
supplied with stock. Buyeri seemed somewhat inditferent to
pay the demanded price, and sellers were obliged to submit to
a reduction both in beef and mutton. Mutton sold at 4|d. to
5d. per lb. Beef 5s. 6d. per stone. At market, beasts 103,
sheep 811.

SHERBORNE FAIR was very thinly nltended aud sup-

18i

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

plied. The number of sheep penned was much below the
usual average, aud the sale was not so brisk as at the late
Yeovil fair by about Is. per head.. Ewps fetched from 253. to
303.; \rellier?, 2?3. to 233.; latub?, 17s. to 21s. each. The
quantity of cow stock offered was more than the demand re-
quired, which caused the trade to be dul!, aud only a few of
those of the best quality found purchasers. Fat beef renliscd
from 6s. to 93. per score ; mutton, 5 J. to 6d. per lb. ; pork, 7s.
to 7s. Cd. per score. Tlicre was a large q';antity of pigs
penned, but the trade was dull, aud lois of th.;m were diiven
away unsold. The horse fnir was very well supplied with
numbers, but t'ne quality -J the animals was mostly of a very
rough description, aiid only a few of t'.ie ve;y best found pur-
chasers. The ,vool trade wa^ brisk, and a great laai.y slaplers
were pres-^Lt, who b:)u,a;ht at ''ram 13?>d. to 15d. per lb.

ST. BOSWELL'S LAMB FAT k"— It is admitted by all
parties to be the mott inipnrtaiit market in the south of Scot-
land for this description of stock. Business commenced at a
very early hour, the stock being placed before daylight. The
stock was about an average in poiufc of numbers, aud the
quality was very superior. The buyers were numerous, from
all parts of the country, and many, both Irish and English
gentlemen and dealers, left the market unserved — we believe
some of them iutended to buy large numbers, more particu-
larly for Ireland. The s.ales effected in the earlier past of the
morning brought, for a few of the bettv?r lots, about 2s. a-head
more t'i.-;u at tliis market last year ; but the inferior kinds of
this stock fetched from Is. to Is. 6d. a-head higher. This ex-
tinordiuary deinand f .r slivcp is caused hy the abundant keep
on the country at present, aud every prospect of the turnip
crop beii.'g a favourable result; also the prospect of the wool
market ri-dug. After the first break on the sales, the stock
went <jS rapidly. For a time there was an apparent unwil-
lingness lo give prices, but the holders of stock having dis-
covered they were getting things their own way, were, iu the
early part cf the forenoon, more communicative. Several sales
were effected on Saturday night, but the prices in these in-
stances were to be referred to the rate of the market. The
Edinburgh and Glasgow salesmen appeared very active, and
we understand that one of them purchased about 1,300 head,
priucipolly for the north and Fifeshire. By eleven o'clock in
the fijienuon it was supposed there v/as not a beast remained
unsold. There were also a good number of clipped hoggs on
the market-stance, for which there was a good demand; for
the inferior qualities of v.diich Is. a-head was obtained above
last year, atii the better kmds in the same proportion. Gim-
nnrs ran from 21s. 6d. to 2o3., and diauionts from 2.t3. 6d. to
29s. Such a complete clearance has not been seen at St. Eos-
wtll's for many years.

OVEIVION FAIIi. — Tiiere was a good average number of
felieep (sbout 100,000 head). Generally speaking, the stcek,
as rCj^irds condition, was not quite so good as on several pre
ceding A ears; notwithstanding this, there v.'as a good demand
at Ru advi!nce of about Is. on the prices of this time twelve-
jr.oiith. There was a large atteiidanee of dealers, who were
anxious to purchase, and consequently, notwithstanding the
high prices demanded, but v;'ry few pens did not change l-.aads.
l\h. Cozens, of Norto:' Farm, penned 20"! wry superior ewes,
which realized about 353. Some lambs sold at 273 , and one
1 )t as high as 3l9. The prizes were awarded by Messrs. .John
Twynatn, ^V'i:liam Snuggs, and John Lunn, as follows : —
Class 1 — A cup of ten guineas value, given by the Kight
Hon. Sir Francis Thornhiil Baring, Bart, for the beit 100
Hampshire down wether lambs, from a flock of any number,
fed aud bred by the exhibitor ; Mr. F. Budd, Hatch Warren
farm. Class 2. — A cup of ten guineas value, friven l.y Mel-
ville Portal, Esq., M.P., for the best 100 ewes, 7idl-mcuthed,
tl'.e whole of which have been fed by the cxhibifer since the
15th Oct., 1851, on laud in his own ccoup.ation; Mr. F. Budd,
Hate': Warren farm. Class 3. — A cup of ten guineas value,
given by William Beach, Esq., for the best 80 wether lambs,
bred from a flock of ewes not exceeding 410 ; Mr. Davis,
North Waliham. Class 4. — A cup of five guineas value,
given by the Right Hon. C. S. Lefevre, M.F., for the beat pen of
ram lambs, of any breed, not less than four; Mr. C. Ed.iey,
Whitchurch. The litnbs sliown by Tur. Pfrn, of Itchcn Stoke,
were highly commended.

STOCKBRIDGE SHEEP AN!) LAMB FAIR.— About
an average number were penned. Business commenced very
shugishly owing to the high prices asked by the sellers, who.

eventually acceding to more reasonable terms, the dealers pur-
chased slowdy at an advance of Is. per head on ewes and lambs,
but wether sheep did not partake of this improvement. Several
farn:cr.5 did not feel di^^posed to uitct tl;e ofTvrs of their cus-
tomers, and took tVeir flocks back to await the issue of Overtou
and Akesford fairs. There was a much shorter attendance of
company than usual, which m^sy in part be attributed to the
excessive and overpowering heat of the weather. Several pens
of fine rams were exiiib ted, amongst which we noticed those
of Messrs. J. Paiue, Courtney, Spencer, T. Pain, Dear, &c.,
&c. Prices : ewes from 263. to 3Us , lambs from ISs. to 24s.,
(one tupetior lot., belonging to Mr. W. Attwood, realised 27s.),
wetiiers 26s. to 35s.

SWAFFHAM (NORFOLK) FAIK.— There was a good
supply if live stock of every description, with an actiie de-
mri.'d ihroughout the day, grazing Leasts fully supporting
former r.'.tes. The supp'y of sheep was imusurlly short. The
top lots of wethers were eagerly sought after ; bigli prices
were demanded, am!, as the day wared, so far front sellers
having to lower their pretensi- ns, the contrary was the case.
Tiiere was likewise a brisk trade for strong useful ewes. Prices
ranging from 28s. to 31s. each; wether lambs, IBs. to 22s. ;
ewe, 153. to IBs. each. Milch and in-calf caws were easier to
buy. Horses : rcuUy good ones kept up in prices ; infeiiur
ones scarcely saleable, but colts in good demand, 3 year olds
selling freely, at 251. to dot. ; 2 years cl 1, at 18/. to 25Z each.

IRISH FAIRS. — LiSBURN : Taken altoge tier, the amount
of stock offered was, perhaps, the largest shov.u in that town
for seveial years pait. In the; cow I'.iir gicut activity prevailed,
especially as to fat stock, which sold at prices that must have
proved very favourable to holders, even taking into account the
liigh figure paid for sucli cattle at May. One grazier sold ten
head of tlirte-year-old heifers, in gcod coL;diticn,at one hundred
guineas ; another disposed of eight head, at £76 ; two very
fine Durhams brought £25 ; and a hau:^soma Ayrshire,
eightceu moa'hs old, sold for £9. Springers v.crc in better
demand, the prices realized being about £1 per head above the
current rates of similar cattle four weeks since. Cows in
miik were also more readdy disposed of, the turn in the
value of butter having caused more inquiry for such
animal-, v^'ith a slight advance in prices, equal to the deprecia-
tion whicH took place io the prices of milch cattle during the
last six weeks. Young stock, well bred and with improvable
appearance, were bought up by the dealers connected with the
English market;!, j-.t the full rates current since April last.
There were several lots of infeiior cows, aged and in bad con-
dition. These sold at very lOv prices. Sheep v.early finished
Were very difficult to purchase; the supply of all descriptions
was ample, but the quality ofl"ered shows that much yet re-
mains to be done by farmers in order to bring up the breed of
this valuable class of farm stock in this part of the country.
Lambs were f'.i'iy six shiilings a-he.id above the rates cur-
rent two years sgo. St! re i ijs we:e much wsntcd, but
the supply was verr short in propo tion to the demand;
those otiired exhibited a marked improvement iu the
breed, and brought hirge priccL. Suckers sold at various rates
— 25^?. to 333. i)cr pair. The In.rse fair showed a more than
usuid number of animr.ls, viith some very superior descriptions
both for saddle asid harness. A joeb-j', from Wales, bought
six up-sized bay horses, at £200 for tlie lot ; a pair of iron-
grejs, matches, v.tnt off at .£70. Roadsters were in demand,
at 12 guineas to IS guineas each. F?rr.i horses brought £14
to £16, Hack", £G to £10. About a dozen horses — four or
five year old", up to heavy weight, E;:d likely to ar.swer the
troip — said at prices from £'20 to £25 each. Of the very in-
ferior hacks and screws, little need be said beyond the fact that
they were mimtrou?, and brought from £2 to £6.

WOOL MARKETS AND FAIRS.

DEVIZES WOOL FAIR was largely attended by both
buyers and selleis, anil a gool bnsinf-ss w.is dot e at the follow-
ing rate.s : — Ewe wool, 29s. to 30s. ChI. ; ewe Mr.d trg mixed,
32s. to 31s. ; one lot, v. hicli waj five-sixth teg and one ewe,
fetched Sis. 61. There was hut little teg iu the fair, and we
heard of none Leiig sold. The while uumher of fleeces ofl'ered
was 33,000.

DORCHESTER WOOL FAIR.— As sccial recently es-
tablished fairs 1 ad lately been held, it was feared that a con-
siderable diminution would have boeu apparent both as regards

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

185

the quantity of wool pitched, aud in the number of purchosers ;

liut ve are pleased to state that, not only was there a larger
quantity of wool (upwards of 2,000 tods) offered for sale than
on the preceding year, but that the whole of it met with ready
buyers, at the following prices: — Ewe wool, 28s. tooOs.;
mixed do., 293. to 31s. ; teg do., 333. to 34s. per tod.

FOKT-WUiLIAM WOOI. PAIR, Tuesday, July 13.—
The attendance was numerous, but less than on some former
occasions. In addition to transactions in blackfaced, several
lots of Cheviot sheep were disposed of, as were also many
clips of Cheviot wool. Sellers were very much indisposed
to commence business, and until a late hour in the evening a
sti'f market was expected. The particulars of a siniile trans-
action in wool were not to be ascertained until after eight
o'clock, at which hour purchases may be said to ha\ e com-
menced. Tlic difficidty of obtaiuuig bona fule prices at the
Fort-'William fair is perhaps miequalled at any other market
in the kingdom ; and in proof of this statement we may men-
tion that in some instances promises of secresy were exacted
before finally concluding the bargain. In cross and Cheviot
sheep a slight rise on last year's prices was obtained — estimated
by dealers to average about 6d. per head, and all the lots of
this description ,v.ere ^said to have been sold, lilackfaced
lambs varied very little, if anything, from the rates of 1851.
Piu-chasers of wool consider that last year's prices were barely
supported, and in a few cases lower quotations must be given.
The best and largest clips sold at from 9s. to '_9s. 3d., rumour
says up to 9s. 6d. per stone, although we only heard of one
actual transaction at that price ; inferior and small clips were
sold at 8s. 6d. to 8s. 9d. aud 9s. per stone. — Inverness Courier.

GLENDEVON WOOL MARKET. — A considerable
number of buyers and growers were iu attendance. Tiie buyers

were Messrs, Scott and Murdoch, Perth ; Buchanan, of Ban-
nockbuni ; Younger, of Glasgow ; and otbers. The day was
considerably advanced and before much business was done,
but before evening a grcot portion of the wool was disposed of
at 9s. 6d. laid, and 12s. 6d. white, all blackfaced or 22s. the
double stone.

HULL, July 20, — About fifty sheets of wool were shown,
and nearly all sold at about previous prices.

LLANDRILLO WOOL rAIR.-Farmers brought wool
to the villagfl beyond every expcct.ition for the first time from
distant places, and were met with pleiity of buyers, who soon
cleared the street, wi'.h the exception of a few lots, and those
were sold after the v.ool went home. The price was from lOd.
to 12d. per lb. The largest purchasers were from LlangoUtn
and Glyncciriog, v.ho bought a great many tons.

YORK, July 22. — At this our tenth market for this year's
clip we had about 384 slieets of wool ; about 320 were sold,
and about C4 left on lianl. ^Ve had again a slow business
market, the buyers trying to reduce prices, and the sellers
successfully resisting the attempt. Firat-class wools, of super
quality and clean conditifn, had the call of the maiket,
at prices firm upon former quotations, whilst secondary kinds,
in dirty condition, were difiicult to sell, at prices tending
dov.nwards. Locks anil cotted fleeces were in good demand,
at former quotations. Tiie high prices demanded to-day by
the sellers of moor wools have been resisted by the buyers.
Clips bought at Ciistkton h.ix on Monday last at Os. 6d. per
stone would not realise more th.an 9?. iu the York market ;
consequently the dealers lost fully lid. per stone, besides car-
ria,^'e aud expenses. The quotations at Liverpool for Alpaca
aud East Iiidia woohi, and also the pti;^e of Scotch wools,
tended to bring down the York prices for the moor wools.

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF JULY.

The splendid weather with which we have been
favoured throughout the month now about to ter-
minate ha.s wrought a wonderful change in public
opinion in regard to the probable result of the en-
suing harvest, AVhen we last addressed our readers,
the ])rospects v/ere certainly not of a character to
warrant very high expectations ; to nearly the end
of June there was a great want of sunshine, and
more rain fell in that month than was deemed de-
sirable ; since then, however, we have had several
weeks of intense heat, and with the exception of
partial thunder showers little rain ; the various
cj'ops have, consequently, been forced rapidly for-
v/ard, acd at present there is rea.son to believe that
the harvest will prove superior both in quantity and
qu ility to the average of good seasons. The bloom-
ing lime passed over favourably, and we have
hitherto heard of very few complaints of disease of
any sort. The wheat crop is now rapidly ap-
])roacuing maturity ; the colour is good, the ear
long and well filled, and the straw clean and long.
All that will be needed, therefore, is fine weather
for the in-gathering, but heavy and continued
rains might do m.uch harm even now. The heat
h.as, in some instances, been perhaps too great for
Lent-sown corn, but the reports from the agricul-
tural distrlct.s, on the v.'hule, si)eak well of barley,
oats, and peas, but the beans are not so favourably
spoken of.

The potato disease prevails to a greater or less
extent on this side of the Channel, as well as in
Ireland ; indeed the accounts from the latter coun-
try vv-ere at one period of a nature to cause consi-
derable uneasiness, but the disorder does not ap-
pear to have spread so rapidly as it was feared it
might do, and apprehension on the subject has, in
a great measure, subsided.

At the moment, and for some weeks past, the
most sanguine anticipations of the probable result
of the crops have been indulged in ; we need, how-
ever, scarcely remind our friends that much must
yet depend on the weather. Meanwhile there is an
evident disposition on the part of those holding
stocks to deal' out as far and as fast as is practica-
ble in expectation of a low range of prices after
harvest. That the value of all kinds of agricultural
produce would be likely to rule very low in case
the present promise of future abundance should be
fulfilled cannot be questioned. With good average
crops, the produce of Great Britain is, in our opi-
nion, nearly, if not quite, sufficient for the con-
sumption ; with jilentiful harvests it was so fifteen
or sixteen years ago, as was proved in 1835 and
1836, when scarcely any importations were needed.
Against the increase which has since taken place
in the population, we have the various improve-
ments which have been introduced in agriculture;
the latter will, we think, be found to have enabled

166

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

farmers to increase their produce so as fully to pro-
vide for the increase of population. Should the
home crops, therefore, give only an average yield,
and no deficiency occur in the produce of the other
corn-growing countries of Europe and America,
we should in all probability have lower prices dur-
ing the twelve months, commencing with the 1st
September next, than we have witnessed for many
years. Six years' trial of free trade has proved
that the foreign growers can, whatever may be the
character of the seasons, always produce wheat in
sufficient quantities to furnish England with con-
siderable supplies ; this year the prospects for the
harvest on the continent of Europe are as favour-
able as in this country ; it follows, therefore, that
there will be a large excess for shipment, and un-
less anything unforeseen should hereafter occur to
give a different complexion to affairs, we must
make up our minds to overwhelming imports of
grain when little or no foreign aid is likely to be
needed. The idea of a re-imposition of a duty on
corn appears to have been wholly abandoned by
both sides of the House of Commons, but that it
will be absolutely necessary to place the farmers of
Great Britain in a position to enable them to culti-
vate the soil with some profit, or that land must
ultimately go out of cultivation, appears to us in-
evitable. Lord Derby's party claim having gained
a majority by the general election ; it remains
now to be seen what they will propose for
the relief of those who have contributed
to place them in that position. The question re-
solves itself into this. Can wheat be grown in this
country with profit at 35s. to 40s. per qr. ? A higher
price cannot, on the average of years, be calculated
on with free trade. With rents, &c., as they now
are, the question admits, we believe, of no answer
except in the negative. What can be done, then, to
lower the cost of production ? This is the matter
which the new Government will have to consider.
With this simple statement we shall dismiss the
subject for the present.

Harvest operations have been partially com-
menced in some early localities — some barley, rye,
oats, and peas having been cut during the week ;
and should the weather be favourable, reaping is
likely to be pretty general in the southern parts of
the kingdom in the course of eight or ten days.

The hay crop has been secured in a very satis-
factory manner. Mowing was scarcely commenced
until the beginning of July, which is considerably
later than usual ; but the work proceeded rapidly,
and nearly the whole of the produce has been carted
in excellent order. The yield has turned out much
better than (considering the long-continued drought
in April and May) could have been expected, and
the quality is very good. Farmers have been so

busy with their hay crops as to allow of little leisure
for bringing forward supplies of corn. The elections
have also interfered more or less with the regular
course of business, and the consequence has been
that the deliveries of grain from the growers have
been exceedingly short during the month now about
to terminate. This has prevented prices giving way
so much as they otherwise might have done, still
the tendency has been decidedly downwards at all
the leading markets in the agricultural districts as 1
well as at the principal consuming towns. To sho\y
how great has been the falling oft' in the home sup-
plies, we beg to call attention to the following
account of the quantities of English wheat sold
during the last four weeks at the towns from which
the returns are made for compiling the averages : —

Week ending 26 June 104,174 qrs.

3 July 91,665 „

10 „ .... 79,471 „
17 „ .... 59,653 „

From this statement it would appear that the
stocks of wheat of last year's growth are nearly
exhausted ; but we think this conclusion would
not be correct, feeling convinced that the falling off
has been occasioned, at least in a measure, by the
causes above referred to. Admitting, however, that
less wheat of home-growth than usual remains in
the hands of farmers, there seems little probability
of anything like scarcity being experienced, the
supplies from abroad having thus far been always
in excess of the demand.

Within the last fortnight large arrivals of wheat
and Indian corn have taken place off the coast from
the Black Sea and Mediterranean ; and, for a con-
sidera1)le time past, we have had regular weekly
receipts of flour at Liverpool, London, &c., from
America.

The supplies from the near continental ports
have not been so liberal ; but prices are rapidly
giving way on the other side, and it is more than
probable that the Baltic merchants will send the
stocks they have so long withheld in expectation of
an English demand to this country, now that the
prospects for the harvest have deprived them of the
hope of higher prices.

Business at Mark Lane has been exceedingly
dull throughout the month, and the fall in the value
of wheat may be estimated at 2s. to 3s. per qr.

The arrivals coastwise into the port of London
have been scanty in the extreme, or the decline
would probably have been greater. The weekly
receipts have scarcely averaged 3,000 qrs., and the
quantity brought forward by land-carriage samples
from the neighbouring counties has been equally
unimportant ; still, as already remarked, buyers
have managed to obtain the advantage. The
decline has been as follows : On the 5th

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

187

instant the millers refused to buy until factors
submitted to a reduction of Is. to 2s. per qr., and
even at that abatement the demand was by no
means active. Daring the succeeding week, the de-
pression rather increased, and on the 12th a further
fall of about Is. per qr. occurred. Since, then,
however, factors have manifested a determination
to make a stand ; and the few small lots exhibited
from Essex and Kent on the following Monday
(loth inst.) were placed without further concession
being made. This was also the case on the 2Gth
July, though the millers conducted their operations
with more than ordinary caution. Good runs of
Kentish and Essex red wheat are not now worth
more than 40s. per qr. ; and it has become difficult
to exceed 4Ss. per qr. for white, though extra fine
qualities of either would perhaps sell at Is. per qr.
over the rates named.

The arrivals of foreign wheat into London have
not been particularly large ; still, 50,000 qrs. have
come to hand in the space of four weeks, which,
under existing circumstances, has proved more
than has been needed. A considerable portion of
the supply has consisted of secondary and inferior
qualities of Baltic wheat, shipped from Holland.
No quotable change took place in prices during the
first fortnight ; but the turn was, nevertheless, de-
cidedly in favour of the purchaser : but since then,
a decline of fully 2s. per qr. has been generally
submitted to, v/ithout inducing purchasers to act
freely. Some of the inferior Lower Baltic red
wheat nas lately been forced off at the low price of
35s. per qr., and other sorts have been sold at cor-
responding rates. The loss to the parties concerned
must be enormous, as some of this wheat has been
bought at Rotterdam and Amsterdam, at very high
rates, to ship to London. The stocks in granary
have rather accumulated since our last ; still, the
total quantity in warehouse is not particularly
large. A considerable amount of business has
been transacted during the month in floating car-
goes ; and of the sixty or seventy vessels, wheat-
laden, which have arrived from the Mediterranean
and Black Sea off Falmouth and Queenstown for
orders, more than half had been sold before ar-
rival; and at present there are scarcely a score re-
maining unsold. The best qualities of Ghirka
have realized 38s. to 39s., and Pohsh Odessa 35s.
to 36s. per qr., cost, freight, and insurance. These
rates are, however, no longer obtainable ; and
sellers having refused to give way sufficiently in
price to tempt buyers, comparatively few bargains
have been closed during the last eight or ten days.
We have lately had ofters of wheat free on board
at Baltic ports, at moderate terms, without leading
to business, there being at the moment a decided
unwiUingness to enter into forward purchases.

Very fair qualities of red, weighing 61 to 6l^lbs.
per bushel, might be bought at 38s. per qr., in-
cluding freight and insurance, and higher kinds at
corresponding rates.

The top quotation of town-manufactured flour
has remained stationary, but the sale has been lan-
guid in the extreme. Country Hour has in some
cases been offered at reduced prices, without in-
ducing the bakers to take more than they have
needed for immediate use. That the consumption
of bread has been much decreased by the abund-
ance and cheapness of all kinds of vegetables, can-
not be questioned ; and in many parts of London
the bakers have been offering stale bread at 2d.
per 4lb. loaf. The arrivals of flour from France
have not been large, but from America 58,000
barrels have been received. Both kinds have been
exceedingly difficult of disposal, and importers
have been forced to store for want of buyers from
on board ship. The common sorts of French have
been offered at about 28s., and very good at 30s.
to 32s. per sack ; whilst American in good condi-
tion may be quoted 20s. to 2ls., and fine 22s. per
barrel, with more sellers than buyers at the terms
named.

Hardly any barley of home growth has come for-
ward ; and in the absence of supply quotations have
become in a great measure nominal. Stocks of
English barley are certainly reduced into a very
narrow compass ; but as the finer sorts for malting
are not required at this season of the year, and the
foreign supplies have proved amply sufficient to
furnish what has been needed for feeding purposes,
the value of the latter has tended downwards.
Light grinding qualities from France and Belgium
have been sold at 23s. 6d. to 24s. 6d., and heavy
Baltic samples at 25s. to 26s. per qr. One sample
of new Kent barley was exhibited on the 26th inst.,
not by any means fine, the berry being small and
the colour far from bright; for this parcel 36s. per
qr. was asked, a price much above the notion of
buyers, and it consequently remained unsold. The
quality of a single sample secured too early, and
probably in an immature state, can afford no cri-
terion for forming an opinion as to what the growth
of this year may prove. The accounts, thus far,
speak very favourably of this crop, and we are dis-
posed to think that the quahty will in general be
fine.

Malt has moved oft' very slowly, and though
sellers have not conceded freely, they have been
compelled to give way more or less. The hot
weather has no doubt promoted the consumption
of beer, and the stocks of old malt have been con-
siderably diminished.

The supplies of oats of home growth have been
scanty. This fact tends to confirm all that has

188

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

been said earlier in the season respecting tlie ex-
liaustion of the old stocks in the agricultural dis-
tticts. The receipts from abroad have, however,
been £0 hbernl, that the scarcity of the home sup-
plies has not bjen felt; indeed, there lias been a
constant excess of supply over demand, and prices
have given way from week to week. The first ar-
rival from Archangel appeared in the market on the
23rd inst. Since then several cargoes have ar-
rived. The quality of the Russian oats, the growth
of 1851, is quite equal to that of average 5'ears, and
we should judge the weight, by the samples we
have seen, at 38 to 39lbs. per bushel. The open-
ing price was 19s. Afterwards sales were made at
18s. 6d. and IBs. per qr., and v/ith increased re-
ceipts the price will probably go down to l7s, per
qr., a rate which will barely get importers out
without loss. Frcih English oats have, owing to
their scarcit)'', brought relatively higher prices, and
40 to 42lbs. feed are still worth 203. to 21s. per qr.
Scotch feed, of superior quality, may be quoted
22s. to 24s., and good Irish 19s. to 20s. per qr.
Danish and Swedish oats are worth at present
from l7s. to 19s. per qr,, according to quality.
The forthcoming crop is well spoken of, on this side
of the channel as well as in Ireland ; and if the
harvest should be well secured, the rates above
named would probably not be supported.

The rise which look place in the value of beans
in June, owing to reported blight in the growing
crop, has not been maintained. This, however,
has not been caused by a more favourable estimate
having been formed of the probable jdeld, but by
larger importations of foreign than had been calcu-
lated on. The reaction from the highest point has
been about 2s. per qr., and within the last we?k or
two the sale has become very difficult.

Peas have also declined in price, notwithstanding
the belief that the effect of the very great heat
which we have experienced will be a short pro-
duce. One sample of new white peas was ex-
hibited at Mark Lane on Monday, the 26th. The
condition was remarkably good, and the only fault
found was that the peas were small. The top price
for English boilers does not now exceed 30s. per
qr., and foreign may be bought several shillings
lower. The arrivals from abroad have been liberal,
to which the downwai-d movement in prices must
be in a great measure attributed.

There has been a good steady demand for Indian
corn afloat on Irish account, and nearly all the cai'-
goes which have arrived off the coast have been
taken for that destination at prices very little below
those previously current. This article is nov/ es-
sential to the population of Ireland, and the con-
sumption seems likely to increase from year to
year. Latterly the supply has been somewhat in

excess of the demand, and the tendency of prices
has, the last week or so, been downwards; Ga-
latz and Odessa, arrived off the coast, having been
offered at 29s. to 29s. 6d. per qr. The advices
from abroad do not enter into very minute details
respecting tlie prospects for the ensuing harvest, a
proof that no cause for complaint exists. Many of
the foreign merchants still hold stocks ofold v/hcat,
and anything likely to raise i)rices would be eagerly
circulated. Our own impression is that the har-
vest all over Europe will turn out abundant in case
the month of August should prove moderately pro-
pitious. In the south a considerable jn'oportion of
the corn has already been secured, and nothing is
heai'd of any deficiency of yield.

In the countries bordered by the Baltic, rye (a
very important crop in that quarter) is now being
harvested, and there are no complaints ; our con-
clusion that there is no cause to apprehend a defi-
ciency is therefore, v/e think, tolerably safe. So
long as there was any chance of Gi'eat Britain re-
quiring to import, holders on the other side re-
mained very firm ; but latterly they have lost con-
fidence, and the most recent advices state that
prices of wheat were giving v/ay. Even at Danzig,
where stocks are in very firm hands, this has been
the case; but quotations in that quarter are thus far
relatively higher than in this country, and compa-
ratively little Vv-heat has yet been shipped from
thence to Great Britain. Advices dated 20th July
state that about 4,000 qrs. had changed hands in
the preceding week; for 61 to 62lbs. Lower Polish
high mixed equal to 39s. had been paid, and 59 to
6 libs, inland had been sold at 35s. to 36s. per qr,
free on board. Freight to London was 2s. 6d. per
qr. for wheat, and vessels were offering on corres-
ponding terras to other parts of the United King-
dom. The most recent advices from Stettin inform
us that a portion of the rye crop in that quarter
had been secured in good condition, and that wheat
harvest would be general before the close oi the
month. On the 23rd inst. good red Stettin wheat,
weighing 60 to 6 libs., was quoted 33s. to 34s., and
fine Pomeranian and Ukermark, of 61 to 62lbs.
weight, 34s. to 35s. per qr. free on board. Rye
was then obtainable at 22s. to 23s. per qr. Freight
to London was 2s. 3d. per qr. for wheat. From
Rostock we learn that quotations had become
nearly nommal, holders having refused to give way
sufiiciently to allow of any business of importance
being done. The crops in that neighbourhood
were progressing favourably towards maturity, and
wovdd, it was thought, give a good return. The
stocks of old wheat remaining at Rostock are said
not to be large, but we feel disposed to think that
shipments to some extent will be made from thence,
so soon as the result of the harvest shall have be-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

189

come kno^vn ; at present good qiialilies could not
bo bought there free on board below 3Gs. per qr.,
which would brinjr the cost hers too Ir.-^li to rdlow
of a profit being realized in our inarkctn.

At the near continental ports, the dull accounts
from hence have had their usual influence ; and
from Hamburg wc learn, that though the weather
had become unsettled the downward movement iu
prices had not been checked, wheat being Is. to
Is. 6d. per qr. lower on Tuesday (the 23rd) than
on that day week. Ordinary 59lbs. Holsteiu h.ad
been offered at 323. Gd. to c3s. per qr., free on
board, without exciting attention. Spring corn
had also become difficult of sale ; and both barley
and oats had been offered at reduced terms v/ithout
meeting with attention.

From Holland and Belgium, the reports respect-
ing the probable result of the harvest are favourable,
and the crops are also said to promise well in the
Rhenish provinces.

From France the accounts are of a somewhat
contradictory nature. The heat in that country
has been intense, and thunder-storms have been
very frequent ; these have done a good deal of da-
mage in particular localities, but in other parts
the grain crops will give a large return, and on the
whole the advices lead us to believe that wheat will
produce well in quantity and be of fine quality.
Flour declined in price at Paris the first two or
three weeks in July, but latterly holders have mani-
fested less anxiety to realize. A letter from Nantes,
dated 23rd inst., informs us that the cutting of
barley, rye, and oats had made considerable ]no-
gress, and that the wheat harvest had been com-
menced in the Lower Loire.

In the sor.thern ])arts of Europe, harvest is fast
drfiwing to a close, but we do not as yet hear much
respecting the result, which augurs well, as com-
plaints, where cause exists, generally travels fast.

In Southern Russia and the Danube provinces
the prospects for the harvest were, according to the
latest accounts, described as promising ; and at
Odessa, &c., prices of wheat were tending down-
wards.

We have advices of recent dates from America ;
the reports from thence respecting the prospects of
the harvest are, on the whole, of a favourable
nature ; but some mischief had/^it appears, been done
to the crops by violent thunder-storms, which cir-
cumstance had assisted to maintain the confidence
of holders of flour. The stocks at the principal
shipping ]5orts on the coast were not in general
heavy ; and the su])plies from the interior having
been only m.oderate, whilst a steady shipping de-
mand had been experienced, prices had not only
been well suppported, but the tendency had on the
whole been rather upwards. At New York, on the

13th July, good shipping brands were quoted 18s.
■id., Ohio and Michigan 18s. 8d. to 19s. 2d,, and
pure Gencsscc 20s. 3d, to 21s. 3d. per brl., free on
board.

The cx])orts of bread stufl's from the United
States from Sept., 1851, to the middle of July, had
been as follows : —

Flour. Wheat. Indian Corn,

brls. bush. bush.

1,208,668 2,198,167 1,498,204

Freight was then lid. to Is. id. per brl. for fiour
to Liveri)ool, Is. 6d. to Is, 9d. to London, and Is.
6d. to Glasgow.

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE.

Shillinj^^g per Qunrter.

Wheat, Essex and Kent, white 38 to 42 tine up to 49

Ditto ditto old ..38 42 „ 49

Ditto ditto red, new 36 38 „ 40

Ditto ditto old .... 36 38 , 41

Norfolk, Lincoln, &Yorksh., red. . 37 39 , 40

Ditto ditto old, uosie , —

Ditto ditto white new 40 42 „ to

Ditto ditto old none „ —

Bakley, malting, new 28 31

Chevalier 31 32

Distilling 20 28

Grinduig 25 27

MALT,Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, new 51 53 extra 58

Ditto ditto old 43 46 „ 49

Kingston, Ware.and tovaimade,new 57 58 „ 60

Ditto ditto old 48 51 „ 53

Oats, English feed 17 19 fine 21

Ditto Potato 2U 22 extra 24

Scotch feed 20 22 fine 24

Ditto Potato 22 24 fine 25

Irish feed, white 16 18 fine 20

Ditto, black IG 18 fine 19

Rye 27 29 old 27 29

Beans, Mazagan 30 31 „ 31 32

Ticks 31 32 „ 32 33

Harrow 31 33 „ 32 34

Pigeon 34 35 „ 36 37

Peas, white boilers 34 37 „ 34 37

Maple 32 34 „ 32 34

Grey 30 32 „ 32 34

Fluur, town made, per t-ack of 280 lbs. — — „ 3." 40

Tovra and Country Households . . — — « 33 35

Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship — ~ „ 28 30

FOREIGN GRAIN.

Shilling's per Quaiter.

WHEAT,Dautzic, mixed. . 39 to 40 highmixed 42 44 extra50

Konigsberg 38 40 „ 41 42 „ 44

Rostock, new 38 39 fine old 40 4"? „ 44

Poiii8ia.,Meckbg.,andUckeruik.,red 36 37 extra 39 42

Silesian „ 36 37 white 39 41

Danish and Holstein ,» 34 36 „ 36 38

Rliine and Belgium „ 36 38 old 38 40

French „ 34 36 white 36 40

Odessa, St. Petersburg and Riga. . 30 32 fine 34 36

Barley, grinding 24 26

Distilling 26 28

Malting none — —

Oats, Dutch, brew, and Polands 18 20

Feed 17 18

Danish and Swedish feed 17 19

Sti-alsund 18 20

Russian 17 19

I French 17 19

I Beans, Friesland and Holstein 27 30 Konigsberg 32 34

Peas, feeding 29 31 fine boilers 33 35

I Indian Corn, white 27 29 yellow 27 30

( Flour, French, per sack 27 31 fine 32 34

i American, sour per barrel 17 18 sweet 19 21

190

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

For the last Six Weeks.

Week Ending :

Jime 12,1852..

June 19, 1852..

June 26, 1S52. .

July 3, 1852. .

July 10,1852..

July 17,1852..
Aggregate average
of last six weeks
Comparative avge.
same time last year
Duties

Wheat.
s. d.
40 11

40 9
I 40 10

41 4
41 5

'41 0

41 0

42 0
i 1 0

Bailey. Oats.
s. d. , s. d.
0
2
6 '20 0

G 20

5 120

19 10
19 9

0|]9 11

27 C 1 19 11

25 1 1 21 8 28 6
1 Oil Oil 0

Rye. Beans

s. d.|s. d.
31 10

31 0

32 11

31 6

1 0

Peas.

s. d.

31 2

31 9

31 9
33 2
33 3
30 11

32 0

28 6

1 0

COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES
OF CORN.

Averages from last Friday's

Gazelle.

Qrs.

Wheat. .

.. 59,653

Barley. .

., 1,946

Oats . .

. . 7,528

Rye. . . .

68

Beans . .

. . 2,677

Peas . .

323

rida

V'si

Av. 1

s.

d.

41

0

27

0

19

11

30

1

34

5

30

11

Averages from the correspond-
ing Gazelle in 1851. Av.

Qrs.

s.

d.

Wlieat. . .

. 51,264 .

. 42

7

Barley. . .

. 1,807 .

. 25

6

Oats . . .

. 6,259 .

. 21

11

Rye

87 .

. 28

2

Beans . .

. 1,813 .

. 31

5

Peas . . .

340 .

. 28

6

DIAGRAM SHO-V^ING THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE
AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT uuring the six

WEEKS ENDING JULY 17, 1852.

Tbice.

June 12.

June 19.

June 26

July 3.
•• r

July 10.

July 17'

4Is. 5d.

..

4 Is. 4d.

.. r

.. 1

..

41s. Od.

1

^_>__nj

40s. lid.

.. 1

..

40s. lOd.

.. t

•• r

40s. 9d.

.. u

••

An Account shewing the Quantities of Corn,
Grain, Meal, and Flour, imported into the
United Kingdom in the month ended 5th
July, 1852, the Quantities upon which
Duties have been paid for Home Consumption

DURING the same MONTH, AND THE QUANTITIES
REMAINING IN WAREHOUSE AT THE CLOSE THEREOF.
„ ... Quantity en- Quantity
Quantity "^tg^cd for rcmainin;
imported.

ceil' Grain.

British

A neat, j'.om

Possessions

Barley, do

Oats, do

Peas, do

Maize or Indian Corn,do.

Wheat, foreign

Barley, do

Oats, do

Eye

Peas, do

Beans, do

Maize or Indian Oom,do
Buckwiieat ,

Malt

Beer or Bi^-

Plour from British Pos-
sessions

Plour, foreign

qrs. bush.
8iC0 7

280

1900

1

216161

45581

90000

1151

4426 6

16429 0

110135 6

11(13 0

;w(s. qrs.lbs.

61989 0 14
•375484 3 22

Quantity en-
tered for
consumption

230 0

1900 4

1 1

216261 3

45581 1

9O0OO 3

1151 5

4426 6

16129 0

110135 6

1103 0

cwts. qrs.lbs.

61939 0 14
■575484 3 22

warehouse.

3679 7
15 5
24 0

cwts. qrs.lbs.

6 3 18

7 2 23

PRICES OF SEEDS.

BRITISH SEEDS.
Linseed (per qr.). . sowing 503. to 55s. ; crushing 45s. to 488.

Linseed Cakes (per ton) £8 Os. to £8 10s.

Rapeseed (per last) new £22 to £24 old £21 to £23

Ditto Cake (per ton) £4 5s. to £4 10s.

Mustard (per bushel) .... white 5s. to 6s. ; brown, 7s. to 9s.

Coriander (per cwt.) new lis. to 13s., old 10s. to 123.

Canary (per cwt.) 40s. to 44s.

Tares, Winter, 28s. to 30s. p. qr. ; Spring, 3s. 6d. to 4s. p. bush.

Carraway (per cwt.) 33s. to 34s. ; fine 36s.

Turnip, white (per bush.) Swede (nominal).

Cloverseed (per cwt.) red 40s. to 44s,, fine 48s. to SOs,

FOREIGN SEEDS, &c.
Clover, red (duty 5s. per cwt.) 38s. to 44s. per cwt., super. 48s.

Ditto, white (duty 5 s. per cwt.) 38s. to 46s. per cwt.

Linseed (per qr.) Baltic, 43s. to 46s. ; Odessa, 44s. to 47s.

lAnsced Cake (per ton) £7 to £9 10s. Os.

Rape Cake (per ton) £4 5s. to £4 10s.

Ilempseed, small, (per qr.) 38s. to 42s., Do. Dutch, 44s. to 46s.

Tares (per qr.) small 28s. to 30s., large 30s. to 32s.

Rye Grass (per qr.) 28s. to 35s.

Coriander (per cwt.) 10*- to 13s.

HOP MARKET.

BOROUGH, Monday, July 26.
Tiie demand for Hops is rather limited, but quotations are
not' lower for the finest samples. The plantation accounts
continue favourable. Frederick Horton.

PRICES OF BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c.

Butter, jiei' ciet. s. s.

Frksland 64<o68

Kiel 64 66

76

70
68

Dorset new 70

Carlow ,, —

Watcrford ....,, —

Cork „ —

Limeileli ,, —

SUgo ,, —

Fresh, per doz .... 9

Chcese,2)ercwt.CJies7iirebOto70

Chedder 66 f!8

Double Gloucester. 46 56

Single do. . . 42 48

Hanig, York 60 70

Westmoreland.... fiO 66

Irish 56 63

Baeon, Wiltshire, green 62 64

Wnterford 60 62

BELFAST, (Friday last.)— Butter : Shipping price, 64s. to
693. per cwt. ; firkins and crocks, 7d. per lb. Bacon, 508.
523.; Hams, prime, 603. to 64s.; second quality, SOs. to 52s.
per cict. ; mess Pork, 86s. per brl. Irish Lard, in bladders,
56s. to 60s. ; kegs or firkins, 543. per cwt.

Julii i
22'. '■
1848
1849'
1850,
1851
1852

BrMer.
per civt.
s. d. s. d.

Bacon,
per civt.
s. d. s. d.

70 0
60 0
62 0
70 0
64 0

80 0
65 0
67 0
71 0
&J 0

Dried Savts, : Mess Pork ,

per cwt.

s. d. s.

66 0 82

68 0 75

65 0 70

62 0 66

58 0 62

per brl .
d.

Foreign root{d2>-)£
Harlingeii 27

English root (free)
Oaernscy 10

Kent and Suffolk.

CHICORY.

Per ton.

s.
0

£ s.
28 0

0

no

10 10
\e.

English root C free) £ s.
York 8 10

Roasted <5" ground

English 30 0

Foreign 40 0

£ s.
9 10

Duti/ on all Coffee and roasted Chicory im2wrtcd, 3rf. 2)cr lb. ;
on Chicory Hoot £21 per ton.

' HIDE AND SKIN MARKETS.

s. d. s. d.
Market Hides, 56 to Si lbs 0 OtoO \iper lb.

72 lbs 0 Ij 0 2

80 lbs 0 2 0 2J

88 lbs 0 2j 0 2

88 96 lbs 0 2| 0 3

Do. 64

Do. 72

Do. 80

Do.

Do. 96 Wi lbs 0

Shearlings 1

Lamb Skijis 1

Horse Hides 5

Calf Skins, light 1

Do. full 3

0 81 „

1 8 „

2 10 „
0 0 „

3 3 each.

4 6,.

BARK.

Per load of 45 civt.

English Tree £11 0 0

Coppice IS 0 0

Mimosa per ton 9 0 0

Valonia ,, 14 0 0

to £13 10

14 0

10 0

16 0

W^OOL MARKET.

LIVERPOOL, July 24.

s d. s. d.

Laid Highland Wool, per iilbs 9 2to\0 3

White Highland do 12 6 14 0

Laid Crossed do. .unleashed .... 10 6 12 0

Do. do. .washed II 0 12 6

Laid Cheviot do.,u}i'vashed .... II 6 13 0

Do. do. .washed 12 6 15 0

White Cheviot do.. do 22 0 26 0

Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 246, Strand, London.

"■M ^/4iM-'l

^~

\ x'^ nI

^^

1

'V> ' -\^ Yi^ *-

THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE.

SEPTEMBER, 1852.

PLATE I.

A SHORT-HORNED COW.

The subject of our first plate is a Short-horned Cow, the property of Mr. William Holland, of
LeghclifF, near Halifax, which obtained the first prize of Twenty Sovereigns and the Silver Medal in
Class 9, at the Smithfield Club Cattle Show, in December, 1851.

PLATE 11.

NEWMINSTER; Winner of the St. Leger, 1851.

The subject of our second plate, Newminster, (the property of Mr. Orde, of Nunnykirk, bred in 1848
by the younger Mr. Orde, who succeeded to Nunnykirk, and with it to t'auld marc,) was got by
Touchstone, out of Beeswing, by Dr. Syntax, her dam by Ardrossan, out of Lady Eliza, by Whit-
worth — Spadille — Sylvia, by Young Marske.

Touchstone, bred by the late Lord Westminster, in 1831, and got by Camel, out of Banter, by
Master Henry, was one of the best race-horses ever saddled ; while as a stallion he has long been ad-
mitted as the best we have. It would be impossible here to name a tithe of the good runners out by him ;
but Newminster is his third Leger winner — his son Surplice winning this race in 1848, and his daughter
Blue Bonnet in 1842. Sur2:)lice, it will be remembered, also won the Derby, as did Cotherstone in 1843,
and Orlando in 1844. Touchstone's only Oaks winner was Mendicant, in 1846; in fact the Touch-
stone fillies have always been considered the weaker half of his stock.

Beeswing's renown on the turf is quite equal to Touchstone's — indeed no runner ever enjoyed so
great a popularity as " t'auld mare." In the stud, hitherto, despite the capital openings afforded them,
her produce have not been in any way so successful. Her first foal. Old Port (foaled in 1844), trained on
to be a most miserable-looking animal, and was quite as bad as he looked ; but then first foals are nearly
always indifferent. Nunnykirk (in 1846), however, was much better, and his own brother Newminster
better still. Of Bonnie Bee (the produce of '47) little is known, while the three-years-old for next year,
Norham, has made too much noise in the world already, having been scratched by Mr. Nicholl, at Don-
caster, for all his engagements, and then given to any aspiring gentleman who chose to take him away :
he is a rank roarer. Beeswing's stock now appear to go regularly, as if by contract, to Mr. Nicholl,
of Newcastle-on-Tyne — a gentleman who takes to them good and bad, with all the temper and spirit
our friends further north enjoy a bit of racing.

Newminster is a good bright bay horse, standing scarcely fifteen hands an inch and a-half high; he
has a neat, nag-like, expressive head, a straight and rather long neck, with splendid shoulders, falling
well back — perhaps, indeed, as fine a shoulder as ever was seen ; he has good depth of girth, strong
muscular back, with ribs well hooped out, and very powerful quarters ; his thighs are muscular, gas-
kins as weU as legs short, and hocks, knees, and feet good, with very fair sized bone. Newminster
carries his head low, and in his clothes might be passed by as a mean-looking little horse ; he, however,
improves wonderfully on the eye the more you see of him — not a big one by any means, but low and
lengthy, with an immense deal of power, and some really splendid racing points.

OLD SERIES.] O No. 3.--V0I/. XXXV IT.

192

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE SCIENCE OF MANURING

BY THOS. ROAVLANDSON, C,E.,F.G.S.

CHAPTER IV.

ON SPECIAL OR PORTABLE MANURES.

The term, special manures, has been given
to fertiUzers of recent introduction, which are re-
markable, as compared with the manures, employed
formerly for their extreme portability. The title,
special manure, is by no means an appropriate
one, seeing that such articles as guano or super-
phosphate of lime are indiscriminately applied to
all kinds of crops, without the slightest regard as
to the special requirement of each particular species.
Under these circumstances, the term, portable
manures, would be much more appropriate; in
difference, however, to custom, the term, special
manure, will be retained with the commonly ac-
cepted signification of that term. It is to be hoped
that only a few years will elapse before the title
special manure, will be commonly used in its legi-
timate sense — that is, a manure composed of sub-
stances adequate to supply the requirements of the
particular crop which it is intended to grow. Che-
mistry has sufficiently pointed out therational course
that should be pursued in systematic husbandry ;
but, although these principles have been before the
public some years, no one has ever yet attempted
to practically carry them out ; and, for all useful
purposes, husbandry is, at the present moment, as
empirical an art as it was in the days of Alfred.
This assertion is made advisedly, and with a full
knowledge of the advantages which have resulted
from the extensive use of bones, superphosphate,
guano, &c., during the last few years ; it is de-
sirable, however, to draw attention to the fact, that
these fertilizers have been used haphazard, and not
with any regard to rule. This may be attributed
partly to want of faith in the facts which chymistry
has illustrated, and partly in consequence of defi-
cient knowledge. The first is probably a con-
sequence of the last ; and, however it may be an
excuse for those who are fully occupied in the
ordinary routine of husbandry, it is none for
such as held high scientific appointments in
connexion with societies formed for the dissemi-
nation of scientific and, more particularly, chemical
knowledge as connected with agriculture; for, it
may be here remarked, that, in many instances,
where recipes for special mixtures have been sub-
mitted to the attention of agriculturists by chemical
pR)fest.ors, they have not unfrequently consisted of
incompatible materials, or have been impracticable

for general use, owing to their expensiveness. There
has also ever been a halting and dubious manner
of recommending chemical mixtures by those to
whom, from their position, the world is apt to look
up for guidance. In some measure, this may be
accounted for from the fact, that most of our public
guides have not hitherto been practical farmers, and
have, consequently, hesitated to recommend a
course, the design of which might be frustrated
from some unforseen or overlooked causes. In
forming recipes for manures, it is also requisite to
have some acquaintance with the value and pros-
pective prices of commercial articles, particularly
potash. From a want of this knowledge it is easy
to conceive how pearlash, costing 40s. per cwt.,
might be substituted for sulphate of potash costing
only 1 6s. per cv/t., whilst the commercial articles
sold under these titles contain nearly an equal
amount of potash — the pearlash having the further
disadvantage of being carried away by the first
shower of rain, in consequence of its great solu-
bility. It will be seen, therefore, that in recom-
mending a course for the agriculturist, it is requisite
that chemical, commercial, and agricultural ac-
quirements, not separately, but in combination
should be brought to bear on this important
subject. With no other class of men (and this is
stated with regret), would so little progress have
been made during a period of ten years as that
which has taken place in this branch of agricul-
ture. In any other profession or business, attempts
would have been made on a tolerably extensive
scale to have proved the soundness of the generally
received theory regarding the action of manures,
yet of the hundreds of experiments detailed in the
Transactions of the Highland Society and the
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng-
land, the whole appear to have been random mix-
tures, the ingredients mingled haphazard. They
are, however, serviceable ; for, when by any chance
the mixtures have approximated to such as theory
would point out, the most beneficial results have
followed .

Bones, bones and acid (commonly known as
superphosphate of lime), guano, sulphate, and mu*
riate of ammonia, are the principal special manures
that are used. There are, however, several others,
as rape cake, &c.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

193

Unboiled bones consist as follows : —

Per cent.

Organic matter (gelatine, &c.) . . 35

Phosphate of lime 55

Phosphate of magnesia 2

Carbonate of lime 6

Soda, salts, &c 2

Total 100

When converted into superphosphate of lime, (the
improved mode of using them) by adding sulphuric
acid, specific gravity I'SO, equal to one-half the
weight of the hones which are to be decomposed,
and diluted with twice its weight of water, about
20 per cent, of the phosphate of lime in the bones
will be converted into superphosphate. When the
preceding proportions are used, the composition of
of the so-called superphosphate of lime will be as
follows : — Per cent.
■ Phosphate of lime in the state of phos-
phate and superphosphate 35

Sulphate of lime (gypsum) 20

Animal matter 20

Water, carbonized animal matter, 20

Magnesia, soda, 5

100
The quantity of animal matter in 100 lbs. of dry
bone will yield about 6 lbs. of ammonia, or about
four per cent, in the superphosphate of lime. In
applying 100 lbs. of superphosphate of lime, we
supply 20 lbs. phosphoric acid, 15 lbs. sulphuric
acid, 20 lbs. lime, and 4 lbs. of ammonia, with
minute portions of magnesia, &c.

Sulphate of ammonia of commerce contains —
Ammonia .... 21 per cent., or 470^4 lbs.
Sulphuric acid . 48 „ 1075-2 ,,

Water 31 „ 694-4 „

100 A ton, or 2240*0 „
Sulphate and muriate of ammonia are principally

obtained from the ammonia hquor of gas works :
the price of the former, according to quality and
quantity, being from 13s. to 15s. per cwt. The
muriate of ammonia from 18s. to 20s. per cwt.

Guano, or the indurated excrements of sea-fowl,
accumulated during ages on solitary islands in the
Pacific on the western coast of South America, has
within the last few years been imported in immense
quantities for agricultural purposes; and, very
justly,notwithstandingsome instances of injudicious
use, has become a favourite fertilizer with the farmer
—in fact, from its pulverulent nature, dryness, and
tolerable freedom from olFensiveness, it has greatly
the advantage over other descriptions of special
manures.

For an excellent series of analyses of this sub-
stance, together with an accompanying treatise on
the chemical properties and agricultural value of
the various matters composing guano, agriculturists
are much indebted to Professor Way. Such as are
desirous of obtaining complete details as to the
composition and value of guano, must be referred
to that gentleman's elaborate paper on the subject
in the tenth volume of the Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England. So fully do I
concur with the sentiments therein expressed, and
agreeing, as they do, with the general opinions I
have previously published, I shaU extract some of
the more prominent views in his own words, instead
of comfining myself to merely culling the Analytical
Tables.

In treating of the composition of guano. Pro-
fessor Way justly observes : " The only important
constituents are reduced to

1. Ammonia, or its elements.

2. Phosphate of lime.

3. Potash.

The following tables are extracted from the paper
alluded to :—

TABLE I. COMPOSITION OF EIGHT SPECIMENS OF

PERUVIAN GUANO

A

B

c

D

B

P

G

H

Water

18-33

47-04

1-31

12-41

17-95

47-46

1-34

13-16

12-57

33-67

1-72

20-21

4-00

16-49

-80

-22

3-60

4-15

none.

2-57

12-58

46-61

2-79

14-37

4-54

11-47

•62

-23

3-22

•91

none.

2-66

12-29

48-76

1-15

13-61

4-57

11-32

•78

•23

4-95

•11

none.

2-23

13-09

49-32

1-42

14-48

4-00

10-84

-74

-23
2-91

0-78

none.

2-19

14-54

50-81

1-12

14-08

3-60

9-68

0-54

0-20

3-40

0-74

none.

1-29

13-67

Organic matter and salts of ammonia. . •
Sand and silica .

52-97
1-42

Phosphoric acid

14-56

Sulphuric acid

3-82 3-47

9-70 10^73

•70' -52

2-52

Lime c ,

10-38

Magnesia

0-31

Oxide of iron

•27
3-07

2-18

none.

1-21

•15

2-52

•30

none.

2-40

0-73

Potash

1-42

Soda

none.

Chloride of potassium

2-02

Chloride of sodium

none.

100^00

100.00

100-00

lOO^OO

100^00

100-00

100-00
0

100-00

194

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

With regard to this table, it is well observed by
Professor Way, " That it is an interesting and im-
portant fact, that guano should contain so much
potash as is shown by this table to be the case ;
that the proportion of this alkali is frequently as

Potash in 100 parts 1 3-27|

Soda „ 1-87

much as or more than 3 per cent, of its weight, is
proved by the examination of other specimens."
The following being the per centage of potash and
soda in eight other samples of Peruvian guano : —

3' 191
•63

3.431 4'60]
•75 none.

3-43
1-03

3'74l
■51

6-491

•67|

373
•79

The lowest per centage of water in a

number of specimens was 8'88

The highest 22-68

The average 1 3-09

It is a very common plan with dealers to dwell
on the organic matter in guano and other manures
in order to mislead parties into the belief that when
guano is rich in organic matter it must be equally
so in ammonia. For instance, one specimen analyzed
by Professor Way contains 57-13 of organic matter,
whilst another contained only 37-78, or nearly 50
per cent. less, yet the amount of ammonia yielded
from each specimen was nearly equal, that from the
former being 18-94 per. cent., and that from the
latter 18-50 per cent. On this point it is well ob-
served by Professor Way, that no analysis of guano
is of any value that merely gives the amount of
organic matter. In order to form a correct estimate,
the quantity of ammonia contained in the guano
must be expressly stated. One of the most com-
mon and extensive modes of making up fraudulent
and adulterating genuine guano is to grind up half-
rotten spent tanners' bark, the whole of which
would class as organic matter.

The average amount of sand in Peruvian guano
is li per cent. It is well observed that, " Of all
the ingredients of Peruvian guano the ammonia is
one of the greatest value, and a knowledge of its
proportion in the different specimens is of the
highest importance."

In thirty-two specimens from which an average
was drawn

Per cent.
The lowest proportion was. . 15-98
„ highest „ was. . 18-94
„ average of 32 specimens 17-41

With regard to Ichaboe, Saldanha Bay, &c,,
guanos, the supply has already been exhausted,
and of the immense quantity imported none re-
mains, the large quantity vended under these titles
being either adulterated Peruvian or a substance
made up in imitation of guano : tanners' bark,
magnesian hmestone, ochre, gypsum, salt, &c.,
forming the bulk of, with a small quantity of
ground bones and sulphate of ammonia added to
the mixture.

Taking the average composition of Peruvian
guano, so far as regards the three following sub-
stances, viz, ;— "

Per cent.

Ammonia at 17-41

Phosphate of Ume 24-12

Potash 3-50

Professor Way has proceeded to calculate the
value of a ton of Peruvian guano, which he has
done on most unexceptionable data, that is by
taking the lowest price at which any of the above
substances can be procured in their cheapest form,
viz. :

Ammonia, from sulphate or muriate of ammonia.

Phosphate of lime, from bones or coprolites.

Potash, from muriate or sulphate of potash.
By which it would appear that

£ s. d.

The ammonia, at 17-41 per cent.,
amounts to 388 lbs. in the ton,
which, at 6d. per lb., is worth. ... 9 14 0

The phosphate of lime, at 24-12 per
cent., amounts to 540 lbs., which,
at Jd., is worth 1 13 0

The potash, at 3 5 per cent., amounts

to 78| lbs., which at 2|d., is worth 0 14 8

Making a total amount of £12 2 5

as the value of all the ingredients of a ton of good
Peruvian guano.

The prices here affixed to the three principal
substances which produce the fertilizing effects
of guano, were calculated by Professor Way
from the ammonia contained in sulphate of am-
monia, valuing the sulphate at 12s. per cwt., and
the potash from the muriate and sulphate of
potash. In a note he correctly remarks, " That
the market value of the diflferent salt of potash is
far from constant." The preceding calculations
were made on the following prices : —

Carbonate of potash from 28s. to 42s. per cwt.
Sulphate „ at 12s. „

Muriate „ at 13s. ;,

Nitrate „ at 28s. „

containing 95 per cent, of nitre.

The per centage of potash in these salts when
pure and dry is as follows : —

Carbonate (pearl ash of commerce). . . . 68'2

Sulphate (sal enixium) 54-0

Muriate 63-2

Nitrate (saltpetre) 46-7

Foreign pearl and potash are, however, now
worth from 30s. to 35s. per cwt., and neither the
one nor the other are ever to be obtained dry ; these

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

195

sources of potash are consequently too high priced
for the farmer to purchase ; at the most reasonable
calculation dry potash cannot be so obtained
at a lower rate than 6d. per lb. ; neither is there
any prospect of their price becoming lower,
as they are derived from the destruction of
the woods of America and Canada, which are
burned by the settlers in clearing the land for
tillage, the ashes from which are lixiviated for the
potash. This source of potash is certainly nar-
rowing, both on account of the constantly increas-
ing distance of the woods from the frontier by the
annual destruction of the timber — the scarcity
being more severely felt by the growing demands
for the home consumption of America — in addition
to which is to be added the fact that the uses to
which potash is applied in our manufactures are
daily increasing. From these causes there is every
reason to believe that the farmer must forego any
idea of restoring the potash to his fields by pur-
chasing the ordinary pot and pearl ashes of Ame-
rica. If they could only be procured in sufficient
abundance, and at the prices previously quoted,
sulphate and muriate of potash would be the forms
best adapted to the use of the farmer ; of the two
the former ought to be preferred, in consequence of
its greater insolubility. The muriate of potash
is about equally soluble with common salt. Com-
mercial articles sold under these two denominations
are rarely pure, the sulphate generally consisting of
80 per cent, sulphate of potash and 20 per cent,
sulphate of soda ; this is denominated cake sul-
phate. There is a still more inferior kind called
granulated. The sort called sal enixium is gene-
rally a bi-sulphate, being two atoms of sulphuric
acid added to one atom of potash, or 37" 8 per cent.
This kind, however, always sells proportionally
higher than the first-mentioned description in con-
sequence of being free from soda, as it can, by
fluxing with limestone and small coal in a rever-
beratory furnace, be converted into pearl ash. The
pan, or cake sulphate of potash, is usually sold at
14s., and the bi-sulphate at 15s. to 16s. per cwt.
The muriate of potash generally contains 25 per
cent, of common salt. These two substances can-
not be distinguished from each other by taste or
sight. The remaining source of potash is the
nitrate, commonly known as saltpetre, the chemical
composition of which is 54 parts of nitric acid
added to 48 parts of potash. In using saltpetre we
apply two elements of fertility— nitrogen and potash;
and, in every case where it has been used, fertili-
zing results have followed. The nitrogen in salt-
petre bears the proportion of 93 per cent, as com-
pared with the nitrogen of commercial crude
sulphate of ammonia ; the latter, being valued at
12g. per cwt., will leave for the value of the nitrogen

in the nitrate of potash the sum of lis. ; and if the
527 lbs. of potash is estimated at 3d.* per lb. it
will be worth 13s. 2d., which will leave the value of
saltpetre for agricultural purposes as follows : —

s. d.
Value of the nitrogen estimated as crude
commercial ammonia, at the rate of

12s. per cwt 11 0

Value of527 lbs. of potash at 3d. per lb. 13 2

Value of one cwt. of saltpetre . . 24 2
It is rarely, however, that saltpetre can be bough
at a lower rate than 26s. per cwt., at what is com-
mercially termed 5 per cent, refraction, that is con-
taining 5 per cent, of impurities and water, one of
which is not unfrequently muriate of potash, and
therefore, in an agricultural point of view, not to
be deemed an impurity other than as containing
chlorine (or muriatic acid) in combination instead
of the more valuable compound nitric acid. In a
general way farmers can scarcely expect to obtain
saltpetre equivalent to the pure dry article at a less
rate than 30s. per cwt., unless the Peace Society
can prevail on nations to give up playing at the
game of war, and miners be induced to use a gun-
powder composed of a less fixed material and of
greater power, when these events occur. " Villanous
saltpetre may be dug from the bowels of the harm-
less earth " and applied to purposes less destruc-
tive than the ordinary ones which so excited the
ire of Hotspur's fop. At present saltpetre appears
to be the most extensive source for the farmers to
resort to for a supply of potash. It may be asked,
since a constant waste is occurring in potash car-
ried away by rain, &c., whence do plants obtain
their supply ; it may, therefore, be here mentioned
that all soils contain potash— sands the least, clays
usually the most ; but the potash so existing in
soils is found in intimate combination with silica
and alumina, and is only slowly set free by means
of the atmosphere, carbonic acid, and water;
following by continued disintegrating, and ex-
posing fresh surfaces to their action, has the effect
of restoring fertility to fields rendered barren by
overcropping ; for it is not merely necessary that
potash should exist in a soil, but in order to pro-
duce fertility it must be in such a state as to be
slowly converted into a soluble form, so that the
roots of plants may be able to absorb it ; some

* In the calculations extracted from Professor
Way's paper the quotations were strictly copied
from the original ; there is, however, every reason
to doubt that potash in any form can be obtained
for a lengthened period, especially with the pros-
pect of an increased demand, at so low a rate as
2id. per lb. The writer considers that 3d. per lb.
for potash is as low a figure as it ought to be
valued at.

196

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

granites contain from 6 to 9 per cent., and some
felspars 16 to IS per cent, of potash ; but no more
immediate fertility would ensue from applying any
amount of these substances, jrround ever so fine,
than if we applied an equal weight of pounded
brickbats or sandstone. In the course of a long
period the granite and felspar might possibly prove
of advantage by their gradual decomposition, but
not in time sufficient to answer the purposes of the
farmer. Attempts have been made to render these
substances soluble for agricultural purjioses, but
as yet it is a matter of doubt whether doing so is
more profitable than purchasing potash from the
ordinary sources. If it could be demonstrated
that silicates of potash when applied to the soil are
productive of an increased crop of grain, these
sources of potash would be much resorted to ; but
all the experiments we have seen with silicates
serve to show that an application of soluble silicates
tends only to increase the amount of straw, whilst
it decreases the weight of the grain. There is only
one instance we believe in which an application of
silicates would be decidedly advantageous, viz., on
old meadows ; we believe that in such cases the
use of silicates would forward and increase the
weight of the hay crop.

Superphosphate of Lime. — This manure is
formed by using two parts by weight of crushed
bones or coprolites,* and one part by weight of
brown acid. To make it properly the bones and
acid ought to be thrown into a leaden cistern, laid
on tiles or thick iron bearers so as to keep the fire
from melting the lead. Fanners cannot make the
article for less than manufacturers profess to sell
the genuine superphosphate, viz., 7s. per cwt; but
with this substance, as with guano, an immense
amount of adulteration is practised by fraudulent
dealers and manufacturers.

Nitrate of soda was extensively applied a few
years ago, but greatly decreased since the intro-
duction of i;uano into general use. As a source of
nitrogen it is equal in value to commercial sulphate
of ammonia ; in fact, when the price is equal, the
preference ought to be given to nitrate of soda.

Sulphate of lime can be procured in abundance
in gypsum.

Sulphate of soda has not unfrequently been used
both as a top dressing and as a diill manure when
mixed with other substances. In some instances
beneficial results appear to have followed its appli-
cation, and that in cases too where it could not be
accounted for on account of the sulphuric acid
contained in it ; in such cases the only theory that
can be assigned for its beneficial influence is that
it has the effect of more speedily decomposing the

* Substances which will be subsequently noticed.

inorganic substances in soils existing in a mineral-
ized state, and thus rendering them susceptible of
absorption by the roots of plants— the double de-
compositions which are known to take place when
certain salts of potash and soda are mixed in a
liquid state would seem to countenance this suppo-
sition.*

Chloride of sodium, or common salt, is composed
of chlorine and the metal sodium, which, in the pre-
sence of water, is converted into muriate of soda as a
source of chlorine and soda, on soils where these sub-
stances are absent the application of salt promotes
fertility. As the quantity required for most crops
is however small — except the horticultural plants
carrots and asparagus — some other cause must be
assigned for the extraordinary effects which are
sometimes seen on fields after an application of
salt. One cause may perhaps be attributed to a
property similar to that alluded to in noticing sul-
phate of soda ; another very pi'obable reason is
that it may combine with the lime in the soil, and,
according to the state of dryness or humidity, form
carbonate of soda and muriate of lime, and revert to
their original forms of muriate of soda and carbo-
nate of lime. A small quantity of muriate of lime,
having the effect of abstracting moisture from
dews, may, in dry seasons, produce a very bene-
ficial effect.

Sulphate of magnesia or Epsom salts is useful in
affording sulphuric acid and magnesia ; it has been
recommended to strew this salt over dung-heaps in
order to fix the ammonia, but cheaper substitutes
can be obtained. Sulphuric acid can also be pro-
cured at a cheaper rate by employing gypsum,
magnesian limestone, or dolomite will afford mag-
nesia.

Sulphate of lime, or gypsum, is the well-knowA
substance from which plaster of Paris is made, the
latter being merely sulphate of lime with the water
of chrystallization driven off; from the finer vari-
eties chimney ornaments are manufactured. It
may be well here to mention that in chrystalizing
salt for household and other purposes at the large
salt works, a scale forms at the bottoms of the pans,
sometimes as thick as a couple of inches in the
course of three weeks, and, in consequence of its
slow conducting power of heat, has to be removed ;
this cake, known as pan scale, is thrown away in
large quantities ; it is composed of 75 per cent,
sulphate of lime and 25 per cent, of common salt.

* Sulphate of soda can be procured extensively
from the large alkali manufactures in the neigh-
bourhood of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Liverpool,
price £4 per ton dry. Glaubers salts, which is
also sulphate of soda, contains 55"57 per cent, of
water. Sulphate of soda is frequently passed on
the ignorant as sulphate of potash.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

197

Animal charcoal is merely burnt bones, and is
of little more utility than well crushed bones, whilst
the price is much higher : it i-s an article much
adulterated.

Soot. — The ])eneficial effects of a top-dressing of
soot have been known for many years, particularly
when applied to j'oung clovers and wheats ; these
results are wholly attributable to the sulphate of
ammonia which is found in the soot, the quantity
being on an average about one-tenth of that ob-
tained from an equal weight of common sulphate of
ammonia, which would make it worth about Sd.
per cwt. Great quantities used to be sent to the
West Indies, particularly to Barbadoes. This is
an article which is also much adulterated. Recently
it has been stated that potash has been found in
appreciable quantities in the soot from iron furnaces,
not sufficient however, we believe, to make its ex-
traction profitable.

Saltpetre refuse consists principally of common
salt ; occasionally it is also accompanied by a very
appreciable percentage of muriate of potash ; it may
also contain about i per cent, of saltpetre which
has not been washed out. As under the existing
state of knowledge of the sources whence potash
may be derived, saltpetre promises to afford the
largest quantity, and in the greatest permanence, it
is interesting to know what quantity has been con-
sumed during the last few years, and also the pros-
pects of future supplies. Compared with many years,
the price of saltpetre during the past two or three
years has been relatively high, the importations
being comparatively small ; this small production
was the result of previous low prices ; a large sup-
ply is expected for the present year*, so that if a
demand arises for agricultural use, the prices may
still be expected to rule moderately. The imports
during the last twelve months amounted to 14,070
tons, which would increase in future years 50 per
cent, if present prices are maintained.

Soda-ash.— This article has been much recom-
mended of late as a remedy for the wireworm ; its
utihty for this object is, however, very dubious.
Soda-ash is manufactured on the large scale for the
use of soap-boilers, making soda crystals for wash-
ing, &c. The commercial article used formerly to
consist of a mixture of carbonate and caustic soda,
but the manufacturers now usually carbonate the
whole ; whether in the carbonated or caustic state
it is sold according to the percentage of caustic soda
in the ash, the standard being 48 per cent., the
price per ton being regulated according to the per-
centage, the market value on an average being 2 id.
per cwt., which at the standard will be equivalent
to £10 per ton. According to some experiments,

* 1850,

it would appear that soda awh had some slight fer-
tilizing influence, but it is quite as probable that this
was owing to the presence of the .sulphate of soda
or common salt, which always accompanies soda
ash, as to the soda ash itself.

In concluding these remarks on special manures,
it will be well to remind the reader that above all
things it is requisite that whenever he buys an ar-
ticle it is of the utmost consequence that he should
know its composition; for, even with genuine guano,
a reference to the tables of Professor Way will
show that cargoes differ materially with regard to
the quantities of phosphates and ammonia which
they may contain. This is a point of great practi-
cal importance, because if the guano is to be ap-
plied to potatoes, grass, or clover, the guano con-
taining the most ammonia ought to be preferred;
if for turnips, that containing the most phosphate
should be selected. If this care is requisite for the
economical use of guano where the genuine article
has only to be selected from, how much more re-
quisite is it for the farmer to be careful when he is
about to purchase guano of doubtful quality ! To
make this more evident. Professor Way gives a cal-
culation of the value of several inferior guanos
as follows —
Ammonia, 8.12 per cent., amounts to

182lbs., at Id. per lb., is worth .. £4 11 0
The phosphate of hme, 21.09 per cent.,

amounts to 472lbs., which, at fd,

per lb., is worth 1 9 6

Pota.sh, at say .3^ per cent., amounts to

78^1bs., which at 2^, is worth 0 14 8

Value of the guano 6 5 2

Silicates of potash and soda. — If future experi-
ence should prove the efficacy of these substances
they can easily be manufactured ; their use consists
in supplying the silica, sand or flint which forms
the exterior yellow covering of straw. On bog
land this may be found serviceable ; on the
fens of Lincolnshire, where silica exists only in a
very minute proportion in the soil, it is accounted
good farming to leave the stubble veiy long, and
afterwards set fire to it, the beneficial effects of
which can only be attributed to the silica set free,
as the small quantity of other inorganic matter li-
berated is too small in quantity to be of any great
value in reclaiming bog land ; it has also been ob-
served on peaty soils that the cereal grasses will fre-
quently grow very luxuriantly until the time when
the straw ought to set, after which period the stems
begin to droop and fail. A use for silicate of soda
and potash on old meadow land has already been
pointed out, and is well worth trying by any enter-
prising farmer.

Having explained the composition of fanp-yard

193

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

manure, and the majority of those substances which
are usually used as portable or special manures, as
well as the composition of the crops most com-
monly cultivated, we shall proceed to examine the
manner in which they ought to be applied so as to
produce the greatest results with the utmost eco-
nomy of material and the least waste.

Chapter V.

PRINCIPLES THAT SHOULD REGULATE THE AP-
PLICATION OF MANURES.

In the earliest stages of husbandry the same rule
obtained which is still found in the more backward
districts at the present period, viz., taking a suc-
cession of white crops until the land will not yield
sufficient to pay for the labour expended on it. At
the present day instances are far from solitary in the
Highlands of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, where
five, six, and seven white crops are taken succes-
sively, after which scourging, the land is allowed to
recruit by what is termed " letting it out to grass"
for 10 or 15 years, after which the scourging is re-
jjeated. During the cropping period manure may
or may not be used, according to circumstances.
As agriculture advanced, what are termed green
crops became introduced, and in the course of time
it was found more profitable to alternate green and
white crops : whether this system is founded on
correct or incorrect principles will be examined
hereafter. For exemplification of the rules which
ought to guide a rational system of manuring,
we shall select two ordinary four-course rotations,
from which it will be seen that for the article of
potash alone it requires 19 tons of farm-yard ma-
nure to supply a crop of 12 tons of potatoes, and
18 tons of farm-yard manure to supply with potash
a crop of 20 tons of swedes.

In order to afford the same quantity of potash
to the turnip and potato crop by means of guano,
we should have to supply 4,285 lbs. of guano, or
nearly 2 tons, for the potato crop; and 4,000lbs.
for the turnip crop.

Three-hundredweight of guano, the ordinary
dressing for turnips, will only supply suflScient po-
tash for 1^ tons of swedes. It is, in consequence
of this difference in the composition of farm-yard
manure and guano, that the former is found inva-
riably to succeed, whilst the other sometimes fails,
and if used continuously a time will arrive, either
sooner or later, according to the character of the
soil, when this excellent accessory to fertihty, pro-
perly applied, will cease to create luxuriant vege-
tation ; on bogs and sands this will be the soonest
apparent. But in applying 19 tons of farm-yard
manure, containing ISOlbs. of potash, to the po-
tato crop, we apply also ISOlbs. of phosphoric acid.

whereas the potato crop only requires 33lbs., thus
supplying ll71bs. phosphoric acid more than is re-
quired by that crop, whilst the whole succeeding
rotation will only consume 93lbs., or 571bs. less than
the phosphoric acid supplied by the 19 tons of farm-
yard manure, perhaps this extra quantity is no more
than is necessary to replace the phosphoric acid
which is carried off in solution by rain water in the
course of a four years' rotation. If the second ro-
tation, commencing with turnips, is manured with
18 tons of farm-yard manure, this quantity would
furnish exactly sufficient potash for a crop of
swedes of 20 tons, and at the same time ISQlbs. of
phosphoric acid, of which the turnip crop will re-
quire 45lbs., the whole course requiring llilbs.,
or 28lbs. less than the whole amount of phosphoric
acid supplied by the 1 8 tons of manure, a surplus
barely enough to compensate for the natural waste
which is unavoidable.

The above facts philosophically account for the
soundness of the system which is generally followed
in the best agricultural districts, viz., that of ap-
plying the manure to the first, or, as it is commonly
called, the green crop, rather than dividing the ma-
nure into portions, and appropriating it separately
to each crop. If the manure was used as just de-
scribed, and divided into four equal parts, there
could only be S/^lbs. of potash applied to the po-
tato crop, which requires ISOlbs., the consequence
that would follow such a division would speedily
be seen in a miserable potato crop, that would not
repay the mere labour of tillage and gathering, but
on the other hand it may be said if the whole of
the manure is applied to the potato crop, which will
absorb all the potash contained in the 19 tons of
manure, how are the three succeeding crops to ob-
tain the requisite supply of potash, amounting to
92ilbs. ? In answering this question, two impor-
tant matters have to be taken into consideration
with regard to the form in which the different mi-
neral constituents of crops exists in farm-yard ma-
nure, and also the relative solubility of the different
ingredients when set free from the organic matter,
principally carbonaceous, combined with them. It
must be apparent to the commonest observer, on
inspecting a manure heap, that a very considerable
portion of it is formed of vegetable substances only,
in the primary stage of decay ; until this decay has
gone some length, much of the inorganic consti-
tuents of the manure are locked up in as insoluble
a form as though they formed a portion of a gra-
nitic rock. When the manure is placed in the soil,
the woody fibre of the straw, undecomposed por-
tions of grain, &c., undergo a slow decay, to which
Liebig has given the name of Ercmacusis (slow
combustion), at the same time evolving carbonic
acid gas ; whilst this action is going forward the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

199

mineral constituents are being gradually liberated.
The inorganic constituents required by plants are
of various degrees of solubility ; but the most im-
portant, both as regards the weight required for
each crop, and also for its money value, is potash :
this substance in all its forms, except when com-
bined with silica, alumina, or as a double lime salt,
is of easy solubility, and therefore very susceptible
of being carried away by means of rain. It will
thus be seen that two benefits accrue from applying
a great bulk of manure to the green crop. In the
first place the green crop requires the largest
amount of potash, and absorbs it as fast as it is set
free, thus preventing the great loss which would
otherwise arise from the solubility of the potash li-
berated ; whilst the green crop requires the largest
amount of potash, the succeeding crops of the ro-
tation require a much greater proportional quantity
of phosphoric acid, than they do of potash. It will
be seen that 19 tons of farm-yard manure will contain
150lbs. of phosphoric acid, 33lbs. of which would
only be consumed by the potato crop, leaving a re-
sidue more than sufficient to supply the succeeding
crops as well as for natural waste*. The phosphoric
acid in manure usually exists in the form of phos-
phate of lime, and if not in this state, in some other
form of equally difficult solubility, from which it
will evidently be seen that, if the rotation had been
reversed — that is, the manure applied to a white
crop in the first instance — a much larger amount
of potash would be supplied to the grain crop than
it needed, which, from its solubility, might be car-
ried off in solution by rain-water, the crop deriving
no benefit from the excess, whilst the farmer must
inevitably sustain a loss by following the inverse
order of cropping to that usually practised. The
reasons here adduced must convince every one that
the proper mode of using farmyard manure is to ap-
ply it to the green crop, seeing that it is the least
calculated to incur less by so doing, whilst at the
same time it leaves a sufficient amount of phos-
phate for the succeeding crops of the rotation. It
has already been stated that, when manure is ap-
plied to the soil, a considerable part of the inorganic
matters is held in intimate combination by the car-
bonaceous organic matters of the undecomposed
straw, grain, &c., and is only separated as the de-
composition proceeds. It therefore usually occurs
that some of the manure applied to the first crop is
not wholly decomposed until the second or third
crop, and this remark particularly applies to what

* There is not much probability of potash existing
in manure, especially that made from straw, in any
other form than that of a silicate, in which case it
would be gradually set free during the decay of the
straw, &c., by the decomposing action of carbonic
acid and moisture.

is termed fresh manure. Now it is evident that, if
a crop of ] 2 tons of potatoes is obtained by apply-
ing 19 tons of farmyard manure, it would require
the whole of the potash in the manure ; but if the
whole of the manure does not thoroughly decom-
pose whilst the potato crop is growing, and the
probabiUty is that it will not thoroughly decompose
during that period, one of two things must occur —
either a less weight of potatoes will be produced,
or the potash required must be supplied by the
soil. In order to ascertain how far the soil is ca-
pable of supplying plants with their mineral con-
stituents. Dr. Daubeny instituted a series of va-
luable experiments with the soil of the Botanic
Garden at Oxford. In the course of these experi-
ments he digested some soil for four or five
successive hours in muriatic acid, under the im-
pression that whatever cannot be extracted from a
soil by such a digestion must be in a state of
combination as will render it totally incapable of
imparting anything to a plant, for such a period of
time, at least, as can enter economically into the
calculations of the agriculturist; and, moreover,
that all which muriatic acid extracts, but which
water impregnated with carbonic acid fails in dis-
solving, ought to be regarded as contributing no-
thing towards present fertility, although it may
ultimately become available as food for plants.
Dr. Daubeny, therefore, first ascertained the na-
ture and amount of the ingredients separable
from a given weight of soil by means of mu-
riatic acid ; and secondly, those obtained from
an equal weight by a definite quantity of water,
impregnated with carbonic acid gas. Thus, by a
careful analysis, he ascertained " that the soil of the
Botanic Garden at Oxford contained, within an area
of 100 square feet, and a depth of three feet from
the surface, 3.5lbs. of phosphoric acid, G.glbs. of
potash, and 2. gibs, of soda, all in a state to be se-
parated from the general mass by muriatic acid."
That the above, however, were for the most part in
a dormant condition, appeared from the much
smaller amount of the same which could be ex-
tracted by water containing carbonic acid ; for it
was found that, of all the alkaline sulphates*, not

* The alkalies were estimated as sulphates, as it
was found more convenient to unite them with sul-
phuric acid, in which state they admitted of being
heated and weighed without incurring loss. The
following formula will represent the relative pro-
portions of sulphates :

Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.

6.9 potash = 12.6875 sulph. potash { ^^^^ ^pt acid

2.9 soda = 6.525 sulph. soda |

3.625 sulph. acid

Tot. 10.8 potash & 19.2125 sulph. pot. & 19.2125 sulph.pot.&
soda sulph. soda sulph, soda

200

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

1 libs, could be procured by these means, instead
of 19.2lbs.

By operating in a similar manner upon soils of
the same quality as the above, which had been ex-
hausted by several years' previous cropping, it ap-
peared that the amount of the ingredients alluded
to as dormant in the soil did not much vary from
the above-quoted instance, but that the amount of
the active ones was beyond all comparison greater
in the sample of unexhausted soil. Dr. Daubeny,
therefore, concludes that " the dormant and active
portions may both be comprehended under the de-
signation of its available constituents, whilst those
which, from their state of combination in the mass,
can never be expected to contribute to the growth
of plants, may be denominated the passive ones.

The experiments of William Fresnius have, how-
ever, shown that the slow but continued action of
carbonic acid and moisture will separate the al-
kalies from m.inerals that have resisted the in-
fluence of boihng nitro-muriatic acid. The solvent
powers of carbonic acid have been tested subse-
quently by Professors W. B. and R. E. Rogers, of
the University of Virginia (inserted in Sillimans
Journal) ; also by Dr. John Davy, at Barbadoes.

From these experiments we may fairly infer
that some portion of the inorganic constituents
of plants may be obtained from the soil, al-
though the manure applied may contain as much
as the first crop requires. The surplus will, in
such a case, remain over in great ]mrt for the use
of the succeeding crop or crops.

That plants have a powerful action on the mi-
neral substances of the soil, which enables them to
render soluble minerals of a refractory nature, and
thus obtain their supply of alkalies, is evidenced
by what takes place when superphosphate of lime
or bones is applied to the soil. Neither of these
substances contain any alkali ; yet their simple ap-
plication, in many instances, is followed by a luxu-
riant crop. It is true, it may be said that the
soil had previously been exhausted of its phosphate
of lime, but not of its potash, and that fertility is
restored by an application of phosphate of lime.
This argument would hold good, were it not found,
at the same time, that an application of muriate or
sulphate of potash produces a hke result, if a quan-
tity of either is sown on separate parts of the same
field. Fertility is also restored by means of am-
monia^ which does not contain any of the inorganic
constituents of a plant. The last-named case de-
monstrates clearly that barrenness is not produced
by the utter exhaustion of any one or more of the mi-
neral constituents, otherwise fertility would not be re-
stored by the use of an ammoniacal salt ; it would,
therefore, appear that when either ammonia, potash,
or phosphate of lime is present in the soil, in forms

easily absorbed by plants, they have spparately the
property of inducinggreater vital energy in the plants
growing thereon, by which means they are enabled
to obtain the other ingredients. As an instance of
something of this kind, I may quote an experiment
made in Cornwall, and related in Mr. Karkeek's
excellent account of the agriculture of that county :

"A piece of several acres was enclosed in 1835,
and put into turnips. One portion was manured
with bones, at the rate of 24 bushels per acre ; the
other portion of the field was simply manured with
the ashes obtained from breaking up and burning
the land. In the years 1836 and 1837 it was suc-
cessively cropped with oats, and then laid down to
permanent pasture. At the present time — nearly
ten years since it was first broken from the waste,
which was nothing but heath and furze — the effects
of the bones can be plainly distinguished as far as
the eye can reach, as if a line of demarcation had
been drawn between a rich grass sward and a poor
scanty pasture.

" This, and a dozen other experiments of tne
same kind, having attracted the attention of a great
many persons interested in agriculture, and the
Probus Farmers' Club, with a view of ascertaining
whether the presence of bone could be detected by
analysis, as it could assuredly be by the appearance
of the pasture, sent samples of the soils (one from
each part of the field) to Mr. Hunt, for this pur-
pose ; and, with a view of testing that gentleman's
analytical abilities, he was kept entirely ignorant of
the object of the Club. The following is the re-
sult :

Unboned Soil. Boned Soil.
Water evaporated by

stove-drying ]4.06 14.18

Vegetable and animal

matter burned, 1 2.01 12.05

Silicia and siliceous grit 49.54 49.50

Oxide of iron 7.30 7.00

Carbonate of lime .... 1.05 1.06

Carbonate of magnesia 0.25 0.35

Sulphate of lime 1.05 1.04

Muriates 0.54 0.54

Alumina 7.10 6.04

Phosphate of lime 0.10 0.75

Phosphate of magnesia 0.00 0.05

Potash 1.00 1.27

Humus, soluble in al-
kalies 6.00 6.17

" As only three crops were taken from the
ground — viz., a crop of turnips and two crops of
oats — it may be safely calculated that these crops
did not carry away more than SOlbs. of phosphoric
acid, which would only form a very small portion
of the phosphoric acid contained in 24 bushels of
bones, which would not amount to less than
400lbs."

The above is a good example of the property
which a single special manure has of enabling
plants to assimilate a larger portion than they
otherwise would be capable of doing of tlie dormant
or passive ingredients of the soii necessary
to their perfect development. The increase of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

2(il

potash from 1 per cent, on the unboned to 1.27
per cent, on the boned can only be accounted for
by the circumstance that the phosphoric acid and
nitrogen of the bones so far stimulated the growth
of the turnips, oats, grass, &c., that they were en-
abled to assimilate a corresponding quantity of
potash. Also, the deeper protrusion of the roots,
owing to the more luxuriant growth induced by the
aid of the bones enabled them to draw a portion of
their inorganic nutriment from the lower or subsoil.
The increased weight of vegetable matter thus
formed again yields up its inorganic constituents,
either by natural decay or as excrements voided, after
being ingested by the animals grazing on the field.
In this way only can the increased quantity of
potash on the boned soil be accounted for. There
is the stronger reason for suspecting this to be the
case, as at least lOOlbs. of potash must have been
carried oft' in the three first crops, and an amount,
whilst grazed, equal to the whole of the phosphoric
carried away; notwithstanding which serious de-
ductions, the amount of potash in the soil increased
27 per cent. I am not aware that this peculiar ac-
tion has been noticed by any other observer ; and
to it I attribute the fact that farmers have been so
much misled as to rely on manures such as guano,
superphosphate, bones, ammonia, &c., for fertility,
when applied singly, although separately they
seldom contain more than two, and often only one,
of the elements of fertility, instead of all. The
continued use of such empirical dressings must
eventually lead to disappointment and loss, as the
time sooner or later must arrive when the farmer
will find his fields will cease to be fertile, not-
withstanding the application of his long-relied-on,
but single, renovator. This must be evident when
we calculate the quantity of alkalies, &c., on an
acre of soil. For instance, taking the soil of
the Botanic Garden at Oxford, it will be found
that the amount of potash in an active or available
form, in an acre of soil one foot deep, would only
amount to 1001,88lbs., or suflftcient for seven
crops of potatoes. The injurious effects hare al-
luded to will be the soonest apparent on sands,
chalks, and peats : a longer period will elapse
before they will be perceived on clays, marls, and
loams. What occurs with clover as a preparatory
crop for wheat, appears to countenance this theory
respecting the action of single fertilizers. It has
frequently been noticed that, if the second crop of
clover is pas'tured instead of being mown, the suc-
ceeding crop of wheat is invariably inferior. This
would appear, at the first blush, entirely contrary
to what has been previously stated, seeing that a
certain loss of mineral ingredients must occur in
the crop which is carried away from the soil, whilst
depastured clover receives the benefit of the drop-

pings from the cattle and sheep grazing on it, in
which manner the greater portion of the inorganic
portion of the food ingested will be again returned
to the soil. It has been ascertained* that the weight
of the roots contained in an acre of good mown
clover amounts to about 3,G30lbs. (calculated dry),
while the weight of roots from a portion of the
same field which had been pastured gave only
l,443lbs. Here we have at once an explanation of
the cause of success in one case and failure in the
other : as there was three times the weight of
clover-roots to decompose on the mown portion
during the growth of the wheat crop, there would
consequently be three times the weight of inorganic
substances set free. Mr. Short adds, " I have as-
certained that the weight of roots in clover pieces
mown twice bears a proportion to those in pastures
of three to one. From this it will also be seen that
physiological circumstances have to be attended to,
as well as the mere mode of manuring. Another
fact in connexion with the physiology of vegetation
is the circumstance that generally a larger amount
of inorganic matter is found in the young than the
mature plant, calculating the whole plant when

Fromberg has shown in the chemical investiga-
tion of the potato, (" Highland Transactions,"} that
the inorganic portion varies, according to his expe-
riments, as follows.

1. OF THE PROPORTION OF ASH LEFT BY THE
YOUNG TUBER.

1. 2. 3.

Butts from South Ash-leaved
Mid Lothian. American. Kidneys.

Ash per cent 0.80 1.16 0,95

Do. calculated dry.. 4.32. 5.42 4.45

2. THE FULL GROWN TUBER.

1 2. 3.

Buffs Red White

from Potato Potato

Mid- from from East

Lothian. Lanark. Lothian.

Ash per cent 0.78 0.96 0.75

Do. calculated dry.. 3.36 4.01 3.75

In the same volume, is Mr. Norton's analysis of
the oat plant ; in which he remarks, that the first
specimens of the young plant arrived on the 4th
of June, and the succession at weekly intervals
was uninterrupted until the cutting of the crop, on
the 3rd of September. The oats were of the pota-
to variety, and though retarded by the unusually
wet season, were uniformly strong and healthy, the
sample proving one of uncommon excellence.
The plants on the 4th of June were from 4 to 6
inches in height, consisting merely of one leaf,
and the commencement of the stalk.

* See Mr. T. Keir Short'.-; " Agriculture of the
West RidiuK "f Yorkshire."

203

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

OF THE LEAF.

The following table exhibits the proportions in
the leaf, at successive stages of its growth : 1st of
water, 2nd of ash, 3rd of ash calculated dry,

Day of the
month received.

June 4th

June 11th . . . .
June 18th ....
June 25th

Per cent.

of water
80.51
82.76
82.02
78.53

July 2nd 80.26

July 9th

July I6th .. ,
July 23rd . ..
July 30th... .

Aug. 6th

Aug. I3th . . .
Aug. 20th . . .
Aug. 27th . .
Sept. 3rd

76.97
76.53
77.61
77.00
76.63
74.06
79.93
70-68
24.60

Per cent,
of ash.
2.16
1.86
1.63
2.35
2.24
2.81
3.06
3.85
3.78
3.75
6.14
4.25
6.49
15.78

Per cent.

of ash dry
10.83
10.79
9.07
10.95
11.35
12.20
12.61
16.45
16.44
16.05
20,47
21.14
22.13
20.90

During the whole growth ot the plant, the dimi-
nution in the quantity of water in the leaf was not
great, being only about 10 per cent from the 4th
of June to the 27th of August; so late as the 20th
of August, it was nearly as high as the first.
"When the plant becomes ripe, however, the leaf at
once withers, and this accounts for the great de-
crease of water between the 27th of August, and
the 3rd of September. This decrease of water
gives a great apparent increase of ash in the un-
dried leaf; when calculated dry in the last col.
there appears an actual decrease from the two pre-
ceding weeks. There may have been some change
in the circulation at the last, by which a portion of
the inorganic materials were carried back into the
stalk.

OP THE STALK.

The per centage of water, of ash, and of ash cal-
culated dry, were determined as in the leaf.

"Ppt cent
Day of the Per cent. Per cent, j-aiculated

dry.

10.49

9.88

9.32

9.17

7.83

7.80

7.94

7.99

7.45

7.63

6.62

6.66

7.71

8.35

er cent.

Per cent

f water.

of ash.

87.04

1.36

87.05

1.28

87.13

1.28

84.74

1.40

83.66

1.28

82.05

1.40

80.85

1.52

79.60

1.63

76.64

1.74

75.66

2.01

69.80

2.00

76 27

1.58

71.57

2.19

71.70

2.36

June 4th ....

June 11th

June 18th ....
June 25th ....

July 2nd

July 9th

July 16th

July 23rd

July 30th

Aug. 6th

Aug. 13th

Aug. 20th

Aug. 27th ....
Sep. 3rd

The decrease of water during the growth of this
part of the plant is considerably more than in the
leaf. The quantity of ash in theundried straw (third
col. yincreases towards the end, as in the undried leaf.
This, in both cases, is owing to the gradual disap-
pearance of the water ; for we see in the last column,
that the actual per centage of ash in the dried
stalk is less on the 3rd of September than it was
on the 4th of June.

In the earlier growth of the stalk, the dried stem
or solid part, though less in quantity, actually con-
tains a larger per-centage of ash than is afterwards
necessarv for its perfect maturity. As the stalk is
a part of the plant, through which must pass the
inorganic materials necessary for building up all
the other parts above ground.

COMPOSITION OF THE ASH FROM THE LEAF OF UNRIPE OATS AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF

GROWTH.

Day of month received June 4. June 14. June 18. June 25. July 2. July 9. July 16.

Potash and Soda 24.60 23.51 26.21 28.10 18.78 16.09 18.35

Chloride of sodium 16.34 13.54 11.30 7.56 7-92 4.09 0.30

Lime 8.44 7.24 7.33 6.74 6.91 5.93 5.13

Magnesia 5.33 3.11 3.47 3.06 2.39 2.35 1.63

Oxide of iron 0.61 0.52 0.72 0.99 0.40 0.34 0.55

Sulphuric acid 11.74 12.85 10.59 7.88 9.56 6.45 13.05

Phosphoric acid 16.16 10.57 10.12 8.76 6.92 6.44 2.91

Silica 16,58 28.54 30.31 36.50 47.62 58,28 58,22

99.80 99.88 100,05 99.59 100,14 99.97 100.14

The most striking feature of this table is the
gradual disappearance of chloride of sodium
(common salt) until it becomes less than one-third
of a per-cent. It is unfortunate that Messrs, Nor-
ton and Fromberg omitted, in the analysis of the
ash, in the preceding and following table, to sepa-
rate the potash from the soda. The per-centage of
phosphoric acid greatly diminishes in both tables,

so much so that it would appear to be necessary to
supply more of the inorganic constituents of a
crop in the green than the ripe state ; the dispro-
portion in the case of oats, however, appears much
more glaring, in consequence of the large per cen-
tage of siUca, which is absorbed as the plant
matures.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE. 203

THE COMPOSITION OF THE ASH FROM THE STALK OF THE UiS'RIPE PLANT.

Day of the month received .. . June 4. June 11. June 18. June 25. July 2. July 9. July 10.

Potash and soda 24.29 21.45 26.49 28.86 36.26 30.10 42.43

Chloride of sodium 32.66 34.65 24.94 24.57 11.62 17,82 4.46

Lime 2.40 4.22 3.74 2.42 2.64 1.60 4.12

Magnesia 0.88 3.20 2.20 2.58 1.17 2.27 1.47

Oxide of iron 0.39 0.30 0,40 0.58 0.88 0.68 0.62

Sulphuric acid 6.15 7.82 8.51 4.87 7.98 9.09 7.84

Phosphoric acid 16.15 13.96 12.51 7.81 2.21 5.57 6.31

Silica 16.29 14.32 20,41 28.08 36,64 32.39 34.85

99.86 99.92 99,24 99-77 99.40 99.52 100.33

Of the above table it is remarked, by Mr. Nor-
ton, that the decrease in the quantity of chloride
of sodium is here also very remarkable, from 32i
to 4 1 per cent. The phosphoric acid continued
without much variation, until the 25th of June,
when the oat itself began to form ; by the 2nd of
July the oats had shot up from the stalk, and be-
come visible ; in that week a marked and sudden
decrease took place in the phosphoric acid. In the
two succeeding weeks it began again to increase.
No very great changes seem to have taken place in
the other constituents, excepting the gradual in-
crease of silica.

COMPOSITION OP ASH PROM THE WHOLE OAT,
AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF ITS GROWTH.

Day when received, .... July 2. July 9. July 18.

Potash and soda 32.92 31.31 31.37

Chloride of sodium ... . 10.37 8.10 0.61

Lime 2.70 5.40 6.76

Magnesia 3.44 4.52 2.94

Oxide of iron 0.39 0.21 0.35

Sulphuric acid 10.35 12.78 16.42

Phosphoric acid 14.02 20.09 15.19

Silica 24.40 17.05 26.05

98.59 99.46 99.69

During these three weeks the oat attained nearly
its full length, but was yet quite green, and the
grain had scarcely begun to form in the interior of
the husk. Again the diminution of chlorine ap-
pears very great, and serves to show that common
salt exercises an influence in vegetation other than
as a mere mechanical constituent of the ripe plant,
as its presence cannot solely be attributable to
simple absorption, otherwise why should it not
be present in as great abundance on July 18th,
as July 2nd ? In both cases the crops were green.
These experiments therefore justify the opinion
held by some, that plants have the power of
selection, and also of excretion.

From the above experiments it appears to be
necessary that the soil should always possess either
naturally or by artificial means, a larger amount
of the inorganic constituents of plants capable of
absorption, than that required by a crop when ripe.

It must be obvious that special or portable ma-
nures have one decided advantage over farm yard
manure, viz., the facility with which they can be
applied during any period of the growth of crops.
Of this circumstance considerable practical advan-
tage may be derived by supplying in larger propor-
tion the particular food required at any given stage
of the crop. Taking wheat as an example, it must
be evident that it will require only very small
quantities of inorganic food from the period of
sowing in Autumn until Spring; but if the manure
is applied at the time of sowing, a very great loss
must occur, through a portion being washed away
during the rain of winter and spring. A small
quantity applied at the time of sowing, and two or
three top- dressings, say from February until May,
or the period when it begins to shoot out, would be
the more economical mode of manuring, and would
also be found more effective in its results. Wheat
steeped in putrid urine, or, if greater luxuriance
is required, add thereto a small quantity of an
ammoniacal salt ( Campbell's celebrated steeping
fluid ), and instead of drying it solely with quick-
lime, use a few pounds of bones ground as
fine as flour, or precipitated phosphate of lime,
would be manured quiet sufficiently until February;
towards the latter end of which month, or the com-
mencement of March, 1 cwt. ofa manure composed
of the mineral constituents of wheat mixed with
ashes * or burned clay, and a little azotised manure,
might be applied, another in April, and another in
May, the cost of which ought not to amount to more
than 21s. to 25s. It is not so easy to dress green
crops with manure after they are once planted or
sown, as it is to dress corn, clover, or grass crops.
This is not a matter of so much consequence; as by
using the manures with a drill the whole is dropped
in the immediate vicinity of the plant; and the
heavy rains of midsummer occur at the period of
the greatest growth of green crops, assist their

* The ashes and burned clay are only added to
assist in spreading, therefore it is not necessary to
confine the proportion to 1 or 5 cwt. If soot was
mixed with the compost, it will be still better.

204

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

action. The state of division, as well as chemical
combination, in which the inorganic constituents
of plants exists in a manure, are matters of some
importance. They ought not to be either too
soluble or insoluble. Liebig proposed combining
the alkalies with calcareous substances to render
.them less soluble : this if honestly done by a manu-
facturer would be of great advantage.

The superior action of some of the recently in-
troduced manures appears to be principally owing
to their minute division, and in some cases also in
consequence of converting a substance of difficult
solubility into a soluble one. Superphosphate of
lime presents in itself an illustration of these two
forms ; bones, &c., containing phosphate of lime
being converted by the agency of sulphuric acid
in the first place into the soluble superphosphate
of Lime ; but as it meets with the alkalies and lime
in the soil, it becomes changed into the neutral
phosphate of lime, a white powder as fine as
flour.

Sufficient has already been stated to show why
farm yard-manure should invariably produce good
results, whilst one or moi'e of the special manures
commonly and as frequently disappoints the expec-
tations of the farmer ; the reason may, however, be
repeated — viz., that the farm-manure contains all the
ingredients necessary for a crop, whilst the special
manures only contain a part ; consequently, if the
soil does not contain those constituents of which
the manure is deficient, an indifferent crop must
be the result. Nothing can be moi"e absurd than to
mix guano, superphosphate of lime &c,, with farm-
yard manure ; seeing that the latter is not deficient
in phosphoric acid, but rather of potash, it would
be much more rational to use a less quantity of farm-
yard manure, and make up the deficiency with hquid
manure ; seeing that the liquid manure is richer in
potash than farm-yard manure, but deficient in
phosphates. For instance, fifteen tons of farm-yard
manure would contain —

Potash. Phos.Acid.

lbs. lbs.

57.8 57.8

Five tons of liquid manure, at
.664 per cent, potash and .07
per cent, phosphoric acid, would
contain 74.168 7.84

131.968 65.64

Or where special manures are used, not contain-
ing any potash, seven to ten tons of liquid manure
distributed over the field after the manure and seed
were drilled in, would supply not only the deficien-
cy of potash in the special manure, but would also
afford a copious supply of moisture at a period
when it is much needed, whilst at the same time the
plant would be pushed forward so vigorously in
consequence of the exceedingly soluble form in
which the liquid manure would present the mineral
ingredients adapted to its growth during the early
stages, that there would be every probability of its
shooting forth with sufficient luxuriance to be
placed out of danger from the fly, during a dry
turnip seeding season. These matters are often of
vital importance to the farmer. From what has
been stated, it must be evident to every reflecting
farmer that farm-yard manure ought only to be
used with the green crop, as to that only can it be
most beneficially applied. Manuring grass lands
with farm-yard manure is in a great measure ma-
nuring the atmosphere.

The importance of using a larger amount of pot-
ash in portable manures than is ordinarily employed
is evidenced by the fact that all the experiments
made on the feeding powers of turnips, or their
true value, indicate that although equal weights of
produce may be obtained, those produced by ma-
nuring with guano are greatly deficient in feeding
properties. Lord Blantyre had three lots of cattle
put up and fed with turnips ; lot 1 fed on those
grown with dung alone, lot 2 with guano alone, lot
3 half-dung half-guano ; the increase in lot 1 was
2,538 lbs., in lot 2 2,318 lbs., lot 3 2435 lbs.; the
weight of turnips eaten in each case was about
the same, and was the produce of nearly equal
spaces of land. — See Highland Transactions
March, 1852.

WHEAT SOWING.

BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESa., F.R.S.

At a period when wheat sowing commences so
extensively in almost every district of our country,
a few scattered notices, tending to the more profit-
able cultivation of the crop, may not be without
their utility if brought together for the farmers' use.

It may serve to encourage us in our efforts to
procure the seeds, and adopt the cultivation the
best adapted to our land ; if we reflect upon the
vast improvements which have taken place both in

the extended growth and in the improved cultiva-
tion of wheat during the last century and a quarter
— since the days when Jethro TuU farmed on the
chalk formation near Hungerford, in Berkshire,
and endeavoured to induce his brother farmers to
adopt his machines and imitate his mode of tillage.
TuU was evidently before his age in many points ;
he carried, it is true, his theories too far, and had
evidently neither the temper nor the caution requi-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

HOd

site to ensure success. He was the earliest advo-
cate of thin sowing, and of a repetition of crops on
the same soil, and it is noticeable in reading his
" Horse Hoe Husbandry," pubUshed in 1733, how
much he saw possible in agricultural machinery
that far abler machine-makers than Tull could em-
ploy have since accomplished.

At page 122 of his first edition, Tull gives an es-
timate of the expenses of an acre of wheat, which
is interesting, as showing the farmers' expenses, in
the parish of Shalford, 120 years since. He re-
marks— " The usual expenses of an acre of wheat,
sown in the Old Husbandry, in the county where I
live, is in some places for two bushels and a half
of seed, in other places four bushels and a half ;
the least of these quantities, at three shillings, being
the present price, is seven shillings and sixpence ;
for three ploughings, harrowing, and sowing, six-
teen shillings, but if ploughed four times, which is
better, one pound. For thirty loads of dung to a
statute acre is two pounds five shillings. For car-
riage of the dung, according to the distance, from
two shillings to sixpence the load, one shilling
being the price most common, is one pound ten
shillings. So that —

In seed and tillage nothing can be

abated of £l 3 6

For the weeding 0 2 0

For the rent of the year's fallow .... 010 0
For the dung — 'tis in some places a
little fheaper, neither do they always
lay on quite so much ; therefore, abat-
ing 15s. in that article, we may well

set dung and carriage at ...... > 2 10 0

Reaping, commonly 5s., sometimes less. 0 4 6

£4 10 0

In comparison with this old husbandry, Tull
gives an account of the cost of an acre of drilled
wheat under his sj'slem ; the ground being in that
way unmanured, and drilled at very wide intervals :

For seed £0 2 3

Tillage 0 4 0

Drilling , 0 0 6

Weeding 0 0 6

For uncovering 0 o 2

Brine and salt 0 0 1

For reaping 0 2 6

£0 10 0

The farmer will notice that these expenses were
much below those of our time. It will be found,
however, from the following table, that the prices
which then ruled were even lower than at present.
The subjoined table, constructed by Mr. W. Hos-
kyns, gives the decennial fluctuations in the price
of wheat, from 1646 to 1815, from 1816 to 1828,
and from 1829 to 1841 ; exhibiting the highest and

lowest annual average in each decennial period, ;.ud
the population of England.

The reader will notice, from this table, that when

Tull was farming, the population of England was
not one-third that of the present day.

Year. Price. Population.
s. d. s. d.

1646tol655 77 10 23 9

1656 1665 67 9 37 1

1666 1675 62 10 33 0

1676 1685 55 0 34 9

1686 1695.... 61 11 23 0

1696 1705 65 0 26 II 5,134,516

1706 1715 ... 71 11 23 9 5,066,337

1716 1725.... 44 5 31 9 5,345,351

1726 1735 49 11 24 4 5,687,993

1736 1745. .. 46 5 22 9 5,829,705

1746 1755 40 10 29 8 6,039,684

1756 1765 55 0 27 7 6,479,730

1766 1775 59 1 41 10 7,227,586

1776 1785 54 3 34 8 7,814,827

1786 1795 75 2 40 0 8,540,738

1796 1805 119 6 51 10 9,172,980

1806 1815 126 6 65 7 10,163,676

1816 1828.

96 11

44 7

11,978,875

1829 1841 70 8 39 4 15,911,757

A similar, although improved mode of cultivation
to that advocated by Tull is now practising by the
author of the " Word in Season," the Rev. S.
Smith, an able and zealous clergyman, of North-
amptonshire. He, too, drills at very wide inter-
vals, employs little or no manure, relies upon deep
stirrings of the soil, and fallows between the rows.
He gives the following statement of the expenses of
his wheat cultivation in 1S51 :

£ s. d.
Ploughing the half portion of the acre. . 0 6 0
Harrowing, levelling, and cleaning the \ r, i q f^

foul stubble J

Pressing the channels 0 1 0

Dropping the seed by hand 0 5 0

1| pecks of seed 0 2 0

Rolling 0 0 6

Hoeing the rows, scarifying the inter-"

vals, bird keeping, and all the

operations down to harvesting and

marketing

Rates, taxes, and interest , 0 10 0

i}

2 0 0

Total outlay -. £3 14 6

PRODUCE.

£ s. d.

5 qrs. 1 bush, of wheat, at 35s 8 19 4

2 tons of straw, at 40s 4 0 0

£12 19 4

In this mode of culture its author supposes that

the land is a good deep wheat soil, that will bear

a gradual deepening by the spade until a depth of

20 to 24 inches is attained. This, there is no

206

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

doubt, is a very material element in the successful
mode of cultivation adopted by Mr. Smith ; there
is, in fact, Uttle or no question but that the clay
soils of Northamptonshire would for some time
continue, under this mode of cultivation, to supply
the wheat plant with potash and other essential
constituents. It does not follow, however, that
this would be the case on all soils. It is certain
that the amount of the mineral ingredients found
in the wheat grown on different soils varies very
considerably. This was shown by the experiments
of Professor Way {Jour. R. A. S., vol. vii. p. 593) ;
the following is the result of his analysis of the ash
of the straw and chaft" of the Hopetoun and red-
straw white wheat produced on five different

soils : —

Red-straw White.

Silica

Phosphor, acid
Sulphuric acid

Lime

Magnesia ....
Perox. of iron.

Potash 1179

Soda —

Ash of chaff".. 10-36
Ash of straw . 4' 16

Hope-
toun.
Sand.
69-36
5-24
4-45
6-96
1-45
0-73

Sil.
loam.

70-50
5-77

3-31
3-53
3-29
0-14

12-76
0-68

13-78
4-68

Cal. (.j^
brash. ^'

71-49
3-37
2-28
7-34
3-53
1-11
9-47
1-39
7-0

2-74

68-92
3-21
2-21
5-63

1-76

0-43
15-50
2-29
9'45
4-20

Cal.
clay.

66-13
8-85
2-23
6-82
3-62
0-54

11-76

9-63
4-95

In any case, however, there is abundant evidence
already produced to induce extended and careful
trials of the advantages of wide intervals, and of
varied proportions of seed. The produce of v/heat,
when sown in small plots or in single or outside
rows, is commonly very large indeed — and such as
ordinary field cultivation never attains. It is
difficult to give any satisfactory answer to this,
which does not partly assign as the reason for
this great produce abundance of space for the
roots and a more free exposure to the air. The
trials upon thin seeding, however, do not exactly
furnish an answer to the question as to wide in-
tervals. The Tullian object of Mr. Smith is, to drill
the wheat at such wide intervals that the portion of
the soil between the rows of wheat are fallowing,
whilst the remaining portion of the soil is pro-
ducing a crop. Now, in the ordinary thin-seeding
system, the drills are usually set at the same distance
as in thick sowing.

If, however, we confine our attention only to the
thick and thin seeding of wheat, then the ex-
periments of Mr. Hay, of Whiterigg, in Roxburgh-
shire, are well-worthy of the reader's attention.
These were conducted, as Mr. Hay remarks, with
the view of testing the dibbling and broadcast thin
seeding of wheat ; the seed used was from f of a
hushel up to 2| bushel per acre. These quantities

were sown at different periods, and under almost
every variety of succession. The fields were six in
number, and all of them of stiff" clay, with a re-
tentive subsoil. The conclusion which Mr. Hay
draws is, that if wheat be early sown, then thin
sowing is more profitable than thick. The seed
employed was Hunter's Hoptoun. The following
tables give the results in all the trials : —

No.

Previous crop.

Sown.

Seed.
Bush.

1

2
3
4
5
6
7

8

9

10

Fallow

55

s>

After tares ....
After potatoes . .
After turnips . .

55
After lea

After hay ....
After cut grass

dibbled ..

broadcast

55

dibbled ..
broadcast

55

55

55
55

Of

1

1

IJ

Of

1

2

21

2|

2f

No.

Sown.

Reaped.

Produc

Seed.

Bushel

1

Aug. 31

Sept. 1

31-6

2

Sept. 20

Aug. 26

29-6

3

„ 20

Sept. 1

37-6

4

Oct. 14

55 10

31-2

5

Sept. 27

,5 22

28-8

6

Oct. 9

55

36-0

7

Nov. 7

55 20

32-4

8

Dec, 28

„ 23

26-8

9

Feb. 13

Oct. 6

29-6

10

,,

34-0

Straw.
Stones.

384
344
456
328
360
384
384
296
352
360

It is from such practical modes of increasing his
information that the skilful farmer will derive the
best, the most certain knowledge. He can vary
these according to the circumstances in which he
is placed. He can conduct these trials, in many
instances, with but slight trouble, and having due
regard to the nature of his soil and subsoil, the
elevation of the land, the climate in which it is
situated, and other local circumstances. To stimu-
late him to such trials, let him be well assured that
there is ample evidence to show that the utmost
limits to the productiveness of the soil are not
nearly yet attained. That much larger crops of
wheat than those to which we are accustomed
have been in several instances obtained, is certain ;
and although we are, in several such cases, quite
unable to find any reason for these great crops,
yet they serve to prove one most important and
encouraging fact — that there is no reason why the
soil is unable to produce much larger crops than
any which the land now yields. Such trials as
those to which, in the present seed-time, I have
been directing the farmer's attention, are attended

THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE.

207

with not only the increase of knowledge (and that,
too, whatever may be the fate of the experiment),
but that information is acquired without risk, and

in any case tends to dispel all those complacent
and injurious feelings, as to the perfection of agri-
culture, in which we are all far too apt to indulge.

AGRICULTURAL BIOGRAPHY.

(Continued from page 103^.

VI.— Scot, 1576.

Reynolde Scot was a learned English gentleman,
and the younger son of Sir John Scot, of Scots-hall,
near Smeeth, in Kent. He was bred at Oxford,
and gave himself up wholly to solid reading — to the
perusal of obscure authors that had been neglected
by the generality of scholars— and in times of leisure
to husbandry and gardening, as appears by his
book on a hop-garden, which was the first treatise
written on that subject. He also wrote a book en-
titled " Scot's Discovery of Witchcraft," 401 pages
quarto, 1562 : the absurd and abominable pre-
tences to which he seems to have first detected pub-
lickly, at least in our nation. Scot died in 1599-

The first publication on the subject of hops ap-
peared in 1576, and was entituled— "A perfite
platform of a hoppe garden, and necessary instruc-
tions for the making and mayntenance thereof;
with notes and rules for reformation of all abuses
commonly practised therein, very necessary and
expedient for all men to have which in any wise
have to doe with hops. Now newly corrected and
augmented by Reynolde Scot." There may have
been an edition previous to the date here used, as
"Weston writes the author's appearance in 1574, and
the " Bibliotheca Britannica " mentions two editions
in 1573 and in 1578. We subjoin the contents of
the work, as it claims, along with Fitzherbert's
book on agriculture, the same priority on a special
subject.

THE TABLE.

A perfite platforme of a hoppe garden

Of unapt and apt grounde for hoppes

Of the situation

Of the quantitie

A jiroportion of the charge and benefitte of

hoppe garden. .
Of the preparation of a hoppe garden. .
The time to cut and set hoppe rootes. .
Rule for the choyce and preparation of roo
Of the good hoppe
Of the unkindly hoppe. .
Of the wylde hoppe
Of setting of hoppe rootes
The distance of the hylles ^ .
A description of the lyae
Abuses and disorders in setting
Provision against annoyance and spoyle of

your garden..
Of poales

Page.
1
1
3
4

5

7

9
9
10
10
11
11
14

15
16

Page.

Of the erection of poales . . . . . . 19

Of ramming of poales . , . . . . . . 21

Of reparation of poales .. .. .. 21

Of pulling up poales . . . . .... 22

The way to make the instrument wherewith to

pull up the hoppe poales . . . . . . 23

The manner of pulling up the hoppe poales . . 23
Of the preservation of poales . . . . . . 24

Of tying of hoppes to the poales . . . , 26
Of hylling and hylles . . . . . . . . 27

Abuses in hylling . . . . . . . . 32

Of the gathering of hoppes . . . . • • 33

What is to be done in winter herein . . . . 37

When and where to lay dung . . . . . . 38

The order for reforming your grounde . . 38

The order of cutting hoppe rootes . . . . 39

Of divers mens foUyes. . • . . • . . 41

Of disorders and maintayners thereof. . . . 43

Of an oste 43

Of the several rooms for an oste . . . . 44

Of the furnace or keele . . . . . . 45

Of the bedde or upper floor of the oste,

whereon the hoppes must be dryed . . 47

The orderly drying of hoppes . . . . 49

Other maners of drying not so good . . . . 51

The very worst way of drying hoppes . . 53

Of not drying . . . . . • . • . . 53

Of the packing of hoppes . . . . . . 54

The reformation of a garden of wylde hoppes 56
The reformation of a disordered garden . . 57
Needlesse curiosities used by the unskilful . . 58
The epilogue . . . . • • • • . . 60

To constitute a perfect platform, the author advises
ground that is good for the purpose— a convenient
standing, and a proper quantity. Good land he
calls rich, mellow, and gentle, and the situation to
have the sun shining upon it the greater part of the
day. He advises to have a certain term of the land, >^
least another man reap the fruit of labour and ex-
pense. He recommends the distance of seven or
eight feet between the hills of plants, and two or
three roots to be placed in one hole. Four poles,
best of alder, are placed in each hole, set as now-a-
days, and leaning a little outward one from another.
Throughout the work cuts are given of most of the
performances, and the book shows a thorough ac*
quaintance with the subject, of which the practice
is not very much altered in the present time. The
oasts are neatly described and figured, the dried
hops are to be brown and yet bright, and the fire
is to be of great wood, and not too dry. The book
is printed in the old English characters, with the

2Q8

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

headings of chajiters and the titles in the modern
type. The getting up of the work is ahead of Fitz-
herbert's.

VII.— GooGE, y5t7.

Barnaby Googe was a celebrated poet and trans-
lator, who lived in the sixteenth century ; but of
whom little is known, unless that he was educated
at Cambridge, and afterwards entered in Staples
Inn. It is conjectured he may have been born
about 1538, and is supposed to have been the
Barnaby Googe who was a relation and a retainer
to Sir William Cecil, Queen Elizabeth's minister,
and who by his interest was gentleman pensioner
to the Queen. He is thought, with great proba-
bility, to have been the father of Barnaby Googe,
Master of Magdalen College, Cambridge, who was
incorporated at Oxford in 1605, when King James
visited the city. He is said to have been of Albing-
ham, or Alvingham, in Lincolnshire, and grand-
father to Barnaby Googe, Esq., who lived there in
1634. The epistle to the book of husbandry is
dated at Kingston, February 1, 1557. His first
publication was sonnets and epitaphs, and followed
by the " Zodiake of Life." He translated, in 1577>
"Foure bookes of husbandry, collected and printed
at Cologne in 1573, by Conrad Henesbach, chan-
cellor to the Duke of Cleves, in Germany ; contain-
ing the whole art and trade of husbandrie,
gardening, graffing, and planting ; with the
antiquitie and commendation thereof; newly Eng-
lished and increased by Barnaby Googe." On the
last leaf, old English rules for purchasing land — in
verse. His other works were numerous.

The work on husbandry is managed in dialogues
between persons who are three or four in number,
and consists of question and reply. The first book
is on arable ground, tillage, and pasture ; the
second on gardens, orchards, and woods ; the third
on feeding, breeding, and curing of cattle ; the
fourth on poultry, fowl, fish, and bees. The work
IS printed in old English type, and contains 360
pages.

rhe old English rules for purchasing land, are :

First see that the land be clear

In title of the seller ;

And that it stand in danger

Of no woman's dowrie;

See v/hether the tenure be bond or free.

And release of every fee-of-fee ;

See that the seller be of age,

And that it lie not in mortgage ;

Whether ataile be thereof found,

And whetliM- it stand in statute bound ;

Consider what service longeth thereto.

And what quit rent thereout must goe,

And if it become of a wedded woman.

Think thou then on covert baron ;

And if thou may in any wise.
Make thy charter in wan-antise.
To thee, thine heyres, assignes also ;
Thus should a wise purchaser doe.

Googe gives the following authors as his autho-
rities, some of whom were contemporary with Fitz-
herbert, but none are mentioned by him, and their
works are wholly unknown.

S. Nich. Malbee
M. Cap. Bingham
M. John Somer
M. Nicas. Yetawent
M. Fitzherbert
M. Will. Lambert
M. Tusser

M. Thorn. Wherenhall
M. Rich. Deering

M. Hen. BrickbuU
M. Frankhn
H. King

Richard Andrewes
Henry Denys
William Prat
John Hatche
Phillip Partridge
Kenworth Darfroth.

The four bookes of husbandrj', as translated by
Googe, vmderwent a second edition in 1586, and in
1614 Gervase Markham republished the work with
notes and illustrations, with the view of accom-
modating German agriculture to the climate of
Britain. The attempt had little success, and
Googe's work sunk in estimation.

VIII.— Mascall, 1581.

Leonard Mascall wrote several books on agricul-
tural subjects, and has always been reckoned a
genius in that department of human industry.
Nothing seems to have been known of his parentage,
birth, education, or general employments : he only
relates of himself that he was chief farrier to King
James, and dedicated his work to Sir Edward Mon-
tague, Knight.

" The husbandrye, ordring, and governmente of
poultrie," was the first work pubhshed by Mascall,
and is dated in 1581. It is a small 12 mo., of 154
pages, printed in black letter, and dedicated to
Mistresse Catharine Woodford, wife to Maister
James Woodford, Esq., and Cheese Clarke of the
Kitchen to the Queenes Majestie. The matter is
headed, "The nourishment and government of
poultrie ;" and as the work is the first writing on
that subject, the chapters are subjoined, as was done
with Fitzherbert and Scot.

Chap.

1 . The order of Columella for the henne-bouse

2. Stephanus, his opinion

3. Signes in a good cocke

4. The signes and properties of a good henne

5. When to set your hennes

6. The time best to set your yong hennes

7. Of chickens newly hatched

8. How to keepe egges long

9. Egges to gather and keepe

10. Egges, to have all winter

11. Chickens of a later broode

12. How to feed chickens from the same

13. The pippe, and the cause, to helpe also

14. To helpe the catarte or rewme in poultrie

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

209

Chap

15.

16.

ir.

18.
19.
20.
21,
22.

23.
24.
25.
26.

27.
28.
-29.
30.

31.

32.

33.
34.
35.
36.

37.

38.
39.

40.

41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.

48.

49.
50.
51.
52.

53.
54.
55.

56.
57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

How many hennes to a cock

Of hennes that hatches abroad, as in bushes

Cause of flux in poultrie

Remedies against the flux

Against stopping of the belly in poultrie

Against lice and vermin in poultrie

Of vermin that bytes and stinges poultrie

Of sitting hennes that rise ia weat and rainie

dayes
What time to cut young cock chickens
Against inflaming the eyes and the hawe
Cramming and fatting of capons
Meate for hennes and other poultrie, and

where and when to feede them
To fatte hennes best
The feeding of bigge chickens
To feede or cramme young pullets
Ordering and setting forth poultrie on mir-

agges
The order in carving poultrie of some here in

Englande
Other things necessary to knowe for the

keeping of poultrie
The nature and governmente of geese
Of places and houses for ordering of geese
A ground and pasture best
To choose ganders and geese with all white

feathers
The laymg and setting of a geese, and feeding

the young goslings
The fatting of yong geese
How many geese to one gander, with other

government
Of the feathers of geese which are best, and

what time to pluck them
Of ducks, teales, sheldrakes, and such like
How to take four wilde ducks in the covert
The common feeding and nature of duckes
Of turquie henries, profite and also disprofite
The nourishing of old turquies
The age of turquie cocks best to tread
Of the turquie hennes sitting, hatching, and

nourishing the chickens
The feeding and the ordering of turquie hennes

and chickens
The common feeding of turquies
Of peacockes, the nature and feeding
The time best to set your pehenne
Of the goodnesse of the pecocks flesh, and

their nature in laying
The hatching and feeding of young pechicks
The sicknes of pehennes
The nature and feeding of swannes
The nourishing and fatting of swannes
The order and profite of pigeons, and place

for them
To replenish your dove-house, and to choose

the best breeders
Time to feede them, and to maynetaine your

broode
Of the meate and drinke for pigeons, and

flying abrode
How to perfume your dove-house, to cause

them to breed and to love it
Pigeons seeking their meate farre, are raveners

of come

Chap.

63. To draw pigeons to your dove-house

64. The nature and profite of wood pigeons, cul-

vers, and rough-footed doves

65. How to take owles that haunt your dove-

houses

66. For polecats and weasels that haunt your

dove-house

67. To take boxardes and staves that molest your

dove-house

68. How to stock your dove-house

69. Of pegion dongue

70. Of turtle-doves

71. The ordering and fatting of beavres

72. The ordering and nourishing of partridges

73. Quayles feeding, and theb nature

74. The guiles, how to feede

75. Ofpuets

76. How to fat terantes

11 . Of godwits, knots, and stynts

78. Of plovers

79. Of the bitter and curlew

80. Of blackburdes and thrustles

81. To make white burdes come of anye egges

82. To make hennes of the colour of your egges

ye set her

83. For geese

84. To make hennes lay

85. For breeding capons.

To cause hens to lay eggs all the winter, the
author directs to take the croppes of nettles when
ready to seed, dry them, and mix them with bran
and hempseed, and give it to the hens in the morn-
ings, and also to give them the seeds of cowmake,
a weed so called in "Turner's Herbal."

The second work appeared in 1596, and is en-
tituled "the government of cattell, divided into
three books : the first treating of oxen, kine, and
calves, and how to use bulls, and other cattell, to
the yoke or sell ; the second discoursing of the
government of horses, with approved medicines
against most diseases ; the third discoursing of the
order of sheep, goats, hogs, and dogs, with true
remedies to help the infirmities that befall any of
them. Also perfect instructions for taking of moals,
and likewise for the monthly husbanding of
grounds ; and hath been already approved, and by
long experience entertained amongst all sorts, es-
pecially by husbandmen, who have made use
thereof to their great profit and contentment."

The copy of the above book in the British Mu-
seum is dated in 1662, and has the frontispiece
covered with figures, or rather caricatures of horses,
cattle, sheep, swine, goats, and dogs. An enlarged
figure of a horse is separately dehneated, and lines
are drawn from each particular part of the body
where disease may prevail to the edge of the paper,
and there is written the name of the disease, with
the number affixed which it holds in the catalogue
of disorders : the number amounts to 60.

An edition of Mascall's second work was pub-

p 2

aio

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

lished in 1680, enlarged by Richd. Ruscan, Gent.
In it the figure of an ox is delineated, with lines de-
noting the diseases as for the horses : the disorders
reach to 44.

In 1600 there was published with Mascall's name
— " A booke of fishing with hooke and line, and
of taking all manner of vermin with engines and
traps : suitable for all warrenners, and for sporte
and pastime."

The practical knowledge of Mascall relates chiefly
to diseases, with a small notice of the animal and
its breeding ; but such as it is, a large advance-
ment was made by it towards an improved practice.

IX.— Plat, 1593.

Sir Hugh Plat seems to have been of the profes-
sion of the law, as he is styled, " of Lincolns Inn,
Gent." He had two seats in the country, at Copt-
hall in Essex, and at Bishopshall in Middlesex,
to which he retired at leisure times, and employed
himself with soils and manures. The book pub-
lished with his name in 1594 is a thin quarto of "JQ
pages, which are headed " The jewel house of art
and nature," and the title page bears the designa-
tion of " Diverse new sorts of soyle not yet brought
into any pubUc use, for manuring both of pasture
and arable ground, with sundry conceipted prac-
tices belonging thereto." The work is without
chapters, or any divisions, and forms one continued
essay from beginning to end. To the books of
husbandry are added — the art of moulding and
casting, a new kind of fire, a boulting hutch, a port-
able pump, a wholesome, lasting, and fresh victual
for the navy, a speedy way for mending any breach
done by water, a light garment against all rainy
weather, and a new conceit in peter (petre) works.

Sir Hugh Plat had correspondence with all lovers
of agriculture and gardening throughout England,
and discovered, or at least brought into use, many
new sorts of manure, as is testified by his observa-
tion on salt, street dirt, and sullage of streets in
large cities, clay. Fullers' earth, moorish earth,
dung-hills made in layers, fern, hair, calcination of
all vegetables, malt dust, soap-boilers' ashes, and
marie. He recommended compost and covered
dung-hills, but did not much enlarge on the excre-
ments of animals, as the qualities and use were
suflSciently known to every country " Corydon."
He was much occupied with the nature and inves-
tigation of salts, which he made his hobby ; he is
an enlightened writer, and a valuable pioneer in the
trenches of knowledge. Nothing seems known of
his parentage, birth, or general relation in life, but
he must have been of the higher class of society as
his book does show. He makes frequent mention
of " Maister Barnabie Googe," and must have read
the work of that author, The book now mentioned

had another edition in 1653 ; and in 1595 there was
published by Plat " A discoverie of certaine Englisli
wants," 4to., London; in 1603, "Anew, cheape,
and delicate fire of coale balls ;" in 1608, " Flores
paradisse," 12 mo., London; in 1653, "The garden
of Eden," 4to., London; and "The setting of
come," in no date, or in 1600. The " Garden of
Eden " contains an accurate description of flowers
and fruits, seeds and herbs, trees and plants. The
" Flores Paradisse " is similarly occupied. " The
setting of corne" contains eight chapters, headed
as foUows : —

Chap.

1. How this invention began

2. The reason why corne doth shoote up into so

many eares rather by setting than by sowing

3. The manner of digging and laying of the ara-

ble grounds on this new practice.

4. The several instruments for making the holes

for the grain, and covering them

5. At what depth and distances your corne must

be set

6. Whether it be good to fill the holes with com-

mon earth, and prepare the seed before it be
set.

7. How to make the choice of your seed cojne

8. The difierence of yield between the plough

and the spade, with some new addition to
the plough

Plat relates that the art of setting or dibbling
corn, originated with a silly wench, who was em-
ployed in setting carrots and radishes, and had
some seeds of wheat in the seed-bag, that were ac-
cidentally put into the holes, when the stems
showed a very superior luxuriance of growth. He
relates the mode and way of performing the work,
and states the produce to be 15 quarters of wheat
per acre, and in the old way of sowing to be only
4 quarters. This estimate shows a practical igno-
rance of the constitutional ability of any soil, which
the author's rank in life had not condescended to
ascertain. The treatise on setting corn, is without
date, title, or printers name; but " H. Plat, Esquire,"
is printed at the end.

X.— Hill, 1593.

Thomas Hill, Hyll, or Hylle, was a citizen of
London, and wrote a number of books on various
subjects. In 1563 there was published by Thomas
Hyll, Londoner, " The profitable art of gardening,
to which is added much necessarie matter, and a
number of secrets, with the phisicke helps belong-
ing to each hearbe, and that easily prepared."
And " A profitable instruction of the perfite order-
ing of bees, with the marvellous nature, property^
and government of them, and the necessary uses
both of their honie and wax ; to which is annexed
a treatise intituled — certaine husbandrie conjectures

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

211

of dearth and plenty for ever, and other matters
also meet for husbandmen to know." These two
AYorks were printed together, and separately, and
the best edition appeared in 1593, of the two works
in one volume, which is the copy in the British
Museum, and of it the date is here used.

The books are printed in black letter, with the
heading, prefaces, and titles in the modern type.
Weston dates the publication of the works in 1574,
and in his list of authors on husbandry, gardening,
botuny, natural history, and subjects relative thereto,
Hyll's two books seem to be first that were written
on gardening and bees, and this priority entitles
the contents to be given at length.

The gardening is in two books.

The first booke teacheth the skilful ordering and
care to be bestowed on gardens, with necessary
helpes, defences, and secrets.

The second book instructeth diverse manner of
sowing, setting and ordering of the most pot hearbes,
floures, &c., with the care and secrets taught, as
well for the health of the bodie, as to the pleasure
and delight of the eie.

BOOK I.

Chap.

1 . What three points are to be learned of every

gardner minding to have a fruitful garden
— the health that may be recovered by
walking in the same, and the commodity
of gardens placed neere to a citie

2. Of the standing of gardens, the water neces-

sarie to them, and of the properties of the
ground with the qualitie and temperateness
of the aire, and condition besides of the
windes

3. Of the consideration and choosing out of

good and excellent ground, and the know-
ledge of every earth

4. How a garden may diverse waies be fenced

and inclosed — the manner and secret in
making a lively and strong hedge

5. Of the first maze

6. Of the dung and dunging of gardens, with

the digging, dressing, levelling, and dis-
posing of the quarters and beds

7. Of the second maze

8. Certaine precepts and rules of ancient men,

both in the choise and proper sowing of
seedes

9. Of the times in sowing and proper ordring

of seedes, with the watring and weeding of
the yong plants in the coming up— the
divers manner of removing and setting
againe of the hearbs somewhat growen upp
10. Certaine helpes and secrets for the garden
seeds, as well before as after sowing them,
that they may not be harmed by any in-
ward or outward means
Certaine special times to be noted and ob-
served, either for their aid or savour to be
chosen, or for their annoyance and incom-
moditie to be eschewed for sowing, plant-
ing, or graffing

11

Chap.

12. Certaine helpes and secrets against haile,

lightning, tempests, mistes, rust, frosts, and
burning heat

13. Certaine helpes and secrets against the garden

woormes, the greene flyes, the canker
woormes, the great moths, and snayles
with shelles and without shelles, that harme
and gnawe as well the leaves of trees and
fruites, as the hearbes and young plantes
coming up

14. Certaine helpes and secrets against the gar-

den moles, pismires, gnats, flies with the
long hinder legs, breses, field mice, backes,
serpents, frogs, and todes, which gnawe,
harme, and destroy, as well the trees and
fruites, as other hearbes and floures.

BOOK II.

1. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the lettuce

2. Of the ordring, care, and secrets both of en-

dive and succory

3. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the hearbe

blete

4. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the hearbe

spinage

5. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the orach,

or arage

6. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of beetes

7. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of coleworts

8. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the land

cresses

9. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the parcely

10. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of sperage

11. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of savory

12. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the run-

ning time

13. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the Lom-

bardy lovage

14. Of the ordring and care of the greater or gar-

den mallowes

15. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of fennel

16. Of the ordring and care of the annis

17. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of commine

18. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the coU-

ander

19. Of the ordring and care of the mustard seedes

20. Of the ordring and care both of the chervil

and caper

21. Of the ordring and care of the hearb dill

22. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of rue

23. Of the ordring and care of the hearbe isope

24. Of the ordring and care of the mints

25. Of the ordring and care of the garden time

26. Of the ordring and care of the hearbe organie

27. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of violets

28. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of all roses

29. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the hearbe

basil

30. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the sweete

marjoram

31. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the man-

gold

32. Of the ordring and care of the lavender

33. Of the ordring and care of the spikenard

34. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the white

lUlie

21S

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

35. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the wood

lillie

36. Of the ordring and care of the fleur-de-hice
37- Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the pionie

38. Of the ordring and care of the white poppie

39. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the floure

petihus

40. Of the ordring and care of the velvet floure,

or floure armour

41. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the gili-

floure

42. Of the ordring and care of the strawberries

43. Of the ordring and care of the borage, and

also of the buglosse

44. Of the ordring and care of rosemarie

45. Of the ordring and care of the hearbe ger-

mander

46. Of the ordring and care of the blessed thistle

47. Of the ordring and care of the hearbe worm-

wood

48. Of the ordring, care and secrets of sothern-

wood

49. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the hearbe

sage

50. Of the ordring and care of the purselaine

51. Of the ordring and care of the pennyroyal

52. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the arti-

choke

53. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of leekes

54. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the gar-

den onyon

55. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the gar-

licke

56. Of the ordring, cai'e, and secrets of the great

garlicke

57. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the radish

58. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the navew

59. Of the ordring, care, and secrets both of the

parsnip and yellow carrot

60. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the mel-

lons and all kinde of pompions

61. Of the ordring, care, and secrets of the cu-

cumber

62. Of the ordring, care, and secret of the gourd

63. Of the ordring and care of the beane of Egypt

64. Certaine necessary precepts in the cutting up,

plucking away, gathering, and preserving
of the most hearbes, flewers, seedes, and
rootes, serving especiallye to medicine.

This work reaches to 164 pages of small quarto
size.

The book on the perfite ordering of bees, ^vith
the annexed treatise, contains 92 pages of the same
size as the work on gardening ; the contents are :

Chap.

1. Why bees are named to be creasted or parted

betweene, or as it were tinged, or rather
pleighted — what work the swarme newe
gathered in the hive do first take in hand,
and whether they may live after their stinges
are gone

2. Who first taught the preparation and in-

creasing of bees, and found out the use of
honye

Chap.

3. How bees do naturally engender

4. Of the imperfecte bees, which man properly

name droane bees

5. Whether the bees draw breathe, or have any

blood within them

6. Of the great utihtie and profite of bees to

mans use

7. Of the care and diligence of bees

8. Of tiie marvellous government of the king of

bees, and of the obedience which they use
to him

9. What kind of bees be best, and rather to be

chosen

10. Where hives of bees ought especially to be

placed

11. What things bees do chiefly abhor and

greatly hate

12. By what signes men may knowe when the

bees are diseased, and how they may be
cured

13. What manner of person the keeper of bees

ought to be

14. By what means the swarme cometh forth,

and may be preserved when flying away

15. Of the bees newe setled in a swarme together,
and taken and recovered againe

Which are the best and fittest hives for bees
Of the cleanlinesse and sweetenes of the

keeper of bees, and how the hives ought to

be fenced about and prepared within
How bees lacking honye may be fed in the

time of their necessitie
How the dead bees may be restored to life

again
Of the battailes that bees have sometimes

amongst themselves
How bees lost may be recovered and form

againe

22. That the bees stingeth no person that com-

meth neare to their hives

23. What the honye is, and how from the hives

the same may be prepared for use

24. When and how the hives ought to be gelded

25. What honye is accounted best

26. Of the vennomous honye, and of the wonder-

full honye of Greta

27. Of the miraculous worthinesse of honye

28. How profitable the use of honye is in medi-

cine

29. Of the drinke of honye, which they call the

mulse water, or sweete water of the Ro-
maines

30. Of the drinke oenamell, which is made of pure

wine and honye

31. Of the singular water of honye gotten by dis-

tillation
An other manner of distilling the honye, more

at large taught
The manner of distilling a water from honye

named the quintessence
The manner of drawing and making wax of

the combes
What waxe is best allowed, &c.
Of the great commoditye and benefite of waxe

in medicines
37. How to make waxe white

16.
17.

19.

20.

2]

32
33

34,

35,

36,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

•213

Chai).

38. Of that v/hich is a staye of the combes, and

made for a defence of bees

39. How to make rede waxe

40. How to drawe a very profitable oyle out of

waxe, for sundry uses

41. Another way of drawing the oyle of waxe

most noble, and doth marvellously helpe
the cold gout, the sciatick, the swelling of
the legges, and all other griefs of a cold
cause.

The additional treatise contains : —
Chap.

1. Certaine husbandrie conjectures of dearthe
and plenty for ever
• 2. An everlasting prognostication of the state
and condition of every yeare, by the onely
kalends of Januarie, written by the ancient
and learned Leopol. Aust., and other for
the commoditie of the wise husbandmen

3. How to foreknow the state of the yeare by the

only rising of the dogge starre, out of the
husbandrie of Diophanes

4. Other pi'ofitable instructions right necessaric

for husbandmen to know

5. A most profitable rule for the preservation of

mans health throughout the twelve months
of the yeare, after the mind of divers learned
men of the university of Padua

6. Of the falling sick on any of the week daies,

out of that anciente phisition Hippocrates

7. Of those manifest signes which declare raine

to follow

8. Of those manifest signes which declare faire

weather to follow.

The booke of the art or craft of planting and
graflSng concludes the volume, and contains the
following heads of matter : —

To grafFe frute that shall have no core

To make apples red

To make a pear tree beare much frute

To revive an old tree that is decayed

How to make us our frute tree bring forth sweet

frute
The ordring of an almond tree, walnut tree, cherry

tree, and peach tree
How to nourish the peach tree if it begin to wither
How to water plants when they wax dry
The ordring of the apple tree
The ordring of the quince tree
The ordring of the cherry tree
At what time prunes ought to be planted
How the medler ought to be planted
The sowing of roses in a garden
How to plant white grapes
How to set vine plants two and two together
To make grapes grow on a plum tree or cherry tree
The best times to plant and graffe in
How to set all manner of peppins, kernels, and

grains in the earth
Of the manner and changing of the frute of the

pepin tree
How you make an orchyard in few years
How you ought to set the pine tree
To set damsons or plum trees

How to remove a setting

How to remove a great tree

How to keep late set plants

How you may keep cherries good a yeare

How you may set chesnuta

The order how to plant or set trees at large

The best way to dense and proine, or dresse the

rootes of trees
The manner of graffing
How to graffe divers frutes on one stocke
How to groflfe all sorts of trees
How to graflfe apple trees, quince trees, pear trees,

and medlar trees
How to chuse your trees for grafFes
How you may keepe graflfes a long time
To have frute without cores
After what manner ye ought to begin to graffe
How to trimme your graffes
How to graff'e vines on cherry trees
To make a tree beare divers frutes.

This notice of Hyll's book may seem long for the
occasion, but being the first pubhcation on the
sul)jects, a curiosity arises to see the original con-
ceptions that were entertained, and the manners
that prevailed of arranging the materials. Hyll's
book is an interesting relic, and will be perused
with pleasure by every lover of the two subjects
that are treated. Bees are the farmer's object in
some degree, and accordingly a place has been
given in our agricultural record to the first publi-
cation on the care and management of the insect.

XL— Churchy, 1599.
G. Churchy, of Lyons Inne, wrote a work entitled
" A new book of good husbandrie." This statement
is taken from Weston's catalogue of writers, who
alone mentions the name. No author or work of
that title is found in the " Bibliotheca Britannica,"
nor in the catalogue of books in the British Museum,
nor in George the Fourth's library. The late Mr.
Loudon has not mentioned any author or work of
that name.

Xn.— SURFLEET, 1600.

Richard Surfleet, Practitioner in Physicke, wrote
" The countrie farme." It is said he only trans-
lated the " Maison rustique," a French work of
Charles Stevens ; while others contend that he
composed it himself. The book is not now found,
and the author's name is rarely known.

XHL— Massie, 1606.
Massie, or Maxie, is stated by Weston to have
been the author of " A treatise on drilhng corn,
in 4to." His is the only authority, as no book on
agriculture under that name as an author is found
in any other catalogue of authors or books. Our
search was eager to see the ideas of driUing corn
at that early period of agricultural practice ; but
the disappointment was complete. Weston quotes
many otherwise unknown authors.

214

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

XIV. — NORDEN, 1607.

John Norden was born of a genteel family in the
county of Wilts, about the yeai* 1548. He became
a Commoner of Hart Hall in 1564, and took the
degree of arts, that of master being completed in
1573. He was patronized by, or was servant to,
William Cecil Lord Burleigh and Robert Earl of
Sahsbury, his son. He lived beyond the year
1624. Weston styles him Sir John Norden, but
no other account exceeds John Norden, Gent.

Norden is chiefly known from a publication
entitled " The Surveyor's dialogue, very profitable
for all men to peruse, but especially for gentlemen,
farmers, and husbandmen, &c., in 6 books." It
passed through three editions, in 1607, 1610, and
in 1618, in 4to. It forms a thick volume, being
printed and bound with "A discoverie of sundrie
errors and faults committed by land-meaters, by
Edward Worsop, Londoner, 1582;" and "The
most profitable and commendable science of sur-
veying lands, tenements, and hereditaments, by
Valentine Leigh, 1577;" and " Epitome of survey-
ing methodized, by W. Folkingham, 1610." These
works are scarcely agricultural ; yet, as a book
or chapter is generally devoted to the improving
and bettering of lands, the names are given in lists
of authors. The fifth book of Norden's dialogue
is, " Shewing the different natures of grounds, how
they may be employed, bettered, reformed, and
amended." Similar notices are made by the above-
mentioned authors.

Norden was an ardent tradesman, and laboured
very extensively. He wrote " A topographical and
historical description of Cornwall, and of Mid-
dlesex, and of Hertfordshire, and of the County of
Northampton ; and a guide for English travellers,
showing the distances of towns, and the respective
directions." The surveys were much esteemed at
the time, and were well executed. He also sur-
veyed Berks and Surrey, but never published the
works. He is said to have been much devoted to
theological studies, and combined both the sur-
veyor and the divine. Several works of a highly
moral and religious character have been attributed
to John Norden. The similarity of expressions in
the surveying and theology almost identify the
author. He was much esteemed, but was little
provided for, and had many tokens of respect from
the highest quarters of society.

In " The surveyor's dialogue " the person who
answers the questions is termed '•' Surveyor," and
to be understood as the anthor himself. The re-
plies show a full readiness of subject, and very
enlarged and enlightened views on every point that
is discussed. Learning was at that time no; much
advanced, and Norden must have been a very
superior person.

The printing of old EngUsh characters was not
at that time wholly disused, as, in " The surveyor's
dialogue," the questions are printed in the Saxon
characters, and the reply in the Roman type ; but
the custom was fast giving way. The labour of
reading was very much reduced by the introduction
of the Roman characters, and the speed of know-
ledge was accelerated.

XV.— Butler, 1609.
The Rev. Charles Butler, M.A. of Magdalen
College, Oxford, wrote " The feminine monarchie ;
or, the history of bees," 4to. London : 1 609,
1623, and 1634. Also, "The principles of music
in singing and setting." " The English Gram-
mar," in 1633; and, in 1625, the " De regula de-
propinquitate matrimonium impediente." The
book on bees had previously been one in the
smaller form of duodecimo, and had been well
received. The work now quoted is entitled " The
feminine monarchy, or the histori of bees, shew-
ing their admirable nature and properties, their
generation and colonis, their government, loyalti,
art, industri, enemis, wars, magnanimite, &c. ;
together with the right ordering of them from time
to time, and the sweet profit arising thereof."
Written out of experience by Charles Butler,
Magd. The contents are largely illustrated with
figures of hives and stools, and filled with quota-
tions from every author on the subject. The con-
tents are in ten chapters : —

1. De first — of de nature and properties of bees

and their queen.

2. De second — of de bee-garden, and seats for

hives.

3. De third — of de hiv's, and de dressing of them.

4. De fowrt — of de breeding of bees, and of de

dron.

5. De fift — of deir swarming, and de hiving of

them.

6. De sixt — of deir work.

7. De sevent — of deir enemies.

8. De eight — of feeding dem.

9. De nint — of removing dem.

10. De tent — of de fruit and profit of dem.
The language and orthography of Butler are

most peculiar, and much more antiquated than in

the time of Fitzherbert. His poetry is shown as

under: —

For, if old tim's admir' Callicrates
For ivori emmets — and Mermecides
For framing of a rigged ship so small
Dat with hir wings a bee can hid' it all —
Admir' we then d' All wise Omnipotenc',
Whi' doo't within so narrow spac' disperc'
So stifFa sting, so stout and valiant hart.
So loud avoyc', so prudent wit and art;
Deir wel rul'd stat' my sowl so mu' admir' it,
Dat, durst I loos' the rein of my desir's,
I gladly cool'd digi'es from my design,
To sing a whil' teir sacred disciplin'.

I

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

215

In the chapter of hiving bees from swarming,
the author has set to music the " Mehssomelos,"
or the bees' madrigal, beginning " As of all stat's
the monarchic is best," and extending to four
pages, in mean, tenor, contra-tenor, and bassus.
The author thinks that all orderly processions, with
outriders and trumpeters leading the van, have
been copied from the bees, as in swarming the best
attired go foremost, the queen in the centre, and a
motley multitude bring up the rear. He was fully
sensible that a large part of human knowledge has
been derived from the brutes, and his book shows
the work of an educated person treating scientifi-
cally a subject of great value and of a large
curiosity.

XVI.— Vaughan, 1610.

Rowland Vaughan, Esquire, wrote a work en-
titled " Most approved and long experienced water-
works, containing the manner of winter and sum-
mer drowning of meadow and pasture, by the
advantage of the least river, brooke, fount, or
water-rill adjacent, thereby to make those grounds
(especially if they be drye) more fertile ten for
one."

As also a demonstration of a project for the
great benefit of the commonwealth generally, but
of Herefordshire especially.

The author dedicates his " watry " workman-
ship to the Earl of Pembroke, and thinks it was
forbidden to former creatures to handle the sub-
ject. He had been of Queen Elizabeth's court,
afterwards served in the Irish wars, and then re-
tired to his father's home in the county of Here-
ford. He again served in the low country wars,
and, at last marrying, he retired to a country life.
The book is one continued essay, which the author
calls " The manner of my drownings," and extends
to 114 pages of small octavo. The author had
observed the casual effects of water on the growth
of grass, and he employed it by artificial directions.
His proceedings did not extend beyond leading
one main trench to convey water from a stagnant
river, or from a dam constructed for the purpose ;
but his book and practice are the first notice of
watering lands in British agriculture.

XVII.— FOLKINGHAM, 1610.

W, Folkinghara, Gent., wrote a book called
" Epitome of surveying methodised," 1610. It is
bound along with Norden's " Surveyor's dialogue,"
and the "Treatises on surveying," by Leigh and
Worsop. He also wrote " A compound ale, which
is a generall purge and generous medicine;"
London, 1623, 12mo. And, " Brachigraphy ; or,
the art of shorte-hand writing," 8vo. The
synopsis of surveying is styled " Feudigraphia, or
epitome of surveying methodised, anatomizing the

whole corps of the facultie, viz., the material],
mathematical!, mechanicall, and legal parts." There
are four sections of 88 octavo pages, treating
the materials of possession, as earth, water, quar-
ries, mines, situation and residence of grounds,
measuring and plotting, natures and properties,
tenures, rights and fees, issues, rents, privileges,
and other accruements, marshalling and digesting
the whole survey in field entries, rough books, and
engrossing.

The art of survey is distinguished into two parts,
active and passive : the former being the feudi-
grapher, which consists in operation and estima-
tion ; the latter relates to possessions, as they con-
sist of parts essential and accidental. In the ideas
of this author are found the germs of the gross
rental, entry and observation books that are now
kept by the agents on extensive landed estates.

XVHL- GoocH, 1614.

Bernard Gooch wrote " The whole art of hus-
bandry," London, 1614, 4to., which treats of
lands, gardens, woods, and orchards. This state-
ment is taken from the " Bibliotheca Britannica."
No author of that name is mentioned in any other
list of authors, nor in the catalogues of books in
the British Museum. Weston writes the same
title of Barnaby Googe's work, reprinted in that
year from the revising care of Markham. It may
have happened that the " Bibliotheca Britannica,"
having seen the title of the work, has written mis-
takingly the christian name and surname of the
author, as Bernard Gooch differs not very widely
from Barnaby Googe. The former name not being
found in any other place renders this conjecture
very probable.

XIX.—Rathbone, 1616.

Aaron Rathbone wrote " The surveyor," in four
books, in folio. The first book treats definitions,
theorems, and approved truths of geometry; the
second contains geometrical problems ; the third
applies the foregoing books to measurement of
lands, with the use of the instruments, the theodo-
lite, plain table, and circumferentor; the fourth
book is the legal part, and contains what the
manor is, the perquisites, casualties, and profits, in
fines, heriots, reliefs, escheates, and forfeitures;
in tenures by fee-simple, fee-tayle, courtesee, issue
extinct, in dower, term of years, and by tenant at
will. Rents and reprisals are largely treated, and
the manner of holding the various kinds of feudal
courts. Examples are given of the surveys of
townships, arranged on the left and right hand
sides of the book, in the nature of perquisites, with
the observations and particulars. The work seems
the most valuable of the kind that was possessed
by those times.

316

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

XX.— Speed, 1626.

Adam Speed, Gent., wrote " Adam out of Eden ;
or, an abstract of divers excellent experiments
touching the advancement of agriculture ;" Lon-
don, 1626, 1659, ]2mo. And also, "Husband-
man, farmers', and graziers', compleat instructor;"
London, 1697, 12mo. The first work only is
found in the British Museum, and is in a small
duodecimo of 180 pages, in 31 chapters, which are
parted into observations, as Observ. 1, 2, 3, &c.
The first chapter sheweth how ground may be
raised from the value of £200 yearly to the sum of
£2,000 by means of rabbits, which are to be kept
in fed enclosures, and indulged with the shelter of
sown furze and broom. The calculations mount
rapidly, as does the pen of every theorist on the
paper, where it meets no obstacle of progress. The
author knew turnips and potatoes, and mentions
their culture and use. Clover grass is noticed in
connection with the name of Sir Richard Weston,
who brought the plant from Flanders. Hops and
flax are briefly noticed. To fatten fowls and all
poultry, " Boil butcher's blood with bran or grains
into the consistence of a pudding, which feed the
beasts very fat ; also, boil carrots, turnips, and
parsnips with bran or coarse pollard ; and give
acorns bruised to fatten turkies ; soak crusts and
chippings of bread in beer or milk, which will
quickly fatten capons and hens." The author
makes frequent mention of Sir Richard Weston,
Hartlib, and Mr. Plat — meaning, no doubt. Sir
Hugh Plat, already noticed. Mr. Speed must
have been in respectable society, though ho intelli-
gence can be got of his birth and parentage.

The following quotation from Speed shows that
rural poetry had not much improved since the days
of Tusser.

" A digression to the usage of divers countries
concerning the tillage.

Each soyl hath no liking of every grain.

Nor barley nor wheat is for every vein :

Yet know I no country so bavren of soyl.

But some kind of corn may be gotten with toyl.

Though husband at home be to count the wot

what.
Yet thus huswife within is as needful as that ;
What helpeth in store, to have never so much.
Half lost by ill-usage ? ill huswife's and such."

XXL— Markham, 1631.
Gervase, Gervas, or Jarvise Markham, was the
youngest son of Robert Markham, Esquire, of
Gotham, m the county of Nottingham. He bore a
captain's commission in the army of Chai-les L
during the civil wars, and was accounted a good
soldier, as well as a good scholar. The time of his
birth, death, and also the other particulars of him,
are utterly unknown.

Markham was a very voluminous author, and is
thought to have been the first hackney writer in
England, or a person that writes for hire. The
agricultural works only are to be noticed here —
" The English husbandman," in two parts ; Lon-
don, 1613, 1635. " Farewell to husbandry, or the
enrichment of all sorts of barren ground ;" Lon-
don, 1620, 4to. " Cheap and good husbandry, for
the well ordering of the beasts and fowls;" London,
1626, 1631, 4to. "Enrichment of the Weald of
Kent;" London, 1620, 1631, 4to. "The country
farmer ;" London, I6l6, foho. Markham wrote
largely on horsemanship, horses, their management
and diseases. His works were in much repute,
and often reprinted.

Markham died in 1636, and is supposed to have
been born about the middle of the preceding cen-
tury, as, when in the prime of life, he was cham-
pion and gallant of the Countess of Shrewsbury in
159i, and dangerously wounded in a duel by Sir
John Holies. He was a portionless son, and en-
countered the usual unsettled life of that class of
the patrician order of society. He is said to have
been a good scholar, being perfect master of the
French, Italian, and Spanish languages, and culti-
vated the muses at an early age. He wrote, or
assisted in writing, a tragedy called " Herod and
J Antipater ;" and " Sion's Muse, or Song of King
Solomon," in eight eclogues, in 1596. The levity
of this song gave great offence to the Puritanical
clergy, who loudly censured Markham by name,
and some information has placed his character in
rather an equivocal light. The works on horses
show that the author delighted much in rural
masculine sports, and tvas a gallant courtier.

Markham pubhshed, in I6l6, the "Country
farm, or Maison rustique of Liebault," which was
first translated by Surfleet, who has been already
noticed. It was enlarged by Markham, with
quotations from Spanish and Italian authors. He
also edited a publication of the works of Barnaby
Googe. His ideas of rotation of crops were no-
thing advanced beyond the days of Fitzherbert, as
he advises two grain crops in succession, and
another grain crop after a manuring of the land by
folding of sheep. He recommends the use of
earthy manures, as marl and chalks. It appears
that his works on husbandry were once held in
great esteem, as may be judged by the following
agreement between him and the Stationers' Com-
pany, which may have arisen from the booksellers'
knowledge of the value of Markham's works, and
their apprehensions that a new performance of the
same subject might be hurtful to the treatises then
circulating. It is as follows : —

" Md. — That I, Gervase Markham, of London,
Gent., do promise hereafter never to write any more

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

•217

book or booka to be printed of the diseases or cure s
of any cattle, as horse, oxe, cowe, sheepe, swine,
and goates, &c. In witness whereof, I have here-
unto sett my hand, the 24th day of Juhe, 1617.

" Gervis Markham."

The name of Markham is always put forth as a
leading author in the history of British agriculture.
He was an educated person, and thereby qualified
to take a comprehensive view of the subject, and
to range it beyond the narrow sphere of the com-
mon entertainments. Markham lived in the com-
mencement of the civil commotions in Britain, but
did not see the fruits of the agitation ; his was a
generation that did not partake the vast influx of
altered knowledge which burst upon every depart-
ment of human employments from foreign inter-
course, and the enlargement of the human mind
from the spread of education. His " Farewell to
husbandry, or the enrichment of all sorts of barren
grounds," forms part of a thick octavo volume of
" Tracts on agriculture," printed in 1620. It is
divided into seventeen chapters, containing 160
pages, along with the works of Leonard Mascall
on planting and grafFyng. The general directions
improve arable lands by means of earthy manures,
and grassy lands by watering and top dressing.
The " Enghsh husbandman " is drawn into two
books : one on the knowledge of husbandr} e
duties, the nature of all sorts of soils, the manner
of tillage, the diversity of ploughes, and all other
instruments ; the second part contains the art of
planting, grafting, and gardening, the use of vines,
the hope garden, the preservation of all sorts of
fruits, the draught of all sorts of mazes, knots, and
other ornaments ; printed in 1635. The third

chapter is entitled " Of the situation of the hus-
bandman's house, the necessaries thereto belong-
ing, together with the model thereof." The fol-
lowing model is copied from the booke, and forms
a curious illustration of the ideas of those times
anent the farmer's accommodation, among the
better classes of society in which Markham moved.
The following plan is given by the author for
the use of the plain husbandman, and not to please
men of dignity, and is explained as follows : —

A. Signified the great hall.

B. The dining parlor for entertainment of stran-

gers.

C. An inward closet within the parlor, for the

mistress's use for necessaries.

D. A stranger's lodging within the parlor.

E. A staircase into the rooms over the parlor.

F. A staircase into the goodman's rooms over

the kitchen and buttery.

G. The skreene in the hall.

H. An inward cellar without the buttery, which

may serve for a larder
I. The buttery.
K. The kitchen, in whose range may be placed

a brewery lead and convenient ovens, the

brewing vessels adjoining.
L. The dairy-house for necessary business.
M. The milk-house.

N. A faire sawne pale before the foremost court.
O. The great gate to ride in at the hall dore.
P. A jilace where a pumpe would be placed to

serve the oflSices of the house.

. This figure signifieth the dores of

the house.

______ '^^^^ figure signifieth the windows

'- — ■ =!■— ^ of the house.

__ This figure signifieth the cheminies
^ of the house.

218

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

The garden and orchard are planted on the south
side of the house; the west yard contains a pond
of water and a gravelled court ; on the north side
are the farm buildings, as stables, ox-house, cow-
house, and swine cotes, the doors and windows all
opening to the south. On the south side of the
base court are built the hay barnes, come barnes,
houses for hens, ducks, and geese ; and over crosse
both these sides are hovels for pease, of good and
sufficient timber, and beneath are stowed the cart,
wayres, tumbrels, ploughes, harrowes, and such
like, together with plough, timber, and axle-trees,
in order to be kept dry, as wet doth soon rot and
consume them. The house is built of timber in
the walls, or of stone and hme, or of studde and
plaster, covered with lime and hair. Bay windows
are much recommended, and turrets to be raised
in the corners.

Figures are given of ploughs with very short
handles ; the plough is given with two wheels on
the end of the beam as now used, and recom-
mended for level lands of a light sandy soil. The
mould-board is square : the upper side extends

from the middle of the coulter which it touches, to
the hind body of the plough. The harrow is very
similar to the present implement of that name : the
width exceeds the length. The roll is a curiosity :
the shafts of draught are attached to each end, and
are narrowed in front to a width of the horse's
action, where the animal is attached ; the material
is wood, and thirty inches in girth.

A large portion of the writings on rural subjects
in the times now mentioned consisted in the
managements of trees, fruits, and orchards. These
objects had preceded the practice of agriculture,
but gradually shrunk into the legitimate sphere
according as the cultivation of land was extended.
Markham occupies less room in this way than the
preceding writers ; but his ideas do not seem to
have led any advance in the progress of improved
practice. He appears to have known the routine
then followed, and nothing more.

At the date in which we write the old English
type had disappeared from printing, and Mark-
ham's works are wholly in Roman characters.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF IRELAND.

The meeting of the Royal Agricultural Improve-
ment Society of Ireland took place 19th August. We
submit a list of ^the prizes ; but we are compelled,
from want of space, to postpone our report of the
speeches at the "Banquet Dinner" until our next.
As announced in the Programme, "the local
Committee, Members of the Society dined
together in the Saloon of the Railway
Hotel on the Wednesday. The Judges of the
Show were invited to attend." About seventy
persons sat down to dinner. The Duke of Leinster,
who occupied the chair and several of the gentle-
men immediately around him left the room as
soon as the cloth was removed, no toasts being
given, and consequently no speeches made. Those
who remained (about two-thirds of the number) re-
quested Wm. Dargan, Esq., to take the chair, with
which request he obligingly complied, when several
toasts were given and responded to in a manner
and with a spirit highly creditable to the speakers.
It would, perhaps, be unreasonable to expect that
a show of animals and implements at the extreme
west of Ireland — the " next parish to America" —
should be of any magnitude, and hence we refrain
from saying more than that it did not realize our
expectations.

It will be seen that the best prizes, medals and
the " Purcell Cup," were carried off by English
animals : some of the first prizes were, nevertheless,

awarded to Irish breeders for animals which did
them great credit. We may here observe that the
award of the first prize to Mr. Chrisp's bull, both at
the Highland Society's Meeting and at the Galway
Meeting, will effectually silence those parties who
were disposed to cavil at the decision of the judges
at the Lewes Meeting of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England. Mr. Carter, who, as we are
informed, has already been a successful exhibitor
at several of the Agricultural Shows in the north-
ern part of England, further distinguished himself
at Galway by carrying off four prizes for Leicesters.
Of the purely native breeds of animals, the Irish
sheep deserve great praise, and might be considered
as one of the best, if not altogether the best, feature
of the Show. The Kerry kine were superlatively
represented by a cow of that breed, exhibiting
milking properties which would have done credit to
an animal double or treble her size. Amongst the
sv/ine it will be seen that the Berkshire breed was
eminently successful. Looking at the character of
the district in which the town of Galway is situated,
it may safely be affirmed that the Royal Agricultural
Improvement Society of Ireland has brought in-
formation home to the doors of the farmers in that
locality which they otherwise could not readily have
obtained.

(from the freeman's journal.)
Galway, Thursday, Aug. 19. — The contributions in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

219

the agricultural implement portion of the exhibition are
not, comparatively with previous agricultural shows, ex-
tensive. There is a very fair variety of implements, but
very few inventions that can be said to be quite new.
Some, however, may be entitled to notice on this occa-
sion, although, perhaps, already not altogether unknown
to some of the public interested in such matters. A good
deal of attention appeared to be attracted by a cart and
cattle weighing machine (by Messrs. Smith, Paisley), so
constructed as to be self-contained, being furnished with
a cast-iron case, and thus saving the expense of stone
work, &c., &c., in putting it up. It is also of small
bulk, but capable of indicating from lib. to 2 tons.

A machine for sowing turnip seed, with guano or other
portable manures, was exhibited by Mr. Ritchie, of
Ardee. It appeared to be exceedingly light of draft and
of simple construction. The same contributor had a
specimen of a farm tumbling cart with improved harvest
frame, and with self-acting locker — the latter a veiy
great desideratum in such vehicles.

Mr. Frazer, of Mary-street, Dublin, had a vast va-
riety of articles on exhibition. Amongst them we no-
ticed a " sack-lifter," presenting an extremely simple
means of expediting barn or granary work, at the same
time effecting a considerable saving in labour and ex-
pense ; also a pulping-mill, constructed of galvanized
iron, and used for pulping turnips for cattle, swine, or
poultry feeding, in the most expeditious manner ; like-
wise for reducing diseased potatoes to farina. Much
public favour appeared to attach to the same inventors'
improved oak churns.

Several field implements were contributed by English
establishments ; but, as it struck us, mostly of a charac-
ter too heavy or too expensive to be adopted generally
in this country.

Yesterday the performance of Hussey's American
reaping machine was tested here. The operation took
place on a crop of wheat, rather light, and all standing
in very nice order. The pair of horses to the machine,
untrained, of course, to such work, did not execute
their portion of the task in a manner at all satisfactory.
At times they became restive, plunged, and became al-
most unmanageable. This, of course, untirely upset the
work for the time, but during the intervals that they
happened to draw kindly the cutting was beautifully
executed, and with surprising expedition.

There were a good number of agriculturists present,
and different opinions prevailed, but the majority ap-
peared in favour of the machine.

At two o'clock, his Excellency and the Countess of
Eglinton visited the exhibition, and remained for a con-
siderable time, continuing from the previous day their
inspection of the various objects in the show-yard.

The following is the list of the prizes read at the
banquet ; —

SHORT-HOKNED.

Por the best bull calved on or after the lat of January,
1847, and previous to the 1st January, 1850, 30 sova. —
Thomas Crisp, Hawk Hill, Alnwick, Northumberland, Phoenix,
1848,got by Ronald, d. by Guy Faux, g.d. Young Red Duchess,
by The Peer.

For the second best ditto, 10 sovs. — A. F.Nugent, Pallai,

Tynagh, short-homed bull. Bamboo, calved 10th January,
1847, bred by the exhibitor, got by The Beau of Killerby, d.
Bustle, by Windle, g.d., Beauty by Monarch.

For the best bull calved in 1850, 20 sovs. — Lord Clonbrock,
Clonbrock, Ahascragh, roan bull, Demalion, calved April, 1850,
bred by Mr. Hincks, of Breckenbrough, got by the Duke,
d. Duchess, by the Duke of Cornwall, gd. Datura, by Mowbray.

For the second best ditto, 5 sovs. — Thomas Ball, Robert's
Walls, Malahide, short-horned bull, Sol, calved 11th February,
1850, bred by Wta. Torr, Esq., of Aylesby Manor, Lincoln-
shire, got by Vanguard, d. Solar Ray, by Leonard, gd. Sun-
shine, by Remus, ggd., by Prince Comet, gggd., by Cornet.

For the best bull calved on or after the 1st January, 1851,
10 sovs. — Thomas Ball, Robert's Walls, Malahide, short-
horned yearling bull Emerald, calved April 17, 1851, bred by
the exhibitor, got by Blunder, d. Lily, by Comus, gd. Fairy
Queen, by Coriander, ggd. Princess, by Young Napoleon,
gggd. Adelaide, by Match-'em.

For the second best ditto, 5 sovs. — The Earl of Clancarty,
Garbally, Ballinasloe, short-homed yearly bull Snowdrop,
calved 25th September, 1851, bred by the exhibitor, got by
Cowboy, d. White Rose, by Mayboy, son of Second Comet,
gd. Chamber.

For the best bull in the above sections, the medal. — Thomas
Crisp, Hawk Hill, Alnwick, Northumberland, short-horned
bull Phoenix, calved 28th March, 1848, bred by exhibitor, got
by Ronald, d. by Guy Fawkes, gd. Young Red Duchess, by
the Peer.

For the best cow in calf, or that has had a calf in 1852, 15
sovs. — A. F. Nugent Pallas, Tynagh, shorthorned cow Maid of
Killerby, calved March 26, 1847, bred by exhibitor, got by
The Beau of Killerby, dam by Sir Thomas Fairfax, gd. by
Wallace.

For the second best ditto, 5 sovs. — John J. Turner, New.
town Villa, KilcuUen, shorthorned roan cow Grandiflora, calved
18th May, 1848, bred by exhibitor, got by The General, dam
Young Prize, by Narcissus, gd. Old Prize, by Prince Paul, ggd.
Beauty, by Planet, Cinderella, by Magnet ; had a calf 22nd
April last.

For the best heifer in calf or in milk, calved in the year

1849, 10 sovs.— Charles Towneley, M.P., Towneley Park,
Burnley, Lancashire, shorthorned heifer in milk Butterfly,
calved 1st of May, 1849, bred by exhibitor, got by Jeweller
dam Buttercup, by Garrick, gd. by Expectation.

For the second best ditto, 5 sovs. — A. F. Nugent, Pallas,
Tynagh, shorthorned heifer Baby, calved 8th January, 1849,
bred by exhibitor, got by Rockingham, dam Bustle, by Windle,
gd. Beauty, by Monarch.

For the best heifer in calf or in milk, calved in the year

1850, 10 sovs. — A. F. Nugent, Pallas, Tynagh, shorthorned
heifer Muslin, calved Feb. 7, 1850, bred by exhibitor, got by
Bamboo, dam by Albion, gd. by Ury.

For the second best ditto, 5 sovs. — John Wm. O'Meagher,
Beaumont, TuUow, shorthorned red and white heifer Dimple,
calved 8th July, 1850, bred by J. D. Trotter, Esq.,
county of Durham, got by the Duke of Richmond, dam Dulci-
mer, by Second Duke of Northumberland, gd. Dulcimer, by
Clarion ; in calf to Homespun.

For the best heifer, calved on or after the 1st of January,

1851, ten sovs. — Charles Towneley, M.P., Towneley Park,
Burnley, Lancashire ; shorthorned yearling heifer Frederachia,
calved January 3, 1851, bred by exhibitor, got by Upstart,
dam Feathers, by the Duke of Cornwall, g.d. Lily, by Fergus.

For the second best ditto, five sovs.— St. George Grey, Dor-
rington, Glasson; short-horned yearling heifer Lady Harris,
calved May 27, 1851, bred by exhibitor, got by Lgrd John,

2-2)

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

dam Harriet, by Sir J. Sinclair, g.d. Rose de Means, by Col-
lard.

OTHER LARGE BREEDS.

For the best Devon bidl, calved on or after the 1st of Jan-
uary, 1847, ten sova. — Lord Talbot de Malahide, the Castle,
Malaliide; Devon bidl Young Richard, calved the 27tli of
January, 1849, bred by Thomas Gifford, Esq., Northtown
Farm, Cadburj^ got by Gallant, dam Fillpail, g.d. Old Fill-
pail.

For the best polled Angus or Galloway bull, calved on or
after the 1st of January, 1847, ten sovs. — Lord Talbot de
Malahide, the Castle, Malahide ; polled Angus bull Charhe,
calved the 3rd of January, 1849, bred by Wilham Fullerton,
Esq., Scotland, got by Earl of _Buchan, dam Black Bess, g.d.
Rose, by Earl Spencer.

For the best Hereford cow in calf, or that had a calf in 1852,
five sovs. — Richard W. Reynell, Killynon, Killucan; Here-
ford cow Red Rose, calved May, 1848, bred by exhibitor, got
by Goldfinder, dam by Emperor, g.d. English John.

For the best Devon cow in calf, or that had a calf in 1852)
five sovs. — The Earl of Charlemont, Marino, Clontarf ; Devon
cow Primrose, calved the 4th of May, 1849, bred by exhibitor,
got by Old Shamrock, out of PoUy, g.s. Kingsland, g.d. Cherry.

For the best polled Angus or Galloway cow in calf, or that
had a calf in 1852, five sovs. — Lord Talbot de Malahide, the
Castle, Malahide ; polled Angus cow Jeannie Deans, calved
April, 1848, bred by Robert Adamson, Esq., Middledrums, N.
B., got by Black Prince, dam a pure Angus cow, a winner of
several prizes.

For the best Devon heifer, in calf or in milk, calved on or
after the Ist of January, 1849, five sovs. — the earl of Charle-
mont, Marino, Clontarf, Devon heifer. Rose, calved 7th June,
1850, bred by exhibitor, got by Young Shamrock, out of Hand-
some, g.s. Old Shamrock, g.d. Ruby.

For the best polled Angus or Galloway heifer, in calf or ia
milk, calved on or after 1st of January, 1849, five sovs. — Lord
Talbot de Malahide, the Castle, Malahide, a polled Angus
heifer, Violet, calved 1st March, 1850, bred by Robert Adam-
son, Esq., of Middledrums, N. B.

For the beat Devon heifer, calved on or after the Ist Janu-
ary, 1851, three sovs. — the Earl of Charlemont, Marino,
Clontarf, a Devon heifer. Cherry, calved Ist November, 1851,
bred by exhibitor, got by Young Shamrock, out of Handsome,
g.s. Old Shamrock, g.d. Ruby.

For the best polled Angus or Galloway heifer, calved on or
after the 1st January, 1851, three sovs. — Adam Grierson,
Cashel, a Galloway heifer, calved 2nd March, 1851, bred by
James Graham, Esq., Meikle, Scotland, got by Terry, who
gained the first prize, as a two year old, at Glasgow, in 1850.

SMAI.L AND MOUNTAIN BREEDS.

For the best Ayrshire bull, calved on or after Ist January,
1847, five sovs. — John Hamilton, Edelwood, by Hamilton,
Scotland, an Ayrshire bull, London Gondy, bred by Mr.
Stivhie, county of Ayr, got by the celebrated bull Avondale,
dam Daisy.

For the best West Highland bull, calved on or after Ist
January, 1847, five sovs. — P. S. Comyn, Woodstock, Galway,
a pure bred West Highland bull Donald, calved May, 1847,
bred by Colonel La Touche, Luggelaw, Roundwood. William
Owen, Blessngton, a pure-bred west Highland buU, Young
Donald, calved June, 1849, bred by exhibitor, got by Donald
(Donald by Colonel La Touche's bull), highly commended.

For the best Kerry bull, calved on or after Ist Jan., 1847, 5
B0V8. — Samuel Garnet, Arch Hall, Navan, a Kerry bull, Pablo
Fanque, 4 years old, bred in the county Kerry,

For the beat Ayrshire cow, in calf or in milk, or that had a
calf in 1852, four sots. — Tiernan and Lockhart, Middle Abbey-
street, Dublin, an Ayrshire cow.

For the best West Highland cow, in calf or in milk, or that
had a calf in 1852, four sovs. — James Hamilton, St. Ernan'a,
Donegal, a West Highland cow. Duchess, calved in 1844, bred
by the Duke of Sutherland ; obtained Highland Society's prize
in 1848. William Owen, Blesinton, a pure West Highland
cotv, Maggie, calved May, 1846, bred by Colonel La Touche,
Luggelaw, county Wicklow, highly commended.

For the best Kerry cow, in calf or in milk, or that had a
calf in 1852, four sovs. — Alexander C. Lambert, Cong Abbey,
Cong, a Kerry dexter cow, Cricket, 7 years old.

For the best Ayrshire heifer, in calf or in milk, calved on or
after Ist January, 1849, three sovs. — Tiernan and Lockhart,
Middle Abbey-street, Dublin, an Ayrshire heifer.

For the best West Highland heifer, in calf or in milk, calved
on or after 1st January, 1849, three sovs. — P. J. Comyn, The
Farm, Galway, a West Highland heifer. Colleen, in calf, 2
years old, bred by exhibitor, got by Young Donald.

For the best Kerry heifer, in calf or in mUk, calved on or
after 1st January, 1849, three sovs. — Pierce Joyce, Ardfry,
Oranmore, a Kerry heifer, in milk, Glengariflf, calved in 1849.

For the best lot of two West Highland heifers, calved on or
after 1st January, 1851, two sovs. — Sir Thomas Burke, Bart.,
M.P., Marble Hill, Loughrea, a lot of two West Highland
heifers, bred by exhibitor.

For the best of all the prize bulls exhibited at the Show,
the gold medal — Thomas Crisp, Hawkhill, Northumberland,
for short-horned bull. Phoenix.

To the breeder of the best prize bull, the medal — Thomas
Crisp, Hawk-hill, Northumberland.

For the best of all the prize cows or heifers exhibited at the
show, the gold medal — Charles Towneley, Towneley Park,
Burnley, for short-horned heifer. Butterfly.

To the breeder of the best prize cow or heifer, the medal —
Charles Towneley, Towneley Park, Burnley.

The Agricultural Challenge Cup, value one hundred sovs.,
given by the late Peter Purcell, Esq., for the best animal in the
neat cattle classes, possessing most merits, of its kind, in the
estimation of the judges. Charles Towneley, Towneley Park,
Biurnley, for short-horned heifer. Butterfly.

HORSES.

For the best cart stallion over three years old, and foaled on
or after the 1st Jan., 1845, 30 sovs. — John Woolsey, Miles-
down, CastlebelUngham ; a Clydesdale cart stallion. No Mis-
take, foaled 27th May, 1847, bred by exhibitor, got by Young
Sir Harry, out of a Normandy mare.

For the second best ditto, 10 sovs. — Alexander Binney, Col-
lingstown, Santry, Dublin ; a Clydesdale cart stallion. Lively,
foaled 28th May, 1847 ; bred by Mr. Thomas Mickle, Scot-
laud, got by Mr. Bullock's Clyde, out of a first-class Clydesdale
mare, gs. Champion, dam by Sampson, gd. by Old Britain ;
Adam Grierson, Cashel, Clydesdale cart stallion, commended.

For the best cart stallion, foaled on or after the 1st Jan.,
1849, 15 sovs.— Sylvester Rait, Rathmoyle, Edenderry; a
Clydesdale cart stallion, Glancer, foaled 27th Jxme, 1849;
bred by Mr. Alexander Broxburn, Mid-Lothian; got by John
Anderson, gs. Byron, ggs. Clydesdale Jock, out of a pure-bred
Clydesdale mare.

For the second best ditto, five sovs. — James Young, Car-
puthall, Linlithgowshire, Scotland ; a cart staUion, Young
Blythe, two years old, got by Johnny Cope, the property of J.
Alexander, Esq., Broxburn Hall; gs. Young Clydesdale Jock,
the property of Samuel Clark, Glasgow.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

For the best thorough-bred stallion, the nieda! — Wills C.
Gason, Richmond, Nenagh ; a thorough bred stalliou, The
Reiver, foaled March, 1844, bred by Lieuteuant-Colonel
Westeura, Sharavogue, Roscrea; got by Frenzy, dam Kiss, by
Waxy Pope, gd. Sister to Norfolk, by Champion. Frenzy got
by Roller, by Lucy.

For the best cart mare in foal or with a foal at her foot, or
having reared a foal iu the year 1851, ten sovs. — Sylvester
Rait, Rathraoyle, Edenderry, a Clydesdale cart brood mare
Bett, with !i foal at foot, 10 years old, by exhibitor.

For the second best ditto, five sovs. — John Woolsey, Miles-
down, Castlebellingham ; a cart mare Nelly, with foal at foot,
foaled iu May, 1844, bred by exhibitor, got by an imported
Clydesdale stallion Ploughboy, out of a Rob Roy mare.

For the best cart filly, not exceeding three years old, five
sovs. — Sylvester Rait, Rathmoyle, Edenderry ; a Clydesdale
cart filly. Gentle, foaled June, 1849, bred by exhibitor, got by
Lanark, out of Clyde.

SHEEP.
LEICESTERS.
For the best shearling ram, 15 sovs. — Frederick Founes
Hamilton, Windmill Farm, Edenderry ; a shearling Leicester
ram, bred by William Sandy, Esq., Holme-pierrepoiut, Not-
tingham.

For the second best ditto, five sovs. — T. Carter, Scales,
Richmond. Yorkshire ; a shearling ram.

Thcs. Roberts, Strokesto'.Mi, ram, highly commended.
For the best two-shear ram, ten sovs. — T. Carter, as above.
For the second best, 5 sovs. — George Speucer, Normauton
House, Hinckley, Leicestershire ; a pure two-shear Leicester
ram.

George Spencer, Normauton House, commended.
For the best ram of any pge, five sovs. — Thomas Skilling,
professor of agriculture, Queen's College, Galway ; a four-shear
Leicester ram.

For the best peu of five shearling ewes, ten sovs. — Thomas
Carter, Scales, Richmond, Yorkshire ; a pen of five shearling
Leicester ewes.

For the second best, 5 sovs. — Thomas Carter, Scales, Rich-
mond, Yorkshire.

For ihe best pen of five ewe lambs, 5 sovs. — Johu La
Touche, Harristown, Brannoxton ; a pen of five Leicester ewe
lambs.

OTHER LONG-WOOLLED SHEEP NOT QUALIFIED
TO COMPETE AS LEICESTERS.

For the best shearling ram, ten sovs. — David Kerr, Clonin,
Edenderry ; a shearling long-wooUed ram.

For the second best, 5 sovs. — Fred. F. Hamilton, Windmill
Farm, Edenderry.

For the best two-shear ram, eight sovs. — Sjlvester Rait,
Rathmoyle, Edenderry; a two-shear long-woolled ram.

For the secoud best, four sovs. — Sylvester Rait, Rathmoyle,
Edenderry; a two-shear long-woolled ram.

For the best ram of auy other age, five sovs. — George Thun-
der, Kingston Lodge, Navan; an au'cd long-woolled ram.

For the best pen of shearling ewes, five sovs. — Sylvester
Rait, Rathmoyle, Edenderry; a pen of five long-woolled
shearling ewes.

For the second best, three sovs. — Samuel Garuett, Arch-
hall, Navan ; a pen of five shearling long-woolled ewes.

For the best pen of five ewe lambs, three sovs. — Samuel
Garnelt, Arch-hall, Navan ; a pen of five long-woolled ewe
lambs.

SOUTHDOWNS.

For the best shearling ram, 8 sovs. — Tieruan and Lockhart,
Middle Abbey-street, Dublin, a shearling Southdown ram.

For the best ram of any other age, 4 sovs. — William Owen,
Blesinton, a pure two-shear Southdown ram.

For the best pen of five shearling ewes, 3 sovs. — John Wool-
sey, Milesdown, Castlebellingham, a pen of five Southdown
shearling ewes.

CHEVIOTS.
For the best shearling ram. 8 sovs. — Marquis of Conyng-
ham, Castle Slane, Slane, a shearling pure Cheviot ram.

For the best ram of any other age, 4 sovs. — Marquis
of Conyngham, Castle Slane, Slane, a pure three shear Cheviot
ram.
For the best pen of five shearling ewes, 3 sovs. — Marquis of

Conyngham, Castle Slane, a pen of five pute^eviot/sji^iling
ewes. ■.. ,

BLACK-FACED OR OTHER MOUNTAIN SHFIEP.

For the best shearling ram, 5 sovs. —no entry.

For the best ram of any 'other age, 3 sovs. — John J. Lop-
dell, Raheen, Athenry, a black-faced ram.

For the best pen of five shearling ewes, 2 sovs. — crosses only
exhibited, and no premium awarded.

For the best ram in the above classes, the medal — Fred. F.
Hamilton, Windmill Farm, Edenderry.

To the breeder of the best ram in the above classes, the
medal — Wm. Sandy, Holme Pierrepoint, Nottingham.

SWINE.

For the best boar under 18 months old, 10 sovs. — Arthur
E. Chaignean, Benowu, Ballymahon, a Berkshire boar. Friar
Bacon, pigged 25th June, 1851, bred by Captain Croker, got
by Sir Roger Bacon.

For the second best ditto, 5 sovs. — Rev. J. Warburton,
Kill, county Kildare, a pure bred Berkshire boar, pigged 29th
Sept., 1851.

For the best boar over 18 months old, and under 36 mouths
old, 8 sovs. — Thomas Skilling, Professor of Agriculture.
Queen's College, Galway. For the second best ditto, 4 sovs.- —
Alexander Montgomery, Kilmer House, Ballivor, Athboy ;
a Berkshire boar, pigged 29th October, 1849.

For the best breedhig sow, under 18 mouths old, 8 sovs. —
Joseph Spence, Himpley, Leicestershire. For the second
best ditto, 4 sovs. — Edward Croker, Ballytore House, Bally-
tore ; a Berkshire sow, under 18 months old. — Rev. John
Warbivrton, Kill, county Kildare ; a pure-bred Berkshire sow
in pig, 13 months old, highly commended.

For the best breeding sow, over 18 months old, 5 sovs. —
Rev. Johu Warburton, Kill, county Kildare; a pure-bred
Berkshire sow, accompanied by litter, two years and nine
months old.

For second best ditto, 3 sovs. — Augustus Warburton, Kill^
county Kildare; a pure-bred Berkshire sow, accompanied by
litter, pigged 1st April, 1850. Thomas Ball, Robert's Walls,
Malahide ; an improved Berkshire sow and litter, pigged 14th
October, 1850, commended.

For the best lot of three breeding pigs, of the same litter,
not more than 10 months old, 5 sovs. — Viscoimt Monck,
CharleviUe, Enniskerry ; a lot of three pure-bred black and
white Berkshire sows, pigged October 30, 1851, bred by
exhibitor, got by a fuU brother to the sows, which won the
first prize as three best breeding pigs, mider ten months old,
at the Royal Dubbin Society, Aprd, 1850, dam full sister to
the three sows which won the same prize April, 1851, and two
of which won first and second prizes as the best breeding sows
under ] 8 mouths old at the Royal Agricultural Improvement
Society's show, August, 1851.

For second best ditto, 3 sovs. — Augustus Warburton, Kill,
county Kildare.

POULTRY.

Fowl. — For the best Dorking cock and hen, £1 10s. — Mrs.
Warburton, Kill, county Kildare, a Dorking cock aud two hens.

For the best couple of Spanish pullets, 10s. — Mrs. Teresa
Carton, 16, Halston-street, Dublin, a couple of Spanish pullets.

For the best Polish cock and hen, £1 lOs. — Arthur J. C.
Skilling, Prospect, Oranmore, a Polish cock and hen.

For the best couple of Polish pullets, 10s. — Arthur J. C.
Skdliug, Prospect, Oranmore, a couple of Polish pullets.

For the best Malay cock and hen, £1 10s. — Mrs. Teresa
Carton, 16, Halston-street, Dublin, a Malay cock aud hen.

For the best couple of Malay pullets, 10s. — Mrs. Teresa
Carton, 16, Halston-street, Dublin, a couple of Malay pullets.

For the best couple of Turkey poults, lOs. — Mrs. P. Ken-
nedy, Doon, Ahascragh, a couple of Ttirkey poults.

Geese. — For the best couple of geese, £1 IDs. — John
Latouche, Harristown, Branuoxtou, a couple of geese.

For the second best ditto, 10s. — Mrs. Teresa Carton,
Halston-street, Dublin.

Ducks. — For the best Aylesbury drake and two ducks, £1
10s.— Arthur J. C. Skilling, Prcspect, Oranmore, an Aylesbury
drake aud two ducks.

For the second best ditto, 10s. — Mrs. Warburton, Kill,
county Kildare, an Aylesbury drake and two ducks.

For the best drake and two ducks of any other breed, £1

222

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

lOs. — Mrs. Teresa Cartou, 16, Halston-street, Dublin, a Rouen
drake and two ducks

For the second best ditto, 10s.— Mr. Thomas Bunbury,
Spiddal House, Galway.

DAIRY PRODUCE.

To the owners of dairies who shall make and produce the
best quality of butter for the London and foreign markets,
made on their own farms during the season of 1852, not being
less than one firkin of VOlbs. weight, on the following terms :

For the English or London market, first prize, five sovs. —
William Dargan, Moate.

Second prize, three sovs. — William Dargan, Moyvaghly,
Moate ; a firkhi of butter.

Third prize, two sovs. — John Mealey, Aidstown, Rathmore,
Co. Kildare ; a firkin of butter.

For the foreign market, first prize, five sovs., and second
prize, three sovs. — William Dargan, Moyvaghly, Moate ; a
firkin of butter.

Third prize, two sovs. — Pierce Creagh, Clare.

CHEESE.
For the best couple of new-milk cheeses, made in Ireland,
of the season of 1852, in imitation of any known and approved
description of English cheese, not less than 201bs. each, first
prize, five sovs. — Colonel Henry Dwyer, Ballyquick Castle,
Borrisokane j a couple of new-milk cheeses.

DAIRY PRODUCE.

To the owners of dairies, who shall make aud produce the
best quality of butter for the London and foreign markets,
made on their own farms during the season of 1852, not beicg
less than one firkin of 701bs. weight, on the following terms :

For the English or London market — First prize, five sovs. —
Mrs. Dargan, Moate.

Second prize, two sovs. — John Sills, Jones's Lake House,
Moate, a couple of new-milk cheeses, in imitation of Gloucester.
Thomas Eeles, Dublin, recommended.

FLAX.

For the best bundle, not less than 161bs. weight, of mill-
scutched flax, being an average sample of the produce of at
least half an acre — First prize, three sovs., and second prize,
two sovs. — Edward Smyth, Deramore, Newry, a buudle of
white mill-scutched fla\.

For the best bundle, not less than IGlbs. weight, of half-
scutched flax, ditto — First prize, three sovs. — Edward Smyth,
Deramore, Newry, a bundle of haud-seutched flax, a sample of
three acres.

Second prize, two sovs. — Denis Kirwan, Castlehacket,
Tuam, a bundle of hand-scutched flax.

For the best half-bushel of flaxseed saved by the grower,
first class medal. — Denis Kirwan, Castlehacket, Tuam, half a
bushel of flaxseed.

For second best, second class-medal — Francis Pratt, Cor-
ribseca, Kingscourt, half a bushel of flaxseed.

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.

The following are the prizes awarded in this department : —

For the best plough for performing the ordinary work of the
farm. First class medal — James Kirkwood, Tranent foundry,
Tranent.

For the best plough for deep trench ploughing, capable of
bems worked by not more than four horses. First class medal
—Robert Gray, Police place, Belfast.

For the best instrument for breaking up the subsoil, capable
of being worked by not more than four horses.

First class medal — Robert Gray, Police-place, Belfast.

For the best grubber or cultivator, to be worked by two or
more horses. First class medal — Thomas Eeles aud Co.,
Mary-street, Dublin.

For the best grubber for green crops. First class medal —
Robert Gray, Police-place, Belfast.

For the best constructed seed harrow. First class medal —
Thomas Eeles and Co., Mary-street, Dublin.

For the best break harrow, or other instrument for pul-
verising the soil. First class medal — Robert Gray, Police-
place, Belfast.

For the best roller or clod-crusher. First-class medal —
Joshua Edmundsou and Co., Capel-street, Dublin.

For the best horse rake. First-class medal — Barrett, Exall,
and Andrews, Hales Grove Works, Reading.

For the best farm cart. First class medal — W. and J.
Ritchie, Ardee.

For the best drill for sowing turnip seed in one or two drills.
Second class medal— Thomas Eeles and Co., Mary-street,
Dublin.

For the best drill for sowing turnip seed, &c., with apparatus
for distributing eight portable manures. The gold medal —
James Smith and Son, Peasenhall, Suffolk.

For the best machine for distributing liquid manure. First-
class medal — William Crcskill, Beverley.

For the best machine for drilling grain. The gold medal-
James Smith and Son, Peasenhall.

For the best machine for cleaning grain. First-class medal
— W. aud J. Ritchie, Ardee.

For the best machine for cutting turnips. First-class medal
— Richmond and Co., Salford.

For the best chaff-cuttiug machine. First-class medal-
Richmond and Co., Salford.

For the best machine for crushing oats, beans, or other
grain. First-class medal — Barrett, Exall, and Co., Kates-
grove Works, Reading.

For the best apparatus for steaming food for cattle. First-
class medal — Mr. P. Stauley, Peterborough.

For the best and most economical root washer, Second
class medal — William Crosskill, Beverley.

For the best thrashing machine suitable for large farms,
worked by either horse or steam power. The Council gold
medal — Barrett, Exall, and Co., Katesgrove Works, Readmg.

For the best thrashing machine suitable for small farmers.
First class medal — Barrett, Exall, and Compaoy, Reading.

For the best churn worked by hand. First class medal-
Eels and Co., Mary-street, Dublin.

For the best set of smaller utensils for the dairy, such as
milk-cools, &c. Second class medal, Sixeon R. Fraser,
INIary-street, Dublin.

For the best set of horses' power gearing, economically
adapted to fit machiaes, churns, &c. First class medal,
Barrett, Exall, and Co., Reading.

For the best class of draining tiles. Second class medal,
J. Ingram, Rathfarnham.

For the best assortment of hand implements used for the
farm, such as draining tools, spades, scythes, &c. First class
medal, Joshua Edmundson and Co., Capel-street, Dublin.

For the best aud most economical set of farm harness.
First-class medal — Thomas Stokes, Eyre-square, Galway.

For the best swing-trees or draught-bars. Second-clasa
medal. — Robert Gray, Police-place, Belfast.

For the best and most economical iron field-rakes, on cor-
rect principles. First-class medal — Edmund Hill and Co.,
Brierly, Staffordshire.

For the best and most economical description of portable
shedding for afi'ording shelter to cattle and sheep on pasture.
First-class medal — Thomas Ritchie and Sons, Belfast.

For the best assortment of hurdles or other moveable fence
suited for folding sheep on turnips, &c. First-class medal —
Edward Hill and Co., Brierly.

FLAX.

For the best flax-breaking machine. First-class medal-
Messrs. A. and W. Smitti, Paisley.

For the best scutching mill. First-class medal — MesEra.
Smith, Paisley.

THE REAPING MACHINE.

In a report made by the judges of farming implements to
the council, amongst other matters the following occurs : —

" Hussey's reaping machine, improved by Crosskill, highly
recommended and awarded a first-class medal. Here the ob-
ject of cutting a clean aud upstanding field of corn cleanly, and
laying it in better order for binding than is usually done by
the hook, seems to have been attained. The machine fails in
cutting corn that has been laid, and is liable to obstruction
from chokiug when there is a considerable undergrowth of
clover or seeds. It will not cut grass, but it is adapted to cut
beans or any other stifif crop. We have hopes that the enter-
prising introducer of the instrument will be able to overcome
those difficulties and effect much improvement in its general
applicability."

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

223

THE HIGHLAND

AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF
SCOTLAND.

The institution is in its 68th year, and has far outgrown its
original intention. From being a local association of very
humble pretensions, it has become a national organization of
the most influential character, and though now distanced by
its younger competitor, the Royal Agricultural Society of
England, aud closely followed by the Royal Agricultural Im-
provement Society of Ireland, its meetings are stiU looked
forward to with interest, aud its premiums enlist the compe-
tition of agriculturists from every part of the empire.

The show for this year was looked forward to with some
anxiety. So much having been said of late about the depressed
state of agriculture, fears were entertained in some quarters
that the exhibition would prove a failure ; but instead of this,
the entries, both of implements and stock, have been larger
than on any former occasion, and the proceedings thus far
have been of the most encouraging description.

The ground appropriated for the showyard is a spacious
common on the south side of the city, surrounded by parallel
rows of fine old elms, and flanked on the east by the embank-
ment of the river. Here about 10 acres of the greensward
are enclosed, and the space is appropriated in a manner which
affords ample accommodation for the various departments of
the exhibition, A large portion of the yard is occupied with
upwards of 300 implements of husbandry — a part is given to
the produce of the dairy, and the remainder is disposed in open
stalls, well filled with every vaiiety of cattle; but the show
of roots and seeds, which forms an important part of the
Royal Exhibition of Agriculture in Englaud, do not appear to
be considered worthy of much attention on this side of the
Tweed.

The exhibition of implements on Wednesday, August 4, pre-
sented no feature of marked interest. It consisted chiefly of well-
known and often described machines, mostly of English inven-
tion— the Scotch clinging with characteristic tenacity to their
own plough and harrow, and depending more on manual labour
than the agencies of either wind or steam. There was no
steam plough exhibited, although one had been expected, and
disappointment was expressed that Hussey's reaping machine,
which gained the first prize at the great show in England, was
not on the ground. Five other reaping machines, however,
were exhibited, one of which, invented by Mr. Patrick Bell, of
Forfarshire, some twelve years ago, and presenting features
precisely similar to the American machines, attracted much
attention. To-morrow these machines are to be tried on a
neighbouring farm, and a very spirited contest is likely to take
place.

The great interest of the exhibition was centred in the
proceedings of the day. At an early hour there was a large in-
flux of strangers, and by noon the trains poured into the "fair
city" thousands of visitors from all parts of Scotland. The
weather being highly propitious, the show ground presented a
fine sight, it being calculated that there could not be fewer
than from 10,000 to 15,000 persons in and arouud it soon
after the doors of the yard were thown open. The charge for
admission was 2s. 6d. from 10 to 12 o'clock, and Is. from 12
to 4. In 1836, when the societyheld its last show here, £250
was taken at the doors at these prices, but to-day no less than
£780 was received for visitors' tickets, notwithstanding the
members of the society and exhibitors of stock and imple-

ments were this year admitted free. It is estimated that
7,000 persons were wilhin the show-yard, among whom were
many of the leading nobility and gentry of Scotland. Not-
withstanding the large number of visitors, so perfect were the
arraugemcnts that not the slightest confusion occurred, nor
did a single accident happen during the day.

The cntiies of stock comprised 313 cattle, 135 horses, 662
sheep, aud 50 swine. The polled breeds were the most nume-
rous. In this department the counties of Angus, Aberdeen,
and Galloway presented a remarkable display of fine animals.
The first prize for the best bull was gained by Mr. Watson, of
Keilor, and the first for the best cow by Mr. M'Combie, of
Tillyfour, Aberdeen. The shorthorns showed well, Mr. Chrisp,
of Hawkhill, Alnwick, carrying off the first prize for the best
bull of any age ; the prize for the best bull calved after the 1st
of January, 1850, being awarded to Mr. A. Cruickshank, of
Sittytar, near Aberdeen. A gold medal was given to Mr.
M'Combie for the best pair of oxen calved after the 1st of
January, 1849, These oxen were looked upon with much inte-
rest, as showing how prime animals can now be raised in three
years so as to command the first prices in the London market ;
and it was remarked, in reference to this stock, that from Aber-
deenshire alone last year 30,000 head of such cattle were ex-
ported, yielding a return of above £500,000. To enable the
cattle breeders of the county to raise this quantity of stock, it
was stated that 10,000 tons of guano were last year put upon
the land, and that the crops of grass and turnips raised had
been far beyond anything that used to be got from the best of
home manure some ten years since. Ayrshire produced some
fine specimens of dairy stock, and the West Highlands had
also a moiety worthy of notice. The Marquis of Breadalbane
showed some remarkable animals of the pure native black, and
the Lord Justice-General, who is a Highland proprietor, carried
off the first prize for the best Highland bull. But the small
tenantry in the Highlands made no appearance. There were
five premiums offered for the best stock of " tenants paying
rents not exceeding £100 per annum," but there were no
entries — a fact which indicates very clearly the present reduced
state of the small Highland farmer. The entries of " horses
for agricultural purposes" were not numerous, but the prize
animals were considered to be an improvement on those pre-
viously shown.

The most remarkable feature in the appearance of all the
cattle exhibited were their fine symmetry and comfortable con.>
dition. Formerly the great desideratum was fat ; now the
chief concern of the breeder seems to be to have no more fat
than is required by the laws of nature ; and in this respect
the Scotch appear to have gone a-head of the English breed-
ers. In the show to-day there were very few unwieldy aui.»
mals, and one of the judges, in pronouncing upon the merits,
in remarking upon this characteristic, said it might be taken
as a proof that they had now given up ornament for use.

The department of sheep was well supported. The Leicester
tup came out strong, and Northumberland carried off the
chief prizes. The Cheviots were in abundance, and the High-
land breeds were well represented. In swine there was but a
poor show, the Scotch having evidently no great favour for
pork. Two of the prizes in this department went to Cum-
berland.

224

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

LIST OF PRIZES AWARDED.
SHORTHORNS.

Sweepstakes for Bulls, to Thomas Cbrisp, Hawkhill,
Alnwick.

Bulls of any age, 201. and the tilver medal, Thomas Crisp,
Hawkhill, Alnwick.

Bulla calved after 1st Jan., 1850, IQL, A. Cruickshank, Sit-
tytoD, Aberdeen.

Bnlla calved after 1st Jan., 1851, 61., Duke of Bucc'cuch,
Dalkeith Park.

Cows of any age — 1st prize, 10^., James Douglas, Athel-
stancford, Haddington ; 2ud, 51., William Tod, Elphinslone
Tower, Tranent.

Heifers calved after 1st Jan , 1850 - 1st prize, 8?., James
Douglas, Athelstaneford, Haddington ; 2nd, 4?., James Cun-
ningham Grant Duflf, of Eden, Banff.

Heifers calved after 1st Jan., 1851, 51, James Douglas,
Athelstaneford, Haddington.

POLLED BREEDS. — ABERDEEN, ANGUS, AND GALLOWAY.

Sweepstakes for Polled Bulls, to Hngh Watson,
Keillor, Cupar Angus.

Balls of any age, 15?. and the silver medal, Hugh V/atson,
Keillor.

Bulls calved after 1st Jan., 1850, 81., Alexander Bowie,
Mains of Kelly, Arbroath.

Bulls calved after 1st Jan., 1851, 51., Thomas Caruegy, of
Craigo, Montrose.

Cows of any age— 1st prize, 81., William M'Combic, Tilly-
four ; 2nd, 41, Hugh Watson, Keillor.

Heifers calved after 1st Jan., 1850— 1st prize, 61., and 2nd,
31, William M'Combie, Tillyfour.

Heifers calved after the 1st Jan., 1851, il., Robert fc'cott,
Balwyllo, Angus.

Pair of oxen calved after 1st Jan., 1849, the medium gold
medal, William M'Combie, Tiliyfonr.

AYRSHIRE BREED.

Sweepstakes for Ayrshire Bulls, to A. W. Buttery,
Monkland, Airdrie.

Bulls of any age, 15?. and the ailver medal, A. W. Buttery,
Monkland, Airdrie.

Bulls caked after 1st Jan., 1850, 81., A. W. Buttery, Monk-
land, Airdrie.

Cows of any age in milk— 1st prize, 81., A. W. Buttery,
Monkland, Airdrie; 2nd, 4/., James Young, Handaxwood,
Whitburn, Midlothian.

Cows of any age in calf— 1st prize, 6/., Ales. M'Lachlaa,
East Longhaugh, Bishopton, Renfrewshire; 2nd, 3?., Robt.
Kirkwood, High Longmuir.

Heifers calved after 1st Jan., 1850— 1st prize, 6?., John
Paterson, Macorriston ; 2nd, 31., William Muir, Hardiagton
Mains, Bi=gar.

Heifers calved after 1st Jan., 1851, 4/., John Hamilton,
Burnbrea, Avondale, Lanarkshire.

HIGHLAND BREED.

Bulls of any age, 15?. and the silver medal, the Right Hon.
Duncan M'Neill, of Colousay, Lord Justice-General.

Bulls calved after 1st Jan., 1850, 8?., John M'Donald, In-
verlochlang, Lochearnhead, Perthshire.

Cows of any age— 1st prize, 8?., the Marquis of Breadalbane,
Taymonth Castle ; 2nd, 4?., Neill Malcolm, of PoUalloch
LoCiigilpkead.

Heifers calved after Isf, January, 1849— 1st prize, 6?., to
the Marquis of Brcaialhane; 2nd prize, 3?., to Robert Peter,
tJr'ar, Aberfeldy.

Heifers calved after Ist January, 1850, 4?., Donald McLarei;,
Braeleny, Callander.

Pair of Oxen calved after Ist January, 1848 ; the Medium
Gild Medal; Alexander Campbell, of Monzie, Crieff.

FIFESHIRB BREEDS.

Sweepstakes forFifesuire Bulls, to Robert Wilson,
Firth 6eld, Anstnither.

Bulls of any age, 10?. and Silver Medal, John Rintoul, Oven-
ston, Pittenweera.

Cows of any age, 61., William Fullarton, Mains of Ardestie,
Dundee.

Heifers calved after Ist January, 1850, 4?., David Wallace,
Balgrummo.

HORSES FOR AGRICULTURAL PURPOSES.

Stallions— 1st prize, 25?. and the Silver Medal, Samuel Clark,
Manswrae, Kilbarchan, Renfrewshire ; 2nd prize, 10?., John
Smith, Grassmarket, Edinburgh.

Entire Colts foaled after Ist January, 1849, 10?., Alexander
Lawson, Old Mills, Elgin.

Entire Colts foaled after 1st January, 1850, 8?., James Kay,
Hillfarm, Gargunnock, Stirlingshire.

Entire Colts foaled after 1st January, 1851, 6?., John and
Peter Young, Niddry, Winchburgh, West Lothian.

Mares— 1st prize, 10?., A. W. Buttery, Monkland, Airdrie;
2ud prize, 5?., Andrew Logan, Croaflit, Kilbarchan, Renfrew-
shire.

Fillies foaled after 1st January, 1849, 8?., Robert Murdoch,
Hallside, Cambuslang, Lanarkshire.

Fillies foaled after Ist January 1850, 6?., Andrew Logan,
Crossflit, Kilbarchan, Renfrewshire.

Fillies foaled after 1st January, 1851, 4? , Robert Jack, Bal-
carroch, Campsie, Stirlingshire.

EXTRA SECTIONS.

Highland Pony Stallions, not over 14, nor under 12 hands,
8? , Alexander Campbell of Monzie, Crieff.

Higliiacd Pony Mares, same height, 5?., Sir John Stuart
Forbes, of Pitsligo, bart., Laurencekirk.

SHEEP — LEICESTER BREEDS.

Tups not exceeding 4 years old — 1st prize, 8?, John Davison,
Brandon, Whitehouse, Wittingham, Northumberland ; 2nd
prize, 4?., Thomas Dickinson, Maiden Hall, St. Boswells.

Pair of Dinmont or Shearling Tups — 1st prize, 8?., John
Davison, Brandon Whitehouse ; 2nd prize, 4?., James Douglas,
Athelstaneford, Haddington,

Pen of five Ewes not exceeding five years old — Ist prize, 6?.,
Adam Thomson, Rutherford, Kelso ; 2nd prize, 3?., William
Tod, Elphinstone Tower, Tranent.

Pen of five Shearling Ewes or Gimmers, 4?., James Douglas,
Athelstaneford, Haddington.

CHEVIOT BREED.

Tups not exceeding four years old — 1st prize, £8, James
Brydon, Moodlaw ; 2nd prize, £4, Walter Carrathers, Kirk-
hill, Moffatt.

Pair of Dinmont or shearling tups — £8, & £4 ; 1st and 2nd
prizes, Thomas Elliot, Hiudhope, Jedburgh.

Pen of five ewes not exceeding five years old — 1st prize, £6,
Tliomas Elliot, Hindhope, Jedburgh ; 2nd prize, £3, James
Brydon, Moodlaw, Langholm.

Pen of five gimmers, lambed after 1st April, 1851 — £4,
Adam Elliot, Goldielands, Hawick.

blackfaced breed.

Tups not exceeding four years old — 1st prize, £S, Robert
Paterson, of Birthwood, Biggar ; 2nd prize, £4, Adam Black-
lock, Muinygap. Moffat.

Pair of Dinmont or shearling tups — 1st prize, £8, James
Tweedie, Nether Abington ; 2nd prize, £4, John and James
Watson, Mitchelhill, Biggar.

Pen of five e«es not exceeding five years old—lst prize.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

226

£6, James Brydon, Kennelhead, Moffat; 2iid prize, £3,
Donald M'Laren, Braeleny, Callander.

Pen of five gimmers, lambed after 1st April, 1851 — £4,
Patrick Small, of Diruanean, Kiikmichael, Perthshire.

SOUTHDOWN BREED.

Tups not exceeding four years old — 1st prize, £8, James
Atchison, of Alderston, Haddington; 2nd prize, £4, Hugh
Watson, Keillor.

Pair of shearling tups— 1st prize, £8, Hugh Watson,
Keillor ; 2ud prize, £4, James Atcliison, of Alderston.

Pen of five ewes not exceeding five years old — 1st prize, £6,
Hugh Watson, Keillor ; 2nd prize, £3, William Tod, Elphin-
stone Tower, IVanent.

Pen of five shearling ewes or gimmers — £4, Hugh Watson,
Keillor.

SWINE.
Boars, large breed — 1st prize, £5, W. H. Brown, of Ashley,
Ratho, Mid-Lotliiau ; 2ud prize, £3, John Gordon, of Aikeu-
head, Glasgow.

Boars, small breed — 1st prize, £5, Jonathan Brown, the
Height, Wigton, Cumberland; 2nd prize, £3, Robert Harrison
Watson, Bolton Park, Wigton, Cumberland.

Sows, large breed — £4, George Hay Plummer, Melville,
Dalkeith.

Sows, small breed — 1st prize, £4, John Arklay, Powmill,
Brechin ; 2nd prize, £2, A. W. Buttery, Monkland, Airdrie.

Pen of three pigs not exceeding eight months old —
1st prize, £4, Jonathan Brown, the Height, Wigton, Cumber-
land; 2nd prize, £2, the Earl of Mansfield, Scone Palace,
Scone.

POULTRY.
Turkeys, Norfolk or black breed — £1, James Wilson, Wood-
burn, Dalkeith.

Turkeys of any other breed— £1, the Marquis of Breadal-
bane, Tayniouth Castle.

Fowls, mottled or speckled Dorking breed — £1, Robert E.
C. Benton, Glasgow.
Fowls, Spanish breed — £1, Robert E. C. Benton, Glasgow.
.Fowls, gold or silver spangled Hamburg breed — £1, Robert
E. C. Benton, Glasgow.

Fowls, Malay breed — £1, Robert E. C. Benton, Glasgow.
Fowls, Cochiu-China breed — £1, Robert E. 0. Benton,
Glasgow.

Ducks, Aylesbury breed — £1, the Marquis of Breadalbane,
Taymouth Castle.

Ducks of any other breed — £1, Sir Thomas Moncreiffe, of
Moncrieffe^ Bart.

Geese — £1, William Muir, Hardingtou ]Mains, Biggar.

DAIRY PRODUCE.

For the best sample (not less than 141b.) of butter, cured
in 1852, £3. Adam Roy, Broadlees, Dunblane.

For the second best, £2. James Gibson, Pitloohrie, Perth-
shire.

For the best sample (not less than 141b.) of powdered but-
ter, £3. James Patrick M'Inroy, of Lude, Blair Athole.

For the second best, £2. Mrs. William Sutherland, Dal-
raore, Alness.

For the b'jst sample of fresh butter, three rolls of ^Ib.
weight each, £3. Lady Louisa Moucreiffe, of Moncreiff'e,
Perth.

For the second best, £2. Sir John Stuart Forbes, of Pit-
sligo and Feltercairn, Bart.

Fur the beat couple of cheeses made from sweet milk, in
1852, £3. James Allan, Westmain?, Stonehouse, Lanarkshire.

For the second best, £2. John Dunlop, Wliitc-=haw Gate,

Strathaven, Lanarkshire.

For the best couple of cheeses made from skimmed milk, in
1832, £3. Mrs. Buchanan, Gilchorn, Arbroath.

For the second best, £2. Tiiomas Muir, Bowhouse,
Lanark.

For the best imitation of any known description of English
cheese, £3. M. S. MTnroy, Lude, Blair Athole.

For the second best, £2. James Allan, Westmains, Stone-
house, Lanarkshire.

IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES.
For the best two-horse plough for general purposes, £2.
George Ponton, Grougfoot, Linlithgow.

For the best double mould-board plough for forming drills,
£2. James Barclay, Castletou, Fowlis, Crieff.

For the best two-horse grubber or cultivator, working on the
flat, £2. Robert Law, Shettlestou, Glasgow.

For the best Norwegian harrow, £3. James Kirkwood,
Traueut.

For the best land-presser for preparing seed beds for grain,
£3. David Galloway, Cumno, Alyth.

For the best pulverizing land-roller, £3. Gibson and
Richardson, Newcaatle-on-Tyne.

For the best harrows, £2. William Crosskill, Beverley.
For the best equaUzing swingf trees or draught bars, £1 .
James Kirkwood, Tranent.

For the best broadcast sowing machine for grain and grass
seeds, £3. John Lennie, Lauder Barns, Lauder.

For the best drill sowing machine for grain, £3. Thomas
Sherriff, West Barns, Dunbar.

For the best horse-hoe for drilled grain crops, £4. Thomas
Sherriff, West Barns, Dunbar.

For the best liquid-manure distributing machine, £3.
William Herkless, Glasgow.

For the best liquid-manure pump, £1. A. and W. Smith
and Co., Paisley.

For the best straw-cutter for hand labour, £2. Richmond
and Chandler, Manchester.

For the best straw-cutter for pov/er, £3. Richmond and
Chandler, Manchester.

For the best turnip-cutter for sheep, £2. James Kirk-
wood, Tranent.

For the best turnip-cutter for cattle, £1. C. D. Young and
Co., Edinburgh.

For the best turnip-cutter for sheep, adapted for attach-
ment to a cart, £3. John Hutchison, Craigend, Perth.

For the best linseed-bruiser for hand labour, £2. Rich-
mond and Chandler, Manchester.

For the best grain-bruiser, for hand labom', £2. A. and W.
Smith, Paisley.

For the best grain and linseed-bruiser, for power, £3. Rich-
mond and Chandler, Manchester.

For the best steaming apparatus, for preparing food, £3,
equally between Richmond and Chandler, Manchester, and
A. and V/. Smith, Paisley.

For the best one-horse farm cart, £3, Alexander Scrimgeour,
Methven, Perth.

For the best light spring cart, for farm or other purposes,
£2, William Crosskill, Beverley.

For the best stone or iron stack pillars, viith framework, £2.
Young, Peddle, and Co., Edinburgh.

For the best hay tedding machine, £2, Richard Hodgson, of
Carham, Coldstream.

For the best horse stubble or hay rake, £1. Lawrence
Oliphant, of Condie, Perth.

For the best improvement on any part of the thrashing ma
chiue, £5. Peter M'Lellan, Bricge of Earn, Perth.

Q 2

326

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

For the best tlirashlng machine, not exceeding two horse
power, £6. Robert Stewart, of Carphin, LanarkUiire.

For the best dressing fanners, for grain, £3. Robert Reid,
Leysniill, Forfarsliire.

For the best weighing machine, indicating from lib. to 2
tons. £3. A. and W. Smith, Paisley.

For the best chm-n, worked by hand, £2. Peter M'Lellaii,
Bridge of Earn, Perth.

For the best churn, worked by power, £2. Charles D.
Yomig, and Co., Edinburgh.

For the best cheese press, £1. Macartney and Drummond,
Cumnock, Ayrsliire.

For the best field gate, constructed entirely of iron, £1.
Thomas Corrie, Perth.

For the best set of traverse divisions, rack and manger for
farm stables, £2. Charles D. Young, Edinburgh.

For the best set of farm harness, premium equally between
James Dunlop, Haddington ; Hunter Allan, Kelso ; and
Alexander Russel, Pitmachie, Aberdeenshire.

For the best set of tiles and pipes, for field drainage, the
premium of £1 equally between James M'Alpine, Stirling,
and Alexander Meldrum, Seafield Tile Works, St. Andrews.

For the best set of glazed socketed pipes, for sewerage, £1.
The Aberdeen Brick and Tile Company, Aberdeen.

For the best set of tools for cutting field drains, premium to
William Cadell, Sous, and Co., Cramond.

For the best set of tools, for cutting open drains in hill pas-
tures, premium to William Cadell, Sons, and Co., Cramond.

For the beat apparatus for preparing flax, £10. A, and W.
Smith and Co., Paisley.

For the best reaping machine, the premium of £20 to
be awarded on Friday, August 6th.

EXTRA IMPLEMENTS, &c.

The following were commended : —

Patent eccentric mill — William Crosskill, Beverley.

Set of patent cart-wheels and axle-^W. Crosskill, do.

Large grubber — James Kirkwood, Tranent.

Sheep fodder rack — James Kirkwood, Tranent.

Combined double mould-board plough, manure-rutter, and
seed-sowing machine— Thomas Reid, Monkton Miln, Ayrshire.

oO-inch or horse-power grass-cutting and rolling macliine—
Alex. Shanks and Son, Arbroath.

Rick and stack ventilator — Francis Somner, seedsman,
Kelso.

Drain pavement for byres — John Quarton, Cuttlehill Tile-
works, Crossgates.

Staple-maker for wire-fences — Thomas Dover, Croftinloan,
Pitlochry.

Bee-hives— Robert Halket, High-street, Perth.

Self-balancing dog-cart — George Thomson, Stirling.

Diamond harrows— James Slight, Edinburgh.

Rhomboidal harrows — James Slight, Edinburgh.

Odometer — James Slight, Edinburgh.

Vases, pedestals, chimney-cans, &c. — Grangemouth Coal
Company.

Chimney-vases, bricks, ovens, &c. — John Wauchope, of Ed-
moustoue, Edhiburgh.

Wire-netting — Tlios. Gorrie, Perth.

Wrought iron carriage gate— Young, Peddie, and Co,, Etlin-
burgh.

Two six-barred hurdles — Young, Peddie, and Co., Edin-
burgh.

EXTRA STOCK.— Commendations.

CATTLEj

Shorthorn heifer, 2 years 8 months old, belonging to WUfetta
Stirling, of Keir, Dunblane*

Cow and calf, highly commended, belonging to Hugh Wat-,
son, Keillor, Coupar-Angus,

Two cross heifers, belonging to William Dingwall, Ramornie,
Fifeshire.

Two cross oxen, belonging to George Brown, South Quarter,
Kingsbarns, St. Andrews.

Tuscany cow, belonging to Colonel Fergusson, Raith,
Kirkcaldy.

Crosss heifer and ox, belonging to James L. Miller, Waok
Mill, Dunfermline.

Six Highland oxen, belonging to the Earl of Glasgow.

Two Highland oxen, belonging to the Marquis of Breadal-
baue.

Four Highland heifers, belonging to the Marquis of Bread-
albane.

Highland heifer, belonging to the Hon. Lady Menzies, of
Menzies.

Highland heifer, belonging to James Archibald Campbell,
of Inverawe.

HORSES.

Clydesdale stallion, belonging to Robert Arkley, PhillipstoH,
Queensferry, highly commended.

Carriage stallion, belonging to Robert Mackay, Dalkeith,
highly commended.

SHEEP.

Five Southdown Iambs, belonging to Robert Scot SkuTing,
Campton, Haddington.

Five Romuey-Marsh ewes, and five Romney-Marsh gira-
mers, belonging to David Park, Tynefield, Dunbar, commended
as a breed likely to be useful in crossing with sheep for high
pastures.

Five Romney-Marsh wethers, belonging to John Brown
Wftight, Hedderwick Hill, Dunbar.

OBSERVATIONS ON A NEW KIND OF PO-
TATO.— A paper was read by M. Decandolle before
the Academy of Sciences of Paris, on the 3rd of May
last, containing some interesting observations relative
to the potato. M. D. stated that he received last Sept.
a communication to the effect that some growers in the
department of Ain, having a friend in iVIexico, had ob-
tained from him a wild variety of the potato which
was free from disease, while all the other crops in the
neighbourhood were attacked. On receiving this in-
telligence, he went immediately to the place to investi-
gate the matter. He found the new voriety had been
planted for two years by several persons, and that no
trace of disease had yet been discovered in it, while all
the other kinds were more or less affected. It was on
the 2nd of September that M, Decandolle made his
visit. Most of the common potatoes were then withered
from the lateness of the season, or as the effect of dis-
ease. The Mexican variety was in a vigorous state of
growth and in bloom, the flowers being larger and more
deeply coloured than in the ordinary kinds. The berries
also were larger. M. Decandolle examined the plant,
and on comparing it with the common varieties of Sola-
num tuberosum, was led to consider it a distinct species.
On his return be pursued the investigation, and came to
the conclusion that the plant was not S. tuberosum, but
S. verrucosum, of Schlechtendal ; or, if not absolutely
identical with the latter species, resembling it much

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

927

more than the former. The crops were left in the ground
all the winter ; on being taken up in the spring of the
present year they were still perfectly sound, though at
that time scarcely a sound tuber of the ordinary kinds was
to be found in the vicinity. They were generally of small
size, and the flesh was of an intense yellow colour. This
was so strongly marked as almost to form a specific
character. They were found to have an excellent
flavour, and were quite free from the bitter taste usually
characterising the wild varieties of S. tuberosum ; their
quantity of fecula was, however, considerably less than
in the common kinds. The question arises here whether
cultivation would increase the number and size of the
tubers, and augment the quantity of fecula, and
whether they would still remain free from disease. M.
Decandolle considers that the history of the potato,
and some general physiological considerations, will
throw light on these points. As to the sizes of
the tubers, he quotes the celebrated botanist Clusius,
who states that potatoes were first introduced
into Europe, in 1588, by the Spaniards. The ordi-
nary size of the tubers then was one to two inches.
They did not ripen at Vienna before the monlh of No-
vember. No account is preserved of those introduced
to England by Sir Walter Raleigh : but a third intro-
duction from Virginia is spoken of by Gerard, from
which we learn that the tubers were very small. This
was evidently the Solanum tuberosum, and there
is no question of its identity with the species de-
scribed by Clusius. The smallness of the tubers at the
first introduction of S. tuberosum, contrasted with their
ordinary size at present, leads to the Inference that

cul Li vatioa would increase the size of the new species
also. It woul I likewise, in all probability, ripen
earlier. These are changes of frequent occurrence in
plants. The next question is, whether cultivation
would increase the quantity of fecula. This M. De-
candolle thinks probable, but doubts if it would be an
advantage. An excessive production of fecula in plants
he considers analogous to an overgrowth of fat in
animals; and causing disease, either directly or in-
directly, by enfeebling various parts of the organiza-
tion. He regards the potato disease itself as an ar-
gument in favour of tliis position. Its prevalence in so
many different countries, and under such different
circumstances of soil, climate, &c., precludes the pos-
sibility of referring it to any merely local causes, and
in M. D.'s opinion, even to general causes, acting ex-
ternally. He therefore seeks a cause within the plant
itself — whether direct or indirect is not material, pro-
vided it be general. Such an internal cause he con-
siders he has found. It is is the uniform testimony
of travellers that the Solanum tuberosum grows natu-
rally on barren soils, often among rocks, and on the
sands near the shore. In Europe the custom has been
to plant it in rich soils, and to manure abundantly.
A system thus opposed to the order of Nature could
not always be pursued without some ill effect. In the
animal world, a few generations subjected to an un-
natural regime will produce a predisposition to here-
ditary disease. In man, constant subjection to a diet
either too poor or too rich would be sufficient in four or
five generations to produce a tendency to certain
maladies. — Revue Horticole.

THE YORKSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S MEETING

AT SHEFFIELD.

(abridged from the s:

This important society has now existed since 1837, and has
held fifteen annual exhibitions. Three of these have been
held in York, two in Leeds, one in Hull, and the minor towns
of Northallerton, Doncaster, Kichmond, Beverley, Wakefield,
Scarborough, Thirsk, and Bridlington, have all been honoured
by its presence. Not till this year, however, has Sheffield
been the scene of one of its annual gatherings.

The entries of the last three exhibitions, as to the principal
stock, present the following result : —

Tiiirsk 120 cattle. 71 sheep. 72 pigs. 198 horses.

Bridlington ..99 96 56 151

Sheffield .... 110 102 126 105

The entries of poultry are 147; of pigeons 4 ; of rabbits 3.
The entries of implements were 395 ; some of these, how-
ever, including, not single articles, but groups. Among these
was Wray's, Ridley's, Dray and Go's Hussey's improved and
M'Cormick's reaping machines.
The prizes are as follows : —

Cattle, by the Society £150 0

Sheep „ 85 0

Pigs „ 57 0

Horses „ 117 3

Horses, by the Local Committee .... 15 0

Poultry „ 30 10

Pigeons „ 10

Rabbits „ 0 8

HEFFIEID INDEPENDENT.)

In addition to these money prizes, four of the society's first-
class and four of the second-class silver medals were placed at
the disposal of the judges, to be given for extra stock.

A novel prize, not contained in the catalogue, was placed at
the disposal of the Local Committee by Mr. Bright, gold-
smith and jeweller. Market place. It consisted of a vahiable
time-piece, standing seventeen inches high and seventeen broad,
set in a metal casting, electroplated in silver and gold, the de-
sign being appropriate to agricultural pursuits. The design
represents a hillock, on the crest, sides, and base of which are
displayed various agricultural implements, while it is sur-
mounted by a peasant youth giving a handful of hay to a farm-
horse, which stands in the sling-gears as just released from the
plough. Among the implements are the plough, the hoe, the
fork, the reaping-hook, the ditcher's spade, &c., &c. The horse
is plated with silver, and the rest of the design in gold. A
special meeting of the Local Committee was held at the
Council Hall, ou Tuesday noon, to decide on the appropria-
tion of this beautiful present. The Chairman (W. Overeud,
Esq.) and members of the committee expressed to Mr. Bright,
in the strongest terms, tlieir sense of the liberality and good
taste which he had shown in adding to the prizes a gift at
once so valuable and appropriate. It was at first proposed
that it should be given to the most deserving exhibitor of

228

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

stock or implements ; but after some converBation, it was de-
cided to confine it to the exhibitors of stock ; and Messrs.
Overcnd, Hounsfield, and Hinde were aprointed a sub-
committee to confer with the judges as to the person best en-
titled to the distinction of the most deserving exhibitor of stock.
It was also arranged that the prize should be presented by the
Local Committee to the fortunate competitor, at a special
meeting, on Friday noon, at the Council Hall.

IMPLEMENTS EXHIBITED.

Wm. P. Stanley, Peterborough, — Chaff engine, roller mill,
steaming apparatus, iron plough, iron skim and paring plough,
roller mill, universal mill.

W. Sawney, Beverle)'. — Winnowing machines and blowing
machiue.

C.Lambert.Suak Island, Hull.— Turnip scuffler, and grubber,
and potato hanker, sheep trough.

T. Bigg, Great Dover-street, London. — Sheep and lamb
dipping apparatus.

T. Walker, Wooton, Ulceby. — Corn and seed drill, combined
drag and scarifier, set of harrows for strong land, ditto for
light laud, horse rake.

J. Harpley, Guisbro'. — Plough for three depths, 9, 7, and
5 inches.

W. Ross, Greatham, Stockton. — Plough for three depths, 5,
7, and 9 inches.

W. Busby, Newton, Bedale. — Ploughs, horse hoes, horse
rake, two-horse scarifier, gravel screen, barley humraeller, carts,
corn chaff machiue, paring plough, patent horse rake, sets of
harrows.

Gibson and Richardson, Newcastle-on-Tyne. — The North-
umberland clod crusher.

John Wray, Leeming, Bedale. — Reaping machine.

James Teale,114, High-street, Leeds. — Straw or hay cutters,
linseed cake breaker, turnip diill.

H. I. Morton, Albion street, Leeds. — Liquid manure pumps
and other pumps, pig and sheep troughs, spouts, gutters, pipes
for water, stench traps for large drains, pig pails, cans, and
other specimens of galvanised iron manufacture ; game and
sheep netting, patent straw or wire rope fencing, and other
specimens of wire work.

Clayton, Shuttle worth, and Co., Lincoln. — Six-horse portable
steam engine, registered combined thrashing, straw shaking,
riddling, and winnowing machine ; five-horse portable steam
engine, portable grinding mill, saw table, two-knife chaff cutter,
sacTt holder.

' John Jones, 33, Westfield terrace, Sheffield.— Gutta percha
galoshe, to be worn by sheep for the cure of the foot rot, ma-
nufactured by the Gutta Percha Company, City road, London,
expressly for the inventor and patentees, J. Jones and Co.
Sizes, No. 1, 33. per dozen ; No. 2, 43. per dozen ; No. Ss, 5s.
per dozen. Entirely new.

W. Smith, Kettering. — Winnowing machine, horse hoe.

W. Pearson and Co., Leeds. — Machine for washing, wring-
ing, and mangling, machine for wringing and mangling.

T. Moore, Hayton, Retford, Notts. — Seven-horse portable
steam engine, machine for ditto.

r>,ichardHornsby and Son, Spittlegate Iron Works, Grantham.
■ — Sixhorse power patent portable steam engine, four-horse
power patent portable steam engine, patent improved combined
thrashing machine, patent corn dressing machine, drill for
general purposes, patent corn and seed drill, patent fore
carriage steerage, four-row patent turnip and manure drill.

patent turnip ridge drill, double cake crusher, single cake
crusher, Corues' two-knife chaff cutter.

S. Hutchinson, Manthorpe Lodge, Grantham. — Cast iron
drain receiving grate, cast iron drain discharging grate, biick
drain respirator, mould for making ditto, outfall drain tile with
insertion hole, mould for insertion hole, minor draining tile.

R. E Ridley, Hexham. — Reaping machine, Pattinson, Da-
vidson, and Co., makers ; inventor, R. E. Ridley. New im-
plement. £30.

W. Robson, Leeming, Bedale. — Plough for deep ploughing,
plough for general purposes, swing plough, scuffler,

W. Dodds and Co., Leadenhall-street, London, Urwin's
patent double-acting lift and force pump.

Henry Kearsley, Ripon, York. — Iron tile machine, Ducie'a
drag and scarifier, Norwegian harrow, press for bricks and pan-
tiles, horse rake.

B. Stead, Gateforth, Selby. — Malleable iron ploughs, sets of
patent harrows, expanding horse hoe for ridge, horse hoe for
ridge, patent harrows, ox haiTows, improved hand hoes.

J. Barker, Donnington, York. — Iron wheel ploughs, iron
double mould ridging plough, iron skimming plough, iron sub-
soil pulverizer, patent iron zig-zag harrows, for light and for
strong land ; pair of jointed expanding ridge harrows, iron
horse hoes, with single and double Norwegian harrows ; iron
parallel horse shoe, five-tined drill grubber, two-horse grub-
ber or drag harrow, strong scarifier or drag, scarifier, variety
of whippletrees, set of equalizing three-horse draught bars, iron
improved stubble rake, Yorkshire one-horse carts ; one-horse
Lister cart, maker G. Barker, inventor Wm. Lister, Esq. This
cart is so constructed as to regulate the gravity of the load going
up or down a hill, by taking the pressure off the horse's back
down the hill, and Hkewise the pressure off the belly-band up
the hill; and the body of the cart is so low that a boy can load
or unload it as well as a man with the ordinary cart; and it is
not so easily upset on rough ground or hill sides — £10. One-
horse Lister cart, portable thrashing machine, improved dress-
ing machine, hand turnip cutter. Mr. Barker exhibits a great
variety of other ploughs, harrows, and other implements.

John Plant, Birley, Sheffield. — Turnip cutter, for beast,
maker and inventor, J. Plant, £1 15s.; turnip cutter, for
sheep, maker and inventor, J. Plant, £2 53. ; turnip cutter, for
sheep, maker, Bernard Samuelson, inventor, Mr. Gardner, £4
lOs. ; set of harrows, wood, maker and inventor, J. Plant, £2
8s. ; set of harrows, wood, maker and inventor, J. Plant, £2
4s.; set of harrows, wood, maker and inventor, J. Plant, £2
23.; set of harrows, wood, maker, J. Plant, £2 10s.; set of
harrows, iron, maker, George Bailey, £2 lOs. ; metal roller,
maker, J. Plant, improved wrought iron ends, £5 15s. ; linseed
cake mill, maker, J. Plant, improved box to preserve the small,
£3 ; land presser, maker, J. Plant, improved scrapers, £4 15s. ;
turnip drill on the ridge, maker, George Bailey, £4 153. ;
scarifier, maker, George Bailey, £4 15s.; horse rake, wood,
maker, John Plant, improved to let the stones pass through
the teeth, £5 lOs. ; horse rake, iron, maker and inventor, John
Plant, £6 5s.; horse rake, iron, maker, Fred. Howard, £6 53. ;
iron plough, maker, Fred. Howard, £3 123. 6d. ; swingletrees,
maker, Fred. Howard, 13s. ; scuffler, maker and inventor, John
Plant, £163.; churn, maker, Mr. Drummond, £2 Gs. 6d. ;
three horse peg thrashing machine, maker, Mr. Thackray,
£26 ; hay forks, maker and inventor, John Plant, 3s. 6d.

W. V. Feast, Salford, Manchester. — Parallel lever subsoil
pulverizer, improved subsoil pulverizer, strong deep soil
" Scotch" plough.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

G. Drayton, Worksop. — Dou!)le horse plough.

John Adamson, Bramley, Rotherham. — Lever paring skiiii,
or scarifier, maker John Adamson, inventors Edward Hill and
Co., £4 10s.

Smith and Ashby, Stamford. — Patent haymakers, patent
lever horse rake, patent lever hand rake, cultivator, 18-inch
patent chaff and litter cutter, 18-inch chaff and litter cutter,
chaff machines, luggage cart, farm carts, patent wrought-iron
wheels.

E. Hill and Co., Brierley Hill Iron Works, Dudley.—
Wrought-iron skim or pair horse scarifiers, registered expand-
ing wrought-iron horse hoe, wrought-iron horse hoe, wrought-
iron sheep rack, iron hurdles, iron fencing, wrought-iron field
gate, iron gates, and gates and posts, wrought iron deer rick
stand, wrought iron garden seat, wrought iron harrow, barrow
with heating apparatus, specimens of game proof netting.

Barrett, Exall, and Andrews, Katesgrove Iron Works, Kead-
iug, Berks. — Two horse power patent portable thrashing ma-
chine, new cylindrical fixed steam engine, new patent portable
steam engine, patent chaff cutters, paragon mill, oilcake
crusher, patent horse rake.

John Bellerby, York. — Registered one horse carts, harvest
raves or shelvings, registered wheels and axle, specimen of
large axle.

John Martin, Notton, Wakefield. — Patent American rail-
road, horse power for driving thrashing or other machines, one
horse power, makers and inventors Emery and Co., of Albany,
United States of America ; patent turnip cutter, land roller.

Richard Coleman, Chelmsford. — Di-ag harrows and scari-
fiers, expanding barrows.

Robert Awdas, Sheaf-street, Sheffield. — Improved iron drag
or scarifier, three or four horses, maker and inventor Robert
Awdas, improved, &l. ; improved light scarifier, maker and in-
ventor Robt. Awdas, improved, 4/. 4s. ; horse hoe on the flat,
maker and inventor Robt. Awdas, improved, 21. 15s.; horse
hoe on the ridge, maker and inventor Robt. Awdas, improved,
21. lOs. ; one set of three horse swingletrees, maker and in-
ventor Robt. Awdas, 1/. lOs.; single rowed corn drill, maker
Robt. Awdas, 10?. ; hand corn drill, maker and inventor Robt.
Awdas, 31. ; field roller, the barrel in three parts, maker and
inventor Robt. Awdas, 7?. 7s.

Alfred Earnshaw, 28, Spital Hill, Sheffield.— Castrating
knife for lambs, maker and inventor Alfred Earnshaw, 11. 4s.
per dozen, or 23. each.

Pickering and Houlgate, Beverley, Yorkshire. — Dog cart,
improved silver mounted harness, model of a horse.

Fowler and M'CoUin, Hull. — Portable steam engine, thrash-
ing machine.

George Meynell, Northallerton. — Ribbing plough and drill,
swing plough (No. 1), wheel ploughs, cattle feet clipper im-
proved spring bull rings.

John Goucher, Wocdsetts, Worksop. — Six horse portable
steam engine, maker and inventor, W. Bailey, Northampton,
improved, £150, if felted and lagged £5 extra. The improve-
ment of the above engine consists of the cylinder being placed
in the smoke box, whereby a saving of fuel is obtained, the
cylinder being surrounded with hot air, the strength of the
steam is maintained until it operates on the piston ; 7-inch
cylinder, 14-inch stroke, makes 103 revolutions per minute,
craft shaft 3 inches in diameter and of wrought-iron ; fly wheel
5 feet in diameter, weight 5 cwt. 2 qrs. ; time to get up steam
40 minutes, and 801bs. of fuel required ; fuel per horse-power
per hour, 61b3. ; thickness of boiler plate for fire box f , barrel

5-lGths, and smoLe box ^ inch. Three horse power thrashing
machine, 4-horse portable bolting thrashing machine, 5 horse
power stationary bolting thrashing ms'^hine, a new *traw
shaker.

James Hart, the Atlas Iron Works, Borough-road, Loudon.
— Brick machine and tools, vertical tile and hollow brick
machine, horizontal tile and hollow brick machines, pug mil),
one horse work.

William Crosskilj, Beverley, Hull. — Nave wheels and axle,
wheels and axles, Newcastle model cart, Lewes prize cart,
Norwich prize cart, pair horse waggon with set of 2^ in. tire,
wheels, axles, and double break, liquid manure carts, double
force pump, liquid manure pump, road sweeping machine, farm
railway, thrashing machine, portable power mill, cake breaker,
turnip cutter, hand straw cutter, power straw cutter, potato
washer, root washer, fixture pig trough, circular pig troughs,
Yorkshire wheel plough, prize wheel iron plough, piize iron
seed harrow, prize iron two-horse harrows, prize Norwegian
harrow, Belgian ring roller, Crosskill's prize roller, Yorkshire
Wold pressor, scarifier, cultivator, or broadshare plough,
Ducie's drag Yorkshire Wold drill haymaker, iron horse rake,
Husscy's reaper, maker Crosskill, inventor Hussey, U. S. ;
Hussey's reaper, maker Crosskill.

George Hurwood, Ipswich, Suffolk. — Hurwood's patent
metal mill, Hurwood's patent mill, model to illustrate the
principle of the patent mills, sample box.

James Teal, Holme, Beverley. — Iron ploughs.

William Primrose, Westbar, Sheffield. — Glass pipes, rough
plate and sheet glass tiles and slates, rough plate domes, ditto
milk pans and trays, perforated ventilating glass, roll and fluted
rough plate glass, various patterns ; cast plate glass, rough ;
sheet glass, various strengths ; glass pastry pias, propagating
glasses, various sizes ; flower pots, cucumber glasses, &c.

Burgess and Key, Newgate-street, London. — Reaper, makers
Burgess and Key, inventor C. H. M'Cormiek, £25 ; pumps,
cliurus, odle forks, set of draining tools, gal. iron lift pump,
suction pump, delivery hose, delivery leather, two j ets, six union
joints.

Joseph Demain, Markington, Ripley. — Reaping machine.

Robert Sorby and Sons, Carver-street, Sheffield. — Assort-
ment of scythes, reaping hooks, and sickles, makers and in-
ventors R. Serby and Sons, improved ; assortment of the old
patent scythes, assortment of hay, chaff, and straw cutting
machine knives, makers R. Sorby and Sons, improved; assort-
ment of sheep shears, assortment of hoes, assortment of hedging
and switching bills and axes.

Charles Burrell, Thetford, Norfolk. — Six horse power porta-
ble thrashing, shaking, and riddling machine, patent Northum-
berland clod crusher, gorse cutting and bruising machine, or
universal corn and seed crusher, circular saw bench, or machine
for making hurdles or gates.

J. Hookin, Weigh Lane, Duke-street, Sheflield. — Common
plough, with cast steel breast, to plough 5 inches deep, maker
and inventor J. Hookin, improved, £5.

R. and J. Harris?, Rotherham. — Land roller, 6 feet long, 2
feet diameter, makers and inventors R. and J. Harriss
£11 10s.

Tuxford and Sons, Boston. — Four horse power patent porta-
ble housed steam engine, six horse power improved fixed steam
engine, patent combined thrashing, shaking, and blowing
machine.

Richmond and Chandler, Salford, Manchester.— Newly in-
vented chaff machines, corn crushers, linseed crusher, lawn

230

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

mower, Richmond's chaff machine, steam apparatus, sack
holders,

William Dray and Co., Swan Lane, London. — Reaping ma-
chine, makers W. Dray and Co., inventor Hussey, improved,
£18; winnowing machine and blowing machine combined,
chaff engine and litter cutter combined, drag or scarifier.

Sandy Mudford, Exchange, Sheffield. — Rick cover, made of
white ship canvass unoiled, maker and inventor Sandy Mud-
ford, £8 83.

William Bell, Rothwell, Kettering.— Ploughs, scuffler, and
scarifier.

Norton and Borie, 33, Thornhill Square, Richmond Road.
Islington. — Drain tile machine.

Whitwell and Chapman, Clerkenwell. — Corn crusher.

Charles Green, Barton.— Peg thrashing machine and straw
shaker.

C. D. Young and Co., Edinburgh. — An assortment of im-
plements.

Jeremiah Waudby, York. — Portable steam engine.

Wm. Barratt, St. John's Nursery, Wakefield. — Specimens of
grown grasses, grass seeds, &c.

In this department, as a reference to the entries will show,
there was a great variety of important and useful machines
and implements, chiefly adapted to agricultural purposes.
First and foremost stands the plough, two of the highest prizes
for which are deservedly awarded to Mr. Busby, and a prize of
etiual merit to Mr. Hall. The reaping machines rank, perhaps,
next in value to the farmer, and produced unusual attraction.
But as these machines are mentioned in another part of our
report, it is unnecessary to make any further remark, than that
the prize has been awarded, as was anticipated, to Messrs.
Burgess and Key, the makers of M'Cormick's machine. The
highest premiums have been awarded to Messrs. Hornsby, for
their portable steam engine, and to Messrs. Tuxford for their
fixed engine. The next highest prize has also been won by
Messrs. Horoshy, for their thra hing and winnowing machine.
Two brick machines were at work on the ground, and caused
much discussion as to their economising labour, &c. The
judges awarded a small premium to Norton and Borrie, for
their tile or perforated brick machine. The rest of the prizes
were also of a minor character. Crosskill still maintains his
supremacy as the inventor of the well-known clod crusher, and
distances all competitors. Of the society's medals, one was
awarded to Mr. Robert Awdas, of this town, for his improved
iron drag, or scarifier. Messrs. R. Sorby and Sons exhibited
an assortment of scythes, hay and machine knives, sheep shears,
hoes, hedging bills, axes, &c., for which there was no competi-
tion. Messrs. Spear and Jackson introduced to the notice of
farmers and others a variety of American two and three-grained
steel forks, manufactured at Etna Works, and possessing great
superiority over the old fashioned hay forks hitherto in use.
Gutta percha galoshes, for the prevention of foot-rot in sheep,
by John Jones and Co., of Patent Works, in this town, were
commended to the attention of farmers as a remedy for this
prevalent disease in wet seasons. Messrs. Harris, of Rother-
ham, had no competitors in their class for a land roller.

The following gentlemen were selected as

JUDGES.
Implements.— Mr. Peter Love, of Nasehy, Northampton-
shire ; Mr. Wm. Hislop, of WooUey, Wakefield ; Mr. Peter
Stevenson, of Renton, Thirsk; Mr. Thomas Outhwaite, of

Bainess3, Catterick; and Mr. Amos, C.E., of Southwark,
London.

Cattle. — Mr. John Moor, of Badsworth, Pontefract; Mr.
Thomas Tiudal', of Wheatley; and Mr. J. P. Butter, of
Thorngumbald, Hadon.

Cows for Dairy Purposes. — Mr. T. Turner, of East-
wood, Rotherham.

Sheep and Pigs.— Mr. W. E. Hobson, of Kettleby
Thorpe, Brigg ; Mr. John Brown, of Ranbrook, Wakefield ;
and Mr. Charles Hudson, of Blythe, near Bawtry.

Horses.— Mr. Geo. Gurnell, of Sturton, Brigg; Mr. Thos
Sorby, of Newton Morrell, Darlington; and Mr. Charles
Garfitt, of Tably Hall, Kuutsford.

Poultry.— Mr. T. H. Travis, of York, and Mr. Edward
Bond, of Leeds.

Field Committee. — Mr. M. J. Ellison, of Sheffield; Mr.
Wm. Fowler, Sheffield ; and Mr, Vincent Corbett, of Outh-
waite Hall, Wortley.

TRIAL OF IMPLEMENTS.

The trial of ground implements, as announced in our last,
took place on Tuesday, Aug. 3. The land is in the occupation of
Mr. Benjamin Seaman. In the advertisement the ground was de-
scribed as " near the Old Slitting Mill, Attercliffe," but it
turned out that few persons knew where the Old Slitting Mill
was. Our readers will best understand us when we say that
the fields were behind the New Connexion Chapel, on the level
ground between Attercliffe and the river. It had been arranged
that the reaping machines should be tried there at seven on
Tuesday morning, and several gentlemen were on the ground
to see them, but it was found that the object could not be ac-
complished, and it was not till between ten and eleven that the
reaping machines arrived on the ground and were put to the
test. Each field was about three acres in extent, one of clover-
ley, and the other of a strong crop of oats. Excepting that
the ground was extremely hard and dry, the former was ad-
mirably adapted for testing the respective merits of the
ploughs. The soil is very deep and free from stony obstruc-
tions, the land being chiefly warp, on the site, probably, of
an ancient fen or marsh, which, by the overflowing of the
adjoining river and drains, has occasionally received the valu-
able deposits of warp so often met with under similar circum-
stances. The ploughs entered for trial were by the following
makers: — Mr. Prockter, Peterborough; Mr. John Harpley,
Gamsbro' ; Mr. W. Ross, Greatham ; Mr. W. Busby, Newton ;
Mr. Robson, Leeming; Mr. B. Stead, Gateforth, Selby; Mr.
Barker, Duunington ; Mr. John Plant, Birley, near Sheffield ;
Mr. George Drayton, Worksop ; ]Mr. G. Meynell, Northaller-
ton ; Mr. Crosskill, and Mr. James Teal, Beverley ; Mr. J.
Hookiu, Sheffield. It is not necessary for us to particularize
the respective merits of the ploughs. The judges have awarded
priority to the best. We may here venture an opinion, how-
ever, that many of the ploughs are scarcely adapted to the
strong and stiff clays of this locality. The draught of several
of them appeared enormous, each requiring the united
strength of four powerful horses to work it. The ploughs
seemed to us admirably constructed for turning over sandy or
loamy soils. Still, on the whole, taking the dryness of the
ground into consideration, the performances of these necessary
implements were very satisfactory. In the skill of the plough-
men there was great similarity, with one exception only. The
labourer who held one of Busby's ploughs commenced and
completed his work in a style of excellence rarely to be seen.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

231

The other implements tried were of the usual and ordinary
character, such as clod-crushers, drags, subsoil ploughs,
&c., &.C., aud their performances call for no particular observa-
tion. During the trials heavy rain cameon.butnot sufficiently to
damp the zeal of spectators, who were numerous. The reaping
machiues were of course the great object of curiosity, and were
followed by the criticisms of crowds. When it is observed that
their prices range only from £18 to £25 each, and that they
are computed to save one-half in the reaping of corn, as
well as to perform it with the expedition necessary in critical
weather, it is obvious that a conviction of their efficiency
must soon cause a very large demand for ihera. The machines
were modifications of the American machines of M'Cormick
and Hussey. The cutting apparatus of the latter consists of
a series of knives, which, by a lateral motion, obtain a cutting
power similar to that of a pair of shears ; while M'Cormick's
machine, on the contrary, operates on the saw principle.
M'Cormick's machine is not calculated to cut the crop without
leaving the stubble at the height of five or six inches. Hus-
sey's (at least CrosskiU's specimen of it) cuts the straw close
to the ground. The latter, however, in the opinion of nu-
merous witnesses, did not on this occasion finish its work so
satisfactorily as the machine of M'Cormick. The crop, when
cut, was less compact and more spread about than that cut
down by M'Cormick's machine. We doubt, too, from the
manner of bringing the straw to the platform, that there must
be considerable waste by beating out the grain, especially
when ripe, in tiie use cf the formidable take used by the man
on Hussey's machine.

WEDNESDAY, August 4.

Members of the society were admitted to the ground this
morning at ten, and the public by half-crown tickets for gen-
tlemen and shilling tickets for ladies at twelve. It was very
gratifying to see the interest excited among our townsmen of
all sects, parties, and grades of life. Multitudes were present
to-day whom scarcely any other inducement would have led to
anticipate the shilling day. The weather, except slight occa-
sional showers, which kept down the dust, was favourable, and
the ground presented a very animated scene.

Among the company on the show ground were — The Earl
of Carlisle, Earl of Effingham, Sir J. V. B. Johnstone, Bart,
M.P. ; Hon. aud Rev. S. W. Lawley, Escrick, York ; Hon. and
Rev. W. Howard, Whistou ; W. B. Wrightson, Esq., M.P. for
Northallerton ; J. G. Smythe, Esq., M.P. for York ; John
Parker, Esq., TickhlU ; Leonard Thompson, Esq., Sheriff Hut-
ton Park ; J. Carr, Esq., Mayor of Sheffield; Wilson Overend,
Esq. ; T. Dunn, Esq. ; R. Sorby, Esq. ; J. Haywood, Esq. ;
E. Vickers, Esq.; W. Webster, Esq., Master Cutler; H.
Hudson, Esq., Capital Burgess.

The exhibition of stock was of a first-rate character. The
bulls and heifers astonished the farmers in this district. Such
magnificent specimens were never before witnessed here. Mr.
Towneley's cows and heifers w^ere especially admired for their
freshness, symmetry, and general perfection. Indeed, it was
quite a treat to the farmers here to have an opportunity of
seeing such rare animals. The bulls were also equally excel-
lent, and we have much pleasure in believing that the exhibi-
tion of this very superior class of animals will be the means of
introducing an improved breed in this neighbourhood. It is
admitted that several of a superior class are already kept
within a short distance, and among these may be men-
tioned the bulls of Earl Fitzwilliam, the Duke of Devonshire,

J. FuUerton, Esq., of Thryburgh ; B. H. Brooksbank, Esq., of
Tickhill ; Wm. Hounsfield, Esq., Tinsley ; John Hall, Esq.,
Kiveton; Joshua Knowlcs, Esq., Tinsley, &c.; but theuseof these
animals is only within the reach of the more affluent farmers
and breeders. The calves were fine animals of their breed, and
attracted considerable attention. It would be useless to at-
tempt to describe here the particular merits of each animal,
when all appeared to claim nearly equal commendation. The
steers and fat heifers shown to day certainly excelled in the
aggregate anything of the kind ever shown in Sheffield. A
splendid barren roan heifer, the property of Mr. Fletcher, of
Radmanthwaite ; and another, the property of Mr. Charles
Towneley, of Towneley Park, are deserving of especial men-
tion. It will be seen that the latter gentleman was again a
successful competitor in this class. In awarding the prize, the
judges appeared to entertain some difficidty, and no wonder,
when the animals were so equally excellent. The rams and
ewes were, with few exceptions, a credit to their owners, but
it was quite evident that in some instances great pains had
been taken in " making them up" for the show. The South-
downs were the favourites. The exhibition of pigs was large,
and the owners of this class of animals, both great and small,
received at least a fidl share of praise from numerous admirers.
Tlie obesity of most of the porcme groups resembled more a
Christmas than a midsummer show. To give our readers an
idea of the value placed on these animals, we can inform them
that the owner of one pen of three, ten weeks old, asked the
simi of ten guineas per head 1 Of the horses there was but a
meagre show, both in mimber and quality. The entire horses
were most admired, and some of them possessed superior
merit.

The show of poultry, like that of cattle, &c., was quite a
novelty in Sheffield, and created great curiosity among the
admiiets of the feathered creation. We judge from the num-
ber of empty cages, that the competition for poultry honours
was not quite so numerous as was expected. Still the number
shown was respectable, and proved that a growing interest is
being taken in the improvement of the various breeds o< barn-
door and other fowls. The prices attached in the catalogue
to some of these birds were extraordinary. To a cock the
price affixed was £20 ; another, £10; Cochin China cock and
two hens, £30; ditto, £10, &c., &c.

AWARDS FOR IMPLEMENTS.

Best nine-inch Plough, Mr. Ball £5

Best seven-inch Plough, Mr. Busby 5

Best five-inch Plough, Mr. Busby 5

Harrow for light land, Mr. Stead 3

Drag or Scarifier, Mr. Smith, Stamford 5

Horse Hoe on the flat, Mr. Smith, Kettering 5

Ditto on the ridge, Mr. Busby 2

Portable Steam Engine, Mr. Hornsby 15

Winnowing Machine, Mr. Hornsby 5

Thrashing Machine with Winnower, Mr. Hornsby 10

Drill the most useful, Mr. Hornsby 5

To Mr. Hornsby— -Cake Mill 2

Fixed Steam Engine, Messrs. Tuxford and Sons 15

M'Cormick's Reaping Machine, Burgess and Key 6

Single-horse Cart, Mr. Bellerby 5

Ditto CrosskiU's Highly commended.

Thrashing Machine, Mr. Goucher Medal

Patent Metal Meal Mill, Mr. Ilurwood Medal

232

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

MISCELLANEOUS.

ToMr. Crosskill— Best aaaortment of Implements in the

yard The Gold Medal

„ Waggon £ 5

„ Liquid Manure Cart 2

„ Roller in parts for uneven ground .... 2

„ Wheels and Axles 2

To Mr. Smith, Stamford— Haymaker 3

To Barrett and Exall— Horse Eake 2

To Mr. Hill, Brierley Hill— Iron Gates and Hurdles 3

To Norton and Borrie— Brick Machine 2

To Mr. Burrell— Saw Bench and Hurdle Frames . = 2

To Mr. Cogau— Dairy Utensils 2

To Mr. Sorby — Improved Scythes 1

To Burgess and Key — Double-action Pump 1

„ Assortment of Forks 1

To Mr. Busby— Chaff Cutter 2

To Mr. Barker— Subfoil Plough 2

To Mr. Hart— For the ingenuity displayed in the con-
struction of his new Brick Making Machine Medal

To Mr. Awdas — Improved Drag Lifter Medal

LIST OF PRIZES AWARDED.
SHORT-HORNED CATTLE.

The best bull of any age, 25Z., awarded to F. H. Fawkes,
Faroley, Otley; second ditto, 10/., to T. Raine, Gainford,
Darlington — for Magistrate (21 entries). Commenced — a
red bull belonging to Henry Smith, Dras Abbey.

Best yearling bull, 20Z., awarded to Earl Fitzwilliam, Went-
worth Rotherham, for Will o' the Wisp ; second ditto, 51., to
H. Ambler, Watkin Hall (10 entries). Commended— F.
Jordan's bull.

Best bull calf, upwards of five mouths old, 10/., awarded
lo R. Booth, ^Varlaby, Northallerton, for Windsor (11
enti-ies). Commended — F. H. Fawkea's Master Charley.

Best cow of any age, in calf or milk, 15/., awarded to
Charles Tewncley, Towneley Park, for Alice ; second ditto,
5/., to E. Booth, Warlaby, Northallerton, for Rose Blossom
(17 entries). Commended— F. H. Fawkes's Millinent, and
Charles Towneley 's Ruby.

Best three-yearold cow, in calf or milk, aud having had a
calf, £10, awarded to Charles Towneley, Towneley Park,
Burnley, for Butterfly, considered to be the best animal in the
yard (4 entries.)

Best two-year-old heifer, iu calf, £10, awarded to John
Booth, Killerby, Catterick, for Venus Victris ; second ditto,
£5, to R. Booth, Warlaby, Northallerton, for Bride (9
entries.)

Best yearling heifer, £10, awarded to Charles Towneley,
Towneley Park, Burnley, for Frederica ; second ditto, £5, to
R. Booth, Warlaby, Northallerton, for Bridesmaid (11
entries.) Commended — Thomas Duuv,' ell's Moss Rose.

Best heifer calf, upwards of five months old, £5, awarded
to Charles Towneley, Towneley Park, Burnley, for Vestris
(7 entries.)

CATTLE OF ANY BREED.

Best cow for dairy purposes, £5 awarded to J. Gordon,
Leealty, Manchester, for Moss Rose (4 entries.)

Best fat OS of any age, £5 awarded to Earl Fitzwilliam.
Commended, Samuel Wiley, Brandsby, York (6 entries.)

Best fat cow or heifer of any age, £5 awarded to Sir Charles
Towneley, Towneley Park, Burnley, for Ruby. Commended,
W. Fletcher, Radmauthwaite, Mansfield, for Tulip. (9 entries.)

LONG WOOLLED SHEEP.

Best shearling ram, £20, awarded to J. Simpson, Spofforth
Park, bred by him ; second ditto, £5, to John Bortsn, Barton-
le-street, Malton, bred by him (3 entries.)

Best ram of any age, £10, awarded to John Borton, Barton-
le-street,' Malton, bred by him ; second ditto, £5, to W.
Abraham, Barnetby-le-Wold, Brigg, bred by him (12 entries.)

Best pen of five ewes, £5, awarded to J. Simpson, Spofforth
Park (7 entries.)

Best pen of five shearling wethers £5, awarded to W. L.
MeUisli, Hodsock Priory, Worksop, bred by him (5 entries).

Best pen of five shearling gimmers, £10, awarded to W.
Abraham, Barnetby-le-Wold, Brigg, bred by him ; second do.,
£5, to W. Jordan, Low Caythorpe, Burlington, bred by him
(10 entries).

SOUTHDOWN SHEEP.

Best Southdown ram of any age, £10, awarded to G. S. Fol-
jambe, Osberton Hall, Worksop, bred by him (18 entries).

EXTRA STOCK— SHEEP.

First prize awarded to Samuel Swift, Hemingfield, Barnsley ;
half-bred Southdown wethers ; second ditto, to Robert Daw-
son, Sowerby, Burlington; one shearling ram (17 entries).
PIGS.

(10 competitors). For the best Boar, large breed, £5 ;
Tinsley Hero, white, birth Oct. 11, 1850, s. Rex, d. Duchess
1st, Josh. Kuowles, Tinsley, ShefiSeld, bred by him. Second

ditto, £2 ; birth June 3, 1851, T. M. Richardson, Hibald-

stow, Kirton Lindsey, bred by him.

(7 competitors). For the best sow, large breed, iu pig or
milk, £5 ; Yorkshire Lass, birth Sept. 21, 1849, W. Abbott,
Woodhouse-lane, Leeds, bred by John Midgley. Second ditto,
£2 ; Matchless, birth August 8, 1850, s. Dreadnought, d. by
Old Matchless, J. Tuley, Matchless House, Keighley, bred by
him.

(27 competitors). For the best Boar, small breed, £5 ;
King of Diamonds, white, 3 years 1 month and 2 weeks, s.
Cupid, d. by Prince, Timothy Town, Keighley, Yorkshire, bred
by J. G. Sugden. Second ditto, £2 ; Ajax, white, birth August
7, 1851; s. Youug Cruikshanks, F. Lacy, Panton, Wragby,
bred by him.

(30 competitors). For the best Sow, small breed, in pig or

milk, £5; birth July, 1851, s. Viscount, d. Harmony,

William Fowler, Woodhill, Sheffield, bred by George Leather.
Second ditto, £2 ; Sally the 8th, blue and white, birth 1848,

a. Cupid, d. by , A. H. Smith, Snittles, Beeston, Leeds,

bred by J. Heaton.

(14 competitors). For the best three Store Pigs, of the

same litter, from four to nine months old, £5 ; black and

white, birth Feb. 9, 1852, 9. Thrybergh Boar, d. by Fisher's
Old Boar, John Fullerton, Thrybergh Park, Rotherham, bred

by him. Second ditto, £2; seven months, S. Thor-

mauby. Lord Wenlock, Escrick Park, bred by his lordship.

(11 competitors). For the best Sow of any breed not quali-
fied to compete in classes 21 or 23, £5; Charity, white and
blue, birth March 2, 1851, s. Crookshanks, d. by Young Care-
ful, R. Oivston, Brigg, Lincolnshire, bred by him.
EXTRA STOCK, PIGS.

Nineteeu competitors. J. Fullerton, Thrybergh Park, boar,
bred by himself, 1 ; Lord Weulock, Escrick Park, two Boar
Pigs, bred by his lordship, 2. The other competitors were T.
Smith, Woodhead House, Barnsley; E. J. Bentley, Eastwood
House ; G. Mangles, Ripon ; W. Ludlam, Bradford ; T. Hors-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

233

fall, Otley; A. H. Smith, Snittles, Bceston; G.E.Taylor,
Oatlands, Leeds; Vincent Corbett, Wottley ; G. Ilutcliinson,
York; John Kinder, Iliyhton, Harewocd ; F. Ferguson, Wal-
kington, Beverley ; S. Wylie, Braudsby, York.

HOKSES.

(6 competitors). For tUe best stallion {<ji hunters, £10 ;
Maroon, bay f. 1837, s. Mulatto, d. by Lottery, R. Stockdale,
Skerne, Driffield, bred by Lord Eglinton. Second ditto, £3 ;
Black Dwarf, black f. 1845, s. Voltaire, d. by Waverley, T.
Groves, Plumptou Hall, Knaresborough.

(13 competitors). For the best stallion for coach-horses,
£10; Lord John, bay f. 1849, s. Symmetry, d. by Old Volun-
teer, Thomas Daaby, Rawcliffe, Selby, bred by Thomas Mus-
grove. Second ditto, £3 ; Zamor, bay f. 1847, s. Rimphon,
d. by Rainbow, W. Burton, Water Fulford, York, bred by Mr.
Dunn,

(5 competitors). For the best stallion for roadsters, £10;
Bullet, chesnut, 3 years old, s. Turpin, d. by Revolution, Wm.
Burton, Fulford. Second ditto, £3 ; Dandy, brown, s. Pope,
d. by Byron, F. Newbold, Sheffield.

(17 competitors). For the best stallion for agricultural
purposes, £10; Prince Albert, grey, 6 years old, s. Atlas,
Thomas Renton, Otley, bred by Albany Rentou. Second ditto,
£3.; Shirwood Ranger, grey f 1848, s. Ciack Wagon, d. by
Sampson, James Stead, Bishop Thornton, Ripley, bred by W.
Calvert.

(4 competitors). For the best mare and foal for hunting,
£5. Polly, brown, f. 1845, s. Lion, d. by Turk, f. by Sleight,
of-Hand, J, Baiuton, Wansford, Driffield, bred by R. Jarratt.

(3 competitors). For the best mare and foal for coaching,

£5. , bay, f. 1844, s. Conqueror, J. Robinson, Leckby,

Topcliffe, bred by Thomas Kirk.

For the best roadster mare and foal, , bay, 8 years

old, s. Splendour, f. by Hountoun Merrylegs, S. Wylie,
Brandsby, York.

(3 competitors). For the best mare and foal for agricultural

purposes, £5. , brown, s. Great Britain, J. FuUerton,

Thrybergh Park, Rotherham, bred by him.

(3 competitors). For the best three-year-old hunting geld-
ing, £5. , brown, s. Ballinakell, d. by Brilliant, John C.

Athorpe, Dinnington, bred by him.

For the best three-year-old hunting filly, £5. , ches-
nut, s. Comus, d. by Ascot, F. Wharton, Dunscroft, Hatfield,
bred by him.

(5 competitors). For the best three-year-old. coaching geld-
ing, £5. , bay, s. Cato, d. by Harpham Turk, J. John-
son, Brigham, Driffield, bred by J. Jackson.

(5 competitors). For the best three year-old coaching filly,
£5. Nancy, bay, s. Venture, d. by King George, J, Smith,
Marton Lodge, Burhngton, bred by Richard Smith.

(3 competitors). For the best two-year-old coaching geld-
ing, £5. , bay, s. Young Prince, d. by Sportsman, J.

Booth, Killeiby, Catterick, bred by him.

(6 competitors.) For the best two-year-old coaching filly,
£5. Belle of the Leven, bay, s. Cleveland Lad, d. by Master
George, J. Robinson, Rudby, Yarm, bred by him.

(5 competitors.) For the best three-year-old hackney gelding

or filly, £5. , chesnut gelding, s. Robin Hood, d. by

Confederate, B. Swaffield, Chatswortb, Bakewell, bred by S.
Denham.

(4 competitors.) For the best hackney gelding or mare, not
less than four years old, nor exceeding six, £5, Trab, chesnut.

?. Rafan, d. by Fireaway, J. Booth, Killfrby, Catterick, bred
by liim.

(3 competitor^). For the b?st jair of horses of either sex.
for agricultural purposes, worked during the season, £5,
Horse, nutmeg, f. 1842 ; mare, nutmeg, f. 1843 ; H. Grantha-ii,
Scawby, Brigg, bred by hira.

(5 competitors,) For the best four-year-old hunting colt or

filly, £5, , grey, s. Young S.iddler, F. W. Tyas, Norton

Priory, Doucaster, bred by him ; second ditto, £2 10s., Sir
David, chesnut, s. Comus, W. Wood, Bank, Lichfield, bred by
Mr. Sykes, 2.

(4 competitors.) For the best four-year-old mare or geldir.o-,
of the heavy coach er van-horse breed, £5, bay mare, s. Cat-
foss, d. by Dart, H. Owston, KiUerby Grange, Scarborough,

bred by Mr. Woodcock ; second ditto, £2 10s., , grey,

R. Booker, jun., Norton, Sheffield, 2.

(7 competitors). For the best two open Gilts of the small
breed, not less thau six or more than twelve months old, £5 ;

second ditto, £2 103. ; birth Dec. 11th, 185], Samuel

Wiley, Brandsby, York.

Extra Stock Horses (8 competitors). Birdcatcher, brown
hunting gelding. R. J. Bentley, Eastwood House, bred by
him, 1; grey draught filly, Cha?, Timra, Scrooby House,
Bawtry, bred by him, 2.

POULTRY.

(5 competitors). For the best Spanish cock and two hens
£1 ; second ditto, 10s. J. M. Thompson, Dewsbury, 1 ; R. J.
Bentley, Rotherham, 2.

(2 competitors). For the best Spanish cock and one hen,
Robert J. Bentley, Eastwood House, Rotherham.

(6 competitors). For the best Dorking cock and two hens,
£1 ; second ditto, 10s. S. W. Lawley, Escrick Rectory, York,
1 ; T. T. Parker, Sutton Grange, St. Helens, 2.

(4 competitors). For the best Dorking cock and one hen,
10s. T. T. Parker, Sutton Grange, St, Helens.

(19 competitors). For the best Cochin China cock and two
hens, £1; second ditto, 10s. Thomas Sturgeon, Manor
House, 1 ; Mrs. Hoggard, Clifton, York, 2 ; John Hill Smith,
Skelton Grange, York, 3. (Two second prizes on account of
extra merit.)

(4 competitors). For the best Cochin China cock and one
hen, 10s. T. T. Parker, Sutton Grange.

(5 competitors). For the best Malay cock and two liens,
£1 ; second ditto, ICs. Matthew Redgway, Dewsburv, 1 •
James Dixon, Westbrook Place, Halifax, 2.

For the best Malay cock, and one hen, 10s. James Dixon,
BraJford.

(0 competitors). For the best game cock and two hens, £1 ;
second ditto, 10s. Edward Frith, Turner Wood, Worksop,
1 ; John Hall, Kiveton Park, Worksop, 2.

(3 competitors). For the best game cock and one hen, 10s.
John Hall, Kiveton Park, Worksop.

(6 competitors). For the best golden pheasant cock and
two hens, £1 ; second ditto, 10s. Joseph Tuley, Matchless
House, Keighley, 1 ; G. E. Taylor, Oatlands, Leeds, 2.

(2 competitors). For the best golden pheasant cock and
one hen, 10s. Thomas John Mould, Belper.

(10 competitors). For the best silver pheasant cock and
two hens, £1 ; second ditto, 10s. Dan Leeming, Halifax, 1 ;
G. E. Taylor, Oatlands, Leeds, 2.

(6 competitors). For the best chitteprat or Corsicau cock

234

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and two hens, £1 ; second ditto, 10s. G. E. Taylor, Oatlands,
Leeds, 1 and 2.

(2 competitors). For the best Poland fowl (any variety)
cock and one hen, 10s. C. J. Monld, Belper.

(7 competitors). For the best cock and two hens of any
other distinct breed, £1 ; second ditto, 10s. John Hall,
Kiveton Park, Worksop, 1 ; Fenton Bright, Crooke's Wood,
Sheffield, 2.

For the best cock and one hen of any other dis- tinct breed,
10s. R. J. Bentley, Eastwood House, Rotherham.

(3 competitors). For the best gold or silver laced Bantam
cock and two hens, £1 ; second ditto, 10s. Charles Smith,
Caistor, 2.

(12 competitors). For the best cock and two hens, black,
white, or any other variety of Bantams, £1 ; second ditto,
10s. G. E. Taylor, liCeds, 1 ; James Dixon, Bradford, 2.

(6 competitors). For the best gander and one goose, £1 ;
second ditto, 10s, Fergus Ferguson, Walkington, Beverley,
1 ; T. T. Parker, Sutton Grange, St. Helens, extra first prize
on account of merit ; T. T. Parker, 2.

(17 competitors). For the best drake and two ducks, £1 ;
second ditto, 10s. Robert J. Bentley, Eastwood House, Ro-
therham, 1 ; Samuel Watkins, Worksop, 2 ; James Dickson,
Bradford, 2; ditto, 2. (Three second prizes on account of
extra merit.)

(2 competitors). For the best turkey cock and one hen, £1 ;
second ditto, 10s. B. H. Brooksbank, Rotherham; R. J.
Bentley, Rotherham, 2.

PIGEONS.

For the best pair of blue carriers, 5s. Godfrey Wentworth,
Woolley Park, Wakefield.

For the best pair of yellow horsemen, 5s. John Clark'
Sowerby, Thirsk.

For the best pair of brown speckled Jacobins, 53. Godfrey
Wentworth, Woolley Park.

For the best pairof nmts, 5s. R. Miller, Worksop.
RABBITS.

(3 competitors). For the best pair of lop eared rabbits, 5s. j
second ditto, 3s. Charles Smith, Caistor, 1 and 2.

At ten o'clock on Wednesday morning the Council met at
the Council Hall. Sir J. V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., in the
absence of Earl Fitzwilliara, took the chair. The Council sat
till 12 o'clock. It appointed York as the place for next year's
meeting. Ripon was a powerful competitor ; but it appears
to have been an understood rule that, after a meeting in each
of the three ridings, the meeting of the fourth year should be
held in York.

When the business of the council terminated, the
annual meeting was held, and the following were elected
as the officers for the ensuing year : — President, Lord Hotham ;
vice-presidents. Earl Fitzwilliam, Lord Londesborough, the
Duke of Leeds, the Earl of Effingham, and Sir T. Legard,
Bart.; Council, Lord Wenlock; John Booth, H. Briggs,
J. W. Childers, H. Cholmeley, Ralph Creyke, M. J. Ellison,
John Hall, H. Hinde, John Hulton, G. Legard, W. Lister,
C. Harland, G. L. Fox, W. E. M. Milner, M.P., Jas. Watson,
J. Oiithwaite, J. PuUeine, W. Rutson, R. F. Shawe, G. Stan-
hope, W. R. C. Stausfield, M.P., Col. Thompson, H. S.
Thompson, S. Wiley, B. Wood, G. Wentworth, R. Denison,
G. Swan, and J.G.Smyth, M.P., Esqrs.; stewards, A. May-
nard, T. C. Johnsou, and H. Clarke, Esqrs.

A resolution was passed acknowledging in handsome terms
the services of the local committee, to which Wilson
Overende returned thanks. He said the local committee
had had much gratification in exerting themselves to make
the show successful. They had a strong opinion that a two
days' show would answer well, and that the second day would
add much to the funds of the society. If the Council left the
local committee under the impression that they had done their
duty, and had rendered some service to agriculture, they

should be delighted S. Stanhope, Esq., moved, and

W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P., then seconded a vote of
thanks to Mr. Bright for his handsome present. The resolu-
tion was carried by acclamation. Upon the council table were
exhibited for the inspection of the members several curious
knives, manufactured by Mr. Abm. Amory, of Bernard-street,
Sheffield Park. One of them was cruciform, having six
branches and 12 blades in each branch — total 72, value £23;
another, called the star-knife, had eight branches and 14
blades in each — total 112, value £35 ; the third was the musi-
cal knife, having 244 blades, value 40 guineas ; and the fourth
had 10 branches, with 20 blades in each, and pillar containing
34 others— total 234, and of the value of 60 guineas. The
four knives contain 662 blades and articles, of which 454 are
capable of being used.

THE COUNCIL DINNER.

On Wednesday evening, the Council dinner took place in
the Cutlers' Hall, provided in very good style by Mr. Wilkin-
son, of the Angel Inn. About 300 gentlemen sat down to
dinner under the presidency of the Earl of Effingham, and
vice-presidency of Sir J. V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P.

The cloth having been removed, the Rev. Canon Trevor
gave thanks.

The Chairman : In consequence of the absence of Earl
Fitzwilliam, the Chairman of the Society for the year, I have
been unavoidably called upon to take the chair on this occa-
sion. It therefore devolves upon me to propose the only toast
which it is usual to give from the chair on these occasions.
You are assembled not to make speeches and drink compli-
mentary toasts, but to enter on a discussion, which I hope will
be of a very interesting character to the agricultural commu-
nity of this neighbourhood. I deeply regret, as I am sure you
all will. Lord Fitzwilliam's absence ; but I understand he has
been unavoidably detained in Northamptonshire by urgent
business. I therefore give you a toast never omitted among
EugUshmen, and which I am sure will be received by you with
the utmost loyalty (Hear, hear) — " The Queen, Prince Albert,
Alfred Prince of Wales, and the rest of the Royal Family"
(loud cheers).

The Earl of Carlisle was received with enthusiastic
cheers. Sir John Johnstone and Gentlemen : By the order
of the Council I also rise to propose a toast, and I certainly
shall not forget the laws and limitations which regulate the
proceedings of this evening ; for you are all aware, gentlemen,
that our business to-night is to be practical and not oratorical.
Nevertheless, having paid our customary and willing tribute
of respect to the throne, I am sure you will also feel that a de-
monstration of respect would be gracefully paid to the Presi-
dent of the day (cheers). Indeed it would seem to follow in
natural sequence, for I observed this afternoon, in taking a
walk in the beautiful park lately opened near this town, the
following inscription — " God bless the Queen and the
Howards" (Hear, hear). But though certainly I am not the
person to make any objection to that sentiment, still I do not
now ask you to join me in drinking this toast because the no-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

235

ble object of it i» a Howard. I do not propose it as emiiieiitly
entitled to your respect because lie is luy kinsman or at pre-
sent my host, but because he is, as all who know him will con-
cur with me iu saying, full of those manly, gentle, upright,
and accomplished qualities which befit an English nobleman
— or, to use a higher appellation, a Christian gentleman
(cheers). Therefore I feel no doubt that you will worthily
follow up the very successful and meritorious exhibition of
this morning by now drinking with right good will the health
of the President of the evening, " The Earl of Effingham"
(loud cheers ; and on the call of Mr. Vincent Corbett, the
toast was drunk with three times three).

The Chairman : It now becomes my duty to offer you my
best and most sincere thanks for the honour you have done me
in drinking my health. I have to thank the noble lord for
the kind and handsome terms in which he proposed it, and
you for the manner iu which you received it. I assure you 1
deeply regret, for your sakes and his own, that Lord Fitz-
william has not been present, because he would have filled the
duties of the chair much more efficiently than I can (" No, no").
Fortunately for me, the duties are not of a very onerous cha-
racter; and I am quite sure, with your assistance, I shall be
able to get through the evening. Before we proceed to the
business of the meeting, by calling on the gentleman who is to
open the discussion, I must express the great gratification I
have had in being present in the show-yard, as well as taking
part in the business proceedings of the day. Unfortunately
for me, I have never been able to attend any previous meeting
of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society ; but I am informed by
those who have been present in former years, that the one to-
day, compared with many of late years, has been of a very
superior character — that the stock shown has been of a very
creditable kind, and in every respect the show has been satis-
factory to the members and the public. I believe the society
is much indebted to the local committee (Hear, hear) for the
pains they have taken in providing accommodation for the
stock, and making all necessary arrangements. I think it
right to allude to one further subject in connexion with Shef-
field, which ought not to be passed over in silence. I have
been informed that a gentleman connected with the trade of
the town, has had the public spirit and generosity to place at
the disposal of the Council a very handsome clock, to be given
to that candidate to whom the Council may think fit to award
it, in addition to the prizes of the society. The gentleman to
whom I allude is well known to most present — Mr. Bright,
jeweller ; and I am quite sure we are all duly sensible of the
spirit of kindness which has actuated him on this occasion.
Without trespassing further on your time by any remarks of
my own, I shall proceed to call upon Mr. Outhwaite to open
the discussion (cheers).

John Outhwaite, Esq., of Bainesae, near Eichmond,
then opened the discussion — on the best and most economical
method of cutting and harvesting corn. He had long looked
forward to the discussion of this subject, which was of much
importance, as he was aware that for a considerable period the
question as to which was the best mode of growing good
crops had bee i agitated in the agricultural districts. And
when he mentioned good crops, of course he implied that
without proper care iu the harvest, good crops could not be
adequately realized. In his opinion, a great portion of the
grain of England was very badly harvested. He would pro-
ceed to explain how he and other farmers in his district had
been iu the habit of harvesting. Many experiments had
been made as to the proper state in which wheat should be
got in. He had never yet seen an instance of grain got before
it was fully ripe that did not furnish a superior sample to

that which was gathered at a later period. Iu his opinion,
the great bulk of the wheat between here and York was now
ready to cut, but proper care must be taken of it afterwards.
As to the reaping by scythe or hook, there was much differ-
ence of opinion, but not in cost. Within the last twelve
months reaping machines had been introduced, but they were
not yet so fully understood as to be condemned or appreciated.
He had long been of opinion that reaping might be done by
machinery, and he witaeased the first experiment in this coun-
try with an American machine, on Mr. Mechi's farm. At
that time considerable bias existed against those machines,
which might be accounted for to some extent by the fact, that
on the occasion he referred to, the machine was sent down
in the charge of a policeman. Hussey's machine was set
to work by a London policeman, who set it to cut two feet
instead of a few inches from the ground (laughter). Under
such circumstances it was condemned, and justly so. M'Cor-
mick'a machine was next tried, and worked well considering
it was a rainy day and the wheat not in a fit state for cutting.
M'Corraick's got all the credit because it did the work better
than Hussey's, but when tested together Hussey's gained the
victory. He had seen another of Hussey's tried at the Bar-
nard Castle meeting, and it worked well. He thought reaping
machines had not yet done great service, but he had no doubt
that they might cut a considerable portion of the corn in this
country. With regard to the practice of usiug the scythe,
there were some objections. In the first place he thought
there was some question as to whether that mode of cutting
wheat was more economical than that of having it reaped by
Irish or English labourers. Again, when corn is cut with the
scythe, many of the heads are likely to get at the foot end of
the sheaves, and when they come to be planted on the ground,
if the ground be damp, they will probably suffer some injury.
For these reasons he certainly did recommend, where labourers
could be secured at a reasonable cost, the practice of
reaping by the hook in preference to the scythe ; and he had
acted upon the plan himself for the most part, for he had
reaped by the scythe but a very small portion of his corn.
(Hear). Two years ago a discussion had taken place at North-
allerton, in the North-Biding of this county, respecting the
reaping of corn ; and on that occasion, as on most others, there
was a great diversity of opinion, some parties advocating the
superiority of the practice of mowing the corn, and others
thinking with himself that shearing was the better plan. One
gentleman present undertook to send four men over to teach
his people how to carry out effectively the plan of reaping by
the scythe; and he did not behave illiberally towards them or
send them home, saying that he did not approve of their work;
but he had been in the habit of using the hook for many years,
and the result of his experience was such as to induce him to
adopt the opinions which lie had now stated. He was well
aware that gentlemen who had not seen his mode of operation
might condemn it ; but much depended upon the state the
corn was in when cut. If it were cut and bound up and
thoroughly dried, by placing in an opposite position two shocks
upon eight, in the shape of a hood — when properly done iu
this way, he had found that the eight sheaves at all events might
be made as safe in the atook, with regard to experiencing any
harm from the weather, as if they were carted and safely
lodged in the stack. He was not the only farmer in the neigh-
bourhood in which he resided who adopted this plan, because
it was practised by nineteen out of every twenty, and for this
among other reasons, that it admits the sun and air, and so
dries and ripens the corn quicker and better. Another point
to which he might advert was, that as Ions: as ever there was
any saccharine matter left in the straw, it would feed the grain;

236

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and toerefore, if he considered that the grain was drawing any
advantage from thestrawiuthiaresnect,hewouldallowit to stand
in stook, because he bad no fear of any sort of rainy seasons —
no weather could have any effect upon the corn, when treated as
he had described. If they placed the hood with the head up-
wards, the heads of the corn would hold water ; but this ob-
jection, by the plan he adopted, was obviated, as he placed the
sheaves forming the hood with the heads downwards, and thus
the water ran out. He was not aware that he could add any-
thing more, advantageously, upon the subject, and he should
therefore now be glad to listen to some of the gentlemen pre-
sent who might be able to impart more or less practical know-
ledge, for the benefit of himself and others. (Applause).

Mr. Dyson, of Tinsley, said there was no doubt great differ-
ence of opinion among fai-mers with regard to the proper time
for cutting the corn. His opinion was, that when they went
round and examined their corn, by taking it between the finger
and thumb, and squeezing it, if they found that there was no
milk left in it, then that corn was ready, and in the best pos-
sible condition for cutting. (Hear, hear.) There was no
doubt, he thought, that when corn was in this state, it was far
better cut than being allowed to remain upon the ground ;
and when it was cut, he agreed with Mr. Outhwaite as to the
propriety of adopting the plan of hood, because they did not
want the corn to be dried in one day, by a hot sun, but to re-
ceive the benefit to be derived from the nurture still left in the
straw. But the proper time for cutting he considered to be a
question of great importance, and he would mention one or
two reasons why he thought the plan which he had described a
good one. In the first place, if they cut their corn at the
time he had recommended, they prevented considerable loss
consequent upon the grain shaking ; because, if a high wind
came, when the corn was nearly ripe and yet uncut, they all
knew that great loss was experienced . And another considera-
tion of moment was, that if the corn were cut as he proposed,
they would find that it would stand ten times as much bad
weather in the stook as it would if cut before it was ripe ; it
was not near so liable to sprout. (Hear, hear.)

The Chairman said he had been requested to call upon
Mr. Brown, of Wrangbrook, to state his experience of one of
the reaping machines, which he understood he had recently had
in use.

Mr. Brown immediately rose amidst cheers. He said he
commenced reaping a field of oats with the reaping machine
a few days ago. Some part of the crop was laid, and with that
they had some difficulty, but they experienced none whatever
with that part that was standing. Some parties present were
very much dissatisfied with the performance. On the day fol-
lowing he commenced an eighteen acre field of wheat. (" Was
it Hussey's or M'Cormick's machine?") It was Hussey's
machine, made by Crosskill. On the first day a number of
spectators crowded round and annoyed them a good deal, but
on the second day they had a fair opportunity. It was a large
field, and all the crop was sf.anding, The whole eighteen acres
was reaped in two days. They experienced no difficulty what-
ever in the operation, and it was done quite as well as it had
been done with the scythe, and rather better. However, he
was not at all sanguine about the capabilities of the machine to
reap laid corn. He had only had his machine aljout a week,
and he had not tried it with laid corn, and he could not say
therefore ho^v far it might succeed with the laid crop. But as
to standing wheat, however heavy the crop, he was satisfied
they would be able to do it in a very workmanlike manner.
Mr. Brown then commented on Mr. Outhwaite'splan of leaving
the corn a long time out in the shock. In his opinion to leave
it out iu the fields five or six weeks was to run a great risk

(Hear, hear). Recurring to the capabilities of the reaping
machine, he observed that when a crop was cut iu a workman-
like manner by the machine, he preferred it either to the work
of the scythe or sickle. For standing corn, he had no doubt
the machine would come into very general use ; but as to its
capabilities of reaping laid corn he was unable to give an opi-
nion. In the first instance, they commenced gathering the
sheaves with a rake ; but at the suggestion of a friend, her
adopted a different plan. One of the men who was clever at
the operation, put the corn off the machine with great regu-
larity in the form of sheaves, without bands, and eight men
followed, who made the bands and bound up the sheaves. That,
he thought, was preferable to using the rake at all. It was
necessary to have two clever men to manage the reaper, and
eight other men to follow (murmurs). He had no doubt that
with such a force as that, they could reap eight acres a-day
comfortably (" With how many horses?"). At first they
geared two horses, but the weather being very hot a third was
added, and a boy was engaged to lead the first horse. That
was found much easier. They worked the horses about two
hours, and then replaced them by fresh ones. The work would
have been much easier but for the hot weather (" What is the
average cost per acre?"). He had not calculated the cost, but
he was quite certain it was less per acre than if reaped by
sickle or scythe. Any other questions he would be glad to
answer (" What would you do with the labourers ?") Mr.
Brown was asked if he had seen M'Cormick's machine at work,
and he replied he had not.

Mr. H. Dyson (Tinsley) : Are not the heads of the com
likely to get into the butt-end of the sheaf?

Mr. Brown: Perhaps more than with the hook, but deci-
dedly less than with the scythe.

Captain R. F. Shaw (Brantingham) asked Mr. Brown if
he did not find that the working of tlie machuie galled the
necks of the horses ? He had used Garrett's machine, and he
found that the great weight of the machine rested on the necks
of the horses, and consequently injured them. It occiured to
him at the time that it was possible to affix a small wheel in
the forepart of the machine, at the point where the man with
the rake sat, and thus take off the pressure from the horses'
necks. He begged to ask Mr. Brown whether he had not no-
ticed the same fault.

Mr. Brown remarked that the machine required the exer-
cise of a little patience in its management. As to galling the
horses, they found on the first day some little difficulty, but
that arose from putting on the links of the pole iu the
wTong place. They removed them about a foot nearer to the
pole end, and that remedied the difficulty ; and by changing
the horses about every two hours they were not at aU dis-
tressed.

Captain Shaw considered some improvement was necessary
in that respect. His experience of Garrett's machine had
showu him that it was a little defective in speed. Instead of
going at the rate of two miles an hour, they were obliged to
drive at the rate of three miles an hour in order to do the work
properly ; and whenever they came in contact with laid corn
the machuie immediately choked. He had seen CrosskiU's
machine at work, and had observed the galling of the horses'
shoulders the same as with Garrett's machine. The two were
of course very similar. The chief difference was in the Itnives.
In Garrett's machine, the knives were made sharp on one side,
like scissors, and pointed at the end, wlule those of M'Cor-
mick's were square cut at the ends, and sharp on both sides-
He agreed with Mr. Brown that the reaping machine was likely
to become a most useful implement.

Mr. Brown asked Captain Shaw if he had noticed whether

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

237

the work was hardest for the horses when the coin was ripe or
when it was unripe ?

Captain Shaw : I have cut both wheat and oats with the
machine. They were rather ripe than otherwise: not dead
ripe, but yet not greeu. There were at least live quarters of
wheat to the acre, and it was very long in tlie straw. The
machine did its work very well after the first few runs.

Mr. Brown : If you try three horses, with a boy to lead in
front, you will get on much better. They will go much steadier.

Captain Shaw : Ob, we use very good powerfid horses, and
M'ell fed.

Mr. Beaumont inquired what was the advantage obtained
in employing the reaper ? Was it in time, in money, or in
both? According to the statement of Mr. Brown, ten men
and one boy were required to conduct the reaping operations,
lu the district where he (Mr. Beaumont) farmed, viz., in the
neighbourhood of Baruslcy, the men who were employed to
harvest received Ss. a day, and boys Is. Therclore, to have
ten men and a boy, and the expense cf horses, he had calcu-
lated would amount to 63s. ; and if the reaper cut eight acres
per day, the cost would amount to nearly 8s, an acre, which
was 3s. an acre more than under the present system in his
district.

Mr. Brown said he was decidedly of opinion that they
cordd reap more with the same hands with the reaper than
without it, and for less expense. Second-rate hands woidd do
for gathering the corn, and they might pay a man, say 2s. a
day for gathering corn, whereas by mowmg corn they would
have to pay Ss. 6d. or 43. a day, and this showed the benefit
of the reaper.

Mr. H.S. Thompson, of Moat Hall, said that not having
tried this machine, he should have preferred leaving the dis-
cussion to those who had done so. It had been tried by few
people as yet ; but he was inclined to offer a few remarks from
having witnessed nearly all the public trials that have taken
place with the reaping machine in this country. He had had
the honour of being a juror, and had had the opportunity of
examining the implement. He saw Hussey's and M'Cormick's
machines tried last year in Cleveland. He also saw them tried
at Barnard Castle, and lately at Lewes, where there were 15
or 16 of these machines at work. The great difference in the
two principles by which these machines are distinguished, is in
the form of the knives. The form of M'Cormick's knives had
been altered since the machine had been brought over to this
country, and Messrs. Garrett had improved upon the principle
adopted by Hussey ; and of the 15 or 16 at work, to his mind,
Garrett's improved knife made by far the best work.
The appearance of the corn cut by M'Cormick's machine
was likewise equal in appearance to that cut with the
sickle. It was suggested at Lewes that a wheel should
be put in front to relieve the stress upon the horses,
and he had no doubt that before long such an im-
proved machine would be brought out. Howard's machine
contained another improvement in laying the straw down the
best in cutting; it, however, did not work well, and it seemed
to require great alteration before it woidd so. Before the
arrival of another year, he had no doubt they would have a
machine brought out in a much more perfect form than they
had now. The only thing the machine could not do at all was
the laid corn. If the corn was laid one way, and not quite on
the ground, the machine would cut it very fairly, so much so,
that he should have no hesitation in cutting in that way. He
thought it was worth while to draw their attention to the point
of laid com, and conceived there was a great deal to be done
in that respect. Was there any possibility of diminish-
ing the quantity of laid corn? He thought there was.

In going tlirough the country, and seeing two fields side by
side, one standing and another quite flat, there was a cause for
it, although the cultivation miglit be pretty nearly the same.
He believed the great difference would be found in the kind
of manure which was supplied. This year wc have had a very
warm season, and in many parts of England a good deal of
rain had fallen when the corn was filling. Speaking of his
own district, and the district of Lincolnshire, in which he had
travelled during the last few weeks, he had found that the
quality of the corn had been deteriorated very much within the
last three weeks by mddew, &c., which, of course, made the
sample worse and the yield less. During the last few years
there had been an increase of the guano brought into use. If
they applied guano in large quantities, without altering the
cultivation in other respects, in such a season as this they
might do a great deal of injury. In the one case they might
get a moderate crop of good quality, and the straw is bright
and fine ; whereas, with two or three cwt. of guano, the crop
looks extremely promising till the last few weeks ; but when
the showers come, the warm moist weather causes the mildew
and other diseases, and the farmer who has spent £1 or 30s.
per acre, would be very glad to exchange with his neighbour
who has used none. He alluded to an experiment which had
been made, and he thought that the standing of corn had a
great deal to do with deep cultivation and exposure of the soil
to the air, and that the deeper and the more perfect the culti-
vation of the soil the better (applause).

Mr. Maw, of Tetley, Lincolnshire, in reference to the ob-
servations of Mr. Sbaw, said that if the chains of the pole
were wrongly adjusted, then as a matter of course the shoulder
would be much shaken, and the legs injuriously jarred. With
regard to the deep tillage recommended by Mr. Thompson, he
had himself always been an advocate of that system, upon the
principle that the deeper the tUlage the more room would there
be for the extension of the roots and the strengthening and
improving of the crops. As to the cidture by guano, he had
himself manured his wheat by fold-yard manure, whilst a near
neighbour used guano. At first the guano-manured wheat
looked very much best. It looked glossy and black in the
spring ; but this premature luxuriance affected the crop when
approaching maturity, and at the present time the wheat grown
by fatm-jard manure was better than that upon which guano
had been used. Mr. Maw concluded by saying that although
guano stimvdated the sod at first, and brought out the farm-
yard manure which had lain dormant in the laud, yet it after a
time proved exhaustive to the soil (applause).

Mr. White, (Professor of Chemistry, of Bow, near
London,) said he should not have ventured to intrude
upon them at that hour of the evening, if subjects in
which he felt very deep interest had not been called into dis-
cussion. Mr. Thompson had re'erred to the employment of
guano, and had stated the manner in which an excess of am-
monia had been given to crops by the employment of that
manure. He (Mr. White) would merely venture to state
some extraordinary facts, to which they would perhaps hardly
give credence, but which he could assure them were true ;
and from which they could draw their own deductions. Con-
siderable attention had recently been directed to the great
question of the manure to be obtained from the sewage water
of large towns ; and he had been lately engaged in prosecuting
a number of experiments, in the employment of sewage water
in fine washed sand ; and by the employment of it, under pro-
per regulations, they need not fear for any results that might
arise injurious to the crop of grain. However, he would state
the facts, and leave them to draw their own deductions. By
proper regulations, they might obtain straw equal, if not nupe-

238

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

rior, to auy that has been imported from the highly favoured
country of Tuscany. From this lightly washed sand he had
produced a quantity of straw which he had exhibited to gen-
tlemen at the Royal Agricultural Society, at Lewes ; and he
was now prepared to show an extraordinary fact. When the
sewage water had been precipitated and separated from the
grosser matter by the application of chemical agents, it becams
simple and almost inoffensive to taste or smell. The sewage
■water, after being exposed to the action of the powder, pre-
sented no appearance perceptibly different from common water.
Upon analyzing it, however, he found that 260 tons of it con-
tained as much — Peruvian guano they might term it, if they
would, but he called it British guano— contained as much
British guano as there was in three cwt. of real Peruvian
guano ; and it contained every eleaaent of it, and in the best
state for assimilation with the land. This was an extraordi-
nary fact, and in a few weeks Tould be verified by the produc-
tion of the grain upon the table of the Royal Agricultural
Society, in Hanover-square. He merely mentioned this fact
that they might make some further investigation into the
subject.

Mr. Peter Love, of Northamptonshire, after expressing
his gratiGcation at the manner in which the discussion had
already been conducted, said he thought that considerable
attention should be paid to any subject connected with agri-
culture before any district or portion cf the country should
dictate to another any system the result of their own expe-
rience only. He first acquired his experience in the west of
Scotland, where he had a very wet climate to contend with.
He next removed to Ireland, which was a better climate; and
afterwards to the west cf England, which was a better climate
still. When he came to Northamptonshire, he was surprised
to find farmers cutting their crops of wheat, oats, and barley
with the scythe, which he thought a very careless method.
But in two or three years he found that they could carry to
market a better crop than he could. In no part of the world
were men more careful in harvesting their crops than in the
north of England. He thought it was best to grow as little
green produce amongst corn as possible, so that after it had
been cut it might be put quickly into a safe position. He re-
commended all persons to pay great attention to the nature
of the climate in which they cultivated land; 'and that when
farmers removed from one part of the country to another,
they should ascertain as quickly as possible the average
quantity of rain that fell in each year. They would then be
able to form an opinion whether the apparently slovenly sys-
tem of harvesting corn, adopted in the south, or the more
careful system of the north, would be most profitable to them.
In the wet climate of the west of Ireland, he found that corn
was never cut till it was dry, and it was stacked immediatelj',
for they would run no risk by letting it lie on the ground. It
was stacked in small stacks ; and though the rain wet the
stack externally, the high winds dried the stack inwards. He
thought at first that this was a very queer method, but he
afterwards saw that there was much philosophy in it. If men
would but study the customs of a locality, they would often
come to the same conclusion ; for they might often find a
" wrinkle" in the worst localities. There was yet one other
vexed question connected with the harvesting of corn which
had not yet been touched upon, and that was as to the best
vehicles in which it should be carried from the field to the
stack-yard. Some were in favour of caits, others of waggons.
He had always been a one-horse cart man ; but he had seen
work done so well by waggons, that he should be much puzzled
to which method to give the preference. He recommended
persona who might remove into a district h re waggons were

in general use to adopt that method, because the predilection
of the labourers would be in favour of that system, and they
might think it up hill work instructing them in the other
method. Improvements should always be made steadily.
Another subject was as to the best mode of stacking corn-
Some persons were in the habit of making their stacks wide
and low ; others high and narrow. He thought both systems
objectionable. A high stack consumed labour in getting the
corn to the top of it. A wide stack required more thatching,
occupied greater space, and required more straddles. He
thought it best to make stacks of a medium height and width,
and nearly perpendicular.

The Chairman : It is thought that the discussion should
now be closed. I beg on behalf of the society to thank those
gentlemen who have taken part in it, for the valuable informa-
tion they have given us. Gentlemen, I will give you the
closing toast of the evening, " May we have a fine day to-
morrow" (loud cheers).

The meeting broke up at twenty minutes to ten o'clock.

The prize given by Mr. Bright, which was to be assigned to
the most deserving exhibiter, was awarded to Charles Towneley,
Esq., of Towneley Park, his three year old cow and calf, in
class 5, being thought by the judges to be the best animals in
the show-yard, and he having also obtained the greatest num-
ber of first prizes.

COTTAGE GARDENING IN CORNWALL.—
The season being advanced so far enables a person to
see a little of the summer's arrangements as displayed
in the cottage gardens. In many of them near this
we see a number of tender plants that have stood the
winter in the open ground without any protection, and
these are now more or le?s in a flowering state. In
many instances, I see scarlet geraniums growing
against the wall of the cottages — some of the tail-
growing sorts, and these are flowering beautifully,
beside myrtle trees trained to the walls. Myrtles grow
very frcdy in this neighbourhood without any pro-
tection, and generally flower profusely. Many have
them trained up the fronts of their cottages, with and
without any other plants amongst them, according to
the pleasure and taste of the occupier. In a few I see
some of the more choice gei'aniums — of those sorts
that are always so gay and attractive — when well
grown, and as they invariably are seen on the stages
of the exhibition tents at the Botanic Gardens, Regent's
Park. In the cottage gardens about Penryn and Fal-
mouth many of these are now flowering where they
have been in the ground all winter. Of course, they
are rather unsightly in shape ; but these things are not
so easily managed when remaining in the open garden
all winter ; and, again, such is of far less consequence.
The half-shrubby calceolaria stands the winters here
in ordinary cases; but these do not seem to have found
their way so generally into the cottagers' gardens as the
geraniums. I may just remark I have had five or-
dinary-sized flower beds of Caie's Calceolaria, besides
many single plants in borders that stood last winter,
and have for six weeks now past given a great abund-
ance of flowers. There are two Veronicas that seem
to succeed very well in the cottage gardens — namely,
V. Lindlyana and V. speciosa. They are both very
pretty and gay during the latter part of the summer.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

2;9

After they are established a few years, they do not
grow so long-jointed as they ars liable to do in their
early progress, I do not see much of the bedding-out
system amongst cottagers here: many things lend to
check this fancy, as they term it. In the first place,
there is no nursery sufficiently near where any of these
little plants could be procured ; and, in the second
place, they are all attached to the mixed-bed system
— tliat is, herbaceous plants, annuals, and others, all

mixed together in their beds and borders. I am by no
means sure if this arrangement does not give the best
nosegay effect. Where a little is always expected,
many of the older and common varieties of Fuchsia
grow very freely. I know of some places where the
Fucbsia is grown as a hedge, and it certainly looks gay,
and has a very pretty effect all the summer and
autumn up to the chilly nights of winter before the
last of its flowers drop. — G. Dawson, Enys.

"WHERE THERE'S MUC K, THERE'S MONEY."

HINTS IN AID OF AGRICULTURE, FvlR THE USE OF FARMERS.— MANURES 1
SUGGESTIONS RELATIVE TO BRITISH FERTILIZERS.

BY A PRACTICAL FARMER.

We have often thought a few words on these subjects
might be useful in stimulating our farming readers to
renewed care and effort in making and economizing,
and in the application of the manures of the farm. We
need not take up the space allotted us to point out the
m;my ways in which these matters are neglected in farm
practice. We at once assert that gross negligence in
the making or manufacture of manure is all but uni-
versal amongst the generality of farmers. We also as-
sert that the absence of all mode for economizing or for
the preservation of farmer's manure is not only very
reprehensible, but its management is of the most careless
and wasteful character ; and also that the application
thereof very often betrays great ignorance of the re-
quirements of the crop and soil.

Hints on Fold -yard Manure. — The farmer's
great resource is in his fold -yard manure: it is as the
mainstay to the mast, or the sheet-anchor to the ship.
No department of his business will pay him better than
his manure -manufactory (if we may call it a manufac-
ture)— his composition of manure. His attention ought
constantly to be engaged in adding to its quantity and
virtues. Every particle of vegetable matter produced
on the farm, and not being required for consumption in
the fields, ought to be brought to the fold-yard, there
to be converted into manure — all ditch-roadings,
hedgerow- weedings, and leaves, stubble, twitch, and
other roots of weeds, fern, heaths, rushes, &c., &c. To
these add sea-weed and shell fish — kelp and mussels,
cockles ; also fish of unsaleable kinds. These to be
mingled or strewn about the yards, as the process of
making goes on by the cattle, with which the yards and
hovels ought to be filled to overflowing, and which
ought to bo good fattening animals, not poor lean
stock ; and every portion of the fodder should be sup-
plied them in conjunction with turnips, mangolds, and
other roots, together with corn, cake, meal, or other
artificial aids, to promote condition in the manure-
makers. 'Whilst this is proceeding, great care should
be taken that the accumulating hoard shouh. not be too
much saturated with rain-water, nor the liquid manure
be permitted to flow away, but that all such drainings
should be regularly thrown over the whole heap or col-
lection of materials ; and the yards should be sufficiently

commodious to contain the whole, and retain it com-
plete and compact in one thickening mass, without
suffering loss of ammonia or unnecessary decomposition
by removing or upturning till required, or nearly so,
for use. Thus it ought to lie. To prepare it for most
effective and useful service is but the work of three or
four weeks, at most, if it is properly made, and the in-
gredients are rich. All that is required is to turn it
over, and well mix all together, about three weeks prior
to its being used. This will promote a very rapid fer-
mentation ; and at its highest point of fermentation, and
when possessing or giving out the most ammonia, it
should be applied to the land, and ploughed the very
same hour in which it is laid on.

Hints on Farmers' Compost Manures. — The
farmer may also very advantageously'make or manufacture
good and effective compost-manures, of a homely cha-
racter, but of a highly fertilizing nature. He should in-
variably in every winter season collect a sufficiency of night-
soil for his use in the succeeding summer ; he should care-
fully preserve the manure from his piggeries, his dove-
cote, and his poultry-house ; these mixed with three-
fourths more of good loam make an exceedingly good
fertilising compost-manure, and if properly kept over a
year all the better ; if it is then mixed with good fresh
loam or ashes, and drilled along with the turnip-seed, it
will form a very forcing aid to the young plant. About
fifteen bushels per acre is a good dressmg in addition lo
ashes. Additions might be most beneficially made to
this — compound collections such as the following :
butchers' refuse, containing the blood, entrails, &c., &e.
of the slaughtered animals ; dead animals of any kind,
for their flesh, &c. ; fish of all kinds, tanners' refuse,
fellmongers' refuse, tallow-chandlers' grave-cakes, &c.

Hints on the Collection of Night-soil. — The
excretions of one person are, upon the average, about
seven or eight ounces solid faeces, and of urine three
and a half pounds per day, the weight of the latter de-
pending much upon the quantity of liquid drank and
the state of the air ; but the solid matter will be daily
about the same weight. Ic will average yearly about
one and a half hundred-weight solid excrement, and
eleven hundred-weight of urine. From tables now be-
fore us we find that this matter is more valuable than

R

240

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

rape-cake; and, when mixed with peat- charcoal, is
superior to it. It is also about half the value of Peru-
vian guano. Now nearly one and a half millions of
tons, under proper regulations, might be annually col-
lected of this valuable manure ; and by adding two parts
of peat-charcoal to one of this night-soil, we have
an accumulation of manure available for use of four
millions five hundred thousand tons, and worth about
thirty millions of pounds — and this properly deodorised,
and adapted (or every service without disagreeable Sinell
or objectionable inconvenience, We suggest this outline
of operations : That all towns adopting the sanatory law
be imperatively required to provide means for collecting
and deodorising the night-soil and sewerage thereof ;
for this purpose the inhabitants of any town agreeing
to accept this law, shall be compelled to adopt
such regulations as the Sanatory Board, under careful
and pioper reports from each town, shall deem right to
propose to them. The regulations for Ihe collection and
preservation to be left to the local boards of each town,
as also the deodorising and preparation for sale, and all
the general business and management connected there-
with. This local board to view every receptacle or
privy, and adopt for every case such provision for carry-
ing out the intentions of the Sanatory Commission as
they may deem right, varying of course such provision
accoiding to the circumstances of each separate case,
and in due consideration of the convenience of residents.
We suggest that suitable appliances be attached to
every receptacle for the deposit of night-soil or other
fertilizing matters, and that regulations be adopted to
compel the construction of others, where such yppli-
ances cannot be mads available ; that the servants of the
local boards should be provided with proper deodorizers
in sufficient quantity, and apparatus suitable for the re-
moval of the contents of each receptacle ; that previous
to removal the deodorizing preparation be efft ctualiy
mixed with the materials collected in the receptacle or
reservoir, and so soon as the disagreeable smell is gone,
proceed at once to remove the whole to the place of
general deposit provided by the said board ; that into
this place or general reservoir should also be thrown all
urinary collections, soap-suds, and such-like matters,
small putrid substances of whatever kind, and the larger
substances of this kind to be first decomposed by sul-
phuric acid before admixture. That these local boards
shall cause the materials so deposited to be prepared in
such manner as to them seems best adapted to command
a sale ; that the proceeds shall be devoted to the pay-
ment of costs in execution of the commission, and the
balance, if any, to be proportionately divided amongst
the inhabitants or parties entitled to receive it as being
included in the boundaries of the commission or local
board ; that for the purpose of properly preparing these
materials the local commissioners shall be empowered to
purchase powerful filterers and apparatus for filtration,
also such amraoniacal admixtures and substances as they
may require— the filterers would allow the watery par-
ticles to escape or run off, and would leave the useful
and most valuable deposit behind, whilst the ammoniacal
applications would much enhance the value of the ma-

nure ; that the most powerful deodorizer as yet discovered
is peat charcoal, or charred peats— this might be ob-
tained in any quantity under proper regulations, and at
a cost of about sixty shillings per ton. What a large and
profitable source for the employment of labour would
arise in this preparation ! Gypsum, soot, coal-ashes, and
burnt clay are also deodorizers, and good fertilizers.
As we are giving a few practical suggestions or hints
for the use of farmers, may we give one or two for the
use of " One of your Old Correspondents." We can
assure him that no one sympathizes more keenly with
our suffering agriculturists than does A Practical Farmer ;
and few have been called upon to experience directly \
and indirectly severer losses from the altered policy of j
our Government toward us as farmers : still he is not
without hope — he almost lives upon hojje. The sacrifice
of agricultural property by the repeal of the corn-laws
in 184G was awfully ruinous; the sole effect of state
enaction. The dejjlorablc deed was done, and extreme
depression has been the result : the lowest point icas
touched, and now we think there is a point at which we
might start and prove some profit in a general business
as a farmer and grazier, if not farming alone. It is cer-
tainly true that one slight change after another is slowly
betokening improvement, and we are fain to hope that
something better is " looming in the future." Wool
first began to reahze a fair general average in price
sheep soon followed; cattle next took a favourable turn,
and other kinds of live stock partook of the same satis-
factory change. In farming, as apart from grazing, a
better aspect has presented itself : wheat has throughout
(excepting 1847) been ruinously low, and much do we
regret it on every account. We must, however, look
fairly into the case ; and for the past two years we find
that barley, beans, peas, and oats, have at all events
approached — almost touched a remunerative price. We
think that " Your Old Correspondent" commenced busi-
ness in the autumn of 1849 or spring of 1850; he will
be able to prove some profit arising from it, and a fur-
ther profit upon his outlay for farm stock. We do not
say he has a very encouraging busii.ess, but that it is not
altogether unprofitable. A Practical Farmer's business
combines the breeding of both cattle and sheep, and also
the fattening of them and others purchased for that pur-
pose : his farming embraces a considerable proportion
of wheat, potato, and turnip culture; his crops have
been favourable, and although he declines producing a
" balance-sheet," for many reasons, he would say to
" Your Old Correspondent" it is on the right side, and
not " all botheration and blarney." Will he suffer, or
rather excuse a hint or two ? Do not depend too much
upon the culture of wheat or even other grain : the
whole world are your competitors, under far greater ad-
vantages as to costs of culture, and almost on equal
terms as respects cost of transit. It is not so. in re-
ference to live stock — -costs are greater. Adopt then,
and determinately, in moderation, the grazing of all the
stock your farm can be made to carry, and if your
holding is applicable breed all you can ; breed or pur-
chase the best kinds, and fatten them after the best prac-
tice : grow abundance of the artificial grasses — grow

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

241

plenteously of turnips, mangolds, cabbages, and similar
food, according to your soil — get all the crops you can,
irrespective of system (but look to getting good ones, or
let sowing alone), adopt every real improvement in
modern practice, and have all carried out with the

greatest punctuality and economy; grow the best varie- under judicious care and generous treatment.

ties of grain and of root crops, and put them in and
manage them after the best modes, and consume the root
crops with other artificial aids, as cake, corn, &c. ; you
will require this to keep up the fertility needed, for
we know no bounds to the productive powers of the soil

THE YORKSHIRE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

HARVESTING CORN.-

There never was anything more opportune
than the discussion of the best mode of harvesting
coi n at the Sheffield meeting of the Yorkshire Agri-
cultural Society, on Wednesday, Aug. 4 ; nor could
a more careful reaper of his own grain have been
selected than Mr. John Outhwaite, of Bainesse.
The time is opportune, because we are in the very
month of a large, heavy, and difficult-to-secure
harvest; and when two or three reaping machines
are actually pressing on public attention for favour
and encouragement — while a gentleman who takes
more p; ins with his own harvest could not possibly
be selected than John Outhwaite, of Bainesse.

How far the reaping machine will one day su-
persede hand-labour — how far it will enable the
farmer to depend on the safety of its well-sharpened
knives and the strength of his sturdy horses rather
than on the fitful supply of labourers, thinned by
emigration or expatriated by competition, or ab-
sorbed by government drainage or railroad excava-
tion, is, we must say, a question not yet solved.
The Scottish implement, transplanted on trans-
atlantic shores, then made available because no
other means of harvest was possible, has come over
again across the ocean, and has been improved by
our own artizans ; and it is not vmlikely it may
meet with a considerable degree of encoviragement.
It will cut corn, it will harvest the common ordi-
nary crops capitally ; it will do the work — the hard
and terrible work of the severest of agricultural
tasks ; but whether a farmer will do well to depend
upon it, with all the tendency of great crops to
lodge, and all the liability to heavy rains, is a ques ■
tion which is by no means decided. The struggle,
however, for preference between Hussey and
M'Cormick is partly absorbed in the question of
whether either will for harvesting purposes become
generally useful. This depends,however, on the state
of the crop, and much time will doubtless be wasted
ere ever that question is settled. Thousands of
acres will this year, however, give way to the huge
leveller; and another harvest will test its econo-
mical results.

But it is not with the reapers alone that the
struggle of harvest either begins or ends, so long
as we see barley treated as hay — mown, tossed,
and turned about like hay — spread and re-spread.

-REAPING MACHINES.

and exposed to every blast of wind, every bleaching
sun, and every discolouring rain. We may con-
trast this with the harvesting of the north of Eng-
land ; and a great difference will be observed. The
stooks or shocks at Bainesse, the farm of the
opener of the discussion at Sheffield, are like a
thatched stack. The heads which stand upright
are all covered ; those necessarily exposed are with
the heads downward. The sample is fine and
fresh, and may remain out for any length of time,
or in almost any weather. Nothing can injure it.

The Bainesse shock, of which we give an en-
graving, is a model of perfection in the preserving
of corn after harvest, in our somewhat uncertain
climate.

Nor is it in the form of the shock alone that the
superiority of this harvesting is chosen. The rows
are as straight as a line can draw them, and are as
secure from all removal as they are neat and pleas-
ing to the eye. We fancy the farmers of the west
of England would do well to imitate at least in
some degree the care of their more northern neigh-
bours.

We have been assured by the Gloucestershire
maltsters that their barley, with all this exposure,
is better than the barley of the noith. But this is
begging the question. If we have in the north of
England a worse climate — if we are more careful
over a sample which is inferior — how much more
reason there is to make the best of a favourable
soil and a genial climate, and preserve that which
is so very valuable and so well worth preserving.
The bleaching sun in a fine season interferes with
the sample. The dying energies of the expiring
grain is short in forming bran of the starch of the
grain, and so diminishing its power to afford sac-
charine matter. While the rain, should it come,
instead of finding the corn all laid it is standing
upright, shedding it off, and soon pierced by the
blast in an interval of dryness. The decay and so-
lution of the finer particles is prevented, and the
tendency to sprout or turn into malt, prematurely
very much diminished. We are not generally in
favour of going to the expense of hooding barley.
If we can be certain of a fine season (and who can?)
the hooding of wheat may be dispensed with ; but
if there is any doubtful weather the hooding should

R 2

243

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

i

Hm

yr\P/

A Bainesse hooded Shock or Stook.

v^^^

not be neglected, and it will amply repay the extra
labour bestowed upon it.

The question of the policy of mowing or shearing
grain does not now admit of the same limit of rea-
soning it used to do. The tendency to rapidity in
every movement is doing much to do away with
shearing corn. The mown corn is much more
easily reaped, sooner secured, and will dry better in
the stack and the shock. The stubble will also be
of use in the fold-yard rather than on the land.

We call attention to the discussion itself for the
full particulars of the interesting meeting. What-
ever failure there might have been at Lewes, there
was none here. There was a large show of imple-
ments— the selections of the best from the winning
manufacturers of the day. The number of entries
of stock exceed both the last years, though they
were very promising ; while the interest of the show
was great beyond precedent.

The reapers were a great source of attraction.
The trial was to have been private, at seven in the
morning ; but a slight shower having taken place,
the owner obstinately refused to allow his oats to be
cut till noou, when a great crowd attended. The three
were Hussey's improved by Deaues, and another

improved by Crosskill, and M'Cormick's improved
by Burgess and Key. The first named unfortunately
broke, owing to some of its screws not being drawn
properly up, and on the whole M'Cormick's in that
trial did its work the best. Judging of the work be-
fore them, aud the individual unplements, the judges
decided in favour of M'Cormick's machine ; but it
can in no way be considered as a settlement of the
prbiciple of the two, but only a judgment of the ma-
chines before them. The following remarks were
made by an eye witness, who had no partial bearing
— nor any interest in the trial, aud deserves all the
attention which an impartial authority can carry.

" The macluues were three in number, namely —
M'Corraiek's, manufactured by Burgess and Key
(price 25/.) ; Hussey's, manufactured by Crosskill
(price 21/.) ; and Hussey's, manufactured by W.
Dray & Co. (price 18/.) The machines were to have
commenced operations early in the morning, but by
some misarraugment the earUest of them (M'Cor-
mick's) did not get to work till eleven o'clock. The
crop upon which the machines were brought to ope-
rate was a field of oats, about four acres in extent.
It was in very fair condition up to this morning, but
a shower of rain that began about ten o'clock to some

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

243

extent unfitted it for tlie process of reaping. The
three machines were in a sliort time brought into
play on different parts of the ground. M'Corniick's
met wilh some in)])cdimcnts at starting, but its two
competitors appeared likely for some time to be over-
whelmed with failure. The sceptics with an air of
something like triumph, cried ' It can't be done,' and
the anticipations of the more hopefnl observers were
sorely disappointed. No sooner had the two ' Hus-
seys ' got what appeared a fair start than the cutting
apparatus was choked up with the blades of corn, and
the machines came to a dead lock. They had then
to be thrown out of gear and freed from the en-
tanglement. The next movement would be suddcidy
checked by one of the wheels dropping into the
furrow and letting the machine down upon the
ground. It then trailed along like a flat board, level-
ling the corn as flat as if it had been rolled— cuiiif/^
it about as much as it would have been cut by the
smoothest roller. In thi^5 wise the operation went
on for some time, till the niavgins had been cut away,
with the aid here and thcic vt-ith the scythe. The
machines then began to make better play, and wher-
ever the ground was moderately even, a long but not
very broad strip was taken off the margin of the corn
with astonishing rapidity. Each pair- of horses was
kept at a very rapid walk. The chief difficulty now
was to rake off the corn as it fell upon the machine.
Any considerable accumulation would have arrested
the locomotion. The man who stood upon the ma-
chine and handled the rake found it necessary to
strike the corn with great force in order to get it
quickly out of the way ; but as the corn had not at-
tained to ripeness it did not suffer by the premature
thrashing. It must have been very severe work for
the man with the rake, and such as no individual
could have sustained for any considerable time with-
out an occasional and not unfrequeut ' hitch ' to
afford him an interval of repose. M'Cormick's ma-
chine, while it leaves the stubble too long to suit
economical farmers, seems for that very reason to be
less liable to impediments. It is aimed with a re-
volving apparatus something like the sails of a wind-
mill, which, closing down upon the corn alternately,
press it in a horizontal position upon the machme
ready for the cutters, which are in rapid and incessant
motion as long as the machme keeps going. It would
betray extreme ignorance of the early history of ma-
chinery of every kind to take it for granted that
these reaping machines have at this stage of their
existence arrived at perfection. Wc believe unhesi-
tatingly that they are capable of and will speedily
undergo considerable further improvement. But
were that not so, the reaping machine in its present
state of development would be destined to play an
important part upon most large farms. Where the
com is laid, or the ground is uneven, or where some

other special disadvantage of that nature exists, the
animated reaper -with his scythe or sickle might set
the less flexible mechanical reaper completely at de-
fiance ; but on every extensive farm there would be
some scores of broad acres where the reaping ma-
chine would literally carry all before it. This would
be the case to a great extent on the Yorkshire
wolds, for instance, or on the well-tilled sand-lands
of the adjacent county of Nottinghamshire. While
speaking of the latter district of cultivation, however,
we are reuunded of an impediment that might arise
there, as well as in many other places, from the growth
of rank short grass amongst the corn. This grass
would necessarily undergo the operation of cutting
simultaneously with the legitimate crop, and would
not the effect be to clog the cutting apparatus and
occasion frequent stoppages? We are assured by
individuals weU qualified to form an opinion that this
would be the case. But after all, the best criterion
of the capabilities of the new mechanical reaper is
the fact of the immense number of machhies that
have been ordered since the invention was brought
prominently under notice at the great exhibition of
1851. We imderstaud that some fifteen or sixteen
hundi-ed of one kind or another have been manufac-
tui-ed in this country, and at the present moment
the makers have far more order.s in hand than they
can execute within a reasonable time. And we can-
not suppose that agriculturists, in these hard times
especially, have given their orders at random. They
have observed, and no doubt well considered, the
obstacles with which the machines have to contend
and their capabilities of overcoming them. These
difficulties we have frequently pointed out. They
must be made perfectly plain before they can be over-
come. On the other hand we have taken care not to
exaggerate them. The trial of reaping machines at
Lewes, two or three weeks ago, we had not the ad-
vantage of witnessmg ; but we are informed by an
intelligent practical observer of that trial and the
test of to-day, that the tAvo sets of experiments are
about on a par in the measure of their success.

The machine that first concluded its performance
was M'Cormick's — about one o'clock, having worked
about an hour and a half. The irresistible couclu
sion at which every careful observer must have ar-
rived was that of the three machines this did its work
in the most satisfactory manner. Crosskill's machine
finished some 20 minutes after M'Cormick's. The
other machine (Dray's) was less fortunate in its ca-
reer than either of its competitors. It sustained a
fracture just about half-past one o'clock which for
the time disabled it, and in that state it was removed
from the ground. In the allotment assigned tc
Dray's machine there now remained a considerable,
breadth uncut. Crosskill's machine began and ope-
rated upon a portion of the remnant, and it was

244

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

finished by M'Cormick's implement, whicli cut in
very good style a rood in eight minutes !

It may not be out of place here to state by way of
recapitulatiou, that the opinion of many practical
meUj who have been close observers of this experi-
ment is, that the prudent farmer will be disposed to
wait awhile till the reaping machines have been tested
to a greater extent than there has yet been time for.
There are already a sufficient number of reaping ma-
chines at work in various parts of the country for
all purposes of experimental trial. A great number
of intelligent minds are at work searching for defects
with a view to devising improvements, and those
farmers who defer their orders to the approach of
another season will peradventure be able to procure,
without any extra cost, an implement much more
efficient, and in many ways better, tiian the best of
the present day."

As somewhat of a set off against this, at the dis-
cussion on liarvestiug corn, to which we made allu-
sion in the last week's Journal, we may mention a
very favourable opinion was given by a practical and
skilful man, Mr. Brown of Wrangbrook, who is
every day practically testing Hussey's machine on
his farm. He said, " He commenced reaping a field
of oats with the reaping machine a few days ago.
Some part of the crop was laid, and with that they
had some difficulty, but they experienced none what-
ever with that part which was standing. Some par-
ties present were very much dissatisfied with the
performance. On the day following he commenced
an eighteen-acre field of wheat. It was Hussey's
machine, made by CrosskiU. On the fii-st day a num-
ber of spectators crowded around and annoyed them
a good deal, but on the second day they had a fair
opportunity. It was a large field, and all the crop
was standing. The whole eighteen acres was reaped
in two days. They experienced no difficulty what-
ever in the operation, and it was done quite as well
as if it had been done with the scythe, and rather
better. However, he was not at all sanguine about
the capabilities of the machine to reap laid corn.
He had only had his macliine about a week, and he
had not tried it with laid corn ; he could not say
therefore how far it would succeed with a laid crop.
But as to standing wheat, however heavy the crop,
he was satisfied they would be able to do it in a very
workmanlike manner. Mr. Brown then commented
on Mr. Outhwaite's plan of leaving the corn a long
time out in the shock. In his opinion to leave it out
in the field five or six weeks was to run a great risk.
Recurring to the capabilities of the reaping machine,
he observed that when a crop was cut in a workman-
like manner by the machine, he preferred it either to
the work of the scythe or siclde. For standing corn
he had no doubt the machine would come into very
general use, but as to its capabilities of reaping laid

corn he was unable to give an opinion. In the first
instance they commenced gathering the sheaves with
a rake, but at the suggestion of a friend he adopted
a different plan. One of the men, who was clever at
the operation, put the corn off the machine with
great regularity in the form of sheaves without bands,
and eight men followed who made the bands and
bound up the sheaves. That he thought was pre-
ferable to using the rake at all. It was necessary to
have two clever men to manage the reaper and eight
other men to follow. He had no doubt that with
such a force as that they could reap eight acres a
day comfortably. At first they yoked two horses,
but the weather being very hot a third was added,
and a boy was employed to lead the first horse. That
was found much easier. They worked the horses
about two hours, and then replaced them by fresh
ones. The work would have been much easier but
for the hot weather. He had not calculated the cost,
but he was quite certain it was less per acre than if
reaped by the sickle or scythe."

Mr. Shaw of Bramliugham, who had found the
machine, on trial, to gall the shoulders of his horses,
made that enquiry of Mr. Brown, and in reply he
stated that the machine was best worked by three
horses in re-lays, so as to rest two hours each. The
man with the rake also found it extremely heavy
work, and it was desirable to relieve him by alter-
nating the work with the driver occasionally. On
the ground of expense, Mr. Brown stated that eight
acres per day was all that could be depended upon.
This required six horses, in re-lays, and ia all ten
men. As horses are doing little in harvest, and as
only three are really at work at once, we think much
ought not to be charged for them. Then inferior
men and even boys are quite sufficient for the fol-
lowing, so that the mowers, the most expensive men,
can be dispensed with.

Assuming 7s. to 8s. per acre to be a fair price for
the ordinary harvesting of corn, we shall have a cost
of (taking the highest figure) 3/. 4s. for 8 acres of
land. With the machine say — £ s. d.

Two men at 2s. 6d. per day ... 0 .5 0

Boy to drive Is. 6d 0 1 6

Eight men to follow at 2s. ... 0 16 0
Three horses, say at 4s. each . . 0 12 0

£1 14 6

Leaving a clear difference of £1 9s. 6d. on the eight
acres, a some 3s. 6s. per acre saving, as well as get-
ting the corn more rapidly done.

Altogether a great many practical lessons may
be taught by the meeting and its adjuncts. —
Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

245

LABOUR AND THE POOR.— THE RURAL DISTRICTS.

THE STONE QUARRIES OF SWANAGE.

Letter XXVIII.
(From the Morning Chronicle.)
(Continued from page 110.)

"When a quarry is taken, whether by one or
more lessees, it of course requires several hands to
work it. The number generally enj^aged in and
about a quarry varies from six to twelve. When
the adventurers themselves are in sufficient force
to work it, no hard labour is called for. But it is
seldom that you see a quarry where all those at
work are master quarriers. It is not uncommon
that you find two or three of them working a
quarry in partnershij), having five or six hired men
about them to aid them in the work. The father is
frequently found thus in partnership with his
grown-up sons. In other cases a man, if his fa-
mily is pretty numerous, may work his quarry with
the aid of his sons alone, who may yet be all in
their ajiprenticeship. The first practical operation
is the sinking of the shaft, which is the only por-
tion of the work requiring a little money capital on
the part of the adventurer. The expenditure of
this capital is, generally speaking, the best
guarantee that the lord has that the quarry will be
properly worked. The shaft is not sunk perpendi-
cularly, as in most other mines, it being generally
constructed at an angle of about 45 deg. It pre-
sents the appearance of a large hole in the forin of
a parallelogram, nearly perpendicular at one end,
but slanting down at the other, at about the angle
named. It is by the slant that access is had to the
quarry, and the stone extracted is elevated to the
surface. Along one side of this slant or inclined
plane, rude steps are constructed for the ascent and
descent of the men. The rest of it is pi.ved with
flags, up which a truck is dragged with the stone
which is being brought to the surface. Sometimes
the motive power is a capstan — at others it is a
horse. When the latter, the horse is, in some in-
stances, joint property, and does duty at more than
one quarry. The depth of the shaft is regulated
by that of the vein inider the surface. There are
three veins of stone lying parallel to, and at pretty
regular distances from, each other. To reach the
first vein, the shaft, according to circumstances,
must be sunk for from forty to seventy feet. It is
at the bottom of the shaft, when the vein is
reached, and right under the perpendicular end of
the shaft, that is to be found the real entrance to
the quarry. It looks precisely like what it is, being
neither more nor less than the entrance to an arti-
ficial cave. A horizontal passage is first driven
from the foot of the inclined plane into the vein,
from which "lanes" are struck oflf in diflferent di-
rections, in which lanes the quarry is worked.
Generally, to get at the vein, a superincumbent
stratum of solid but worthless stone has to be pe-
netrated. Under this, and separated from it by

only a very thin layer of clay, lies the first vein, in
working which, the stone above forms a safe and
substantial roof for the different lanes. They
do not trust to it entirely, however ; for, as the
lanes are widened, the roof is propped up by
the rubbish which is accumulated. Thus, if
a lane is originally constructed about eight
feet wide, it is never permitted to exceed
that widtli ; for, to the extent to which
the solid mass is excavated on the one side
of it, the roof is propped up by the rubbish on the
other. In some places the vein is six feet in depth,
in which case it is all worked, when the men have
sufficient room to stand at their labour. In others,,
however, it does not exceed three feet in thickness,
when no more of the mass above or below is re-
moved than is absolutely necessary to enable the
men to work it. Thus, while some lanes are six
feet high, others are not more than four, and the
smaller the space, of course, the more laborious the
occupation. Whenever they choose they can sink
to the second or third veins. Many have gone to
the second, but few to the third. Such as have
done so have their shafts from 100 to 150 feet deep.
The stone is excavated with comparative ease, lying
as it does in horizontal layers, in contact with each
other, and having numerous perpendicular frac-
tures, which enable the men to detach it in blocks
of different sizes from the mass. If the layers are
thin, the produce is paving instead of block stone.
Most quarries produce both, whilst in some the
layers are occasionally found so thin that a species
of slate stone is extracted from them. The stone
is brought to the surface in tlie rough, where it
is dressed and made ready for market by workmen
who seldom descend into the quarry at all. This
is frequently also the work to which apprentices are
first put. The highest grade of work is that under
ground. The work below is, of course, all con-
ducted by candlehght; which, as may be sup-
posed, does not add to the purity of the atmo-
sphere in the lanes. Sometimes the quarriers com-
plain very much of the "damps," particularly
during the summer season. When the lanes are
run very far back — and they are sometimes so run
for hundi'eds of feet — it becomes advisable, as well
for the additional working facilities which it will
afford, as from sanitary considerations, to construct
an additional shaft. Sometimes, for the sake of
proper ventilation, a lane will be run through to an
old quarry, which may be close at hand. At others,
the owners of two contiguous quarries will agree to
run a lane from one to the other for the same pur-

pose

When the stone is dressed and ready for market.

246

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

it is conveyed in waggons to the harbour. The
farmers who lease the surface under which the
quarries are worked, claim the right of carriage
between them and the beach. This claim is ac-
quiesced in, but the result is that the quarriers pay
a much higher freight than they would otherwise
do. If in any case the farmer should decline the
carriage, the quarrier can then look where he
pleases for his means of transport.

All the means and appliances of labour about
the quarries are of the rudest description. Main
force is the element principally relied upon, but
little aid being derived from machinery. Long as
the district about Swanage has been quarried, and
immense as has been the quantity of stone shipped
from it, it does not, even to this day, possess a
pier or jetty of any description. The vessels which
receive the stone lie at anchor in the bay. The
stone is dragged from the shore by very tall horses,
in carts with very high wheels, as far into the sea
as such an apparatus can venture with safety.
From the carts it is consigned to the vessels, by
means of barges, which are constantly plying to
and fro. Could there be a ruder contrivance than
this ? Yet it is in perfect kee])ing with everything
around.

But the most extraordinary characteristic of this
singular social development still remains to be de-
scribed. The world has long been divided on the
subject of the standard of value, and the question
of the currency is one that has baffled the most
profound statesmen and the most astute econo-
mists. In Swanage these questions have received
a very easy solution. Thevirtual standard of value
is the article chiefly produced in the district-
stone. But as silver is to the only standard of
value, gold, in the national currency— so is bread
to stone, the recognized and accepted standard in
the currency of Swanage. This may be very nev/
to the reader, but it is very ancient in this remote
nook of Dorset. Stone is virtually in Swanage the
standard of value, and the currency is composed of
stone and bread. There is scarcely any coin in
circulation in the district. All payments which
are not made in actual money — those so made being
very few— or in goods, are made either in stone or
in bread. The workmen in the quarries are paid
in stone, and it is for stone that they receive in ex-
change such articles as they consume. It is quite
true that there is a money value put on everything,
but stone is almost the universal substitute for
money. Thus when a master quarrier takes a
quarry, and hires workmen to assist him in his
operations, a money value is put upon their labour,
and they are engaged at so much per day, or so
much per week. But when the time of payment
comes, no money passes between the master and
his workmen, but a portion of the stone produced,
equal in value (taking its current value for the
week) to the sum at which the workmen were in
each case hired, is set apart for them. Thus, if a
man was hired at the rate of 3s. a day, instead of
getting 18s. at the end of the week, he would get
18s. worth of stone. The stone so apportioned to
him would in that case constitute his sole means
for commanding the necessaries of life for himself
and family. Sometimes, instead of the stone, the

quarrier gives his workmen orders upon the mer-
chant with whom he has credit. But still it is the
stone that does it all, for it is upon the credit of
the stone that the orders are executed. The course
of dealing between the master quarrier and the
merchant will serve to explain the whole system.

It is necessary to premise that the word merchant
has, in Swanage, a peculiar local signification.
There are here two classes of merchants in the
ordinary acceptation of the term. There is, in the
first place, the class of independent dealers who
sell their goods for ready money, when they can get
it, or for bread, which they afterwards convert into
money, but who never deal in transactions having
the transfer of stone for their basis. There is, in
the next place, the class to whom the term merchant
is exclusively applied, who keep a general assort-
ment of good^, which they exchange for stone.
Each merchant has a bakehouse attached to his
establishment, the bread baked at which is one of
the chief articles which he exchanges for the stone.
His shop is thus, in one sense, a bank of issue; for
he manufactures in it that which foi-ms half the
currency of the district — and its entire currency,
in the way of small change. Every quarrier must
havehis merchant, as every man of business elsewhere
has his banker. To establish a credit with a mer-
chant, the quarrier must deposit stone with him,
and the extent of the credit is regulated by the
quantity of stone deposited. The merchant has
what he calls his banker, which is neither more nor
less than the spot of ground on v/hich the stone
left with him is deposited. The banker is like the
vault, and the stone hke the bullion deposited in
it. The quarrier may make his deposits in the
banker when he pleases and to what extent he
pleases, until the merchant, for reasons of his own,
refuses to receive any more. An account is kept
by both parties of the quantity deposited, as well
as of the goods taken by the quarrier, or on his
order, from the shop. When he wants to know
how he stands he takes an account, and the balance,
in the shape of stone, which remains to his credit
in the banker, indicates the extent of his worldly
means. When the stone is deposited a money
value is set upon it, according to the current ])rice
of the (\B.y, that price being now about 21s. Cd, per
hundred superficial feet of paving stone. The
goods are also sold at a money value, so that the
accounts between the parties are, as elsewhere, kept
in money. When the quarrier pays his men in
stone, they must have their merchant, as he has, to
turn it to account. When he pays them by order
on his merchant, he of course takes all the stone and
deposits it, to his own account, in his merchant's
banker. The merchants dispose of it as they best
can, Southampton being one of their best and most
accessible markets.

So far the system savours considerably of trans-
actions based on credit. But there are, as it were,
ready money transactions, in which stone figures as
currency. A pair of boots, for instance, is some-
times paid for at once in stone. At some of the
public-houses they take stone in deposit ; at others,
if a mian wants a pint of beer, he must wheel a bar-
rowful of stone to the house to pay for it. But in
the great majority of transactions of the ready

THE FARMER'S MACxAZINE.

247

money kind, bread is the currency in vogue.
Although the merchants keep a pretty varied stock,
it is generally in tlie shape of different articles of
food, bread being the princijjal. If a quarrier,
therefore, wants a coat, a pair of shoes, or anything
else for himself or family which his merchant
has not got, he has to go to one of the independent
dealers who can supply him. But they not dealing
in stone, and he having no credit with them, he is
o])liged to procure from his merchant that which
they will take in exchange for what he wants. This
is generally — in fact almost invariably — bread. He
therefore draws for so much bread upon his mer-
chant, which he carries to his clothier or his shoe-
maker, and gives in exchange for what he procures.
It is in transactions like these that the system works
with i)eculiar hardship to him. The result of the
whole system is to make almost every necessary of
life ] 5 or 20 per cent, dearer in Swanage than else-
where in the neighbourhood. Thus the loaf which
can be got for 5d. in Poole, is valued at G-^d. in
Swanage. But it is only so valued to the quarrier
when he takes it from his merchant. When he ex-
changes it for anything else, at the independent
dealer's, he can only get S^d. for it, or SAd.'s worth.
He thus loses a penny on every loaf which he turns
to the purposes of currency. A quarrier in whose
house I v/as seated conversing on the subject, sent
during the interview for some ale. His wife took
with her a 6 ^d. loaf, and brought back SUl.'s worth
of beer. The stranger, ignorant of the purpose to
which bread is thus apphed, v/ould be utterly at a
loss to account for the quantity which he would
see carried about in all directions. If a woman
wants a ])iece of ril)bon she must take a loaf with
her to the shop. The dealers afterwards convert
the bread into money at the price at which they
receive it — those who ultimately consume it thus
getting it at a penny a loaf less than the value at
which it was originally issued from the merchant's
establishment, and all at the cost of the poor quar-
rier. But this is not the only disadvantage under
which he labours, for whilst his stone is taken from
him at the lowest — and the bread and other articles
which he receives from his merchant are given to
him at the highest — possible rate, such commodi-
ties as he afterwards purchases from the dealers by
means of his bread are highly overcharged ; whilst
that in which he pays for them is reduced at the
counter fully 16 per cent, in value. Thus, although
the wages of a quarrier may nominally be 3s. a
day, they are virtually reduced to ■2s. by the series
of peculations to which he is subjected. But even
of the master quarriers, few can be said to average
3s. nominally a day. The average nominal wages
of the working men, as contradistinguished from
the masters, are from 2s. 3d. to 2s. 9d. a day.
This, in reality, is but from Is. Gd. to Is. ]0d. a
day. They are also subjected to another great in-
convenience by the length of time which sometimes
elapses ere the merchants will balance their accounts
with them. Some are careful to have a balance
struck every year, but there are cases in which
years elapse without any settlement of accounts.
This leads some of them astray as to their real
standing, whilst it begets reckless habits in the
more thoughtless of them. These latter, so long

^.s they have credit at their merchant's, care
httle hov/ they stand, so long as the day
of reckoning is postponed. Others, again,
meaning to stand well, find themselves at
last unexpectedly in debt, when they thought they
had a balance in their merchant's hands.

There is httle money in circulation in the town
and district; house rents are exacted in moniy,
and so are the lord's dues. To enable the quarriers
to meet these demands, and also the rates which
are levied upon them, the merchants, instead of
goods, allow a certain sum of money to be drawn
each week by their depositors. It is seldom that
this sum exceeds 2s. Gd. perweekto each depositor.
This enables them to meet the demands in ques-
tion, and also occasionally to buy a little fresh
meat, which they do not often enjoy, and for which
they have invariably to pay money.

They bitterly complain of the inconvenience and
losses to which they are subjected from the almost
total absence of money from their ordinary every-
day transactions ; and they are most anxious that
some merchants would come amongst them, who,
taking their stone at even a lower valuation than
now, would pay them money instead of giving them
goods for it. In this respect; matters do not seem
to be improving with them, the more advanced in
life amongst them saying that there is less money in
circulation now than formerly. But their universal
desire is, at any reasonable sacrifice, to commute
their present earnings into money. If a money
system were established amongst them, instead of
the present system of hmited barter, not only v/ould
the price of the necessaries of life fall, and their
physical comforts be thus increased, but the habits
of some of them would be greatly improved.

Taking their condition throughout the year, they
are, on the whole, considerably better off" than the
agricultural labourers throughout the country.
Their houses are, generally speaking, vastly supe-
rior as regards accommodation, and consequently
as regards cleanliness and healthiness, to those of
the labourer in the fields. There is an abundance
of the best material for constructing them at hand,
and they are in many cases provided with four or
five rooms. With the exception of Hop^about-
lane, the houses in which are of a very inferior de-
scription, the dwellings of the quarriers in Swanage
may be characterized as spacious, clean, and com-
fortable. Their furniture and bedding are also
abundant and clean. They generally pay from £4
to £4 10s. in the shape of rent, in addition to which
they pay rates amounting to nearly £1 more.
Their diet, too, is also, in the main, better than
that of the farm labourer. They seldom eat fresh
meat, but they consume more bacon than he does.
But even of this they have a very insufficient sup-
ply, considering the laborious character of their
occupation.

They are generally very ignorant, and in the
majority of cases almost entirely illiterate. If any
of them attend school, they are sent too early to
work to derive much benefit from it. The boys, at
about nine years of age, become useful about the
quarry, and they are sent below as soon as they be-
come strong and skilful enough for underground
work. The bulk of the quarriers adhere to the

248

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Church, the resl bcin^ chiefly divided amongst the
Methodists and Independents. On the whole they
are considered an orderly and well-regulated set of
men.

But few, perhaps, of those who read this account
were aware, before perusing it, that so rude and
primitive a state of society is to be met with within
a few hours' ride of the metropoUs.

AGRICULTURE AND THE RURAL POPULATION ABROAD.

FRANCE.— No. XXIV.

THE VALLEY OF THE RHONE — ITS GENERAL AGRICULTURE ABOUT AVIGNON.
[from the special correspondent of the morning chronicle.]

1 propose to devote the greater j)art of the present
communication to some account of a farm in the
valley of the Rhone, over which I was conducted
by its able and obliging proprietor, M. Guebhard,
one of the most enlightened and scientific agricul-
turists of the country— a gentleman, indeed, whose
S3'stem of management, if" carried out through the
district, would render the cultivation of the depart-
ment of the Vaucluse very different from what it is
at present, and far more productive. Mr. Guebhard
is eminently a practical man. An enterprising
landowner, he devoted himself personally to the
improvement of his estate— fought his way trium-
phantly through every obstacle of prejudice and
ignorance — introduced systems and practices which
made the hair of the old jog-trot men stand on end
— and, after unnumbered prophecies of ruin and
bankruptcy with which he was every day for years
saluted, finally succeeded in extracting regularly
from his land three or four times the produce which
it had given under the ancient regime. And here
comes the characteristic moral of the tale. The
facts are perfectly knovvu in the neighbourhood.
The farm of La Motte stands out from all its rivals
a model of neatness, luxuriance, and productive-
ness ; yet, with one single exception, not an agri-
culturi'it around has sought to profit by the lesson
or to reap the benefits of the La Motte agricultural
reform. The spirit of routine, like the Goddess of
Dulness in Swift's ''Battle of the Books," broods
over all the country besides ; and hardly a man
will consent, whatever be the prize, to innovate up-
on the rural lore of his forefathers.

The farm of La Motte occupies one-half of a flat
alluvial island of the Rhone. The road from Avig-
non leads across the suspension and straggling
wooden bridges by which the Rhone is here crossed,
to the right bank of the river, i)assing through the
narrow streets of Villeneuve les Avignon, beneath
the towering walls of the half- fortress, half-convent,
— a twin structure to the sacerdotal palace of the
Popes on the ojiposite bank, and which was for
centuries occupied by a race of industrious monks
vv'ho were the first to drain the river marshes be-
neath their battlements, and to exhibit the fertility,
v.'hen properly managed, of the soil now called the
palus of the Rhone. Bending to the north, the
road then follows the banks of the river, skirting
the range of bleak and rocky hills which I des-
cribed in my last communication, and v/hich rise as
abruptly as a rougli stone dyke from the rich allu-
vial flat beneath. Southward of Avignon, this
hilly ridge retires to a greater distance from the

river, and the olive groves crown it almost to the
summit. To the north, the portions boasting a
scanty laj'er of gravelly soil are terraced, so that not
a foot of ground is lost, and thickly planted with
vines. The soil in which these flourish is not un-
like the gravelly strata which overlay the best parts
of Medoc. The wine produced is, however quite
another article, although in some districts tolerably
rich and full bodied. The very stony vineyards,
and those in which rocks are dispersed, are worked
by hand with heavy instruments like two-pointed
pickaxes. The vineyards in the joaZms, or reclaimed
marsh, are ploughed three times a year ; and in all
cases the bushes are carefully cut and pruned after
the vintage. Here, again, in talking of the fashion
of pressing the grape with the feet — a method uni-
versal, I find, in France — I was assured by the
most competent authorities that no press could do
the work so well, that the human foot was the na-
tural implement for obtaining the juice of the grape,
and that the fermentation threw off all impurities.
The fruit is gathered hereabouts without the sanc-
tion of the "authorities," at the good will of the
owners. If the powers that be are, however, so far
paralysed outside the walls of Avignon, I may men-
tion en parenthese that they flourish in great glory
within. An official placard, posted up on the box
lobby of the theatre, forbids any spectator to hiss
or manifest any signs of disapprobation at the first
t« 0 appearances of a new artiste — " jxir ordre ile
Monsieur le Maire."

Emerging from the outskirts of these straggling
suburbs of Avignon, you find yourself advancing
between rocks, gravel ridges, and olive trees upon
the one hand, and an expanse of rich palus land (a
great part of it under madder) upon the other,
stretching in an uninterrupted flat to the edge of
the river. This portion of the soil is much sub-
divided, the proprietors and cultivators living in
Avignon, or its outskirts. Large farms are not,
however, wanting; and the madder fields upon
such are generally beautifully kept — the beds
separated by emhlans running as straight as arrows,
and not a clod the size of a marble to be seen.
The land is heavily timbered. Mulberry and olive
trees, willows and poplars, run along the hedge-
rows, and supply a great portion of the fuel of the
country. Coals and coke are, however, exten-
sively used hereabouts for fires, as well as wood.
i The former come principally from St. Etienne,
not far from Lyons, and are floated down the
Rhone in huge clumsy barges — as frail and rickety
I craft indeed as ever ventured wth heavy freights

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

349

upon a rapid and turbulent stream. A smaller
quantity of fuel is brought from the coal mines
of the Grand Comb, near Nismes; the price of
mineral fuel is, however, very considerable. Coal
costs as much as 50 francs per ton, and coke as
much as coal in London. I am informed that,
when the contemplated branch of the Marseilles
and Avignon Railway, from the present terminus
in the former town to the quay, shall have been
completed, little save Newcastle coal will be burned
in the district ; the English mineral being far better,
and, when proper facilities for transhipment and
carriage are given, decidedly cheaper tlian that
which the neighbouring collieries can produce,
English ships coming to Marseilles for corn fre-
quently bring coals as ballast. The freight of the
commodity is thus very low.

To return, however, to my visit to the farm of
La Motte. The olive trees hereabouts are in
general small and not very profitable. Great
quantities of them do not yield more than two
franc's worth per annum. The mulberries produce
a more certain harvest, without requiring such ex-
pensive culture. Some of the best of the latter
will give as much as fourteen to sixteen francs'
worth of leaves yearly ; but the general average is
far beneath this, not being much more than that of
olives in a tolerably favourable season. The small
proprietors hereabouts break up the ground either
by spade husbandry or with miserably ineflficient
ploughs, drawn each by a small horse or a donke}',
and describing mere scratches on the earth. Al-
though they are accustomed to dig deeply for the
production of madder, these people never seem to
think that a corresponding culture ought to be
bestowed upon corn. Incidentally, however, the
deep madder culture has of course its effect upon
the land when wheat or barley comes to replace
the dye stuft'.

The cross road leading from the highway to the
bank of the river, where the feriy to the island of
La Motte is established, I found to be no bad spe-
cimen of the French local country road — a misera-
ble concatenation of ruts and inequalities, which
demands good springs in the vehicle traversing it
or else no springs at all. The communal and vici-
nal roads in France are generally capitally kept;
but when the duty devolves upon a number of farm-
ers, to be performed at the good pleasure of each,
what is every body's business becomes nobody's.
Quarrels are constantly breaking out as to the
quantity of work requisite upon the road, and so
far as communication goes, a farmer generally
deems it more economical policy to put on an ex-
tra horse or two to his wains, to drag them through
the mire, than to set his people to work to fill up
the ruts and get the track into a passibie condition.
Arrived at the edge of the river, we found our-
selves in a jungle of young willow or alder trees
dividing the fields from the streams. Hedges of
rushes, or rather canes — of the bamboo species in
appearance, but not so tough or elastic — grew
around to the height of eight or ten feet. These
when split open and stretched upon framework,
are used for making the beds or shelves upon
which the silkworms ar« brought up and fed. The
ferry boat was a wan old barge, with a short

stump of a mast in the bows, athwari which ran a
a stout hawser from bank to bank, by hauling
upon which the boat was moved acrofs the braw-
ling stream, rushing tumultuously between its low
sandy shores of grass and willows.

The farm of La Motte occupies, as I have hinted,
half the island upon which we now landed. The
whole circumference of the place, however, is walled
round by an earthen mound some ten or twelve
feet in height from the surface of the water, and
sufficient to defend the property from ordinary
inundations. The Rhone, however, is a wild and
uncertain river, and, when once it rises in its
strength, swamps dykes and embankments like
chaff. The last great flood was in 1840. It
destroyed vast quantities of arable land along
the river banks, first tearing av/ay the soft
alluvial matter, and then considerately leaving
sand and shingle in its place. Upon the occasion
of the flood in question, the farm house of La
Motte rose like an island above the clayey torrent
which swept furiously past it, driving torn up trees
and farm or household wreck in a dismal chaos
upon the surface. The dyke was broken in at
several points, patches of sand and gravel encum-
bering the pasture lands still remaining to tell the
tale. Occasionally, in these inundations, the fitful
river does good as well as evil, clothing in a few
days ground which has hitherto been waste and
barren with a rich layer of deposit, capable of pro-
ducing the most luxuriant crops; the godsend of
one proprietor having, of course, been the misfor-
tune of the other. The interior portion of the
dyke of La Motte, and a narrow stripe of ground in
its vicinity, I found covered with natural herl)age,
and forming the princij)al pasture ground of the
sheep reared upon the farm. The soil inside was
broken into cavities, from which the earth to form
the mound had been dug. Here and there,
patches of earth extended outside the barrier to
some distance in the river. These were also
covered with abundance of rank grass, and thickly
grown with young willows and poplar trees. The
quickness of growth of these is surprising. They
are cut once in thi-ee years, the timber being the
property of the landowner ; and by that time, from
natural shoots, the trees have generally attained
the height of at least a dozen feet. Every year the
young wood is thinned, only the largest and most
thriving saplings being ])ermitted to remain. This
work is got through in winter, when the weather
is too severe for the performance of the farm duties,
and the thinnings are the perquisites of the cultiva-
tor. The pollard willows, which I have repeatedly
mentioned, are also pruned once in three years,
the shoots being cut down to the head of the trunk.
A good pollard will yield from four to six francs
each cutting. The wood, when first rate, is used
for hoops — otherwise for fuel. The ])oplars and
willows furnish planks, and contribute a handsome
share to the revenue of a pains proprietor. The
latter tree occasionly suffers from the ravages of
the castors or Rhone beavers, a race of animals
which has been a good deal thinned by recent in-
undations tearing up the banks in which they bur-
rowed. They are rough piled creatures, more
shaggy than their transatlantic brethren, living on

2.50

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

grass, water-herbs, and the bark and soft wood of
the willow, which they gnaw to the core. They
are caught in traps formed by digging holes, and
sinking casks therein, along the tracts which the
animals frequent.

Inside its protecting mound, the farm of La
Motte is, for the most part, a flat expanse of calca-
reous or lich alluvial soil ; the fields divided by
rows of pollards and mulberries. The property
consists of 720 emminays, equal to nearly 130
English acres. It is Jet for 9,000 francs per
annum, or about £370 — an apj)arently large amount
for France; but the general rate of rent in the
Vaucluse is much above the average of the ?outh ;
and as there exist upon the land upwards of 6,000
mulberry trees, the products of which, after all ex-
pense of culture has been deducted, the proprietor
calculates as at least sufficing to defray half the
rent, the total amount does not appear so formidable.
The rate, indeed, is only 12j francs per emminay,
while the price paid for the use of land hereabouts
not unfrequently ranges from 14f. to 25f., accor-
ding to the quality of the soil, and the situation of
the farm. Tlie rent, I ought to observe, is
usually taken to represent the net profits which the
proprietor would draw from his land, after every
expense was paid, were he in the practice of culti-
vating it himself. M. Guebhard's farm of La Motte
is now under the management of an agriculturist —
an intelligent and experienced, though unlettered
man— who was trained in a school of improved
and enlightened cultivation under the proprietor's
eye, when he farmed his own ground. On coming
into possession of the property, M. Guebhard found
that, under the system of culture then in operation,
wheat gave a return of 65 fold, oats of 10 to 11,
and barley nearly the same. In the course of a few
years he obtained from wheat 21;} fold, from oats
40 fold, and from barley an almost equal ratio.
The weight of the grain produced jjer hectolitre,
when M. Guebhard commenced his oiierations, was
• — wheat, about 65 kilogrammes; oats and barley
about 32 kilogrammes. Under the system which
he introduced, he speedily succeeded in producing
wheat weighing 82 kilogrammes per hectolitre, and
oats and barley averaging 49 kilogrammes. The
reforms which worked this result consisted of
a thorough change in the whole alternate white crop
and fallow system of the country ; in very deep
ploughing, stirring up the earth to the extent of at
least two feet ; and in a judicious and liberal use
of manure. The agriculturists in the neighbour-
hood looked on in fear and wonder at the introduc-
tion of these practical heresies. First, they opined
that the man who plunged into such daring inno-
vations was a down right lunatic ; then they so
far modified their opinion as to content them-
selves with speedy prophecies of the ruin of the
projector. The principal and managing servant
of M. Guebhard, now his farmer, although he
helped to carry out all the new theories, shook
his head with the rest, and dolefully awaited the
predicted crash, which happily however never
came. When M. Guebhard gave up cultivation, he
let the farm to this individual, whose prejudices had
at length been so far rooted out, upon the condition
that the new plan of cultivation should be strictly

and in every particular carried out. The farmer
has been true to his pledge, and the property of La
Motte, although deprived of the owner's immediate i
superintendence, still stands out a ttriking contrast
to neighbouring exploit rit ions,

I mentioned that i\L Gueblsard changed the
as.so!emenl, or rotation system, as one of his first
imjirovements. He adopted a 10 or 1 1 years' shift
as follows :— For the first five yeai's, successive
crops of lucerne or Spanish trefoil. In the r-ixth
year he ploughed up half the lucerne in each field,
so'.vingin the interstices thus obtained such green
crops as \etches and haricots. In the fcvcnth
year he turned up the remainder of the lucerne, and
stirred the ground thoroughly with a large subsoil
plough, drawn by a dozen of horses, and laid down
wceat oljlaining large crops. The eight year he
devoted to oats. In the ninth, the ground wa^
again thoroughly loosened, richly manured, and
planted with green crops, potatoes or peas, or some-
times oats, to be cut tlown green as summer food
for tlie cattle. In the tenth and eleventh years the
ground was laid under successive wheat crops — the
plough and the manure cart having, however, been
previously actively employed.

Under the old system, and that, indeed, which
still prevails extensively in the district, lucerne
is commonly grown for fifteen successive years, J
and corn land is cultivated every second year, being |
left in fallow in the alternate seasons. Thus, over
many farms the practical result is, that only half
the land is really cultivated. The system of
resorting to green crops instead of leaving the earth
absolutely idle, is gradually, however, being
shaken by notions of improvement creeping in
from the north, where the practice has been
for many years generally abandoned. The ma-
nure which bad been formerly applied to his land
M. Guebhard conceived to have been too hot and
dry, considering the long and sultry droughts to
which Provence is liable. He changed the system
therefore, and dug a large hole near the cattle
trough, into which all the overflowings of the latter
habitually oosed. Into this hole all the manure
and litter of the farm-yard, from the stables, pig-
geries, and sheep cots, was conveyed and left to be
tolerably well saturated with the slowly trickling
water. The happiest results followed the applica-
tion of this moist compost, and the practice is still
kept up. The quantity of manure obtained is
nearly double that which would be placed upon
the land in its dry state, and, for a strong stiff soil
frequently reduced to dust by the summer heats,
the composition is found to be fully as forcing as
is necessary.

Upon the farm of La Motte the owner kept the
following live stock : — 22 horses, 4 oxen, 1 cow,
and 100 sheep. Straw and lucerne formed the
principal fodder of the large cattle. The sheep
were mainly fed out of doors upon the mound, or
chaussee, the broken ground near it, and among the
willow thickets close by the river. The animals —
for the most part ewes— were purchased at the ave-
rage price of 15f. In this part of France a ewe,
well fed, will produce upon the average three Iambs
in two years. A proprietor of sheep generally
counts upon doubling the capital invested in the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

251

flock, by means of the iambs and ileeces, every
year. The young animals are ordinarily consigned
to the butcher at three months old. Oxen, when
purchased young and lean, but in good working
condition, may be had for about 250f. Their value
when fattened ranges from 600f. to SOOf.

The labourers employed on La Motte were a chef
ouvricT — the present farmer and his wife. The
pair received for their services 600f. per annum,
and, of course, board and lodging. The principal
duty of the female was cooking for the other farm
servants, consisting of a gardener, at 300f. ; a
shepherd, at SOOf. ; and six garcons de ferme,
receiving different yearly sums, from 200f. to SOOf.
This was for the ordinary cereal purposes of the
establishment. The special work requisite for
madder is, as I have explained, always performed
by skilled day labourers, and the operations in the
mangannerie, or silk worm breeding place— which
most farms possess, and in respect to which future
details will be given — are also extra items, seen
to by workmen experienced in the proper pro-
cesses.

The following are synoptical sketches of the
manner in which the crops upon the farm were
divided at two different periods.

ALLOCATION OF FARM IN 1S38.

Emininays of 100 sq. ft.

4 in seedling plantations of mulberries.
3I2 in vines.

28 in mulberries, large and dwarf.
122 in lucerne, for fodder.
1 7 in clover.
12 in vegetables, such as haricots, potatoes, peas

and beet-root.
24| in madder.

24 in mixed crop of oats ard vetches.
232 in wheats of different kinds.
128 in other cereals, such as barley and oats.
3^ garden ground.
4 orchard.

ALLOCATION OF FARM IN 1839.

Emminays of 100 sq.ft.
31. J in vines.

5^ in gardens — flower and kitchen,
24 s in seedling mulberry plantations,
llOi in vegetables for family use and feeding

cattle.
40 in mixed crops of oats and vetches for the

cattle.
15 in barley and rye, to be cut green for fodder

in the spring.
20 potatoes, haricots, and beet-root,
125 J madder,
4 orchard,
228 wheat of different kinds, including Turkey
wheat for fowls.
83 oats.

From the same records kindly placed at my dis-
posal, from which I have extracted the above state-
ments, I abstract several memoranda of agreement
between the proprietor and the small tenants, to
whom at different times he let out portions of the
land upon metayer principles. The memoranda
in question will give a practical view of these agree-

ments as they arc understood anl acted upon in
this part of the country :

NOTE OF AGREEMENT BETAVEEN A PROPRIETOR
AND HIS METAYERS FOR THE CULTURE OF
MADDER.

"The proprietor binds himself either to furnish
to the metayers the land turned u]i by the deep
soil plough, or to pay to those who have themselves
turned up the ground to the depth of two feet, one
half of the price of the operation.

" The seed to be furnished by the metayers.

"The expenses of sowing, weeding, and digging
up to be at the charge of the metayers, the proprie-
tor paying lOf. per emminay after the last opera-
tion

" No Turkey wheat to be sown in the emblans
or spaces between the beds. Potatoes, beet- root,
and haricots to be sown at the pleasure of the
metayers ; two-thirds of the produce to go to them,
one-third to the proprietor.

" The seed and the above ground portio n of the
madder to be divided share and share alike.

" The metayers to keep the ground always free
of weeds. In case of non-performance either of
that or of any other duty at the proper time, the
proprietor to have the power to get the work done
after having once in vain warned the metayer, and
to keep back the proceeds in the sale of the crop.

" The madder to be dug up every three years,
but not M'ithout the authorisation of the proprietor.
The plant to be dryed in the fields by the metayer.

" The whole amount of the harvest to be fairly
divided, pound for pound, between the proprietor
and the metayer."

ANOTHER NOTE OF AGREEMENT BETWEEN
A PROPRIETOR AND METAYER.

" Proprietor is bound as follows : —

" 1. To have the land ploughed with the great or
subsoil plough.

"2. To pay 10 francs per emminay upon the
digging up of the crop.

" 3. To claim no more than a just half of the
crop.

" 4. To claim no more than two-thirds of the
produce of the emblans,

" 5, To claim no more than one-half of the seed,
if there be any,"

"The metayer, on the other hand, is bound as
follows : —

"1. To prepare the land well for the reception of
the seed.

" 2. To furnish the seed.

" 3. To sow it.

" 4. To weed the land as muoh as may be neces-
sary, and when the operation may be necessary.

" 5. To cover up the sprouts in proper season.

" 6. To turn up the roots with the jjlough at any
epoch which may suit both proprietor and tenant
from the last day of August to the 15th of Octo-
ber."

The whole of the farm with respect to which
these agreements were made is now, as I have statec?
cultivated by one individual. I proceed to sketcK
with some minuteness the features of the steading
and establishment within doors and without.

As usual, there is but one dwelling house upon

252

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the land, for the proprietor to occupy if he chooses,
or for the farmer to live in, if the landlord prefers,
as in this country he all but invariably does, to re-
side in the nearest town or in the capital. The re-
sult of this arrangement commonly is, that the
mansion having been built upon a rather large
scale, a limited number of rooms only is occupied
by the actual tenant, who, when he has obtained a
good kitchen, and a bedroom in its vicinity,
troubles himself very little about superfluous ac-
commodation, and either leaves the greater num-
ber of the apartments desolately empty, or converts
them into store places and small granaries. In the
present instance, the general cooking and living
room was a model of cleanliness and homely com-
fort. In general features it sufficiently resembled
an old-fashioned Enghsh farm kitchen. Over
head stretched massive old black beams ; the grate
was of the true ox roasting dimensions, with enor-
mous flanking ledges of stone, and the capacious
pot-au-feu hung ovei the blazing fagots by a chain
and crook, after a fashion frequently adopted in
Scotland. The food of the animals as well as of
the individuals of the establishment, was, when
necessary, cooked here. Before our departure I
observed a pot of cut-up lumps of beet-root, which
the "good-wife " was simmering for behoof of the
inmates of the pig stye. On one side of the fire,
and within the capacious jaws of the grate, extended
a neat and handy cooking range, with conveniences
for stewing by means of charcoal — a decided culi-
nary step in advance upon the great roaring open
fire-place. Round the walls plates and dishes — of
coarse brown ware, but shiningly clean — formed
the principal article of garniture. The spoons of
pewter, were arranged in tin receptacles, so as to
form a set of culinary " devices" after the fashion of
the circular arrangements of pistols and so forth
which one sees in arsenals.

Dressers and meal-chests, very much like the
old-fashion girnels of Scotland, were grouped
around the massive deal table at which the whole
household dined. An odd piece of etiquette in
these rustic dinners is, that the farmer alone has
his bottle of wine upon the table — an allowance
which he keeps religiously to himself, or only shares
with the guests, if such there be, above the salt.
The farm servants are obliged to rise and fill their
glasses from large beakers set forth upon the side
table, every time they wish to drink. I need
hardly say that the custom has its origin
in motives of economy. Although no outward re-
straint is placed upon the consumption of the liquor,
Jacques or Jean will not fill and empty his glass
half so often if each bumper is to be procured only
at the expense of a walk to the other end of the
room, under the eye of his master, as if all he had
to do was to stretch out his arm, fill his glass, and
empty it. Above one of the dressers hung a sort of
wicker-work screen, suspended from the ceiling, and
heaped with bread — good coarse wheaten loaves,
excellently tasted, to which the whole household had
free access. The bread was, of course, home-made.
The gardener was the baker, operating once a week.
The oven was a projecting portion of the building
— off" the kitchen — fitted with a suitable furnace.
M. Guebhard informed me, that during his residence

at La Motte, for a family of twelve persons, count-
ing two women as one, they used to bake weekly not
less than 120 loaves, each of 3lb. weight — being an
allowance of 30lb. of bread per head per week.
At harvest time the quantity baked was prodigious
— about 250 loaves if I remember right. In fact,
one must see a party of French peasantry at
dinner, perfectly to realize the fashion in which the
staff" of life disappears. I witnessed some admir-
able performances in this line by the vintagers of A
Medoc. Nearly above the kitchen was the chamber ^
of the farmer and his good dame — a most decent,
cleanly, double-bedded room, the walls covered
with cheap and gaudy religious prints, emblems,
and devices. Here, I was told, the silk-worms were
very generally hatched from the eggs in the spring,
the chamber, with its large fire-place, being well fit-
ted to supply the necessary warmth. The process,
I believe, occupies but a short time — some four-
and-twenty or thirty hours. Some of the small
breeders, I am informed, have a most notable fash-
ion of hatching the larvae without any expenditure
of coal or wood. They wrap up the eggs in blan-
kets and go fairly to bed with them, remaining
snugly muflSed up until the worms appear. This is
a common practice with the peasantry of the Ce-
vennes. The.late Mr. O'Connell once recommended
that the Irish judges should be set to hatch
turkey's eggs, that they might not sit entirely for
nothing; but the Cevennes mode of producing
silk-worms is the only actual realization of the ab-
stract idea which it has ever been my fortune to
fall in with.

Almost all the other quondam living rooms of
the house were either empty, or converted into
granaries or storehouses. The male farm servants
slept— the shepherd and a boy— in the sheepcot; the
others in a granary above the stable. The cot in
question was a substantial wooden and thatched
structure, the walls and roof tapestried with cobwebs
hanging in enormous folds from the beams. The
byre and stable were in the selfsame condition — the
reason for the apparent neglect being an idea, very
prevalent among the country people hereabouts,
that cobwebs suck up the bad humours or gross-
ness from any sore or incidental wound under which J
the sheep or cattle may be suff"ering. When M. 1
Guebhard was in possession, having no particular
respect for the superstition in question, he caused
walls and roofs to be cleared from their spider-spun
tapestry; but on his quitting the actual management,
the old regime so far revived. In the sheepcot I found
a couple of well-littered pens — one for the very
young lambs who were not considered to be strong
enough to accompany their mothers to the field ;
the other for the older lambs fattening for the but-
cher. The dams of the former were brought home
twice a day to suckle their progeny. The shepherd
and a coadjutor slept, as I have stated, amongst the
charge of the former. They had two raised cribs
stuff"ed with straw, and furnished with blankets.
The other servants in the granary were furnised with
similar couches. In many farms, however, no bed-
clothes whatever are provided, the poor fellows sleep-
ing in their clothes ; a mode of passing the night,
which is, however, by no means objected to by
French peasants of the class in question. The or-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

253

dinary rule as to the time for {^oing to bed and ri-
sing from it in a French farmhouse, is to follow the
example of the fowls. In the winter time, however,
;ill hands are stirring at least an hour before light,
as the cattle have to be fed and prepared for their
morning work, which begins with the first i)eep
of dawn. Several of the lofts and granaries in
the farm buildings of La Motte are devoted
during the season to the rearing of silk-
worms. I found the necessary apparatus heaped
in corners. As the matter, however, will be treated
at length in a subsequent communication, I need
say no more at present upon the subject, except,
jierhaps, to state that a rude outhouse thatched with
reeds was devoted to the winding of the silk from the
cocoon. The female servants are the operators. The
balls are placed'ina cop])er basin of hot water fitted
upon the top of a small insulated stove, and the
winders ply their wheels on every side.

The garden was well kept, and principally, if not
wholly, devoted to kitchen growth — great cabbages
cutting a conspicuous figure among its productions.
It was watered by means of a large well, and an
endless chain of buckets, worked by a horse in or-
dinary mill fashion. This method of raising water
is very common in the south generally, but particu-
larly in the department of the Gard about Nismes
and Montpellier. The apparatus there is much the
same as that in use at La Motte. The jugs or buckets
ascending full are tilted over into a central wooden
pipe or channel, which, in the majority of cases,
conducts the water into a large stone trough occu-
pying the greater i)ortion of a dark narrow outhouse.
This trough acts as a reservoir, from which the gar-
den, a market garden generally, is watered, in times
of drougjit, twice a day. All manner of vegetables,
after being cut or uprooted, are left swimming in this
tank, until market time arrives. Sometimes small
fields of corn in the immediate vicinity are also wa-
tered by the apparatus in question. The process is
peculiar, and requires some skill and care to per-
form it with proper eftect. The water is led in a
small channel to the spot, while a labourer with a
spade flings up a tiny mound, so as to force its
course obliquely into the first furrow. When this
trench is filled, the operator slops the entrance, and,
making a breach in the original mound, admits the
water into the second furrow, and so on, until the
field has been sufficiently moistened. The practice
is seldom, however, resorted to, even in the case of
fields close to the wells, except in times of very long-
continued and parching drought. The expense of
keeping in full play one of the wells or pumps in
question was estimated to me as from I2 francs to
2 francs per day. While upon the subject of irriga-
tion, I may add that the average charge made by the
proprietors of the different canals to the east of
Avignon for supplying water for the many artificial
meadows there existing is about 30 sous the emmi-
nay, or more than 7 francs the acre. For this rate
the owners or occupiers may lay their meadows
under water as often as they please. The garden
at La Motte was the only part of the exploitation
regularly watered. It contained — a rare appendage
to French gardens in the south — a row of wooden
beehives. It was curious to see the insects hard at
work, buzzing about the entrances to their dwellings.

in December like English bees in June. They are
regularly suffocated by the smoke of brimstone
when the honey is removed.

The ])loughs and larger favin implements were
deposited in one of the principal out-houses. The
largest plough, constructed to turn a furrow of more
than a foot in depth, was furnished with wheels.
Six i)r eight horses formed its usual team. Two
smaller machines, drawn respectively by two horses,
the shape of the coulter only differing, were called
the courtray and the araire. A still smaller plough,
drawn by a single horse or mule, and generally used
to cover the seed, was termed the foiircat. The
woodwork of these implements was generally very
simple and primitive, the stilts being frequently
formed out of a naturally forked branch. The i)itch-
forks in use are almost universally made after the
same pattern. Corn is seldom thrashed here-
abouts by flails, and never by anything approaching
to thrashing mills. The use of horses to tread out the
grain is almost universal, and occasionally, I am
told, the patriarchal custom of employing oxen for
the purpose prevails. The ground is previously
prepared by a heavy roller, and made as hard and
compact as possible. Sometimes, I believe, the ani-
mals employed to thrash drag after them a species
of wooden framework, or hurdle, intended to aid
the process of freeing the grain from the eai'.

Tolerably moist as one would conceive a farm
situated in a low island in the Rhone to be, an ap-
paratus for admitting water from the river in dry
seasons has not been forgotten. Different sluices
and canals have been arranged to coincide with
different levels of the river. It is only, however, in
seasons of great and long-continued drought, that
these waterworks are brought into play. The
grassy banks of the ditches afford good bites for
the sheep.

Altogether, then, the farm of La Motte — with its
rich level expanses of arable ground, its luxuriant
willow and poplar borders, its green patches of
pasture, and its stately double lines of mulberries, is a
good specimen of what can be made of the teeming
soil of the valley of the Rhone. It was an excellent
sight — leaving the jovial plenty and the hearty and
kindly hospitality of the farm kitchen — to sally out
beneath the sheltering trees, and to watch the stately
march of the great plough, preparing the ground
for madder, dragged by its steady-moving team of
ten goodly horses, and flanked by the groups of
lustily working labourers, stirring up the ground
beneath the shelter of the well-pruned mulberry
trees. The scene was what a country picture ought
to be. Health and content, if not intelligence and
acuteness, were stamped upon every honest indus-
trious-looking face around me — from the farmer,
who looked proudly on, and sometimes took a turn
between the plough stilts, and his buxom dame, who
seldom stirred from her engrossing duties by the
fire, down to the labourers who trudged manfully
by the team, or wielded the beche or the spade, and
the serving damsels who sang aloud at their work
of washing in the neighbouring fountain.

The metayer system, properly so called, is going
out of fashion in the lower districts of the Rhone,
and for very much the same reasons as those to
which I have attributed a similar state of things in

254

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the neighbourhood of Marseilles— the difficulty
which tiie proprietor finds in securing a fair bond fide
half of the produce. The honesty of the farnfiers
upon this point is universally distrusted. They
are accused of playing all sorts of tricks to secure to
themselves, not the metayer's, but the lion's share
— tricks which can only be defeated by constant
watchfulness on the landowner's part, and an inti-
mate knowledge of the practical details of farming ;
conditions which very few French proprietors have,
in one case, the will, and in the other the powei", to
put into profitable practice. Of that portion of the
crop which is sold the landlord may be able to get
his fair dues. The constant moot point appears to
be the projiortion of grain and green crops kept
back by the tenant for home consumption, both in
the farm-house and in the byres and stables— little
or none of the value of which finds its way into the
landlords' hands. To make the metayer system
mutually advantageous, perfect hon.i fides must pre-
vail between the two parties to the bargain. The
farmer in particular, dealing with an individual
usually ignorant of the ways of agriculture, has all
manner of roguish resources at his command for
the j)urpose of mystifying the real gross produce
of the land. The consequence is, that proprietors
are becoming more and more inclined to exact a
fixed rent, the amount of which, I am assured, is
considerably over the average jirofits reaped from
farms cultivated by metayers ; the difference being
represerited by the proportion of produce generally
held back by the farmer, and from time to time
during the season consumed by his household.
The leases on which farms are granted usually sti-
pulate that two or three crops — principally particular
species of wheat — which are held to be unduly
scourging, shall not be laid down. The land is
usually held l^y the farmer for periods of six or nine
years.

I hear dismal accounts of the mortgaged condition
of the small proprietors' estates throughout the dis-
trict, and I am everyudiere assured that tliis state of
things holds good, almost univej-sally, through the
south and east of France. The causes appear to be
partially the continually advancing subdivision of
of property, partially the mania of the people for

buying land which they have no money to work, and
very often not half enough to pay for. Frequently
a young man, born and bred u[)on his father's small
estate, and fit for nothing bat hard agricultural la-
bour, finds, when his share of the heritage is deliver-
ed over to him, that he must, som.ehow or other, get
more land or starve. Another, who may have
enough from which to scrape together a living, is
still afflicted with the itch for increasing his landed
possessions, and the result in both cases is the same.
An additional patch is purchased v/ith borrowed
money — borrowed, too, very frequently at so high a
rate that the produce of the soil, even if properly
cultivated, would hardly pay the interest, far less
the scanty yield extracted by hard, may be, but yet
unskilled and still insufficient labour. Six or seven
per cent, are common rates of interest paid, or pro-
mised to be paid, by the small proprietors. The
lenders are generally such capitalists as petty trades-
men in the county towns, who have amassed some
savings, or the lower class of notaries. In more
desperate cases, the most usurious exactions are
submitted to by the unlucky borrowers. Wretched
driblets of money — a few francs at a time— are loaned
for very short periods at exorbitant profits. Such
a bargain as the borrowing of fi'.e francs for a month,
to be repaid by six, or even more, at the end of the term,
are not uncommon; and the lenders, of course, jus-
tify their conduct upon the risk which they run of
never seeing either the five or six francs again. From
such a state of things miserable social consequences
cannot but steadily flow. Year after year the small
])roprietors are sinking deeper in the mire, theii*
frantic struggles only serving to expedite their de-
scent. It is in this extremity that Red Republicanism,
and the plans of M. Cabet and M. Prudhomme
find enthusiastic disciples. Social Utopias, in which
the State is to fill every man's pockets, are ingeni-
ously planned and rai)turously received ; and it is
felt that, even should these brightly-hued bubbles
burst, still the mighty effort of blowing them may
produce a breaking-up of all the old social elements,
in Mdiich the unburdened interest-payer flatters him-
self that his chance of keeping his estate is far bet-
ter than his creditor's chance of preserving intact
his claim upon it.

ON WEANING LAMBS.

The season for weaning lambs reminds us of the
sad ignorance often displayed on this highly-im-
portant part of a farmer's proceedings. Too few
sheep are often kept to afford the sole charge of a
shepherd, and so to admit of the perfect division of
labour; and, when even a shepherd is specially
kept, he is, too often, ill acquainted with the duties
of the office. They are generally ill educated— ill
acquainted v.'ith animal physiology, and full of su-
perstition. The farmer has to run the risk of em-
ploying persons, not who ])ay premiums for
education in the branch of art they practise, but
who are paid for attending to their duties, and, in
the course of payment, catch just as much know-

ledge as will enable them to receive more pay from
some one else, or from the same individual. This
is a fact often lost sight of, in discussions on the
wages of the labourer in husbandry, and in re-
flections on the capabilities of that class of men. A
tradesman, a carpenter, a shoemaker, a tailor not
only forgoes some four, five, six, or even seven
years of service and pay, and gives a premium to
be taught a trade; his tools cost him a considerable
amount, and yet his jjay, as a journeyman, is con-
trasted to disadvantage with the farm-labourer^
both as to his wages and his qualifications.

But it is not always the servant to blame. The
master does not, often, thoroughly understand the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

255

principles of natural history as applied to these
animals himself. The lamb for the first few weeks
of its existence depends on the supply of food from
its parent alone. It is the very source, and contains
all the elements, half assimilated, of blood, of
muscle, and of bone. At this stage the supply of
the mother is often neglected. She is exposed to
cold, and suffers hunger. The milk which nature
drains from her system is exhausting her powers,
and yet no shelter nor extra food is afforded. This
is not the shepherd's fault, and he is not to blame
if she dies, or sheds her wool, or becomes unfit to
rear her young. A little corn, or cake, or artificial
assistance would have strengthened the ewe and
supplied the lamb with its full modicum of necessary
food.

Soon as the lamb begins to eat, its auxiliary to
nature's food is often ill attended to. A pasture as
unsuited to lacteal purposes is selected for the
mother, as it is improper to teach the offspring to
feed, and thus prolong the dependence of the latter
upon the former.

As the increase of vegetable food eaten by the
lambs takes place, the supply and the use of the
milk diminish. And if a peculiarity of consti-
tution of the mother exists, or if any damage takes
place to the udder, or if nature has been over-
taxed soon after lambing time, she will go dry, de-
spite the efforts of the lamb.

At this stage they are often depastured on over-
eaten seeds. The bowels of the lamb are tender,
and they can ill resist the purging effects of this
improper pasture ; and hence the shepherd often
sees scour in the unweaned lambs, and applies the
shears and medicine— but, they die. He has not
discovered that the lamb is weaned, and has an im-
proper pasture. It is with its mother, and he neither
knows nor cares whether she has milk or not, and
medicine and shears do not avail — his lambs — odd
ones die of scour.

Nor at weaning time is a better provision made.
The master does take care to put them in a some-
what worse pasture, in order to check the flow of
milk, and so render the operation a less risking
one to the dam ; but, unless he is Ccueful, he is
increasing evil to the produce.

Once place weaned lambs in over-eaten seeds,
and the whole flock takes the scour, followed by
flies, and maggots, and medicine, and death.

Now, a hard old grass pasture, or a second crop
of mown clover, will be perfectly safe. It is not the
excellence of the pasture as regards its quantity
which is to be feared, but the quality ; for, if rich
land, if gross newly-grown seeds, the scour is
certain to follow. Some flock masters, who have
not red clover, nor poor grass land, even send off
their lambs to a poorer soil to graze, until their
bowels have become accustomed to purely vegetable
diet.

Should scour take place, it is often difficult to
stop. The bowels must be relieved of the dried
food, and the system hardened by tonics. A dose
of a quarter-of-an-ounce of flour of sulphur in old
milk will generally succeed in stopping the disease,
if it be properly attacked in its early stages.

Another neglected circumstance in weaning
lambs is the want of removing the mothers far
away, so that they may not hear the bleating of their
lambs. Humanity and interest alike require this
precaution. The ewes should be taken to a cool
plain and rather poor pasture, out of hearing of the
lambs ; otherwise, the excitement and agitation will
do them considerable harm. They should the
second day be all carefully examined. All with
swollen udders should be milked ; and it is no bad
plan to wash the udders with cold water. The third
day a similar process should take place throughout
the whole flock. On the fifth day another and final
examination may take place, when they will have
forgot their lambs, their milk will be re-absorbed,
and they will not appear to remember the loss of
their offsprings, about which at the time they made
such lamentations.

It is an excellent plan to have a few wethers or
barren ewes to put in the field with the lambs after
weaning. They teach them to select their food,
they draw out the instincts of the young lambs,
and materially assist in drawing and training.
A pen should be provided in the corner of the field,
and to dip as soon as possible after weanmg is by
no means a bad practice. — Gardeners' and
Farmers' Journal.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND.

(Continuedj

May 12. — At the conclusion of Mr. Trimmer's Lecture
already given to our readers, on the agricultural import-
ance of a knowledge of the warp or drift forming the
soils lying on different geological formations, Mr.
Pusey, trustee, in the Chair, and after a vote of thanks
moved by Lord Bemers, and seconded by Sir John

Johnstone, Bt., M.P., for Mr. Trimmer's kindness m pre.
paring that valuable lecture, and his trouble in illustrat-
ing it with so interesting a series of original geological
diagrams, the meeting was addressed by Lord Bemers,
Captain Wentworth Buller, Mr. Pusey, and Sir John

Johnstone.

S

250

THE FARMER'S xMAGAZINE.

CiAY-BANK Draining. — Lord Berners, on rising to
propose a vote of thanks to Mr. Trimmer for his inter-
esting lecture then delivered to the members, remarked,
thatif he bad understood the lecturer correctly, the furrows
to which he had alluded in reference to draining, were
the same as what in Leicssteishiie were coramonly
known as " clay-banks"; and if so, his Lordship could
from long experience corroborate the accuracy of Mr.
Trimmer's views on that subject. Lord Bevners had
found the only way to drain effectually and cheaply was
to ascertain the direction of those banks ; for, while a
drain parallel to a clay-bank would not in some instances
drain to an extent of more than two or three yards,
one across the bank would be found to drain to 20, 50,
or even a still greater number of yards ; a fact of which
he had proved the correctness by digging trial-holes in
the fields. He found that in some spots of the strongest
clays, there were, at various depths, little sand-galls,
fissures, fibres, stones, or some porous substance ; and
that between these, in different intervals and directions,
ran the strong clay-banks alluded to. It then became
evident to his Lordship, that the best plan to adopt
would be that of uniting these fissures by cutting directly
across, and through the opposing clay banks that formed
the obstruction. When the fall was in more than one
direction, it was also necessary to ascertain whether there
was any other obstructing object, such as a hard pan or
retentive subsoil, giving to the under or lower water a
natural course, not down the steepest slopes of the hill,
(in which direction, the land might at some remote date
have been thrown into ridges) ; in such cases diagonal
draining only having been found to be effectual. His
Lordship added, that more water was frequently to be
found in or under the slope of the ridges than in the fur-
rows. In answer to a question then put to his Lord-
ship by Mr. Darby, whether such drains would stand
seven years, he remarked that he could show some
drains put down on that principle twenty years ago,
that still answered perfectly ; while others placed on the
old system, directly down the steepest part of the slope,
had failed entirely. His Lordship could most strongly
recommend the plan of trial-holes, both before the com-
mencement of the work and during its progress, for the
purpose of discovering, not only the relative depth of the
lower or deep water in different parts of the field, but
the depth also of the fibres, fissures, or porous spots, so
frequently to be found in the strongest clays. By
these means be had frequently and most efficiently
drained heavy fields at one quarter the cost of labour
that would have been incurred by the usual practice of
draining at one uniform depth and width. The land on
which his operations had been carried on in Leicester,
shire, consisted of a strong blue clay, that hardened on
exposure.

Manure-deposits. — Captain Wentworth Duller,
R.N., called the attention of the Council to the great
results that would in all probability arise to the Englisli
farmer, iVom a careful habit of observation among our

navigators, in reference to deposits on barren rocks,
creeks, and islands throughout the world, especially in
tropical regions. He laid on the table a section of the
Admiralty Charts, on which were laid down on a large
scale the eastern shore and the adjacent islands of the
Pacific; and an American work entitled : —

" A Nasrative of Four Voyages to the South Sea, North aud
South Pacific Ocean, Chiuese Sea, Ethiopic and Southern At-
lantic Ocean, Indian and Antarctic Ocean. From the year
1822 to 1831 (comprising Critical Surveys, Life, &c). By
Capt. Benj. Morrell.jun. New York (Harper), 1832."

This work at the time of publication was sold in Lon-
don, at 15s., by O. Rich, 12, Red Lion-square, but had
now become so scarce thatno copies of itwere, he believed,
to be met with. He hoped he should not be introducing
a subject altogether foreign to that under discussion if
he gave a practical illustration of the advantages which
might be derived from this habit of observing the differ-
ent deposits upon the face of the earth. Among these
deposits, none were of greater importance to the agricul-
turist than those enormous deposits of guano which were
now known to exist in different quarters of the globe,
but which — for want of observation on the part of na-
vigators and travellers —had so long escaped notice. The
chart which he now produced was an admiralty chart,
showing the track of the Beagle in 1836. On it were
laid down the Islands of Lobos Afuera and Lobos de
Tierra ; still from this survey not a syllable was known
of the enormous deposit of guano now proved to exist in
these islands. This discovery was due to Captain Mor-
rell, an American sealer, whose book of voyages he now
produced. He thought it might be interesting to the
Society to see the minute description of these islands
given in this book with the account of the guano.
He trusted that individual members of the Society, who
knew so well the value of guano, would take the subject
up, aud see if they could not do something to put down
or to mitigate the monopoly now claimed by the Peru-
vian Government. It could not be supposed that an in-
dividual like himself could contend with such a powerful
monopoly unless supported by public opinion. He
knew of no subject more useful and advantageous to the
Society and to all practical men than that of cheapening
guano. Captain BuUer concluded his remarks by striking
evidence connected with the discovery and long use of
guano, the geographical localities of its occurrence, and
his own official communications with the Foreign Office
on the importance of a reduction being effected in its
prices to the agriculturists of this country. Captain
Buller's observations excited much interest in the meet-
ing, and were received with full concurrence as to the
importance of the question.

Superficial Deposits. — Mr. Pusey could bear
witness to the priority of Mr. Trimmer's important
views on superficial deposits, as brought under the notice
of the Geological Society and the Royal Agricultural
Society of England. He thought that great benefit would
eventually result from these new views, in determining

I

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

257

more accurately the relation of geology to agriculture in
its practical bearings.

Geological Mapping of Estates. — Sir John
V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., addressed to Mr. Pusey,
in 1839, a letter containing the particulars of the geolo-
gical map and survey of Sir John's Hackness estate,
made for him by the late celebrated Dr. William Smith.
This letter was published at the time in the first volume
of the Society's Journal, and the foUovving extracts from
it will strongly illustrate the importance of the subject
of Mr. Trimmer's lecture : —

In the year 1828, lia\ iiig observed great variations iu tlie
soils upou my estate, not only on the sides of the hills, which
might liave been expected, but also in the fields upon the table-
land forming the summits of these hills, and which, from being
flat, or rather dechuing to the south with a gradual and easy
slope, rendered the variation more difficult to explain, I men-
tioned the subject to Dr. Smith, who was then lecturing at
Scarborough, and surveying the surrounding district, with the
view of proving the identity of the Hackness strata with those
near Oxford. He at once offered a solution of my difficulty by
a reference to geology ; and, having gone over minutely the
fields in question, with a reduced map of my estate in his
hands, he marked upon it, in different colours, the ranges of
these strata, as they exhibited themselves iu succession upon
the surface, forming themselves into zones or breadths of one,
two, or more fields together, according as the particular stratum
wliich came to the surface was more or less horizontal, or more
or less thick. The result thus obtamed clearly demonstrated
that the value of each field, and the mode of cultivation already
adopted (with the exception of the use of lime, which had been
too frequently and too indiscriminately applied to the entire
estate), corresponded to the variations of the strata, and were
limited by the areas which these occupied on the surface ; thus
showing that (though the results had been arrived at by the
farmers through a different process, viz., trial and error) the
geological character of a country, when accurately under-
stood, pointed out at once tlie natural value of the land, and
the system of cultivation best a'apted to it. For iustance, on
the highest range of my hills, a few fields, without any appa-
rent reason, have been universally productive in all seasons,
more so than the fields adjoining them on a lower level, and
which appeared nearly of the same quahty. Tlie fossils, and
other marks well understood by Dr. Smith, proved them to
consist of an insulated portion of the upper calcareous grit for-
mation, which also produces au exceUeut tract of land in an-
other part of Yorkshire Subsequent closer investigation by
other geologists, and a discovery of some fresh fossils, makes
me now think that the vein in question is upon the upper good
bed of til " ordinary calcareous grit, below the coralline oolite,
and which does not appear elsewhere in the neighbourhood.
Whichever formation, however, of the two it may belong to,
the peculiarity remains the same. Both strata in other dis-
tricts form good land. 1 have now no doubt whatever that
the soils upou the calcareous grit formation always vary ac-
cording as the particular beds of that stratum come uppermost.
So also through all the successive divisions of the upper oohtic
series, which compose this estate, it was seen that the best up-
land grass-laud was on the peculiar zone or stratum formed
on the coralline oolite through aU the farms, though separated
from each other by wide intervals. We also discovered what,
when followed out in other districts, may prove a most valuable
fact, that the wheat is usually only thrown out iu severe frosts
upou those fields formed by this same coralhue oohte ; the
same cause having no effect upon the adjoining fields, which
are on a different strata, lower in the series, and of a sandy na-
ture, with uo calcareous matter in them. A braestone road,
as you know, lifts more iu frost than a gravel road ; and a dif-
ferent method of planting wheat upon chalk, or other calcare-
ous soils, nnist be pursued than that usually adopted, if we
wish to SECL'RB our wheat crops from failure from this particu-
lar cause. Next we found (as is the case over au extensive dis-
trict here) that the entire surface of the portion as yet left out
©f cultivation upon the estate was formed by the worst beds of
the calcareous grit, which (uotwithstandiug their name) cou-
taui no calcareous matter whatever. On analyzing three divi-

sions of the calcareous grit rock at Scarborough, I find that the
two upper beds are calcareous, the highest of the two in the
greatest degree, probably from its vicinity to the coralline
oolite, which immediately covers it ; but a lower bed there,
like that at Hackness, is entirely destitute of lime. This dis-
tinction should be followed out and tested in other districts,
as we know that iu many places the calcareous grit forms very
good land ; probably this arises from the calcareous beds being
there uppermost. Again, when, on descending the hill-sides,
it was found that there were certain fields which, whether to-
wards the south or north, whatever the aspect, whatever the
local circumstances (so long as not too steep to be ploughed),
invariably produced good wheat, it was a triumph for agricul-
tural geology to discover that these fields were invariably upou
the Oxford clay, or rather where the lower beds of the calc
grit become mixed up with that formation ; and, comparing the
comparative value and growth of timber produced upon diffe-
rent portions of the slopes where too steep for ploughing, it was
satisfactorily established that oaks flourished the best upon
this identical stratum or zone wherever existing. It also ap-
peared on examination that the lowest bed of this same Oxford
clay was the only water-tight stratified bed on the estate, and
threw out every spring on the hill sides — a fact which, had it
been known some years ago, coupled with the knowledge we
now possess of the thickness of the superincumbent strata,
would have saved much money expended in sinking for wells
upon the highest range of these hills. The facihty with which
water had been obtauied by shallow wells on a neighbouring
summit had probably misled the then managers of the estate.
Dr. Smith discovered that the height last named was covered
with diluvium, which had a water-tight seam in it below the
gravel, a few feet below the surface, and thus produced the
well or spring. Iu this case, geological knowledge would have
shown at once the different construction of the two hills. It is
a curious fact that the greatest mass of diluvial matter upon
tlie estate should be on one of the highest summit levels ; thus
giving water at au easy depth, and forming a tract of good
grassland. I may therefore fairly say, that the geological map
and survey of my estate (which I allow is peculiarly adapted
for such an experiment, through the variety and number of the
subdivisions of the oolitic series which develop themselves suc-
cessively upou the surface) has not only explained the reason
of the discrepancy beweeu the soil and productiveness of neigh-
bouring fields — a matter of great interest, and tending to de-
velop the true conditions of vegetable life — but that the fol-
lowing positive practical results will also have been derived from
it: — 1st. The knowledge of applying lime to ftrfi'aM^a^e over
the property. 2nd. Laying down fields to adoantaye to grass,
and where and how to plant wheat. 3rd. What sorts of trees
to plant upou each stratum. It is moreover important to pos-
sess a sort of theory of the whole series of soils, which explains
many of their peculiarities, and furnishes hmts for future agri-
cultural operations. I have before observed that the best
grass land upou the hills is upon the coralline oohtic beds.
My geological map at once pomts out all those portions of the
estate which consist of this stratum, and upon which there is
obviously no necessity for hme ; and I am thus saved from the
task which otherwise I should have to encoimter of analyzing
the sod of each individual field. The above are a few of the
more striking residts which have followed from the geological
survey of my estate, and may perhaps serve to show that, by
pursuing a similar system over different districts of our island,
the knowledge of the regular stratification of the earth may be
made subservient to the systematic arrangement of those facts,
trials, and experiments which societies like this will encourage
and collect. It is quite clear that the residts of the best local
practice on different soils have never yet been generalised, nor
eveu had the benefit of a judicious selection. Certam sods are
so obviously connected with their bases, that we need scarcely
ask how geology and agriculture are linked together ; and to
use Dr. Smith's own words, " The strata succeed each other
iu a certain order, and, bemg delineated, a knowledge of the
strata becomes the natural and safe foundation of improve-
ment ; and if agricultural chemistry be ever successfully ap-
plied to the practical purposes of agriculture, it must be by
proceeding with the chemical analysis of soils along the rauge
of each stratum." Proceeding theu on the positive basis es-
tablished by the science of geology, we may spread on that base
a new layer of facts, with ready references to them for local
use or general reasonmg. Ananged upon maps they may be

S 2

258

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

readily seen, compared, and generalised. When any two par-
ties have made experiments upon the same stratiun, no matter
which, a comparison can then be made. Chemists will thus
be called into action, and as the different limestone, soils, and
clays, &c., vary, so in lieu of the general terms sandy, loamy,
or clayey, which are only generic distinctions of little use, spe-
cific distinctions derived from geological terms will hereafter be
used.

At the present meeting, Sir John Johnstone confirmed
by further experience his full estimation of the value of
detailed maps of estates, in reference to the connexion
of their geological and agricultural characters, and the
great practical importance of the subject. He felt a great
desire that the opportunity of Mr. Trimmer's immediate
attention to illustrations of this nature should be
rendered available to an extended prosecution of his
researches and elucidations — the operations thus under-
taken by him professionally being so far a question of
expense as to save him from loss by the requisite outlay,
while he liberally gives up his time and services to their
prosecution. Having consulted Mr. Trimmer on this
point, the following arrangements had been proposed by
Mr, Trimmer : —

Wilmington, near Dartford, Kent,

May 18, 1852.
I have sn much confidence in the value of the plan which
I propose for laying down on one map the variations of soil
and subsoil, and am so anxious to have it brought to the test
of experiment, that if any landowner can be induced to have
1000 acres mapped on my plan as a specimen, I shall be happy
to undertake it on the following terms : —

1. If there is no private map of the estate from which a
trace can be taken for the field, he shall procure one from the
Tithe Ofiice, for which they will charge Id. the acre.

2. He shall pay for the paper for the fair copy ; and, if I
find it necessary to employ a draughtsman to make it, he shall
pay the draughtsman. These two items may come to about
4d. the acre.

3. He shall allow me two men for a few weeks, to open
holes where I require it, and to fill them in again.

4. I will give my time to the work gratuitously.

5. I shall be permitted to exhibit the map, and to explain
the results obtained, at the Koyal Agricultural Society of
Eagland, the Geological Society, the Society of Arts, and the
British Association for the Advancement of Science.

(Signed) Joshua Trimmer.

Sir John Johnstone hoped that some opportunity
would be afforded for the engagement of Mr. Trimmer's
valuable services and matured scientific experience in a
work of so interesting and practical character as the
one now proposed.

A Weekly Council was held at the Society's
House in Hanover Square, on Wednesday the 19th of
May, Colonel Challoner, Trustee, in the Chair. Professor
Way, the Consulting- Chemist to the Society, delivered
before the Members the first of his proposed lectures
on the light thrown by the agricultural principles of the
celebrated Jethro Tull on facts connected with modern
cultivation.

Prof. Way stated that his object in the present lectures
was to call attention to the principles enunciated by
Jethro Tull fully a century ago, and to make such
quotations from his work as would seem most forcibly
to illustrate his views and the arguments by which
they were supported. In doing so Mr. Way wished
it clearly to be understood that he was not advo-
cating any system or practice founded upon those
principles, but simply of pointing out how far the
ideas of an author who wrote almost before the dawn of
modern chemical science, were compatible with the facts
and laws which have been since recognized and esta-
blished. As might be anticipated, wherever Tull at-

tempted any scientific explanation of facts, the terms he
employed were antiquated and obsolete— in accordance
with the vague and fanciful theories of the older chemists
and physiologists, but utterly inconsistent with the pre-
sent state of these sciences. Still, in the midsc of all
these crudities there might be seen a large amount of
philosophical reasoning ; and those who carefully studied
the writings of Tull would find that many of the disco-
veries in agricultural science which are accorded to phi-
losophers of the present day, were more or less clearly
anticipated and announced by the author in question.
Cobbett, to whom we are indebted for the most conve-
nient edition of TuU's book, takes occasion in his preface
to pay a deserved compliment to the excellence of its
contents, and to remark that the re -publication of the
work would strip many modern agricultural writers of
their borrowed plumage. The great principle of Tull
was, that the soil and the air together contained all that
was necessary, without the aid of manure, for the pro-
duction of luxuriant vegetation ; but that, in order to
render the one and the other available for this end, it
was necessary that the soil should be opened up by
abundant pulverization and comminution of its parts.

The arguments with which this view was sustained
were most forcible and convincing. The better to illus-
trate his meaning, he had compared the parts of the
earth to which the roots of plants attach themselves
with the grass or herbage on which animals feed. Thus
the fissures or openings through which the roots pene-
trate, and the internal surface upon which they spread
their delicate fibres, constitute, in Tull's language, the
" pasture of plants" — a most happy expression, and one
which facilitates in the mind the comprehension of his
subsequent reasonings. So, then, as an animal will
grow and fatten in proportion to the suitability in
quality and sufficiency in quantity of the food to which
it has access, in the same manner the rapidity of growth
and the luxuriance of a plant will depend upon the
nature and abundance of the " pasture" provided for it
in the recesses of the soil. But the pasture of plants
differs from that of animals in this important respect —
that whilst in the latter case the quantity can only be
increased by taking in more surface, the pasture of plants
may be indefinitely extended and renewed by the pulve-
rization of the soil, which is constantly exposing new
surfaces to the roots. Nothing can be more true, as
Tull says, than that for all practical purposes the soil is
infinitely divisible ; and that since the roots of plants
cannot by possibility occupy every interstice which may
exist in a highly comminuted soil, each additional stirring
is tantamount to the production of a new internal sur-
face, and a fresh source of food. Then he argues that
constant comminution and opening of the soil not only
enables the roots of plants to benefit by the stores of
food already existing in the soil, but that it at the same
time materially increases that stock by letting in the
atmosphere loaded with invigorating and healthful sup-
plies. It is obvious that Tull could have had only a
faint notion of the changes in the nature of the soil
which might be brought about by the influence of the
air, and we can imagine the pleasure which he would
have derived from the acquisition of the more exact
knowledge which in relation to this point we now pos-
sess ; but none the less was he convinced that such
an influence was exerted, and one of the objects of bis
method of cultivation was to take full advantage of it.
Acting upon these principles, Tull had introduced a
system of cultivation of crops planted in rows by the
drill, and had earned thereby the gratitude of posterity,
which was exhibited in the almost universal adoption of
that system. But he had also attempted a method of
growing crops which had not been so generally followed.
In addition to the provision for stirring the soil between

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

259

the rows of plants, he had left intervals of varyinor but
very considerable width, between every second or third
row, which enabled him at all times of the year to carry
out his principle of pulverizing the soil. These inter-
vals were in fact in the position of a naked fallow for the
year, and were, in the succeeding season, in their turn
brought under a crop. Mr. Way did not intend to en-
large upon the practical part of this subject, whicli
many of his hearers understood far better than himself ;
but he wished, irrespectively of any particular form of
accomplishing that end, to impress upon them the great
importance and value of a thorough comminution of
the soil, both as rendering available its present riches
and enabling it to receive from the air whatever benefi-
cial effects the latter was able to produce. Mr. Way
read a number of passages from the author's work, com-
menting upon and explaining them as he proceeded, and
concluded his lecture by commending the book to the
careful study of all those who had not yet become ac-
quainted with it.

Lord Berners had great pleasure in proposing a vote
of thanks to Prof. Way for the interesting lecture he
had then delivered, which would be useful in pointing
out to practical men the causes of their success or failure
in particular cases. Every farmer knew that the clay
placed below a manure-heap increased its value and
quantity. There was no description of land that was not
benefited by green crops. He had some land so foul,
that he had ploughed down the mangold on it, and found
the wide spaces yield from 9 to 1 5 tons per acre. He
had more wheat on strong knd than on simple fallows. —
Mr. Rowlandson had never greater pleasure in his life
than in seconding the vote of thanks for the lecture they
had just heard, and which he considered did great credit
to Prof. Way, and proved the practical uses of funds
appropriated by the Society to scientific purposes. He
had himself been engaged in chemical operations on a
large scale, and he could particularly estimate the value
of one of the facts adduced, which would revolutionize
the plan of processes connected with it, namely, the
constitution of the double silicates, and the superiority
of lime as an active convertible agent. It would have
been thought, under the old system, that the soda-com-
pound was superior. He conceived that the theory of
Prof. Way would open views of unexampled importance
in reference to the promotion of fertility in soils. It
was probable that, if the double silicates could be ob-
tained economically, direct manuring with the double
silicate of lime might eventually be adopted as preferable
to marling and liming. He remarked that the double
silicate of alumina and lime formed a considerable por-
tion of hydraulic cement, and might probably be ma-
nufactured on a large scale. — Colonel Challoner thought
that these lectures, as delivered by Prof. Way, did a
great deal to establish that intelligent principle of farm-
ing which led at every step to the inquiry "Why"
such and such things should be done by him. He con-
sidered that the Council had acted very wisely in their
arrangements for the lectures to be delivered from time
to time before the Members of the Society. — Mr.
Evelyn Denison, M.P., inquired the condition of pul-
verized and burnt soils, and the power of the latter to
absorb ammonia. — Prof. Way remarked that, although
by burning soils their staple was destroyed, such soils
were improved by the resulting pulverisation. Clay was
mechanically improved by being burnt, but it could
then only absorb ammonia mechanically as a porous
substance, the hydrated double silicates having lost by
heat their properties of absorbing that alkali, and clay,
when burnt, was accordingly deprived of the power of
chemical absorption dependent simply on the action of
those silicates. — Mr. Chandos Wren Hoskyns then gave
an interesting account of his personal visit to the crops

of the Rev. S. Smith, of Lois-Weedon Vicarage, in
Northampton, the best exponent, as Prof. Way had just
then described him, of the TuUian system of cultivation,
and the author of a paper " on the experiment and ex-
perience of the growth of wheat year after year on the
same acre of land," in the last volume of the Society's
Journal, page 133. His results, as Mr. Hoskyns re-
marked, were only so wonderful, that they did not re-
ceive the credit they deserved ; although, when per-
sonally inspected, they carried at once a conviction of
their perfect feasibility, notwithstanding the marvellous
absence of all manure, as technically so understood by
such term in the carrying out of his simple, but effective
processes. — Mr, Gadesden could fully confirm Mr.
Hoskyns's statement, ashehad also paid a personal visit
to Mr. Smith's farm and inspected his crops. The soil
was a stiff' one, and so stiff, that Mr. Smith's own tenant
farmer expostulated with him in reference to the circum-
stance; but, although no manure had been used, it had
become so fertile, that it would be necessary to cast ofT
the top staple and bring up the clay. Mr. Smith had 6
acres of wheat, and intended to extend the cultivation to
20. He understood, too, that the Earl of Essex had 50
acres on the same system. — Mr. John Mainwaring
Paine, of Farnham, could simply, but entirely confirm
all that Mr. Hoskyns had stated with regard to Mr.
Smith's experimental wheat-fields, under the Tullian
mode of culture as practised by him. He would, how-
ever, very briefly state what he saw, and the impression
which Mr. Smith's crops left on his own miud. The
first time that he saw them was immediately after in-
specting Mr. Lawes's experimental wheat at Rotham-
sted, about the last day of June. He had thus a good
opportunity of forming a comparison of the appearance
of the respective crops at that time. Mr. Lawes's highly
manured nitrogenous plots were then looking splendidly
well: Mr. Paine had also some of his own similarly ma-
nured, which was likewise very promising, and which
did realize from 7 to 7^ quarters per acre. He had thus
in his mind's eye some very good standards of com-
parison, and he was bound to state that Mr. Smith's far
exceeded either of them in luxuriant appearance and
promise of crop. When he first beheld them, he could
not help exclaiming, " This land has been lavishly
dressed with ammoniacal manure." And so, indeed, it
really had been, from atmospherical sources ; for this we
knew, and could appreciate, after Mr. Way's most
valuable discovery of the absorption and retentive
powers of clay soils. Mr. Paine felt assured that
there could be no mistake about this matter. The ni-
trogenous aspect of tne whole crop, in his opinion, stood
out in too bold relief to be overlooked for a moment.
He was also particularly struck with the largeness and
regularity in size of the ears of the corn, and with the
uniform height of the straw. This he did not expect to
find ; yet such, he remarked, was the fact. On asking
Mr, Smith to explain the cause of this remarkable fea-
ture in thin-sown wheat, he replied that he believed it
simply to arise from the circumstance of early sowing,
by which means the plants were enabled to tiller out be-
fore the spring. These appearances, and the subsequent
large crop obtained by Mr. Smith, Mr. Paine need
scarcely state, after what Mr. Smith had explained fully
in his pamphlet as obtained exclusively by deep and
frequent stirrings of the soil. His method was founded
on Tull's principles, and was a great improvement on
TuU's practice, Mr. Smith's intervals are smaller;
there are three rows instead of two, and he digs down
deeply into the subsoil, which Tull was afraid to touch.
Mr. Paine considered Mr. Smith's practice to afi'ord a
most beautiful illustration of the large amount of am-
monia available for agricultural purposes existing in the
atmosphert', and at the same time of the absorptive

31^-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

power of clay or loanoy soils. He had seen Mr. Smith's
crops again this season : they were as remarkable for
their luxuriance as last jear, probably more so. There
was no sign of exhaustion in the field then cropped with
its seventh successive growth of wheat ; but, on the
contrary, there was some d;inger to be apprehended
from its exuberance. There was evidently an accumu-
lation of atmospherical and disintegrated mineral ma-
nure in that field, for an explanation of which Mr. Paine
thought we m\ist fall back upon the information Mr.
Way had given us relative to the absorption, retention,
expenditure, and consequent balance of manure left in
the soil. Mr. Paine could perctive nothing peculiar in
the geological structure of the land at Lois-Weedon which
would lead us to infer that Mr. Smith's success was at all
attributable to that cause. It was manifestly what would
be good wheat land, when well drained and well culti-
vated. Willi common management, the surrounding
land did not produce large crops. In fact, Mr. Paine
remarked, it was well known, that many trials of the
same plan were then proceeding elsewhere, in different
counties, with every probability of similar success
wherever the land possessed the necessary ingredients of
clay or loam. At that time he was himself carrying out
this system on one of his fields ; the surface soil of which
was an extremely stiff clay resting upon a subsoil of the
lower chalk marl ; he having selected the field in ques-
tion because it had already borne three wheat crops in
the four preceding years. It was sown with wheat in
the winter preceding 1848, the land being at that time
in a good state of cultivation , the crop was an extraor-
dinary fine one till it fell, and then it only produced
about six quarters of bad quality per acre. It was sown
in 1849 with wheat, again without any manure ; the re-
sult was 5^ quarters of good wheat per acre : all through
the season the flag and straw had a very light green ap-
pearance, evidently showing the want of ammonia. There
was clover in 1850 cut twice, and without any manure ;
and in 1851 it was again sown with wheat and manured
with guano. The result was a crop of upwards of seven
quarters per acre, weighing 651bs. per bushel. Imme-
diately after last harvest the field was deeply ploughed
and cleaned from weeds, in preparation for Mr. Smith's
plan ; but for want of the requisite implements it was
not sown till the 9th of November, at the rate of half-
bushel per acre, without any kind of manure : it looked
thin and miserable through the winter, so that the in-
tervals could not be trenched up till the middle of
March. The ground was then broken eighteen inches
deep, and some of the subsoil brought to the surface.
The rows of wheat have been hoed, and the intervals
deeply stirred up to the present time. The whole field
had at that time a most luxuriant appearance, the flags
of a dark green colour, and, like Mr. Smith's, if there
be any fault, Mr. Paine's crop was only looking too
gross in condition than otherwise. — Mr. Denison, M.P.,
inquired as to the levelness of all the ears of wheat in
these cases, and referred to the objection sometimes made
that when wheat tillered much many of the ears never
attained perfection. — Mr. Alcock, M.P., required a
statement of the profit and loss on this plan of cultiva-
tion.— Mr. Briscoe referred to its connexion with spade
husbandry. — The Earl of Essex remarked that all his
work was done by the spade, and no difiiculty was ex-
perienced.— Mr, Wolryche Whitmore stated the results
of his own experience in deep cultivation on his estate
in Shropshire. The eS'ects of trenching a piece of garden
ground three feet deep, and leaving it without manure,
were so wonderful, that strangers on witnessing these
effects could scarcely be persuaded that the ground had
not been heavily manured. A portion of the arable land
too, on one of his farms, was ploughed twelve inches
deep, and the remainder was only ploughed shallow :

the result was, that while the deep-ploughed land was
most lu.\uriant, the shallow was so indifferent that he did
not know what to do with it. He then cited the results
of Mr. Woodward's farming in the Vale of Evesham,
and Mr. Randall's opinion that dry ground should be
well trodden with horses in the early spring. They were
all well acquainted with the pulverizing and consolidating
power of Crosskill's clod-crusher : still he thought that
a medium should be observed in these operations, and
that pulverization especially should not be carried too
far; the market-gardeners, he believed, having ceased to
pass their soil as formerly through a fine sieve. — Mr.
Chandos Pole recollected an instance on his own pro-
perty of the result of great consolidation from trampling.
In the JN'ovember of 1850 the whole of a pack of hounds
had run through the same gateway of a wheat-field.
The soil at Radbourne, as those would remember who
were present at the trial of implements at the Society's
Derby Meeting, is a remarkably strong one, and the
ground near the gateway in the line of these runs was
trodden down as hard as a table : it was thought, ac-
cordingly, that the wheat would fail in this part of the
field ; but on the contrary, it was found before reaping
that it had become the best part of the whole crop. —
Mr. Whitmore remarked that he had gone to twelve
inches deep. — Mr. Paine stated that he had proceeded
to twenty inches, and had found that the deeper he went
the better crops he obtained. — Colonel Challoner referred
to the different mechanical condition acquired by the
particles of soil in the process of sifting. — Professor Way
thought nobody could doubt the value of consolidation
after pulverization. In these, as in all other cases, no
truths could militate against each other, while errors
might. The lighter soils were those to which consoli-
dation was most applicable ; heavy soils required pul-
verization before consolidation. Mr. Smith, he believed
preferred a solid bottom to his land. Perfect manuring
was obtained from the air : in fact, that clay itself ma-
nured itself.

The vote of thanks to Professor Way for his kindness
in delivering the interesting and important lecture which
they had then heard, was then put by Colonel Challoner
from the Chair, and carried unanimously; Professor
Way, in acknowledging the compliment, expressing the
satisfaction it gave him on that and on all other occa-
sions to aid in the great work of promoting the objects
of the Society.

The Audit of Accounts was held on Friday the
21st of May. The Earl of Ducie, President; Mr. Ray-
mond Barker, Chairman of the Finance Committee ;
Colonel Challoner and Mr. H. Blanshard, Members of
the Finance Committee; and Mr. Thomas Knight, Mr.
George J. Raymond Barker, and Mr. George Dyer,
Auditors on the part of the Society ; were present.

The Accounts of the Society from July to December,
1851, were examined, audited, and found correct,—
The Bankers' Letter and Transfer Receipt relating to
the purchase of Stock in the 3J per Cents, for ifi'1,010,
were laid before the Auditors.

A Special Council, for deciding on the Report to
be made by the Council to the ensuing General Meeting
of the Society, was held on Friday the 21st of May, the
Earl of Ducie, President, in the Chair. On the motion
of Col. Challoner, seconded by Mr, Raymond Barker,
the Report was taken into consideration and agreed to
accordingly.

The half-yearly General Meeting of the Society
was held at the Society's House in Hanover- square on
Saturday the 22nd of May, The Earl of Ducie, Presi-
dent, in the Chair. We have already laid before our
readers a report of the proceedings at this Meeting.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

961

A Monthly Council was held at the Society's
House in Hanover-square, on Wednesday the 2nd of
June. The following Members of Council and Gover-
nors of the Society were present : Lord Portmun,
Trustee, in the Chair ; Sir John V. Shelley, Bart., Sir
Charles Lemon, Bart., M.P., Sir Robert Price, Bart ,
M.P., Mr. Raymond Barker (Hambleden), Mr. Ray-
mond Barker (Fairford), Mr. S. Bennett, Mr. Ivatt
Briscoe, Captain Wentworth Buller, R.N., Mr. Burke,
Mr. W. G. Cavendish, M.P., Colonel Challoner, Mr.
Freeland, Mr. Gadesden, Mr. Garrett, Mr. Brandrtth
Gibbs, Mr. Grantham, Mr. Hamond, Mr. Fisher Hobbs,
Mr. Hornsby, Mr. Jonas, Rev. C. E. R. Keene, Mr.
Kinder, Mr. Lawes, Colonel Le Couteur, Mr. Shaw,
Prof. Simonds, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Slaney, M.P., and
Mr. Crompton Stansfield, M.P.

Humphris W. Freeland, Esq., of The Albany, London,
was elected a Governor of the Society.

The following new Members were elected :

James, Richard, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeabire.

Ludlatn, William, Bradford, Yorkshire.

Bishop, John, Norwich.

Bennett, Henry, London-road, Liverpool.

Farley, Rev. C. T., Eastham,Tenbury, Worceatersliire.

Westhead, J. P. B., M.P., Lea Castle, Kidderminster.

Taylor, George Edward, Oatlands, Leeds.

Filder, John, Mead's House, Eastbourne, Sussex.

Howard, Hon. C. W. G., M.P., Naworth Castle, Cumljerlauii,

Read, James, Whittlesea, Cambridgeshire.

Macuamara, Arthur, Caddingtou Hall, Herts.

Locock, Charles, M.D., Hertford-street, May-fair.

Bermingham, Thomas, J. P. for the Co. of Galway.

Curme, Charles, Arlington-square, Islington.

Goulton, Benjamin, Gedney Dyke, Loug-Sutton, Lincolnshire.

Bunny, Edward John, Christ Church, 0.\ford.

Harrington, Earl of, Elvaston Castle, Derbyshire.

Blandford, Henry, Sandridge Cottage, Melksham, Wilts.

Busby, William, Newton-le- Willows, Bedale, Yorkshire.

Newman, Thomas, Craysmarah Farm, Melksham.

Smith, G. P., Oundle, Northamptonshire.

Jones, Henry P., 28, Mark-lane, London.

Buller, Morton Edward, Dilhorne, Cheadle, Staffs.

Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the
Finance Committee, laid before the Council the monthly
report on the accounts of the Society ; from which it
appeared that the current cash-balance in the hands of
the bankers was ^£"3,022.

President-Elect. — Lord Ashburton, having betn
elected by the members of the Society at their recent
general meeting the President of the Society for the
year ensuing the rising of the Lewes meeting, addressed
a letter to the Council expressing hie regret that the
state of his health would oblige him to leave England for
the German Spa during the autumn of this year, and
thus prevent him from occupying, as it would otherwise
have been his Lordship's pleasure and duty to have
done, the vice-chair at the Pavilion Dinner at the ensuing
Country Meeting, and from presiding at the general
meeting and Council to be held on the following day in
the County Hall at Lewes. He hoped, on his return to
England, to devote himself to the duties of the high
office to which he had been thus unanimously elected
by the Society.

Lewes Meeting. — Sir John Villiers Shelley, Bart.,
presented to the Council the Report of the General
Lewes Committee, of which he was the Vice-Chairman,
detailing the satisfactory progress of the arrangements
for the Ltwes Meeting. This report was received and
adopted accordingly.

District for 1856. — Mr. Raymond Barker pre-
sented to the Council the Report of the Special Com-
mittee appointed at a former Council to consider the
District four years in advance, to supply the place of the
South-Eastern District of the current year; and their

recommendation that the District ot the Country Meet-
ing of the Society, for the year 1856, should comprise
the counties of Huntingdon, Cambridge, Bedford, Buck-
ingham, Hertford, and Essex.

Gloucester Meeting.— The agreement between the
Mayor of Gloucester and the Secretary of the Society
was laid before the Council, and executed in duplicate
under the Great Seal of the Society and the powers of
the Charter.

The following letter, fiom Mr. Saunders, of Worces-
ter, dated the 22nd of May last, and addressed to the
Secretary, was received with much satisfaction by the
Council, who ordered their best thanks to be expressed
for it, to Mr. Saunders and the Worcester Committee : —

" I am directed by the Committee appointed for promoting
the holding of the meeting of the Koyal Agricultural Society in
1S53 at Worcester, to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of
the 5th inst., and, in reply, to express the regret of the Com-
mittee at the unsuccessful result of their application to the
Council. The Committee desire me to express their hope that
the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society will, upon some
early future occasion, take into their consideration the very
strong claims of this city for the holding of a Meeting of the
Society in Worcester. The Committee assure the Council that
the cordial aid of the residents in this city and neighbourhood
will not be wanting to ensure the success of the meeting at
Gloucester."

Fines for Non-Exhibition. — The Secretary laid
before the Council the following general Report on the
Fines incurred by parties who had entered live-stock for
the Windsor Meeting, and caused the Society to incur
the expence of providing accommodation for their
animals ; which were eventually, however, not sent to
the Meeting. The Council having excused two parties
who had sent notice before the day of meetinar, that in
one case a pig had died on the railway, and in the
other that the servant specially accustomed to the
management of a stallion to be exhibited had met
with a severe accident, the following was the detail
connected with the remaining parties, on whom the
claim of fine was made, and who had sent no notice
whatever before the day of meeting of their intention
to withhold any of their stock from exhibition. These
parties were 47 in number, of whom 21 paid the fine
on the Secretary's first application. The other 26, who
did not comply with the rule of the Society, were
written to a second time, when 12 of them paid. The
remaining 13 were addressed by the Secretary for the
third time, when nine of them paid. There was then
left a final residue of 5 persons who failed to make the
required payment, and whose names were handed over,
by the unanimous order of the Council, to Messrs.
Tooke, Son, and Hallowes, solicitors, of Bedford-row.
In consequence of the legal representations thus made
to them on this final reference, the whole of the parties
liable to the fines in question, with the exception of the
two parties only who had been excused on the special
grounds referred to, made the payments requited of
them, the object of the Council in this enforcement of
the rules of the Society having been the establishment
of a principle of impartial justice in their proceedings,
rather than the mere recovery of the small sums of
which these fines consisted.

Prize Essays.— Mr. Pusey, M.P., Chairman of the
Journal Committee, transmitted to the Council the fol-
lowing adjudication of a Prize in this department :
To John Wilson (late Principal of the Royal Agricul-
tural College, Cirencester), of Heath Lodge, Iver,
Buckinghamshire, the Society's Prize of Thirty So-
VEREiGNS, for the best account of the Manufacture of
Sugar from Beet-root, which should include the following
inforinatinii : 1. The cultivation of the Root for thi« pur-
pose ill Frauce, Belgium, or Germany ; and the extent

26 V

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

to which high mauui'iug afi'ecta its saccharine contents.
2. WhetiiCT Mangold-vruizel is app'iicah'.D to the n>.anu-
facture of Sugar ? 3. Manufacture of Sugar according
to the latest improved processes. 4, Disposal of the
refuse for the distillation of spirits, extraction of salts,
or feeding of cattle. 5. Comparison of profit per acre
from production of sugar or corn at present prices.

Prizes for Essays and Eeports.— Lord Port-
man laid before the Council the following Schedule of
Prizes for the ensuing year in the department of Essays
and Reports —

Farming of Herefordshire £50

Farming of Surrey 50

Farming of Derbyshire 50

Heavy Land Farming 30

Light Land Farming 30

Cultivation of Beans and Peas 10

Hereditary Diseases in the Sheep and

Pig 20

Any other Agricultural subject 20

£260

This schedule was adopted by the Council, subject to
the ufual conditions of competition, and the delivery of
the essays and reports at the House of the Society on or
before the 1st of March, 1853.

Deputation on Guano. — On the motion of Mr.
Fisher Hobbs, seconded by Mr. Shaw, the following
resolutions were carried —

1. Tiiat a Deputation to the Minister be appointed to re-

present the importance of taking every possible means
to effect a reduction iu the price of Guano.

2. That it consist of such Members of the Council and of

the Society as may think fit to attend.

3. That the Secretary communicate to the President, and

request a day of interview with the Premier, and com-
municate to the Society.

4. That a copy of these resolutions be sent to the Duke of

Piichmond.

Potato Disease. — The Earl of Malmesbury, H.M.
Principal Secretary of State for the Foreign Department,
transmitted to the Council, through Mr. Addington, the
following dispatch addressed to his Lordship by H. B.
M. Consul- General at Warsaw —

War£aw,"May 13tb, 1852.

" Although the kingdom of Poland has suffered compara-
tively very little from the blight of the potato plant, which has
of late yeiTi been so gtaeral in the more western countries of
Europe, everything relating to that still unexplained pheno
menon has nevertheless received much attention here from
private individuals as well as from the public authorities.
With the exception of Ireland, there is, perhaps, not another
country in whicli the culture of the potato forms so impor(ant
a feature of the rural economy of the nation as it does in Po-
land, although its introduction into this country is of compa-
xat vely recent date; and much public attention has lately
been excited here by an article extracted from a foreign pro-
vincial newspaper, ascribing the so called ' potato disease' to
the presence of too much/ree ammouia in the lands on which
the plants are cultivated; and pointing out the very simple
means of counteracting this evil by the employment of fixed
alkalies. This theory appears so strongly to hear out the view
which was taken here of the subject at the very beginning of
the epidemic appearance of the evil in question (as reported in
my letter consular. No. 28, of the 16th October, 1846), that I
am induced to bring the statement to your Lordship's notice,
for the information of such persous as may be specially inte-
rested in ascertaining tiie correctness of the observation. I
have not seen the original statement ; but the article above
alluded to mentions that it is copied from the ' Kblnische
Zeitiiiig,' to which it had been communicated by a Dr. Vo^ef,
of Heiusberg, in the Governmental District of Aix-la-Chapelle.
Dr. Voget recommends as the most simple mode of decomposing
the free ammonia, wherever by chemical tests it may be
ijroved to exist, and whether arising from artificial manures or
from natural causes inherent in the quality of the soil, to use

crude gypsum as atop-dressing, or to irrigate the ground with
very strongly diluted muriatic or sulphuric acid, in the same
mauner as liquid manures are applied, or before carrying out
the manure to mix it with gypsum, ashes, or acids, &c.
" (Signed) GusT. du Plat.

" H. M. Con.-Gen. in Poland."
The Council ordered their best thanks to be conveyed
to the Earl of Malmesbury for the favour of this com-
munication.

A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House
in Hanover- square, on Wednesday, the 9th of June, Mr.
Raymond Barker, Vice-President, in the Chair. Pro-
fessor Way, the Consulting Chemist to the Society, de-
livered his concluding Lecture on the agricultural prin-
ciples of Jethro TuU, illustrated by modern facts.

Prof. Way's object in this second and concluding
lecture was to examine how far the views and prin-
ciples of TuU were consistent with the modern
discoveries of agricultural chemistry. Plants consisted
of certain organic and mineral elements, the nature
of which was now well understood. The question
was, could these substances be supplied by the air
and by the soil without manure, as TuU supposed ? It
was pretty generally conceded at the present day that
carbonic acid, ammonia, and water, together, were
capable of furnishing all that was necessary to
build up the organic structure of plants ; whilst
no soil of ordinary fertUity would be found, upon exami-
nation, to be absolutely deficient in any of the mineral
ingredients that were required by vegetation. The air
contained both ammonia and carbonic acid, but it might
be open to question whether in sufficient quantity not
merely for a natural but for a forced production of
wheat and other crops, such as alone would suffice for
the wants of a populous community like that of this
country. The quantity of carbonic acid in the air had been
found by repeated experiments of M. Saufeure to amount,
on the average, to a thousandth part of its weight, and
Liebig had calculated that at any one time there was in
the air as much carbon in this invisible form as would
suffice for the production of the whole coal fields exist-
ing throughout the world. It required no stretch of the
imagination, therefore, to suppose that with the air con-
stantly in motion, and constantly renewed to the roots
of plants, they might receive from this source all the
carbon which was required for their growth. Whilst,
too, every disintegration of the soil gave access to this
carbonic acid in larger quantity for the direct supply of
food, indirectly it contributed to the sustenance of plants
by rendering available the necessary mineral elements of
their food, which water impregnated with carbonic acid
was capable of dissolving. With regard to the quantity
of ammonia in the air, we did not possess such satisfac-
tory information. Of its existence there, no one enter-
tained a doubt ; it was produced by the decay of animal
and vegetable bodies, given off in the exhalations of
living animal bodies, and probably in the sweet perfumes
of flowers, and thrown out in certain parts of the world
in immense quantities by volcanoes. But to ascertain
the proportion of ammonia in the air was extremely dif-
ficult, and although it had been attempted by more than
one able experimenter, the results must only be looked
upon as distant approximations to the truth. Fresenius,
to whom the most careful experiments on record in re-
gard to this matter are due, found that 1 ,000,000 parts
by weight of air contained 0.133 parts of ammonia.
Vrithout stopping to examine the probability of these
figures representing the average amount of ammonia in
the air, we might a«k whether such a quantity would
suffice for the wants of an abundant vegetation. This
question it was impossible to answer. Mr. Way's own
recent investigations had brought to light the existence

THE FARMER'S xMAGAZINE.

263

in the soil of certain double silicates possessing the
power of abstracting the carbonate of ammonia from
the air with as much avidity as if they were strong
acids. A good soil, well opened by cultivation, would
therefore be constantly at work, day and night, col-
lecting ammonia from the air ; and the quantity that
could be so obtained would only be limited by the
frequency of the renewal of the air. Of course we
could not say how often this would take place ; but
what with alternations of temperature, differences in the
heat of the soil and the air, the influences of wind, and
perhaps also a constant interchange in the particles of
air themselves, it was evident that the renewal of the air
in the soil, and the consequent acquisition by it of am-
monia, might go on to a very great extent. And it was
worthy of remark, too, that this collection of ammonia
by the soil was quite independent of rain and dews, and
was always proceeding. The more, therefore, the soil
was exposed to the air the richer it would become.
Of course Mr. Way spoke of soils containing a sufficient
quantity of clay. Some light soils there might be that
would be injured, not benefited, by such exposure.
Mr. Way went on to speak of the experiments of the
Rev. Mr. Smith, at Lois Weedon, expressing the great
giatification which he had experienced from a visit to
that place. These crops of wheat, wliicli were now
growing on land which had been for six years under
wheat without manure of any kind, looked as if they had
received a dressing of ammoniacal salts: and that, in-
deed, was the fact, though the ammonia had been added
not direclly, but indirectly, and from the air,
by the abundant cultivation which Mr. Smith's
method enabled him to give. Mr. Way was of opinion,
then, that, so far as the organic elements of vegetation
were concerned, there was no absolute impossibility,
but, on the other hand, every probability, that they might
be secured in all abundance for large crops without
manure, provided that the soil was fully exposed to the
influence of the air. The only question that remained
was in regard to the exhaustion of mineral matters by
this mode of cropping. Mr. Way believed that the
danger of mineral exhaustion in soils was frequently very
greatly overrated. There was no doubt that the con-
tinuous cropping by wheat, or any other plant, without
the return of anything in the shape of manure, would
gradually but certainly reduce the quantity of mineral
matter contained in the soil ; but the quantities so re-
moved were now accurately known, and it would be
found that a continuous course of cropping by wheat
for many years took from the land only a very insig-
nificant quantity of these substances. The following
table showed the amount of phosphoric acid, potash,
&c., removed by a large crop of wheat in one and
twenty years respectively, and in another column of the
table would be found the juer centage composition which
the soil must have to yield them for twenty such crops.

35 BUSHELS OF WHEAT AND 2 TONS OF STRAW.

1 crop. 20 crops. Per-ceatage re-
moved from

lbs. lbs. soil by 20 crops.

Silica .... 171 3,420 0 152

Phosp. acid 30 600 0-027

Sulph. acid 8 160 0007

Lime 16 320 0014

Magnesia.. 10 200 0 009

Potash 39 780 0036

Soda 3 60 0003

277 5,540 0248

The per-centage removed from soil by 20 crops, is calculated
on the assumption that the soil is 10 inches deep aud
weighs 1,000 tons.

Those who had had anything to do with the analysis of
soils would see that no soil of ordinary fertility would

be found without a small quantity of those minerals
here mentioned — indeed, it is usually the case that a
loamy soil would contain from two-tenths and upwards
of potash, and other things in proportion ; and although
the whole of this might not be available at any one time,
the constant stirring of the land bringing into play the
action, furnished a constant supply adequate to the
wants of the plants. But although there might be no
danger of exhausting the land by this system of cultiva-
tion, Mr. Way did not see what good reason there was
for continuing it on the same land for more than a cer-
tain number of years — say seven or ten — and then alter-
nating with other land which had been meanwhile under
manure. In conclusion, he begged to say that, having
shown as far as he was able the admissibility of the im-
proved TuUian system on theoretical considerations, his
duty was over : it was for practical men themselves to
test thoroughly the merits of the plan, and to decide
upon its ultimate adoption or rejection.

On the motion of Mr. Gadesden, seconded by Mr.
Wolryche Whitmore, the best thanks of the Council
were voted to Prof. Way, for the favour of this second
lecture on a subject of so much interest and importance.

Cuptain Wentworth BuUer, R.N., had visited the
Rev. Mr. Smith's farm at Lois-Weedon ; and he went
to it as sceptical as a man could go. He was told that
wheat had been grown for six years successively on the
same land, and was informed of the application of la-
bour to the several operations of the crop. He re-
solved, if possible, to pick holes in the system. He
examined the thrasher and the labourers on the farm ;
he looked over the crops ; but he was unable to detect
any error in the statements made to him. Mr. Smith
showed liim his wheat, and the fields on which his
average crops of 36 bushels an acre had been raised :
his men corroborated his assertions. He ascertained
the price of digging, and found that people could earn
2s. a-day. All the manure was applied to the green
crops, which were as marvellous as the corn-crops. He
had first a heavy crop of rye cut in April, then swedes,
rnd afterwards trenching. There was not too much or too
little moisture. Therootsextended to 18 inches. The crop
being never checked, the straw, as in Mr. Hewitt Davis's
sy si em, was bright, from the vegetation not beint; re-
tarded. Captain Buller had procured some of Clayton's
three-pronged forks, 18 inches long, for the purpose of
ascertaining what could be done on this plan. They
were worked by day-labourers, at the common wages
of the country. They dug 6^ rods a-day of light, stony
soil, thoroughly well, to the depth of 18 inches, at at out
3d. a rod. He had been surprised at the amount, ex-
cellence, and econom^ of the work executed. Mr.

Rodwell, of Alderton Hall, had used the fork much on
his own property in Suffolk. The forks were of the
light spit kind, and the best were made in that county ;
they went to the depth of 18 inches, and turned the soil
completely up. A thousand acres of land had been dug
to that depth, at from 2\iii. to 3d. the square rod, for
the purpose of taking up the chicory crop. Tlie ex-
pense of this forking was from 30s. to 33s. 4d. per
acre ; and the labourers, during the winter months —
from October to April — could earn from 10s.

to 12s. per week. Mr. J. Mainwaring Paine

being extensively engaged in hop cultivating, had his at-
tention much directed to operations of the nature then
referred to. He trenched at intervals, and every year
dug 200 acres to a perpendicular depth of 18 inches.
The cost was greater at the first digging. It co.'st him
24s. per acre to bring the bottom soil to the surface. It
perhaps might be better to do it at two spits, in the same
manner as Mr. Smith did, in which case it would cost
him 30s. per acre. The labourers can earn from 2s. to
2s. 6d. a day. He had found one-horse scarifiers the

264

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

best for intervals. He had seen wheat crops on land
well manured with aiumoniacal salts, guano, and other
substances, look poor and blighted ; while those on ad-
joining portions of the same land — treated on Mr.
Smith's plan, retaining in the soil an available stock of
nutriment without being required to be manured for the
current year — were looking remarkably well, and yielded
/s quarters of wheat. By applying to the crop itself a
large amount of ammoniacal matter, a great portion of
it was lost for the immediate purposes of vegetation.
In reply to an inquiry, he stated that he had known
ashes or burnt turf applied for carrots seven yiears ago. —
Mr. Hamond thought the nature of the soil ought to be
taken into consideration. He had paid 24s. an acre for
trenching at 18 in, intervals. He considered that Mr.
Smith's charge of £1 a load for straw on the credit side
of hisaccount was too much.— Mr. Gadesden remarked,
that he was much struck with that part of the lecture
where it was stated that so small a proportion of the in-
organic elements of a soil are exhausted by cropping.
The question of exhaustion was one that had been often
raised against Mr. Smith's system. It appeared, how-
ever, that such exhaustion would be practicably almost
impossible, provided the soil was from time to time kept
in a state of sufficient comminution. Professor Way
had placed the subject in a new and clearer light.
He had even said that it would be cheaper to supply
manure than to go on growing crops without it. If,
however, Mr. Smith's crops in this, their seventh year,
were better than Mr. Gadesden's show-crop last year,
and the profit of such system of cultivation should con-
tinue unabated, he himself could see no reason for its
being abandoned ; as no person would cease to cultivate
profitably. The expense of cultivation, too, was ren-
dered light by the implements which Mr. Smith em-
ployed, the principal of which was a single-horse scari-
fier that worked two lands at a time. Mr. Gadesden's
operations being carried on in heavy land in Surrey cost
him more money than Mr. Smith's at Lois-Weedon on
a lighter soil. He had now 17 or 18 acres in cultiva-
tion under the new system ; but the season had been
particularly trying, and the autumn having been dry,
the grain had lain long in the soil ; he found the system
a difficult one to carry out in such seasons. Mr. Smith's
object, he believed, was to get the wheat to tiller before
winter, not to be retarded till the spring. In wet wea-
ther the scarifier could not be worked. — Prof. Way re-
plied, that he did not mean to say that the time would
come when the system would be abandoned ; but that it
would be continued as long as it was found to go on
profitably. He saw, however, no reason why manuring
should not continue to be applied to green crops, and
should only be omitted for wheat. There would be no
harm in carrying on the system under the same circum-
stances for ten years. A time of improved mechanical
appliances might supersede the use of manures ; while,
on (he other hand, a cheaper source of ammonia might
bediscovered.—Capt.Bullerremarkedthatas Mr. Smith's
land was on the oolite, it might yield a larger amount of
mineral matter to vegetation, while the climate was
favourable, and the amount of rain small. He understood
that Mr. Smith attached great importance to the effects
of exposure to frost, and accordingly that he turned up
his land rough for the purpose of receiving the full
benefit of thac influence. — Mr. Whitmore hoped that
the lecture they had just heard would be published in
the Society's Journal, in order that it might, on account
of its importance, receive the full attention of tlie mem-
bers.— In reply to an inquiry by Mr. Baskerville Glegg,
Mr. Thomas Srriith remarked that if anything ruined
fox-hunting it would be the winter-beans, which, Oc-
tober planted in lines five feet apart, yielded ^\ quarters
to the acre. — Mr. Rowlandson thought that in addition

to the fertilizing effects of the system, a great deal de-
pended on the time of sowing. It had just been said
that wheat ought to tiller in winter. In eastern coun-
tries, when wheat tillered before Christmas, the hogs
were turned into it. He considered that early sowing
would be productive of great results : winter-sown oats
in Surrey would return double. While acknowledging
the full merits of Mr. Smith's operations, he was still of
opinion that time of sowing was as important a point as
the preparation of the land. Mr. Rowlandson regarded
agriculture as the fasciculus of all the sciences, none of
which can be neglected without in a certain degree inju-
riously aft'ecting its operations ; and however correct any
science might be in itself, its application would lead to
many errors, unless all the circumstances and bearings
of each particular case were duly taken into considera-
tion.— Mr. Paine had just seen a crop, sown on the 9th
of November, looking at that time as well as could be
desired. — Mr. Rodwell thought that no stated rule
could be laid down for the time of sowing, either
in reference to the soils or climate of different parts
of the kingdom. He knew soils in the same county
and parish on which it would be unwise to sow
in every case either uniformly early or late. He
had gained the experience of a great many years on that
point, but found that it was difficult to lay down any
fixed rule on the subject. He might, however, vent ure
to say that good lands were better adapted for being
sown in October and sandy soils in December. — Mr.
Gadesden observed that Mr. Smith had sown wheat on
the 11th of September, that he was obliged the month
after to plough up, in consequence of the grain having
matted on the soil. — Mr. Rodwell referred to the gra-
dual modification of his practice of manure by the expe-
rience of successive years. When he first sowed corn,
he applied to his land 20 loads, or 15 tons, of farm- yard
manure to the acre, agreeably with the practice also fol-
lowed at that time in the adjoining county of Norfolk.
He then gradually reduced his manuring to one-half
that amount ; afterwards to 20 loads in four years, ap.
plying it twice during that period at 10 loads per acre.
He believed that if he could put on each year only five
loads per acre, or still smaller quantities at shorter in-
tervals, he should derive greater advantages than from a
greater quantity applied at once. — Mr. Thomas Smith
remarked that he believed it was the opinion of his bro-
ther that it would be best to go on at Lois-Weedon for a
year or two longer on the present plan, and then to in-
troduce root crops into the system.

The Council then referred these lectures of Prof.
iVay, and interesting results connected with Tullian
cultivation, kindly communicated to the Society by Mr.
Hay, of Dunse Castle, to the Journal Committee.
Communications from Mr. Spencer Stanhope on a tria
of manures, and from Mr. Peter Love on facts con-
nected with the deposition of siliceous matter on thfe
wheat-stalk, illustrating points discussed in a former
lecture by Prof. Way, was also referred to that Com-
mittee.

Deputation on Guano. — The following Members
of Council and Governors of the Society met by appoint-
ment in the Council Room at the House of the Society
at half-past two o'clock, previously to assembling at
four o'clock at the official residence of the Prime Minis-
ter, in Downing-street, as part of the Deputation which
the Earl of Derby— on the representation of the Earl of
Ducie, as the President of the Society — had expressed
the pleasure it would give his Lordship to receive :
namely, the Duke of Richmond, Lord Berners, Hon. R.
H. Clive, M.P., Baron Goldsmid, Sir John Villiers
Shelley, Bart., Sir Charles Lemon, Bart., M.P., Mr.
Alcock, M.P., Mr. Raymond Barker, Captain Went-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

•265

worth BuHer, R. N., Captain Stanley Carr, Rev. Thomas
Cator, Colonel Challoner, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Hud-
son, of Castleacre, Mr. Tliompson, Prof. Way, and
Jonas Webb.

The Duke of Richmond having taken the Chair it was
arranged that the Deputation should, in its interview
with the Prime Minister, confine itself to the object for
which it had been specially appointed by the Council —
namely, " to represent to his Lordship the importance
of taking every possible means to effect a reduction in
the price of Guano." At the request of the Meeting,
C;)ptain Buller und Mr. Hudson, of Castleacre, con-
sented to address the Earl of Derby on the part of the
Deputation.

Captain Stanley Carr presented to the Society an t
teresting Spanish work on Guano, published last year
at Lima, and entitled, " Estudios sobre el Huano, 6
Historia de las Contratas celebradas, por el Gobierno
para su expendio exterior ; precedida de Reflexiones
Generales sobrc sistemas de cultivo y abonos : por
L.G.S"— for which attention the Meeting expressed to
him their best thanks.

The Members who attended that Meeting having ad-
journed, at 4 o'clock, to Downing-street, were joined by
the following additional Members of the Society, with
whom, accompanied by Mr. Hudson, their Secretary,
they formed the Society's Deputation to the Earl of
Derby — namely, the Duke of Buccleuch, Hon. Colonel
Douglas Pennant, M.P., Hon. Edward Lloyd Mostyn,
M.P., Right Hon. Sir James R, G. Graham, Bart.,
M.P., Sir Robert Price, Bart., M.P., Sir John V. B.
Johnstone, Bart., M.P., Mr. Bramston, M.P., Mr.
Ivat Briscoe, Mr. Darby, Mr. Fellowes, M.P., Mr.
Floyer, M.P., Mr. Freeland, Mr. Fuller, M.P., Mr.
Langston, M.P., Mr. Walter Long, M.P., Mr. Mar-
shall, M.P., Mr. Nesbit, Mr. Odams, Mr. Wilson Pat-
te.i, M.P.,Mr. Robartes, M.P., Mr. Rowlandson, Prof.
Sewell, M.P., Mr. Slaney, M.P., Mr. Crompton Stans-
field, M.P., and Mr. Wreford.

In the absence of the Earl of Ducie, the President of
the Society, who was crynfined at that time to his bed by
severe illness, the Deputation was headed by the Duke
of Richmond, and introduced by his Grace to the Prime
Minister. Captain Buller and Mr. Hudson, of Castle-
acre, then addressed the Earl of Derby on the part of
the Deputation ; and his Lordship, in the course of his
reply, promised to aid the object of the Society by every
means that then were or might afterwards be placed
within his power. The Deputation then expressed
their acknowledgements of his Lordship's courtesy ii»
admitting them to an interview, and retired.

A WEEKLYCouNCiLwasheld on Wednesday, the 16th
of June — present, the Duke of Richmond, Trustee, in
the Chair; Lord Bridport, Hon. R, H. Clive, M.P.,
Sir John Villiers Shelley, Bart., Sir John V. B. John-
stone, Bart., M.P., Mr. Arkwright (Hampton Court),
Mr. Raymond Barker (Hambledon), Mr. H. Raymond
Barker, Mr. Briscoe, Mr. Browne, Mr. Buller (Dil-
horne), Mr. E. Bullen, Dr. Calvert, Rev. T. Cator, Mr.
Gadesden, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Baskerville Glegg,
Mr. Grantham, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Law Hodges,
M.P., Mr. Horatio Kemble, Mr. Lennox Naper, Mr.
Townley Milford, Mr. C. E. Overman, M. Malvicieux
(Paris), Mr. Parkins, Mr. Rowlandson, Prof. Sewell,
Prof. Simonds, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Reynolds Solly, and
Mr. R. Trench.

Substitute for Guano. — Mr. Fisher Hobbs gave
notice that he should move the following resolution at
the ensuing Monthly Council on the 7th of July;
namely—" That a prize of jgl,000 and the Gold Medal
of the Society be offered for the discovery of a Manure,

equal in fertilizing properties to the Peruvian Guano,
and of which an unlimited supply can be furnished to
the English farmer, at a rate not exceeding £5 per
ton."

Points of Cattle. — Mr. Overman called the at-
tention of the Council to the established success, as he
understood, of that system of ascertaining the milking
qualities of dairy from external relations and con-
figuration, which M. Guenon had submitted to the
consideration of Members of the Society, at the North-
ampton Meeting, hi the year 1847; and at the same
time brought under the notice of the public, by re-pub-
lishing in that year (through Messrs. Longman and
Co.) the English translation, which had been already
printed in France, of the work containing the details
and illustrations of his system. Experience had since
that date been gained in these discriminations, and their
correctness confirmed or modified by practical reference
to animals ot well-known qualities in various parts of
the Continent as well as in this country, especially in
Ireland, where a translation of M. Guenon's work had
been published in successive numbers of the Farmers'
Gazette, and subsequently in a collected form by Messrs.
Orr and Co., of Paternoster-row, in London. — Mr.
Fisher Hobbs could bear testimony to the value of these
criteria ; for having on one occasion met M. Guenon at
Castleacre, he was surprised to find that M. Guenon
selected from among the Devon cattle on that farm, by
means of external formation and peculiar developments,
exactly those animals which Mr. Hudson knew from
actual experience to be the best dairy cows of his herd
— The Duke of Richmond thought that this was a sub-
ject of great interest and importance, and one that well
deserved to be referred to a committee of practical
farmers. He would not, however, confine these points
to Dairy Cattle generally, any more than to the Channel
Islands' Cattle in particular. He had been favoured by
Colonel Le Couteur with scales of points for Short-horns
and other breeds, drawn up in a similar manner to those
of the Jersey Cattle, which were last year placed in the
hands of the judges in that class at Windsor, when their
awards gave so much satisfaction to' all parties. His
Grace was in communication with Colonel Le Couteur
on this subject, and he would take an opportunity of
laying these scales of points before the Council. He
would repeat, however, that it would be desirable to
have the whole question submitted to the consideration
and actual test of a committee of practical farmers, with
a request that they would report their recommendations
to the Council. — Dr. Calvert had not yet been able to
understand the origin of the difference in the quality of
milk given by the same cows on different farms. He
was aware that difference in the amount and quality of
the herbage would often account for difference in the
amount and quality of the milk ; but he had met with
many cases in which this circumstance was not sufficient
to furnish a satisfactory explanation ; and he thought
these various external conditions ol pasture and ma-
nagement of the cows themselves wei a important ones
to be considered.

Miscellaneous Communications. — Sir John
Conroy, Bart., transmitted to the Council a sample of
wheat grown at Arborfield Hall in 1851, and sold in
Reading market, on the 5th of June, 1852, at 52s. a
quarter: it was seeded under three pecks to the acre,
and drilled in at 13 inches apart ; it yielded five quarters
to the acre, and weighed 651bs. to the bushel.— Mr.
Scratton, of The Priory, near Prittlewell, Essex, com-
municated the particulars connected with the blight that
had appeared extensively among his own winter beans
and those of his neighbours.— Mr. Farmer, of Fazeley,
suggested .m inquiry on the subject of the chicory crop :
" What vvcie its properties, and whether it could not be

2G6

THE FARMER'S iMAGAZINE.

grown for other purposes than as a substitute for coffee ;
such, for instance, as brewing beer, wholly or in part as
a substitute for malt, or for feeding purposes in the cases
of horses and pigs." — Mr. Hill Dickson, of 26, Gres-
ham-strcet, informed the Council of the near completion
of his Portable Flax-Breaking, Scutching, and Heckling
Mills for farmers, and invited a personal inspection. —
Mr. Croll, of Bow Common Lane, called the attention
of the Coxincil to a simple test of the purity of sulphate
of ammonia, founded on its being volatilisable at a red-
heat, while the earthy impurities would remain behind
on the shovel or other plate of iron used for the purpose.
—Mr. Freeman Roe, of 70, Strand, presented a Camoys
block-tin Dairy Siphon, with piston and wooden stand
complete, which he would manufacture for the agricul-
tural community at one-half the lowest price yet charged
for them— namely, at Is. 6d. — The Council ordered their
usual acknowledgments for the favour of these commu-
nications.

A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House
in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 23rd of June :
present, the Karl of Ducie, President, in the Chair ;
Lord Berners, Sir John Villiers Shelley, Bart., Sir
Robert Price, Bart., M.P., Sir Henry Shiffner, Bart.,
Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., Col. Austen,
Mr. Ra>mond Barker, Mr. Browne, Capt. Wentworth
BuUer, R.N., Dr. Calvert, Mr. W. G. Cavendish, M.P.,
Mr. George Dyer, Mr. C. Eyre, Mr. Gadesden, Mr.
Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Glegg, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr.
H. Kemble, Mr. Rowlandson, Prof. Sewell, Mr. Simp-
son, Mr. Robert Smith, Mr. Solly, Mr. Spencer Stan-
hope, Mr. Trench, and Prof. Way.

Mr. Scratton madi; further communications to the
Council on the progress of the blight in winter beans. —
Mr. Gadesden stated that his own crop had been at-
tacked, and he understood that in Northamptonshire
and Somersetshire similar crops, in one instance to the
extent of forty acres, were mowed down and carried to
the manure-yard in large quantities. — Mr. Fuller, M.P.,
reported the attack of his cabbages, in Sussex, by a small
white maggot eating into the stems and roots. — The Earl
of Tyrconnel transmitted communications from Sir
Gardner Wilkinson and Mr. Grimstone, on the subject
of Egyptian wheat and peas, of which his Lordship fa-
voured the Council with specimens. — Messrs. Swinburne
reported their manufacture of cheap glass utensils for
dairy purposes. — The Council ordered their usual ac-
knowledgments for the favour of these communications.

A Special Council, for deciding on the Judges to
be selected for the Lewes Meeting, was held on Wed-
nesday, the 23rd of June : present, the Earl of Ducie,
President, in the chair ; Mr. Raymond Barker; Mr. W.
G. Cavendish, M.P. ; Mr. Brandreth Gibbs ; Mr. Fisher
Hobbs ; Mr. William Simpson ; and Mr. Robert Smith.
The Council took into consideration the special object
of their meeting, and decided on the Judges to be ap-
pointed in the various departments of the Exhibition at
the Lewes Meetingr.

A Monthly Council was held at the Society's
House in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 7th of
July. The following Members of Council and Go-
vernors of the Society were present : The Earl of Ducie,
Pre.-ident, in the chair ; Lord Southampton ; Mr,
Raymond Barker j Mr. Barnett ; Mr. Brandreth ; Mr.
W. G. Cavendish; Colonel Challoner; Mr. Druce ;
Mr. Gadesden ; Mr. Hamond ; Mr. Fisher Hobbs ; Mr.
Hornsby ; Mr. Kinder ; Mr. Milward ; Mr. Main-
waring Paine; Mr. Shaw; Prof. Simonds ; Mr. Simp-
son 5 aud Prof. Way,

The following new members were elected :

Phillips, G. L , Ashdal?, ITaverfordwest, Pembr.

Pym, Francis Leslie, Radwell House, Baldock, Herts.

Howe, Edward, Mornitif^tliorpe, Loug-Strattoii, Norf.

Court, P. S., Saltwood, Hythe, Kent

Brown, George, Avebury, Marlborough, 'WiUs.

Phillips, James B. L., Malws, Aberystwith, Card.

Underbill, Heury, Wolverhampton, Staffs.

Asplin Charles, East Tilbury Pl.ice, Romford, E.-sex

Chatfield, Robert, Greatham House, Petworth, Sussex

Squicr, Samuel W., Langdon Hills, Romford, Essex

Abbott, William, Woodhouse Carr, Leeds, Yorks.

Skinner, James, Sherrington House, Selmeston, Lewes

Bennett, Luke, Dimsdale Hall, Newcastle, Staffs.

Cane, Edward, Berwick, Lewes, Sussex

Baker, William, West Johnson, Bps. Nympton, Devon

Dixon, Henry, Fratikham, Wadhurat, Sussex

Fidton, Hamilton Henry, C.E., Great Queen-street, West-
minster

Greaves, Edward, Barford, Warwick

Murray, Robert, Keston, Bromley, Kent

Bullen, Edward (Barristcr-at-Law), Upper Sackville-street,
Dublin

Pain, Tliomas, Salisbury, Wilts

Graburn, William John, Meltou-Ross, Lincolnshire

Holroyd, Frederick, New North-road, Huddersfield, Yorks

Rolt, John, Ozleworth Park, Gloucester

Milles, John, The Forest, Tunbridge, Kent.

Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the
Finance Committee, presented to the Council the
monthly report on the accounts of the Society, from
which it appeared the current cash balance in the hands
of the bankers was ^£"'2,823. This report was received
and adopted.

Reports were read and confirmed from the Chemical
Committee, on the favourable prosecution of Prof.
Way's researches ; from the General Lewes Committee,
on the completion of the arrangements for the ensuing
country meeting ; and from the Veterinary Grant Com-
mittee, requesting a postponement of their recommenda-
tions to the monthly meeting in November.

Substitute for Guano. — On the motion of Mr.
Fisher Hobbs, seconded by Colonel Challoner, the fol-
lowing motion, of which Mr. Fisher Hobbs had given
notice at a former meeting, was carried unanimously —
namely, "That a prize of ^£1,000, and the gold medal
of the Society, be offered for the discovery of a manure
equal in fertilizing properties to the Peruvian Guano, and
of which an unlimited supply can be furnished to the
English farmer at a rate not exceeding £5 per ton." The
Council appointed the following Committee to take into
Consideration the conditions under which the competi-
tion for this prize should take place, and to report to the
Council their recommendations on the subject — namely,
The Earl of Ducie, Chairman ; Sir John Villiers Shel-
ley, Bart. ; Mr. Raymond Barker ; Captain Wentworth
BuUer, R.N.; Colonel Challoner; Mr. Fisher Hobbs;
Mr. Hamond ; Mr. Hudson, of Castleacre ; Mr. Shaw j
and Mr, Thompson.

Fat Cattle. — On the motion of Mr. Simpson, it
was resolved unanimously, " That, at the proper time,
the Council take into their deliberate consideration the
special instructions to be given to the Society's Judges
of Live Stock at its future Country Meetings, respect-
ing animals that may be exhibited on those occasions
in an overfed condition inconsistent with their character
and value as breeding stock. — The President then gave
notice that, at the first Council he should be able to at-
tend after the expiration of his year of office, he would
be prepared to bring forward this important question
for their consideration, and at the same time to offer a
suggestion whether it might not be advisable at future
Country Meetings to have both a fat stock and a store
Stock division, in different departments of the Show,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

297

The ANiNUAL Country Mketing of the Society,
comprising aa exhibition of live stock (including
poultry), an exhibition and trial of agricultural imple-
ments and machinery, and a Pavilion Dinner, took
place at Lewes, in Sussex, in the vfeek commencing
JMonday, the 12th ('f July. We have already giveiv
ample details of the whole of these objects, with the ex-
ce[)tion of the General Meeting of the Members,
litfld at the County Hall on Friday, the IGth of that
month, Mr. Raymond Barker, Vice-President, in the
chair. The following resolutions were passed unani-
mously :

1. Ou the motion of Lord Berners, seconded by Mr. Shaw :
'■ That the best thanks of the Society be conveyed to the Chief
OlHcers of the Borough of Lewes, for their cordial co-operation
ill promotiug the arrangements for the Lewes ^Meeting."

2. Ou the motion of Mr. Wilson, seconded by Mr. Milward :
'• That tlie best thanks of the Society be given to the Local
Committee, and Mr. H. Davey, their Secretary, for the kind
and zealous attention they had shown to the wishes of the So-
ciety m carrying out the details connected with the arrange-
ments for the Meeting."

3. Ou the motion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs, seconded by Mr.
Baroett : "That the best thanks of the Society be expressed
to those owners and occupiers wl\o had placed their land at the
disposal of the Society for the trial of implements, and as sites
fur the Show-yards and Favihon."

4. On the motion of Mr. Grantham, seconded by Mr. H.
Baunerman : " That the best thanks of the Society be signified
to Professor Simouds for the important lecture he had deli-
vered before the members at the Lewes meeting, and for the
interesting series of original tbawiugs, illustrating on a magni-
fied scale the result of liis microscopical inve.stigatious on the
subject, he had prepared for the purpose of that lecture."

5. On the motion of Mr. Fisher Hobbs, seconded by Lord
Berners: " That the best thanks of the Society be expressed
to the various railway companies throughout the kmgdom for
their liberal co-operatiou in promoting the objects of its coun-
try meetings, and for the extraordinary assistance rendered to
t-he exhibitors by the officers of those lines that were more es-
pecially and locally connected with the Lewes Meeting."

6. On the motion of Lord Berners, seconded by jMr.
Grantham, and Mr. Shaw : "That an expression of the best
thanks and respect of the Society be conveyed to the Earl of
Ducie, for the devoted and conscientious discharge of the h'gh
duties of his office during the year of his Lordship's presi-
dency, which terminated at the Lewes meeting."

7. On the motion of Lord Berners, seconded by Mr. jMil-
ward : " That the cordial thanks of the General Meeting of
that day be given to the Chairman, Mr. Raymond Barker, for
his kindness m presiding on that occasion, and for the services
lie had so willingly rendered at all times to the Society."

Mr. Barker acknowledged the kiud compliment then paid
him. It was gratifying for him to receive so pleasing a mark
of their approval. He was sincerely attached to the Society,
and ready luider every circumstance to lend his co-operation
for the advancement of its truly national objects.

Mr. Wilson, of Stowlangtoft, remarked that he could
not allow the meeting to separate without informing the
Members of the unanimous satisfaction of the implement-
m-ikers with every arrangement connected with the ex-
hibition and trial of their implements and machines, and
with the adjudication of the prizes.

A Special Council was held in the County Hall, on
the same day, for the purpose of giving any local orders
that might be required at the close of the Country Meet-
ing ; present, Mr. Raymond Barker, V. P., in the Chair,
Mr. Bamett, Mr. Milward, Mr. Shaw, and Mr. Wilson.

A Weekly Council was held at the Society's House
in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 28th of July ;
present, Colonel Challoner, Trustee, in the Chair, Sir
Robert Price, Bart., M.P., Mr. Raymond Barker, M. de
Chroustchoff (Chamberlain to the Grand Duchess Cathe-
rine of Russia), Mr. H. P. Jones, Mr. Rowlandson,
Prof. Sewell, Mr. H. A. Smith, and Prof. Way.

Inoculation fob. Pleuuo - Pneumonia. — His
Royal Highness Prince Albert transmitted to the Council,
through Colonel The Honourable Charles Grey, a com-
munication addressed to His Royal Highness by Dr. de
Saiville, of Brussels, on the result of his investigations
during twenty-five years, on the " Pneumonie Exsuda-
tive epizootique des betes bovines," and his desire to test
the value of his curative system by inoculation on animals
in this country. Tlie Council ordered their best thanks
to be conveyed to His Royal Highness Prince Albert for
this kind attention on His Royal Highuess's part to the
national objects of the Society ; and at their request
Professor Sewell, of the Royal Veterinary College, un-
dertook to consult with Prof. Simonds on the commu-
nication and proposal in question, and to make a joint
report on the subject at the next meeting of the Council.

Production of Heat and Light. — Mr. Warriner,
of 16, Panton-square, transmitted to the Council the
following communication, dated the 28th of July : —

" I take the liberty of submitting a short statement of an in-
vention which, after a long series of trials and difficulties, has
latterly come into use in France, and which I think is likely to
prove useful in agriculttne, and to be at the same time a great
boon to the horticulturist. It is the production of piure
hydrogen gas from water, for the purpose of heatiug, lighting,
dryuig, and malting. The production is exceedingly simple,
lu any place already furnished with a steam boiler, the addition
of three retorts, of the size of three feet loug by fourteen
inches diameter, will give 2,000 cubic feet of gas per hour.
The cost of such gas is small, as, in its purification, which is
made over the carbonate of soda, the bi-carbouate is produced,
which repays the cost of fuel and wear and tear of production.
The mode by which it is produced is as follows. The fires
benig lighted under the boilers and retorts, the last become
white hot by the time the steam is produced from the boiler.
When heated, the moutli of the retort is opened, and a layer
of about two inches thick of small charcoal or braize is thrown
in, the lid is then replaced, and in about three minutes the
steam is turned on into the pipes, which are inside of the retorts.
These pipes are perforated with small holes, having capsules
on them, by which the steam is distributed over the charcoal,
and tlius becomes decomposed, and forms gas ; the gas then
passes up tlie pipe into the hydraulic main, where any steam
that may escape decomposition iscoudensed. The gas then passes
into the purifiers, the plates of which are covered with carbonate
of soda, and, as the gas consists of two parts carbonic acid
and one part pure hydrogen, the soda absorbs the carbonic acid,
and the pure hydrogen passes into the gasometer, for the
supply of any place were required. The flame of this gas
being blue, the light is obtained from allowing the flame to
play upon a net-work of platinum wire, -which becomes white
hot, and gives a brilliant steady light, without smoke or flame.
In the public lights now at Passy, near Paris, a distance of
150 metres exists between each, whereas in the common gas
50 metres only are allowed. The advantage which this gas
possesses over the common coal gas is the facihty of manu-
facture, no unpleasant residuum, and its cheapness, which will
cause it to be introduced into all large establishments at any
distance from a town. For the purpose of warming conserva-
tories, it is invaluable. The cost of the apparatus for 50
Hghts is about £50, 100 lights £100, and so in proportion."

Mr. Rowlandson thought the proposed plan would be
useful if there were a great demand for the Bi-carbonate
of Soda produced ; this demand, however, on which the
economy of the process appeared to depend, was not
likely, he thought, to arise ; and he had known an instance
a few years ago of this salt being produced in a chemical
manufactory more largely than it could be sold off.
Colonel Challoner thought it was advisable in all cases
of proposed new applications to bring their practicability
to the test of actual experience. The Council ordered
their usual acknowledgments to Mr. Warriner for his at-
tention in submitting this communication to theirnotice.
Destruction of Deep-rooted Weeds. — The
Council had their attention called to a mode, proposed in
Belgium, for destroying docks, thistles, and other deep-

26S

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

seated weeds, by the insertion of a drop of oil of vitriol
into the upper part of their root ; which, it was stated,
at once acted corrosively on its substance and destroyed
the vitality of the plant.

Mr. Rowlandson favoured the Council with an inter-
esting account of the progress of the Earl of Essex's
operations at Castiobury, in tilling at intervals on the
London clay ; which, although similar to the red flinty
clay, and consequently stiff and impervious, had become
under his Lordship's system of management, by digging
and ploughing, as friable as the most friable loams. Mr.
Rowlandson had been much struck with the extraor-
dinary results he had witnessed.

A Monthly Council was held at the Society's
House, in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 4th of
August. The following Members of Council and
Governors of the Society were present : — Mr. Raymond
Barker, Vice-President, in the Chair; Lord Bridport,
Colonel Austen, Mr. Blanchard, Mr. Bramston, M.P.,
Colonel Challoner, Mr. Freeland, Mr. Gadesden, Mr.
Garrett, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Fisher Ilobbs, Mr,
Hornsby, Mr. Mil ward. Prof. Sewell, Mr. Shaw, Prof.
Simonds, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Wilson, of Stowlangtoft,
and Prof. Way.

The following new Members were elected : —
Wilson, John, Seacroft Hall, Leeds, Yorkshire
Saurans, Thomas, Watercombe, Wareham, Dorset
Churchill, William, King's Head, Gloucester
St. Albans, Duke of, Radbourne Hall, Brigg, Lincolnshire
Errington, Rowland, Saudoe, Hexham, Northumberland
Gatty, George, Crowhurat Place, Battle, Sussex
Grattan, Right Hon. James, Tennikenill, Enniskerry, Ireland
Churchill, T. B., The Plough Hotel, Cheltenham
Noel, Charles, Bell Hall, Stourbridge, Worcestershire
Gurney, Russell, Q.C., 37, Russell Square, London
Clay, Nicholas, Enfield, Chipping-Ongar, Essex
How, William, Bideford, Devonshire
Harcourt, Rev. Jj. Vernon, Westdean House, Chichester
Thompsou, John, Badminton, Chippenham, Wilts.
Walter, John, Gosport Oak, Tipton, Staffordshire
Halkett, Rev. Dunbar, Rector of Little Bookham, Surrey
Carr, Major, Lancing, Shoreham, Sussex
Lakeman, John, Costislost, Bodmin, Cornwall
Sperling, Henry Grace Wilson, 10, Hyde Park Terrace, London.

Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, as Chairman of
the Finance Committee, laid before the Council the
Monthly Report on the accounts of the Society ; from
which it appeared that the current cash-balance iu the
hands of the bankers was j6'2,650. The quarterly state-
ments of income and expenditure, invested capital and
liabilities, were laid on the table for the information of
the Members. The Council confirmed the recommenda-
tion of the Committee that the claims against the So-
ciety on account of the Lewes Meeting should at once be
ascertained and discharged.

Fines. — The Council ordered a letter to be addressed
to each person who had become liable to the fine for non-
exhibition of implements or stock entered for the Lewes
Meeting, requesting the payment of the same agreeably
with rules of the Society.

Implements. — Colonel Challoner, Chairman of the
Implement Committee, having presented the report of
that Committee, the Council made the following de-
cisions : —

L That £10 and a Silver Medal be awarded to Messrs.
Clayton, Shuttleworth, and Co., for their having exhibited
at the Lewes Meeting a Fixed Thrashing Machine, with
finishing dressing apparatus, which performed, in the
opinion of the Judges, aud to their entire satisfaction,
every operation of thrashing, shaking the straw, dressing
the corn in the most perfect manner, and weighing it into

II. That the Prize of £10, offered for the best Light Wag-

gon for general purposes, should be divided between Mr.
Crosskill and Mr. W. Ball, the Judges, in accordance with
their 3rd Instruction, having specially reported to the
Council their opinion, that in the competition for that
prize the respective waggons of those exhibitors were the
two best in that department, and possessed equal merit.

The Council then proceeded to the consideration of the
Prizes to be offered for Implements and Machinery at
the Gloucester Meeting next year, and agreed to the
following schedule, deferring their decision on the con-
ditions of competition and the regulations of the Prize-
sheet till their Monthly Meeting in November :—
Plough best adapted for general purposes . . . . . . £7

Plough best adapted for Deep Ploughing . . . . . . 7

One-way or Turn-wrest Plough . . . . . . . . 7

Paring Plough . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Dynamometer for traction of ploughs . . , . . . 5

Subsoil Pulverizer . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Draining Tile or Pipe Machine . . . . . . . . 10

Instruments for Hand-use in Drainage . . . . . . 3

Heavy Harrow . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Light Harrow . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Cultivator, Grubber, and Scarifier .. .. .. ..10

Pair-Horse Scarifier . . . . . . . . . • 5

Drill for general purposes . . . . . . . . . . 10

Steerage Corn and Turnip Drill . . . . . . . . 10

Drill for small occupations . . . . . . . . 5

Small-occupation Seed and Manure Drill . . . . . . 5

Turnip Drill on the flat 10

Turnip Drill on the ridge . . . . . . . . . ■ 10

Dropping Machine, for seed and manure .. .. ..10

Manure Distributor . . . . . . . . , . 10

Horse Hoe on the flat . . . . . . . . . . 5

Horse Hoe on the ridge . . . . . . . . . . 5

Agricultural Tools for hand-labour ,. .. .. 5

Reaping Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Mowing Machine for grasses . . . . , . . . 10

One-Horse Cart for general purposes . . . . . . 5

Light Waggon for general purposes . . . . . . 10

Portable Steam-Eugiue, not exceeding 6-horse power . . 20
For the second-best ditto, ditto . . . . . . . . 10

Fixed Steam-Engine, not exceeding 8-horse power . . 20

For the second best ditto, ditto . . . . . . . . 10

Portable Thrashing Machine, not exceeding 2-hor8e . . 10
Portable Thrashing machine, not exceeding 6-horse ^ower 15
Port. Thrash. Machine, not exc. 6-horse power (finishing) 20
Fixed Thrash. Machine, not exc. 6-horse (market) . . 20

Corn-dressing Machine .. .. .. .. ..5

Ditto, ditto, for small occupations . . . •, . . . . 5

Grinding-Mill for meal . . . . . , . . . . 10

Linseed and Corn Crusher . . . . . . . . . . 5

Chaff-Cutter, by horse or steam power . . . . . . 10

Chaff-Cutter, by hand-power . . . , . . . . 5

Turnip-Cuttsr .. .. .. .. ..5

Oilcake- Breaker for every variety of cake . . . . . . 5

Ditto, for thin cake . . . . . . . . . . . ■ 3

Steaming Apparatus for general purposes . . . . . . 5

Flax-straw Machine, by manual or other labour . . . . 10

Churn 3

Misc. Awards and Essential Improvements .. ..21

New Implement, such sum as the Council may decide . . —

General Gloucester Committee. — The Council
then agreed to the appointment of the following General
Gloucester Committee, namely : The Earl of Ducie
(Chairman), Duke of Richmond, Earl of Chichester,
Lord Portman, Hon. R. H. Ciive, M.P., Sir John
Villiers Shelley, Bart., M.P., Sir Matthew White Ridley,
Bart., Sir John V. B. Johnstone, Bart., M.P., Col.
Austen, Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Barnett, Mr.
Brandreth, Col. Challoner, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr.
Hamond, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Jonas, Mr. Wiliam
Jones, Mr. Charles Lawrence, Mr. Milward, Mr. Pusey,
Mr. Shaw, Mr. Simpson.

Inoculation for Pleuro-Pneumonia.— Professor
Sewell and Professor Simonds reported their opinion on
the question of introducing the inoculation system for
cattle into this country ; and although they were adverse

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

269

to such introduction in the present stage of the inquiry,
they thought it desirable that the Society should have
full knowledge of the facts connected with this subject,
which occupied so large a share of attention in Belgium,
Holland, France, and Prussia, at the present moment.
They hoped during the ensuing recess of the Council to
gain such an estimation of the exact nature of the new
curative system as would enable them to report more
circumstantially to the Council at their November
Meeting.

Potato Disease. — Mr. Dawson transmitted to the
Council a synopsis of the several communications on the
cause and cure of the Potato Rot, received by the Exe-
cutive of Massachusetts, in consequence of a prize of
10,000 dollars oftered to any person within that
commonwealth who should satisfy the Governor and
Council that by the test of at least five successive years,
he had discovered a sure and practical remedy for that
malady. This document, prepared and just published
under the authority of the legislature of Massachusetts,
by Mr. Amasa Walker, secretary to that commonwealth,
contains the following summary of these communi-
cations ; —

Although these communications may not furnish any per-
fect cure or preventive of the potato disease, yet they agree in
so mauy important points, aud offer so many vahiable hints,
relating to the nature, cultivation, preservation, and improve-
ment of the potato, that they cannot fail to be of great public
utility. The similarity of views expressed by the most intelli-
gent and experienced writers, relating to the nature, cultiva-
tion, disease, aud cine of the potato, is truly remarkable, and
we think auspicious. Among the principal points, relating to
which there is a general concuiTeace, are the following : —

Soundness and Vitality of the Seed. — Renewing the seed
from the ball of healthy vigorous plants every few years, even
resorting to the native place in South America, and taking the
seed from the wild potato, is considered important. When po-
totoes are to be raised fi'om the tuber, sound, healthy, whole
potatoes are recommended for planting. Cutting potatoes is
decidedly condemned. Auythmg which impairs the vitality
of the seed increases the liability to disease.

Quality or kind of Soil. — A dry, light, loose, warm sod, is
considered necessary to the soundness and health of the vege-
table, as well as to its ricluiess and flavour, the latter depend-
ing quite as much ou the quality of soil as on the variety of
seed. A wet, heavy, compact soil, directly promotes the dis-
order. Far up on the side of a mountain or hill is a favourable
location for the growth of the potato ; and new laud contains
more of the qualities requisite for its nourishment and health,
thau old or worn out soils.

Influence of Atmosphere. — Potatoes should be as little ex-
posed to the air as conveniently may be. Their natural place
is under ground. By too much exposure they become poisoned,
and turn green. Some recommend deposituig them for the
winter in holes under ground in a dry soil ; or if kept in a
cellar, to preserve them dry, m small quantities, in sand ; and
to keep them cool. Keeping large quantities in a body in the
cellar is by some supposed to promote heat aud putrefaction.
Planting in the fall is recommended by some, as potatoes left
in the field, over winter, are observed to come forward earlier
in the spruig, to grow more vigorously, to get ripe earlier aud
before the blighting rains in August, and to be more sound,
fair, and healthy.

Manures. — AH antiputrescents, such as lirae, wood-ashes,
pulverised charcoal, plaster, salt, nitrogen, &c., are believed to
contribute directly ro the health of the potato, as well as to
add to its richness and fliavour ; and, of course, to prevent
putrefaction and disease. Of other manures, well-rotted com-
post is preferred. Stable-manure is too strong and heating,
and produces ill-flavoured, unhealthy potatoes, and is de-
cidedly condemned.

Disease, Contagion, Old Age, and Death. — These are com-
mon to vegetables as well as to animals. All are liable to
disease, some more, some less, according to circumstances,
predisposing causes, and preventive means. Some vegetable
diseases are believed to be contagious. The present disease is
thought by many to be of that class. One field of potatoes is
liable to take the disorder from another field. Potatoes are

predisposed to disease, by bad cultivation, old age, bad soil
bad manures, sudden changes of weather, warm rains, &c.

Ravages of Insects, Fungi, ^c. — The best writers consider
the ravages of insects as at most but a predisposing cause,
rendering the potato more liiible to disease by enfeebling the
plant. By many writers insects are considered as remotely af-
fecting the potato ; by others, as having no effect at all. The
fungus on potatoes is not the cause of the rot. It finds the
potato, previously diseased, a fit s\ibject for its operation.

The general conclusions to which the facta presented in
these various communications seem to lead us, are —

I. That the disease bears a striking resemblance to the
cholera, and probably exists in the atmosphere.

II. That it is doubtful whether any specific cure has been,
or ever will be discovered ; but

III. As in cholera, certain preventives are well ascertained,

by the application of which, the liabilities to disease
may be greatly lessened.

IV. That by obtaining the soundest seed, by planting in the

most favourable soils, and by using the most suitable
manures, we may have a good degree of confidence in
the successful cultivation of this useful vegetable.
V. That we may expect, that like the cholera, the potato
rot wdl become less and less formidable from year to
year, and eventually subside into a mild and manage-
able epidemic, if that term may be used in such a con-
nexion.
The Council ordered their best acknowldgements to
be conveyed to Mr. Dawson, for his attention in favour-
ing the Society with this communication.

Mr. B. Sanderson, of Woodford Wells, in Essex, ad-
dressed a letter to the Council, conveying his ex-
perience of four years in the trial of potato cultivation
in poor land without manure, during which period no
taint of disease had made its appearance, although the
original stock of tubers had been diseased while grown
with manure. — The Council ordered their best ac-
knowledgments also for the favour of this communica-
tion.

Miscellaneous Communications. — M. Henri
Mares, of Montpellier, Perpetual Secretary to the Agri-
cultural Society of the Departementde I'Herault, trans-
mitted to the Council the transactions of that Society
for the last five years, with a letter expressive of the de-
sire he felt to mark his sense of the gratification he de-
rived last year in witnessing the results of English farm-
ing, by this offering of the record of their own cultivation
of the art of agriculture in the south of France under
circumstances of climate so different, and in an agricul-
tural sense so much more trying than those of this
country. — Mr. Johnson, Secretary of the New York
State Agricultural Society, transmitted a copy of the
details of experiments in Draining, for which prizes had
been awarded to Mr. John Johnson and the Hon. T.
G. Yeoraans. — Mr. W. C. Fowler, of Amherst, Mass.,
presented a copy of the Report of Commissioners con-
cerning the establishment of an Agricultural School,
aud other subjects relative to the advancement of the
interests of agriculture in the Commonwealth of Massa-
chusetts.— Mr. Klingemann, Secretary to the Hanove-
rian Legation, has informed the Society, that the
Anniversary Meeting of the German A.griculturists will
be held at Hanover from the 5th to the 1 1th of Septem-
ber next, and in the hope that Members of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England would favour them with
their attendance, he has transmitted to the Society a
copy of the circular Invitation and the Programme for
the occasion. — Mr. Parrington, Secretary of the Cleve-
land Agricultural Society, conveyed to the Council the
thanks of that body for the steps they had taken in refe-
rence to eflecting a reduction in the price of Guano.—
Capt. Wentworth Buller, R.N., presented a copy of his
pamphlet, entitled : " Remarks on the Monopoly of
Guano." — Mr. Rowlandson addressed to the Council
such suggestions, derived from his own experience, as
had reference to the conditions of the Society's prize for

270

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

a Substitute for Guano. — Mr. Chaplin, M.P., Chairman
of the London and South-Western Railway Company,
expressed his willingness to receive from the Members
of the Society, to which he also belonged, any sug-
gestions that in their opinion would tend to promote the
aoricultural interest by means of railway arrangements.
— Mr. Ormsby Gore, M.P., presented a sample of his
flax dressed, aficr the removal of the seed, at a cost of
5d. per lb, — Lord Berneis transmitted from Keythorpe
Hall, in Leicestershire, Specimens of Turnip plants in
diaerent stages of their growth, raised in a rich loaray
soil from seed transmitted to the Society by the Russian
Government. — Mr. Strafford presented a copy of the
tenth volume of his illustr;\ted edition cf Coates's Ilerd-
Booii of improved Short-Horned Cattle. — Mr. Bailward,
of Horsiugton, suggested a prize for an Essay on Or-
chards and their management, the choice of fruit, and
whether the colour of tlie apple can be adopted as a
guide to the choice for cider-making ; the best manage-
ment of apples previously to grinding, and then whether
any interval should elapse before pressing ; after that,
how cider may be best made, managed, and kept, — Dr.
Coley, of Brussels, addressed a letter to the Council on
the collection of seeds and grain, the free transmission
of agricultural packets betvv-ecn England and Belgium,
and the system of inoculation for Pieuro-Pneumonia. —
Mr. Carr, of Belper, one of the mechanical judges at
the Country Meetings of the Society, presented to each
Member of the Council a pair of his machine-made

hoise-siioes, for which he claimed the advantages of a
better bite, increased durability, more exact fitting,
freedom from concussion, equal protection to the foot,
less weight v/ear and tear, smaller nails and fewer in
number, exemption from burning the foot, freedom from
uneven tread, and less price, four middle-sized shoes
being produced at a profit by this mode of manufacture
at the small charge of one shilling for such set. — Mr.
C. H. Webber, of Buckland, addressed a letter to the
Council on an adaptation he had found advantageous
for shaking straw. — Lieut. Browne communicated the
result of his endeavours to improve the Agricultural
Fumigator he had exhibited to the Council on a former
occasion, by the application of a strap or wheel to turn
the fan as the machine is moved along, in order that it
may be adapted to the fumigation of large buildings and
also of hops. — Captain Stanley Carr laid before the
Council a tabular statement of the rate of charge for
very economical seamless canvas hose imported by Mr.
Peterson, of Water Lane, fiom the establishment of
BurbacVi and Co. — Prof. Donaldson addre-sed a letter
to the Council on his views respecting the heating power
of lime in soils. — Mr. E. Oliver transmitted from Bruges
a collection of various agricultural notices. — The Coun-
cil ordered their usual acknowledgements for the favour
of these communications.

The meetings of the Council stand adjourned, over
the Autumn recss, to the first Wednesday in Novem-
ber.

THE BENEFICIAL INVESTMENT OF CAPITAL IN LAND.

The problem to be solved in the establishment of
agricultural banks is to devise a system by which ac-
commodation analogous to that enjoyed by the com-
mercial classes, but for the longer periods which agri-
culture requires^ may be aflbrded to the agricultural
interest; and at the same time to confine this accom-
modation to the legitimate purposes of farming, and to
discourage injurious speculation. No machinery ap-
pears better calculated for this than the cash credit sys-
tem of Scotland. Li that country a person wishing to
take a farm beyond the compass of his own means has
but to keep an account with one of the joint stock
banks, and to offer the personal security of two friends
for the repayment of advances, and, if the managers
approve of the security, he is allowed to overdraw his
account to the amount required. The. improved culti-
vation of Scotland has been effected mainly by means of
these cash credits, and the want of success which so fre-
quently attends Scottish farmers who settle in England
arises, in a great measure, from the absence of those
facilities for obtaining accommodation which Ihey would
have enjoyed in their own country. They are, there-
fore, often deceived in their estimates of the amount of
capital required for a farm of a given size in England.
We could point to a remarkable case of this kind, which
led to an expensive lawsuit between a landowner in
England and a farmer from Scotland, who had entered
into an agreement for a lease of a farm at a moderate
rent, possessing capital of his own which would have
been suflBcient in Scotland for a farm of the same size
with the aid of the accommodation the banks would have

afforded him. After having occupied it a year, and
sunk a large sum on improvements by draining, &c., he
applied to the bank of the district for a cash credit,
which was refused. Finding the difficulties in which he
was involved, he attempted to extricate himself by throw-
ing up the farm ; which led to litigation, eventually ter-
minated by arbitration, under which the landowner
took back the farm, and paid for the permanent im-
provements. Objections are raised against the cash-
credit system by the lovers of routine in banking,
precisely similar to those raised by our friend Mr.
Flail against the introduction into one district of im-
proved processes of cultivation which have stood the
test of long experience in another. These objections
are — " It may do there, but it will not do here. Scotch
banking may be all very well north of the Tweed, but
it will not answer in the south." In the first place the
Scottish banks can issue one pound notes, and with-
out them it is alleged they would not be able to make
these advances. It could not be done with hard cash.
I The failure of certain joint stock banks, established pro-
fessedly on the Scotch system in England, and the
disastrous consequences resulting from the reckless
manner in which they allowed accounts to be over-
drawn, and the wild speculation to which it led, are
urged as another objection. Whatever weight the
argument respecting one pound notes may have
had formerly, when gold was scarce and the Bank
of England had difficulty in retaining in its coffers
gold to the extent of one third of their issues, it falls to
the ground now, when California and Australia are over-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

271

whelming us with their " dust," and when the stock of
bullion in the bank is increasing so rapidly that, before
long, it will amount, in all probability, to the full value
of the notes issued. It must be remembered, again,
with respect to the English Joint Stock Banks which
failed, that they adopted only one half of the Scottish
system, and rejected the other. They allowed a few in-
dividuals to overdraw their accounts to an enormous ex-
tent, for building and railway speculations, without
taking the securities which the banks in Scotland re-
quire. To be obliged to find two friends willing to be
bound for a man is in itself a great check on imprudent
borrowing ; and after the loan has been obtained these
two securities exercise a salutary surveillance over him,
in conjunction with the bank. If the managers see,
from the nature of the transactions, that the loan is not
being applied bond fide to the purposes of farming, they
intimate as much to the securities ; and, on the other
hand, if the securities disapprove of the proceedings of
their friend, tliey give notice to the bank and close the
account, to relieve them from their responsibility.

We contend, then, that the establishment of agricul-
tural banks, receiving deposits as a permanent invest-
ment, or with an engagement that it shall not be with-
drawn for a certain number of years, would exert a be-

neficial influence on English agriculture, would afford
to the shareholders and depositors a higher rate of inter-
est than they can obtain in the funds, and would
form as safe an investment for capital as the Scottish
banks.

We have elsewhere recommended capitalists, having a
certain sum for investment inland, to expend part only
in the purchase of poor land, and the remainder in exe-
cuting permanent improvements on it — in preference to
embarking the whole in high-rented land of superior
natural quality.

It is objected that in the backward districts where such
improveable estates are to be found, there would be dif-
ficulty in finding tenants with the requisite skill and
capital to give full eff^ect by an improved cultivation to
the landlord's outlay. There are, however, plenty of
rising young men, practically conversant with the best
eystems of farming, and sufficiently enlightened to
judge of the merits of still more modern improvements,
and to adopt them without prejudice, if suitable to their
locality. A monied man purchasing an improveable es-
tate, by a careful selection of steady and industrious men
of this class as tenants, might employ part of his capital
advantageously by advancing them the funds necessary
to give eifect to their skill. T.

CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.

Pl.int-Housbs.
Tlie prevalence of so much rainy weather of late
should have induced a corresponding degree of at-
tention to ward off its injurious attacks from all green-
house plants standing out of doors for the purpose of
hardening and maturing the wood. As this process
approaches perfection, the quantity of water to the
roots must be gradually lessened, hence it is obvious
that to leave them exposed to all the rain must be in-
jurious, and therefore either a waterproof covering
must be applied, or else the pots laid on their side
when it rains. By far the best plan, both as regards
the welfare of the plants and the facility of accom-
plishment, is to have an erection on the plan of a tulip
frame, with waterproof canvass and rollers : with care,
this would last many years. Some of the early forced
Azaleas will have set their bloom buds and ripened the
wood, if they have been properly exposed j they may,
therefore, be top-dressed and removed to the green-
house, when the foliage is perpectly dry. The same
remarks will apply to the Camellias required for early
flowering, which should be housed at once : the later
ones may be left out for some time yet. The winter
flowering Heaths and Epacrises must have all the ex-
posure possible, by the entire removal of the lights on
fine days. Heaths, in all stages of growth, should
now be standing in cold pits ; and such as have been
recently cut in, after flowering, may be kept rather
close and shaded when necessary. As soon as the

growth commences, inure them to perfect exposure in
common with the general stock, as the completion of
the growth under such circumstances is generally more
favourable to abundance of flower and dwarf stocky
habit. I have seen beautiful young plants from a
celebrated Heath iiursery, which had been pushed on
to grow very fast at this season by close moist air
and shading, and being sent out in that state were
placed where they got free ventilation and a drier at-
mosphere, in a few days the beautiful green became a
dusky-brown, and much of the foliage fell off. Nur-
serymen would do well to send a notice with such
plants that tliey had been kept rather close, and that
the change to the opposite extreme must be gradual.
Such might not be necessary to gardeners who are pre-
sumed to understand the cultivation of these charming
plants ; but there are many lovers and purchasers
of Heaths, who are not so deep in the philosophy of
inuring plants to submit to varying atmospherical in-
fluences as wo practicals are obliged to be. Chrysan-
themums must have every attention paid to watering,
and the application of liquid manure ; the strongest
will be ready to be secured to a neat stake ; take care
that the whole stock are thus timely secured, as they
are liable at this season to be blown about by the
autumn gales. See that the layers in the border do not
want for water and liquid manure when well rooted.
Forcing-Houses.
Pineries, — See that previous directions are fully

T

272

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

carried out, both as regards shiftiuij aud bringing for-
ward the succession plants in the various stages of
growth, and also in supplying them freely with liquid
manure, air moisture, and a great abundance of venti-
lation, to ensure a stocky growth. Continue to pot the
strongest suckers as they become ready. Great caution
must be used in syringing plants just showing fruit :
they should not be syringed over head until the fruit
is well set. Apply water and liquid manure to the
roots, and syringe all over the surface of the bed and
the base of the plants. Attend to the bottom heat,
which, for plants in this stage, must not be allowed to
decline.

Vineries. — The late Vines should be assisted with a
little fire heat at this season, to perfect the fruit aud to
assist in the ripening of the wood. Keep them clear
of all superfluous growth, and let them have a free cir-
culation of air. See that there is sufficient moisture
at the roots to assist them up to the colouring point ;
moisture in the air must be kept down rather than
encouraged, as it will only excite a tendency to make
late growth. Continue the removal of mouldy berries
from the ripe grapes. They will now also require to
be protected from the attacks of wasps and flies. The
plan of putting bags over each bunch separately is not
a good one, as it rubs off the bloom and induces decay
in the bunches ; I therefore recommend, as cheaper
and less troublesome, to nail the elastic hexagon
netting over all the ventilators, using the strong tape
round the edges, as before recommended.

Pits and Frames. — See that a considerable quantity
of fermenting materials are kept in a constant course
of preparation for the formation of new beds, and to
keep up the bottom heat in Cucumber frames intended
for autumn and winter fruiting, for which purpose the
linings will require almost as much attention as in
early spring. Late Melons should also have a renewal
of linings. Prepare also materials for successional beds

of Mushrooms, and spawn such as are at the right
temperature. See that the casings do not get too dry :
a slight sprinkling of water now and then will do much
good, but avoid saturation.

Hakdy Fruit Garden.
Wasps are abundant and troublesome, and means
must be used to prevent them spoiling the best fruits,
either by covering with canvass, or hexagon net, or
else covering individual fruits separately. Cotton
wadding is very good for securing Peaches, Nectarines,
&c., and will also do for Figs ; but the latter are better
covered with small bags ; without some such precaution,
it is diflScult to get a thoroughly ripe fig. Nailing and
preventive pruning must still be practised on wall trees
of all sorts, as they will continue to grow for some
time yet; and if not kept well nailed, are often much
blown about by the autumn gales. Gooseberries and
Currants, which are covered with mats, should be
opened now and then on fine days, to dry off the damp.

Kitchen Garden.
Commence earthing up the early Celery : choose a
dry day, aud remove all suckers and useless leaves.
Stir the soil amongst all advancing crops of Cauli-
flower and Broccoli for autumn use, and also amongst
the general crops to stand the winter. Thin out the
winter Spinach bed in time, and keep the surface
stirred. Plant out more Endive and Bath Cos Lettuce.
Sow Hai-dy Hammersmith Lettuce on sloping banks or
under the shelter of a south wall, to stand in the seed
bed through the winter. Proceed with the lifting and
storing of Potatoes. Such as are intended for seed
next year, should be spread out thin to get quite green.
Most of the haulm has ripened off prematurely this
season, but amongst those planted in January and
February I do not find a half peck of diseased tubers
in a sack. Later planted ones, I fear, will be worse :
we shall soon see.— C.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT
FOR AUGUST.

During the early part of this month, and up to
about the 20th, large quantities of rain fell in most
parts of the United Kingdom, but more especially
in the Southern, Eastern, Western, and Midland
districts. From the fact — and which by the way
is calculated to somewhat reduce the acreable yield
— that the wheats ripened prematurely in many
quarters, cutting was of necessity commenced
earlier than usual : hence, immense breadths of
wheat were exposed to a damp and changeable
atmosphere for at least ten days or a fortnight
longer than was the case in 1851. The damage
thus sustained by the crop has been extensive;

and, in numerous instances, very heavy losses have
resulted from the wheats having become matted
and grown — sprouts of from two to three inches in
length being observable upon many sheaves. la
addition to this calamity, blight and mildew have
considerably affected the condition and weight of
the crop, although we are of opinion that the rains
have caused more damage than either of the latter
causes. It must be observed, however, that these
remarks apply chiefly to the state of matters south
of the Humber, and that they cannot be considered
as applicable to every district. The quarters which
have suffered most are the fens of Cambridgeshire,
and the greater portion of Wiltshire, Sussex,
Surrey, and most of the Midland Counties. From

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

273

the North oar accounts are unquestionably of a
more favourable character, notwithstanding that the
season there has been what may be considered a
forward one. We have now to inquire what amount
of damage has in reality been sustained. Upon
thi:s point growers and dealers differ materially ;
but our opinion is that the loss has in many in-
stances been greatly exaggerated, although, judging
from the state of the samples exhibited at Mark
Lane and elsewhere, it is evident that, in numerous
mstances, one-sixth of the wheats have been so
damaged as to make it a matter of difficulty to ob-
tain purchasers for them at almost any price. In
forming an estimate of the loss, we must not forget
that, at one time, the yield promised to be con-
siderably over an average ; hence it is fair to
assume that the aggregate return — allowing of
course, for the comparatively abundant crops in the
North — will be about one million quarters short of
1851, in which year the produce was immense.
Our premises then are these : the growth of
wheat is nearly an average one, but with quality
greatly inferior to that of many preceding seasons.
As might be anticipated, the corn trade has been
in an excited state, and the prices of wheat have
advanced from 4s. to 5s. per qr. The return of
fine weather, and the favourable advices from Scot-
land, have lately operated against the trade, and
the improvement just noticed has been with diffi-
culty supported. At Mark Lane new red wheat
has sold at from 35s. to 44s., and red 42s. to 50s.
per qr. ; whilst the weight of the samples has varied
from 56 to 63 lbs. per bushel. The quantity re-
ceived from Essex and Kent has amounted to
2,000 qrs. Respecting the crop of barley, we may
observe that it is a good one as to quantity, but
very deficient in quality ; whilst it is evident that a
great scarcity of really fine malting parcels will be
experienced during the whole of the season. The
quantity sprouted and valueless is much smaller
than had been calculated upon. Oats have come
forward "rapidly. The straw has turned out long,
and the quantity of corn grown is much larger
than for some years past ; but it is evident that
beans have turned out a complete failure in nearly
all parts of the country. The yield of peas is turn-
ing out well.

The early seed grasses and seeds are abundant
in quantity, whilst their quality has not been mate-
I'ially injured by the dampness of the weather.
The second-cut of both meadow and clover hay is
likely to prove unusually abundant ; indeed, in
many quarters, we have seen the swathe nearly
equal to the first cut, particularly on strong lands.
The demand for both hay and straw has ruled
tolerably steady, and prices have been well sup-
ported, owing chiefiy to the supplies having been

moderate, from the farmers being much occupied
in the fields.

It has been a general subject of remark that
labour has been unusually scarce all over the king-
dom—the emigration to the United States, Aus-
tralia, Sec, having carried away an immense num-
ber of able-bodied labourers. Judging from the
rate at which it is now going on, we should
incline to the opinion that the evil will increase,
and that wages must rise in proportion.

Very conflicting accounts have continued to arrive
on the subject of the potato disease. On the one
hand, we are informed that nearly the whole of
the crop has been lost : on the other that the
growth is fully expected to be a good one. Now,
it is clear that superabundant moisture must prove
prejudicial to the crop, and that warm dry weather
is now required to bring ic to maturity. Up to the
present time, very large quantities have been dis-
posed of, in the various markets, in excellent condi-
tion ; and we have heard from the best authorities
that the damage as yet sustained is trifling. It is
true that the havilm has exhibited signs of decay ;
but we find that the tubers, when raised, have
mostly escaped the disease. We contend, there-
fore, that the actual losses will not have any
material influence upon the value of the better
kinds of food. The turnip and carrot crops have
been looking remarkably healthy and forward,
although the season has not been considered a very
favourable one. The weight of swedes expected
to be pulled this year is large. The cattle markets
have ruled steady at full quotations. Store animals
have commanded rather high rates, notwithstand-
ing the increase in the inports of stock from Hol-
land and elsewhere. The business doing in cakes
has not been extensive, yet prices have ruled steady,
and the large arrivals of linseed from India and the
Black Sea continue to find buyers, at steady rates.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE
DURING THE PAST MONTH.

Most of the markets held during the month just
concluded have been somewhat liberally supplied
with fat stock as to number, but the general con-
dition of the beasts and sheep brought forward has
been beneath the usual average at this period of the
year. The weight of the stock having been by no
means heavy, and store animals having realized
rather a high figure, the demand has improved,
and, in some instances, prices have had an upward
tendency. Hitherto, the beasts received from Lin-
colnshire for the metropolitan market have been,
for the most part, unfit for first-rate butchers ;
hence, the value of the best Scots has ruled much
higher in proportion to the short-horns and most
other breeds. We attribute this circumstance

T 2

2t4

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

chiefiy to the long-continuance of dry weather in
the early part of the year, and the hmited quantitise
of cake ccnsumed upon most of the farms in the
north. There are one or two features in the trade at this
moment which require particular notice, and which
may serve to illustrate the workings of free-trade.
In the first place, it is certain that the production of
English stock is not increasing, and that it is far
beneath actual consumption. How is this ? Simply
because the foreigner is consiberably underselling
the English grazier. Let us give an instance. Since
we last wrote, the total number of calves disposed
of in Smithfield has amounted to 3,350 head, out
of which 2,867 were foreigners — thereby showing
that only 483 were English ! As regards value, we
may intimate that the Dutch calves— most of which
have turned out well— have produced no more than
from 2s. 8d. to 3s. 2d. per 8 lbs., whilst the English
have sold at from 3s. 4d. to 4s. Now, it must be
obvious that when the butchers— many of whom,
by the way, are bad judges of hve calves— can pur-
chase fair average foreign qualities at the prices
given above, they will continue to favour the
Dutch rather than the English producers ; hence,
from being so completely undersold in their own
markets, numerous calf-rearers in Essex, Surrey,
and elsewhere have wholly abandoned the system,
and turned their attention to other matters, possibly
more profitable to them. Had the supply of home-
reared calves increased in the same ratio as that of
foreign, prices must, unquestionably, have gone
considerably lower. As it is, the trade has been
completely annihilated. The same remarks may,
to a great extent, be applied to both beasts and
sheep ; whilst, judging from the increasing imports,
we are very apprehensive that a lasting injury has
been inflicted upon the property of our graziers.
It has been asserted that the importations are chiefly
for the purpose of breeding, and consequently that
the agricultural body are deriving great benefits
from the law permitting the free import of foreign
stock. A more absurd and ridiculous statement
has never, we believe, been published ; for all ac-
quainted with the subject are aware that at least
nineteen-twentieths of the stock imported pass im-
mediately into the hands of the butchers. Ex-
periments have, it is true, been made for the purpose
of ascertaining whether it is possible to fatten foreign
beasts and sheep in this country at a profit ; but
the result has almost invariably proved a heavy
loss. We may observe, further, that EngUsh sheep
in a half-fat state have been purchased and for-
warded to Holland, and from thence re-shipped to
London in a greatly improved state. This system,
however, is not likely to be carried on to any extent,
owing to the expenses of transit. The Dutch sheep
continue to improve both in weight and quality.

In proof of that statement, we have seen numbers
of them sold in Smithfield, at 41s. each, equal to
3s. 8d. per 8 lbs. The following are the arrivals
into London, during the month : —

Head.

Beasts 5,316

Sheep 23,623

Lambs 3,576

Calves 2,867

Pigs 1,856

IMPORTS AT CORRESPONDING PERIODS.

Aug. Beasts Sheep Lambs Calves Pigs

1847.... 4,185 18,489 874 1,942 —

1848 2,526 14,266 871 2,135 —

1849 2,913 15,981 1,179 1,000 302

1850 4,277 17,376 2,370 1,945 581

1851 5,342 24,342 4,431 2,569 2009

At the outports the supplies have not increased,
but two cargoes have arrived at Portsmouth from
Oporto in excellent condition, the value of the
beasts being from £19 to £21 each; yet they have
not paid the importers anything like the original
cost, and other expenses.

The total supplies of English and foreign stock
exhibited in Smithfield have been as under.

Head.

Beasts 21,049

Cows 620

Sheep and lambs 165,770

Calves 3,350

Pigs 2,785

STOCK SHOWN AT CORRESPONDING PERIODS.
1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851.
Beasts .. 19,073 17,975 18,133 19,390 20,317
Cows .. 878 497 454 4/5 450

Sheep and

lambs .225,390 153,280 173,620 181,490 181,900
Calves.. 3,860 3,840 2,480 2,348 2,648
Pigs . . 2,227 2,443 2,200 2,291 2,732

The bullock droves from Lincolnshire, Leices-
tershire, and Northamptonshire, have amounted to
10,150 Short-horns; and from other parts of En-
gland, 1,900 of various breeds. The supply from
Scotland has been confined to 358 Scots.

Beef has sold at from 2s. 4d. to 4s ; mutton,
2s. 6d. to 4s. 2d.; lamb, 4s. to 5s. 2d.; veal, 26.
8d. to 4s. ; and pork, 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. per Slbs.
to sink the ofi'als.

COMPARISON OF

PRICES.

Aug., 1848.

Aug., 1849.

s. d. 8. d.

B. d. 6. d.

Beef . .

from

2 10 to 4 4

2 8 to 2 10

Mutton

....

3 10 to 5 0

2 10 to 4 0

Lamb .

4 0 to 5 2

4 0 to 5 0

Veal...

3 6 to 4 2
3 8 to 4 6

3 0 to 3 6

Pork .

3 2 to 4 0

Aug., 1850.

Aug., 1851.

s. d. 8. d.

s. d. s. d.

Beef ..

from

2 6 to 2 10

2 4 to 3 6

Mutton

....

3 2 to 4 2

2 10 to 3 10

Lamb .

3 6 to 4 6

3 10 to 4 10

Veal...

3 0 to 4 0
3 2 to 4 0

2 4 to 3 6

Pork .

2 4 to a 8

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

275

The pastures being plentifully supplied with
grass, the stock has fared remarkably well, and we
have heard very few complaints of the disease in
cattle, or foot-rot in sheep. The consumption of
cake has not increased.

The demand for each kind of meat in Newgate
and Leadenhall has ruled steady, as follows : — Beef,
from 2s. 2d. to 3s. 4d. ; mutton, 2s. 6d. to 4s. ;
lamb, 4s. to 5s. ; vear2s. 8d. to 3s. lOd. ; pork 2s.
4d. to 3s. 6d. per 8lbs by the carcass.

CAMBRIDGESHIRE.
The alarming state of things in our rural districts precludes
our waiting to the end of the month to give our report.
No thoughtful man can, we presume, longer doubt that we
are now suffering under a serious visitation of Divine Providence ;
of which the blight and mildew with which many of our crops
have been so severely smitten, followed by the almost unprece-
dented wet weather in the midst of the harvest, seems but the
strongest corroboration. We have occasionally seen failing
crops and rainy seasons in the time of harvest ; but never, for
the last fifty years, have we witnessed the crops so greatly
damaged, or the British husbandman's prospects so thoroughly
disheartening. We just remember the harvest of 1800, when,
after a most fearful thunder-storm, attended with tremendous
rains and a very hot and sultry atmosphere, the corn sprouted
in the fields, whether cut or uncut, perhaps more than it has
done within the last ten days ; since which, we do not recollect
so disastrous a season. In the former case, a greater portion
of the harvest was secured before the rains set in ; whereas in
the present season the heavier crops very largely are not merely
beaten flat upon the ground, but present the most dead and
dingy appearance, with a meagre shrivelled kernel, shut up iu
the chaff in a way that almost defies any thrashing-instrument
to get it out. And where the corn is reaped, so incessant have
been the rains that the sheaves are so thoroughly saturated
that the grain has shot out, in close and sheltered spots, most
awfully ; and, in a greater or less degree, in nearly all situations.
The same may be said of barley. There can be none of fine
qiiality, and the great bulk will be miserpbly bad. Our mea-
dows are covered with water ; and the farm roads present the
appearance of winter. The barometer has now risen considera-
bly : it may be merely the effect of the northerly wind. The
smoke still descends to the earth ; and as yet there appears
but little chance of fine weather. There was a time when such
calamities fell perhaps heavier upon the consumer than on the
grower of corn ; but with open ports to all the world, free of
duties, the British grower has no security but that he may
have to compete as extensively as ever with grain from abroad
of fine quality, rendering his own damaged produce nearly un-
saleable in the market. No wonder then, that our farmers,
under these perplexing and overwhelming difficulties, should
feel considerable discomfiture. They will do well, however, to
bear up with fortitude and still do their best, leaving the issue
in the hands of an all-wise and still merciful Providence ; not
forgetting that it is far better to fall into the hands of God
than unreasonable men. Of the latter they have had ample
experience within the last few years. There is one question,
however, that cannot fail to have become most pertinent —
Will our rulers have the hardihood to continue, under present
circumstances, that grievous impost the malt-tax ? Grievous
and annoying to the farmer at the best, that he may not use
the article he grows for himself and labourers without some-
thing like a cent, per cent, tax upon it ; but doubly grievous in

a season like the present, when, from causes over which he has
had no control, more than half his crop while bearing such an
impost is rendered unavailable for malting purposes ; but rid
of which, that very barley would bear a fair price in the market.
Surely, if the term " farmers' friend" is not an utter cheat, with
a free-trade in corn, the malt-tax can never survive a eeason
like the present. Since writing the above, we have exten-
sively examined several wheat and barley fields, and we have
not found a shock of wheat that is not, more or leas, sprouted ;
the white wheat in particular is nearly all started, and in miny
cases has shot the blade quite out green. The barley is nearly
as bad in the swath, and that uncut where lodged, is grown
quite as bad as that mown. The rain has also set in again in
fearful earnest. — Aug. 20.

SOMERSETSHIRE.
During 'more than two weeks we have had but oue day
without rain in this part of the county; but the fall of raiu, ex-
cept on the 10th and 14th, which was general, andlasted very
heavily from six to ten hours, has been very partial ; there
was a very heavy thunderstorm in the county on the evening
of the 13th and morning of the 14th, whilst it was fine all
the day here ; there were heavy thunderstorms last evening,
but partial ; the glass has been rising steadily, but slowly.
Portions of our best wheat are harvested, but very little in-
deed in a condition for grinding. On sandy soils and ou
strong late soils the ruat has much lessened the quantity and
quality of the crop ; on the moor there are not 20 bushels of
inferior wheat where 40 might have been ; we should fully es-
timate the crop six bushels per acre, and taking quality into
the estimate, eight to ten bushels per acre, under last year on
our average growth, and a good deal must be wasted in grind-
ing it. The oats, laid as they are cut, have been much injured,
and in close situations so grown out that sheaves have had to
be taken abroad again. The barley is spoken of as a splendid
crop if it can be well taken, and the quality good. Peas have
suffered much in harvesting. The winter beans cut may come
in in fair condition, and prove an average crop. Some of our
fine meadows have been under water, and care must be taken
or we whall have unsound sheep. Harvest operations are put
two weeks behind what they would have been had there been
dry weather ; as it is, even in this county, we shall break into
the next month before it is generally secured. On Mendip and
the high land reaping is just about commencing, so they will
be able to progress more favourably. Prices have run up dur-
ing the rain from 5s. 6d. to 6s. 6d. the best white ; it is pretty
generally observed that the stock of old is short, and as the
quality is very superior to any new we shall have, it is held
firmly. Beans for local consumption fetch Ss. per bush.,
and vetches 5s. to 5s. 9d. Wool 12id. to 13|d. per lb., and
a great deal sold. Sheep are higher, and fat stock sells rather
better. — Aug. 21.

NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
Since forwarding my last report for this county, we have
experienced some very unfavourable harvest weather. Rain
commenced on the 7th, aud has continued very wet ever since
— the 12th and 13th being both exceedingly wet; also on the
night of the 16th considerable rain fell, flooding the
meadows and lowlands of the county. Considerable injury is
done to the wheats standing in the shook, owing to the
weather having been showery during the process of reaping;
many sheaves have been tied up damp, and are growing fast
at the bands, while all the heavy crops uncut have grown ,
owing to the ears lying closely to the wet ground We there-

276

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

fore must expect an inferior sample, with much sprouted corn .
A very considerable proportion of barley is mown, and has
become very daik coloured, with a proportion of it growing
daily. Oats are also much stained, and trrcat loss will be in-
curred by shedding out. Peas and vetches are getting com-
pletely rotten, the fodder spoiled, and a fourth part of the crop

already sprouted. To-day has been very warm and showery,
with a humid and heavy atmosphere, after a previous wet
night. We are every day hoping for a finer and more sea-on-
able change, and shall hail wilh pleasure the rrturn of dry
harvest weather. Labourers are scarce, and high prices are
given for labour. — Aug. 20.

AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c.

ASHBOURN FAIR.— The show of horses was better than
we have seen at late fairs, and useful animals sold well. Cows
were very limited — we do not remember having seen so small
a show for some years — calving cows realized high prices.
Sheep were plentiful, both fat and store ; both met with a
tolerablv good sale.

ATTLE BOROUGH FAIR.— Business had a less active
appearance than at Thetford on Monday. Still the confidence
of the sellers of both beasts aud sheep has in no manner dimi-
nished ; although the supply was large, previous prices were
fully supported. There was a .-^lo-.v demand for milch and in-
calf Cows, and prices were a shade lower. The sale for young
horses was good, at hiKh prices. The pii; trade was slow, but
previous prices were suppurted. Small calves iu good demand,
at improved prices.

BANBURY FAIR. There was a large supply of stook,
and the town was thronged v. ith agriculturists. The business
effected was tolerably extensive, and good prices were realized,
A sale of 2i rams, from the celebrated flock of Mr. AlbanBuU,
of Drayton, took place in the horse fair by Mr. Cother, which
were disposed of at good prices, the average being £7 10s.
each.

BAMPTON FAIR.— Dealers are here from all parts of the
kina;dom, and a very good supply of horses of a high class,
suited for carriases, which met areadv sale.

BRAfTON DEVON FAIR.— There was a large supply of
the pure North Devon breed of cattle exhibited. We noticeii
a superior drove of steers, the property of Mr. Cratig, of
WhiteSeld Barton. A prime lot of heifers, pioperty of Mr.
Crang, Narracott. Mr. Ridd, of Bratton, produced a fine
drove of pure Devons. Cows and calves fetched from £10 to
£13; two-year-old steer.s, £10 to £14 the pair; three-year-
old and upwards, £14 to £32 the pair; fat bullocks, 8s. to Ss.
6d. per score ; fine heifers, 5s. 6d. to 6s. 9d. ditto. Tlie sheep
fair was largely supplied, and the demand brisk. Mr. Harris,
Bittadon, realized 35s. a-head for a fine lot of horned Esmoor
ewes. Store wethers, 22s. to 33s. ; fat ditto, 5d. per lb. ;
woolled lambs, 6d. per Ih. There was a good deal of business
transacted at remuueratinsr prices.

HORNCASTLE GREAT HORSE FAIR.— This great
mart for horses is now being nearly brought to a close -
Buyers have been plentiful for good animals, and first-rate
horses were eagerly sought for at extraordinary prices.
Hiuiters and park horses have fetched £100 to £200 each.,
and in two or three instances higher prices than these were
obtained. Carriage horses, well matched, £180 to £300 per
pair. Ready customers for good horses are always found at
this fair. Superior dray horses, £50 to £60 each, and if well
matched they realized more money. Hacks and harness
horses, £25 to £30, and if superior, £40 to £50. Fancy
ponies were scarce, and fetched high prices. Messrs. Potter,
of Melton Mowbray, brought 46 Irish trained himters ; they
found customers for nearly the whole, at good prices. Large
arrivals and a good demand have continued throughout the
fair. Colonel Wingfield, of the Royal Horse Artillery,
Colouel Lawrenson, of the 17th Lancers, Colonel Shewell, of
the 8th, Mr. Jex, of the Greys, and Colonel Moore, of the 6th,
are buying large numbers for their respective regiments ; and
Colouel Mundy and Captains Drakes and Fell are also pur-
chasing for the army. This is the largest fair we have wit-
ne.nsed for the last ten years. — Stamford Mercury.

CKIEFF,— MONZIE MARKET.— 'i he shbw of lambs
was about the usual average ; prices very high. Small animals
that used to sell about two shillings brought five, and met with
a ready sale; others, of a superior quality, brought from ten
to fourteen shillings ; altogether there has not been such a
good market for miny years. The market for general huair.css.

the day after iu Crieff, was but thinly attended, owing to the
advanced state of the crops, aad very little business was con-
sequently done. A large number of pigs were in the market,
and sold at good prices, varjing from six to twelve shillings,
according to age and quality.

GLOUCESTER CHEESE FAIR,- The quantity pitched
was greater than on any former occasion, being about 150 tons,
the whole of which was speedily sold at satisfactory prices,
there being a good attendance of both buyers and sellers. The
prices ranged, for seconds, from 34s, to 38s, ; for best single
Gloucester, from 42s, to 44s. ; best double, 46s, to 48s. per cwt.

HIGHLAND LAMB MARKETS. — There was a Iamb
market on Monday on the Muir of Alvie, Badenoch, and ano-
ther on the following day ia jiingussie. Prices were high ; in-
deed, such was the demand, that auy price asked could have
been obtained. There was a very keen competition. Shots
were bringing from 4s, to 5.3,, and tup lambs from 6s. to Ss.

HUNGERFORD SHEEP FAIR.— There was a good at-
tendance of buyers, and a fair supply of sheep, for which high
prices were obtained,

KNARESBRO' FAIR,— The attendance of buyers was
numerous, but the quantity of stock shown being rather
limited, and not of good quality, less business was transacted
than might have been expected from such an assemblage of
buyers ; but we doubt not the demand for better stock will be
responded to shortly.

LEEDS, Aug, 17. — There was only a moderate supply,
which sold at fi-om 7^d. to Qjd. per score of 21 lbs,

LELANT FAIR. — The wet weather greatly interfered with
business. The price of fat cattle was from 48s. to 509. per cwt.,
and of lean cattle from 30s, to 35s. per cwt.

LINCOLN FAT STOCK MARKET.— There was a small
show of both beasts and sheep, and everything was readily
bought up at advanced prices. Beef realized Ss. 6d. to 68.
per stone, ami mutton 5W. to 6d. per lb.

LISKEARD FAIR was largely supplied with sheep and
bullocks, but the sale was dull at a small decline in prices.

LOCKERBIE LAMB FAIR. -The stock was, as near as
could be estimated, about an average, numbering about
60,000, but the quality was decidedly better than last year.
The stock was principally composed of half-bredsand Cheviots,
with a few lots of three-parts. The buyers were very nume-
rous from all quarters of the country, more especially after the
arrival of the special trains advertised for that day iu con-
sequence of the fair. 1 he stcck was very anxiously looked
after, and carefully examined in the early part of the morn-
ing, when a few sales were effected ; but after the arrival
of the trains mentioned above, business got on rapidly,
and by eleven o'clock about half the stock was disposed of.
The stock shown at this fair is considered of a better class of
sheep than those that are brought to the Melrose and St Bos-
well markets, being, generally speaking, of a stronger descrip-
tion. Good Cheviot lambs, particularly wethers, were very
readily picked up ; also the half-bred lambs, the former at an
advance of 2s. abovelastyear'a prices, aud the latter description
aboat the same advance; aud crossesaboutls.6d. Althoughthe
pricesobtainedheremay appear higherthan whatwasgot atMel-
rose, the advance was much about the samc,when the nature of
the stock is taken into consideration. The few lots of three-part
bred lambs that came under our observation brouglit a
simdar advance to that obtained at St. Boswell's and Melrose.
Between eleven and twelve vast numbers left the ground.
Many parties who came here to purchase, had they known the
rise obtained at Melrose, would not have attended this market
to-day, but were ultimately reluctantly compelled to make their
purchases. We do not think, by three o'clock, a single lot was
left unsold. Tiic eeiiera! '.ork look c 1 mirommonlv fine from

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

377

the favourable state of (.lie wchtlicr to-day. Tiie followiug are
the averages : Ha'f-bred lambs, from 16s. to 23s. ; crosses,
from lis. to 163. ; Cheviots, from 9a. to 153.

LOUGHBOROUGH FAIR was very thinly attended.
Miloh cows and store stock sold pretty readily at tolerably
good prices, but fat stock were a drug, some of them remaining
on hand until late in the day. The horse fair was large, but
the animals shown were all of an ordinary description. There
was a large attendance of screw dealers, and the hissincss
transacted was principally amongst animals they exhibited.

LUDLOW FAIR. — A large supply of sheep and store
animals realized high prices. Fat mutton made fully 6d. per
lb. A good show of pigs, which fetched high prices. The
supply of beasts was rather small, and, there being a great
number of dealers in the fair, au advance in price was the re-
sult. Beef averaged S^d. per lb. Good horses in demand, at
very satisfactory rates.

MARLBOROUGH FAIR.— About the usual number of
sheep and lambs were penned, for which there was a good trade,
at prices not equal to Britford, but better than at "Tan Hill."
The best ewes fetched from 283. to 35s. ; the best lambs from
203. to 25s. ; wethers, from 2Ss. to 3/3. The highest figures,
however, were for choice lots. Mr. Hillier Reeves, as usual,
exhibited some good cart colts.

MELROSE FAIR. — The stock was fully an average one,
and the quality was allowed to be better than last year. The
number of buyers was also very lumierous. The show of Che-
viot lambs was rather short in point of number, many sales
amongst kno\vn lots of this description having been etfected
the night previous with reference to a market price. In a few
solitary instances a rise of Is. a head was obtained over St.
Boswell's market, but this should not be taken as any crite-
rion of tliis market. Cheviot lambs were about 2s. a head
higher than last year, and half-bred and three-parts averaged
a rise of from Is. 6d. to 2s. At the close of the market an
effectual clearance was made of all kinds ; and we do not
believe a single sheep was left imsold. It was considered,
upon the whole, to be a capital market. The following are a
few of the many sales effected : — Half-bred Lambs. — A lot
of 200 from Minto, going to the Earl of Rosslyn, Fifeshire,
at 16s. A lot of Ewe3 and Wethers from Spittal, near Hawick,
at 16s. 9d. Mr. Binnie, Easter-house, Byres, sold his lot of
eight score to Mr. Bell, Town-head, Gifford, at 18s. Mr.
Cossar, Mosshouses, sold his Wethers at IBs. and his Ewes at
16s. 9d. The lot belonging to Mr. Dickson, Wedderley, brought
16s, and his greyfaced, 13s. 6d. Three-parts Bred. — Mr.
Tillie, Crookitou Mains, sold his first-class Ewes and Wethers,
at 20s. ; and his second lot at 17s. 6d. A lot going to Greenlaw,
Berwickshire, being the shots of the stock of Mr. Allan, Up-
law, brought 15s. 6d. Mr. Hogg, Glenderg, sold his ewes and
wethers at 18s. 3d. Mr. Thomas liiuton, Cortleferry Inn, dis-
posed of his ewes and wethers at 18s. ; and Mr. Stewart of
Cortleferry sold his ^ewes and wethers at 14s. 9d. Cheviot
lambs. — A large lot, going to Forfarshire, brought 12s. Cd.
Mr. Forraan, DuncraehiU, bought the following three lots : — 8
score and 15 shot wethers at 10s. 6d. ; 21 score andjl 0 wethers
at 143. ; and 18 score and 16 ewe lambs at 12s. A lot of 22
score of wethers, from Riskunip, brought lis. 6d. ]\Ir. Gibson,
Shaws, Selkirksliire, sold 8 score of Ewes at 10s. 6d. Three
lots of wethers, going to Forfarshire, at 10s., 10s. 6d., and
lis. Mr. Aitchison sold 28 score of the Pencliirst wethers at
14s. 6d. A lot of wethers from Buccleuch brought 13s.6d.
.MUIR OF ORD MARKET.— There was a large show of
West Highland beasts, but very few sales occurred. In sheep
there was a considerable show of shot Cheviot lambs ; but
with few exceptions they were of inferior quality, although a
few were sold for good prices. For cross stots and queys the
high prices demanded internipted sales, although there was a
gTeat desire on the part of purchasers to make transactions.
Of cows the show as to numbers was considerable, but the
purchases were very limited ; if, indeed, the sales exceeded
those reported. In the horse market about a lumdred animals
were shown, although the few sales made were entirely effected
by the " tinkers," who seemed particularly inclined to effect
" swaps." The opinion of piurchasers as to the market was
that farmers asked too high prices, stating as their reason for
doing so that the Falkirk market of last week warranted their
increasing demands ; and that the Aberdeenshire dealers were
inclined to purchase largely on account of the superior hay
crops in that county. Of the transactions which occurred the

following are the principal : — A lot of two-year-old Highland
queys, at 31. 15s. each; a couple of superior cross stots, at23i.;
a lot of nine two-year-old cross stots, at 8/. each ; a small lot
of cross Higliland stots, at 3/. 15s. ; a lot of six quarter-old
Highland beasts, at 3/. 3s. ; a lot of thirty Highland queys, at
3/. 10s. each ; and also a lot of twenty Highland stots, at 4i.
each ; and a lot of sixteen six-quarter-old crosses, on the way to
the market, at il. 10s. each ; a lot of Highland heifers, at 51.
10s. each, said to be the best on the ground of their sort ; a lot
of six-quarter-old Highland stirks, at 3^ Is. 6d. each ; a lot of
three-year old short-horn stots, at 7/. 15s. each ; a lot of three-
year-old Highlanders, at ~>l. 10s. each ; a lot of Highland queys
were bought at 5/. each ; a lot of Caithness three-year-old
Stots forty in number), at SI. 8s. each ; a superior lot of three-
year-old cross queys, 35/. We heard of several lots of High-
land two-year-old stots and queys having been sold at from 3/.
to 3?. 10s. each. In the sheep market were several lots of shot
lambs. The earhest transactions we heard of were by Mr. S.
M'Rae, Achmore, wlio sold 105 Cheviot lambs to Mr. Monro,
Caithness, at 78. l^i each. Mr. Eraser, Mauld, sold sixty
shot Cheviot lambs, from Shieldaig, at 5s. 6d. each ; and a lot
of ditto, from Achingait, at Ss. 9d eacli. Mr. Robertson sold
Glencannich Cheviot wedder lambs, probably the best in the
market, at 12!. the clad score. Mr. Duncan Grant, from Glen-
moriston, sold shot Cheviot lambs at 8s. each. The general
price for shot Cheviot lambs ranged from 5s. 6d. to 9s. each.
A large (piantity of the stock shown on the ground remained
over till Thursday, on account of the high price asked by ex-
posers. The prices obtained must be considered good.

NEW ROMNEY FAIR.— Average up to two o'clock :—

8,012 lambs sold in 78 lots, average 17s. 8d.

3,169 old sheep 48 „ „ 253. Od.

364 ewe tags 10 „ „ 26s. 3d,

669 wether ditto 16 „ „ 27s. Od.

256 two-year-old wethers 8 „ „ 473. 6d.

130 maiden barrens 6 „ „ 383. Od.

12,600

This does not include Mr. Humphrey's flock, sold by auction
in an adjoining field. Number of sheep aud lambs penned.
19,000. There were also a number of horses at the fair, of an
inferior sort, with a few exceptions.

NORTHAMPTON FAIR.— The abundance of aftermath
has exercised a cheering influence in the trade of grazing stock
of all kinds. The supply of store beasts was not equal to the
demand ; and of those offered, consisting of Shorthorns, Here-
foids.runts.and Devons, the quality was exceedingly good, the
sellers in most instances having the turn of from 10s. to ISs.
per head in their favour, and all was sold o\xt an early hour.
Cows, for dairy purposes, of the Yorkshire breed, were in good
demand at £16 to £18 each. Suckling calves, 17s. to 27s.
each. Quarter-old store pigs, 163. to 20^. each. The supply
of sheep was unusually short, aud were easy to sell at im-
proved prices ; best wethers making 403. each, wether lambs
203. to 24s. ; Leicester ewes, 28s. to 343.; lambs 17s. to
20s. Cart horses, 5 years old, 40 to 50 guinea3 each ; colts,
3 years old, 25 to 35 guineas; 2 years old, 18 to 25 guineas.

OSWESTRY FAIR was but thinly stocked, but the at-
tendance of buyers was numerous. Beef fetched from 4|d. to
5d., according to quality; mutton, 5d. to 6d. Pigs con-
siderably advanced.

IRISH FAIRS.— Garrick.— The supply of stock was good.
Beef, 3/3. 4d. per cwt. ; two-year-olds, £6 to £6 lOs.; year-
lings sold freely at £3to£3i0s.; Lambs, 2 J s. to 27s.; mut-
ton, 5H. per lb. ; graziers, £6 lOs. to £9 ; store pigs in good
demand, and sold at £1 to £2 lOs. The supply of horses was
small, and nearly all of au inferior quality. Clol ghjord.vn.
— Sheep, pigs, and milch cows] realized a fair price. Pigs sold
at 403. per cwt. Milch cows' from £5 to £9. Lambs from
223 to 25s. each. Kerry. —The recent fairs prove that there
is a scarcity of stock among the farmers. This is evident from
the increasing shortness of the supply offered for sale in the
fair greens, notwithstanding the high prices offered for dairy
and young cattle, and breeding sheep— prices altogether in-
consistent with the present value of butter and of beef and
mutton. At KilorginFair the supply of stock was small
and the prices asked and held out for showed an advance of
fully 20 per cent, on those that would not be refused a month
previous. — Kerry Post.

S78

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

METEOROLOGICAL DIARY.

Barometer.

Thermometer.

Wind and State.

Atmosphere.

Weath.

Day.

8 a.m.

10p.m.

Min. !

Max.

lOp.m

Direction.

Force.

8 a.m.

2 p.m.

10p.m.

July 23

in, cts.
30.16

in. cts. i
30.06 j

52 1

74

63

E. S. E.

ively

cloudy

sun

fine

dry

24

29.95

29.88

59 1

73

64

East

lively

cloudy

sun

cloudy

dry

25

29.80

29.70

61

74

64

S.E., S.W.

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

storm

26

29.70

29.71

62

75

65

W. by N., var.

calm

cloudy

fine

cloudy

storm

27

29.77

30.00

60

74

61

Easterly

gentle

cloudy

sun fine

showery

28

30.00

30.06

58

74

65

N. Easterly

gentle

cloudy

sun

cloudy

dry

29

30.06

30.06

60

75

65

N. Easterly

gentle

[ cloudy

sun

fine

dry

30

30.06

30.06 ,

55

74

61

N. W., S. Ey

gl. cm.

cloudy

sun

fine

dry

31

30.06

30.06 i

55

11

61

S. E., N. W.

Uvely

cloudy

sun

cloudy

dry

Aug. 1

30.08

30.00

58

78

68

West by N.

gentle

fine

sun

fine

dry

2

29.91

29.70

59

11

64

West by N.

gentle

fine

sun

fine

dry

3

29.55

29.33 i

58

61

55

S. West

lively

icloudy

cloudy

cloudy

showery

4

29.33

29.43

53

68

58

S. West

gentle

fine

sun

fine

showery

5

29.49

29.47 j

54

72

59

S. West

gentle

fine

sun

cloudy

showery

6

29.47

29.37

52

66

59

S. West

strong

fine

fine cloudy

rain

7

29.38

29.38

56

70

59

S. West

lively

cloudy

fine ;fine

[showery

8

29.43

29.49 i

56

70

59

w. s. w.

brisk

fine

sun fine

jhint r.

9

29.49

29.54

56

69

57

w. s. w.

gentle

[fine

cloudy fine

rain

10

29.60

29.64

52

68

58

Westerly

gentle

fine

cloudy I fine

rain

11

29.40

29.14

56

58

55

Easterly, S. W.

furious

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

ram

12

29.27

29.50

54

62

57

West

brisk

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

rain

13

29.60

29.75

55

69

57

West

gentle

fine

sun

fine

dry

14

•29.77

29.68

52

72

59

W. S.W.

gentle

fine

sun

fine

dry

15

29.30

29.87

57

64

56

N. by West

gentle

'cloudy

sun

fine

rain

16

29.97

29.97

51

m

58

S. West

lively

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

rain

17

29.94

29.70

58

73

64

S. East

gentle

cloud

cloudy

cloudy

rain

18

29.70

29.87

60

74

60

W.byN., S.Ely.

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

fine

dry

19

29.90

29.95

55

61

57

N. West

calm

fog

cloudy

haze

dry

20

29.99

30.03

56

64

60

N. by West

verygl.

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

rain

21

30.13

30.20

58

70

63

N. by East

gentle

Icloudy

sun

fine

dry

22

30.24

30.24

60

73

60

N. by East

lively

cloudy

sun

fine

dry

23

30.24

30.24

58

69

60

N. by East

gentle

cloudy

cloudy

fine

dry

ESTIMATED AVERAGES OF AUGUST.

Barometer. I Thermometer.

High. I Low. High. I Low. I Mean.
30.26 29.35 I 82 I 41 61.6

REAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF THE PERIOD.

Highest. I Lowest. I Mean.

70.53 j 59.56 I 65.045

Weather and Phenomena.

July 23 — Superb ; changeable. 24 — Heavy
clouds. 25 — Thunder and profuse rain. 26 —
Finer ; a sprinkle. 27 — Old Swithin ; heavy
clouds; clear p.m. 28 — A fine afternoon. 29
and 30 — Heavy cumulous masses. 31 — Hot sun,
close, and oppressive.

Lunation. — First quarter, 24th day, 1 h. 2
m. morning. Full moon, 31st day, 2h. 12m.
morning.

August 1 — Smoky atmosphere; cirro stratus.
2 — Cheerful forenoon; hot; red sunset. 3 —
Weather broken up; close; showery. 4 — Some
distant thunder. 5 — Changeable. 6 — Early thun-
der and rain; rising wind. 7 — Pretty fine, after

rain in the night. 8 — Fine harvest day; airy.
9 — Gleams; several showers. 10 — Cheerful till
2 p.M , then thunder. 1 1 and 12 — Wet and windy.
13 and 14 — Pretty fine and drying. 15— Violent
wind, with rain. 16 — Change ; two strata of
driving clouds. 17 — Thundery; vast storms at 9
and 1 1 P.M.; lightning prodigious. 18 — Threatning
massive clouds; red sunset. 19 — Hazy clouds
day and night. 20 — Drizzle. 21 — finer; red
sunset. 22 — Fine drying air. 23— Smoky clouds;
white fleecy cirro-cumuli late.

Remarks connected w^ith Agriculture.
— There can be no doubt that the vast and sudden
heat of July aflPected the wheat just after the blos-
soming period, checked the maturation of the
milky pulp, and contracted the grain. Hence the
so-called blight. Subsequently the frequent rains
and dashing thunder-storms soaked the shocks ;
and the warm vapourous atmosphere favoured the
sprouting that had occurred in several places.
The green crops improve much, and promise to be
fine. Potatoes are again suffering.

Croydon. J. Towers.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

279

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF AUGUST.

We do not recollect a season for many years
past, in which so great a change has taken place
as that which has occurred during the month now
about to terminate. When we last addressed our
readers, the prospects for the harvest were of the
most promising character : up to the end of July
the reports from the agricultural districts were, al-
most TOthout exception, of a satisfactory nature.
The corn was fast approaching maturity ; the
weather appeared settled ; and high expectations
were entertained in regard to the quantity as well as
thequality of the pi'oduce. Soon afterwards it began,
however, to be discovered that the intense heat of
July had caused premature ripeness in the wheat,
and that many ofthe ears would thei'efore be but in-
differently filled. Subsequently black blight mani-
fested itself ; and from these causes alone a material
falling off was anticipated in the produce. The worse
disaster was, however, still to come. The fine
weather broke up just at the period when its con-
tinuance was of the greatest importance, viz., when
the grain had become fully ripe. Heavy rain and
high winds succeeded ; the crops were beaten down,
and lodged extensively. A great quantity of ripe
corn was beaten out by the violence of the gales ;
but the most important loss is likely to accrue
from sprout. Repeated heavy showers and a
close temperature have caused the grain to grow
in the ear to a greater extent than is remembered
for years. This is an evil which cannot be avoided ;
and however pi'opitious the remainder of the season
may now prove, a large proportion of the new
wheat and barley must inevitably be of very in-
ferior quality.

The mischief has been much greater in the
southern and forward parts of the kingdom, than
in the north ; indeed, the reports from Yorkshire
and further north are thus far of a character to
encourage the hope that the harvest might, with
favourable weather, terminate tolerably well in that
direction : but even with this redeeming point we
cannot calculate on anything like a good average
yield. The prospects for our farmers are therefore
truly disheartening : the struggle to compete with
the foreign growers has been sufficiently hard with
good crops, such as those of last year : and how
they are likely to fare under existing circumstances
it is sad to contemplate. Prices may, and pro-
bably will, rule higher than they have done of late
seasons, but this v/ill be a very questionable benefit

to the British farmer. Some time must elapse
before the new grain can be fit for use. A large
proportion of the wheat carried in damp condition
will not be in suitable order for grinding before
Christmas : long before that time our markets, if
prices should hold out sufficient temptation, would
be deluged with foreign wheat, and the rise would
therefore be only beneficial to the foreign merchant
and the speculator.

So large a proportion of the crop is still in the
fields that it would be rash to pretend to give a\i
estimate, at present, of the probable result : a great
deal yet depends on the weather, and the market
prices will for some time be entirely ruled by at-
mosjiherical influences. Harvest operations thus
far have been tedious and expensive, for after an
interval of a few dry days we have generally had a
return of wet; a great quantity ofthe grain carried
has been carted in a very unsatisfactory state ; and
the proportion remaining out, even in the most
forward districts, is much larger than is usually
the case at the corresponding period of the year.
That the future should therefore be viewed with
considerable doubt and apprehension is not sur-
prising : latterly the weather has certainly under-
gone a decided improvement, and the rapid rise
which took place in prices in the early part of the
month has received a check. The total advance
from the lowest point has been 5s. to 6s. per qr. :
so important an improvement has naturally brought
forward a good many sellers, and has at the same
time caused purchasers to operate with caution.

During the first fortnight in August much ex-
citement prevailed in the leading provincial, as well
as in the metropolitan markets. This has since
been more or less allayed : still the prevaihng
opinion is in favour of a further rise. That old
wheat will be required extensively, for mixing with
the soft and ill-conditioned new, cannot be ques-
tioned ; and unless the receipts from abroad should
be much larger than they are expected in the first
instance to be, the former must inevitably com-
mand high ])rices. Those farmers who have any
stocks of last year's produce remaining on hand
may consequently profit in some measure by the
rise ; but this, we fear, will not be much benefit
to the less-wealthy, who have long ere this been
obliged to sell out.

Attention has of late been so exclusively directed
to the state of the wheat croj), that it has Ijecome

280

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

difficult to obtain accurate information respecting
the position of the other products of the earth.
Even the potato disease — a subject of such intense
interest a month ago — has been passed over almost
without notice the last few weeks. At one period
it was confidently affirmed that the disorder was of
the most virulent description, and its attack more
general and destructive than in any previous season,
except the fatal year 1846. That these reports
were highly exaggerated we have no doubt ; but
that the disease prevails more extensively than for
some seasons past, there is reason to believe both
on this side of the Channel and in Ireland. At
present new potatoes are being forced into con-
sumption at very low prices, which is indicative of
fear as to their keeping properties. This naturally
tends to decrease the consumption of bread, but it
is likely to tell the other way hereafter. The pro-
bability is, that supplies of potatoes will suddenly
drop off, and we shall then have an increased de-
mand for wheat and Indian corn.

Barley has suffered greatly in colour by the rain
which has fallen during the month, and is, like
wheat, sprouted in many districts. Oats have been
injured by the same cause, but not, we believe, to the
same extent. Beans and peas were never regarded
as large crops, and neither quantity nor quality has
been improved by the weather we have experienced
since our last. The rise in wheat has, as usual,
had more or less influence on the value of all other
articles, and the tendency of prices has been up-
wards in all parts of the kingdom, till within the
last week. The improved weather which we have
had since the 20th instant has checked the ad-
vance, without, however, causing any material
reaction.

We shall probably be in a position to give some-
thing like an estimate in our next monthly article.
Meanwhile we can only hope that no further dis-
asters will occur, and that the more favourable
yield in the north may in some degree compen-
sate for the unquestionable deficiency in the
south.

It is impossible to arrive with any degree of
accuracy at the quantity of old wheat remaining
in farmers' hands, but the general impression is,
that the stacks are not heavy. Those of foreign
wheat are certainly light, as there has been no
temptation at any period of the summer to store ;
and the greater part of what has been received
from abroad at the various ports has been forced
off from on board ship at whatever prices were
procurable. We do not mean to imply that there
is any immediate want of old wheat, but the large
granaries are but indifferently filled. And to
satisfy a protracted demand for old wheat, such as
is likely to be caused by the soft condition of the

new, it will be necessary to import on an extensive
scale. We do not question that we shall be able
to procure all that we are likely to require, but to
do this we shall have to pay advanced rates to the
foreign grower. We have no bonded stocks to fall
back upon, as would have been the case under the
old system. When free trade was first inti'oduced,
it was generally supposed that it would make
England the depot for grain, and that our ware-
houses would be always full ; its practical working
has, however, proved that the foreign merchants
know their own interests better than to pay the aj
high charges naturally attending the landing of »
grain in England.

In sudden cases of emergency, such as this coun-
try appears to be at present threatened with, it might
therefore become a somewhat difficult matter
to obtain prompt supplies, as holders on the
other side would raise their pretensions in propor- £
tion to the urgency of our wants. "

Business at Mark Lane has been more animated
this month than at any previous period for a long
time past, and the upward movement in prices has
been as decided in London as at any market in the
kingdom.

The fact is there has not been the same cause
for excitement in the north, the weather having been
far more auspicious there than in the western and
southern parts of England.

The arrivals of wheat coastwise into the port of
London have been small, having averaged very
little over 3,500 quarters weekly. The quantity
brought forward by land-carriage samples from
the neighbouring counties has also been unimpor-
tant. A considerable falling off has taken place in
the receipts per rail from the east coast. The first
Monday in the month passed off quietly enough,
prices remaining about the same as before ; but
during the succeeding week the reports of blight
and mildew began to increase, and the weather at
the same time having become unsettled, an ad-
vance of 28. per qr. was established on the 9th
instant. A few lots of new wheat were on that day
exhibited, which, though secured early and before
the fine weather had broken up, were by no means
of a satisfactory quality. One lot was shown so
badly blighted and thin of berry as to weigh only
56 to 58 lbs. per bushel. There were, however, a
few samples of Talavera tolerably good, for which
high prices were paid. The Monday following, the
reports of injury to the oiat-standing crop being
confirmed, the old wheat brought forward from
Essex and Kent was placed without difficulty at a
further advance of 3s. per qr. There was not
much new exhibited, and comparatively high rates
were consequently realized for the finer sorts, 52s.
having on that occasion been paid for superior

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

281

white. The iin|5rovement in the weather checked
the upward movement on the 23rd. This may be
considered the first day on which any supply of new
wheat ot consequence appeared : from Essex there
were upwards of 1,000 qrs., and from Kent several
hundred quarters ; a fair opportunity was, there-
fore, aftbrded of judging of the quality. Some idea
may be formed of the great variety presented by
the samples when we say that there were many
parcels not worth more than 40s., and some as low
as 34s. to 3fis., whilst the best white realized 50s.
to 52s. per qr. Nearly the whole of the wheat car-
ried since the rains which began early in the month
must have been secured in very bad order, indeed
this is proved by the wretchedly soft condition of
many of the samples ; and some were badly
sprouted, totally unfit for miller's use. Old wheat
was, in consequence of the inferiority of the new,
held very firmly, and could not be purchased
cheaper than on that day se'nnight. Considering
this the real opening day for new wheat, we give
the quotations for red as ranging from 34s. to 40s.,
and those for white from 40s. to 50s. per qr,, extra
fine samples of either Is. to 2s. per qr, more.

In consequence of the prevalence of south-westerly
wind during the first fortnight in i\.ugust, the arri-
vals of wheat from abroad into the port of London
were very small; but during the week ending 21st
instant we had a large arrival, and the receipts have
since been to a fair extent. Holders of granaried
stocks have been encouraged by the general posi-
tion of affairs to raise their pretensions materially,
and the advance on foreign wheat has been quite
equal to that established on English. A large
business has on the whole been done, as, in addi-
tion to a good local demand, buyers have visited
Mark Lane from different parts of the kingdom,
principally, however, from down-Channel ports.
Some quantity has also been taken on speculation.
The total advance has amounted to at least 5s.,
indeed on some descriptions fully 6s, per qr.
Within the last week buyers have manifested an
unwillingness to continue their purchases at the
enhanced rates demanded; but sellers have re-
mained very confident. Red Baltic wheat, such as
was obtainable at 38s. to 40s. at the close of July,
has lately sold at 43s. to 46s., and the finer kinds
at 47s. to 48s. per qr. ; for Danzig as much as
54s., and we believe in one or two cases 56s. per
qr. has been paid. The arrivals of wheat from the
Mediterranean and Black Sea have not been very
large ; and an active inquiry having been experi-
enced for floating cargoes, partly on speculation and
partly on Irish account, an advance on the rates
current at the close of last month of 4s. to 5s. per
qr. has been established. Polish Odessa, which
was then worth 34s. to 35s., has lately com-

manded 38s. to 38s, 6d. per qr. co.st and freight ;
and for other sorts correspondmg terms have been
realized. A considerable number of vessels laden
with wheat and Indian corn bound to British
ports passed Constantinople in the early pait of the
month, some of which may now be close at hand ;
but by the latest accounts from Odessa, Galatz,
and Ibraila, there was not much grain in progress
of shipment, vessels having become scarce.

The continued rise in the value of wheat
caused the millers to put up the top price
of town-made flour to 43s, per sack on the
16th instant; previous to this, fresh country-
made flour had risen 2s. per sack; and in America
a large business has been done during the month
at gradually improving rates. At the end of July
fair brands of United States flour were procurable
at 20s. to 21s.; such have since sold at 22s, to
23s., and anything of really fine quality is at present
held at 24s. barrel. The arrivals from the other
side of the Atlantic have not been large into Lon-
don ; but at Liverpool heavy supplies have been
received, hence prices have not risen in that market
to quite the same extent as with us. From France
comparatively little flour has reached us ; most that
has come to hand has been from Marseilles, and
this description has risen 2s, to 3s, per sack in
value.

Supplies of old barley of home growth have for
some time past ceased ; but we have this month
had some quantity of the new crop. The opening
price for malting qualities was, on the 9th instant,
28s. to 30s. for good runs, and 30s. to 32s. per
qr. for the best sorts. The quality was not by any
means fine, the berry being in most cases small
and the colour dark. On the l6th there was a
somewhat increased quantity of barley from Kent ;
but the quality being better than the week before,
the whole was placed without difficulty at an ad-
vance of about Is, per qr., picked lots bringing
33s., and in some cases even 34s. per qr. These
terms have not since been exceeded ; but there has,
on the other hand, been no reaction, and the present
impression is that the really fine malting barley
will, in consequence of its scarcity, realize full
terms throughout the season. In the early part of
the month foreign barley for grinding was rather
pressingly offered for sale, and fair qualities were
sold at 22s. to 23s., whilst some Egyptian was sold
as low as IBs, per qr. Since then the demand has
improved, and prices have crept up quite Is. per qr.
Old malt has been in good request, and its value
has advanced 2s. to 3s. per qr. This rise has
been caused by the belief that but little of the new
barley will be suitable for making fine malt, and
the old will therefore command a relatively high
value.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The arrivals of oats coastwise and from Ireland
have been small throughout the month, but having
had good receipts from abroad (principally Arch-
angel) no scarcity of this grain has been experi-
enced. On the first appearance of the Archangel
supplies prices gave way Is. per qr., and some were
sold as low as l6s. 6d. to l7s. per qr. ; since then,
however, the value has again risen to I7s. 6d. and
18s. per qr., and most of the arrival has been
cleared off the market. The fluctuation in the
value of other qualities of oats has been about the
same; there was a fall in the early part of the
month, which was subsequently recovered, and
quotations are now rather higher than they were at
the close of July. Old oats are likely to be required
for several months ; and as stocks of old are nearly
exhausted, the foreign in warehouse are likely to
bring higher prices hereafter than are at present
obtainable. This at all events appears to be the
general opinion, and holders have shown no parti-
cular anxiety to realize, though the demand has
within the last week or ten days again slackened.

Beans of home growth have come somewhat
sparingly to hand ; but the supply has proved suflfi-
cient to satisfy the enquiry, and prices have under-
gone little or no change. Egyptian beans on the
spot have met with a steady demand at about
former terms, and for cargoes on passage 24s, to
2.5s. per qr., cost, freight, and insurance, has been
asked.

The transactions in peas have been on quite a
retail scale ; old have met with very little attention
and prices have rather tended downwards. Of
new very few samples have been brought forward,
and the best white boilers have not been sold below
34s. to 35s. per qr.

In the early part of the month there was a very
lively demand for Indian corn afloat, and prices
advanced Is. to 2s. per qr. The reports from Ire-
land respecting the state of the potato crop having
since then become more favourable, the enquiry
has in a great measure slackened, and the extreme
terms at one time paid are no longer obtainable.

In taking our usual notice of the position of the
grain trade at the different foreign markets, we may
as well commence by stating that the weather has
been very similar this summer over nearly the whole
of northern Europe. The spring and early sum-
mer were cold and dry, June very wet, and July
scorchingly hot.

We do not hear, however, of the ])revalence of
blight on the continent, and the crops altogether
will, we think, turn out much better in Germany,
Poland, and Russia, than in this country.

Prices took a sudden start at most of the Baltic
markets when it became known there our harvest
was likely to prove indifferent ; but fewer orders

arriving out for the purchase of wheat than
had been calculated on, a reaction of about 2s, per
qr. took place about the middle of the month ; this
was, however, recovered on the receipt of the news
from Mark Lane of a further rise of 3s, per 'qr,
having been established on the l6th instant,
and the latest advices from Danzig state that hold-
ers were looking for still higher prices. For good
high-mixed Bug wheat, the growth of 1851,
weighing 6llbs. per bushel, 45s., for ditto grown in
1850, and weighing 62lbs., 46s. 6d., for Lower Po-
lish high mixed 62lb. 44s., and for inferior 60 to
6 libs, quality 41s. 6d. to 42s. 6d. per qr. free on
board had been paid.

At tlie Lower Baltic Ports, fair to good qualities
of red wheat were obtainable, when we last addressed
our readers, at 34s. to 3(3s. per qr. free on hoard ;
from tills point prices rose to 38s. to 40s., and after
undergoing a temporary decUne of Is. to 2s. per qr.,
again rose. The latest advices from Stettin quote
61 to fi21hs. Pomeranian and Uckermark 39s. to
40s. per qr. free on board, and at Rostock, on the
24th iust., fine heavy parcels could scarcely be se-
cured at 40s. per qr. The reports respecting the
probable yield of the wheat crop in that quarter
vary considerably. The extreme heat experienced
in July is said to have caused premature ripeness,
and many of the samples of the new brought forward
had, we are informed, a proportion of their shrivelled
berries. Still the complaints are not so general as
to lead to the belief that the crops have suffered to
anything like the extent they have with us, and we
are decidedly of opmion that there will be a large
surplus of wheat for shipment in the countries bor-
dering on the Baltic.

At the near continental ports prices have been
more immediately influenced by the fluctuations in
the English markets. At Hamburg wheat rose in
value 4s. to 5s. per qr. the first fortnight in August ;
but the weather haviug become very flue, the dispo-
sition to purchase slackened about the 17th inbt.,
and for some days the trade was very quiet. The
advance noticed was, however, maintained, and sub-
sequently prices again tended upwards.

Li Holland and Belgium the rye crops are reported
to he short, and the wheat harvest only moderate.
At Amsterdam a good deal of speculation appears to
have taken place, and on the 16th prices jumped up
5s. to 6s. per qr.

The reports from Prance respecting the result of
the harvest are not by any means favourable, and
prices of wheat and flour are rapidly rising, as well
at Paris as at the markets in the interior and on the
coast.

The advices from Odessa, Galatz, &c., speak
highly of the crops in Southern Russia, up to a very
recent period; and though the latest advices are of a

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

283

less confident tone, we believe that a large yield of
wheat may be calculated on in that quarter. A good
many orders had been received by electric telegraph,
to purchase wheat on account of the Greek houses in
London, which had caused considerable excitement
and a rise in prices. The Indian corn crop is described
as rather deficient.

We have accounts of recent dates from the United
States, which confirm all that had been previously
said respecting the abundance of the harvest in Ame-
rica. Old stocks appear to have held out very well, and
the supplies brought forward at the principal markets
having been more than sufiicient to satisfy the de-
mand, prices of flour and wheat had tended down-
wards. The shipments in progress for Great Britain
were not very extensive, but there can be no doubt
that America will be in a position to furnish ample
supplies of bread stuffs.

CURRENCY PER

Ditto

ditto old ..43 47

Ditto

ditto red, new. ... 35 40

Ditto

ditto old .... 40 45

NorfoU

c, Lincoln, &Yorksh., red.. 42 44

Ditto

ditto old, none

Ditto

ditto white new, none

IMPERIAL MEASURE.

Shilling's per Quarter.

49
58
54
18
21
22
24
18
17

fine

extra

fine

fine

fine

fine

Ditto ditto old none „

Barley, malting, new 29

Chevalier 32

Distilling 27

Grinding 26

Malt, Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, new 50 53 extra

Ditto ditto old 46

Kingston,Ware, and town made.new 57

Ditto ditto old 50
Oats, English feed 16

Ditto Potato 19

Scotch feed 20

Ditto Potato 22

Irish feed, wliite 16

Ditto, black 15

Rye 27

Beans, Mazagan 29

Ticks 30

Harrow 30

Pigeon 33

Peas, white boilers 33

Maple 31

Grey 29

Flour, town made, per sack of 280 lbs. —

Town and Country Households . . —

Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship .... —

FOREIGN GRAIN.
Wheat, Dantzic, mixed. . 44 to 45 high mixed 47

Kouigsberg 43 45 „

Rostock, new 43 44 fine old

Pomera.,Meckbg.,audUckennk.,red 41

29 old 27

30
31
32
34
35
33
31

30
31
31
35
33
31
31
38
36
30

49 extra 5 5

46 47 „
45 47 „
42 extra 44
42 white 44

42 „ 42

43 old 43
42 white 41
37 fine 39

Silesian „ 41

Danish and Holstem „ 40

Rhuie and Belgium „ 40

French „ 40

Odessa, St. Petersburg and Riga. . 35

Barley, grinding 23

Distilluig 25

Malting none —

Oats, Dutch, brew, and Polands 18

Feed 16

Danish and Swedish feed 17

Stralsmid 18

Russian , 17

Beans, Friesland and Holsteiu 26

Peas, feeding 28

Indian Corn, white 27

Flour, French, per sack .... 28
American, sour per barrel 19

ShlU n-s piT (iiit

29 Kouigsberg 31

30 fine boilers 32
29 yeUow 27
32 fine S3
20 sweet 21

32
34
30
35
24

IMPERIA

For the

[Wheat.

Week Ending : s. d.

July 17. 1852. .41 0

July 24, 1852. .40 7

July 31. 1852.. j 40 0

Aug. 7, 1352. . ■ 39 7

Aug. 14,1852.. 39 7

Aug. 21,1852.. 41 2

Aggregate average

of last six weeks 40 4
Comparative avge.
same time last year 41 9
Duties 1 0

L AVERAGES.

last Six Weeks.
Barley. Oats, j Rye. Beans

d.
19 11
19 9

20

20

19

119

d.|s. d.
30 1 134 5

28 9 33 10

29 11 34 2

29 733 9

30 3 33 7

3 29 4133 2

27 6 } 19 10

26 0 ' 21 10
1 0[ 1 0

29 7i33 10

27 2'31 4
1 O' 1 0

Peas.
s. d.
30 11
34 5
33 5

30 6

31 4
29 10

31 9

27 9
1 0

LONDON AVERAGES.

£ s. d

Wlieat
Barley
Oats . .

4,870 qrs. 2 5 7

50 1 3 11

2,036 0 17 5

£ s. d.
Rye .... 39 qrs. 1 9 10
Beans.. ..273 1 10 6
Peas .... 34 1 14 4

COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES
OF CORN.

Averages from last Friday's

Wheat. .
Barley. .
Oats . .
Rye

Peas

Gazette.

Qrs.

92,576

1,762

8,215

91

2,017

551

rida

y'si

Av. 1

s.

d.

41

2

27

4

19

3

29

4

33

2

29

10

Averages from the correspond-
ing Gazette in 1851. Av.

Wheat. . .
Barley. . .
Oats . , .

Rye

Beans . . .
Peas . . .

Qrs.

s. d.

64,788 .

39 10

1,577 .

26 8

7,352 .

. 20 11

76 .

. 27 1

1,970 .

. 31 2

1,171 .

. 25 11

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE
AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT during the six
weeks ending August 21, 1852.

Price.

July 17.

41s. id.

41s. Od.

40s. 7d.

.. 1-

40s. Od.

39s. 7d.

July 24.

""71

July 81.

■ ^ 1
L

Aug. 7,

Aug. 14

Aug. 21.

SEED MARKET.

Friday, August 27.
We have a fair demand for Calcutta and Bombay
Linseed, at from 45s. to 46s. 6d. per qr. The imports,
this week, have been very moderate. Cakes support
previous rates. In other articles we have very few
transactions to notice.

BRITISH SEEDS.
Linseed (per qr.). . sowing 50s. to 55s. ; crushing 45s. to 48s.

Lmseed Cakes (per ton) £8 Os. to £8 10s.

Rapeseed (per last) new £22 to £23, fine £24, old £21 to £23

Ditto Cake (per ton) £4 5s. to £4 10s.

Cloverseed (per cwt.) red 40s. to 44s., fine 48s. to SOs.

Mustard (per bushel) .... white 5s. to 7s. ; brown, 7s. to 9g.

Coriander (per cwt.) old 10s. to 123.

Canary (per cwt.) 38s. to 408.

Tares, Winter, 28s. to 30s. p. qr. ; Sprmg. 3s. 6d. to 4s. p. bush.

Carraway (per cwt.) new 38s. to 40s. ; fine 43s.

Turnip, white (per bush.) Swede (nominal).

FOREIGN SEEDS, &c.
Clover, red (duty 5s. per cwt.) 38s. to 44s. per cwt., super. 48s.

Ditto, white (duty 5s. per cwt.) 38s. to 46s. per cwt.

Linseed (per qr.). . . . Baltic, 43s. to 46s. ; Odessa, 44s. to 47s.

Ijnseed Cake (per ton) £7 to £9 10s. Os.

Rape Cake (per ton) £4 5s. to £4 lOs.

Hempseed, small, (per qr.) 38s. to 42s., Do. Dutch, 443. to 463.

Tares (per qr.) small 28s. to 303., large SOs. to 32s.

Rye Grass (per qr.) ggg. to 35s,

284

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

BOROUGH HOP MARKET.
Friday, August 27.
Samples of new Hops have come to hand from Kent,
in full average condition. A pocket from the planta-
tion of Mr. W. Herham, East Peckham, has been sold
to Messrs. Kitchen and Ashworth, of Leeds, at £8 8s.
per cwt. The present value is £"8 to £H 5s. for fine.
Yearling and old Hops are very dull at nominal quota-
tions. The plantation accounts are very favourable,
and the duty is called £210,000 to .^220,000.

POTATO MARKETS.

Borough and Spxtalfields, Friday, Aug. 27.

The arrival of Potatoes by land-carriage are very large,

and in improved condition ; many of the samples being

of greatly increased weight. A steady business is doing,

at late rates — viz., 60s. to 125s. per ton.

pj^QyYgiQN MARKET.

Friday, Aug. 27-

We have to report a very dull inquiry for all kinds of
Irish Butler — the stock of which is on the increase— at
a decline in price of from Is. to 2s. per cwt. Foreign
parcels move oif slowly, yet fine Friesland is worth 78s.
to 80s. per cwt.

English Butter is rather lower to purchase. Fine
weekly Dorset, 80s. to 86s. ; inferior, 66s. to 75s.
Devon, 60s. to 70s. per cwt. ; fresh, 8s. to 10s. per
dozen lbs.

The Bacon market is heavy at Is. to 2s. per cwt. less
money. Hambro', 54s. to 58s. Hams and middles
have a downward tendency.

Fine Lard is quite as dear, but other kinds are
cheaper. Irish bladdered, 60s. to 66s. ; kegs, 58s. to
59s. ; Harnbro' bladdered, 63s. to 65s. ; kegs, 55s. to
58s. per cwt. Beef and Pork very dull.

ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET.
Monday, Aug. 23.
We again note a dull trade. Prices of our best qua-
lity are maintained only with difficulty, while all
middling and inferior goods are unsaleable.

Dorset fine weekly 84s. to 86«. 2)er cwl.

Devon 76s. to 80s. „

Fresh 8s. to 10s. ^jer doe.

BELFAST, (Fnday last.)— Butter : Shipping price, 72s. to
78s. per cwt. ; firkins and crocks, 8d. per lb. Bacon, SOs.
563 ; Hams, prime, 668. to TOa. ; second quality, 54s. to 56s.
per cwt. ; mess Pork, SOs. per brl. Irish Lard, in bladders,
568. to 60s. ; kegs or firkins, 56s. to 583. per cwt.

Atig. I
19. I

1S48|
18491
1850;
1851
18521

Butter.

per crot.
s. d. s. d,
72 0 80 0

Bacon,
per cmt,
s. d. s. d.

60 0

64 0

65 0

7-Z 0

66 0

70 0
73 0
73 0

Dried Hams, Mess Pork,
per cmt, ■ per brl.

s. d. g. d. s. d.

82 0 80 0 82 0

75 0 7.') 0 78 0

70 0! 60 0 62 0

66 O: 6t 0 66 0

70 O' 85 0 90 0

s. d.
66 0
68 0

65 0
62 0

66 0

PRICES OF BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c
Batter, per cwt. s. s.

Friesland 80 <o 82

Kiel — —

Dorset nerv 88 99

Carlo/v

Watcrjord

Cork

Limerick

Sligo

Freshfperdoz..

71 76

— 74

— 72

— 68

— 70
9 12

Ckecse,percwt.Chesfiire50to70

Chedder 66 68

Double Gloucester. 46 56

Single do. . . 42 48

Hams, York 60 70

Westmoreland.... 60 66

Irish 56 62

Bacon, Wiltshire, green 62 64

Watcrford 60 62

Foreign root {d.p.)£ s.

Harlingen 27 0

English root (free)

Ouernsey 10 0

Kent and Svjf oik. none.

CHICORY.

Per ton.

English root f free) £ s.
York 8 10

Roasted ^ ground

English ^n 0

Foreign 40 0

TALLOW MARKET.

Friday, August 27.
Although the supply of Tallow on passage from St.
Petersburg is comparatively small, the demand here is
inactive. To-day, old P.Y.C. onthe spot has sold at
39s. to 39s. 3d! ; and new, 39s. 6d. to 40s. per cwt.
Town Tallow, 37s. 6d. to 38s. per cwt. net cash; rough
fat, 2s. l^d. per 81bs. This week's imports are 484
casks from Port Philip, 25 from Calcutta, and 91 from
Sydney. The Russians still hold 25,000 casks.

HAY M~A R K E T S.

Thursday, August 26.
The general demand is in a very inactive state, and in
some instances prices have a downward tendency ; the sup-
plies are seasonably extensive.

At per load of 36 trusses.

Smithfield. Cumberland. Whitechapel.

Meadow Hav,old 70b. to 84s. 75s. to 86s. TOs. to 83s.

Do., liew 55s. 74s. 60s. 75s. 65s. 72s.

Clover Hay, old 70s. lOOs. 80s. lOOs. 75s. 105s.

Do., new 70s. 8 is. 60s. 80s. 708. 84s.

Straw 27s. 31s. 29s. 33s. 268. 3l8.

' WOOL MARKETS. "

Friday, August 27.
The imports this week are 673 bales from Port Philip,
139 from Mogador, 874 from Algoa Bay, 990 from
Sydn(y and 20 from Hambro'. The sale for all kinds
is heavy, and to effect sales lower prices must be sub-
mitted to. The stocks are rapidly increasing.

HIDE^ANETsKIN MARKETS. '

s. d. s. d.

Market Hides, 66 to 64 lbs 0 l|<o3 2 per lb.

Do. 64 lilbs 0 2 0 2J „

Do. 72 mibs 0 2j 0 2J „

Do. 80 88«*s 0 2i 0 23 „

Do. 88 96/*s 0 25 0 3 ,,

Do. 96 104 ;6« 0 3J 0 3J „

Shearlings 14 17 each.

Lambskins 18 2 10 „

Horse Hides 5 0 0 0 „

Calf Skins, light 16 2 6 „

Do. full 3 6 4 6 „

TIMBER. "

{Duty i)aid.) £

Baltic Timber, per loud ofbo cubic feet. . 2

Yellow Deals per standard 100.... II

Deck Deals, per 40 feet 3 in 0

Pipe Staves, per m.ille 110

Lathwood, per fathom of 6 feet .... 6
Petersburg, Riga, and Archangel ) . „

Y7V. Deals, 2)cr stand, hundred. . )

White 10

Yellow Battens 13

Riga Logs, for \8feet cube 2

Stettin Staves, 2>er mille ofpi^je 80

Swedish Timber, per load 2

Gothcn. Yw. Dealsper hun. Vift. Sin. 9m. 15

White ditto 15

Yw. Battens, 2)cr hd. lift. 2jm. 7in. 10
Christiana Yw.DealsperJid.\2ft.3in.0in. 17

White ditto .. 15

Quebec and St. John's Spruce Deals, 7
per hundred, 12 ft. Sin. Sin. .. J

! St quality yw. Pine Deals, perst.hd. 13

Second do. do. .. 11

Third do. do. ..9

Red Pine Deals per hd. 1 2ft. Sin. 9in. 15

Red Pine Timber, 2}er load 8

Yellow ditto 3

Birch ditto 2

Elm ditto 2

Oak ditto 4

Standard Staves, per mille Standard. ... 65
Puncheon Staves, 2)er mille 14

s. d. £ s. d.

10 0 ^o 3 5 0

0 0 .. 15 10 0

14 0 .. I 2 0

0 0 ..142 10 0

10 !l .. 8 0 0

Duty on all Coffee and roasted Chicory imported, 3d. per lb. ,
on Chicory Root £21 per ton.

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

7 6

10 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

10 0

. 15 10 0

. 11 0 0

. 16 10 0

. 4 10 0

.155 0 0

. 2 12 6

. 20 0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

14 10 0 .. 17 10 0

0 0

0 0

10 0

0 0

0 0

10 0

5 0

10 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

16 0

12 0

10 0

20 0

a 10
4 0

3 10 0

4 10 0
4 10 0

75 0 0
18 0 0

BARK.

Per load o/45 cwt.

English Tree jEH 0 0 fo ^14 0 0

Cojjpice 13 0 0 15 0 0-

Mimosa per ton 9 0 0 10 0 0

Valonia „ 14 0 0 16 0 0

Printed by Rogeison and Tuxford, 846, Strand, London.

1

1.1

'^

>s

1 1

.^

^^

?l

^

1'* ^rr-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

OCTOBER, 1852.

PLATE I.

A HEREFORD STEER,

The property of Edward Longmore, Esq., of Alforton, near Ludlow, to which the first prize of Thirty
Sovereigns and the Silver Medal were awarded at the Smithfield Club Cattle Show, in December, 1851.

PLATE II.
A SOUTH-DOWN RAM,

The property of William Rigden, Esq., of Hove, near Brighton, to which the first prize of Thirty
Sovereigns was awarded at the Royal Agricultural Society's Show at Windsor, in July, 1851.

JETHRO TULL.

BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESO., F.R.S.

Some years have now elapsed since I endeavoured,
in two essays, to draw the farmer's attention to the
merits of some of Jethro Tull's efforts {Quar. Jour-
nal of A(/riculture IS-il, page 342 — Bell's Messen-
ger), especially to his work on the horse-hoe hus-
bandry. I am agreeably reminded of the sketches
I then offered, by two recent lectures of Professor
Wayupon the same subject, inwhich when describing
his own valuable chemical researches upon the pro-
perties of soils, he gives to Tull the merits of having
long since advocated principles which the Profes-
sor's late discoveries tend so materially to illustrate.
The main principle on which Tull argued was
this — that the soil and the atmosphere together
contain all that is necessary, without the aid of
any manures, for the production of a luxuriant
vegetation, but that to render the one or the other
available for this purpose it is necessary that the
soil should be rendered readily perm* able by the
air, by being well pulverized.

How Tull arrived at these sagacious conclusions

OLD SERIES.]

we cannot determine : he knew nothing of the ex-
istence of carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere,
which so materially aids in the support of vegeta-
tion; the age in which he lived was equally igno-
rant of the existence in minute proportions of am-
monia in the air. Tull therefore must have arrived
at his conclusions by practical observations and a
chain of reasoning, which in connection with the
knowledge of the age we cannot always readily fol-
low. The discoveries of Mr. Way were briefly al-
luded to by him a few days since, when addressing
the council of the Agricultural Society of England,
on the illustration they offered to the labour and
conclusions of Tull. His own recent investigations,
he observed, had brought to light the existence in
the soil of certain double silicates, possessing the
power of abstracting the carbonate of ammonia
from the air with as much avidity as if they were
strong acids. A good soil, well opened by culti-
vation, would therefore be constantly at work, day
and night, collecting ammonia from the air ; and
U [VOL. XXXVII.— No. 4.

28G

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the quantity that could be'ao obtained would only
be limited by the frequency of the renewal of the
air. Of course we could not say how often this
would take place; but what with alternations of
temperature, differences in the heat of the soil and
the air, the influences of wind, and perhaps
also a constant interchange in the particles of air
themselves, it was evident that the renewal of the
air in the soil, and the constant acquisition by
it of ammonia, might go on to a very great extent.
And it was worthy of remark, too, that this collec-
tion of ammonia by the soil was quite independent
of rain and dews, and was always proceeding. The
more, therefore, the soil was exposed to the air the
richer it would become. Of course he spoke of
soils containing a sufficient quantity of clay.
Some light soils there might be, that would be
injured, not benefited, by such exposure. The ex-
periments of the Rev. Mr. Smith, at Lois Weedon,
are on soils of the former description : his crops
of wheat, which were now growing on land which had
been for six years under wheat \vithout manure of
any kind, looked as if they had received a dressing
of ammoniacal salts; and that indeed was the
fact, though the ammonia had been added not di-
rectly, but indirectly, and from the air, by the abun-
dant cultivation which Mr. Smith's method ena-
bled him to give. So far then as the organic ele-
ments of vegetation are concerned, there is no ab-
solute impossibility, but, on the other hand, every
probability, that they might be secured in all abun-
dance for large crops without manure, provided
that the soil be fully exposed to the influence of the
air.

It is refreshing to see the steady, although
tardy, arrival at truths like these. Such scientific
illustrations of disputed facts are valuable and
cheering in more ways than one : for, as I have be-
fore had occasion to remark, it would tend to the
advancement of improvement, and materially aid
the inventors of agricultural machines and other
agents, if the agriculturist occasionally remembered
the difficulties under which all persons labour, who,
quitting the beaten track, propose innovations upon
old systems. It is now but a very few years since
the proposed use of guano and of superphosphate
of lime as fertilizers was received with the same
degree of ridicule by the thoughtless and indolent,
as that with which, a century since, the farmers of
Jethro Tull's time assailed the great author of the
drill husbandry. An amusing instance of this was
produced by Mr. Hannam, at a meeting of the
"Wetherby Farmers' Club, in which so late as the
year 1846, a zealous correspondent of an agricul-

tural paper decried the use of the superphosphate
of lime as only fit to be classed with the visions of
Joanna Southcote, the South Sea bubble, and the
Caesarian cow-cabbage. It was such a spirit of
opposition that Jethro Tull had to encounter. His
plans for the improvement of agriculture, met, as
a matter of course, with the ardent opposition of
all those who were believers in the already attained
perfection of agriculture. These were well sup-
ported by the amazingly solemn arguments of the
great class who rely solely upon practice, and de-
spise reasoned knowledge; and both these descrip-
tions of persons were aided by the easy ridicule of
those who adopted the more pleasant and very easy
mode of exciting a laugh or producing a sneer at
what the circle around them perhaps did not even
remotely comprehend. All these things, more than
a century since, Jethro Tull encountered, obstacles
which he energetically and feelingly describes in
his " Horse-hoe Husbandry." The " Life and
Works of Jethro Tull" wUl indeed well repay the
careful study of the young farmer. It will afford
not only instruction, but encouragement to him who
has to contend against the poorest soils — the
most adverse circumstances. If such a cultivator
holds a poor thin hungry soil, so did Jethro Tull.
If he farms in a remote and desolate district — if he
has ignorant and obstinate labourers — if he is vi-
sited by sickness — even if he is almost driven
from his profession by incurable diseases — so, let
him be assured, was that great farmer whose la-
bours are the subject of this paper. He was born
in Oxfordshire, on his paternal estate. Being edu-
cated for the legal profession, he became a member
of Staple Inn, and was called to the bar on the 1 1th
of December, 1693, by the benchers of Gray's-inn.
Soon after he was afflicted with a pulmonary dis-
order, and in consequence, abandoning his Oxford-
shire farm, he travelled for some time on the Con-
tinent. He was, it appears, for a considerable pe-
riod at Montpelier, in the south of France. Return-
ing to England, he took into his own hands the
farm called Prosperous, in the rural parish of Shal-
born, in Berkshire ; where again returning to
those agricultural efforts which he had commenced
in Oxfordshire, he wrote his " Horse-Hoe Hus-
bandry."

After Tull's decease, bis lands in Berkshire
found their way into chancery, and were sold by
order of the court in 1784, to Mr. Blandy, the
father of the present owner. It consists of about
70 acres of freehold land; but Tull held about 130
acres in addition, by a different tenure. The
house in which he dwelt has been modernized, but

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

287

the old-fashioned breiv-house yet remains as Tull
had it, and when we visited Prosperous in July
1840, was still in very good condition. Of the
out-houses. Tail's granary and his stables are yet
in existence, though fast verging to destruction ;
and at the end of this granary, which Tull built,
is an old well, in which, when cleared out some
y?ars since, was found, deeply buried in the accu-
mulated mud of nearly a century, a three-pronged
lioe, which there is no doubt belonged to Tull, and
ij now in the museum of the Royal Agricultural
Kociety of England, to whom it was presented by
Mr. Alderman, of Kintbury and myself. Into
this well it was most likely thrown by his
men, who, adopting the use of his new tools
with the utmost reluctance, annoyed him in
many ways. Against those he declaims with
much bitterness. " Tis," he says, " the most for-
midable objection against our agriculture, that the
defection of servants and labourers is such, that
few gentlemen can keep their lands in their own
hands, but rather than make nothing of them, they
let them for a little to tenants who can bear to be
insulted, assaulted, kicked, cuffed, and bridewelled
with more patience than gentlemen are endowed
with." This burst of feeling would very clearly in-
timate the probable truth of the case — that Tull
was energetic and irritable — that his servants pil-
laged and annoyed him — and that he did not sub-
mit to their impositions without struggling against
them in a way which his legal education should
have taught him to avoid.

Such was the spirit of enterprise, and such was
the genius of Tull, that no difficulties, however for-
midable, stopped him in his researches. His ex-
periments, carried on in his garden and in his
house, with regard to the food and the habits of
plants, some of which he gives in the first pages of
his work, betrays the thirst for knowledge, the in-
dustry and tact, which he possessed.

The tradition of his neighbourhood is, that when
confined to his room and to his couch by his in-
curable maladies, he yet managed to carry on his
experiments on vegetation, by having large boxes
and garden-pots of earth placed in his room, and
!)efore his windows, where he sowed his seeds, and
watched their progress under different modes of
cultivation, with all the zeal of a martyr, and the
enthusiasm of an inventor. He is still spoken of
ijy the old labourers of that district as being a man
whom it was impossible to oppose in any of his
plans with eventual success. He was evidently
tlie wonder of his neighbours, who would, perhaps,
have regarded him as a magician, if the age of

witchcraft had not then been nearly, if not quite
over. The genius of TuU was evidently before the
spirit of his age. At the period he wrote, turnips
had been but just introduced into England as a
field crop ; and yet in the preface to his work (pub-
lished in 1732) he devotes (what is even now some-
times regarded as a novelty) their being drilled
amongst corn crops, and alludes to " a particular
drill for planting turnips between rows of corn,
both in wide and in narrow intervals." The advan-
tage, he continues, is such, that being small at har-
vest, they do no perceivable damage to the corn,
and yet aftetwards grow large by hoeing ; and
being fed off by sheep in the mnter, afford consi-
derable profit, and also enrich the land for a fol-
lowing crop. Those who have recently so ably
advocated the employment of reduced amounts of
seed, have little suspected that nearly a century
and a half since Tull pi'actised and advocated the
system. Yet he certainly tells us, at page 50 of
his work, "about the year 1701, when I had con-
trived my drill for planting sainfoin, I made use of
it also for wheat, drilling many rows at once, which
performed the work much better than hands could
do, making the channels a foot distance. Drilling
in the seed and covering it did not amount to more
than 6d. per acre expence, which was above ten
times over paid by the seed that was saved, for one
bushel to the acre was the quantity drilled." This
was, he adds, turned to a very good account, and
in considerable quantities, it has brought as good
a crop of wheat on barley stubble as that sown in
the common way on summer fallow, and when
that sown the old way on the same field on barley
stubble entirely failed. " though there was no other
difference but the drilUng and hoeing." Well
might the farmers who lived near to Tull regard
him as indeed an innovator. "They use," says
Tull (p. 122, edition 1733), "for an acre of wheat
sown in the old husbandry in the county where I
live, in some jilaces, 2^ bushels of seed; in other
places four bushels and a half of seed." Jethro
TuU's great improvements in tillage consisted in
the use of his drill, and in the adoption of such
wide intervals between his rows of turnips (from
three to six feet), that the horse-hoe could be easily
and constantly employed, and this great advantage
he extended to all his cereal crops. To every agri-
cultural operation, too, of a mechanical nature
Tull's genius was admirably adapted. His ploughs,
his hoes, his drills, were all of a description far su-
perior to the rest of the farmers of his day. It was
only where he attempted to reason (in support of
his theory that manure was unnecessary) upon the

, U 2

288

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

habits and food of plants, involving clie mical trutlis,
that TuU made great blunders. But then in his
excuse let us not forget that vegetable chemistry
in his days did not exist. If he was deceived in
his belief of the powers of the plough to render
all soils fertile without the assistance of manure, he
was yet fully justified in almost every thing that he
predicted with regard to the advantages of tho-
roughly pulverizing and increasing the depth of
the soil.

"The difference betwixt the operation of the
spade and that of the plough," he observes,
**'is only this, that the former commonly divides
the soil into smaller pieces, and goes deeper;" and
he adds, " how easy and natural it is to contrive a
plough that may equal the spade, if not exceed it,
by going deeper, and cutting the soil into smaller
pieces than the spade commonly does." The ex-
planation, too, which Jethro Tull gave of the ad-
vantages or theory of deep ploughing was excellent,
considering the chemical knowledge of his days ;
for the modern cultivator must remember that, in
his time, the composition of the atmosphere was
almost entirely unknown. Tull could not have
known anything of the three gases of which the
atmosphere is composed, and of the existence of its
insensible aqueous vapour he was equally unac-
quainted ; he did not know how important these
are to the roots of plants, and how the access of
them all is naturally promoted by pulverising the
land on which they vegetate. But though Tull did
not know these things, yet it is certain that he had
carefully observed many facts which proved that
vapour was absorbed by the soil, and that this ab-
sorption was promoted by pulverisation. " To de-
monstrate," he says (pp. 27, 28), "that dews
moisten the land when fine, dig a hole in the hard
dry ground, in the driest weather, as deep as the
plough ought to reach ; beat the earth very fine,
and fill the hole therewith ; and after a few nights'
dews, you will find this fine earth become moist at
the bottom, and the hard ground all round will
become dry. Till a field in lands ; make one land
very fine by frequent deep ploughing, and let ano-
ther be rough by insufficient tillage alternately •
then plough the whole field crosswise in the driest
weather, which has continued long, and you will
perceive, by the colour of the earth, that every fine
land will be turned up moist, but every rough land
wiU be dry as powder from top to bottom. In the
driest weather, good hoeing procures moisture to
roots; though the ignorant and incurious fancy it
lets in the drought, and therefore are afraid to hoe
their plants at such times.

Poor Tull evidently had not much knowledge of
the management of stock. His explanation of the
causes which led him to refrain from keeping sheeiJ
are amusing; he says : " The reasons why I kept no
sheep are many— I have no common, nor down,
nor pasture, nor meadow to keep them upon, and
sainfoin is unfit for store sheep, so that if I kept a
fold I should be obliged to till with hoi;ses only ;
which according to the rules whereby our servants
are pleased to govern us, would cost me one full
rent more than the same tillage done by oxen. I
find it very difficult to preserve my corn from being
spoiled by neighbouring sheep ; but if I had a
flock of my own it would be more difficult."

The farm of Jethro Tull will ever be an object
of interest to the lover of agriculture. Arthur
Young made a pilgrimage to Prosperous (Annals of
Agriculture, vol. 23, p. 173); Wilham Cobbett did
the same. More persons would visit it, if they
knew where it is to be found. To such it mil be
interesting to know that the rural parish of Shal-
born is situated under the Coomb Hills, about four
miles south of Hungerford; that the roads are I
tolerable, and the present holder of the farm oblig-
ing, and not insensible of TuU's great merits. Ar-
thur Young says very justly, "The house itself, not
the less interesting to me for being so very humble,
tiled as part of it is with glazed tiles of TuU's own J
manufacture, was an object of attention, for I have ■
a very great, though melancholy, pleasure in view-
ing buildings and spots that have been the resi-
dence of those who rendered themselves celebrated
by their actions or their writings, and par-
ticularly such as were noted for their exertions in
husbandry ; the farm, however, was my principal
object."

Jethro Tull died, according to Chalmers, at Pros-
perous, on the 16th of January, 1740, the year
before Arthur Young was born ; but if he died in
the parish of Shalborn, he was not buried there — ■
the parish register is silent on that head. The
tradition of the old people of the neighbourhood is,
that he died and was buried in Italy. To his me-
mory some memorial will surely one day be erected
worthy of the English farmer. His deeds, his
triumphs, it is true, were of the quiet peaceable
kind, with which the world in general is little con-
cerned ; but their results, their value to the land
of his birth, were of no mean order. His concep-
tions were solid and comprehensive ; and whether
we regard his drill, his ardent advocacy of the
power of the plough, his reduced amounts of seed,
or his other great points of improved husbandry,
we see him labouring for the diffusion of truths,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

289

which are even yet, in the majority of instances,
not sufficiently regarded. The efforts, too, of Tull
were productive of advantages in other and in in-
direct ways; his researches, his successes, his ex-
ample, first excited a spirit of agricultural inquiry
which since his days has hardly ever entirely slum-
bered. He was certainly the first who dared boldly
to quit the beaten track which had been used by

farmers for ages, and follow a way of his own.
And although he has been well followed and imi-
tated by succeeding cultivators, who have availed
themselves of discoveries and machinery of which
Tull had not the assistance, yet there have been
none who have since excelled, or perhaps equalled,
him in the boldness or originality of his conceptions,
or in the energy with which he realised them.

THE SCIENCE OF MANURING.

BY T. KOV^^LANDSON, C.E., F.G.S.
CHAP. VI. — ON LIME.

Scarcely any subject in connexion with agri-
culture has been more provocative of discussion
than that of the application of lime and calcareous
substances generally. Some years ago I pubhshed
an article on this subject, which attracted pretty
general attention at the time, as its general tenor
was diametrically opposed to received opinions.
Notwithstanding, I have had the pleasure of re-
ceiving communications from some of the first
agriculturists of England, expressive of their con-
currence as to the correctness of my views ; still so
difficult and slow is the eradication of error and
the dissemination of novel truths, that I feel cer-
tain the present epitomized form in which it is my
intention to condense my views on this subject
is second only in importance to that of general ma-
nuring. It is not my intention to contend for the
actual chemical correctness of many of the matters
which will be subsequently stated, seeing that
there are, to a certain extent, exceptional circum-
stances : thus, when peat is treated with quick lime
the compound still partially gives a colour to liquid
ammonia, but to nothing like the extent to which
it will do if not previously mixed with lime. These
are refinements which may be safely overlooked,
so far as actual farming practice is concerned ; and
it is only as a practical guide to farmers un-
acquainted with chemistry, that the paper is
written. Had this paper been intended as a purely
scientific disquisition, the deficiency noted would
have been an unpardonable one. For want of a
popular guide to the use of calcareous manures,
they are frequently misapplied on soils where they
cannot be of service, but often the contrary ; whilst,
on the other hand, prejudices arising out of seeing
their injurious efifects on one soil not unfrequently
prevent their being laid on others where they
would be decidedly beneficial. That there is a
wide and curious field for future investigation re-
specting the point whether the substance termed
humus does or does not find its way into plants in
a soluble form, by means of its combination with

alkalies, is undoubted ; also that the clearing up of
this debatable point would remove and clear away
much that is now uncertain. Whatever may be
the eventual result of subsequent investigation, in
a purely scientific point of view, with regard to
actual practice, I can with the greatest confidence,
formed after an extended experience both as re-
gards time and space, safely commend the views
I am about to detail to the attention of the working
farmer, and for whose use it was solely com-
posed.

THE KINDS OF SOIL TO WHICH LIME IS
USUALLY APPLIED.

The most emphatic, and at the same time the
most correct answer that can be given on this
point is, every known description of soil, from
blowing sand to stiff clay, the vicinity to a lime-
kiln, and economy of cost, appear to be the only
matters which enter into the calculation of the
farmer. The facihty and cheapness of procuring
lime are the principal causes of its extensive use
and abuse : it may, however, be stated that on
clays, moors, and bogs it is found to be most use-
ful— on sands the least beneficial. The question
resi)ecting the use of fresh or well-fermented farm-
yard manure has not been more productive of
opposite opinions than the utility of lime in agri-
culture. My own experience — and on this subject
it has been most extensive— serves to show that
lime, when used with judgment, is most valuable ;
when abused, most injurious.

On clay lands it has been a constant practice to
apply lime prior to sowing wheat ; and to a certain
extent with beneficial results— that is, a better crop
of wheat has been obtained after an application of
lime than on the adjoining land of similar quality
without such application. The cause is as follows :
All clays contain a considerable quantity of sili-
cates and salts of potash and soda, in a dormant
state : it is one of the properties of lime, especially
when exposed to the slow but universally acting

290

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

solvent power of carbonic acid, to decompose such
dormant materials, and convert tliem into soluble
forms, and thus become susceptible of absorption
by the roots of plants. In this way a stiflF clay,
which has been previously deprived of almost all
the available portion of the mineral constituents of
plants, again becomes to a certain degree fertile,
and capable of producing a profitable crop.
Practice agrees with theory on this point, as it
is found most beneficial to apply lime on clays in
the course of the fallow season, during which the
repeated ploughings, &c., cause a more intimate
mixture with the soil, and promotes, by the aid of
the atmosphere and moisture, a quicker decompo-
sition of the inorganic substances required by
plants, consequently followed by subsequent fer-
tility. Stiff soils, containing lime in the state of
carbonate, usually called marls, are, however,
scarcely benefited by the application of lime : a
portion of such marls burned and applied to the
land will be more economical and equally bene-
ficial. It will thus be seen that the greater part
of the benefit due to the application of lime is
attributed to its solvent powers ; but this mode,
which is that ordinarily used, is not nearly so bene-
ficial as if lime or limestone was burned in combi-
nation with stiff clays, lime so burned being one of
the most powerful decomposers of minerals that is
known. The application of this princi[)le is well
understood, and frequently acted upon by chemists,
in order to decompose refactory minerals, which
are of difficult solution by the ordinary solvents.
From their slight degree of porosity, clay soils are
apt to retain water more than any other description,
with the exception of turf ; the latter absorbing
and retaining more through the eflfect of capillary
attraction, in consequence of the minutely reticu-
lated state of the soil, caused 1)y the interlacement
of the roots of the plants which compose it. The
tendency of clays, especially when undrained, to
retain water in a partial degree, causes the accumu-
lation of the same acid substances (humid acid)
which forms the great bulk of our turf bogs ; and
hence arises that character of sourness which
farmers apply to such soils, the sheep-sorrel
(rumex acetosella) always making its appearance
more or less whilst under tillage, and sometimes
in pasture. An application of lime completely de-
stroys the pernicious eflfects arising from the pre-
sence of humid acid. I will, however, notice this
matter more fully, immediately whilst reviewing
the effects of lime when applied to bog land. It
lias long been held that the great benefit derivable
from the application of lime arose from the fact,
that the lime had the property of converting vege-
table matter, whether fresh, decaying, or decayed,
from an insoluble to a soluble state, so as to be-

come adapted as food for plants. Whilst engaged
in reclaiming some hitherto uncultivated bog, I
was led to examine minutely into this matter, when,
instead of finding the prevalent dogma on this
subject correct, I found the opposite the fact. It
is unfortunate that the theory of lime acting as a
solvent of the inert vegetable matter in soils re-
ceived the aid and countenance of the late Sir H.
Davy, which, together with the pertinacity of Ger-
man writers, has given to this theory such a footing
that it will be most difficult to eradicate the erro-
neous impression so long entertained on the point.
If lime rendered soluble the insoluble vegetable mat-
ter in soils, the question immediately arises, what is
the nature of the compounds thus formed through
its influence ?

So intimately are the substances variously called
humic, geic, &c., acids and humus, goeine, apo-
theme, &c., connected, both according to the former
theories and the opinions which will be hereafter
set forth, with the action of lime as a fertilizer,
that I shall at once take into consideration their
mutual connection. In doing so, I shall treat
humus, humic acid, &c., as one and the same
substance, being satisfied that for all practical pur-
poses it is unnecessary to make any distinction,
as I have not been able satisfactorily to distin-
guish more than one substance in vegetable soils,
susceptible of being dissolved in alkahes — ammonia,
potash, and soda — and insoluble in combination
with magnesia, lime, &c.

In treating of humus as a source of carbon in
plants, Liebig, in his "Chemistry as applied to
Agriculture and Vegetable Physiology," states that
" the common view which has been adopted re-
specting the modus operandi of humic acid has
given occasion to the following inexplicable phe-
nomenon : — A very small portion of humic acid
dissolved in water gives it a yellow or brown
colour ; hence it would be supposed that a soil
would be more fruitful in proportion as it was
capable of giving this colour to water — that is, of
yielding it humic acid. But it is very remarkable
that plants do not thrive in such a soil, and that
all manure must have lost this property before it
can exercise a favourable influence upon their
vegetation."

" Water from barren peat soils and marshy
meadows, upon which few plants flourish, contains
much of this humic acid ; but all agriculturists and
gardeners agree that the most suitable and best
manure for plants is that which has completely lost
the property of giving colour to water." A peat
bog consists of a large amount of vegetable matter ;
the decayed consists of an extremely deep brown
coloured matter, very pulverulent and insoluble in
distilled or spring water ; the bottom of deep peat

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

291

bogs consists almost wholly of liumic acid, the
whole of which, or nearly so, can be dissolved in
ammonia, potash, or soda, and by boihng, or long
continued digestion by their carbonates. Ascend-
ing from the bottom to the top of a deep bog, the
humic acid becomes more and more mixed with
vegetable fibre, the latter being slowly converted
into humic acid ; this conversion of dead plants
into humic acid appears intimately connected with
the fact of their decay taking place in water. The
most striking property of humic acid is, that it is
wholly insoluble in spring or distilled water; the
former is exemplified by the fact, that a spring
issuing through the middle of a deep bog appears
on the surface as pellucid as though it had issued
from limestone, and is equally tasteless. For up-
wards of three years I dwelt at a place where all
the water used, whether for table or ordinary pur-
poses, was obtained from such a spring, which had
further to pass over more than a quarter of a mile
of uncultivated morass ; the spring arose from the
millstone grit, and had all the purity generally at-
tendant on springs arising from that formation,
and was perfectly pellucid. It is a remarkable
property of humic acid that it is extremely soluble
in the alkalies, ammonia, potash, &c., though in-
soluble in water ; equally so is the fact, that it is
insoluble in combination with lime, magnesia, iron,
alumina, lead, &c. Humic acid can be obtained in
a pure state bymacerating a piece of dark- coloured
peat in either of the alkalies previously mentioned,
when the solution will become of an intensely
brown colour, so deep as to appear black ; if a
little acid be now poured on the solution, in suffi-
cient proportion to saturate the alkali, a dark-
coloured precipitate will be formed, which may be
obtained either by filtration or decantering the
super-natant liquor.

Humic acid so obtained is a light floculent
matter, and soluble, according to Sprengel, in
2,500 times its own weight of water; but even this
sparing solubility is destroyed if the humic acid is
exposed to a warm atmosphere until it is perfectly
dry. If, however, instead of precipitating the
humic acid from an alkaline solution by an acid,
we precipitate the same by the use of lime water, a
precipitate is formed of a somewhat darker colour
than that just alluded to ; and, if ajiplied in exact
proportions, not a trace of lime will be found in
the water. A very easy method of proving this is to
procure a wine glass filled two-thirds with lime-
water, and place therein a small piece of black
peat ; if left over night and examined the following
day, not a trace of lime will be found in the water ;
this can be ascertained by testing it with oxalate of
potash or ammonia, on pouring in a few drops of
which a precipitate of oxalate of lime will immedi-

ately appear if lime is present. A further proof,
and one still better adapted to illustrate the matter
for practical purposes, is to procure a piece of peat,
and in the first instance see that it gives a deep-
coloured solution to ammonia or potash, take the
same piece and intimately mix it with quick lime
and water ; after this, try whether, when treated
with ammonia or potash, will the brown-coloured
solution alluded to appear ; it -will now be found
to give only a slight tinge, owing principally to the
fact of some of the humic acid not having become
intimately mixed with lime. This insolubility of
humic acid in the presence of calcareous matters is
well illustrated by Liebig, who observes that, " The
stalactic caverns of Franconia, and those in the
vicinity of Barmth and Strulborg, lie beneath a fer-
tile and arable soil. The abundant decaying vege-
tables or humus in this soil, being acted on by
moisture and air, constantly evolve carbonate acid,
which is dissolved by the rain. The rain-water
thus impregnated permeates the porous limestone
which forms the walls and roofs of the caverns, and
dissolves in its passage as much carbonate of lime
as corresponds to the quantity of carbonic acid
contained in it. Water and the excess of carbonic
acid evaporate from this solution when it has
reached the interior of the caverns, and the lime-
stone is deposited on the walls and roofs in crystal-
line crusts of various forms. There are few spots
on the earth where so many circumstances favour-
able to the production of hiimate of lime * are com-
bined, if humus t actually existed in the form of
humic acid. Decaying vegetable matter, water,
and lime in solution, are brought together, but the
stalactities formed contain no trace of vegetable
matter, and no humic acid. They are of a glitter-
ing white, or yellowish colour, and in part trans-
parent like calcareous spar, and may be heated to
redness without becoming black." It may be re-
marked, that although the appearance of coloured
water on bogs, and in some instances on undrained
poor clays, would appear to countenance the humus
theory, yet the contrary is the case. This coloured
appearance of water in bogs is attributable to the
fact that such water is rain, not spring water, the
former always containing a small portion of am-
monia, which combines with the humic acid, and
thus arises the coloured appearance. An additional
cause arises from the fact that newly-formed humic
acid is partially soluble in 2,500 times its own
weight of water; and, as humic acid is always form-

* That is, soluble humate of lime, according to
the principles propounded by former theorists.

t The same remark apphes here; that is, humic
acid may exist, but no acid with properties similar
to those supposed by the humus theory.

292

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ing in such soils during the presence of moisture,
this adds a little to the colour.

A few simple experiments, which any farmer may
make at his own kitchen fireside in the manner
before directed, will prove the above. Only a few
wine or tall ale glasses, and a pennyworth or two of
hartshorn, will be required for the purpose. As a
proof of the intimate combination which takes
place between lime and humic acid, it may be
stated, when humic acid is precipitated in combi-
nation with lime from its solution in alkali, the
precipate is not acted on by oxalic acid. It will be
found that a fertile soil, whether composed of vege-
table matter or not, is insoluble, with the exception
of 100,000th part of its weight in water, and the
soluble matter consists principally of alkalies ;
neither is any considerable portion of such soils
soluble in alkalies, and lime only assists to free the
silicates, &c., as previously noticed, whilst barren
mosses, bogs, moors, &c., have equally the pro-
perty of being insoluble in pure water, combined
with a large portion which is soluble in alkalies.
This property of being soluble in alkalies is de-
stroyed by the presence of Mme or calcareous sub-
stances. The test for using Mme on soils contain-
ing much vegetable matter is, whether such soil
give a brown-coloured solution to ammonia — a test
which any ploughman can undertake when instruct-
ed as to the mode. I have examined soils throughout
Great Britain and Ireland, and have found the above
mode an unerring one ; and, having witnessed so
many beneficial results from its appUcation, I can
with safety recommend it to all agriculturists.

Unless for the purpose of neutralizing humic
acid, and rendering the sihcates more soluble, it is
a useless waste of money to apply hme to land.
On some light lands, such as are to be found in
Norfolk, &c., the application of calcareous matters
have been found beneficial ; in all such cases, how-
ever, the soil has contained a large portion of turfy
substance (humic acid), intermixed with sand,
gravel, &c. A first application of hme on such
soils is most striking. It has already been shown
that soils which give a brown colour to ammonia
are infertile. The theory is this : plants require
certain mineral substances as food, also ammonia ;
when humic acid is present, the potash, soda, and
ammonia existing in the soil combine with the
humic acid, forming a solution easily washed away
by the rain, causing a constant impoverishment of
the valuable inorganic constituents of the soil ; for
nothing is more certain than the fact that most of
the valuable plants which are cultivated will not
grow on a soil where free humic acid exists. This
applies particularly to the cruciform plants (cab-
bage, turnips, &c.) ; and also to the hguminous
ones (beans, clover, &c.)

I have already stated that my experience on this
point is founded on observation made over the
United Kingdom. By the perusal of a work pub-
lished by Mr. Ruflfin in the United States, the ^
same causes appear to produce like effects. He
says, in that extensive territory, " It will be suffi-
cient for my purpose to sbow that certain soils con-
tain some substances, or possess some qualities,
which promote almost exclusively the growth of
acid plants, and that this power is totally removed
by the application of calcareous manures which
would necessarily destroy any acid if it were pre-
sent, leaving it to chemists to determine the nature
and properties of this substance. I merely contend
for its existence and effects, whatever it may be ;
for the want of a better name I shall call it acidity.
Every cultivator of corn (maize, or Indian corn, is
here meant) on poor light soils knows how rapidly
sorrel will grow over his otherwise naked field, m
unless kept in check by continued tillage. This 1
weed, too, is considered far more hurtful to grow- |
ing crops that any other of equal size ; yet it cannot *
thrive on the best land — sorrel* cannot even live
on a calcareous soil. ■

" If the noxious quality which causes such in- V
jury is an acid, it is as certain as any chemical
truth whatever that it will be neutralized, and its
pov/ers destroyed, by applying enough of calcareous ■
earth to the soil ; and precisely such effects are I
found whenever that remedy is tried. On land 1
thus relieved of this annoyance the young corn
(maize) no longer appears of a pale and sickly
green, approaching to yellow, but takes imme- j|
diately a deep healthy colour." I

It has been asserted that tannic, oxalic, and even
sulphuric acids, are to be found in soils. For my
part I have never discovered any of them, although ■
I have made a careful search. Oxalic acid may 1
easily be tested by lime, and tannic acid by gela-
tine, or sulphate of iron (copperas) ; in the latter
case ink would be formed. Indeed, sulphate of
iron, saidto be present in some soils, is incompatable
with the presence of tannic acid.

It is in consequence of the known antiseptic
qualities of the peat that it has been inferred that
gallic or tannic acids are present ; but it will be
found, instead of sulphate of iron striking an inky
colour to a solution of peat in an alkali, a dark-
coloured precipitate, the humate of iron, is formed .
when mixed with a salt of iron. The main features
of the preceding views of the action of calcareous
manures was published by me a few years ago ;t
since which I have had abundance of opportunities
of verifying their correctness, and also of receiving

-TSU

* Rumex acetosella, or sheep sorrel.
t In the " Journal of Agriculture."

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

293

the acknowledgments of various parties that they
have also found the statements therein made re-
specting the action of lime correct.

It it well known to all who have had to cultivate
peat and moorish lands, and also those called sour
clays, that an application of ordinary farm-yard
manure, in however abundant quantity, produces
very little fertilizing efl'ects, unless lime has pre-
viously been applied ; the reason of which is per-
fectly obvious, viz. : the union of the humic acid
of the soil with the ammonia, potash, &c., of the
manure, depriving it of its most valuable ingredi-
ents, converting that which should be a fertilizer
in some degree into a noxious substance.

THE PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS KINDS OF LIME.

Limes for agricultural purposes may be classed
into four groups, viz, limestone, including marble,
chalk, oolite, mountain or carboniferous limestone,
&c., which are nearly pure carbonates of hme, the
per centage of silica, phosphate of lime, &c., being
exceedingly minute. The silicated limestone, from
which water mortars are made, are almost useless
as manures, as they set with water ; the earthy
limestones, of which Bala Conistone and several
of the older limestones principally consist, contain
a considerable amount of earthy matter, frequently
from 10 to 20 per cent., which unfits them for
building purposes, but is generally liked for agri-
cultural objects, as they are more easily burned,
peat being used frequently for this purpose. Their
effects are generally equal to that of lime made from
pure marble, sometimes considered better, which can
only be accounted for by the impurities containing
a small amount of potash or phosphate of lime.
Mucjnesian limestone, or dolomite : this limestone
is converted by burning into lime and magnesia, in
some places it is called mild lime. It is extensively
used in Yorkshire for agricultural purposes ; con-
siderable disputes have taken place respecting some
reported deleterious effects arising from the use of
magnesian limestone, and experience shows that it
cannot, with impunity, be applied in the same un-
limited quantities that common lime may. To the
fact of magnesia only slowly imbibing carbonic acid
from the atmosphere, has generally been attributed
the reported deleterious effects of magnesian lime-
stone, and this accounts also for the fact of its
being more lasting.

THE MODE OF APPLICATION AND QUANTITY
TO BE APPLIED.

I have already shown the mode in which lime
acts as a fertilizer, the consideration of which points
out the manner and quantity to be applied ; it will
be evident that bogs and clays require the largest
amount, the former in consequence of the groat
amount of humic acid contained therein, and the

latter for the purpose of becoming intimately mixed
with all the working soil, so as to free as large an
amount of silicates and alkalies as possible; on
neither of the soils named will mucl. harm be done
by over lining ; on clays lime also assists in render-
ing them more porous. With rega"d to over
lining, it may be stated that I never saw any inju-
rious effects from over lining, but I have .leen the
most prejudicial ones from over cropping, that is,
taking crops in succession from land without ap-
plying any other fertilizer than lime ; it is this abuse
of a valuable assistant to agricultural improvement,
which, in many instances, has brought the practice
of liming into disrepute. Soils in which there only
exists very little calcareous matter, a dressing of
lime has most beneficial effects, which can be most
distinctly perceived on clover. In no instance is
it necessary to apply more than a 100 bushels of
lime to an acre, and that amount need only be ap-
plied to bog-land for the first time ; on light sandy
land mixed with moor, 50 will be found suflficient.
It will be apparent, from what has been stated pre-
viously, that the chemical action of lime can only
take place whilst in a state of solution ; caustic
(quick) lime rapidly absorbs carbonic acid from the
atmosphere, forming carbonate of lime or chalk,
in which form it is insoluble, except in combina-
tion with an additional equivalent of carbonic acid,
by which means the bi- carbonate of lime is formed,
which is only soluble in about 1800 times its own
weight of water, lime being soluble in about one
third of that quantity ; it is evident, therefore, that
by allowing lime to be converted into a carbonate
we lose one-third of its use, and as lime when
mixed with soil and made into a compost is thus
converted into a carbonate, it is clear that we only
apply an artificial marl, or an equivalent of ground
limestone or chalk. In order to derive the whole
of the advantages from an application of lime, it
should be applied immediately from the kiln, and
spread over the ground as early as possible. A
mixture of lime and salt applied to dry soil, such
as sand, is very useful, as an alternate decomposi-
tion and recomposition takes place, forming muriate
of lime, and carbonate of soda ; the muriate of lime
is useful during droughts in keeping the soil
moist.

ITS EFFECTS ON VARIOUS CROPS.

A few remarks will suflUce as to its effects on
various crops, the general principles having been
previously dwelt on at some length. The legumi-
nous crops will not grow to perfection without
the presence of lime; the straw of the cerials is gene-
rally supposed to grow finer, and the grain to be
cleaner, by an application of lime ; the straw is,
however, more brittle. With textile j)lants, such
as flax and hemp, lime produces a deleterious in-

294

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

fluence in weakening the strength of the fibre ; this
may probably arise from the fact, that an excess of
hme is held in solution in the juices of these plants,
and absorbs a portion of the organic acids required
to form the tissue. Turnips and potatoes are
benefited by an application of lime ; and, in fact,
all crops grow what is termed " much cleaner,"
after the soil has been hmed ; and grass becomes
sweeter, has a brighter green appearance, and is
more relished by cattle after hming. Nearly the
whole of these effects may be traced to the fact of
neutralizing any small portion of humic acid
existing in the soil.

HOW FAR HIGH CULTIVATION SUPERSEDES
THE USE OF LIME.

Some soils cannot be brought into a high state
of cultivation, except during a long series of years,
without the aid of lime ; bogs, for instance, if cul-
tivated and constantly tilled and well manured for
twenty years, would cut only a sorry figure at the
side of a similar bog limed in the first instance, and
subsequently well c ultivated and manured ; the
former at the end < if twenty years would present
patches of sheep sor rel, from which the latter will
be entirely free. Til lage has a considerable eflfect
in improving the condition of soils containing
humic acid ; mamire has also a beneficial tendency;
but, when it is borne in mind how great is the loss
sustained on applying manure on such soils un-
limedjit will clearly appear that the most economical
mode is to apply lime in the first instance : sub-
sequent high cultivation will then for a long period
prevent the necessity of recurring to lime.

The same remark applies to some cold clays. The
rule to be followed should be, that all soils con-
taining free humic acid shall have a sufficient quan-
tity of lime applied at first to neutralize it, and its
formation for the future should be prevented by
perfect drainage and high cultivation. By following
this rule, a second application of lime will not,
under the generality of circumstances, be needed
for half-a-century, even on lands inchned to be wet.

The generality of authors, when treating on the
use of lime in agriculture, appear to have a vague
idea that it ought always to be applied in quantities,
because sometimes it is found more profitable to lay
on a considerable amount ; but, failing to produce
any reasons for such a recommendation, they are
frequently constrained to resort to the most far-
fetched and improbable theories. The following
may be taken as fair samples of this class of rea-
soners (?). Alluding to the exhaustion of lime by
the growth of plants, they proceed as follows : —
" It is found that lime forms a considerable portion
of the ashes of plants. Hence, the reason why lime
is regarded as a necessary food of plants, and hence
also one cause of its beneficial influence in general

agricultural practice. The quantity of pure lime
contained in the crops produced upon one acre,
during a four years' rotation, amounts on an aver-
age to about 200 lbs,, equal to 360 lbs.— (say,
35 cwt. of carbonate of lime, in the state of marl,
shell-sand, or limestone gravel). It is obvious,
therefore, that one of the most intelligible purposes
served by lime as a chemical constituent of the soil
is, to supply this large quantity of lime, which in
some form or other must enter into the roots of
plants. But the different crops which we grow
contain lime in unlike proportions. Thus the aver-
age produce of an acre of land, under the following
crops, contain of lime per acre in the : —

Per acre. Seed. Straw or r^^^^^^

roots.

Wheat .. 25 bush. 1 lbs. 12 lbs. 13 lbs.

Barley . . 40 „ U „ 15i „ 17 ,,

Oats 50 „ 3 „ 19 ,. 22 „

Rye 26 „ U „ 15| „ 17 „

Beans.... 25 „ 2i „ 34 „ 36^,,

Turnips.. 20 tons 46 „ 72 „ 118 „

Potatoes.. 8 „ 8 „ 31 „ 39 „

Red clover 2 „ — „ 77 „ 77 „

Rye grass., 2 „ — „ 30 „ 30 „

" These crops are not constant, and generally all
our crops contain more lime when grown upon land
to which lime has been copiously applied. But the
very different quantities contained in the several
crops, as above exhibited, show that one reason
why lime favours the growth of some crops more
than others is, that some actually take up a larger
quantity of lime as food. These crops therefore
require the presence of lime in greater proportion in
the soil, in order that they may occur in the per-
formance of these functions, or in the growth of
those parts to which lime is indispensable." Ac-
cordingly, because a four-course rotation will carry
away 200 lbs. of hme, or, say, 3i cwts. of carbonate
of lime ; therefore, the farmer ought to supply his
fields with 100 bushels, or about 3J tons!!! of
lime, the latter quantity being equivalent to supplying
ten four-course rotations, or enough for forty years.
The absurdity of this is manifest. It is, however,
attempted to be bolstered up as follows : — " In con-
nexion with the quantities of lime actually found in
plants, another important circumstance must be
taken into consideration ; whatever kind or amount
of food a plant may require to bring it to maturity,
it must collect the whole during the term usually
allotted to its growth. Thus, the longer a crop is in
the ground, the slower it grows, and the longer it
usually takes to come to maturity, the more time it
has to collect food from the soil by means of its
roots. Barley germinates and ripens its seed within
three months— in Sicily sometimes within three
weeks — while wheat is from six to ten months
in the ground. The roots of barley, there-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

295

fore, must do much more work in the same time
than those of wheat. They must, amongst other
things, take up the 17 lbs. of lime as noted in the
above table in three months, while wheat on an
average takes up only 13 lbs. in six months. Now,
to effect this in the same soil, it must send out more
roots in quest of this kind of food than the wheat
plant will require to do, and thus it must waste
more of its vegetable strength underground. But
if we make the sup])ly of lime in the soil more
abundant, we diminish the labour of the barley
plant, and greatly facilitate its growth. Thus we
arrive at the conclusion, that the proportion of hme
contained iu the soil ought to be adapted, not only
to the proportion which the perfect plant is found
to contain and require, but to the period also which
is allotted to its natural growth. For crops which

run their course quickly a larger proportion of lime,
as well as of all other kinds of food, will be re-
quired or will be beneficial, than for crops that are
longer in coming to perfection. Has this fact any-
thing to do with the earlier harvest upon well-limed
lands, or with its peculiar fitness for the growth of
barley ?"

In a previous part of this series, I have shown
from the analysis of the oat crop, that it is highly
probable that the growing plant during its middle
stages requires a larger amount of inorganic sub-
stances necessary for the growth of plants, as well
as lime or its carbonate. To sum up, lime ought
to be apphed on sour pastures, bogs, and soils
containing much humic acid soluble in alkalies,
which once neutralized does not require to be limed
again for many years.

PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE CULTURE OF BEET-ROOT.

BY JAMES REEVE.

Experience, with observation as its companion, will ever form the best guide for industry."

The views in this essay will most probably appear
diametrically opposed to those of many of the agri-
cultural community ; but having nearly thirty
years' experience in farming, and having devoted
particular attention to the culture of the class of
plants which form the subject of the present inquiry,
I feel those views to be supported on the very best
authority, illustrated by the specimens I had the
privilege of laying before the Royal Agricultural
Society ; strengthened also by the opinions of many
of the council of that bod}'^, and the corroboration
of the various local associations, as well as the
Dublin Society, &c. I am encouraged, under
these impressions, to submit this short essay on
the culture ofthevarieties of beet-root and mangold-
wurzel.

Having witnessed in very many instances during
the course of these last few years the various means
used for the culture of the several kinds of beet-
root and mangold-wurzel, I have had brought under
my notice some which (in consequence of the im-
pression that high manuring was absolutely neces-
sary for their production) had occasioned a most
expensive process; and many persons, for this
reason, have been deterred from the attempt to
cultivate the plant.

I have in several valuations, this present season,
taken accounts — heavy accounts — paid for manures
used in the preparation and growth of these crops.
In some instances, besides the ordinary dressing of
ten or twelve loads of the common yard manure, a
considerable quantity of superphosphate of lime,

sulphate of ammonia, pearl-ash, soda-ash, sulphate
of magnesia, calcined bone-dust, muriate of am-
monia, &c., and various other mixtures have been
employed. In viewing these crops I could not but
remark the very great unhealthines of their appear-
ance; and it has occurred to me, in making a
comparison with my own crops, that it is extremely
doubtful whether the various manures used for the
culture are suitable for the best product; on the
contrary, I am more inclined to believe that many
of the manures are extremely prejudicial to those
plants, and tend to check the free circulation of the
absorbing powers. In one instance I was tho-
roughly satisfied, when valuing a crop of roots, tliat
they were in a most unHealthy condition ; especially
the leaves. These were spotted and deformed ; in
some instances yellow and lifeless, even to the
hearts of them. This will at once account for the
deformed and irregular state of the bulbs, for as
soon as the absorbing powers of the plant are
injured, the constitution of the whole is immediately
impaired ; and there is no remedy to restore them
to health when once their vitality is affected. I
consider this very succulent and susceptible foliage
was injured by the evaporation of the manure used
for their growth ; for although the air and support
enter every part of the plant, the chief admission
(with the beet tribe) is through the leaves. The
leaves of the beet are perhaps more succulent than
those of any other plant in cultivation. Air-vessels
are found in the leaves of all vegetables, but in th«
beet family they are more readily discovered ; and

296

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

there is no doubt that air is inhaled by vegetables, and
adds abundantly to their substance, for it supplies
the properties most suitable for the plant. I have no
hesitation in saying that it will soon be proved by
analysis that the atmospheric air and the attracting
powers of the plant, in combination, effect the forma-
tion of these bodies. The great aerial principle is
of the utmost service in plants at all times and of
all kinds ; but for these in particular it has almost
every requisite in itself for their perfection. Beet
has so succulent a leaf that it may draw a great
part of its nourishment from the air ; and no doubt
can exist (from practical knowledge) that there are
many properties in the nourishment suitable for
the beet class which contribute to their growth and
produce; but the air contains most of them, and
is the principal food for the beet.

Beet is considered by many an exhausting crop;
but it is not so if its principal food is supplied by
atmospheric agency, and by ploughing into the
ground the immense quantity of leaves, containing
the natural food for future absorption; thus return-
ing into the earth much, very much of the natural
ingredients and properties of the plant.

From the action of this principle it may be
deduced that in every three or four years, whatever
the course of system may be for fallow, for rest, or
otherwise, a good crop of either beet or mangold-
wurzel may be produced without the formidable
outlay which has hitherto proved so discouraging
in the culture of these valuable crops.

The beet may be considered an attractor to the
various atmospheric agencies, as may be verified by
its chemical contents. Manure may be applied to
whatever crop you desire ; but for a fine healthy
crop of beet or mangold-wurzel, unencumbered by
a quantity of forks and fibres, it is best to leave the
chemical productions of the earth and atmosphere
to form its chief feeding and nourishment; and
although I believe the third or fourth-course system
as that which would take in a proportionable part
of a farm annually for this product, I have little
doubt that by constantly burying the leaves in the
earth a fair crop of beet or mangold-wurzel would
be produced alternately on the same land. Some
situations, some aspects, some counties may be
more or less favourable, and the productions of the
chemical properties may vary ; still my plan would
be the same.

It is fair to assert, without fear of contradiction,
that the climate of Ireland is the most suitable and
preferable for the production and growth of these
bulbs ; and the perusal of the very interesting
pam])lilet lately published by Professor Sullivan,
will readily convey a most satisfactory conclusion
on this head. The habits of all the beet family are
much the same; although some kinds may be

found to contain more saccharine matter, which
will vary in richness of contents, in different
specimens and growth.

In confirmation of the foregoing observations, I
may be permitted to offer the experience of upwards
of 25 years in the cultivation of beet and mangold-
wurzel, during which time I have had the advantage
of obtaining the opinions of the most competent
judges on the produce of my crops. I will further
illustrate this efficacious mode of culture by the
produce of this present season, 1851, which is con-
sidered (throughout England) to have been more
unsuitable for the culture of bulbs than any period
within the last ten years. The following table
exhibits the produce of four kinds grown this
sesson ; viz., White Silesian beet. Orange Globe,
Rose Pink, and mangold-wurzel :—

Tons. cwt. lbs.

Wtiite Silesian per acre 38 17 96

Orange Globe „ 32 18 16

Rose Pink „ 31 10 9

Mangold-wurzel „ 39 13 6

I will here copy, from my book of valuations
taken this season (Michaelmas), the cost of prepa-
ration of five acres of these roots, situated within
two miles of my farm : —

A FALLOW— FIVE ACRES.

Four times ploughed.

Twice scarified,

Twice drag-harrowed,

Twice small do.

Two rollings,

DriUing:,

Forty- six loads of yard manure.

Twenty-two hundred-weight of salt.

Six hundred-weight of superphosphate.

Two hundred and ninety bushels of ashes

Carting, spreading, five hoeings.

Rent, taxes, &c.

I have other valuations which I could cite, where j
guano and the other more expensive dressings are
used ; but I must leave this part of the present
system of culture, which is already notorious for
its expensiveness. I may here repeat : — Use
whatever manure you please for other crops, but
none for the beet; and I will now offer some addi-
tional proofs to the foregoing observations relative
to my crops this season.

The land in question, when I grew the present
roots, had been cultivated in the following rotation
— wheat, peas, turnips (fed off), oats, and the last
crop beans (1850), each year having produced most
abundantly. Now it may be supposed from this
process that the land never requires cleaning, &c.
I acknowledge that it requires both restoring and
cleaning; and I at once have recourse to ray fa-
vourite plan in order to restore it to its good keep-
ing. I have it ouce ploughed deep in March,
harrowed and rolled ; and about the last week in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

207

April I drill in the seeds, about two feet apart in
the rows. In this present month (November) I
have the roots taken up and the leaves trimmed off,
leaving about three and a-balf tons per acre dis-
persed evenly over the ground. I then have them
immediately ploughed in, and the wheat drilled,
leaving the field perfectly clean, with no other
dressing than the vegetable matter for my wheat
crop ; and by this process I find that I obtain the
finest crops of wheat on my farms ; besides, from
the frequent hoeings, the land is perfectly clean
and in fine working order. Though the land on
this estate varies considerably, having both light
loam and stiff loam, gravel, and clay, my plan is
the same. After the present crop (wheat) I take a
crop of clover, dress the ley for my second and
third crop, and again grow beet or mangold-wurzel
to clean the land for the wheat. It will be observed
that I have named a third crop : this would be in
proportion to my land ; but if I required to grow
these crops more frequently on the same land, I
would undertake (without the smallest hesitation)
to have a fine produce every alternate crop.

I have at present one field under this course. It
was beans last season, and required cleaning and
improving, having produced four crops since it had
been manured. It was foul, as may be supposed,
but is now perfectly clean, and drilled with wheat,
with no other dressing ; and I know from expe-
rience, that I have a safe prospect of a fine crop.

The great question, and I may say the only
question now unanswered, is, " Do these roots,
without manure, contain the same amount of sac-
charine matter as when freely manured ?" It is
said that the action of manure of every description
has an important influence on the quality and
amount of sugar; and although no positive experi-
ments have ever been carried out to test the nature
of such influence, a great deal of misconception
appears to prevail upon the subject. I think most
of the fears entertained on this point are ground-
less, especially (as Professor Sullivan says) when
we recollect that several of the bulbs which he exa-
mined were grown on land highly manured. Now,
whether the amount of substance is increased, and
the saccharine juice improved, is still a question,
so far as it relates to the ingredients suitable for
making sugar, or even for producing the best re-
sults as a means for feeding stock; and, as the
Professor remarks, " if animal manures cannot be
employed, through fear of diminishing the amount
of sugar, the profit of the farm will be diminished."
Nitrate of potash has been found at some periods
in the juice of beet-root ; and it appears that as
this substance increases the amount of sugar di-
minishes ; and in some cases (observed by Peligot)
disappears altogether. In confirmation of this, I

will cite a case which occurred a few years ago on
the estate of a Russian nobleman. Count Basil
Brobrensky, who possesses a very extensive estab-
lishment, in the government of Toula, for the mak-
ing of beet-root sugar. In the year 184G, the
director of the works was surprised to find, when
the sugar was taken from the moulds, that the
greater part was almost completely changed into
saltpetre, little more than 35 per cent, of saccharine
matter remaining ; in fact, some portions of the
substance ignited more freely than, and burnt al-
most as fiercely as, saltpetre, from the remaining
parts becoming charred. The gentleman who is
my authority (a resident of twenty years in Russia)
ignited some of the particles himself, and can
vouch for the accuracy of the statement. After a
careful investigation, the inference was that the ex-
cess of nitre was owing to the land having been
too freely manured. It seems that these conse-
quences, resulting from manure, frequently occur ;
for this gentleman assures me that in some in-
stances, when the sugar is tolerably free from
nitre, the treacle (molasses) is so impregnated with
it, that it has been rendered unsaleable, being of-
fered at £2 10s. per ton without meeting with a
purchaser; so that it was afterwards used as a top-
dressing for grain. From this it seems extremely
doubtful whether high manuring, or even the
liberal use of manure, is calculated to promote the
best produce. If, therefore, such doubts exist as
too high manuring for the family of beet, it is unne-
cessary for me to urge further the advantage of the
system I have recommended. So simple and easy
are the means, and so completely within the reach
of every small farmer, that I hope many will try
this method ; and I am convinced that they will be
induced every season to have a portion of their
farm, let it be ever so small, cropped with beet or
mangold vvurzel.

The value of the roots is not sufficiently known,
and the universal objection of the expense of pre-
paring the land for them has greatly impeded in-
quiry into this desirable knowledge; for though
the various uses to which the bulbs may be ap-
plied are tolerably well known, still they are not
yet sufficiently appreciated. With the testimony
of the Council of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England, that of the Society of Dublin, and of the
Surrey Agricultural Association, coinciding with
the opinions of the most practical farmers in this
and several of the adjoining counties, I am confi-
dent that this process will be adopted, even on
poor land. Suppose one acre is grown for a trial,
let me recommend a suitable space between the
plants. Many who attempt to grow beet leave the
plants too close to each other, which is objection-
able in many respects, particularly for the hoeing

298

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and cleaning. Let it be for a moment considered
that if planted two feet apart, there will be a pro-
duce on the surface acre of 10,890 plants ; that is,
both two feet apart longitudinally and latitudinally,
or lengthways and breadthways,

The white Silesian beet is incomparably the best
for the manufacture of sugar ; and the circum-
stance of its containing more saccharine juice than
the other kinds at once proves the advantage of its
culture for feeding purposes. Complaints have
been made of its having its roots too much forked
and too fibrous ; this will not be the case if manure
is not immediately applied to encourage these ob-
jections.

My views as to the inutility, and even injurious
effect of manuring ground for beet crojDS, as espe-
cially detrimental to the pi'oduction of the saccha-
rine matter, receives further a remarkable and very
timely support from a communication lately made
by a gentleman conducting the beet-sugar manu-
factory now in progress at Mount Mellick, in Ire-
land (King's Co.), by which the quantity of sac-
charine in the roots examined appears to be in
direct inverse proportion to the degree of prepara-
tion or manuring which the land had received. He
states —

" I caused a root to be scraped, and on examin-
ing the product with a Beaume's hydrometer, I
found the density of the juice to be 8 deg., thus
indicating that a gallon of juice of this quality would
yield lib. of sugar. The gallon of juice would
weigh but little more than 8lbs., and from this I
infer that the root contained not much below 12
per cent, of sweet constituent, which, allowing for
molasses and waste, may be equivalent to about 10
j)er cent, of crystalline sugar." . ..." I have made
a great many trials of beets from various localities.
The specific gravity of the juice I find ranges to
7tV, 8, and 8^ deg. (the latter is from Lord de
Vesci's). One specimen of the white Silesian, a
very large root grown at Mount Mellick in a gar-
den which was highly manured, only indicated
5i deg., proving that high culture produces leaf,
and. diminishes the saccharine qualities."

Some farmers in my neighbourhood sell a part
01 their crop of beet or mangold wurzel, which is
frequently as high as 20s. per ton ; but probably a
farmer would not, on a large quantity, realize this
jjrice. Well, let us value it at 10s. per ton for his
various consuming purposes (I think it worth
much more); this would pay him twice the value
of an acre of wheat ! Specimens of this produce I
have been permitted to lay before the Council of
the Royal Agricultural Society, who were pleased
to pronounce them very fine roots; and I have
also the opinion of their Professor of Chemistry,
and those of the most practical and distinguished

men in the profession, expressed in equally favour-
able terms.

Although many advantages may be gained by
repeated ploughing, and turning over, and break-
ing the particles of earth for the produce of most
plants, yet it is not so with the best culture of the
beet or mangold wurzel, and the prevention of the
evaporation from the soil is desirable for the ac-
cumulation of the suitable and natural ingredients.
From so much of the atmospheric air being
blended with the soil, a large portion of the oxy-
gen may be supplied and retained ; and this, with
the union of carbon, and various other inflamma-
ble materials which the earth contains, would
probably produce the carbonic or other acids re-
quisite in greater abundance, and more suitably
for the growth of the beet. Frequent hoeings
also would bring it more minutely in contact with
the portions of atmospheric air, and unite v»'ith it
what has been covered in and pent up previously ; *
and thus the supplies of ammonia, or volatile al-
kali, with the combination of its hydrogen with
azote, would be more regular and more copious, as
well as those of nitre, by the complete union of its J
superabundant oxygen, with some other portion of "
abounding nitrogen or azote of such air.

As the atmospheric air consists of oxygen and
other fluid matters of heat, and these combined
form the material, and produce the nitrous acid, or
the oxygen in its fluid state, which is of great
utility in promoting the growth of jjlants ; and
further, if any process of the putrefactive kind be
going on where atmospheric air is in this way con-
fined in the soil, the azote may combine with the
hydrogen of the decomposing water, or contribute
to decompose it, and after this has been completed .
is of very material use in promoting vegetation ; I
while, at the same time, the oxygen afforded by the
decomposing water may, like that of the atmos-
phere, contribute to the production of carbonic,
nitrous, or phosphoric acids, and in this way
will render the compound a basis quite capable of
being taken in by the absorbent plants. Thus, by
the course of nature, there is a production of both
ammonia and nitrous acid, which are so suitable for
the beet-root family, and so beneficial in promoting
vegetation. It is then readily to be conceived that
the process of fallowing land for the production of
the beet-root or mangold-wurzel may cause some
danger, by the natural ingredients being injured by
too much evaporation and exposure ; so that how-
ever plausible it may be to fallow land (and it
would be diflicult to persuade many people that it
is not desirable), it may, as well as the use of ma-
nures, for the production of the roots, be essentially
wrong, and tend to destroy the natural elements of
the earth and air productions, and check the union

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

299

of such substances as form the compounds already
alhided to.

It has been said by some writers, there may be
other products of not less consequence arising
from dissipation or loss of the carbonic or nitrous
acids ; so that although there may be much advan-
tage in ploughing frequently to promote the best
produce, in most crops it appears, fi'om the success
I have had at all times with ray crops of beet-root,
that the great mechanical alterations which must of
necessity take place in the soil by repeated plough-
ings, and from the exposure of these compounds to
the influence of the atmosphere, can in no way pro-
mote the improved production of the roots. Let
it then be strenuously contended that the most judi-
cious intermixture of crops upon every kind of soil
will not ])reclude the necessity of a summer fallow.
I doubt it very much; for I contend, from long ex-
perience, that a well-managed ciop of beet-root or
mangold-wurzel will clean the foulest land, and
help to restore it to its required condition. But
whatever advantage there may be in fallowing, and
obtaining a perfect pulverization in this mode of
cleanliness, it is a mistake to imagine it requisite to
incur these heavy expenses to produce a fine
crop of beet. Besides, the process of fallowing is
almost destructive to the vital economy of nature
in these plants. The loss sustained by the land re-
maining idle such a great length of time, by the
prevailing system of fallow, cannot be disputed ;
why not, then, lessen the expense by a suitable and
more profitable substitute — a substitute which will
insure a still more luxuriant crop the following
season, obtained by cleanliness and an ample sup-
ply of vegetable matter, the leaves being ploughed
into the ground, in preference to their adoption for
any other use hitherto sanctioned in rural economy ?

We thus ensure, then, the fact that beet-roots
may be grown every season in the same piece of
land ; the foliage of the produce of one season
being a natural nourishment for the plant the fol-
lowing season : and to facilitate this process, I would
suggest that trenches be dug out between the rows
of plants, and when the crop is taken up and
trimmed, to bury the leaves in the trenches, and
fill them up with earth — these trenches to be con-
sidered to be the line for the succeeding crop — thus
offering an abundant supply of the food and pro-
perties necessary for the next produce. This plan

would he attended with very little more trouble ;
and I introduce the suggestion to aflford a ready
means for growing beet to those who hold but little
land, or who could not conveniently extend such
crops to other parts of their farm. It is known
that there is no manure of vegetable matter so
suitable for the growth of any kind of plant, and
for bringing it to the greatest vigour and perfec-
tion, as the decayed produce of its own kind.
Observe, an an instance, the stately oak, how it
flourishes in the woods for several hundred years ;
it has no manure or assistance to the root, except
the decayed leaves of its own 'produce; and what
can be more natural ? And the same with almost
every other kind of plant; each is best nourished
by the decomposed leaves, stalks, seeds, &c., of its
own produce. The system extends even to the
economy of animal life, if we may draw an inference
from the eagerness with which all the rapacious
classes of animals devour their own kind; and
from the experience of fishermen, it is shown that
the most attractive bait for every kind of fish is the
flesh of one of its own species.

From all the information I can collect, plants
grown without the assistance of any kind of manure
contain as much, and in many instances more
saccharine matter, than those to which such arti-
ficial means have been supplied, and which conse-
quently would be grown only at a much greater ex-
pense.

Should such a result as that which, from ex-
perience, I consider sufficient to be acted on
as the basis of a practical system, be adopted in
the culture of the saccharine-bearing plants, either
for feeding cattle, or for the manufacture of sugar,
we shall have overcome the most plausible and
striking objection to the cultivation of those roots
for extensive agricultural or commercial purposes,
namely, the supposed great expense, from the neces-
sity of high manuring, and of periodical fallow,
both of which, to the farmer of small capital and
limited extent of land, would prove almost an in-
surmountable obstacle to its profitable cultivation ;
and a very important step will thus be made in the
advancement of this branch of agriculture, and in
promoting the more extended use of so valuable a
class of plants as that of the beet family.

Bandall's Park Farm, Leatherhead,
Surrey, Sep., 1852.

THE SPUR RY— HOW TO DESTROY

We have somewhere heard of a landlord who made
it his practice, when he found a farmer growing
weeds, to immediately advance his rent, alleging,

that if he were able to afford to grow weeds, he
was certainly in a position to pay more rent. This
is a capital anecdote for the gentlemen of the Man-

300

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Chester school, who catch at such general and
sweeping prmciples, and allege that this is a cer-
tain cure for bad farming. But on this as on most
subjects, a little learning is a dangerous thing, and
the most learned men in all points are always found
the most reserved and moderate in their opinions ;
for to know a subject well is to see that most of
sweeping assertions will not bear deep investiga-
tion, but require fencing with limitations and ex-
ceptions, which make a real truth-seeker anxious
not to overstate, and so his opinion is not a little
modified. As a rule, bad farming and weeds doubt-
less go together, and high cultivation has for its
object, inter alia, the destruction of weeds ; but it
will sometimes happen that it is a great struggle to
keep them down, and a struggle in which, we are
sorry to say, the farmer is not always successful,
nor the plants always victorious over the weeds.

We have spoken of those which may properly
be called root weeds, not because they spread in
their roots alone, but because the root is the real
cause of damage to the soil, and because it is by far
the most difficult i)art of the plant to exterminate.

There is a class of weeds, however, equally inju-
rious, exhausting to the soil, and poisonous to
the crop, by their disputing the ground, forcing up
their little leaves to suck in the nutritive air, and
smothering, in fact, the whole of the land: we
mean such plants as the spurry, the poppy, and the
charlock.

Taking the first in order— the spurry— it is a
plant which often conquers a corn crop. Small and
insignificant at first, it grows so rapidly, is so
hardy, so thick in its pointed foliage, and comes up
in such force, that it often chokes a crop on land in
good condition, as far as manure is concerned.
Hoeing is of comparatively little value, for there is
enough in the drills, when it is abundant, to tiller
out further than the corn ; and as it comes up long
after the corn, it is impossible to eradicate it while
a corn crop is on the ground. And then to see
how it grows ! it seems to be instinctive with the
race it has to make to seed before the corn is carted>
and all its energies are directed to this purpose, and
it always succeeds. A smother of spurry is followed
by a cover of plant seeds, and these lay the
foundation of not another, but a series of future
crops.

It is common to a class of soils peculiarly its
own — hght blowing sand seems to be its favourite,
and it is doubtless supplied by Providence to fix
by its rapid career the loose sand, which othenvise
would fly off almost out of sight. The farmer looks
not at this. He wants corn ; and the spurry in fix-
ing the sand fixes also his crop, for in such situa-
tions it is generally worthless. Now here, as hand
and horse hoeings are useless, another process will

be necessary. It can make no head in green crops.
It never injures turnips, because they are sown too
late for it to make great heading ; and when it does
appear, they are not only hoed between the rows,
but single plants are also hoed round, so that it has
absolutely no space to grow in, untouched by the
hoe ; and even if a plant should happen to escape,
the frost sets in before it can seed, in the ordinary
run of years. Hence turnips are of all others the
best crop to keep it down. But if the soil is full
of the seed, it will be essential to get a large portion
of it to germinate first. We would recommend treat-
ment in earnest of the following kind, where claying
was not adopted, for this is a certain cure — no
clay land ever has the weed upon it in any quantity ;
but as this is a landlord's operation, we pass it over,
and suppose the land to be treated by a tenant : —
Suppose the field is taken after wheat, and the
stubble cleaned in the autumn : the land should
then be ploughed and harrowed fine, so as to pre-
sent a flat surface through the winter. A few will
thus germinate. In spring, another ploughing will
destroy these, and a harrowing should again be
given, so as to leave the surface flat, in order to al-
low the moisture to accumulate, and strike the seed ;
for as soon as this is accomplished, another plough-
ing and harrowing will repeat the process. This
should be continued as long as possible — if through
all the summer it will be a more perfect cure ; but
as some crop is usually taken, a crop of rape, sown
in July, will give a very ample time to turn over
fresh surfaces, and no time will be allowed for the
seed to be shed. The next crop may be tares,
mown oflf, which will necessarily take place long
before the seed will have time to do any damage ;
and a succession of ploughings and harrowings of
the tare stubble would again destroy the spurry,
and clear the land for another crop. In the third
year, mustard sown in March, and eaten ofl^", will
again prevent the spurry : this should be ploughed,
and sown with rape, or stubble turnips — also to be
eaten on. Here would be time saved, and the weed
kept down. A crop of oats and small seeds might
then follow, for the land would be too much conso-
lidated to admit of much headway being made by
the marauders, and the seeds would in some mea-
sure occupy the soil in good condition, so as to
render it probable that a crop of early oats might
be reaped before the plant caused any serious in-
convenience, thinned as it had been by the previous
cultivation.

By this, or some such process, must the soil be
freed from such plagues asserting their native rights
over the exotic plants cultivated by the husbandman
for profit, for weeds are almost a necessary conse-
quence of frequent crops of corn. — Gardeners' and
Farmers' Journal.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

301

AGRICULTURAL BIOGRAPHY,

(Continued from page 218^.

XXIL— DiGGEs, 1631.

Leonard Digges was born at Digges' Court, in
the parish of Barham, Kent, in the early part of the
] 6th century; died about 1570. He was an able
mathematician, and wrote several geometrical
works, some of which were edited by his son,
Thomas Digges. The book on surveying is called
" Tectonicon," briefly showing the exacte mea-
suring and spedye reckonynge of all manner of
land, and squares, tymber, stones, steeples, pyllars,
globes, &c.; London, 1556, 4to. Again, in 1570
and 1585, republished by his son; London, 1592,
1637, 1647, and 1656, 4to. Weston ascribes to
Digges " The shepherds' calendar," in folio, with
wooden cuts, black letter, 1631 ; but no list of the
author's works notices any book of that name.

The first editions of "Tectonicon" are printed
in black letter, and the latter copies contain 60
pages of small quarto. The geometrical figures
are drawn in the usual way, and the dotted lines
show the taking of dimensions. Good rules are
given for surveyors, joiners, masons, carpenters,
&c. The book was much esteemed, and passed
through several editions.

XXIII.— Levet, 1634.

John Levet, Gent., wrote " The ordering of bees ;
or, the true history of managing them from time to
time, with their honey and wax ; " London, 1634,
4to. The book contains 71 pages of continued
dialogue between two persons, " Tortona and
Petralba," and shows an accurate knowledge of
the management of bees, discussed in the usual
way of those times.

XXIV.— Calthorpe, 1636.
Charles Calthorpe, of the Honourable Society of
Lincoln's Inn, Esq., was the author of the [work
entitled " The relation between the lord of a manor
and the copy-holder, his tenant;" London, lC36.
The contents are said to be the learned readings of
that excellent and famous lawyer, the name above
written, and fill 100 octavo pages of a large size.
It is a legal production of very considerable value in
the opinion of qualified judges.

XXV.— Remnant, 1637.
Richard Remnant wrote the " Historic of bees,"
shewing their nature and usage, and the great
profile of them ; whereunto are added the causes
and cure of blasted wheat, hops, rie, and fruit ;
and the causes of smutty wheat. The book fills 45

octavo pages, in which the bee is treated in the
usual way. Wheat is blasted by windes, or by
mildewes, which last are cured by running a rope
over the wheat, held by a person at each end.
Smut in wheat arises from the seed and land, or
both ; it is cured by steeping the wheat in a cer-
tain ingredient, to be afterwards made known by
the author.

XXVL— Plattes, 1638.

Gabriel Plattes lived in the reigns of Elizabeth,
James I., and Charles I., and during three or four
years of the Commonwealth, He was an ingenious
and very adventurous writer, and did not deal
much in practical facts. He wrote " Treatise of
husbandry," London, 1638 ; " Discoverie of infi-
nite treasure, hidden from the worlds' beginning,
in the way of husbandry," London, 1636, 1639,
4to. ; " Discoverie of subterranean treasure, in all
manner of mines and minerals, from the gold to
the coal, &c., with directions for finding them,"
London, 1639 ; "Observations and improvements
in husbandry, with twenty experiments," London,
1639, 4to.; " The profitable intelligencer," London,
1644, 4to.; " Recreatio agriculturae," London,
1646, 4to.

The first and last-mentioned works are not found
in the British Museum — a matter of regret, as the
books appear from the title to have been the most
practical of the author's productions, and qualified
to show the merits of the writer. The two " Dis-
coveries of treasures " are bound together, and
form a thin quarto of 92 pages. The " Profitable
intelligencer," communicating his knowledge for
the general good of the commonwealth and all
posterity, contains 8 pages of quarto size, bound in
a volume of letters and sermons of that period.
The subject is in the form of a letter, and contained
in vague and trifling speculations without any defi-
nite prescription.

The writers who immediately followed Plattes all
allowed his genius — that he had a bold adventurous
cast of mind, and preferred the faulty sublime to
the faulty mediocrity — that he was an original
genius, and an ingenious writer — a singular honest
man — and that he had as excellent a genius in
agriculture as any man that ever lived in this
nation before liim. It seems he was a very needy
person, and was much relieved by Hartlib, to
whom he bequeathed his unpublished papers. It
is said he was found dead in London streets, in a

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

state of extreme destitution, and that he was very
much neglected during his whole hfetime. This
statement has been contradicted, without any better
account being substituted. Weston gives to his
name " The Jewel-house of art and nature," which
is known to have been the work of Sir Hugh Plat.
Nothing has been discovered of the origin, lineage,
or place of nativity of Gabriel Plattes.

XXVn. — Vermuiden, 1642.

Sir Cornelius Vermuiden was a Dutchman by
birth, and held the post of colonel in the army of
Cromwell. He wrote " A discourse touching the
drayning the great fennes lying within the severall
counties of Lincolne, Northampton, Huntington,
Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, and the Isle of Ely,
as it was presented to his Majestic ;" London, 4to,
1642. The work is bound singly in a thin quarto
size, and occupies 32 pages. It was ordered to be
printed by the Committee for the Great Level, to-
gether with the mappe, in order that exceptions
may be taken (if any be), and other designs may be
offered. A local knowledge of the ground was at
any time requisite to understand any plan devised
for draining the fens, and now, when so many
alterations have been made by the subsequent
operations, any reference to Vermuiden's designs
would be wholly misspent labour ; but at the time
he wrote on the subject it seems no objections were
raised against his schemes of embanking the rivers
and draining the swamps.

XXVIII.— Weston, 1646.

Sir Richard Weston, of Sutton, in Surrey, was
Ambassador from the Court of James I. in 161 9,
to the Elector Palatine, and King of Bohemia.
He wrote " A discourse of husbandrie," used in
Brabant and Flanders, shewing the wonderful im-
provement of land there, and serving as a pattern
for our practice in this commonwealth; 4to, 1645.
This book is issued under the name of Hartlib, to
whom the MS. was addressed, without the author
being known. Sir Richard also wrote "Brief dis-
coveries of ways and means for manuring and im-
proving land," 1646.

It has ever been acknowledged that Sir Richard
Weston laid the foundation of the improved agri-
culture of Britain. In the low countries of Brabant
and Flanders he saw the clover plant, and also the
turnip, both of which very much attracted his
notice, and induced him to state their qualities in
writing, and recommend their use to his countrymen.
The genius of the British people was then rapidly
bestirring itself, and sought every avenue of de-
velopment. Weston's book has always been
reckoned an excellent work, and shall have the due
examination in the following author's life,

XXIX— Hartlib, 1646.

Samuel Hartlib was the son of a Polish mer-
chant, who settled at Elbing, in Prussia, where he
built the first house of credit, and established the
English Company there. His family was of a very
ancient extraction in the German empire, there
having been ten brothers of the name of Hartlib.
Some of them were privy councillors to the Em-
peror, some to other inferior princes, some S5mdics
of Augsberg and Norimberg. He was the issue of
a third wife, his father having married two Polonian
ladies of noble extraction. His third wife seems to
have been an Englishwoman, for she had two
sisters very honourably married here : one first to
a Mr. Clarke, then to Sir Richard Smith, and a
third time to Sir Edward Savage ; the other sister
married Mr. Peak. Warton says Hartlib came
over into England about 1640. He carried on an
extensive agency business, and engaged himself
with literary subjects. He wrote several theolo-
gical tracts, and was the esteemed associate of the
talented men of his time, including Milton, who
dedicated to him his " Tractate on education."
He assisted in establishing the embryo of the
Royal Society. The time of his death is unknown.

Hartlib published "Discourse of husbandry
used in Brabant and Flanders, showing the won-
derfull improvements of land there j" London,
1645, 1650, 4to. "Legacy; or, an enlargement
on the discourse of husbandry used in Brabant
and Flanders," with an appendix; London, 1651,
1652, 1655, 4to. "Essay on the advancement of
husbandry and learning, with propositions for
erecting a college of husbandry ;" London, 1651,
4to. " The reformed husbandman ; or, a brief
treatise of the errors, defects, and inconvenience of
our English husbandry, in ploughing and sowing
for corn, with the reasons and general remedies,
and a large, yet faithful offer or undertaking, for
the benefit of them that will join in this good and
public work;" London, 1651, 4to. "Discovery
for division or setting out of waste land in England
and Ireland." "The complete husbandman; or,
a discourse of husbandry both foreign and
domestic."

It has been noticed that the " Discourse on
Flemish husbandry," was written by SirR. Weston,
and pubUshed by Hartlib; in like manner the
" Legacy " was compiled by R. Child, and other
persons eminent for skill in agriculture. Hartlib
himself never had any practice or connection with
agriculture, but received it through the medium
that was presented to him. " The husbandrie of
Brabant and Flanders" occupies 27 pages of small
quarto, and details the practice of those places
through which Sir Richard Weston had travelled,
in the use of flax, clover, and turnips; Devon-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

3U8

ihiring (paring and burning) of land is much
recommended, and to sow clover and turnips upon
the ground thus treated. Flax, turnips, and clover
were at that time grown in England, but differed
as much from the crops in Flanders as the wild
plants differ from those raised in a garden. The
language shows a learned author, and the germs
are evident of an improved agriculture.

The " Legacy " forms an enlargement of the
former work, adding the best performances of
English practice on the knowledge which the author
possessed, or could learn of its use. The work
was only drawn up at Hartlib's request, and, pas-
sing through his correction and revision, was pub-
lished by him. It consists of one general answer
to the following query, namely : " What are the
actual defects and omissions, as also the possible
improvements, in English husbandry." The real
author was Robert Child, as was before noticed.
To it are annexed various correspondences from
persons eminent for skill in agriculture at this
time, as C. D. B. W. R. H. T. Underbill, Henry
Cruttenden, W. Potter, &c. ; as also, the " Mer-
curius lectiticans," and twenty large experiments
by Gabriel Plattes; together with annotations on
the " Legacy," by Dr. Arnold Beati; and replies
to the animadversions, by the author of the
" Legacy." In the preface Hartlib greatly laments
that no public director of husbandry was esta-
blished in England by authority, and that we had
not adopted the Flemish custom of letting farms
upon improvement.

The " Legacy " occupies 131 pages of small
quarto, and treats sainfoin, lucerne, ploughs
and carriages, digging, setting and hoeing, garden-
ing, smut and mildew, orchards, fruits, vines,
hemp and flax, dunging and manuring lands, the
net improvement of our mead, waste lands, woods,
bees, silkewormes, ignorance of the husbandry of
other places, ignorance of things taken from the
earth and waters of this island, the ignorance of
the vegetation of this island, and their virtues and
uses, animals, diseases of cattle and their cures,
feeding and fatting of cattle, want of things neces-
sary for improvements, want of God's blessing on
our labours. Upwards of twenty pages are occu-
pied by letters to the author on the various subjects
that are treated in the work The manures enu-
merated are- 1. Chalke; 2. Lime; 3. Ordinary
dung (excrements) ; 4. Marie ; 5. Snaggreet
(shelly earth from river beds) ; 6. Ouse from
marsh ditches; 7. Sea-weeds; 8. Sea sand;
9. Folding of sheep; 10. Ashes of any kind;
11. Soote; 12. Pigeon's and hen's dung; 13. Malt
dust; 14. Salt and brine; 15. Grassy turf and
brakes; 16. Fish; 17. Urine; 18. Woollen rags;
19. Denshyving, or paring and burning lands;

20. Mixture of lands; 21. Enclosures; 22. Steep-
ing of graines ; 23. Lupines, and ploughing green
plants into the ground.

The " Reformed husbandman," or the notice of
the errors and defects of English husbandry, fills
14 pages, and is bound with the " Legacy." This
essay was imparted to Hartlib by some one of his
correspondents, whose name is not given, but who
recommends industry as the grand forge of in-
ventions, and the source of all rewards ; and

" 'Tis only need
Gives life and scope to every human seed."

The author urges the fallowing of lands for any
crops, and to use much less seed. He also recom-
mends that much more expenditure be made in
order to procure the jewels of nature.

In the " Essay on the advancement of husbandry
learning" Hartlib ascribes all misery to the nar-
rowness of our spirits, and that our hearts are
not enlarged beyond ourselves. If the advantages
that are offered were held, and made jointly ser-
viceable, fruitful and lucriferous employments
would never be wanting, and are only unfruitful
because we mind not the objects of that industrioui-
ness which, without a mutual concurrence, cannot
be advanced. There are infinite means of relief
and comfort for all sorts of calamities, to be found
in nature and well ordered societies, if men were
not enviously, or covetously, or peevishly, or am-
bitiously, or drowsily straitened within themselves.
In order to rouse the upright in heart from the
laziness and drowsiness, he states " that the
mother of all other trades and scientifical indus-
tries, which is the science and trade of husbandry,
would be very beneficially treated in the collegiate
way of teaching the art thereof: for if the least
part of industry is highly improved by collegiate
institutions, the chief parts, which are the root of
all wealth, must be advanced to perfection by that
means."

In order to promote what the author calls " the
most ancient, most noble, and most necessary trade
of all others," he proposes that there be bought or
rented a large and convenient house, with some
good quantity of land adjoining and belonging to
it, and that it be done '• by those whose great
wealth is joined with as great virtue and love to
their country, and will as well as power to ad-
vance the public good without seeking their own
private benefit." He advises the money necessary
to be raised by contributions, according to the
wisdom and means of the donors. To those,
whose good will may be large but the means are
small, he offers £20 yearly for every £100 that is
lent, and so for a greater or less sum proportion-
ably ; and, on notice of six months, the sum dis-

V 9.

304

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

bursed will be repaid. In order to ransom inge-
nuity from her too tedious captivity, and to awaken
industry from a kind of lethargy, young men of
15 years of age and upwards are to be bound for
7 years as apprentices in agriculture, and in that
time to be instructed faithfully in the theorick and
practick parts of this (of all others) most ancient,
noble, and honestly gainfuU art, trade, or mystery ;
and, at the end of that time, he shall receive at one
entire payment, to set up withal, £200 ; and at the
end of every year following that payment for che
period of four years he shall receive £50 more, the
better to support him, till he have taken sufficient
root. The sum of £20 is paid by each student on
entering. The number of pupils is limited to 36.
Freemen can be entered on paying £50, who must

prove themselves to be well-wishers and professors
of good husbandry. It is not the newness, but
the rarity or invalidity of any invention, that lays it
open to the dislike of the more wise and noble per-
sons. The author does not pretend to make bread
of stones, but only to make better bread of the
same wheat, and to screw the most profound
mystery of good husbandr}' a note or two higher,
and to do the same thing a better way and to more
advantage.

A correspondent of Hartlib, named Coressey
Dymock, sent him the plan of a farm, which might
be adopted on newly-enclosed land, as fens re-
covered from the sea, and river overflowings, and
upon common grounds, being divided into farms.
The design is subjoined : —

This chart is the plot of an entire lordship, or it
may serve for a farm of 200 or 300, or any number
of acres —

A is the dwelling-house in the centre.

B, the kitchen garden.

C, the orchard.

D, the choice garden.

E, the physicall garden.

F F, the dairy and laundry.

G G, sheep cotes.

H H, the closes for cows.

I I, the bakehouse and brewhouse.

K, the great corn barn.

L L, stables or houses, swine's styes

M M, little houses, for poultry, &c.

N N, the standing racks.

O O, coney berries.

Q Q, closes for single animals.

R R, closes for mares and foal, &c.

S S, pastures for sheep.

T, closes for weak purposes.

V, pastures for fat beeves.

W, close for diseased beasts.

X, close for saddle-horse. ^.ni|nn lo ilood

Y, close for weaning calves. ^ ^^fj juocf A

)bTO091 81

rj oj

.jXIIBJ

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

305

Another plan is given of a large square form,
which is divided in the interior into a number of
equal sized farms, that are also square in shape and
very regularly placed. However eligible may be
the square form of fields and farms, the adoption
of the circle seems liable to many objections, in
making very narrow corners, which are always in-
convenient, even though the land be constantly in
pasturage. It is a whimsical rather than a useful
designation of land, and is given here as a mark of
the ideas that prevailed in those times when agri-
culture began to be stirred in Britain, and from
which the present improvements derived the pro-
pelHng force,

Hartlib looked sublimely, and thought very
deeply, as is shown by the projects which he
formed and the recommendations he imjiarted.
He was able to urge the adoption of arrangements
that were beyond the interest of self, a circumstance
the more wonderful as he was engaged in com-
mercial agencies, which, of all other employments,
rivets the mind most closely to the money column
in the accounts of human transactions. His ac-
quaintance with Milton, and estimation by that
immortal man, and the correspondence with Sir
"Wilham Petty, are sufficient to stamp the
character of Hartlib as being a very superior
person, and possessed of a mind that was moulded
of refined materials. He was noticed by Cromwell,
who presented him with an annuity of £100 yearly,
which is otherwise said to have been given him
from a direct application for relief, which was made
on the grounds of his benevolent philanthropy.
He was neglected at the Restoration, and his ser-
vices were wholly forgotten — his pension was £700
in arrear; he presented a petition to the House of
Commons, setting forth his services and praying
relief, in which, among other things, he says, that
" for thirty years and upwards he had exerted him-
self in procuring "rare collections of MSS. in all
the parts of learning, which he had freely im-
ported, transcribed, and printed, and sent to such
as were most capable of making use of them ; also,
the best experiments in husbandry and manufac-
tures, which, by printing, he hath published for
the benefit of this age and posterity." In a letter
to Lord Herbert lie complains "he had nothing to
keep him alive, with two relations more, a daughter
and a nephew, who were attending his sickly con-
dition." The result of these applications, and the
time of the death of this ingenious man, are un-
known—his history stops short at this point. It
is recorded that Hartlib was a kind relieving friend
to Gabriel Plattes, and that he lodged and main-
tained Speed in his house whilst he composed his
book of improvements in husbandry.

About the time when Harthb flourished, seems

to be an era when English husbandry rose to a
high perfection, for the preceding wars had made
the country gentry poor, and, in consequence
thereof, industrious —though sometimes the reverse
of this happens in many kingdoms ; but these
wise men found the cultivation of their own lands
to be the very best posts of employment. Yet, in
a few years, when the Restoration took place, all
this industry and knowledge were turned into dis-
sipation and heedlessness, and then husbandry
passed almost entirely into the hands of farmers.

The notice of the life of Hartlib must not be
closed without a parting expression of profound
regret, that the lofty minds which are excited by
the prospect of future good, and rise above the
general allurement of immediate advantage, should
ever be subjected to the painful necessity of making
petition for relief, either by private or public solici-
tation. Such occurrences have not been unfre-
quent in the history of the world, and afford ample
evidence that there is something wrong in the
moral condition of society that permits the very
highest benefactors of the human race to be de-
graded almost beneath the situation of menial
servitude. A tithe of the tenth part of the money
that was squandered under the restored monarchy
of England, in upholding scenes of debauchery
and maintaining the tools of a very depraved mo-
rality, would have supported in an easy and be-
coming competence the author of the " Legacy,"
and the propounder of an agricultural college, who
was the esteemed friend of the immortal author of
" Paradise Lost," and who held correspondence
with the talented founder of the noble house of
Lansdovvne. These are painful reflections, and
put to shame every boast of civilized life.

XXX.— Blythe, 1649.

Walter Blythe, or Blyth, was a Yeoman of York-
shire, and acted in a military capacity in the army
of Cromwell. Along with other commissioned
persons of those times, he was very eminently
useful in introducing improvements into Scotland
and Ireland. He wrote two agricultural works :
I. "The English Improver; or, a new system of
husbandry," in six chapters of 168 quarto pages;
London, 1649. IL "The English improver im-
proved," of 262 pages, containing the former work,
with addition of six new pieces of improvement;
London, 1652. The six chapters first published
are— 1. On floating and watering lands; 2, On
draining fen and boggy lands, and regaining lands
from the sea; 3. On such enclosures as prevent
depopulation, and advance all interests; 4. On
tillage of land kept too long in grass, and pasturing
others destroyed with ploughing ; 5. Discovery of
all soils and composts, with their nature and use ;

306

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

6. On doubling the growth of wood by new plan-
tations. The second part contains six newer pieces
of improvement — 1. On the husbandry of clover
nnd St. Foyne; 2. On lessening the charge and
burthen of the plough, with divers figures thereof;
3, On planting wild wood and madder; 4. On
planting hops, saflfron, and liquorice; 5. On
planting of rape, coleseed, hemp, and flax, and the
profit thereof ; 6. On the great advance of land by
divers orchards and garden fruits. The work is
dedicated to the Lord Protector, and to other
public bodies.

The writings of Blyth contain a great deal of
sound sense, and not badly expressed, on almost
every branch of husbandry. His principles are
very correct, and he seems to have entertained the
first systematic conceptions of the benefits that
would attend the alternate husbandry. He recom-
mended the breaking up of all inferior grass lands,
and shows the public loss from constant pasturage,
and also the individual detriment. The wearing
out of lands by too constant ploughing is much
condemned, and the want stated of a renovating
pasturage.

Blythe relates as a curious circumstance — " It is
not many years since the famous city of London
petitioned the parliament of England against two
nuisances or offensive commodities which were
likely to come into great use and esteem, and that
was Newcastle coal in regard of the stench, and
hops, as they would spoil the taste of the drink and
endanger the people."

Blythe mentions the previous writers on agri-
culture, as Markham, Googe, Tusser, and Plattes.
He knew Hartlib, but makes no particular notice
of him. He says Plattes was very rationall and
ingenious, and Tusser rimeth out of his experi-
ences. No mention is made of turnips, though the
plant was known before his time. He describes
and figures the swing and wheel ploughs, and the
double implement with two mould boards; and
notices the turnwrest plough of Kent. The form
and construction of the plough had much improved
since the delineations had been given by Markham
only twenty years previous, as is seen in the con-
vexity of the mould-board and the greater length
of the handles, which begin to assume the present
curvature of junction with the body of the imple-
ment. These points constitute the most essential re-
quirements of an efficient plough.

It has always been most truly stated, that the
foundation of British agriculture was laid by Sir
Richard Weston, Hartlib, and Blythe, by the no-
tice and recommendation of the green fodder-
plants, which, along with root crops, effected a
most complete revolution in the cultivation of the
British soil. The change of government intro-

duced by the Commonwealth brought forward upon

the stage of life many eminent characters, who, but
for that change, would not have been heard of;
and, whatever opinions may be formed of that
form of government in other respects, no denial
can be made to its being favourable in a very high
degree to the development of genius and enter-
prize. For the long period of upwards of one
hundred years from the time we write, httle or no
improvement was done in the practice of agricul-
ture, till a similar social commotion moved the
stagnation of the human mind, and put into motion
the wheels of action that had stood still from want
of impulse and the oil of progression. Green
crops in the root and fodder plants budded in
Hartlib and Blythe, blossomed in TuU, and
were rich in fruit in Dawson, Culley, and Brown ;
and it was only from these enlightened practitioners
that agriculture received the benefits of a sound
practice and profitable results : so slow is the
progress of truth even in the grandest form of
attire.

Of the birth, native country, and lineage of
Walter Blithe, his social existence, married or
single life, issue, or death, no memorials exist, and
it does not appear that any record had been made.

XXXI.— Lee, 1656.
Reverend Joseph Lee was a minister of the
gospel, and seems to have been a dissenting clergy,
man in Leicestershire. He wrote " A vindication
of a regulated enclosure," wherein is plainly proved
that the enclosures of commons are both lawful and
laudable. The essay occupies 36 octavo pages,
and is forcibly written.

XXXII.— Sha, J 657.
J. Sha wrote " Certaine plaine and easie demon-
strations of divers easie wayes and meanes for the
improving of any manner of barren land, though
the same be not worth Is. an acre, and showing
how to make the same become worth 20s., 30s., or
40s. an acre yearly." The essay occupies only 16
pages of small quarto, which relate to ploughing,
dunging, and soaking lands with water.

XXXIIL— Evelyn, 1658.
John Evelyn was a great philosopher, a worthy
patriot, and a learned writer in the seventeenth cen-
tury. He was descended from a very ancient and
honourable family, which flourished originally in
the county of Salop, at a place still called Evelyn.
George Evelyn, Esq., purchased the estate of the
family at Wotton, in Surrey, in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, and left a large family. The youngest
and only surviving son was the father of our notice,
who was born October 31, 1620, in the paternal
house at Wotton. His tender years were much

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

307

indulfjed by his maternal jfrandmother at the ClifF,
near Lewes, in the county of Sussex, where he re-
ceived the first elements of learning at the grammar
school in that town. In 1637 he removed to Baliol
College, Oxford, where, as a gentleman commoner,
he remained till the breaking out of the civil war,
when he repaired to the king at Oxford, and ob-
tained a leave, signed by his Majesty, to travel be-
)'ond seas for his improvement. His college tutor
was a Mr. Bradshaw, related to the president at
the trial of Charles I. ; and he always mentioned
the person as a " nomen invisum." Evelyn entered
the Middle Temple in 1640, and at this time he
lost his father, who died in his fifty-third year. The
ominous appearance of public affairs, by the trial
and death of the Earl of Strafford, inclined him to
pass some tune abroad, and he immediately visited
Holland. In 1342 he offered his services to the
royal cause, and was a volunteer in Prince Rupert's
trooj) ; but the movement of the army having left
his property exposed to the rebels, he was advised
to travel, in order to conciliate neutrality, and in
1643 passed through France into Italy. In the
eternal city, the mother of arts as well as of arms,
he indulged his thirst for knowledge, which was
ever the ruling passion of his life ; and his mind
having been previously prepared, the stock he ac-
(juired was proportionally large. In France and
Italy he left no ciiriosity unexplored, and at Paris
was introduced to Sir Richard Brown, the English
king's minister there, whose daughter he married
in 1647, and had with her the possession of Sayes
Court, near Deptford, in Kent ; to which place he
retired in October of that year. He published a
tractate on liberty and servitude, for which being
severely threatened, he again retired into France,
and attended his father-in-law when, after the
death of Charles I., he delivered his credentials to
the French court as the minister of Charles II.
He spent seven years in his travels, and returned to
private life with a vast store of varied knowledge.
His studious disposition at this time produced, in
a letter to the Honourable Robert Boyle, the raising
of a kind of a college for the reception of persons
of a philosophic turn of mind, where they might
enjoy the pleasures of agreeable society, and at the
same time pass their days without care or inter-
ruption. As this idea will ever remain a grand
conception of the human mind, the pages of our
biography cannot be better occupied than in trans-
cribing the proposition at full length. Evelyn's
plan was thus formed : — " I propose the purchasing
of thirty or forty acres of land in some healthy
place not above twenty-five miles from London,
of which a good part should be tall wood, and the
rest upland pastures or downs, sweetly irrigated.
and were there not already a house which might be

converted, &c., we would erect upon the most con«
venient site of this, near the wood, our building,
viz., one handsome pavilion, containing a refectory,
library, withdrawing-room, and a closet. This is
the first story, for we suppose the kitchen, larders,
cellars, and offices to be contrived in the half-story
under ground. In the second should be a fair
lodging chamber, a pallet- room, gallery, and a
closet, all which should be weU and very nobly
furnished, for any person that might desire to stay
any time, and for the reputation of the college.
The half story above for servants, wardrobes, and
like conveniences. To the entry fore front of this
court, and at the other back-front, a plot walled in
of a competent square for the common seraglio,
disposed into a garden, or it might be only carpet,
kept curiously, and to serve for bowls, walking, or
other recreations, &c., if the company please.
Opposite to the house, towards the wood, should
be erected a pretty chapel ; and at equal distances,
even within the flanking walls of the square, six
apartments or cells, for the members of the society,
and not contiguous to the pavilion, each whereof
should contain a small bed-chamber, an outward
room, a closet, and a private garden, somewhat
after the manner of the Carthusians. There should
likewise be an laboratory, with a repository for
varieties and things of nature, aviary, dovehouse,
physic-garden, kitchen-garden, and a plantation of
orchard fruit, &c. — all imiform buildings, but of
single stories, or a little elevated. At a convenient
distance, towards the ohtory garden, should be a
stable for two or three horses, and a lodging for a
servant or two. Lastly, a garden-house and con-
servatory for tender plants. The estimate amounts
thus: — the pavilion, £400; the chapel, £150;
apartments, walls, and outhousing, £600 ; the pur-
chase of a fee for thirty acres, at £15. £ 1,600 will
be the utmost. Three of the cells or apartments
— that is, one moiety with the appurtenances, shall
be at the disposal of one of the founders ; and the
other half at the others. If I and my wife take up
two apartments (for we are to be decently asunder ;
however, I stipulate, and her inclination will greatly
suit it, that shall be no impediment to the society,
but a considerable advantage to the economic part);
a third shall be for some worthy person ; and to
facilitate the rest I offer to furnish the whole pa-
vilion completely to the value of £500 in goods
and moveables, if need be, for seven years, till
there shall be a public stock, &c. There shall be
maintained at the public charge only a chaplain,
well qualified; an ancient woman, to dress the
meat, wash, and do all such offices ; a man to buy
provision, keep the garden, horses, &c. ; a boy to
assist him and serve within. At one meal a day,
of two dishes only, unless some little extraordinary

308

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

upon particular days or occasions (then never ex-
ceeding three) of plain and wholesome meat, a
small refection at night, wine, beer, sugar, spice,
bread, fish, fov.'l, candle, soap, oats, hay, fuel, &c.,
at £4 per week— £200 per annum; wages £15;
keeping the gardens, £20 ; the chaplain, £20 per
annum; laid up in the treasury, £145, to be em-
ployed for books, instruments, drugs, trials, &c.
The total, £400 a year, comprehending the keep of
two horses for the chariot, or the saddle, and two
kine — so that £200 per annum will be the utmost
that the founders shall be at to maintain the whole
society, consisting of nine persons (the servants in-
cluded), though there should no others join capable
to alleviate the expence. But if any of those who
desire to be of the society be so well qualified as to
support their own particulars, and allow for their
proportion, it will yet much diminish the charge —
and of such there cannot want some at all times, as
the apartments are empty. If either of the founders
thinks expedient to alter his condition, or that any
thing do ' humanitus contingere,' he may resign
to another, or sell to his colleague, and dispose of
it as he pleases, yet so as it still continue the in-
stitution. Orders. — At six in summer, prayers in
the chapel : to study till half an hour after eleven :
dinner in the refectory till one : retire till four ;
then called to conversation (if the weather invite)
abroad, else in the refectory — this never omitted
but in case of sickness : prayers at seven : to bed
at nine. In the winter the same, with some abate-
ments for the hours, because the nights are tedious,
and the evenings' conversation more agreeable.
This in the refectory. All play interdicted, sans
bowls, chess, &c. Every one to cultivate his own
garden. One month in spring a course in the
elaboratory on vegetables, &c. In the winter a
month on other experiments. Every man to have
a key of the elaboratorj', pavilion, librarj^, reposi-
tory, &c. Weekly fast. Communion once every
fortnight, or month at least. No stranger easily
admitted to visit any of the society, but upon cer-
tain days weekly, and that only after dinner. Any
of the society may have his commons to his apart-
ments if he will not meet in the refectory, so it be
not above twice a week. Every Thursday shall be
a music meeting at conversation hours. Every
person of the society shall render some public ac-
count of his studies weekly, if thought fit, and
especially shall be recommended the promotion of
experimental knowledge, as the principal end of the
institution. There shall be a decent habit and uni-
form used in the college. One month in the year
may be spent in London, or any of the Universities,
or in a perambulation for the public benefit, &c.,
with what other orders shall be thought conve-
nient,"

This scheme, which is characteristic of Mr.
Evelyn's mind at the particular time of occurrence,
would have probably departed from its principles,
as it may be thought too romantic to have stood
the collision of human passions and human events.
During the civil war, and under the Protectorate,
he lost no property ; nor was his person ever mo-
lested, though his attachment and connection with
monarchy was known, and also his correspondence
with the exiled party. His conduct was delicately
skilful ; and by his upright conduct and philosophic
conciliation he retained the esteem of the opposite
parties. He was well received by the restored
monarch, and had several public offices conferred i
upon him. He was a commissioner for the re- 1
building of St. Paul's, and was appointed one of I
the first Fellows and Council of the Royal Society. "
He had great credit at court, and a high reputation
in the world.

His leisure time was occupied at Sayes Court, in
gardening and planting, which he ever reckoned to
be truly rational and delightful occupations for the
mind of man. His literary labours were continued
with an unremitted zeal. On the death of his elder
brother without issue, he succeeded to the paternal
estate of Wotton, to which place he removed in the
year 1700. He let Sayes Court to Admiral Ben-
bow, and subsequently to Peter the Great of
Russia, who came to Deptford to learn the art of
ship-building. The house was furnished and
rented by the King of England, who treated thus
hospitably the semi-savage of the frozen regions.
The Czar indulged the frolics of a savage wanton-
ness in destroying the holly-hedges of the garden,
which had been reared by the care of Evelyn : he
had gaps cut through the hedges in all directions,
in order that he might be wheeled in a barrow
drawn by labourers, in all the emptiness of childish
delight. The damages done to the property were
made the subject of legal inquiry, and Evelyn ob-
tained £150 in compensation. He was at Wotton
during the great storm of 1703, when above one
thousand trees were blown down in sight of his
house. His last visit was paid to the paternal seat
in July, 1705 ; and the last memorandum made in
his journal was of February 3, 1706.

During his latter days there was no relaxation of
his endeavours to be useful. His collections were
great, and he was ever ready to communicate them
for the benefit of others. He furnished matter for
several publications, and was an assiduous attend-
ant of the Royal Society, and careful in his intel-
ligence. His learned life and labours terminated
on February 27, 1706, in the eighty-sixth year of
his age. His body was interred at Wotton, be-
neath a white marble stone, with the inscription
according to his own intention — "That all is vanity

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

309

which is not honest; and that there is no solid
wisdom but in real piety." He had of family five
sons and three daughters : the former all died
young, except the third, who wrote several works,
and enjoyed a considerable reputation.

Evelyn's character has always been drawn in
terms of a very just panegyric, from which no ac-
count of his life has ever attempted to retract. His
personal character was truly amiable. As a father,
a husband, and a friend, few persons ever equalled
his constancy and affection : and his correspond-
ence, which still exists in MS., affords many proofs
of a kind heart, and a placid humble temper. He
was greatly beloved by all who knew him, and his
acquaintance was most extensive. Titles he never
appears to have courted ; and it is singular that
Charles II., who was not niggardly in what cost
him nothing, should not have tendered the rank of
baronet to a man who was one of the ornaments of
his reign. He never was cordial with James ; and
after the revolution he may have thought the ad-
dition of a title very insignificant at his time of
life. He acquiesced in, rather than approved, the
revolution of 1688 : he did not condemn the ob-
jects which were sought to be attained, but thought
the end might have been accomplished by other
means. He was acquainted with many sciences,
and wrote on many different subjects, yet was far
from being a superficial writer. He had genius,
taste, and learning ; and knew how to give all these
a proper place in his works, so as never to pass as
a pedant, even with such as were least in love with
literature, and to be justly esteemed a polite author
by those who knew it best.

There is said to be a family genius in the home
of a man of genius. Evelyn conversed chiefly
with trees : his father delighted in the same pur-
suit : his grandfather was a great planter and pre-
server : and his own son followed the footste])S of
his father. The surname Evelyn, originally Avelan
or Evelin, was filbert, or rather, hazel, which oc-
casioned the remark that these trees are commonly
produced near dry stone quarries, among the ex-
cavated rubbish. Evelyn hated iron-works, as
they destroy woods ; and yet his family were in-
duced by them to make very large plantations.

The exquisitely constructed mind of Evelyn
looked at every object in the superlative degree,
and he fixed on gardening as a favourite point of
attention. That performance is the cultivation of
the earth in the highest excellence, and never fails
to engage those minds that rise beyond the plod-
ding in the mud of common routine. He published
the first calendar of gardening under the name of
" Kalendarium Hortense" in 1064, Svo., to which
is added his discourse on sallets. "The French
Gardener," in duodecimo, had appeared in 1658,

and in 1672 and 1675, and had added to it The
English Vineyard vindicated." The joint work
passed through numerous editions. The " Kalen-
dar of Gardening" occupies 175 duodecimo pages,
and is divided into twelve months, with instruc-
tions what to do with fruits and flowers in those
periods of time. The "Terra," or a philosophical
discourse of earth, relating to the culture and im-
provement for vegetation, was published in 1676,
and formed a discourse made before the Royal
Society, and published by the order of the members.
It occupies 182 pages of duodecimo, and describes
the pulverization of land, the action of manures,
and the effects of irrigation. Clay is called "a
cursed step-dame to almost all vegetation, as having
few or no meatus's for the percolation of alimental
showers." Laxatives are to be applied, as sand,
marie, chalk, and sawdust, and constant vexing
with the spade and plow ; but above all, with sea-
sand, and the burning of the ground to ashes — for
by no less severity will this ill-natured mould be
subdued. All rotten substances are good. Loam
is a succulent kind of " argilla," and an excellent
mean between extremes of looseness and cohesive-
ness. Mostly all the manures yet known are well
described, and the qualities ascertained. Much
stress is laid upon the salts of the earth, which
was a very favourite subject with the first philo-
sophical inquirers. Evelyn approves the resting
and exposure of land, in order to acquire a gene-
rous and masculine pregnancy ; but doubts Sir
Hugh Plat's contrition, or philosophical grinding
of earth, by which it was prepared, to produce in
our country the fruits of the Indies, as well as in
the native countries. The attractions from the air
are supposed to impregnate the soil with all the
blessings that are required. The " Terra" of
Evelyn has always maintained a just and well-
merited reputation.

The " Sylva " fills 120 'pages of folio size, and
is joined in a volume with " Pomona," or an appen-
dix concerning fruit-trees. The discourse of forest
trees is divided into descriptions of the several
trees, qualities, and use; of the infirmities of trees,
copses, and pruning of timber and fuel. The laws
and statutes are mentioned which guard the pre-
servation and improvement of woods, &c. This
book was formed of lectures before the Royal So-
ciety, and proved of vast utility for the propagation
of timber. It is thought to form the chief work of
the author.

The "Pomona" occupies 20 pages, and treats
wholly the fruit of the orchard, and the making of
cyder.

The " Reflections on some parts of Agriculture"
are merely physiological disquisitions on the func-
tions of the various organs of plants, arranged in

310

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

twenty-two chapters. The preparation and circu-
lation of the sap engage much attention.

Evelyn entertained his mind with the study of
sculpture, architecture, painting, and the coins and
medals of ancient times. He wrote strongly in
favour of active employments in preference to soli-
tude— holding the opinion that individual services
are to be used for the general good, and that no
action must lie dormant. During the Dutch war
he acted as a commissioner in charge of the pri-
soners and the wounded sailors — an office which
he filled with much philanthropic feeling, and the
most constant and tender attention to the fellow-
creatures of his charge. The plague of London
had much of his attentive zeal in the relief of
suffering, and in suggestions for support. In his
intercourse with royalty he never failed to tell kings
v/hat should be done, and in terms void of offence.
He lived under revolutions, and might have pro-
fited by the changes ; but when the spoils of his
country lay at his feet, his lofty soul would not
stoop to gather them. He amassed neither riches
nor titles, but in the everlasting memory of his
countrymen he secured the richest treasure, and by
far the loftiest title which human grandeur has to
bestow. The name of Evelyn will ever form one
of the brightest characters that adorn the page of
any biography of Britain.

Evelyn styled himself a pioneer in physical know-
ledge, imitating Sir Hugh Plat in choosing an ap-
pellation that denotes a low place of employment,
in order to reach the higher positions by means of
sapping and undermining the foundations. The
learned Mr. Wotton says " that it may be esteemed
a small character of his ' Sylva ' to say it outdoes
all that ancient authors have left us on the subject,
and a great deal more, as it contains more useful
precepts, hints, and discoveries, than all the world
had ever known before." No English author had
more benefited the arts of agriculture and garden-
ing.

A short time before his death Evelyn revised the
fourth edition of the "Sylva;" and in 1776 a new
publication, with many notes and explanations, was
edited by Dr. Hunter, of York, which has been
twice printed, along with " Terra" and " Pomona."
The name of the author will always attract
notice.

It has been recorded by one narrator only that
Evelyn left unpubhshed " A Treatise on the Dig-
nity of Man." If true, the loss is great that man
has not been dignified in writing by a person who,
in his whole deportment, added a lustre to the
image of his species. It may be doubted if the
relic existed : his son must have known it ; and in
conjunction with other friends of the father, would
no doubt have made proper use of it.

XXXIV.— DUCKETT, 1659.
Thomas Duckett wrote " Proceedings concerning
the improvement of all manner of land, &c." This
notice is printed in Weston's Catalogue of English
Authors ; but no mention of an author of that
name is anywhere found beyond that list.

XXXV.— Stevenson, 1661.

M. Stevenson wrote "The Twelve Moneths; or,
A pleasant and profitable discourse of every action,
whether of labour or recreation, proper to each
particular moneth ; branched into directions relat-
ing to husbandry, as plowing, sowing, gardening,
planting, transplanting, plashing of fences, felling
of timber, ordering of cattle and bees, and of malt,
&c. ; as also of recreations, as hunting, hawking,
fov/ling, coursing, cock-fighting. To which like-
wise is added a necessary advice touching physick,
when it may, and when not to be taken. Lastly,
every moneth is shut up with an epigram. With
the fairs of every moneth."

This work occupies 59 pages of small quarto
size, and is a curious book — almost beyond prece-
dent. Each month of the year is prefaced with an
engraving of an appropriate device, with the name
of the month written in very large old English cha-
racters. The directions are given as promised in
the title-pages. The fairs are mentioned, and an
epigram closes the monthly labour. A specimen
is here given in the epigram at the end of March : —

" Gallants, look to't! Cupid hath got his bow,
And strung't with wanton eyes to shoot at you ;
And now the spring has filled your veins with

blood.
Active and fresh, he's not to be withstood :
Beware, too, how your veins you overheat,
If not for fear of lusts, for fevers yet;
And give your vig'rous spirits an allay.
With cooling drinks, and clarified whey.
Ceres and Bacchus, wine and dainties — these
Are those that wound ye : Venus else would

freeze !"

XXXVI.— Miles, 1662.
Abraham Miles wrote " The Countryman's
Friend," London, 1662, duodecimo. This book is
quoted in the " Bibliotheca Britannica," but had
escaped both Mr. Weston and Mr. Loudon in
making a list of authors. It is found in the British
Museum, and occupies 30 pages of small duo-
decimo. The contents are the cures of diseases
which aflflict countrymen who have not the means
of other applications. The remedies given are
simple, and in every one's power — which is the
author's intention. Two remedies are given for
horses, and how to keep crows away from a corn-
field. The application is sulphur and turpentine,
smeared on feathers, which are stuck under the
ears of corn.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

311

THE DUKE OF PORTLAND'S MEADOWS AT CLIPSTONE PARK, MANSFIELD.

About thirty years ago, his Grace the Duke of
Portland commenced those extensive operations a
short distance below the town, which have resulted
in what are known as " The Clipstone Water
Meadows." The stream is the little river Maun,
which passes through Mansfield, and forms the
natural outlet for all the sewage and drainage of
the inhabitants. These water-meadows now contain
about 400 acres, and form the most fertile tract of
country, of equal extent, in the midland counties of
England. But for the scientific application of the
Maun streams, they would still have continued an
unprofitable waste and bog. With perfect drainage
of the town, and the immediate removal of all the
night-soil and other organic refuse, a still higher
state of fertility would be attained ; or else a much
larger area might be brought under the influence
of the sewerage waters.

The mutual interest of town and country in the
removal and application of sewerage waters is so
apparent in the case of Mansfield, that I have no
iiesitation in saying, the inhabitants of the town
would have been gainers at this moment if they had
thirty years ago efficiently drained the town, and
constructed economical irrigation works upon the
Duke's property, for the mere privilege of disposing
of what was injurious to them, without any other
return than that of general improved health. So,
on the other hand, his Grace the Duke of Portland
would have been a gainer if he had, at his own cost,
thoroughly drained all the buildings in the town of
Mansfield, and provided water-closets for removing
the soil, with the sole object of increasing the fer-
tility of his agricultural land.

A large flood-dike, about four yards wide, takes
the whole stream of the river, and conveys it, by
contouring, a distance of 5| miles on a perfect level.
The whole area of this long channel acts as a reser-
voir, and there is no current except to the points
where the irrigation may be going on at the time.
The contents of this flood-dike are about 1,000,000
cubic feet. At the end farthest from the town, the
dike has attained an altitude of 49 feet above the
river, so that it commands a considerable area of
ground.

The great flood-dike ceases at a field called the
First Dam-side Brack Meadow, and from that point
a new flood-dike commenceson the other side of the
Maun, and extends about a mile and a half, passing
the village of Clipstone, and receiving the refuse of
the houses there.

The mode of irrigation is similar to that on a
higher level— by sluices and open catch-work gut-
ters. The centre carriers are at right angles with
the flood-dike and the river, and have a quick de-
scent. They supply a great number of cross carriers,
branching off on each side, so as to form figures,
like what is known by the term " herring-bone."
The cross carriers are level, and shed the stream
over the surface from one to the next carrier suc-
cessively, until it has done its work and reaches
the river.

The carrying gutters at Chpstone are not cut out
by vertical spits below the level of the ground, but
are hollow- dished channels, two or three feet wide,
upon which the grass grows almost as freely as
upon the other parts of the meadows. This has two
important advantages ; there is no loss of producing
surface, and the cost of cleaning gutters is almost
saved.

I derived much information from Mr. Robert
Tebbett, who has been water-bailifl:' to the Duke
about 30 years. The irrigation was just commenc-
ing at that time. He has seen every meadow laid
down except one, and has had charge of the whole
ever since. He furnished Mr. Denison with infor-
mation for the essay on these meadows, and believes
that the figures as to the cost of the system are cor-
rect. Several additions have been made since Mr.
Denison wrote, so that the whole area now would
be very little short of 400 acres. The cost per
acre, and also the working expenses, may be fairly
taken, however, at the same proportion as in Mr.
Denison's figures. Exclusive of drainage, there-
fore, the average cost of formation per acre is at
least £120, which, taken at 7^ per cent., gives an
annual charge of £9 on the capital account. Su-
perintendence, &c., at 10s. per acre per annum,
must be added, making the whole £9 10s. per acre
per annum.

Besides the sewage and refuse of the town of
Mansfield, and in the lower part of the village of
Clipstone, a large quantity of fertilizing matter is
obtained from the farm-building along its course.
Mr. Tebbett says, " he keeps 3 milk cows, and the
drainage of all his premises goes into the water."
At the New Buildings thore are 8 farming horses
kept, and, on tlie average, 4 blood horses, 6 pigs,
26 cows or oxen in summer, and about 50 in win-
ter. No sheep are kept. There are also two cot-
tages with families, and a drain from the yard
conveys all the liquid from the premises to the

312

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

flood-dike. There is also a drain to convey the
liquid fertilizing matter from Cavendish Lodge, or
Clipstone Park farm. The upper flood-dike stops
nearlv opposite, and this drain falls into the river
Maun, serving the lower level. At the farm there
are 28 horses, about 50 horned cattle, and 6 pigs.
The village of Chpstone, draining into the same
level, contains about 34 houses. Mr. Tebbett says
the Duke gets all the wash, refuse, sewage, and
liquid manure he can into the flood-dike.

There is always a small black sediment left on the
surface of the ground in the upper part. In the
lower it gradually changes to a brown colour. This
is no doubt finely-divided manure brought in sus-
pension, and the soil acting as a filter separates it
so as to deposit a top-dressing. Mr. Tebbett con-
siders it highly beneficial to the herbage. There is
some dye-wash in the sewage of Mansfield, but it
is not found at all injurious to vegetation. The
working of the mills in and above the town so
varies the flow, even at different parts of the same
day. that I found it impossible to make any calcu-
lation as to the quantities of fluid used.

Taking into account the extent of land irrigated
— the comparatively large supply of fertilizing mat-
ter from the sewerage of the town, and the auxiliary
supplies taken in along the course of the flood-dike
and carriers — I do not think I have seen any in-
stance, except Edinburgh, in which so large a
quantity per acre is applied.

From the great inclination of the surface the fluid
passes rapidly off, and yet I have not met v.'ith any-
thing more pleasing than the perfect manner in
which it is filtered, both mechanically by the soil,
and chemically by the living plants. The fact that
the flood-dike and the river course run parallel to
each other, with only the meadows intervening, is
peculiarly favourable for observing the transmuta-
tion.

At Old Mill Lane, the end nearest the town, the
flood-dike abstracts the whole stream of the Maun,
so that, in forming the next two meadows, its origi-
nal course was perfectly obliterated. Shortlj', how-
ever, its course became necessary to convey the
water after it had been used for irrigation. At the
pointwhere its channel again begins, two land drains
have their outlets. Besides these the whole stream,
for a distance of more than four miles, is entirely
derived from the water flowing in after it has been
used for irrigation.

Mr. Tebbett, speaking from recollection, informed
me that all the upper portion was a wilderness
covered with gorse and heather, air.ong which a few
sheep wandered. Of the lower — on the margin of
the river— that it was certainly land, but that was
all could be said. It was such a bog as to be utterly
worthless. No animal but those of the feathered

tribes could get on it : it was the haunt of wild
ducks and snipes. The whole area of what is now
water-meadow would have been well let at 3s. to
5s. per acre.

Of its present value and produce, such of the
land as is let irrigated produces a rental of £4 10s.
per acre. Mr. Tebbett says: — "We reckon to
mow three times for green eating, and then turn on
cattle to feed ; or we may mow twice for hay and
then feed. In the beginning of May we can cut
eight inches of fine grass, after which we irrigate as
soon as possible. In eig?it weeks we can cut again
a similar or rather heavier crop, and again in eight
weeks a third crop equal to the second. It is then
fed off with either beasts or sheep, and will support
three bullocks or fourteen sheep for every two acres
from August to the latter end of November."

Mr. Denison gives statistics of the produce,
showing the average annual value per acre to be
not less than £12 4s,

Before the irrigation was commenced, the Duke
of Portland's annual account for bone manure alone
on the estate was about £1400 per annum. The
soUd manure produced on the farm, and the irriga-
tion, are now quite suflScient to fertilize the whole,
and no bones are purchased.

I have dwelt at greater length than I had intended
upon the Clipstone meadows, because they are a
prominent example, within a few hours' distance of
almost any part of England, of the great fertilizing
powers of town sewerage waters. The town is but
small, the drainage of it very inadequate for the re-
moval of the most fertilizing refuse, and the mode
of application exceedingly expensive in its first cost
as compared with distribution by pipage ; but the
results as to the enormously increased produce and
value of the land are such as I have just stated.

There is a further objection to open gutter irri-
gation that I have not alluded to, and I have not
space to go fully into the consideration. I refer to
the tendency to rot among sheep pastured on mea-
dows so irrigated. In the essay already named,
Mr. Denison quotes some very valuable remarks
from the Duke of Portland himself, who had per-
sonally bestowed great attention on this point. He
says — " None of the irrigated meadows can be said
to be quite safe for sheep in autumn, not even those
which are on the land naturally most dry." He
thinks it probable that more complete drainage of
the land would decrease the liability to this disease,
and I believe that such has been found to be the
case ; but when the ground is so completely satu-
rated as it mnst be with the open gutter system, I
do not think that any arrangements for drainage
can obviate all risk. It may, however, fairly be
assumed that the tendency to rot is owing in part
to the land being naturally a bog.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

313

Where the irrigation is carried on by means of
pipe and hose, and the distribution by jet, the
ground is never saturated, because the fertiUzing
fluid is so perfectly under command that the same

ett'ect can be produced by a much smaller volume
of water. I have never heard of the least tendency
to rot where the pipe and jet system is in use. —
Mr. IV. Lees' Report to the Board of Health.

THE AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND

[from the times' commissioner.]

WoBURN.

The estates of Earl Spencer, Mr. Lloyd, and Lord
Overstone are managed by Mr. Beasley, whose farm
we described in our last letter. For the last two
years there has not been a farthing of arrears on the
whole of these extensive estates, comprehending
tenants from £1000 a-year to the humble cottager,
and including 600 of the latter class. This is attri-
buted to the farms being moderately let, and to the
erection by the landlord of suitable buildings for
lodging the cattle and saving their manure, and to
drainage. It is not that the farms are let lower by
the acre than other estates, but that they are let
truly as farms, fitted by the landlord with those ac-
commodations by which a tenant is enabled to farm
successfully. This liberality of the landlord is fully
appreciated by the tenantry, and gives the agent an
immense advantage in the selection of tenants when
a farm becomes vacant. He has the choice of the
best men, and there can be no doubt that an estate
can be most effectually and economically improved
through good tenants. The farms are not advertised
and never let by tender ; they are examined by the
agent, who fixes the rent and selects his tenant.
In valuing a farm Mr, Beasley assumes that all
adequate accommodation will be provided by the
landlord. No per-centage, therefore, is charged on
any outlay by the landlord, either for buildings or
drainage. The land is valued at its intrinsic or
natural worth, with such ameliorations as the land-
lord ought to make at his exclusive cost, and thus
" the rent of good and bad farmers is raised alike.
If the bad are thereby compelled to quit, so much the
better. The more common practice of valuing land
as it stands, without regard to the landlord's out-
lays or the tenant's improvements, increases the
rent of the good farmer in consequence of his own
exertions, and lowers that of the negligent one as a
reward for his neglect. Instances have often occurred
where farms of precisely similar character and rent
have been revalued, and one that had been well
farmed was raised 10s. an acre, while the other,
which had been badly farmed, was lowered 10s. an
acre, the landlord in both cases having dealt equally
by both tenants in doing nothing for either, but
leaving each to follow his own plans. An abate-
ment of 10 per cent, has been made on the estates

under Mr. Beasley's management for the present
year, more as a mark of sympathy on account of the
deficient crop of last year than as a permanent re-
adjustment. The time for that is not yet come.

The farms are all held from year to year, and there
is no desire on the part of the tenants for leases.
The security under such landlords is felt by the
tenants as quite sufficient, and yet there have been
many instances where a change of owner has com-
pletely altered the confidence formerly subsisting
between tenant and landlord. On Earl Spencer's
estate, however, good landlords are believed by the
tenantry lo be hereditary. Some of the farms on
the estate have been held by the same family for 300
years, and the average period during which all che
farms on this estate have been held by the same
families exceeds 90 years. Nor is there any written
agreement or other document to bind either land-
lord or tenant. The rent is entered in the rental,
and the tenant pays it punctually as a matter of
course. Crop books are kept for every farm, and
the agent visits every field once a year. He inter-
feres with the tenant's management as little as pos-
sible, and chiefly in the way of advice. On each
of these estates large sums have been expended on
buildings, farm-j'ards, and in better arranging the
farms. Draining tiles are given almost without
limit.

But the landlord's expenditure is not hmited to
the requirements of his farms— the comfort of the
labourers on these estates has'met with an equal
share of attention. On Lord Spencer's estate, within
a short period, 74 new and substantial cottages have
been erected, in groups of two, three, and five,
with a pump and kitchen common to five cottages,
fitted up with oven, copper, ironing-board, &c. To
each cottage is attached a rood of land, a pigstye,
wood barn, &c. They are let by the week at a
yearly rent of £3 10s., including land. The average
rent of cottages on these estates is under £2. There
are also many garden tenants, who have a rood of
good land (in all cases near their homes), and for
which they pay 10s. — the landlord paying rates.
Besides building new cottages. Lord Spencer has
put into order an immense number of old ones, and
is still continuing to build, but on a less expensive
plan.

314

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The tenants of bad land on Sir Chas. Knightley's
estate, besides getting their farms drained free of
charge, have received what is equal to 20 per cent, of
abatement. Inthe neighbourhood of Weedon, and
to the south of it, two-thirds of the land is in grass
of prime feeding quality ; the other third is cultivated
in a six-course, thus : seeds, wheat, beans, wheat,
turnips, barley. There being so large a proportion
of the land in grass, a heavy stock is kept on
the different farms in winter on cake, and so a
great quantity of manure is made, by which the
arable land is kept in high condition and yields
abundant crops.

Land of prime feeding quaUty in this part of the
county is let at £2 per acre, tithe free, and the
rates from 3s. to 4s. an acre. It is not un-
common to see five fat and powerful horses yoked in
line in a plough, turning over a barley seed furrow
not more than four inches deep. Amid such heavy
complaints of distress it is wonderful to see such
a heedless waste of power.

Passing from Northampton to Bedfordshire, we
proceeded to the Park Farm at Woburn, the seat of
the Duke of Bedford. It was certainly with no
feeling of idle curiosity that we endeavom'ed to ac-
quaint ourselves with the relations subsisting be-
tween the head of the house of Russell and his
numerous tenantry and dependants. A nobleman
of the highest rank, the owner of one of the
largest landed estates in the kingdom, all situated
in purely agricultural districts, and deriving no
direct aid from the neighbourhood of any of our
hives of manufacturing industry, and yet the
possessor of a name identified with the progress
of all our liberal institutions, it could not fail to be
instructive to learn how this large property was
administered.

The farms are never advertised or let by tender.
When a farm becomes vacant it naturally forms the
subject of conversation at the market table, and
parties wishing to take it make application. The
farm is then valued by the local agent, a practical
man, who estimates it as in perfect order in so far
as the landlords' improvements ai'e concerned.
Anything that is requisite to be done, either in re-
gard to drainage, fences, or buildings, is done by
the landlord as a matter of course. The Duke
then selects his tenant from the various applicants,
and offers the farm to him at the rent fixed by the
agent. It is generally accepted at once, and by a
picked man. All the tenants have the option of
and are encouraged to take leases subject to fluctu-
ations in price of corn. One half of the tenantry
accepted leases of various duration — 12, 16, and
some 20 years. Those who prefer a fixed rent have
shorter leases~7or 8 years, and then areadjustment
of rent according to prices. The rental of the es-

tate at ^jresent is rather more than in 1834 and 1835,
but a very large outlay has been made in improve-
ments to maintain it. In some cases these im-
provements are equivalent to a reduction of 12 to
15 per cent. There is no system of general tempo-
rary abatements. If a complaint is made, the case
is at once considered on its own merits, and, if re-
quisite, the rent is readjusted. At the end of every
lease a readjustment takes place. A farm taken in
1843 at a fixed rent then calculated, with prices at
56s. as the basis, is now being converted by adding
the value of such improvements as have since been
made by the proprietor, and then charging the rent
on the basis of 40s. for the quarter of wheat. The
corn rent is in some cases all corn, in others part
corn and part money, varying with the character
of the land, and the projiortion in which its pro-
duce is dependent on the prices of corn. The
basis for present (Spring) lettings is 40s. for the
quarter of wheat, regulated afterwards by taking the
average of the whole country for four years, each
year taking otf one year and adding another. Game
is not preserved, and hedgerow timber injurious to
the tenant is at once felled and removed.

A system of husbandry is prescribed to the te-
nantry.from which they are not permitted to deviate
except by consent of the agent. On light laud
that system is the four-course ; on strong land the
same, with the substitution of beans in lieu of a
portion of the clover, and such extent of dead fal-
low as may be necessary. On new land, much of
which has been broken up in consequence of the
Tithe Commutation Act, two white crops are al-
lowed at the commencement. The land is gene-
rally breast-ploughed, turned, and sown with cole-
seed. This destroys wirevvorm. Oats are then
taken, followed by wheat, then beans, then wheat.
The breaking up of inferior pasture has been a
great boon to the farmers, as they have had heavy
crops from it at little expense, and strong land
carries good green crops after first being broken
up. The introduction of winter beans into the
rotation has been of immense benefit to the light-
land farmer, by enabling him to alter his crops.
They require to be planted in September, if possi-
ble, and hence the diflSculty in getting them suffi-
ciently early into the ground in the northern coun-
ties, and consequently their greater uncertainty
there.

The comfortable accommodation and welfare of
the labourers is a consideration with the Duke of
Bedford not less important than equitable arrange-
ments with his tenantry. Cottages are built in
numbers sufficient to suit the wants of the different
farms, with a due proportion for the mechanics also
necessary. The cottages are situated near the farms
on which their occupants are to be engaged. They

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

315

are held directly from the Duke, from week to week,
so that both the labourer and the farmer are kept in
some degiee of check. Thus an ill-conducted la-
bourer can be promptly dismissed from the estate,
while a trifling jealousy or pique on the part of the
farmer is not necessarily acquiesced in by the land-
lord. All the cottages have two rooms on the
ground floor, and two or three sleeping apartments
up stairs. They are fitted with kitchen range and
copper, and one fireplace up stairs, outbuildings
for wood, ashes, and other conveniences, and an
oven common to each block of cottages.

The cottages are built in a substantial manner of
various designs, the situation being so chosen as if
possible to combine the advantages of a genial airy
exposure with a plentiful supply of water. Orna-
ment is employed, but not further than is in ac-
cordance with the character and objects of the
buildings. While needless expense is thus avoided,
the cottages are substantially constructed, so that
they may not be subject to frequent repair. The use
of hollow brick will, it is expected, not only cheapen
the cost of construction, but add materially to the
dryness of the walls and to the healthy ventilation
of the house. Cottages built of hollow brick, with
wall 9 inches thick, cost £90 to £100 each.

Field allotments, from an eighth to a quarter of
an acre, are provided close to each cottage, as in the
case of villages, as near at hand as they can be con-
veniently had. The rent is charged at rates vaiying
from 20s. to 40s. an acre, inclusive of x'ates. The
rent of cottages varies from Is. to Is. 6d. a-week,
according to accommodation, and is paid half-
yearly with great regularity. It is believed to give
a return of nearly 3 per cent, on the outlay, exclu-
sive of the value of the site.

But the education of the labourers' children is not
forgotten while their bodily comfort is so amply
cared for. Schools are being built at the Duke's
expense, in central villages, for the accommodation
of two or three adjoining parishes, for the more ad-
vanced scholars ; and in most parishes infant schools
are established, at which the youngest children re-
ceive a little instruction in the immediate neighbour-
hood of their own homes. To all of these the Duke
subscribes, and the children pa}', so that the schools
are partly self-supporting, and the independence
of the parents is not compromised.

On an estate of such magnitude as that of the
Duke of Bedford, where the duties as well as the
rights of property are so fully recognised, there
being constantly new sets of farm buildings and
cottages in progress, it has been found necessary to
erect a complete set of workshops for the construc-
tion of every article required on the estate. In the
yard at the Park farm appropriated to this purpose
100 workmen are constantly employed, chiefly

skilled mechanics, under the superintendence of a
resident engineer. This is conducted with all the
method of a private speculation, the workmen at-
tending throughout the year from 6 a.m. till half-
past 5, with intervals of half an hour for breakfast
and one hour for dinner. The premises are lighted,
when necessary, with gas, and an equal tempera-
ture is maintained by steam pipes, in the different
workshops. These comprise a wood yard, with
sawing sheds for cutting up into all requisite sizes
either foreign or home timber, the refuse of which
is split into faggots for the use of the Abbey. Next,
afoundry for all manner of castings ; then a smithy,
then an extensive carpenter's shop, then a plumber,
glazier, and painter's — several apartments. A 25-
horse power steam-engine saws the wood, blows
the smithy fires, gives motion to the lathes in ths
carpenter's shop, and to plaining and other ma-
chines, while the waste steam from the boiler dries
the sawn wood in the drying shed, warms the work-
shops, and heats an oven where the men may cook
their dinners. Every kind of work is thus done
on the premises, and fitted and put together be-
fore being sent out. The windows, doors, and
stairs of farm buildings and cottages, being made of
certa in dimensions and of certain uniform sizes, are
constructed in sets more economically and substan-
tially than they could be by country tradesmen.
During winter the different articles are prepared in-
doors, and in summer the carpenters and other
workmen are sent to put them up where they are re-
quired. Not the least interesting department of
this establishment is that where troughs of water,
slabs with the Ducal crest or cypher, and other orna-
mental parts of architecture, are formed of concrete,
possessing all the hardness and durability of stone.
Adjoining these buildings are the extensive farm
premises of the Duke's home farm. Here another
powerful steam engine gives motion to every variety
of machinery used in working up the crop on the
farm. Many interesting experiments in the feeding
and management of cattle are here being carried on,
the data and results being carefully registered for
the instruction of the agricultural public and the
Duke's own tenantry. Comparative trials are being
made of the respective advantages of box and stall
feeding, of the advantages or otherwise of feeding
with corn and linseed as against oilcake, and of the
effects of certain chemical applications in fixing the
ammonia in the manure of the box-fed cattle. All
the cattle in the feeding houses were in the primest
condition, so that a spectator could form no opinion
as to the merits of the different modes of feeding ;
but it may be remarked that the box-fed cattle were
all under one roof, not exposed with an open side to
the air, as is frequently the case, but in every way
as warm as those in the stalls. The quality of the

316

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

dung from the box-fed cattle was said to have
proved itself far superior to that from the stall-fed,
hut on more minutely enquiring into this we
found that the dung of the stall-fed cattle had been
thrown into an open yard and mixed with that of
the lean cattle, and in this state tried against the
box-fed cattle manure taken directly from the boxes.
Such an experiment proves nothing, and it just
shows how guardedly we must watch every particu-
lar of detail before accepting conclusions as fully
proved.

The fattening cattle are being fed, one part with
5lb. of barlej', beans, and linseed, and the other
with 5lb. of oilcake to each animal, boiled and
poured over 14lb, of cut clover hay and 451b. of cut
swedes in layers, in large boxes, which are covered
up and left for 24 hours, and the mixture is then
given in three feeds. The cattle get no other food,
and no water. The milch cows, when they calve,
receive cut hay and lib. of oilcake daily. On this
they do extremely well till the grass is ready, better
than on mangold, and swedes are never given as
they taste in the milk. The year-olds receive cut
hay with lib. of meal sprinkled over it, and 1 peck
of cut swedes daily. A very fine herd of Hereford
stock is kept, and a first-rate cross for quality of
meat is got from an Ayrshire cow by a Hereford
bull. We must not omit mention of the pig de-
partment, with its ample and unusually elegant
feeding-house, and the various contrivances for
cooking and conveying the food to the anima s
without disturbing them.

The liquid from the different cattle houses and
yards is conveyed to a covered tank, over which a
wooden house is erected, where ashes, night soil,
wood ashes, and other dry refuse is stored, and also
the solid droppings from the feeding stalls. The
liquid is pumped over the ashes and the whole
turned and mixed together to dry, in which state
it is drilled in as manure with the turnip seed.

The farm buildings throughout the estate are
many of them very extensive and new, but we can-
not say that they appeared to us to be designed
with that regard to economy and arrangement
which would render them models for other estates.
They comprise extensive barn accommodation,
stables, feeding stalls, and large open yards with
sheds for young cattle. A farm let at 25s. an acre,
or 400 acres for £500, will cost five years' rent for
all new out-buildings, including dwelUng-house for
the faroier. A farm at £600 will cost somewhat
less in proportion, and one at £400 considerably

more, so that farms of from 400 to 500 acies are
found the most economical division for an estate.
A set of farm buildings is at present being erected
for a small farm in which the whole stock and ma-
nure are to be under cover.

We have already referred to the business-like ar-
rangements which the Duke makes with his
tenantry. The connexion subsisting between them
is of an intelligent character, inasmuch as a tena t
receives his farm in fitting order for the employ-
ment of his capital, neither cramped with insuflS-
cient accommodation for his stock nor wasting his
means in undrained land. His crops are not des-
troyed by game nor injured by hedgerow timber.
He has the option of a lease and a corn rent.
With these advantages his rent is moderately
charged, but proper opportunities are taken for a
readjustment, by which the landlord receives his
fair share of the increased returns, partly the re-
sult of his own expenditure, partly arising from
the general progress of agriculture, the increase of
population, and the accumulating wealth of the
country. Tenants remain long on the estate, but
a change is made without hesitation when believed
to be necessary.

" To improve the dwellings of the labouring
class, and afford them the means of greater cleanli-
ness, health, and comfort in their own homes, to
extend education, and thus raise the social and
moral habits of those most valuable members of
the community, are among the first duties, and
ought to be among the truest pleasures, of every
landlord." Such are the words of the present
Duke of Bedford, and nobly is he carrying them
into practice. Recognising in their fullest extent
the responsibilities of his high position, he rests
himself not on the possession of great wealth or
the pride of ancestry, but in the performance of
those duties which secure the confidence of his
tenantry and engage the affectionate respect of the
labourers. If we should venture to say to other
landlords, "Go and do thou likewise," we may be
met with the reply that they have not equal means
at their disposal. Yet the same circumstances
which limit or extend their property limit also or
extend the claims on their justice; and great though
the expenditure of the Duke may be, it is governed
by that prudent foresight and adherence to econo-
mical principles which, while it provides for a fair
return from the investment, at the same time draws
forth the intelligent energies of those who share in
the prosperity thereby created.

THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE.

3.7

THE STRUCTURAL FORMATION OF VARIOUS BREEDS OF CATTLE.

(from the north BRITISH AGRICULTURIST.)

These are now bred in this country prin-
cipally for their milk and flesh-producing qualities,
and not for their power of motion as in the
case of the horse. That cattle were at one time
extensively bred, and used in this country for
draught, there can be no doubt ; but they have in
almost every district given place to the horse.
From the sacred records, as well as from the paint-
ings and sculptures in the tombs of Egypt and in
the discoveries of Nineveh, it is certain that cattle
were used long prior to the horse as the animals
of draught, both for the plough and the cart. It
is not necessary here to enter into a consideration
of the causes which have produced this change.
Sufficient for our present purpose, is the fact that
the ox is now bred in this country either for the
dairy or the shambles, or for a combination of
both these purposes.

The anatomical structure of an animal for the
purposes of secreting milk, fat, and flesh, is neces-
sarily somewhat diff'erent from the structure of an
animal whose energy is expended on motion or
draught. As yet there is little known in the ani-
mal economy of the processes of gestation, develop-

ment, and progressive growth. These are in part
dependent upon organs, fluids, and other agencies,
among which electricity is believed to exercise a
considerable influence. The mutual relations, and
the peculiar definite power of the individual agen-
cies, are, however, almost wholly unknown. Ob-
servation and experience have, indeed, given some
definite information, which science has iu some
points confirmed. By them, the practical man
has been taught that certain peculiarities of struc-
ture are connected with certain results, and his
knowledge of these regulates his method of breed-
ing, rearing, and feeding animals. The somewhat
wedged- shape cow indicates a high power of secret-
ing the lactic fluid, while the parellelogram-shaped
animal, that of secreting fat and flesh. Indications
such as these, even apart from any scientific expla-
nation, are now every day made practically useful,
and in the following article we will point out as
many of these indications as popular opinion, or
the judgment of the best breeders confirms, occa-
sionally introducing explanations which go to es-
tabUsh the popular belief.

SHORT-HORNED BULL.

The first breed we will consider is the Short-
horn, which stands confessedly first, as an early

ma'.uring and flesh-producing animal. As most
of our readers are aware, the Short-horn is a cross,
and not a pure bred animal, as the West Kigh-

Y

318

THE FARMER»S MAGAZINE.

lander. It is principally to Charles Collins that
the Short-'iorns owe their fame; he having intro-
duced the Galloway blood with a red heifer, which
was employed to give greater compactness of form
to the then known Teeswater or Short-horn, and
the descendants of this galloway heifer were in a
short time duly appreciated, and became the im-
provers of Coilings' most celebrated stock. One
cow. Lady, at fourteen years old, sold for 206 gui-
neas, and her daughter Countess, nine years old,
for 400 guineas. Comet, a bull, sold for looO
guineas. Mr. CoUings' stock of forty- seven in
number, realized £7115.

Vie will first consider the distinguishing qualities
of the male; and we again wish strongly to impress
upon our readers the indispensable importance of
the muscular power being fully developed in the
male of the ox, as well as of the horse. However
apparently perfect in form the male is, if he shows
somewhat the points of an ox, he should be reject-
ed, as vigour of constitution and muscularity of
form are always conjoined. It is a fact worthy of
the serious consideration of ail breeders of high
bred stock, that there has scarcely ever been a
Short-horn breeder who has been equally success-
ful as a breeder of males and a breeder of females ;
and that the successful bulls at Exhibitions are
generally of a different blood from those animals
which are successful as prize takers in the classes
of cows and heifers. There is another fact con-
nected with breeding, that few breeders long main-
tain their position, there being some causes, not
well understood in operation, against a high state
of excellence being long perpetuated, and that the
introduction of new blood into a herd appears
always to have a most marked influence on the
conformation of the produce.

There has been much controversy on the ques-
tion of breeding in-and-in. The necessity for the
introduction of new blood, luell selected, from a
good stock, is, we think, now pretty hilly estabhshed.
It is somewhat remarkable, that many of the most
vigorous animals which have perpetuated their
distinguishing points on their progeny, and stamp-
ed their general appearance so that good observers
at once recognise the descent, had not full pedi-
grees. We give as a striking illustration, Sir Tho-
mas Fairfax. The pedigree of the dam of this
celebrated bull was defective. There are almost
always to be observed in a well selected stock, dis-
tinguishing features, so that judges can at once de-
termine from what blood they are descended.
Hence the almost total impossibility of the judges
at an exhibition, with the proper amount of know-
ledge, not making shrewd guesses at the blood of
the stock exhibited, even although the pedigrees
are withheld, and though they may have never

seen the individual animals previously. Hence,
it requires no inconsiderable amount of judgment
to com')iae and compare the qualities of the differ-
ent animals exhibited, and to free the mind as
much as possible, from predilection for animals of
a particular blood. This renders the office of a
judge of Short-horns an extremely onerous one,
and therefore their awards ought always to be leni-
ently animadverted on.

In giving a description of the points which
should distingiush the structural formation of the
Short-horn, we will take the aged bull, namely,
three, or above three years old, giving the appear-
ance v/hen viewed in different positions.

Viev/ed from behind, there should be a breadth
of carcass, a levelness and squareness above, and
along the quarters and back. The ribs should
appear to be in nearly a straight line with the
shoulders and hindquarters; the thighs or twist
should descend in nearly a straight line ; the mus-
cles of the thighs should be fully developed in the
inside, the thighs being imited to one another well
down towards the hocks. The hocks should be
broadly formed, straight and large, and the legs
straight and delicately formed beneath the hock.
The whole appearance should give a general sym-
metry to the frame of the animal.

Viewed sideways, the animal should appear mo-
derately long, height and size corresponding. The
head should be rather low set, upon a strong,
broad, deep, and muscular neck. The head long,
and tapering towards the muzzle, the forehead
broad between the eyes, line b, with the bones for
the sockets raised, giving a concave appearance
between the eyes. The eye should be large, lus-
trous, and prominent, pressed outward, with the
fatty bed below. This is, in all animals, a certain
index of facihty of secreting fat. The skin around
the eye and muzzle should of a delicate orange
tinge; the nostrils wide ; the jaws moderately clean ;
the ears long, well set, near the crown of the head,
and covered with silky hair in the inside. The
horn should be short, not too thick, somewhat
smooth, rather pointed, and the colour white or
slightly tinged with brown, corresponding to the
colour of the skin. The throat should be clean
with the skin loose down towards the brisket. The
muscles along the neck should be raised and
strongly developed. If so, the muscles along the
back, loins, and down the whole extremities will
almost invariably be correspondingly developed.
The shoulder blades should be short, covered with
muscles, the top of the shoulders broad ; and there
should be httle or no perceptii)le hollow or depres-
sion behind them. This point is very often faulty
in the Short-horn, The ribs should be well arched
from the spine, and appear to be wide apart from

THE FARMER'

one another. Towards the hookbone the bony
frame should be wide, and the parts well clothed
with flesh, and straight along to the top of the s^ttinfif
on of the tail. Across the loins there should be
an indentation over the spine, the hookbones mo-
derately developed, and the space marked between
the last rib and the hookbone should be short. Be-
hind the hookbone and towards the tail (the quar-
ters), the muscles should be well raised, embedded
in fatty cellular texture, and thus feel soft, and
elastic to the touch. The breadth between the
hooks, line t, should correspond to the length be-
tween the points of the hook and the point of
the fat and fleshy rump t, towards rump. In a full
sized bull this will be about 2 ft. 2 in. to 2 ft. 6 in.
The tail should be gracefully set on, small towards
the point, and somewhat long. The chest should
be deep, wide, and circular; the ribs forming a
circular cone. The brisket should descend towards
the knees, and protuberate before the foreleiJ^s.
The skin of the brisket loose and flexi!)je. The
forelegs should be broad and muscular above the
knee, line h. Before the point of the shoulder g,
there should be a deposit of fat palpable to the feel.
The shoulder blades should feel to the touch as if
covered with soft cellular muscles. Over the ribs
the same soft elastic touch should be felt. One of
the chief points of excellence in the male is, that
there should be nowhere any patches of flefjh or
fat, but that the whole frame should be evenly
clothed with flesh, presenting to the touch a soft
oily (eel beneath the skin. The skin should be
elastic, soft, pliable, and velvety to the touch, not
too thin. When touched the resistance should be
so delicate as to give pleasure to a sensitive hand,
yielding to the fingers. It should feel loose along
the ribs, and particularly on the neck, shoulder-
blades, &c. The hair is also of the greatest im-
portance— it should be close, mossy, and furry.
Single hairs should present to the eye not the or-
dinary straight line of hairs, but something of the
curl of long wool, without being absolutely curled.
The waving of the coat should also be dehcately
marked. The length of hair is dependent upon
the season, condition, and the manner in which the
animal has been housed.

Colour we do not deem of great importance, pro-
vided it is not black, or has not a black or blue
tinge. There have been more prizes awarded to
white animals, than to those of any other colour ;
but fashion is now strongly in favour of roans,
mere particularly dark red roans. Those having
hair somewhat evenly mixed, with one or two small
patches of white about the flanks and sides, are
preferred. Some o})ject to those coloured red and
white, when the patches of red or white are large.
A still better grounded objection is to those having

S MAGAZINE. /" U-^"^ SljT-X

small indistinct spots of mijfed' hair about the size
of a shilling to half-a-crowiy along both sides of
the spine. These are generalTy^pnderstood not to
be kindly feeders. But colours of deep red, dark
roan, or delicate roan, strawberry-spotted, cream
colour, or white, are all good. While is regarded
by many, as an indication of delicacy of constitution:
the very opposite we believe to be the fact. If a
white colour is an index of delicacy of constitution,
how is it to be explained that animals exposed to
cold, such as in the arctic regions, are generally
white; and what is equally remarkable, that in the
interior of Africa the domesticated ox is generally
white, while the sheep are almost always spotted
with brown or black sj'ots ? Clapperton states, that
he saw herds of cattle, equal in appearance to the
best he had ever seen in this country; and, in one
kingdom he passed through, butter equal to the
finest Chesshire. He also mentions a most formi-
dable breed of wild cattle of a red colour. Colour,
therefore, we do not consider of great importaiice.
More is dependent on the symmetry of form ; and,
when the several parts of the animal combine to
form a symmetrical harmony, the Short-horn sur-
pases all the other domesticated cattle in beauty.

Viewed in front, the animal should present the
same level appearance, with brisket deep and well
forward. The point behind the shoulder can be
here well observed, and there should be little or no
falling oflf on this point. The feet should be cir-
cular, with the hoof strong and upright. Good
hoofs are of great importance for cattle travelling.
The animal, when walking, should have a somewhat
gay, elastic step.

Before determining which is the best animal,
both sides should be examined, as it is not uncom-
mon, in some breeds, particularly the highly pam-
pered Short-horn, to find one side more delicate to
the touch and better clothed with fat than the other
side. We have heard various reasons assigned for
this somewhat strange anomaly. The most com-
mon is, that if the animal gets the habit of lying
always on one side, that side will be more clothed
with fat. We believe, however, that it is chiefly
owing to a defect in the structural formation, possi-
bly in the nervous system. But whatever is the
cause, we look upon it as a very serious objection in
all animals for breeding.

The fallowing is a scale of points in the bull :~-

1. Pedigree on the female side.

2. Pedigree on the male side.

3. Eye large, clear, and prominent.

4. Muscles of the neck full arched, but without
being coarse or heavy.

5. Chest deep and circular.

6. Barrel well arched from the point of the short
ribs ; circular, and rather light at the flank.

T 2

320

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

7. Touch — skin soft, velvety, and moderately
thin, yielding to the touch.

8. Hair thick, soft, silky to the touch and twisted.

9. Back straight from point of the shoulders to
the setting on of the tail.

10. Point behind the shoulder r/, full and level
with the shoulder.

11. The whole surface of the bony structure of
the body evenly clothed with cellular muscle and fat.

12. Hooks broad, level, and well clothed with
muscles and fat.

13. Head fine and tapering; cheek moderately
clothed with flesh.

14. Forehead broad and concave.

15. Muzzle fine; colour, orange tint.

16. Throat clean, with the skin loose down to-
wards the brisket.

17. Brisket full, well forward, and deep.

18. The shoulders not coarse, but clothed with
soft cellular flesh.

19. Hocks large and clean, with flesh descending
down near to the joint— legs below the hock, clean
and delicately formed.

20. Well-ribbed home.

21. Legs somewhat short and squarely placed.

22. Forelegs above the knee-joint broad, with
swelling muscles, and fine below the knees.

23. Colour distinct, rich without a shade of blue
or black.

24. Horns moderate in size, not thick at the
roots, soft-looking, grisky, i e, not polished looking.

25. Hoofs round, and moderate in size.

26. General appearance gay, and docile looking.

There may be difference of opinion as to the ar-
ranging of the different points, especially what may
be considered the minor ones. Perhaps pedigree
should not have been placed among the points, as
the committees usually appointed to arrange the
stock previous to exhibition, generally withhold
the pedigrees, with the view of guarding, as far as
it is practicable, against the judges being influenced
by predilections for stock of a particular blood.
Almost no animal which has not a fair pedigree
has any chance in a show-yard with an animal of
good blood, provided the judges are well acquainted
with the Short-horn.

THE SHORT-HORNED COW.

The cow and heifer should present a somewhat
different form from that of the bull, being more
feminine and less robust in the development of the
joints and muscles. In the females of all animals,
there is a greater tendency to deposit fatty matter
between the muscles, and also more immediately
under the skin— this gives a greater roundness and
compactness of form. The pelvis and hind quarters
should be more fully developed than in the male.

and the point called the stifle joint should be more
out to allow room for the development of the foetus.
The cow, unlike the bull, should stand rather
higher behind than before ; and should also pre-
sent a more rounded and broader appearance, par-
ticularly behind ths chest, than the bull. It is im-
portant to observe the cow is properly formed here,
as there is no other animal, with the exception
perhaps of the human species, with which there
are more casualties during the progress of gesta-
tion and parturition ; abortion being the most
common, and the most serious of all the accidents,
that animal is subject to, as a breeding animal.

The power of secreting milk and also of laying
on fat and flesh, is dependant, to a considerable
degree, on the development of the vascular sys-
tem, and the common way of examining a milk
cow by feeling what is termed the milk veins, viz.,
those which pass along the belly before the udder,
is a certain sign of this. The udder should be
handsome, large, well formed on the belly; the
teats evenly placed, and moderate in size ; but as
the property of giving milk is not one for which
the Short-horn is esteemed, the udder should not
be overlarge, as it requires to be in the Ayrshire,
or other dairy breeds. The tail should be rather
longer than in the male, and tapering towards the
point. The eye should be large, soft, and expres-
sive of docihty. The head should be fine, taper-
ing towards the muzzle, and the neck should be
less muscular than in the male. The horn smaller
and more turned in or upward than in the bull.
The cow should present a more deep, rounded,
and punchy form than the male. The parts termed
points should be more distinctly marked than in
the male. The point of the hook bone should be
raised, and present to the eye an openness in the
bony structure. On each side of the tail, flank,
point before the shoulder, there should be deposits
of fatty matter, corresponding to the state of con-
dition in which the animal is at the time. Also
the fat on the short ribs, and along the back,
should be somewhat less uniform and more in
patches than in the male. This grand distinction,
which we have already alluded to, of the fat in the
female being more on the surface than in the male,
is apparently not well understood by judges, as it
is not uncommon to see a cow placed first, with
some of the points which should distinguish the
male ; and, agam, the bull well forward in the list
with some of the points which should characterise
the cow or the stot. Another distinction we deem
of the greatest importance, namely, that the bull
should have all the masculineness which belongs
to his sex, while the cow and heifer should have
all the feminineness of the female, and none of the
peculiar or masculine appearance of the bull.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

321

The above outline of a three year old Short-horn
cow gives a fair representation of one made up for
exhibition. The points are marked nearly the same
as in the bull. The point p is one of greater im-
portance in the cow and heifer than in the bull.
Tlie distance between the hooks r, q, should cor-
respond to the distance r, u — this will vary from 2
feet to 2 feet 8 inches. The breadth between the
forelegs with the swelling out of the brisket are
fully brought out in the cut — this, with the depth,
width, and roominess of the hind-quarters, is essen-
tial with perfection of the cow.

The condition as to fat in which the animals
more particularly in the classes for aged bulls and
for cows of the Short-horn breed are now exhibi-
ted, has often been a subject of grave discussion.
It has been strongly affirmed that over-feeding
destroys the future usefulness of the animals exhi-
bited. Others assert that it is necessary to feed
the animals to show their points, maintaining that
it is impossible to judge an animal till the points
are brought out by feeding ; while others hold that
there is no difficulty in judging correctly if allow-
ance is made for condition. We believe the latter
assertion to be correct, but it requires both a nice
eye and considerable experience to judge what
effect condition has upon an animal comparatively
lean contrasted with one fat. And the committee
for superintending agricultural exhibitions, should
appoint some of their number to inspect the ani-
mals exhibited, and set aside those over fed rather
than leave the onerous duty to the judges. The
only time we believe the judges set aside a bull,
was at the meeting of the Highland Society at

Berwick, when £100 prize was awarded to an ani-
mal which was considered by many inferior to the
animal which was set aside. Since that time we have
seen as fat animals obtaining first premiums. This
subject is beset with great difficulties, but some
decisive measures should be taken by the leadin^f
agricultural societies to check this most serious
evil.

Since the above was written, we see that great
complaints have been made as to the state of obe-
sity in which the animals of almost all classes were
brought forward at the Royal English Agricultu-
ral Society's Meeting at Lewes. The complaints
refer most particularly to the Herefords, as given
by us from the Re])ort of The Times. There can
be no boubt, that a strong, and perhaps the strong-
est objection to exhibitions in general, is that more
valuable animals have been rendered unfit for
breeding by making them up for the show-yard
than by any other cause whatever. Over fattening
appears more hurtful to the female than to the male,
except the latter is above three years old.

The state of plethora into which both male and
female are put appears also to exercise a pernicious
influence over the progeny. The healthful vigour
of the animal becomes impaired when in a state
of obesity. Besides, they often do not produce
at all— the cow usually aborting. This probably
arises in part from the liver being diseased from
over-feeding, as well as the constitution of the ani-
mal being otherwise injured.

The Short-horns as milk-secreting animals, are
often seriously injured by over-feeding, and at pre-
sent they stand in the scale as dairy stock. We

822

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

are of opinion, however, that if the same attention
had been bestowed by breeders in developing their
powers of secreting milk, as has been done in stu-
dying their flesh and fat-producing properties, they
could have taken a high position as cows for the
pail, and still maintained their position as flesh-
producing animals. The condition in which ani-
mals of this breed are generally kept, destroys
their milk-secreting powers. The constitution of
a heifer, or cow of any breed, appears to be always
more or leas injured for the dairy by over-feeding ;
this is known to most practical men. We have
seen several Short-horns, and one Devon cow,
equal, if not surpass, the best Ayrshires, both for
quantity and quality of milk.

A very valuable cow or heifer for breeding should
be kept in ordinary condition. If, however, pre-
pared for the show-yard by fattening, she should
be afterwards reduced by exercise, or, still better,
working ; but even with the greatest care, there is
almost a certainty she will be injured for breeding,
and e.Kcept for the purpose of obtaining a charac-
ter for the stock, the breeders of Short-horns will
always find it to be their interest to avoid exhi-
bitions.

In determining, therefore, which animal should
be placed first in the classes of cows and heifers,
the future value of the animal as a breeder should
be taken into account. It should be judged of as
a breeding animal, and not as an animal for the
shambles.

The same remarks apply to bulls, as well as to
cows and heifers.

In judging of young animals of both sexes, it is
important to keep steadily in view the distinguish-
ing quality of the Short-horn, namely early ma-
turity. In this point they excel all other breeds,
and in crossing impart this valuable property, less
or more, to the offspring.

There are few joint diseases or malformations
that require to be taken into account in judging
cattle. There is, however, one— phthisis (consump-
tion)— that cannot be too strictly guarded against.
From some causes which we have never seen well
explained, there is a tendency in some of the very
highest bred animals to a delicacy of constitution,
ending in disease of the lungs. Occasionally, too,
the Short-horn is aflfected with diseased joints,
particularly the knee and hock joints. Diseased
joints will be more palpable to observation than
weakness of the organs of respiration. The state
of the coat, if staring and unthriving, the appear-
ance of the eye ; these, if accompanied with a
cough more or less hard, or want of muscularitv
of form, should put judges on their guard as to
the danger of phthisis- It is important to keep
steadily in view that a high state of health is more

essential in a procreating animal, thaa symmetry
of form ; both should be combined ; but without
the former the latter is comparatively valueless.
The influence of either parent on the progeny
is greatly dependant upon the degree of mental
and bodily vigour, constitutionally, as well as at
the time of procreation.

The following are the points of perfection ar-
ranged in the order we consider the most essential.
In the cow we reverse the order of the pedigree
with that of the bull, placing the pedigree of the
bull first, as we think we are justified, from close
and studied observation, in believing that the pro-
duce of the female partakes more of the qualities
of her sire than of the female, or the sire or dara
of the male ; that is, the produce of a female will
be more like the sire of that female, than either
the dam or sire of the male, or the paients them-
selves. Even, independently of this, the influence
of the dam on the character of the progeny we
hold to be greater than that of the sire j this
being, however, subject to certain influences, upon
which we cannot enter at present.

1. Pedigree on male side.

2. Pedigree on the female side.

3. Eye full, placid, and intelligent looking.

4. Head fine, tapering towards the muzzle ; nos-
trils large, with the orange tint round the muzzle
and eyes, and in the inside of the ears.

5. Touch soft, elastic, yielding to the touch as
if the skin covered a fatty fluid between the mus-
cles and skin.

6. Chest deep, well arched, and circular.

7. Hooks broad, raised, and open-looking at the
points.

8. Quarters long, wide, and fully developed
down towards the stifle and hock joints.

9. Neck well set, "straight, somewhat long, fine,
without any appearance of coarseness.

10. Cheek small and clean.

1 1 . Throat clean and well developed.

12. The points of the bone projections more or
less covered with fatty matter, corresponding to
the state of the condition of the animal.

13. Back broad, straight from the top of the
neck to the setting on of the tail, and the tail at
right angles to the back.

14. Shoulders short, light, and clothed with
muscles and fat, the shoulders widely set at the
points.

15. Point n behind the shoulders full, and in
line with the shoulders and back. If so, the whole
back will be correspondinglv clothed with flesh.

16. Barrel hooped, arched and moderately deep
in the cow, rather light in the heifer.

17. Well-ribbed home, space moderate between
the last rib and hock.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

S23

18. Hair thick, furry, fine and i>ilky.

19. Ud.Ier, in the cow, moderate in size. In a
line with the belly, and well up behind. Teats me-
dium size and properly placed. In the heifer the
udder loose behind, and developed before, corres-
ponding to condition.

20. Legs squarely placed, with full knee and
hock joints broad and muscular above, and moder-
ately broad below the hocks and knees.

21. Horns smooth, not too thick at the base,
white or tipped with light brown, corresponding
to colour of the skin.

22. Ears moderately long, oval shaped, clothed
with silky hair in the inside.

23. Colour rich, dark or light roan, white and
red, or white. Dark small spots on a white skin
is particularly objectionable, especially when the
hair is white and the spots dark.

24. Tail well set on, thin towards the point,
long, down to near the hock joints.

25. Feet sound, moderate in size, and round in
shape.

26. General appearance lively, gay, docile and
stylish looking.

27. Growth moderate. In young animals if
over-large, there will be a tendency to coarseness.

We have endeavoured to be as distinct and mi-
nute as space would permit in the description of
the properties of the Short-horns. Those who, with
the aid of the cuts, may find difficulty in fully un-
derstanding the description given, would be greatly
assisted by going over the points with a live animal,
even of any breed — if a high bred Short-horn, of
course more of the points will be observed.

THE AYRSHIRE BREED.

The milk-producing breeds of cattle are more
widely diffused than the flesh-producing ones.
Much of the soil in this country is naturally so
inferior, or is kept in such poor candition, that the
herbage is inadequate to sustain, profitably, the
fat-secreting breeds ; hence those breeds which
yield a return in the form of butter and cheese,
are prefered to those which require richer pastures.
Among the many valuable breeds for the dairy, the
Ayrshire takes a prominent place ; and, as a milk-
producing breed, is inferior only to the Alderney.
By some it is considered equal — by most dairy
farmers in Scotland even superior. When the
butyraceous deposit is stopped by the cows be-
coming dry, they are easily fattened. O.xen of the
Ayrshire breed, when well fed in youth, grow to
good weights at 2§ to 3 years old. If crossed with
the Short-horn, they are valuable animals for the
grazier. The Ayrshire breed, for these qualities,

is therefore more widely spread over the country
than any other.

The origin of this valuable breed cannot now be
traced. It would appear to be the result of a cross
of the West Highland with some less hardy breed.
This breed has, we believe, within these few years,
slightly deteriorated, having become more delicate
in constitution. This is not willingly admitted by
breeders, but we think there is no doubt of the
fact. Probably this delicacy of constitution can be
traced to the change of form produced by breeding
zM-and-in, as many of the most esteemed herds
have a close affinity with one another, and many
breeders never introduce a change into their stock.
The breeding of them simply for their milk-secret-
ing qualities has produced a smaller animal, with
a somewhat contracted chest, and enlarged pelvis.
The bull is selected, more from being the calf of a
good milker than from symmetry of form, or pedi-
gree—indeed, the last appears to belittle regarded.
The quey calves of the best milkers are also reared
to supply the place of their dams, hence the milk-
secreting powers are propagated more by heredi-
tary qualities, than either by selection of animals
from particular herds, or the selecting of animals ,
of a peculiar formation. There are, however, cer-
tain forms indicative of certain quaUties, v/hich are
so far a guide in judging of such milk-producing
breeds as the Ayrshire ; and these should be more
carefully studied by breeders in general.

Lately a gentleman named Francois Guenon, a
Frenchman, professed to have found by close ob-
servation that certain distinguishing marks were
unfailing signs of quantity, quality of milk, and
the period a cow would retain her milk-giving qua-
lities after calving. The subject was taken up by
several agricultural societies in France, and
opinions pronounced highly favourable to the the-
ory. We cannot, without a series of cuts, explain
the distinguishing marks ; but they are such as are
commonly observed by those who come in close
contact with dairy stock. We have seen both
keepers of cows, as well as dairymaids, point out
nearly the same signs which M. Guenon has done,
in judging the milk-giving qualities of an animal
with which they were not familiar.

We will, in proceeding to describe the most pro-
minent features of the best kind of cattle for pro-
ducing milk, confine ourselves to the Ayrshire, as
these are the only breed in Scotland that are reared
principally for their power of secreting the lactic
fluid. The particular points in the structural
formation can be understood by those having a
knowledge of stock, without giving cuts. To those
who do not understand stock, we refer them to the
cuts previously given in describing the Short-
horns.

324

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The head of both male and female should be
small, rather long, and tapering towards the muz-
zle, which should be darker than the colour of the
skin, the eye large, lively, but not too prominent.
In both bull and cow the jaw bone should be strong,
and open behind, to admit of the throat being fully
developed, where it passes from the head into the
neck. The horns should be small, clean, crooked,
and placed at considerable distance from one ano-
ther at the setting on. The ears rather large, and
orange tipped in the inside. The neck long, slen-
der, tapering towards the head, and having the ap-
pearance of hollowness ; the skin and throat loose-
ly attached to the lower part of the neck. The
point of the wither or shoulder should be thin.
The shoulder blades should be close above, with a
very shght covering of muscle. They should be
developed outwards to the point of the shoulders,
and should appear to the eye as detached from the
structure of the chest. The chest, four quarters,
and neck should be light. The hind quarters large,
and somewhat heavy. The back should be straight,
gradually widening from the point of the shoul-
ders towards the hook bones. These should be
wide, raised at the points, and presenting a some-
what scraggy look. The ribs towards the pelvis
should be wide and circular. These, with the joints,
should appear open. The carcass should gradu-
ally deepen towards the hind quarters, and these
should be deep. The length of quarters should
exceed the breadth between the hocks. Dairy
stock can scarcely be too long in the quarters. The
quarters with the pelvis should be roomy— the
buttocks should be square, and somewhat fleshy—
the distance between the top of the tail and the
hock joints should be extreme. The hock joints
should be broad, as well as the legs above and
beneath these joints. The fore and hind legs
should be short, somewhat delicately formed at the
joints as well as at the fetlock, and the animal
should appear short-legged. The feet should be
round, somewhat large, and strong. The tail
should be set on rather at a curve, than at right
angles. It should be long, tapering towards the
point, and the quantity of hair at the point should
be moderate. The form of the milk vessel is of
paramount importance. It can scarcely be too
capacious ; it should be placed well forward on
the belly, and appear behind the line of the thighs.
It should have a somewhat square form, but not
low, heavy, nor loose, nor flesh) . The colour of
the udder is by some also deemed of great impor-
tance. It should be rather white than brown,
except the colour of the skin be wholly brown or
black. The milk veins should be large and pro-
minent, the teats should be placed wide apart'
rather small and pointing outwards. Next jn im-

portance to the form of the udder is the touch.
The skin should be thin, having the soft feel of a
fine kid glove. The hair should be soft, and some-
what woolly. The colour should be distinct ; dark
red, or approaching to black, are both fashionable.
The colours, if two, should be arranged in blots
or small patches ; light fawns are not uncommon,
but are not deemed hardy ; some are beautifully
spotted with red on a white ground. The very
light colours approaching to white are objectionable.
A dash of the Alderney, as well as of the West
Highlander, can sometimes be discerned, particu-
larly in the colour of the best Ayrshires ; but the
breed as a whole, presents a characteristic dis-
tinctness of colours as well as of form. The form
wants that symmetry which distinguishes the
Short-horn, being more lengthy and less propor-
tional. They are, as a breed, constitutionally much
more restless and excitable than the Short-horn,
approaching more to the West Highlander. The
eye, although lively, should be expressive of quiet-
ness and placidity of temper; an irritability of
temper being a not uncommon defect in the Ayr-
shire ; the bulls in some districts becoming dan-
gerous. This defect is believed by some to be con-
fined to particular localities, and connected in some
degree with the soil. The animal, when walking,
should have a gay and somewhat jaunty appearance,
and present all the signs of a healthy constitution.
This latter point has been too much overlooked in
judging of Ayrshire stock. The animals are what
is termed drawn too fine ; hence, the great tendency
to chest diseases in this breed.

It is perhaps unnecessary to arrange the different
points as we did in the case of the short-horns. Pedi-
gree is, as we previously stated, little attended to in
this breed. The bull, if in fair condition, should have
an equal covering of fatty flesh all over the body,
every part of it being clothed as it were with flesh.
The skin soft, with the hair silky to the touch ;
and although he should be less feminine in appear-
ance than a cow, he should not be too masculine
looking. The muscles of both sexes, particularly
the female, should be somewhat slender. These
will be best observed along the neck.

The young of both sexes should be judged of
in the same manner as the matured animals. In
the heifer, the udder should be somewhat promi-
nently developed ; the skin of it being loose be-
hind, and showing a capabihty of stretching.

The system followed in rearing Ayrshires is ra-
ther to stint them in growth when young, pinch-
ing them in food, and exposing them to inclement
weather. They are, therefore, small in size, and
the skin, from the old hair remaining till a late
period of the season, has generally a furrj', mossy
appearance up till the middle of summer.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

335

In judging of dairy stock, the first point is
unquestionably the form of the udder ; the second,
the touch ; the third, the upper pointing of the
hooks ; the fourth the length of quarters ; the fifth,
roominess of the pelvis ; the sixth, arching of the
short ribs. The eye, size of jaw-bone, the form
of neck, colour, &c., following the other points in
somewhat the same order as in the Short-horn.
The medium size is usually preferred. The breed,
as a whole, is dimished in size from the system
of rearing to which we have previously alluded.
Full feeding the stock when young is known to
injure their milk-secreting qualities, and is there-
fore generally carefully avoided.

THE WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE.

The West Highland breed of cattle are ])articu-
larly adapted for inferior and for mountain pastures
being hardy, bold, and, when they arrive at maturity,
possessing great aptitude to fatten on pastures
which would not maintain the less hardy breeds
even in ordinary condition. They possess other
properties of equal importance. The beef is laid on
almost entirely on the back, and the quality of the
flesh is superior to that of any other breed, from
the fat being distributed in an uncommonly equal
manner among and in the body of the muscles.
The beef presents to the eye a beautiful marbled
mixture. This mixing of the fat with the lean en-
hances the value of the beef in the butciier market.
Besides, the flesh of the West Highland ox has a
peculiar aroma, which makes it as superior to the
flesh of the common ox, as the mutton of the black-
faced is to that of the white-faced sheep.

As objects of beauty. West Highland cattle are
superior to every other animal ; young horses alone
excepted. Seen near or in the distance, whether in
natural wood or on mountain sides, or confined
in parks surrounding gentlemen's seats, the West
Highlander presents a much more picturesque ap-
pearance than deer, either domesticated or wild ;
and we have often wondered why gentlemen who
study the picturesque, do not always keep a herd of
these in their policies.

West Highland cattle are naturally of a wild and
irritable disposition; disliking confinement, parti-
cularly when young. They are restless, easily ex-
cited, and generally cruel to one another if crowded
together. Still they are more eminently gregarious
than any other breed of cattle. When kept alone,
they fret, pine, and usually make little progress in
fattening.

As dairy stock they are not much cultivated. The
milk is rich in quality, but the quantity is seldom
great, and they are not considered as keeping long
in a full bloom of milk, becoming dry sooner than

the common dairy breeds. They are generally
allowed to suckle their oflfspring, which ofiice they
perform with the greatest paternal anxiety, and thus
their powers as dairy stock are little attended to,
and in all probability impaired. West Highland
cattle are reared where even other hardy breeds
would in time degenerate or die out, and they will
thrive and fatten on pastures nnsuited for other
stock, either sheep or cattle. The demand for wool
and mutton is, however, gradually restricting the
walks of the West Highlander.

When crossed with the Short-horn, the progeny
acquire the early aptitude to fatten of that breed, at
the same time maintaining much of the beautiful
symmetry of form of the West Highlander. The
cross is a most valuable animal for the grazier and
the flesher. Perhaps no two breeds are more alike
in structural formation than the West Highland and
the Short-horn, Making allowance for size, con-
dition, and colour, the former will often, upon com-
parison, maintain his ground as a perfect specimen
of the ox ; and what are deemed the most impor-
tant points in the one breed are also deemed the
important ones in the other. This similarity between
the two breeds is the more worthy of notice as the
West Highlander appears to stand apart from other
breeds of domesticated cattle. We have occasionally
endeavoured to trace the relationship of ^^diflerent
breeds to the West Highlander, but without much
success, with the exception of the best bred Ayr-
shires, and the wild cattle kept at Chillingham in
Northumberland, and at Hamilton. We liave been
alike unsuccessful in our endeavours to trace him
to any other breed in Europe or Africa. The period
of the introduction of the West Highlander into
Britain, and by what race of men introduced, and
where they originally came from — possibly by a
race prior to the Celtic — will pi'obably ever remain
a mystery. Connecting races of men with their
breeds of domesticated animals, has been somewhat
overlooked in ethnological investigations.

With this introduction we will proceed to give a
short description of the structural formation of
West Highland cattle.

The head of the bull should be long, somewhat
large, with the bony outline, particularly the jaw,
well developed; the forehead broad, thickly set
with hair at the top ; the eye large, prominent, and
lustrous ; the muzzle moderate in size, nostrils ex-
pansive. The setting on of the horns should be wide
apart, the horns forming a prominent point in
judging of the breed. The horns should branch out-
wards and upwards, be moderately fine at the root,
and have a growthy appearance. The head should
be set higher than the point of the shoulders ; the
muscles of the neck, back, and loins, full and pro-
minently developed ; the body straight, long, with

826

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the ribs arched, giving to the body somewhat the
appearance of a trunk of a tree. The quarters can
scarcely be too long. The breadth of hooks should
be moderate ; the chest deep, well forward, with the
dewlap pendulous, hanging down to the knee joint.
The joints should belarge, the hock-joint in appear-
ance disproportionately so, with the flesh of the
thighs developed near the joint : the legs should be
short, feet large, round, and firmly knit to the fetlock
joints. The skin should be rather thick, but soft and
elastic to the touch ; when pressed upon by the hand,
yielding and feeling smooth and elastic. The hair
is most important : it cannot be too thick. It
should have a downy, woolly appearance and feel,
and some of the hairs rising out of the pile, the coat
having a furry, shaggy look. The anim^il has to
brave storms, in which the less hardy breeds would
perish; the skin must therefore be thick, but the hair
is that which principally protects the animal from the
effects of wet and cold.

The most common colour is black, without one
spot of white. Any white spots show a want of
purity of blood. Duns, light and dark, are not un-
common, but are not esteemed. Light yellows and
fawn colours are also considered objectionable.
Cream colour, dark sandy yellow, and reds, are all
good^ besides being extremely beautiful colours.
Variety of colours in a drove of Highland cattle adds
considerably to their appearance as a lot, and we be-
lieve, more or less enhances their market value.

In going over the points of the bull, we have
descril)ed nearly all the essential points in the cow.
To add to the roominess of the pelvis, the hooks
should be broader and more open looking than in
the bull, the hind quarters long and somewhat
widely set, particularly at the stifle joints. Owing
to the broad structural formation of the West High-
land ox, with the somewhat large and bony head.

the cow is peculiarly liable to accidents during par-
turition. The cow, therefore, bhould be roomy in I
the pelvis, and shghtly elevated behind. The horns
cannot be too fine at the base, if proportional with
the long outward and upward spreading of the
horns. The eye should be less prominently placed
than in the male, but should be larger, clear, and
somewhat fiery in expression. The udder is often j
extremelyhandsome in the Highland cow; but when ■
exhibited at shows, they are generally dry, being
exhibited as breeding animals, and not as dairy stock.

The young of both sexes are generally small, ex-
cept they are well kept when young, particularly
during v/inter. In judging of them, the touch, hair,
size of the hock-joints, with the form and appear-
ance of the horn, are all indications of what they
will become with a course of feeding. The size of
chest, muscular development, &c., are also not to
be disregarded.

In a show-yard the West Highlander is not seen
to advantage. Disliking confinement, he is gener-
ally sulky and stubborn. Seen at hberty, his move-
ments are extremely graceful. He walks with a firm,
elastic step, and looks what he is— a bold, majestic,
and determined animal.

It is to be regretted that little or no attention has
been bestowed, in breeding the West Highlander,
to develope more prominently early maturity, with
a greater placidity of temper. He comes only to
perfection at four or five years' old, and from tem-
per is unsuited for feeding in curtains. If he could
be reared to fatten in confinement, at two and a-
half or three years old, to the weight of from 50 to
GO stones, and the beef to be of equal quality to
what it is at present, they would compete success-
fully with every other breed, and with more attention
on the part of the public to quality of flesh, would
stand alone as a flesh-producing breed.

CLIMATIC INFLUENCES ON THE PRODUCTION AND HARVESTING OF CROPS.

Mr. Love's speech at the Council Dinner discus-
sion of the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, at Shef-
field, was one of the best apologies for slovenly
farming we ever met with. He knows well what is
best to be done in farming. He has a thorough
knowledge of good implements — good workman-
ship— good management. He has seen it in all its
phases— in all its forms — and he can special plead
and interest a meeting as well as any man we ever
saw. His speech at Sheffield struck on the meet-
ing like an electric shock — it dashed away the dull
formalism into which the meeting had run, and it
excited a smile on the most determined and serious
faces. Mr. Outhwaite's shock, which we gave an

idea of in our previous Journal, and which is so
protected and thatched, straw by straw, as to stave
off" the rain for a matter of six weeks, was never
more brought into contrast with anything than Mr.
Love brought it in juxtaposition with the loose and
hay-like manner ot" getting corn. He said, for
instance —

" He strongly recommended that farmers of one dis-
trict should not presume to dictate to those residing in
another and distant part of the country ; for most as-
suredly they would frequently find modes of working
adopted only because of their peculiar adaptation to par-
ticular localities. He had had expi rience in the VVest
of Scotland, and afterwards ia the E:ist of Ireland. In
Scotland the climate was bad, but on arriving in Ireland
he found it worse. In every place in which he had

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

827

resided, his chief object had beeu to get the corn home
as well as possible, so that the joyful period of ' Harvest
home' miglu indeed be joyful. Bui in many instances
the very care he had taken to get the corn well, had
proved the means of delaying the process of getting it
home to liie rick yard ; and until tlmt was done he did
not consider the fini>hin£; stroke of the hnrve>t apjdied.
When he went to reside in Nortiiamptonshire, he saw
them cut splendid crops of barley and oats with the
scythe, the same as we cut hay in this part. After living
there two or three years, he found that a bt tier sample
of corn could be obtained for morket by their method
than by harvesting and stooking it, because the majority
of the seasons were dry ; consequently the corn would
have become parched, if not cut and harvested speedily.
The priticipiil thing, to his mind, appeared to be, after
getting the corn, to put it into a safe position. It be-
hoved every one to study the climate in which he lived,
and so get in his crops in the way best suited to it.
Tbirefore, when a farmer changed bis position, it would
not be a bad plan to ascertain how much ruin fell during
the harvest months of the previous twenty, thirty, or
forty years, in the district which he had adopted as his
home; and to ascertain whether he would adopt the
slovenly system of the south, or the more careful one of
the north. What appeared to be slovenly to the men
of the north, mi^ht not be slovenly ; and that which was
apparently careful, would cot be considered such by
men born in the locality in which that system was
adopted."

No man knows better than Mr. Love the effect
which this powerful contrastive speech had on the
meeting contemplating the Bainesse shock ; nor
was his speech generally correct — any real apology
for bad farming, though it had that appearance ;
and really it was more to add to the amenities of the
meeting tlian to add much to the love of Yorkshire-
men for slovenly modes of harvesting.

Still the principles involved in Mr. Love's speech
were full of weighty import. They involved the
whole cycle of agricultural science; for there is no
part of science or skill which may not be modified
by differences of climatic influence.

We hardly know whether to praise the essay
which won the Royal Agricultural Society's prize
— the second one which that Society printed — or
one which has since been printed in the Quarterly
Journal of Agriculture, by Mr. Rowlandson ; for
while the first-named enters more into the theory
of cnmate, the latter is eminently a pracdcal essay,
and contains a vast mass of v/ell-arranged and ge-
neral information.

Taking the question of rain alone, and comparing
the north-west with the south-east, we have amazing
contrasts. Thus the fall of rain at the following
places is as under —

Scarthwaite, Cumberland 151.87 inches.

Langdale Head, Cumberland .... 136.
Grassmere, Westmoreland 121.08

Then contrast this with the following —

Epping, Essex 23 65 inches.

Uckfield, Sussex 25.03

London, Middlesex 25.

Now trtking a whole range of plants— the very

keystone of farming — turnip, clover, rape, &c., and
while a moist and humid climate is the very life of
these, a drier climate is equally favourable to the
wheat and the barley — Mr. Rowlandson sums up
the result of his observations in the general remark
that the south-east and east of England, and the
north- east of Scotland, with a mean summer tem-
perature of 59 to 60 deg., is suited to the })roduc-
tion of wheat, barley, and the legumes ; while the
moist climates of the west of England, Wales, Ire-
land, and the south-west coast of Scotland, is fa-
vourable to the production of root crops, grass,
and oats. He makes out, however, in the course
of his essay, that high manuring may do much to
overcome climatic influence, for Lancashire, unfa-
vourable as to climate for the growth of wheat, is
made quite capable of ])roducing it by the liberal
application of artificial manure brought from the
towns, and by the canals, rivers, and railroads,
which pervade that county.

His disquisition on the practicability, or success
rather, of the four-course system of husbandry on
the western side of the island, are painstaking and
full of interest. Laying the foundation of that
system, as it really does, in the green-crop system,
it would appear at first sight that the best mode of
growing wheat was to manure heavily by large
quantities of stock fed on the green food which the
land produces so readily, and then inserting a crop
of wheat or oats, which may be cultivated under
such circiunstances to great advantage.

But the great drawback of a wet climate is the
weeds. In green crops, growing rapidly, and much
ploughed and horse or hand-hoed, there are abun-
dant means of clearing the land. But when a corn
crop long occupies the land, and when deep stir-
ring of the soil is not so easj', the plants suited
best by a moist climate— the weeds — make greater
head than they ought ; while the plant unsuited to
m.uch moisture— the wheat — progresses slowly.

But our climate is fast changing. The extensive,
the almost universal drainage, is fast denuding the
atmosphere of its moisture. The dimmution of
actual evaporation, the reducing of the time during
which it takes place, are thus diminishing in a
double manner the moisture in the atmosphere.
And our mill streams are finding out the difference
in a remarkable degree. Once the streams ran
slowly and continuously ; the cracked surface of
the land held the water, and there wera few floods
which made the mill idle througli back-water ; but
the stream filtered through the soil slowly and gra-
dually, and kept up a supply till the r.ext rain fell.
Now it is fast taking to exactly the reverse. The
drains take up all the water in a very few hours,
and force it into the stream ; hence there is a jlood
from a rain which before would produce little im*

323

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

pression on the soil, and there is a want of water
from a few dry days which was before unth ought
of. This, while it will render ordinary water power
of far less consequence and utility, is also indica-
tive of the atmospheric and climatic changes which
are slowly and gradually taking place. This will
assimilate the differences of our climate very con-
siderably, and will be found very much to modify
local modes of farming, adapted to peculiar situa-
tions.
Whether in hay time or harvest, however, it is

always safest to adopt the most careful mode of
securing the produce. The loose cock in hay time
is not a costly process, even in a dry climate, and
will almost pay for the chance of rain, for it can do
no damage. To put barley in sheaves can do no
harm in the dryest chmates ; and to hood wheat is
generally a good plan. Where care can do no
harm it is best to adopt it : one never can forgive
the slovenly mode of getting barley practised in the
south of England. — Gardeners' and Farmers'
Journal.

THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY'S BANQUET IN GALWAY.

If, in observing last month upon the exhibition
of stock and implements at the show of the
Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ire-
land, held at Galway, we expressed some dis-
appointment, we feel amply compensated for
any short-comings on that head by the sound,
truthful, and patriotic observations addressed by
the Lord Lieutenant, the Earl of Eglinton, to
the parties assembled at the Society's Banquet— a
full report of the proceedings at which we have ap-
pended. Had his Excellency been a native of Ire-
land his language might have been couched in
terms of more fervid eloquence, but it could not
have produced a greater effect upon the steady and
reflecting portion of those who heard him, or who
may read in the journals of the day his most excel-
lent remarks having reference to " Prosperity to
Ireland." It will be perceived^ that after referring
to the heart-burnings and animosities which so
lamentably distinguished the late general election,
his Excellency observed, in reference to his visit to
Galway : —

" I eome to urge upon you to unite heart aud hand with
each other in cultivating that rich soil which will so amply
repay your labour. Depend upon it, gentlemen, the colour of
your crops is of far more importance to you than the colour of
your flags — (cheers) — and you will find far more to leani in
the neighbouring showyard than in any political harangue, be
it from a Liberal or be it from a Conservative. (Loud cheers).
I believe there can be no doubt that on the proper cultivation
of the land all real prosperity is based, and that from that root
all other prosperity, whether it be commercial or manufactur-
ing, must sirring. (Hear, hear). Cultivate your land, reclaim
your waste lands, drain and manure your fields, cultivate flax,
turnips, and mangold-wurzel, and only be at peace with each
other, and the tall chimneys and busy factories, the heavy
trains and the laden ships will follow after, and the merchan-
dise of the world will fill your noble bay, aud the waters of
Lough Corrlb will bring down the commerce of the interior
into the midst of your town." (Cheers).

More sound and statesmanlike advice could not
be given, but unfortunately, from the character of
the country, we fear not applicable to the imme-
diate neighbourhood of Galway; and such seems

to have been the opinion of the Lord Lieutenant
himself, for he went on to say—

"To return to what is of very great importance to you and
to the town of Galway, I cannot but bring to your minds the
fact that all the riches of the earth are not above ground
(Hear). There may l)e a great part of your county which is
barren and covered with stones ; but may there not be mineral
wealth below those stones sufficient to repay the utmost labour
you could employ ? (Hear). I know by my own experience in
Scotland that acres of ground have beeu proved to teem with
mineral wealth which no person dreamt of ten years ago ; and
estates which were only worth a few hu^ndreds are now valued
at as many thousand pounds (Hear). I am aware that there are
mines already in operation, but I believe that the produce of
those mines is a very small item in comparison with what may
be yet produced ; and I cannot but think that, with the rail-
way now opened to your city, with the fine bay that lies be-
fore you, and with the internal resources of Lough Corrib and
Mask, Galway cannot long remain stationary " (loud cheers).

It must have been cheering to those interested in
the land around Galway to have the idea suggested
to them that " all the riches of the earth are not
above ground;" for a more barren, inhospitable
appearance than the surface of the soil presents, it
has rarely been our lot to meet with. Nature has
given to Galway a splendid " bay," and Art has
conferred upon her the advantage of an iron road.
If there be " mineral wealth" beneath the soil, and
if these sources of wealth be made available by the
spirit and energy of the inhabitants of the " City of
the Tribes," she may become substantially that
which she is now entitled in Ireland, " the Metro-
polis of the West." But what are the impediments
to such a successful and much to be desired result ?
Let the Lord Lieutenant answer : —

"My opinion is that the whole history of Ireland's diffi-
culties lies in a very small compass (Hear). Is it the character
of the people which unfits them for happiness and greatness ?
So far from that being the case, I will venture to say that
! there is not a people in the world whose perceptions are so
keen, whose intellects are so quick, whose are so warm,
or whose good feelings are so easily excited (Hear, hear). Is
there any dulness in the eyes of the daughters of Erin ? or is
there any inaptitude in their fingers for the most delicate
I handy- work? Is there any slowness of comprehension amougit

THE EARMER'S MAGAZINE.

329

their children ? I will appeal to my noble friend on my right
(the Lord Chancellor), who is one of the Board of Education —
I will appeal to him because he has seen your own model
schools to-d;iy, and I will answer for it myself, because
I made it my business to investigate the system of
education since I came to this country, and I will venture
to say that there is not a country in the world where
the children exhibit so much cleverness, so much docility,
or so quick an apprehension (cheers). Is it the character
of the climate or the nature of the soil ? There is not
a brighter or a richer spot upon this earth than the Emerald
Isle. A more genial climate does not exist. (Hear). Is it
a want of freedom ? The world has not seen so free a con-
stitution, or institutions by which, individually and collec-
tively, liberty is so closely hedged in. (Hear, hear, and
cheers). Gentlemen, Ireland's miseries are to be traced to the
disunion and strife amomjst her children — to the feuds which
j)revail amongst them — to the turbulence which prevents the
employment of her industry, the development of her re-
sources, and the outlay of the strangers' capital. If her
children jvoitld live together as brothers, instead of foes — if
they would be true to themselves and to her, wc should hear
no more of Ireland's difficulties ; the Atlantic would cease to
bear so many homeless wanderers upon its waves."

When her Majesty Queen Victoria graciously ho-
nours a Cattle Show in England with her presence
she is accompanied hy his Royal Highness Prince
Albert, her e.veraplary consort, and two or three
ladies of her suite. When the Lord Lieutenant of
Ireland makes a similar visit he is preceded by
police on horseback (soldiers in another dress) with
drawn swords, and followed by police on foot
armed with muskets. In England a few police
unarmed are ranged here and there to clear the
way and keep order— in Ireland the muskets of the
pohce piled up in the yard form a part of the " im-
plements" exhibited. To the mind unaccustomed
to such sights, the feelings aroused are painful in
the extreme. It is distressing to be driven to the
conclusion that such a display is necessary to sup-
press the " turbulence" of the people, and to put
down " the feuds which prevail amongst them."
It is degrading to humanity to know that " the de-
velopment of the resources in, and the outlay of the
stranger's capital" upon so fine a country are pre-
vented by the disunion which exists amongst those
who should " live together as brothers." Until,
however, this " turbulence," this " disunion and
strife" are suppressed by the force of moral in-
fluence, not by an armed police, the bounties of
Providence imparted to the soil can never be fully
enjoyed by the people.

THE BANQUET.
A temporary banqueting-room was fitted up on the end of
the terminus upon a very commodious scale, being ninety feet
by eighty. The apartment was constructed in a style of con-
siderable taste and elegance. Above it was covered throughout
with an awning of calico, coloured alternately blue, red, and
white. White pilasters were run up the walls, festoons of red
and blue calico gracefully depending betweea them. The

paces over the festoons were decorated with various and ap-
propoiate armorial bearings ; amongst them those of the four-
teen tribes of Galway. Immediately over the chair of his
Excellency were the armorial bearings of the Eglinton family,
and at the opposite end of the room those of the Midland
Great Western Railway. The lighting was by eight large Bude
burners on the walls, while down the centre of the room 300
gas-burners, arranged on an arched zig-zag line, contributed to
shed an extraordinary brilliancy over the festive scene. The
tables were arranged for the entertainment of 450 persons.
Eight tables ran the entire length of the room, and upon a
dais raised a couple of feet at the head was a cross-table for
his Excellency and the principal personages present on the
occasion. Round the walls were seats for the accommodation
of ladies admitted as spectators. Altogether the design and
decorations of the apartment evinced the great taste and
judgment of Mr. Cheyue, the district engineer, to whom the
task was confided.

Shortly after five o'clock, his Excellency entered the bau-
quetting-hall, and was received with enthusiastic cheering, the
band of the 9th Regiment of Infantry, stationed in an orchestra
erected immediately opposite the chair, playing the National
Anthem.

His Grace the Duke of Leinster presided.

On the chairman's right sat his Excellency the Lord Lieu-
tenant, the Lord Chancellor, tlie Earl of Mayo, Earl of
Donoughmore, Earl of Clancarty, Lord Bellew, Lord Castle-
maine, Sir Thomas Blake. Count D'Alton, Sir Percy
Nugent, Sir Edward Borough, Bart. ; M. J. Blake, M.P. ;
Captain Hand. On the left the Earl of Howth, Ea:l of Clon-
mel. Lord Clanmorris, Lord Oranraore, Sir Thomas Redingtou,
the High Sheriff of the county ; Mr. Anthony O'Elaherty,
M.P. ; Captain Bellew, M.P, ; Lieutenant-Colonel Laird; Mr.
B. Wade.

The vice-chair was occupied by Lord Clonbrock. On his
right was the Earl of Erne, Lord Talbot de Malahide, Lord
Dunlo, Sir Edward Kennedy ; on the left — Lord Dunsandle,
Lord St. Lawrence, Mr. J. L. Napper.

Amongst the general company were noticed: — Mr. John
Ennis, Chairman of the Midland Great Western Railway ;
Mr. Boyd, Vice-Chairman, do. ; with Messrs. Boyce, Perry,
Gaynor, Watson, and Cooper, directors ; Mr. Dargan, Mr.
Hemans, Mr. Mulvany, Commissioners of the Board of Works;
Mr. Griffith, Chairman of the Board of Works ; Major Wood-
burne, Mr. James Sadlier, M.P. ; Mr. Richard Armstrong,
barrister; W. H. F. Cogan, M.P.; Hon. F.French, Hon. Ro-
bert French, Mr. Burke (St. Cleran's), Mr. James Power,
D. L., Mr. George Roe, Mr. Hutton, T.C., Mr. Jeffreys, Mr.
Robert St. George, Hon. Mr. Lawless, Hon. Mr. Dillon, Mr.
Bland, M.P., Mr. F. Scully, M.P., Mr. John Law, Mr. Robert
Maxwell, Sir Thomas Burke, Mr. G. Thunder, Mr. Dudley
Persse (New York), &c.

The health of the Uueen and the other members of the
royal family having been drunk with all the honours.

The Noble President then rose and said, it gave him very
great pleasure to propose the next toast on his list, and in do-
ing so, he wished them to understand that he meant to adhere
strictly to the rules of the Royal Agricultural Society, which
required its members to abstain from any allusion to politics
(Hear, hear). They were highly honoured that evenicg by the
presence of the Lord-Lieutenant of Ire'and (loud cheers). On
all occasions when he had given them a toast it had been re •
sponded to as it ought to be by that society ; but iii the pre-

330

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sent instance he must call upon them to assist him in doing;
honour to that toast (cheers). Hia excellency, since he came
amousst them, had shown the greatest anxiety to lisit the
most important cities of Ireland, an:i as president of that so-
ci ty, he tbous;ht it was exceedinjily fortunate for them all that
he had come so far west to honour them vi ith his presence, be-
cause he was certain from his doins: so that theirs was a society
which ouarlit to be supported, and therefore he proposed, with
no ordinary feelings of pleasure, "Tlie Lord-Lieutenant, and
Prosperity to Ireland" (cheprs).

The toast having been received in a most enthusiastic man-
ner, the entire corapsny standing up and giving cheer after
cheer in honour of his excellency —

His Excellency rose to respond, and his rising was the
signal for a fresh burst of applause, which was renewed again
and again for several minutes. When silence was restored,
he said — My Lord Duke and Gentlemen, I thank you most
sincerely for the honour you have just done me and I thank
you still more sincerely f ;r the sentiment with which you have
coupled my health — a sentiment which not one of you, how-
ever Irish you may be, even though you may be one of the
tribes, can respond to more cordially than I do. (Loud cheers).
It has been my good fortune on every occasion that I have met
with an assembly of Irish men since I came to this country, to be
received with that cordiality of welcome which must be gra-
tifying to every man, but which is peculiarly so to one in the
position that I occupy, and which tends to render the many
onerous duties with which I am sometimes beset far smoother
(Hear). Believe me it is no small satisfaction, when I turn
from the arduous part of my office, and leave the sterner
duties which now and then devolve upon me, to he met by
smiles and friendly greetings, and to accept it as a proof that I
hare not lost the good opinion of those for whom I have toiled
and for whose welfare I am soesroesfly solicitous (loud cheers).
For your kindness, personally, I feel most grateful to you, but
I feel it far more as a homage paid to m.e as t e representa-
tive of your Queen ; I accept it as a proof of your loyalty to
your Sovereign — a loyalty which, dim and confused as that
holy feeling has become iu other countries, where men know
not whom to obey or whom to reverence, and where the despot
of to-day may be the exile to-morrow — burns bright and un-
mixed amoiigst us, and is a feeling which we have received
from our fore''ather3, and which we mean to transmit to our
children (vehement cheering). I accept it as a homage paid,
not only to the sovereign of this mighly empire, because it
shows- that you feel that on the stability of the throne depends
the tranquillity, the liberty, and the constitution of this king-
dom, but to the individual, because it shows that you feel that
she presents a private character and exhibits public virtues
which would be au honour to anybody iu private life, and
■which have endeared her to every class of her subjects (cheers).
Gentlemen, I come to Galway at a time when the turmoil, the
excitement, and the heart-burnings of that great but necessary
evil, a general election, has scarcely subsided — when, perhaps,
many who have been friends from their youth have separated
from each other on a hasty word, a harsh expression, or a po-
litical accusation. Be it my duty to pour oil on those pas-
sions— be it my duty to allay those animosities, to restore
those friendships (cheers). I am not aware that the men of
Galway showed any especial favour to those who professed my
political views (laughter), but I come to Galway not the less
willingly for that (loud cheers). I do not come to Galway as
a politician nor as an electioneerer. I come here as the Chief

Governor of Ireland, anxious to allay all animosities, all aspe-
rities, to sanction by my presence, to promote by my advire and
example, those great interests which are essential to every
country, but are more important to Ircla'.id than to any ether
(cheers). I come to urge upon you to unite heart and hand
with each other in cultivating that rich soil which will so
amply repay your labour. Depend upon it, gentlemen, the
colour of your crops is of far more importance to you than the
colour of your flags — (cheers) — and you will find far more to
leara in the neighbouring shoivyard than in any political
harangue, be it from a Liberal or be it from a Conservative.
(Loud cheers). I believe there can be no doubt that on the
proper cultivation of the land all real prosperity is based,
and that from that root all other prosprrity, whether it be
commercial or manufacturing, must spring. (Hear, hear).
Cultivate your land, reclaim your waste lands, drain and manure
your fields, cultivate flix, turnips, and mangold-wurzel,
and only be at peace witli each other, and the tall shimneya
and busy factories, the heavy trains and the laden ships
will follow after, and the merchandise of the world will fill
your noble bay, and the waters of Lough Oorrib will briug
down the commerce of the interior into the midst of your
town. (Cheers). Gentlemen, I gave my attention to the
exhibition with the greatest pleasure and with the greatest
care, and it afforded me the utmost satisfaction to see an ex-
hibition so gratifjing in all respects; and, if you will allow me
to use a word — of so "average" a cl.i'acter; and in using
that word, I think I have said a gieat deal, for I have seen
a great many shows, and I hold that this exhibition does
much credit to the capital of the west. (Cheers). If yon
will allow me to particularise amongst the stock thst which
particularly met my approbation — if my approbation is
worch having — I may mention that I most especially admired
the sheep, and I believe it would be difficult to Cud at any
show in England or Scotland a better exhibition. (Cheers).
There is nothing has astonished me more iu that lino, since
I came to Ireland, than the great and manifest improve-
ment that has taken place iu the pigs. (Hear). I remem-
ber that only a few years ago they were very inferior, and
now I believe that they will bear comparison with those
of any other country. (Hear, and cheers). I, of course,
iu common with jou all, must admire and approve of those
large animals that carry so much fat upon them, but — it
may he an opinion of my own— I cannot but wish that more
attention was paid to milch cows, because the short-horns,
excellent as they are for fattening, run too much to fat, and
I do not think that they give that proportion of milk which
some other sorts are able to yield. (Hear, hear). There
was a little Derry cow in the yard which particularly
attracted ray attention, and which I think is well worthy of
your observation. When I state, as I have been tolJ, that
she gives 30 quarts of milk a-day, I thiuk she will bear com-
parison with any shorthorn in the world (Hear, hear). But,
before I leave the exhibition, I cannot help alluding to one
part of it, which added more than all else to the brilliancy
and attractiveness of the show-yard —I mean the fair exhibi-
tion which now graces the walls of this building (cheers).
Upon the merits of that I believe there can be but one
opinion. I am not aware whether auy judges have been yet
named for that department ; but if the selection is about to
be made, I offer myself as one of the candidates. Genilemen,
to return to what is of very great importance to you and to
the town of Galway, I cauuot but bring to your minds the fact

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

331

that all the riches of the earth are not above-ground (Hear)
Theie raay be a s^reat part of your county which is barren aud
covered with stones ; but may there not be mineral wealth be-
low those stones sufficii-ut to repay the utmost labour you
coiilj employ ? (He<r.) I know by my own experience in
Scotland that acres of ground have been proved to teem with
mineral wealth which no person dreamt of ten years ago ; and
estates which were only worth a few hundreds are now valued
at as many thousand pounds (Hear). I am aware that
there are mines already in operation, but I believe that the
produce of those mines is a very small item in comparison
with what may be yet produced ; and I cannot but think
that, wi'h the railway now opened to your city — with the fine
bay that lies before you, and with the internal resources ol
Lough Corrib and Mask, Galway cannot long remain station-
ary (loud cheers). Now, gentlemen, to take a more general
view of the toast which you have proposed, and to allude in a
few words to the latter and better portion of it - the senti-
ment coupled with my name — I may say, my opinion is that
the whole history of Ireland's dilKculties lies in a very small
compass (Hear). Is it the character of the people which iin
fits them for happiness and greatness ? So far from that being
the case, I will venture to say that there is not a people in
the wotld whose perceptions are so keen, whose intellects are
so quick, whose hearts are so warm, or whose good feelings are
so easily excited (Hear, hear). Is there any dulness in the
eyes of the daughters of Erin ? or is there any inaptitude in
their fingers for the most delicate handy work ? Is there any
slowness of comprehension atnoiigst their children ? I will
appeal to my noble friend on my right (the Lord Chancellor),
who is one of the Board of Educ;itiou — I will appeal to hira
because he has seen your own model schools to-day, aud I will
answer for it myselr", because I made it ray business to in-
vestigate the system of education since I came to this country,
and I wdl venture to say that there is not a country in the
world where the children exhibit so much cleverness, so much
docility, or so quick an apprehension (cheers). Is it the cha-
lacter of the climate or the nature of the soil ? There is not a
brighter or a richer spot upon this earth than the Emerald
Isle. A more genial climate does not exist. (Hear). Is it
a want of freedom ? The world has not seen so free a con-
stitution, or institutions by which, individually and collec-
tively, liberty is so closely hedged in. (Hear, hear, and
chi-ers). Gentlemen, Ireland's miseries are to be traced to the
disunion aud strife amongst her children — to the feuds which
prevail ataongst them — to the turbulence which prevents the
employment of her industry, the development of her re-
sources, and the outlay of the stranger's capital. If her chil-
dren would live together as brothers, instead of foes — if they
would be true to themselves and to her, we should hear no
more of Ireland's difficulties ; the Atlantic would cease to bear
so many homeless Tanderers upon its waves. (Hear, hear).
But, gentlemen, there is another ingredient in the case. The
Government must also be true to you, and wield impartially,
but firmly, the powers with which they are constitutionally
vested, and I shall pledge you my honour, so long as I remain
amongst you, neither will partiality lead me to deviate from
the straight path, nor censure ever deter me from pursuing
that course which in my conscience I feel to be u%ht. Now,
gentlemen, I have done. It may be long, although I hope it
will not be long, before I revisit Galway ; but I shall carry
away with me a warm and affectionate recollection of the kind-
ness you have shown to me. I conceive that it is quite as

much my duty to make myself acquainted with the character
and tlie feelings of the peop'e, and with the capabilities of the
country placed under my ciiarge, as to extcu'c the functions
of the government. That such is your opinion I have only to
appeal to the manner in which I have been received, aud I
should consider mjself as wanting iu that duty if 1 had been
absent on an occasion so important, so interesting, and one
which I hope will prove a prelude to years of prosperity to
you all. (Vehement cheering, amidst which his excellency re-
sumed his seat).

His Excellency then rose a second time and said — Gentle-
men, after detaining you so long, I should feel that trespassing
ou your time again would be an unwarrantable liberty on my
part, if I had not so good a cause to present to you (Hear).
It is to propose to you the health of our noble chairman, the
Duke of Lemster (cheers). I feel much gratified that h has
fallen to my lot to propose that toast, and I know that you
would not have forgiven me if I had lost one moment in doing
so (Hear). It is a fitting and a graceful thing that the first
nobleman of Ireland should preside at this splendid entertain-
ment, and in my opinion it gives additional weight to the Royal
Agricultural Society, aud to all your endeavours iu its behalf,
that he shoidd preside at the present banquet (cheers). I am
quite sure that the noble duke himself will be of opinion that I
am not using the words of flattery when I say that it is im-
possible to conceive any man filling the high and exalted
station which he fills in this country, more to the satisfaction
of every one who knows him, or more to his own honour (loud
cheers). I am not overstraining the mark when I say that
Ireland's duke is the most honoured, the most amiable, and the
best nobleman that any country can boast of ; aud if anything
were wanting to add to my gratification at the manner in which
my hea'th was drunk by this company, it would be that the
toast was proposed by my noble friend the Duke of Leinster
(cheers). I beg, therefore, to propose "The health of the
noble chairman, his grace tiie Duke of Leiuster."

The toast was received with the warmest demonstrations of
applause.

The CHAiRJiAN said he could assm'e them that he felt
deeply the kind and able manner in wliich his Excellency had
deigned to bring his name before them. His good opinion
they might readily suppose was very flattering to him. He
was much obliged to the company for the vray in which they
received the toast. As chairman of the society, it would ever
give him the greatest pleasure to forward, in every way he
could, its interests. After again expresnng his thanks, his
grace gave in appropriate terms, "The Memory of Peter
Purcell, the Founder of the Society."

The toast was drunk in solemn silence.

The Chairman again rose, aud sai 1 lie should crave their
assistance in doing justice to the toast he was about to pro-
pose. He had but to mention the name of the distinguished
lady, whose health he was about to give them, in order to
insure for it the reception it so justly merited (loud applause).
It was the health of her Excellency the Countess of Egluiton
(here the company rose and cheered enthusiastically). Iu the
welfare of this country her Excfllency took the deepest inte-
rest (Hear, hear) ; and he might mention that, when she
visited the show on tlie previous day, and when he had the
honour of attending her, she went most patiently through it,
and saw every individual beast (a laugh), sheep, fowl, &c., in
the yard (Hear). Knowing tlieir anxiety to do honour to the
toast, he would at once give them, " The health of the Coun-

332

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tc83 of Eglinton" (the toast was drunk with all the honour?,
amid hearty cheering aud waving of hancfkerchiefs) .

The Lord-Lieutenant rose amid cheers to respond. He
said : It is often my duty to return thanks for Lady Eglintou
in her ahseuce, but it seldom happens that it becomes my duty
to do so in her presence (cheers and laughter). And I feel
considerable difficulty in doing so, for two reasons : first of all,
because I am quite sure she would return thanks better for
herself (loud cheering) ; and secondly, because I am convinced
that if I do it badly I shall hear more about it (loud laughter
and cheering). Even iu her presence, however, I will say,
that aU the praises which the Dnke of Leinster has been kind
enough to bestow upon her are deserved (loud cheers, and cries
of " Hear, hear") ; and there is nothing dearer to her heart
than to promote the prosperity of her native land (" Hear,
hear," and renewed cheering). I assure you, as strongly as I
feel the duties which have devolved upon me — strongly as I
feel the determination within myself to do that duty by the
nation placed under my charge — that if I ever failed in it, or
if I ever, even for a moment, neglected to do my best for this
country, I shoull have one at my elbow ready to warn me of
my dereliction (lo>id cheers). Strong as the feelings of Lady
Eglinton have always been fer her native land, I will appeal
to you all whether those feelings have not received additional
strength from the kindness with which she has been welcomed
on all occasions in this country, but more especially by the
great kindness you have exhibited on her behalf in Galway
(cheers). In returning you, once more, thanks for the honour
you have done her, believe it is not merely words from the
lips, but, if expression can do it, I thank you from my heart
(loud cheering).

The Vice-President, Lord Clonbrcck, next gave in eulo-
gistic terms, "The Army and Navy."

Colonel Laird, in an eloquent and stirring address, in the
course of which he was loudly cheered at his references to the
services of the army and navy, returned thanks on behalf of
the array.

Captain Hand, R.N., in brief terms, on the part of the
navy, acknowledged the compliment paid to that portion of
the service.

Anthony O'Flaherty, M.P., on rising, in obedience to
the call of the chairman to propose the next toast, was received
with cheers. He referred to the very inferior system of agri-
culture pursued in this country for a considerable time until
within the past few years, when a great deal of improvement
was effected through the agency of the Royal Agricultural
Improvement Society. Any improvement that had taken
place in the mode of cultivating land in Ireland was, he said,
mainly attributable to the almost supernatural exertions of
the members of that society (Hear, iiear). The soil had been
brought to a state of comparative fertility, and the foundation
had been laid for some increase of happiness and prosperity to
the country (Hear, hear). He congratulated the company
upon the success of their exhibition in the capital of the west.
He stated in the course of a forcible address with reference to
the county and town of Galway, that its gentry and people,
while at the proper time they boldly maintained their peculiar
opinions, were, on all occasions such as the present, and on
all their boards, juries, and committees, harmoniously com-
bined, without reference to politics, to promote the welfare of
their county and its town (cheers.) After paying several com-
pliments to the members of the society, be concluded by pro-

posing "The Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ire-
land."

The toast was warmly received.

The Earl of Clancarty, who was loudly cheered on rising
and throughout his speech, returned thanks.

The Secretary of the society, Mr. Harkness, then came
forward, and read the list of prizes.

The Chairman presented the silver cup to a gentleman
who appeared for Mr. Charles Towneley, M.P., the successful
competitor.

At this stage of the proceedings his Excellency retired,
accompanied by the Countess of Eglinton, in consequence, as
stated by the noble chairman, of his suffering luider a severe
cold.

Mr. W. B. Wade gave the health of the vice-President.

The toast was drunk with all the honours.

Lord Clonbrock returned thanks iu appropriate terms.

The Lord Chancellor then rose amid loud and repeated
cheering to propose the next toast. He said — My lord duke,
my lords and gentlemen, I feel it to be a most distinguished
honour in such an assembly as that which I have the honour
to address, to be privileged to propose a toast, which I anti-
cipate will be received with all the acclamation and favour it
deserves. The toast is — "The Judges of the Show Yard"
(applause). It is but very recently I was told this honour
would be conferred upon me, and I thought that, perhaps, I
was selected for the duty from beiug supposed to entertain a
predilection forjudges in general (great cheering). But I can
assure you that no bias rests upon my mind when I propose to
you the judges of the show yard, for I am perfectly persuaded
that those who are acquainted with their merits and their
services will all conciu: with me iu bestowing upon them the
praise of perfect liberality and impartiality (Hear, hear).
Without their services vain would be the efforts of this body,
and whatever in the way of exertion took place, and whoever
may be the persons that made these exertions, they all ulti-
mately looked forward to the fair judgment of those who had
to decide upon the merits of the animals exhibited (Hear,
hear). I believe I may say, though I am little competent to
judge, but I have been informed that never were their deci-
sions more characterized by judgment and impartiality
— by fairness and discrimination (cheers). It is perfectly
true, I believe, in general, that they have awarded
the prizes to the fattest of the fat; but at the same
time I am persuaded from all I have heard, that they
have not been negligent of symmetry and beauty — (Hear,
hear) — aud I am also persuaded that it was this attention to
symmetry and beauty that suggested to the Lord Lieutenant
the idea of extending their jurisdiction to another species of
live stock — (laughter and cheering) — when he proposed that
they should have under their jurisdiction the magnificent
display of beauty which encircles these walls (Hear, hear). I
am persuaded he was not fully aware of the difficulties of the
task he would impose upon them or upon himself in becoming
the foreman of that tribunal, for I am convinced if such a tri-
bunal were formed to decide upon such a subject, such would
be their difficulty and distraction, that, whatever might be
the mode of trial, whether by inspection or examination — ■
(laughter) — the judges would die in doubt (renewed laughter
and loud cheers). I therefore believe that for their sakes— '
that is, for the sake I mean of those proposed to be the judsjes
—it is better to allow them to remain without exteudiug their

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

333

jurisdiction to subjects of such great difficulty (laughier, and
cries of " Hear "). Having proposed the health of the judges,
I have only to observe upon one topic more. Throughout the
interesting subjects so admirably, so feelingly, and so wisely
discussed by the Lord Lieutenant, there was otip element men-
tioned, and to which you are to look forward for the regenera-
tion of the country. His Excellency alluded to that element
in connection with my name — I mean the intellectual powers
of our people (cries of " Hear, hear"). And his Excellency
having referred to what passed under my own observation to-
day, I will state that I visited an institution but three weeks
in existence, for the purpose of seeing how it worked, and
whether it had as yet produced any effects upon those
entitled to the blessings of the institution itself, and I never
in the whole course of my life was more surprised at all the
elements of order, of intellectual acuteness, of perfect pro-
priety of demeauour, than were exhibited by all the numerous
classes of the new National Model School (Hear, hear). It was
most gratifying to see the acuteness, the intelligence, the
capacity for receiving instruction, and the aptitude for re-
taining it, of the boys, but, above all, their complete sub-
mission to the rules of the institution once they came within
its walls. I was perfectly amazed to find in so short a time
such a body of scholars exhibit such qualities, to which I have
to add a peculiar neatness of dress and propriety of demeanour
(Hear, hear.) Where there are such elements to look forward
to as springs of future greatness and improvement, I say no
nation should despair (Hear, hear, and loud cheers). It would
be a miracle, if, with the great advantages extended to this
part of the world, the communication with the metropolis by
railway opened, the great national institution of a college
within a few yards of this town — those national schools which
extend to all classes and denominations the benefits and
blessings of education — if in addition to all these you take the
great internal communication about to be afforded by the
opening of Lough Corrib, together with all the other means
at your disposal for making the county productive, and its
talent redound to the benefit of those who possess it and to
the community at large, I repeat it — if with all these advan-
tages Galway fails to profit, I shall despair of seeing any nation
increase in prosperity (cheers). It is but one year since the
railroad was opened to this city, and when in an assembly on
that occasion, constituted nearly as the present is, I had to
make a few observations, I spoke of that gTeat event. Great
events have since occurred, and they have occurred to lay the
foundation of an amount of prosperity and happiness which, I
trust, many here present will live fo see perfectly and
effectually realized. His lordship then resinned his seat amid
loud applause.

Mr. ToKR returned thanks on the part of the judges, and
said that, for his own part, he felt gratefiil for the kind manner
in which the company had been pleased to notice the exer-
tions of those whom he then represented. If anything could
add to the gratification which the judges must feel at the man-
ner in which the company received the toast, it was the very
flattering terms in which it was proposed by a man of the
greatest eminence in Irehnd as a judge himself. (Hear,
hear). He (Mr. Torr) could say that tlie judges of the show-
yard had performed tlieir duties to the best of their ability,
and with perftfct fairness. (Hear, hear). He regretted very
much that he could not repeat the congratulation which on
former occasions he hail offered them respecting the success

of the show ; but he would aay that iu the part which justly
belonged to that portion of the country several splendid spe-
cimens of what were commonly called Ballinasloe sheep were
brought under their notice. (Hear, hear). Having said so
much upon the subject, he would observe, as au Englishman,
t'.at his countrymen were most anxious for that prosperity
for Ireland which she so well deserved. After a few more re-
marks, Mr. Torr concluded by stating his belief that Ireland
possessed within herself all the materials and resources neces-
sary to render her one of the richest agricultural countries in
the world. (Hear, hear).

Mr. Thomas A. Joyce (High Sheriff), in proposing the
" Successful Competitors," said that, though an unsuccessful
competitor, he experienced great gratification in performing
the duty which the committee had imposed upon him (cheers),
lie might express his hope that Galway would derive benefit
from the great exhibition which had just taken place (Hear,
hear). Where, he would ask, was the locality so favoured by
its geographical position, and why then was it so much behind
the sister country in prosperity ? He had no hesitation in
saying that this was in a great degree attributable to the want
of that fostering care which the laws of nations required, and
humanity demanded for this country (Hear, hear). He would,
however, be wanting in courtesy if at that late hour he would
detain them from drinking — " The Successful Competitors."
The toast was cordially received.

Sir Thomas Burke, Bart., M.P., briefly returned thanks.
Lord Talbot de Malaiiide, iu au eloquent address, dur-
ing the delivery of which he was repeatedly cheered, gave
" The City of the Tribes."

Mr. M. J. Blake, M.P., responded to the toast, which was
drunk with all due enthusiasm and respect.

Thomas Bellew, M.P., iu an eloquent speech, gave the
" Ladies."

The toast was drunk with all the honours, amid loud and
repeated cheering.

Mr. Edmond O'Elaherty responded on the part of the
ladies for the honour done them.

The Chairman next gave the " Efficient Public Boards of
the Town of Galway," which was duly honoured.

The Rev. Peter Daly, P.P., on rising to respond, was re-
ceived with cheers. He said that at that time of night, and
after all the eloquence that had delighted them, he would not
think of detaining them for any length of time. He would
only say, as a member of some of the public boards of Galway,
that the magnificent assembly round him was in itself a proof
of the efficiency of the public boards of Galway (Hear, hear).
He trusted the proceedings of the week would aid iu making
Galway what nature intended it should be, a great emporium of
trade and commerce (Hear, hear). With reference to the line
of railway connecting that city with the metropolis of Ireland,
he believed he was in a position to say, that to the public
boards of Galway was due some of the credit for originating
the project, although others undoubtedly lent their honest aid
to the carrying out of the idea (Hear, hear). He trusted they
would all live to see Galway what she ought to be, a place of
great commerce, and the entrepot between the Old and the
New World (applause). He trusted it would Le admitted on
all hands that the harbour commissioners hdd established a
rase for the harbour of Galway, wliicli would result, iu due
course of time, iu a large prororlion of tlie commerce of the
world passing through the town (Hear, hear), and that it would

Z

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

become the combining link in good feeling, in civilisation and
trade, between the great nations on both aides of the Atlantic.
(Loud cheers).

Robert Bodkin proposed the " Royal Dublin Society,
the Highland Society of Scotland, and the Royal Agricultural
Society of England."

The toast haviiig been drunk,

J. W. Naper returned thanks.

Mr. Thomas Ball gave, in an effective speech, the
" Local Committee," which was spoken to by Captain Shawe
Taylor,

R. A. D. KiRWAN, Esq., proposed the Midland Railway

and other public companies who have aided, by their liberal
arrangements, in promoting the success of the meetlug.

The toast was received with loud cheers.

Mr. John Ennis returned thanks.

The Chairman then gave the last toast on his list, " Our
next merry Meeting," which having been warmly received,
the company separated.

The Show terminated on Friday, and altogether may be
put down as having proved an interesting and decidedly suc-
cessful exhibition. No incident occurred in the show-yard
that day worth remarking.

THE BENEFICIAL INVESTMENT OF CAPITAL IN LAND.

We have shown in preceding articles, on the testimony
of the highest agricultural authorities, the large profits
which attend the improvement of poor soils, and the
beneficial investment which the purchase and improve-
ment of such soils furnish to individual or associated
capitalists. We have pointed out " looming" — and
more than looming— in the distance, the employment
which may be aflforded to a large amount of capital in
providing the necessary fixed apparatus for distributing
the manure of the farm in the liquid state, as well as for
conveying hydraulically the refuse of towns to the rural
districts, and for distributing it over the land, whenever
the agricultural body shall abandon their opposition to
these two innovations, and shall adopt liquid manure as
unreservedly as they have adopted guano, dissolved
bones, and mineral phosphates of lime, all decided once
as equally visionary. We have considered also the ad-
vantage which farmers would derive from agricultural
banks receiving deposits, as permanent investments, or for
a term of years, and being thus enabled to afford accom-
modation for those periods which agricultural operations
require, and which are longer than can safely be con-
ceded by ordinary banks of deposit. We have pointed
out the benefits which Scottish agriculture has derived
from the Scottish system of banking — the accommoda-
tion afforded by its cash credits, and the check which
the two securities required under that system present to
improvident borrowing. It remains to discuss another
Scotch practice, affecting the monetary transactions of
agriculture, by which a farmer in that part of the
United Kingdom is enabled to begin business with a
smaller capital than would be required in England— we
allude to the system which prevails in some of the best
cultivated districts of North Britain of separating the
business of stock-keeping on arable land from that of
cultivation. Instead of purchasing sheep and cattle to
consume his turnips and cultivated grasses, the farmer
sells those crops by the acre to stockmen, with the use
of bis yards and buildings, and the requisite supply of
straw. There is a double advantage in this system : it
not only economises capital, but it effects that division
of labour which conduces to perfection in every art,
whether the art of manufacturing hardware and calico,

or the art of manufacturing beef and mutton, corn and
cheese. Instead of two men managing separately each
his farm of 300 acres, each of them expending half of
his time at market and fairs, they unite for the manage-
ment of one farm of 600 acres ; they have, in fact, all
the advantages of a partnership without its inconve-
niences, each partner, or quasi partner, applying him-
self to the exclusive superintendence of that department
in which he excels. The farmer devotes his whole time
and attention to the raising of his crops ; while the stock-
man makes it his business to frequent fairs and markets,
watching advantageous opportunities of purchase and
sale, and acquiring that knowledge of the value of stock
which nothing but extensive and long-continued prac-
j tice can confer. Much of the profits of farming depends
on this skill in the purchase and sale of stock. There
are many who can raise a good crop of turnips or clover
for one who can convert them profitably into beef and
mutton.

Not a few of our agricultural friends set themselves
against practices which originate north of the Tweed,
while they look on them with favour if they can per-
suade themselves, or if some one can persuade them, that
similar practices ever existed, though now disused, in
some corner of old England. It was thus with the
Deanston system of parallel equidistant drains. It may
propitiate such readers in favour of the division of labour
in arable farming which we are now advocating, to know
that a system very similar has long prevailed in some of
the dairy districts of the south-west of England. In
Dorsetshire, for instance, it is usual for the occupiers of
farms having much meadow land attached to them, to
stock them with cows, which they let to dairymen at
prices varying with the nature of the keep and the quality
of the stock from £^8 to £12 per head. We know one
farmer who occupies 1,500 acres of meadow and pasture,
consisting formerly of five or six separate farms. He
does not even milk a cow for the use of his house, but
purchases all the dairy produce which he requires of the
dairymen to whom he lets his cows, and who occupy the
old farm houses. The arrangement is equally beneficial
to both parties. They have the benefit of his capital
with avoidance of the risk or loss from deaths : he has

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

336

the benefit of their skill, and of that attention to the
minutiae of dairy management which they are more able
to bestow, and on which so much of its success depends.

If the cultivation of flax is to make much progress in
England, it must be through the adoption of a similar
division of labour, which will separate the preparation
of the fibre from the growth of the crop. The estab-
lishment in districts where the flax culture already ex-
ists, or might be introduced, of retteries for the purchase
of the straw from the grower, and the preparation of the
fibre for the spinner, opens another and a wide field in
which, we believe, that capital might be embarked with
equal benefit to the moneyed and agricultural classes.

In closing our observations on the means by which
the present glut of unemployed capital may be turned
into iigricultural channels, we could have wished to offer
some estimate of the amount which agriculture is capable
of absorbing. In the present state, however, of agricul-
tural statistics this is impossible.

It w:is calculated, some seven or eight years ago, that
to drain all the cultivated land in the United Kingdom
which requires draining, to reclaim all the wastes capable
of being reclaimed, and to raise the average amount per
acre of the tenants' capital to what it should be, would
employ a sum little short of eight hundred millions — the
amount of the National Debt. During the interval
some progress has been made in these improvements.
It would be an extravagant estimate of the sum thus ex-
pended to call it five millions a year. Assuming it as
high as that amount, there would still remain full seven
hundred and fifty millions required for the three heads
of improvement above enumerated, to say nothing of

warping, embanking, irrigation, and claying and marling.
Whenever the application of liquid manure by means of
the steam-engine and under-ground pipes shall become
general, it will require an outlay of about £4 the acre ;
to which must be added, in order to utilize the sewage of
towns, the cost of mains for its conveyance into the
country. Not to provoke incredulity, by attempting to
calculate the sum which would be required for these
purposes, and which, from the imperfection of the data
would be little better than conjecture, it may be safely
affirmed— that the work of developing the latent re-
sources of our soil would employ the annual sum of tea
millions yearly for many years ; that such an applica-
tion of that sum would be highly advantageous to the
farmers and landowners of the United Kingdom ; and
that it would afford a much safer and more profitable in-
vestment to the moneyed interest than most of those in
which they have hitherto embarked, whenever the rate of
interest is low, and m which, under similar circum-
stances, they will be tempted to embark again. Wehave
already intimated that the impediment which most ob-
structs the flow of capital to our fields arises from the
farmers having allowed themselves to be made political
capital of by trading politicians. They have been de-
luded long enough into the pursuit of unattainable ob-
jects; let them, at length, turn their attention to prac-
tical questions. One of the most important of these, at
the present moment, is how to obtain the use of some of
that capital that is now going a-begging. Let them
remember, that if they would gain the confidence of
capitalists, they must cease to cry stinking fish. T.

A NEW METHOD OF HOEING TURNIPS.

By Philip Pusey.

(From the Journal of the

Before detailing an improved method of hoeing tum'ps,
discovered by me during the leisure from public duties which
has been afforded rae in the present month of July, it will be
useful, as 8orae readers of this journal may not be practical
farmers, to state the defects of the exiting methods.

According to the old-fashioned practice, still ihe most com-
mon iu this, and, I suppose, some other coumies, the turnips
are sown broad-cast. Afterwards, in order to thin out super-
fluous plants, to get rid of weeds, and to keep the soil open,
they require three hoeiugs by hand, which cost together at
least ten shillings per acre, or half the average rent of English
laud. Nor is the expense the least evil, for it is of course a
slow process to move the whole surface even of a single acre
with the common hand-hoe. But on a moderate farm a
hundred acres often require this operation at once ; the
weather may be propitious and the want pressing. All the
bauds on the farm are insufficient, and no others can be pro-
cured. The right time, therefore, for some of the work passes
by. Naj', further, it happens constantly that a yet more
urgent necessity arises at the same time — the necessity for
securing the harvest. The turnips are left to themselves, the

Royal Agricultural Society.)

1 weeds almost smother the crop, the surface of the ground
I becomes baked, and the roots have soon suffered irremediab'y.
1 Good farmers however, have now generally given up sowing
their turuips broad cast, and hi southern England usually
drill them four rows at once, covering a width of six feet.
When this is done, Garrett's horse-hoe, passing between the
four rows, cleans the intermediate space witli the utmost
rapidity. Still, admirable as is the process, it has been as yet
incomplete. For the yoimg plants shooting up vigorously in
the rows under the mflueuce of artificial mauure, soon grow
together, requiring immediate attendance. If then they can-
not be thmned out quickly enough by hand, although, in des-
peration as it were, the harrow is sometimes dragged across
them, they become interlaced, are drawn up prematurely, and
the spindling plants, when at last singled out, res3mble trees
of a plantation that has been neglected in the same maimer.
Their robustness is gone.

Having 50 acres of turnips exposed to this risk, and no
workmen to save them, it occurred to me that Garrett's horse-
hoe might be used across as well as aloi'g the rows. The in-
discriminate slaughter of thriving plants was at first rather

z 2

336

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

alarming; but when the fallen hid withered beneath a
scorching sun, it was evident that a good and regular crop re-
mained safe. The whole, therefore, was subjected to the pro-
cess, and I shall use no other in future. It may be useful
then, I hope, to describe the method precisely, because the
success of all operations lies mainly in minute particulars,
though in this case there are none which any practical farmer
might not find out for himself.

In the common use of the horse-hoe the knives pass down
four rows at once, and they may safely be set with their backs
only three inches apart, though they thus approach within 1^
inches of the young plants on each side. As the rows are 19
inches asunder, a width of 16 inches is cleared, and about one-
sixth of the surface remauis untouched.

In the new process, however, of afterwards crossing the
rows, the hoe must be set differently, as it would be wrong to
leave so few turnips as an interval of 19 inches along the rows
would spare. It might also be hazardous to set the backs of
the knives at three inches only apart, because even in a regular
crop blanks might occur at that interval. As yet, therefore,
we have left a space of five inches. In crossing, consequently,
ten hoes instead of eight must be used, and five spaces instead
of four must be hoed, so that the turnips will stand 15 inches
apart along the length of each row.

The next step is to reduce to single plants the small bunches
of turnips left by the cross-hoeing ; and this is best done by
young children — the younger the better — as the smaller they
are the nearer they are to their task, and pliancy of fingers,
not strength, is the quality wanted. It is easy to borrow, for
the purpose, the younger classes of a school for a few days ; it
is, in fact, a holiday for them in fine weather, and their
parents are glad that they should earn 4d. a day. About 30
of these little workpeople, each singling a separate row of
turnips, under one steady manager, do the work well and
rapidly. It is not uncommon to employ children thus, the
turnips ha^ing been previously bunched out, as it is tenned,
with the hand-hoe. The plants which are thus finally left
stand in lines, from whatever point they are newed.

Afterwards it may be necessary, before the plants have
spread then- leaves and covered the gi-ound, that women should
go rapidly over the field with a hoe, merely to strike out occa-
sional weeds, in which last operation each person, I find, can
finish off nearly 2h acres in a day.

The expense of the whole is as follows : — As to the horse
work, I am certain that a farmer ought not to charge himself
more than half a-crown a day for horses kept regularly at work
on the farm. One lad steers the implement and drives the
horse with reins at the same time, when the work lies in the
direction of the rows, as a quiet horse sees his path plain before
him ; but in crossing the rows a boy also must be employed to
keep the horse straight. The horse-hoe should go over at
least eight acres each day.

For eight acres : — s. d.

One straight hoeing 3 6

One c OSS hoeiug 4 Q

Second straight hoeing 3 6

Chililren singling, at Is. 4d. per acre . . 10 8

Hand hoeing, at 6d 4 0

One acre completed 3 2J

The saving, therefore, effected by this complete use of
Garrett's horse-hoe, as compared with the hand-hoe, is nearly

7s. per acre, about the same saving as we derive from the
American reaper.

The cost of the implement is extremely moderate, as Mr.
Garrett is ready, at my suggestion, to sell his four-row
horse-hoe, fitted for the turnip crop only, at the low price of
£14.

I have pointed out elsewhere an important gain, besides
cheapness, which arises from improved implements, namely,
certainty. Every practical farmer will see at once the advan-
tage, if, by a mechanical process, without checking his han'est,
he can carry forward his turnip crop from the time when it
peeps above ground until its spreading leaves hide the land
from our sight.

There is even a fui'ther benefit at which I may ^ enture to
hint. It is well known that many parishes of southern
England contain at present more labourers than can be easily
employed during the winter half of the year. But they are
required for about three months in summer, and the farmers
are therefore unwilling to favour their removal by emigration.
This maximum demand in summer, however, arises from three
operations — hay-makmg, turnip-hoeing, and harvest ; if, then,
these three several demands for extra labour are reduced by
the use of machinery, the pressure for hands in summer being
no longer felt, there will no longer be any reason for detaining
families whose presence in winter tends to burthen the rate-
payer, while their own condition is depressed by the slack
demand for their labour.
Pusey, JiUy 31. Ph. Pusey.

Having inquired of Mr. Garrett whether his horse-hoe had
been used by others in the same manner, I am glad to leani
from him that two other agriculturists at least, perhaps mere,
have so used it recently, and to subjoin their statements in
support of my own. Tlie first is from Mr. Cottingham, of
Leiston hall, who says: — "I have been much pleased with
your horse-hoe's performance in hoeing turnips out. Each set
of hoes were fixed to cut clean 12 inches, leaving six inches
space between each. After the horse-hoe had been taken
directly plump across the stetches, they were singled by
children, and they now look remarkably well. Of course there
was a full plant. My turnips growing so very rapidly this
season, if it had not been for your horse hoe, I should have
had many acres much injured for want of getting them out in
proper time."

The second account is from Mr. Williams, manager of Mr
Sidney Herbert's farm, at Wilton : — " I commenced the cross
horse-hoeing last year on some late-sown turnip?, which con-
vinced me that it was practicable, should the plants be regular
and without blanks in the rows. The turnips require to be
horse hoed as soon as they are in rough leaf. I have this year
thus horse-hoed all my mangolds and swedes, and I have
found it to be the cheapest, and by far the most perfect
method that I have tried or seen. I intend to cut all my late
turnips in the same manner."

I understand from Mr. Herbert that his colleague, Mr.
Wyndham, has also used the same method successfidly.

MR. PUSEY AND HIS NEW METHOD
OF HOEING TURNIPS.

TO THE EDITOR OF THE MORNING POST. "'"

Sir, — I read in this day's Morning Post an extract from the
Knial of the Royal AfiriciOtural Society, headed " A New

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

3:^7

Method of Hoeing Turnips," by Philip Pusey. Mr. Pusey is
well known as one of those gentlemen who, within these few
years, have contributed largely to the advancement of the
science of agriculture; but that which is described in his
communication to the Journnf. of the Royal Agricultural
Society as " a new method of hoeing turnips," has been
practised to my knowledge for the last four years, if not for a
longer period, by Mr. Fielder King, of Buriton-place, near
Petersfield, one of the most accomplished practical agricul-

turists of the time. 1 do not mention this to derogate from
Mr. Pusey's merit ; on the contrary, I think the thanks of the
public are eminently due to him for making the plan generally
known through the public press, but simply to claim the
merit of the discovery for the person to whom it really
belongs. As an old subscriber of many years' standing to
your valuable and independent paper, I venture to request the
insertion of this communication. — I am, sir, yours, &c.,
September 3, 1852. Verax.

ON THE DISEASES OF PLANTS

There is not a subject in farming more unac-
countable, more perplexing, or more difficult to
encounter, than the diseases of plants. The ailments
to which animals are liable are difficult enough to
manage, and often baffle the utmost efforts of
science and skill ; but the diseases of plants seem
to be of a nature to baffle all the efforts of the
scientific, and to run their race of destruction al-
most untouched by any effort of man. Who, for
instance, can arrest one atom of the potato disease?
Nay, who can, as yet, account for its cause ? All
attempts at cure are little better than empirical.
Who knows either the cause or cure of clover-
sickness ? of aubury ? of mildew ? of smut ?

All we really know is this : That plants are, the
more we grow them, and the greater the produce
of them, more and more liable to disease. We
ouglit to become, the longer we cultivate, better
acquainted with their habits, their wants, and their
security ; but we seem to be, the more we culti-
vate, carried further and further from success in
producing them.

The principle is one somewhat difficult to under-
stand, to those who have narrow views of the ope-
rations of nature; but to those who look at things
more as they are, it is a part of a great ])lan —
a link in the chain of causation, perfectly ex-
plicable.

Look at a crowded city. It is always a conglo-
meration of disease and death. Sanitary measures
may do much ; but the rate of mortality — the lia-
bilily to disease — will always be greater. The
lives of individuals seem to be impaired by being
absorbed by the mass around them. It is true of
all crowds. In our prisons, our hospitals, our
penitentiaries, a disease, trifling in an isolated
home, may become dangerous — may run into epi-
demic ; and so our high cultivation — our crowding
of fat and luxuriant plants — renders them liable to
disease.

We hardly know a plant which has not mani-
festly shown that it is subject to this mysterious
law. The potato, however, seems to be a case in
point the most striking. It is, by cultivation, car-

ried away from its natural wildness until it be-
comes almost another kind of plant. In its native
country — Peru — it is found not more than three
inches high, with large flowers, and tubers the size
of a hazel-nut. Now, by cultivation, the flowers
become insignificant; the stem increases in size,
in some instances, to the length of five or six feet j
the tubers enlarged to a weight, in some cases, as
much as three or four pounds ; and instead of one
straggling plant here and there, thousands of acres
are covered with the plant, to the exclusion of al-
most every other. Nature revolts at this over-
peophng with rank potatoes. Some weakness of
the plant, some atmospheric cause, dissolves the
vital power which holds the chemical particles to-
gether; and we have dissolution and decay irre-
mediable.

Take the vine again, carried by man from its na-
tural wildness — clustered together by fields, nay by
forests — excited by manure, protected by glass,
pruned by science, for centuries, so as to increase
the juicy fruit for nearly six times ; it shows revolt
at this forcing, and a vast disease has destroyed
the fruit, and threatens to be the death of the vines
themselves. It is the cholera of the crowded
vinery, as much as that plague ever visited Hull,
or Leeds, or London.

A more slow and tedious, but not less active
disease, is eating out the red clover. It will but
attack the plant as such wherever it may be found,
as is the case with the potato and the vine ; but it
will be the death of it in the locahty v/here its con-
sequence has too rapidly preceded it, and the land
refusing to mature it is said to be clover-sick. But
when the question comes to be asked what consti-
tutes that peculiaritj-, all explanation ceases. We
cannot tell death has been there, and there is no
livmg for any succeeding race for several genera-
tions. We know not whether it is starvation or
infection — but such is the fact.

A similar disease is now very prevalent in tur-
nips. On the best turnip soils— with the highest
of farming, and with plants absolutely the most
promising — a flag in the leaves is discerned some

338

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sunny day, and by-and-bye the plants wither and
die; they area mass first of thickened and car- j
bunded roots, and then an accumulation of dis- ;
gusting corruption, while weeds — seeming to |
triumph over this death of the race which had dis-
placed them — seem to run riot on the death of the
turnip. Here, again, we are at sea. No one has yet
demonstrated whether it is an insect which causes
the clubbing, or it is the decay produced by the in-
sect which forms a favourable nidus to the insects.
Now, what we have to urge is this : Let all inves-
tigations be carried on in a large spirit, not look-
ing merely at a particular crop attacked with a pe-
cuhar disease, but inquire if all our cultivated crops
are not more liable to some disease than they were,
and above all if general mildeiv is not more preva-

lent in all our crops than formerly. Whether it is
a cause or effect we know not, but we mean that
this spirit should animate those who seek for infor-
mation. Large views of nature and of climatic and
atmospheric influences should be brought to bear
on the subject.

"We will not either assert or contradict the some-
what plausible theory that excited electricity by
our machinery— on railroads and on telegraphs —
are amongst the causes of this change. It may be
owing to a great accumulation of causes ; but we
are satisfied it is one of the drawbacks of high
cultivation, and we are not sure that more is not
due to this than to any other cause for the alarming
prevalence in our days of diseases in plants. —
Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal.

LABOUR AND THE POOR.— THE RURAL DISTRICTS

THE SOUTHERN AND WESTERN COtJNTIES.

Letter XXIX.
(From the Morning Chronicle.)

Having disposed of the counties of Somerset,
Devon, Cornwall, and Dorset, I proceed to give
some account of the state and prospects of the
labourer in Hampshire, Surrey, Sussex, and Kent.
In doing so I shall first describe him as I found
him in various parts of Hampshire, and in the
western division of Sussex. I take these two to-
gether, because the prevailing industry in both is
the same — farming, in its ordinary acceptation,
being carried on, to the almost total exclusion of
other kinds of rural employment, throughout the
whole of the one county and the western moiety of
the other. It is true that in some portions of
Hampshire (as the neighbourhood of Petersfield),
hop-gardens are to be met with ; but, taking the
county generally, the cultivation of the hop is rare
and exceptional. It is far more general in the
county of Surrey, whilst in East Sussex, and
throughout almost the whole of Kent, it is carried
to such an extent as to exercise a material influence
over labour and the general condition of the la-
bourer. For the present, therefore, I shall confine
myself to the portion of the district comprised by
the four counties in which farming, in the usual
sense, is almost exclusively carried on.

The south-eastern section of Hampshire, com-
prising somewhat more than one-fifth of its whole
area, is almost as isolated from the main body of
the county as is the Isle of Wight itself. On the
east and south it has Southampton Water, the So-
lent, and Christchurch Bay ; whilst to the west it
abuts upon Dorset, and to the north upon the
south-eastern angle of the county of Wilts. Be-
tween the upper end of Southampton Water and
the Wiltshire line is a narrow strip of land, by
which alone the district has a direct connexion with
the main body of the county.

This part of Hampshire is chiefly famous from so

large a portion of its surface being occupied by
what is known as the New Forest. The wild and
picturesque tract thus designated, so long a royal
domain, occupies almost the whole of the central
portion of the district. It is surrounded on nearly
all sides by a belt of cultivated or cultivable land,
which separates it from Wilts and Dorset, and
which interposes, except at a very few points, be-
tween it and Southampton Water, the Solent, and
the Channel. Throughout the whole of this culti-
vated belt — but particularly the portion of it stretch-
ing to the south of the Forest, from Boldre Church
to Lymington, and thence to Christchnrch, and to
the west of it, from Christchurch to F^ingwood,
andthence onto Fordingbridge— the condition of the
farm-labourer is, in almost all respects, similar to
what I have already described it as being in the
adjoining counties of Dorset and Wilts. Between
Lymington and Boldre, which is the south-eastern
angle of the Forest, the land is good, and in parts
highly cultivated. The labouring population is,
therefore, denser in that direction in proportion to
the surface than it is immediately to the west of
Lymington, between which and Christchurch there
is a good deal of high down-land. In places in
which this high down-land stretches back any dis-
tance from the sea, large tracts may be seen without
the faintest trace of a human habitation upon them.
The coast is high, cold, and shelterless, vegetation
along it struggling in many places very hard for
an existence. The trees, when they are to be met
with, are all bent inwards at a considerable angle
from the perpendicular ; their branches stretch in-
land from the sea, whilst at top they are cut smooth-
ly off" by the keen wind, as if a huge scythe had
been swept over them, at elevations varying accor-
ding to their distance from the shore. Proceeding
inland, the cold, cheerless, and naked downs merge

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

339

gradually into the vast heathy tracks of the Forest,
with patches of land in a state of tolerable cultiva-
tion sometimes dividing them from each other. On
these, and on the borders of the heath, humble
tenements may be seen at somewhat long intervals.
The county improves, and population increases in
densit)', as you approach Christchnrch — from
which, up to Ringvvood and Fordinghridge, stretch-
es a narrow belt of land, about twelve miles in
length (and separating the Forest from Dorset),
the greater portion of the surface of which is in a
state of comparatively high cultivation. Taking the
whole of the portion of Hampshire now under con-
sideration, it is along this last-mentioned belt that
population is to be found pressing in the greatest
numbers upon the area. In 1841 the Ririgwood
division of the county, with an area of about 67>000
acres, and comprising, amongst other districts, the
hundreds of Christchurch and Fordingbridge, had
a population of upwards of 18,500 souls, being
about one for every 3j acres. The population of
the Lymington division was, at the same time, only
about 1 1,500 to an area of 80,000 acres, being about
one person to every 7 acres, or a little more than
one-half the population of the other division. The
population of the Petersfield division, which lies in-
land on the eastern side of the county, and is tole-
rably well cultivated throughout, was only about
10,600 to an area of about 62,000 acres, or about
one person to every six acres — or from .30 to 40
per cent, lower, in proportion to the surface, than
that of the Ringwood division. The disparity be-
tween the Ringwood and Lymington divisions is
easily accounted for by the extent of the latter,
which lies waste and unproductive ; but it is not
so easy to explain that existing in this respect be-
tsveen the Ringwood and Petersfield divisions —
seeing that, in both cases, the greater portion of the
surface is occupied and cultivated in one way or
other. But whatever may be the reason for this
disproportion, the fact is that it is as great now as
it was in 1841, No one can traverse the tract of
land of which Ringwood is longitudinally the cen-
tre, without being struck by the extent to which
it is pressed upon by population. Most of the
county districts, taking them separately, are con-
siderably below the average ratio of population to
surface throughout all England, comprehending,
of course, the entire population — that of the towns,
as well as that of the rural districts. But the Ring-
wood division of Hampshire comes, in this respect,
within a fraction of the average rate. The disparity
between the Ringwood and the other divisions is, if
anything, greater now than it was in 1841 ; for
both the lalter districts have received more relief
from emigration than the Ringwood one.

As may be supposed, so comparatively dense a
population, in a district almost exclusively agricul-
tural, will furnish a very large proportion of cases
of casual and permanent distress. It is in the hun-
dred of Fordingbridge that that distress is, perhaps,
seen most constantly and to the greatest extent.
In 1842 the amount of pooi'-rates levied in the
Fordingbridge division of the hundred very nearly
equalled one-third of the whole assessed value of
its property. In Lymington, during the same year,
the poor-rates did not amount to one-seventh of

the assessed value of property ; whilst, although
they fell rather heavily upon the town of Peters-
field itself, the ratio in the hundred in which it is
situated did not much exceed one-tenth of the as-
sessed value of the property. In Ringwood, on the
other hand, within the same division as Fording-
bridge, they exceeded one-sixth of the declared
value of the property assessed. The same relative
proportion, as regards rates, is still kept up between
these places. There is a larger actual amount of
employment given in the Rmgwood division than
in the others ; but not so much as in them, in pro-
portion to the numbers to be employed. Hence
the comparative weight with which the rates fall
upon that division. The great bulk of the land is
brought under cultivation, between Dorset and the
Forest, and between the border of Wilts and the
Channel, but much of it is appropriated to the
purposes of dairy farming, which gives rise to far
less employment than tillage does. A dairy farm
of considerable extent can be managed by a man
and his family without any extra aid ; whereas, to
get crops from an ordinary farm, even of small
size, it is in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred
necessary to call in the aid of hired labour. It is
true that there are but few dairy farms so economi-
cally managed ; but, as a general rule, the more land
is laid out in dairy farms the smaller is the popu-
lation of the district, or the greater the number of
paupers. In districts, indeed, where dairy farming
has been long pursued, as in portions of Bucking-
hamshire, Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Somerset, and
Devon, the relative proportion of paupers to popu-
lation is not greater than elsewhere, because the
eflPect of such a system has been to keep down po-
pulation. But in places in which arable farms
have recently been turned into dairy farms, the
proportion of paupers to population is generally
found to be larger than elsewhere, inasmuch as
time has not yet been given to the system to de-
velop its necessary tendency towards the diminu-
tion of population. This is the case in some parts
of the counties just named, and in many parts of
Wilts and Dorset. It is also the case, to some
extent, in the portion of Hampshire now under con-
sideration. Here and there arable land has been
resolved into grass farms for the feeding of cattle,
with a view to dairy produce. Wherever this has
been done many labourers have been thrown out
of employm,ent, and the wages of those continued
at work have been reduced. In other cases in
which ]the change has not yet been made, it is
talked of, and wages have been reduced in antici-
pation. Many farmers complain that they cannot
go on at present prices, without a reduction either
of rents or wages, A reduction of rent is what
most of them look to as most Ukely to immediately
benefit them ; but this being more difficult to se-
cure than the diminution of wages, which is a
course more in their own power, they resort to the
latter at once.

Whilst in conversation with one of them, in Dor-
set, in reference to this subject, he informed me that
lie had paid away about 500/. a year in the shape of
wages. He had been lately reducing the wages of
his men to the extent of about a shilling a week each.
Ou making a calculation of the savings which this

S-IO

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

would secure lo luni in the course of u year, I Touucl
tliat it would amount to about 35/. I asked him it'
he expected to be able, with 35/. to meet the exigen-
cies of his position ': " What can I do ? " he asked,
"I can't get a reduction of rent." "I'll tell you
what I'll do," he continued, "if I can manage it ; I
shall make an arrangement to let my farm go to
grass. Dairy farming costs less money, and is likely
to be the most profitable going." " How does it
cost less money ? " I inquired. " It employs fewer
hands," he answered. "But the hands are with
you, and you must feed them," I suggested. " That's
true," he replied ; " but the more of them there's
out of work, the more likely it is that we'll get them
emigrated." This is the direction in which, at this
moment, the minds of many farmers are being bent,
not only in Hampshire but also in the interior of
Dorset, where land is at present extensively tilled.
They would like, in the first place, a reduction of
rent, of from 20 to 25 per cent. When they find
they cannot have that, they next press upon the
labourer, and seeing that they have but little margin
for reduction in that quarter, they look to a new
sy.stem of disposing of the laud, which will require less
labour and outlay iu maintaining it. It is thus that,
in the west of Hampshire, as elsewhere, even where
they have not made actual preparation for converting
their arable into dairy farms, they have ali-eady re-
duced wages, and talk of eventually having resort to
such a course.

As may be inferred, therefore, wages are, in this
part of Hampshire, but the counter part ot what
they are in Dorset. Seven shillings a week I found
to be about the maximum rate paid to the ordinary
day labourer. Carters have 8s., and sometimes, but
very rarely, 9s. And when I say that 7s. a week is
about the maximum paid to the ordinary labourer,
I mean the labourer steadily employed. The employ-
ment of many of them is of the most precarious de-
scription, and it is only some of them that are ])aid,
whilst they are at work, even at the rate of 7s. a
week. I met a labourer near Fordingbridge, who
told me that he had had but three days' work during
the previous week, at Is. 2d. a day, or at the rate of
7s. per week. Thus his earnings for the week wei'e but
3s. 6d., and he had four children to support, house rent
to pay, and fuel to purchase. His existence at all
was a mystery to himself. He could not tell me
how he got along, nor could anybody else do so ;
and so it is with tlie great bulk of his class. How
they manage to eke out an existence is a puzzle to
everybody, and everybody will frankly tell you so.
Nothing could more forcibly show that there is some-
where something very seriously wrong, than the fact
that one class of society is thus at a loss to account
satisfactorily fur the mode in which another class
manages to exist. Nor is the man who is only occa-
sionally employed always so fortunate as to be paid
at the same rate per day as the man steadily em-
ployed. To numbers who have casual work by the
day, only Is. a day is paid, being at the rate of 6s.
a week. These are generally, however, such as are
not deemed able-bodied, or capable of a full day's
work. But still both they and their families arc ca-
pable of consuming the same quantity of food as
before, and the amount of privation suffered by those
30 circumstanced is shocking to witness. Besides,

there is no one to decide who is and who is not able-
bodied ; and many are put upon the incompetent list
at 6s. a week, who appear to be quite as capable of
going through a day's labour as others receiving
more constant work and higher pay. Nor is it al-
ways that the lowest rate is confined to such as are
declared not able-bodied. When the numbers of the
labourers are considerable in a district, the farmers
frequently take advantage of their being so to lower
the wages of those who are indisputably able to per-
form a good day's work. Thus I have seen young
and athletic men labom-ing for Is. per day, who were
compelled to accept that rate by being told that if
they did not do so, there were others that would.
" Do you give your employer more than 6s. worth a
week of the work that is in you? " I inquired of one
of them thus circumstanced. " I'm sui-e I don't,
and fool would I be if I did," was the answer. Here,
after all, is the mistake. Nominally cheap labour,
in the case of able-bodied men, is not the cheapest
labour that a farmer can employ. Unless he exer-
cises the most stringent supervision over his work-
men, and keeps them constantly at their work, it is
impossible for him to get a full week's work out of
them for 6s. Indeed, it is questionable if he gets
even the value of his 6s. Lord Fortescue was led
to conclude, by experience, at Southmolton, that
labour at 12s. a week was, in the end, more profita-
ble to him than labour at 8s. The hiring of the best
available labour, at a comparatively high rate, is al-
most invariably the example set by those who boldly
embark upon a system of improved and efficient cul-
tivation. It is the course adopted by the Rev. Mr.
Huxtable, in Dorset. He hires no man simply be-
cause he is a dweller in the parish, and because, if
not employed, he may be thrown upon the rates, but
because he is a good workman — and being so, he is
hired at good wages. The wages paid by Mr. Hux-
table are considerable higher than those paid around
him, yet there is reason to believe that his is in
reality the cheapest labour in the neighbourhood.

The diet of the labourers in this part of Hamp-
shire is as low as their scale of wages would lead one
to expect. Its staple consists of bread, cabbage,
and tnrnips. As a general thing, butcher-meat is
out of the question. The failure of the potatoes has
been severely felt throughout the district. Those
immediately on the borders of the Forest are, for
obvious reasons, better off, as regards diet, than
those living nearer the Dorsetshire line — having
sometimes considerable quantities of venison care-
fully stowed away in their larders. Fortunately for
them all, provisions are cheap ; bnt for which, they
say, there would be no living in these times. In
many parts, throughout this district, the 41bs. "se-
conds " loaf was selling for 5d.

Having one market day been informed by a far-
mer at Wareham that he could scarcely dispose of his
wheat at id. a pound, or about 5s. per bushel, I
was curious to know how the 4lb. loaf could be
sold, as it was in some cases, for 4^d. The addi-
tional halfpenny seemed to constitute the sole mar-
gin for the expense of grinding the wheat, for the
payment of the baker's labour, and for his profits.
On inquiry, however, I discovered that this margin
was somewhat greater than I had supposed it to be,
inasmuch as a 4lb. loaf can be made out of little

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

341

more than 3lbs. of flour. But willi wheat at id.
per Ih., 3lbg. of Hour must cost more than 3d.
There is then the cost of the }-east to be taken into
account, and the outlay of the baker, in the shape
of labour, fuel, and rent. In addition to this, it
must be borne in mind that the whole of the wheat
does not enter into what is called " seconds" flour
— a portion of it being throw aside in the process
of grinding for other purposes, which are in gene-
ral not very profitable. The margin is, therefore,
still small on which the baker has to fall back for
his profits. At Blandford, where the price of wheat
and of bread was about the same as at Wareham, I
inquired more particularly into this, and found that
it was only to the union that the bread was sold at
the rate of 42d. a loaf. To private customers in
this town the " seconds" loaf was charged 5d.
The baker who informed me of the e,\act state of
the case had himself but recently fulfilled a con-
tract for the supply of the workhouse at 4id. a loaf.
He told me that he paid 28s. a sack for his flour,
and sold it it to the union for 30s. in the shape of
bread, having thus but 2s. per sack wherewith to
cover his expenses and realise a profit. " Did you
reahse a profit ?" I asked. " No, sir," said he,
" I did'nt cover my expenses." Then you would
not take such a contract again ?" I suggested. " I
should be very sorry to do so," he replied ; " and
no one can take it without loss if he acts honestly
by the union." " Is the union now supplied at
that rate?" I then asked. "I believe it is," re-
plied he.

As regards house accommodation, the poor
throughout the Ringwood division are rather badly
off. In the Lymington division their condition in
this respect is superior to what it is in that of
Ringwood. In 1S41, when the population of the
Lymington division was 11,478 persons, the
number of inhabited houses which it contained was
2,295. This gave almost exactly one house for
every five persons. There were at the same time,
in the division, twenty-five new houses in process
of erection. In the Ringwood division the propor-
tion was about one house for every six persons.
Notwithstanding this, there were at that time but
thirty-eight new houses being built throughout the
whole district. Nor have things in this respect im-
proved since the last census was taken. Since that
time influences have been at work, which did not
then exist to the same extent as now, to cause the
disappearance instead of the erection of cottages.
In the town of Ringwood and its immediate vici-
nity the pressure is not so great, rents being there
tolerably moderate, and the houses, although some
of them are inconveniently crowded, not being
generally so. But in the outlying hamlets, par-
ticularly around Fordingbridge, and between Ring-
wood and Christchurch, cases of this kind, quite
as had, and attended with as pernicious results as
any in Dorsetshire, came too frequently under my
observation ; indeed, the characteristic of the whole
district is the pressure of population, both upon
surface and upon house accommodation.

From the district in question I passed directly
into the New Forest.

It is not my purpose here to enter into any of
the political questions connected with this royal

domain. And it is well that these matters are fo-
reign to my present inquiry, for the means of ob-
taining information respecting the management and
condition of the Forest are by no means facile or
abundant. Those connected with it — that is to
say, those who li\'e both in and upon it — are ex-
tremely jealous of anything assuming the form of
inquiry concerning it. It is astonishing, when you
ask them a question, how utterly ignorant they are
of the subject to which it pertains. No one seems
to know anything of what is going on in the
Forest, whilst some meet your inquiries in a man-
ner which might lead you, if not on your guard, to
infer that they were entirely ignorant of its very
existence. Oiliers, again, will affect a very warm
sympathy with your object, and, deeply regretting
their own inability to furnish you with the informa-
tion required, will politely refer you to some one
else, who, they assure you, will be as delighted as
he is competent to answer any questions which you
may put to him. Now, in many cases, the very
existence of the party to whom you are thus re-
ferred is highly problematical— whilst, on consult-
ing your map to ascertain the position of the point
to which you are directed in order to find him, you
generally discover it to be at one of the remotest
extremities of the forest. It fortunately requires
but little experience to put one on his guard against
such practices, for if it were not so a man might
be sent for a whole twelvemonth on a series of
wild-goose chases, and emerge after that time from
the Forest quite as wise as he was when he entered
it. Most of those living in and upon it treat you
as if they felt that their position was equivocal, and
that the slightest inquiry tended to endanger it.
This being the prevailing feeling, different parties
have, of course, diff'erent modes of expressing it.
Some receive you with a courtesy formal and con-
ventional, but nothing more. Others again get rid
of you by referring you, as already stated, to real
or imaginary parties at a distance— whilst there are
others who know not how to disguise their real
feelings. These last are, generally speaking, the
foresters of the rougher sort, many of whom as-
sisted, some time ago, in burning in eflfigy Major
Freeman, the Government Commissioner ; and to
do them justice, some of them looked as if they
longed for a decent pretext for performing the
same kind ofilce for your Correspondent in propria
persona- so jealous are they, one and all, of any-
thing savouring of investigation.

My main object being to ascertain the physical
condition of the lower class of foresters, I soon
found that my best plan was to take counsel of no
one, but to traverse the district and observe for
myself. In doing so, I wandered over it from
Fordingbridge to Minstead, and thence to Burley,
near Ringwood— from Burley down to\/ards Christ-
church, and thence east to Lymington— from Lym-
ington towards Boldre and Beaulieu— from Beau-
lieu to Brockenhurst — and from Brockenhurst, by
Lyndhurst, back to Minstead again. I thus took,
as it were, the entire circuit of the forest; whilst,
from Beaulieu through Brockenhurst and Lynd-
hurst, my route led me almost through the centre
of it. The whole district presents to the tourist,
in traversing it, a succession of landscapes, which

S42

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

particularly in summer, when the foiest is in leaf —
are as greatly varied as they are strikingly pictu-
resque. Now the road wanders over long stretches
of heath, here covering tracts of rich and generous
land, and there cold and intractable soils. Then
it plunges into the thick wood, through which it
leads — sometimes in straight and sometimes in
winding lines — amidst gnarled and hoary oaks,
whose branches overhang you as you pass. From
the wood it emerges again upon the open space,
covered as before with heath, or short grass, or
both — to plunge into the wood again, or into the
copse, the young wood of which may yet flourish
for centuries, after the older denizens of the forest
have disappeared. Thus alternating from wood to
open space — with numerous roads, sometimes very
indifferent in their character, intersecting it in all
directions, and with here and there a primitive-
looking little town, village, or hamlet— the forest
presents itself in a rapid succession of wavy undu-
lations, calculated alike to charm the eye and
stimulate ihe fancy. In some places it is so wild
and lonely that it appears to be part and parcel of
that domain

" Which mortal foot hath ne'er or rarely trod ;"
and in traversing these one would be in no hurry
to attribute it to a trick of the imagination if he
thought he saw a troop of satyrs in their more
sequestered glades. The traveller would feel quite
as easy in the presence of them in one of these
lonely nooks, as in that of a troop of foresters,
some of whom are rather uncouth and unprepos-
sessing when suddenly encountered so far from
the haunts of civilized men, and, as it were, in
the very depths of nature. The beauties of the
forest seem to culminate in the vicinity of Stony
Cross, where William Rufus was mistaken for a
stag.

In its moral aspect, the New Forest is about as
wild, without being as attractive, as it is in its phy-
sical features. The population included in what
may be regarded as the circumference of the forest
is considerably greater than that of what is, strictly
speaking, the forest itself. Large encroachments
have from time to time been made upon this public
domain, its surface being more or less interspersed
with numerous patches of cultivated land, in the
hands of private individuals. These patches vary
very much in size — from a very few acres to thou-
sands in extent. Some of those in possession of
these encroachments occupy the position of large
landed proprietors, whilst others are like so many
squatters on small patches of land, which they cul-
tivate either exclusively themselves, or with the aid
of very little hired labour. The possessors of the
larger encroachments are very bold in the assertion
of their rights, and maintain that, if a thorough
adjustment of conflicting claims were to be come
to, the Crown would lose at least two-thirds of
what it now possesses in the district. Yet, like
the more insignificsnt encroachers, they are not
ambitious of courting inquiry, nor are they in any
hurry to push matters to an issue. The whole
space which can alone be now, strictly speaking,
regarded as the forest, comprises from sixty to se-
venty thousand acres. The encroachments in
some places, such as the large one at Minstead,

project into it from the circumference; whilst in
others they are dotted over its surface in isolated
patches. As they are generally more or less culti-
vated, it follows that the population of the forest
comprises, in addition to those strictly termed fo-
resters, a small class of agricultural labourers.
On the larger encroachments these are tolerably
numerous ; on the smaller ones, they are the
squatters themselves, together with such persons as
they employ to cultivate the land with them. The
class strictly termed foresters are those in the em-
ployment of the Woods and Forests, this body fre-
quently comprising some of the smaller class of en-
croachers. Those who are field labourers in and
about the forest are but little better paid than the
labourers around them ; but the foresters are much
better paid, many of them receiving from 13s. to
15s. a week, and some even more. They have fre-
quently, however, to walk very far to get at their
work. The general condition of the foresters and
of those about them is very much influenced by
the extent to which they take advantage of what
are termed forest rights. These sometimes resolve
themselves into rights of common, for the pasturage
of cattle, and at others, it is to be feared, into
killing deer for the supply of the larder. It is al-
most impossible to conceive that the deer, with
which the forest abounds, were safe, when timber
was being purloined to the extent of £5,000 worth
a year. And, although the keepers are numerous,
and the look-out more vigilant now than formerly,
it is by no means probable that the deer are yet
treated by the foresters as things sacred, on which
it would be sacrilege to lay hands. Indeed, that
they are not so is evident from the fact that, in
some of the towns within and on the borders of
the forest, there are parties who can procure you
venison, to order, like mutton. In this way the
foresters, as a body, manage to fare better than the
poorer classes elsewhere. If they have not more
butcher-meat than the poor have elsewhere, they
are not altogether destitute of animal food. Their
command of fuel is also better than that of the
farm labourer, whilst their houses are, in the main,
warm, comfortable, and tolerably roomy. They
generally build them themselves, the fabric being
constructed in most cases of mud, or of that com-
position of sand and clay which, when other cir-
cumstances are favourable, is by no means a bad
material wherewith to build. I found some houses
rather inconveniently crowded, both in Brocken-
hurstand Lyndhurst; but in general, as compared
with the labourers' houses elsewhere, overcrowding
is not the fault of those within the forest.

From these considerations, taken in connection
with their higher scale of wages, it is obvious that
in point of physical condition the forester is consi-
derably in advance of the farm labourer. In using
the term forester here, I include those who work in
the forest in the cultivation of the soil (wherever it
is cultivated), inasmuch as they partake, more or
less, of the comforts at the command of the foresters
more strictly so-called. The life led by the denizens
of the forest is, on the whole, rather a lawless one,
and a somewhat lax morality pervades the entire
region. Indeed, it can scarcely be otherwise —
general demoralization being the necessary charac-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

343

teristic of a coniniunity a large proportion of whom
are systematically engaged in poaching. It is
seldom, however, that they will molest a wayfarer,
meet him where or when they will. I have more
than once been benighted in some of the most
lonely spots of the forest, when I have met them
prowling about in twos and threes. On one occa-
sion one of them remarked, whilst passing me, " I
wouldn't like to be travelling alone through the
forest at such an hour :" but with this exception,
they have generally passed me with a simple "good
night." So far as I could manage to hold any in-
tercourse with them, I found a degree of ignorance
prevailing amongst them which indicated but too
plainly that, whoever else may have traversed it, the
schoolmaster has not as yet taken very extensive
walks through the forest.

From the forest I proceeded to Southampton, and
thence to Winchester and Basingstoke. This led
me through the central region of the county — a
district almost exclusively agricultural. It is to the
north-east of Basingstoke that the country assumes
that aspect of wild sterility which characterizes
so large a portion of the weald of Surrey, of which
this tract of Hampshire is but a prolongation.
From Basingstoke to Southampton is one stretch
of almost unbroken cultivation, the whole district
between these two extremes being almost exclu-
sively a farming one. The hop districts of Hamp-
shire, which are small and not very numerous, are
generally found near the eastern line of the county.
The condition of the farm labourer in the districts
in question may be taken as the type of his condi-
tion throughout the entire county. In the imme-
diate vicinity of Southampton and Winchester — as
in that of all tolerably active markets — the wages
paid are somewhat in advance of those received in
the circumjacent parishes ; but throughout the
whole of this central division of the county, 8s. a
week is the highest average of wages — including
the higher rates paid here, as elsewhere, to carters
and others in employments more or less confidential.
Numbers are in receipt of only 7s. a week, and
many who were not considered altogether equal to
a day's work, I found toiling from daylight to sun-
set for Is. a day. Sometimes you find a labourer
with a house free; but this is the exception, not the
rule. Near the waste, to the north-east of this dis-
trict, they are a little better off, having some privi-
leges which are not enjoyed by those living in the
more arable tracts. As regards their dwellings,
they are better provided in point of room than the
labourers in some of the counties further to the west.
In connection with the last census, this portion of
Hampshire was divided into the three districts of
Basingstoke, Winchester, and Southampton. It then
appeared that, in point of room, the labourers were
best off in the Basingstoke division, and worst in
that of Southampton ; but even in the latter the
average number of people to each house did not
exceed six. In too many cases, however, the tene-
ments themselves are of a most miserable descrip-
tion. The worst I met with were in some of the
parishes between Basingstoke and W^inchester. In
the neighbourhood of the latter town they are
tolerably good.

From Winchester I passed to the eastern borders

of the county, by Bramdean and Petersfield. For
fully half the way to Bramdean the road is flanked
on either side by successive sweeps of down. This
tract is consequently very thinly peopled, nor are
the traces of human habitations visible but at
long intervals. Indeed, the only living things ap-
parently inhabiting it are the rabbits, which swarm
upon the estates of Lord Northesk. From the high
land you at length rapidly descend upon a more
sheltered and cultivated tract. This continues on
to Bramdean, and thence through an undulating
and picturesque region to Petersfield, from which
it also stretches, with but little intermission,
for two or three miles more, to the borders of
Sussex. Here population again becomes scarce,
and the farm labourer is to be found, as before, in
his village, his hamlet, and his isolated hut, but
with no perceptible change for the better in his
condition. Seven shillings a week is again the
average of his earnings ; nor is it always that his
rate is paid for a full day's work, the pernicious
practice prevailing here of making a distinction
between married and single men. The consequence
is, that many single men, who do not choose to
be under- paid for their labour, take to poaching,
instead of to regular imployment.

From Petersfield I entered West Sussex, by way
of Rogate and Midhurst, and shortly afterwards
proceeded to Petworth. From the Hampshire line,
all the way to Petworth, the country is, with
but few exceptions, highly cultivated. The chief
proprietors of the neighbourhood are Lord Egmont
and Colonel Wyndham, the seat of the former being
near Midhurst, that of the latter close to Petworth.
In the immediate vicinity of both seats the la-
bourers are comparatively well off, both proprietors
finding a good deal of work for the labourers about
their respective parks and mansions, and paying
them somewhat higher than the farmers in the
neighbourhood. Lord Egmont, I was informed,
pays most of his labourers who are engaged in
operations connected with the soil from Ss. to 9s.
a-week. Colonel Wyndham pays them about the
same. But the ruling rates around them are lower
than this. From 7s. to 8s. a week is all that the farm
labourer is receiving who is in the employment
of the farmer. Some get 8s., but most only 7s.

The farmers say they cannot pay more, and many
of them talk of giving up their farms, as
they say it is impossible for them to go on at
present prices, with swarms of game to support in
addition. A few, I was told, had surrendered
their farms, assigning as their reason the insupport-
able burden of the game. The proprietors in this
neighbourhood are game preservers on the most ex-
tensive scale ; and on all hands you hear com-
plaints of the mischief done by the game, except
from the poacher and those whom he supplies.
" We have a rare lot of poachers here," said a
labourer to me, whilst speaking to him on the sub-
ject, " and the more keepers they put on, the
more poachers get about." " Do they catch them
often?" I asked. "They're keen old fellows, some
of them," said he; "but they do get catched some-
times." "And what is done with them ?" I en-
quired. " Oh ! they get about three months in
Petworth gaol," said he. " Does that do them any

341

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

good?" "No; they come out worse than ever."
Lord Egmont gave compensation to some of his
farmers for the mischief done by the game, but
still there are great complaints. The game pre-
servers in this neighbourhood have been much
scandalized, I am told, at the proceedings taken by
Mr. Co])den, who has purchased a small property
near Midhurst. He has two or three tenants, to
whom he has given unlimited license to kill the
game upon their fai'ms. Throughout the whole
district the able-bodied labourers are almost all
kept employed, but it is apprehended that many
even of these will be denizens of the workhouse
before next spring. In some cases the able-bodied
have only been kept at work by their consenting
to take 6s. a-week. Such is the result of the com-
petition for employment in a densely-populated dis-
trict. In numerous instances throughout the line
from Petersfield to Petworth, the houses occupied
by the labourers are of the most squalid and
miserable character. The characteristic of all of
them is that they are over-crowded. Emigration
has been actively promoted from this district ; but
notwithstanding this, the population has greatly
increased, and, as I was informed, it presses now
much more upon the house accommodation of the
district than in 1841. The few houses on Mr.
Cobden's property, when he purchased it, may be
taken as the type, in this respect, of the labourers'
dwelUngs in this part of Sussex. He is building
new cottages, however, with a view to giving his
labourers more roomy and wholesome dwellings.
When the approach of the cholera was feared,
something was done in the neighbourhood of Pet-
worth, to mitigate, if not altogether to avoid, both
the danger and the inconvenience of over-crowded
dwellings. The labourers on many parts of Colo-
nel Wyndham's property are now in a much better
position, as regards their dwellings, than they were
some time ago. Formerly they rented the cottages
of the farmers, to whom they paid high rents, and
who generally took from them the fruit which grew
in the httle gardens appended to their dwellings.
In many cases the proprietor has taken these cot-
tages into his own hands, letting them to the la-
bourers for about half the rent formerly paid for
them, and giving them the fruit into the bargain.

That which I have stated respecting the labourer
in the neighbourhoods of Midhurst and Petworth
may be taken as illustrative of his condition
throughout the greater part of West Sussex. As
you find him in the district stretching from Peters-
field to Petworth, so do you find him in that lying
between the latter place and Arundel, and thence on
to Brighton. As elsewhere, you see him in some
cases with steady work, in others with only casual
employment, but in all with low wages. Owing to
the cheapness of provisions, he nevertheless manages
to live better now than he used to do when his
wages were a little higher, and when even the po-
tatoes were far more plentiful than now. But his
staple diet, like that of the labourers in Dorset, is
bread and vegetables. It is rare indeed to find
either him or his family partaking of animal food.
" I have known some of them," said a farmer to
me, " who hav'n't tasted meat for the last six
months." On questioning him, I found that by

this he meant, that although " once in a way " they |
might get a bit of " broken meat " from those
employing them, animal food had not appeared
upon their tables, as a regular part of the family
diet, for the length of time specified. I happen to
have by me several dietary tables of different unions
in the west, which furnish a very striking contrast
to the labourer's diet in Sussex. In the Liskeard
union, I find the inmates of the workhouse receiv-
ing bread and milk every morning for breakfast —
the men seven, and the women six ounces of bread.
In the Penzance union they have the same — both
men and women getting seven ounces of bread ;
and in that of St. Germans the same, but with a
scantier allowance of bread to the men, who have
only six ounces. For dinner, in the Liskeard union,
they have animal food three times a week, viz., on
Sunday, when they have, men and women, four
ounces of boiled meat, with one pound of potatoes
each ; on Tuesday, two ounces of boiled meat each,
with a pound and a half of potato stew, which is
prepared and enriched with meat ; and on Friday,
three ounces of boiled pork or bacon, with one
pound of potatoes. On the Thursday they have
fish — pilchards, no doubt — and lib. of potatoes.
On the intermediate days they have bread and
broth, and bi'ead and pea-soup. In the Penzance
union, they have meat on Sunday and Wednesday,
with 8 oz. of vegetables, and 5 oz. of bread. On
Tuesday they have fish, with 8 oz. of bread. On
other days they have bread and meat soup, bread
and pea- soup, and bread with rice and milk ; and on
one, Friday, they have vegetables, bread, and meat
soup. In the St. Germans union, they have meat
twice, and fish twice a week, with very substantial
potato stew three times a week. For supper they
have, in the Liskeard union, bread and cheese three
times a week, bread and suet broth twice, and bread
and gruel twice. In that of Penzance, they have
7oz. of bread, with milk gruel, every day of the
week ; and in that of St. Germans, bread with rice
milk five times, and bread and meat broth twice a
week. But it may be said that, as the diet in the
workhouse has, as regards its quantity and charac-
ter, some reference to that of the labour out of
doors, that in the Cornish unions is comparatively
high, as in the physical condition of a tolerably
large class of the labourers in Cornwall, for reasons
stated by me when treating of the subject of labour
and the poor in that county. Let us, however,
come nearer home, and compare with the diet of
the independent labourer in Hampshire or Sussex,
that of a workhouse situated in a district in which
the condition of the labourer is analogous to his
own. In the Wareham workhouse I found bread
and gruel the fare every day for breakfaat — the men
getting seven and the women five ounces of bread.
For dinner the inmates have animal food — four
ounces each when it is meat, and three ounces when
it is bacon, with a pound and a half of potatoes and
other vegetables, three days in the week ; for three
more they have bread and soup, and on Sunday
they dine on suet or rice pudding, of which the
men get fourteen and the women twelve ounces.
For supper, they have bread and cheese every night
in the week. As already stated, the staple diet of j
the independent labourer and his family is bread.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

345

turnips, parsnips, cabbage, and potatoes. He rarely
tastes meat —occasionally tastes cheese — but seldom
has a meal of it. What an anomaly is here ! And,
strange to say, although the union, by purchasing
its edibles by contract, can procure them about 20
per cent, cheaper than the independent labourer

can, who buys no more than he needs at a time,
yet the independent labourer and his family manage
to eke out an existence on about one-half that which
it takes to support a pauper and his family in the
workhouse. The wonder is, that every labourer in
the land is not eager to pauperize himself.

ON THE RESOURCES OF THE SOIL,

At a time when the most intense interest is manifested
in regard to the measures which are anticipated will, in
the approaching session of Parliament, be introduced by
the Government, with the object of ameliorating the
condition, more especially, of the occupier of the soil,
through the re-adjustment of taxation, by some distri-
butive mode of raising the necessary revenue to meet
our annual liabilities, whereby there may be more of
equality experienced, so that the chief burden shall not,
as at present, fall upon the broad acres of the kingdom ;
we cannot but be most anxious for the issue.

Whatever the proposition may be, which may be
made as being capable of accomplishing such a deside-
ratum, it will be regarded by the greatest anxiety, more
especially since the intention of raising a revenue by the
re-imposition of a duty on corn has been abandoned by
the Earl of Derby.

The country has by its late verdict set that question
at rest for ever ; and however inclined the advocates for
such a mode of raising a revenue may be to question the
good sense of the constituency of England in arriving
at such a determination, it will be entirely futile, at this
time of day, to argue upon the assumption that had a
different result followed the late appeal to the country,
the remedy provided would have met the grievance
under which landlord, tenant, and labourer are sufl'er-
iog at the present period.

The time has gone by for framing an argument on
Buch an antithesis ; and it may also be conjectural —
with the present liabilities on land — that even a duty of
83. per qr. on wheat would have been the panacea for
the existing evil.

Mr. Disraeli is endowed with intuitive ingenuity of
the highest order, and he adopts those conclusions only
which are based on premises of the most logical acute-
ness ; so that we need be under no concern of the pro-
bability of his rejecting the smallest item which may
prove valuable in giving strength to his proposition.
He may neither be the advocate for a National Poor-
rate — the readjustment of the Tithe question — charging
the County-rate on the Consolidated Fund — abandoning
the unjust Income-tax assessment — reduction of the
interest on the Funded Debt — relaxing the operation of
the Malt- tax so far as to permit the grower of barley to
do what he will with his own — yet we may content our-
selves that so acute a financier will find a powerful means
of meeting the question in all its varied ramifications.

Yet, notwithstanding this assurance, it becomes neither
the owner nor occupier of the soil to wait with folded
arms for the extraneous aid he anticipates will follow
from legislative enactments ; for it is manifest that the

country is intently observing whether the above impor-
tant interests are using their Individual efforts to help
themselves rather than depending altogether on assistance
from without.

In the present age, when the utmost stretch of inven-
tion is accomplishing so much in the arts and sciences —
when mechanical skill is competing in such a variety of
multifarious operations — it may be asked, are those who
are so intensely interested in the above question to stand
by and content themselves by pursuing the beaten track
of generations gone by .' Would it not, rather, be the
more rational to treat land as the raiv material, capable
of being so worked as shall return the cultivator a fair
quid pro quo for all legitimate expenditure, despite the
lowness of prices which at the present day rules the ave-
rages of agricultural produce ?

It is important, in treating the subject under con-
sideration, to leave nothing in abeyance which may be
likely to add strength to our argument ; and it will
occur, in the outset, whether enough of discrimination
be ordinarily exercised by the proprietor of land in the
selection of a tenant who proposes the occupation of
his estate, so that it is manifest there is capital at hand,
mental activity, educational acquirement to the extent
that the composition of soils is so far understood as
would imply a certain amount of chemical knowledge,
and that, besides, in a general way he enjoyed those
ordinary attributes which may be naturally sought for
in one who is desirous of engaging in an undertaking
wherein a considerable amount of intelligence is requisite
to insure commensurate success. If the landlord be
satisfied so far, the question next arising will be— and a
most important question it is — what is an equivalent in
the shape of rental per acre, always taking into con-
sideration the prices obtainable from the product of
the tenant's capital invested, his skill, risk, and
proportionate return for industrial labour ! It is to
be apprehended that such last-named rule does not pre-
vail, in a general way, at the presentperiod — at least it is
stated by occupying tenants (not a few) that the present
condition of things is not met by those liberal ad-
justments which the exigency of the times would justify.
The only legitimate mode for the adjustment of rent
(presuming that the estate in question were principally
arable) would be the average value of corn for three
years previously ; or, what might be more agreeable to
landlord and tenant, the current averages of the past six
months.

There are landlords who, from time to time, make
occasional reductions, or allowances, in the shape of
per-centage on the half-year's audit; and, which is, no

846

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

doubt, acceptable enough to the tenant: yet, notwith-
standing, the principle is absent which should stimulate
enterprize, ?ince the occupier can calculate on presump-
tion only, and not on that fundamental rule which
governs the operations of trade. Let the landlords of
England meet the case of their tenants on the broad
pricciple of equity ; yet should anything in the
shape of difficulty arise between the contracting parties,
let a competent individual be selected who shall from
acknowledged data assess the yearly value per acre,
agreeably to the average which the agricultural price
barometer has indicated for the past twelve months.
Under existing circumstances, prices cannot materially
vary during that period, and hence there will be but
slight difficulty in the computation.

In order to insure an enterprising tenant from the
caprice of his landlord, it must be always important to
the man of capital and skill that his interest on the
land he occupies should be protected by lease ; so framed,
however, that the average current price of grain
should regulate his annual rent ; and, with such pre-
cautions, the case of the tenant would then assume as
equitable an aspect as the most fastidious claimant for
bis " right" might advocate.

Next in order comes the tenant himself, to whom we
must write so plainly, that " he who runs may read."

Tenant farmers of England, you are to be up and
doing ! It will not suit the present exigency, for you to
assume the stand-still attitude. Forward ! is the word —
and unless you take the initiative, your case is hopeless.
You have been void what the landlord's duty is ; yet
there is a duty which you owe yourselves, which is
paramount to it, yet if cast aside, must bring entire
ruin on your homesteads. In a general way most of you,
now-a-day, have your half-yearly meetings, whereat is
discussed a variety of topics in relation to agriculture ;
and where you have sound practical advice offered you in
respect to drainage, manures, tillage, &c., &c., all of
which afford matter for panegyric. It is, however, to
be feared that what is taught at those meetings is not
so commonly acted on as could be desired ; inasmuch,
that as your fathers did of old so do you, for you still
" pitch" by the road-side the precious manure from your
farm-yards, which should have been retained at home,
rather than that Its most valuable liquid parts should
be suffered to expend themselves by evaporation ; or,
what is equally bad, run to waste into some contiguous
ditch or drain ! It is surprising that at the present day
this malpractice should prevail, after so much has been
said and written on the husbanding of liquid manure.

What more simple than the construction of a tank in
the farm-yard } Should the cost alarm the tenant, the
landlord would no doubt readily incur it, and charge the
outlay by easy instalments, from time to time, until pay-
ment was made.

It cannot be expected, much less presumed, that the
model plan which is practised by Mr. Mechi will be ex-
tensively imitated ; but, notwithstanding, great facilities
may be acquired in respect to the distribution of the
liquid material, upon the principle somewhat of the cart
for watering the highways.

There can be no doubt much expense would be saved
by the non-occasion of cartage, &c. ; yet where there is
the accustomed staff of labourers and horses on the
farm, those appliances may be so adapted as not
to interfere with the ordinary run of their daily occu-
pation.

The making grow two blades of grass where one only
grew before, is a problem easily solved ; and by closely
considering the principles which should actuate the cul-
tivator of the soil, the difficulty may be surmounted.

So desirable a result may be in part obtained by
careful clearing of the land, so that weeds shall not
engage the space which would be otherwise devoted to
the cultivated plant ; and another all-important matter
is that the surface, as well as subsoil, be so thoroughly
drained that no superfluous moisture be permitted, or
otherwise rushes will, in pasture land, usurp the place
of grass, and the cereal crop be effectv-ally impeded in
the case of arable husbandry.

The tenant-farmer, in short, must be continually on
the watch in contriving for himself, as well as taking
advantage of his neighbour's experience.

It is for the good of the community at large — equally
with himself — that he should keep pace with the times,
or otherwise, he may rest satisfied, he will continue to be
distanced by foreign competition. There cannot be the
smallest doubt that every improvement which may be
within reach must be brought to bear so as to place the
English farmer on a par with the continental corn-
grower. Notwithstanding, however much the farmer's
position shiU be improved by anticipated legislative
means, he will have to exercise more of mechanical and
less of manual labour on his estate ; indeed it would
seem even now almost compulsory, since the stalwart
labourers of England are fast quitting their native soil
on foreign emigration, and leaving none other to fill the
vacuum occasioned by the withdrawal from our beloved
country of that bold peasantry — its best, its chiefest
pride. H. P.

THE EFFECTS OF THE NEW GOLD FIELDS ON AGRICULTURE.

How will the gold fields of California and Australia
affect the prices of commodities in general, and of agri-
cultural produce among the rest ? Will wheat again
rise to 80s. or 120s. the quarter, or will it range for the
next twenty years between 40s. and 60s. ?

These are questions of great importance to the

British farmer ; not only from their direct results, but
from the use which will be made of them in throwing
sand into his eyes, and in staving off the only arrange-
ment which can meet the exigencies of his present
position.

An agricultural administration— a protectionist admi-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

347

nistration — is in power. Protection was their bond of
union — the basis of their policy. They have no other
claim to the Treasury benches. Yet their leaders de-
clare protection to be dead and buried ; and the farmers'
friends are returning from the funeral with the ill-sup-
pressed glee of undertakers' men going to their feast, or
relations of some old lady who have succeeded to the
goods and chattels of the dear deceased.

As Downing-street began to open on the "great coun-
try party," they endeavoured to persuade the farmers
that there was a remedy for agricultural distress— the
transfer of local taxation to the consolidated fund — which
would answer their purpose quite as well as protection.
In other words, the farmers were to be relieved by levy-
ing on them, in common with other tax-payers, imposts
which are borne at present exclusively by the land-
lords. Tithes, poor's-rates, church-rates, county-
rates, are no part of the cost of production. They are
rent charges on the estate. Every prudent farmer as-
certains their average amount before he takes land, and
offers so much the less rent. If the local taxes were
abolished to-morrow they would meet the farmer the
next day in the form of increased rent. The only in-
jury he sustains from them is when the average amount
is increased during the currency of a lease. These
statements have been made so often in this journal, that
we should not have deemed it necessary to repeat them
but for the deep root which the opposite opinion has
taken in the minds of many of our agricultural friends.
As a substitute for this transfer of local taxation to the
consolidated fund, we have now a " reduction of the
cost of production," with some obscure hints that this
is to be effected by a re-adjustment of the general
taxation of the country. When it shall be found impos-
sible to fulfil this promise, because the farmers pay no
exclusive taxes — some say, but let that pass, that they
enjoy exclusive exemptions — they will be taught to fix
their hopes on the marvellous riches of the new gold
fields, and the advance of prices which they will cause
to such an extent, that a Protectionist administration
may, with a good conscience, remain in oflSce without
making any attempt to reverse the commercial policy of
Sir Robert Peel, now designated by the mild term of
" mistaken."

This doctrine will meet with the more ready credence,
because ever since the resumption of cash payments by
the Bank there has been a party with whom a depre-
ciation of the currency has been a favourite remedy for
that agricultural distress, respecting which we have
heard so much since 1815, under protection as well as
under free trade. These currency doctrines have taken
some hold on the agricultural class, and they who have
adopted them will hail with pleasure that prospect of a
natural depreciation of the sovereign, through abundance
of gold, which they have no hope of seeing established
by Act of Parliament.

Justice to the tenant farmers required that, on the re-

peal of the protective system, they should have had a
permanent abatement of rent, proportionate to the re-
duction, whatever it is, caused by free trade in the price
of agriculturul produce. They had a right to expect it
from those landowners who advocated the repeal of the
corn laws — they had a greater right to expect it from
those who opposed that repeal as fraught with ruin to
British agriculture. By some of each party the reduc-
tion has been made. Honour to them for making it ;
though, in so doing, they were acting in accordance
with their own interests ; for a landlord will rarely gain
anything by ruining his tenant. A larger number make
no permanent reduction, but give their tenants eleemo-
synary returns on the audit day, and their good deeds of
this kind are trumpeted in the provincial papers like
their gifts of blankets to the poor at Christmas, or the
dinners which they give to the inmates of the workhouse.
This is not the position which the farmer should occupy.
Too many landowners, we fear, make no abatement at
all ; but exact the last farthing of protection rents, under
free trade prices. Thus, while the farmers have been
waiting five tedious years, first for the restoration of
protection, then for the removal of local burthens, and
lastly for a reduction of the cost of cultivation by a re-
adjustment of general taxation, their capital has been
dwindlhig away in the form of an excess of rent, trans-
ferred to the pockets of the landlords. When they now
ask for an equitable adjustment of rent, they will be re-
ferred by the landlords, as well as by the political
farmers' friends, to California and Australia, and the
revolution in prices which they are to effect. We pro-
pose, therefore, to devote a series of articles to the dis-
cussion of the questions whether any considerable rise
of prices is to be expected from this cause ; and what
its effects, should it take place, would be on the condi-
tion of the farmer. Collateral to this inquiry there will
be the question of the indirect effects of Ihe Australian
gold-fields on British agriculture by stimulating emi-
gration, and thereby raising the wages of labour on the
one hand, and diminishing the competition for land on
the other.

There is no error more prevalent than that of mis-
taking money for wealth, and high prices for prosperity.
The mass of commodities, of implements and machinery,
constitute, with other means of employing labour, the
material wealth of a community. Money, or metallic
wealth, is only the measure of the value of these com-
modities with respect to one another ; and its amount
will always bear a very small proportion to the
material wealth of every country. Value and price,
too, are frequently confounded. The value of anything
is its power of purchasing other commodities. Its
price is the quantity of money which it will purchase.
A quarter of wheat will still exchange for two quarters
of oats, or a quarter and a-half of barley, whether
wheat sell for 40s. or 80s., oats for 20s. or 40s., and
barley for 30s. or 60s. In the simpler states of society
commodities are exchanged directly for one another ; all

34S

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

traffic is carried ou by barter. As civilisation advances,
as wants are multii)lied, as division of labour increases,
the necessity for some more convenient mode of exchange
becomes apparent. It is found inconvenient for the
man who produces nothing but food to ascertain how
much of it he must give for clothes, to the man who
produces nothing but clothing ; and since even tailors
sometimes take it into their heads to ride, it is equally
troublesome for the tailor to calculate how many coats,
waistcoats, and trowsers he must give in exchange for
a horse. Nor are these the only inconveniences of a
barter trade. If the tailor was starving for want of
food, he could obtain none till he had found a man want-
ing to exchange it for clothes ; he would then be obliged
in all probability to take more food than he could con-
sume while it remained good, and must look out for a
third party who would be willing to take the surplus off
his hands in exchange for some article which the tailor
requires. The invention of money obviates these
inconveniences. One commodity is exahanged for
money; which, again, is exchanged for something
else. Pounds in England, dollars in America, and
francs in France, furnish in each country respec-
tively a measure of the value of different commo-
dities with respect to one another — a language in
which that value may be expressed. The value thus
expressed is its price. Gold and silver, from their rarity,
and consequent costliness — from their durability, porta-
bility, and divisibility, and from the demand which ex-
ists for them, even in a rude state of society, for pur-
poses of ornament— are, of all things, the best adapted
for a medium of exchange. They have therefore, by
the tacit consent of all nations, from the most remote
antiquity, been preferred as money. One very impor-
tant quality, which renders them specially suited to this
purpose, consists in their being less likely than other
commodities to be affected by fluctuations in value
arising from a sudden increase or diminution of their
quality. The only great and permanent change of this
kind which they have undergone since the commence-
ment of history is that which followed the discovery of
America. After that event the precious metals became
80 much more abundant, that their value was lowered
with respect to other commodities ; and it became
necessary to give more of them in exchange for a given
quantity of any article of necessity or luxury. In other
words, prices rose. Though prices rose, however, the
value of commodities with respect to one another re-
mained, with some exceptions, unaltered. The same
quantity of one continued to exchange for the usual
equivalent quantity of another. The only difference
was, that a larger quantity of gold and silver must be
given in exchange for both. The exceptional com-
modities were those of which the value in exchange
for others was lowered either by their being pro-
duced in greater abundance than heretofore, or by
improved processes which diminished the cost of
production. Other commodities, again, such as corn

and wool, fluctuated in value from fluctuations in
seasons.

In the simplest form of commercial transactions,
after the invention of money, and before the introduc-
tion of credit — which performs so important a part in
modern commercial transactions, more particularly in
England — prices depend not on the absolute abundance
of the precious metals, or of that portion of them which
is used as coin, but on their relative abundance to other
commodities. If the production of these increases at
the same rate as the production of the precious metals,
prices will remain stationary. If the precious metals are
produced in greater abundance than other commodities,
prices will rise. If commodities in general increase
more rapidly than the stock of gold and silver increases,
prices will fall ; and the rise or fall will be, in either
case, in proportion to the increase or diminution of the
material and metallic wealth with respect to one another.
The quantity of corn, of iron, or of linen remaining the
same, and the quantity of gold and silver being doubled
or tripled, prices will be doubled or tripled. An in-
crease in the quantity of gold and silver, however, only
affects prices when converted into coin. The precious
metals, in the form of bracelets and earrings, watches
and teapots, exert no influence on prices. Neither does
coin not in circulation affect prices. The hoards of the
miser are as powerless for this purpose as the plate and
trinkets of the luxurious. Both constitute a reserve
whence the circulating medium may, in case of need, be
replenished ; but until put into circulation they might as
well have no existence, as far as prices are concerned.

There are good reasons for supposing that the stock
of gold and silver existing in the Roman Empire, at the
commencement of the Christian era, was about three
hundred and sixty millions, in the form of coin, exclusive
of that employed for purposes of ornament. During
the three following centuries the production of the
precious metals diminished. By the fifth it had ceased
altogether. Some of the mines were exhausted, the
working of others was stopped by the irruption of the
barbarians. Mining operations were not resumed in
Europe till the eighth century. From that time till the
discovery of America the produce was no more than
sufficient to replace the annual loss by abrasion of the
coin. It has been estimated, that by means of this, and
other losses, such as shipwrecks, hoards concealed in
troublesome times and never recovered, the stock of gold
and silver had been reduced by the fifteenth century to
about thirty -five millions sterling. To this cause may
be attributed the low prices which prevailed during the
middle ages, and the still lower prices of which we read
before the reopening of the mines of the Old World in
the eighth century. And to the low state to which the
existing stock was reduced may be attributed the great
rise in pi ices produced during the sixteenth century, by
the addition of a new supply, which was small, compared
with th )se wiiich in subsequent times produced com-
parativt ly little etVi.'ct.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

349

In 1492 Columbus sailed on tliat adventurous voy-
age which resulted in the discovery of America. By
J 599 the great revolution in prices which flowed from
that expedition was complete. There is considerable
difficulty in ascertaining-, with any approach to accu-
racy, the extent of the change ; so loose is our know-
ledge of the general prices of commodities in those
times, so great the confusion respecting the value of
weights and measures to which those prices refer, and
80 great the variations in the quantities of gold and
silver contained in coins of the same denominations
during different portions of the period. After striking
off, however, that portion of the enhanced price which
was not real but nominal, there appears little doubt,
that in England, by the end of the 16th century,
thrice the quantity of silver was requisite to purchase
the same amount of necessaries and luxuries, as before
the discovery of America, or rather before the opening
of the silver mines of Potosi. In France and Spain
the advance of prices appears to have been even
greater. In Spain it is calculated as five-fold; and in
France four-fold. This difference in different countries
is no more than might have been expected. The com-
merce which has made England the richest country in
the world had then no existence. There were not
the same facilities as now for the transfer of the pre-
cious metals from country to country. In Spain,
from its connexion with the sources of supply, they
Avould accumulate the most : and between France and
Spain there was more intercourse than between Spain
and England.

The absolute amount of the precious metals by
which this revolution in. prices was effected is an in-
teresting subject of inquiry, in which, however, we
must be content with' much that is conjectural, for
accurate statistics there are none. Humboldt estimated
that the total quantity of gold and silver derived from
America, to the end of the year 1599, amounted to
jgl38,000,000, after allowing for loss by the wear of
coin. The greater portion of this sum was obtained
after 1516, when the silver mines of Potosi were dis-
covered. Between the discovery of America and the
opening of these mines, the total amount of gold and
silver brought to Europe is estimated by the same au •
thority at not more than i?17,000,000. During the
century ending 1699, the mines of Europe and America
are supposed to have yielded £337,000,000 of gold and
silver, chiefly the latter. If we trace the effects of
this influx on the precious metals on the prices, we
find that the advance in the price of wheat, during
this century, appears, by the Oxford tables, to have
been from 27s., the average of twenty years at its
commencement, to 36s., the average of twenty years at
iU close. As far as this can be relied on, as a criterion
of prices, it would appear that this large increase in
the production of gold and silver only raised them
about 33 per cent. During the 18th century the ave-
rage yield of the precious metals may be considered to
have been doubled. At the commencement of the pre-

sent cei.tury it had leacked its highest point in ISlOi
after which it fell off in consequence of the anarchy
which prevailed in the Spanish colonics on their sepa-
ration from the mother country ; and the suspension
of mining operations which it produced. In 1806
Humboldt estimated the total annual yield of gold and
silver from Europe, America, and the Russian do-
minions in Asia, at £10,755,000. For the century
ending 1799 it might be estimated at £800,000,000, or
eight millions annually on an average. In tracing the
effect of this increase on the prices of commodities,
those years must be excluded which succeeded the sus-
pension of cash payments by the Bank of England, and
the issue of inconvertible paper. Deducing the average
price of wheat from the mean of the Oxford and Eton
tables, and comparing the average of thirty years
ending 1695, with the average of thirty years ending
1795, we have an advance from £1 18s. 5d. the
quarter to £2 10s. 3d. The increase is rather less
than 31 per cent. The accounts of Greenwich Hos-
pital show an advance of about 20 per cent, on bread,
meat, and butter, between 1730 and 1791.

A review of the produce of the precious metals
during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, and its in-
fluence on prices, would give then, from these data,
results which may be thus expressed in a tabular
form :—

Centuries.

16th
17 th
18th

Produce of Gold
and Silver.
138,000,000
337,000,000
800,000,000

Increase of
prices.
300 per cent.
33 „
20 to 30

Why this difference? Why should the smaller sum
raised during the 16th century produce so much
greater effect than the larger sums of the 17th and 18th
centuries ? There were several causes in operation.
In the first place, the smaller produce of the 16th
century bore a larger proportion to the then existing
stock of the precious metals, reduced, as before
stated, to about 35 millions, than the larger produce
of subsequent centuries bore to the stock in existence
during those centuries.

In the next place, there had been a great and
progressive increase in the productions of those com-
modities which are exchanged for one another through
the medium of the precious metals ; this increase re-
quiring a corresponding increase in the quantity of the
medium of exchange.

Lastly, there had been an increase equally great
in the consumption of the precious metals for the
manufacture of articles of ornament and luxury.
With respect to the increase of material wealth, we
know that the rise of prices consequent on the dis-
covery of America gave a great stimulus to production,
though we have no means of forming an accurate esti-
mate of the rate of increase, or of the increase of
population during the 16th and 17th centuries. Both,
however, must have been considerable, and must have
had a great influence in counteracting the advance of

2 A

350

THE FARMER'

prices which would have taken place had the mcdkim
of exchange increased, and tlieaniotint ofcommodifics
to be exchanged remained unaltered. The great and
rapid development of commerce, manufactures, and
agriculture, and the increase of population during the
18th century, and particularly soon after the acces-
sion of George the Third, is matter of such general
notoriety that it is needless to attempt to prove them
by reference to tlie more full and accurate statistical
details which exist for that century.

With regard, again, to increased consumption of
gold and silver in the arts, it is wholly of modern
growth. It dates from the reign of Anne. The
greater portion of the old plate in the possession of
the nobility and public bodies belongs to that period.
The introduction of tea, which then took place, and
its continually increasing consumption, originated a
great demand for silver spoons, which were scarcely
known in the preceding reign. This demand re-
ceived a fresh impetus at the commencement of
George the Third's reign. Silver spoons were then
made heavier than before, the use of silver forks was

S MAGAZINE.

introduced; silver was employed in the manufacture
of tea urns, tea pots, coffee pots, and salvers ; and the
use of such costly luxuries extended to lower grades of
society. The use of watches became much more
ffeneral, and the manufacture of copper plated with
silver formed a new and extensive branch of industry
in London, Sheffield, and Birmingham. The con-
sumption of gold in gilding increased with equal ra-
pidity. The number of goldbeaters was tripled in
twenty years. At this time also commenced the
practice of gilding silver articles, and of applying
gihling to the decoration of the interior of public and
private edifices. The manufacture of porcelain also
began to consume large quantities of gold, which be-
comes totally lost by the fracture of the articles in
the gilding of which it is used. From the combina-
tion of all these causes, the increase of population,
and mateiial wealth, and the increased consumption
of gold and silver in the arts, we have a satisfactory
explanation of the fact that prices only advanced from
twenty to thirty per cent, while the metallic wealth of
the world increased more than cent per cent. T.

ON THE ERADICATION OF WEEDS.

How shall we keep down the weeds in our culti-
vatetl crops ? This is an interesting question, and
one which all farmers will do well to study and
experiment upon. We almost invariably find bad
cultivation and light cultivated crops attended by a
very abundant growth of weeds ; just as we observe
high farming and luxuriant crops pretty free from
them. The one is both a cause and effect of the
other. Something m^/ always grow. If the soil is
not pre-occupied, spontaneous vegetation will spring
up; and finding space and air, and root room, all
contributing to rapid development, the iveed will
ripen sooner than the corn, and we shall have the
foundation laid for a succession of choking, smother-
ing crops of weeds.

Then, again, climate has a great deal to do with
the growth and development of weeds. The north
and north-western portions of the island are, from
the falls of rain and the prevalence of a cold moist
atmosphere, far more stimulative of weeds than
other parts of the country.

Now the most simple and obvious modes of era-
dicating weeds are hoeing and hand-weeding. But
with some these processes are completely useless.
If we take a class of small weeds, such as the spurr}',
the wild-mustard, and several others, the hoe would
not be able to sever them from the tangled corn,
and there they would grow and thicken, and sadly
injure the crop ; for no hoeing between the drills
would reach them. You might hoe out all the
weeds there, and it would only be giving fresh space

for the side shoots of those weeds which grow
amongst the corn.

But there are clearly such plants as the dock,
the thistle, the redshanks, and other similar large-
rooted and isolated plants, which clearly require
to be pulled out by hand one by one. To those we
shall more particularly subsequently allude, but at
present we will just refer to a class of plants which
are to be affected by general cultivation— the quitch
or couch (Triticum repens), the spurry {Spergula
arvensis), the charlock {Raphanum raphanistrum)
— a class of plants always abundant in bad cul-
tivated land, and which is a sad pest in some classes
of land when well cultivated.

We will take the couch grass — the most for-
midable of all weeds, the pest of light turnip land,
and the bane of the four-course system of hus-
bandry. In the loamy descriptions of land, the
better class of turnip soils, and in the chalk, it is a
source of very little trouble; the one is of too con-
solidated a character to encourage its rapid spread
by the roots or its early maturity in the seeds, and
the other is far too dry to admit of its making much
headway.

But the blovving sands— especially the black
peaty, or grey sands — are those where it is almost
impossible to carry on a continuous four-course
rotation and not have its network of couch. You
may clean your turnip fallow till not a fibre can
be seen ; you may hand-pick the land before it
is sown with barley ; you may eat on the seeds and

THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE.

351

pick the land again before the wheat is sown, and
not one particle of couch can be seen ; the wheat
may be horse-hoed and hand-hoed, but at harvest
time there will be abundance of couch : it will be
a net-work, as we say, of roots in the soil, and a
mass of seed in the sheaves. The abundant supply
of oxygen to the roots, the great capillary attraction
of the soil in collecting moisture, and the natural
tendency to early mature the couch in such soils,
give them in the wheat crop a double advantage. The
soil is open, and the mass of it undisturbed during
winter, so that there is abundant space and time for
the roots to spread ; though we believe the period
from June to November is that wherein the roots
attain by far the greatest growth. Now, how can a
farmer prevent this growth of couch on such
lands ?

Claying will effect it. This is a process as ne-
cessary to attain good crops of turnips, wheat, and
barley, as it is of keeping down the enemies of culti-
vation named above. The consolidation of the soil
prevents the access of oxygen too great for the
wheat, and it is thus rendered too httle for the couch;
so that ordinary attention to cleaning, with a dose
of 180 to 200 loads (cubic yards) of clay, of almost
any kind, will soon so change the character of the
soil as to render the couch a very feeble enemy.

Change of rotation ivill attain it. This is not
always convenient, and often sadly deranges the
proceedings of a farm. But if the seed pastures
are allowed to run a second year, and are broken
up say in the first week in July the second year.

and a small allowance of manure given to the corn
crop when sown, the wheat stubble will be found
comparatively free from this sad enemy of the
farmer.

Cultivation may partly remedy it — we mean
the saddening of the soil, and the production of
seedling crops. Thus a very heavy turnip crop
covers with its leaves the soil, and thus prevents
the progress of the seeds or the small particles of
roots. Cake with the turnips and the seeds, by in-
creasing the quantity of sheep kept on the land,
consolidates the soil, and renders it less hable
to run wild ; while vigorous-growing crops, byover-
topping the couch, renders it less liable to spread
both upwards and downwards.

Green cropping extensively in proportion to the
corn will prevent it. And this for two reasons.
The green crops not being matured, are generally
on the ground for a shorter period ; there is far
more upturning of the soil, more working among
it, and, consequently, more disturbance of the roots
and feebler powers exerted to master the soil, while
the seeds — an unthought of, but fertile source of
couch in light sands — are never matured.

To talk of " land natural to quitch," of " rye,
grass, &c., turning" to them, betrays an ignorance
approaching to barbarism ; it is only a refuge
for those who are too indolent to apply their ener-
gies to an eradication of the real enemies of the
crop ; for a field full of couch never produces a
yielding crop of corn. — Gardeners' and Farmers'
Journal.

AGRICULTURE AND THE RURAL POPULATION ABROAD.

FRANCE.— No. XXV.

the valley of the rhone — the department of la drome.

[from the special correspondent of the morning chronicle.]

That part of France from the capital of which I
write, is in several respects, a peculiarly interest-
ing one. It may be taken as forming the district
of separation between the Central and the South-
ern provinces. The olive tree advances only a
short way beyond its southerly frontier, while,
towards its northernmost bounds, vegetation begins
to resume that green luxuriance which the burning
sun and the rocky soil of the country lying along
the Mediterranean generally deny. To the east,
again, the department stretches to the roots of the
French Alps — the mountain hchen and the pine
appearing amid its far upland heaths ; while, to-
wards its opposite extremity, it borders on the rich
plain of Languedoc and the northerly ranges of
the Cevennes, separated from the neighbouring
department of I'Ardeche by the rapid flood of the
Rhone. So situated, the department of the Drome
is a sort of miniature representation of the united

features of divers of the principal districts of France
— the Alps of the east blending with the scorched
plains of the south — the primitive pastoral inhabi-
tants of the hills fadmg into the busy, corn-rearing,
vine-gro.ving, oil-making, silk-worm rearing, and
silk-spinning populations of Provence and Lan-
guedoc.

The soil of such a district must needs be very
various. One portion of it produces some of the
finest wines of France — to wit, those of L' Hermi-
tage ; other spots are dreary plateaus of barren
sand, hardly growing a bush or a weed ; and be-
tween the extremes of fertihty and sterility there
exist every intermediate degree of soil, devoted to
every species of culture known to the south, the
east, and the central provinces of France. Thanks
to the neighbouring Alps, the department is well
watered ; for no less than twenty-two considerable
rivers flow through it to the Rhone — each in the

2 A 2

352

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

centre of a more or less alluvial bas'n, sprinkled
with villages and dotted with corn-fields, vineyards,
and almost everywhere legions of mulberry trees.
Towards the Alps, the country, of course, takes its
most barren and desolate aspect, meadow and
orchard giving place to healthy pasture land, gene-
rally belonging to the several communes, and fre-
quently the site of ancient forests, which have been
burned down to allow the sweet mountain grass to
spring ; seamed, however, every where by wide
gravel scaurs, dry and burnt up in summer, but
down which turbid mountain floods come roaring
and rushing in the winter, frequently inundating
the low country by bursting away the rude dykes
opposed to them. Upon the Alpine slopes border-
ing the Drome vast flocks of sheep find summer
quarters. Some of the flocks from the Craue
penetrate thither. In general the cattle of several
proprietors, with their keepers, unite to make the
pilgrimage, leaving the low grounds in the month
of May. Two or more superintendents, called
hailes, always confidential servants, have the charge
of the whole caravan, and the command of the
shepherds. Each party purchases, at so much per
head, pasture grounds for the summer, the com-
munes, towards the close of the season, sending a
species of jury over the hills to examine the state
of the sheep-walks, and to see that no wanton
damage has been committed by fire or otherwise.
The price paid per sheep is generally under a franc,
ranging from 50c. to 75c. for the summer. In ge-
neral characteristics and modes of life, these shep-
herds resemble those whose appearance with their
flocks I have sketched upon the Craue.

A few, but only a h\v, of the tributaries of the
Rhone running through the department are navi-
gable, and these are generally so rapid and rocky
that goods are drawn up them at very great expense
of time and labour, and often with much danger.
As for the Rhone itself, it is all but unfitted for
anything like heavy traffic. Fogs, which, in hope-
less impenatrabihty and tedious duration, fling
those of our much maligned Thames into the shade,
brood almost continually upon the water during
the coldest half of the year. Sometimes the vapour
confines itself to the surface of the river, anon it
rises and spreads through all the valley. I am
writing on the third day of a fog which has stopped
all navigation on the Rhone, from Lyons nearly to
Avignon. But the nature of the stream is in itself
all but sufficient to forbid active and profitable
traffic. The swiftness of the downward current
may be inferred from the fact that the difierence
of level between Lyons and Aries, to which the
steamers descend in a day, is upwards of 600 feet.
Besides this constant obstacle, the stream is provok-
ingly irregular. It rises and falls with the sudden fits
and starts of a wild Highland burn, having almost
always either too much or too little water in its
bed, while the floods are continually altering the
depth of the channel, flinging up constantly varying
banks of sand and shingle, and puzzling the most
experienced river pilots. Thus a great proportion
of the carrying trade between the centre and the
north is performed by waggons— whole caravans of
which are crawling night and day along the enor-
mously cut-up road from Marseilles to Lyons.

Taking Valence as a medium point, I have asser-
tained that the carriers in question perform the
journey to the following places in the following
times. — To Paris, 8 days ; to Calais, 1 3 days ;
Marseilles, 4 days ; Bordeaux,12 days; Clermont,
10 days ; and Montpellier, 3 days. Barges
on the river are still, however, employed. In
some cases they are only constructed for the
downward journey, and then broken up for
firewood. Their seaward cargoes are very often
coals from St. Etienne, and bottles for the Rhone
vineyards from Givors. In mounting the stream
the barges proceed by squadrons, called equipages,
each one having its complement of labourers and
fresh-water sailors. Before the introduction of
steam, there were about 50 equipages navigating
the Rhone. They floated down from Lyons to
Beaucaire in two days. To return their weary way
took generally from 28 to 30 days in the summer
time, and from 35 to 40 days in winter — a dreary
pilgrimage. During the prevalence of the mistral,
they never attempted to make an inch of progress,
but sought the most sheltered spot they could find,
and lay to till the wind fell. Each equipage was
dragged by thirty horses, and the danger and se-
verity of the toil may be guessed from the fact that
one-fourth of the whole number of horses were
drowned every year — dragged from their footing
by the sweeps of the heavy barges, tossed by stream
and eddy, or plunging while wading along shingle
banks, into deep hollows, dug by the last previous
flood. These horses were fine, strong, docile crea-
tures, costingfrom 1,000 to 1,200 francs. Eachtow-
ing rank was led by a very tall horse, called he Pa-
taillard, and generally valued at about 1,500 francs.
This leader sounded the passages for the rest, and
was conducted by an experienced driver, who fre-
quently stood upon the animal's back as he
threaded the way for the team amid the streams
and shallows. The men attached to each equipage
were either ten or twelve, the greater part being
drivers, and only three or four bargemen. The
expense of working these floating caravans was
estimated at about 3,000,000 of francs yearly.
They conveyed, from Beaucaire the barge port of
the south, to Lyons, about 810,000 quintaux or
cwts. of goods, at charges varying from 5 to 10
francs per quintal, but averaging 6 francs, the total
receipts being generally about 4,860,000 francs.
Various proposals for a lateral canal, by which the
voyage could be made in six or seven days, were
from time to time broached, but came to nothing.
One of the engineers employed to investigate this
subject proved, during the infancy of steam navi-
gation, how utterly impossible it was that steamers
could ever run upon the Rhone, making out his
point as irrefragably as Dr. Lardner did his, touch-
ing transatlantic steam navigation. Nevertheless
steamers are now running upon the Rhone; but,
odd as it may appear, they have not yet quite su-
perseded the old towing teams. About a dozen
of equipages are still, I am given to understand,
kept upon their ancient footing. There are two
classes of steamers, those which mount the stream
merely as towing vessels, and those which take
goods and passengers aboard. The former make
the upward voyage dragging about as many barges

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

as the horses of yore, and accomplishing passages
of from seven to ten days. The latter— enor-
mously long boats, some of them not much less
than 400 feet from stem to stern— ascend in two
long summer days, or three short winter ones.
Fogs are their great hindrances, next to the oppos-
ing blasts of the mistral, and the constantly alter-
nating floods and droughts of the river. The Isere,
one of the largest tributaries of the Rhone, which
it joins near Tain, is ascended by barges drawn by
oxen, each equipage consisting of three boats,
carrying in all 800 cwts., and towed by 18 or 20
cattle. For the voyage between the point of junc-
tion of the rivers and Grenoble — a distance of about
62 miles — not less than from 15 to 18 days are
necessary.

Down many of the smaller rivers wood is floated
from the lower slopes of the Alps. Others serve
to feed, not navigable, but irrigating canals — that
great feature upon which so much of the cultivation of
the south depends. Dykes and moundsto keep these
ungovernable torrents in their proper places are only
partially and inefficiently executed, and the conse-
quence is that one portion of the country is imper-
fectly preserved from inundation at the expense of
the certain ravaging of another. Here and there,
however, these water fortifications have been the
means of reclaiming considerable tracts of land
which were previously either foeted swamps or bar-
ren banks of shingle. I have before me the par-
ticulars of many enterprises of this nature which
have turned out highly profitable; but much still
remains to b^ planned and executed, more, indeed,
than there seems capital or industrial spirit in the
country to grapple with. The irregating canals
are sometimes fed from the rivers, sometimes from
the overflow of the thousands of springs which
gush up where the giound slopes to the barrier of
the Alps. I have already sufficiently described the
general way in which the fertilizing waters are
managed and employed. The digging of the
ditches in which they are conveyed costs from If.
50c. to if. 75c. per yard. One previously barren
plain in the department was brought into abound-
ing fertility — meadows of the richest and ripest
grass springing up where previously dust and
powdered rock had reigned supreme— by a canal
about 9,000 yards long, costing altogether 60,000
francs. The value of the increase of production,
in the first season, more than equalled the cost of
the work. The influence of this excellent canal is
])revented from being extended to another barren
plateau by the obstinacy of two individuals, who
refuse to allow the works to be carried across their
lands, although they have been offered more than
double the estimated worth of their entire
estates.

The department of the Drome is celebrated for
the number of regiments famed in the annals of the
Republic and the Empire of which it furnished
forth the living material. During Bonaparte's wars
the conscription carried off yearly no less than 2,600
young men — the flower of the district— out of a
population considerably under 300,000. Of the
2,600 recruits — I am now quoting from a curious
local volume, containing a great deal of interesting
and out-of-the-way information upon the district —

the average number belonging to diflferent trad
and occupations was nearly as follows : —

353

Farm labourers
Workers in iron . .
Workers in wood ,

Bakers

Masons

Shoemakers

Tailors

Miscellaneous . . .

2,095
40
55
15
30
47
23
295

Out of the 2,600, about 460 were annually re-
jected from physical causes. The table is not with-
out its bearing upon the physical development and
sanitary state of the south-east of France.

Under height (4 feet 9 inches French measure,

about 5 English feet) 145

Deformed 18

Ringworm and disease of the skin of the head 18

Broken bones <. 102

Scrofula 25

Defects in sight 30

Hernia • 35

Defects in organs of speech or hearing 26

Sores and idcers 38

Consumptive tendency 23

Total

460

The sanitary condition of the district is not high.
In many localities the food consumed is scanty and
of poor quality. The peasantry frequently attempt
to make up for the deficiency of nutriment in their
food by swallowing quantities of oil, and the eff"ect
is an extreme tendency to hernia. Ill-ventilated and
dirty cottages also produce their usual concomitant
of fever, which is often extensively fatal in the little
bourgs scattered among the valleys. The country
cottages in the vicinity of Valence are certainly
below the average of French peasant dwellings.
They are composed, in general, of a single earthen-
floored room, with a small garret above. The win-
dows are unusually small, and the broken glass is
frequently stuff"ed with fusty rags, converting the
interior into a damp, dark, and unwholesome hovel.
All round the place is generally heaped a circum-
vallation of dung ; the most " sappy bits of the
middenstead" being very often close to the doors
and windows. In some of the more remote dis-
tricts, I am told that the people actually have
dunghills within doors, in the corners of their sin-
gle living, cooking, eating, and sleeping room.
The box-tree flourishes hereabouts on the hills, and
its leaf is esteemed to make a very stimulating ma-
nure. The plant is, therefore, cut down in great
quantities for this purpose, and left to rot about
the cottages, the process producing a peculiarly
foeted and pungent smell, which is said to be fre-
quently the cause of fever. In the small bourgs,
during the autumn and winter time, the houses
rise from a sea of incipient manure ; and in the
villages, both in this and the neighbouring depart-
ment of Ardeche— parts of St. Peray form a good
example— the filthiest blind alleys and dens of livmg
places, above stables and piggeries abound. Ano-
ther anti-sanitary circumstance is the existence of
a prejudice against burying, or in any way dispos-

854

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ing harmlessly of animals which have died from
accident or disease. Their carcases are left to rot
in the open air. In the upper portions of the de-
partment, goitre — with, to some small degree, its
wretched accompaniment, cretinism — prevails. So
much for the appearance of the small bourgs and
villages. The larger class of farm-houses differ
only from these in being, perhaps, somewhat ruder
and rougher than those which I have sketched as
generally existing in Lower Provence.

The aspect of the richer and better cultivated
part of the country is very smiling. The land is
commonly divided into small fields by single rows
of vines, trained upon echelas, and sometimes
shooting up higher than a man. Sometimes a row,
single or double, of well-pruned young mulberries
runs from end to end of the field — sometimes joint
ranges of vines and mulberries, cut into long stripes,
with the corn land between. The banks rising up
from the Rhone are generally very stony, and are
terraced for the vines ; the culture being generally
carried on by hand, and by means of heavy double-
pointed pickaxes. Boxwood leaves are the common
manure applied to young vines.

As usual, the country, in the most populous parts,
is split up into hundreds of wretched little estates,
mingling here and there with larger exploitations.
Very few extensive proprietors cultivate their land,
and the farming is either managed by persons
paying a fixed rent, or by metayers. The latter
arrangement is by far the most common. The
farmers at a fixed rent often pay not in money,
but in kind ; but the metairie method may be said
to be the custom of the country. The cultivators in
question are here called (/rangers. The following
are the ordinary terms of the contract : — The pro-
prietor finds the house of the metayer, pays all
public and local burdens, except the local road
services, keeps all fences and farm-buildings in
repair, furnishes one half of the cattle, whether for
draught or other purposes, and one half of the
carts and waggon. The metayer finds the other
moiety, and binds himself to keep in repair at his
own cost the ploughs and harness, and generally
to be at the expense of all the iron-work requisite
in keeping in good condition the large farm
implements. The leases ordinarily given whether
for metayage or at fixed rents, are for periods of
six years, with power upon either side to terminate
the engagement at the close of the third year,
upon giving six months' notice. A few nine-years'
leases are granted. The conditions generally stipu-
lated in these documents bind the farmer to the
ordinary routine of the district. Ke is always bound
to leave the same quantity of grass-land upon the
farm which he found on entering. Up to within a
recent period the primitive agricultural fashion of
alternate grain crops and fallow was the only
method of rotation known. The general routine
was for the farmer to sow one half of his domain
every year, leaving the other inactive and unpro-
ductive, except a small patch devoted to vegetables
for the consumption of the family, or, perhaps,
when manure was abundant, to the production of a
small crop of hemp. The introduction of artificial
meadows and of green crops has to some extent
broken up the ancient practice, but I am informed

that many leases still exist, binding the farmer
never to take two successive crops of any kind
whatever out of the same soil, without copious and
expensive manuring. The artificial meadow sys-
tem is yet, I believe, confined in a great measure
to the few proprietors cultivating their own land,
or to the equally small number of farmers possessed
of some little capital, and holding under long leases.
A singular feature in the agriculture of the district
is that the harvest is always reaped, not by the
farmer himself, or his people, but by a band of
labourers called dimiers, of whom the regular la-
bourers of the property may or may not make part,
and who are paid by receiving a fixed proportion,
generally l-7th or l-8th, of the whole harvest.
This per centage is paid in equal parts by the
farmer and the proprietor, and after it is subtracted,
the division of the remainder takes place. The
dimiers not only cut the corn, but form it into
stacks, and thrash and winnow it. They are fre-
quently mountaineers, who descend periodically to
the low country to perform the duty.

The earth is hereabouts ploughed, or scratched,
three times per annum ; first in spring, then in
summer, and again towards the close of autumn,
at sowing time. The operation is generally per-
formed with oxen— two or four to a plough, accord-
ing to the nature of the land. The small proprie-
tors employ mules, one of which is kept by each,
and formed into a team, of which each contributor
has his turn of service. Cows are also sometimes
yoked to the plough. I saw one patch of land
with its corresponding hovel, which boasted a lean
unhappy looking cow of all-work. This useful
animal dragged the plough, the harrow, and the
cart, and half supported the entire family on her
milk. The ploughing oxen are left to graze under
the charge of a neatherd, until they are required
for work. Many of the small proprietors drive a
traffic in rearing mules, excellent specimens of
which are produced in this district. The average
size of farms not cultivated by their proprietors is
from 40 to 50 hectares in the lower districts — from
20 to 30 in the more alpine regions of the depart-
ment. In the former case, each farm is commonly
provided with six labouring oxen, from 50 to 60
sheep, and from 10 to 15 pigs. Thelattter animals
are commonly sold at the age of seven or eight
months. On the mountain farms you commonly
find one pair of oxen, one or two mules, and from
80 to 100 sheep.

Plaster has lately been introduced with success
as a manure. The mixture of earths is also fre-
quently resorted to as a fertilizing process. You
often see a grass field being covered with a thin
layer of earth derived from a distant part of the
farm. The rotten leaves of trees furnish also no
inconsiderable portion of the whole quantity of
manure used. Marl is employed in a few localities,
but stable litter is the basis of the manuring system.
I often see, in this as well as in other districts of
France, concentrated chemical manures recom-
mended, in flaming placards, to the attention of
" Messieurs les Cultivateurs j" but I believe that
the latter seldom place much confidence in the real
or alleged virtues of the composts in question.
Except in one or two of the districts near the capi-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

355

tal, the farmers have never heard of such a material
as guano.

Thrashing is either performed in winter, in the
barns, or in summer immediately after the grain
has been cut down, and while it .sLiil lies in
sheaves in the field. In some cantons the flail is
used. In others a sort of switch or rod is employed,
and the women and children, as well as the men,
are set to wield it. This rude manner of disen-
gaging the grain I have seen practised in the Py-
renean valleys, the operators being often mere chil-
dren, and the grain being generally buckwheat.
In the mountain cantons the corn is thrashed by
driving horses or mules over it, just as I have des-
cribed in the cases of the Craue and the Camargue.
The merits of this antique agricultural practice are
stoutly disputed in the district. The„upholders of
the " circus" fashion calculate that 6 mules in 6
days can thrash out as much wheat as 8 men in 20
days. Their opponents maintain that a great pro-
portion of the grain is crushed by the animals' feet,
and that so imperfectly is the operation performed
that, in a handful of ears trodden out, there remain
on the average from 15 to 25 grains. The straw of
horse-thrashed grain is, as may be conceived, in-
ferior for all farm purposes other than making
manure.

Not quite one-half of the natural grass land in
the department is submitt^id to artificial drainage.
The greater part, therefore, of the meadows, pro-
duce only one harvest of bad hay, for the raising
of which, regular annual manuring is requisite.
The water meadows give two and sometimes three
crops. For irregating purposes, the streams from
fountains are esteemed tlie best. The water of some
of the smaller rivers has a rich fertilising efifect upon
the land. Lucern is the main green crop in culti-
vation. It is sown in spring, after wheat crops —
the stiffer the soil the better. After the second year
the herb springs abundantly, yielding three annual
harvests to the sythe. Lucerne is often cultivated
for periods running from four to ten successive years.
Lime is the manure commonly used in its produc-
tion, as well as in that of all green crops. It is laid
on in quantities varying from four to five cwt. a
hectare.

The live stock are fed in winter, in great part
upon straw. The pigs are also made to eat it,
although the regimen is little to their liking. The
leaves of several of the most common trees, parti-
cularly those of the poplar and the willow, are also
used for the winter food of sheep. The second
crop generally furnished by the mulberry tree
makes excellent fodder, which all species of farm-
yard cattle eat greedily.

A little madder is cultivated, principally by hand
labour, in the south of the department, but the best
land is generally devoted to lucerne. Among the
gorges of the mountains, extensive nut woods grow,
producing, on the average, fruit from which is ex-
pressed not less than from 15,000 to 20,000 hec-
tares of oil.

The almond tree has been reared to some extent,
but recent frosts have kept down the value of the
produce, and checked the cultivation. There are
two diflferent species of chestnut trees common in
the district. The superior class produces fruit ex-

tensively used by the peasantry as food. Immense
barge loads of the nut are floated down the Rhone
and sold along its banks. The wild chestnuts are
given to the cattle a-id pigt:. On the southern
border of the department, the olive flourishes on
favourably exposed slopes, and a quantity of good
oil is made. The tree, however, has deteriorated,
in common with its kindred still further to the
south. The principal and most important species
of wood which abounds in the district is, however,
undoubtedly the mulberry. Hereabouts were
planted the first trees of the kind introduced into
France, and now the whole country is lined and
dotted with mulberry trees, the tending and train-
ing of which forms an important item in rural in-
dustry, and to some account of which, and of the
rearing of silkworms, my next letter will be devoted.
The vines of the district, including as they do some
of the very first growths (particularly of sparkhng
wines) in France, will also form the subject of a
separate communication, I need only remark here
en passant that about 24,000 hectares are planted
with vines, producing about 400,000 hectolitres of
superior and common wines. Vineyards are pretty
generally cultivated by hired daily labour. They
are divided, as those of Bordeaux, into journaux —
each journal containing 500 vines, and yielding
about 35 litres of wine.

As 1 have stated, mules and oxen perform the
main part of the farm work of the district. There
are employed in the department upwards of
15,000 of the former animals, the total amount of
horses being little above half that number. A great
proportion of themules come from Auvergne. They
are brought thence at two years of age, bred and
broken to work in La Drome, and resold as soon as
thev have come into their full strength and vigour.
Of the oxen, the last pubhshed tables state that the
number used for work was 9,316 ; in fattening, only
722, Of cows used for work, 2,834 ; in fattening,
193, Attempts have been made, and with partial
success, to cross the sheep of the district with
Merinos. The government had at one time depots
of rams stationed for the purpose through the
coimtry, Ijut these establishments are now broken
up , The ordinary sheep of the country furnishes
from 3lbs, to 4lbs. of common wool ; but here and
there are to be found animals of abetter breed, said
to be descended from a race produced as far back
as the time of Colbert by crosses with the Merino,
The number of sheep in the department is about
400,000.

So much, then, for the agriculture, strictly speak-
ing, of the Department of the Drome. I proceed
to give some account of the physical and moral con-
dition of its rural population. The children of
small proprietors and farmers are commonly set to
work as early as six or seven years of age. Their
initiation into rural employments is, as may be
imagined, the herding of cattle. They are also en-
trusted with the care of flocks of turkeys, va.st
numbers of which are annually bred, A boy is
often put between the plough stilts at the age of
twelve ; and girls not more than ten years of age
may be frequently seen carrying heavy burdens,
often of manure in the fields. The children of
artisans almost invariably follow their father's em-

356

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

])loyment, serving an apprenticeship of from two
to three years, commencing generally at the age
of fourteen. The food ordinarily consumed by the
rural and labouring population may, I am told, be
divided into three general classes — viz., that par-
taken of by the families who can habitually afford
to eat white bread and cheese — by those who live for
the most part on mixed grain and potatoes — and by
those who eat oatmeal or buckwheat cakes mixed
with a little barley. In the more remote and hilly
districts the meal of chestnuts, and in some cases
even of acorns, enters into the composition of the
bread consumed. Asa general rule, the peasantry
live upon bread of various kinds, preparations of
milk — ewe and goat principally — and the usual
messes of soups and stewed vegetables, served (when
the people can afford it) in perfect floods of oil.
Cabbage and oil is also an especially favourite dish.
Of the animal food used, salt pork forms the chief
ingredient; but it is employed rather as a relish than
a substantial article of fare. As in other parts of
France, three meals are taken in winter, and four in
summer. The first eaten at daybreak before pro-
ceeding to work, is oddly enough called " dinner."
Its materials are usually soup and a morsel of pork,
or at least lard. The second meal is eaten at noon,
and called Le goider — the appellation of the third
repast in the central and northern provinces. It
consists, for the most part, of cheese and dried fruit.
The third goes by the name Le petit ffouter, and
is composed of no better materials than a morsel
of dry bread. The fourth meal — the souper — is
eaten after working hours, and is generally the
most substantial of the whole, consisting of soup,
stewed vegetables, and as much pork as the means
of the family will afford . In winter the petit gouter
is omitted. AVine in small quantities is commonly
drunk during the week, and on Sundays the con-
sumption in the cabarets is, I am assured, very con-
siderable— an assertion, i)y the way, which I can
well believe, without in the least degree impugning
the sobriety of the population — the quality of
cabaret liquor being of the thinnest and sourest.
The cost of the food of each peasant in an average
year is estimated, by competent authorities as
ranging from 60 to 70 centimes — or from 6d. to 7d.
sterling— per day. As a general rule, the people
living within a certain circle in the vicinity of towns
— the greater the town the wider the circle — fare
better ; wages are higher, butcher's meat more at-
tainable, and the vegetable markets abundantly
stocked. It has been calculated that, ordinarily
speaking, the majority of the inhabitants of towns
in this part of France live twice as well — spending
twice as much in eating and drinking — as the ma-
jority of the inhabitants of the country.

In remote districts, the medical aid supplied to
the people is scanty and inefficient. Sometimes,
indeed, it is furnished not by regular practitioners,
but by a set of rural quack herb-doctors, who tell
fortunes and make up charms — vervain being, as of
yore in England, one of the potent ingredients of
these gwasi-medical authorities. They are frequently
old men and women, as grossly ignorant and super-
stitious as the dupes upon whom they practise. But
the truth is that it is not easy, in certain districts
in France, to persuade medical men — well educated

and accomplished persons — to forswear all societ)',
and settle down in a country where, for dozens of
square miles, they can expect to find nothing but
thesamestagnantlevelof ignorant peasants— where
there is not a resident gentleman, and hardly a
resident proprietor — at least what an Englishman
would consider a proprietor — and where the people
are so uniformly poor that the realisation of anything
like a decent livelihood is out of the question. A
vaccinator is appointed by the government, however,
to reside in each commune, a departmental budget
of 3,200f. being allotted for their services. Besides
this the local authorities support from 30 to 35 in-
sane paupers at different establishments in Avignon
and Lyons. The board exacted ranges from 300f.
to 400f. per annum. It sometimes happens, how-
ever, that dangerous madmen have to be sent to the
prisons to keep them out of harm's way — a most
melancholy and barbarous resource.

As is the case generally in the south, patois is the
habitual language, not only of the peasantry of La
Drome, but in many instances of the better classes
while in unrestrained family intercourse- In a
communication written from Agen, on the Garonne,
I described a visit paid to the principal poet of the
patois of the south of France, and I transcribed his
opinion as to the dialect in which he wrote. From
various incidental notices in subsequent communi-
cations, the reader will have perceived that, all over
the south, the peasant language differs not only in
every province, but often in almost every parish.
There are two leading dialects — that of Provence
and that of Languedoc; the Provengal becoming
more and more Italianised as you approach the
Alps — the Languedocian becoming more and more
like Spanish as you approach the Pyrenees. Let
those who wish to obtain some idea of the geogra-
phical limits of the dialects in question refer to the
map, and draw a line, in the first place, from the
Mediterranean, about Grasse, passing by Digne,
Sisteron and Serres, to the Rhone, about Monteli-
mart. Within this triangular space, including Mar-
seilles, Avignon, Aries, Aix, Draguignan, and Car-
pentras, the pure Provengal dialect is said to be
spoken. Northward it undergoes such changes as
to be no longer the same language. Take the map
again, and describe another similar triangle from
the Rhone, on the right bank to the sea, passing by
Privas, and running south-westerly as far as Beziers,
or between Beziers and Narbonne — and you have
the district to the north of which the time Langue
d'Oc is no longer spoken in its purity. In this way
the little town of Montelimart is the point to which
Languedocian on the one hand, and Provencal on the
other, extend. Northward the varying shades of
dialect change with every parish and every com-
mune ; so that the familiar language of a peasant
inhabiting any given district would be with great
difficulty, and only partially, comprehended by a
peasant living ten miles to the north, south, east,
or west. In my daily rambles in the fields,
vineyards, and olive grounds of the south, I found
very many instances of labourers no more able either
to speak or comprehend French than they were
to discourse in Greek. These were generally
old men. Occasionally, however, and particu-
laily in the Camargue, I found young men

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

357

and boys equally ignorant. The greater pro-
portion of the peasants spoke French slowly and
imperfectly, mingling it with the jargon of their
mother tongue, and sometimes particularly in a
lengthened sentence, fairly breaking down, and
apologising with a good-humoured embarrassment
for being oljliged to have recourse to patois. As a
general rule, however, they understood French, par-
ticularly if you were careful to use only the clearest
and most practical thoughts, couched in plain and
homely language. About Nismes^oafoisisgenerally
spoken, even among the well-to-do people in the
town; and Nismes French is proverbially barbarous.
As a general rule, the patois of the south is said to
be excellent for the expression of common wants
and common feelings, but it is powerless to clothe in
words anything like an exalted sentiment or an
abstract idea. In the schools hereabouts instruc-
tion in French is generally communicated through
the medium of patois, and the clergy frequently
use it from the pulpit. I have been told by persons
well able to judge, that patois spoken by educated
people — that is, the more refined and elegantly and
smoothly pronounced versions of it— forms a very
beautiful language — sprightly, pathetic, and well
qualified to describe ordinary matters with a pecu-
liar richness and picturesqueness of idiom unknown
in pure French.

Soon after the beginning of the present century
some progress was made by the French Government
towards gathering materials for a philologic history
of the dialects of the language. The parable of the
Prodigal Son was selected, and directions were given
for its translation by competent authorities into
every dialect in France. I have before me the
returns made from the department in which I
write. They comprehend three distinct specimens
of patois — those of Valence, Die, and Nyons. I
copy the first two verses of each : —

PATOIS OF VALENCE.

Un home avio dous gargons. Lons plus djeune
diguet a son pere — Pere, bela me la part de bien que
me reven, et lou pere lioou diviset on bien.

PATOIS OF DIE.

Ero un homme qu'ovio doux efons. Lons plus
dzuene doou doux li dicet — Moun pere, beile me
ce' que pouo me reveni doou bien ; et sou pere Ion
fogae lou portadze.

PATOIS OF NYONS.

Un home avi dous gar^ons. Dounte Ion pu
jiouine digne a soun pere — Moun pere, douana me
Ion ben que me deou beni per ma part ; e lur fugue
Ion partagi de soun ben.

There are evidently slight differences in the
construction of the sentences in the translations,
arising probably from the differing genius of the
varying dialects. Pernicious and socially retarding,
however, as the existence oi patois is, matters seem
to have been immensely changed for the better since
the time of Louis Quatorze. A very curious letter
is extant, written by Racine to La Fontaine, giving
an account of a journey made by the former into
the south of France, and in which he states that
after passing Lyons he found himself entering a

region of unknown tongues. " I could neither,
writes the tragic poet, " understand, nor mak
myself understood ;" and he proceeds to give an
instance in which there is more humour than deli-
cacy. This is stated to have happened at Valence.
At present there seems no immediate chance of
French supplanting the local dialects, but the rising
generation are, as a general rule, learning both the
one and the other.

The costume of the people, with the exception of
that of the Dauphinese mountaineers, is in no way
remarkable. These last wear a species of tight-
fitting jacket or doublet, and breeches of coarse
home-spun cloth, with mighty worsted stockings
drawn up to the middle of the thigh. On their
heads they carry broad-brimmed felt hats. This
ancient fashion is, however, dying out, and with it
the rough country manufacturers of coarse sti'ong
cloth. The female peasantry often wear quilted
cloaks of strong calico. They look cold, but are
really warm and comfortable. As usual, cafes and
billiard-rooms abound in all the villages. I am
told — and the truth of the observation is, I have no
doubt, general — that they have been almost entirely
introduced by the habits carried back to their birth-
places by discharged soldiers, who cannot forego the
amusements of garrison towns. Fetes, called locally
vogues, are common. In the country each com-
mune has its festival anniversary. In the towns
each guild or trade corporation celebrates its rejoic-
ing day. When I was at Avignon the shoemakers
celebrated their annual saturnalia. A discordant
band — playing, by the way, the " Row Polka" as
its principal piece de resistance (the fact is very un-
romantic, but perfectly true) — took its way along
the streets on the eve of the festival, attended by
crowds of boys with torches. Next day a company
of neatly dressed young men and women, glittering
with rosettes and bouquets, and accompanied by the
primitive pipe and tabor, carried round baskets
of pain beni, which they distributed at the better
class of houses and shops, gaining a small gratuity
at each, to be spent in a ball at night. Altogether
the affair was modestly and pleasantly managed,
without the tom-fooleries and grossness of almost
the only remaining relic of such old usages in Eng-
land— the sweeps' observance of May day. In the
country, on the occasion of communal fetes, there
is a dinner, succeeded by games of skittles and bowls
for the elder and married men, and dancing for the
jeunes gens. I am concerned to be obliged to add
that the salle of the correctional police frequently
witnesses the unpleasant wind-up of the festivities.
In some districts New Year's-day is observed as
the " Fete of Labour." Before the Great Revolu-
tion this fete lasted three days. It is now reduced
to one, and is generally conjoined with a ploughing
match. At Montelimart this fete takes place upon
May-day. The custom has partly a religious bear-
ing— the labourers invoking the blessing of Heaven
on the growing crop, and going to hear mass, de-
corated with all manner of bouquets and favours.
The first Sunday of May is observed in many dis-
tricts as a sort of fete of flowers. A King and Queen
of the May are elected; and the rites observed much
resemble our old English festivities round the may-
pole. Contributions are levied upon these occa-

358

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

sions, Eton Montem fashion, from all by-passers —
the idea, according to a local legend, having been
taken fron a particular year in which, faute de mieux,
a very ugly girl was elected Queen of the May ; and
an ungallant passenger, so far from availing him-
self of the privilege of kissing the presiding goddess
of the festivities, was rich enough and rude enough
to offer a crown to be excused. The peasants
caught at the notion, and afterwards elected such
May Queens as were sure to bring in a handsome
revenue. The custom of paying, as in many other
places, continues long after the actual requirement
has passed away.

The educational statistics of the district contain
a curious feature or two. The number of children
receiving primary instruction amounts to about 18
per cent, of the population. Of these, one-half go
to school only in winter; and the number of
boysis double that of girls. In the highland districts
the nature of the country — so wild, roadless, bridge-
less, and thinly inhabited — prevents the children of
each commune from being gathered together under
a common master. The inhabitants of small dis-
tricts are, therefore, often obliged to raise a species
of subscription to pay a schoolmaster, who arrives
in the winter, and boards with each farmer alter-
nately, dispensing his instructions in the neigh-

bourhood in which he happens to be for the nonce
located. As may be supposed, the knowledge im-
parted by these poor people is of the humblest kind,
but it is better than none. At the autumnal fairs
in the hills, I am told that they still parade the mar-
ket-place, waiting to be hired for the winter, either
by one or a united body of farmers, distinguishing
themselves from the mob of farm servants by wear-
ing a goose's quill stuck in the bands of their hats.
The poor wretches, in fact, work like the bouviers
and valets deferme, and spend the long lone even-
ings in teaching their hosts to make pot-hooks and
hangers.

A sentence more about the rustic festivals to
which I have alluded. One unwilling hero fre-
quently cuts a conspicuous figure in the rout. This
is the man who during the by-past year has allowed
his wife to beat him publicly. I hear of no penalty
for those who are suspected of having undergone
the chastisement in private. The unlucky wight
in question is mounted upon an ass, with his face
to the tail, the animal being led by two men, their
necks encompassed by donkey's collars all jingling
with grelots. In some more merciful cantons a
curious vicarious penance is practised, the next-door
neighbour of the petticoat-governed gentleman being
the representative of his acquaintance.

ON THE TEETH OF HORSES AND CA'ITLE CONSIDERED ESPECIALLY AS

INDICATIONS OF AGE.

In answer to a letter from a correspondent asking
information concerning the means of judging of the
ages of horses and cattle by their teeth, I have pre-
pared the following paper, in the hope that it might
supply the required information, and also prove
of some interest to general readers.

The teeth are the hard, white, comparatively in-
sensible, bony-like structures, situated in the alve-
olar processes of the maxillary or cheek bones. In
most animals they consist of three different struc-
tures beautifully arranged to ensure the greatest
possible amount of strength and permanence — the
bone, ivory, or dentine constituting the great bulk
of a tooth, consisting of minute tubes, lying close
to, and interlacing each other, and immersed in gran-
ular matter ; the cnista petrosa or cementum, the
softest constituent of the tooth, the soonest worn
away, and employed for binding together the more
complex teeth, as the molars ; and the enamel, very
hard and crystalline in structure, scarcely organ-
ized, very indestructible, and applied over those
parts most exposed to wear.

Teeth consist of several different parts, which it
is important to distinguish. 1st. The crown or
upper part, which in the horse has two cutting
edges, and between them an irregular oval-shaped
ring of enamel, enclosing the softer dentine, which
is readily stained black by the food. This ring,
with its blackened centre, constitutes the date, in-

fundibulum, or marJc. 2nd. The neck, enclosed by the
gums, or fibrous material which fixes them to the
bones beneath. 3rd. The root or fang, of a more or
less triangular shape, fixed firmly into the hollows
of the bones, and which, by the gradual wearing
down of the crown or neck, comes nearer and nearer
to the surface, and in old horses is often the only
part of the tooth which is left.

There are found in the mouth of most of the do-
mesticated animals three different kinds of teeth —
incisors (or nippers), placed in the front part of the
jaws, intended for the prehension of food, very sim-
ple in their structure, provided with a sharp cutting
edge (in horses with two), and exemplified in the
front teeth of men or dogs; canine (tushes), situated
behind the incisors, curved, round, and pointed in
shape, and especially developed in carnivorous ani-
mals, as the dog, but also found in man and the
horse ; molars, located in the back part of the jaws,
consisting of several simple teeth cemented together,
presenting broad and irregular surfaces, adapted
for grinding or triturating the food, and seen in
greatest perfection in graminivorous animals, in
which from the nature of their food they are more
especially required.

But leaving these anatomical and physiological
details, with which I fear the agricultural reader is
already heartily tired, I now pass on to the more
practical parts of the subject.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

359

Tlie adult horse has forty'teeth, namely 12 incisors,
6 above and 6 below ; 4 canine, 1 on each side above
and below ; and 24 molars, 6 on each side above
and below. The mare has the same number of
incisors and molars as the horse, but has no canine
teeth. Both are provided with a set of temporary,
deciduous, or milk teeth, which make their appear-
ance at birth or shortly after, and become gradually
displaced as the animals approach maturity by teeth
of the permanent set. The colt has 24 temporary
teeth — 12 incisors, ti in each jaw above and below;
and 12 molars, three on each side above and be-
low.

It is often of much importance to ascertain the
age of a colt before he has got any of his permanent
teeth, and this maybe done with tolerable accuracy
by any one who knows the times at which the difter-
ent incisors appear, and the changes they subse-
quently undergo. At birth the two central incisors
in the lower jaw are usually cut ; but if not, they
appear in a very few days ; the coresponding ones in
the upper jaw are usually a little later. In a month
or five weeks, the two next above and below come
up, and before six months the two corner ones also.
By the time the animal is a year old, all the tem-
porary incisors are fully formed, and coming into
wear. When a year and a-half old, the central
teeth show marks of wear, become crooked, cor-
nered, uneven, and narrow at the necks, and the
gums grow up between them. When two years
old, all the temporary incisors are much worn,
have lost all remains of the date, and, owing to the
great enlargement of the jaws, are irregular and
widely separated by the gums. These temporary
incisors are distnguished from the permanent ones
by their small size, white colour, smooth, shining,
rounded appearance, and narrow necks.

When the colt is two and a-half years old, the
two central temporary incisors in the lower jaw are
forced out by the irruption of the two first perma-
nent incisors which come up in their places. They
are succeeded in a few days or weeks by the corres-
ponding couple in the upper jaw, in which the irrup-
tion of the teeth is generally a little later than below.
These central incisors are somewhat oval shaped,
are large and strong, and usually last longer than
any of the others, though they are tne first to ap-
pear, and are much exposed to tear and wear. With-
in a year, the next temporary incisors on either side
above and below are displaced by the growth of the
corresponding permanent ones ; and within another
year (when the animal is about four and a-half years
old) the temporary corner incisors are shed and
their places occupied by horse teeth. The corner
incisors are more triangular than the others, the date
is smaller but deeper (especially in the upper teeth),
and hence is longer in disappearing. When the

animal is five years old, all the incisors should be
fully grown, regular and even in appearance, and
coming equally into wear. After this, the age, as
judged of by the incisors, is known by the amount of
wear, the presence or absence of the date, and the
general shape and appearance. At six, the central
incisors of the lower jav/ have become considerably
worn, and the black mark or date is either entirely
gone, or very indistinct. Amongst the heavier
breeds, and those chiefiy kept on soft food, the ring
of enamel, however, is still perfectly seen, and even
the black marking within it may be so little erased,
that the animal might sometimes pass for year youn-
ger that he really is. But his true age can scarcely
be mistaken, if attention be paid to the wear of the
corner incisors and the tushes. At seven, the mark
is gone from the next pair of incisors, and at eight
from the corner ones ; and after this, the appearance
of the upper teeth must be noted. About ten, the
central incisors lose the date ; at eleven the next
pair ; and at twelve the corner pair. After this, the
age cannot be ascertained except with much practice
and experience, and never with so much certainty
as in younger animals. As age advances, the head
and sometimes the neck of the tooth are worn away,
and the root or fang is all that remains. The teeth
are consequently much straighter, and more pro-
jecting, triangular in shape, broader from before
backwards, than from side to side, dull and opaque,
covered with tartar, and yellow or brown in colour,
for the root is softer than the other parts of the
tooth, and hence more apt to be stained. The gums
and alveolar processes are shrunk, giving the teeth
a bare and unsupported appearance. After twelve
years, the extent of these changes is the chief means
of ascertaining the horse's age.

The canine teeth or tushes, of which there are
four in number, are the most crooked teeth in the
horse's head, are rounded, especially on their outer
surface, and turned inwards at the point. They
are coated externally with enamel, which gives them
a bright and polished appearance. In the horse,
they do not serve any very obvious purpose, except
to maintain the analogy between different classes of
animals. There are no temporary canine teeth. The
per manent ones appear between the fourth and fifth
year, usually nearer to the latter. They can only
be safely used as indications of age in connection
with other appearances, for their wearing is very ir-
regular, and much modified by the shape of the
mouth. In aged animals they become quite round
and blunt.

From the position of the molars, they are seldom
examined as criteria of age, and do not therefore re-
quire such lengthened notice as the incisors. They
consist of several simple teeth compacted together,
those in the upper jaw being made up of five, and

960

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

those in the lower of four separate parts. They are
nearly square, except the end ones of each row,
which are triangular. They are roughened on their
summits by ridges of enamel which run across the
teeth, and fit into corresponding depressions on the
opposing teeth,thus effectually perfecting the tritu-
ration of the food. In the upper jaw (which is larger
and projects over the lower), the outer edge of the
teeth in each row is deeper than the inner ; and in
the lower jaw the reverse obtains, namely, the inner
edge is deeper or higher than the outer. By this
simple arrangement, the food is easily and securely
retained betwixt the teeth, and prevented from being
thrown either into the mouth on the one side or the
cheek on the other.

In the adult horse there are twenty-four molars,
but there is also a deciduous crop of half that num-
ber. Two of these in each row above and below are
usually cut at birth, and in four or five weeks, the
third in each row is added. They are all small and
soft, and when the animal becomes dependent upon
its own resources for subsistence, it soon requires a
more extensive and eflScient grinding apparatus.
Accordingly when the animal is a year old, it gets
its first permanent molars, which are the fourth in
each row above and below. At two years old, the
fifth is also up. At three, the first temporary mo-
lar of each row is superseded by a permanent one ;
at four, the second in each row shares the same fate;
and at five, the third in the row is also replaced by a
permanent molar. About five years old, or a little
before it, the sixth molar in each row also appears,
and the animal having got its full complement of
teeth has, in the language of the stable, a full
mouth.

The abnormal appearances of the teeth of the
horse are produced in many different ways, some-
times by natural, and sometimes by artificial causes,
and occasionally by accident or disease. They dif-
fer, however, so much in their causes as well as in
their nature, that it is impossible to arrange them
methodically, and I shall not therefore attempt any
special system of arrangement.

Horses have sometimes supernumerary teeth,
which usually appear in the space between the mo-
lars and incisors, and are commonly called wolf's
teeth. These are of two sorts — 1st, temporary inci-
sor teeth, which have remained after the irruption of
the permanent ones, and are pushed by them either
to one side or directly outwards; as they usually in-
terfere with the biting of the horse, and are not firmly
fixed into the jaw, they should be extracted. Ind,
teeth partaking of the appearance of molars, and
situated midway between the incisors and molars ;
they are merely supernumeraries, but as they do no
harm, and are firmly fixed into the jaws, they should
not be meddled with. Shell teeth are incisors in

which the posterior or inner edge is thin and easily
worn away. In the early growth of such teeth, the
cavity is unusually large, and the date imperfectly
formed ; but the latter now becomes entirely obhte-
rated, and nothing remains but the outer shell of
the tooth, which usually makes a deep mark or
notch in the opposing tooth. The corner teeth,
which are never so perfectly formed as the others,
are most subject to this imperfection; which appears
to depend upon some constitutional cause, and
usually co-exists with extreme softness and brittle-
ness of all the other teeth.

One of the most common of the various tricks
employed to deceive the simple while judging of
the age of the horses, is the forcible extraction of
the temporary teeth, which causes the premature
appearance of the permanent ones. The usual
time for commencing the practice of this trick is
when the colt is eighteen months old. The central
incisors are then knocked out, or otherwise extrac-
ted, and whenever their places are occupied by per-
manent ones, the next two are removed, and after a
short interval, the two corner ones also. In this
way each pair of permanent incisors may be brought
forward a year before their natural time, and all of
them be up at four instead of five years old. The
lower jaw only is in general looked at, in judging of
the horse's age; but lest a cautious or suspicious pur-
chaser might chance to examine the upper one also,
the teeth in it are usually subjected to the same pro-
cess; while the gums are freely lanced so as to
hasten the appearance of the tushes. To detect
and expose this deception is sometimes a matter of
considerable diflBculty. In the male, the absence of
tushes or their small size may create suspicion ;
but in this, as in many other similar cases of doubt,
the examination of the molars is the best way of
arriving at a correct knowledge of the true age.

Every one who has had any thing to do with
horses has heard of bishopping, so called from the
gentleman who first brought the practice into no-
tice. For the benefit of the uninitiated, it may be
mentioned that it consists in reproducing as exactly
as possible the mark or date found on the summit
of the horse's incisors. This is effected by making
an oval indentation with a graving instrument, and
blackening the hollow with a hot iron or some
chemical substance. But even when executed in
the best of style, and by the cunning hand of a
Yorkshire horse dealer, it requires little examination
to distinguish the artificial date from the natural
one. No art can imitate the ring of white enamel
encircling and dipping into the hollow, and giving
it a bright polished appearance, and no hand is
sufficiently dexterous to form a date of the exact
shape, which nature alone can mould, with its oval
appearance, its anterior or outer edge perfectly

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

361

straight, its posterior or inner one perfectly rounded
and its corners sharp. The most successful imi-
tation falls far short of the original model, is rough
and irregular in appearance, round instead of oval,
without any difference in the curve of the anterior
and posterior margins, and with rounded instead of
sharp corners. There are some teeth which present
unusual facilities for bishopping, and on which the
operation is in consequence more frequently per-
formed. This is especially the case with shell teeth,
and with those in which the ring of enamel re-
mains after the black mark has been worn away — a
frequent occurrence in horses of the heavier breeds.
In these cases the deception may be detected by
the irregular appearance of the mark, and its being
too much blackened or more certainly, by examin-
ing all the incisors above and below ; for in most
cases, one or two pairs of the teeth are alone sub-
jected to the operation. Bishopping, however, is
now much less common than it once was, and is
chiefly confined to Yorkshire and the neighbouring
counties. In Edinburgh and most parts of Scot-
lane, a bishopped mouth is seldom seen.

There is often observed in old horses a mark re-
sembling the fading away of the true date, and
occasionally mistaken for it. This second mark, as
it is sometimes called, depends on the coming into
wear of the fang or root of the tooth, which once
contained the pulp, and which is now filled with
secondary dentine, of a kind very soft and easily
stained by thejuices of the food. But scarcely any
one who has ever examined the mouths of half-a-
dozen horses could mistake this second mark for
the true date. It is very irregular, almost perfectly
round, and not encircled by any ring of enamel, and,
farther, it occurs only in teeth having a very horizon-
tal position, lying very close over each other, tri-
angular in shape, yellow in colour, and with the
other characters of the teeth of a horse after fifteen
years old.

The teeth of the horse are little liable to disease.
Occasionally, as in the human subject, the irruption
of the teeth is attended with difficulty of mastication,
fever, weeping eyes, and redness of the nasal mucous
membranes ; but the disturbance is only slight
and of short duration. In horses, far more serious
inconvenience is often produced by irregularity of
the molar teeth, some of them projecting beyond
their fellows, andinjui-ing the gums and pdate with
which they come in contract. In the upper jaw
these asperities and prominences are most common
along the outer edge of the teeth, and in the lower
jaw along the inner edge ; while the posterior mo-
lar on either side below is very apt to grow higher
than the others, and do much injury. These irre-
gularities generally depend upon the upper jaw
slightly overlapping the lower, and the two sets of

teeth above and below not coming into direct op-
position. From the pain the animal experiences in
chewing, he either refuses to eat, or quids his food
partially chewed ; and whenever an animal is found
doing so, and without any acceleration of the pulse
or breathing, attention should at once be directed
to the teeth; they should be carefully examined by
the hand, which may be introduced into the mouth
with perfect safety, if the jaws be kept separate by
inserting betwixt them a metallic ring. Any irregu-
larities are easily removed by a rasp, which ought
to be slightly rounded, and attached to a long
handle. An undue growth of the incisors occasion-
ally occurs, produced, as in the molars, by the ir-
regularity of contact and wear of the opposing
teeth. When the incisors of the upper jaw project
over those of the under, the animal is said to be
parrot billed.

The incisors are occasionally broken, especially
along their outer edge. This may result from
various causes, as the natural softness and brittle-
ness of the teeth, from hard feeding, or pasturing
on heathy land, and is also often seen in crib-biters.
But the natural hardness and solidity of the
horse's teeth render fractures very rare and caries
still rarer, and hence the animal is fortunately al-
most exempt from the evils of tooth-ache. Occa-
sionally, however, disease attacks the fangs of the
molar teeth, and speedily involves the bones adja-
cent, causing swelling of the face, difficulty of masti-
cation, and quidding of food. In bad cases the thin
plates of bones separating the teeth from the max-
illary sinuses become absorbed ; matter accumu-
lates in these and the adjacent sinuses, and is
poured from the nostrils at irregular intervals,
forming a yellowish-white, flaky, fcetid discharge.
In such circumstances, the tooth must be carefully
cleaned out, and the diseased part removed ; or it
may at once be extracted with a pair of large for-
ceps.

Cattle of mature age have 32 teeth, namely, 8 in-
cisors, and 24 molars; they have no canine teeth.

There are two sets of incisors, a temporary and
a permanent, and there are 8 teeth in each set.
In cattle, and many other ruminating animals, the
incisors are only found in the lower jaw. In the
corresponding position above, there is a fibro-car-
tilaginous pad, against which the food is pressed
by the teeth, and thus cut, torn, and divided, and
so prepared for farther reduction by the molars.
The incisors of cattle diff'er in many respects from
those of the horse. They have a more horizontal
position, so as not to injure the soft cartilaginous
pad on which they move, are smaller and in every
way less bulky, and have only one cutting edge,
and no flattoned summit. Their anterior surfaces
arc smooth, shining, rounded, and devoid of

362

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

grooves ; their inner surfaces are less bright and
smooth, for the enamel is laid on them less thickly
than on the outside, and from their wearing more
rapidly, the cutting edge is always kept sharp.
Their necks and roots are small and triangular,
and hence the teeth stand wide apart, and are al-
ways loose. From their being enabled to yield
slightly, they are far less liable to fracture and con-
cussion, than if they were perfectly firm and im-
movable. The days have not long passed since
this natural looseness of the teeth of cattle was
generally considered as an indication of disease,
and attempts were often made to fix them more se-
curely, by placing a large piece of wood or an an-
vil under the animal's head and driving in the teeth
with a hammer.

The calf is born sometimes with four, and some-
times with six incisors : I think, however, that
Youatt says there are only two up at birth. The
number is certainly liable to some variation, ac-
cording to the length of the period of gestation :
but when the cow goes forty weeks with calf, the
number I have mentioned will usually be found,
and I have sometimes seen the whole eight incisors
cut at birth. In general they are all up when the
calf is a month old. They gradually become flat-
ter and more triangular, and widely separated from
one another. When the animal is eighteen months
old, the two central teeth are displaced by two per-
manent ones, which are fully up when the animal
completes its second year. At the close of each
suceeding year, two temporary teeth are removed,
and their places occupied by permanent ones, until
at five years the corner ones appear, and the ox has
then his full complement of eight permanent in-
cisors. When they first come up they are often
very crooked and irregular — but as they get more
room by the expulsion of the temporary teeth, and
the enlargement of the jaws, they gradually become
straight and symmetrical. The permanent incisors
are distinguished from the temporary ones by their
larger size, darker appearance, and wider necks.
There is some little variation in the times at which
the teeth of the different breeds of cattle appear —
those which come soonest to maturity getting their
teeth some weeks earlier than those of more back-
ward growth. The sort of food which the animals
receive also alters somewhat the time of the irrup-
tion of the teeth ; and if the temporary incisors be
either accidentally or purposely removed before
then- regular time, the permanent ones come up
sooner than they would otherwise do.

The molar teeth of cattle are of two kinds, tempo-
rary and permanent. There are twenty of the for-

mer and twenty-four of the latter, and both are ar-
ranged in four rows, one on either side above and
below.

At birth, or shortly after, the calf has three mo-
lars on either side above and below. These occupy
the first, second, and third places in each row. In
six or eight months, (he fourth temporary in each
row is up, and at twelve months the fifth also,
making in all twenty temporary molars. At this
time, the first temporary one of each row is forced
out by a permanent one which takes its place, and
at intervals of a year a temporary tooth is displaced
from each of the four rows, and its place occupied
by a permanent one. The first, second, third,
fourth, and fifth permanent molars in each row
thus appear respectively at the ages of one, two,
three, four, and five years ; and at six — a year later
than in the horse— the ox gets the sixth molar
tooth in each row, and has then a full mouth.
The permanent molar teeth of cattle are sma:ller
and more oblong than those of the horse, are very
I'ough and rugged, bemg crossed by prominent
ridges, and are dark coloured and of a metallic
lustre from the straining of the soft crusta petrosa.
The three anterior ones of each row are smaller than
the three posterior ones, and bear much resem-
blance to the incisors of the horse. It is somewhat
difficult to remember the time at which the different
sorts of teeth appear; but this is greatly facilitated
by making a diagram of them, and attaching to
each tooth the month or year in which it appears.
After looking once or twice at such a diagram, it
is easy to remember the time at which both inci-
sors and molars appear, whether in horses or cattle.

The teeth of sheep are similar in number and dis-
tribution to those of cattle. The incisors ( in pro-
portion to the size of the animal) are longer, more
convex, and more rounded anteriorly than those of
oxen. They have a sharper oval cutting edge, and
are farther projected, enabling the animal to crop
even the shortest herbage. This is further facili-
tated by the cartilaginous pad being placed farther
back than in cattle, and by the division of the upper
lip, both of which admit of the teeth being brought
into closer contact with the ground than in most
other animals. The molars are sharp and rugged, of
a dark appearance and metallic lustre. Both they
and the incisors appear in the same years as the cor-
responding teeth in cattle, but usually several
months earlier. The times of their irruption are
liable, however, to more variation than in cattle, and
often differ by several weeks in the different breeds
and under different methods of feeding and manage-
ment.— F. D.— North British Agriculturist.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

363

REAPING MACHINES.

We do not seem to be yet destined to hear the
last of the controversy on the subject of reaping ma-
chines. At Perth — in Yorkshire— at Cirencester —
and again in Cleveland, decisions on the merits of
the different competing implements are arrived at,
each at variance with its predecessor and each
other, and we are with another harvest left to de-
cide which is the best ; and whether any one is or
is not to be generally useful to the farmers occu-
pying ordinary farms, is a point by no means
settled. All the trials have certainly shown that
the mass of the implements brought forward are
very liable to get out of order, will choke up, will
throw themselves out of working order, and will
break two or three times a day. And yet we would
not on that account condemn them. It ought to
be remembered that the bulk of the reapers were
made at a time when there was no corn to test
them upon, and hence the alterations called im-
provements have in several cases turned out
failures, and have damaged instead of improving
the implements ; they have not strengthened the
working parts, and therefore the machine blocked
up and broke; and if they broke in a trial, in a
few hours' work, how was the poor farmer to be
situated who depended upon it to do the whole of
his reaping on his farm, if it then showed a similar
tendency ? He could not have blacksmith and car-
penter to attend it, to repair it, every day, or twice
a day. All these are circumstances which cer-
tainly prevent a final decision on the abstract
merits of the reaping machine as an agricultural
implement. The Economist, however, takes the
whole question as settled. It seems to start off
with an idea which might possibly be founded on
our remarks in a preceding Journal as to the rela-
tive cost of hand and machine reaping in particu-
lar cases, and says — " The saving in the cost of
reaping by the best machines is equal to 2s. upon
a quarter of wheat ; the average cost of reajnng in
an ordinary way is at least lis. for an acre. By
the best machines, with practised hands, the whole
cost does not reach 4s. an acre, being a saving of
7s., which, divided by the average production, is
about 2s. per qr. Again, independent of the su-
perior quality of the work, and the great advantage
of dispatch, the saving by thrashing by the new
machine cannot be computed at less than 2s. per
qr. — some put it higher. Here then, in reaping
and thrashing only, we have a saving of 4s. per
qr. by an economy of production which is a gain
to all, a loss to none."

Now, accurate as may be many of the figures of
the Economist, it would be a great mistake to allow
this tissue of errors to go forth at the present mo-
ment. He takes for granted the whole of the un-
settled questions relative to the machine and its
results, and then bases on the whole an unfounded
assumption. We fear neither the data nor the con-
clusions are correct.

In the first place, which is the best machine ?
Until this be settled, no conclusion as to the pre-
cise saving can be at all arrived at — nay, all at-
tempts to do so are utterly worthless. Then, to how
very few of the acres of corn in the kingdom will
the rule apply, admitting it to be correct ! A saving
of 7s. per acre is, however, quite impossible. There
are thousands of acres of standing corn— the only
corn on which the machine can be efficiently
worked — harvested at a cost of no more than seven
shillings. We have this year let some of the largest
crops we ever saw, embracing from 45 to 48 bushels
per acre, at seven and sixpence.

But there is a great variety of circumstances
necessary to render the reaping machine at all
available. Little as the trials have decided that can
lead us to certainty as to their operations, they cer-
tainly have settled this much — that, to be efficient,
the crop must be standing. We doubt not that
they will cut laid or lodged corn— that is quite pos-
sible ; but, it will not so cut it that it will be fit for
tying or properly harvesting. Then, if there be any
weeds (and there are few districts in the country
where more or less do not grov/), the machine will
soon be at fault — will choke up, and be useless.
Again, if the land is not level, there will be
difficulty in making it work in a satisfactory
manner; and the corn must be thoroughly dry; and
a wet clay soil will clog the wheels.

Now, on how many acres of the country can all
these requirements be at all times available ? On
some, never. We are therefore under the necessity
of completely denying the two great facts of the
Economist — assumed, as a matter of course, and
quite fallacious — that either a best machine was
found at all, or one which could save anything like
seven shillings per acre ; nor could its application,
as at present, be at all general. While we hail the
machine as a great boon ; while we believe it may
be useful when improved and adapted to our crops;
while we think it quite probable it may be partially
useful — and this is a great deal — we cannot endorse
one opinion nor one conclusion of the Economist,
for both the one and the other are erroneous in the

364

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

extreme, and calculated to mislead those who are
not practically acquainted with the subject.

We may just, in reference to the question of the
best machine, allude to a few of the most important
trials. The first was at Tiptree, under the auspices
of the jury of the Great Exhibition. It is declared
by the American Minister that it was fairly tried.
There M'Cormick's machine carried off the medal.
A second trial followed at Middlesboro', and the
jury unanimously, and it could admit of no ques-
tion they were then and there right, reversed the
decision, and awarded it to Hussey. The York-
shire Agricultural Society tried it at Sheffield before

highly competent judges, and again reversed it,
giving the prize to M'Cormick. The Driffield
Farmers' Club had another trial, in a district, of all
others, favourable to the reaping machine, and
again confirmed the decision in favour of M'Cor-
mick. The Highland Society threw out both the
one and the other, and decided in favour of one of
Bell's; while the Cleveland Agricultural Society,
the other day, after a very patient trial, gave again
their verdict at Guisboro' in favour of Hussey's
machine. Who can yet say which of them is the
best ? — Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal.

BRIDGENORTH INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS AND GARDENS.

Eive or six years ago the Guardians of the
Bridgenorth Poor-law Union determined upon esta-
blishing an industrial school for the childi'eu that
might come under their care. The plan was
warmly supported and assisted by W. Wolryche
Whitmore, Esquire, of Dudmaston ; and as in-
struction in household duties for girls, and in agri-
cultural labour for boys, was considered most expe-
dient, a house and a few acres of laud were taken
for the purpose, in the parish of Quatt, between
three and four miles distant from Bridgenorth.
Owing to circumstances not necessary to state, the
establishmeut, about a twelvemonth ago, ceased to
belong exclusively to the Bridgenorth Union, and it
is now denominated "The South-cast Shropshii-e
School." Children from other places are admitted,
but the master and the system of instruction con-
tinue the same. The land taken in the first instance
was about four acres of arable, and half an acre of
meadow laud ; there is now attached to the school
nine acres of arable and three acres of meadow land.
The boys cultivate the laud, attend to the cows, pigs,
&c., and the girls are instructed in household work,
sewing, baking, wasliing, and the dairy. The after-
noons are wholly devoted to industrial labour, and
the mornings chiefly to school instruction, in which
the attainments of the children are very superior to
those of most workhouse schools where no training
exists. The number of children is fluctuating, but
often considerable (sometimes 60 or more) ; it is
uot, however, an object to get rid ol: them as soon
as possible, but to give them such an industrial
training as may remove habits of idleness and inca-
pacity, which are productive of future pauperism,
and to facilitate the means of a permanent and inde-
pendent livelihood when they leave the school. The
nine acres of arable laud are cultivated by the spade,
and the crops upou it ai-e mangold wurzel, swedes,
carrots, rye grass, cabbage, and potatoes ; the whole
of which — (potatoes, as elsewhere this year ex-

cepted)— are abundant. The average weight of the
crops are stated to have been, as near as may be, as
follows : — Cabbage, 50 tons per acre ; carrots, 20 to
25 tons ; Swedes .30 tons ; mangold wurzels, 30 to
40 tons ; and potatoes, 300 bushels of 901bs., or
more than twelve tons. It is worthy of note, how-
ever, that this large produce is owing to the quantUy
of liquid manure ajipliecl to the laud, which is derived
from the drains of the house, together with all the
refuse matter suitable for the purpose, collected in
one large cesspool constructed to receive it, whence
it is drawn out in pails as it is required. Five or
six cows are kept, and a considerable quantity of
butter is sold. Pigs are rared and sold. The articles
supplied to the school are, of course, taken credit
for in the school account. The rent is about £2 10s.
per acre, to which is to be added interest of money
expended in erecting the cowhouse, shed, tank,
and enclosing and draining, and also the rates and
otlier charges. In several years a profit had been
made, but the expenses attendant upou bringing the
increased quantity of laud into order will, it is sup-
posed, prevent this from being the case for the pre-
sent and succeeding year. But it is not in this shape
that a return is looked for; the object is, by im-
planting habits of industry in the children of pau-
pers, and by imparting instruction, to place them in
a position to obtain an independent subsistence, and
thus prevent, as far as possible, any falling back into
the position of their parents. In one word, the
great end and aim of the establishment is, "de-
pauperisation." On Friday last an educational ex-
amination of the boys and gii'ls in the establishmeut
took place, which attracted a distinguished company,
principally frum the immediate neighbourhood.
Among the ladies and gentlemen present were W.
W. Whitmore, Esq., Dunmastou Hall ; the Very
Rev. Dr. Dawes, Dean of Hereford ; Jclinger C.
Symons, Esq., Her Majesty's Inspector of Schools ;
Henry Wliitmore, Esq., of Apley, M.P., and Ladyj

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

365

Lady Louisa Whitmovc aud family ; Joseph Anstice
aud Lady, Coalbrookdalc ; Thomas Pardoe Purtou,
Esq , aud family, Paintree Hall. The examination
took place in a large room attached to tlie premises ;
'21 boys and 13 or 11 girls taking their places for
the purpose of beiug questioned by the examiners,
who were tlie llev. Dr. Dawes, Dean of Hereford,
aud tlio Rev. G. Bellett. Mr. W. W. Whitmore
then said : — " As this is the first annual meeting
since the formation of the district school, and as
many may not understand the system, I shall ventxxre
to make a few remarks before beginning the exami-
nation. Our school is industrial. The boys work
in the field ; the girls do the household \vork ; that
is, they wash, sew, scour, iron, bake, and as far as
our simple kitchen goes, cook. The boys eullivate
nine or ten acres of land by the spade ; they have
one labourer to assist them, but all the rest of the
work is done by them, including the feeding of pigs
and cows. There are two classes of objections we
are likely to meet with in this system : one, that we
do not impart so much knowledge as is given in
f)tlier schools ; the other, that we impart too much,
aud thereby tend to impair the qualifications of the
children for the harder aud more laborious walks of
life. Both have been alleged in relation to this
school. In answer to the first, I should say we can-
not expect to store the memory of children that pass
half their day in work with so much knowledge as
if the whole of theu" time were devoted to learning.
But I am of opinion that what we do teach, we
teach more thoroughly ; that the intellect aud reason-
ing powers arc strengthened by their work, just as

tlieir health is improved, aud their- physical power
more fully developed. The latter objection is, how-
ever, more frequent and more formidable. If wo
spoiled the children as labourers, we should do great
harm, but I think we do not ; I should be somewhat
afraid of great apparent learning for the working
class, if it were superficial and uncombined with
regular habits of industry ; but so combined, I ap-
prehend you may give a considerable amount of
useful knowledge. With respect to the boys, as
yet we have not so active a demand, but I have no
fear of their remaining long on baud. That they
work well is, I think, proved by two or three facts I
will mention. On the first formation of the district
school, and the addition of six acres of land to what
we previously cultivated, Mr. Garland estimated that
three boys per acre able to dig would be required ;
we have, however, never had much more than half
that number ; that is, our gang has never exceeded
from 12 to 15 in lieu of 30, and yet the ground has
been cidtivated in a most satisfactory manner. There
is nothing wasted or unoccupied in it : no sooner is
one crop off than another is put in its place. Manure,
especially in a liquid form, has been liberally applied,
aud no weeds are to be seen. Were it not that two
of our crops have failed, from causes against which
no caution or labour could guard— our potatoes and
carrots — the one from that fearful disease which
seems to menace permanently the futm-e use of this
i valuable root, the other from wireworm, we should,
I think, have been able to exhibit our ground
against any other of similar extent, however culti-
vated."— Morning Post.

CALENDAR OP HORTICULTURE.

Plant-Houses.
It is now quite time to get green-house and conserva-
tory plants of all sorts housed in their winter quarters —
choose a fine day for the operation, and let the plants be
perfectly dry ; take off all decayed leaves, tie up strag-
gling growths, root out weeds, and, if necessary, give the
plants a top-dressing. If the conservatory has had a
thorough revision, such as cutting-in climbers, forking-
up borders, &.C., the most desirable plants should be se-
lected to make good all deficiencies in that house, but
be careful to avoid overcrowding. Large plants in pots
may, with great advantage, be sunk into the border ;
overcrowding must also be avoided in every other struc- j
ture where plants are stored for the winter. It is far
better at this season to throw away the worst of the
stock than run the risk of injuring the best plants. Fa-
vourite sorts will be better replaced by young plants in
the spring. In arranging the plants in the mi.xed green-
house, some regard must be paid to the state of the
growth of the plants at the time of housing, as it is

not to be expected that all will be gone to rest alike ; oil
the contrary, some will still be growing, and in that case
they will require to have the best situations selected for
them, so that they can get a good supply of sunlight and
air, to perfect the growth, after which the quantity of
water must be gradually lessened ; but observe that with
hard-wooded plants there is a point beyond which water
must not be withheld. In fact I may here observe, that
with such plants, watering, for the next four or five
months, will be the most important operation connected
with them. They are, or soon ought to be, in a state of
rest, and of course require no more water than is neces-
sary to preserve their vitality ; and it is their artificial
condition, by having the roots confined in a pot, which
renders this the more difficult, because, under such cir-
cumstances, the equability of temperature about the
roots, so necessary to their well-being, cannot be kept
up, and not only varies with the changes of temperature
to which the circumfluent atmosphere is subject, but in
conseciuence of tho porosity of the pots, moisture is con-

2 B

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tiaually escaping from the roots, which is an artificial
condition. The greatest safeguard is the most perfect
drainage. If the water passes freely though slowly away,
the plant is safe ; if it stagnates, there is danger. I like
a plant, even in a perfect state of rest, to want water
once a-week. Of course these remarks apply to hard-
wooded plants ; with such as are of a more succulent
nature, a much greater latitude may be taken, and any-
thing short of positive dryness will not injure them.
There is another point to be attended to in arranging the
plants, which is, to take care that such plants as Les-
clienaultias, Aphelexes, Polygalias, Boronias, Pimeleas,
Crowseas, Dracophylums, are not so placed as to be sub-
jected to any cold and cutting draughts of wind, which
we may now soon expect. It is a good plan to keep
such like plants at one end by themselves, so that they
may only have a free circulation of air in calm fine
weather.

Forcing-Houses.

Pineries. — As the influence of the sun becomes lessen-
ed, the interior temperature must be gradually lowered.
Air, however, must be carefully admitted, according to
external circumstances. Open the ventilators as early as
possible in the morning, and close early, so as to shut
up plenty of solar heat. Stir up the surface of the bed
of plunging materials, and syringe over it and about the
lower parts of the plants, but by no means over-head.
The bottom heat may be allowed to decline a point or
two for the succession plants, but fruiters will require
to have it maintained from 85 to 90 deg. A drier at-
mosphere in general must now be aimed at, in order to
assist the plants which have made their growth to go to
rest for a time.

Vineries. — Continue to pay every attention to the
late houses carrying fruit, as their greatest enemy at this
time is a damp atmosphere. Fires must be occasionally
lighted, taking care at the same time to admit air libe-
rally, otherwise too much heat will induce the berries to
shrivel. Keep all decaying berries constantly cut out.

Peach-Houses, — The whole of these will now have the
wood well ripened, and the leaves may be all brushed off,
and the shoots loosened from the trellis. If the practice has
been to remove the lights for a month or two, it may be
done at once, but I do not advocate the practice ; still,
I would let down the moveable lights, and take off the
ropes, and open all the front ventilators. Take an early
opportunity to put the houses in thorough repair, but
leave the whitewashing until they are closed.

Pits and Frames. — Great care must be used to keep
up a kindly bottom-heat to Cucumbers, whether ob-
tained from pipes or by means of fermented dung. Let
them be double-matted at night, but open early, and
give a little air to dissipate stagnated moisture. Melons
will also require a kindly bottom-heat, but care must be
had to keep a tolerably dry atmosphere about them, or
else they will be little better than gourds,

Flower-Garden,
Many things to supply the wants of another season

still remain to be propagated, and amongst them I would
recommend that a nice place should be selected under a
north wall, filled with light porous soil, and a few hand-
lights to be placed thereon, to be filled with cuttings of
the different varieties of Calceolarias for bedding-out,
such as Kentish Hero, Kayii, Viscosissima, Sultan, An-
gustifolia, Rugosa, and Thyrsiflora : they will only re-
quire protection in very severe weather, and will furnish
a most abundant supply of plants next year. Put in
more store pots of Verbenas — the smallest cuttings we
best, two joints being plenty. Use plenty of silver sand
— I never had a finer stock of bedding stuff than this
year, and the whole were struck and preserved through
the winter in silver sand alone, with good drainage, and
a layer of moss to prevent the sand from percolating
away. Strict attention to neatness is very desirable at
this season, when we are naturally anxious to prolong
the beauty of the flower garden. Continue, therefore,
the constant removal of all decaying matter, as well as
staking and tying all autumn flowering plants. Pay
attention to late-budded Roses, by the removal of band-
ages, and slightly shortening top-heavy plants. Cuttings
of Chinese, Hybrid, Bourbon, and many perpetual
roses may now be put in under handlights, in the shade
of a north wall, or they may be put in store-pots, and
kept through the winter iu a cold pit.
Kitchen Garden.
Continue the earthing-up of Celery whenever the foli-
age is dry. Thin-out late Turnips, and make a sowing
in light soil to come on in the spring. Sow Radishes
and small salading for late purposes. Tie up Endive and
Bath Cos Lettuce for blanching, but be sure to do so
only when they are perfectly dry. Plant out a good
breadth of Cabbage for early spring use, and prick out
the last sowing thickly in nursery beds . Prick out the
seedling plants of Walcheren and other Cauliflowers, in
frames, and select, enrich, and trench-up a nice piece
for hand-lights, to be planted in about a fortnight or
three weeks since. Manure and trench-up all vacant
ground, laying it up as rough as possible. Keep the
surface-soil well stirred amongst all advancing crops,
such as Spinach, autumn Cabbage, and the Brassica
tribe generally. Sow a few Carrots in a sheltered situ-
ation, and before sowing prick in a layer of quick lime.

ROPY BEER.

lu reply to a query for the cure of ropy beer, we have re-
ceived tlie follovviug answers : —

" M. J. K." advises, for a vessel of 36 gallons, the simple
remedy of suspending, midway of the barrel of beer, 2 oz. of
flour of mustard from the bung-hole, in a fine muslin bag.

" W. D." writes as follows : — For a vessel of 50 gallons, take
a quarter of a pound of mustard, mixed with beer, and a large
handful of hyssop : tie to the hyssop a stone, to keep it about
half-way down in the barrel ; and also a piece of struig which
should be carried through the bung-hole, and attached to a
weight on the top of the barrel : stir it well with a stick for a
quarter of an hour ; bung it down close, and it will be ready
for use in 10 days.

" E. B." says. Take a bunch of hyssop, about the size of the
bung-hole, tie it with string, long enough to sink halfdotvn the
cusk, is sure to cure iu a few days.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

SOT

METEOROLOGICAL DIARY.

Barometek.

Thermometer, i Wind and State.

Day.

8 a.m.

in. cts.

. io;.24

30.24

25

29.98 1

26

30.01 1

27

30.11 1

28

30.11

29

30.01

30

30.03

31

30.04

ept. 1

30.10

2

30.21 1

3

30.21

4

30.13 1

5

30.06 1

6

29,98

7

29.97 '

8

29.98 '

9

29.95

10

29.90

11

29.84

12

29.88

13

29.93

14

29.94

15

29.62

16

29.65

17

29.84

18

29.62

19

29.27 1

20

29.64 !

21

29.62 1

22

30.35

10p.m.

in. cts.
30.08
29.98
30.04
30.12
30.02
30.02
30.03
30.07
30.19
30.20
30.16
30.10
29.97
29.98
29.94
30.00
29.90
29. 80
29.88
29.92
29.94
29.83
29.40
29.86
29.83
29.28
29.64
29.52
30.20
30.14

Min. Max.

58
58
60
59
58
60
57
53
54
49
52
55
58
58
56
58
57
59
56
50
49
50
50

39
44
55
49
46
37

70
72
70
76
74
73
67
66
69
71
71
70
71
67
66
64
65
65
66
66
68
62
56
60
58
62
56
60
58
60

10p.m.

60
63
62
64
62
60
56
55
59
58
61
61
61
59
59
60
60
60
54
55
56
54
50
45
48
56
53
50
44
51

Direction.

S. Westerly
JW. by South
|S. Easterly
E. by North
S. or by W.
Westerly
S. West
S. West
S. S. W.
N. W., var.
S. East
S. Easterly
S. E., S. W.
N. West
Every way
Easterly
N. by East
N. by East
■N. West
N. N. W.
W. N.W.
W. N. W.
'S. by West
N.byE.byW
N.E., E. by S
.Sthly., S.byW,
In. Westerly
S. Westerly
|Westrly.,N.W
West by N.

Force.

gusty

Ivly. St.

Ivly. St.

Ivly. St.

lively

gentle

lively

lively

lively

gentle

gentle

gentle

calm

gentle

calm

brisk

brisk

Uvely

lively

gentle

gentle

verygl.

gentle

gentle

gentle

lively

calm

breath

varibl.

gentle

Atmosphere.

8 a.m.

cloudy
cloudy
cloudy
loudy
fog
fine
fine
fine
cloudy
fine
haze
fog

fog

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

fine

fine

fine

cloudy

cloudy

fine

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

fine

2 p.m. 10p.m.

Weath.

cloudy

sun

sun

sun

sun

sun

sun

sun

sun

sun

sun

sun

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

sun

sun

sun

sun

cloudy

sun

sun

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

'cloudy

fine

fine

fine

fine

fine

fine

fine

fine

fine

fine

fine

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

fine

fine

fine

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

cloudy

fine

fine

fine

cloudy

fine

fine

fine

shower
drv
drf
dry
dry
dry
dry
dry
rain
dry
dry
dry
rain
rain
rain
ram
rain
dry
dry-
dry
dry
dry
rain
dry
dry
rain
rain
rain
rain
[dry

ESTIMATED AVERAGES OF SEPTEMBER.

Barometer. ', Thermometer.

High. I Low. High, i Low I Mean.
30.410 I 29.410 : 70 I 36 | 57.8

REAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF THE PERIOD.

Highest. I Lowest. I Mean.

65.66 I 52.80 j 59.073

Weather and Phenomena.

August 24 — Rapid change ; smart shower, soak-
ing the corn in shock. 25— Lunar halo ; calm
evening. 26 — Cheerful harvest day. 27— Fine;
hot sun; lively drying air. 28 — Fine harvest day,
jsfter haze. 29 —Warm sunny day. 30 — Cooler,
with lively air. 31 — A few drops; weather becomes
more settled ; corn harvest nearly completed.

Lunation. — Full moon, 20th day, 3 h. 6 m.
afternoon.

September 1 — Cloudy masses, elevated; clearing;
a few drops. 2 — Brilliant, after morning haze.
3 — Splendid. 4 — Fine ; masses and stratus clouds.

5 — A rainbow in East. 6 — Changeable; heavy
clouds, and wet night. 7 — Gloom; thunder
clouds ; rainy night. 8 — Improved ; one shower.
9 — Thunder early; much rain; fine evening, 10 —
Forcible east wind ; mist ; soft and mild as western
breezes. 11,12 — Both fine and sunny days. 13 —
Heavy clouds ; alternate gleams. 1 4 — Fine morn-
ing; dark cirro-stratus clouds at sunset. 15 —
Showers; very chilly. 16 — Fine drying day;
luminous northern horizon on both nights. 17 —
Strong dew; cold morning; sunny day. 18 —
Soaking rain for hours ; lull at sunset. 19— Over-
cast ; drizzle. 20 — Nearly calm ; close ; superb
rainbow. 21 — Hint of rain; cold and cheerless;
fine, after glowing red sunset. 22— Frosty dew;
warm sun; balmy and beautiful day. Equinox
at 9 h. 41 m. in the evening. Hybernal indication,
may be a fine and quiet season, perhaps rather
keen, but undisturbed by storms.

Lunation. — Last quarter, 6th day, 6 h. 34 m.

2 B 2

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

afternoon. New moon, 13th day, lOh. 38m. after-
noon. First quarter, 20th day, 1 h. 17 m. after-
noon.

Remarks connected with Agriculture.
— Our harvest may be said to have been concluded
in the first week of the ninth month. The home-
steads and rick-yards make a great display ; but,
as some adverse circumstances occurred, it would

be premature to hazard assertions as to quality and
bulk of grain. The roots and green crops are very
promising, and the winter supply of fodder is likely
to prove ample. Hops appear to be very superior,
and the now fine weather is highly favourable, I
regret the blank in the table of temperature f^he
figure may be estimated at 40' min.

Croydon, Sept. 23rd. J. Towers^''

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT
FOR SEPTEMBER.

Harvest work having been generally concluded
in England, we are now in a position to write in
more definite terms in reference to the produce of
the crops. In the first place, it is obvious that
many severe losses have been siistained by the
wheat growers in the whole of the forward districts,
arising from the heavy rains which fell during the
month of August, and the protracted period to
which the harvest was pi'olonged, owing to the nu-
merous interruptions experienced in securing the
grain. We speak within bounds, when we observe
that nearly one-third of the wheats have been
stacked in bad condition, and that the loss of good
saleable parcels has exceeded one million quarters.
Prior to the commencement of last month, the
prospect presented by the fields was unusually pro-
mising, and, had the weather continued propitious,
very little doubt was entertained that the yield
would have proved quite equal to last season. As
it is, we incline to the opinion — after making due
allowance for losses by mildew, blight, &c. — that
nearly, or quite, an average quantity has been
grown. Many parties appear to consider that, as
the stocks of old wheat are now exhausted, and
that as our markets must of necessity be very mo-
derately supplied with fine new wheats for some
considerable period, prices are likely to advance ;
but they must bear in mind that the produce of the
crops north of the Humber has turned out much
better than in the south, and, further, that the yield
both in Ireland and Scotland is good. Open ports
forbid the possibility of scarcity; hence, it is evident
that any improvement in present rates is wholly
out of the question. An unusually large crop of
barley has been grown ; indeed, with very few ex-
ceptions, it is by far the best ever recollected. Oats
are, likewise, turning out well; but both beans and
peas, especially the former, are very deficient. Up
to the present time, the quantity of grain thrashed
out is small ; yet it is sufficiently large to afford us
a full opportunity of fairly testing its weight and
condition.

Numerous conflicting statements have reached
us on the subject of the potato crop. Many of the
growers have asserted that the losses from disease
are unusually heavy ; others, that they are com-
paratively small. That disease is to be met with to
some extent in some districts is evident ; but we
must not forget the important fact that the extent
of land under culture this season is very large ;
hence, it is probable — as was the case last season —
that we shall have a larger supply of potatoes for
winter use than has been anticipated. Up to the
middle of August — about which time the haulm
commenced decaying — the latter sorts continued
unusually small in size ; but it is gratifying to
observe that, since that period, they have progressed
rapidly. The numerous samples submitted to our
notice from Essex, Kent, &c., within the past fort-
night, lead us to hope that the aggregate growth
will be quite an average one. From abroad about
100 tons have reached us ; but we have every
reason to know that the total imports in the course
of the winter will be comparatively small. The
prices paid for Regents have varied from 85s. to
100s. ; Shaws, 75s, to 95s. ; and other sotrs, 35s.
to 60s. per ton.

The growth of fruit has proved a most abundant
one. In the cider districts apples are exceedingly
abundant and cheap. On all hands it is ad-
mitted that the turnip and carrot crops are proving
large ; in fact, we never recollect to have seen them
heavier than at present. The quotations are, there-
fore, ruling low. An immense quantity of pasture-
grass is to be met with in each of our leading
counties, and the produce of the second cut of both
meadow and clover hay has exceeded all previous
calculations ; hence the supplies now on hand are
fully equal to 1851. Prices have fluctuated to some
extent, a considerable rise having taken place in
them at the commencement of the month; but they"
have since receded to about their former level.

Hop picking has progressed rapidly in Sussex,
Kent, and elsewhere. Very large supplies of hops
have appeared in the Borough, and been partly
disposed of, at comparatively low prices. As the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

growth is unusually large, the duty has been esti-
mated as high as frora £245,000 to £250,000,
against £110,000 to £115,000 last year. It is
thought, however, that it is backed too high ; yet,
on the other hand, hops have come down well, and
of good colour.

The growth of seeds has been rather an abundant
one ; but the demand for the new crop has hitherto
been confined to actual wants. At one time winter
tares commanded a high, but it has since given way
materially. The imports of linseed during the pre-
sent year will be little short of 400,000 quarters ;
yet crushers in general have purchased rather ex-
tensively, and prices have been well supported.
The use of cake is evidently not increasing, and
hence we have had to remark upon the unusually
bad condition in which the stock has been received
up to the various markets. No doubt, if time had
been permitted, we should have seen an improve-
ment in it ; but the prevailing fashion of disposing
of both beasts and sheep prematurely ripe, operates,
in our opinion, against not only the graziers' in-
terests, but likewise the produce of the land.

In Ireland and Scotland agricultural affairs are
comparatively prosperous. Both store and fat
stock has commanded remunerative prices, and the
crops in general have been secured in fair condi-
tion.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE
DURING THE PAST MONTH.

Notwithstanding that the quantity of stock on
most farms is quite equal to former seasons, com-
paratively high prices have been paid for store ani-
mals during the whole of the month. The plenti-
ful supply of pasture food, and the favourable state
of the weather, have induced great firmness on the
part of the owners of lean beasts and sheep, whilst
the late advance in the value of fat stock has induced
great caution on the part of buyers, under the impres-
sion that present currencies are not safe. It has been
a pretty general subject of remark that the con-
sumption of animal food is considerably larger than
at any period within the memory of man, even
though emigration is increasing. That the ship-
ment of some thousands of our population is cal-
culated to produce a better demand for each kind
of food, and consequently afTord a better return to
the producers, is very apparent. For instance, how
many of those who have lately found their way to
Austraha, Canada, and the United States were ever
good customers either to the baker or butcher?
And is it not well known that, in many districts,
we have been suffering from a redundancy of la-
bour ? The exodus, then, so far from diminishing
the demand for the necessaries of life, is likely to
improve it to an important extent, because labour

is now likely to meet its reward, and every inhabi-
tant of these islands has the reasonable prospect
before him of enjoying an additional supply of good
food, so essential to existence. Again, every vessel
sailing from our shores must be supplied with
beef, pork, bread, &c., for consumption on the
voyage; and this, be it observed, is no trifling item
taken in the aggregate. Fluctuations in prices
will, of course, continue ; but our decided impres-
sion is that we shall never again see so low a range
in the value of either beasts or sheep as ^was the
case during the greater portion of 1851.

The lean condition of most of the beasts derived
from the northern districts for the metropolitan
market has been productive of many inquiries res-
pecting the cause. Since the commencement of
the season, at least a moiety of them have arrived
in very middling condition, and sold at correspond-
ing quotations. We attribute this deficiency of
condition solely to the long drought experienced
during the early part of the present year, and the
unusually small quantitities of oilcake consumed
upon most farms. The falling off in the supply of
rough fat has not been without its effect upon the
Tallow market, the prices of which have risen 2s.
per cwt-, with a fair chance of the holders obtain -
ing even higher rates.

With the exception of Monday, the 27th, on
which day not less than 6,286 beasts were brought
forward, and which were with difficulty disposed of
at a reduction of 4d. per 8lbs., the general demand
in Smithfield has ruled steady, but the salesmen
have had to encounter immense imports from
abroad in fair average condition, and which, in
many instances, have changed hands at low figures.
As it appears necessary to give the value of foreign
stock, we may intimate that the Dutch beasts have
sold at from 2s. to, in some instances, 3s. 4d.i
sheep, 2s. 4d. to 3s. Sd. ; lambs, 3s. 6d. to 4s. 6d.;
calves, 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d.; and pigs. Is. lOd. to 2s.
2d. per Slbs. The shipping season from the con-
tinental ports will soon be over; but, owing to the
great facilities afforded by steam communication,
we shall doubtless continue to receive small sup-
plies during the winter months. We perceive that
some newspaper reports refer to large numbers of
Spanish sheep having been sold in Smithfield this
season; but we may observe that not a single
importation has taken place from Spain since
June, 1851. Merino sheep have come to hand
from Hamburgh every week since the beginning of
March ; but we are not likely to receive any further
supplies either from Corunna or Santander, from
whence they are usually shipped. It is somewhat
remarkable that nearly the whole of the foreign
stock imported into London is on account of Jews,
some of whom sell a portion themselves in the

THE FARMER*S MAGAZINE.

370

market, and distribute the remainder amongst the
regular salesmen, who charge the same amount of
commission as upon English stock ; whilst we have
not heard of a single transaction for grazing pur-
poses, the whole of the beasts, sheep, lambs, calves,
and pigs having passed direct into the hands of the
butchers for slaughtering purposes. Although the
value of stock, as well as of food, in Holland
is higher now than it has been for a series of years
past, and no important rise has taken place in it here,
we understand that a large profit — certainly equal
to from 12 to 15 per cent, — continues to be reahzed
by the importers. As the stock in general con-
tinues to " die" well— i. e., carry a full average
quantity of internal fat— very little difficulty has
been experienced in finding purchasers for it.

The imports into London have beeu as under: —

Head.

Beasts 6,619

Sheep 34,759

Lambs 1,132

Calves 2,388

Pigs 1,847

Pigs.

1994

752

528

55

270

The total supplies shewn in the metropolitan
market — including those given above — are as
follows : — Head.

Beasts 24,911

Cuws 490

Sheep and lambs 148,680

Calves 2,924

Pigs 2,980

COMPARISON OF SUPPLIES.

Sept. Sept. Sept. Sept.

1848. 1849. 1850. 1851.

Beasts 21,714 19,868 22,212 23,007

Cows 421 447 4/5 600

Sheep and

lambs.. 161,230 168,350 173,450 169,390

Calves .. 2,707 2,080 2,491 2,220

Pigs 3,153 1,957 2,639 3,447

In glancing at the above comparison one might
be led to the conclusion that the consumption of
meat in London is falling off, or, at all events, that
it does not keep pace with our increased popula-
tion ; but it is well known that the arrivals from
various parts of the countr)'-, as well as from Scot-
land, have been on a very extensive scale.

From the northern grazing districts about 1 1,000
shorthorns have been reported ; whilst the supply
from other parts of England has been confined to
2,180 Herefords, runts, Devons, &c. ; and from

Sept.

Beasts

Sheep

Lambs

Calves

1851...

. 6,177

28,566

2,075

2,518

1850...

. 5,556

19,802

1,939

1,819

1849...

. 4,214

17,649

734

734

1848...

. 4,301

18,000

3,681

1,625

1847..

. 4,000

14,000

683

1,362

Scotland 390 horned and polled Scots, chiefly by
steamers.

Beef has sold at from 2s. to 4s. ; mutton, 3s.
to 4s. 6d. ; veal, 2s.lOd. to 4s. 2d,; and pork, 2s.
lOd. to 3s. lOd. per 8lbs., to sink the offals.

COMPARISON OF PRICES.

Sept., 1848.
s. d. s. d.

Sept., 1849.
s. d. p. d.

Beef . . from

2 6 to 4 0

2 10 to 3 10

Mutton

3 4 to 5 0

2 10 to 4 0

Veal

3 2 to 4 2

3 0 to 3 6

Pork

3 10 to 5 0

3 2 to 4 2

Sept., 1850.
s. d. s. d.

Sept., 1851.
s. d. s. d.

Beef . . from

2 4 to 3 8

2 2 to 3 6

Mutton

3 2 to 4 0

2 8 to 4 0

Veal

2 10 to 3 8

2 8 to 3 8

Pork

3 2 to 4 0

2 4 to 3 8

Newgate and Leadenhall markets have been sea-
sonably well supplied with both town and country-
killed meat, in which a fair amount of business has
been transacted. Beef has sold at from 2s. 2d. to
3s. 6d. ; mutton, 2s. 8d. to 4s. 2d. ; veal 3s. to 4s.
2d.; and pork 2s. lOd. to 3s. lOd. per 8lbs.,by the
carcass.

The health of the depastured and stall-fed beasts
and sheep has been good, and very few losses liave
been sustained by the graziers.

DURHAM.

Harvest commenced very generally in this county
on the 18tli of August. The summer has been re-
markably forcing, and corn ripened with the greatcs^t
rapidity. Labourerri have been exceedingly scarce, it
has been quite impossible to procure sufficient hands
to keep pace with the harvest, at high and exorbitant
wages ; indeed it has been the most exponsis-e one wo
ever remember ; but it is gratifying in being enabled
to state it has been short, and Providence has favoured
us with splendid weatlier; the crops are abundant, and
secured in fine condition, and fit for tlie market at any
time. On tlie rich and well-cultivated soils, where
the grain was lodged as if it had been rolled, at so
early a period of the season, the quality is very inferior
and yield deficient. There are many situations where
the laid crops are grown up through, and nothing but
rotten straw ; upon the poor and less productive soils
we never experienced them so good, and will, we
thinkjCompensate for the deficiency upon the best land.
High farming is highly recommended by many, but
there is nothing more hazardous, when it is pruductive
of such abundance, and your crops are worthless.
June was a cold and wet month, scarcely ever having
two fair days together. On the 5th of July we ex-
perienced one of the most awful thunder-storms ever
remembered by the oldest person living ; many acci-
dents and loss of life was the consequence. The storm
was most awful and destructive, the loss of property
and injury to the crops were considerable, the turnips
on hilly ground were swept away, and in low situa-
tions they were deluged with hail and rain. The heat
during the month was intense and overpowering. The
crops of wheat and quality will be various, but amount-
ing nearly to an average ; oats and barley a full
average ; beans and peas not much grown. The
potato crop is badly spoken, the disease being worse
than last year; the turnips were promising, but they

THE FARMER'S iMAGAZINB.

891

arc much affected by fingers and toes, and in many
situations they have al! run to seed, which may be at-
tributed to early sowing. From the humidity of the
season grass and aftermaths are plentiful and luxuri-
ant, which causes stock of every description to have
an upward tendency at our markets. Wool is also
looking upwards. We have had several trials of reap-
ing macliines, but they have not been very successful;
they will have to undergo great improvement before
they become generally useful. — Sept. 24tl).

EDINBURGHSHIRE.

It is uow our pleasing duty to report the conclusion (with a
few trifling exceptions) of the harvest, which has been carried
on and concluded uuder very favourable circumstaucea. Never
in our recollection was the harvest in the moorlands, and on the
hill sides, 80 close on thn heels of that in the earliest districts
along the coast, and the low-lying valleys ; and, at the same
time, we never remember the quality of the crops in the one
approacuiiig so uear that of the other : and the general result
is, as fine a crop as could be wished for, rising very considera-
bly in our estimation above an average. "We are aware that
in seme deep, loamy, much sheltered fields there was a little
blight in the wheat crop, and that in the early districts the rain
we experienced in the second week of x\ugust was productive
of some injury by discolouring the grain, and causing a partial
sprout, where it had stood for any length of time in the stook.
But the succeeding dry weather did much to counteract the
effect of the rains, and by taking exception to a few isolated
crops, which might have suffered to a certain extent from the
causes referred to, we have every confidence and much plea-
sure in stating the aggregate result as above. Wheat has
proved an excellent crop, as tested on the barn floor, almost
universally as regards quantity, and generally of good quality.
We have heard of some crops yielding as much as seven and
elt;ht quarters per imperial acre (nine and ten quarters
per Scotch acre), and have seen several samples weighing 65 to
65 Jibs, per bushel ; but we believe we are pretty near a
correct estimate if we put down the average produce of
this crop over the county at six quarters per Scotch acre, or
about 4|- qnarters per imperial acre, and the weight per bushel
at G2 to 631b3. Barley is also a very fine crop in point of quality;
it also weighs well per bushel, but is uot quite so bright in sam-
ple as we have seen or could desire. We estimate the average
of this crop at about 7^ quarters per Scotch acre, and the
weight per bushel at 54 to 561bs. Outs are a fair crop, but
we think not over an average ; the quality is however fine, and
they weigh 40 to 44lbs. per bushel. Beans are not yet all
secure, and as none have come to market, we refrain from
reporting on this crop. We must now advert to the potato
crop, and we wish it were in our power to speak as favourably
of it :is of the cereal crops ; but ala'J, we have here to tell a
sorrowful tale. There is certaiuly not a sound crop, judging
from the stems and leaves throughout the length and breadth
of t) e county, I believe I may say Scotland, and we know too
well that the damage done at the roots is both general and
gre:it. The proportion of tubers already affected seems to
vary from ^ to § of the crop, and from all we can learn there
is !io doubt whatever but one half of the crop is already lost ;
aud as the disease is still spreading, we have very little hope
for the safety of the other half. Various means have been
tried to avert or mitigate the loss, such as pulling or cutting
the stalks, lifting and pitting the crop before the usual time ;
but all seems unavailing. This mysterious disease, like others
of its kind, comes secretly amongst us in the midst of our best
prospects, armed with the highest authority to perform its
fearlul work of disaster and destruction, and defies the powerful
engines of science and art, though directed with the maximum
of human skill, to avert or mitigate its giant and unseen power.
We are sorry we caunot speak so favourably of the turnip crop
as we were enabled to do on former occasions; we now find it
Buffering from the disease known by "fingers and toes," mildew,
a rotting of the bulbs, and running to seed. And from the
combined effects of these maladies, we fear this crop, which at
one time promised to be a superabundant one, will now fall
below an average. We are sorry to observe, that after so much
has been said and written regarding the desirableness of having
'guano reduced in price, there is now no prospect of this being

accomplished to serve the farmer during the coming year.
The Peruvian government, it appears, have fixed theh price at the
s«me figure as in former years, and the conditions, if anything,
a e more unfavourable, especially as regards taking delivery
from the import ships. The second crop of clover is good, and
affords much nourishing food to cattle at this season, and
preparing them nicely for being put on turnips. Grain markets
hove been firm, in cou'^equence of the injury done to the corn
crops in the South of England by blight and sprout, and the
general failure in the potato crop. We are of opinion that
p.-ices will rule a shade higher in the coming season thau for
two or three years past. When we supply from our corn
crop the deficiency in our potato crop, we believe that con-
siderably less thau an average will remain for the ordinary
purposes to which it is applied ; and although the crops iu
Germany, Denmark, and America are likely to spare us a
considerable surplus, we do not expect m.-re thau an average
importation, for we must bear in mind that nothing of conse-
quence need be expected from France, and under the^e circum-
stances we think ourselves fully justified in anticipating the
range of prices to be a little over those of the last three years.
The stock markets that have been held of late, have been very
animated, and prices are now approacliing exorbitant rates.
At Falkirk Tryst, held last week, the supply of stock was
quite inadequate to the demand, and the business done was at
an advance of 15 to 20 per cent, on the current prices at the
corresponding market last year. There has been a very con-
siderable demand for stock, both sheep and cattle, on Irish
account. And this circumstance, together with the fine ap-
pearance of the turnip crop (recently with some exceptions),
may explain the disparity between supply and demand. In
the mean time the pastoral farmers are reaping a rich harvest,
and one effect will be to create great competition for hill
farms, at advancing rentals. We trust for both landlord
aud tenant this will not be overdone, — Sept, 20,

SALE OF THE KILLERBY SHORT-HORNS.

We have seldom had to record an event that has been
looked forward to with greater interest by breeders of short-
hnrns than the dispersion of this valuable herd of cattle,
which took place on Tuesday, the 21st July. It is now
about sixty years since the foundation of the herd was
laid by the late Mr. Booth, from the stock of Messrs. R. and
C. Colhng, beginning with the following bulls : — T«in
brother to Ben (660), Suwarrow (636), Albion (14), and Pdot
(496), the two last of which he purchased at tue Me^^rs.
CoUing's sales. The blood of many other well known animals
has been infused into the herd, including that of the bull
Comet, which was sold at Mr. Charles Culling's sale for 1,000
giiineas. The names of Bracelet, Necklace, Mautilini, Birth-
day, Gem, Hamlet, &c., are famil.ar to all who have during
the last few years taken an interest in the breed of short-
horns, or attended the meeting of the Royal English, the
Highland, thj Yorkshire, and other agricultural societies.
Bracelet and Necklace were twin sisters ; the former was the
winner of 17, and the latter of 20 prizes. Neiklace was ex-
hibited for the last time at the Smithfield Club Show in 1846,
where she gained the first prize in her class, as well as the
silver medal for the breeder, and the gold medal (fur which
there were 37 competitors) given to the best female animal in
the yard. The same prizes were obtained in the fdlowiug
year by Mr. Willey, and in 1849 by Mr. Cartnright, both
animals being bred from the Killerby stock. Mantilini was the
winner of 12, and Birthday of 10 prizes. Since the formation
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, in 1839, the
prize given for the best cow has been gained either by the
Messrs. Booth or by animals bred from their stock, with the
exception of the two first meetings, when they did not
exhibit, and that of 1843. The animals which took the
prizes on the two former occasions were both afterwards
exhibited against, aud defeated by. Bracelet. At the meet-
ings of the Royal Agricultural Society at Lewes, and of the
Yorkshire Society at Sheffield, during the present year.the herd
maintained its high position.

The sale was very numerously attended by breeders of
short-horns from all parts of England, as well as Scotland and

372

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Ireland. The celebrity of the herd likewise iiiduoeJ miiuv
gentlemen not immediately connected vfitli agricultural pur-
suits to attend the sale. Among the company we noticed Sir
W. Lawsou, Bart., J. H. Fawkes, Esij., Captain Dilke,
Timothy Hutton, Esq., Colonel Hudson, Rev. H. J. Dun-
combe, Rev. F. Thursby, .Tohn Aylman, Esq., Capt. Pierce,
Dr. Fimm, Wm. Mauleverer, Esq., J. C. May, Esq., Captain
Colling, B. Eastwood, Esq., Wm. Torr, Esq., J. Eeatherston-
haugh, Esq., R. Chaloner, Esq., H. Ambler, Esq., James
Douglas, Esq., &c.

An escellent luncheon was provided by Mr. Booth for his
visitors ; and among the decorations of the room in which
it was served were portraits of Comet, Bracelet, and other
choice specimens of short-horns. Mr. Wetherell, of Durham,
BO long known as an eminent salesman of short-horned cattle,
acted as auctioneer with his usual ability. After reading the
conditions of sale, and making a few remarks on the herd he
was about to dispose of, Mr. ^^'etherell proceeded with the
sale. The bidding was very spirited. The cows and heifers,
34 in number, realized 1,555 guineas. A'euus Victrix brought
the highest price, and was purchased by Mr. Chaloner, of
Kingsford, Moynalty, Ireland, for 175 guineas. The bulls
and bidl-calves, 10 in number, realized 482 guineas. The
proceeds of the sale for the 44 head amounted to about £2,140.
The following is the result of the sale :

COWS AND HEIFERS.
Prejudice, red and white, calved February 10th, 1844,

got by Diamond, 5918 ; 30 guineas, to Mr. Manleverer.
Sylphide, red and white, calved February 16th, 1845,

got by Morning Star, 6223 ; 44 guineas, to Mr. Ton.
Bonnet, red and white, calved April 12th, 1844, got by

Buckingham, 3239 ; 41 guineas, to Mr. Anderson.
Bloom, roan, calved February 1st, 1846, by Buckingham,

3239 ; 110 guineas, to Mr. Ambler.
Manille, roan, calved March 8th, 1847, got by Brigadier,

7849 ; 32 guineas, to Mr. Fawkes.
Gertrude, roan, calved April 29th, 1848, got by Lord

George, 10439 ; 47 guineas, to Mr. Thursby.
Edith, roan, calved June 6th, 1848, got by Exquisite, 8048 ;

51 guineas, to Captain Dilke.
Birthright, white, calved November 12th, 1848, got by

Haoilet, 8126; 105 guineas, to Mr. Douglas.
Janet, red and white, calved November 21st, 1848, got by

Landlord, 10400; 40 guineas, to Mr. Fetherstonhaugh.
Little Fanny, roan, calved August 14th, 1848, got by Ex-
quisite, 8048 ; 36 guineas, to Mr. Bate.
Mother Red Cup, red, calved November 6th, 1847, got by

Hamlet, 8126 ; 37 guineas, to Mr. Fawkes.
Sunrise, red and white, calved in 1845, got by Morning

Star, 6223 ; 25 guineas, to Mr. R. Outhwaite.
Blue Bonnet, red and white, calved December 28th, 1848,

got by Jeweller, 10354 ; 35 guineas, to Mr. Lawson.

Sunset, red and white, calved January 20th, 1849, got by
Vanguard, 10994 ; 21 guineas, to Mr. Aylmer.

Conceit, roan, calved March 20th, 1848, got by Exquisite,
8018 ; 37 guineas, to Mr. Lambert.

Venus Victrix, roan, calved August 25th, 1819, got by Van-
guard, 10994; 175 guineas, to Mr. R. Booth, for Mr.
Chaloner.

Present, white, calved February 1st, 1850, got by Augus-
tine, 9913 ; 26 guineas, to Mr. I^ambert.

Spicey, red and white, calved February 22ud, 1850, got by
Exquisite, 8048 ; 33 guineas, to Mr. Kuox.

Sylph, red and white, calved April 1st, 1850, got by Royal
Buck, 10750 ; 47 guineas, to Mr. Lambert.

Pearly, roan, ralved August 26th, 1S50, got by Royal Buck,
10750 ; 105 guinea?, to Mr. Towuley.

Germ, white, calved January 25th, 1851, got by Harbinger,
10297 ; 70 guiueas, to Mr. Fetherstonhaugh.

Damask, red and white, calved in 1850, got by The Dandy,
10926 ; 21 guineas, to Mr. Duncombe.

WiDE-AwAKE, tci' acd white, calved August 14th, 1850, got
by Royal Buck, 10750; 10 guineas, to Mr. R. Emmer-
son.

Farewell, red ai.d white, calved June 12th, 1851, got by
Royal Buck, 10750; 21 g;uineas, to Mr. R. Eramerson.

Officious, red, calved iVIarch 26th, 1852, got by Hopewell,
10332; 16 guineas, to Mr. Douglas.

Cycloid, red and white, calved January 15th, 1852, got by
Hopewell, 10332 ; 40 guinca=, to Mr. Torr.

EauiTY, red and white, calved March 17th, 1852, got by Loid
George, 10439 ; 26 guineas, to Mr. Townley.

Heirloom, roan, calved December 13th, 1851, got by Crown
Prince; 85 guineas, to Mr. Ambler.

EcsTACY', white, calved August 21st, 1851, got by Hopewell,
10332; 82 guineas, to Mr. Douglas.
BULLS.

Hamlet, 8126, roan, calved October 15th, 1844, got by Leo-
nard, 4210; 66 guineas, to Mr. Bate.

Lord George, 10438, white, calved June 2nd, 1846; 40
guineas, to Mr. GuUand.

Red Knight, red, calved July 28th, 1850, got by Royal
Buck, 10750 ; 110 guineas, to Mr. Hay.

Neptune, roan, calved November 14th, 1850, got by Water
Kicg, 11024; 86 guineas, to Captain Dilke.

Hopeful, roan, calved December 22nd, 1851, got by Hope-
well, 10332 ; 41 guineas, to Mr. Tim.

Twilight, roan, calved December 29tb, 1851, got by Lord
George, 10439 ; 11 guineas, to Mr. R. Eramerson.

George, white, calved November 19th, 1851, got by Lord
George, 10439 ; 21 guineas, to Mr. Spraggon.

Killerby, white, calved April 25th, 1852, got by Hopewell,
10332 ; 62 guineas, to Mr. Knox.

Example, white, calved July 2nd, 1852, got by Crown Prince;
35 guineas, to Mr. Lambert,

AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, EAIRS, &c.

BARNSTAPLE FAIR.— Almost every head of bullock
wa3 sold at unusually high prices, even to 20 per cent, ad-
vance ; and, in relation to prices this time two months, the
advance is full 50 per cent. Ewes of the homed or Exmoor
breed were sold for 24s. a head— double the sura they fetched
twelve months since. They are a small race of sheep, weigh-
ing, when fatted, about 131bs. the quarter. They were bought
for breeding, the mutton being a favourite as well for the
flavour as for its small size. Notted sheep of the Devon
breed, being a mixture of the Leicester and the horned
species, also sold well, the ewes for lambing fetching 35s.
each ; these sheep fattened would weigh about 20lb3. per qr.
The horses sold have fetched good prices, but there were only
few horses approaching to first rate quality.

BASINGSTOKE FAIR.— The number of sheep penned
was less than on former years, and the farmers persisting in an
advance on some of the late fairs, which buyers were indis-
posed to submit to, very little business was dohe. The show
of other cattle was but indifferent.

BEDALE FORTNIGHT FAIR.— We had a thin supply
of fat cattle, of moderate quality, and an average number of

fat sheep : all were cleared away at the prices obtained last
market. Lean stock was in request. A large number of half-
bred lambs were offered, and sold at from 12s. to 15s. each.
Beef, 53. 3d. to 6s. per stone — mutton, 5^d. to 6jd. per lb.

BEAMINSTER FAIR, notwithstanding the unfavourable
state of the weather, was numerously attended, and an average
amount of business transacted. The number of sheep penned
was about 1,500, most of which exchanged hands at the fol-
lowing quotations ; namely, horn ewes from 34s. to 42s,,
Southdowns from 26s. to 35s., lambs from 15s. to 24s. Fat
beef sold at 8s., barreners 5s. per score ; cows and calves from
£8 to £12. A considerable quantity of cheese was pitched,
and found purchasers: raw milk at £2 lOs. to £2 163., and
skim from £1 2s. to £1 lOs. Pigs generally fetched low prices.

CARLISLE FAIR.— The day was wet and cold, biit the at-
tendance of business-men was numerous and important. The
supply of cattle was short — so short of promising stock that
many persons who intended to purchase largely were disap-
pointed ; prices, as a consequence, ruled high, the advance on
the best qualities averaging from ten to twelve per cent. Sheep
and lambs were equally in request, and advanced above the high

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

873

prices obtained at recent fail's ; the former from 28. 6d. to 38.
6d. a head ; the latter, Is. to Is. 6d., and in some instances 2s.
a head. One person of whom we inquired the course of busi-
ness said — '■ Ay, sheep were sheep, and a3 to lambs I dared
not purchase, for I don't expect that profit can be made out of
them." In tlie horse-fair in Lowther-street, there was the
usual large show of hard working farm-horses at this season,
most of whom might have been bought on very reasonable
terms, but, truth to tell, the majority were worth little. Of
good cobs, handsome roadsters, hunters, and carriage horses
there were few indeed ; we may say, none. These are all
picked up by the dealers before they come openly to market.
Nothing very good can be obtained for less than from £40 to
£45; ordinaries, £30 to £35. There were no real Shetland
ponies : only a few cross-breeds of no likelihood. Taken as a
whole, the fair was a brisk one— and even the pigs exposed in
I.owther-street partook of the upward movement. It is a bad
gnmter indeed for which the seller does not now ask from 16s.
to 20s each.

CREDITON FAIR.— There was but a small supply : poor
stock sold freely, particularly steers ; a moderate supply of
beef, which sold at 83. 9d. to 9s. per score. Of stock sheep
there was also but a moderate supply, which found ready pur-
chsBers.

COPPERHOUSE FAIR was well attended. Fat bullocks
sold at from 463. to 47s, per cwt., and other cattle at about the
average prices.

DRIFFIELD FAIR.— The harvest being nearly brought
to a close, the attendance of farmers and others was very nu-
merous The supply of horned cattle was small, and prin-
cipally grazing stock. There was a very large supply of sheep
and lambs, which were readily bought up. Lambs averaged
from 22s. to Sis. 6d. per head, and holding ewes from 263. to
30.<. per head.

DUNDEE FAIR.— Owing to the high prices obtained at
the Falkirk Trysts, the condition of wintering food, and the
propitious state of the weather, a more than usual attendance
of dealers was induced. The show of wiutering stock was
vastly superior, both in point of quality and numbers, to the
displays at the two former markets ; and from the large at-
tendance of purchasers prices consequently ranged high. For
fat cattle 6s. to 7s. a stone was asked, and for secondary beasts
53. to 6s. a stone; for two-year-old stots, £7 to £10; three-
year-olds, £9 to £12 ; milk cows, from £7 to £12 lOs. ; and
for calvers, £12 5s. to £15. Owing to the severity of last
winter, but mostly to the great purchases by Irish farmers,
there were no sheep at the market, and the few lambs exposed,
which were not of first-rate quality, were sold at from 43. 6d.
to 69. 6d. each. The show of horses was much superior to
those produced at the " first" fair, and the supply was much
greater than the demand. Good draught horses brought from
£30 to £35 ; two-year-old colts from £20 to £25 ; and ponies,
£8, £10, £12, and £15. Purchases were cautiously and stiffly
made until an advanced hour in the afternoon, when bargains
were closed more readily at the prices previously obtained, and
by 5 o'clock there were very few cattle for sale. A number of
horses, both good and inferior, however, lefc the field without
changing hands.

DUNSE EWE AND LAMB TRYST.-There was but a
small supply both of ewes and lambs, which were all soon and
easily disposed of at high prices. Ewes realized from 43. to
Cs. above last year's prices ; bred ewes sold from 36s. to 408.,
and half-bred do. from 30s. 6d. to 34s. There was only one
lot of bred lambs shown, and sold for 21s. Half-bred lambs
brought from ISs. to 19s., and Cheviot do. from lOs. to 15s.
There were few cattle, and prices much the same as recent
markets.

EVESHAM FAIR was but moderately supplied with fat
cattle. Store were very plentiful, and more equal to the de-
mand. Of>heep the supply was good, and prime qnali:ies
realized 6d.'per lb. There were many good rams, but the sale
was flat, and price low. Agricultural horses were plentiful ;
nags were in demand. Altogether trade was dull.

GLASTONBURY FAIR was very numerously attended by
dealers and others. Good beef sold readily. at from 9s. to 93.
6d. per score. Good wether sheep fetched 6d. ; ewes, 5d. to
5^d. per lb. There was a great many horses offered, but very
few good ones, and a large number of colts, which sold well.

GLOUCESTER MARKET was tolerably well supplied
and attended, and with the exception of the business done in

the transfer of stock, an excellent demand was experienced,
and good prices were obtained. The show of cattle was ex-
tensive but of inferior quality ; prices had a downward ten-
dency, and a great number remained unsold. Wether sheep
(of which there were but few penned) sold at 6d. per lb. ;
ewes, from 5d. to 5,^(1. Of cheese there were nearly 200 tons,
the principal part of which found buyers at the following
prices : — Best doubles from 48s. to 54s. ; singles, 42s. to 463. ;
seconds, 36s. to 40s.; skim, 21s. to 283. per cwt. Of wool
there were only about 150 tods, owing no doubt, in a great
measure, to the unfavourable weather. The whole of it was
sold at from 28s. to 31s. per tod.

KENDAL FORTNIGHTLY FAIR.— Sheep were nume-
rous and in fair request at late enhanced prices. Cross breeds
in general obtaned,' from 26s. to SOs. per head ; blackfaced
ones from 20s. to 24s. each ; small fell Sheep from 17s. to 193.
Lambs of all breeds varied in price from 17s. to 21s. ; Lambs
for feeding of from 13s. to 14s. 6d. Sheep, out of condition,
and which were chiefly purchased by farmers, were readily
disposed of at from 19s. to 2l8. 6d. Calves were also plen-
tiful and met with a ready sale at from II. 12s. to 3/. Ss. Cows
were selling at — for the best description at from lOZ. to 12/.
lOs. ; aged and inferior ones at from 8/. to 9/. Heifers were
numerous, but generally of a small size and not by any means
in prime condition. Prices for such kind of stock ranged from
8/. to IIZ. lOs. Lean cattle, milk cows of which there were
several at market, were being disposed of at from 9/. to 12/.
The above prices were the general rates paid, but there were
a few superior animals that obtained higher figures.

LEWES GREAT SHEEP FAIR.— There were penned
about 25,000 sheep and lambs. The attendance of purchasers
was unusually large, and the fair opened with a brisk de-
mand, which continued up to dinner-hour, at which time
quite two-thirds of the sheep had changed hands at the fol-
lowing prices : Ewes, from 2(Js. to 37s. ; ewe tegs, from 263.
to 323. ; wether lambs, from 19s. to 29s. 6d. ; wethers, from
30s. to 35s. Among those sold were — Ewes : A very fine lot
belonging to Mr. Denman, of Stoneham, for 37s. ; the second
lot at 308. Mr. Emery, of Hurston, who lost 20 of his ewes
from the Lewes Paddock the night before, sold his at 42s. ;
Mr. Gorringe, of Kingston, at 37s. ; Mr. Woodman, of
Glyndbourne, at 35s. ; Mr. Hart, of Beddingham, at 36s. ;
Mr. Penfold, of Harringtons, at 34s. ; Mr. George Blaker, of
Pangdean, at 31s. 6d. ; Colonel Paine, at 363. ; Mr. Steyning
Beard, at 28s.; Mr. Hudson, at 3l3. 6d.; Mr. Gausden
(broken-mouthed), at 223. 6d. ; Mr. Cowley, of Preston, at
36s. ; Mr. Clew, at 303. ; Mr. Catt, of Itford, at 263. 6d. ;
Mr. Hudson, at 27s. 6d. ; Mr. Turner, of Chinton, at 323. ;
Mr. Willard, of Newhaven, at 31s. ; Mr. Ellis, of Exceat, at
31s. 6d. ; second lot, 28s. ; Mr. Wood, of Plumpton, at SSs. ;
Mr. Elphick, of Newhaven, at 353.; Mr. Pennington, at 283. ;
Mr. Madgwick, at SOs. ; Mr. Scrace, of Friston, at 348. ; Mr.
Child, of Michelham, at 333. ; Mr. Stunt, of Southerhara, at
33s. Wether Lambs : Mr. Turner, of Ditchling, at 293. 6d. ;
seconds, 25s. ; Mr. Waters, at 283. ; Mr. J. Gorringe, at 263, ;
Mr. Catt, Westfirle, seconds, at 193. ; Mr. P. Beard, at 27s. ;
Mr. Waterman, of Piddinghoe, at 243. ; Mr. Lane, at 273. ;
Mr. Farncombe, at 24s. ; Mr. Lambe, at 25s. ; Mr. Tanner, at
27s. 6d.; Mr. Hide, of Chiddingly, at 19s. 6d.; Mr. Child, of
Michelham, at 24s. ; Mr. Stunt, at 253. ; Mr. Tompsett, of
Deans, at 21s. 6d. ; Mr. Tompsett, of Balmer, at 19s. ; also
Mr. Pennington, at 22s. ; Mr. Elphick, at 24s. ; Mr. Catt, at
253.; second, 21s.; Mr. Alfree, at 243. Wethers: Mr.
Wood, of Hickstead, at 3l8., which were re-sold immediately
afterwards at 32s. ; Mr. Waters, of Cooksbridge, at 323. ;
Mr. Hillraan, of Barcombe, at 353. Ewe Tegs : Mr, Scrase,
of Ditchling, at 30s., mixed. There were some very good
rams for sale in the fair, which attracted considerable atten-
tion. Among these we noticed those from the flocks of the
Earl of Chichester, Mr. John Saxby, Mr. Boys, Mr, Thomas
Ellman, &c. ; but the flockmaster who made the greatest dis-
play was Mr. Hampton, of Applesham. He brought into the
fair the surprising number of 52 rams and ram lambs, of
which he sold 50, realizing for rams from £7 to £15 las., and
for ram lambs from £3 to £5 each. Before four o'clock in
ttie afternoon, the pens were generally cleared at the prices
we have mentioned. Very many purchasers who arrived at
noon were compelled to leave without being able to secure to
themselves a single lot. In fact, take the fair altogether, it
was the best that has been held for 25 years, arising from

374

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the extraordinary character of the present year, which in
spring placed the flockmasters in the greatest possible straits
for feed, and in autumn furnishes an extraordiuary abundance
of aftermath and root food. To meet this demand there is
not sufficient supply, and hence the advance in prices. — Sussex
Express.

MINNYHIVE FAIR.— Betwixt two and three thousand
draft ewes and lambs were shown. The demand was excellent,
and the lots speedily changed owners. Lambs brought about
Is. 6d. per head more than at the August fair ; and ewes
about 3s. 6d. higher than the prices current at the same market
in 1851.

MOFFAT ANNUAL TUP MARKET.— The show in
point of numbers was considerably above an average, there
being about 300 sheep more than there were last year, the
number this year being about 1,300, whereas last year it
was somewhat short of 1,000. The buyers were numerous
from all parts, composed of the Highlanders that attended the
Falkirk tryst. Englishmen from the various breeding counties,
and the farmers in the neighbouring districts. The principal
part of the stock was composed of Cheviots, and a few of the
Leicester breed. The demand appeared to be principally for
the Cheviot sheep; but the Leicesters being fewer in num-
ber, met wit'u a ready sale. Very little business was done in
the early part of the morning ; but shortly after the arrival of
the trains from Carlisle and Edinburgh about eleven o'clock
(which trains brought the bulk of the purchasers), a good
deal of business was done. The weather being very
favourable for the market, and the season being all that
could be desired for pasture, the stock was in very excellent
condition ; in short, such a show in point of nuoibers and qua-
lity \\-A3 never seen at Moffat. There is no doubt, had it not
bee;; for the extra numbers shown here to-day, stock of all
kinds would have advanced very considerably, as every intend-
ing purchaser before coming to the market had, it appeared,
made up his mind for a considerable advance, but the extra
stock shown had the effect of checkina: the anticipated great
rise to a certain extent. The large price got of late years for
sheep, more particularly at the auction sales in the south of
Scotlai:d, had, it appears set all store farmers on edge, and
had all but glutted the market upon this occasion. For really
good Clieviots, an advance of from 5s., lOs., to 153., and even
up to II. a. head was got, according to quality, in the morn-
ing, above the prices of last year. Regardiug the Leicesters,
we can only say that a shade higher was got for this kind
above last year, and although not up to the auction sales in
the district for this season, a total clearance was effected.
Ireland, as at all markets of late, has stood foremost m the
field, and upon this occasion has purchased largely amongst
the Leicester stock. Tiie Leicester sheep, it was allowed,
broug t from 31. 10s. to 51., and so high as 6/. was obtained.
The Chevii>ts effected all but a clearance, the only thing being
left was a few of the higher priced kinds of sheep, and a few
of the inferior qualities — the former of which might probably
be disposed of before leaviag the stance, but the latter were
only lit for the Liverpool butchers. All good serviceable
sheep met a good sale. Although there were no ewes on the
market stance, we believe several hundreds were disposed of at
the last Falkirk tryst rates. — Dundee Courier.

NANCLEDREA FAIR was well supplied with various
kinds of cattle. The umpires, Mr. Richard Berryman, St.
Erth ; Mr. John Micliell, Zennor ; ami Mr. Josiah Glasson,
Chyponds, Towednack, awarded the successful competitors as
follows : — Best mare and colt for general purposes, Mr. James
H. Sandow, Lelant ; best saddle raare from two to three years
old. Mr. Robert Curnow, Towednack ; best cart horse, Mr.
Martin Trewhella, Lelant; best colt from one to two years
old, Mr. Matthew Trewhella, Brunioa ; best colt from two to
three years old, Mr. William Quick, Lelant ; best fat bullock,
Mr. Thomas Michell, Lelant ; best milch cow, Mr. "\'\'illiam
Eddy, Lelant ; best two years old heifer, ditto ; best bull, Mr.
"William Richards, Penzance.

NORTHAMPTON CHEESE FAIR.— The quantity of
cheese pitched this year was very small — the smallest we re-
member to have seen. There was about a couple of tons from
dailies in our own neighbourhood, which sold, the skim milk
at from 283. to 323., and the two meal at 403. The Leicester-
shire factors brought about four tons, which fetched from 563.
to 608. Part only was sold. Sheep and cattle — sheep especi-
ally— more than counterbalance the deficiency of the cheese.

The Market-square, on Monday last, was covered with store
sheep, both sbearhogs and ewes, which fetched high prices,
and were all sold. Mutton was in short supply, and all was
sold from 3s. 6d. to 4s. per st. Store beasts were an indiffe-
rent show, and were mostly sold at prices of which the graziers
complained as being very high. There was about the usual
supply of beef, which sold at from 3s. 4d. to 3s. 8d. per stone,
choice things making 3s. lOd. and over. There were some ex-
cellent rams, and Messrs. Lyne and Cother, of Middle Aston,
sold 38 and let 2, at an average of nearly 9/., although Mr.
Cother stated that he had previously sold 69 this season, 1 00
of the whole being shearlings, such was the substantial charac-
ter of the flock, and so high the reputation of these gentlemen
among our breeders.

PENRITH FORTNIGHT FAT FAIR.— Very few sheep
and cattle were shown, in consequence of there being a sheep
fair at Pooley Bridge on the same day. Few sales were
effected, the prices being about the same as those at the last
fair.

POOLEY BRIDGE SHEEP FAIR.— The exhibition of
all kinds of sheep was a very scanty one. Selling was brisk,
and altogether the fair was a capital good one, three shillings
a head being the general quotation above the prices at this
fair last year.

TOWEDNACK FAIR was weU suppUed with fat cattle,
which met with a ready sale. There were also some fine
horses, yet only a few exchanged hands.

WOODBURY HILL SHEEP FAIR was well supplied
with sheep, which met with a ready sale at prices full equal to
those realized at recent fairs. A capital lot of one hundred
ewes belonging to J. J. Farquharson, Esq., were sold by auction,
and fetched from 34s. to 703. In the horse fair there was a
poor supply of hacks ; but of cart colts many were offered,
and several changed hands at high prices. — Dorset Paper.

WORCESTER FAIR.— The attendance of buyers and
dealers was very numerous, and the radway trains, special and
otherwise, were well patronized. The hop merchants from
a distance generally renewed their complaint that the fair is
held at least a fortnight earlier than is warranted by the quan-
tity of hops which the district for years past has been enabled
to prepare for the market. Of new pockets weighed this day
there were 243 only, which sold at prices rangmg from 80s.
to 90s. percwt. The cheese fair, held in the Corn Exchange,
Angel- street, was singularly deficient of best descriptions,
whde the small supply of skims realized from 203. to 24s. per
cwt. The number of sheep penned in the cattle-market
amounted to nearly 6,000, beuig an increase of about 1,000
over last year, though the greatest number ever here exhibited
for sale reached 7,000, in 1847. Cattle not so numerous as on
former occasions, while of horses and store pigs there was an
exceedingly fair show ; the latter fetched good prices. Beef,
6d. to 6id. per lb.; mutton at the same figure. The sale of a
number of fine Leicester ewes, by Messrs. Hobbs and Son,
realized fair prices. Some cross-bred rams, belonging to Air.
Walker, of Blackmore Park, were sold by Mr. Higgs, at prices
averaging £7 each, and a remarkably tine one was knocked
down for £17. Mr. Bentley disposed of eighty-one shearhog
Cotswold rams, averaging £6 10s. each, bred by Mr. William
Hewer, of Northleacli. Mr. Saunders sold some waggon and
hack horses, which also realized good prices. Mr. Arkell eb-
tained an average of £7 10s. each on the sale of some very
fine Cotswold rams, belonging to Mr. Fletcher; and there
were several other sales of cattle, &c., on the ground.

YORK FORTNIGHT MARKET.— We had a good sup-
ply of fat beasts, which caused prices to recede a little from
last market. Prime-fed, choice beasts, Ss. 6d. ; inferior ditto
had dull sale at 5s. per stone and under, with many unscld.
Mutton sheep were in good supply, and prices lower : ewe",
5d. — wethers, gimmers, and lambs, light weights, 6d. per lb.
Calving and dairy cows were in good supply and demand, at
steady prices. A quantity of lean beasts had good sale, and
rates high compared with those obtained for fat beasts, thus
leaving a dreary prospect for grazing ; many unsold. Grazing
lambs and ewes for tupping : — This was the first of three
markets for this kind of grazing stock, and which becomes
more important every year. To-day we had an immense sup-
ply of South Down, Yorkshire, Wold, Balmshire, Cheviot,
Tees Water, Scotch and Border, Masham, and Moor-bred ewes
and lambs : all these had good sale, at prices seemingly im-
possible to pay for grazing. A few only were unsold.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

875

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF SEPTEMBER.

One of the most tedious and expensive harvests
we have had for some years has at length been
brought to a conclusion ; the result is what might
be expected under the circumstances— great variety
in the quality of the new grain, and a very unsatis-
factory return in a pecuniary point of view, as far
as the farmers of the south are concerned. The
loss from the inferiority of the quality alone must
prove immense, and we fear that the season will be
most disastrous to the British agriculturists. The
yield to the acre may perhaps not prove so bad as
was at one time feared, but as a large proportion of
the wheat is not worth more than 2Ss. to 30s. per
qr., and some even less, it may easily be conceived
that even with a full average in quantity the grower
will not be remunerated by his crop for his outlay.

The mischief done by the very inauspicious wea-
ther experienced from the commencement of Au-
gust up to the 20th, during which period we had
only three dry days, was far more serious in the
southern than in the northern parts of the king-
dom. To the north of the river Humber the grain
was not then so far advanced, nor was the weather
so thoroughly wet, as with us ; and it is certain
that the principal wheat and barley-producing coun-
ties have this year suflfered most extensively. We
think that as regards quantity the aggregate yield
of wheat of the United Kingdom will probably turn
out equal to that of average years ; but in quality
the deficiency will be very great. During the last
months new wheat has come forward pretty freely
in all the markets of the south, and a fair oppor-
tunity has therefore been afforded of judging. The
bulk of straw is acknowledged to be immense; and
notwithstanding the prevalence of small shrivelled
grains, in consequence of premature ripeness, blight,
mildew, and last, though not least, the damp con-
dition in which most of the wheat was carried, there
are comparativ^y few complaints of the yield to the
acre. The great source of regret is the defective
quality and light weight : few samples are entirely
free from sprout, the condition is very generally
soft, and the weight per bushel 4 to 5lbs. lighter on
the average than last year. These remarks may be
considered as applying to nearly the whole of the
wheat crop grown south of the Humber, certainly
the most important section of the kingdom. As
wo proceed northward we find the quality improve ;
and in Yorkshire and further north there will, we
are inclined to think, be no deficiency. Barley, the

next crop in importance to wheat, has suffered to
nearly the same extent ; and it is to be feared that
really fine malting samples will be universally scarce
this season. The very hot weather in July was not
favourable for this grain, and the subsequent ex-
cess of wet caused sprout and discoloration ; a
very large proportion of the new barley will there-
fore be unfit for malting purposes. The yield we
are disposed to estimate at about an average. Oats
are not so extensively grown in England as they
used to be formerly : the quality has been more or
less injured by the wet weather in August ; still,
according to the acreable breadth sown, the return
will we think turn out tolerably well, A conside-
rable proportion of the winter-planted beans was
destroyed by blight, and those sown in spring suf-
fered in the first instance from drought, and sub-
sequently from wet ; the yield is therefore short,
and the quahty various. Peas are a deficient crop,
but a part was secured early, of satisfactory quality.

From the above remarks it will be observed that
we do not consider ourselves justified in estimating
the produce of any description of grain or pulse
at more than an average in quantity; and tlie qua-
lity of each will, we apprehend, be found inferior to
the growth of moderately good seasons.

We have now to draw attention to the potato
crop, and we regret to say that this impor-
tant article of food has suflTered quite as exten-
sively from the generally imfavourable character
of the season as have the corn crops. The
disease attacked this root earlier than usual, and
we began to hear complaints as early as July; to
these, however, little attention was then paid, for up
to that period the grain fields presented so promis-
ing an appearance, that a partial loss of the potato
was not considered of suflficient importance to pro-
duce much influence. Since then it has, however,
become a matter of the utmost importance, and
the subject has, therefore, received strict attention.
The result of the investigation has been the con-
viction that the disease is more general and virulent
than it has been in any preceding season for several
years past; and many parties, who are well qualified
to decide on the pbint, are of opinion that the loss
will be as great, if not greater than in the disas-
trous year 1846. It is tolerably plain, therefore,
that there will be a considerable deficiency in the
total quantity of food raised in the United King-
dom, an'l that unless we have a much higher range

370

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of prices than we have yet had since the commence-
ment of free-trade our farmers must be in a worse
position than at any previous period. The probable
future range of prices has consequently become a
matter of the highest importance. A month ago
there was every appearance of the value of wheat
rising materially, and in the month of August an
advance of 5s. to 6s. per qr. was realized. This
was caused by the fears entertained that the wet
weaiher then experienced would pi'oduce extensive
mischief. These fears have been more than re-
ahzed; of this we have undoubted proof in the
samples of the new produce ; notwithstanding which
the trade has languished, and a part of the rise has
been lost. How is this to be accounted for? The
answer is obvious : whilst the harvest has turned
out so unsatisfactory in this country, the north of
Europe has been favoured with good crops.
America has an abundant harvest, and in Southern
Russia there will be a large surplus of wheat over
v/hat the home demand will require, for export.
The whole of this surplus can at any period be
poured into the British markets ; foreign growers
may, and probably will, wait for some adv^ance be-
fore they consign largely ; but the knowledge that
we may be overwhelmed with foreign supplies pre-
vents our merchants and millers acting with con-
fidence, keeps farmers in constant apprehension
and prevents them receiving anything like a remu-
nerative return for their outlay of capital and in-
dustry.

That very large importations of grain will be
needed cannot be questioned; and this being tole-
rably well understood abroad, holders on the other
side may perhaps not be in any hurry to forward
supplies, and, on the whole, we are rather inclined
to expect a moderate improvement on present rates.
The imports lately have not been very large, and,
as compared with those of the corresponding period
last year, a material falling off is shown. During
the seven months ending 5th August, the importa-
tions into the United Kingdom have been, in —
1852. 1851.

Wheat 1,327,790 qrs. 2,683,177 qrs.

Barley 364,396 „ 611,679,,

Oats 540,012 „ 774,301 „

Beans 249,487 „ 181,770,,

Peas 42,818 „ 58,488,,

Indian Corn.. 708,864 „ 1,081,597 „

Flour 2,417,453 cwt. 3,171,833 cwt.

Total, including ■

Flour asGrain 3,930,631 qrs. .6,323,004 qrs.
Business at Mark Lane has been quiet through-
out the month, and the fluctuations in pi'ices have
not been of much importance.

The arrivals of wheat coastwise have been naode-
rate, and the quantity brought forward week by

week from the home counties less than is
usually the case immediately after harvest. This
may, however, be readily accounted for — the new
wheat having been so badly harvested as to render
farmers unwilling to thrash freely until it shall
have been in stack a sufficient time to allow it to
harden and improve in condition. Nearly the
whole of the supply has, however, consisted of
new, from which it might be argued that stocks of
old are running short; but this we are not pre-
pared to coincide with.

At the close of August the commoner runs of
new Essex and Kent red wheat, weighing 56 to
57 lbs., were worth 32s. to 33s. per qr. ; the finer
kinds, 35s. to 37s. ; superior, 38s. to 40s. These
rates have been tolerably well supported, though
the demand has not at any period been active.
It would be tedious and unprofitable to describe
the transactions which have taken place on par-
ticular occasions, as scarcely any alteiation has
occurred either in demand or value. The best
picked lots have been taken off readily by the
millers, but factors have been unable to ob-
tain any improvement. The ordinary kinds have
been bought principally by the starch-makers, at
30s. to 32s. per qr. Most of the white wheat, which
has come forward in tolerably dry condition, the
weight being rather below 61 lbs. per bushel, has
sold at 42s. per qr. Within the last eight or ten
days the disposition to purchase has slightly in-
creased, and in partial cases an advance of Is. per qr.
has been realized for the best-conditioned samples.

As yet, comparatively little wheat has reached
us from Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire, and that
neighbourhood ; that which has come forward has,
for the most part, been of very ordinary quality,
and all the reports agree in stating that the injury
sustained by the wheat crop, on the fen lands along
the east coast, has been very extensive. Prices
range very wide in the markets in that quarter, say
from 25s. to 44s. per qr,, according to quality.

The arrivals of foreign wheat into London have
not been particularly large; they have, nevertheless,
more than sufficed for the demand, the country
enquiry having been far from active, which leads
us to conclude that fair supplies^f old English
wheat are being brought forwai'd; for it is certain
that the new cannot be manufactured by itself.
We are, however, inclined to expect an increased
demand for foreign later in the season, and believe
that London, will have to provide a wide circuit of
country, between this and Chistmas, with old wheat.
The town millers bought freely during the excite-
ment in August, and have since manifested no dis-
position to make further addition to their stocks ;
besides what they bought on the spot, they were in-
duced to send out orders to the Baltic for the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

377

purchase of \/lieat, and at present about 30,000
quarters are in progress of shipment from Danzig,
Rostock, &c., on account of London millers.
The prospect of this supply coming forward
shortly, naturally influences their operations,
and having had no speculative buyers, business
has throughout the month been quiet. Importers
have, nevertheless, remained firm, and where it has
been found impossible to sell from on board, except
by giving way in price, landing expenses have been
incurred rather than the other alternative. The
stocks in granary have consequently increased
more or less, but holders appear to reckon con-
fidently on a more free sale later in the year. Polish
Odessa, which in August rose to 40s. per qr., has
since receded to 38s., and good red Lower Baltic
wheat might be bought at present at 44s. to 46s.
per qr. Danzig is held at from 44s. to 50s. per qr.,
which is about the same as the prices demanded at
the close of last month. The operations in floating
cargoes have not been so important as in the month
of August, but for the greater portion of what has
arrived off the coast from the Mediterranean and
Black Sea, having been sold previous to coming
forward, there has been little or no pressure. In
one or two instances Polish Odessa has, we believe,
been sold at 35s. per qr., cost and freight ; but, at
present, 36s. per qr. is asked. The finer kinds of
Black Sea wheat have commanded relatively higher
rates. A few cargoes of Egyptian on passage have
lately changed hands at 30s. to 32s. per qr., cost,
freight, and insurance, which is quite as much as
the same would have brought a month ago. We
have had offers of fine red wheat from the Lower
Baltic ports at 42s. to 42s. 6d. per qr., cost and
freight. These rates buyers have, in general, re-
fused to give, and the free-on-board transactions
have consequently not been important ; at 40s. to
41s. per qr. purchasers might, we think, have been
found, which, considering that the premiums for
insurance are now rising rapidly, would not allow
much margin for profit on present prices here.

The nominal top quotation for town-made flour
has not varied ; the sale for the article has through-
out the month been rather tardy — the large quan-
tity of American which has been oflered having
interfered with the disposal of that of home-manu-
facture. Town household flour has been selling
the last week or two at 35s., and Norfolk over the
ship's side at 30s, per sack. The arrivals from
Am.erica have been rather liberal, and the reaction
in prices from the highest point has been Is. to 2s.
per brl. Tolerably good brands may now be had
at 21s. to 22s., and fine at 23s. per brl. : there are,
however, some fancy brands which are still held at
24s. to 25s. per brl. The receipts of French flour
have been moderate ; American has interfered with

the sale to a considerable extent, and the best
Marseilles has moved off slowly at 34s. per sack.

The quantity of English barley of the new crop
hitherto brought forward — of old, supplies have
long ago ceased— the finer kinds suitable for
malting have been in hvely request, and have
commanded full terms ; moderately good runs 30s.
to 32s,, and really fine 33s. to 34s. per qr. A large
proportion of the supply has, however, been of too
inferior quality for malting : such has moved off
slowly at relatively low prices. The receipts of
barley from abroad have been smaller than ex-
pected ; and the demand for feeding sorts having
been tolerably active, prices have, within the last
week or two, rather tended upwards. Unless the
supplies from abroad increase materially, this article
is likely to improve in value, as the stocks on the
spot have been reduced into a narrow circle. The
lighter sorts, such as we usually receive from
France, may be quoted 24s, to 24s. 6d., and good
heavy Danish cannot be purchased below 25s. to
26s. per qr. Most of the Egyptian barley has been
cleared off the market. Considerable sales were
made in the early part of the month at 18s per qr.,
from on board ship. Since then the price has crept
lip fully Is. per qr., with more buyers than sellers
at the advance. For cargoes on passage nearly as
much money is asked as for parcels on the spot ;
the bargains closed have, consequently, not been
very numerous, though there has been an evident
disposition to buy. The new barley will not, it is
expected, make such fine malt as that of last
year's growth ; and the stocks of old malt having
become reduced, holders of the latter have de-
manded full prices for good ship samples, 56s. to
58s., and for fine Ware 60s. per qr., and even more,
having been asked.

The receipts of English oats at this port have
consisted of a few small lots of new scarcely worth
naming. From Scotland we have received no sup-
plies of the new crop as yet, and the arrivals of old
have been moderate. The entire supply from Ire-
land has also been small, and we have had to depend
principally on the arrivals from abroad. These
have, however, been on a sufficiently liberal scale to
compensate for the trifling character of the home
supplies. By far the greater proportion of the
foreign oats have been from the port of Archangel.
The prevailing opinion is, that the quantity now on
passage from there is small and as there is no proba-
bihty of any immediate increase in the receipts
from other quarters, some improvement in prices is
naturally calculated on. The fluctuations in the
value of this grain have not been important since
our last : the turn has, on the whole, been in favour
of the buyer ; but the only kind on which any quo-
table concession has been made has been the Arch«

378

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

artels. At the close of August these were worth
ITs. 6d. to 18s. per qr., soon afterwards they fell
to l7s. 3d. to l7s. 6d., and latterly I7s. has, in
some cases, been accepted. Within the last week,
however, buyers have offered that price freely, but
sellers have dechned to take less than 17s. 3d. per
qr. When what still remains on board ship shall
have passed into the hands of the large dealers,
they will, in all probabihty, demand advanced rates,
and we are inclined to think that the lowest point
has been passed for good old corn.

Beans have come to hand very sparingly ; stocks
of old seem to be nearly exhausted, and farmers
appear to be in no hurry to send new to market.
The supply having hardly sufficed for the con-
sumptive demand, prices have gradually improved,
and quotations are at present '2s. to 3s. per qr.
higher than they were at the close of last month.
Egpytian beans have participated in the advance,
and good qualities in granary cannot be purchased
below 28s. per qr. The arrivals from Alexandria
have been small, and we do not hear of many
cargoes being close at hand. There are buyers at
present of cargoes on passage at 25s. per qr., cost,
freight, and insurance.

Very few English peas have appeared at market,
and, according to the accounts thus far received,
this crop has proved exceedingly short. White
boilers have lately commanded 40s. perqr. — being
a rise of 5s. per qr. on the rates current when we
last addressed our readers. Other sorts have risen
in the same proportion. Foreign white peas have
been in active request for stores : large quantities
having been laken as provisions for emigrant ships.
Fine maple peas would probably bring 35s. to 37s.
per qr.

In proportion as the spread of the potato disease
has progressed, so have the holders of Indian corn
raised their pretensions. There has, however, been
less disposition to speculate in this article than
might, under the circumstances, have been ex-
pected. The purchases made have been almost
entirely on Irish account, where the consumption
is now increasing rapidly.

The most recent sales of Galatz and Odessa
Indian corn have been at 28s. 9d. to 29s. 3d. per
qr., cost, fi-eight, and insurance. Other sorts have
brought corresponding terms, and, at present, there
are few cargoes arrived off the coast or close at
hdnd undisposed of. Stocks in Ireland are much
reduced, and, as potatoes rise in value, the demand
for Indian corn must increase.

The expectations of a good wheat harvest in most
of the northern continental countries appear to
have been fully realized. There are, as is almost
invarial)ly the case, partial complaints from parti-
cular localities ; but on the whole the accounts agree

—with few exceptions— in speaking well of the
yield and quality of the wheat crops over the
greater part of Germany, Poland, Russia, &c. Rye
seems also to have given a good return in northern
Europe ; and though the potato disease is said to
prevail to rather a serious extent, and the crops of
spring corn and pulse are deficient in many dis-
tricts, still there will, no doubt, be a very consider-
able surplus of wheat, and fair quantities of barley
and oats for exportation from the different Baltic
ports.

We have seen samples of new wheat, the growth
of Pomerania, Silesia, &C.5 of very superior quahty,
weighing 6llbs. to 62lbs.per bushel.

The advices from Danzig, Konigsberg, &c., also
describe the quality of the new wheat as fine. Prices
will, of course, be regulated abroad in a great
measure by the extent of the English demand ; if—
as there is reason to suppose will be the case — we
should require large supplies, foreign holders will
take advantage of our necessities and insist on full
terms. Hitherto quotations have been well sup-
ported abroad, notwithstanding the somewhat sub-
dued tone of the British advices.

Letters from Danzig, dated 24th Sept., state that
holders of fine high mixed wheat in granary had
insisted on 45s. to 46s. ; and some days previous
a parcel of fine mixed, weighing 62lbs. to 63lbs.
per bush., had been sold at 44s. per qr. The sup-
plies from the neighbouring growers had not been
large, and from Poland nothing was expected to
arrive before the usual period. The purchases
made during August were being shipped off, and,
vessels having become rather scarce, freights were
advancing.

The latest advices from Konigsberg state that
purchases of wheat had been made there on Am-
sterdam account which had tended to counteract
the effect which might perhaps otherwise have been
produced by the continued dull accounts from
hence. Old high-mixed wheat was quoted 41a,,
mixed 38s, 9d,, and red 37s. 9d. per qr. free on
board, the weight per bushel being 6Ulbs. Freight
to London was 3s, 6d., to Hull 3s. 3d., and Scot-
land 3s. per qr.

The reports from the lower ports do not vary
much in character from the above; business ap-
pears to have been generally duU in consequence
of the want of English orders, but this had failed to
shake the confidence of holders, who had insisted
on much the same terms as before, and good quali-
ties could not be put free on board below 38s. to
39s, per qr.

The stocks of old wheat are reported to have be-
come very much reduced, and supplies of new
having come forward sparingly, there had been
no pressure to sell. The probability is, therefore.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

379

that after what is now on passage shall have reached
us, the supplies from the Baltic ports will for a time
be short. Wheat at 38s. to 39s., with rising
freights and premiums for insurance, would not
pay to consign to the English markets, unless prices
advance here.

At the near continental ports wheat has
excited little attention ; and what has l)een
done at Hamburgh has been principally
on Dutch account. The last purchases
were at 40s. 9d. to 41s. 6d. per qr. free on board,
for 61 to 62lb. red Upland. At outports, good
Holstein of 6 lib. weight might have been bought
at 38s. 6d., and kilndried Danish of 6olb. at 36s.
per qr. free on board.

The comparatively high prices which have been
paid for new malting barley at Mark-lane have
caused those qualities best adapted to the purpose
to be sought after, and at Hamburgh as much as
29s. 9d. per qr. free on board has been paid for
50lb. new Saale barley.

The news from Holland is not of particular in-
terest. The wheat crop is well spoken of in the
Rhenish Provinces, but in other quarters it is said
to be deficient. In the early part of the month,
purchases of wheat to some extent were made in
the Rotterdam and Amsterdam markets for ship-
ment to England, at prices considerably above
those current here. These operations have now
extended over a period of several months, and are
said to have emanated from one party. The result
of the consignments to London has been a loss on
almost every transaction of 5s. to 6s. per qr. ; and
a good deal of surprise is, therefore, felt as to the
object of these purchases. The latest accounts
from Rotterdam state that the parties concerned
had ceased to operate.

In France, the wheat crop seems to disappoint
the growers; and though our accounts have cer-
tainly held out no inducement to buy, wheat and
flour appear to have been in lively request there,
at advancing rates.

From the Mediterranean we have nothing of
much interest to communicate ; and prices being
relatively higher there than with us, we cannot
expect supplies of much consequence from thence.

At the Black Sea ports, supplies from the
growers were beginning to increase ; and it was
believed that, after a while, wheat would be pro-
curable at somewhat easier rates. At Odessa, on
the 8th September, Polish was obtainable at 26s.,
and Ghirka at 30s. per qr. Freight to London
v/as 9s. per qr.

The American accounts continue to speak well
of the result of the harvest ; and there can be no
doubt that the United States will be in a position
to furnish abundant suppUes of bread-stuflfs, pro-

vided our prices are deemed sufficiently encou-
raging. The shipments, meanwhile, had not been
very large, the exports to the United Kingdom, for
the year ending 5th September, having been, in

Flour. Wheat. Maize.

1852 1,444,640 2,713,120 1,576,749

1851 1,581,702 1,523,908 2,368,860

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE.

Shillings per Quarter.

Wheat, Essex and Kent, white, new. . 34 to 42 fine up to 46

Ditto ditto old ..43 47 „ 54

Ditto ditto red, new 32 37 „ 40

Ditto ditto old 40 44 „ 48

Norfolk, Lincoln, & Yorksh., red. . 42 44 „ 45

Ditto ditto new .... 30 35 „ 40

Ditto ditto white new, none „ —

Ditto ditto old none „ —

Barley, malting, new 29 31

Chevalier 32 33

Distilling 27 29

Grinding 26 28

MALT,Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, new 54 55 extra 58

Ditto ditto old 52 54 „ 56

Kingston,Ware,and townmade,new58 59 „ 60

Ditto ditto old 56 58 „ 59

Oats, English feed 16 18 fine 20

Ditto Potato 19 21 extra 23

Scotch feed 20 22 fine 24

Ditto Potato 22 24 fine 25

Irish feed, white 16 18 fine 20

Ditto, black 15 17 fine 18

Rye 27 29 old 27 29

Beans, Mazagan 31 32 „ 30 31

Ticks 32 33 „ 32 33

Harrow 32 34 „ 33 34

Pigeon 36 40 „ 35 38

Peas, white boilers 38 40 „ 36 38

Maple 33 36 „ 33 36

Grey 31 33 „ 33 35

Flour, town made, per sack of 280 lbs. — — .,38 43

Households, Town 35s. Country — — „ 33 35

Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship — — „ 29 30

FOREIGN GRAIN.

Shillings per Quarter.

Wheat, Dantzic, mixed. . 42 to 43 high mixed 45 47extra53

Konigsberg 41 43 „ 44 45 „ 47

Rostock, new 41 42 fine old 43 45 „ 47

Pomera.,Meckbg.,andUckermk.,red 39 40 extra 42 45

Silesian „ 39 40 white 42 44

Danish and Holstem „ 38 40 „ 40 42

Barley, grinding 23 25

Distilling 25 27

Malting none — —

Oats, Dutch, brew, and Polands 18 20

Feed 16 17

Danish and Swedish feed 17 19

Stralsund 18 20

Russian 17s. 17s.6d.

French 16 18

Beans, Friesland and Holstein 28 32

Konigsberg 32 34

Egyptian 27 28

Peas, feeding 28 30 fine boilers 34 36

Indian Corn, white 27 29 yeUow 27 30

Flour, French, per sack 28 32 fine 33 35

American, sour per barrel 19 21 sweet 21 23

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE
AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT during the six
weeks ending September 18, 1852.

Price

Aug. U.

Aug. 21.

44s. yd.

43s. 7cl.

• • r

423. 5d.

.. !

4lB. 2d.

• • r

J

40s, 6d.

.. i

..

899. 7d.

~— —J

..

21. (Aug 28.

Sept. 4.

Sept. 11.
• 1

Sept. 18,

••

• •

3S0

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

For the last Six Weeks.

iWheat. Barley. Oats, i Rje. Beans

s. d. Is. d. s. d.| s. d.
27 5 19 6 i30 3133 7

Week Ending:! s.
Aug. 14, 1852. . ' 39
Aug. 21, 1852. , ' 41
Aug. 28, 1852. . I 43
Sept. 4,1852.. ' 44
Sept. 11. 1S52.. I 42
Sept. 18, 1852. . | 40

Aggregate average!

of last six weeks 42 0

Comparative avge.

same time last year 39 2

Duties I 1 0

27 4 19 3

28 2 20 3
28 2 20 5
27 10 18 10

27 4 j 18 7

27 9 1 19 6

26 1

20 4

10 10

29 4

29 9
31 3

30 9
30 1

30 3

26 4

33 2

34 4
34 10
34 5
34 4

34 1

30 0

1 Oi 1 0

Peas.

s. d.
31 4
29 10
31 1
31 6
31 9

29 10

30 11

20 11
1 0

COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES
OF CORN.

Averages from last Friday's

Wheat. .
Barley. .
Oats . .
Rye. . . .
Beans . .
Peas . .

Gazette.

Qrs.

93,857

7,897

11,781

849

1,975

1,361

Av.

29 10

Averages from the correspond-
ing Gasetle in 1851. Av.
Qrs. s. d.

Whe&t. . . . 106,232 . . 37 8
Barley. . . . 8,070 . . 25 7

Oats 12,598 .. 18 4

Rye 417 .. 26 2

Beans 2,236 . . 28 6

Peas 1,027 . . 28 2

PRICES OF SEEDS.

BRITISH SEEDS.

Linseed (per qr.). . sowing 50s. to 55s. ; crushing 45s. to 48s.

Linseed Cakes (per ton) £8 Os. to £8 10s.

Rapeseed (per last) new £22 to £23, fine £24, old £21 to £23

Ditto Cake (per ton) £4 5s. to £4 10s.

Cloverseed (])er cwt.) (nominal.)

Mustard (per bushel) new, white 7s. to 10s., brown 7s. to 9s.

Coriaii ler (per cwt.) old 10s. to 12s.

Canary (per cwt.) 38s. to 42s.

Tares, Winter, per bush, 5s. 6d. to 6s Spring (nominal)

Carraway (per cwt.) new 46s. to 47s. ; fine 48s.

Turnip, white (per bush.) Swede (nominal).

Trefoil (per cwt.) 21s. to 24s.

Cow Grass (per qr.) (nominal) . . 00s. to 00s.

FOREIGN SEEDS, &c.

Clover, red (duty 5s. per cwt.) (nominal.)

Ditto, M hite (duty 5s. per cwt.) „

Linseed (per qr.). . . . Baltic, 43s. to 46s. ; Odessa, 44s. to 47s.

J;inseed Cake (per ton) £7 to £9 10s. Os.

Rape Cake (per ton) £4 5s. to £4 10s.

Hempseed, small, (per qr.) 40s. to 43s., Do. Dutch, 44s. to 46s.
Tares (per qr.) old, small 28s. to 30s., large 30s. to 32s-

HOP MARKET.
BOROUGH, Monday, September 27.
We have aa increased demand for the better class of Hops,
especially Sussex Pockets, which have undergone a slight im-
provement in value. Few Mid or East Kents have yet been
disposed of.

Sussex pockets 70s. to 76s.

Weald of Kent ditto 80s. „ 92s.

Mid. and East Kent ditto nominal.

WORCESTER, (Saturday last.)— We have had a good
supply of the new growth, which prove to be of very superior
quality; 1000 pockets of which were sold at from 84s. to 95s.
As yet we have not had any inferior samples at market, and
should they not be to come, this will prove the best growth of
hops we have had for many years, and do our planters great
credit for improved management. Indeed we think some of
our choice samples are equal to any other growth in the
kingdom.

Foreign root {d p.) £ s.

Harlingen 27 0

English root (free)

Gucr7isci/ 10 0

Kent and Suffolk.

CHICORY.

Per ton.

10 10
no7ie.

English root C free) £, s.
York 8 10

Roasted S; ground

English 30 0

Foreign 40 0

£ s.
9 10

Dufi/ on all Coffee and roasted Chicory imported, 3d. 2'Cr lb. ;
on Chicory Moot £21 per ton.

ENGLISH BUTTER MARKET.

Monday, Sept. 27.
In the past week v?e have experienced rather a brisk
Butter trade, which having brought an increased supply
of both cask and fresh Butter, our market opens heavily
this morning at declining prices.

Dorset, fine weekly 90s. to 92s. per cwt.

Ditto middliny 70s. to 80s. „

Devon 80s. /o 86s. „

Fresh 9s. <o lis. per dos.

PRICES OF BUTTER, CHEESE, HAMS, &c.
Butter, per cwt, s. s. | «. s.

— ■ - - ' Cheesc,pcreivt.Che8hire50to70

Chcddcr 66 68

Double Gloucester. 60 58
Single do. ..41 50

H(uns, York 72 76

Westmoreland..,. 06 7-2

Irish 60 70

Bacon, Wiltshire, green 62 64
Waterford CO 62

Friesland 90 ^o 92

Kiel 88 92

Dorset ne7v 94 96

Carlow

Watcrjord . , ,

Cork

Limerick

Sligo

Fresh, per doz

12

OILS.

Linseed, 293. per cwt. ; Rapeseed, English refined, 333. 6d.;
do., foreign, 34s. 6d. ; brown, 32s. 6d. ; Galipoli, per tun,
56?.; Sperm, 851. to 871. 10s.; do. bagged. 86/.; South Sea,
35/. ; Seal pale, 3il. ; do., coloured, S2l. to 33/. ; Cod,
34Z.; Pilchard, 281. to 30/.; Cocoa Nut, per ton, 38/. to
40/. ; Palm, 29s. 6d.

MANURES.

London, September 27.
Linseed Cakes are very firm at our advanced quotations ;
and from the short supply higher prices are looked for as the
seasou advances for consumption.

Rape Cakes are wanted ; no foreign'on the spot.
PRICES CURRENT OF GUANO.

Guano Peruvian per ton £0 a 0 to £\> 5 0

„ In quantities under 5 t07is „ 0 0 0 9 10 0

Bolivian G7iano „ 7 5 0 0 0 0

ARTIFICIAL MANURES, OIL CAKES, Sfc,

Peat Charcoal ,, 2 15

Nitrate Soda „ 15 0

Nitrate Potash or Saltjjctre ,, 26 0

Superphosphate of Li77ie „ 0 0

Soda, Ash or Alkali ,, 0 0

Oypsuni ,, 1 S

Coprolite „ 2 6

Sulphate of Copper, or Ro7>ian

Vitriol for Wheat steeping,,., „ 27 0

Salt „ I 1

Bones J inch per qr. 0 0

„ Dust „ 0 0

Oil Vitriol, concentrated per lb. 0 0

,, Bro/V7i ,, 0 0

Rape Cakes per ton 4 15

Li7isccd Cakes —

Thin American in brls. or bags „ 8 10

Thick ditto round ,, 7 15

Marseilles „ 0 0

English ,, 7 15

0 15
0 17
0 0

0
0
0
0

I

0 0|
0 0

WOOL MARKET.
BRITISH WOOL.
BIRMINGHAM WOOL SALES, Sept. 22.-The sales
to-day were well attended by the leading manufacturers from
Leicester and the north. Prices may be quoted as they
brought in the market — for strong fleeces, 12^ to 14^; fine
clips, 14 to 16J; black, 13|; cots, 10|; locks, 8| to 9^ ;
and shorn lamb, 11| to 12f . About 40,000 fleeces were sold,
and the sales were highly satisfactory.

LEEDS, Sept. 24. — There has been a moderate amount of
sales of combing and clothing wools this week, at last week's
rates, and prices are very firm.

LIVERPOOL, September 25.

s. d. i. d-

Laid Highla7id Wool, per iUbs 9 6<o)0 3

White Highla7ul do 12

Laid Crossed do,, unwashed .... 10

Do. do..7vashed 10

LaidCheviot do..u7iwashed .... 11

Do. do. .mashed ...... 14

White Cheviot do.. do 24

9

1.3

9

9

11

6

0

12

0

6

18

0

0

16

9

0

26

0

Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 246, Strand, London.

^>- \v

londcrkJPuilished. hi/ Eoqerson &: Ruvfard. 246 S'Crand .1652.

THE FAKMER'S MAGAZINE.

NOVEMBER, 1852,

PLATE I.
PORTRAIT OF HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON.

ENGRAVED BY J. B. HUNT, FROM A PAINTING BY R. LEWIS.

Arthur Wellesley, first Duke of Wellington, was born in Ireland in the spring of the year 1769.
Singularly enough, there is a doubt both as to the day and place in which he was born. The first of
May, however, for the one, and Dangan Castle, county Meath, for the other, are the most popularly
accredited, though either has been met with many well-considered arguments against its claims. If
Ireland thus ranks the hero amongst her many distinguished sons, the Mornington family, from
which he descends, is still clearly of English extraction. The second Earl of Mornington, himself
celebrated for his musical attainments, died when his son Arthur was yet at a very early age, and his
education consequently was proceeded with under the direction of his mother, a daughter of Arthur
Hill, Viscount Dungannon, a lady also of considerable talents. Yet the early promise of her son
Arthur was by no means great, for both at Eton, as well as when afterwards with a private tutor at
Brighton, he evinced anything but that success in elegant scholarship for which so many of his
family have been renowned. In fact, his very inferiority in classic study is generally supposed to have
led to his adoption of the army as a profession ; as a preparation for which, we find him ultimately
removed to the military seminary at Angers, in France. Having spent six years here, the student
returned in 1787 to take up his commission as ensign in the 73rd foot. Once entered, the family
influence was found sufficient to ensure him quick promotion, and his frequent changes from one
regiment to another, consequent of course on "the steps" he took, would be only tedious to trace
out. Of all those he joined, and they included both cavalry and infantry, his name is chiefly identi-
fied with the 33rd, in which regiment he obtained his majority, and which subsequently he com-
manded, that is in the early stages of his career. This was commenced in 1794, (where it finished
many years afterwards- on the plains of Belgium) ; the 33rd being sent out in aid of the discomfited
forces of the Uuke of York. Colonel Wellesley's services here, however, were chiefly confined to
the conducting of a retreat. In 1796 the same regiment, with which he continued in command, was
ordered to India ; but their colonel was unable to proceed with them, his health having failed him.
It is indeed remarkable that the Iron Duke of mature age, was, as a young man, often nearly
mastered by debihty and sickness. Still he was enabled to join them early in 1792, in the February
of which year he landed at Calcutta, and from whence we may date the commencement of those
famous campaigns that resulted in the establishment of our Eastern Empire. We can do no more
than thus passingly allude to those glorious nine years of successful soldiership— services which, only
justly rewarded, sent the Colonel Wellesley of '97 home again in the autumn of 1805 as a Major-
General and a Knight of the Bath, with the thanks of his king and country awaiting him.

For three years from this period Sir Arthur Wellesley occupied himself with the duties an Irish
OLD SERIES.] 2 C [VOL. XXXVIL-No. 5.

382

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

secretaryship and a seat in Parliament entailed on him, turning again, in the summer of 1808, to
those pursuits for which he was so pre-eminently fitted. England's "greatest war," however, and
the victories of the Peninsula, crowned as they were with "Wellington and Waterloo," must speak
for themselves. They have long been household words.

As a soldier the conclusion of this war left the Duke of V/ellington amongst the greatest and most
popular. His subsequent career as a statesman, while it could not endanger his real worth, for a long
period lowered it in public opinion. As a General his judgment was almost always right, his actions
almost as invariably successful. As a Prime Minister, on the other hand, he rarely carried out that he
intended, and thus Catholic Emancipation and Parliamentary Reform were passed not at his direction,
but conceded rather to the force of circumstances. The Duke himself well knew his true place in this
arena, and it was not as a leader of a party, but as an uninfluenced adviser, that he regained to the
full the general respect and admiration of his country.

No man's popularity, be it remembered, was ever raised upon a purer foundation. It was the
result of one long line of duty, directed by ability and determination, and never turned from its course
by personal consideration of any kind. It was in this spirit that the Duke could receive the highest
honours a grateful people could bestow ; as, with the same inward feeling of having done his best, he
could hear the comments on the victory of Talavera, or point to his well-guarded windows in Picca-
dilly. The tide of public favour might ebb or flow, but it never tried his courage or altered his
position.

His Grace married in 1806 the Honourable Catherine Pakenham, third daughter of Lord Longford,
by whom he had two sons, the Marquis of Douro, now the present Duke, and Lord Charles Wellesley,
The Duchess died in 1831.

PLATE II.

A COTSWOLD RAM,

The property of William Game, Esq., of Aldsworth, near Northleach, Gloucestershire, for which the
first prize of £25 was awarded at the Meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, held at
Windsor, in July, 1851.

METEOROLOGY, ITS CONNECTION WITH AGRICULTURE.

BY CUTHBEET W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.K.S,

in pursuing the subject of meteorology in its
connection with agriculture, I propose in this paper
to collect a few facts upon the evaporation, and
filtration from the soil, of rain-water. Now, it has
been ascertained by the result of many long-
continued observations that the depth of rain-
water evaporated from the surface of the soil in
the warmer months of the year is always very con-
siderable, though this varies with the nature and
circumstances in which the soil is placed. Mr.
John Dickenson, of Abbott's Mill, near King's
Langley, in Hertfordshire, has given the mean
amount which at that place fell, evaporated, and
filtered or drained away: 1. In each month and
year in the eight years from 183G to 1843 ; and
2. The mean amount which fell, evaporated, and
filtered in the half years extending from April to
September both inclusive, and from October to

March both inclusive, in the eight years from
1836 to 1843. These will be found in the follow-
ing tables {Journal of the Roy, Ag. Sac, vol. v., p.
130):—

Rain. Filtrated.
Inches. Inches.

Months.

January . . ,
February
March . . ,
April . . . . .

May

June . . . . ,
July ....
August . . ,
September,
October . .
November .
December .

1-847
1-971
1-617
1-456
1-856
2-213
2-287
2-427
2-639
2-823
3-837
1-641

Total ,, 26-614 11-294 15-320

1-307
1-547
1-077
0-306
0-108
0-039
0-042
0-036
0-369
1-400
3-258
1-805

Eva-
porated.
Inches.
0-540
0-424
0-540
1-150
1-748
2-174
2-245
2-391
2-270
1-423
0-579
0-164

..,i:ilh»iM0il0}\^;^<<A:

'^'i^i^ j^

^^i%v .t.i,}

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

April to

September inclusive.

Tons jjer acre.

Years.

Rain.

Filtra-
tion.

Evapo-
ration.

Filtrated.

Eva-
porated

Inches.

Inches

Inches

1836

12-20

2-10

10-10

212

1023

1837

9-80

0-10

9-70

10

982

1838

10-81

0-12

10-69

12

1082

1839

17-41

2-60

14-81

263

1500

1840

9-68

000

9-68

9S0

1841

15-26

0-00

15-26

1545

1842

12-15

1-30

10-85

131

1099

1843

14-04

0-99

13-05

100

1322

ilean .

12-97

0-90

11-77

91

1192

October to March inclusive.

Years

1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843

Mean ,

There are influencing circumstances which vary
the rate of evaporation ; for instance, the more or
less amount of moisture which the soil requires for
saturation, and its degree of exposure to the sun
and winds. Then, again, the force of those winds,
and the general direction in which they blow, have
a very material influence on the extent and rapidity
of the evaporation. I had a favourable occasion to
notice this during some lengthened observations in

j

Tons per acre.

Ram.

Filtra-

Evapo-

Eva-

Inches.

tion.
Inches

ration.
Inches

Filtrated.

porated

18-80

15-55

3-25

1574

330

11-30

6-85

4-45

693

452

12-32

8-45

3-85

855

393

13-87

12-31

1-56

1246

159

11-76

8-19

3-57

829

362

16-84

14-19

2-65

1437

269

14-28

10-46

3-82

1059

387

12-43

7-11

5-32

726

538

13-95

10-39

3-56

1052

360

Essex on a field of about 20 acres, which was de-
voted to the evaporation of sea-water for the pur-
pose of making common marine salt. This field
was divided into small, very level, shallow divi-
sions (about 40 feet square), called by the salt-
maker " sun pans," in which the sea-water was
spread over the surface as thin as possible, so as to
be gradually strengthened into brine by the action
of the sun and winds (the mean depth of the water
in these was about an inch). The attendants upon
these " sun pans " soon became well aware of the
varying influence of the wind on the rate of evapo-
ration. They found that in a perfectly calm day,
however bright and warm the sun shone, the eva-
poration from the water was very slow ; but that a
breeze much increased the evaporation from what-
ever quarter it came. Of these breezes those pro-
duced the least evaporation which were from
the S.W. or W. ; the rate of evaporation was
greater if the wind was N.W., still more if N., still
more if N.E. or E., and the most rapid of all in
the v/arm and dry S.E. wind — but, then, this wind
we found was generally soon followed by rain.
Such observations are practically valuable, and
chiefly, like most of a similar kind, as being com-
paraiive results obtained under similar circum-
stances. This remark well applies to such as those
of Mr. Charles Charnock, carried on at Holmfield,
near Ferrybridge, in Yorkshire, in the years 1842-
3-4-5 and 1846. These show the relative evapora-
tion : 1. Of surfaces of water ; 2. Of undrained
land or soil saturated with water ; and 3. Of dry
or drained land {Journal Roy. Ag. Soc, vol. x., p.
517). The following table gives the mean results
for the four years : — ■

Evaporation.

FROM WATER.

PROM

SOIL.

Exposed to

Shaded from

When

Water

Year, and Depth of Rain

both Sun and

Sun, but ex-

When drained.

undrained.

filtered away

in Inches.

Wind.

posed to Wind.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

Inches.

1842 .. 26-11

33-61

22-48

21-56

30-02

4-55

1843 . . 24-49

34-17

22-72

20-11

31-19

4-28

1844 .. 19-00

40-16

26-75

15-40

37-85

3-60

1845 .. 28-18

32-56

21-75

23-26

31-09

4-92

1846 .. 25-24

34-69

23-04

18-38

33-28

6-76

These experiments were carried on upon a
magnesian limestone soil, and the drain was placed
at a depth of three feet from the surface. The
amount evaporated was here smaller than that re-
corded by Mr. Dickenson in the chalk soil of
King's Langley, in Hertfordshire.

Some results, recorded by the late Mr. John
Dalton, of Manchester, " with a good fresh soil,"
seem also to show a smaller extent of filtration than

in the Hertfordshire results. In his observationsj
which extended through the years 1796-97 and
1798, he found the mean of those three years to
be-

Mean rain 33-560

Mean evaporation 25'158

Mean filtration, or drainage .... 8-402

These researches bear exclusively on the amount
of rain-water capable of being absorbed by various

2 c 2

384

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

soilsj and to the degree of rapidity with which they
allow it to evaporate. Another enquiry relates to
the rate with which the same soils, when well dried,
absorb the insensible vapour of the atmosphere ;
and this, although not strictly relating to our
comparative meteorological observations, is still of
considerable interest. One thousand grains of
each of these earths, when exposed on a surface of
50 square inches, absorbed in 12 hours, 24 hours,
36 hours, and 72 hours —

Siliceous sand . .
Calcareous sand
Sandy clay . . . .
Loamy clay . . .

Stiff' clay

Arable soil

Garden mould .

In 12.
0

2
21
25
30
16
35

In 24.

0

3
26
30
36
22
45

In 36.

In 72

0

0

3

3

28

28

34

35

40

41

23

23

50

52

In the examinations of the German chemist, and
others which I have given, all the soils employed
were free from herbage of any kind — it was the
evaporation of the bare earths which was alone
determined. In practice, however, a different state
of things presents itself, we have there a soil
tenanted by plants, and a consequent increase of
evaporating surface, which is probably much more
influenced by the action of the sun and winds than
a surface of bare earth.

The larger evaporation from a soil occupied by
plants was shown experimentally by Mr. Geo.
PhiUips {Journal Roy. Ag. Soc, vol. vii., p. 307).
He employed in the month of March two metaUic
vessels of equal size, which were used as mould
pots. They were so constructed that no moisture
could escape except at the surface. Each pot con-
tained 22-09 square inches of surface at the level
of the mould. One pot was filled with mould
onlj', the other with mould containing a poly-
anthus, and, in another experiment, three plants of
the potato. In twelve days the mould evaporated
1,600 grains, or 6-06 grains daily per square inch,
while the pot containing the polyanthus had eva-
porated 5,250 grains, which, for the mould and
one surface of the leaves, is 4-93 grains for every
square inch. In the case of the potato plants, in
nineteen days the mould evaporated 54,000 grains ;
the potato plants, 3,000 grains. The daily evapo-
ration from one surface of the potato was at the
rate of r4 grain, and of the polyanthus 2*1 grains,
from one square inch. In the experiments of Dr.
Hales on a sunflower, the daily mean evaporation
was 15 grains for every square inch of the plant's
surface.

The evaporation of water from the surface of
plants is influenced, too, by the action of light,
and this on certain elevations, and in particular
aspects, is a circumstance which there is little
doubt has a material influence on the prosperity or
ill- success of certain crops. The action of light on
the aqueous exhalation of plants has engaged the
attention of Professor Macaire, of Geneva {Trans.
Royal Soc, 1848, p. 270). His observations con-
firm the generally received opinion that the exhala-
tion is chiefly from the leaves. He found that the
exhalation was much less in quantity during the
night than during the day — that the influence of
light upon the amount of exhalation was consider-
able, and that this varied materially according to
the surface of the leaf exposed, and the rays of the
spectrum in which it was placed. For instance, in
two hours, a leaf of a raspberry bush, weighing 23
grains, placed on 300 grains of water, with its
under-suriace exposed to the light, in a tempera-
ture of 68 degs., exhaled —

Grains of water.

In diffused light 4*3

In the blue rays 6"3

In the yellow rays f .• • • 2

In the green rays ,^.^^,ff y. 2

In the red rays ,|.,.„'J). ._^.,^,^,,,j,j

In the dark •1'.Mh1^ «<Q,"4nf;v«

Under similar circumstances, with its upper sur-
face exposed to light, it exhaled —

Grains of water.

In diffused light 2-2

Under blue glass 2*8 "'

Under yellow glass 0*5 ^

Under red glass 0*4

In the dark O'O

In all the experiments the exhalation was greater
in the blue rays than in the others, whether it
was the upper or the imder surface of the leaf that
was exposed to the influence of light. The blue rays
excite a greater exhalation than the diffused light ;
but this light has more influence than the other
rays. The red is that in which the exhalation is
the smallest.

We cannot fail to perceive then, that the evapo-
ration of water from the earth, and from the plants
with which the farmer's soils are tenanted, is a
matter full of interest. We shall find hereafter
that this more materially influences the modes of
cultivation which he is led to adopt than we have

always leisure to examine.

)^fJne7bB8ife

•■'• *B to Mb

-iffgoofq

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

385

ON THE COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES OF FIXED AND PORTABLE STEAM POWER,
AS APPLICABLE TO THE PURPOSES OF A FARM.

BY MR. JAMES D. FERGUSON, BYWELL, CASTLE, NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, FORMERLY
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEER IN GLASGOAV.

[Premium— The Medium Gold Medal.]

The writer, in stating his observations in refer-
ence to the comparative advantages of fixed and
portable steam-power, as applicable to the purposes
of a farm, believes he will best convey his opinion
in respect to them by dividing this paper into four
sections — viz. :

1. Steam applied to the plough.

2. Fixed steam-power applied to thrashing-

machines, turnip and chaff cutters, &c.

3. Portable steam-power applied to do. do.

4. Portable horse-power applied to do. do.
Steam-power applied to the plough is, the writer

l)elieves, of very recent origin, and, so far as he is
aware, the first attempt on a large scale was made
some years ago in Lochar moss, near the town of
Dumfries. On that occasion many thousands were
witnesses of the exhibition, and the writer happened
to be one of the number, whose opinion, like many
others, in respect to the utility or general advan-
tage of the steam-plough, was by no means favour-
able. There was evidence, certainly, of a curious
and most ingenious piece of mechanism, not only
in the engine and its connections, but in the work-
ing of the plough ; which, however, went but a
short way as compensation for the many defects
which appeared in the working of both.

On the whole, it was the general opinion at the
time that it did its work very imperfectly ; and, in
consequence of the many obstructions in the soil
which it met with — the iron belt which pulled the
plough being continually breaking, as well as other
parts of the machinery, and, consequently, much
time being lost and expense incurred in making
repairs — it is the^deliberate opinion of the writer,
that, except for large level tracts of moss or bog,
or for large enclosures on extensive level or carse
farms, where there are no obstructions in the soil
to hinder the free working of the plough, it cannot
be brought into general use for the majority of
tenants, especially as the great weight of the engine
as well as its expense, will constantly operate to its
disadvantage ; for if the engine is fixed in the mid-
dle, or at one end of the field, and the plough or
ploughs pulled by flexible iron belts similar to the
one exhibited near Dumfries, it (the engine) will
necessarily be expensive, as it must of necessity be

heavy to resist the lateral pressure ; and if the en-
gine is made to travel with or in company of the
plough, which may be done on dry ground, two or
probably three horse power would be expended in
dragging the engine itself. All these would mate-
rially operate against its general application. In a
district of country, however, where there are large
enclosures and extensive carse farms comparatively
level, of loamy or clayey soil, and no likelihood of
the plough meeting with any formidable obstruc-
tion in the subsoil, a steam-plough might, the
writer is positive, be introduced, and advantageously
employed, on the principle of the portable steam
engine for thrashing, the i^roprietor of the engine
and plough hiring them out from time to time to
parties— he charging a certain amount per day or
per acre, according to the quantity ploughed, the
tenant affording fuel or not, as the case might
be.

He would feel very sorry to discourage any in-
vention, by which the labour of cultivation to the
farmer would be cheapened ; but as respects the
application of steam to the working of the plough,
he has, like many others, his doubts of its ever
being of general advantage to the majority of
tenants.

Steam-power, however, both fixed and portable
is, and may further be of the greatest advantage to
tenants, in driving thrashing-machines, chaff and
turnip cutters, &c. ; and first in respect to fixed
steam-power, which in the end (compared with a
portable engine) is not only for farmers of moderate
or large extent the cheapest, but steadiest and best.
The writer believes himself to be in a position, if
not satisfactorily to prove this, at least to give
a very decided opinion in reference to it, more es-
pecially as it has been h':s lot not only to attend to
various kinds of thrashing-machines driven by
horse-power, as well as by fixed and portable
steam-power, from a portable one driven by four
horses, up to one of twelve-horse power worked by
a high pressure steam engine, and not only had to
feed these machines, but occasionally to attend in
the corn-barn, as well as to assist in bottling or
taking away the straw. He therefore had the
fullest opportunity, from several years' severe prac-

386

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tical experience, of observing the advantage and
disadvantage of these powers, when applied to
thrashing-mills.

There can scarcely be two opinions in respect
to fixed steam-power being decidedly the best for
all corn farms of moderate extent — of say 100 acres
or upwards ; and his opinion is founded on the
following observations : — A high pressure engine,
of four-horse power, which is suflficient for a farm
of 100 acres, can now be obtained, with boiler and
connections, for £90 ; and although an engine-
house, with a chimney of considerable elevation, is
absolutely necessary, yet the expense of all these,
when compared with the inconvenience and disad-
vantage of a portable engine for a farm of the size
stated, is actually not worthy of consideration.
A fixed engine, under cover, is easily kept and
attended to, at the rate of about 6d. per day for
oil and greese, &c., and is, of course, perfectly
steady in its movements when working ; while a
portable engine, on the contrary, is often the very
reverse, being fixed on four wheels ; and this of
itself is of much importance to notice, and, at any
rate, it is generally more expensive for maintenance
in tear and wearj &c., and also for oil and grease,
in consequence of its exposure to all weathers,
being generally put down at the barn door while
working.

It is ahvays a matter of considerable importance
to the industrious tenant, that he should have it in
his power to turn his servants to some in-door work
during stormy weather, when it may be improvi-
dent to send men and horses into the fields ; but if
he has a good thrashing-mill, and a fixed engine to
drive it, he can never be at a loss in the winter
season. He is then comparatively independent. He
can get up his steam by daylight in a winter morn-
ing, and by thrashing a whole day at once (as every
good managing tenant should do, to save fuel in
raising the steam), he procures not only abundance
of fodder for his stock (which, if stored carefully,
will keep fresh a considerable time), but a large
quantity of grain, which, if need be, he can store
past, to meet a rising market.

The tenant, however, depending on a portable
engine to drive his thrashing-mill, is often not in
such a favourable position as his neighbour hav-
ing a fixed one of his own. These, in England,
are general!}^ kept by parties in the district, who
hire them out to tenants at so much per day, or at
the rate of so much per bushel, or other measure,
according to the kind of corn or length of straw
which is thrashed. The engine is generally of four
or six horse-power, and is fixed on a carriage have-
ing four broad wheels. When a farmer requires
the use of this engine, it is necessary that he give
notice to the owner of it a few days before it is

wanted, and then send two horses (sometimes three
are necessary) to drag it the evening before it is
wanted, or early on the morning it is to be at work,
in order that there may be sufficient time to get up
the steam. It is generally set down at the outside
of the barn door, and the thrashing-mill driven by
a long belt from the fly-wheel of the engine, put
over the pulley or sheave of the drum. It is, how-
ever, a complaint almost universally made, that in
consequence of the engine being fixed on a wheeled
carriage, it works usually in a very imsteady man-
ner; and it is not uncommon that derangement
and breakage of the thrashing-mill takes place,
as well as sometimes of the engine itself.

There are other serious objections to a portable
steam-engine ; and, first, the risk of fire by sparks
flying a])out, (which can scarcely be avoided, al-
though some of them are encased in sheet iron) ;
and this of itself is a great objection to its use.
Another and serious complaint is, the great incon-
venience a tenant is sometimes put to (especially
when markets are looking up) in not getting the
engine on the day he wants it; for if only one is
kept in the district (and in some districts two would
not pay), there is often such a demand for it, that
four or five, and even sometimes six days' notice,
require to be given before the use of it can be ob-
tained ; and it not unfrequently happens that, before
a tenant can get his corn thrashed and ready for
the market, grain has again fallen in price.

This the writer has sometimes noticed, and with
regret observed the great hindrance it often was to
the industrious tenant making the most of his corn
crops when markets were rising ; whereas, had he
had a fixed engine of his own, as, in the opinion
of the writer, every tenant possessing a corn farm
of 100 acres and upwards should have (if water,
which is the cheapest of all power, cannot be ob-
tained), he would always be in a position to catch
a favourable market for his grain, and this of itself
would go far, even sometimes in one season, to
counterbalance the rate of interest on the original
price of the engine, and buildings connected with
it, even although he should build them himself.
The writer remembers at one time of a tenant (ha
having a farm of considerable extent, but no thrash-
ing mill) being disappointed in getting a portable
horse-power gin and thrashing-machine at the time
he required it (and this, by the by, which is also
hired out and conveyed from place to place, is ready
for work in one half the time that is required for a
steam-engine, considering the time that is necessary
to get up the steam), who set a few men to thrash
out his corn by the primitive method of flails,
rather than lose the opportunity of exposing his
grain for sale at a favourable market.

The usual prices of fixed high-pressure eteani-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

88^

en^i^nes are as follows ; one of fom'-liorse power,
with boiler and connections, will cost £90 ; one of
six do. ; £110 eight do. £130; ten do. £150; twelve
do. £170. To huild the engine-house chimney 40
feet in height, erect engine and boiler house of
bricks, 20 feet in length by 14 in breadth, and set
up the engine of any of the above, will be, al-
lowing the materials to be brought or carted
say ten miles, and the roof a slated one, about
£130.

A four-horse power fixed high-pressure steam-
engine will thrash and dress with a good mill, in a
day of eight hours, with 4 cwt. of the best coals
(or a cwt. for each horse-power), from 250 to 320
bushels of wheat, if the crop is a good one, and
reaped in fair condition.

A six-horse power, do. do., will thrash and dress
in the same time, with 6 cwt. of coals, from 290 to
370 bushels of wheat.

An eight-horse power, do. do., will thrash and
dress in the same time, with eight cwt. of coals,
from 330 to 420 bushels of wheat.

A ten-horse power, do. do., will thrash and dress
in the same time, with 10 cwt. of coals, from 420
to 600 bushels of wheat ; and

A twelve-horse power, do. do., will thrash and
dress in eight hours, with about 12 cwt. of coals,
from 600 to 800 bushels of wheat.

It may not, perhaps, be out of place to detail
here the number of hands generally employed at this
powerful mill of twelve-horsepower when working,
which was undoubtedly the best the writer ever saw
for farm purposes, although there was nothing pe-
culiar in its construction. The feeding rollers were
6 feet in length, and the shaker (called a travelling
shaker), which was horizontal, sparred across, and
14 feet in length, had a peculiar tremulous motion
given to it by machinery, which, when the straw
was thrown on to it by two common revolving rake
shakers, made the corn pass through it into the
hopper of the fanners below, while the straw was
moved along by the power of an endless chain,
which revolved round cylinders at each end, and
made it drop over the partition wall, 14 feet in
height, that separated the corn from the straw
barn. It was the lot of the writer often to feed
this machine, which always wrought a day at a time,
and which was exciting although severe work. The
number of people required for the machine while
thrashing, and to prepare the corn for the market
at the same time, and put it into sacks, which was
always done, was as follows : —

One man to attend the engine— two and a half,
and sometimes three hours, being generally required
in the morning to get up the steam, if the coals
were good.

One do. to feed the mill.

Two women to unloose the sheaves ; one on each
side or the feeder.

One man (sometimes a woman) to cast the
stack.

Two lads to cart the corn from the stackyard, if
the stack was at a distance. The upper floor of
the barn being on a level with the stack yard, in
the end of which was a coach-house door, loaded
carts were run back to the feeding-board.

One man in the corn barn ; generally the
steward.

Three women in do. do., a pair of hand-dressing
fanners being kept going.

Two men taking away the straw. If bolted,
fom' were required.

Two women building and trampling the straw in
the end of straw barn.

The prices of portable steam-engines, with car-
riages, are as follows— viz. :

A four-horse power portable steam engine, on a
carriage with four broad wheels, will cost £220 ;
and with a thrashing-mill and shaker attached, hut
without fanners, £55 additional,

A six-horse power do. do, do., £250 ; and with
a thrashing-mill and shaker attached, but without
fanners, £63 additional.

The writer has not seen any of greater power
than the above, which in England are dragged
about the country ; but it is not uncommon that
a thrashing-mill is conveyed from place to place
along with the engine, the whole belonging to one
person, who hires them out from time to time.
"When this is the case, the thrashing-mill, which is
also fixed on a carriage, is run back into the barn,
which in many parts in England is built of wood,
and has generally a large door on each side, and
when made steady on the floor, is driven by a long
belt from the fly-wheel of the engine, which is
planted at the outside of the door. Sometimes the
thrashing-mill has a pair of dressing fanners at-
tached, but oftener the corn is only thrashed ; and
sometimes a farmer has a fixed thrashing-mill of
his own so constructed, with, and sometimes with-
out fanners, that the engine which he hires to drive
it can be easily attached to the sheave or pulley of
the drum, and driven by a belt.

A four-horse power portable engine will thrash
in eight hours, with a good mill, from 240 to 300
imperial bushels of wheat, if well got, or nearly as
much as a fixed engine ; but, generally, the porta-
ble machines, as before observed, are not so steady
as those fixed, and consequently do not do so much
work.

A six-horse power portable engine, with a good
mill, will thrash in eight hours, from 270 to 350
bushels of wheat, if a good crop, and! reaped in
fair condition.

383

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The prices paid for the hire of portable steam-
power thrashing-machines are : — The hire of a four-
horse power engine with thrashing-mill, runs gene-
rally from lUs. to 20s. per day, if only a few hours
of it are required, and according to the state and
condition of the crop to be thrashed, and sometimes
1 d. per bushel is paid if two days' thrashing are
required ; but, in the latter case, the owner of the
engine and mill, whose duty is generally to attend
the engine, affords or supplies a man to feed the
mill, and the farmer finds fuel for the engine.

The hire of a s:x-horse power engine and thrash-
ing-mill runs from 15s. to 253. per day, or accord-
ing to the length of time the engine is working ;
but the price of id., and sometimes as high as l^d.
per bushel, is more frequently the arrangement
made with the owner of the engine.

The party hiring is generally at the expense of
carting the engine and the mill to his steading when
it is required ; and in some districts it is common
for the farmer last using them to send them with
his horses to the next person hiring.

When the thrashing-mill is a fixture, and be-
longing to the farmer, as is the case in some places,
the hire of an engine is then only required, and in
that case the price paid for its use is, of course,
proportionally less than when both engine and mill
are required.

The prices of portable horse-power thrashing-
machines are : — A portable horse-power thrashing-
machine, with gin for two horses, including price
of the carriage on which they are conveyed, the mill
thrashing the corn merely, will cost £G0.

A four-horse do. do. will cost £82.

A six-horse do. do. will cost £95.

A two-horse power machine will thrash in a day
of eight hours from 150 to 240 bushels of wheat,
according to the condition in which the crop has
been reaped.

A four-horse power machine will tlirasb in the
same time from 210 to 300 bushels of wheat, ac-
cording to the condition in which the crop has been
reaped.

A six-horse power machine will thrash in the

same time from 260 to 350 bushels of wheat, ac-
cording to the condition in which the crop has been
reaped.

The prices paid for the hire of portable horse-
power machines with horse gin are : — The hire of
a two-horse power thrashing-machine with gin for
two horses (the horses belonging to the party
hiring), runs from 10s. to 15s. per day; butoftener
Id. per bush, is paid for the quantity thrashed, and
sometimes more, according to bargain, the owner
of the machine feeding it, and the farmer affording
a man or boy to drive the horses.

The hire of a four or six-horse power machine
and gin is proportionally more, and runs generally
(but much depends on the state or condition of the
corn to be thrashed) from 12s. to l6s. or 18s. per
day, or id., and even sometimes Ijd. per bushel,
the owner invariably feeding the machine, and the
farmer supplying the horses and other hands for
the work, as well as in conveying the machine and
gin to the next person requiring them.

The writer has known in some districts the owner
of the gin and thrashing-machine keeping two,
three, or four horses of his own for conveying it
and the gin from place to jilace, as well as for
working it ; but when this was the case, the charge
Avas, of course, considerably inci'eased — generally
4s. per day for each horse — in addition to the
charge per bushel for what was thrashed, and that
over and above feading the horses, which devolved
on the party hiring. This, however, is only in
districts where the farmers generally are unwilling
to allow their horses to be put into a horse-gin for
thrashing, which they justly reckon very severe for
them ; consequently fixed steam power is now be-
coming general, especially in good agricultural dis-
tricts, where coals for fuel can be had at a reasonable
rate ; for the farmers begin to find, that when an
engine is employed for thrashing, chaff and turnip
cutting machines, and corn-bruisers, &c., can at
the same time be driven by it, as well as a pump
in a urine tank for irrigation, about which a great
deal of late has been said and written. — Highland
Society's Journal.

TRIAL OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINES AT GENEVA, UNITED STATES.

The trial of agricultural machines took place on
a large farm two miles south-west of the village of
Geneva, under the direction of the New York
State Agricultural Society, during the six days
from the 20th to the 26th of 7th mo. (July) last.
The importance of such a trial has long been felt ;
and the interest in its results was manifested by
the hundreds in attendance, chiefly of the most in-

telligent farmers of that region, during the busiest
season of their labours.

Our state fairs have for many years exercised an
excellent influence, by showing to the whole com-
munity the best implements and machines from
the most skilful manufacturers, and serving to in-
troduce them into many neighbourhoods where
they were before quite unknown, The benefits

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

thus conferred, and the improvements introduced,
are ahnost beyond estimate. Yet a great deficiency-
was felt in not seeing these machines and implements
in actual operation. They may have a very jiro-
mising appearance ; but shrewd farmers, who dread
humbugs, are not satisfied with simply gazing upon
them motionless. Practical trial alone reveals the
difference between a mower which will cut freely
and shave like a razor, and another which chokes,
tears, and slides over the imcut grass. A remark-
able instance of this sort occurred in the case of
M'Cormick's reaper remaining on exhibition at the
world's fair, which afforded abundant sport to the
London Times, as a cross between Astley's chariot
and a flying machine, until, by the demonstration

of actual trial, it elicited the admiration and asto-
nishment of the British people. Some instances
of an opposite character have also occurred, which
it would be rather ungracious to mention. For
such reasons as these, we are induced to regard
the exact and thorough experiments made at Ge-
neva, although not of a showy character, of emi-
nent utility and of the highest importance, even if
accompanied by some imperfections necessarily
consequent to what is new.

THE MOWING MACHINES.

The whole of the 20th was occupied with the
trial of mowing machines, in the presence of
nearly a thousand spectators. The meadow was
rough, and the crop much too light generally for a

'ii= ,.r"'V/i. .i/r,v. '■,1? c^i^^vi*

^^'^ ■••^^* -

[Back viiw of Ketchum'a Mowing Machine, iu operation.]

fair trial : the small wiry grass was a severe test
for the cutting powers of the several machines.
Ketchum's (from Buffalo), M'Cormick's (from
Chicago), Manny's (from Northern Illinois), and
Rugg's (from the same region) were successively
tried. Ketchum's was much approved for its sim-
plicity of construction, and tho clean cut which it
made, shearing off evenly all before the sweep of
its blades. Its swath was nearly five feet wide,
and was laid with perfect evenness over the whole

surface of the ground, and entirely obviated
spreading, ^i'he only objection we heard was, not
cutting sufficiently close to the ground ; but se-
veral farmers remarked that, taken as an average,
it was done as well as men could be hired to do it
by hand. M'Cormick's did not succeed so well,
cutting neither so clean nor so near the surface ;
but in heavier portions of the meadow, its work
was good. Its swathe was six feet. Manny's
" Northern Illinois Mower" was next tried, and

[Manny's Mower.]

did its work in beautiful style, fully equalling, if
not excelling, Ketchum's, cutting a swathe over
five feet in width. The general opinion was, that
it was of quite easy draught to the horses ; but this
point could be determined satisfactorily only by
the dynamometer, which the committee carefully

applied to each machine, and the results of which
will be embodied in their report. This mower
possessed the decided advantage of admitting a
quick and easy elevation of the cutting blades (si-
tuated midway between the forward and hind
wheels), on approaching any obstruction, -^i^'^-i -'■•

390

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

We could not but observe the difFerent form of
the blades of each of these three mowers. In
Ketchura's, they were acute-angular, as shown
in Fig. 1; so that, although they had but a

A

^^^•'' Ai!4l!,/:^^^\J|A

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

simple cutting edge (and not a sickle or sawing
edge, as the others), they did their work completely :
not a stalk of grass could escape them, as they
quickly vibrated between the steel fingers. Even

when a part of the cutters had accidentally become
badly dulled against a hidden stone, we observed
that none of the grass was left : it was pinched oflf, if
not cut off, and a smoothly-shorn surface left. This
appears to be a decided advantage, an increase in
draught being the only result from dull knives.
M'Cormick's, which has the sickle edge, is quite
unlike in form, the angles being obtuse, as in Fig.
2. This appears to furnish the reason why this
machme, which operates so admirably as a reaper,
partially fails in the meadow, where the slender,
polished surface of small wiry grass is operated on
by the simple sawing, and not shearing, motion of
the blades, but is bent down before them. In
Manny's mower, which cut so much better than
M'Cormick's, the angles were more acute, ap-
proaching in form those of Ketchum's (Fig. 3).

[Rugg'a Propeller.]

Rugg's machine differed from all the rest in being
directly propelled by the horses behind. Its
cutting apparatus was similar to that of M'Cor-
mick's, and it cut grass quite as well. It required
more skill in driving, but less speed than any of
the others, which was perhaps owing to the great
multiplying pou-er of its wheels.

The next morning, two more machines were
tried — Burrall's, and Bronson and Murray's.
Burrall's is quite similar to Ketchura's, and cut re-
markably well, with the exception of becoming
frequently clogged — a difficulty which may be yet
obviated, as it was then on its first trial. Bronson
and Murray's, being oat of order, did not succeed
well. Another trial of most of the mowing ma-
chines was made, in a heavy meadow, on the
morning of the 23rd. On the lower portions the
ground was rough, and the grass largely mixed
with sedge and j uncus, rendering it hard to cut.
Ketchum's and Manny's machines did their work
well, and cut closely to the surface. M'Cormick's,
Bronson and Murray's, and Danford's did not
succeed so well. The latter was now tried for the
first time. Its cutting apparatus was quite differ-
ent from the others, consisting of two sets of
knives, vibrating in opposite directions, and
operating like double-edged shears. High hopes
had been entertained of the success of this ma-
chine j but they were not realized. This may have

been owing partly to the absence of fingers to ga-
ther and hold the stalks, and to keep the edges
from being crowded asunder. A portion of the
grass on this meadow was completely prostrated ;
and here the superiority of the mowing machine
over the scythe was most strikingly exhibited.
Against this lodged portion Ketchum's mower was
driven. It left the .grass, in appearance, precisely
as it was before ; but it was found, on examination,
to be shav^ed off close to the surface of the ground,
without altering its position.

A single trial like this can hardly be considered
as a decisive exhibition of the relative merits of
the different mowers, where so much may depend
on the nature of the ground and grass, the cha-
racter of the team, driver, &c., while the liabihty to
wear and tear will not be shown by the work of
one day only. One point, however, was satisfac-
torily settled— the practicability and great advan-
tage of the use of mowing machines on large farms,
where one person, with a single team, can easily
accomplish the severe labour of ten men. Indeed,
it was a matter of surprise to many that, while
grass-cutting by hand is much slower work than
cradling, reapers requiring two men each should
be so much more generally introduced than mow-
ing machines, which cut nearly as many acres per
day, with but one man each for their management.

One defect appears to exist in nearly all the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

891

mowers— that of requiring unnatural speed in the
horses to do the work well. The motion of the
knives should be so multiplied as to accomplish the
desired end with two miles an hour, instead of
four. Excellent teams were purposely procured
for all on this occasion ; and the experiment can

hardly be regarded as a fair one for ordinary every-
day work.

THE REAPERS.

The trial of these was commenced in the after-
noon of the 21st. Burrall's, of Geneva, first en-
tered the harvest-field, and cut in fine style, sweep-

[Burrall's Reaper,]

ing down a sheet of the standing grain about five
feet wide, and throwing it off in handsome bunches
for binding. It could be so arranged as to drop
the grain either directly behind, or off at one side ;
the latter being the best arrangement, as not re-
quiring binding and clearing the track before the
horses could again pass round the field. This ma-
chine, which appears to be much like Hussey's,
possessed one advantage, which appeared to be an
important one. By each vibration the knives were
made to pass two sets of fingers, instead of only
one, as in the others, cutting twice as much at each
stroke, striking more rapidly, and rendering a
change of motion less frequent. Hussey's ma-
chine was next tried ; and its operation was fine,
quite similar to that of Burrall's, dropping the
grain behind the machine. Neither of these ma-
chines was furnished with a reel, which may have
been the reason that it was necessary to drive the
horses at a rapid pace — too much so for all-day
work with ordinary teams. Rugg's Propeller did
not succeed well, and was soon withdrawn from the
field. Manny's Northern lUinois Reaper, a slight
modification of his mower, which cut so well upon
the meadow, succeeded equally well as a reaper.
The grain was thrown oflf at the side. This was
thought by some who witnessed its operation as
the best combined machine, or for using both as
mower and reaper ; although, for the latter pur-
pose alone, it hardly came up to some others. It
may not prove practicable to combine these two
qualities to the best advantage in one machine, but
it is certainly well worth the attention of inventors;
for, while the cost is from 110 to 135 dollars,
farmers will not be willing to purchase two, when
one can be made to answer the purpose. We do
not perceive, however, why the price should be
pearly so high.

Densmore's machine, from Brockport, excited
much interest. Its construction is not unlike
M'Cormick's, with the addition of a self-raking
apparatus, which suddenly throws off the grain at
one side, as soon as enough has been cut for a
bundle, thus saving the labour of one man, re-
quired, with the others, to rake off by hand. Some
improvement is needed, however, in this self-raker:
in light, erect grain, it lays the bundles tolerably
well; but, when heavy, tliey are often spread in
streaks. One of the best machines in the field was
M'Cormick's. Like Manny's and Dinsmore's, it
cut about six feet wide, and in execution was not
exceeded by any, especially in " lodged" grain. Sey-
mour and Morgan's machine, from Brockport, cut
well, but, like some others, did not clear v.'ell,
which might be owing to the inexperience of the
raker. All the.je reapers appear to be quite similar
in principle, if not in construction ; Burrall's and
Hussey's being furnished with acutely-formed
cutting edges to their knives, and without reels ; and
all the others possessing sickle-edged cutters, and
the machines furnished by reels. The vibrating
knives and the reels appear to be both quite old in-
ventions. Hussey's, M'Cormick's, and Burrall's
appeared to be the favourites of tliis day's trial.

On the 22nd, Danford's Double-edged Reaper
was put in operation. Its principal defect was, not
cutting off the straw well, probably in consequence
of having no fingers to gather and hold the grain,
and to keep the blades in close contact while work-
ing together. In other respects, ic was a neat and
compact reel machine. At the same time, the self-
raker presented by J. S. Wright, of Chicago, was
tried : it was truly an extraordinary curiosity, and
excited the highest interest. The self-raking ma-
chine (attached to Hussey's Reaper) is the inven-
tion of J. Atkins, of Chicago— a person of great

392

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

[Atkins' Self-raker.]

gio^atsrfi bat
< no I Jird ,niif(

ingenuity, as this contrivance fully testifies. The
rake sweeps the bed where the fallen grain is de-
posited, presses it against a toothed plate, and
both, holding firmly the bundle of grain thus col-
lected, swing round the quarter of a circle off be-
hind, when they open wide, and drop their con-
tents in a neat bunch upon the ground. All these
motions are accomplished by a very simple piece of
mechanism; and they seem so nearly the immediate
result of intelligence, that this machine was generally
called by the name of the "Automaton Reaper."
Its invention is quite recent, and it had scarcely
ever been used before ; and hence, owing to an ac-
cident, it did not succeed the first day of its trial.
It was, however, repaired, a temporary reel at-
tached, and tried again on the 23rd, with entire
satisfaction, proving decidedly the best self-raker
on the ground. With further experience, it may
become a great acquisition. If a good self-raker
can be brought into use, it cannot fail to be
adopted ; for farmers will be quite unwilling to em-
ploy two hands to man a machine that will work
equally well under the care of one.

The afternoon of the 22nd was occupied with
the reapers in the barley-field — a piece of ground

still more uneven than the wheat-field. A first-rate
cradler had laid several swathes to divide the mea-
sured portions or acres : it was observed by all how
greatly superior was the operation of the reapers,
in evenness, in not leaving a straw behind, and in
the precision with which the bunches were depo-
sited. Several machines were tried ; and all, or
nearly all, did their work in the most finished
manner.

On the whole, the trial was a complete triumph
of machinery over hand-work, for both mowing
and grain-cutting ; and when machines shall be
perfected, simplified, and rendered much cheaper
than at present, mowers and reapers must become
as indispensable on all farms of moderate size as
horse-rakes, ploughs, and thrashing machines.
Out of the many hundreds who witnessed the trial,
we heard only a single adverse expression — from a
strong-boned, rough-looking labourer, who re-
marked in an under-tone, when he saw the partial
failure of the most defective machines, " I want
nothing better than a good cradle!"' Doubtless,
had he witnessed the first experiment with the
cast-plough, he would have exclaimed, " A good
spade is enough for me !" — American Cultivator.

THE GUANO QUESTION.

BY J. TOWERS, MEMBER R.A.S., H.S. OF LONDON, ETC.

The guano question acquires great and increasing
interest. The Premium — if so it may be called —
offered by the Royal Agricultural Society, having
roused the energy of those zealous friends of agri-
culture who alone are capable to determine, by
chemical analyses, whether a substitute for pure
foreign guano can, or cannot, be prepared at home
at a cost not exceeding £5 per ton, and in quantity
suflScient to meet the demand of the farmer, sup-
posing that to amount to Jive times the weight of
the foreign genuine article sold by Messrs. Gibbs
and Co., at the price of £9 5s. per ton. On, or
about, the 14th of July last, I ventured to suggest
to the Guano Committee of the Society, that if an
attempt were made to furnish a substitute so de-

sirable, with a rational prospect of success, it must
be grounded upon a thorough knowledge and imi-
tation of all the chief fertilizing elements of the
most approved Peruvian guano. These elements
have been sought for, eliminated, and faithfully an-
nounced by several eminent professors of the day ;
and now, therefore, the great problem of a home-
supply remains to be solved.

Befoi-e oflfering an opinion on the subject, it is
needful to solicit attention to an article on the
guano question which appears in the last published
number of the Edinburgh Quarterly Journal of
Agriculture (October inst.), because it contains
facts of very great moment. I know the writer—
his thorough practical acquirements in every branch

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of agriculture, and untiring spirit of investigation ;
and therefore it might suffice simply to name
him, but I on that point respect his silence.

Extract I, "The fixed price of guano has now
settled down to £9 5s. a ton. At that price, and at
3 cwt. per acre, the cost of applying guano to the
land is about 30s an acre; and it is a curious co-
incidence that the returns of crops manured with it
amount to just about that sum. For example,
3 cwt. increase the wheat crop, according to Mr.
Hudson, of Castleacre, 6 bushels, which, at 40s.
the quarter, just gives a return of 30s. The use of
guano, at present, may thus be said to be ac-
companied with no profit to the farmer, so that
every shilhng of reduction in its price below £9 5s.
a ton \^■ould be so much gain to him. Now, how
is a reduction of its price to be effected ?"

Extract II. "The quantity imported into this
country in 1851 was 130,580 tons. But, after all,
it appears that the Messrs. Gibbs sold, last season,
only S/'jSgi tons, and had 42,689 tons on hand to
meet the imports of 1852, which shows that the
actual consumption of guano in this country is not
very great." But now comes the onus of the
question, as will appear by

Extract III. " It is obviously the interest of the
Peruvians to encourage the trade in guano to this
country ; and were they in a situation merely to im-
pose an export duty on guano, they would derive
a handsome revenue from the trade ut one 'pound a
ton of duty, were the importation doubled or tripled.
But, unfortunately both for the Peruvians and this
country, they cannot allow the guano to be taken
away at a low duty. The British creditors of the
Peruvian nation will not allow them to do it. Their
debt must be paid, principal and interest, before
the Peruvians can extend their trade in guano.
£1,200,000 of debt was contracted in 1822, and
£616,000 more in 1S25. The rate of interest agreed
on was six per cent. ; but no dividends were paid
from October, 1825 ; so from that date to 1849 the
interest accumulating amounted to £1,816,000. At
last it was discovered that the guano was a valuable
manure in this country, and that the deposits of it
would prove to be an enormous source of revenue to
the state. This gave new spirit to the cause ; and,
after repeated remonstrances, in January, 1849,
rapid progress was made in an arrangement." —
(See Fortune^s Epitome of the Funds, p. 218.) By
this a fund was created of active debt of £1,800,000
(being the original debt) at six per cent., and a
deferred debt of £1,900,000 (being the accumu-
lation of interest at three per cent. Both kinds of
debt amount at present (1852) to £3,300,000.
The guano sold at £9 5s., after deducting the
charges and value received for it, was, in 1851,
£4 4s. 7ad. per ton, mth which the dividends of

stock are paid, the debt gradually redeemed, and
half the amount of sales is sent to the Peruvian
Government."

We thus perceive the situation of affairs ; and
therefoie find it needless to dwell upon those
schemes and calculations by which some have pro-
posed to lower the import duty of guano, to increase
the demand for it, and to provide for the extinction
of the debt. One more and the last quotation
from the Quarterly Journal will explain our
writer's view of what might lead to a very profitable
arrangement between Britain and Peru : " Let the
Government pay off the Peruvian debt at once, and
let the guano be brought into this country for £1
per ton import duty— a sum quite sufficient for the
Peruvians to realize a large revenue from their
guano deposits — and it would be all profit to them.
We maintain that the agriculturists of this country
have a right to make such a demand upon Parlia-
ment to pay for them the sum of three millions in
one year, when they were deprived of ninety-one
millions a year for ever, by a bold act of the legis-
lature. With such an arrangement, embracing the
probable reduction of freights, and a trebled im-
portation at that low duty, the guano could be
imported at £4 per ton; a sum which would most
prol>ably induce the use of a trebled quantity, and
would leave a profit of not less, perhaps, than £6
upon every ton used by the farmer by a corres-
ponding increase of produce."

Were this simple plan adopted, the results might
be astonishing ; but here two questions present
themselves to the cautious inquirer. 1st. Would
our Government accede to — would the nation
permit the sacrifice of a sum so large as £3,000,000
as an experiment which might involve much hesi-
tation and perhaps bad faith? Again, do we know
the amount and probable duration of the guano
deposits? for authorities are conflictingon that point.
A learned Professor told me, only a few months
since, that,at the rateof our existing supply, the stock
could scarcely hold out for twenty years ; whereas,
our author, at p. 492, estimates the actual deposits
at thirty millions of tons, besides those not yet
surveyed !

As respects any proposed substitute, it certainly
api)ears to me, and I believe to others, more than
improbable that any process of artificial
combination can ever produce an available
representative of true guano. AVe entertain hopes
that our capital system of drainage, so ably con-
ducted by the Croydon Board of Health, might
have produced a vast quantity of solid manure of
highly fertihzing quality ; but it is feared that as all
the fluid sewage is conducted by a series of stone-
ware pipes into a feeder of the Wandle, a loss of
almost the whole of the ammonia, and other soluble

894

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Balls with fixed alkaline bases, is sustained, leaving
a great bulk of the solid matters comparatively
effete and useless. Time \vill prove the real fact ;
but unless a due supply oi peat carbon can be ob-
tained at a low price, it will be in vain to attempt a
deodorization of the offensive solid deposit; for
lime tends entirely to expel the small quantity of
ammonia which may remain in the mass.

To imitate guano, the neutral salts, soluble in
water — namely, sulphate, phosphate, muriate, per-
haps oxalate of ammonia, potass, and soda — should
be introduced ; and it must ever be remembered
also that the solid matters comprise the bone phos-
phate oijish reduced to the finest state of division
in the alimentary organs of sea-birds, and a large

per-centage of insoluble urate of ammonia. Who
then can entertain a rational hope of compounding
any manure worthy of competition with the guano
of Peru, and at a cost not exceeding £5 per ton ! ?

If it were possible, by negotiation, to induce the
Peruvian Government to lower the duty to £1 per
ton (even were the debt not paid off"), then, should
the importation increase to five times its present
amount, the revenue would be enormous, and suf-
ficient also to cancel the debt speedily.

But even under such most desirable conditions,
we might anticipate perplexing contingencies. I
trust that enough has been said to induce extensive
investigation and a due comparison of facts.

Oct. 25.

THE EFFECTS OF THE NEW GOLD FIELDS ON AGRICULTURE.

In 1492 Columbus sailed on that adventurous voy-
age which resulted in the discovery of America. By
7599 the great revolution in prices which flowed from
that expedition was complete. There is considerable
diflSculty in ascertaining, with any approach to accu-
racy, the extent of the change ; so loose is our know-
ledge of the general prices of commodities in those
times, so great the confusion respecting the value of
weights and measures to which those prices refer, and
90 great the variations in the quantities of gold and
silver contained in coins of tlie same denominations
during different portions of the period. After striking
off, however, that portion of the enhanced price which
was not real but nominal, there appears little doubt,
that in England, by the end of the 16th century,
thrice the quantity of silver was requisite to purchase
the same amount of necessaries and luxuries, as before
the discovery of America, or rather before the opening
of the silver mines of Potosi. In France and Spain
the advance of prices appears to have been even
greater. In Spain it is calculated as five-fold; and in
France four-fold. This difference in different countries
ds no more than might have been expected. The com-
merce which has made England the richest country in
the world had then no existence. There were not
the same facilities as now for the transfer of the pre-
cious metals from country to country. In Spain,
from its connexion with the sources of supply, they
would accumulate the most : and between France and
Spain there was more intercourse than between Spain
and England.

The absolute amount of the precious metals by
which this revolution in prices was effected is an in-
teresting subject of inquiry, in which, however, we
must be content with much that is conjectural, for
accurate statistics there are none. Humboldt estimated
that the total quantity of gold and silver derivedfrom
America, to the end of the year 1599, amounted to
^138,000,000, after allowing for loss by the wear of
coin. The greater portion of this sum was obtained
after 1646, when the silver mines of Potosi were dis-

covered. Between the discovery of America and the
opening of these mines, the total amount of gold and
silver brought to Europe is estimated by the same au-
thority at not more than i?I7,000,000, During the
century ending 1699, the mines of Europe and America
are supposed to have yielded £337,000,000 of gold and
silver, ch'efly the latter. If we trace the effects of
this influx on the precious metals on the prices, we
find that the advance in the price of wheat, during
this century, appears, by the Oxford tables, to have
been from 27s., the average of twenty years at its
commencement, to 363., the average of twenty years at
its close. As far as this can be relied on, as a criterion
of prices, it would appear that this large increase in
the production of gold and silver only raised them
about 33 per cent. During the 18lh century the ave-
rage yield of the precious metals may be considered to
have been doubled. At the commencement of the pre-
sent century it had reached its highest point in 1810,
after which it fell off in consequence of the anarchy
which prevailed in the Spanish colonies on their sepa"
ration from the mother country; and the suspension
of mining operations which it produced. In 1806
Humboldt estimated the total annual yield of gold and
silver from Europe, America, and the Russian do-
minions in Asia, at £10,755,000. For the century
ending 1799 it might be estimated at £800,000,000, or
eight millions annually on an average. In tracing the
effect of this increase on the prices of commodities,
those years must be excluded which succeeded the sus-
pension of cash payments by the Bank of England, and
the issue of inconvertible paper. Deducing the average
price of wheat from the mean of the Oxford and Eton
tables, and comparing the average of thirty years
ending 1695, with the average of thirty years ending
1795, we have an advance from £1 18s. 5d. the
quarter to £2 10s. 3d. The increase is rather less
than 31 per cent. The accounts of Greenwich Hos-
pital show an advance of about 20 per cent, on bread,
meat, and butter, between 1730 and 1791.

A review of the produce of the precious tnetala

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Centuries.

during the 16tli, 17th, and 18th centuries, and its in-
fluence on prices, would give then, from these data,
results which raay be thus expressed in a tabular
form : —

Produce of Gold Increase of

and Silver. prices.

16th 138,000,000 800 per cent.

17ih .337,000,000 33 ,,

18th 800,000,000 20 to 30 „

Why this diflerence ? Why should the smaller sum
raised during the 16tli century produce so much
greater effect than the larger sums of the 17th and 18th
centuries ? There were several causes in operation.
In the first place, the smaller produce of the 16th
century bore a larger proportion to the then existing
stock of the precious metals, reduced, as before
stated, to about 35 millions, than the larger produce
of subsequent centuries bore to the stock in existence
during those centuries.

In the next place, there had been a great and
progressive increase in the productions of those com-
modities which are exchanged for one another through
the medium of the precious metals ; this increase re-
quiring a corresponding increase in the quantity of the
medium of exchange.

Lastly, there had been an increase equally great
in the consumption of the precious metals for the
manufacture of articles of ornament and luxury.
With respect to the increase of material wealth, we
know that the rise of prices consequent on the dis-
covery of America gave a great stimulus to production,
though we have no means of forming an accurate esti-
mate of the rate of increase, or of the increase of
population during the 16th and 17th centuries. Both,
however, must have been considerable, and must have
had a great influence in counteracting the advance of
prices which would have taken place had the medium
of exchange increased, and the amount of commodities
to be exchanged remained unaltered. The great and
rapid development of commerce, manufactures, and
agriculture, and the increase of population during the
18th century, and particularly soon after the acces-
sion of George the Third, is matter of such general
notoriety that it is needless to attempt to prove them
by reference to the more full and accurate statistical
details which exist for that century.

With regard, again, to increased consumption of
gold and silver in the arts, it is wholly of modern
growth. It dates from the reign of Anne. The
greater portion of the old plate in the possession of
the nobility and public bodies belongs to that period.
The introduction of tea, which then took place, and
its continually increasing consumption, originated a
great demand for silver spoons, which were scarcely
known in the preceding reign. This demand re-
ceived a fresh impetus at the commencement of
George the Third's reign. Silver spoons were then
made heavier than before, the use of silver forks was
introduced ; silver was employed in the manufacture
of tea urns, tea pots, coffee pots, and salvers ; and the
use of such costly luxuries extended to lower grades of
society. The use of watches became much more

general, and the manufacture of copper plated with
silver formed a new and extensive branch of industry
in London, Sheffield, and Birmingham. The con-
sumption of gold in gilding increased with equal ra-
pidity. The number of goldbeaters was tripled in
twenty years. At this time also commenced the
practice of gilding silver articles, and of applying
gilding to the decoration of the interior of public and
private edifices. The manufacture of porcelain also
began to consume large quantities of gold, which be-
comes totally lost by the fracture of the articles in
the gilding of which it is used. From the combina-
tion of all these causes, the increase of population,
and material wealth, and the increased consumption
of gold and silver in the arts, we have a satisfactory
explanation of the fact that prices only advanced from
twenty to thirty per cent, while the metallic wealth of
the world increased more than cent per cent.

If the gold and silver mines of the world doubled their
produce during the seventeenth century, and again
during the eighteenth, without raising prices in either
case more than 20 or 30 per cent., it is not unreason-
able to suppose that the produce of the precious metals
may again be doubled during the nineteenth century
without any greater change. The same causes which
prevented a greater advance then are in operation now,
and are acting with increased intensity— increased popu-
lation, increased production of commodities in general,
increased consumption of the precious metals for other
purposes than those of coin. Population is doubling
itself in Britain every forty years. Should emigration
render it stationary here, of which there appears every
probability, the increase will be transferred to new
countries, where it will be still more rapid. Our mills,
and forges, and workshops, pour forth their wares more
rapidly than ever : their powers of production so much
exceed the demand, that it is often necessary to limit
the supply, by suspending operations till the glut sub-
sides. The cheapness produced by over-supply causes
increased demand, which stimulates production, and
again causes a glut. The average result of these fluc-
tuations is a general increase of production. Con-
sumption in the home market increases, our
imports increase, our exports increase, and at
the same time foreign countries are producing the
same commodities in increasing quantities for them-
selves. Articles which two centuries ago were rare
luxuries in the mansions of nobles and the palaces of
kings, are to be seen at the present day in most of our
cottages. Silk stockings, which James the First bor-
rowed of one of his courtiers, when he wished to be par-
ticularly spruce, and which Elizabeth received as a pre-
sent worthy of a monarch's acceptance, are worn on
Sundays, in the reign of Victoria, by every factory- girl
in the manufacturing districts. The completions of our
maid-servants are defeiided by silk parasols, and we have
even seen them borne in procession by charity-school
girls on their way to church. In agriculture increased
production is not so rapid, nor so great, as in manufac-
tures ; but it is still progressive. We have scarcely any
commons to inclose, so many were brought into cultiva-

396

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tion ia the reign of George the Third : but improved
modes of cultivation are taking place daily, and never so
extensively as during the last ten years, which are
adding in effect to the area of these isles by the increased
produce which they cause. The?e improvements are not
effected so rapidly as they might be. If they were, we
should not have consumed so much imported corn
during the last five years — for all that has been im-
ported has been consumed, in addition to an increased
growth at home. If all the improvements of which agri-
culture is susceptible were suddenly applied, they would
add more to the produce of the soil both of corn and
cattle, and would cause a greater reduction of price, than
has yet resulted, or is likely to result, from free-trade.
The demand for the precious metals in the arts is greater
than ever, and is rapidly increasing ; the use of watches
and trinkets is descending year by year lower in the
scale of society. The greatest consumption of gold is
not in the fabrication of utensils and ornaments for the
use of the wealthy ; but in the manufacture of cheap
jewellery, containing individually little gold, but collec-
tively much, from being adapted to the means of pur-
chase possessed by the millions.

The advance in the price of agricultural produce,
which might benefit the farmers if it took place speedily,
would lose much of its value as a means of relief from
their present difficulties if spread over twenty years. It
would be of no value at all if diffused over a century
Let us see, therefore, what prospect there is of such an
advance in consequence of the gold yielded by California
and Australia. For the purpose of such an inquiry, we
must revert to the history of the production of the pre-
cious metals from the commencement of the nineteenth
century. Up to that period there had been a constant
and gradual increase till 1810. The total annual yield
of gold and silver from Europe, America, and Russian
Asia was estimated by Humboldt at ^10,750,000 in
1806. After 1810 it began to decline, from causes
which have been mentioned. From 1810 to 1830
it was not more than £5,000,000 annually, which is
about one million less than the annual consumption in
the arts, to say nothing of the wear and other losses on
the existing stock, estimated by M'Culloch at 1 per
cent, per annum. By 1840 the leviving produce of the
silver mines of Mexico and Peru, improved processes
for extracting the silver contained in most lead ores, to-
gether with the gold obtained from the Ural and Siberia,
had again raised the produce to about its amount before
the falling off of the American mines after 1810.

Wyld estimates the total yield of gold and silver for
the following years, as increased by the Calilbrnian and
Australian discoveries, thus —

1840 ^11,750,000 of gold and silver.

1848 13,750,000 ditto

1850 25,000,0U0 ditto

1851 30,000,000 ditto

Taking the average produce from 1800 to 1810 at eleven
millions sterling, from 1810 to 1830 at five millions,

1830 to 1840 at eight millions, 1840 to 1848 at twelve
millions, 1849 fourteen millions, 1850 twenty-five mil-
lions, and 1851 thirty millions, we shall have an aggre-
gate of 455 millions, instead of 612 millions, which
would have been the amount with a steady yield of
twelve millions annually through the whole fifty-one
years. The present extraordinary yield, therefore, of
thirty millions annually will be required for five years
more, in order to make up the deficiency.

According to the analogy, however, of the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries the produce should be double
that of the preceding century, and prices should advance
from 20 to 30 per cent, during the nineteenth century.
If we suppose half the increased produce and half the
advanced price to take place during the first fifty years
of the century, we ought now to have raised, not 455
millions nor 612 millions, but 800 millions; and prices
ought to ha\e advanced 15 per cent, on the metallic
prices of the latter part of the 18th century. The average
price of the quarter of wheat for the 30 years ending 1 795,
before it was affected by the Bank Restriction Act,
was, as we have already shown, £2 10s. 3d. ; an ad-
vance of 15 per cent, on that price would give £,% 17s.
9d. as the present price of wheat. That price has cer-
tainly not been realized by the farmers of late, any more
than 800 millions of gold and silver have been raised
from the mines. The produce of gold and silver, again,
during the 19th century ought, according to the analogy
of the two which preceded it, to amount to 1,600 mil-
lions, or double that of the last century ; and prices
ought to advance, say 30 per cent, during the century.
In that case we should have £"6 5s. 3d. as the average
price of wheat forty-nine years hence ; and if for those
forty-nine years the produce of the precious metals
should continue at the present enormous yield of 30
millions annually, it would only give, with the 445 mil.
lions already raised, 1,915 millions for the century, or
315 millions more than would be required to raise prices
generally, as far as gold and silver are concerned, to 30
per cent., and to bring the average price of wheat up to
65s. 3d. per qr.

Whether the present produce of gold will continue
for the next fifty years is a geological question which
will be discussed hereafter. Its effects, however, should
it continue, would be so distant as to afford no relief to
the present race of farmers, and their utmost extent
would not amount to that revolution in the value of pro-
perty so much dreaded by some, and hoped for by
others. It would not be such as to justify an alteration
of the standard for the benefit of annuitants, and cre-
ditors, by the substitution of a silver standard, or a
double standard of gold and silver, or by increasing the
quantity of gold in the sovereign. Australia and Cali-
fornia furnish no excuse for maintaining protection rents
under free trade ; neither do they furnish a suflScieut ex-
cuse for the abandonment of protection by statesmen
who have declared that British agriculture cannot exist
without it. T.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

397

THE SCIENCE OF MANURING.

BY T. ROWLANDSON, C.E., F.C.S.
CHAP. A'll. — MANURING WITH MINERAL SUBSTANCES.

Tlie above title is applied to such substances as
clialks, marls, gypsum, &c. ; in the course of the
following remarks the term will be used in its or-
dinary acceptation.

The use of mineral substances as manure is very
ancient; for Pliny, in the quaint langua:e of his
translator Holland, observes, "And whereas some
great husbands there be, that teach us to enrich
and mend one ground with another, to wit, by
spreading fat earth upon a lean and hungry soil,
and likewise by casting dry, light, and thirsty mould
upon that which is moist and over fat." Of this
practice, however, Pliny does not appear to approve,
forhe calls it "a mere follyand wasteful expense both
of time and travail ; for what fruit can be ever
looked for, to reap from such a mingle mangle of
ground." Subsequent experience has, however,
proved that in thus condemning the practice of
using mineral subs' ances as manures the cele-
brated historian was wrong. Mineral dressings
are generally applied to the soil with only two ob-
jects, viz., either of altering the mechanical condition
of the soil, or else with the object of applying some
calcareous substances supposed to be present in
the mineral employed. It must be evident to the
commonest capacity that where the ol)ject is to give
consistency and firmness to hght soils, such as
sands and peats, this will be best obtained
by using a clay containing a large amount of
alumina, in fact the stiffest clay. ^Yben the con-
verse of this is wanted, viz., the rendering stiff soils
more porous, sharp siliceous sand or peat will be
found best adapted for the purpose. It is, however,
extremely rare that cases occur where either of
these processes is carried to such an extent as
to materially change the physical condition of the
soil ; to do so would usually entail such an expense
as the beneficial results derived therefrom will
rarely justify. This must be obvious to any one who
is in the slightest degree aware of the labour in-
volved in changing the mechanical condition of an
acre of light sand or the reverse, even if the requi-
site dressing is within a few feet of the surface, but
beyond the reach of the plough.

Mineral substances are, however, more frequently
applied as a source of manuring the land rather
than for altering its texture, though the latter is
often an important object ; when this is the case,
in the great majority of instances the mineral sub-

stance so employed is used solely on account of
the calcareous substances it is supposed to contain,
when its action will be precisely the same as chalk, or
effete lime, which is only another term for quicklime
when converted into the carbonate of lime or chalk.
Where a great change in the mechanical condition
of the soil is not an object, the only advantage of
using marl instead of lime will be where the latter
is difficult to be procured and at high prices :
in such instances the use of marl may be unobjec-
tionable. When marl is used for its calcareous mat-
ters, the farmer using it ought to ascertain the pro-
portions contained in it; for nothing in the form of
manure is so variable, marls sometimes containing
only five per cent, of carbonate of lime, sometimes
fifty per cent, or upwards of that substance. The
chemical action of marl on the soil is the same, only
not so immediate, and less intense than that of
quicklime ; at equal cost marl is to be preferred to
lime for cultivating peaty grounds or soils contain-
ing much vegetable matter.

Chalk being carbonate of lime, all that can be said
respecting it would be merely a repetition of what
has been stated respecting lime.

Gypsum. On referring to the tables of the mineral
constituents of plants, it will be seen that sulphuric
acid, and sometimes sulphate of lime, form not in-
considerable items in the total amount of the inor-
ganic constituents. It is obvious, therefore, thatgyp-
sum forms a necessary constituent in all fertile
soils ; it is presumed that it also acts as a fertilizer
indirectly in the following manner : it has been dis-
tinctly proved by carefully conducted analyses that
rain water invariably contains an appreciable but
exceedingly minute quantity of ammonia, supposed'
to exist in the form of a carborate this ammonia
is supposed to be fixed in the soil by the gypsum
present, thus converting the carbonate of ammonia,
a soluble substance, into sulphate of ammonia,
which is not volatile, and the sulphate of lime (gyp-
sum) into chalk (carbonate of lime). There are good
reasons for believing that this takes jjlace to some
extent. In consequence of this property it has fre-
quently been recommended to strew stables with
this substance (gypsum), and also to throw it in
layers over manure heaps ; in these latter instances
it is, however, only partially successful : as gyp-
sum acts usefully when applied to the soil, the
practice is not altogethei unprofitable.

2 D

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Alumina, which forms the jDlastic principle of
clay, has the property of solidifying ammonia to a
slight extent. This property is also possessed by
peroxide of iron. It will be generally seen that fertile
soils contain a considerable percentage of one or
both these substances.

The theory that fertility is induced only when the
mineral constituents of plants are present in an
available form, together with a nitrogenized sub-
stance, has been fully confirmed by the observations
of Messrs. Paine and Way (Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England), on the
phosphoric strata of the chalk formation. They
state that wherever it outcrops, the soil is distin-
guished for its fertility. " The prolific crops of
wheat, beans, r.nd clover, which are grown vv'ith
the aid of a comparatively small quantity of ma-
nure, evince its productive capabilities. The appli-
cation of bones has usually failed in producing any
apparent benefit. It has very generally been expe-
rienced that manures richly charged with nitro-
genous matter have proved signally useful in this
class of soils. It has been generally observed that,
in wet summers, the growth of the bine of the hop
on these outcrops is too luxuriant, and consequently
injurious to the crop, which invariably ripens later
on these spots. In consequence of the excess of
food, the same effects occur when a field has been too
highly manured. In dry summers, on the contrary, the
crops are unusually and conspicuously large. The
influence of this marl upon the corn has been equally
conspicuous, the wheat crops especially having
always exhibited a far more vigourous growth than
usual upon the outcrops. There is a very striking
illustration of the effect produced by a narrow band
of the green marl, which runs through a field of
wheat at north east extremity of the parish. The
strata here are nearly vertical, and the band is
very thin, so that its direction across the field
may be traced by a dark green luxuriant belt of
wheat, about six feet in width. An arable field,
in which the green marl is widely developed
near the surface, is remarkable for its natural
fertility, and has received manure only thrice in
thirty years, viz., rags, bones, and guano. Not
the shghtest good resulted from the bone manure,
although forty bushels per acre were put on."
They also state, " that an old quarry, from which
at some remote period thousands of loads have
been removed, has recently been reopened by the
present proprietor, in consequence of his having
carted a few loads, by way of experiment, upon
some adjacent pasture land, where the benefit arising
from its application was most perceptible, especially
in developing a good herbage of clover. A small
quantity was also taken to another part of the estate,
about a mile distant, and was put upon an arable

field, but in this case no advantage accrued. A
recent examination of this field demonstrated the
cause of the failure by indicating the presence of
the identical phosphoric band in the subsoil, im-
mediately below the spot where the marl was ap-
plied. The proprietor also mentioned a circumstance
which occurred twenty-years ago, when some of
the marl from the pit alluded to was carted away
to a neighbouring farm. The waggon once broke
down, and its contents were thrown upon an ad-
joining field, and spread very thickly over a small
space. The spot was noticed during many suc-
cessive years, on account of the superiority of the
crops which grew there ; yet strange to say the
evidence was practically disregarded. The marl
contained of the under-mentioned substances the
following per centages respectively, viz..

Carbonate of lime 25.72

Phosphate of lime 14.92

Potash 2.69

Soda 0.50"

Seeing that there is so much potash and phosphoric
acid present, there can be no wonder at the great ferti-
lity of a soil so constituted. These phosphoric marls
form an exception to the ordinary class of marls,
and are only found in the Chalk and Norfolk crag.
From Pliny's description of some of the marls in
Britain, it would appear that these phosphoric
marls were known to the Romans when in posses-
sion of Britain.

On one point, however, it is pretty conclusive
that the practical use of marls was better under-
stood in Britain at the time of Pliny than it is
generally at the present moment, for he maintains
that an application of marl was always considered
to last 80 years, and that it was never known for a
man to marl his land twice in the course of a life-
time. This apparently sparing application of marl
can only have arrisen from carefully made observa-
tion on its practical eflfects, and not from want of
appreciation of its virtues ; for he says : " The Bri-
tons and Gauls have devised another means to ma-
nure their ground, by a kind of limestone or clay,
which they call marga (i. e. marl), and verily they
have a very great opinion of the same, that it
mightily enricheth it, and maketh it more plentiful
also. These marls (all the kinds of them) do greatly
enrich Gaul and Britain both, and therefore it
would not be amiss to speak of them more exactly;
in old times there were two sorts thereof and no
more, but of late days (as man's wits are inventive
every day of one thing or other) several kinds have
l)een used." On the main point, however, viz.,
the too frequent and unnecessary use of marl, we ap-
pear to have retrograded from the wisdom of our
ancestors, which wisdom, though possibly only
founded on observation, is, notwithstanding, scien-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

399

tifically correct, which has been fully explained
when treating on lime.

FALLOWING AND BURNING OF LAND FOR
MANURE.

Although apparently unconnected with the sub-
ject of manures, some notion of fallowing is requisite,
not only because the theory of its action is intimately
connected with and throws considerable light on the
subject of manuring, but also because aration is
frequently substituted in place of applying manures.
Land may, however, require fallowing entirely irre-
spective of any advantage which may be derived
from the operation, other than that of cleansing the
soil from weeds; we shall not dwell upon this part
of the subject, because it is well known that
when once land has become foul there is no other
mode of extirpating the rubbish than that of re-
peatedly ploughing, harrowing, scuffling, and either
carting off the weeds, or collecting them in heaps
and burning them, the latter being the better
method, as at the same time some of the soil may
be burnt with them.

At present, however, we have only to treat upon
that branch of fallowing v/hich is adopted, not with
the object of removing weeds, but for the purpose of
restoring an exhausted soil to its original state of
fertility. It has already been shown, from the
experiments of Dr. Daubeny, at the Botanic Gar-
dens at Oxford, that a very large amount of the
mineral constituents of plants exists in the soil in
what is termed a dormant state, or incapable of
being converted into soluble forms, other than by
the long continued action of moisture and carbonic
acid. The different operations of fallowing cause
those parts of the soil which are moved to present
fresh surfaces to the sun and atmosphere, and by
breaking and cracking the clods into innumerable
small pieces greatly mviltiply the surfaces presented
to the atmosphere. The decaj'ing vegetable sub-
stances in the soil gradually absorbs oxygen from
tlie atmosphere, and become converted into car-
bonic acid, which, with the assistance of moisture,
slowly liberates the alkalies and phosphates from
the minerals in which they had previously been
held in combination in an insoluble form ; in this
way, on some soils it is found that the fertility has
been sufficiently renewed to produce a profitable
crop. Experience has shown that fallowing, except-
ing as a cleaning operation, is only beneficial in
soils containing the mineral constituents of crops
in a dormant state, such as claj's, marls, and loams.
On peats and sands fallowing is useless, and ge-
nerally the same remark may be made respecting
chalks. On stiff clay, there can be no doubt that
some of the benefits derived from fallowing is to be
attributed to the mechanical division into which

the clods are broken during the process. Every soil
which is capable of yielding an abundant crop of
any kind of plants after fallowing, must be pre-
sumed to possess within itself all the mineral ingre-
dients necessary for their growth ; when fallowing
is sufficient to set these ingredients at liberty, some-
times that operation may be most convenient and
profitable : in other cases the mineral substances in
the soil may not be so tractable; in such instances
burning the soil may be found advantageous.

When a chemist has to analyze a mineral that is
refractory, in other words, of difficult solubiUty by
the ordinary agent, it is a common practice to submit
such mineral or other matter to the agency of heat,
which, sometimes wholly, but generally partially,
has the desired effect; the remaining intractable
matter, or the whole substance if found unchanged
after torrefaction, is mixed with some alkali, as
hme, soda, or potash, and again submitted to fire,
on withdrawal from which, the constitution of the
matter under investigation will generally be found
so changed as to be soluble in the ordinary sol-
vents. It is, however, necessary to be borne in
mind that the total solution of aluminous and sili-
ceous soils can only be obtained by treating them
with an excess of alkali. An amount of alkali neces-
sary for this purpose is never found in soils, and
the process is only here mentioned to show the
rationale of the action which takes place during the
process of burning land for manure.

From the preceding observations the reader will
be prepared for the information that the object of
burning land for manure will be found most bene-
ficial on those soils which contain the largest amount
of the inorganic constituents of crops in a dormant
form, but which the agency of heat will convert
into an active one. As in fallowing, the greatest
benefit from burning may be anticipated on such
soils as clays, marls, and loams, lessening in degree
as they become more composed of siliceous, cal-
careous, or peaty substances : in fact, on some of
these, such as poor sandy and gravelly soils,burning
is utterly ruinous. As a theory, respecting the
character of soil on which burning is either benefi-
cial or disadvantageous, the rule just set forth may
be pretty safely relied upon ; there are, however,
many circumstances which act as drawbacks to its
general application, arising from the fact that soils
variously situated may be found of equal tenacity,
but at the same time of exceedingly diversified com-
position, and requiring varied methods of burning.
These different circumstances arise from the fact
that soils taken from diflferent places may to all
outward appearance present the same mechanical
tenacity, whilst their mineral constituents may be
in a different state of mechanical division, in varied
proportions, or of altered chemical character ; so

2 D 2

400

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

infinite are their varieties that it is imjiossible to
describe all ihese different qualities.

Two great difficulties attend the burning of stiff
soils, the one arising from the heat engendered
being sometimes so great as to bake instead of dis-
integrating the minerals composing them ; the other
occurs when the heat is not sufficiently intense to
change the inorganic constituents of plants con-
tained in the soil from a dormant condition to an
active state. The first difficulty arises from per-
mitting too great a draught, consequently causing
a rapid and often a partial combustion. The second
difficulty occurs when the heaps or kilns are formed
either too close, or too open : in the former case,
the too fiee access of air occasions the fires to burn
languidly, and at a low temperature, owing to
the absence of a sufficiently powerful draught;
on the other hand, if the clay or sods are packed
too closely, and thus partially excluding the air,
it has the effect of retarding combustion, and pro-
moting the attainment of the required degree of
heat, so much so that in some cases combustion
is stopj)ed.

As soils vary so much in respect to their capacity
for burning for manure, it may be supposed that
rules cannot be laid down for every case; in fact,
unless a farmer knows from experience the proper
mode of forming heaps for burning, adapted to his
l)articular soil, it will be much better for him to
make a few experiments on a small scale, rather
than depend upon any written or oral instruction.
If, in the course of these experiments he can enlist
the aid of a neighbour or labourer acquainted \uth
the art, it will greatly assist him ; notwithstanding
such assistance, considerable practice will be re-
quired before he becomes a proficient, as injurious
effects frequently arise from apparently trivial
causes ; as an instance, it may be mentioned that
whilst in calm weather heaps should be made as open
as is consistent with the maintenance of a proper
draught, in windy weather they ought to be made
as close and as large as possible, and care taken
that every hole and crevice is stopped up, particu-
larly ou the leeward side ; for this })urpose it is well
to always leave a few sods unheaped. If the soil
yields to the agency of a slight torrefaction, in con-
sequence of its composition being such as not to
have a tendency to bake, or the large amount of
carbonaceous matters which are present, it may be
necessary to throw on the lee-side some shovelsful
of earth. In this way, on fine open loams, the far-
mer may burn double or treble the amount of soil
that he would otherwise have been able to do.

In arranging heaps for burning, both as respects
size and situation, it may be observed that with stiff
clays, particularly such as contain only a small
amount of vegetable matter, it will be found almost

impossible to obtain the requisite heat in small
heaps ; whilst on free open soils, or such as contain a
considerable quantity of carbonaceous matter, the
heaps or stubbles— other circumstances being fa-
vourable— can scarcely be too numerous, as every
heap burned on soils of the latter quality will some-
times torrefy or char the soil on which it is placed
to a depth of 2, 3, 4, and 5 inches, thus greatly
increasing the amount of torrefied soil and ashes,
without any increase, but rather with a diminution
of labour and expense. In dry weather when all
the principal sods &c. are gathered up and placed
in heaps, it is a good practice to send men round
with rakes, for the purpose of raking up every
particle of grass, weeds, &c., and small clods of soil
into small he^:ps, and to throw a shovel-fuU of fire on
them ; in favourable weather this mode will be
found to increase the amount of soil burnt very
much ; the rakes for this purpose should have
their teeth formed of nails, inserted into an ash
head about 2 feet 6 inches long, and I2 inches
square.

Soils that are very stiff', and do not contain much
vegetable matter, require great attention in forming
heaps, so that they will burn thoroughly, without
too great or two small an amount of heat.

One of the principal rules to be observed is, to
always erect the sods endwise, only the three or
four sods placed in the centre having their grassy
surfaces presented to each other, every succeeding
row being placed with the turf side next to the
earthy side of the preceding row, the whole to be
set up in as compact a manner as possible. The
heap being erected of a dome shape, fire must be
applied at the top, over which a sod ought to be
placed. Any clay with a moderate degree of sward
will thus, if carefully attended to, produce a quan-
tity of ashes adequate to the maintenance of a
crop. It may, and often does occur with clay soils,
which would be much benefited by burning, that
little sward is found, or if attempted after a cereal
crop scarcely any ; the vegetable matter }rincipally
consisting of weeds, and grasses that partake of the
character of weeds, their utter destruction forming
as prominent an object with the fanner as the pro-
duction of ashes. When this occurs, the best plan
to be pursued is to burn the whole in a clamp or
kiln ; for if it be attempted to burn the soil by the
mode previously described, only a very small amount
of ashes will be obtained, and the entire destruction
of the weeds will be jeopardised : the clots of clay
being so divided that it is almost impossible to
construct a heap in the ordinary manner, that will
at the same time burn the clay and consume the
whole of the vegetable rubbish ; in these cases
clamps or kilns will be found the most commodious
mode of burning the soil, and at the same time

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

104

eradicating the weeds and surplus vegetable matter
by combustion.

Burning in clamps or large heaps requires to be
managed by practised hands, for its due manage-
ment can only be learned by actually ojierating on
any given kind of soil.

In illustration of this position the following ex-
amples may be cited : Mr, Pym states, Royal
Agricultural Society's Journal vol. 3. — "The great
art is to let the clay burn slowly, which depends
very much on the proper formation of the walls,
which are of turf, as the ashes then turn black for
the most part, and are considered much better than
when they are red or clinking like bricks." Again
Mr. Pusey gives in the same volume, on the autho-
rity of another correspondent -" The heat should
always be slow and steady; never, if possible, burn-
ing the clay red, though this is very difficult in-
deed to manage, depending very much on the wind,
and it is but eifected by making heaps of not less
than 60 or 100 loads each, and these will take from
two to three months to burn. All inexperienced
hands use too much fuel, get their fires too fierce,
lay their stuff too holloW; make a great deal of
smoke -whereas, the less they make the better —
get their heaps to a red heat, and burn them
through in a week or ten days ; the consequence
is, that when their heaps are opened, instead of
ashes, or lumps that will fall into ashes by expo-
sure to the air, out roll knobs as hard and as useless
as brick-ends," " Much also depends upon the size
of the clay lumps, and their state of humidity; if
too dry they will burn too fiercely, if too wet they
M'ill not burn at all." Other writers have found
exposure of clay clods to the atmosphere advanta-
geous; in contrast with the above, Mr. Long states,
in allusion to this subject, that on his soil — a thin
dry flinty loam upon chalk — that, " the only diffi-
culty being, that many persons, himself amongst
the number, at first produced a hard substance,
more resembling a brickbat than powder."
(Journal of the Royal Agr. Soc, vol. vii.) This diffi-
culty he obviated by well saturating the soil with
water (previous to burning), working and treading
it to the consistency of mortar ; for, adds Mr, Long,
"water will separate any jiarticle, however adhesive;
and then the fire, expellmg the water and the car-
bonic acid gas, leaves the particles previously sepa-
rated, when burned, in the state of a very fine
powder, and if any should not be at first quite se-
])arated, it slacks immediately on the application of
liquid," The reader will here perceive what very
opposite conclusions have been arrive 1 at by two
parties acting on difierent soils. With respect
to clay burning into clinkers, there can be only one
opinion, viz,, the utter worthlessness of the process
if conducted so far ; but if the process is not car-

ried further than merely to char the vegetable
matter in the clay, and thus merely form black ashes,
such ashes will be found of little service as a ma-
nure, as they will only contain the inorganic con-
stituents of the charred vegetable substances in
the clay, with probably a slight amelioiatlon of the
mechanical condition of the soil, thus rendering a
stiflish soil somewhat more jjorous, and conse-
quently permitting a freer access of the atmosphere
to the roots of ]>lants ; it may, however, with safely
be averred that any mode of burning clay for ma-
nure which stops short of converting the protoxide
of iron (black oxide) into the red or peroxide is
incomplete, and will not produce any strikingly
beneficial results.

In the instance recited by Mr, Long, it would
appear that his soil consisted of decayed minerals
and flints in the state of ruble, but not intimately
blended together; in which case the theory of the
action of the water, and mixing the soil into mortar,
becomes explicable in the following manner, viz,,
when burned without mixing, the finer particles of
the soil are apt to be acted on by the fire; but when
coarser matters become intimately mixed with the
finer parts of the clay, the fire is not sufficiently
strong to vitrify the coarser ])arts, although hot
enough to flux them when finely divided; otherwise
Mr Long's experiments would be in opposition to
the practice of brick, tile, &c., manufacturers, who
water and tread their clays for the express purpose
of causing theni to bake into a firm mass.

Marls that contain a moderate amount of vegetable
matter, and a considerable quantity of lime, will be
found when placed in the ordinarily formed heaps
to burn easily in moderately dry weather ; if, how-
ever, the marl should be of a tough, blue character,
which is so frequently found as a subsoil, and also in
a great measure destitute of vegetable substances, it
will be found impossible to burn it advantageously,
other than in kilns or clamps, and to effect it by
the latter process it will be frequently found requi-
site to use small coal, furze, &c. The description
of marl just noticed will generally be found that
best adapted to burn for manure, but great caution
is required in conducting the operation ; should it,
however, get over burned, it will generally crumble
into powder on throwing water over the lumps, in
consequence of the calcareous matters present.

In proportion as soils proceed from stiff clays
and marls to light sandy soils, will the benefits
arising from burning be found to diminish, A
stiflf soil is properly burned when the ashes are ob-
tained of a red colour (if oxide of iron is present),
and in small rounded lumps that easily crumble
into a fine powder when pressed between the fin-
gers, at the same time possessing a gritty feel.

Deep vegetable soils, as bogs and peat mosses,

403

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

are greatly benefited by paring and burning, for
which purpose the land should be pared by the
breast or the push plough, Dutch plough, or skim,
and subsequently cross cut and torn about with a
harrow, or cultivator, and afterwards drawn into
heaps by horse-rakes.

In burning land for manure it must always be
remembered that on whatever description of soil it
maybe practised, infertihty will soon follow unless the
farmer returns to the soil an equivalent of manure
for thecropstakenfrom it. Taking crops after burn-
ing, without returning such equivalent, are merely
drafts on what should be the resources of fu-
ture years. It is the practice of farmers taking
crops from burned soils, without replacing the in-
gredients carried away in those crops, that has
brought the method into disrepute.

There are few practices in husbandry more ad-
vantageous as an assistant to the fallow season than
that of burning land on all descriptions of soils,
except sands and gravels. On downs it has been
found advantageous, and particularly so on chalks
which have been some years previously under sain-
foin ; the latter fact might have been anticipated,
as sainfoin sends its long roots many feet below the
surface, insinuating themselves between the inter-
stices of the chalk, drawing thence a supply of in-
organic constituents not otherwise attainable, but
which are in a great measure yielded to the surface-
soil, when the roots &c. torn up during cultivation
are burned ; this last-named circumstance is a
parallel instance with what has been previously
related of clover.

Provided an adequate return is made to the soil
of the inorganic constituents of the crops taken
away after burning, no injury will be sustained
by it.

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

In the preceding pages it has been my endeavour
to epitomise all that science has pointed out re-
specting the growth and nutrition of plants, and to
popularise the same as much as possible, in order
to bring the various subjects within the compre-
hension of the ordinary farmer. Before, however,
taking an entire leave of the matter, it will be well
to notice some important and recently published
observations that have been made by others, some
of which corroborate the views I have detailed, and
at the same time are calculated to attract our atten-
tion to new courses of procedure ; in the latter
allusion, I point more particularly to the important
observations of Professor Way, respecting " The
Absorptive Powers of Soils." Before, however, en-
tering upon these topics, I shall take the liberty of
making a short resume of a iew of the principal
features which I have touched upon in connexion
with the economising, and production of fertilising

agents, and also as regards a matter which now
occupies much attention, namely— whetheracheaper
substitute than guano can be obtained as sold at
its present price.

Most of the general views which I have put forth
on the various questions respecting manuring have
been from time to time laid before the public in
one or other of the various agricultural publications
during the last ten years. It is some gratification
to find that many of the vievvs which I originally
set forth, have received either the tacit or direct
admission of soms of the most influential and prac-
tical chemists and agriculturists of the day, of which
I shall shortly make a brief notice.

Dr. Anderson, Chemist to the Highland Society,
in a lecture deUvered before its members, has pur-
sued the same line of argument which I have
adopted, respecting having coverings to manure-
steads. In the last part of the Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England will be
found some valuable suggestions and a description of
the advantages derived from its adoption in Cum-
berland (see the able report of the Agriculture of
Cumberland by Mr. Dickson).

From all that I can learn, it is highly probable
that the covering of manure heajis v.'ill become a
general rule within a short period, in place of being
as at present the exception.

On another subject which, on a stiff land, is of
no little importance — it is saiisfactory to know that
my views on the cause of the eflficacy of burning
land for manure have been further estabhshed by
the experiments of Professor Voelker, who has
shown that the eflfect produced by burning soils is
to render the potash, &c., more soluble. The me-
chanical division of the soil caused by judicious
burning is, however, one also of great influence in
producing fertility, and ought never tobeovei looked.
The experiments of Professor Way, on " The Ab-
sorptive Powers of Soils," have satisfactorily shown
that burned clay loses the property of absorbing
ammonia from the atmosphere; which most un-
burned clays are found, by experiment, to possess
in a greater or less degree. Now, as on many soils,
especially friable loams, the fertility following the
operation of burning cannot be referred to the
alteration of mechanical mixture, nor to increased
power of obtaining ammonia, the latter being in
fact decreased, no other inference can be drawn
than that in such cases the improved fertility of
soils after burning arises from the greater solubihty
of potash previously existing in insoluble forms.

A better opportunity will perhaps not occur than
the present, to make some observations respecting
what has been stated by Professor Way, regarding
the exhaustion of soils by taking successive crops.
Mr. Way observes, " There was no doubt that the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

408

continuous cropping by wheat or any other plant,
without the return of anything in the shape of ma-
nure, would gradually, but certainly, reduce the
quantity of mineral matter contained in the soil ;
but the quantities so removed are now accurately
known, and it would be found that a continuous
course of cropping by wheat for many years took
from the land only a very insignificant quantity of
these substances. The following table shows the
amount of phosphoric acid, potash, &c., removed
by a large crop of wheat, in one year and twenty
years, and in another column of the table, the per
centage composition which the soil must have to
yield them for twenty such crops."

" 35 Bushels of Wheat, and 2 Tons of Straw.

1 crop. '20 crops. Per centage re-
moved from soil

lbs. lbs. by 20 crops.

Sihca iri 3,420 0.152

Phosp. acid . . 30 600 0.027

Sulph. acid .. 8 160 0.007

Lime 16 320 0.014

Magnesia.. . 10 200 0.009

Potash 39 7S0 0.036

Soda 3 60 0.003

277

5,540

0.248

The per centage removed from the soil by 20
crops, is calculated on the assumption that the soil
is 10 inches deep, and weighs 1000 tons."

" Those who had anything to do with the analyses
of soils would see (observes Professor Way) that
no soil of ordinary fertility would be found without
a small quantity of these minerals — indeed, it is
usually the case that a loamy soil contains from
two-tenths and upwards of potash and other sub-
stances in proportion ; and although the whole of
this might not be available at any one time, the
constant stirring of the land brings them into action,
furnishing a constant supply adequate to the wants
of plants." Practically, however, it is well known
that aration does not so rapidly bring into action
the inorganic constituents of plants, for if a field
was manured with 100 tons of pounded granite,
containing 9 per cent, of potash, thus forming a
soil having 0.9 per cent, of potash, it would be years
before atmospheric and other influences would bring
that amount of potash into available use to crops.
There may also fairly exist some doubt whether the
roots of plants are so disseminated as to absorb
from the entire soil of a field, the whole of the
mineral ingredients then in a soluble form, even if
existing somewhat more in quantity than would be
required by the greatest imaginable produce.
Again, ought wlieat to be taken as the standard ?
Turnips and other green crops commonly exhaust
the soil to a greater extent than cereal crops, more
especially of potash, which, from its commercial

scarcity, may be considered the most valuable of
all the elements entering into the composition of a
good manure. Now, a crop of 20 tons of swedes
contains 140 lbs. of potash, and 20 successive crops
would, if carried otF the field, abstract 2,800 lbs. of
potash, or nearly one ton and a quarter, or 0.130
per cent, of the soil calculated ten inches deep.

Few^ soils are cultivated to a depth of 10 inches,
as is well known to all practical farmers. From
these reasons, it is therefore evident, that on the
general run of soils, the mineral fertilisers may be,
to all practical purposes, somewhat rapidly abstrac-
ted. AVhatever tillage may do towards assisting in
the absor[)tion of ammonia from the atmosphere
and rain — and on this point I go the whole length
with Professor Way — it is quite evident that such
absorption, by increasing the temporary fertihty,
owing to the greater power of plants in absorbing
its mineral constituents, must ultimately result
in a more rapid exhaustion, terminating for prac-
tical purposes in barrenness, unless the abstracted
minerals are restored to the soil.

The above somewhat lengthened remarks have
been made, owing to the great attention which has
recently been called to " the Tullian" system of
husbandry, by the experiments of Mr. Smith and
Professor Way's lectures. That the latter gentle-
man has, in a great measure, if not wholly, ex-
plained the rationale of the eflfects which manifestly'
follows the adoption of a constant system of tillage
on alternate spaces, I fully believe ; and the agricul-
tural world is indebted also to that gentleman's in-
vestigations on the subject for an important prin-
ciple which will probably in a few years entirely
revolutionise our ideas respecting manuring, and
may ultimately render us less dependent on Peru
for guano, as an agent for supplying ammonia to
the soil. I allude to the action of the hydrated
double siUcates of alumina and lime, magnesia, &c.
This subject is, however, too important to be treated
upon at the tail-end of a series. In conclusion,
however, I venture to predict that at a period more
or less early, accordingly as farmers and landlords
become alive to the importance of the subject, these
double silicates will become a branch of manufac-
ture on as extended a scale as those connected
with any of our largest metallurgic or chemical es-
tablishments.

Whilst the above was passing through the press,
my attention was drawn to a very compli-
mentary article by I^'Ir. Towers, in the Journal of
Agriculture, in which that gentleman verifies from
actual experience the soundness of the opinions
given in my article on lime, ^yhich appeared in the
last number of the Farmers' Magazine. I men-
tion this circumstance because "lime," up to the

404

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

present period, has been overlooked in this resume.
With me it is a matter of doubt whether farmers
generally are most out of pocket in their annual
outlay by one of three things — " the raisapphca-
tion of lime and calcareous substances," " the sale
of spurious and adulterated manures," or the
'• extra cost of guano as compared to what it might
be obtained, if the landowners and farmers of
England combined to form at a cheaper rate at
home that which they now pay so dearly to im-
port." Assuming the consumption of guano at
150,000 tons annuallj', and that the consumers pay
£2 per ton beyond the price at which an equal arti-
cle could be produced at home, it is evident that
they are self-taxed to the extent of £300,000 per
annum on this item alone. Add a like sum for
each of the other items, and we have a grand total
approaching a million per annum. By adhering to
the rules laid down in the chapter on lime, any
farmer of common intelligence may judge whether
an application of calcareous manures will prove in
his individual case judicious or not. Seeing, how-
ever, that if guano was reduced £2 per ton, that
other fertilising agents, as superphosphate, bones,
&c., would bs reduced in proportion - say super-
phosphate to £5 per ton in place of £7 — it is not
unfair to presume that the farmero of Great Britain
pay not less ihan £750,000 per annum more than
they otherwise would do if they adopted energetic
measures for composing at home that which they
now obtain from Peru. Now, £50,000 is amply
sufficient to practically prove the correctness of my
position, whilst the actual risk to the shareholders
in such an undertaking would not exceed £10,000,
or 2s. per share on 100,000 shares. Yet trifling as
is the risk, and immense the benefit, that may thus
be obtained, it appears greatly beyond the enter-
prise of the landed interest of Great Britain; for
notwithstanding I have set out these facts, and
issued communications to more than one thousand
of the most influential landed proprietors, the
answers generally received, whenever replies have
been obtained — the latter not always occurring —
have been usually of that coldly civil character
known under the denominations of 'wet blankets,"
" dampers," and " throwing cold water," over any
subject. Out of this categorj', it is only due to
mention two exceptions, one a member of the House
of Peers, and the other a Baronet and a member
of the House of Commons, both of whom have
most heartily responded to my request when
seeking their assistance towards my endeavours in
establishing tlie object just alluded to. So much
for the interest taken in this subject by the landed
aristocracy ! By this class the matter is usually
treated after the following manner. I write
from personal experience, and with scores

of letters before me, of which the following may be
considered a hteral copy, all but the name : —

" Lord A. B. C. has received Mr. R.'s commu-
nication, and fully appreciates the importance to
the agricultural interest of obtaining a reduction in
the cost of artificial manures generally, and also
preventing their fraudulent adulteration ; but Lord
A. B. C. is otherwise so much engaged that he
cannot spare any time in attending to this subject.
Wishing success, &c., &c.

"Battledore Hall, Sept. 1, 1852."

Now as communications similar to the above
have been received from jiarties possessing landed
property yielding incomes from two to three hun-
dred thousand per annum, in the name of the fiend
—for it would make Job call upon " Old Harry,"
" Nick," or any other of the numerous polite
aliases under which his Satanic majesty is so fre-
quently invoked— if the wealthy proprietors of the
soil possess neither the time nor the will, and are
indisposed to furnish the means for effectually re-
ducing the cost of guano, who is to stand the brunt
of the contest ? Is it to b^, as usual, the tenant
farmers ? if so, are they likely to tJjke any active
steps in the matter ? To the latter query I may
remark, that I do not think they will, neither ought
it to be expected of them. The landed intere-^t
ought to take the subject up as a pubUc question ;
and if a moiety of the trouble had been exerted to
bring into practical operation a chemical manure
manufactory that there w?iS to form a deputation to
meet Lord Derby, with the object of inducing the
English Government to terrify the poor Peruvians
into a reduction of the price of guano, this impor-
tant problem would by this time have been satis-
factorily solved.

It is true that the Royal Agricultural Society of
England have offered a prize of £1,000 for the dis-
covery of a manure equal in fertilizing properties
with guano at a price not exceeding £5 per ton.
With a better appreciation of the pecuniary value
of such a discovery, a gentleman, whose office is
not many yards from the Royal Exchange, states
that he will pay £100,000 for similar information.
It i^ now more than fifteen years since I first
turned my atteniion to agricultural chemistry, and
during the interval I have been engaged in works
where metallurgy and manufacturing chemistry have
been carried forward on the most extensive scale ;
whilst practically engaged in these operations it has
been my constant study to devise modes of econo-
mizing the cost of many processes by combining
therewith the conversion or utilization oi many
waste products as manures. I know that prac-
tically this can be accomplished to a large extent,
and believe it is just possible that a manure may be
made at £5 per ton equal in value to guano ; but
of this I will pledge ray reputation, namely, that one

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

405

can be made at £7 T-er ton. This is not, however,
to be effected by the mere admixture of known and
plentiful substances in certain proportions : the
operation is far more recondite and difficult. The
only means by which the desiderated end can be
obtained is by the establishment of a chemical
manufactory, having for its main, rather than a sub-
sidiary object, the formation of cheap and
good manures. The modus cperandi may be
generally described by stating, that in the manu-
facture and refining of many chemical articles of
considerable commercial value and great consump-
tion, residuary and bye-products are obtained not
adapted for commercial sale without previously un-
dergoing an expensive purifying process ; many of
these frequently contain all the elements of fertility,
and can, therefore, be at once economically con-
verted into manure. An establishment as here
contemplated would not, therefore, be dependent
solely upon making manures, but would have— to
use the old adage — " two strings to its bow."

Now, under the present mode of proceeding, the
waste products of chemical works are not unfre-
quently bought by manure makers in order to sell
them alone, or mixed, to the farmers — an operose
mode not at all competent to fill up the void wY ch
exists.

One reason why commercial men and
the proprietors of great chemical works have not
l)aid attention nor invested capital in the manufac-
ture of manures arises from the fact that they have
no reliance on farmers using them if made. " They
are such a slow set," is the usual expression. Now
I believe no opinion is more ill-founded than the
one just alluded to; on the contrary, a proneness
exists amongst agriculturists generally to adopt
any new manure, and of this circumstance manure
quacks don't fail to take advantage. I may men-
tion, that of the nuiuerous communications I have
had on the subject during the past month, nearly
the whole express a willingness to give any new
article a fair trial.

In concluding these remarks, which may per-
hai)s be the last I shall ever write on English agri-
culture, it will be well to examine into tlie cause
or causes which contribute so much towards the
apathy and supineness of the landed proprietors of
Enuland on the important subject of discovering
the cheapest means of fertilizing their fields, and
consequently enhancing the value of their property.
Fifteen years ago no scientific rationale of agricul-
ture existed, and even chemistry, as a science, was
only studied by an enthusiastic fev/ in chemical
classes at Mechanics' Institutes and similar estab-
lishments ; within the last ten years chemistry has
become an elementary branch of general education.
Prior, however, to either of the periods named.

more than nine-tenths of the wealthiest landowners
of Great Britain had not only arrived at " man's
estate," but many had even approached the " sere
and yellow leaf" of age. In imputing, therefore,
a general want of special scientific knowledge on
the ])art of the great bulk of the landed proprietors
of the British dominions, it must not be
inferred that I am. at all desirous of casting any
such imputation as that of their being deficient in
geneial learning; my only object is to show that
they do not — neither could it be reasonably
expected that gentlemen advanced in life should —
intuitively become acquainted with the practical
application to ordinary farming of such a recondite
science as chemistry. In fact, the plain truth may
as well be at once told :— The mass of landowners
and farmers have no failh in chemistry as appHca-
ble to agriculture; the consequence is, they shun
investing capital in any undertaking having for its
o])ject the composition of chemical manures. The
failures of many vaunted discoveries have strength-
ened this feeling. On this point, however, it will
be well to observe that these failures have arisen
owing to the be-puft'ed articles not possessing t! e
requisite elements of fertility in adequate proportion
and available forms. Wherever phosphoric acid,
potash, and the elements of ammonia have been
compounded in proper quantities, and in forms
neither too much soluble nor insoluble, luxuriant
fertility has invariably followed their aj)plication.
I challenge the world to ])roduce an instance of
failure where these conditions have been strictly
attended to. Several — with that misty indistinct-
ness arising from imperfect scientific knowledge — •
draw largely on the regions of fancy with respect
to the rich harvest in store for farmers from
principles yet undiscovered. That there are fields
almost imtrodden, and truths not yet elucidated
that shall shed a halo of glory on their explorers and
])ropounders I am fully prej)ared to admit ; the efful-
gence of whose rays will reflect a light sufficient to
illuminate the steps of the husbandman amongst the
numerous paths now almost hidden in Cimmerian
obscurity is also probable. Whilst admitting all
this, and leaving the region of metaphor and fancy
for tlie soljer dominion of reality and naked every-
day facts, let us examine into the real state of the
case as regards the probability of supplying a good
manure at a cheaper rate than guano.

As guano does not afford ]>otash in any pro-
portion worth noticing, and phosphoric acid can
be obtained from other sources in abundance, as
bones or ajjatite, the real difficulty consists in ob-
taining ammonia. Now, the only source whence
we can seek for ammonia in any adequate quantities
is from our coal measures ; and, in order to
effectually compete with guano at £7 per ton, the
price of sulphate of ammonia ought net to be above
£8 or £9. The consequence, however, of a large
demand on limited supplies is to enhance the
price ; and, unless means be devised to
economize the waste of ammonia from ordinary fur-

406

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

naces, &c., the total supply as now afforded by the
gas works, &c,, is totally inadequate. Whether the
destructive distillation of coals and the accom-
panying shales could be profitably carried forward,
and'thus increase the sui)ply, is a problem that has
yet to be solved. The extension of gas lighting for
domestic purposes, and as an agent for producing
heat in dwellings, may contribute to the end
desired. Indirectly, also, the discoveries of Pro-
fessor Way on the absorptive powers of the hydrated
double sihcates of alumina, and lime, magnesia,
soda, &c., may possibly contribute much to lessen
the dependence of the farmer on extraneous sources
of ammonia ; the extent, hott'ever, to which this
can be attained, and the economical production of
these hydrated double silicates, are as yet unsolved
problems. Reviewing the whole question, it there-
fore appears that in our present state of knov.dedge
no other chance exists of obtaining a rival to guano
than the estabhshment of some such a manufactory
as that indicated in a former part of this paper :
one in which all the resources of science shall be
brought to bear so as to economize and utihze
pi-oducts often now wasted, and, in some instances
the driving off which is a source of expense,
adapting these and other waste materials and
products of inferior value to the jjurposes of hus-
bandry. Great as the improvements have been in
manufacturing chemistry during the last century,
it ought not to be forgotten that the temptation to
the exercise of ingenuity arose mainly from the cir-
cumstance that objects of large and grov/ing con-
sumption, and at continuously enhanced prices,

owing to such increased use, attained not only high
prices, but were gradually advancing. In the case
of manures, however, we have two articles required
of an expensive character — ammonia and potash —
which relatively, as compared with the power of
consumption in the form of manures, are only of
very limited production ; whilst, on the other hand,
the demand for them for manures at a low price
would be to practical purposes unlimited. It is on
account of these reasons that the composition of a
good and cheap manure is surrounded with so
many difficulties — not insurmountable certainly,
but to overcome v/hich requires a somewhat rare
combination of practically scientific, manufacturing,
and commercial knowledge on the part of the su-
perintendent on whom the management of such an
establishment maybe entrusted.

Appendix. — Since the preceding was written I have seen
some remarks in "Notes and Queries," mider the title of
" Guano and the Lobos Islands" ; quotiug the translation of
an old Spanish woil;, wherein a very accurate description is
given, not only of guano, and the islands from which it is
obtained, but also comparing this' substance to " Terra Bri-
tannica," as alluded to oy " Cardanus," who states that they
(the British) were fain to dig very deep mines to come at it —
(Terra Britannica) — '.\ith which they manin-ed their fields: an
application being said to have sutliced for 100 years. A re-
ference to what lias been stated on Lime, and " Top-dressing
soils with mineral substances," will show that the opinion of
the lasting quality of lime is correct. It woidd be cunous if
future researches should disclose the fact that our phosphoric
strata formed an ancient article of export, under the terra
" Ter.'a Britannica."

23, Grove-place, Brompton, Oct 9th, 18.52,

THE GUANO DIGGINGS.

Three rocks, without a blade of grass upon them
— their brown surface cracked by a hot sun, whose
beams are rarely intercepted by a cloud— rocks upon
which no rain has fallen since the deluge— yield at
present the chief riches of Peru. They are the
Chincha Islands. Ships arc ever gathering about
them to bear off the fatness covering their ribs ; that
is to say, the guano, which shall fertilise the over-
taxed and wasted fields of distant countries. To
this guano district may now be added that of the
Lobos Islands, to whicli Peru lays a disputed claim ;
but I believe that the deposit of guano in the Lobos
Islands falls far short, both in quantity and in quality,
of that on tlie Chinchas, from M'hich all the Peruvian
guano brought into Great Britain has been taken.

My starting point for the guano diggings was
Port Philip or Victoria, as it is now called ; but we
are now going gently, if you please, before the
south-east trade wind, just opening out the bay of
Callao, the seaport of Lima. Eor the last few hours
we have been gliding slowly along the coast, gazing
u])ou scenery which I should like to describe, but
dare not ; for though, like most sailors, a pretty
good hand at painting a lower masthead or a topsail
yard, I can make nothing of a sketch in pen and ink.

Paint for yourself, therefore, the huge masses of
rugged brown mountains, rising their steps from the
green sea, and the white surf at their base, until the
pure blue sky seems to be resting on their distant
peaks, where the harsh contrast between earth and
air is softened, less by distance than by the dim glit-
ter of the everlastiug snow. A fleecy bank of cloud
ascending from some unseen valley belongs also to
the picture.

Though we are bound only for the Chincha Islands,
yet we come to an anchor at Callao ; we have already
passed the islands once. Here I may say a word on
what is a great annoyance to all masters of ships
visiting Peru, and a source of additional expense to
English ship-owners and charterers. Every guano
ship is compelled to enter inwards and outwards at
Callao; thus, in the first place, sailing about one
hundred and fifty mUes beyond the islands to reach
the port ; then, always against a head-wind, beating
the hmidred and fifty miles back agam to Pisco, a
small port close to the Chinchas. Here she anchors,
and goes through some formal performance or other,
remaining sometimes two or three days. Then she
sails back again nine or ten miles to the islands,
where she loads and afterwards returns to Pisco.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

407

Then she goes back to Callao, and finally passes the
islands for the fifth, and happily the last time, on
her homeward passage. Over all this battledore
duty a ship often wastes nearly a monih, besides
generally losing some of her hands from desertion
in Callao. Certain it is, however, tliat there is in-
variably more formality in petty principalities and
dwarf repubhcs, than in states which are more able
to enforce respect. Peru is by no means a tremcn-
doas power, and it is a token of good in the way of
civilisation, that the huge merchantmen should let
themselves be bullied by her, wlien the whole ileet of
the golden republic might be sailed off with in one
parcel, quietly stowed away on board a Cunard liner.
It consisted, when I saw it, of the steamer Rimae,
two guns ; the brig Gamarrcz, eight guns ; and a
little schooner of four guns ; the latter stationed at
the islands to enforce respect from some sixty or
seventy vessels of all nations.

And now up comes the anchor from its berth
amongst the ruins of the old town of Callao, over
which our ship is floating. A long low point still
shows the remains of the last meal made by the
earthquake, which, Uke a dragon with the stomach
of an ostrich, has so frequently snapped up tit bits
of town, that the inhabitants appear to have de-
clined providing stone-fruit for it. The present
houses of Callao are mere sheds of cane and mud,
which, in case of a disturbance, yield no heavy
brick-bats to be cast down on the heads of their in-
habitants. Tall houses built of any heavy material
are not eligible residences in an earthquake district.

After five days tacking against the trade wind we
round the large island of San Gtallau, which forms
part of the Chincha group, but contains little guauo.
We anchor then before the town of Pisco — a little
Callao in point of size, but greater than Callao in
the points of dirt and drunkenness. It' gives its
name to a kind of white brandy, well known in the
South Seas. It is also especially noted as the resi-
dence of an English butcher, who supplies his
countrymen with all manner of provisions, from
green turtle to red herrings. I have little doubt
that his prices are remunerating, as he has the ship-
ping trade all to himself.

Again the ship is in motion, and in an hour the
proximity of the guano islands is evident to all but the
most nominal noses, for though still five or six miles
to windward, the scent of the guano becomes stronger
at every ship's length. The three islands lie nearly
due noith and south; the breadth of the passage
between them being about a mile in one instance,
and two miles in the other. The south island is as
yet untouched, and from a visit I paid it, T should
suppose it to contain more guano than is found in
cither of the others. The middle island, at which
we loaded, has been moderately worked, but the

greatest quantity of guano is taken from the north
island. In then- general formation the islands are
alike. They all rise, on the side next the main land,
in a perpendicular wall of rock ; from the edge of
this precipice the guano then slopes upwards to the
centre of each island, where a pinnacle of rock rises
above the surface ; from this point it descends to
the sea by a gentle declivity, the guano continuing
to within a few feet of the water. Each island has,
at a distance, the appearance of a flattened cone,
but they have all been originally broken into rocky
hills and valleys. The deposits of guano having
gradually filled up the valleys and risen above the
rocks, the cuttings of the guano diggers vary from
a depth of eighty or a hundred feet to merely a few
inches. Though the islands are not large — their
average circumference being about two miles — the
accmnulation of guano is almost incredible. Calcu-
lations as to the probable quantity must, on account
of the varying depth of the deposits, be very uncer-
tain. I remember making an average of the depth,
and deducing therefrom a rough estimate that the
three small islands alone contain upwards of two
hundred and fifty millions of tons of pure guano,
which at the rate of supply which has been going on
during the last five or six years, would require about
one hundred and eighty years for removal; and, at
its English value — which, after deducting freight, is
about five pounds per ton — would be -worth about
twelve hundred and fifty millions sterHug. This is
exclusive of vast quantities which have been used by
the Peruvians themselves.

A recent traveller in the country asserts that
guano was used in the time of the Incas, and that
the Spaniards learned its use from the Indians, who
employed it constantly. It is chiefly applied in Peru
to the cultivation of maize and potatoes. The mode
of applying the manure differs from that generally
ado])ted in England. After the plants appear above
the ground, a small trench is opened, in some cases
round each root, in others along the lines. In this
trench a small quantity of guano is placed, and
slightly covered with earth ; the whole field is then laid
under water, and allowed to remain in that condition
for a certain number of hours — from 20 to 24. The
water is then drained off, and the effect of the pro-
cess is soon manifest in the rapid growth of the
plants. I'Vhere a sufficient supply of water cannot
readily be procured, other means of irrigation are
adopted, but the guano is never sown broadcast, as
in England. The name itself is Indian, originally
huanu, signifying the excrement of animals, but
altered to huano by the Spanish Peruvians ; and
owing to their strong aspiration of the h, the Eng-
lish have taken the words from their lips in the
shape of guano. It is found on all parts of the
coast of South Anierica, even so far south as Cape

408

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Horn ; but tlmt obtained from tlie Chinclia Islands
is the most liigkly prized, probably from its extreme
dryness, as the islands lie withia latitudes in wliicli
— on that coast — rain never falls.

And now, having anchored between the north and
middle islands, at the latter of which we are to load,
we will borrow the boat and have a closer look at the
huge muck heap. Pulling half round the island to
the landing place, we step ou shore on a narrow slip
of sandy beacb, which appears to be cleared from
the surrounding rocks for our special convenience.
Our appearance disturbs thousands of the web-
footed natives ; these thousands count with tlie old
hands as nothing, for they tell us that the shipping
have driven all the birds aM'ay. Sailing above us is
a flock of pelicans, hovering over the clear water
like hawks, which they resemble in their mode of
darling down or stooping on their prey. One of
these every instant drops from the flock as though a
ball had whistled through his brain ; but, after a
plunge, he is soon seen rising to the surface with a
fish struggling in his capacious pouch. Nearer to
us, whirling round our heads, are gannets, mews,
mutton-birds, divers, gulls, guano-birds, and a host
of others whose names are unknown to the vulgar.
On the detached rocks and the lower edge of the
island — member of a pretty numerous convocation —
stands the penguin, the parson-bird of the sailor,
whose good name is fairly earned by his cut-away
black coat, white tie, and solemn demeanour. Ilis
short legs planted far back, and his long body do not
fit him for a walk ashore ; but he will sit for hours
on a little rock jnst washed by the waves, apparently
in such deep absence of mind that passers-by are
tempted to approach in liope of catching him. Just
as the boat nears him, and a hand is already stretched
out to grasp hi.s neck, away he goes head over heels
in a most irreverent and ridiculous manner, dives
under the boat, and shows his head again about a
quarter of a mile out at sea, where the sailor may
catch him who can, for he is the fastest swinuner
and the best diver that ever dipped. Stepping over
the mortal remains of several sea-lions, in a few
strides we arc on the guano, and at the next step, in
it up to our knees.

The guano is regularly stratified : the lower
strata are solidified by the weight of the upper,
and have acquired a dark red colour, which be-
comes gradually lighter towards the surface. On
the surface it has a whitey-brown light crust
very well baked by the sun; it is a crust con-
taining eggs, being completely honeycombed by the
birds, which scratch deep, obhque holes in it to
serve as nests, wherein eggs, seldom more than two
to each nest, are deposited. These holes often run-
ning into each other, form long galleries with several
entrances, and this mining system is so elaborately

carried out, that you can scarcely put a foot on any
part of the islands without sinking to the knee and
being tickled with the sense of a hard beak digging
into your unprotected ankles. The egg-shells and
the bones and remains of fish brought by the old
birds for their young, must form a considerable part
of the substance of the guano, which is thus in a
great measure deposited beneath the surface, and
then thrown out by the birds.

Having with some difficulty, and the loss of sundry
inches of skin from our legs, reached the summit of
the island, we descend the side leading to the dig-
gings, and soon arrive at the capital. It stands on a
small piece cleared ot guauo, and consists of twenty
or tliirty miserable shanties, each formed by four
slender posts driven into the ground, with a flat
roof of grass matting and pieces of the same ma-
terial stretched on three sides, the other side being-
left open. Scarcely an article of furniture do these
town residences contain, except a few rude benches,
two or three dirty cooking-pans, and some tin pots.
In one or two of the huts stands a small "botiga,"
(a curiously-shaped earthen jarj filled with pisco, the
spii-it before mentioned. The beds are simply thin
mats, and only a few of the inliabitants possess the
usual red blanket of the Peruvian.

Clothes seem to be almost discarded : an old poncho
and a ragged pair of calico trowsers, form the dress
of the aristocracy, but many are all but entirely
naked. One liut of greater pretensions than the
rest is occupied by two English sailors, who iiave
taken a fancy to the island, and ca,ll themselves
pilots, as they |)rofess to moor and take charge of
the ships during the business of loading.

Close to the town is a rough and steep path to
the sea, up which are brouglit the provisions and
water, the latter supplied by the shipping in turns.
On the noi-th island is a similar but larger collection
of dwellings ; there, too, resides the commandant, a
mihlary -looking old gentleman — one of the high
aristocracy, for he lives in a house that has a window
in it. On the north island arc about two hundred
men, on the middle about eighty, usually ; the num-
ber varying with the demand for guano. These
people are nearly all Indians, and appear to be happy
enough in their dusty territory ; though every thing
about them, eatables included, is impregnated with
guano. They earn plenty of money, live tolerably
well according to their taste, work in the night, and
smoke or sleep all day. To get rid of their wages,
they take an occasional trip to Pisco, where they
spend their money nnich in the same fashion as
sailors, substituting pisco and chicha (maize beer)
for rum and ale, and the guitar and fandango for the
fiddle and hornpipe.

In getting the guano, the diggers have com-
menced originally at the edge of the precipitous

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

409

side of the island, and worked inland ; so that the
cuttiiifT uow appears like the face of a quarry
worked into the side of a hill. The steep perpendi-
cular face of tlie rock, which rises from the sea like
a wall, and the boldness of the shore — there is seven
fathom water close in — have afforded groat facilities
to the loading of ships. On the top of the cliff is a
large enclosure formed of stakes, firmly bonnd to-
gether by strong chains passed round the whole.
This enclosure is capable of holding four or five
hundred tons of guano. It is made wide and open
at the upper end, and gradually slopes down to a
point on the extreme verge of the precipice, where
a small opening is left, exactly fitting which is a
large canvas shute or pipe, which hangs down the
face of the rock, nearly to the water. The ship,
having taken in by means of her boats enough guano
to ballast her, hauls in to this shute, the end of
which is taken aboard and passed down the hatch-
way. The guano is thus poured into the hold in a
continuous stream, at the rate of about 350 tons a
day, the inclosure being filled by the Indians during
the night. They carry the whole of the guano down
on their backs in bags, taking about eighty pounds
at each journey.

Some are employed in pushing the guano down
the shute, at the mouth of which is stationed an
Indian, v>'ho, by tightening a rope passed round
it, regulates or stops the descent of the manure.
To various parts of the long pipe ropes are at-
tached, which lead to the different mast-heads of
the ship, and thence on deck, where each rope is
tended by a man who, by successively hauling on
and slacking it, keeps the shute in motion, and thus
hinders it from choking. This choking, however,
now and then occurs ; and it is then a difficult and
tedious matte; to set right again, as the pressure
binds the guauo into a compact mass, which can
sometimes only be liberated by cutting the shute
open. Birds are frequently carried down into the
ship's hold ; and at one of the islands, an Indian,
aceidcntly slipping in, was forced through the shute,
and taken out at the other end quite dead. On each
island there are two inclosures and two sliutes, one,
much smaller than the other, being used only for
loading boats.

After making ourselves fully acquainted with all
the economy of the island, we retrace our painfid
path to the boat, and pull off to the ship, where the
day being Sunday, there is no work going on, and
we can amuse ourselves with the scenery around us.
Every little hollow in the islands has been gradually
filled iqi, until the surfjicc is nearly levelled ; the
general dark brown hue siugularly broken by scat-
tered projecting crags, white with huanu bianco —
newly deposited guano. Round the base of the
islands little rocky peninsulas jut out, bored through

in many places by the constant was-hing of the
Pacific, whose gentle waves have ins^inuated them-
selves many yards into the solid rock, and have
formed caverns which arc the resort of numerous
sea-lions. The time of these hermits seems to be
divided between dozing in their gloomy-looking cells,
and making hungry irruj)f ions on the shoals of little
fish which frequently pass through the channels. I
have often Avatched these little fellows— packed in
such dense masses that I hey seem to have scarcely
room to swim in — moving rapidly along, a spray of
them every moment leaping from the water and
glittering for an instant in the sun ; all evidently
ignorant of the neiglibourhood of any enemy. Sud-
denly, in the very middle of the parly, rises a black,
ugly head, and instantly aU is confusion — a dozen
unfortunates are swallowed at a mouthful. Other
heads, cquall}^ ^ig'y' P*^P ^^P ^'^ unex])ected places,
and you can distinctly hear the snapping of the sea-
lion's jaws as he works through the flying shoal, and
finishes a dinner worthy of a cardinal in Lent. It
is not, however, all small fry : whales often come
gambolling between the islands, rolling and playing
in the sun, and sometimes leaping clean out of the
water, into which their huge bodies descend again
with a crash that seems to shake the sea itself, and
turns the surface into one great frothy washing-tub,
amidst the suds of which the giant slowly sinks,
throwing up his broad black flukes as if in derision.
But noAV our work begins in earnest. Ballast is
hoisted up, and throA^ai over the side, and the long-
boat is busily employed iu bringing guano to replace
it. Most unpleasant work that is. I was one of
the boat's crew, and, since of course much rivalry
exists between the ships, that all desire priority in
trading, we were at work night and day, leaving our
ship at night, and remaining under the shute until
morning, so as to obtain the first load for our boat.
I shall not foiget the dismal hours we passed there.
Close to us — every surge of the boat sending ber
into its mouth — was a dark cavern, into which the
sea poured with one continuous roar. A few
fathoms distant stood an isolated rock, every wave
dashing boldly up it, and then falling back in sheets
of foam, and scattering all around in showers of
heavy spray. On our right, moored to the rocks,
lay a loading ship, her warps and cables slacked for
the night, leaving some twenty feet of dark water be-
tween her and the huge black cliff ; the base of the ehff
marked by the bright line of light which ever glitters
on the broken wave of the Pacific. Glancing aloft,
we saw, rising and falling with the ship's motion,
the long white shute, like a fairy footpath up the
rock ; whilst drawn upon the clear blue sky, were
lifts and braces, bowlines, stays, and all the maze of
rigging so familiar to the sailor. And there, beyond,
lay the dark sister island ; her shores, too, lighted by

410

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

the white ocean-fire, ■which, iu a long dim surf-line,
mai'ked the more distant coast of the great continent
itself, from which rose iu the moonlight the stupen-
dous masses of the CordiUeras. Before morning the
heavy dew and heavier sprays had thoroughly diluted
the romance of our position, and, when day dawned,
we were glad to get tlie shute into the boat, and
cheer ourselves by shouting, in horrible Spanish, to
its Indian guardian to let go the guano. Li a few
minutes down came the shower, and eyes, mouth,
and nose were filled with the pungent dust, which
continued to pour in until the boat was loaded to
the water's edge, and its occupants loolied like a por-
tion of the cargo. One old salt, whose busliy black
whiskers and long hair contained enough manure to
satisfy a small farm, very energetically cursed all the
farmers in the world for employing sailors to do
their dirty work, instead of coming themselves and
carting home the guano in their own broad-wheeled
waggons. The boat being loaded, we pulled her
slowly oif to the ship, where her cargo, having been
filled into bags, took the place of the discharged
ballast. This sort of work contiaued for about three
weeks, before our turn to haul under the large shute
arrived.

Our bill of fare aboard would have attractions
for some people. Turtle was our commonest dish,
as the skipper found it cheaper to give a dollar
for a turtle weighing fifty or sixty pounds, than to
supply us constantly with the contractor's beef from
Pisco. Our turtle soup, however, would not have
passed muster at Guildhall, though thick enough for
sailors. Then we had camotes, a sort of sweet po-
tato, which attains a very large size, and is generally
liked by Englishmen; yuca, a root resembling a
parsnip; frijoles, fish, mutton-birds; plenty of sea-
soning, such as tomatoes. Chili peppers, andaji ; and
abundance of fruit-melons, grapes, bananas, chiri-
moyas, alligator-pears, &c. : the meat-boat being
always well supplied with articles of this kind. It
brought also, occasionally, a few bladders of pisco,
which, being contraband, were smuggled with the
due formalities.

At length, one of the English sailors living on
the island came off and took us alongside, seeing
that we were moored in a proper position for
receiving cargo. With him came half a dozen In-
dians; Cholos, we call them— that is, a name applied
by sailors to all the different coloured races in Peru,
though it is the especial property of one tribe only.
The duty of these men is to trim the guano in the
ship's hold, as it pours out of the shute. The nature
of their work may be imagmed. The hatchways are
quickly choked up, and the atmosphere becomes a
mere mass of floating guano, iu the midst of which
the trimmers work in a state of nudity ; the only
article of dress with some of them being a buuch of

oakum tied firmly over the mouth and nostrils, so as
to admit air and exclude the dust. They divide
themselves into two parties, one relieving the other
every twenty minutes. When at work they toil
very hard, handling their sharp-pointed shovels in a
style that would astonish even an English navigator,
and coming on deck, when relieved, thoroughly ex-
hausted and streaming with perspiration. But iu
this state they swallow a quart of cold water, quali-
fying it afterwards with a large dose of raw ram or
pisco, and then, throwing themselves down in the
coolest part of the ship, they remain there until
their turn comes again to resume the shovel.

The ship's crew is employed tending the bowlines
attached to the shute, and, though working in the
open air, the men are compelled to wear the oakum
defences, for the clouds of dust rising from the hold
are stifling. The ship is covered from truck to
keelson ; the guano penetrates into the captain's
cabin and the cook's coppers — not a crany escapes.
the very rats are set a sneezing, and the old craft is
converted into one huge wooden snuff-box. The
infliction, however, does not last long, three days
being generally sufficient for the loading of a large
ship. At the end of tliree days, right glad was I to
see the hatches on, the mooring chains hove in, and
the flying jib-boom once more pointing towards
Pisco.

Here we stayed another three days, which we
employed in washing down and trying to restore the
ship to her original colour. When we left the
Chinclias, yards, masts, sails, rigging, and hull, were
all tinted with one dnty brown. This cleansing
finished, we again tripped our anchor, passed the
north island, receiving and returning the cheers
always given to a homeward-bound ship, and with
studding sails on both sides, ran merrily down before
the steady trades, reaching Callao in thirty hours.
There the hands, who shipped merely for the coast-
ing voyage, were discharged, and we who remained
were soon over-head, in one of the many little
streams which water the pampas lying between
Callao and Lima, eager to wash out the alloy of
guano with which our skins had been amalgamated
at the diff2-iiis;s. — Dickens's Hoirsehold Words.

DEEP - PLOUGHING LEA FOR OATS.

As there is a diversity of opinion as to the propriety of
ploughing lea with a deep furrow for a crop of oats, the fol-
lowing results of an experiment on the Home Farm, at
Thirlestane Castle, betwixt equal quantities of land ploughed
with the Marquis of Tweeddale's three-horse plough, and the
common two-horse plough, may be interesting as well as
useful. It may be premised that the wliole field of 12 acres or
so was ploughed with the three-horse plough to the depth of
9 to 11 inches, except two ridges nearly about the middle of
the field; which vere ploughed with the two-horse plough, to

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

411

the depth of from 5 to 7 inches, thereby making au average
extra depth of 4 inches in favour of the three-horse plougli ;
immediately after " brairding," the oats upon the deep-
ploughed land showed a more vigorous growth and broader
blade, and on a narrow observation their superiority continued
throughout the season, although the frequent showers, and
the general fineness of the season, caiised, it is believed, much
less difference betwixt them than had the season been
drouglity, or otherwise less favourable.
Comparative weight of grain and straw from two ridges

ebb-ploughed, and from two ridges on each side of these

which were deep-ploughed : —

Gross

Grain

Extent of

sveight VVt. of

Wt. of

land.

of corn srraiu.

straw.

per

& straw

acre.

roods poles.

St. lbs.

St. lbs.

St. lbs.

bushels

2 ridges ploughed

with 3 horses .

2 14

335 10

108 1

227 9

mi

2 ridges ploughed

with 2 horses .

2 14

332 2

103 0

230 2

57i

2 ridges ploughed

with 3 horses .

2 14

372 6

109 6

263 0

62J

Average excess of the four deep-ploughed ridges over the two
ebb-ploughed, per acre —

Straw.
26 stones.

Grain.
ill bushels.

N.B. — The above is all calculated at 14 lbs. to the stone.
Other trials have been made on neighbouring farms, which,
when tested, will be published.

It is necessary here to remark, that there is uo dilference of
expense in ploughing the land with the three-horse plough, as
the additional breadth turned over nearly compensates for the
third horse, besides the additional depth attained, so that two
three-horse ploughs turn over as much land as three two-
horse ploughs, the three-horse ploughs requiring one plough-
man less : and it is also worthy of remark, though already
pretty generally known, that the mould-board of the Marquis
of Tweeddale's plough is so constructed as to act similar to a
subioil plough, being tapered up from the bottom towards the
back part, thereby merely stirring the earth at the bottom of
the furrow, to the depth of two or three inches, without
bringing it up to the surface.

On the same farm the whole faUow break was ploughed
with the three-horse plough, to the depth of from 14 to 16
inches, and was so well pulverised as to require no spring
furrow, but was merely grubbed with Tennant's patent tv/o-
horse grubber, which made excellent tilth for sowing the
turnips. Thos. Hume.

Lauder, Sept. 21, 1852.

A SINGULAR OCCURRENCE CONNECTED
WITH THE HISTORY OF THE HONEY BEE.—
If you think the following comaiunication worthy a
place In your Magazine, you are at libui ty to insert it,
as it may be interesting to some of your reade;8 who
look to such publications for any article connected with
the history of the honey bee (Apis mellifica). I have
for several seasons past had the management of a few
hives, the property of the Rev. Mr. Jones, of Barnet

Common, Hertfordshire. This spring be had two stock
hives ; and near the end of February I went to see if
thpy had survived the winter, and whether their stock
of I'rovi.'^ions was cxliaustod, and would require feeding
or not. After I had done examining the two hives,
Mrs. Jones requested me to put a glass on the top of
one of the liivcs for the bees to work in, for the pur-
pose of obtaining scime pure honey, or what is termed
" Virgin Honey." I did as she requested me; covered
the glass over ; and left the bees. On the second day
of May Mrs, Jones called on me early in the forenoon,
and requested mc to come and look at one of the hives,
as many bees were in a cluster outside the hive, and
she thought they were likely to swarm, as the morning
was cloudy and so very early in the season. I thought
that they might not swarm for a few days, although
they were clustering outside the hive, as I have had
my own bees situated in tlie same way under the
alighting board for a considerable time before swarming.
Between twelve and one o'clock the same day I went
into the garden to examine the state of the hive just
alluded to; I had only been there a few minutes when,
in the hive that the glas^ was placed upon in February,
a fine swarm came off. No time was lost in putting
them into a hive, and, strange to say, a few minutes
after the second hive ssvarmed also. The bees had
made no comb in the glass placed on the top of the
hive. On the fifteenth day after the two hives swarmed
I called at the residence of the Rev, iVIr. Jones to see
if there was any appearance of eitlier of the two hives
throwing (in Apiarian language,) " a cast", and seeing
the bees of one of the hives in a state of agitation, and
apparently no work going on, I concluded that they
might come oft" that day; and in a short time they
came off, and I put them into a hive. I had just
finished hiving the bees when the other hive sent out
a east also. It is ratlier a singular circumstance, that
the gentleman has only the two stock hives. If he
had been in possession of a considerable number, no
notice might have been taken of such an occurrence;
but, having only the two liives, and both to swarm on
the second day of May, and each of them to throw a
cast on the fifteenth of the same month, is imusual.
What is still more remarkable, one of the sv.arms
swarmed the latter end of July, and lodged on a tree
in the garden; but the gardener informed me that
some time elapsed before they couid get a hive, and,
the wind being rather high at the time, they took to
flight, and he followed thern some distance across the
fields, but they did not settle in (he neighbourhood,
and consequently he lost them. It is, I think, not a
common occurrence in this country, even in good
seasons, for a swarm to throw off a swarm, and more
especially as this has been the coldest spring expe-
rienced in this neighbourhood for many years. It was
not until the middle of June that tlie bees could do any
good — the season being so very backward. Perhaps,
this may attract the attention of some oje who has a
more extensive knowledge of the practical manage-

412

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

mcnt of tl.is most usi'ful iissect tlian I Imvc. If 90, I
should like to know if such a circums-tai.cc as lliciib«vc
is of a common occurrence in this country — Robeiit
DowNiE, ArMey Lane Collage, Barnet Common,
Herts.

THE WILD POPPY.

Perhaps there are few weeds which, taken ail in
all, occasion so much trouble to a class of farmers
as the wild poppy. On the new and old red sand-
stone formations, especially the 1 igher-lying portions
of soils on these strata, it is an incessant source of
injury and of trouble. It possesses all the charac-
teristics of the other truly indigenous weeds. It is
insignificant in its very early stages, and therefore
bad to grapple with. It grows most after the hoe
can be of little service, and it branches out sO
rapidly and so tenaciously that it often overtops the
corn. In some seasons it is absolute master of ths
crop, and hence we ha\'e what is called " a poppy
year." And further, it is a jilant which " grows for
its life." In a very short time it matures its seed,
and that so small and oily that it will not only in-
fest the land for a long period, but will spring up
in all the corn crops with a rankness which al-
ways succeeds in injuring and sometimes in de-
stroying a crop.

This seed seems to possess an instinct. We
never see it in artificial pastures, where it could not
make head, or mature its seed. We as rarely see
it in turnips. It seems to reserve its vitality for an
attack on the wheat and the barley, and then it
ravages unrestricted and at leisure.

In a spring ungenial to the rapid growth of corn,
especially from drought, it seems to have special
encouragement, and to make uncommon progress,
AVhile a season just suited to its habits will develop
it where the soil will be ordinarily free, it is most
prevalent where the soil is light and uncompact.
It seems to require a large amount of oxygen to sti-
mulate its germination ; for in a cold, wet spring
there is seldom much trouble with it.

We had a very remarkable instance of the many
rmlikely modes in which it may be fostered : we
had about ai acre, in an irregularly-shaped piece,
where the turnips were sadly injui'ed by a blowing
day in July. The sand cast off' the leaves, and
they only rallied so as to be a covering, not a heavy
crop. This increased the evil of the light soil, for
the crop of turnips being lighter, the land got by
far less consolidated than even its share, and the
barley was drilled on the whole field alike. The
acre which had blown was a mass of red poppies,
and as the land was sown with seeds the hoe could
not be applied, and the barley was seriously injured.
How was this ? The land where the sand had in-
jured the turnips suffers from the poppy! Doubt-
less the cause arose in the natural lightness of the
soil being less consolidated than it would be by
sheep-treading, and so the development of the
poppy is fostered and encouraged.

But how did it happen that the poppies did not
also assert llieir dominion over the seeds ? for in the
sheep pasture now being eaten not one is to be
found. This is not v>ry easy to account for ; but
it is possible that consolidation of the soil, from its
remaining undisturbed, has been unfavourable to
their development.

We were some years ago assured by Mr. Paul,
the celebrated Suff"olk agriculturist, that he had
adopted anever-failing plan of destroying the poppies
without injuring the corn, and at a very small
expense. In one of the hoar-frosty mornings iu
sj)ring he sent a pair of very small iine harrows over
the land infested with the |)0j)pies, and if the suc-
ceeding morning permitted it, he again harrowed
them over anew. This otieration, while it did not
injure the corn, completely destroyed the poppies.
Their leaves, then young and succulent, were so
bruised and discouraged by the touch of the har-
rows while the frost was upon them, that they could
not resist the shock, and hence they either died
altogether, or were so delayed and crushed in their
course of destruction, as never to make their ap-
pearance in the crop.

We will detail a very successful mode by which
we secured a crop free from them in afield decidedly
naturally infested with them. Part of it had, from
its distance from the homestead, been used as a spot
to stack the corn for several years, and this getting
more than its share of the seed, was very liable to
be infested. We ploughed the lea — for we selected
barley in preference to wheat, the former crop being
more manageable, and better capable of having the
process applied which we intended — and let it lie
perfectly still over the winter. This was the means of
germirating one crop of poppies, which would, in
ordinary circumstances, have been trojbling the
wheat. We then dragged and harrowed it over
again, allowed it to remain still a second time, till a
second crop had germinated, and which a later
ploughing in the early part of April again fully
destroyed.

Two points were to be gained. Much of the
seed had germinated, and could not again trouble
us ; while the later period of sowing, and the very
recent ploughing of the land, gave ihe corn, and the
poppies which might remain ungerminated, an equal
chance of success. But we wanted more • — we
wished to stimulate the barley to rapid growth, so
as to overtop the stragglers ; but how could this be
done, without also manuring the poppies? To have
apphed a top-dressing was ruinous — it encouraged
both: to drill guano with the seed was utter de-
struction to it.

We had the corn drilled, and while the land re-
mained as left by the drill unharrowed, and full of
the indentations made by the drill coulters, we
sowed guano broadcast, at the rate of 2 cwt.
per acre, and then harrowed. All the guano thus
fell in the interstices made by the drill over the corn,
and yet not rn'xed with it. We had a very heavy
crop of corn and no poppies, except on a square
yard or two, where there was a bed of them — and
why ? The drill had missed an angle, and no corn
had been dropped. Here they swelled in rank lux-
uriance. No more need be said — the experiment
succeeded. — Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

413

O N T II ]•: CULTIVATION OF FLAX,

BY KICHAKD HODGSON, liSQ., Ol<' CARHAM, NOUTH U W BERLAND.

[Premium— The Gold Medal.]
{From the Highland Society's Journal.)

Having for some 5'ears sown a few acres of flax,
with the view of ascertaining its value in comparison
with crops in ordinary culture, and of supplying
myself with hnseed for niy stock, I am induced to
give a narrative of the results.

In the years 1850 and 1851 only, the portion of
land under flax amounted to five acres, and to these
seasons I therefore confine myself, in a statement
of the comparative expenditure and produce of that
with an equal portion of land occupied hy oats.
The comparison is perhaps the more com])lete, in-
asmuch as the rotation has been inverted in these
years, viz., flax after oats, and oats after flax- each
portion havmg been previously under the same
course of tillage.

I may be allowed to state that my experience on
a smaller scale has satisfied me that, where the
land has been fairly treated (that is, kept clean,
and compensated by manure for the rbduction of
the entire crop of seed and straw), no depreciation
of future crops, whether cereal or radical, can be
detected ; on the contrary, the depth and accuracy
of tillage, and perfect emancipation from weeds,
necessary to the successful cultivation of flax, to
say nothing of its brief occupancy of the ground,
(little more than four months,) and its indepen-
dence of artificial aid to moderately fertile soil, may
be advanced as bases for the opinion, that the wAoZe
crop, seed and fibre, of flax, may be removed with
less detriment to succeeding crops than the wJiole
of any other crop in ordinary culture ; and where
the seed, or its equivalent in the shape of manure,
is, as it ought to be, restored to the land, few will
question the superior efficacy of such a return to
that rendered by the straw alone of any of our
cereal crops.

It is true that the compensatory value of the
seed admits of considerable qualification, according
to the actual crop which has been raised : since, if
flax be sown thin, (say 1 or I5 bushels to the acre,)
it will produce an abundant and well-filled head of
seed, with strong coarse fibre of inferior quality;
while, if the seed have been thickly sown, (say 3
or 3 1 bushels to the acre,) the fibre will be finer,
free from branches, the bolls comparatively rare.

and the seed less plump. Still, if the conclusion
drawn from the experiments of Sir Robert Kane,
and Messrs. Way and Ogston, may be relied on,
the exhaustion of the soil is to be measured rather
by the quantity of seed produced than oi fibre ; and
I am disposed to maintain the proposition, that " if
the whole of the seed (or its equivalent) be restored
to the soil in the shape of manure, a crop of flax
exacts less from land than any grain or root crop
in cultivation."

I will now proceed to state methodically the cir-
cumstances under which my crops of 1850 and
185] were grown, and the comparative expense and
profit per rcre of flax and oats.

The land consists of 10^ acres of medium quality,
upon limestone and whin rock ; its composition is
thus defined by Ur. Anderson : —

Water

Organic matter

Peroxide of iron and alumina . .

Lime

Siliceous matter

Magnesia, potash, soda,

Sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid

3.99
5.02
4.57
0.58
83.81

2.03

100.00

Its altitude is about 150 feet above the level of
the sea, being 17 miles distant from the eastern
coast of Northumberland.

It had previously been farmed upon the five-
shift, and

In 1848 was crojiped with barley, and sown with
clover.

In 1849, hay was cut.

In IS 50, flax to the extent of b\ acres, and oals
of 5 acres, were substituted for the usual rotation
of the second year's grass ; i acre, however, of flax
was sown for the ensuing year's seed, and therefore
the comparison will be made upon a like portion
for each crop— viz., 5 imperial acres.

In October, 1849, the land was drained where
requisite ; and the following extracts from my
farm journal will show the management and pro-
duce in each case : —

2 E

4U

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

1849. Flax— 1850.

Nov. 30.— First ploughing.

1850.
Mar. 27. — Second ploughing and subsoiling,
April 5. — Land harrowed and rolled twice.

— 8. — 2'i bushels hnseed to the acre, sown

broadcast, harrowed in with a com-
mon light harrow, and rolled. The
seed was grown in England in 1849,
from Riga seed imported in 1848-9,
and weighing 5l| lb. per bushel.

— 11. — Weeds and roots of grass removed.

— 21. — Flax brairded.
July 2. — Flax in full bloom.

Aug. 13 to 21. — Crop pulled, bound and set up.

— 30.— Stacked.

Oct., &c. — Rippled ; straw sent to Newcastle to be
steeped and scutched, and the seed
cleaned for market and home use.

Tons. Cwt. Qrs.
Produce per acre : — Raw straw . . 2 11 2

Cwt. Qrs. Lb.
Giving, of Flax . . . . 6 3 14

— Tow . . . . 1 1 14

And of seed, 16 bushels, weighing 56^ lb. per
bushel; chaff, green seed, &c., 64 bushels.

N.B. — A per-centage must be deducted from the
weight of the raw straw, on account of seed and
chaff accidentally mixed with the straw in rippling.

Outlay on Flax Crq/j — 1850.
Rent of 5 acres, tithe-free, at £2 . . £10 0 0
Rates, taxes, and public burthens . . 0 15 0

Seed, 13| bushels, at 10s, , ., 6 17 6

Ploughing,NovemberandDecemberl849 1 10 0
Do. and subsoiling, March 1850 2 10 0

Harrowing and rolling, do. . . 10 0

Sowing, harrowing, and rolling, April do. 0 18 6
Weeding . . . . . , 0 4 6

PuUing, binding, and setting up, August 3 5 0
Stacking, leading, loading seed and straw 1 17 6
Rippling, tying, and untying . . 5 0 9

Total expense .. £33 18 9

(Being per acre, £6 15s. 9d.)

Of which is for cultivation and winning of crop,

£16 6s. 3d. ; (or, per acre, £3 5s. 3d.)

Rate of Wages. — Labourers, Is. 6d. per day.

Women, Is. Od. „
One pair of horses, and man, 5s. Od. „
It has been objected by practical farmers that the
wages here named are too low, and the cost of
ploughing and subsoiling under-stated. 1 can only
say that the wages are those which were actually
paid; and with oats at l6s. per quarter, and hay
at 6d. per stone of 22 lb. (the ruling prices at the
period during which the operations in 1850 were
in progress), 5s. a-day for a pair of horses and a
man, exclusive of charge for wear and tear of im-
plements and stock, appears to me an ample valua-
tion. At any rate, the same tariff is applied to the
comparative expenditure on the oat crop, stated
hereafter, in respect of horses and labourers. Of
course, the reapers have extra wages.

Produce of Flax ■per .4cre— 1850.

Flax, 6 cwt. 3 qrs. 14lb., at 46s. per cwt. £15 16 3
Tow, 1 cwt. 1 qr. 14 lb., at 13s. do - ,►. ^^i

Sold in Newcastle for

Deduct — Conveyance by railway and
delivery in Newcastle of 2 tons 11
cwt. 2 qrs. of flax straw, at 15s.
per ton .. £1 18 7h

And steeping and scutch-
ing do., at 20s. per
cwt. of produce in
clean flax (viz., 6 cwt,
3 qrs. 14 lb.) .. 6 17 6

0 17 10§

£16 14 n

8 16 \h

Nett value of flax and codilla per acre £7 18 0
Deduct expenses of cultivation, &c. 6 15 9

Balanceofprofitperaere,exclusiveofseed £l 2 3

Andseec? — l6bush., atSs.per
bushel (sold), weighing
56| lb. per bushel £6 8 0

Chaff and green seed, 64
bushels, at 3d. . . 0 16 0

Deduct for beet-
ling, lOd. per
bushel . . £0 13 4

Winnowing and

cleaning,6d.do. 0 8 0

£7 4 0

1 1

Nett value of seed

6 2 8

Total nett value of crop per acre, after
paying rent and all expenses, but
exclusive of charge for capital
invested in land and stock . o £7

4 11

1849.

Oats — 1850.

6th Dec. — Land ploughed.

1S50.
26th Mar. — 4 bushels potato oats sown to the acre,
weighing 422 lb .per bushel— harrowed
in and rolled.
I6th Apr. — Oats brairded.
I6th June. — In ear.
22nd Aug. — Reaped.
7th Sept.— Stacked.
Oct., &c.— Thrashed.

Produce per acre :— Grain, 40 | bushels, weighing
42 lb. per bushel; 2 do. weighing 37 do.
Straw, 2 tons, 6 cwt.

It is necessary to recall the fact that, just before
harvest in 1850, a tremendous shake-wind, causing
great loss to cereal crops generally, blew for two
or three days. The oats in question suffered
seriously, while the flax was little injured, being
already in the stook. Hence an apparent dis-
crepancy between the produce of grain and straw
reported. At least one-fourth of the grain was lost.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

416

Outlay on Oat Crop — 1850.
Rent of 5 acres, tithe-free, at £2
Rates, taxes, and public burdens
Seed, 20 bushels, at 2s. 2d. per bushel
Ploughing, Dec, 1849
Sowing, harrowing, and rolling
Reaping, stacking, thrashing, &c. . .

£io 0

0

0 15

0

2 3

4

1 10

0

1 0

0

5 0

5

£20 8 9

(Or per acre, £4 Is. 9d.)
Of which is for cultivation and winning

of crop .. .. .. £7 10 5

(Or per acre, £1 10s. Id.)

Produce of Oats per Acre — 1850.
40^ bushels oats, (42 lb. per bushel,) at

2s. .. .. ..£4 0 6

2 do. light, (37 lb, per bushel,) at 1 s.6d. 0 3 0
46 cwt. straw, at £1 5s. per ton . . 2 17 6

Nett value of oats and straw per acre £7 10
Deduct expenses of cultivation, &c. 4 19

Total nett value of crop per acre, after
paying rent and all expenses, but
exclusive of charge for capital in-
vested in land and stock .. £2 19 3

In 1850, therefore, flax gave a return of
and oats- . .

Showing a difference in favour of flax,
per acre, of . .

4 11
19 3

£4 5 8

I have usually, after flax, taken a crop of turnips,
liming the land after the flax has been removed,
and sowing the turnips with 20 loads of farmyard
manure, and 2^ to 3 cwt. Peruvian guano ; but
this year I determined to ascertain the value of as-
sertions, frequently hazarded, relative to the noxious
influence of flax on succeeding crops, unless coun-
teracted by an unremunerative outlay in manure.

It will be observed that neither portion of land,
appropriated to flax and oats respectively, received
any manure in 1850; in 1851 the cropping was
reversed, flax succeeding oats, and oats flax — the
whole being sown with 2 cwt. Peruvian guano, and
1 cwt. nitrate of soda, to the acre. I anticipated a
material accession of expense in weeding, but on
neither portion was this expectation realised, as,
with the exception of a few thistles, cut by three
women in a day and a half upon the 10 acres, both
crops were perfectly clean.

The preliminary outlay common to both may be
stated thus, per acre : —

Rent and public burdens
Ploughing, (1850)
Manure — viz. 2 cwt. guano
1 cwt, nitrate of soda"

£4 17 0
And to this must be added for flax, (5 acres : —

£2 15 0

. 0 6 0

£l 0

0

0 16

0

— 1 16 0

1851.
March 19. Second ploughing,

deep, but not subsoiled £1
April 4. Sowing (broadcast)
2% bush, per acre — har-
rowing and rolling
„ 13f bush, seed, home
grown, weighing571b., at
8s. per bush.
April 15. Flax brairded.

„ 18. Gathering Stones
June 17. Cutting thistles
Aug.lltolG. Pulling, binding,

and setting up
Sept. 1. Stackingandleading
Oct.&c. Ripphng, tying, and
untying
„ Loading and leading

seed and straw

15 0

I 0 0

5 10 0

0

1

0

0

2

3

3

10

0

1

2

0

11 3

0 U 0

Or per acre

£22 2 6

Flax— 1851.
Total expen diture on crop 1 8 5 1 ,per acre £9
Of which is for cultivation and

winning of crop . . £3 6 6

manure . . . . 116 0

.. rent and pubUc burdens 2 15 0

.. seed .. ..120

Produce of Flax per ^cre— 1851.
Raw flax straw, 2 tons, 4

cwt., 0 qr., sold at £3

10s. per ton . . £7 14 0

Less 12s. 6d. per ton,

freight by rail . . 17 6

Nett value of flax- straw

Clean seed, 15 bush.,
weighing 56 lb., at 7s.
6d. per bush. . . £5 12

hess beetling and clean-
ing, at Is. per bush. 0 15

Chaff' and green seed, 90 bush., at 3d. per
bush, . . . . . . 1

5 6

-£9 5 6

£6 6 6

4 17

acre

£12 6 6
9 5 6

Total produce of crop per
Deduct expenditure

Total nett profit per acre . . £3 10

I would observe here, that the effect of the guano
and nitrate of soda upon the flax crop of 1851 was
imperceptible ; and I believe it to have been a
superfluous and unremunerative expenditure, to
the extent of £1 l6s. per acre. The extra cost in-
curred in rippling and tying in 185], compared
with 1850, arises from the extreme care which I
found to be necessary in the preparation of the
straw for market, in order to satisfy the require-
ments of purchasers, who complained of serious
depreciation in the fibre, in consequence of inatten-

2 E 2

416

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

tion on the part of groweis in separating the seed,

and tying up the sheaves.

Oats— 185].
Outlay on Oat Crop, 1851— (5 Acres.)

March 18. Sowing 5 bush,
common oats per acre,
harrowing and rolling £0 18 6
„ 25 bush, seed, at

2s. 4d. per bush., weigh-
ing 40 lb per bush. 2 18 4

April 16. Oats brairded

June 17. Cutting thistles 0 2 3

Aug. 30, &c. Reaping and

stacking . . . . 4 16 3

Oct.,&c. Thrashing, clean-
ing, &c. .. .. 3 15 11

£12 11 3
Or per acre
Add expense common to both crops

£2 10 3
4 17 0

Total expenditure on oat crop per

acre, 1851 .. .. ..£773

Produce of Oats, 1851— per Acre.

67f bush, oats, weighing 40 J lb., at 2s.

6d. per bush... .. ..£892

shush, light, at ls.6d. per])ush., weigh-
ing 36 lb. per bush. . . . . 0 4 6

48 cwt. straw, at £1 5s. per ton . . 3 0 0

Total produce of crop per acre
Deduct expenditure, do. . .

Total nett profit per acre. .

£11 13 8
7 7 3

£4 6 5

In 1851, therefore, oats gave a return of £4 6 5
and flax . . . . ..310

Showing a difterence in favour of
oats, per acre, of . . . . £1

5 5

Between the 19th August and 2nd September
in 1851, the 5 acres occupied by flax were jjloughed,
harrowed, sown with white mustard, (i bushel to
the acre, at 6s. per bushel,) harrowed in with 1 cwt.
guano, and rolled. On the 23rd October, sheep
were put upon 3 acres of this, being about 6 to 8
inches high, the other 2 acres succeeding.

The 5 acres occupied by oats were ploughed on
17th September, and likewise sown with white mus-
tard ; but though the plant is not generally very
liable to injury by frost, the severe weather exjjeri-
enced in the early part of the past winter has pre-
vented its growth materially, and at no time has
there been a good bite for sheep upon it.

The 10 acres will be limed for turnips in March.

I have endeavoured to confine my narrative to the
particulars required by the Society, in illustration
of the comparative value of flax and other crops ;
and before proceeding to any remarks upon the va-
rious stages of cultivation, and the peculiar manage-
ment of the former, I would observe, that in this

country we may discard altogether any considera-
tion of certain processes, formerly indispensable to
the remunerative growth of flax. The tedious, in-
tricate, and hazardous operations of *' steeping ,"
" draining," and "grassing," incompatible with the
multifarious business of his farm, which demands
the attention of the agriculturist here, have been
entirely superseded by the system of steeping intro-
duced in Ireland by M. Schenck, and now adopted
by Messrs. Clarke, Plummer, & Co., of Newcastkj
and Mr Fergus of Prinlaws, Kirkcaldy ; while the
ulterior preparation of the fibre, (more or less con-
ducted by manual labour, and therefore not un-
suited, in the absence of remunerative employ-
ment, to the rural population of Ireland, but which,
speaking generally, could not in Great Britain pro-
fitably become incorporated with the routine labours
of the farm,) I mean by " bruising " and " scutch-
ing," is likewise more economically perfected by
machinery, and on a larger scale.

It is true that the farmer mir/lit attach steeping-
vats and scutching-mills to his steam-engine, and
thus manufacture his own lint and codilla for the
market, saving possibly a fractional part of the cost,
now directly or indirectly borne by him in the pre-
paration of the fibre, and undoubtedly retaining
many of those properties which are lost in the steep
water and shove.

These, however, after all, are the least important
ingredients in the composition of the flax-plant,
viewed in relation to their value, as restoratives of
fertility abstracted by it : and practically, the ready
disposal of their flax- straw, with little trouble, and
at a fair profit, would, by 99 per cent, of farmers,
be preferred to com.petition with manufacturers in
a field, where experience, and capability, and means,
are entirely with the latter.

The great drawback to the profitable ex-
port of raw straw is of course its bulk, com-
bined with the distance of a market, vary-
ing with the locality of the producer. In
my own case the freight by railway, a distance
(as the crow flies ) of about 60 miles, imposes a loss
of no less than from 27s. 6d. to 35s. per acre, and
it cannot be doubted that, if flax were generally
grown, the erection of steeping and scutching mills
at convenient intervals, either by manufacturers, or
by subscription of agriculturists themselves, would
follow. In the mean time, however, even the heavy
expenditure attendant upon export of the straw fails
to render the crop unremunerative, as compared
with other crops in ordinary cultivation ; and every
diminution of this item of expense enhances the
value of flax in the comparison.

On the other hand, the new system of steeping
enables us to ripen the seed with certainty — an in-
finite advantage over the mode usually adopted in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

417

former times, and of itseJf sufficient to justify
the antipathy of landowners and farmers to the
growth of flax. It is no longer expedient to strip
off the seed from the plant in its green state ; nor is
there any inducement, in order to improve the
quality of the seed, to allow the plant to grow beyond
the time when it is fit for puUing— thus at once un-
necessarily impoverishing the soil and deteriorating
the quality of fibre. On the contrarj', the plant
may now be pulled solely with reference to its per-
fection of fibre ; while, after it has been removed
from the soil, the seed still continues to draw nutri-
ment from the stalk, and fills and swells and ripens
in the stook.

My remarks have been directed solely to the open-
ing created for the culture of flax by the recent im-
provement in the mode of steeping, and consequent
facility for disposal of the straw ; not that I under-
value or discredit the possible results of inventions
by M. Claussen and others, whereby flax is manu-
factured, as well alone as in combination with wool,
silk, and cotton, without the partial decomposition
of its texture by means of fermentation ; but I am
not personally aware that a market exists, from these
sources, for the purchase and sale of raw flax-straw ;
and though it is obvious that their success would at
the same time increase the consumption and im-
prove the price of flax, it is safer to found our cal-
culation upon means and demand, whereon we may
rely for a return for our produce.

It will be seen that, in the statement of profit,
(1851,) the disposal of the flax-straw in its raw state,
at a fixed price per ton, supersedes the process
whereby the nett value of the straw was arrived at
in 1850.

Messrs. Clarke, Plummer, & Co., (whose extensive
business as flax-spinners, combined with the facili-
ties recently acquired by them of steeping
and scutching, on their premises in Newcastle, a
large annual supi)ly of flax straw, would ena-
ble them to consume the produce of many
more acres than are at present sown within
a limited circuit), have this year made arrange-
ments, whereby, })artly by previous inspection of
the growing crop, and partly by sample after it has
been won and rippled, they readily assign a fair
value to the raw straw, to be delivered in Newcastle-
on-Tyne; the seller receiving the price of his pro-
duce one-third in ten days after delivery, and the
other two-thirds at intervals of three monlhs.

A similar proposition was intimated on the part
of Messrs. R. M. Craig & Co., of Prestonholm,
Dalkeith, at the close of the year 1850, stating
their intention, provided they had an assurance
that a certain quantity of land would be devoted to
the culture of flax for two or three years ensuing,
to erect the requisite machinery for steeping and

scutching on the best principle, and to such an ex-
tent as the wants of the district seem to require.
Tiiis ofl'er has not hitherto been met by landown-
ers and farmers in such a manner as to justify
Messrs. Craig and Co. in fulfilling their conditional
pledge. The jiroposal, however, on their part,
proves that an increased production of native flax
would be met by increased facility of its vend, while
the enormous consumption of the article itself, ap-
parently limited only by the supply, forbids any
restraint upon free competition among manufac-
turers.

I do not understand our present enquiry to in-
clude any minute investigation of the theory, that
flax scourges and exhausts the land in comparison
with other crops ; and still less do I propose to
enter upon the discussion of the various modes in
which the seed may be prepared, or the relative
advantage to be derived from its use in feeding
stock ; but I will conclude this paper by a simple
summary of the different stages of cidtivation, with
such remarks as occur to me to be likely to pro-
mote the successful operations of my readers.

1. SoiV.— The soil best adapted to flax is a strong
deep loam, with clay subsoil ; but almost any soil
of medium quaUty will bear a good crop, if pro-
perly prepared : the exceptions are heavy clay, gra-
vel, sand, and peat.

•2. State of Z««(?.— The land should be in good
heart, but not recently manured, (at least with any
substance that will not readily become disintegrated
by tillage), as otherwise the crop will be uneven ;
neither must it be too rich, as the flax is thereby
rendered too luxuriant, and liable to lodgement
before it is fit for i)uUing. If very poor, it might
not be unadvisable to top-dress, before, or at the
time of sowing, with guano or liquid manure, either
of which would l)e safer than solid manure, as re-
gards their effect on the equality of crop, and their
freedom from the seeds of weeds.

In Belgium, it is not unfrequent to apply rape
and other cake, dissolved in urine, at the rate of a
1000 lb. of cake to 2000 gallons per acre, ten days
or a fortnight before sowing. The land should
be thorough-drained, laid flat, and should not have
been limed within three years of the flax crop. I
am aware that exceptions exist to the universality
of the maxim regarding lime; for instance, at Kil-
finane, in the county of Limerick, a good crop was
one year obtained by Misses Gascoigne, although
the land had been thus dressed ; but I am inclined
to think that some special circumstance or condi-
tion of the soil must in such cases attend success.

3. Rotation. — The variety of " courses" in which
flax has been proposed to be grown, is sufficient
evidence that there is some difficulty in selecting
that which is best. On the whole, I believe after

418

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

lea, or after a grain crop succeeding lea, to be its
most suitable place in the rotation.

It ought not to follow potatoes, (though con-
stantly thus in Ireland, on account of the poverty
of every other break), turnips, or any root crop
which has been highly manured, otherwise the
straw will be rank, coarse, and unequal; and, with-
out further experience, I would deprecate its recur-
rence on the same ground at intervals of less than
eight to ten years. At the same time, this precau-
tion is founded as much from observation of the
eflfects of the crop repeated much more frequently
than once in eight years, as from the opinions of
others on the point. It should be followed by
turnips, if succeeding a grain crop ; or, if after lea,
by wheat, oats, or barley ; but in either case a sto-
len crop of white mustard, to be eaten off by sheep,
may intervene. Some sow grass seeds along with
flax, and undoubtedly the general result is a good
take of clover ; but, on the other hand, the flax
straw becomes discoloured at the root, and is hin-
dered in drying— two evils sufficient to discounte-
nance the practice.

4. Preparation of the land.~The main object to
be attained is deep cultivation and a fine tilth, per-
fect pulverisation of the soil to a considerable depth,
and freedom from weeds. The roots of flax will
accommodate themselves to the state of tillage, and
the straw will be in proportionate height to the
depth of the root.

The land should be ploughed enrly in the autumn
and laid flat, again ploughed and subsoiled in the
spring, and ploughed again if necessary ; rolled and
harrowed to eradicate all weeds, and reduce the
surface to a level.

5. Seed. — The seed should be smooth, bright —
rather, but not vert/ plump— of a brownish-red
colour, sweet to the taste, and weighing from 52 to
56 lb. per bushel. That usually sown is imported
from Riga to Holland— especially the former, if
the land be light. English seed, however, raised
from Riga seed imported the previous year, is much
to be preferred, being cheaper and cleaner, and
producing fibre of better quality, than either Dutch
or Russian.

My own practice is to sow as much Riga seed in
each year as will suffice for the succeeding flax'
crop; bu thome-grown seed may be, without fear,
continued another season.

From Riga it is imported in barrels containing
31 bushels, branded as "sowing seed," to distin-
guish it from " rejected sowing seed" and " crush-
ing seed." The price is 10s. to 12s. per bushel in
this country. It is, however, always exceedingly
dirty, containing 2 quarts and upwards of rape,
camalina sativa, and other seeds, in the barrel.
These should be carefully sifted through perforated

zinc, with 7-ound holes, (twelve to the inch.) This
answers much better than the wire gauze in com-
mon use, as the squares in the latter are too con-
tracted for the passage of the refuse seeds, when-
ever their diagonal section is small enough to retain
linseed. Dutch seed is imported in old wine-hogs-
heads containing 7 bushels, but is less to be de-
pended upon than that from Riga. It is, however,
more suited to a clay soil than the latter, and costs
in this country lis. or 12s. per bushel.

I have also grown from Sicilian seed flax of good
quality; and a considerable quantity is imported
from America. The latter, however, is much in-
fested with the seed of the inveterate " flaxdodder,"
to which the weeds noticed above are harmless in
comparison ; — the latter merely disfigure the crop,
and increase the trouble of weeding— the " dodder"
chokes and destroys the flax plant, and, once sown,
defies all eflTorts at eradication during the season.

6. Time of soivinff. — As early in April as the
land can be got into order, and the weather suit —
that is to say, in the absence of frost or much wet.
If the soil be well prepared, and the land in good
condition, the seed will not suffer from drought;
but in ill-prepared ground it will not spring without
rain ; on the other hand, in damp land, it will come
up unevenly.

7. Quantity of seed. — Vor flax crop, from 2| to
34 bushels per imperial acre may be sown, accor-
ding to the quality of fibre desired. When an
average quantity of seed, and an average quality of
fibre are expected, 2j bushels will, in most soils,
answer the purpose ; and the quantity and quality
of seed and fibre will vary inversely in proportion
to a greater or less amount of seed sown.

For flax crop, the seed should invariably be sown
broadcast, as uniformly as possible; much after-
wards depends upon the equality and evenness of
the straw, both in height and strength ; and hence
the objection to ridge-and-fnrrow, which tend to
uneven sowing, uncertain growth, and unequal
pulling.

For future seed, it is matter of little consequence
whether we sow broadcast or in drills, as the object
is to obtain a multitude of well-filled capsules at
the expense of the quality of fibre ; but unless the
land be excessively dirty (in which case flax ought
not to be sown at all) I see no advantage in the
latter mode. The quantity used should be from
li to 1§ bushels per acre.

8. Weeding. — When the plant is about three
inches in height, and as often afterwards as neces-
sary, the weeds should be hand-picked. In Bel-
gium this is done by women and children, who
creep upon all-fours, with coarse clothes round
their knees, to prevent injury to the plants. I have
rarely found weeding more than once in a season

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

419

requisite ; and if a dry, breezy day be selected, and
the workers (divested of their shoes) face the wind,
the plant will speedily recover from the pressure of
their feet. Probably in successive weedings more
care would be required ; but if the weather be at
all favourable, few weeds but thistles can rival the
rapid growth of flax, which outstrips and smothers
all else.

9. Pulling. — If any part of the crop be much
laid, this should be first pulled, even though not
fully ready; and if, unfortunately, from bad sow-
ing, or difference in soil, or any other cause, portions
of the crop are deficient in length, these should be
pulled, and kept apart from the main crop. As
soon as one-half, or rather more than one-half, the
stem turns yellow, and the leaves fade, and when
the fluid in the boll becomes consistent, pulling
may safely commence — that which is grown for
seed being allowed to stand till the last. In no
case must flax be pulled during wet weather.

In puUing, care should be taken to leave any
thistles or other weeds which may have grown with
the flax, and to keep the handfuls even at the root
end. These are laid upon a band, formed of two
lengths of flax, five or six stalks in each, and a
binder ties up the sheaves, which are placed then
in small stooks to dry. The sheaves should be
rather loosely tied, two-thirds of the length from
the root ends, which being spread out, assist the
process of drying, at the same time that they defend
the stook from being blown over. If this, however,
should occur, they ought not to be allowed to lie,
as the colour of the fibre will thus be tarnished,
and the worms are apt to draw the branches of the
plant under ground, and thus defile the straw and
seed.

Bands of straw and rushes, and hemp string,
are also employed for tying the sheaves ; but the
flax bands are most easily obtained, and sustain
little damage in the usage. It is also customary
to set up the flax in " wind-rows," and afterwards
in narrow " wind-stacks," before storing or stack-
ing it in bulk ; but the ordinary plan adopted v/ith
grain crops perfectly answers the purjwse, is more
easily understood by labourers, and takes less time
and trouble than the above, and hence deserves, I
think, the preference. Two binders and ten pullers
should pull and stook an acre in ten hours.

10. Stacking.— In two or three weeks, or longer,
according to the weather, when the sheaves are en-
tirely free from damp, inside and out, and the seed
has become brown and dry, the crop may be stacked.
Logs of wood, and thorns or brambles, should be
placed at the bottom, and the stack erected in an
oblong square, in such a direction as to catch the
prevailing wind on the narrow side of the paralle-
logram, the roots being laid at the outsides, and

each quahty of flax, if more than one, carefully dis-
tinguished. The stack must be thatched, and exa-
mined daily, to insure the discovery of heat, if the
flax should "come" again. If heat occur either
in stook or stack, they must be taken down, and
the sheaves spread out, otherwise the fibre will be
irreparably injured. With ordinary care, however,
and without extraordinary bad weather, this cannot
happen; and in ten days the crop may be consi-
dered out of danger, and remain till opportunity
arises for separating the seed from the straw. It
may be well, however, to examine the stack occa-
sionally, in case it should become infested with
mice, which are more destructive to flax than
rats.

I have seen much dirt created by these vermin,
and much seed destroyed by a small maggot, ap-
parently originating in the foeccs and refuse of their
nests.

n. Separation of seed from the 5/r«w.— Various
methods are employed to separate the seed from
the straw. It was formerly rippled in the green
state, (when the straw had to be steeped in ponds),
and the bolls dried on shelves, or on the barn floor,
or on a cloth in the open air. This, of course, is
no longer likely to be adopted. The seed is also
sometimes thrashed with a flail, the sheaves remain-
ing tied ; but the effect is to entangle the stalks,
and to leave a good deal of chaff and seed in the
sheaf, thus rendering the straw less marketable,
and wasting the seed. Thirdly, the seed is beetled
with mallets, while still upon the straw, whereby
thrashing and crushing the boll are accomplished
at one operation, and the seed merely requires to
be put through a winnowing machine to fit it for
use. But even this plan, though superior to those
already mentioned, leaves the stems encumbered
with chaff and green seed, and ravelled in the sheaf,
so as to diminish its value to the purchaser. The
safest and best way to ensure the production of a
sample which will bring its full worth, is to ripple
off the seed in nearly the same manner as was for-
merly practised with the newly-pulled plant-
great care being taken to use no unnecessary vio-
lence, to the risk of breaking the ends of the stalks
when the bolls are stripped off.

A rippling comb costs 15s., and consists of a
row of iron teeth, IS inches long, half an inch
square, screwed into a metal plate, which is bolted
upon a bench 8 -J feet long. The teeth are a quar-
ter of an inch apart at the bottom, and gradually
taper upwards till the distance between them is
half an inch near the top, whence they are sharpened
to a point.

Two men sit upon the bench, one at each end,
facing each other, alternately drawing handfuls of
flax, (brought to them by women, whose business

420

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

is to untie the sheaves as carefully as possible),
spread out like a fan, briskly through the rippling-
comb once or twice, as may be necessary. The
bench is placed on a barn-cloth, to catch the bolls
as they are stripped off, and the straw is again
carefully tied into bunches or "beats," and carried
away. Two men will ripple from 12 to 18 cwt. of
straw in ten hours.

12. Beetling. — The extraction of the seed from
the boll is then obtained either by " beetling" with
mallets, as before mentioned, or (which is much
quicker and better) by passing the bolls between
two smooth metal rollers, set so as to crush the
bolls without injury to the seed, after which a com-
mon winnowing machine readily separates the latter
from the chafF. The same rollers, set more closely
together, are used for crushing the seed previous
to boiling for food.

We have now gone through the various processes
whereby the seed and fibre are prepared for home
use or for market, and the chaff and green seed
remain for mixing with other ingredients for the
use of stock.

Locality and other circumstances will alter in
some degree the results detailed in the foregoing
narrative, but it is hoped that this has been suffi-
ciently explicit, to enable the practical farmer to
judge, whether, in his own case, the culture of flax
upon a larger or smaller scale be worthy of experi-
ment.

II. — By James FARaunARsoN, Esq., Craig
House, Kincardineshire.

(Premium— The Gold Medal).

The two small farms* to which the following re-
port refers, extend together to 160 acres, are situa-
ted close to the Grampian range of mountains, and
are separated from each other by a stream, which
takes its rise amongst the hills about three miles
north-west of the centre of the farms. The altitude
above the level of the sea varies from 290 to 350
feet ; and although situated ten miles inland, the
harvest is frequently not more than from six to ten
days later than on the sea cost. The exposure is
south and south-eastern ; and the climate is pecu-
liarly salubrious, being dry, with rather a high but
equable temperature.

Besides being intersected by a stream of water,
one of the farms is bounded on the north-cast by a
burn or rivulet. On the higher grounds the soil
is composed of a brown light loam, resting on a
gravelly subsoil, and quite dry. The haugh-lands^
situated on the banks of the streams already referred

* Mill of Galloquhine and West Galloquhine
belong, the former to the Right Hon. the Earl of
Kintore, and the latter to Major Andrew Gammell
of Drumtochty.

to, are composed of alluvial deposits, occasionally
interspersed with patches of gravel.

The rotation of cropping followed is termed the
six-shift, and is as follows, viz. : —

1st year, Oats, after three-year-old lea.

2d ditto. Turnips, potatoes, and flax.

3d ditto. Wheat, barley, here, or oats, and sown

down with grass seeds,
4th ditto. Grass cut for horses, soiling cattle, and

hay.
5th ditto. Pastured with cattle.
6th ditto. Ditto, ditto.

Occasionally the new or first year's grass is pas-
tured, and then cut the second year : this is done
principally with the view of procuring good peren-
nial rye-grass seed.

My attention was first directed to the growing
of flax in 1843, and since then, with few exceptions,
I have had annually a few acres under cultivation ;
but the notes which I find in my farm-book, re-
garding the various experiments and processes
connected with my flax crops, are somewhat im-
perfect, with the exception of crop 1849, to which
this report more particularly refers.

It, however, having of late years become impor-
tant to the agriculturist in this country to obtain
every possible information relative to flax-growing,
I shall state shortly, but as distinctly as I can, my
own practical experience in the matter, and at the
same time endeavour to convey whatever informa-
tion I may have obtained elsewhere.

Flax Crop— 1843.

Extent. — 1 acre 2 roods 20 poles.

Soil. — Deep alluvial, or haugh-land.

Preparations for sowing. — Oats 1842. Stubble
turned over in autumn ; cross-ploughed in spring ;
harrowed and weeds collected ; deep ploughed,
harrowed, and weeds again collected, farther on in
the season; rolled, and again ploughed— light fur-
row ; again harrowed and rolled ; gave no 'ma-
nure.

Sowing, Weeding, and Pulling.

May 12. Riga seed, 7 bushels — cost £2 lis ; co-
vered in about an inch deep with gar-
den rakes, and rolled with hand roller.

May 19. Fine equal braird, and very thick.

June 9. Weeding— most approved method, wo-
men and girls crawling along on all
fours, with baskets, always facing the
wind, so that the plants laid flat may
be again assisted to an upright position.

Aug. 26. Two-thirds pulled — being 106 days
from sowing to pulling.

Aug. 28. Remaining third pulled.

Watering and Grassing.
Aug. 26. Two-thirds steeped.
Sept. 6. Taken out of pond g been 11

days in retting — an d on grass

field.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

421

Oct, 2. Taken off grass— having been 26 days

in bleaching.
Sept. 6. Remaining third steeped.
Sept. 2-2. Taken out of water, and spread on grass

field— having been 16 days in retting.
Dec. 1. Taken off grass -having been GO days

in bleaching.

With the view of obtaining a fine quality of flax,
the seed was not allowed to come to maturity. The
reason of the whole crop not having been put into
the water at the same time, was in consequence of
the pond having been made too small ; and the
result of such mistake was, that while two-thirds
of the flax first steeped turned out very fair in
quality and moderately productive in quantity, the
remaining third, by mismanagement and want of
experience, was almost wholly lost. The value of
the entire produce in clean flax and codilla was £15
12s. 6d. ; while with proper management it would
have been upwards of £20,

Immediately after the flax was pulled, the land
was ploughed, harrowed, and weeds collected, and
the manure — 24 tons well-made farm-yard dung —
which would have been applied to a turnip or other
green crop the preceding spring, was now given,
along with 20 bolls of lime; and on the 13th Sep-
tember, IG days after the flax was pulled, I had the
ground sown with 6 bushels of wheat. Grass
seeds were sown and harrowed in on 8th April
1844 ; on the 29th June following, the wheat was
full in ear; and on the 9th September I reaped an
abundant crop, with the young grasses clean and
looking well.

Flax Croi'— 1844.

Extent. — 2 acres 2 roods 30 poles.

Soil. — Deep alluvial, or haugh-land.

Preparations for solving. — Oats 1843. Plough-
ing and all other operations exactly the same as
those for the flax crop of the previous year.

Sowing, S^-c.

May 9. 10 bushels Riga seed.

May 23. Weeding.

Aug. 30. Pulled— 113 days on ground.

Aug. 31. Steeped.

Sept. 18. Taken out of water, and spread on grass

field — having been 1 8 days in retting.
Oct. 2. Taken off" grass — having been 14 days

in bleaching,

This was a very fair crop, and pretty well ma-
naged up to the rolling and scutching operations ;
but in these there was evidently a want both of
improved machinery and skill in handling the flax.
The following statement will show the additional
cost of this flax crop, compared with that of one
of turnips, and the relative value of the produce : —

Ploughing, and all other operations connected
with the cleaning of the land, up to the time

of sowing, being the same as for a turnip crop,

no charge falls to be stated, £0 0 0

10 bushels Riga linseed, .... £4 0 0
Less value of turnip seed for

2 acres, 2 roods, 30 poles. .056

3 14 6

Extra labour m sowing, raking in, and

hand-rolling, beyond that of a turnip

crop 0 5 0

Expense of weeding, same as hoeing,

&c., of turnips 0 0 0

Pulling — 24 women 1 day, at 8d. each . . 0 16 0
Carrying and putting into pond— 6 men

and 4 horses 1 day 1 0 0

Taking out of water and spreading on

grass 1 2 6

Taking oflf grass, and stacking 0 19 0

Scutching — 15 cwt. flax, at 10s. per cwt. 7 10 0

Extra costs of flax crop £15 7 0

PRODUCE.

15 cwt. of clean flax, at 40s.

per cwt £30 0 0

1 cwt. 14 lb. of fine codilla,

at 20s. per cwt 1 2 6

4 cwt. of coarse ditto, at 2s.

6d. per cwt 0 10 0

31 12 6

Leaving £i6 5 g

to meet rent and expenses of ploughing,
&c. ; and the ordinary value of turnips
in this part of the country being from
£3 to £4 per acre, when consumed on
the farm, take the highest of these
rates — say 2 acres 2 roods 30 poles, at
£4 per acre, amounts to 10 15 0

Leaving £5 10 6

in favour of a flax compared with that of a turnip
crop ; and had the seed of the flax been saved, the
difference would have been increased to £15, or £5
lis. 75d. per acre, while at the same time manure
would have been produced, by feedmg cattle with
the seed and chaff', equivalent, or nearly so, to that
from a turnip crop.

After the flax was pulled and removed from the
ground, the system followed last autumn was again
pursued, and with equal success. The manure
which would have gone to the turnip crop the pre-
vious spring was now applied, together with a
quantity of lime ; and within seven days from the
time the flax was pulled, the same small field was
sown with wheat. On the 7th April following the
grass seeds were sown and harrowed in, on 12th
July the wheat was full in ear, and on 23rd Sep-
tember it was cut down, and turned out an excel-
lent crop.

1845.

Had no flax sown this season.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Flax Crop— 1846.
Extent. — 2 acres 10 poles.

Soil. — Light loam, with gravelly subsoil, incum-
bent on strata of red sandstone.

Preparation. — Oats 1845. Ground prepared as
in former years.

Sowing, S^-c.

May 16. A\ bushels of old Riga seed cost 3'2s.,

and 1 bushel new Dutch seed cost 15s.

July 2. Partly in bloom, and from 12 to IS

inches in length in 47 days from date

of sowing.

July 11. Full in bloom, and very beautiful— 56

days.
Aug. 24. Pulled, having been only three months
and tight days from time of sowing
until the date of pulling.
The seed was allowed to ripen, and, when rip-
pled and cleaned, weight 544 lb. per bushel, and
sold for 57s. 6d. per quarter. The flax was only
retted the following summer, and the amount and
value of the produce turned out similar to crop
1844.

Flax Crop— 1847.

Extent. — 3 acres 19 poles.

Soil. — Almost none — subsoil a poor, hungry, red
clay, nearly as hard as rock.

Preparation. — Ploughed from the heather, on
the side of the Grampians, in 1846, and sown with
oats. Poor crop of corn ; and being close to an
extensive game cover, what was of it was devoured
by hares and rabbits.

Sowing, S)-c.

May 14. 3 bushels Riga seed, and 3 bushels of
my own, being part of the seed saved from last
year's crop.

July 10. Not looking well.

Aug. 25. Pulled and rippled.

Tliis crop turned out much better than anticipated
from appearances in the month of July, and, to a
certain extent, proves that the flax plant will grow
almost in any soil, or, as in the present instance,
almost without a soil at all. My motive for sowing
flax in such a situation, and on such a piece of
ground, was, that if it did not grow I would not
lose much, having given no manure, and, if it did
grow, I was sure that the crop (flax) would not be
eaten up by vermin ; while, on the other hand, I was
well aware that, although I had manured the land,
and succeeded in getting a crop of turnips, I would
have had little trouble in carrying them home.

The value of the seed, bolls, and flax, amounted
to £13 9s. 4d.

After an autumn and a spring ploughing, but
without giving any manure, I had this piece of re-
claimed moor sown, on the 5th of April 1848, with
rj'e and grass seeds, and reaped but an indifferent
crop on the 8 th September following.

Flax Crop— 1848.

Extent. — 1 acre 3 roods 11 poles.

Soil. — Low lying, deep, alluvial haugh-land.

Preparation. — Operations similar to former years.

Sowing, Sfc.
May 6. 3^ bushels fine Riga sowing seed.
July 26. In bloom, and partly beginning to boll.
Aug.28. Pulled — 3 months and 22 days from
date of sowing.

The cold, wet ungenial weather during the latter
end of June, and nearly the whole of the month of
July, prevented the flax being weeded until too far
advanced in the season, and consequently the work
was not only ill performed, but the plant was
slightly injured by being trampled upon when too '
long.

The several processes of pulling, rippling, ret-
ting, bleaching, and miUing, were all gone about as
in previous years; but having consumed both seed
and chaff in the feeding of my own cattle, an exact
account was not kept, and I cannot, therefore, state
the value of this flax crop. I may, however, ob-
serve that adjoining the flax on the same field were
several acres of Swedish turnips, and that the
flax land, after being thoroughly cleaned the
following spring, but without being manured, ex-
cept a dressing of lime from a gas- work, was
sown, on the 12th of May, with Chester
here and grass seeds, and that an equal quantity of
the turnip land was also sown down at the same
time, and with the same kind of seed ; and, farther,
that from the date of sowing until the time of reap-
ing, no perceptible difference whatever was observa-
ble between the crop on the flax land and that after
the Swedish turnips— the produce in grain of both
divisions being, as near as may be, the same.

Flax and Potato Crops — 1849.

The field to which the following remarks more
particularly refer measures 12 J acres, is a light
loam, with gravelly subsoil, incumbent on the red
sandstone formation, quite dry, and what in the
district is generally termed a sharp early soil. The
crop on this field in 1848 was oats after lea; and
in 1849, 5 acres were planted with potatoes, 5 acres
sown with flax, and the remaining 2:^ acres with
Swedish turnips.

I may remark that, in growing flax, I have
always considered it as a green crop, and treated it
as such, with this difference, that in place of giving
the usual manure allowed for a turnip or potato
crop, I preferred reserving it for the wheat or barley
crops the following season ; and so little do I ap-
prove of manuring flax, that had it not been ex-
pressly desired that each portion of the field on
which the experiment was to be made should be
treated exactly alike, I certainly would rather have
followed the system I had adopted in former years,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

^8

After properly cleaning the land, and reducing it
to a fine mould, I never once failed in quickly get-
ting a strong healthy plant ; and although a quantity
of good manure might still have made it stronger,
it would at the same time have tended very much
to encourage the growth of weeds, the small seeds
of which it is difficult wholly to get rid of. If flax
was sown in drills the same as tiu-nips, the case
would then be different, as the weeds could be kept
down in the usual way, by repeated hand and horse
hoeing; but, with a broadcast flax crop, one weed-
ing is all that can be got done ;-— and if the weather
should happen to be wet, even that one weeding
may not be overtaken in time.

Another reason I have for not giving manure to
the flax crop is, that immediately after the flax is
pulled the ground requires to be stirred with the
plough and harrowed, the broken-down flax and
weeds collected and removed from the field ; and
in these operations it is impossible to avoid expos-
ing to the atmosphere part of the unexhausted ma-
nures. The dates of the several ploughings and
other operations connected with the flax and potato
crops, as well as the cost of production, the relative
value of produce, and the nett profit derived from
each of the five-acre divisions, will be found mi-
nutely detailed in the following statements.

FLAX.
No. I.— Statement of Rent, Cost of Culti-

A'ATION, AND VaLUE OF PRODUCE OF FiVE

Acres of Flax, 1849.
1849. Dr.

Jan. 1. Rent of land, £1 10s. per acre £7 10 0
3. Ploughing from stubble, 7s.
per acre . . . . ..1150

Mar.19. Cross ploughing, 7s. per acre 1 15 0
23. Harrowing, weeds collecting,
and carting off from field, 5s. per
acre . . . . ..150

Apr.27. Deeji ploughing, 7s. per acre 1 15 0
30. Harrowing, weeds collecting,
and carting oflT from field, 4s. per
acre . . . . ..100

Mays. 84 loads good well made farm-
yard manure, weighing 17 cwt. 14
lb. each load=to 71 tons 18 cwt.
2 qrs., (or full 14 tons per acre,)
which at 4s. per ton, amounts to
£14 7s. 8d., and of this sum one-
third falls to be charged against
the present crop .. .. 4 15 10

„ Cartmg manure and spreading

on surface, 3s. 6d. per acre .. 0 17 (3

,, Ploughing down manure, 7s.

per acre . . . . . . 115 0

9. Smoothing with garden rakes,
and again collecting weeds . . 0 8 0

10. 12 bushels Riga linseed, 561b.
per bushel, at 7s. 6d. per bushel . . 4 10 0
„ Sowing, covering in with gar-
den rakes, and hand-rolling . . 0 12 0

June 30. Weeding 4| days of 9 wo-

men, at 8d. per day each, £l 7s.,
and 1 man 4^ days, at 2s. per day,
9s. .. .. .. .. £1 16 0

Sept. 3. Pulling, 5 women and 1 man

4 days each . . . . ..114

8. Binding and stooking, 5 wo-
men and 1 man, 2 days . . 0 10 3
28. Carting to mill barn, and
thrashing . . . . ,.194

„ Stacking and thatching .. 0 12 6

1850.

July 17. Watering and grassing . . 4 10 0

„ Carting to watering pond fif-
teen miles, and a like distance of
the flax home from scutching mill 1 5 0
1851.

Mar.29. Miling 20 cwt. 0 qrs. 21 lb.

of flax, at 10s. per cwt. .. 10 1 10

Total cost . . £49 5 0

1849. Cr. Produce.

Nov. 3. Flax bolls, after
beingbruised,ll7bush.,
at 9d. per bushel ..£479
„ 4l| bushels seed,
at 7s. per bushel , . 14 12 3
1851.

Apr. 15. 20 cwt. 0 qrs. 21
lb. clean flax, at 48s.
per cwt. ., . 48 9 0

I cwt. 3 qrs. 22 lb.

fine codilla, at 18s. .. 1 15 1

II cwt. 2 qrs. 24 lb.

coarse codilla, at 3s. .. 1 15 2

70 19 3

Nett profit .. £21 14 3

Or at the rate of £4 6s. lOd. per acre.

POTATOES.

No. II.— -Statement of Rent, Cost of Cul-
tivation, AND Value of Produce of Five
Acres of Potatoes, 1849.
1849. Dr.

Jan. 1. Rent of land, £l 10s. per acre £7 10 0
3. Ploughing from stubble, 7s.
per acre . . . . ..1150

Mar.19. Cross-ploughing, 7s. per acre 1 15 0
23. Harrowing, weeds collecting, and
carting oft' from field, 5s. per acre 15 0

Apr.27. Deep-ploughing, 7s. per acre. . 115 0
30. Harrowing, weedscollecting,and
carting off" from field, 4s. per acre. . ] 0 0

Mayl. Opening drills, 5s. per acre ., 15 0
3. 84 loads good well made farm-
yard manure, weighing 1 7 cwt. 14 lb.
each load=to 71 tons 18 cwt, 2 qrs.,
(or full fourteen tons per acre,) which
at 4s. per ton, amounts to £14 7s. 8d.
—and of this sum, one-third falls to
be charged against the present crop 4 15 10

May 3. Carting manure and spreading

' in drills, 3s. 6d. per acre . . 0 17 6

„ 3 tons 15 cwt. seed potatoes,
Irish cups, at 80s. per ton ..1500

„ Picking and cutting, large sets,
2s. per acre . . , • .,0100

424

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

May 3. Planting, 2s. per acre . . £0 10 0

„ Closing drills, os. per acre . . 15 0

June21. Horse-hoeing, 2s. per acre .. 0 10 0

22. Hand-hoeing, 3s. 3d. per acre 0 16 3

23. Earthing up drills with plough,

2s. per acre . . . . ..0103

July 8. Horse-hoeing, 2s. per acre .. 0 10 0
10. Hand-hoeing, 2s. 3d. per acre 0 II 3
14. Earthing up drills with plough,
3s. 6d. per acre .. .. 0 17 G

Oct. 13. Taking up and storing on the
field in long narrow bins, and cover-
ing with earth, lis. 6d. per acre . . 2 17 6
1850.
Aoril 8. Taking out of bins, picking for
market, and delivering, 21 tons 7
cwt. 3 qrs., at 2s. id. per ton . . 2 4 6

Total cost £48 0

1850. Cr. Produce.

April 8. 21 tons 7 cwt. 3 qrs.
potatoes, full market size,
at 52s. per ton .. £55 12 2

„ 4 tons 9 cwt. 2 qrs.,
undersized potatoes, at
36s. per ton . . ..811

63 13

Nett profit £15 12 11

Or at the rate of £3 2s. 7J. per acre.

It has already been incidentally observed that
the flax jjlant will grow almost in any soil ; at the
same time, it is well known that a deep, moderately
rich loam, with a porous subsoil, not wet, but in-
clined to damp, is the most suitable. The field to
which the details in the preceding tables refer,
would, at one period, and when flax was cultivated
to a greater extent in the locality than now, have
been considered altogether unsuitable; but although
the crop was by no means a heavy one, still it was
moderately good ; and had the value been con-
trasted with that of a turnip in place of a potato
crop, or with the value of a potato crop previous
to the great failure of that root in 1846, the result
would have been widely diff'erent. Instead of 52s.
per ton, the current rate for potatoes then ranged
from 24s. to 40s. per ton, the latter price being con-
sidered much more remunerative than the growing
of turnips.

Against the flax there is also the charge of carry-
ing the strav/ a distance of fifteen miles for the pur-
pose of being watered, and of bringing back the
clean flax and codilla a like distance of fifteen miles
from the scutcliing-mill. Farther, in looking at
the relative value of the produce, the great risk now
attending the growing of potatoes, compared with
flax, must be kept in view ; and, should the risk
happily decrease, or cease altogether, then the value
of that esculent will, as a natural consequence,
become depreciated. Had the potatoes, in place of

52s., only sold for 32s. per ton — that being a very
common rate in this part of the country previous
to 1846— then, m place of a profit on that crop,
there would actually have been a very considerable
loss. But, on the other hand, it may be observed
that the cost of the seed potatoes— 80s. per ton— -
was very high, and that the crop, about five tons
per acre, was comparatively a light one. There
was no disease, but the shaws or stems, while green
and luxuriant, began to decay on the 10th of Sep-
tember, and within five days became quite black,
and the growth of the tuber was consequently
checked, or rather stopped, altogether.

The pulling of the flax occupied from the 3d to
the 8th of September ; and the binding in small
sheaves and setting-up, or stooking, required two
days more. On the 28th of September it was carted
to the thrashing-mill barn ; but in place of rippling
by the hand, the thrashing-machine was applied,
which not only did the work eflfectually, but much
more expeditiously, and at a considerable less cost.
The sheaves were not put through the mill, but
merely held so as to allow the beaters on the drum
to strike off the bolls, and then withdrawn— the
feeding rollers having previously been taken out of
gear. After thrashing, the flax was carefully
handled, and then stacked out until the following
summer, when it was retted, bleached, and scutched
in the usual way.

After the flax was carried, that part of the field
on which it grew was ploughed and harrowed, the
weeds and short broken-down straw collected and
carted off". In the spring following, on the 1 3th of
March, the whole field was ploughed, and seven
days thereafter it was sown with Scotch barley.
Very wet weather succeeded ; and it was not until
the r2th of April that grass seeds could be put in.
The barley was then so fully rooted that it was not
considered advisable to attempt to cover in the grass
seeds in the usual way ; and as a substitute for
harrowing, a piece of a small larch tree was mounted
with furze, and drawn over the field, and then
rolled. During the whole season not the slightest
difterence in the several divisions of the field could
be discerned on the barley crop; in fact, it would
have been impossible for the most experienced judge
to have pointed out where the potato crop left off"
and the flax crop began, or where the flax left off"
and the Swedish turnips commenced. The produce,
four quarters two bushels per acre, was uniform
over the field ; and although the acreage quantity
was small, the quality was very superior, weighing
565 lb. per bushel, and carried the first prize last
spring at the Royal Northern Agricultural Society's
show of seeds at Aberdeen.

Had the manure, however, which was given to
the flax been reserved and apphed to the barley.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

426

that part of the field would no doubt have been
superior to the other divisions, while the il;ix crop
would have been equally good, or nearly so, with-
out manure.

The young grasses, the following spring and
summer, were the finest and most luxuriant ever
seen on the farms, and attracted the attention of
every one who passed the field. The general belief
was, that an extra quantity of seed must have been
sown to produce such a flush of grass, but which
certainly was not the case ; the whole quantity
allowed being only 12 bushels perennial rye-grass,
34 lb. of red, and 23 lb. of white clover seeds, for
\2\ acres ; or at the rate of 1 bushel of rye-grass,
and not quite 5 lb. of clover seeds, per acre.

To the many inquiries made regarding the pro-
cess followed, and the quantities of seed sown, the
short but simple reply was, that the seeds, more by
accident than anything else, had been only slightly
covered, in place of being buried. As stated
throughout this report, and it may be repeated
here, the (jarden rake — the brush-harrow would do
equally well— -was invariably used for covering in
the flax seeds ; and, in the opinion of the writer,
rye-grass and clover, as well as flax and other small
seeds, ought not to be put deeper in the soil than
an inch, or even less.

The covering in the seed of five acres with rakes,
and afterwards rolling the ground by manual labour,
may appear somewhat paradoxical to the notions
entertained regarding the economy of modern hus-
bandry ; but on referring to statement No. I., it
will be found that the whole cost of these operations
—sowing, raking, and rolling — was only twelve
shillings, or at the rate of 2s. 5d. per acre; and
provided wages for seven men for one day, six of
them at Is. Sd. each, and one at 2s. The same
amount of money would only have paid for a man
and a pair of horses for one day and six hours, at
the usual charge of 7s. 6d. per day.

In the rotation, as noted at the beginning of this
report, one crop of oats is taken after three-year-old
lea, then flax, and after it either wheat, barley, or
bare, sown down with grass seeds ; but had the
soil and climate of the farms been suitable, wheat
would in all cases have been preferred to any of the
other cereals. The flax plant, being of rapid growth,
gives ample space in the spring months to have the
ground well cleaned and prepared ; and although
it may be desirable to have the seed sown in the
beginning or middle of April, the first or second
week of May is not too late. "When sown about the
beginning of Maj', and the seed allowed to come to
maturity — and there seems to be no good reason
why it should not always be ripened and saved —
the flax generally is ready for pulling by the end of
August, or at least in the first week of September ;

thus aflfording plenty of time, after removing the
flax from tho ground, for the several operations of
ploughing, cleaning, manuring, ploughing in ma-
nure, and then sowing \vith wheat, all by the middle
or towards the end of September; and, consequently,
giving the wheat after flax a very considerable ad-
vantage over the same crop when sown later on in
the season after potatoes or turnips.

Flax should always be considered a green crop,
and grown on part of the fallow break, so as not to
interfere with the regular rotation, or lessen the
usual quantity of fodder on the farm. The seed
and bolls being used for feeding cattle, become a
substitute for the turnip or potato crop displaced
by that of the flax, and when so used, keep up the
fertility of the soil equally with any other kind of
green crop.

Linseed feeding is also a very valuable auxiliary,
when the turnip crop happens in any way to be de-
ficient, or even when it is abundant. The plan I
have hitherto adopted is, to commence with eight
ounces of linseed meal per day for an ox of forty-
five to fifty stones weight, gradually increasing the
allowance to twelve ounces, and finishing with one
pound. In preparing the mash, we occasionally
boil turnips ; but the water is always allowed to
come to the boil before putting in the linseed meal.
After letting the whole simmer for about ten mi-
nutes, it is ladled into large tubs over layers of barley
or oat chaff, and each layer, as it is put in, is beaten
down with a small rammer. The compound re-
quires twenty four houi's to cool, and is then given
in quantities of about a stable pailful to each animal
at one p.m., and again after the turnip feed at five
p.m. A small quantity of flax chaff or bolls, boiled
and mixed with other chaff or cut straw, makes ex-
cellent and nutritious food, either for stalled cattle
or milk cows. To the horses we give the linseed
ground, the same as for cattle ; but only a few
ounces at a time, mixed with bruised oats, and
steeped in cold water.

In concluding this report, it may be remarked,
that flax was grown more extensively in Scotland
towards the end of last and beginning of the pre-
sent century than now. The value of the fibre was
then much greater ; but being cultivated almost
wholly for the purposes of home manufacture and
home use, very little note was taken of the cost of
the raw material. It was after the introduction of
machinery, in 1795, for the spinning of linen yarns,
and which, in the course of twenty years, almost
entirely superseded spinning by hand, that the cul-
ture of flax began to decrease. During that period
— from 1795 to 1815— grain and cattle had also
attained very high prices, which was another cause
why the farmer became less anxious about growing
flax. But now that the value of corn as well as of

436

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

cattle has become so much depreciated, and, with-
out some great exciting cause, will evidently be
permanently depreciated, it becomes a question of
importance whether the growing of flax, as part of
the rotation on the farm, may not be beneficially
practised.

In the north of Ireland, principally in the Pro-
vince of Ulster, flax-culture is carried to a very
considerable extent, and, under the auspices and
fostering care of the Royal Flax Improvement So-
ciety, is now extending to the southern provinces.
Last season the Irish farmers had almost 140,000
acres under cultivation ; but to supply the wants
of the United Kingdom, 600,000 acres would not
be too much.

The soil and cHmate, in various parts of England
and Ireland, may be slightly superior to that of
Scotland for the culture of flax ; but it has, never-
theless, been clearly shown, by the statements in
the preceding pages, that flax may be profitably cul-
tivated in Scotland, and that, too, without deterio-
rating the fertility of the soil, or in any way dis-
arranging the i-egular rotation of the farm.

Estimating the arable land in Great Britain and
Ireland at 48,000,000 acres, and were only li acres
in every 100 acres sown with flax, the produce
would be 120,000 tons of flax, besides codilla,
4,800,000 bushels of linseed, and 14,400,000
bushels of chaff— representing avalue of £6,500,000 ;
and of this sum at least £4,500,000 would be ex-
pended solely in labour.

The great desiderata, at the present time, in the
growing of flax in this country, are ponds for steep-
ing, and scutching-mills for dressing the flax. Along
with the improvements by draining, the old lint-
pots, as a natural consequence, have disappeared,
and the scutching-mills, one after another, with
very few exceptions, have gradually fallen into
decay.

These wants, however, are likely soon to be sup-
plied— the former by the introduction of the late
Mr. Schenck's patent hot-water system of retting,
and the latter by various recent improvements in
scutching machinery. In Ireland, there are now
eighteen patent steeping establishments in opera-
tion. The Messrs. Marshall of Leeds, Mr. Fergus
of Strathore in Fifeshire, and the Messrs. Baxter,
Dundee, are also all making trial of the new steeping
system. Should it succeed — and, so far as it has
yet been tried, there appears to be no reason to
suppose that it will not— the growing of flax, and
the preparation of the fibre, would then become two
distinct and separate emi)loyments. The farmer
would merely have to grow the flax, take off" the
seed, and sell the straw. In this way, flax-culture
might be easily and profitably carried to a great
extent, giving remunerative employment to a large

number of the population, and at the same time i
not causing the smallest decrease of the produce ^
required for the su'^tenance of the people.

III. — By Mr. Walter Reid, Drem, East
Lothian.

[Premium— The Gold Medal.]

Public attention has been of late much directed
to the subject of flax, and its extended culture has
been advocated as being more remunerative to the
agriculturist than the crops generally grown, from
the prices of the latter having (in the mean time at
least) very considerably declined ; while, from the
increasing demand for the former, its value is
being gradually enhanced.

In Scotland, its cultivation and preparation, for
the uses of the manufacturer, are almost unknown
to the present generation of farmers. It is, how-
ever, no new branch of agriculture, as is shown by
the following extract from a work entitled A Gene-
ral View of East Lothian, by George Buchan Hep-
burn, Esq., of Smeaton, published in 1794 :—

In the year 1727, the Board for the Encourage-
ment of Manufactures and Fisheries was instituted ;
and as the culture of flax was altogether unknown
at that period, the Board had a certain number of
surveyors instructed in the culture of flax, to each
of whom they assigned a district of country, and
by bounties they invited the husbandmen of each
district to cultivate the plant under the direction of
these surveyors, who superintended the business
from the time of sowing the seed, till the flax was
watered and prepared for scutching.

Mr. Spalding, one of those surveyors, who had
charge of this county, invented the water-machine
now (1794) used for the scutching of flax, and
under his direction the Board erected the first ma-
chine of the kind ever known in Great Britain at
Gifford Mill, on the Tweeddale estate, in this county.

It may also be mentioned that to Mr. Cockburn
of Ormiston, known as an agricultural improver,
belongs the honour of having erected the first
bleachfield in Scotland at the village of that name ;
and the first commercial undertaking of the British
Linen Company was at Salton, also in East Lothian,
instituted in 1750 by Andi-ew Fletcher of Salton,
Lord Justice Clerk, a nephew of the patriot, and
first deputy-governor of that Company.*

In 1 746, flax received great attention from the
then Society for the Improvement of Agriculture ;
and the bounties given by the Board of Trustees
were continued till within the last twenty years.

* According to three years' average, ending with
the year 1790, there were of linen made for sale in
Haddingtonshire 26,875 yards, which were valued
at £1866 4s. 2d. sterling. According to the same
average, ending with 1800, there were 27,221 yards,
of the value of £1766 5s. 6d. sterling.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

427

Notwithstanding this encouragement, its cultiva-
tion gradually decreased. The high price of grain
at the beginning of the present century contributed
much to this result. Times have, however,
changed ; ne\y and improved processes have been
discovered for manufacturing the fibre, while the
value of the seed for feeding purposes has become
better known. This has re-directed attention to
the subject. In Ireland, within these few years,
its cultivation has made very considerable advances
— the increase in the number of statute acres sown
being 47,579 in 1851 over 1850. Brighter pros-
pects have been augured for that unhappy country,
from the impetus it is expected to give to its ma-
nufactures, and employment to its starving popula-
tion.

In the spring of 1850, the following experiments
were commenced, in order to ascertain whether it
would be a paying crop in such a district as East
Lothian. Some information, it is hoped, may be
gleaned from a detailed account of it by those who
purpose to engage in its cultivation, while some of
the errors (unavoidable, perhaps) in a first experi-
ment may serve as a beacon to be avoided. For
the trial a piece of ground was selected containing
10 imperial acres, lying in a low and rather damp
situation, about 40 to 50 feet only above the level
of the sea, and at about 4 miles' distance from it.
The soil may be characterised as an alluvial clay,
with a mixture of moss containing under water,
but tile-drained as deeply as practicable. It had
been previously managed in the six-course rotation.
The crop immediately preceding was grass, and
was cut for soiling. To compensate for this, to-
wards the end of autum turnips and oil cake were
eaten on the ground by sheep. It was ploughed
in winter, and in March half of the ground was
sown with oats, the crop for which the whole was
intended. The other 5 acres, reserved for the flax,
were reduced to a fine mould by means of the
harrow and roller. After being rolled flat, they
were sown on the 5th of April with Riga linseed, at
the rate of 10 pecks to the imperial acre. The
seed was covered with the ordinary grass-seed
harrow, though some sort of bush harrow would
have been preferable, as those seeds which were
nearest the surface germinated first. After the
plant was about three inches high, it was carefully
hand -weeded.* About the beginnmg of August it
was pulled, a slight yellowness of the straw giving
indications of its becoming ripe. It was tied into

* " In Scotland, a crop of flax, it is said, has
been sometimes weeded by turning a flock of sheep
at large into the field. They will not taste the
young flax plants, but they will carefully search
for the weeds, which they devour ."—Loudon's
Encyclopaedia of Agriculture.

sheaves about 8 or 9 inches in diameter, stooked in
the same way as corn, and allowed to stand while
dry enough to be carried to the stackyard. In the
course of the winter it was divested of its seed,
which was done by beating it out upon the barn-
floor. The seed v/as cleaned by the ordinary
winnowing machine ; the straw was re-stacked, and
stood till sent to be scutched. The whole expense
and produce of both crops were as follows : —

Expense of Oats per Imperial Acre.

Ploughing,
Seed, 4 bu
Reaping . .
Carrying t(
Thrashing,

harrowing,
shels at 2s.

) stackyard
&c. . .

Produce

anc
3d.

OF

sowing . .
Oat Crop.

£0
0
0
0
0

12
10

8
4
9

6
0
0
0
0

£2

3

6

6 quarters at 18s.. .
171 stones straw at 4d

.

..

£5
2

8

17

0
0

£8 5 0
Deduct expenses 2 3 6

Profit .. £6 16

Expense of Flax Crop per Imperial Acre.

Ploughing

.. £0

9

0

Harrowing, rolling, and sowing

.. 0

7

0

Cost of seed

.. 2

1

4

Hand weeding

.. 0

7

n

Pulhng . .

.. 0

11

81

Carrying to stackyard

.. 0

3

0

Thrashing and cleaning seed

. . 1

0

0

£12

1

0

4

19

2

£7

1

10

6

1

6

« —

—

£4 19 2

Produce of Flax Crop.

18 bushels of seed at 9s. . . . . £8 2 0

32 cwt. of straw, as valued by Mr.

Fergus's manager at £2 per ton. .340
90 bushels of bolls, at 2d. per bushel 0 15 0

Deduct expenses . .

Deduct profit of oats

Leaving . . £1 0 4
in favour of the flax crop.

The seed may appear high at 9s. per bushel, but
part of it was sold for sowing. In April last a
statement something similar to the above was laid
before a meeting of the Haddington Club. The
following remarks were made upon it by Messrs.
Bernard and Koch of Creeganh, near Belfast, the
proprietors of Schenck's patent steeping process,
and which appeared at the time in the North Bri-
tish Agricalturist : —

That this crop must have been grown principally

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

with a view to a large crop of seed — and we suspect
the flax straw to be coarse and branchy ; as in all
experience we have never known so large a propor-
tion of seed to the weight of straw., when the latter
is such as it should be— that is, of moderate thick-
ness, perfectly free from branches, straight, and
not loo thin towards the point. The largest pro-
portion of clean seed we have ever known to the
v/eight of straw is 8 bushels to each ton of straw
(after seeding), or about 6 bushels to a ton weighed
off the field in a dry state. We have to remark,
also, that the cost of seed for sowing should be at
most £1 10s., instead of £2 Is. 4d. It should even
be only 25s. (that is, 2^ bushels at 10s.) In 1850,
flax seed sold at an extraordinary price, reaching
14s. or 15s. per bushel; but a farmer, having every
year a crop of flax, benefits equally under such cir-
cumstances, as his proportion of seed fit for sowing
is proportionally increased in value. Another over-
stated item as regards expense, is the cost of
thrashing and cleaning the seed. No doubt it has
cost £1 per acre in this instance, there not being
proper implements ; but v/ith a seeding-machine
and a dressing-machine, fitted expressly for the
purpose, the cost is under (3d. per bushel of cleaned
seed. On 18 bushels, the cost should then stand
at 9s., instead of 20s.

Without venturing to speak decidedly as to how
far the above remarks are correct, there can be no
doubt but a large crop of seed must, to a certain
extent, injure the fineness of the fibre ; and seeing
its value varies from £30 to £100 per ton and up-
wards, it must be a matter of calculation, only to
be obtained after repeated trial, how far the one
object ought to be sacrificed for the other. Instead
of Mr. Fergus's offer of £2 per ton for the thrashed
straw being accepted, which, after deducting the
cost of carriage, was less than its value for making
manure, it was sent to the factory lately erected by
him near Kirkaldy, for the pur])ose of steeping flax
under Schenck's hot-water process.

Mr. Wilson, the manager there, kindly under-
took some experiments with it. The straw,
amounting to 6 tons, was divided into four parcels,
and each was steeped under a diflferent method.
No. 1 was retted on the old plan, in cold water;
No. 2 in hot water ; No. 3 in cold and then in hot
water; and No. 4 twice in hot water. The loss in
weight, after being steeped twice in hot, was 5 per
cent, above that steeped in cold water alone. This
slight loss, however, is far more than compensated
by its increased yield. After being scutched. No.
1 yielded 7-90 per cent, of dressed flax ; No. 2, 9.20 ;
No. 3, 12.29; and No. 4, 12.96,— or very nearly
double that done in cold water. Their values were
respectively £34, £35, £38, and £45 per ton.

Thefollowing tablewas supplied by Mr. Wilson :—

Received of straw. Produce

tons 6 15 3 0 tons 6 11 14

Waste, 3.3 per cent, or 0 3 124

Received for vats,

tons 19 0 18 — once retting cold 13 12
1 18 1 14— „ hot 1 9 1 27

1 9 0 0— twice cold & hot 1 2 0 25
1 14 3 0— twice hot & hot 1 6 2 27
Loss on once cold 20.2 per cent.
Do. on once hot .. 23.1 „
Do. on twice cold and

hot . . . . 23.3 „

Do on twice hot and

hot .. .. 25.0 „

ONCE COLD.

Received for scutching Produce

tons 13 12 tons 0 1 3 12

Flax yield, 7.90 per cent.

ONCE HOT.

tons 1 9 1 27 tons 0 2 2 24

Flax yield, 9.20 per cent.

TWICE COLD AND COLD

tons 1 2 0 25 tons 0 2 2 6

Flax yield, 12,29 per cent.

TWICE HOT AND HOT.

tons 1 6 2 27 tons 0 3 1 24

Flax yield, 12. 96 per cent.

Total tow — ton 0 2 2 20.

Yield, 2.6 per cent.

On looking at this, one cannot help being struck
with the superiority of Schenck's process over the
old plan of retting in cold water. The increased
and constant temperature of from 80 deg. to 90
deg. imparts a softness to the fibre, and a fineness
to the colour, which, in some instances, increases
the value of the one over the other as much as
sixty per cent.

The whole produce of this flax crop, after the
above experiments were completed, amounted to
£2l lis. Sd., while Mr. Fergus's account for steep-
ing and scutching amounted to £21 14s. Sd.; so
that I lost not only the whole straw, but 3s. besides.
Had the straw, however, been prepared according
to plan No. 4 — namely, twice in hot water— its
value would have been something near what Mr.
Wilson put upon it.

After the flax and oats were removed from the
ground in the autumn of 1 S40, the part on which
the flax was grown appeared considerably cleaner
than the other. At this time the whole received
twenty-five cart-loads of farmyard manure per acre.
In spring it was drilled up in the ordinary manner
for beans, which were sown at the rate of four
bushels per acre. During summer, the greater
luxuriance of those upon the flax ground could be
seen at a very considerable distance. They are
now thrashed, and the results will probably surprise
those who consider flax as an exhausting crop.
The produce and value per imperial acre are as
follows : —

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

429

From the growid after Oats.

3 quarters 1 bushel, weighing 63^ lb.

per bushel, at 30s. 6d. per qr. £5 4 3^

16 1 stones straw, at 4d. .. .. 2 13 8

7 17 ii;

From the ground after Flax.

3 quarters 7 bushels, weighing 64j lb.

per bushel, at 32s. per qr. ..640

217 stones straw, at 4d, .. .. 3 12 4

0 16 4
Difference of value in favour of the crop

after flax: .. .. ., £l 18 4i

The beans were sold in Haddington market, and
brought the prices attached to them. Few will be
inchned to value the straw under 4d. a stone : many
attach a higher value to it, which would make the
contrast still greater.

In districts where the turnip husbandry can be
fully can-ied out, ample employment can generally

be found for the whole of the agricultural popula-
tion. The weeding of the flax would interfere with
the operations connected with this crop. Under
such circumstances, its cultivation ought to be
entered into with caution. There are situations,
however, where the case is very diflferent ; and
when it is kept in view that the expenses of raising
flax, such as weeding, pulling, and arranging it for
the different processes, preparatory to its being
manufactured, far exceed that of any other crop,
its adoption there may perhaps be more strongly
recommended, giving employment of aless laborious
nature than the ordinary operations of the farm.
As, even in this instance, had the straw been sold,
a small profit would have been obtained, surely, in
less favoured districts, the erection of such works
as Mr. Fergus's, and the growth of an article which
the country imports, in flax seed and oilcakes, to
the extent of between seven and eight millions
annually, are objects deserving every encourage-
ment and support.

AGRICULTURAL BIOGRAPHY,

(Continued from page 310^.

XXXVII.-Ray, 1662.
John Ray. or AVray, was born at Black Notley,
near Braintree, in Essex, on November 29, 1628.
He was begun in education at Braintree School,
and removed to Trinity College, Cambridge, where
he was chosen Greek Lecturer, Mathematical Lec-
turer, and Humanity Reader, and acquired much
reputation in languages, polite literature, and the
sciences. His favourite study, and what consti-
tuted the chief business of his life, was the history
of nature, and the works of God. In order to
promote the study of botan}^, he published in 1660
the " Catalogue of the Cambridge Plants ;" and
the reception of the work encouraged his pro-
ceeding. In 1670 he published his " Catalogue of
the English Plants." After various sojournings
of abode, he retired to his native place of Black
Notley, where he died in January, 1705, in the
seventy-seventh year of his age. He published
various works on natural history, in physiological
botany, insects, and molluscous animals. His
botanical works, or " Methodus Plantarum Nova,"
and " Historia Plantarum," led the way to the
systematic construction of botany, and laid the
foundation of British arrangements. The essays
on sap, leaves, and roots, published separately,
were very valuable. Ray published several theo-
logical works, and " Three Physico-Theological
Discourses, concerning the Chaos, Deluge, and
Pis§plution of the World," 1 692, 8vo, The author

was ever noted for preaching solid and usefui
divinity, instead of the enthusiastic stuff which the
sermons of that time were generally filled with.
Natural history sobered his fancy.

Ray is always very deservedly included in the
lists of authors who have benefited the general de-
partment of natural philosophy, of which agricul-
ture is a part. His labours were most valuable
in relation to plants and animals, which two
branches form a large connection with the culti-
vation of the earth. An indirect bearing has often
produced much greater results than an unscientific
application, which wanted the soundness of bass
that must be derived from the preconceived theory.
Ray did not prescribe any way or mode of better
cultivation of the soil; but he illustrated the articles
which are the fruits of culture, and thereby em-
bellished the art in the most important parts of its
constitution. His name is ever mentioned as a
very eminent philosopher and natural historian.

XXXVIIL— Atwell, 1662.
George Atwell wrote "The Faithful Surveyor,
discovering divers errors in land-measuring, "
Camb. foho, 1662. The book contains 143 pages
of quarto size, and is bound in a volume of sur-
veying, dated 1682, " Norden's Dialogue" is
included. Attwell was a teacher of mathematics
at Cambridge; recommends the measuring of land
by the chain only, and introduces a new instru'

430

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

orient, called a Pandorini, to supjjlant the plane-
table, theodolite, and quadrant circumfeientor,
and any other observing instrument. The matter
is very scientifically handled ; and of all the
writers on surveying of land up to this date, the
author seems to have been the most complete
master of the subject, and to have seen it most
clearly.

XXXIX.— DUGDALE, 1662.
Sir William Dugdale, an emment English anti-
quary and historian, was the only son of John
Dugdale, of Shirtoke, near Coleshill, in Warwick-
shire, gent., and born there September 12, 1605.
He received the usual grammar-school education
at Coventry, and lived with his father, who initiated
him into the study of antiquities. His position in
society pushed him into the acquaintance of Ilatton
and Spelman, who procured for him an appoint-
ment and residence in the Herald's Office. He
was very dihgent in studying and copying the
antiquities that came within his reach; and being
removed to Oxford, a further opportunity was
aflforded him of pursuing his occupation. He
compounded his estate with the victorious party
against the king, and returned to London. He
laboured most assiduously with Dodsworth in
collecting and methodizing the materials of his
great work,' "Monasticon Anglicanura," v/hich
appeared in 1665, and the third v^olume in 1673.
Many eminent men were engaged in this work, and
great additions were subsequently made to it by
Sir John Stephens, gent. "The antiquities of
Warwickshire" was printed at the author's charge,
and while it was being done, the materials were col-
lected for "The History of St. Paul's Cathedral,
in London," 1668, foho. Upon the Restoration,
Dugdale was made Norrey King at Arms ; and in
1662 he pubhshed "The history of iuibanking and
draining of divers fens and marshes both in foreign
parts, and in this kingdom, and of the improve-
ments thereby, extracted from records, manuscripts,
and other authentic testimonies," adorned with
sundry maps, &c. The author completed the
second volume of " Sir Henry Spelman's Councils"
by the instigation of Archbishop Sheldon and Lord
Clarendon. He followed with several other works,
as " Origines Judiciales," and " The baronage of
England." " A short view of the late troubles in
England," and his last work, " A perfect copy of
all the summons of the nobility to the great coun-
cils and parliaments of this realm from the 49th of
King Henry III. until these present times," 16S5,
foho. He was Garter Principal King at Arms, and
received the honour of knighthood, much against
his will on account of the smallness of his estate.
Dugdale died in 1636, in the eighty-first year of
his agcj and was interred, at Shirtoke, in a littls

vault of his own plan and erection. His posterity
yet live in the county of Warwick.

The history of embanking and draining was
written at the request of Lord Gorges, Sir John
Manham, and other?, who were adventurers in
draining the great level in the counties of Cam-
bridge, Huntingdon, Northampton, Norfolk, and
Suffolk. Ten short chapters are devoted to the
account of the ancient embankments and water
channels, from the first records of the ancient
Egyptians to the earliest notice of such perform-
ances in Britain, where maps are delineated in
order to show the grounds and the channels that
were directed. The Romney Marsh is first de-
scribed and mapped, and said to be the work of the
Rom.ans, in the recovery from inundation by the
sea. East Kent follows in the trench of North-
broke to Sandv/ich, and the marshes of Monketone
and Menstre. Then come the marshes on the
borders of the river Thames, from London to
Greenwich, and to the mouth of the estuary. The
low grounds in Surrey are then described, as about
Bermondsey and Southvvark. Then follow Mid-
dlesex and Essex, Shadwell and Stebenhethe ; the
marshes in the suburbs of London — in Bishops-
gate, Finsbury, and Cripplegate. The low grounds
around the mouth of the river Lea are then men-
tioned, and followed by the marshes in the county
of Sussex, as at Pychandesbroke and Kechenbaune,
and elsewhere. Somersetshire is next travelled
into, and the marshes below Wells and Glaston-
bury are particularized. A map is given of Sedge-
moor and the adjacent places. The low grounds
are mentioned between Bristol and Gloucester,
that lie along the banks of the Severne. From
Gloucestershire the author jumps into Yorkshire,
and finds the marshes near the rivers Ouse, Trent,
and Humber. Holderness is reached, and the
low grounds towards Hull and the sea-coast of the
Humber, and between that river and Lambflete.
Something is noticed in Derbyshire, near the rivers
Derv.'ent and Trent. Lincolnshire is then reached,
which contains the great fennes, which fill the re-
maining part of the book. The part of the marshes
in each county has a separate notice, and maps
accompany each division of fens that is described.
The whole volume fills 424 folio pages.

Dugdale does not advance any opinion of the
works that had been done ; nor does he state any
better system that might have been, or could be
yet adopted. He merely relates the institution of
the proceedings, the appointment of commissions,
the powers granted, and the results obtained. In
these views, no more useful book had ever ap-
peared.

XL.— Strangehopes, 1662.

Samuel Strangehopes wrote "Bcok of know-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

431

ledge, in three parts — concerning astrology, physic,
and husbandry," London, 1662, octavo. This
notice occurs in the " Bibliotheca Britannica," but
is not found in any other catalogue of books and
authors. The loss may not be any way regretted,
as the connection in the title does not betoken any
intelligence on practical agriculture, but only some
mention of it along with physic and astrology.

XLl. — Yarranton, 1663.

Andrew Yarranton, of Ashley, in the county of
Worcester, gent., wrote " The great improvement
of lands by clover," London, octavo, 1663 ; " Eng-
land's improvement by sea and land — to outdo the
Dutch without fighting — to pay debts without
money — to set to work all the poor in England
with the growth of our own lands — to prevent un-
necessary suits in law, with the benefit of a volun-
tary register — directions where vast quantities of
timber may be had for the building of ships, with
the advantages of making the great rivers of Eng-
land navigable — rules to prevent fires in London,
and other great cities, with directions how the
several companies of handicraftsmen in London
may always have cheap bread," in two parts.
London, 1677, quarto. Recommends the extension
of agriculture.

The work on clover fills 46 pages of small duo-
decimo ; and the contents are : —

1. The reason why some that have used clover
have not found profit by it.

2. Clover doth not impoverish, but improves the
land.

3. What are the fittest lands to sow clover
upon ?

4. The profit that is to be raised by this hus-
bandry.

5. When, how much, and how to sow clover-
seed.

6. Directions for mowing, making, and using
the hay.

7. What cattle are fittest to graze it with.

8. The author's readiness to give any man fur-
ther satisfaction, and to prove the truth of what he
affirmeth by visible ex])eriments.

9. Where the seed that is good and new may be
had.

The author ascribes the failure in growing clo-
vers to the very just cause of ignorance in the
management, the unprepared state of the ground,
and too little seed being sown. He avers that
clover improves land by the corruption of super-
fluous parts of the plant, by the root cleaving
the soil, and by the shade of the leaves beneath
which the moisture is retained, and an incipient
decomposition is encouraged, which mellows the
surface of the ground, and provides food for future

crops. These opinions have not been yet super-
seded. The author thinks dry gravelly lands are
not agreeable to the clover plant, especially if it
has been well limed before. He reckons six acres
of clover, equal to thirty acres of natural grass in
the maintenance of cattle. He urges the use of
lime' to encourage clover, and reckons £3 per acre
to be the worth of clover to graze or mow. The
month of March is recommended for the sowing of
clover, that the plants may be rooted before the
drought catch it, and the quantity in 12lbs. The
author had sown clover without grain in April and
August, and preferred the latter month. It is sown
by hand, like corn. The hay is made as novv-a-
days, by turning the swathes gently, and not
shaking out; and it is recommended to mix the
ricks of damp clovers with barley and oaten straw,
which v/ill make good fodder. Clover lands, after
being mown, are much benefited by being watered
for the second crop, if the application be possible.
Clover is good food for all grazing animals ; cattle
are cautiously put to eat it, in short spaces of time,
for three following days. Horses are introduced
to it without danger ; and also swine at any time of
the year. Geese and turkeys are also fed upon
clover. DriUing and hoeing of the plant is men-
tioned, but not strenuously advocated. The author
names the shops of seeds where the sound article
can be got.

This little work is the most truly practical
matter that had appeared in the agricultural world
to the time when it was written. It is divested of
all extrinsic and adventitious notices, with which
the writers of those times swelled their works, and
rendered them very perplexed and unintelligible.
It contains more value in 46 pages than in many
hundreds of contemporary publications.

" England's improvement by sea and land "
forms a small quarto volume of 212 pages, of
which the contents have been already mentioned in
quoting the work. The improvements are done by
general means, as digging canals, making rivers
navigable, making roads, and the encouragement
of fisheries by erecting fishing cities, to be free of
all taxes, customs, and imports. Maps are given
containing designs of the cities through which
canals carry ships to any part of the towns. Illus-
trations are always given of the author's sugges-
tions.

Of himself, he says, he was apprentice to a linen-
draper \\hen King Charles II. was born, and
continued some years in the trade ; but the shop
being too narrow and short for his large mind, he
took leave of his master, and said nothing. He
lived a country life for some years, was a soldier in
the late wars, and had the honour and misfortune
to lodge and dislodge an armv. In the year 1652

2 F 2

433

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

he entered upon some iron-works, and plied for
several years. He surveyed and made navigable
the three great rivers of England ; studied the
great weakness of lands that are constantly cropped,
and found the reason of its defection by practick
and theorick, and applied the remedy by putting
out the book on improvements by clover, by which
very much land has been doubled in value. He
entreats every opposition to his projects to be sent
him, when he will take care that a civil answer
shall be returned ; and among the heads put forth
for discussion with the person who finds the fault
is one — how to employ six thousand young lawyers
and three thousand priests, for the good of the
public and of mankind, who now have neither prac-
tice nor cure of souls. The writer only stated the
point, but did not discuss it— a matter of regret,
as to have read his disposal of what he thought a
useless incubus on society, would be both curious
and entertaining. He maintains that he presents
his readers with facts, or what with much ease may
be made facts, and entreats that no hastiness of
judgment be allowed to condemn his proposals, till
the subject be well weighed in all the points and
bearing.

Nothing is known beyond the above notice of
his own writing, of the lineage, social existence,
and employed life of Andrew Yarranton, who seems
to have been a person of very extensive views, and
an enlarged comprehension.

XLH.— FoRSTER, 1664.

John Forster, gent., wrote " England's happiness
increased, or a sure remedy against all succeeding
dear years, by a plantation of roots called potatoes."
The book is dedicated to Charles H., and the
author dates from Harslop, in Bucks. Directions
are given in 30 octavo pages how to make with
potatoes, bread, paste, puddings, custards, cheese-
cakes, and cakes. Then follow the utilities of
potatoes in six divisions, and an appendix touching
the propagation of potatoes by seeds of the apple.
The first utility goes to the king, who may derive a
revenue of £50,000 yearly, by making plantations
of potatoes. The second utihty is the transporta-
tion of corn, which will be saved from home con-
sumption by the use of potatoes. The third utility
arises from the cheapness of corn by the use of
potatoes. The fourth utility maintains the poor
families cheaply. The fifth utility supports cheaply
the poor of the parishes. The sixth and last utility
is the general use of the root among all sorts of
people. The author directs the berries of the
potato to be gathered in October, set into the
ground, and will that year yield roots, which are
again planted in the usual way. Forster wrote
.very sensibly.

XLHI.— DoDSON, 1665.
Colonel William Dodson wrote " The design for
the perfect draining of the great level of the fens,
called Bedford Level, as it was delivered to the
honourable corporation for the draining of the said
great level, 4th June, 1664." The book fills 40
pages of medium quarto, and a map is made to
show the proposed channels to carry away the
waters, and prevent the hurtful stagnation. The
estimated cost is £28,000. It is not known what
attention the author received of his design ; or if
he was ever employed in any execution of it : his
name does not appear in any other place or oc-
casion.

XLIV.— WORMDGE, 1669.

Little is known of the history of John Worlidge
or Woolridge, of Petersfield, Hampshire. He
wrote several works on agriculture, gardening,
and on bees, of which the chief are the " Systema
Agriculturse," the mystery of husbandry dis-
cerned and laid open, 1669, '77, '81, folio; 1687,
1716, 8vo. Treatise on husbandry, 1675, folio.
The complete system of husbandry and garden-
ing forms, an 8vo. volume of 504 pages, 278 folio,
in 15 chapters as follows; — Of husbandry and
improvements in general; of the great benefits
and advantages of enclosing lands ; of meadow and
pasture lands ; of arable lands and tillage ; of ma-
nuring, dunging, and soiling of land ; of the bene-
fit in raising, planting, and propagating all sorts
of timber trees ; of fruit trees ; of tillage of herbs
in gardens, and roots, and fruits ; of beasts, fowls,
and insects ; of injuries to the husbandman ; of in-
struments, tools, and engines; of fowling, and fish-
ing; KalendariumRusticum, or monthly directions
to the farmer; prognosticks of the weather; dic-
tionary of rustic terms.

This book contains much more useful and
enlightened observations than any which had pre-
viously appeared. The author warmly recommended
clover, lucerne, sainfoin, and ray grass, in the first
notice of the plant, and seems to have been well
acquainted with the irrigation of meadows, where
his directions are very practical and sensible. He
knew the value of chalk on sandy lands, and of
ashes to sour pastures. He suggests the drilling of
corn, and delineated a machine for the purpose, and
also to deposit along with the seed any fine matters
that will be manures, to promote vegetation. He
differs from modern practice, in dropping the ma-
nure above the seed, in place of underneath the
grains. The seed of grain crops is advised to be
often changed from different aspects, and to steep
corn in brines of nitre and salt and in urine, and pre-
scribes a steep of sheep's dung, half bushel, salt-
petre ^Ib., common salt lib., boiled together for ten
minutes in twenty quarts of water. He favoured

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

/ \,vi'>^-^-^ii <;.. '^i^s

tlie paring and burning of lands, and felt the value
of earthy manures, and considered that calcareous
sands are useful as litter for cow sheds and sheep
cots.

The value of the excrements of fowls and pigeons
is raised very high, and also of bones of every kind.
Peat, sawdust and tanner's refuse, are to be mixed
with dung-heaps — a practice not yet fully used.
Woolridge says, "The well preparing of dung
mixed is a piece of husbandry not to be slighted,
on which point of good or ill-husbandry depends
the rise or fall of the rents or values of many farms
in this kingdom.

The writers of those days were farthest behind
in the knowledge of animals. Points of quality
or symmetry had not any existence among them,
and when any mention happens to be made, the
commendations are precisely what are now avoided.
Large bones and lowness of paunch were objects
of merit in those times, when beeving had obtained
little notice, and random observations directed the
practice of breeding animals. But at that time
the advantages did not exist which favoured the
modern breeders of cattle ; green crops were un-
known, and the demands of consumption had not
begun to operate. The views of Worlidge on trees
and plantations were much more enlightened, and
he ridicules the objection of making orchards, that
the fruit would be stolen ; so land must not be
improved nor any thing done, or the clergy would
claim the tenth part of the produce. The nine
parts must be wanted because the tenth would go
away.

Of ploughs, the author mentions the double-
wheeled, or Hertfordshire plough, the turn-wrest or
Kent plough, " which surpasseth for weight and
clumsiness," the one-wheeled plough, the plain-
plough, and the trenching-plough.

Worledge took a scientific view of agriculture,
and very correctly in the philosophy of its own
art, and not in connection with any accessory
science, with which the consorting of it may be
difficult, if not wholly impossible. The philosophy
he propounds is, no doubt, very exposed to many
grave and serious blunders, which must be charged
to the times, and not to the man who seems to have
entertained ideas that were much in advance of his
age. His mind was not cleared of the mystical
universal spirit, or spirit of mercury and salt, which,
with similar ideas, had infested the thoughts of
every writer on physical subjects. But with all its
faults, the book is undoubtedly a very wide step
in the advancement of agriculture, and shows the
rapid progress of reformations of every kind.

XLV.— Blagrave, 1669.
Weston has stated that Samuel Blagrave wrote

the Epitome of Husbandry, In l'2ftio;, • London,
1669 ; and some others sa^ it was written by Bil-
lingsby. No author of eithername has got a book
of that title attached to it in neitlier of the libra-
ries of the British Museum, or in the Blbliotheca
Britannica. The name is here entered on the sole
authority of Weston.

XLVI.— Smith, 16/0.

John Smith, Gent., wrote England's Im-
provements Revived by Husbandry and Trade, in
six books ; of several ways of improving all sorts
of waste and barren grounds, with the seeds and
plants that thrive best therein; the planting of
timber trees and underwoods, and for gardens and
orchard, the kitchen garden, and physic hei-bs.
Also the new way of ordering cattle, sheep, cows,
deer, conies, fowles, bees, pigeons, fish, and aviaries.
Many remarks never before given. The work is
dedicated to Lord Browker, the first President of
the Royal Society, and the M.S. had been submit-
ted to several members of the society for their
opinion; among others to Evelyn, who sent the
author the following letter in reply, —

"Mr. Smith, — I have perused your accurate
treatise, entitled, England's Improvements Revived,
and find it so industriously performed, and in so
useful a method, that I cannot but cheerfully give
my approbation. I have myself been engaged in
the same argument, by command from the Royal
Society, which has now been some time at the
printer's, towards a second edition; and shall therein
not fail to publish due encomiums of your work
before it comes abroad. For though in some par-
ticulars we may happen to treat the same subject,
yet it is without the least prejudice to each other,
and I am glad to find my own conceptions fortified
by a person of so great a talent and experience
beyond me. Cedat ergo in bonum publicum.

" J. Evelyn."

" Saye's Court, 10 Feb., 1668."

The book was published by the expense of sub-
scribers, and contains 2/0 pages of medium quarto*
The matter is very miscellaneous, and most sub-
jects are very passingly treated. Sheep and cattle
have short notices ; a cow must yield at least four
gallons of milk every day, and have a fresh pasture
every week. The author's attention was chiefly
occupied with trees, as were most writers of these
times. The work is hardly an agricultural book,
but is always mentioned in the list of rural writers,
and so is here included.

XLVII.— Reeve, 1670.

Gabriel Reeve of Hackney, wrote, "Directions left
by a gentleman to his sons, for the improvement
of barren and heathy lands in England and Wales."

43:^

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The author says he had practised husbandry for
thirty years, and had improved much land ; and
then went into Brabant and Flanders, where he
saw a new lesson to be learned. He mentions
largely clover and turnips, and Devonshiring (paring
and burning) of land, which was done for £1 an
acre. Clay, loam, and marl, are recommended as
manures, and to plough deeply, and to dung well.
The author seems to have known fully the practice
of agriculture as done in his time, and gives us the
benefits of the clover and turnip cultivation. The
essay forms part of a volume of agricultural tracts,
some of which have the author's names, and others
are anonymous.

XLVHI.— Pettus, 1671.
Weston has related that " Sir John Pettus "
wrote "Saint Foine improved," in 4to, and in
1674. He mentions another work, " History,
laws, and places, of the chief mines and mineral
works in England, Wales, &c.," in folio. This
last work, and others on different subjects, by Sir
John Pettus, are found in the " Bibliotheca Britan-
nica " and the library of the British Museum ; but
the first-mentioned work on Sainfoin is nowhere
discovered. Pettus wrote much on mines and
metallurgy; and also on politico-theology. He
had been a person of some standing in society ;
though a doubt may be expressed if the work on
sainfoin had been his production, as no other
authority is found to corroborate the statement of
Weston.

XLIX. — A Person Lately Deceased, 1674.
This assumed name as an author wrote " St.
Foine improved : a discourse showing the utility
and benefit which England hath and may receive
by the grasse called St. Foine ; and answering to
objections urged against it." London, 4to, 1674.
This work occupies twenty pages of the small
quarto size, explaining the great merits of the
grass, the soils most favourable for its growth,
and the cultivation which it requires. Modern
experience could not at this day give any better
directions in the use of sainfoin, which seems to
have been as well known in those times as at the
present day.

L.— J. B.Gent, 1675.

This name wrote "The epitome of the art of
husbandry," comprising all necessary directions
for the improvements of it, viz. : plowing, sowing,
grafting, gardening, ordering of flowers, herbs ;
directions for the use of the angle ; ordering of
bees ; together with the gentleman's heroick exer-
cise ; discoursing of horses, their nature and use,
with their diseases and remedies ; of oxen, cows,
calves, sheep, hogs, with the manner of ordering
them, their diseases, and remedies.

Of the nature of marie; the best way of planting
clover grass, hops, saffron, liquorice, hemp, &c.

To which is annexed, by way of an appendix, a
new method of planting fruit trees, and improving
of an orchard, with directions for taking, ordering,
teaching, and curing of singing-birds, and other
useful additions. London, 12mo, 1675.

This work fills 136 pages of 12mo size, andis
said to have been twice printed previous to this
date, though no notice appears of the fact. The
matter is arranged in short chapters or notices, and
very confused, without any relation to precedence
or connection. The author's ideas of animals are
very fair, and show his experience to have been
practical, and beyond an amateurship. Like to
the books of the day, much irrelevant matter is
coupled with every subject that is introduced. A
considerable advance of time was required to rid
this propensity.

The author says, a good horse hath several
properties : two of a man, two of a badger, four of
a lion, nine of an ox, nine of a hare, nine of a fox,
nine of an ass, eight of a woman.

The two properties of a man are : a proud heart
and to be bold and hardy.

The two of a badger are : a white ball on the
forehead and a white foot.

The four properties of a lion are : a broad breast,
stiff neck, wild countenance, and good legs.

The nine properties of an ox are : broad rib,
short brawn, short pastern, great sinews, wide
challes, great nose, big chine, fat and well fed, and
of upright standing.

The nine properties from a hare are ; stiff-eared,
great e5'es, round eyes, lean head, lean knees, light
of foot, short buttocks, good fillets, and to turn
upon light ground.

The nine properties from a fox are : prick-eared,
little-eared, round-sided, side-tailed, short-legged,
black-legged, short-trotting, well coloured, a little
head.

The nine properties from an ass are : small-
mouthed, long-veined, thin-crested, straight-backed,
small stones, lath-legged, round- footed, hollow-
footed, a rough foot.

The eight properties from a ^voman are : merry
at meat, well faced, broad forehead, broad but-
tocks, busy with the tongue, chewing the bridle,
good at a long journey, hard of ward.

If this description be not anatomically scientific,
it is at least original, and most peculiarly appro-
priate,

LI. — Sherley, 1676.

Sherley is stated by Weston to have written
" Curiosities of Scurry grass," with cuts, in 8vo.
No book of that title can be found under the name
of Sherley in the " Bibliotheca Britannica," or in

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

435

the libraries of the British Miisenm. The name is
here entered on the sole authority of Weston.

LII. — Langford, 1G81.
" Systema agricultnras," being the mystery of
husbandry discovered— London, IGSI, foho — is as-
cribed to "J. Langford" as the author by the
"Bibliotheca Britannica." Weston writes him as
the author of " On fruit trees," in 169G, but does
not mention the agricultural work ; and no library
in the British Museum possesses it, but theyhave the
work on trees. The name is here entered on the
authority of the " Bibliotheca Britannica," which
may have mistakingly attached to the name of
Longford the exact title of Worlidge's production.
Such inadvertencies have not unfrequently hap-
pened.

LIIL— FiRMIN, I08I,

Thomas Firmin was born at Ipswich, in Suffolk,
in 1632; died in 1697. He was a noted person
for public benefactions and charities, and pubhshed
an essay of 24 quarto pages, entitled " Some pro-
posals for the employing of the poor, and for the
prevention of begging — a practice so dishonourable
to the nation and to the Christian religion." Lon-
don, 1678, 1681. The author had built a house in
Aldersgate-street, where the poor people received
flax and spun it, when they got the wages of em-
ployment ; and he recommended that work be
afforded to the people in their own homes, which
is ever to be preferred to large congregations in
public v/orkhouses. He allows public receptacles
where to curb and employ vagrants and sturdy
beggars who have no habitation, and who would
not preserve one in ckcinliness were it provided
them till the necessary habits be taught and con-
firmed. He advises schools for poor children, to
be taught to work and to earn their own living.
He thinks it quite practicable that work be found
for all capable persons, and that there is no oc-
casion for any person to be scant of bread. The
author's views were sufficiently benevolent, but
not very enlarged.

LIV.— Houghton, 1681.
John Houghton, F.R.S., published "A collection
of letters for the improvement of husbandry and
trade," London, 1681, 4to. " Collections for the
improvement of husbandry relating to corn ; a
catalogue of all sorts of earths ; the art of draining,
of brewing ; the instruments of husbandry." Re-
vised by Bradley, 1727-28, 4 vols., 8vo. The first
work only is found in the British Museum, and is
a volume of 360 quarto pages, in two divisions,
which are bound together. The letters relate to
various subjects, and were written by eminent
persons, Evelyn and Worlidge included. The
author writes the preface from St , Bartholomew-

lane, behind the Roj'al Exchange, and gives a
catalogue of the books relating to agriculture in the
library of the Royal Society. None of the prac-
tical works are mentioned which we have noticed
in our biography. The author excuses his mis-
cellaneous assemblage of matter, and likes a liber-
tine way of handling subjects before the severest
rules.

The letters are enquiries concerning agriculture ;
advantages from enclosures ; great advantages
from the clover grass ; cure of neat's tongues in
London ; great gain made from cole seed ; some
considerations about trade.

The matter and use of money ; great gain from
French furzes ; an account of Thomas Firmin's
book : " Proposals for employing the poor ;" re-
medies against the loss of crops, smuts, mildews,
lodgings of corn, and its being eaten up by birds ;
plantations of foreign colonies do not depopulate,
but rather increase or improve our people; new
way of curing smuttiness in corn ; some account
of the plague; Spain not prejudiced by its planta-
tions ; prodigality, or men spending their estates
doth not prejudice the nation; about improving
land by marie ; high living enriclies the nation,
instead of prejudicing it.

The history of malting ; a description of the
malt kiln ; concerning several m^atters that relate
to the argument. A defence of the prohibition of
Irish cattle, in two long letters, with a cure of
woodcocks into an excellent dish ; proposals con-
cerning the linen manufactory; an account of
making bread, and of a great improvement of
land by parsley; on lives. East India Company,
and bankers; account of exports and imports in
16S2; account of improving and fining of cyder ;
a statement of a new v/ay of ploughing ; an experi-
ment on salt ; an essay on wood as fuel ; a relation
of the culture, planting, and ordering of saffron ;
account of great improvement of mossy land, by
burning and liming it ; enquiries concerning hus-
bandry and trade ; it is for the interest of the
people that kings be plentifully supplied ; the
culture of safflower; how to rear cattle, fatten
calves and lambs ; the manner of making bricks ;
how to make colonies of bees; manufactures
thrive best when provisions are dear, as plenty en-
courages business.

Houghton makes the first notice of the potato
plant as an agricultural vegetable, and calls it " a
bacciferous herb, with esculent roots, bearing
winged leaves and belled flowers." The field
cultivation of the plant began about the time when
Houghton wrote, or from 16S0 to I69O.

These letters, collected and published by Hough-
ton, have always enjoyed a very considerable re-
putation, and it would seem very deservedly. Tha

436

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

author had been an educated person, and had en-
joyed the correspondence of the virtuosos of his
time. His ideas of improving trade would not
DOW find an admittance.

LV. — Lambert, 1683.

James Lambert wrote " The countryman's trea-
sure, showing the nature, cause, and cure of all
diseases of cattle," London, 1676-83, 8vo. This
treatise occupies 52 pages of 24mo, and has on the
front page the portraits of an ox, sheep, and pig,
being the veriest caricatures that can be imagined
of these animals. Weston quotes "John Lam-
bert."

"The countryman's treasure; or, a treatise of
oxen, sheep, hogs, and dogs," in 12mo. It is
hard to say if the persons had been the same, or
were different authors on separate subjects. The
work now quoted is a veterinary pi-oduction rather
than agricultural; but "Lambert" is generally
written as an agricultural author, and the un-
certainty remains if the writer had been a farrier or
a farmer.

LVL— GODFRIDUS, 1688.
This name is attached to a book of 124 pages of
24mo, entitled " The knowledge of things un-
known, showing the effects of the planets and
other constellations; together with the husband-
man's practice and the shepherd's prognostica-
tion." The appellation may be an assumed title,
as no initial letters have ever been affixed to it, and
is written " Compiled by Godfridus, supra palla-
dium de agricultura Anglicarum." The heading of
the chapters is in common type, and the contents
are in the old English characters. The prognosti-
cations of the weather from astrological observa-
tions do not now attract any notice, and this book
does not contain any practical matter.

LVIL— Moore, 1695.
Sir Jonas Moore, Knight, F.R.S., was a very re-
spectable mathematician, and Surveyor General of
His Majesty's Ordnance ; born in Lancashire in
1617, died in 1679. He wrote several mathema-
tical works, and " History or narrative of the great
level of the fens, called Bedford Level," with a
large map of the said level, as drained, surveyed,
and described, 1685, Svo. ; also, "England's in-
terest, or the gentleman's and farmer's friend,"
London, 1706, 12 mo. This last work contains
188 pages of duodecimo, and treats " How land
may be improved from 20s. to £S, and so to £100
per acre yearly, with great ease, and for an incon-
eiderable charge. 1 he best and quickest way of
making a nursery. How to make cider and fruit
wines, and brew malt liquors of all kinds. Of the
great benefit from the husbandry of bees. In-

structions for fish-ponds, and for angling and
catching all kinds of fish. Physics for families in
every distemper."

The author discusses the first proposition in nine
pages, and arrives at his conclusion by means of
apples and fruits converted into wines and cyder.
His pen met no obstruction on the paper ; but the
fruits are exposed to many influences.

The " History of the great level " occupies 67
pages of 24mo, and relates the proceedings of
draining and the allotment of the recovered lands.
The map does not appear with the book, and the
work seems unworthy the author's reputation.

LVIII.— Bellers, 1696.

John Bellers wrote " Proposals for raising a
college of industry for all useful trades, and of
husbandry," London, 1696, 4to; and "General
essays concerning the poor." The first work fills
28 pages of 4to size, and is dedicated to the Lord
Chief Justice Hale, that great composition of
learning and virtue, and the contents are : Reasons
for providing for the poor ; the way shown of doing
it in a college fellowship ; proposals to the college
founders ; advantages to the founders, and rich by
it ; some advantages to the poor collegians ; some
rules about governing the college workmen ; of the
education of children; an answer to several objec-
tions ; a postscript.

The author was induced by the cries and
miseries of some, and idleness and lewdness of
others, of the poor, to suggest some proposals for
relief, which were presented to the Lords and
Commons assembled in Parliament. Three things
are proposed : first, profit for the rich (which will
be life to the rest) ; secondly, a plentiful living to
the poor without difficulty; thirdly, a good educa-
tion for youth that may tend to prepare their souls
into the nature of the good ground. Labour, not
money, is to be the standard of every value, all
cheats and robberies being done by means of
money, or the great mammon Of unrighteousness.
Three hundred persons are in one college, and at
£10 for each person's labour, the income will be
£3,000 yearly. The sum of £10,000 is allowed to
buy an estate of land, £2,000 to stock it, £3,000 to
prepare the necessaries of work, £3,000 for a new
building, or repairing an old one — in all £18,000.
The stock to be valued every year, and the jirofits
divided. No subscription less than £25. Every
£50 or £100 to have a vote ; and no person to
have more than fiv e votes. Twelve proprietors to
form an inspecting committee. The governors, or
under officers, to have no salary, but only a main-
tenance in the college. No corporeal corrections,
but abatements of food — a dismissal the last re-
sort—and the house of correction must be distant.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

437

Other regulations are subjoined, which show a very
sound undertaking.

The author answers objections as to the difficulty
of performance, that all great doings would never
have been acted on the same ground of difficulty,
and concludes that, to remove all objections that
may be urged against such purposes, would be to
empty the sea.

The author refuses the name of workhouse as
bespeaking too much of servitude, and bridewell
implies punishment, which should not exist upon
earth; and the term community understands more
unity of spirit than ever may be found among the
human race. A college implies a general utility
without any compulsion or servitude of any kind.

The author of this essay does not stand alone in
thinking that the Government of every country has
the power and the means of making an adequate
provision for the whole population, and that a
bounden duly exists that it be done. The ideas of
men had made a most rapid progress in Britain
from the reformation in religion, and the com-
mencement of the civil commotions to the times in
which we write — bigotry had fled, and liberality
succeeded in its place.

LIX.— Mather, 1656.
Wilham Mather was a surveyor of highways in
Bedford, and wrote " Of repairing and mending the
highways," in five sections, touching : I. Re-
moving obstructions in the highways and scouring
the ditches next adjoining. II. Draining the high-
ways. III. Providing material. IV. Providing
labourers. V. Providing carriages. Published
for the use and instruction of young surveyors.
The essay occupies 32 duodecimo pages, and re-
lates chiefly to the duties of surveyors, and less to
the practical formation of roads. It is bound in a
volume along with other short dissertations on
various subjects.

LX.— Meager, 1697.
Leonard Meager wrote two works on gardening,
and " Mystery of husbandry," London, 1697,
12mo. Nothing is known of his life, or social
existence. The work on husbandry contains 16 1
pages of duodecimo, in 6l chapters, of improved
arable, pasture, and woodland. This book being
reckoned among the best agricultural works, the
contents are subjoined at length :

Introduction. Of the excellency, necessity, and
usefulness of the advancement of good hus-
bandry.
Chapter.

1. How to know the goodness of land.

2. Of the dunging of ground.

3. The nature, use, and benefit of marie.

4. Of ploughing, the parts of the plough, and

best season for ploughing.

Chapter.

5. Of hming, sanding, and hacking land, to

make it fruitful.

6. Of the first and second ploughing and of

harrowing.

7. Of weeding and destroying the weeas, with

directions to order the corn in sowing,
&c.

8. To dress and manure barren ground overrun

with goss, broom, furze, weeds, &c., re-
lating to ground dry and wet.

9. To improve barren clay, simple or com-

pound, overrun with whinney, with the
particular ordering of it.

10. To dress and manure all barren clays,

simple or compound, incumbered or over-
grown with heath or ling.

11. Of dressing, ordering, tilling, and manuring

barren sandy ground, producing only
short mossy grass.

12. Of ordering and dressing barren sand, over-

run with fern, heath, brakes, and the
nature of the soil, &c.

13. Of ordering and enriching barren lands sub-

ject to wild briar?, twitches, and bushes,
&c.

14. Of ordering, tilling, and enriching barren

lands encumbered with moors, or moorish
long grass.

15. A way in general to enrich any poor sand or

clay for grain with less trouble and cost
than before.

16. To reduce grounds to fertility that have

been spoiled by salt-water, or overflow-
ings of sea-beaches.

17. Good pasture and meadow to be made of

barren soil of any of sort or earth, simple
or mixed.

18. Several useful engines described for the

watering of meadows, pasture, &c.

19. Further rules and directions for watering

meadow and pasture for the improving
and fertilizing of it.

20. The proper way effectually to drain land

and reduce it to fertility, either arable or
pasture.

21. To drain fenny and marshy land with the

least charge, and most effectually, &c.

22. Tools and instruments proper and useful in

the working part, and order of draining
land, &c.

23. The best way to improve drained fen lands

to great advantage, &c.

24. Discovery of abuses in ploughing, and how

to order them.

25. A description of the most necessary sorts of

ploughs used for tillage in England.

26. A computation of work to be done by one

man in one day in the sundry occupa-
tions relating to husbandry.

27. The variation of soil in the several counties

requires different measures to be taken in
agriculture, &c.

28. What is required in husbandry in order to

oxen and horses, for tilling of lands vari-
ously situate, &c.

29. Proper things to be observed and done

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Chapter,

throughout the twelve months in the
year.

30. Utensils and tools necessary for the hus-

bandman for arable land, the barn, stable,
meadows, and pastures, &c.

31 . To preserve your grain when sown from all

sorts of vermin, who are apt to destroy or
annoy it.

32. To prevent smuttiness in corn, preserve it

against blasts, the injury of black frosts,
snow water, mists, and how it is to be
ordered when reaped wet.

33. Proper directions for the stacking of corn,

to keep it from vermin, fowl, taking wet,
or musting.

34. To know washed corn, and how to lay up

and keep to the best advantage all
useful sorts of grain in granaries, &c.

35. The best way to plant and order vines to a

great increase and improvement of land.

36. How to order hop-vines, gather and dry

hops, after the best manner, &c.

37. Flax and hemp good improvers of land.

How to manure the ground for them,
and sow and order them.

38. To order hemp and flax, when ripe, to the

best advantage.

39. How to plant and order saflfron for the im-

provement of land, &c.

40. Clover, or clover grass : how in the best

manner to order the seed, sow, and in-
crease it, for the improvement of land.

41. St. Foin, or French grass: directions for

sowing, ordering, and improving it on
land.

42. Improvement of land by sowing and well

ordering of turnips.

43. Improvement of land by sowing of carrots,

and how to well order them, &c.

44. Improvement of land by sowing of parsneps,

and the well ordering them.

45. Improvement of land by sowing weld, or

weald, and hov/ to order it.

46. Improvement of land by sowing of woad,

and how to order it.

47. Improvement of land by sowing madder,

and how to order it.

48. Woodland and inclosures improved, and the

great advantages made thereby.

49. Of oak, elm, and beech: how to order and

improve them for the best advantage.

50. Of ash, walnut, and chestnut trees, &c. :

their improvement and well ordering.

51. Of the maple, horn-beam, quick-beam, hazle,

box, juniper, holly, and fir trees : how to
order and improve them.

52. Of trees delighting in wet ground, as the

poplar, aspen tree, alder, willow, &c. :
their ordering, and the best way to im-
prove them.

53. Further improvements for ordering sundry

sorts of trees for the valuable improve-
ment of land.

54. How to order trees for their better growing,

and more speedily turning to good ad-
vantage.

Chapter.

55. Sundry trees not yet mentioned : their

growth and well ordering for the improve-
ment of land.

56. Of trees fitting for timber and other uses;

the sundry sorts, their goodness, and
to what uses properly to be attributed —
very necessary to be known.

57. A true recipe how to make the best bird-

lime.

58. Wonderful improvement of land by plant-

ing trees, and by enclosures, showing the
advantage of it over the lands that lie ii^
common.

59. Of enclosures and trees planted in hedge-

rows, both fruit and others, and the
benefit thereby arising to the owners of
such lands.

60. Reasons for enclosure and wooding of land,

both for the public and private advantage,
and the objections made against these
answered and confuted in many con-
vincing particulars.

61. How to take the stag, buck, hare, fox,

badger, wild goat, and otter, which de-
stroy corn, underwoods, &c.

" The Countryman's Almanack."

Meager mentions four kinds of ploughs : the
single-wheeled jjlough, the double-wheeled plough,
the plain plough, or without wheels ; the double
plough, or having two farrow mould boards ; and
the plain Dutch plough. The second plough is
the turn-wrest of Kent. The portraits of the im-
plements are the exact delineations given by Blythe
in his book of " English improver improved,"
which fact, with the same descriptions given by
Meager, show that no improvement had taken
place in res])ect of ploughs during the half century
that elapsed betwixt the dates of the publication.

Two sorts of turnips are mentioned : the round,
or bulbous, and the long parsnep turnip. The
leaves are recommended to be rotted on the ground
for manure, and the roots to be given to cattle and
swine. Nothing is said about the preparation of
the land, nor of thinning the plants and killing the
weeds. Meager thinks flax and hemp improve
the land, being directly contrary to the modern
opinion of these plants. He knew the commonly
used manures, and gives the usual directions of
application. Marie was a universal favourite with
the writers of these times.

The Countryman's Almanack is merely relating
to the weather from observed signs. The conclu-
sion is, —

North winds send hail. South winds rain.
East winds we bewail. West winds blow amain.
North-east is cold. South-east too warm,
North-west too bold. South-west doth no harm.

Though no notice is made of animals, Meager's

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

439

book must be reckoned a very considerable advance
in the progress of agriculture. Tlie matter is bet-
ter arranged than by the previous authors, and the
subjects are sooner related, and more quickly dis-
missed. The title-page is still loaded with the

contents of the work, and the prefaces are lengthy,
and the dedications clumsy. Still a large progress
had been made.

(To be coniinned.)

AUTUMN-CLEARING OF STUBBLES.

As supplementary to our observations in the last
two or three numbers of the Journal, on the eradi-
cation of weeds, nothing can be more appropriate
than a few words on autumn-clearing of stubliles.
The sii])ject has been brought before our readers in
a variety of forms. We have alluded to its benefits
mechanically, chemically, and physiologically; and
to all we have said in commendation of it, we can
absolutely add nothing, only to reiterate our con-
victions of its necessity. Our valued contempo-
rary, the North British Advertiser, details the mode
of root-clearing in autumn adopted by Mr. Tennant,
of Shields, Ayrshire, which is just one other form
of clearing to those we have before named. These
were by the use of Ducie's scarifier, which pos-
sesses a wonderful adaptation to land under the in-
fluence of root-weeds which will choke the general
run of ordinary implements. The next is, by the
use of the broadshare or paring plough, which is
within the compass of a smaller class of farmers,
and can be worked easily with a pair of horses ;
and a third is an adaptation of tines to the common
drag-harrow, which will be found to suit a small
farmer who has no desire to increase too much his
number of implements.

We some years ago adapted a share to fit to the
ordinary Finlayson's harrow, of which a description
is given below —

Herein figure 1 is the tine or share. Figure 2
is the socket for fitting it to the bull of the Fin-
layson's, in the manner described in figure 3.
A is the socket : B the share ; C the grooves in the
socket; D, a screw which fixes the share in its
socket, by wedging it to the bull E (balk). The
cost of five of these attached to the Finlayson's
harrow will be about £2 or £2 10s. ; and they will
be found, for small farmers, a substitute.

^

Fio. 1.

Fig. 2.

□

I/? n

i^

^

s@

Fig. 3.

On very light land, however, and where the soil
is extremely dry, a Finlayson's drag alone M'ill
break up the stubble, and sever the weeds from the
soil without burying them ; for the great secret of
all autumn-clearing is to arrest and separate the
weeds from the soil as speedily after harvest as pos-
sible, without burying them deeper in the soil than
they exist when the cover of corn keeps the roots of
the oxygen-loving couch near the surface of the
land. At harvest, the following is an idea of the
mode in which the root-fibres of the couch pene-
trate the soil : —

iNtt_liLkL'iMljAvli^ riffilKllbny Surface.

SUBSOIL.

Section of the soil and subsoil iiumediatelj^ after harvest.

While six weeks after harvest, the soil more resem-
bles the sketch below : —

^Mj^^^/^fjC!^^5|^^>.]k^J^ii. Surface.
SUBSOIL.

Section of tlie soil aud subsoil six weeks after harvest.

Hence the absolute difficulty of clearing a stubble

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

increases every day the operation is delayed after
harvest.

Mr. Tennant commences with the Scottish grub-
ber, which will, while the roots are compact and
bedded together in knots, answer perfectly well. He
first thoroughly grubs the whole surface, and brings
the roots up, and then harrows the whole once or
twice, so as to separate the soil thoroughly from the
root and stems of the corn and the stubble. The
weeds thus exposed to the winter's frost and rains,
and the action of the atmosphere, decompose, and
the ploughing of the lea goes on as usual in the
month of April. He also contends that the soil
holds the manure better for being so little stirred,
rather than being ploughed up, and exposed to all
the washing inlluences of the winter's rains. No
manure is applied in the autumn to the land ge-
nerally, but merely drilled with the manure. Two
ploughings are all that is necessary in the spring ;
and as we understand his system, the roots are not
gathered off. The soil becomes in a very fine tilth,
and the crop of turnii^s is said to be very secure.
As much as five acres per day are said to be done
by the grubber.

The expenses of this against the old system are
said to be as follows : taking the last-named or
ploughing plan of clearing, the expenses are — ■

Autumnal ploughing £0 10 0 per acre

Twogrubbingsinspring, at2s. 0 4 0 „
Harrowing 3 doubles, at 5s. ..050 „

Gathering weeds 0 5 0 ,,

Two furrows, at 1 Os 10 0 „

Harrowing and rolling 0 5 0 „

£2 9 0

Mr. Tennant's plan —

Autumn grubbing £0 2 0 per acre

Two autumn harrowings, at Is. 0 2 0 „

Two furrows in spring, at 10s. 10 0 „

Harrowing, rolling, &c 0 5 0 „

£19 0
Showing a saving of £1 per acre. This, however,
we think to be overstrained. Four acres per day
is as much as can be comfortably done by three
horses per day, and this with one man. We hardly
see how a grubber could cover five acres, and only
allow lOs. for the horses and men, when a similar
sum is allowed for one acre's ploughing. We do
not think ploughing at all so necessary as is gene-
rally supposed, but it is far too much to reckon it
at 10s. per acre.

Then how far, on the generality of soils, may de-
pendence be placed on two facts essential to Mr.
Tennant's plan ? It is certain that on some soils,
so very light as to contract moisture by capillary
attraction, entire dependence cannot be placed on
their being entirely destroyed ; and it is also indis-
putable that one grubbing will not be sufficient on
many soils to get up the whole of the root- weeds to
the surface. Now if this be so, it is clear that on
some soils at least this plan of Mr. Tennant's will
not succeed.

The soil must be cleared. For though every di-
minution of weeds, how small soever that may be,
is useful, it is extremely desirable to get the whole
to the surface at least, and for this purpose the
first crop must generally be carted off. To burn
them is the readiest mode of destruction, but it is
very wasteful.

Though we neither quite agree with the figures
nor the precise plan of Mr. Tennant, there is no
doubt whatever that autvimn-clearing is by far the
best plan for all kinds of soil intended for turnips.
— Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal.

THE AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND.

[from the times' commissioner.]

Morpeth.
In this letter we propose to give some description
of the county of Northumberland, which we entered
from the west by the railway from Carlisle. The
valley of the Tyne from Hexham to Newcastle is
highly picturesque and fertile. A broad sparkling
river— now shut in by high banks clothed with
venerable woods, now confined to its channel by
embankments protecting rich arable holms, here
peacefully gliding past the graveyard and the parish
church, there more impetuously breaking over the
rocky bed which forms the base of some old feudal
castle — mingles itself with the tide a few miles above
Newcastle, and then exchanges its picturesque cha-
racter for that of commercial bustle and activity.
Along the river the land is of excellent quality, let
at from 40s. to 50s. an acre, and principally under
cultivation. The holms, which on the banks of
the Wharfe or the Tees form the rich feeding lands

of the district, are here applied to the production of
corn. Out of the valley the country is, on both
sides of inferior quality, much of the south side
being worth little more than 7s. an acre, the land
cold and undrained, and the farming of a very ordi-
nary description.

Between Newcastle and Morpeth the soil is gene-
rally a strong clay. Northwards of Morpeth and
to the west it is a poor infertile clay. Along the
seaboard and the line of railway past Warkworth,
Alnwick, Belford, and to the border of the county,
it consists of strong wheat land, more or less fertile,
but generally of superior quality. Between the
Cheviot Hills and the ridge which forms the eastern
boundary of Tillside there stretches a tract of ex-
cellent turnip land, held in large farms by intelligent
cultivators, and where the five-course, or Nothum-
berland, system of farming finds its best illustra-
tion. To the westward of this the country is high

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

441

and unenclosed, and stocked with Cheviot and half-
bred sheep. The geological features of the county
comprise the coal measures, millstone grit, moun-
tain limestone, and greenstone.

The agriculture of the southern division of the
county is not in general at all superior to that we
have described on the cold clay lands of Durham.
The farms are many of them larger in extent, but
the land is chiefly und rained, and, being nearly all
imder the plough and very indiflerenlly stocked, it
appears to be in poor condition, and at present
prices must be bearing hard on the capital of the
occupying tenants. Very many farms have been
surrendered to the landlords, who are now becommg
thoroughly impressed with the necessity in which
they stand, either to meet their tenants liberally by
encouraging drainage and affording them temporary
reUef, or to find their whole estates abandoned to
them iu wretched condition. The appearance of
the farm horses and the quality of the scanty stock
sufficiently evidence the straits to which many of
the smaller farmers have already been reduced,
while the less carefully prepared fallows and dimi-
nished accumulations of manure afford no promise
that the returns of next year will better their cir-
cumstances. The reliance has been so wholly on
grain that any abatement of rent, which is unaccom-
panied by a wise expenditure m improvement by
drainage, so as to encourage the keeping of stock
and the more certain action of manure, will only
postpone for a little the inevitable crisis. It must
surprise many who have hitherto been led to con-
sider the agriculture of Northumberland as a model
for the rest of the kingdom, to learn that a great
portion of the county, extending from near New-
castle on both sides of the railway as far north as
Wa'-kworth, is as little drained and as badly farmed
as any district we have yet seen in England, and
that the occupiers of the small farms can only eke
out a scanty subsistence by careful parsimony, and
by employing no labour except that of themselves
and their families.

The larger farms in the district of which we are
now speaking are better cultivated, but the farmers
are even less hopeful. In the best times they assert
that they never could calculate on making a gross
return from their farms equivalent to two rents, and
that now most of them can scarcely make even one.
Many of them occupy more than one farm, and, as
the farms of this class extend to from 400 to 700
acres each, it is not uncommon to find one holding
of 1,000 to 1,500 acres altogether. The business
they declare not to have been a good one ever since
the war, and, the management continuing much the
same, it is now worse than ever. A great reduction
in the rent, we were assured by one extensive farmer,
would not adequately meet his present difficulties.
A case in illustration was mentioned to us of a
strong clay farm of good wheat land, 600 acres in
extent, the rent of which in 1825 was upwards of
£S00, besides £100 more for tythe, but which, not-
withstanding a large expenditure by the landlord,
would not at present bring much more from a tenant
than half the former rent. Such statements must
be received with considerable caution, though on
the whole they show that the amount of I'ent has
hitherto been out of all proportion jp pxcefis of the

gross produce as the farming is at present con-
ducted, and that the two must in future be made
more justly to approximate.

Nearly all the landlords in the district are now
satisfied that to keep their land in cultivation they
must be ready to assist their tenants with drainage
and farm buildings. Many have also given abate-
ments of rent, and it is believed that those who
have hitherto declined to do so are accumulating
arrears much heavier in reality than the loss they
would suffer by any voluntary abatement. All the
agents who have been authorised to make abate-
ments are ready to give you instances in which
arrears have been at once paid off' in consequence
of this liberality, and of the confidence which it has
given to the tenants to go on with such improve-
ments as form the best guarantee to the landlord
for the maintenance of his future rental. We may
here describe the arrangements which the leading
landlords of the county are at present adopting.

The Duke of Northumberland, whose great
estates in this county are, with the exception of
one or two farms, let on holdings from year to year,
offers a revaluation to every tenant who finds his
farm to dear. This is made by two gentlemen in
the district, of high character and competence, and
is binding on both landlord and tenant. If the
latter, however, prefer to quit the farm, he is per-
mitted to do so. The valuation assumes a certain
rate as the average price of wheat, and at this rate
all the new valuations are made, so that the dif-
ferent farms may be placed on an equal footing,
and the whole estate be in a ])osition for an uni-
form principle to be adopted hereafter in any further
adjustment that may be necessary. The result of
these valuations has been a slight reduction of
rent, though in one or two instances there was an
increase. The Duke then makes a discretionary
abatement, corresponding to the difference between
the real and assumed rate of prices, and this has
been 1 2 per cent, on the corn farms, and 8 per
cent, on the turnip and stock farms. His Grace
likewise executes the requisite drainage on his
estates at a charge of 5 per cent, on the outlay, sup-
plying the pipes from his kilns at prime cost. He
expends what is necessary for the improvement of
farm buildings without any charge on the tenant.
In an instance where a lease and corn rent was
desired by the tenant, the Duke acquiesced. He
offered leases to any of his tenants who might de-
sire them, but it is said that his offer was accepted
by only two farmers, so highly does his Grace stand
in the confidence of the county.

The Duke of Portland has a considerable estate
in the county, much of it very poor land, but his
liberality to his tenantry is proverbial. His abate-
ments here are said to be equal to 30 per cent., and
this on a rental confessed to be moderate. He
drains to any extent for 5 per cent.

Earl Grey has not made any general abatement,
but he relieves any tenant who wishes to quit his
farm; and in a case where a tenant occupied seve-
ral very valuable farms on Lord Grey's estate he
was relieved of one which he desired to quit, and
permitted to retain the others, which were better
worth the money. Lord Grey executes any drain-
age that is required at a charge of 6. per cent,

443

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Lord Vernon drains for his tenants, paying for
both tiles and labour, free of all charge.

The Marquis of Waterford gives 20 per cent, of
abatement, and makes a large expenditure in farm
buildings for his tenants.

These instances may be taken as illustrating the
manner in which the landlords of Northumberland
are meeting the present crisis ; though we regret
to say that on some estates of great extent the pro-
prietors are so embarrassed that they plead their
inability to meet their tenants either in one way or
another.

In the southern division of the county the prac-
tice, in letting farms, has generally been by the
agent naming the rent and offering the farm to a
tenant. On the turnip farms of the north this has
been the exception, the rule being to advertise for
tenders and encourage die utmost competition.

Some particulars as to the cultivation of indivi-
dual farms will best convey an idea of the agricul-
tural practice of the different districts of the county.
On a turnip farm belonging to the Duke of Port-
land, 400 acres in extent, the tenant grows 60 acres
of turnips, 25 acres of which are swedes. He has
a considerable portion of old grass, and the rest of
the farm has been hitherto managed in a five-course.
The tenant contemplates extending this to six or
seven course by keeping his land three or four years
in grass. On this farm, which is superior turnip
land, and considered a model in its neighbourhood
of liberal management on the part of the tenant,
four cattle are fattened in winter, and about 36 are
half-fed in winter, and finished on the best grass in
summer. A stock of 80 Leicester ewes is kept, the
produce of which, about 120 lambs in number, are
fattened on the farm. The best are ready as soon
as they are shorn, and last year were sold at 33s.
each, besides their wool, which fetched 7s, more.
The rest are put on young grass and sent off as
they become ready. Five pau's of horses in winter
and six in summer carry on the work of the farm.
10 carts of strawyard dung and 12 bushels of bones
per acre are applied to the turnip crop, but this is
reckoned an unusually liberal dose in that neigh-
bourhood. The old grass land is occasionally cut
for hay, and seldom receives any manure. The
stock are all fed in open yards during the winter.

The ordinary management of strong land farms
is the four-course, occasionally extended by the
introduction of beans. Very few turnips are grown ;
and, as nothing else is tried on the fallow division,
nearly the whole of ii is bare fallowed. 24 bushels
of wheat may be reckoned the average produce
from the best land. One farm which we visited
had been increased 20 per cent, in its produce of
wheat by pipe drainage, and the farmer declared
himself satisfied that this was a more valuable
boon to him than a temporary abatement of rent to
the same amount. On this, as on very many farms
in the district, n s.eam engine is employed for
thrashing the corn crop, but it is not applied to
crushing corn, cutting hay or straw, steaming or
cooking food, or in fact to any other purpose than
thrashing. No manure wliatever is purchased, and
no cake, corn, or other feeding stuff.

On the home farm at Howick the Hon. Captain
Grey has been for some years back endeavouring to

introduce many improved practices which the ex-
perience of other counties has sanctioned. By
thoroughly draining, subsoiling, and heavily ma-
nuring his land, he has greatly increased its pro-
duce both of corn and green crops. The corn is all
drilled and horsehoed. The root crops are taken
from the ground without injury to its surface by
the use of Crosskill's portable railway. The rails
are found very easy to shift, and the work goes on
with great expedition. The Swedes are carried on
the rails to the headland, where they are stored till
required in long narrow heaps, thatched with straw.
A handsome cattle-lodge has been erected, but on
a scale unnecessarily costly, for the stall and box-
feeding of cattle. The weight of the different kinds
of food consumed by the animals is registered, and
their relative progress is ascertained monthly by
putting e^ch animal on the weighing machme.
Experiments have been made to ascertain the re-
spective merits of stall and box feeding, A trial
last season proved the advantage of house feeding
in summer as compared with grazing in the field.
Two short-horned cattle, two-and-a-half years old,
as nearly of the same quality and condition as pos-
sible, were weighed on June 14, and each found
to be 78 stone. The one was turned out on good
pasture, the other was put into a loose box in the
cattle-lodge, where it received cut grass, with the
addition of 2lb. of oilcake daily. The two cattle,
with others likewise experimented on, were weighed
every month, and on October 22 the box-fed ani-
mal was found to have gained 26 stones, and the
pastured one only 13. The saving in the consump-
tion of food far more than compensated the cost
of oilcake and attendance, so that the increased
gain of weight, besides the accumulation of valua-
ble manure, formed a clear advantage in favour of
the box-feeding and soiling system. The other
cattle submitted to the same experiment showed
the same result, though not in an equal proportion
of increase. The monthly weighings showed that
while the pasture was fresh and juicy, and the
weather warm, the cattle made most progress in
the field. After the 27th of August the grass
began to fail in quality, and the pastured lot then
fell back greatly, while the box-fed lot continued to
increase and improve. An experiment was tried,
two years in succession, to ascertain the advantage
of putting ewes on rape at the end of September,
which clearl) proved an increase of nearly 50 per
cent, in the produce of lambs as the result of this
practice. A very paying class of stock here is the
small highland cattle, bought at the August Fal-
kirk tryst, at from £2 l6s. to £3 each. They are
turned out on rough pasture, where they feed
during the winter, getting but a very small allow-
ance of turnips in snow or frost, and therefore kept
at a trifling cost, then placed during the summer
on better pasture, and sold off fat in October at
£10 to £11 each.

The farm of Beal, on the line of railway between
Belford and Berwick, is considered to be one of the
best managed strong land farms in Northumber-
land. It contains 1,050 acres, 270 of which are
permanent pasture. The rest of it is managed on
the four-course system, varied by having a portion
of the clover break in drilled beansj which removes

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

■443

the clover on that part to a greater interval, and
niakes it a more certain plant. AVhere the beans
have been taken the land is left two years in jias-
tine ; 3G0 acres are annually in white croi)— wheat,
barley, and oats ; 60 acres in beans, and 1 20 acres
is sown grasses ; while ISO acres are in bare fallow
and turnips, SO of which are swedes and 80 white
turnips. The average yield of wheat may be 30
bushels, of oats (Hopetoun or Angus) 44 bushels,
of barley 40 bushels, and of beans 30 bushels per
acre. The whole of the fallow is m:inured with
dung, the swedes with 20 carts of dung and 2 cwt.
of guano per acre ; and the beans are manured with
dung, and culiivated in raised ridges, 27 inches
apart, like potatoes, and repeatedly horse and hand
hoed and kept clean.

The stock kept on this farm consists of 25 calves
reared ; 60 cattle are fed in the yards and boxes
during the v.'imer, 40 of which receive full feeding
of swedes, with 4lb. of oilcake and 4lb. of beanraeal
each daily for the last six weeks, and go out of the
yards fat ; 20 are half-fed in winter on turnips and
swedes, and are finished off on the best grass early
in summer. By this management Mr. Scoct, the
tenant, finds he can kee|) a larger number of cattle
to break down his straw into manure than if he
were fully to fatten on the same quantity of tur-
nips a smaller number of cattle. When the cattle
go to grass to be fed off they receive 4lb. of oil-
cake each daily, and with this addition to their food
the field can fatten off 20 cattle better than it can
14 without cake, while the land is yearly improv-
ing in consequence. 240 Leicester ewes are kept,
and their produce, 320 hoggets, are sold fat off the
farm annually. The rest of the grass land is pas-
tured by a flying or a shifting stock. The lease was
entered into in 1839, and the rent of the farm is
£1,700, tythe-free.

Mr. Scott has tile-drained 600 acres of the farm
at his own expense, the landlord having allowed
him one acre of clay to burn at his own risk, but
with leave to sell to others as well as to sujiply him-
self. At that time, 1839 to 1846, tileries were less
common than they are now, and Mr. Scott found
tilemaking a very profitable business ; so much so,
indeed, that the expense of draining his farm was
thereby materially lightened.

The cattle are principally kejjt in courts with
sheds, one lot being fed singly in boxes. Mr.
Scott contemplates feeding a portion of his stock
in the yards, during summer, on cut grass, for the
purpose of more perfectly converting his great bulk
of straw into good manure. At present the manure

heaps have to be turned twice or three times before
they can be suflSciently rotted. The farm is very
clean and in high condition, but the arrangement
of the buildings, which are old, is very defective,
and must occasion considerable waste of labour to
the tenant.

The subject of drainage, and the propriety of
levelling down the old crooked ridges on the strong
lands throughout this county, have been frequently
brought to our notice. The jjractical men all agree
as to the advantage of having pipes or tiles with a
sufliicient orifice to insure a circulation of air as well
as to carry off water. Anything less than two inches
they think inadequate to this purpose. With regard
to the depth of drains there is likewise considerable
difference of opinion, the most experienced being
agreed on the advantage of a depth, if possible, of
not less than 3;^ feet. In many cases in this county,
however, drains are still being put m with the old
and expensive 3-inch horseshoe tiles and soles at 2
feet in depth and 15 feet apart, just as if the expe-
rience gained during the last few years in all other
parts of the country had never been heard of here.
Every farmer we have spoken to strenuously disap-
proves the ploughing down of the old crooked ridges.
These were made ages ago by our forefathers for
the purpose of effecting that which we now more
perfectly manage by under-drainage. But the
system has been so long continued that the subsoil
when cut across (as was shown to us by Mr.
Dand, of Field-house), presents the same curva-
ture as the surface; and, in cases where the at-
tempt to plough down has been carried out, the
result is said to have been, that the top of the old
ridge being completely bared of good soil, produces
little or nothing, while the old furrow, by being
rendered too strong, gives a *' lodged " and badly
filled crop. In a case in which the opinion of prac-
tical men is so unanimous, we think it behoves
others with less experience to be cautious. Nor,
indeed, after a field has been drained, is there any
practical inconvenience worth mentioning in the
shape of these crooked ridges. Mr. Scott, of Beal,
never ploughs his down, but he drills his turnip
crop across them ; he draws off his land for
sowing his corn crops across them for the con-
venience of correct seeding and reaping ; and he
ploughs his lea across them for the same con-
venience. In working his green crop land he again
forms the old ridge, and maintains it in its ancient
shape.

Labourers are everywhere fully employed and at
good wages.

THE PLEASURES OF GENTLEMAN FARMING.

Seven o'clock brings a summons to arise ; and although an
early hour for a bridegroom, it must be attended to, because
" Jacob," my bailiff and factotum, has appointed to see me
" fust thing i'th' marning," about giving the men their orders
V ith regard to cuttuig an unnecessary drain to an unheard-of
depth. I yaflu my way to my dressing-ro^m, where there is
no fii'e, for the new housemaid is not an early riser, and "mas-
ter" is too green at the tra':le to have ytt become much of a

disciplinarian. Luke-warm water produces a rugged shave,
and induring myself in dreadnought attire, I accompany
" Jacob" through a drizzling rain to the " thirty acres," there
to find two of the men cannot come because to-day happens to
be " Weatherley revel," and for all the good 1 have done by
my exertions I might just as well have remained in bed. A
second toilet fits me for breakfast, and I look forward to a
comfortable and domestic meal, the novelty of having my tea

4M

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

made by ISIrs. Nogo (I cannot quite bring myself to call her
" Nelly") not having yet worn ofT. The widow, however, has
had experience in the ways of the world, and one of the lessons
which it has inculcated is never to hurry herself — above all, in
such an important ceremony as the toilette ; so I am reduced
to the painful alternative of beginning breakfast without her
(in which case I shall appear churlish, and have my tea badly
made), or of sitting down to the day-before-yesterday's paper,
already conned through, and last night fallen asleep over, to
wait in patience for the arrival of my better half. Down she
comes at length, very nicely dressed, but not feeling "very
well," which I have already learned means being slightly out of
sorts, and is a bad beginning for the day. " My dear," I wish
you would speak to James about that tea-pot ; it is disgrace
fully cleaned, and nothing spoils servants so much as passing
over these things." James is the new footman, a six-foot
magnifico, and I should just as soon think of reprimanding
Julius Caesar ; but I dare say Mrs. N. wiU do it for me, and
twice as effectually. " You'll drive me to the lodge. Til , after
luncheon," adds my wife, in an accent I never quite like to dis-
obey ; and although I had meant to get a quiet afternoon's
shooting, I express a ready compliance, and breakfast pro-
gresses comfortably ; I am just going to have a second cup of
tea, when enters stately James, as though he were announcing
a duke, to say that " farmer Veal" is waiting to see me in the
study, as servants always persist in calling the apartment where
" master" keeps his guns, &c. and as the gentle Mrs. N. sig-
nifies " I had better speak to him at once and have done with
it," I forego my other cup and hasten to an interview M'ith the
yeoman, having for its object the purchase of a certain quantity
of what are termed " store pigs." It is by this time getting
towards noon, the hour at which I was once accustomed to
enjoy the double luxury of a book and a cigar ; but these
" littering habits," as Mrs. N. calls them, I have entirely aban-
doned for ever, and contenting myself with the unsatisfactory
substitute of a tooth-pick, I accompany "Jacob" to the yard to
inspect a new arrival in the shape of a famous short-homed
bull, whom I have purchased at the price of a hunter, but whom
I dare not approach with any of the familiarity with which I
should handle the latter animal. "Jacob" tliinks I paid too
much money for him, in which opinion I cordially coincide, and
the morning passes off in a series of fault- findings with inefl5-
cient bricklayers and dull labourers, who only seem to compre-
hend how much more profitable it is to work by " the day"
than by " the foot." Luncheon, in which I detect more of
yesterday's dinner than I could easily believe to have sur-
vived, is interrupted by the collector of rates and taxes (im-
posts which I fancy my predecessor Segundo never dreamed of
paying), and that functionary seems disposed to visit upon the
successor all the deficieuces incurred by the previous owner.
" Have you ordered the pony-carriage, Til. ?" says Mrs. N. ;
and my multifarious occupations having prevented the morn-
ing visit to the stable, which I had always looked forward to as
so principal a charm of a regular life, I am forced to confess
that I have neglected to do so, and to swallow as I best may
the involuntary exclamation of "Dear, how stupid!" which
escapes from the lips that have so lately vowed "to love,
honour, and obey." The filth of the straw yard has made it
jiecessary to adjourn once more to the dressing-room, before I

am fit to enter a carriage of any description ; and this time,
with a pardonable anxiety to appear to advantage in the eyes
of my late wedded wife, I get myself up with more than com-
mon care and smartness. Alas ! the new south-downs, placed
in a secluded meadow at the back of the house, have one and
all broke from their moorings in a state of timid insubordina-
tion ludicrous to contemplate ; and I cannot resist lending my
assistance to " Jacob" and his myrmidons, in reclaiming the
woolly truants to their original bounds. Varnished boots
harmonize but ill with a clay soil, and I am greeted " as a very
untidy figure," when I at length take my seat in the pony-
chaise en route for Topthorne Lodge. The squire is not at
home, having gone to shoot the outlying coverts, at Moor-bank,
whither, had it not been for my farming avocations, I was to
have accompanied him, and where he is now peppering away in
all the enjoyment of a capital day's sport ; so there is nothing
for it but to drive quietly home again. The pony suddenly
falls lame, and at the same time a tempest of wind and rain,
which has been brewing in the horizon during the whole after-
noon, bursts upon us in pitiless fury, and as there is not a
building for miles of our road, we are exposed to the whole
violence of the storm. The umbrellas have been forgotten of
course, and we are drenched to the skin ; Mrs. N's. rechercJie
toilette, part of the lately acquired trousseau, being completely
spoiled, and my sweet bride's silence, not to say reserve, becoming
more profound with each succeeding gust. We reach Wild-
wood at last, and here a dry suit of clothes, albeit indued in a
smoky dressing-rcom, restore me to something approaching
towards comfort, and I refrain from disturbing Mrs. N., in
hopes that by the time dinner is announced she may have re-
covered her former gaity and cheerfulness. That necessary
meal is kept waiting, and the mutton irretrievably spoilt, by
an enforced interview with one of my new tenants, who taking
the opportunity of his return from Weatherley revel in a state
of tipsy jocularity for an ill-timed interview with his landlord
on matters of business, is good enough to favour me with his
company for three-quarters of an hour, during which he dis-
cusses the weather, the ministry, Mrs. Nogo's health, in short
everything in the world except the point at issue, and even-
tually takes his departure, having effected no decided result
except the ruin of my over-roasted joijt. A quiet evening, a
snooze over (he "Quarterly" undisturbed by any music (for
Mrs. Nogo confesses she has become " very idle about play-
ing"), and a cup of tea at nine o'clock, would console me for
the annoyances of the day, but that my rest is interrupted and
my nerves shaken by the keeper bringing in a poacher whom
he has taken at this untimely hour, and whom he seems to ex-
pect, in the double capacity of magistrate and proprietor, I
shall transport on the spot. The evening is concluded by a
perusal of the county paper, in which the account of a horrid
burglary accompanied with violence, and perpetrated at a lone
farm-house not twelve miles from where we live, sends me to
bed not at all satisfied that the life of a country gentleman, re-
siding on his own property and farming his own acres, is half
such a course of unruffled prosperity as in my London career I
had ever been taught to consider it. — From passages in the
Life of Tilbury Nogo, Esq., in the Sporting Magazine for
October.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

443

THE IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY TO FARMERS.

At a recent meeting of the members of the
Sparkenhoe Fanners' Club (Leicestershire), Mr.
Harrison read a most interesting paper on this
subject, in which he says, — " I set out by en-
deavouring to combat an opinion which I find is
pretty generally held by farmers, that hens and
chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys especially, are
to be regarded in the light of depredators, whose
business it is to rob the fields and stack-yards, for
the sole advantage of the mistress of the family.
There maj', I admit, be some grounds for the pre-
valence of this opinion, in the fact that whilst the
master sees the mischief which is done both to the
field and stacks by the poultry, he is kept by the
mistress as much as possible in ignorance of the
profit, and is scarcely ever allowed to know its
return. I shall at once admit that fowls and poul-
try generally will make great havoc in a growing
crop of corn. I will admit, too, that they are very
great nuisances in a well-kept rick-yard, and that
they are intolerable pests when they make frequent
visits to the garden. But, allow me to ask, will not
a little care and extra labour greatly lessen such
evils, if not prevent them altogether ? Now it has
more than once met my observation, that a farmer
who has well scolded his wife and daughters for
the depredation of their poultry committed near a
gate or in the corner of a field, has allowed the
sparrows to feast at their ease until they had strip-
ped the headland of the field entirely of its corn.
I have heard a very considerable farrr.er grudge a
breakfast to his wife's hens out of his corn field,
when he saw, without the least complaint, wood-
pigeons and pheasants from his landlord's cover
rise from his field by scores. And is there not
many a farmer among us who will chase the hens
from the rick-yard from the feeling that he cannot per-
mit such wanton waste, whilst he views with compa-
rative indifference the depredation of vermin, and
tolerates the ravages of rats and mice ? Now, Mr.
Chairman, I must not be supposed to justify waste
in one place, by proving the existence of it else-
where. I merely wish to ask whether prejudice
may not cause us to overrate the damage in one
case, as much as it leads us to undervalue it in the
other ? A corner in a field of wheat or barley trod-
den down is very oflFensive to the eye ; but value the
damage, then measure the ground, and I will an-
swer for it that an acre {at the same rate) will be
worth a very considerable sum. So, in the stack-
yard, a good fork-full of corn pulled from the rick,
and distributed around it, would appear nothing

less than a decent waggon load. But I am not even
advocating this waste. Let all the gates and gaps
against the corn-fields be thorned ; let also all the
stock of loose corn standing upon the ground in
the rick-yard be protected by hurdles or faggots ;
and if the poultry will not pay the expenses of this
precautionary labour, let it at once be given up.
There are times, I believe, at which it may be a
matter of good policy, as well as of necessity, to
supply the poultry in the farm-yard with a small
allowance of food. It would be folly to leave our
cattle and our sheep to procure their own living in
the fields during the winter, thereby to become so
poor that the summer would be expended in re-
storing their condition and strength; and equally so
would it be to withhold from the feathered inhabi-
tants of our yards, during times of scarcity, the
assistance which it is man's oflSce to afl["ord to the
creatures beneath his care. But I would recom-
mend that the cost of such assistance be ascertained,
that its repayment may be ensured, or similar out-
lay avoided for the future. In combating suc-
cessfully the opinion that poultry are universal
depredators on the farmer's property, it will be
necessary for me to show that very extensive sup-
plies for their support are scattered bynature around
us, and that by availing ourselves of these supplies,
poultry may be made the source of very consider-
able revenue to the mistress of the farm-house,
without at all interfering with her husband's corn,
either when growing in his field or stacked up in
the rick-yard. Before I go further, I must be un-
derstood on this point : I am no advocate for divided
interest, even in the article of poultry. In my opinion
no wife should be placed in such a situation as to
need a separate source of income, and a separate
purse. So that, if any thing in this paper may
lead any of my readers to suppose that I am now en-
deavouring to advance the separate right and interest
of the farmer's wives and daughters, by advising a
greater attention to the management of the poultry,
I beg to assure them they are mistaken. But
though the ladies will not find in me an advocate
for any separate right, I shall feel very ha])py if a
suggestion of mine maybe the means of increasing
that portion of farming income, which I beheve,
by the law of courtesy, is generally regarded as
their own. Over the greater portion of England,
I find poultry is considered the perquisite of the
ladies, and I shall regard it in such light. Let us
now take a hasty glance at the large provision
which nature has made for the existence and com-

2 a

446

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

fort of the feathered race ; and next let us look at
our hens, our ducks, and our turkeys, performing
the assigned office in creation, by converting
millions and milUons of the lowest order of ex-
istence into food adapted to the use of man. Now
there is scarcely a blade of grass, or the leaf of a
plant, that does not harbour some fly or insect;
and there is not a particle of soil or cow dung re-
moved by the hens in scratching, but numbers of
grubs or worms are exposed. No one who has
lived about a farm can have failed to notice the ac-
tivity displayed by a brood of turkeys in beating
a grass field. We cannot see the gnats upon the
grass ; but their eyes detect the hidden food, and
every movement of their heads indicates the death
of a gnat, or fly, or moth ; and if we examine
them when they return to shelter, their craws will
be found ^filled. I will not say that their living is
entirely secured by insect life ; for I have noticed
ours more than once, during this season, rob a
nettle of all its leaves, and by a clever twist of
their beaks, strip the grass seeds from a bent — thus
blending vegetable with animal food. No one who
has passed any portion of his life upon a farm can
entirely have overlooked the hens watching a dig-
ging operation going forward. When a disturbance
of the soil takes place, their food is exposed, they
scratch for themselves in the looser ground, and
they avail themselves of every opportunity of pick-
ing up their prey. Only last week I noticed several
attending upon two pigs (who were rooting up the
grass), and thereby obtaining a good supply of
grubs ; the hens, in this case, follow the pigs from
place to place, as if they considered the latter were
only labouring for their pleasure and advantage.
It must also have been noticed by hundreds of
farmers how ducks wander among the grass in the
dew of a summer evening : this is the season at
which the earth-worms rise to the surface of the
ground, and ducks are then only seeking their
supper, and the earth-worm forms their prey. Some
of our bens were this season charged with thieving
from the gooseberry trees : they might be guilty of
taking a few gooseberries ; but if they did this mis-
chief, we have, on the other hand, to thank them
for some benefit. I repeatedly saw them working
at the caterpillars, which had made great havoc
with the trees. This insect provision of nature
for the maintenance of our poultry is most abun-
dant during the warm months, and as it begins to
fail in autumn other sources of supply arise. I
passed through one of our fields, last week, in which
was a flock of turkeys : these were occupied in
picking blackberries from the hedge ; and as they
had cleared off all within their reach, I determined
to help them to some of the higher boughs j I was
surprised at the avidity with which the fruit was

seized, and at the quantity which was eaten; and
in this instance hunger was not the cause, for the
flock was in a barley stubble which had not been
touched till that day, and in which was an abun-
dance of corn scattered upon the ground. I next
tried some hips : these were equally well received, and
so would haws or acorns have been. Now, when
it is considered that numberless insects are scat-
tered over the whole of our fields, that animal life
exists in abundance, not only above, but also be-
neath the surface of the soil ; and when it is seen
that our hedges are covered with fruits and other
productions, which at present are not available to
the use of man, it must certainly appear desirable
that we should adopt the means within our power
to bring them to profit and advantage. Worms,
snails, gnats, flies, grubs, of all description, beetles,
earwigs, &c., &c., would indeed be loathsome food;
and further, they are so widely distributed, their
collection would be impossible, even did they pos-
sess a marketable value ; but Providence has kindly
furnished us the means of converting all these
things into human food. It has created a higher
order of creatures to collect and consume these in-
sects for man's especial benefit and food. We find
this higher order of creatures in the poultry which
runs about our grovmd : they assimilate food for us, in
eggs and in their own flesh, and render matter of va-
lue to man, which was completely valueless before.
You certainly have a right to ask some proofs that
the above is not mere assertion on my part, and I
will give it in two instances which came under my
cognizance upon my own farm this season, and I
choose these instances because the ])Oultry have in
these places no rick-yard, no thrashing, nor any
corn field whatever to assist them. At a hovel by
the side of a large field some poultry is kept for
breeding and rearing chickens and turkeys for sale ;
and this year's account stands, up to the present
time, something like the following ; —

PRODUCE. £ e. d.

53 turkeys, estimated present value 48. 10 12 0

30 ditto, second hatch, at Is 1 10 0

20 couple of fowls at 2s. 6d 2 10 0

12 ditto, young, but safe, at Is 0 12 0

Eggs r , 0 8 0

£15 12 0

COST.

24 lbs. of rice at Hd ....£0 3 0

8 bushels of barley at 28s 18 0

8 ditto of tail-tail wheat 0 12 0

2 loads of barley-raking, set down to

carry old stock through winter ....<> , 110 0

3 13 0
In favour of poultry and to pay labour 11 19 0

£15 12 0

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

44?

At the second place no food was given, and the
account will show the value of the eggs alone, as
what chickens were hatched were carried to another
situation to be reared. Here there are 30 Spanish
hens producing from 12 to 13 lbs. weight of eggs
each, or raising a money value (upon the insects
they picked up) of £6 for the season. It will be
right to remember that this lot have to be kept
through the winter, and will also want some replac-
ing ; but I think the chickens hatched by these hens,
in addition to the eggs laid, will pay for the load of
the barley-raking which I have set down for their
winter consumption, and also fill up the vacancy
made by deaths, accidents, and necessary change.
I have no doubt, myself, that poultry may be made
to pay for a moderate outlay of food, as well, if not
better than the pig or other stock upon the farm;
for, in addition to the very large quantity of pro-
vision which nature provides for them in insect life,
thereis(especiallyupon ploughed farms) an abundant
supply for their wants many months in the year,
both in the sheddings of harvest and getting in of
stacks, and also in the picking of the straw which
escapes the jjroper action of the flail or machine.
Now a very large portion of this would be wasted
entirely were it not picked up by the poultry in
the yard. With all the aid then just mentioned, a
very moderate supply of food, andalittleextralabour
at a certain season of the year, will be all that is
required to make the poultry remunerative, and
prevent them from being so universally regarded
as pests, nuisances, and depredators in the garden,
the stack yard, or the corn field. I hope I have
said enough to satisfy my auditors that a reasona-
ble profit may be expected from poultry when such
are kept upon a farm for the purpose of turning
the insects, grubs, beetles, and so forth, and also
the shedding of corn, to a profitable account. If
I may be considered to have established my pre-
mises generally, it will now be right for me to
enter a little more into detail, and to give you my
opinion of the relative value of the different kinds
or varieties of poultry, as qualified to perform the
office which nature has assigned to their tribe, viz.,
converting that which is loathsome, valueless, and
waste, into marketable and luxurious food. In my
opinion, the turkey here stands pre-eminent. It
makes a greater return for care bestowed upon it,
than any other common stock of our poultry yards.
The old birds require little corn ; and being, to a
very considerable extent, vegetable feeders, they
are well satisfied with, and will keep themselves in
good order, if they can run to a heap of Swede
turnips during the winter months. Then, again,
they are so exceedingly tractable and docile, sitting
anywhere and for ever if you please. They gene-
rally bring the whole of their egg^^ to perfection,

and they are quite examples of motherly care, affec-
tion, and assiduity. A turkey hen, with good
management, will rear twenty-five chickens on the
average of seasons. In my younger days I had
turkeys under my own management, and I do not
believe that they need greater attention in rearing
than common chickens. Give them wholesome
food at regular intervals, let them have a good beat
as soon as they are able to get about, keep them
out of storms and the wet grass, and attend to the
cleanness of their pens. The chicks, under such
management, grow exceedingly fast, and will nearly
get their own living by the time they are two months
old. The oldest and best of this year's birds
weigh now from 8 lbs. to 10 lbs., and will reach
14 or IG by Christmas, without any, or with very
little feeding, if the weather continues moderately
mild. The Norfolk, the common black, the black
with white spots, the grey or black and white, are
all good colours. The pure white are generally
the smallest birds of a hatch ; and the mixed
browns I have discarded entirely from my farm,
fjv they were generally wild and untractable.
There is one objection to the turkey, which will
ever prevent this bird from being a general favour-
ite. Bred originally in the wilds of America, he
still retains his wandering habits — he travails far
from his roost, and appears to want sufficient sense
to guide him home; night overtakes him, and un-
less a friendly tree affords him protection in its
branches, he hides his head in a hedge, and gives
some prowling fox a meal before morning. I have
seen 80 killed in a night, and unless the flock of
turkeys are under the charge of a person who can
safely be trusted to bring them home, they will al-
ways be liable to such disasters. A large range of
ground is necessary to the habits of the turkey,
and therefore it is only adapted to large farms. I
rather think the duck stands next to the turkey as
a valuable forager and an assimilator of food from
animal matter for marketable purposes. Of all
breeds the Aylesbury variety is considered to be
the most valuable, but all ducks which I have seen
have been endowed with duck-like properties —
that is, they would eat to repletion, sleep, and eat
again as long as a worm could be found to be added
to their meal. I believe the Aylesbury derives its
value in the London markets rather fi'om ist pecu-
liar management than from any superior properties
it possesses. The market is chiefly supplied from
a village near Aylesbury, whose inhabitants make
duck feeding and breeding their business. A gen-
tleman who knows the place well, described to me
their method. The old stock is starved in summer,
then forced by extra food in the autumn to make
them lay, and in the winter, or early in the spring,
hundreds of young ducklings occupy the floors of

2 G 2

448

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the cottages both up stairs and down, and take the
place of the children by the fire-places. By warmth
and high feeding the ducks are made the size of
geese, and are highly esteemed for tlie delicacy of
their Hesh. Here we see poultry feeding raadethesole
business of a village, and I have heard it is highly
profitable. If, then, it is made to answer where
all the food is given, it surely must pay where
a large portion is obtained at free cost. We must
in such assumption, however, make the necessary
allowance for a difFei-ence in markets. Ducks
cannot be called mischievous, and they may some-
times be turned into a garden with advantage.
They are often of great service in cleaning clover,
cabbages, and turnips from snails and slugs. Geese
are reared with little trouble, and make a great
return for the care bestowed upon them ; but it is
here more a question of comparative profit between
the fowls and animals. They (like sheep or cows)
live chiefly upon grass, and are only preventers of
waste in picking up the corn shed in the fields.
On good land I am inclined to think their keeping
somewhat ill bestowed. Where they are kept in
quantities their feathers should be made an article
of value. Guinea fowls are rather troublesome
articles ; they are particularly liable to lay away,
and require great watching. They may be made to
yield a great return for their keep by management
and care. As an instance of this, a lady told me
lately that she had made four guineas that year by
a single guinea hen — eggs and young ones in-
cluded. Pigeons, too, are a great source of profit. In
some places they are apt to be troublesome at har-
vest time, when the corn is laid, but a dovecote
should be maintained on every farm, to ensure the
destruction of the seeds of small weeds, and to
convert such refuse into food for man. My expe-
rience certainly has not been sufficiently great to
enable me to speak decidedly to the relative value
of the different breeds of fowls, but as far as it goes
I will now give you the results of my observations.
The Cochin China, which is at this moment all the
rage, I hold in low estimation for real usefulness ;
its awkwardly shaped body, and its very small eggs
reduce it much below many other breeds in eligi-
bility for the table or other productiveness. Its
docility and gentleness make it one of the best of
mothers, and must ever cause it to be a great fa-
vourite with poultry breeders. As my paper has
usefulness and ju'ofit for its object, I will forbear
all notice of the Cochin China, as a specimen of
fancy poultry. The Malay, ere it was crossed with
the Cochin China, was a plump and close feathered
fowl. Its body brown, with darker neck, and it is
mounted on rather high and yellow legs. It is a
beautiful bird for the table, but a bad layer, often
silting after the twelfth or thirteenth egg. It is a

very hardy and courageous bird, and the hen will
gallantly and successfully defend her chickens from
the attack of vermin Where rats abound, the
small brown Malay hen is invaluable for rearing
poultry. The Spanish are a fine fowl, of a rich
black colour ; an everlasting layer, and their eggs
are very fine. Seven of these eggs weigh a pound,
whilst some of the Cochin China require ten to
make the same weight. The chickens of these
fowls are very bare of feathers, and therefore suffer
in rainy weather if not provided with a shelter.
The Hamburgh, both gold and silver, in their
divisions of speckled and pencilled, are rather fancy
than useful fowls. They are good layers, which is
all I can say at present in their favour. The Run-
kin is a very deceitful little fowl; it is beautifully
plump, and if its size can be increased it will be
found an eligible breed for the table. The Game
is a hardy fowl, more valuable for the table than
for laying ; it has many admirers, who generally
speak highly of its merits. There are numberless
breeds all having merit in the eyes of their fanciers,
but I must forego a particular notice of these or I
shall swell my paper to an undue length. There is,
however, one variety which cannot be passed over
in silence, and this variety is the Dorking. I have
turned my attention to poultry this season with the
hope of making it a paying speculation, and, for
this reason, I have been more particular in noticing
the merits and the habits of the different descrip-
tions which are now running about the farm. I
have some Speckled Dorkings in two places mixed
with other specimens, and I have no hesitation in
saying that they decidedly beat all other kinds in
looking out for themselves — they are the best fora-
gers of any class, and therefore best adapted to fill
the office which nature has assigned to poultry.
But besides this there is no other variety which
will (with the same keeping and in the same [time)
produce the like amount of flesh for food. This is
not a solitary opinion, for a gentleman near Bir-
mingham, who has kept poultry all his hfe, gives
me the same high character of his Dorkings. As
layers they equal many of the other descriptions —
as mothers they are only inferior to the Cochin
China and Malay, and their general appearance,
beauty of plumage, symmetry of make, will entitle
them to the full consideration of the poultry keeper.
When all the qualifications of this class are brought
into calculation, in my opinion it decidedly deserves
to rank next to the Turkey in general estimation.
I have now noticed the office which I conceived
nature designed our poultry to fill, namely, to turn
to man's use the sheddings of harvest, the fruits of
the hedges, and the insects, the worms, and the
slugs, which cover and in many instances injure
the produce of our fields. I have also given you

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

449

my opinion upon some of the varieties of poultry,
setting forth to the best of my ability and experience
the various qualifications and the claims they have
upon our consideration, from being fitted to per-
form their proper functions in the economy of cre-
ation. I have very little more to say upon the
subject, and must therefore conclude my paper by
offering a few general remarks upon the manage-
ment of poultry. It must ever be borne in mind
that dry gravelly soils and warm and sheltered
situations are most conducive to the health and
growth of fowls, turkies, ducks, and geese, and
that on damp soils, clays, cold and exposed places
poultry will not thrive without having some very
considerable care and attention bestowed upon
them. I shall adapt my remarks to the more un-
favourable situations ; but their general tenor may
still be useful to those who, favoured by soil and
climate, will need them least. To enable a keeper
to maintain a full complement of poultry upon the
farm, it will undoubtedly be necessary to afford
them some assistance by feeding during the winter
months. This must be measured by circumstances.
Where there is a great deal of thrashing and fod-
dering going forward, and where there is always
some Swede turnips at command, poultry will need
little assistance from the hand of their keeper. I
have adopted the plan of stacking up for their use
a load of barley raking at places where there is no
thrashing or foddering ; they may here supply their
wants by their labour, and their stack will afford
them both food, exercise, shelter and amusement.
Shelter from the winds is absolutely necessary for
poultry — nothing suits them better than to bask on
a bank on the sunny side of a hedge. I should
advise some plantation of evergreen to be made
near the building in an exposed situation, for the
hens to creep under. Warmth is equal to food, and
attention to the comfort of the roost at night, and
shelter from the winds out of doors, will be amply
repaid in eggs and chickens in the spring. Any
one wishing early laying must not only select the
early hatched pullets of the previous year for the
purpose, but must also feed them well, and keep
them warm. Where large numbers of hens are
kept it is very advisable that the oflRce of poultry
keeper should be the sole employment of one per-
son, who should not be called to other work on
any occasion whatever. I say this because the
eggs are often lost for the want of looking up, and
the sitting hens are sometimes too long from their
nest in search of food. Nor is this the only incon-
venience—when the poultry is neglected, layers will
get upon the nest of the sitting hens to the annoy-
ance of the latter, or to the damage of their eggs.
The process of incubation never goes on better
than when the parent finds her nest in some hedge

bottom, where the nettle and long grass hide her
till she brings forth her brood. But where there
is a large number of hens kept many will quarrel
for a nest, and in such cases all others must be
kept away by guarding the nest, or the sitter must
be moved to another situation. This is said to be
difficult to manage, but I assure you it can as
readily be done with fowls as with turkeys by gen-
tleness and ordinary attention. In such cases I
would recommend a number of boxes to be fixed
upon the ground in some spare building, the occu-
pants of which, when sitting, might all be let off
together to be fed and watered, and at proper time
might be enclosed again, each in its separate apart-
ment, which plan is a great saving of trouble to the
attendant, and will generally be accompanied with
success. Nature says to the hen — fix your nest
upon the grouac'. Anl though man's interference
may have caused her to lay her eggs upon a loft, it
has not yet been able to overrule the original direc-
tion. I would advise in this respect that nature's
dictates are followed as implicitly as they well can
be. When chickens are young it is needless to
cram them with food. Nature has here provided
for their early support, for during the last stages
of incubation the yolk of the egg from which it
springs is absorbed into the body of the chicken.
I once found a brood of chickens which had been
hatched in such a situation as to preclude all pos-
sibility of their obtaining any food whatever ; they
were still healthy and strong though they had lived
in close confinement and almost total darkness, till
they had feathers in their wings nearly two inches
in length. It is equally absurd to cram young
turkeys ; they will peck when nature requires them
to make efforts for their support, and the sooner
the fashion of forcing peppercorns down their throats
is done away with, the better. Let these young
things have fresh air, and the warmth of the sun ;
give a few bread crubs, a boiled egg, or a little rice,
and keep them dry, under shelter of some building
or hedge from the wind, and in a very few days
they will get about, and will soon be able to seek
food for themselves. There are some casualties in
the flock even with the best attention. Vermin are
often very troublesome, and, in some places, the
carrion crows and magpies will carry off the duck-
ling when advanced to considerable size. The only
remedy in these cases is the destruction of the
cause of the evils. Death, too, will ensue from
disease. I cannot, I am sorry to say, give any
specific to the complaints of poultry. The only
course I can recommend when epidemic seizes the
inhabitants of the poultry yard, is cleanhness in
the roost and pens, and the removal of the young
ones to a different beat. I have known a large lot
of chicks that were dying daily, become quite

4gd

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

healthy on removal to the vicinity of a wheat field,
where they could roam at pleasure among the
standing corn, and obtain a thorough change of
food. In some parts of England poultry is penned
and fatted for the table. I certainly have not car-
ried my attempts to any length in this line, but as
far as they have gone they have proved a failure.
I have heard, too, where the process of fattening is
adopted, that after a certain period of treatment the
poultry will begin to sink. I shall for my part be
contented (for the present at least) to aid their feed-
ing by a little extra food, leaving them full range
for air and exercise. I fully expect to be told that
I have omitted many points that ought to have
been noticed. Some may, perhaps, ask how many
hens may be kept together v/ith advantage ? and to
such question I answer — circumstances alone must
determine the number. Domestic fowls seldom
travel far from the building they occupy ; and
hence there is not, to them, as there is to the tur-
key, an almost unlimited supply of insect food :
perhaps thirty is the maximum number to be kept
at one place. I have no doubt, also, that I shall
be reminded that poultry have numberless wants
that I have forgotten to enumerate ; amongst these
will be found lime, or oyster shell, to cover their
eggs; sand, or ashes, for dusting themselves, and
a copious supply of water for their thirst. There
will also be required coops, pens, frames for feeding
the young chickens under, and many contrivances
to carry on the business of the poultry yard, with
any convenience to the keeper. The greatest
desiderata in the rearing of poultry are the means
of hatching an unlimited number of eggs. The
earliest hatched chickens always become the finest
birds, and are also reared with the least trouble ;
besides all this, a supply equal to the demand can-
not, in the commencement of the season, be brought
to market. Now at this time only a very few of
the hens will sit. There has been invented lately
an apparatus called the Patent Hydro-Incubator,
which is described to be of easy management, and
is said to be efficient in its office. This machine
will perform the duties of several hens, and will,
not exactly sit upon, but will convert or change
200 to 400 eggs into an equal number of chickens.
Now this apparatus is just the thing wanted by
every poultry keeper, and if it maintains its preten-
sions, by realising its promises, would go far to fill
up the desiderata cotnplained of. I last spring
made enquiry about the price of this machine, but
I found it altogether beyond a farmer's means, — the
cost of one for 200 eggs was £42 10s., and a larger
size, capable of hatching 400 eggs, was above £84.
I tried to get over the difficulty by a contrivance
of my own, and applied the steam from a warming
apparatus to such purpose. I maintained for three

weeks an equable temperature, and really succeeded
in hatching chickens. I do not boast of my suc-
cess, nor shall I advise my friends to follow my
example, till I have been more fortunate in my
attempts. Still I am well satisfied myself with the
result of the trial made, and am assured the plan
is feasible, and will eventually be carried out. There
are many appliances to the production and rearing
of poultry which farmers little dream of using. I
met, the other day, with an account of a method
for ensuring to the poultry a large gupply of ani-
mal food during the winter, and as it may suggest
some useful idea, I will give it ere I close my pa-
per. " Dig a place (as many feet square as you
please), and slope it at the bottom to allow super-
fluous water to run off; fill it with straw to the
depth of six inches ; next a layer of horse dung
covered lightly with earth ; over this earth pour
blood, the entrails of animals, or any garbage which
can be procured, mixed with chaff; continue these
layers to the height of four feet, and cover the whole
with bushes and stones. The rains will soon pro-
duce the putrefactive fermentation throughout the
mass, and there will then be engendered myriads
of worms." We perhaps may not construct a re-
gular verminier, but could we not adapt our com-
post heaps to such purpose, and thus make them
serve a double use ? If poultry is to be made a
paying matter, its maintenance at a cheap rate must
form a part of every farmer's consideration. It
perhaps may be said that in a pecuniary point of
view the culture of poultry will ever be beneath the
consideration of the farmer. I have no means of
assertaining the exact annual value of the poultry
raised in Great Britain, but taking the estimated
consumption of London as a comparative guide, it
must amount to some millions 'of pounds sterling.
I believe I have seen a published account that the
eggs imported from France irito London alone ex-
ceeds yearly £10,000 value. I am sure, Mr. Chair-
man, that we cannot look upon the poultry of our
yards with indifference, even in a pecuniary point
of view. I know well that they have often aflTorded
great aid in the maintenance of a family, and with
proper care and fair attention I am well satisfied
they can be made to do more. I have no wish to
make any farmer's wife a manager ^of poultry in
her own person : she may have other offices to per-
form, and she may be far better employed in her
household cares and family duties, than in looking
up eggs, feeding the chickens, or in sending her
turkeys to their roosts ; but 1 wox\ld have every
farmer's wife able to direct her deputies in all the
minutia of their charges. She, at least, should be
able to rise above all vulgar prejudices, and manage
the poultry rationally, from a thorough acquaintance
with their history, their^wants, their habits, and the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

451

offices which nature has formed them to fulfil.
There is a plan often adopted on some farms where
labourers are fixed in cottages upon it, of paying
their wives a certain sum per head for every fowl
or turkey, and so much for every score of eggs.
When the honesty of the party can be relied upon,
this is a very good and convenient arrangement.
The fee for rearing a turkey is generally Gd., a goose
4d., the same for a couple of fowls, and id. per
score is generally paid for the collection of eggs ;
and the cost of rearing last year on our farm, upon
such calculation, amounted to about 12;t per cent,
upon the gross value or sale of poultry. A phi-
lanthropic farmer can never regard the cultivation
of poultry as an object beneath his care ; he will
always look upon it as a means of increasing the
supply of human food ; and to carry out these
means to the fullest extent, he will use that know-
ledge which observation and experience confer.
He will look to the fowls in his yards with as much
consideration to the improvement of their size and
necessary qualifications, as he does to the improve-
ment of his cattle and sheep. He will not patro-

nize a degenerate race, but will import from a
distance some better and healthier breeds. The
interest lately exhibited in the article of poultry,
shows that its value is now generally, if not na-
tionally, appreciated. Exhibitions are now held in
various parts of the kingdom, and the breeding of
hens calls forth as much rivalry now as the breeding
of horses. It is not my purpose, nor is it my
intention, to touch upon the cultivation of fancy
poultry. I certainly would wish to see our fields
and yards filled with birds of fine plumage and
symmetrical form ; but I would not wish to see
these unless they were at the same time patient and
assiduous mothers, good layers, and of great value
in the market for their size and flavour. My
closing advice, founded on my own experience, is
this : treat your poultry with the utmost gentleness,
care for their comfort, and feed them liberally in
times of scarcity of food, and then I will venture
to promise that your turkeys, your hens, your
ducks, and even your geese, shall gratefully yield
you a profitable return, — Leicester Journal,

LABOUR AND THE POOR.— THE RURAL DISTRICTS.

THE SOUTHERN AND WESTERN COUNTIES.

Letter XXX.
(From the Morning Chronicle.)

I now propose to take a general survey of the
condition and prospects of tire labourer, in what
kingdom,
is pre-eminently the Hop-growing district of the

This district comprehends the whole of Kent,
the whole of Surrey, and the eastern moiety of
Sussex. It comprises an area of a little upwards
of 3,000 square miles, or about 1,950,000 acres.
The hop is not, however, cultivated to an equal
extent throughout the whole of this region. It is
far more prominent as a feature in the agriculture
of Kent than in that of either Surrey or Sussex.
There are few parts of Kent in which it is not more
or less produced. In Surrey a less quantity of it
is raised in proportion to the area of the county
than in Kent, but its culture may be regarded as
general throughout the county. In Sussex, on the
other hand, it is chiefly confined to the eastern di-
vision— farming operations, in their ordinary ac-
ceptation, almost exclusively engaging the attention
of the occupiers of the soil in the western division.
In Kent the chief scene of the hop cultivation is
the vicinity of Maidstone, and indeed the whole of
that portion of the valley of the Medway which
lies between Tonbridge and the chalky ridge that
intervenes between Maidstone and Rochester. In
Surrey, it is, perhaps, in the parish of Farnham
that its cultivation is carried to the greatest extent.
In east Sussex it is grown to some degree, in the
neighbourhood of Lewes, but the principal scene

of its cultivation in this county appears to be Rye
and its vicinity.

Nowhere, perhaps, even in Kent, is the hop ex-
clusively cultivated. Its growth is a feature, arid
nothing more, in the agriculture of the district in
question. In Kent there are large tracts of culti-
vated ground on which the hop is not to be seen.
Nor are these, in every instance, tracts on which
it could not be successfully raised. It is true that
there are many districts in Kent, and in the other
counties, grouped with it, in which the culture of
the hop could not be advantageously carried on—
but even in Kent, where its cultivation is most
prevalent, there are large tracts in which it has
never been raised, or from which it has disappeared*
although they are in all respects well adapted for
its production. And you usually find its cultivation
exceptional to the general agriculture of the district.
It is only in a very few instances that you see farms
of any size converted in toto into hop gardens —
certainly in fewer instances now than formerly. To
cultivate the plant on a large scale would require
more capital than the great majority of the hop
growers possess. A few wealthy capitalists have
appropriated considerable tracts, not far from
Maidstone, exclusively to the production of the hop,
with great success, I am informed, in times past,
but with very dubious prospects fov the future. In
the great majority of cases in which the plant has
been and is still raised, the hop garden is merely

452

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

an appendage to the farm. And it is tlie same in
Surrey and East Sussex. The exceptional character
of the business may be inferred from a glar.ce at
the farmsteadings, in the districts in which hop
growing is most attended to. You almost inva-
riably find the apparatus used for drying the hops,
a mere addendum to the ordinary appurtenances
of a farm. The Occupation Returns of the last
census, too, clearly show that hop growing is not
regarded as an exclusive pursuit. The number
returned for all Kent, as exclusively hop growers,
in 1841, did not exceed seven. In Surrey and
Sussex none were returned as such. And whilst
in Kent there were only seven returned as exclu-
sively hop growers, the number returned as agri-
cultural labourers was close upon 40,000. If we
look for the employers of these men, we find that
they consist of from 5,000 to 6,000 farmers and
graziers, amongst whom are the cultivators of the
hop. In treating of the general subject of labour,
therefore, in these counties, it is with farm labour,
in its usual acceptation, that we have chieilj', as
elsewhere, to deal ; although in parts of them that
labour is so influenced by the cultivation of the
hop, that it is impossible to treat separately of the
two in pursuing an investigation like the present.
Even in districts which are exclusively appropriated
to the ordinary purposes of tillage, and which are,
comparatively speaking, far removed from the hop
growing sections of the counties, its cultivation
has a sensible effect upon the condition of the la-
bourer. This, of course, applies more particularly
to Kent, where the growth of the plant is more
general than elsewhere.

Taking the same basis of calculation as on for-
mer occasions, we find that in Kent the number of
those emi)loyed as agricultural labourers, or other-
wise dependent upon agricultural labour for sup-
port, was in 1841 about 130,000 souls. This, in a
population of 548,000, gives but about 23 per cent.
of the whole. We have seen that in other counties,
the proportion was 33 1-3 per cent, of the whole
population. This, indeed, is the case in one of the
counties of the present group — Sussex. In that
countj', the population in 1841 was within a frac-
tion of 300,000. The number of agricultural la-
bourers was about 30,000; making the whole
number dependent for support upon farm labour
little short of 100,000. In Surrey, the proportion
was still smaller than in Kent ; for, out of a popu-
lation of 583,000, only 70,000 were dependent for
their maintenance upon agricultural labour— or
about 12 per cent, of the whole. But the causes
of these varying proportions are obvious. Sussex
is a purely agricultural county — for, although it
has a few ports, it cannot be said to have any
commerce. Indeed, some of its ports have long
had more political than commercial importance
attached to them. Both Kent and Surrey may, on
the other hand, be regarded as metropolitan coun-
ties - a portion of the metropolis being situated in
each of them. The whole of the southern district
of the metropolis, with the exception of Greenwich,
is comprehended within the limits of Surrey —
tliat portion of London alone (forming but one-
fourth of the whole metropohs) containing a larger
p.-^pulation than any of the capitals of Europe, ex-

cept four-- viz., Paris, Constantinople, Naples, and
St. Petersburg. It is here that the great masses of
the labouring population cf Surrey find employ-
ment, as mechanics, artisans, and otherwise. The
number returned as labourers in this county, in
contradistinction to agricultural labourers, was from
30,000 to 35,000 — who, with those dependent upon
them, would make about 120,000, or more than a
fifth of the whole population. The number of the
corresponding class returned in Sussex was but
10,000, who, with those dependent upon them,
would make about 35,000, or somewhat more than
one-ninth of the whole. What appUes to Surrey
applies also to Kent, but in a less degree — there
being but a comparaiively small portion of the me-
tropohs within the latler county. But it is sur-
rounded by a belt of busy seaports — such as Wool-
wich, Gravesend, Sheerness, Chatham, Margate,
Kamsgate, Deal, Dover, and Folkestone — which,
as the scene of great Governuient works, as fashion-
able resorts, or as commercial stations, give rise to
a considerable demand for labour other than agri-
cultural. It is, however, with agricultural labour
that I have here chiefly to deal ; and, in speaking
of it I shall — considering the influence which it ex-
ercises over the circumstances of ihe labourer
generally in these counties — first draw the reader's
attention to the subject of hop cultivation.

There are many who regard the cultivation of
the hop as a great, if not an unmixed, evil to the
district in which it is produced. As it is in Kent
that its production is carried to the largest extent,
so it was there that I found this opinion most pre-
valent. Many think that it would be a great boon
to the counties in question if the hop aUogether
disappeared from their surface. It is not denied
that great profits are sometimes realized from it —
the complaint is, that ii injuriously affects the ge-
neral interests of the districts in which it prevails,
by (amongst other things) greatly deteriorating the
ordinary agriculture of those localities. It is al-
leged that the cultivation of the hop " starves the
land." There is perhaps no other county in the
kingdom, the soil of which varies so much in re-
spect to its capabilities, as that of Kent. With the
exception of the large central tract known as the
Weald, and the chalky ridge which sweeps through
the county from the South Foreland, across the
valley of the Medwa)', and on almost to Gravesend,
the whole of Kent presents to the eye the appear-
ance of a garden. The ridge alluded to is in many
places bare and unproductive, with stretches of
woodland here and there at its base. Throughout
the Weald the woodland is interspersed with the
naked wild, the two forming together the district
known by that name— a district not confined to
Kent, but stretching through Surrey into Hamp-
shire, and into the centre of Sussex. Here and
there portions of it have been brought into cultiva-
tion, but vast tracts are yet unreclaimed — although
the spots are exceptional in which it is irreclaim-
able. To the superficial observer the cultivated
portion of Kent, which comprises the great bulk of
its surface, is equally productive throughout. It
requires, however, but little observation to detect
the error of this conclusion. It is only here and
there that the soil is really rich and heavy. It is

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

453

to be found in many places constantly alternating
between clialk, sand, gravel, and rich fertile loam.
The quality of the soil is pretty well indicated by
the timber which it bears. In many parts of Kent
it is small end stunted — whilst sometimes a ridge
of heavy timber, showing the course of a vein of
rich loam, may be seen between two belts of much
lighter wood, indicating the presence of more
meagre soil. In other places small isolated clumps
of heavy wood are to be met with, surrounded by
a more stunted vegetation — the latter supported by
a soil through the thin coating of which the sand
comes frequently peering to the surface. But in
other parts of Kent, as towards its eastern ex-
tremity, there are large tracts of heavy and rich
land, on which corn is raised regularly and in
abundance. The quality of the land, in some por-
tions of the interior, and towards the south and
south-west of the country, may be also inferred
from the average rental which it commands, which
is not much above 14s. or 1 5s. an acre. In some
places— as, for instance, in the neighbourhood of
'i'unbridge Wells— there are larms now in the mar-
ket for which there is no offer even at that rate. It
so happens that it is chiefly in the districts in which
the land varies most in quality that the hop is most
generally cultivated ; and it is almost always the
best lands that are a|)propriated to its production.
The inferior parts are left for the growth of corn
and grass. Take a particular farm, for instance,
and you find the hop garden, if it includes one, oc-
cupying the best part of it as regards soil. It is
from the inferior portion that the cereal returns are
looked for. And not ordy is the part of the land
given up to the hop generally the best on the farm,
but it is also that on which the farmer bestows his
chief attention. The land must be kept in good
heart to produce this plant, and it too frequently
happens that the manure which should be aj)plied
to the corn-field is transferred to the hop-garden.
Even were the land generally heavy and rich, this
would be bad treatment of it, so far as regards the
production of grain crops. But it is not so ; and
the evil of the system is, that this practice of impo-
verishing the corn land is ]irevalent in districts in
which the latter, from its quality, requires a great
deal of manure to enrich it and keep it in heart. It
is seldom that, in these cases, the land is sufficiently
kept up to get good wheat crops from it. It is
systematically neglected just where it should be
systematically cared for. Even when it is properly
dressed, and brought up to the right point for
wheat, it soon falls back " out of repair," unless
manure is constantly applied to it. Yet such is the
soil which is robbed of its proper quantity of ma-
nure to enrich the hop-gardens. And if the soil in
these districts is not sufficiently kept up for white
crops, it will be realily inferred that it is certainly
not so for green crops. Such is the case. No one
can travel through the interior of Kent without
having this fact forced upon him. The cultivation
of green crops enters but very slightly into the agri-
culture of this part of the county. Here and there
you may see a turnip or a potato field, or one set
apart for the production of mangold wurzeh But
they are few and rarely met with, the soil being
chiefly divided between the hop-garden, the corn-

field, and the meadow. When a hop-garden is
converted into a corn-field the most luxuriant crops
are generally got from it ; but even in such a case
the land must be well kept up, or it soon becomes
meagre and comparatively improductive. Yet such
cases show what the land could do if it were pro-
perly treated ; for in many instances in which the
hop-gardens are thus dealt with, the soil which
forms thi ir basis is no better than that which has
been stinted for their sake. This is the evil of
which many in Kent complain— an evil which in-
juriously affects almost the entire agriculture of
the county; and on this ground it is contended
that the entire abandonment of the hop cultivation
would be fraught with benefit instead of evil. Had
these views been presented to me only in a few
isolated instances, I should not have deemed them
worthy of so much notice. That I have here laid
any stress upon them, is simply because I found
them very generally entertained.

Another objection offered to the continued culti-
vation of the hop is the gambling character of the
business. It is only occasionally — say once in three
or four years — that it turns out a favourable specu-
lation. But then the profits are sometimes so great
that many are lured into the pursuit whose means
do not justify their embarking in it. Like the
business of tanning, as formerly conducted, which
made but a slow return upon the capital invested
in it, that of hop-growing should only be under-
taken by those who can afford to wait patiently for
returns on the portion of their capital so applied.
But it is not confined to such; small farmers, with
little capital, rushing eagerly into the adventure.
It is by the splendid prizes which are sometimes
drawn that they are enticed to take a share in the
lottery. This will be readily understood when it
is remembered that — under circumstances, how-
ever, which cannot be expected to occur again —
the hop has fluctuated in price from £30 to 40s. per
cwt. Many small farmers in Kent are constantly
paying too much attention to their hoji-gardens,
and too little to their fields. Even when agricul-
tural distress has not been complained of else-
where, nutubers of the hop-growing farmers have
been floundering in difficulties ; and so it is at the
present moment. Last season was pre-eminently
disastrous to the plant ; and so large was the stake
that even the comparatively ample returns of the
fields have scarcely sufficed to make good the losses
of the hop-gardens.

It is not easy to determine what effect upon the
general interests of labour in the county the dimi-
nution of the hop cultivation would have. There
can be no question that it would be injurious, unless
the improved cultivation of the fields gave rise to
an additional demand for labour in that direction,
equivalent in extent to the amount of labour left
unemployed by the abandonment of the hop.
Whether an improved cultivation would or would
not result it is not necessary forme here to discuss,
as I have put forth no opinion of my own in favour
of the relinquishment of the hop. This, however,
is certain, that were it abandoned, a good deal of
capital which is now bound up in a very precarious
pursuit would be released, and rendered apphcable
for other purposes. It is also obvious that the land

454

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

in such case would not be starved as it is now, in-
asmuch as the manure which the hop-garden now
monopolizes would then he more generally distri-
buted over its surface. It is likewise probable that
were high farming resorted to, for which Kent is
as well adapted as most counties in the kingdom,
the demand for additional labour v/ould more than
cover the hiafits left in employment by the cessation
of hop cultivation.

It is not to be denied that, with the exception
of gardening and nursery work — of which it is, in
fact, but a branch— hop-growing is, of all agricul-
tural pursuits, one of the most general and constant
dispensers of employment. It furnishes work
during the bulk of the year to people of both sexes
and of all ages. Economy in the work of produc-
tion has, indeed, embraced the hop-garden as well
as other scenes of human industry ; yet still the
average expenditure per year upon an acre of hops
is fully seven times as much as the average outlay
per acre upon corn land, even where farming is not
pursued in a slovenly manner. The average outlay
per year upon the hop-garden is from £20 to £22
per acre. This expenditure represents employment
under a favourable aspect ; that is to say, it repre-
sents a great deal of it concentrated v/ithin a limited
space. Not only can the father and mother and
children be employed in the hop-garden, but there
are branches of the labour which they are each pecu-
liarly adapted for undertaking. It is thus that not
only may a whole family be employed, as in other
agricultural operations ; but the i-equirements of
the hop-garden are best attended to when the in-
dustry bestowed upon it is of that v-arying character
which the labour of the different members of a
family presents. Any serious disturbance, there-
fore, to an occupation so well adapted for adminis-
tering to the necessities of the labouring poor, can-
not be contemplated with indifference, unless a
better mode of effecting the same object be at hand,
and capable of being at once resorted to. On the
other hand, it must not be forgotten that a pursuit
which not only admits of, but is best promoted by,
the employment of persons of different ages and
sexes, is by no means attended with unmixed good.
It but too frequently administers to the physical,
at the expense of the moral, wants of the family.
"When children may not only go into the hop-
garden, but their presence there is more desirable
than otherwise, the business of their education, if
attended to at all, is liable to frequent and very
serious interruptions. Nor are even its physical
advantages altogether without drawback. The
mother of a family cannot be both in the hop-
garden and at home ; and home is her proper
sphere. Her absence from it injuriously affects
both the con.forts and the interests of the family;
and many a v/orking man, both in Kent and else-
where, have I heard deplore the necessity which
seemingly existed for his wife betaking herself to
the fields. You may prove to demonstration to them
that they would be better off, even in a physical
point of view, if their wives remained at home and
attended to their household duties ; but the tempta-
tion presented by the few extra shillings which may
be earned by the wife is, in most cases, sufficiently
great to overrule all other considerations.

It may also here be remarked, that hop-work is
generally done by the piece — a condition of work
favourable to the labourer, until the competition
becomes greatly disproportionate to the field for
employment; and this gives rise to a relationship,
in many cases, between the employer and employed
in the hop counties, which is by no means prevalent
in the other agricultural districts of the south. When
a woman labours in the field in Dorset, for instance,
she is generally hired directly by the occupier of the
soil — being thus, as regards the employer, in
precisely the same position as her husband, the only
diflference between them being that her work is
usually the lighter, and her wages invariably the
lower of the two ; indeed, in many cases, husband
and wife, and brother and sister, not only work in
different fields, but also under different employers.
In the hop districts it is seldom that you find a family
thus dispersed. It is of course competent to a woman
or any of her family to take work, here as elsewhere,
directly from the employer, and in some cases this
is done — more particularly in connection with those
operations in the business of hop-growing for which
women and children are best adapted. But, gene-
rally speaking, the practice is otherv/ise — the family
usually working together, the husband taking
the work, and his wife and children aiding him
in the performance of it. This operates sometimes
to therelief of themore tender membersofthefamily;
but at others it causes their subjection to very severe
work. The wife is sometimes made to participate
in the most laborious occupations of the husband ;
whilst in some districts the work is so distributed
between them that she appears to have its severer
part cast upon her. But it is the boy who is
most frequently thus subjected to work to which
his strength seems inadequate. He is frequently
seen working by himself, but generally side by side
with his father — either taking upon himself the
lighter parts of the work, or sharing it, without re-
gard to degree, with his father. If the latter appor-
tions to his son the lighter work, he of course in-
creases his own toil, by reserving to himself all
that is heavy and laborious. If, on the other hand,
he makes his son partake of the general work,
whilst his own labour is not thus increased, the
task devolved upon the boy is that which is only
suitable for the man. In such cases, children are
subjected to great hardships — not the least evil of
which is, perhaps, the premature age and decre-
pitude that supervene. But in the majority of cases,
although they are kept very constantly at work,
they are not severely over-tasked, the parental
instinct generally interposing between them and
such a result. When the tenderer members of the
family are thus not subjected to work beyond their
strength, the system of the husband taking task-
work, and being aided by his wife and children in
the execution of it, seems much more favourable —
at least as regards the conservation of morals — than
the practice which elsewhere prevails, of each
member of a family finding work for himself or
herself, where and how he or she can, the husband
working in one field, and the wife in another, the
son in a third, and the daughter, perhaps, in a
fourth, and sometimes under different employers.
The system alluded to as prevailing in the hop dis-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

456

tricts has at least the merit of keeping the family
together— a state of things more favoura1)le to the
exercise of a wholesome surveillance than the op-
posite practice.

The first business in the cultivation of the hop is
of course the preparation of the ground. From this
to hop-picking, which is the last out-door process,
the hop-garden is the scene of almost constant in-
dustry. The ground may be prepared any time
before February, when digging commences. The
chief preparation is the manuring of the land. For
this purpose rags and sprats are used, and, in the
absence of these, ordinary manure. Occasionally,
different kinds of manure are mixed together, and
sometimes all these are combined. When rags are
used, they are generally woollen ones, which being
composed of animal matter, make a very good
manure. Before being used ihey are chopped very
small upon a block, in which state they are fit for
use. For chopping the rags a man gets from I2s.
to 15s. a week. It is not exclusively men's work,
it being such as boys may make themselves very
expert in. They, of course, get lower wages than
the men. The rags are also generally known as
" hospital rags," being, in fact, the refuse of the
metropolitan and other hospitals. Many complain
of the pernicious results of introducing such a
commodity into healthy localities. I have been told
that the presence of small-pox in Tunliridge Wells
has frequently been attributed to it. Whilst chop-
ping the rags the workmen have often been sickened,
and their appetites taken from them, by the offen-
sive effluvia proceeding from them. " We don't
like the work very well, but it get us 15s. a week,"
said one of them, on being asked why he adhered
to such an employment, especially after he himself
had several times been made ill by it. When sprats
are used, they are spread over the land to decompose
upon it. When this is done, boys are in requisition
to watch the fields and to act as perijjatetic scare-
crows to frighten away the gulls, which would
otherwise come in great numbers from the coast to
])artake of a repast so temptingly spread for them.
For this work a boy will sometimes get 6d. a day,
at others not more than 2s. or 2s. 6d. a week. If
the rags are objectionable in their way, so also are
the sprats. I have been told in some places that
the iieighboarhood used to be regularly poisoned
by the quantities of them vrhich lay decomposing
on the ground. They are used in but few places
to the same extent now as formerly. The v.-ork of
digging, with such manure on the ground, must,
when the weather is at all warm and the woik of
decomposition incomplete, be anything but whole-
some. Digging is generally the work of men, aided
by boys when the work is not day-work. The boys
are called in when the work is task-work, and, as
such, is undertaken by their fathers. A boy and
his father frequently earn between them £1 a week
at this work, the boy doing about a third of what
the man does, or about a quarter of the whole work
done. Digging is, as I have said, generally com-
menced in the month of February, when a brisk
demand for labour succeeds the inactivity of winter
throughout the whole of the hop districts.

The hole dug for the reception of the plant is an
irregular one, being, generally speaking, about two

feet in diameter, and from eighteen inches to two
feet deep. It is desirable that the earth about the
roots of the plants should be, for some distance
around it, as loose and free as possible, and there-
fore it is that the hole is made of the dimensions
specified. The nursery plants are then taken and
put into the holes, there being generally but three
of them to a hole. Care is taken that their roots
are kept free, and that they are well spread out.
After this, the mould which has been taken out of
the hole is carefully replaced, having been first
bruised and well pulverized. In this process the
top of the plant is ke]it a little above the level of the
ground, so that a shght hill can be formed around
it without smothering it. It sometimes happens
that the hop bears the first year, and sometimes
the second; but it is generally the third year ere
it comes to bearing maturity. If circumstances
favour it, the plant is ready about the beginning of
the second season to undergo the operation of pru-
ning. The first step in this process is that vvhich
is known as " opening the hills." This consists
of removing the mould from about the roots of the
plants, so as to get as lov/ down as possible at the
shoots of the previous season. The older shoots
are then cut off with a sharp pruning knife within
an inch or two of the stem of the plant, after which
the earth is restored carefully to its place, leaving
the remaining shoots to grow. The opening of the
hills is a species of work common to men, women,
and boys ; generally speaking, it is the work of
men. They are frequently aided at it by the boys
—whilst in some jilaces custom, or something else
equally arbitrary, has assigned it to women. It is
seldom, however, that women are to be found doing
this where the ground is comparatively heavy, as
is the case around Brenchley and in the neighbour-
hood of Tunbridge. When the men and boys open
the hills, the women generally prune the plants ;
when the women open them, the men jjrune. In
some places, v.'hen the lightness of the soil admits
of it, the women are put to the work of opening,
because more reliance is placed on the skill and
judgment of the men in the work of pruning. In
some localities the work of pruning the plants,
with its accompaniments, is given out by task ; in
others it is almost exclusively treated as day-work.
When the latter, the men may earn from 2s. to 2s.
6d. per day; and as the women and boys are then
hired as independent labourers, they earn— the
women from lOd. to Is., and the boys from 6d. lo
8d. a day. When the work is given ont by task,
the husljandman undertakes to do it, v.ith such aid
as he can get — generally that of his family. In
such ca;:-es, the wages of the women and children
are comi)rehended in the contract entered into by
the man, which is usually to do the v/ork at from
jhd. to 4id. per hundred. The boys begin this
work at twelve, when the opening of the hills is
very severe labour for them. If they continue at it
for two or three years they may, when it is day-
work, earn from lOd. to Is. a day. When the
work is given out by the day, the hours of labour
are from six to six— hours which must be observed
by boys as well as men. Women, in similar cases,
work from eight to six, it being supposed that
household duties prevent them from coming out at

456

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

an earlier hour. When it is task-work they may
select their own hours, always providingf that they
do not neglect their work. Half an hour is usually
allowed to the men and boys for breakfast when
labouring by the day, and an hour to men, women,
and boys for dinner. Although the season of the
year in which this process in the cultivation of the
hop is attended to is not the most favourable for
out-door operations, there are nevertheless circum-
stances attending it which render it in general a
more healthy species of work than others that are
performed at more genial periods of the year.

It is when the plant begins fairly to shoot that it
undergoes the process of pohng. The poles are
forced into the ground to a sufficient depth to give

them a firm hold. This being a work requiring
almost exclusively muscular strength, is commonly
assigned as task-work to men. But even in this
they derive aid from their families, the women and
children frequentlv assisting in laying out the poles
for the men. Boys can be thus employed at a
much earlier age than either at opening the hills or
digging in the hop-garden. They are not tinfre-
quently thus occupied in the field at eight years of
age. They are sometimes hired, when a little
older, to assist others, when they earn about 6d. a
day.

The remaining operation connected with the hop-
garden I shall reserve for a subsequent communi-
cation.

THE PRINCIPLES OF

We have not yet by any means discovered the
whole of the principles of manuring crops.
Wont practice has been too long bUndly followed.
But it is now found to be of no use. The chmate
— the quality of the soil, mechanical as well as
chemical— the aspect — the elevation — and even the
crop—are all modifying circumstances, as well as the
influence of the geological strata on which the soil
rests. Though the latter is often modified by drifts,
yet the mechanical character of the soil, as well as
the chemical, has much to do with the value of the
superincumbent strata. Hence we have arrived at
the following deductions, which embrace almost
the whole of our knowledge : —

(a) The same manure will not always have the
same effect either on the same soil for another
crop, on another soil for the same crop, or either
on the one or the other for any great period of time.

It was a custom in Cheshire, some years ago, for
capitalists to take farms; to manure the whole, year
after year, with soot ; to get great crops ; but,
ultimately, to leave the farm denuded of its stamina
so much as to be almost worthless for years after
from simple sterility. This was said to be because
the soot was a stimulant and not a manure. But
we shall allude afterwards to the elucidation of
this principle.

{b) On some soils a mineral manure is quite
adequate to produce ample crops.

This was so far proved by the theoretical calcu-
lations of Liebig, that he suggested a purely
mineral theory, and Messrs. Muspratt and Co.
manufactured one under his directions, which was
an absolute failure.

(c) On other soils ammoniacal, or, at least,
azotic manures, with or without carbonaceous
manure, or the latter alone, will produce better
crops than mineral manure, and will alone secure
a very full production.

So far did Mr. Huxtable carry this, that he pro-
posed the application of ammonia at a given price

MANURING CROPS.

as the only panacea for the farmer, and the certain
means of growing wheat at 40s. per quarter. J

{d) On other soils mechanical mixtures will do '
more to benefit a soil thim any manure whatever ;
in other words, the addition of substances useless
in themselves will promote production of crops
before impossible to be grown on the l?nd, and will
ensure crops of a much better quality and larger
quantity.

Thus an apphcation of the coldest and most
worthless clay to an equally barren and sterile sand
will often constitute a soil of fair quality, if not fit to
grow crops at once, at least very fit to receive a
small modicum of manure with the greatest pos-
sible advantage ; or peat upon clay, or marl upon
chalk ; nay, in fact, nearly every mixture short of
sand upon clay, which seems to be of very little
service,

(e) Phosphoric acid will be, especially in a state
of slight fixation, highly beneficial to almost every
soil; simply because this is a material of which the
whole process of agriculture appears to denude the
land.

Thus soils the most worthless, barren peats and
blowing sands, are made to grow the finest green
crops by the use of vitirohzed bones or of guano.

(/) ^ general manure, consisting of ammonia and
potash, with a mixture of carbonaceous matter, if
in a high state of solubility, will almost invariably
produce a moderately good crop in any soil what-
ever.

This appears to be owing to their enabling the
plants to take up their proper quantity of the other
mineral matters in the soil, and so aflford large leaf-
organization for drawing the supplies of the needed
carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere.

(g) A succession of the same kind of manures
will, after possibly a second application, always
tend to produce less and less sensible results in
improving the crop.

Few manures contain all the elements needed by

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

im

plants. Guano seems to be by far the best general
manure, but it is quite possible that in time it may
be found necessary to apply some other, to keep up
the proportions of stamina in the soil.

(h) In soils where the manure rapidly disappears,
from a want of power to absorb its best qualities,
a small and freque*nt application is preferable to a
larger and more remote system of dressing.

When the soil can hold the manure only for a
short period, it is manifestly best to give it to the
plants in the quantities they can readily assimilate.

(i) Manure should always be applied in the de-
gree of fixation most easily dissolved by the soil
or the plants. A second application is better than
too much at once.

It is manifestly the safest course not to over-tax
the vital energies of the plant, to dissolve the manu-
rial medium.

Hence, as a rule, it is far preferable, even at a
loss, to allow the manure to ferment, in preference
to applying it in the raw state ; for though there is
necessarily a waste in all decomposition, yet it may
be a necessary waste, to enable the plants to reahze
the dose of manure applied to them.

ij) It is abundantly clear, moreover, that of the
manures applied the plants do not come in contact
with the whole ; hence it is necessary to apply more
than they absolutely take away, or a deficiency must,
necessarily take place, and the crops fail. It must
be also borne in mind that, in order to make the
scale-and-weight application of a compound, the
application itself should be in a proper state of fixa-
tion.

Experiments have certainly shown that as regards
ammonia it seems to matter little whether it is ap-
plied as the fixed sulphate or the volatile carbonate.
The soil, properly constituted, soon assimilates both
in its own special degree of fixation ; but it may
not be so, and certainly is not so with the carbon
which may be applied.

The drill is a grand assistance to the small appli-
cation of manure; but it will not much assist in
applications of guano, or similarly powerful and
rapidly decomposing materials, but will often injure
the soil. Of all manures guano is the most diffu-
sive, and may be, with the greatest possible advan-
tage, mixed with the whole soil. The plants are cer-
tain to find it. — Gardeners' and Farmers' Journal.

CHIPPENHAM HUNDRED FARMERS' CLUB

The first monthly meeting of the season of this Club
took place at the Bell Inn, Yatton Keynell, on Wed-
nesday, the 29th September last, presided over by Mr.
Thos. Little, in the absence of his brother, Mr. R. D.
Little. The ordinary business was first transacted.

Mr. Schneider, Slaughterford, and Mr. Painter, of
West Yatton, having agreed to bring forward conjointly,
as a subject for discussion at the next monthly meeting,
"The best preparation for wheat on light and heavy
soils," the Chairman called upon Mr. Scott, of
Grittleton, to introduce the subject for discussion that
evening.

Mr. Scott then rose and read the following paper :

"WHAT HAS SCIENCE DONE FOR AGRI-

CULTURE ?"

In endeavouring to iEinswer the question, " What has
science done for agriculture ?'' I must ask— as I feel
confident I shall obtain — your indulgence, from a deep
sense of my inability to do justice to the subject, and
from the fact of my not having had many days to pre-
pare myself to bring it forward. I must claim your
special attention to the remarks I shall make, aa it is
diflScult to bring the facts and arguments of the case
into a focus, to enable them to be easily seen and clearly
comprehended by the general body of members of
clubs such as this, who, however prompt and ready in
their practice to avail themselves of the results of
scientific discoveries, are not likely to be in the habit of
discussing the processes by which tliey are arrived at.
And here I would observe that it can never be reason-
ably expected that farmers in general should become

scientific scholars by studying the abstruse principles of
chemistry, or by learning the botanical names of 50,000
plants, that they may cultivate a dozen. All experience
is opposed to this, or to their turning aside from that
course and from those processes which have been con-
firmed by the experience of centuries, and in which
alone lies their safety. But when farmers know the
principles on which their successful practice depends,
agriculture then becomes a science, and remains no
longer only an art ,- and you will all, no doubt, admit that
one farmer with a knowledge of science must possess
advantages over another without it, both being equal in
practical ability. Take as an instance that both parties
farm a thin soil, composed of inert vegetable matter,
resting on what is called a moor-band pan, which is
bound together by sulphate of iron, and discharges that
yellow sediment so often seen by you in your ditches,
called oxide of iron, so poisonous to vegetable life.
Suppose this land to be managed exactly alike, until it
come to be fallowed for green crop ; then the one ap-
plies dung, because he knows it is usual to do so at this
stage ; but the other — the man of science — applies lime,
and ploughs it in, that it may come in contact with the
pan below, knowing, as he does, that the lime will
liberate the potash and decompose the sulphate of iron,
and, by taking up the sulphate, become sulphate of
lime or gypsum, thereby affording suitable food for
turnips, wheat, and clover. The result in the former
case will be almost an entire waste of the manure and a
stunted crop of roots.

Until very recently science has been so little recog-

458

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

nized as a handmaid to agriculture, and has met with so
many rebuffs in its advances, that its progress has no
doubt been retarded ; so much so, indeed, that though
it is many years since " Tull" wrote and "Davy"
lectured, it would be much more easy even now to say
what science proposes to do, than what it has actually
accomplished for our profession. Fortunately, it is now
recognised by agriculturists as a body, and those farmers
who endeavour to engraft it on their practice are no
longer designated " mere theorists." Science never
claimed the power to enrich individuals, any more than
our Club does — but only to improve our general practice
and elevate our profession; and therefore it ought to be
encouraged, or, at least, treated with that degree of for-
bearance necessary to enable it gradually to develope its
resources. The facts of science generally, if properly
tested by careful experiments and brought before us on
high and reliable authority, are not to be put lightly
aside, like many of the extravagant theories that start up
around us from day to day. But, nevertheless, when we find
men, as we too often do, of note and intelligence propaga-
ting doctrines as of practical value, such as that lightning
and electricity stimulate production, and inducing san-
guine farmers to surround their fields with wires to catch
it — when we see such men as Professor Liebig giving
forth that plants require only an imperceptible amount
of mineral food from the soil, the rest being supplied by
the atmosphere — and publishing that one of the best
manures for land is burnt straw or ground glass, and en-
couraging farmers to hope that the time had almost
arrived when, in place of the cumbrous apparatus of
farm yards and dung carts, they would have a laboratory
in their fields to manufacture silicates and phosphates —
when we find, I say, scientific men giving the weight of
their authority to such doctrines as these, we need not
much wonder that practical farmers so frequently turn
their backs on science, and that its progress amongst
them has been so materially retarded. An injurious
effect in the same direction has, I think, been unfortu-
nately produced by the expressed views of so many of
our great agricultural authorities— such as Arthur Young,
Dr. Coventry, Professor Low, and others — all of whom
have discouraged the farmer from bestowing much study
or placing almost any reliance upon the results of science.
I will just read to you Professor Low's remarks bearing
upon this point, as he is undoubtedly the soundest in-
structor in practical farming we have ever had, and the
greatest living authority. " It is in Germany and
France," he says, " that chemistry and vegetable phy-
siology have been cultivated for the longest period as a
branch of agriculture. But when we inquire in what
manner these researches have improved the practical art
in either country, we have only to consider the nature of
the subjects themselves to be assured they cannot have
done so in any sensible degree. They are seen to be the
meie opinions of learned men formed for the most part
in the laboratory and closet, without a due knowledge of
the business of the fields, and the modes by which agri-
culture can be cultivated as a branch of industry. Let
us turn again to countries where theories of vegetation
have been unheard of, and we shall yet find the art of
husbandry in a high state of advancement. In the

Netherlands the surface of the country is like a garden,
and every available resource has been resorted to for
rendering it fertile by the industrious inhabitants. In
the North of England and a part of Scotland, a system
of agriculture has been established which has multiplied
the resources of the country in a great degree ; yet in
the forming and perfecting of tlys system physiology
and chemistry have had no share. If we turn to the
sister art of gardening, which is the child of experiment
in every country, we shall find that it has been perfected
without the aid of those theories and researches which
many hold to be necessary,"

Notwithstanding this, I think the many scientific
truths which have been floating in the atmosphere around
us are now beginning to stick to the agricultural mind,
and as the soil is good, I have no doubt they will soon
germinate and bear good fruit.

As a proof of their gradual progression, we fin^ the
Royal Agricultural Society of England at its formation,
about 12 years ago, adopting the motto, " Practice with
Science." Liebig soon after published his " Treatise on
Agricultural Chemistry," by which he obtained an Eu-
ropean reputation. This was followed by the farmers
of Scotland subscribing upwards of £2,000 to establish
a chemical association in that country, and support a
professor at ^500 per annum. The Cirencester College J
did the same, and its professor, Mr. Way, has repeatedly i
been invited by the Royal Agricultural Society to de-
liver lectures at its annual meetings, which he has done
with great effect. Professor Johnston has also pub-
lished his popular lectures, and a branch of agricultural
chemistry has been established in several common day-
schools, and its importance has been recognised in many
other ways.

Agricultural chemistry, however, although so promi-
nently put forward, and undoubtedly deserving the
first place, must not be supposed to constitute the only
physical science bearing upon the interest of agriculture.
Geology, botany, meteorology, physiology, entomology,
natural history, and medicine, all more or less seek to
connect themselves with its principles and practice. So,
likewise, may mechanical science claim some credit for
its many inventions in aid of the business of farming.

The distinction between science and art I need not
define. You are all aware that science explains the
cause of results by a course of reasoning from fixed prin-
ciples ; nay, it takes a higher sphere, and by the same
process it predicts, foretells, and guides. Art, on the
contrary, only executes the edicts and decrees of science.
The art must, therefore, in a certain sense, be subordi-
nate to the science of farming. A Watts may have the
genius to invent a steam-engine without the practical
ability to construct it ; so a Napier may possess the
talent to construct one, without a knowledge of its prin-
ciples. Again, a Liebig may know what will produce
a certain crop, without the necessary skill to grow it ;
and a farmer may possess the necessary skill to raise the
crop without being aware of the causes which produce
such a result. Thus a chemist may be a good philoso-
pher without possessing a knowledge of farming ; and a
farmer may be a good agriculturist without possessing a
knowledge of the theory of pr oduction. The one, you

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

45d

will perceive, partakes more of an iutellectual and
reasoning operation ; the other more of a mechanical.

Both phvsical and mechanical science have advanced
manufactures ; and why, let me ask, should their aid not
be equally beneficial to agriculture ? Until of late
years farming operations were guided in a great measure
by local experience, acquired by long and expensive
courses of practical experiments ; and there certainly
can be nothing more valuable than the results of expe-
rience in farming ; but with the aid of science you will
be enabled to acquire the same knowledge in less time,
and be prevented from taking those false steps which you
are apt to do when trusting to experience alone, and re-
fusing the assistance of well-ascertained principles. Had
Davy or Liebig lived as contemporaries of Tull, to
explain the soimd principles which he promulgated but
could not defend, those great principles (applicable
to all soils and in all climates) would not have lain
dormant for upwards of a hundred years, only now to
be revived by men whose scientific minds have enabled
them to penetrate that theory, which ought to have
been yielding incalculable wealth to the country a
century ago.

Again, take the case of land drainage, and I think
your personal experience and observation will bear me
out in saying that nine-tenths of all the drainage done
in this country previously to the last fifteen years, or
until Parkes elucidated the true scientific principles of
draining, has been most imperfectly executed, and that
the expenditure was almost entirely thrown away. And
here let me remark, incidentally, that though we wil-
lingly accord to Mr. Parkes the merit of laying down in
his writings the true principles of an efficient land
drainage, yet he has unfortunately proved himself to
be but an indifferent practical operator when called upon
(in consequence of his able writings) to put his prin-
ciples into practice.

If I may claim your attention for a few minutes longer,
I would venture to state a few of the results of chemical
investigation. In the first place, it has been shewn
by analysis that we can ascertain (with sufficient correct-
ness for practical purposes) what different soils are com-
posed of; as also the elements of plants, and the con-
stituents of manures. We are, therefore, now enabled
in our daily practice to supply the soil with those sub-
stances in which it is deficient, thus furnishing suitable
food to such plants as we may choose to grow upon it. You
are all aware that artificial manures are now successfully
made through the aid of science, and many of us can
adduce cases in which cur respected fellow-member, Mr.
Proctor, has administered successfully to all varieties of
crops on totally different soils. Look to what guano
has done, whose value and uses chemists so correctly
told before practical trials could be made. As an
instance of the value of chemical analysis, take the case
of an intelligent and enterprising Lothian farmer, that
of Mr. John Dickson, of Saughton, near Edinburgh,
who lately purchased from a respectable merchant in
Leith several hundred pounds' worth of guano, and had
it analyzed by Dr. Anderson, the farmers' agricultural
chemist in Scotland, who found it to consist of

Coprolites, worth £3 0 0

Gypsum 15 0

Genuine guano 0 15 0

In all. =^£-"5 0
And for which Mr. Dickson had paid 9 10

0

0 per ton.

Thus showing a loss of £i 10 0 per ton,

which he detected by means of this analysis, and reco-
vered from the seller upwards of £100.

The process of dissolving bones with sulphuric acid is
also due directly to the inductive principles of chemistry,
and was first tried by Ijiebig, because he knew from
scientific principles that this process would produce the
desired result of liberating the phosphates in bone and
making it fit lor the food of plants. Having had much
experience in the use of bones, I can confidently assert
that for general purposes, either as atop dressing or for
underground manure, 5 cwt. of dissolved bones, called
" superphosphate of lime," costing (in Bristol) 40s., is
to be preferred to a ton of raw bones, costing £6.

Again, chemistry has shown that a small brown stone,
called a coproUte, which is found in abundance in seve-
ral parts of England and in Spain, and also, I believe,
in America, and is said by geologists to be the fossil
dung of an antediluvian lizard, is a good inorganic ma-
nure, and I have seen it used with success at the Ciren-
cester College Farm.

Chemistry also exp'ains the ingredients which both
cattle and crops remove from the soil, and what is re-
quired to replace them. Thus milch cows, we know,
impoverish the land they pasture on, and analysis shows
that the milk they yield contains a large quantity of the
phosphates, which is the principal food of grasses and
clovers; and when the excrements of dairy cows is ex-
amined, it is found to be thus much poorer. From this
cause the farmers in Cheshire — the greatest dairy county
in England — are constantly restoring those phosphates
to the soil by top dressing their pastures with bone dust.
Young stock, on the contrary, only remove the quanti-
ties of phosphates and other ingredients required to
form their bones and flesh, and their dung is so much the
richer than dairy cows.

It is now also prttty well ascertained what materials
particular crops remove from the soil, and one curious
fact is that from an acre of land 10 inches deep and
weighing 1^000 tons, 20 crops of wheat, at 35 bushels of
grain and 2 tons of straw per acre, only remove of mine-
rals of all sorts 0.248 ; and it was supposed by Jethro
Tull, and now by many even practical men, that nearly
all the other elements of wheat may be derived from the
atmosphere, by stirring the soil and allowing it to have
free access to the plants.

It has now been clearly established by Professor Lie-
big that the heat of the body, both of man and animals,
is the same in all climates and temperatures — that the
chief source of animal heat is carbon — and that our food
is the great source of carbon. In cold weather, there-
fore, when the body gives off an increased amount of
heat, a proportionate quantity of food will be necessary
for our stock, in order to keep up the due temperature
of the body. Hence the advantage, nay necessity, of

460

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

keeping our feeding animals always moderately warm
and beyond the reach of cold currents of air, not merely
to save food, whijh the most of us know it will do, but
to conduce to their general health. A beautiful fact in
connexion with this circumstance is that the oxygen gas
which animals are constantly wasting by respiration is
again supplied by what is given oft" from growing plants,
which extract carbonic acid gas from the air, retain the
carbon, and set the oxygen free, thus maintaining a
beautiful law of compensation.

Again, how marvellous the fact that it i? within the
individual power of any of us to carry to the field suffi-
cient manure, in the shape of superphosphate of lime or
guano, for an acre ; but it would require an Atlas to
bring back the crop that such manures would produce.
See then, in these facts, the realization of what
science predicted fifty years before such things were
thought possible. And had Lord Kames lived in our
day, his memorable remark that the time would come
when a farmer might carry as much manure in his hat
as would suffice for an acre of land would not have sub-
jected him to the witty and sarcastic retort that he
would be able to bring home the crop in his waistcoat
pocket ! For the rapid strides that science has made
within the last ten years — the extraordinary discoveries
that have taken place — the increasing mastery of mind
over matter, making nature reveal, as it were, her in-
most secrets — leave no man at liberty to dogmatize of
the future. It looks, indeed, as if wc had, at last,
found a key to unlock the boundless storehouse of
nature ; and he only, who from time to time heaves
the log into the deep, can fully appreciate the strength
of that vast intellectual current that is sweeping along
with such irresistible power.

I have dwelt so long on chemistry that I will only
add that geology indicates the kinds of crops and stocks
most suitable to a district ; botany — the plants, their
sexes and habits. And here let me remark on the beauty
and peaceful influence of that science whose votaries are
to be found in all parts of the habitable globe, in the
deserts of Africa, in the wilds of America, and amongst
the distant islands of the Pacific, the pioneers of peace
and good will amongst nations, and constantly returning
to enrich their native land with their newly discovered
treasures.

Meteorology has given us the barometer and thermo-
meter, and taught us the signs of the weather, and the
effects on climate, of draining, planting, and cultivation.
Physiology teaches us the structure of animals and
plants.

Entomology the habits of insect?, by which we may
sometimes ward off their destructive depredations, or
destroy them.

On the continent this subject commands the attention
of governments. In France, Germany, and Belgium
local laws are from time to time enacted for the destruc-
tion of insects ; and commissioners are appointed to in-
vestigate their economy, and to suggest plans to arrest
the evils arising from them, and in many cases efficient
means have been devised to stay the mischief. The
ready manner in which insects may be imported from |

foreign countries with our grain, and naturalised here,
and the fact that such has been the case in many in-
stances, ought to make us more alive to this subject,
and induce us to be more attentive in keeping our barns,
storehouses, and granaries clean and well aired.

Natural history enables us to know the habits of the
birds and animals that frequent our fields, and their
good or evil propensities, and may sometimes induce us
to mitigate our unqualified condemnation of the perse-
cuted, but nevertheless useful rook.

Medicine can give us enough skill to enable us, in
emergencies, to administer to the ailments of our depen-
dent animals.

And lastly, mechanical science has conferred upon us
inestimable boons ; for who can reflect on the improved
ploughs now in use wi'.hout thinking on James Small,
the working blacksmith ? or on the thrashing machine,
without a feeling of gratitude to the humble Scotch
mechanic, Andrew Meikle ? or on the now all but per-
fect reaping machine, without esteem for the labours of
the Rev. Patrick Bell, and acknowledging that we owe
something to mechanical ingenuity and science ? So,
also, has it given us the steam engine, to thrash and
winnow our corn, and then to carry it to market and
bring back the master-farmer manure. And its most
recent production. Fowler's draining plough, is not un-
likely to work a great change in draining, in cultivation,
and in climate ; for I can confidently say, from a per-
sonal knowledge of its construction and practical opera-
tion, that it is not a mere rude machine to be dragged
along by brute force, but one constructed on strictly
scientific principles to reduce the power of draft and re-
sistance, and to produce the desired action on the soil.

A liberal knowledge of science, then, must make a
farmer a more unprejudiced man. It will connect the
every- day business of life with a higher class of thoughts
and feelings ; it will enable him more clearly to compre-
hend the details of his farm, and so bring the whole
into that more perfect harmony by which every opera-
tion shall conduce to one common end, with the least
expenditure of power and the greatest produce of result ;
and therein, I conceive, consists the true art of scientific
farming.

A discussion followed, in which the chairman, Mr.
Schneider, of Slaughterford, Mr. Painter the secretary,
Mr. E. Little and others took part ; and we are happy
to be able to add, that although those present were una-
nimous in considering practical experience as the safest
guide, they were equally so in showing a due apprecia-
tion of the principles of science.

The following was the resolution come to : —
Resolved, — That physical and mechanical science have
rendered and continue to render valuable services to
practical farming ; and that, though a knowledge of
science is not considered indispensable to a farmer, yet
such an acquaintance with chemistry, geology, botany,
meteorology, and mechanics, as can be acquired by the
ordinary habit of reading and observation, is desirable,
and would be found a valuable addition to practical ex-
perience.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZLVE.

401

AUTUMNAL SALES OF SHORTHORNS, &c

The following highly important sales of stock
took place this autumn, under the direction of Mr.
Strafibrd, auctioneer, of London, the well-known
active and intelligent Editor of the Herd Book,
the " Burke " of the Shorthorned Peerage : —

RiBBLETON Hall, Aug. 27.- The stock of
Thomas Birchall, Esq., had so long enjoyed an
enviable celebrity that we were prej)ared to find a
numerous attendance of buyers at his sale of pure
shorthorned cattle, and the number and high stand-
ing of the gentlemen present was such as is seldom
witnessed at a sale in this county. The result of
the sale was highly satisfactory, the competition for
some of the animals being exceedingly sharp. One
gentleman, Mr. Tanqueray, who purchased six of
Mr. Birchall's stock last year, had been so highly
pleased with them, that he commissioned a party to
purchase others of the same blood, the agent making
five purchases. Our space compels us to select
only a few of the animals sold. Beginning with
the cows, we have Dorothy Gwynn, roan, now ten
years old, fetching no less than 60 gs. ; Beeswing,
roan, calved Jan. 8th, 1845, fetched 42 gs. ; Bat-
wing, roan. May 5th, 1847, 36 gs. ; Hyacinth, roan,
June 10th, 1847, 36 gs. ; Honeycomb, dark roan,
Sept. 25th, 1849, 46 gs. ; Nectar, roan, Jan. 20th,
1851, 36 gs.; Polly Hopkins, roan, Feb. 25th,
1851, 3] gs. ; Cynosure, dark roan, March 2nd,
185], 40 gs,; Ann, red and white, March 9th,
1851, 37 gs.; Queen Bee, roan, Jan. 3rd, 1852,
45 gs. ; Jessamine, dark roan, Feb. 20th, 1852,
31 gs. In bulls, the Duke of Lancaster, who figures
in the prize hst in another column, fetched 61 gs.
(purchaser, Mr. Lord, Standish Hall), he was calved
Oct. 4th, 1848 ; Richmond, roan, Sept. 24th, 1851,
33 gs.; Sting, red, Jan. 22nd, 1852, 45 gs. ; Pan-
taloon, red, March 18th, 1852, 26 gs. The farming
stock, horses, and implements, also sold well. Mr.
Strafford, of London, officiated as salesman with his
accustomed talent. C. P. Grenfell, Esq., purchased
the bull Richmond and the yearling Moonbeam.
The total amount realized by the sale of horned
cattle alone was about £1,125. — Preston Guardian.

Watkinson Hall, near Halifax. — This
great sale of some of Mr. H. Ambler's pure-bred
shorthorned cattle took place on "Wednesday, Sep-
tember 8, in a croft adjoining the farm buildings.
The sale excited great interest, not only in
the neighbourhood, but amongst the agricul-
turists of the entire kingdom — buyers attend-
ing from various parts of England, ranging
from Cornwall to Cumberland and Suffolk, as well
as from Ireland and Scotland. There was also a
large attendance of the gentry and farmers of the
district, to whom so large a sale of first-rate cattle
with pedigrees (carried back in some cases to ten
and twelve generations) was an event of perfectly
novel occurrence. As Watkinson Hall is upwards
of two miles from Halifax, luncheon was provided
by Mr, Ambler for almost every visitor. The large

room over the stables was fitted up from end to end
with two long tables, which were most abundantly
stored with edibles, provided with a truly baronial
hospitality, and washed down by the guests with
unlimited sup])lies not only of " home-brewed,"
but also of wine. Occupying the post of honour
on one of these tables was a well-cooked baron of
beef, weighing I761bs.; and along the room (which
was decorated with evergreens) was displayed the
motto, " Agriculture and Commerce" — a happy
combination of the two prime sources of England's
prosperity, which Mr. Ambler has exemplified in
hij own practice in a manner which has made him
already known to the entire kingdom. There was
also, for the gentry attending this sale, a more
superb and sumptuous provision made at Watkin-
son Hall ; the good lady of Mr. Ambler rivalling in
the recherche character of her entertainment for the
more distinguished guests, the munificent provision
made for the general public. Amongst the gen-
tlemen attending this great sale we noticed — V. H.
Fawkes, Esq., Farnley Hall; E. Akroyd, Esq.,
Denton Park; Rev. J. D. Jefferson, Thicket
Priory, York; M. Stocks, Esq., Catherine House;
J. Sugden, Esq., Keighley; J. C. Sutcliffe, Esq.;
Lee Royds, Esq., Rochdale ; J. S. Rawson, Esq. ;
W. Heaton, Esq. ; E. N. Alexander, Esq. ; Dr.
Kenny ; Mr. Logan, agent for Lord Londesborough
and J. M'Donald, Esq., York; the agent of Ben-
jamin Haigh Allen, Esq., of Longcrofts Hall, near
Lichfield ; Mr. Baxter, agent for Adam Dugdale,
Esq., Burnley ; Mr. Peacock, Haddockstones, near
Ripley ; Mr. Patterson, Hall Beck, Ulverston ; Mr.
J. G. Wood, Castle-grove, Letterkenny, Ireland;
Mr. Tyarke, Merthen, near Falmouth ; Mr. James
Sibson, Carlisle; Mr. John Shaw, Hyton, near
Bootle; Mr. J. Booth, Gotham, near Newark;
Mr. J. Todd, Mireside, near Wigton ; Mr. Smith,
agent for Sir E. S. Gooch, Bart., M.P., Suffolk;
Mr. Mason, agent for Sir C. Tempest; Mr. We-.
therel], Durham ; Mr. J. Booth, Killerby ; Mr. R.
Booth, AVarlaby; Mr. J. Hall, Kiveton Park; Mr.
Smith, The Grove, near Bingham, Notts ; Mr.
Eastwood, agent for C. Townley, Esq., M.P. ; Mr.
E. Whittaker, Burley ; Mr. Lindow, Whitehaven ;
Mr. J. Hannam, Kirk Deighton, Wetherby; Mr.
J. Holdsworth, I3irkby Lane. On taking his stand
upon the rostrum, Mr. Strafford, the auctioneer,
after stating the conditions of sale, observed that,
in reference to the character of the stock, it was
sufficient to say that it was bred from the herds of
Lord Carhsle, Lord Burlington, Lord Ducie, Mr.
Bates, Mr. Carruthers, Mr. Fawkes, and others.
The cows had been served by the Duke of Rich-
mond (a bull bred by the late Mr. Bates, of Kirk-
leavington, from his celebrated Duchess tribe), by
Senator, with which Mr. Ambler had won the Royal
Agricultural Society's first prize at Exeter, in 1850,
and its local prize in 1848, by Broker, the son of
Usurer (which had sold for 400 guineas), by Lord
Byron, and other bulls alluded to in the catalogue;

2 H

462

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and that the milking properties had been carefully
attended to. They were also of good colour ; for
54 out of the 100 animals he had to sell that day
were roans. This sale showed the triumph of the
motto of the luncheon, " Agriculture and Com-
merce" united; and he knew no more powerful
element than this in the improvement of the breed
of shorthorns. Mr. Ambler had performed great
wonders in the few years he had been a breeder.
He (the auctioneer) had seen this place a few years
ago, and now found it wonderfully improved ; the
land seemed doubled and trebled in value. In con-
clusion, the auctioneer assured the company that
the sale was most unreserved ; not one shilling
would be bid for Mr. Ambler, directly or indirectly.
The sale then commenced. Many of the older cows
went for comparatively low prices ; on " Miss
Frances" coming into the ring, however, her
beauty and breed e^xcited a universal murmur of
admiration. The auctioneer informed the company
of the well-known fact that she was the winner of
about twenty prizes. The biddings commenced at
50 gs., but at first rose very slowly. The glass (a
sand-glass used by Mr. Stratford, in lieu of the old
unsatisfactory system of " once, twice, thrice") went
up at 65 gs. : but the biddings then rose to 70, 75,
80, &c. At 100 gs. the glass again went up, and
just literally at the last sand Mr. Baxter bid 105 gs.,
for which sum she was sold to him on behalf of
Mr. Adam Dugdale. The cows and heifers in calf
(sixty in number) fetched altogether 1,404 gs. The
sale improved in the young stock; and for "Gem,"
a beautiful creature only sixteen months old, there
was a closer and more prolonged competition than
for " Miss Frances :" she was ultimately sold to
Mr. Baxter for 100 gs. The young bulls were
bought also much more spiritedly than the old ones.
The 100 head fetched altogether £2,328 ISs. A
stock of choice poultry was then sold ; but at so
late a period of the day as not to fetch very great
prices. Mr. Sugden gave £5 15s. for the two fine
hens and a cock of the Cochin China breed, which
won the prize at the Halifax show. The poultry
(50 lots and 134 birds) fetched altogether £48,
making the gross proceeds of the sale £2,37G IBs.
—Halifax Guardian.

[Since the above was in type, we have learnt that
*•' Miss Francis " and " Gem " have been pur-
chased by Charles Towneley, Esq., Towneley Park,
as an addition to his splendid herd. — Ed. Far.
Mag.]

Small Bridge, near Bures, Suffolk. —
On Wednesday, September 15, the stock, com-
prising Suffolk horses, shorthorned cattle. South-
down sheep, pigs, implements, and other effects
of the above farm, the property of George
Wythes, Esq., was submitted for sale by auc-
tion. There was a very large and highly respecta-
ble company of gentlemen from various parts
of the kingdom. Many, no doubt, were attracted
by the high character of the farm and premises,
which have recently been erected by Mr. Wythes
at a considerable outlay, and in a very superior
style. For the horses the competition was very
keen, ranging from 48, 40, 38, 37, 36, and 26 gs. ;
foals, from 10 to 20 gs. each. The shorthorns sold
tolerably well, the highest price being 30 gs. For

the sheep the biddings were quick and spirited ;
ewes ranged from 38s. 6d. to 32s. each. The pigs
also realized good prices, as well as the implements;
but the day proving inauspicious, particularly to-
wards the close of the sale, interfered with the
latter. Luncheon was served up in the spacious
barn by Mr. Chaplin, of Colchester, in good style ;
and the v/hole arrangements of the sale were highly
creditable to Mr. Jackson, the representative of
Mr. Wythes, who has had the management of the
above farm, which has been recently let to Mr.
Hawkins.

Burghley Park. — On Tuesdaj', Sept. 28, in
Burghley Park, a choice selection of young bulls
and cows and heifers, the property of the Marquis
of Exeter, were sold by auction. Notwithstanding
the unfavourable weather, nearly 150 of the lead-
ing agriculturists and graziers of the neighbour-
hoodattended. The stock sold brought satisfac-
tory prices.

Fawsley Park, Northamptonshire.— On
Wednesday, Sept. 29, the third periodical sale of
shorthorned bulls, bred by Sir C. Knightley,
Bart., at Fawsley Park, Northamptonshire, brought
together a numerous and highly respectable com-
pany of gentlemen from various parts of the king-
dom, and the prices obtained are sufficient evidence
of the high estimation in which these sales have
been conducted, as well as the character of the stock
offered. Fifteen bulls and bull calves reaUzed
£712 19s., averaging upwards of £47 10s. each.
The highest price was Cardinal, at 16 months,
92 gs., bought by Mr. Robinson, of Chfton Hall,
near Olney. Magician, at 19 months old, sold to
Mr. Fisher, near Spalding, for 81 gs. : Trojan, 12
months, to Mr. Thursby, for 70 gs. ; FUmnap, 7
months old, to Mr. S. Bennett, for 64 gs. Several
others realised good prices. The other purchasers
were Earl Spencer; Lord Southampton; J. Du Pre,
Esq., M.P.; J. B, Stanhope, Esq, M.P. ; George
Drake, Esq., Shardeloes, two lots; — Aris, Esq. ;
J. Beasley, Esq. ; Messrs. L. Cowley, Heming, and
Hutt.

Rothersthorpe, near Northampton.' —
On Friday, October 1, the entire herd of short-
horns and a few valuable hunters and nags, late the
property of Mr. W. D. Manning, deceased, were
sold by auction at Rothersthorpe, near North-
ampton. The attendance was very numerous :
seldom have we witnessed so highly respectable a
company at any sale in the south of England for
this description of stock, which were offered in a
perfectly natural state of condition, not having been
forced for the occasion. Indeed, as explained by
the intelligent auctioneer at the opening of the
sale, the young stock had not been sufficiently
attended to, which the illness of their late
owner accounted for — to whose memory he
wished to pay a tribute of respect for producing
so fine a herd, the more so as a tenant-
farmer. The sale realized upwards of £1,800, the
shorthorns averaging nearly £30 each. Cows
ranged from 65, 52, 50, 47, 45, 42, 40, 37, to 35
guineas each. Heifers, 40, 37, 35, 32, 30, 26, to
25 gs. each. Heifer calves, 35, 28, 26, to 25 gs.
each. The highest priced bull was bought by Sir

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

403

George Robinson, for 49 gs. ; a chesnut hunter,
nine years old, sold for 80 gs.; and a favourite nag,
six years old, for 51 gs. The principal buyers of
the higher-priced lots were Sir George Crewe, Bart.;
Messrs. Ambler, Rawson, Tanqueray, andThursby,
as well as Messrs. S. Bennett, J. H. Langstone,
M.P., Clarke, Ladds, Elmere, Pell, Twitchell,
Sagar, "i^orke, &c. The day proving fine, gave
additional interest to the proceedings.

IMPORTANT SALE OF AGRICULTURAL
STOCK IN DEVON.

A very important sale of ogricultural stock came off on
Thursday, the 23rd of September, at Kellaud Barton, Lapford,
Devon, on which day the proprietor, Mr. John Moon, through
the iustnimentality of the celebrated auctioneers, Messrs.
Ilussey, offered to pubhc competition a large collection of
Leicester sheep, Essex pigs, Devon cattle and horses
draughted from his well-known stock. Mr. Moon's reputation
as an agriculturist, coupled with the fact of his success as a
competitor at the Bath and West of England cattle show, at
Taunton, and the Koyal Agricultural Meeting at Lewes, in the
present year, led many to expect a large attendance, but the
most sanguine were not prepared for the gathering that took
place. The good people of Crediton n'ere surprised to see so
many strangers, for as each succeeding traiu arrived at the
station, vehicles of all descriptions, from the stage coach, hired
for the purpose, to the more humble omnibus, were in request,
and these, with numerous private carriages and equestrians,
gave an animated appearance to the Barnstaple road from Cre-
diton to Lapford. Many visited the farm early in the morning,
and were much interested by an inspection of the animals.
The sheep and pigs were greatly admired. The former were
arranged in a field near the house, penned in lots of five each,
and at the higher end of the same field twenty-five sows, with
their black and shining skins, grubbing together on mangold
wurtzel, the growth of 1351, presented such a happy family as
is rarely seen. Many an opinion was hazarded as to the prices
they would fetch, and at intervals the company, which was fast
increasing as the day advanced, examined the high state of
cultivation to which this well managed farm has been brought,
and inspected the animals which the proprietor had
evidently reserved for future honours. A flock of breeding
ewes was paiticularly noticed, as were also two remarkably fine
rams, which had been personally selected by Mr. Moon, within
the last ten days, from Mr. Cresswell'a celebrated stock in
Leicestershire.

We must not forget to mention that the in-door arrange-
ments were of the most substantial kind. A bountiful supply
of Devonshire fare was provided for the company, which

amounted, at the time of the sale, to nearer one thousand than
five hundred persons. The arrangements were excellent.

The result of the sale was as follows : —

The draft of eighty store ewes was first put up in lots of five
each— and these were sold at prices ranging from 50s. to 76s.
per head, to the following gentlemen -.—The Rev. Mr. Wright,
Messrs. Norris, Dennis, Palmer, LuxtoD, J. Tanner Davy,
Smith, W. Risdon, G. Wills, and T. Palmer.

Pigs.— (Fisher llobbs' Improved Essex Breed). — There
were twenty-five lots ; the first, a two-year-o'd sow, was sold
to Mr. Sanders for £15 15s. ; second, one three-year-old ditto,
to Mr. Croote for £31 10s. ! and a ten months old sow to Col.
Hood for £11 Os. 6d. ; a ditto to the Rev. 0. T. James, of
Ermington, for £11 lis. ; a ditto to the Duke of Bedford for
£7 17s. 6d. ; a ditto, eleven months old, to the Rev. C. T.
James for £18 7s, 6d. ; a ditto, fourteen mouths old, to W.
Hooper, Esq., of Exeter, for £11 lis. ; a ditto, seven months
old, to Mr. Lane for £5 ; a ditto, ditto, to Mr. W. Ball-
stone for £4 ; a ditto, ditto, to Mr. H. Lear for £4 ; a ditto,
eight mouths old, to Mr. Dennis for £5 5s. ; a ditto, four
months old, to Mr. John Wippell for £7 7s. ; a ditto, ditto,
to Mr. Hewes, of Grafton-street, Dublin, for £8 8s.; a ditto,
ditto, to Mr. R. Mortimer for £6 6^ ; a ditto, three months
old, to Mr. John Bodley for £4 2s. 6d.; a ditto, ditto, to Rev.
Samuel Davis, of Burrington, for £4 ; a ditto, ditto, to
Mr. Cole for £3 lOs. ; a ditto, ten months old, to G. Turner,
Esq , for £6 6s. ; a ditto, ditto, to Mr. Dennis for £4 43. ; a
ditto, twelve months old, to Mr. Anstey for £5 lOs. ; a sow
and seven pigs, to Rev. G. Barlow for £7 ; a sow, four months
old, to Mr. R. Mortimer for £3 12s. 6d.; a ditto, ditto, to
Mr. J. Tanner Davy for £15 lOs.; a ditto, three months old,
to J. H. Terrell, Esq., for £4 4s. ; a ditto, ditto, to Mr. G.
Wills for £5 53.

Boar Pigs.— "Don Juan," was sold to J. N. Fellowe?,
Esq., for £26 5s. ; " Snowdrop," to G. Turner, Esq., for £13 ;
a seven months old boar to Mr. Brailey for £5 5s. ; a ditto
to W. A. Dene, Esq., Torrington, for £14 3s. 6d.; a ditto
to Mr. T. Risdon for £5 5s. ; a ten months old boar to E.
Archer, Es]., for £10 10s. ; a four months old ditto to Mr.
J. Tanner Davy for £17 63. 6d. — there was a spirited compe-
tition for this animal; a ditto to Mr. R. Mortimer for £8 ;
a ditto to Rev. Mr. Melliuish for £4 lOs. ; a three months
old boar to Cul. Hood for £7 15s. ; a ditto to Mr. Smith for
£4 ; a two mouths old boar to Mr. Wright for £3 ; a ditto
to Mr. R. Lear for £1 lOs.

The company separated highly delighted with the day's
proceedings, and were unanimous in expressing a hope that
the spirited proprietor would relinquish the thought of dis-
posing of this magnificent estate, and leaving the neighbour-
hood, which he contemplated a short time ago, but that he
would remain among them, and continue the breeding of those
spleudid animals, which had been the admiration of all on that
day. — Western Times.

CALENDAR OP HOUTICULTURE.

Plant-Houses.
The whole stock of Chrysanthemums intended to
bloom for in-door purposes should now be removed
under glass. An empty vinery, where there is no fruit,
is a very good place to put them in. Some of those which
were early placed under glass will be ready to expand,
and rnay be taken at once to the Conservatory, and
their places supplied with some of the later stock. Let

them now be very liberally supplied with liquid manure,
alternately with clean water. Where the buds are show-
ing too thick, pick out a few of the weakly ones. Apply
abundance of ventilation to them in the day, and also
all night when the weather is mild. See that Pelargo-
niums are not saturated with water Keep such as have
been recently shifted in a slow growing state : earlier
plants, which have made a good growth, must be en-

2 H 2

«s»

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.'

couraged to go to rest for a time — this is best effected by
withholding water, and a coo), dry temperature. Pot-
off late-struck cuttings, and encourage them to root by
the application of a gentle bottom-heat. Those potted a
few weeks back, and subjected to tlie above treatment,
will now be rooted, and must be gradually hardened oft'.
Pot-ofl' the earliest-sown seedlings, and place them also
on a gentle bottom- heat. These may be kept gradually
growing all the winter. Prick off" smaller seedlings into
pans. Seed may be sown now to flower late next year,
but I would prefer February. Air very abundantly the
whole stock, and be careful to avoid a damp atmosphere
and drip, both of which contribute greatly to a spotted
foliage. Continue to pot-oft' the strongest plants of the
early-sown seedling Calceolarias ; the first potted will be
rooted out, and should be removed to a cold pit. Exa-
mine the old stock, and such as are well rooted out may
have a shift. Remove at the same time any straggling
shoots, and put them in as cuttings, on a gentle hotbed.
See that the drainage is very perfect, as they will require
to be freely watered, now their season of growth has
commenced. Let them have occasional fumigations, to
keep dori'n thrips and green aphides, both of which are
very destructive to this class of plants. Sow seed for
late- flowering and border purposes next year, in pots or
shallow pans. Place a very thin layer of silver sand on
the top of the soil, press it down gently to a perfectly
level surface, and on that sprinkle the seed, and water
with a very fine rose, but do not cover the seeds. Place
the pots in a shady part of the cold pit, until the seeds
have well germinated, when they must be gradually
inured to more light. This tribe of plants requires all
the air possible in favourable weather. Let the earliest
Cinerarias have plenty of room to develop themselves :
keep them near the glass, and encourage a stocky
growth by free ventilation. Another portion of the
stock may now be shifted for successional blooming.
If any of the old plants have been kept back for very
late blooming, they had better now be shaken out, divided,
and potted. Give the:n a free open soil, not too rich,
and plenty of drainage.

FORClNG-GAaDEN.

Pineries. — Attend to previous directions with regard
to the necessary shiftii)gs, waterings, and the regulation
of the bottom-heat, together with that of the internal
temperature, observing that both bottom and top heat
must be gradually lowered as the days decrease in length,
and the external temperature becomes permanently
lowered. No attempt at a high temperature will ever
be successful at this season, for however we may stimu-
late the roots and leaves, without the agency of the
potent element light, it must fail, because the plants
cannot, as it may be called, digest their food, and hence,
t'nerefore, it is necessary to apportion the amount of
stimulation to their capacity for receiving and cor.veitins
it to the purposes of preserving their vitality through the
dormant season. The temperature, however, must be
assimilated in some degree to the state of forwardness of
the plants. Fruiters may be safely allowed from 5 to 8
more degrees, both by day and night, than succession
plants will require. Temperature for fruiters— 75 deg.

maximum by day, 64 deg. minimum by night ; succes-
sion and nursing plants, 68 deg. maximum by day, 57
deg. minimum by night. Air must be freely admitted,
particularly to succession plants and the early fruiters,
in order to solidify the growth. In fine weather this
will not be difficult to manage ; but under unfavourable
circumstances out of doors, it will be as well to put on
a little extra lire-heat in the morning, so as to require a
free admission of air to keep the temperature down.
On bright days, shut up as much solar heat as possible.

Vineries. — Continue the necessary prunings and
dressing of all vines which have matured the wood : later
vines carrying fruit will not matter much for a wei k or
tivo; but even with them, as soon as the leaves begin to
turn colour and fall, it will be better to prune every
shoot back to the fruit, and afterwards make it a rule to
shorten each shoot finally as the fruit is cut ; but in the
case of vines to be again started in January or early in
February, pruning ought to be done at once, to give the
wounds time to heal over, and the vessels to contract, so
as to prevent bleeding when the sap begins to flow. Of
course all vines to be started next month have been
pruned, as directed some time back ; and if not washed
or rather painted over with the mixture for vines, Itt
them have a first coat at once, and another when the
house is finally closed, which it should be ten days or so
before fire-heat is put on.

Beds should now be thrown up with prepared fer-
menting material, in which a great proportion of leaves
have been incorporated, for forcing Asparagus: take
care not to put the roots in until the fierce heat has sub-
sided ; prepare fermenting materials for a succession,
according to the supply required. A portion of Sea
Kale may also be covered with leaves and dung, but be
very careful of too much heat. Young hands very often
steam the roots, almost before they think the heat is up.
If roots are very plentiful. Sea Kale may be very nicely
forced by potting it very thickly in large-sized pots, and
inverting a pot of the same size over the crowns, and
placing them under a stage, or in any dark, out-of-the-
way place, in a heated structure. Ehubarb may also be
started in a similar manner, in pots, if required very
early.

Kitchen- Garden.

Remember that the earliest Endive already tied up for
blanching will not bear much frost, or continued wet
weather ; and as thi re will now be plenty of Melon
frames at liberty, they offer a very good medium for
affording such kinds of plants the shelter necessary for
their preservation. Place the frames on a sheltered
south border, and put in six or eight inches of light soil.
Take up the Endive when quite dry, with a little ball of
earth, and plant them thickly in the frames ; put the
lights on, but tilt them front and back in open weather
— in severe weather put on double mats. Late autumn
Lettuce should be treated the same way. Take care
that there is a good breadth of Lettuce planted out, on
a south border, to stand the winter. Select a few of the
very strongest plants, and put them in close to the base
of a south wall in rich soil ; they will come in a fort-
night before the others. Keep the surface-soil stirred
amongst the beds of vvintcr Spinach, and other advancing
crops. Clear and clean Asparagus beds, remove a por-
tion of the top-soil, and apply a good dressing of rich
manure. — C.

, '{fib ^d mnmixfirn .
jWicfibij ^iaai^ ad jsjj,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

ittauBta j x;db3l39'{t9 J>
METEOROLOGICAL DIARY.

465

Barometer.

Thermometkr.

Wind and State. Atmosphere.

Weat'r.

Day.

1
9 a.m. lOp.m.

in. els. in. cts.
30.42 30.44

Min.

Max.

1
10p.m.

Direction.

Force. 8 a.m.

2 p.m.

10 p.m.

j

Sep. 23

49

68

52

W. by South

gentle cloudy

sun

fine

dry

24! 30.44 ; 30.38

46

65

48 !

Easterly

gentle fog

sun

fine

dry

25' 30.27 30.05

46

67

50 1

Easterly

gentle tog

sun

hazy

dry

26 29.93 29.'92

• 46

62

54 i

N. East

gentle fog

sun

cloudy

dry

27 29.91 29.75

46

63

54

E. by South

movng|,fog

cloudy cloudy

dry

28 29.44 i 29.00

52

60

52

S. by E., S.

varibl. , cloudy

cloudy cloudy

rain

29 29.20 29.30

50

57

48

S. S. W.

brisk cloudy

cloudy fine

rain

30 29.46 29.70

46

56

47

S. S. W.

.strong cloudy

sun cloudy

dry

Oct. 1; 29.55 29.50

42

56

49

S. by West

brisk, cloudy

sun cloudy

dry

2 29.37 29.50

44

56

45

w. s. w.

brisk cloudy

cloudy fine

shou'er

3 29.71 29.85

; 42

57

45

Westerly by S.

airy cloudy

sun fine

dry

4 29.81 29.05

40

54

51

Sthly. by W.

forcibl. cloudy

cloudy cloudy

rain

5' 2S.96 29.44

47

57

46

West by N.

lively ' cloudy

sun fine

dry

6' 29.52 29.73

41

50

40 !

Wstly.toN.W.

gentle cloudy

cloudy fine

rain

7' 29.73 1 29.92

41

51

40 1

Wstly.toN.W.

gentle i cloudy

sun fine

dry

s! 29.91 29.89

33

46

37

Wstly.toN.W.

gentle cloudy

sun cloudy

dry

9 29.96 •. 29.97

31

51

34

Wstly.toN.W.

breath fine

sun fine

M

10 29.98 : 30.00

35

55

42

Wstly.toN.W.

gentle , cloudy

sun fine

idry

11 : 30.04 : 30.20

! 41

54

43

N. by W. by E.

calm fine

sun fine

dry

12 30.32 30.38

35

54

38

N. N. E.

lively fine

sun fine

dry

13 30.36 , 30.33

37

54

45 ,

N. N. E.

gentle , cloudy

fine cloudy

jdry

14 30.32 30.26

45

55

45 ,

E. by North

lively

cloudy

cloudy fine

dry

15 30.30 30.23

; 45

53

44 1

E.'by North

lively

cloudy

fine fine

dry

16; 30.23 i 30.22

41

52

40 i

Easterly

lively '

cloudy

fine fine

dry

17 30.21 30.13

' 34

53

41

E. by South

gentle

fog

fine hazy

dry

18 30.19 30.31

• 42

54

40

North

verygl.'

fog

sun fine

dry

19 30.44

30.44

36

54

42

N. W. by N.

verygl.

fog

sun fine

dry

20, 30.35

30.20

35

56

41

S. Westerly

gentle

fine

sun fine

dry

211 30.05

29.93

39

60

52

S. Westerly

gentle j

cloudy

cloudy cloudy

dry

22i 29.83 ! 29.70

49

61

58

S. S. E.

calm

cloudy

cloudy cloudy

ram

23

29.69

29.70

—

58

47

S. by East

varibl .

fine

fine

rain

estimated averages of OCTOBER.

Barometer. 1 Thermometer.

High. I Low. I High. I Low. I Mean.
30.61 28.74 66 27 48.9

REAL AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF THE PERIOD.

Highest. I Lowest. 1 Mean.

56.42 41.86 49.14
is_ L^

Weather and Phenomena.

September 23 — Almost calm; sunnj', green, and
golden stripes, and cirrus at sunset. 24 — Eastern
change; hazy at times. 25 — Sunny day; misty
evening. 26, 27 — Fogs, terminate in clouds. 28,
29 — Become rainy. 30 — After rainy night, fine
day.

Lunation. — Full moon, 28th day, 6 h. 28 m.
morning.

October 1 — Rain in night; brisk day. 2 — Wet
night, gleams, and showers. 3 — Keen, lively day.
4 — Many hours' driving rain. 5 — Lively; very
drj'ing wind. 6 — Wet forenoon; copper-tinted
rolling masses at sunset. 7 — Rain last night ; fine
day. 8— Chilly, but finer. 9— First frost. 10—
Milder; some warm sun. 11 — Serene; smoky
clouds, 12 — Beautiful; chilly after sunset. 13,

14, 15, 16 — Very equable; more clouds; air lulls
at sunset. 17 — Cold fog, clearing to a brilliant
day. 18,19 — Same as I7th. 20 — Fine hot sun ;
black strata at sunset. 21 — Overcast; a hint cf
rain; warm and genial. 22 — Wet overnight;
close. 23 — Again wet and showery, with some
gleams.

Lunations. — Last quarter, 6th day, 10 h. 36 m.
morning. New moon, 13th day, 7h. 14m. morn-
ing. First quarter, 19th day, 11 h. 56 m. night.

Remarks connected with Agriculture.
— The weather, fine upon the whole, though fitfully
wet in the extreme, has produced its effects.
Ploughinghasproceeded admirably, and some young
corn (rye) is up. Mangold is a striking crop of
this autumn — very abundant, and to appearance
productive. Turnips and swedes may be less so
than the moist state of the ground might have led
one to anticipate ; but the average temperature has
been several degrees lower than the usual estimate.
We hear of disease among stock in some places.
Store sheep and lambs, owing to the abundance of
food, fetch an extraordinary price; and dealers ap-
pear little anxious to sell. Hops are peculiarly fine.

Croydon, Oct. 23rd. J. Towers.;

4m

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

AGRICULTURAL REPORTS.

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT
FOR OCTOBER.

On the whole, the weather of this month has
been seasonably fine, notwithstanding that the wind
has been extremely changeable, and that we have
had successive days of moisture. In most of our
agricultural districts, large breadths of land have
been ploughed up, and prepared for wheat, the cul-
tivation of which does not appear to be on the
decrease, although prices continue to rule low. The
quality of the new crop is still much complained of,
especially by the southern and midland growers.
North of the Huraber it is proving extremely fine,
both in weight and general condition; whilst the
acreable yield is nearly, or quite, up to last year.
Many of the samples shown at Mark Lane have
exhibited unmistakable signs of the damage sus-
tained by a portion of the crop. For instance, low
qualities have sold as low as 30s. per qr. ; whilst
the finest parcels of white have realized 54s. ; hence,
it follows that the averages must be greatly in-
fluenced for some time, unless, indeed, the losses
have been greatly overrated. The new barley is
turning out extremely well, both in point of weight
and colour; hence there appears to be every prospect
of the markets being well supplied. Up to the
present time, the quotations of all kinds have been
high compared with wheat, and it is possible that
they will continue so during the greater portion of
the malting season, arising from the moderate yield
of Saale qualities. Oats are a heavy crop ; but
both beans and peas are very deficient.

The immense amount of immigration into the
Australian colonies, and the neglect of most agri-
cultural pursuits, have given rise to a variety of spe-
culations in reference to the future supply of food
for the additional population. One of our contem-
poraries has drawn a most alarming picture of what
may be expected, and urges the necessity of an ex-
port of flour from this country to meet the wants of
the immigrants ; but at present flour will not pay
as an article of commerce, and, in the event of any
necessitous wants arising, the American ship-
owners are sure to take advantage of a new
market. Besides, South America produces large
quantities of wheat and other grain of very fine
quality, and at a much cheaper rate than either here
or in the United States. We do not, therefore, an-
ticipate any movement in *•' breadstufts" here to
meet the wants of the Australian markets.

Potato raising and storing have been extensively

carried on, and the result undoubtedly is that a
large portion of the crop has been lost. The actual
deficiency, however, is not so extensive as some
parties have estimated it ; still we are apprehensive
that the root will not keep well during the winter,
because it is evident that, whatever care may be
taken in the selection of good sorts for storing, dis-
eased samples will get mixed with the sound ones,
to the detriment of the entire supply. The arri-
vals from abroad have been liberal, about 2,000
tons having arrived during the month ; and we
learn that large parcels have yet to follow. The
best York kidneys have produced 120s. per ton.

The growth of hops is now secured, and a finer
produce was never known. The duty has been es-
timated as high as £260,000; nevertheless, a
very large business has been doing in all kinds,
at fair prices. Prior to picking being commenced,
brewers and others held scarcely any stocks, and
the high rates demanded for the limited supplies
shown in the Borough, in the face of a high esti-
mated duty, induced great caution in making pur-
chases. Choice East Kents have sold at £7 10s.
per cwt.

The root crops are turning out exceedingly good
in quantity, and of very superior quality : indeed,
both carrots and turnips for cattle and other uses
are unusually abundant. The abundant supply of
hay on most farms — the second cut having nearly
equalled the first — is calculated to keep that article
at a low figure for some time. AVe may safely as-
sume, therefore, that the graziers will be in the
position to supply the markets gradually ; whilst
we regret to find— considering the good prices at
which fat beasts and sheep have been selling for
several months past— that such immense numbers
of almost store animals should have been forced
for sale, as has been the case during the month
just concluded. It must, we conceive, be evident
that such a system, if persevered in, will lead to
unfavourable results.

Throughout Ireland the potato disease is repre-
sented as having done considerable injury ; but in
Scotland it does not appear to have much increased,
although numerous instances have presented them-
selves in which the tubers have been seriously
aftected. The shipments to the south have already
commenced, and the samples yet received in Lon-
don have been in full average condition. The
markets have been well supplied with most kinds
of grain, in which rather an extensive business has

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

407

been doing, and the quotations have had an upward
tendency.

The wool trade has assumed a firmer tone. The
public sales of colonial now in progress, being
the last series for the present year, continue to be
well attended, and the whole of the colonial sam-
ples offered have been disposed of at an advance of
from §d. to id. per lb. The few foreign wools
brought forward have commanded scarcely any at •
tention.

The value of raw hides, when the immense de-
mand for leather on colonial account is taken into
consideration, rules low; but sheep skins are com-
manding good prices.

REVIEW OF THE CATTLE TRADE
DURING THE PAST MONTH,

Notwithstanding that the various cattle markets
held during the month have been extensively sup-
plied with each kind of stock, especially beasts, the
general condition of the arrivals has been unusually
inferior. The consequence is that a wide margin
has been observed in the quotations — in other
words, really fine beasts and sheep have sold at
comparatively high rates, whilst other qualities have
changed hands at low currencies. In Smithfield,
at least two-thirds of the stock have been extremely
poor ; whilst much surprise has been expressed
that the graziers, considering the great abundance
of food, and the relatively profitable returns from
the different fairs, should have forced of!" such large
numbers of what otherwise might become good
saleable animals. It is evident, however, that the
backwardness of the spring of the present year had
much influence upon the beasts ; and, further, that
most of the leading grazing districts are well
stocked. The yield of rough fat has materially
fallen off; consequently the Baltic merchants have
successfully taken advantage of that circumstance,
and increased the value of Russian produce to
some extent. The price of the former article has,
therefore, advanced to 2s. 5d, per 8lbs. Assuming
that there is no deficiency of English stock,
we are of opinion that the supply of beef
for Christmas consumption will be unusually
large, and of very prime quality, as we understand
that stall-feeding is now being carried on to a
greatly increased exteQt in Norfolk and elsewhere.
From abroad the imports of stock have been on a
very liberal scale. The Jutlanders have made
great exertions in forwarding supplies, as their
season is now rapidly drawing to a close. Corre-
spondents in Holland state that the quantities of
stock there are evidently on the increase, although
the exports have greatly exceeded all former sea-
sons. It is to be regretted that such masses of

miserably fed beasts should be received here from
that quarter as we have noticed of late. To our
butchers they are of very little use, and this must
be obvious when we observe that numbers of them
have sold as low as £5 each. Some contemporary
prints state that large supplies of Spanish sheep
have continued on sale in Smithfield ; whereas not
a single importation has taken place during the
whole of the present year.
The following are the arrivals from abroad into

the metropolis : —

Head.

Beasts 7,792

Sheep 26,672

Calves 1,350

Pigs 1,624

COMPARISON OF IMPORTS.

Oct.

1851.
1850.
1849.

1848.
1847.

Beasts.

5,292
5,939
5,008
2,962
5,433

Sheep.
18,688
20,982
16,190
10,669
17,635

Calves.

1,495

1,312

565

803

1,225

Pigs.

1,912

1,702

243

116

433

The total numbers of Enghsh and foreign stock
shown in Smithfield are as under :

Head.

Beasts • 26,134

Cows 525

Sheep 132,430

Calves 2,556

Pigs 2,770

COMPARISON OF SUPPLIES.

Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct.

1848. 1849. 1850. 1851.

Beasts.... 20,177 22,477 23,116 22,092

Cows 487 457 440 450

Sheep. ... 114,760 146,200 138,110 119,050

Calves .. 2,200 1,946 2,120 1,999

Pigs 3,140 2,085 3,615 3,470

The arrivals of beasts from Lincolnshire, Leices-
tershire, and Northamptonshire have amounted to
13,000 shorthorns; from other parts of England,
2,000 of various breeds ; and from Scotland, 227
horned and polled Scots; the remainder of the
supplies having been derived from abroad and the
neighbourhood of the metropolis. The following
is the general range in the quotations :
Per 8lbs. to sink the oflfals.

s. d. s. d.

Beef from 2 0 to 3 10

Mutton 3 0 to 4 6

Veal 2 6 to 4 0

Pork 2 10 to 3 10

COMPARISON OF PRICES.

Oct., 1848.

Oct., 1849.

s. d. s. d.

s. d. s. d.

Beef . . from 2 4 to 4 0

2 4 to 3 10

Mutton 3 4 to 5 0

2 8 to 4 0

Veal 3 0 to 4 2

3 0 to 3 6

Pork 3 10 to 4 10

3 2 to 4 2

468

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

from

Oct., 1850.
s. d, s. d.
2 4 to 3 10
2 10 to 4 0

2 6 to 3 8

3 0 to 4 2
Very large supplies of country-killed meat, esti-
mated at nearly 30,000 carcasses, have been re-

Beef ..
Mutton
Veal...
Pork .

Oct

, 1851,

s.

d.

s.

d.

2

6

to

3

8

2

10

to

4

2

2

8

to

3

10

2

10

to

3

10

ceived up to Newgate and Leadenhall. Those on
offer slaughtered in London have been seasonably
large. On the whole, an extensive business has
been transacted, as follows : — Beef, from Is. lOd.
to 3s. 4d. ; mutton, 2s. 6d. to 4s. 2d.; veal, 2s.
6d. to 3s. lOd. ; pork, 2s. 6d. to 3s. lOd. per 8lbV
by the carcass. b,!

:A
cirfj

■ rooS.
nioil

AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE, FAIRS, &c.

ASHBORNE FAIR.— The horse fair was not so numer-
ously supplied with colts, but anything useful was well eold,
aud for the best quality great prices were realized. The cattle
fair was not so largely supplied with either store or fat cattle
as usual ; aud there being plenty of customers, most would be
sold at good price?. The shee|) pens were well filled with
sheep, but not quittf so well sold as was expected ; yet good
stnre sheep, as well a? nice small fat ones, fetched good
prices. Lambs feeraed flatter side. There was a niiddliiig
sliow of rams, but, with the exception of a few of the best,
prices were very unsatisfactory, especially consideriog the
price of store slieep. Beef made i.^d. to 5d., sheep from 5d.
to nearly 6d. per lb.

AUCHTERARUER FAIR.— Tne stock brought forward
was very superior, and in good condition. Fat ranged from
63. to 7s. per Dutch stone, and was soon all bought up
Stots and queys were aUo in good demand, at prices equal 10
the late advance

AXBRIDGK FAIR. — There was a numerous attendance,
and a very large supjily of stock ; indeed, altogether beyond
tlie most sanguine expect atious of the promoters. Pens were
provided for tiCO sheep, wlich it was thought would be ade-
quate to the arrivals, but accommodation had to be made for
from 1100 to 1200 of the fleecy tribe. There was a good sup-
ply of fine beeves, chiefly of the Somersetshire grazing, which
fetched in many instances from Os. to 9s. 6d. 1 er score. Mut-
ton 5id. to 6d. per lb.

AXMINSTER FAIR was very numerously attended with
farmers and dealers. The supply of theep aud cattle far ex-
ceeded the number offered at many of the previous fairj, aud
the sale was quick at good and satisfactory prices.

BEDALE FORTNIGHT FAIR.— We had a large supply
of cattle and sheep, both fat and for holding. All were pietty
Well sold up, though slowly, and at a sliglitly reduced price.
Bee", 5s. 3d. to Gs. per st. ; mutton, 5d. to 61I. per lb.

BLACKBURN FAIR.— T,ie show of cattle was a remark-
ab'y good one, and fair prices were realized for most descrip-
tions of stock. Heifers and calvers were in good demand, and
were sold at advanced prices. Tlie show of horses was but in-
dilferent. Of pigs a great number were oHered for sale, and
remunerative prices were obtained for choica animals. On the
whole, a large amount of money must have been turned over
on the Moor.

BRENTWOOD FAIR was one of the best that lias been
held for some time, both as to the number of beasts shown
and the extent of business transacted. Of beasts, particularly
Hcrcfords, the supply was very large, and great numbers were
taken off at an advance of £2 per head on last year's prices,
some of the drovis realizing £18 to £20 per head. Sheep
maintained the prices of late fairs. Of horses the numbers
shown were not large, but there were some Aery good ones ou
thegr.iund, which commanded Irish prices.

CHICHESTER ANNUAL SLOE FAIR.— On Wednes-
day, 20th inst., being a very fine favourable day for this fair,
the holiday folks from town and country, came in groups to
the pleasant spot, the fair being held in a meadow near the
city, the property of J. B. Freeland Esq. It is both a pleasure
fair, aud in some re;pects for business, the chief returns being
the annual show for the sale of young cart horses for farmers,
and Sussex new hops, the price of which, this season, is lOd.
per lb. in small bags to suit the cottagers, &c.

CAISTOK FAIR.— The sheep and horse fair exhibited an
average show both in quality and quantity, und the demand
for sheep ruled steady at the late high prices. Lambs sold at

26s. to 32s. per head ; sheep at SJd. to 6J. per lb. Of beasts
we had a plentiful supply, and the demand was active and ex-
tensive. Fat heists rc-alized .'js. 6d. to 6s. per st.

COLCHESTER FAIR. — A good deal of business was
transacted, especially in beasts, of which there was a larger
show than was ever before recollectcil, and a good proportion
changed hands in the course of the day. The prices weie:
for good polled Scots, from 7'. 10s. to 11/. 10s.; siicrthorns,
from 6Z. to ]2l. lOs. ; Welsh beasts, of which there was a
large supply, were U'jt in such brik demand as other kinds;
these sld fetching the following prices: small, 3/. to 61. ;
good ditto, from 8/. <o lOL ; and a few r.early fit for the
butcher were st.ld at from 11/. to 12/. Of shiep there was
also a very large number i)enr.ed, and although the trade was
rather slow at the commencement, a good number were dis-
posed of, lambs fetching from 20s. to 35s., and ewes from 28s.
to 36s. ; wethers, a bmill show, from 303. to 3Gs. The horse
trade on tl e whole was remaikably slow ; a few good English
colts sf.ld from 28/. to 33/. About 20 or 30 Flemish colts
were shown, but conlJ not be got rid of at any price, and up
to a late period of the day remained unsold. Cart horses
realized from 25/. to 35/. The nag trade was unusually duV.
DEVIZES FAIR.— There was very little difference in the
prices ob-aincd for theep from those of We) hill ; but the trade
was heavy, and in some instances a reduction of 6d. a head
was submitted to towards the close of the fair, aud several lots
were taken home unsold. The supply was gotd of every de-
scription. Best ewes realized from 303. to 363. ; lamiis, from
25j. toSOs. ; wethers, from 303. to 403.; and inferior sorts
less prices. The show of cattle of every description was short,
but quite equal to the demand. Ihe horse fair comprised
chiefly young rough horses from Ireland and Wales, which met
a fair sale ; aud there were a few cart colts, among which we
may mention, as an object of attraction, a beautiful two-year-
( Id grey mare, belonging to Mr. Hillier Reeves. Such an
animal, we are told, has not been exhibited in Dcvizes for
many years. It w-as purchased by Mr. Fowle, of Lavington.
There was scarcely a good nag to be seen.

EARLSTOUN FAIR.— There was the usual show of cat-
tle— about 1,000 head — chiefly for laying on to turnips, and
f^r the straw-yard. The sellers stood out for the recent rise in
prices, which buyers were unwilling to submit to, and conse-
quently sales were slow. A few remained unsold. Prices for
stirks from £5 lOi. to £7 17s. 6d ; two-year-olds, from £8 to
£11 ; fat, from Ss. Gd. to 63. per stone. In the horse market
there was an indifferent show, and th3 demand was dull, except
for young horses rising three years old, some of which brought
from £40 to £50 a pair.

HEREFORDSHIRE FAIR was a good one ; very little, if
any, stock being driven off unsold. It is emphatically a fair
for steers, and fidly the usual number were brought to town.
The price, of course, varied according to the quality ; some
belug disposed oi so low as £10, whilst others (prime ones)
realized £25 and upwards; ihe average of good two-year-old
steers m.<iy be quoted at from £16 to £18 each, being about
12| per cent., or 503. in £20 mere thaa was obtained this time
last year. Of fat cows there were but few ou sale, and Sjd.
to 5^d. per lb. was about the price at which they sold. Sheep
were not numerously offered, nor was the demand brisk.
Wethers, 6d.; ewes, 5|(1. Pigs were in request, aud there
was a tokrdble supply ; porkeis fetched 4d. to 4^d, per lb, ;
small store?, f.-ora IBs. to 25s. The horse fair contained some
good animals, but the trade was principally confined to those
for draught or a^^rjcultural purposes. As usual, there were

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

but few good iiagliorses on sale. Less hops were pitched (at
the time we write) than for many years past ; £5 per cwt. was
asked, but lOd. per lb, was about t!ie price obtained for good
samples. The price of cheese varied at from 303. to .3 Is. per
cwt. for skim ; seconds, oSs. to 423.; best make, 48s. to 523.

ILSLKY FAIR was pretty well supplied with sheep. The
attendance of dealers was small : the consequence was, trade
was quiet, and resulted in a reduction of something above Is.
a hea.l from our last. Most of the sheep were sold at the
reduction named, and the trade must still be considered good.

KENDAL FORTNIGHTLY FAIR.— There was but a
thia show of cattle ; aud, with the exception of a few horned
Scots, none in very good condition. Cows were offering at
from £10 to £12, of the best clais ; aged ?nd inferior ones at
from £8 to £9 ;f_heifers at from £9 to £11 ; calves at from £1
10s. to £2 12s. Sheep were numerous, and were selhng at,
for South Downs, from £2 2s. to £2 5s.; rross breeds fiom
£1 8s. 6d. to £1 133. ; blackfaced ones from 233. 6d. to Sos. ;
1 imbs from ] 8s. to 2 1 s. Leau stock milch cows, of which there
was a considerable number at market, were offering at from
£9 to £12 lOs. ; blackfaced sheep were selling at frjm 19s. to
2ls. ; lambs of all breeds fro a ITs. to 193., according to con-
dition and breed. Dealers were pretty numerous, but owing
to the demands of sellers, salts were with difficulty efl'ected,
yet before the close of the market a good clearance was ac-
complished. Average price per lb.: — Beef, 4^d.; mutton,
5|d. ; lamb, 5id.

LINCOLN'STOCK MARKET, (Wednesd.iy last)— Th?re
was a plentiful supply of Beasts, though oi;ly if a middling
quality, and the prices realized were from Sa. 6d. to Gs. cer
stone. As has usually been the case latterly, sheep were very
scarce and dear, and mutton fetched fully Gd. per lb. In one
instance, a pen of sheep were sold by weight at 6^d. per lb ,
the seller agreeing to return Is. upon each sheep to the
juirchaser.

LITTLE DUNNING (PERTHSHIRE) MARKET.— In
the butter aud cheese markets there were about 200 carts,
which weie entirely cleared o\it by two o'clock, at prices in
advance of those of late markets ; many carts of butter, bring-
ing I83. per stone of 22ib3., though the average may be quoted
at 17s. Cd. ; cheese, same weight, from 4s. Gd. to 5s. 3d. In
the cattle market tnere was a nnmtrous appearance, but of
superior beasts the number was limited, and these were realily
bought up. Best beef may be quoted at 7s. and 7s. 3d. per
stone of 17ilbs., sinking the offal ; iiilerior, 6s. 6d. Two-
year-old beasts, for wintering, from £5 to £7 a head ; and
three-year-old queys, £8 — a little more or less according to
quality; milchers, £8 to £11. Sheep from £1 03. to £1 153.
Pigs were selling in the town at from 8s. to lOs. 6d.

MAIDSTONE FAIR was the largest that has been held
here for very many years, and the weather being fine the at-
tendance was much greater than usual. Tnere was an excel-
lent show of cattle, horses, and sheep, aud a good deal of busi-
ness was done, prices being fully maintained. The horses
realize very long prices, as much as 40 aud, 45 guineas being
demanded for liorses and colts. There was a good supply of
hops, the best Mid and East Keut^ selling well, other inferior
samples went otT slowly ; fine Weald of Kent and Sussex hops
were readily sold, and fetched good prices.

MELROSE EWE FAIR.— There was a large supply of
ewes, particularly Cheviots, the current rise on which was
from 2s. Gd. to 3s. 3d., while the prices of lambs ran very simi-
lar to that obtained at recent markets. The following were
among the lots which exchanged ban '.3, viz. : — The crack lots
of Altrive and Fiudland sold at 223. 6d. ; those from Buc-
cleuch were sold at 22s. ; from Catslawburn were sold at 203.
6d. ; from Ladhope were sold at 2O3. Several other lots were
disposed of at 19s., and a large quantity left the market
unsold.

NORWICH FAIR.- The show of Scots was small, but the
condition and quality superior to late years ; the numbers
Were from 1,100 to 1,200. Buyers were i.nmerou-^, and an
immense amount of business transacted. The primest Scots
made 5s. per stone, but from 4s. to 4s. 6d. was the general
fi:'ure. Of shorthorns the numbers were both large and sood ;
prices varied from Ss. 6J. to 43. 6d, per stone ol 141bs. when
fat. At the close few beasts remained unsold. It may be
observed, although there were great doubts of the breeders
and dealers iu the north being remunerated, still nothing can
warrant the graziers giving better prices, admitting the turnip

crop to be good, so long as wheat remains so ruii.ously low.
Iu the horse fair there was scarcely a good animal to be seen.
STRANRAER MARKET was numerously attended by
farmers aud others, aud also by dealeri from the lower district
of the county. Trade be an exceedingly brisk, and was car-
ried on with the same spirit during the market hours. A few
lots were sold ere they reached the field, one of these being
stirks from Kirkcolm, and bought at £0 each by a farmer in
the same parish ; another lot of si irks from the parish of Inch
was sold in the j:ark at £6 2s. Gd. ahead. These two lots
were splendid animals of the age, and reflected much credit on
the enterprising agriculturists that reared them. The number
of cattle sho.vu was about 300 head, compiising iitirks, two
aud three-year-olds of the Galloway breed, with some Ayr-
shires and a few Irish ; there was a very large bullock shown
in the field, which sold at £12. Stirks were selling at from
£3 7s. Gd. up to £4 10s. ; a lot of very superior two-year-olds
from Pinwlicrry were sold at £7 lOs. each— this lot was
allowed to be the best in the market: prices for two-year-olds
were ranging from £7 and £6 173. 6d , down to 5 guineas.
Ti;e demand for Ayrshires seemed to be rather lagging, aud a
few lots of this kind of stock would be driven out unsold. The
market was a good one, and the supply not equal to the de-
mand.

WINCHESTER SHEEP FAIR. — There was a larger
supply of stock penned than has been known for many years,
aho'it 40,000 sheep, 7,000 above an average The attendance
of dealers was moderate, and consequently trade throughout
the day was languid, and sales could only be effected at a
slight reduction on the prices of Weyliill. Notwithstanding
these reduced terma were submitted to, f.t noon several peas
had not clanged hands. The condition of the stock, generally
speaking, was good, especially the lambs. Mr. Jacob Courtney,
of Crawley, had some very tine lambs, which realised 35s. a
head. Mr. Henry Pain, of Wallop, penned 200 lambs, which
averaged 333. a head ; aud Mr. James Fitt, of W^estley, sold
his fine stock of lambs at 34s. V/ethers sold at from 453. to
3Ss. ; ewes, 333. to oOs. The supply of sheep at Alresford
market on Thursday was very limited, in consequence of its
being near AVinchester sheep fair. There were few dealers,
and stock met a dull sale.

WOOLER FAIR — There was a very large supply of all
kinds of sheep ; we have HOt seen such a large show of Cheviot
wcdders for above thirty years. The demand was very dull, at
prices averaging from 2s. to 3s. below the prices given at St.
Nmian's fair, and a good many lots went off the ground un-
sold. We ejuote the following prices: — Leicester dinmonis,
34s. to 42s. ; do. gimmers, 283. to32s.; do. ewes, 333. to 383. ;
half-bred dinmoiits, "83. to 343.; do. gimmers, 25s. to 283.;
do. e ACS, 283. to 333.; Cheviot dinmonts, 22s. to 323.; do.
wedders, 24s. to 30j. ; do. ewes, 2l3. to 253. There was a
very large aud fine show of cattle of all descriptions. Two-
aud a-half year old steers sold at £11 to £14; one-and-a-half-
year-clds, £G to £8 103.; and a lot of calves, nine months
old, brought £3 12s. per head. The principal part of the
animals in the horse market were of an inferior description,
amongst which few sales were effected. There was below an
average supply of pigs.

YORK FORTNIGHT FAIR.— We had a large supply of
middling fed beasts, which had slow sale, many remaining on
Land ; the primest qualities sold at nearly 53. Gd., inferior
4s. 9d. to 53. per stone. Mutton sheep : hogs and gimmers,
liglit weights nearly 6d , ewes and heavy weights 5d. per lb.
Calving and dairy cows were in good demand, and prices
stca ly upon former markets. Lean beasts for grazing were in
good supply, aud had fair sale, but at prices much lower than
previous markets. Short-horned steers, heifers, and Scots bad
the call of the market. Irish cattle were in abundance, and
many sold, but at very reduced prices. Lfan stock of ell
kinds had a general downward tendency. The annual ai:-
tumnal en e and lamb fair had a mnch less supply than l»st
fortnight, some estimating them at one-half, others at one
fourth; but, iu the absence of any market bye-law3 (or the
proper entry of the number of sheep for sale, all this is mere
conjecture: we think one half would Le nearest. We had a
g.-eat falling-off in the number of buyers, which caused prices
to fall from last market 23., 3s., and 4s. per head, the decline
varying according to the different kind? of stock shown. Many
lots were left unsold.

470

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF OCTOBER.

The weather was favourable in the early part
of the month for outdoor labours ; and farmers
were for some weeks busily engaged in the fields.
The sov/ing of wheat, consequently, made con-
siderable progress, and the seed in general was
committed to the soil under favourable auspices.
Within the last week, the work has been inter-
rupted by heavy falls of rain ; and it will require
an interval of dry weather to restore the land to
good order. Autumn-sowing is not, we think, so
far advanced as usual at the corresponding -season
of the year; but the arrears might be soon brought
up, if November should prove tolerably propitious.
Whether as great a breadth of land will be culti-
vated with wheat as heretofore, may be doubted.
That crop has for several seasons been the least
remunerative to the British farmer; and it is,
therefore, probable that others will, to a certain
extent, be substituted : but, as yet, this has not
been so generally the case as to call for particular
remark.

As regards the result of the last harvest, we see
no reason to alter materially the estimate we
ventured to submit to our readers in September.
That the extent of the injury sustained has not
been overrated, we feel perfectly satisfied— indeed,
we doubt whether farmers, in the districts which
escaped best, will be reimbursed by their crops for
their outlays ; and that many will be very severe
losers is certain. Even in the north of England,
where the weather during harvest-time was compa-
ratively propitious, a considerable proportion of the
produce proves of ordinary quality ; and in all the
southern counties, the complaints are nearly uni-
versal. One of the surest tests of qualitv is weight
to the bushel ; and, tried by this, the wheat crop
must be considered as lamentably deficient in all
the best wheat-growing districts of England. 60
to 6 libs, per bushel may be considered as the ex-
ception, the greater part being 58 to 60lbs., and
a very large portion only 561bs. per bushel. On
the average, the weight may be fairly considered
4 to 5lbs. less than last year.

The sales hitherto made have been at very un-
remunerative rates. In many cases, farmers have
not netted more than 25s. to 30s, for the worse
portion ; and the best dry qualities have scarcely
returned over 35s. to 38s. per qr. If, therefore,
there had been a considerable excess in quantity,
instead of a bare average (at which the yield per

acre is generally estimated), the return would not
pay for the outlay ; and it may consequently be
regarded as a positive fact that most of the English
farmers will this year have to pay rent out of ca-
pital. Their only hope is that, after the wheat shall
have been subjected to an interval of dry, frosty
weather, it may improve in quality, and its value
be thereby raised. Hence, those who are in a po-
sition to hold will be inclined to wait, more espe-
cially as the position of aflfairs warrants the
expectation that prices may advance during the
approaching winter. Indeed, surprise is felt by
those best acquainted with the trade that, whilst
all other branches of commerce have enjoyed a
considerable amount of activity, the corn-market
should have remained dull. Such has, neverthe-
less, been the case, and prices have scarcely varied
since we last addressed our readers. That this
state of things is attributable to the same cause
which has operated so disadvantageously for the
interest of British agriculture the past six years,
does not admit of question. The facility mth
which our markets may be inundated with foreign
corn, at any period when foreign merchants con-
sider prices high enough to induce them to consign,
renders the course of prices here dependent more
on the harvest abroad than at home. It may pay the
continental grower well to sell at rates which would
not remunerate our producers. This year, for ex-
ample. Great Britain has unfortunately to deplore
the occurrence of an unfavourable harvest, whilst
abroad the crops have given a good yield. If,
therefore, rents, labour, and other expenses were
the same on the continent as in this country, our
neighbours could still afford to undersell the home
producer ; and with the decided advantage which
they have in each and all these points, the compe-
tition is unfair and ruinous to one of the most im-
portant interests of Great Britain. There is, how-
ever, a probability that foreign speculators, being
perfectly aware that England must have wheat of
good quality to mix with her inferior new, will hold
back supplies; and we are therefore inclined to
think that the importations will be so regulated as
not to overwhelm our markets. At all events, the
shipments from the north of Europe between this
and the setting in of winter cannot be very great,
old stocks of wheat being ,'reduced into a narrow
compass at most of the Baltic ports, and the de-
liveries of new from the growers having hardly

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

^1

commenced. Under these circumstances, we are
disposed to look for a moderate improvement in
the value of breadstufts, and think prices will not
be lower than they now are, for the next six months.

Though spring corn and pulse have commanded
relatively higher rates than wheat since harvest, the
supplies of the former have thus far been quite
moderate ; this can only be accounted for by the
supposition that the stocks of old having been com-
pletely exhausted, farmers have been compelled to
use considerable quantities of new for fodder for
cattle, pig feeding, &c.

As regards quantity the barley crop has, we be-
lieve, given a good yield; but the proportion of fine
samples suitable for malting will be exceedingly
small. So little of the latter has hitherto come
forward, that prices of fine malting barley have
crept up in all parts of the kingdom, notwithstand-
ing great caution on the part of buyers.

Oats appear to have suffered more extensively
from the wet weather at harvest time than was at
first supposed, and most of the new which have
been brought forward at the different provincial
markets have been of light weight and in soft con-
dition. The Scotch and Irish farmers appear to
have been more fortunate with this crop ; but in
those counties in England where oats are most ex-
tensively grown, the proportion of fine corn will,
we fear, be very small.

The shortness of the bean and pea crops is now
universally admitted, and there is reason to believe
that feeding articles will maintain the relatively
high value, as com])ared with that of wheat, which
they have borne since harvest; and should prices of
the latter rise (as is not improbable) all other kinds
of corn and pulse would, we think, advance in
the same proportion. This opinion is strengthened
by the acknowledged deficiency in the produce of
potatoes ; the last named article has already become
too dear to be used for feeding, and even as human
food it is relatively dearer than bread. That this
must tell later in the year cannot be questioned,
and on the whole we are inclined to think that the
reasons we have adduced are sufficient to warrant
the opinion which we have ventured to give, viz ,
that a moderate advance in the value of agricul-
tural produce is not improbable.

So much for speculations on the probable
future ; we shall now proceed to take our usual
retrospect of the transactions at Mark Lane during
the month. Whilst most other important branches
of business have been stimulated to increased ac-
tivity by the abundance of capital resulting from
the continued influx of gold into this country from
Australia and California, the corn trade has re-
mained in a very passive state. Speculators have
given a preference to all other kinds of investments,

and Mark Lane has been left to its usual and legi-
timate operators. Even our own millers and mer-
chants have acted with great caution, and the
activity which a superabundance of money has given
rise to in other commercial transactions has been
little felt in the grain trade. This certainly has its
advantages; if there have been no great profits, nei-
ther is there the chance of serious losses ; and
though there has not been much animation, a steady
consumptive demand for most articles has prevented
prices giving way.

The arrivals of wheat coastwise into the port of
London the first fortnight in October were tole-
rably good, but the receipts did not exceed what
was needed to provide for the consumptive demand
of the metropolis. On Monday, the 4th inst., the
finest qualities of new Enghsh wheat reahzed Is. per
qr. more than on that day se'nnight, and other
sorts maintained their previous value. During the
succeeding fortnight prices remained perfectly sta-
tionary at Mark Lane, though the tendency was
upwards in most of the agricultural districts. To-
wards the close of the month the supplies fell off,
and on the 2oth there was scarcely sufficient exhi-
bited on the Essex, Kent, and Suffolk stands to
meet the demand. An attempt was consequently
made to establish an advance, which was, however,
steadily resisted by purchasers; and we consider
prices about the same at the close as they were in
the beginning of the month. Inferior kinds of red
wheat might still be bought at 35s. per qr., and the
best dry runs of red Kent and Essex are not worth
more than 40s. to 42s. per qr. The offers from
Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire have not increased
materially, nor have prices for these sorts varied;
but during the last eight or ten days there has been
somev/hat more disposition to buy.

The arrivals of wheat at this port from abroad
have been rather liberal, nearly 100,000 qrs. having
come to hand during the month. Of this quantity
rather more than one-third has been from the
Mediterranean and Black Sea ports, a small por-
tion from America, and the remainder from the
Baltic and near continental ports. The largest
^rival was during the week ending the iGth inst.,
when 48,000 qrs. were received, principally from
the north of Europe; and a large proportion of this
went direct to London millers, who had sent orders
to Danzig, Rostock, &c., in the month of August.
The supply, on the whole, has exceeded what has
been required for immediate use, and the stocks in
warehouse have rather accumulated. In some few
cases importers have preferred to give way slightly
in prices to incurring landing expenses, but this
has not generally been the case, and quotations
have undergone but little alteration since our last.
The finer kinds of old Baltic red wheat have not

472

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

been sold below 46s. to 48s., and choice Rostock
has realized 50s. per qr. in retail. Mixed Danzig
and Konigsberg has been taken for immediate use
in small quantities at 45s. to 47s., and superior
high mixed at 48s., 50s., and even 52s. to
53s. per quarter. The Black Sea wheat has
been obtainable at lower rates, Polish Odessa hav-
ing been freely oiFered at 38s. to 40s. per qr., and
other descriptions at corresponding terms. In ad-
dition to the business done in wheat on the spot,
rather large transactions have taken place in floating
cargoes, and the sellers of Polish Odessa and other
similar sorts have succeeded in realizing relatively
more monry for cargoes on passage than has been
obtainable for wheat of the same character in gra-
nary. The offers from the Baltic have generally
been at too high rates to allow of much business
being done ; the sales effected have been principally
of fine Danzig, for which high prices have been
given free on board ; indeed, so high have the
ttrms insisted on by the foreign merchants been,
that, unless our prices undergo a rise, the parties
who have been bold enough to make purchases
may run the risk of losing by their investments.
Good Lower Baltic red wheat has been offered at
43s. to 44s. per qr., cost, freight, and insurance,
without leading to sales of any importance.

The nominal top price for town manufactured
flour has remained stationary throughout the month.
During the first fortnight most of the town bakers
were free buyers, and large forward sales were
made ; the trade may therefore be considered to be
now well in stock, and this has been felt the last
eight or ten days, the sales having been much less
extensive than before. The arrivals of country
made flour into London have been on a moderate
scale, and the stocks on the wharves are not by any
means heavy ; prices have ranged from 28s. to 34s.
per sack, according to quality> mark, &c. Good
Norfolk household has been selling, and is still
worth, about 30s. per sack. The receipts of foreign
flour have been smaller than expected, more espe-
cially from America, and quotations have therefore
been well supported. Fair brands of American
have not been sold under 22s., and superfine to
extra superfine have brought 23s. to 25s. per bn.
Of French flour very little has come to^hand, and
according to the accounts from thence there seems
to be no prospect of supplies of magnitude — a for-
tunate thing for our millers.

The arrivals of English barley have been consi-
derably less than the quantity usually received at
the corresponding period of the year, and of that
which has come forward only a small proportion
has consisted of fine malting quality. This grain
has been in good demand throughout the month,
and the tendency of prices has been upwards, more

particularly for the finer sorts. Choice malting
parcels, such as were worth 33s. to 34s. per qr. at
the close of September, cannot at present be secured
below 34s. to 35s., and the latter rate was, we be-
lieve, realized in several instances on Monday last.
In many of the country markets prices are still
higher, as much as 38s. per qr. having been paid.
Distillers' barley has not sold so freely as other
sorts in the London market, but there has been no
giving way on the part of factors ; it is, however,
probable that supplies of the latter may increase,
and that sellers may then have to make some con-
cession. We have had a very extensive demand
for feeding barley, and though the arrivals from
abroad have been tolerably good, nearly the whole
which has come forward has been cleared off the
market at gradually improving rates. The only
kind of which there is any quantity remaining is
Egyptian, and of this the stock has been consider-
ably reduced. Common Danish and similar sorts,
weighing 50lbs., have sold at 25s., and heavier de-
scriptions at 26s. to 27s., son.e as high as 28s. per
qr. Turkish barley, which was obtainable at the
close of last month at I9s. to 20s., is at present
worth 21s. to 22s. per qr., though not generally
liked for grinding purposes.

The upward movement in barley prices has na-
turally influenced the value of malt: the sale for
this article has been lively, and with good supplies
prices have risen Is. to 2s. per qr.

Stocks of old oats, of home growth, have long
since been exhausted, and it has become a rarity to
see a sample. The receipts of new coastwise have
thus far been very small, and the quantity received
per rail quite moderate. The few lots which have
come forward from Lincolnshire and that neigh-
bourhood have proved of very inferior quality, and
have consequently been difficult to place : 36 to
371bs. feed at I7s. 6d.to 18s. 6d., and 40lbs. quali-
ties have brought Is. to 2s. per qr. above the last-
named rate. The new Irish oats are decidedly
superior to those of English growth, and have
consequently met with more demand, the lighter
kinds at 18s. to 19s., and fine heavy samples at
21s. per qr. The principal business has, however,
been in foreign oats, few horse-keepers being dis-
posed to feed on new whilst old are obtainable.
The arrivals from abroad, without being large,
have been on a sufficiently liberal scale to prevent
prices rising materially ; still some improvement
has taken place, good Archangel being now cur-
rently worth 18s. 6d. to 19s., St. Petersburg and
Riga 19s. to 20s., Danish and Swedish 20s. to 21s.,
and Dutch Polands 21s. to 22s. per qr. The
quantity of old oats in warehouse is drawing into
a narrow compass. The Russian supply is believed
to be all to hand, and the quantity on passage from

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

47a

other continental ports is considered to be mode-
rate. Under these circumstances, holders calcu-
late on present rates being at least supported for
old oats, and many are sanguine of a further im-
provement.

The rise which took place in the value of beans
during last month has not had the eftect of draw-
ing larger supplies, the receipts of this article hav-
ing been very small since our last. Buyers have
been cautious in their operations ; notwithstanding
which, the tendency has continued upwards. At
present good hard new tick beans cannot be bought
below 32s. to 33s., and harrows are worth 34s. to
35s., pigeons up to 40s. per qr., if small and hand-
some. Foreign old beans range in value, for Baltic
sorts from 30s. to 37s., and Egyptian have risen
to 30s. per qr.

The arrivals of peas of home growth into Lon-
don coastwise, as well as by rail, have been per-
fectly insignificant, and the receipts from abroad
have been quite trifling. The splitters have expe-
rienced considerable difficulty in buying a sufficient
quantity of white peas to keep their regular cus-
tomers supplied, and have had to pay very high
rates for fine breakers. The top price, at the end
of September, did not, we think, exceed 40s. per
qr. ; subsequently 42s., then 44s., and latterly 46s.,
and in one instance, we believe, even 48s. per qr.
has been reahzed. Foreign peas have not risen
quite so rapidly, and it has been difficult to exceed
40s. per qr. for the latter. Grey and maple have
remained nearly stationary in value.

A very large business has been done during the
month in floating cargoes of Indian corn, princi-
pally by buyers on Irish account, where the con-
sumption has been very great, and is daily increas-
ing, owing to the scarcity of potatoes. The arrivals
off" the coast have been considerable, but nearly all
the cargoes which have come forward have been
ordered to proceed to the sister isle, for which
the demand still continues. The rise since we last
addressed our readers may be fairly estimated at Is.
to 2s. per qr. ; Galatz, which was then selling at
30s., having lately found ready buyers at 31s. to
32s. per qr., cost, freight, and insurance ; and other
kinds at corresponding rates. Large supplies of
this article are still expected from the Black Sea,
but holders appear confident, and manifest no
anxiety 10 realize; indeed more money is in
general asked for distant cargoes than for such
as are close at hand— a tolerably strong ])roof
that no reaction is anticipated. At Liverpool
prices are about the same for floating cargoes as in
London.

Whilst prices of Wheat have remained nearly
stationary in our markets, the tendency abroad
has been decidedly upwards. This has not been

caused by any very extensive export demand, but
by a disposition on the part of foreign merchants
to speculate, under the firm conviction that Great
Britain will sooner or later require supplies.

At Danzig the transactions have been extensive
during the last few weeks, and for the finer kinds
of old high prices have been reahzed. Stocks
have been greatly reduced there by the Septem-
ber shi])ments, and as no material supplies of
new were calculated on, the prevailing opinion
was that the value of the article would rise during
the winter. The quality of the new Upper and
Lower Polish wheat is described as fine, and the
weight good. Spring corn, on the other hand,
has yielded indifferently in all those districts
from which Danzig is supplied, and scarcely
sufficient had come forward to provide for the
local consumption,

Konigsberg letters give a similar account of the
result of the harvest, the wheat being fine in
quality, and having given a good yield to the acre ;
but all other articles short. Some speculative
purchases of wheat had been made there, which
had caused the price for fine high-mixed old
to rise to 42s. 6d., and for choice parcels of new
equal to 44s. per qr., free on board had been paid.
Beans and peas (of which this port usually fur-
nishes some quantity) were very scarce; the former
were quoted 20s., and the latter 31s. per qr., free
on board.

The advices from the Lower Baltic ports do not
call for any particular comment. Stocks of old
wheat are decidedly short in that quarter, and those
of other articles nearly exhausted ; and farmers
having been too busily employed in the fields to
allow of supplies of new corn to any extent being
brought forward— transactions on a large scale
have been out of the question. The wheat crop
has certainly given an excellent return both in
quantity and quality in all the countries bordering
on the Baltic, and we may consequently reckon on
considerable supplies from thence ; these, however,
cannot be looked for before the spring of next year,
unless we should have an unusually mild open
winter.

The value of good wheat in Stettin, Rostock,
Stralsund, Wismar, &c., at present is 38s. to
40s. per qr., free on board, but rather more money
is asked for spring shipment.

At the near continental ports prices have been
regulated more or less by the advices from hence ;
in the beginning of the month wheat had a tendency
to rise at Hamburg, Rotterdam, Antwerp, and in
the principal French markets ; but the subsequently
received English accounts being regai-ded as dis-
couraging, a slight reaction afterwards took place ;
quotations continue, however, too high at most of

474

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the places named to allow of any margin for profit
on shipments to England.

The most recent advices from the Mediterranean
quote wheat relatively higher than with us, and there
is consequently little prospect of advantageous
business being done with that quarter.

At the principal Black Sea ports large purchases
of wheat and Indian corn were made in September
and the early part of October, for shipment to
Great Britain, and we may calculate on considera-
ble supplies from thence. The pi'ices paid there
have been so high as to render it doubtful whether
the Greek houses here (who have been the princi-
pal operators) will gain much by their specula-
tions.

The accounts from America, by the steamer
Canada, state that supplies of wheat and flour from
the interior had increased, and the export demand
having at the same time slackened, prices had ra-
ther receded at the principal shipping ports on the
coast.

COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES

OF CORN.

Averages from last

Friday's

Averages from the correspond-

Gasette.

Av.

ing Gasette in 1851. Av

ars.

s. d.

Qrs. s. d.

Wheat.... 117,026 .

. 38 8

Wlieat. . . . 106,335 . . 36 9

Barley.... 63,145 .

. 28 8

Barley. . . . 59,447 . . 25 5

Oats .... 20,475 .

. 17 10

Oats .... 20,658 .. 17 5

Rye 368 .

. 25 8

Rye 329 .. 23 8

Beans 4,437 .

. 34 2

Beans .... 4,901 . . 28 6

Peas .... 3,767 .

. 30 9

Peas .... 2,267 . . 27 7

An Account shewing the Quantities op Corn,
Grain, Meal, and Flouk, imported into the
United Kingdom in the month ended 10th
October, 1852, the Quantities upon which
Duties have been paid for Home Consumption

DURING the same MONTH, AND THE QUANTITIES
REMAINING IN WAREHOUSE AT THE CLOSE THEREOF.

Species of Grain.

Wheat, from British

Possessions

Barley, do

Oats, do

Peas, do

Maize or Indian Corn, do.

Wheat, foreign

Barley, do

Oats, do

Rye

Peas, do

Beans, do

Maize or Indian Corn,do

Buckwiieat

Malt...

Beer or Bi^'g

Flour from British Pos-
sessions

Flour, foreign |

Quantity
imported.

qrs. bush.
1950 0
1 0

522 3

313553 5

80483 6

179T52 2

1558 0

3244 3

17377 0

192363 2

647 3

cwts. qrs.Ibs.

12198 1 22
286209 0 11

Quantity en-
tered for
consumption

qrs. bush.

1950 0

1 0

522 3

313703 5

30483 6

179752 2

1558 0

3244 3

18727 1

192863 2

647 3

cwts. qrs.Ibs.

12198 1 22
286209 0 11

Quantity
remaining in
warehouse.

qrs. bush.
1 2

2458 3
15 5
21 0

cwts. qrs.Ibs.

6 8 18

7 2 26

HOP MARKET.
BOROUGH, Monday, October 25.
The market is very firm for fine Hops, at a trifling
improvement iu value ; but inferior sorts are heavy, at
barely late quotations.

Mid. and East Kent pockets 88s. to 145s.

Weald of Kent ditto 70s. „ 84s.

Sussex ditto 70s. „ 84s.

POTATO MARKET.
SouTHWARK, Waterside, October 25.
In commencing our report for the season, we are
happy to observe Potatoes are coming in much better
condition, and less diseased than was expected. During
the past week the supplies, foreign, coastwise, and by
rail, have been considerable and prices declining.

York Regent's lOOs. to 120s.

Lincolnshire ditto 90s. „ 110s.

Shakos 80s. „ 90s.

Scotch Regents 80s. „ 100s.

French , 80s. „ 90s,

WOOL MARKETS.

LIVERPOOL, October 23.
Scotch. — There is only a fair inquiry for Laid Highland
wool at former rates ; white Highland is scarce, and much
wanted. Cheviots and Crosses are in good demand, and the
stocks are rather low for the season.

s d. s. d.

Laid mrjJdand Wool, per 2ilbs 9 6 <o 1 0 3

While Highland do 13 0 U 0

Laid Crossed do..unn-ashcd .,,, 11 6 12 6

Do. do. .washed 12 6 13 0

Laid Cheviot do-.tm^vashed .... 12 6 14 0
Do. do. trashed ...... 14 0 17 6

White Cheviot do.. do 24 0 28 0

Foreign. — The trade are much engaged with the sales now
iu progress in London ; sales are also to take place here on
the 2ud. There is not much going on by private.
FOREIGN WOOL.
LEEDS, Oct. 22. — Sales in both foreign and colonial wools
have only been effected to a limited extent during the past
week. The improved rates hitherto obtained at the present
series of sales in London have tended to give increased firm-
ness to prices here.

HIDE AND SKIN MARKETS.

s. d. s. d.

Market Bides, 56 to Gi lbs 0 if^oO 2 per lb.

Do. 64 12 lbs 0 2 0 2j „

Do. 72 &Qlbs 0 2j 0 3 „

Do. 80 88iJs 0 3 0 ,3} „

Do. 88 mibs 0 8J 0 3| „

Do. 96 \Oilbs 0 3J 0 4 „

Lambskins 2 6 4 d each.

Horse Hides 5 0 0 0 „

Calf Shins, light 10 2 0 „

Do. fall 0 0 4 0 „

Polled Sheep 4 6 5 2 „

Half-breds 8 6 4 2 „

Downs 2 7 4 0,,

MANURES.

London, October 25.
Linseed Cakes are firm at a further improvement, and
scarcely any offering on the market.

Rape Cakes very scarce, and no foreign to be had.
PRICES CURRENT OF GUANO.

Guano Peruvian per ton £0 0 0 to £9 8 0

„ In quantities under 5 tons „ 0 0 0 9 10 0

Bolivian Guano „ 7 5 0 0 0 0

ARTIFICIAL MANURES, OIL CAKES, ^-c.

Peat Charcoal „ 2 15 0 0 0 ft

Nitrate Soda „ 15 0 0 0 0 0

Nitrate Potash or Salt})etre „ 26 0 0 28 0 0

Superphosphate of Lime „ 00 0 600

Soda, Ash or Alkali „ 0 0 0 8 0 0

Gyiisum „ 1 6 0 1 10 0

CoproUte „ 2 6 0 8 0 0

Sulphate of Copper, or Roman

Vitriolfor Wheat steeping.... „ 27 0 0 29 0 0

Salt „ 110 16 0

Bones J inch per qr. 0 0 0 0 15 0

„ DuM „ 0 0 0 0 17 0

Oil Vitriol, concentrated per lb. Q 0 0 0 0 1

„ Brown „ 0 0 0 0 0 Of

Rape Cakes per ton 5 0 0 5 10 (5

Linseed Cakes —

Thin American in brls. or bags „ 9 0 0 9 10 0

Thick ditto round „ 7 15 0 8 0 0

Marseilles „ 0 0 0 0 0 0

English „ 8 6 0 8 15 0

Printed by Rogerson and Tuxford, 246, Strand, London.

r^^fi^mtfwn'^^''

5j%

.V S

^

N^ -£;■

K"^'

THE FAEMEE'S MAGAZINE.

DECEMBER, 1852,

PLATE I.

A HEREFORD COW,

Bred by the Rev. Henry Blissett, of Letton Court, Herefordshire; the property of Mr. Wilhatn
Vaughan, of Cholstrey, near Leominster. To this animal was awarded the first prize of Ten
Sovereigns and the Gold Medal, in class 3, at the Midland Counties Cattle Show, held at Birmingham,
in December, 1851 ; and also an extra prize of Fifteen Sovereigns as the best cow or heifer of any breed.

PLATE IL
DANIEL O'ROURKE,

THE PROPERTY OF JOHN BOWES, ESU., STREATHAM CASTLE, DURHAM.
KNGRAVED BY E. HACKER, FROM A I'AINTING BY U. UALL.

Daniel O'Rourke, bred by his owner Mr. Bowes in 1849, was got by Irish Birdcatcher, out of
Forget-me-not, by Hetman PlatofI', her dam Oblivion, by Jerry, — Remembrance, by Sir Solomon out
of Queen Mab, — Sister to Mercury by Eclipse. Daniel O'Rourke is a light chestnut horse, standing
not quite fifteen hands high : he has rather a small neat head, strong neck, very good shoulders, deep
girth, immense ribs and quarters, with powerful loins, thighs, and arms. He stands short on the leg,
and is of great length, with very good bone; in fact, altogether just the multum-in-parvo compact kind
of horse to go through deep ground. He has no white beyond a taste on the forehead, nose, and near
hind fetlock joint. In temper he is generally quiet, but resolute enough when once roused.

THE CULTIVATION OF OATS

BY T. ROWLANDSON, C.E., F.G.S.

The following treatise was written in reply to a
series ot inquiries respecting oat culture; since
which it has undergone the examination ot several

is classed in the order Triandria Digynia; but by
the natural system of Jussieu, it is placed amongst
the order Graminie, and in the tribe of Bromes,

practical agriculturists. The only remarks elicited the major part of which species dehght in rich
in objection to what has been stated are inserted as | moist soils, of a moderate degree of firmness. It
foot-notes, to which are added some brief explana- | is not known from what country oats were ori-
tory observations. Under all circumstances, there- ^ ginally olitained ; though it is said they have been
fore, it may be considered as having escaped pretty seen growing wild on the island of Juan Fernandez,
well from the ordeal of criticism, and the writer : As, however, oats were grown in the old world
trusts that the article is not an unfair manual of ; before the new one was discovered, the truth of

oat cultivation.
According to the Linntean arrangement, the oat

such a circumstance would by no means throw any
light on its original habitat in the former.

OLD SERIES.] 2 I [VOL. XXXVII.-No. ti.

476

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Soils best adapted to oats.— \\'hen in good tilth,
few soils are inimical to tlie growth of oats, chalks
probably being least adapted to their cultivation.
Any soil in high condition will produce good crops
of oats. So far as mere soil is concerned, no
species can be selected as peculiarly prejudicial to
this plant. In common with most of the cultivated
plants, oats do not grow well on undrained lands,
particularly peats. Under these circumstances it
will, perhaps, present the clearest view of the adap-
tation of various soils to the culture of oats, to
review them under different classes, commencing
with those most congenial, and concluding with
such as are least adapted to their growth.

Mouldy loam and warp lands. — Although the
oat crop will generally yield a profitable produce on
lands where barley would fail to do so, it must not
from that circumstance be considered that rich
barley or wheat land is unfavourable to its culti-
vation, for there is no crop known to the husband-
man that so clearly displays any attention paid to
it, whether as respects extra management, or by
being sown on rich land. Oats can be profitably
grown on soils too poor for the successful cultiva-
tion of the other cereals (rye excepted); and all the
intermediate stages of fertility, up to rich virgin
land, which if sown with wheat would produce
little more than straw. In cultivating very rich warp
lands for the first time, this over-luxuriance some-
times occurs with tlie oat crop. After the drainage
and inclosurt of some of the richer peat and marsh
land of Lincalnshive, crops of oats were in many
instances obtained, amounting to SO and 100
bushels of light oats per acre, with very long straw,
A few years' cultivation soon reduced this ex-
ubeiance. In the solitary instances where farmers
have to contend with over fertihty, a crop of hemp,
if circumstances are otherwise favourable, should
be taken, after which the ground will in general be
found sufficiently reduced. From these remarks
it will be seen that oats may be cultivated on very
varied soils, under very different states of fertility.
With respect to climate, oats will flourish under an
extremely wide r&nge, both of temperature and
moisture.

These being the general characteristics of the oat
plant, it may easily be conceived that the heaviest
crops with regard to quantity, and the best with
respect to quahty, are obtained from those soils
which are most productive in the ordinary range of
general arable and pastoral husbandry : on such
soils, in high condition, oats are apt to remain
green too long, if the season proves moist; but
during dry seasons they ripen very early, and are
uncommonly productive of both straw and grain,
the latter being also of excellent quality.

Friable loams, stiff soils, and marls.— Ferhaps

no soil is so well adapted to the cultivation of oats
during all the vicissitudes of climate as friable
loams, situate on broken limestone. In the course
of a series of years, during which the extremes of
dry and wet seasons may have jnevailed, soils of
this class will be found to produce the most ave-
rage quality and quantity, being in very favourable
years inferior in both respects to the produce of
some soils, but counterbalancing this by the fact
of being superior in unfavourable seasons. This
is owing in part to the different mineral division,
and in part to the composition of various soils ;
for instance, mouldy loams and warp lands are
generally during cultivation broken into minute
particles, whilst friable loams are formed into larger
fragments, in consequence of which the former
retain, by capillary attraction, a considerable quan-
tity of water, whilst the more open interstices be-
tween the clods of soil in friable loams permit the
water to speedily sink down to the subjacent
limestone rock, by which it is absorbed through the
innumerable fissures invariably found on the upper
surfaces of the limestone formation. Stiff soils .ind
marls produce excellent crops of oats : on these
soils, however, either very wet or very dry summers
are injurious ; in the former case converting the
soil to the state of mortar, and in the latter baking
it to a hard substance, so that the root cannot
penetrate. The latter will be in a great measure
obviated, and perhaps avoided, by sowing the crop
tolerably thick, and pretty early, so that the ground
may become well-covered before dry weather sets
in. If sown late and thin, a most miserable crop
will be the result. In average seasons of tempe-
rature and rain, with a favourable harvest-time,
oats from marly soils are very heavy, often being
44 lbs. to 45 lbs. per bushel, and sometimes more.
When in good condition, few soils produce heavier
oats than marls in average seasons, though heavier
crops may be obtained on richer and more open
soils, such as those first described. Oats should
always be sown early on stiff soils and marls, in
order to escape the detrimental effects of early
droughts : this, however, is ofttimes no easy matter
to accomplish, for if sown when the soil is not
suflficiently pulverized, the seeds frequently get
enclosed in lumps of clay, in which case, if not
sprouted and above ground before dry weather sets
in, they never germinate. In this way it some-
times occurs that not more than one-half or one-
third of the seed ever appears above ground. Al-
though marls are usually stiff*, they are generally
better adapted to the cultivation of oats than clays,
and will, under equal circumstances, produce
better crops of grain, though clays more commonly
produce a greater quantity of straw. The grain
produced from clay soils has ordinarily a thicker

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

477

skin than that protluced on mails, or. in fact, any
other soil.

Sandy loams, peats, and fen soils.— Sandy loams
in good tilth jnoduce excellent crops of oats as re-
jiards quality, and in bad seasons they also produce
the greatest quantity. This description of land is
best adapted to growing the earlier species of oats,
though late species have a better chance of being
well harvested, during unfavourable seasons on this
kind of soil than on such as are of a stifFer and
more retentive nature. Generally speaking, peats
and fen soils are well calculated to produce oats —
in fact, more oats on a given compass are produced
on the fens of Lincolnshire than in any other part of
the world, the quality at the same time being good.
Moist seasons are the most prejudicial to the
growth of oats on these soils. During dry years,
if sown earl J', very heavy crops are obtained.
Fens and peats are better calculated to produce the
black varieties than any other sort of soil.

Sand and gravel. — In dry seasons, if not in very
good tilth, the oat croj) will be short, both in straw
and grain. During seasons having a quick suc-
cession of bright dry v/eather and light rains, good
crops of oats are obtained on sands and gravels ;
but as these circumstances only obtain in the course
of what are termed good growing years, which may
amount to only one year out of ten, they ought not
to be ordinarily calculated on. In unfavourable
years, whether resulting from too much wet or dry
weathei', gravels are inferior to sandy lands, and in
very favourable years barely equal the latter.

Chalks. — It has already been observed, that
chalks are the most unfavourable soils for growing
oats. Chalks are much better calculated to grow
leguminous rather than cereal crops. This remark
is, however, intended to apply only to real chalks,
and not to extend to many down lands, which are
composed of a shallow superficial covering of friable
loam, with a substratum of chalk. This last kind
of soil, other circumstances being favourable, will
grow excellent crops of oats.

Whether the effect of the cooler climate of Scot-
land, in producing superior Oats, can be compen-
sated in the Southern parts of the island by any
improvement in cultivation. — To the form of the
question here put we at once demur, in consequence
of not being aware of any well-authenticated expe-
riment or sound reason ever having been adduced
that in the shghtest degree tends to show that a
cooler climate than that found in the south of
England is beneficial to the growth of oats ; other
circumstances being equal, it will on trial be found
that the warmer climate of the south of England
will produce better crops of oats than those ob-
tained in the North, or in Scotland. The differ-
ence perceptible at the present time between the

crops of oats obtained from the two districts is nut
owing to a variation in temperature, but to the
amount of moisture jjresent, and the quantity of
rain which falls during critical periods in the
several districts. So far as temperature is con-
cerned, oats will grow well in climates warmer than
that of the south of England. To other causes
than variety of temperature we must look for the
diflference in the crops obtained in the districts
alluded to. These causes will be found to consist,
first, in ditterence of moisture; secondly, in differ-
ence of soils; thirdly, in diflference of cultivation.
Before treating on these points, it may be briefly
remarked that we have great doubts whether as
many acres of superior oats, both as regards quality
and quantity, are grown in Scotland as in England.
We shall, however, again refer to this when we
treat of cultivation.

(a) Difference of moisture.— It has already been
observed that the oat belongs to a tribe of grasses
that delight in a rich moist mouldy loam. The
great breadth of the land in the south of England,
from which only poor crops of oats are obtained, is
not of that description, being in general a com-
pound of chalks, sands, and thin light loams on
chalks, more generally known by the term down-
lands. In the west of England a different class of
soils obtain, varying from stitif granitic clays to fine
friable loams. The climate in Cornwall, Devon,
and West Somerset, is of a humid character, and
suitable for the growth of oats. On many soils in
this district crops of oats could be obtained equal
to those procured in the best farmed districts of
England or Scotland. The reason why good
crops of oats are not obtained in the West of Eng-
land may be accounted for by the following quota-
tion from Mr. Tanner's " Prize Essay on the
Agriculture of Devonshire," in which he states,
" If the land is in good condition barley succeeds
wheal, and is followed by oats; if not, only one ad-
ditional corn crop is taken." Under proper
management, as good crops of oats can be obtained
in Cornwall, Devon, and West Somerset, as are
grown in any other district of the United King-
dom ; yet the mean temperature of Devonshire is
51 degs. 5 sees., and the mean annual rain fall is
3U inches; the average of the counties south of
53 degs. latitude being only 49 degs. 9 mins.
mean temperature, with a rain fall of 28^ inches
per annum. Generally the temperature falls with
the quantity of moisture precipitated in the form of
rain ;* but it will be seen that in the case of

* The remark here applies to the upland cha-
racter of countries which possess a high mean
rainfall, the coldness of climate in such cases being
more due to elevation than the amount of rain-
fall, the latter rather raising than depressing the

2 I 2

478

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Pevonahire, when compared with other parts of
the country south of 53 degs. latitude, the reverse
is the case ; notwithstanding this, no one ac-
quainted with the district would conclude that the
climate of Devonshire is unfitted to the cultivation
of oats.

(b) Different qualities of soils. — With respect to
soil no comparison can be drawn between the soils
of Scotland and the down land of the south of
England. The soils from which the fine samples
of Scottish oats are obtained being good wheat
lands, on which, in many cases, wheat would be
grown instead of oats, but for the climate being
the reverse of that of the south of England, viz.,
the former being frequently too humid for wheat.
Beautiful oats are grown on the upland loamy soils
of Stirling, and also from the carse lands of
Moray, and the northern counties of Scotland ;
but, generally speaking, few samples of good oats
are obtained from Scotland which have been grown
on light lands, unless amongst light lands are in-
cluded cultivated peats; but on this class of soils
the production of oats in Scotland falls greatly
below that obtained from the low lands of Lincoln-
shire and the adjoining counties ; in fact, in no
district of Great Britain or Ireland is so great a
breadth of land under oats as the extensive fen dis-
tricts in the east of England, neither is there grown
elsewhere an equal extent possessing so good an
average quality, in this respect being much supe-
rior to the average of oats grown throughout
Scotland. In the case of the Lincolnshire fens, the
drier climate is compensated for by the moist cha-
racter of the soil. The higher temperature of
Lincolnshire is for the same reason advantageous,
for it will be found that, cultivation and other
things being equal, better crops will be obtained
on the fens of Lincolnshire that such as will be
produced on similar soils in Scotland.

(c) Cultivation. — The great art of husbandry
consists in adapting processes and rotations to the
soil and climate of any given locahty; when,
therefore, soil and cUmate are equal, a comparison
can easily be drawn as to the propriety of intro-
ducing the practices of one locahty into another
similarly circumstanced ; for instance, no good
reason exists why the turnip husbandry of North-
umberland, the Lothians, &c., should not be
equally extended in Devonshire, particularly when
we know also that the latter possesses like soils,
with a somewhat similar climate. It is found per-
fectly successful in the west of Lancashire, Cum-

thermometer, owing to the diffusion of latent
caloric evolved from the condensed vapour precipi-
tated as rain. This is explained in two articles by
the writer on Climate, in the "Journal of Agricul-
ture."

barlanil, Wales, &c. When one of the elements of
the calculation only varies, it is practicable some-
times to adapt cultivation to the altered circum-
stances of the case ; but when both climate and
soil vary, no parallel can be drawn. The same
reason which renders down lands unfavourable to
the growth of oats also renders it unfavourable to
the growth of turnips. If crops of swedes could
be grown on down lands equal to those obtained
in the north of England and Scotland, the proba-
bility is that equal, if not superior, oats could be
grown in the south of England ; but, unfortu-
nately, neither turnips (swedes) nor rape can be
grown on an average of years anything like equal
to the crops obtained in the north ; whilst the
superior crops of swedes, rape, &c., obtained in
Lincolnshire, &c., are principally indebted to the
hygroscopic qualities of the soil, aided by its low
position, which causes it almost constantly to re-
main in a damp state. If, with fair managing, a
crop of 20 to 25 tons of swedes could be looked
forward to, on an average, on the Sussex Downs,
there would not be the slightest fear of obtaining a
superior crop of oats the ensuing year, provided
the swedes had been soiled by sheep ; but the diffi-
culty in this case, as in many others, lies in the
first step ; for, in consequence of the climate, tur-
nips cannot be grown in the south of England
equal to those produced in the north; the succeed-
ing crop, be it oats or anythmg else, therefore
sufters proportionally. The difference of soil
might be made up by manure ; but the difference
in climate can be compensated by such means only
in a very slight degree. It is evident, therefore,
that to produce results with the oat crop grown in
the south of England equal to those obtained in
North Britain, the preparatory step must be a
different one — that step must be one adapted to
the climate and soil. Previous to entering on these
details we will give a brief epitome of the various
modes in which oats are usually grown.

No crop is so generally cultivated on a
freshly-broken-up lea as oats : and so far as luxu-
riance of growth is concerned, no crop is better
adapted for the purpose, oats of the best quality
being grown on good old leas. The only objection
to this mode is, that the oat crop makes so small
a pecuniary return ; otherwise, the system is a good
one. The practice of growing oats on lea obtains
throughout England, Scotland, and Ireland, and is
}ierhaps the most generally-diffused system of any
belonging to British husbandry. In the fens, oats
follow rape, and turnips, soiled with sheep, the
oats being succeeded by wheat. Sometimes barley
takes the place of oats in this rotation. An im-
mense weight of oats is annually grown in the fen
districts in the manner described. The great bulk

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

479

of oats in England, Ireland, and Scotland is grown
after wheat, being generally— lea, oats, wheat, oats,
lea ; lea, oats, potatoes, wheat, oats, lea.* In the
latter case, sometimes a crop of barley is interposed
between the wheat and oats. In Ireland, the fol-
lowing course is frequently followed : Lea, potatoes,
wheat, oats, once or twice, as the case may be.
Potatoes after lea is more frequently followed in
Ireland than oats after lea. On the upland dis-
t! icts and boggy soils of that country, oats invariably
succeed potatoes. AVhilst Ireland is under notice,
it may be remarked that as fine oats are produced
in the counties of Cork, Tipperary, and Limerick,
under high cultivation, as can be obtained in Scot-
land ; yet the south of Ireland has a higher tem-
perature than the south of Scotland, thus demon-
strating that fine oats are not produced in Scot-
land owing to its cooler climate. Under equal
cultivation, the south of Ireland yields better
general crops of oats than the south of Scotland ;
but the former are never brought to market so fine
as the latter, in consequence of the mode of dress-
ing, which, in ninetj-^-nine cases out of a hundred,
is by being merely screened in the wind, generally
by females; notwithstanding which, and all the
other disadvantages of inferior cultivation, oats in
the Golden Vein not unfrequently weigh 461bs.per
bushel when brought to market. The superior
samples of oats produced in Scotland simply arise
from the fact of their being grown on good land,
capable of producing fair crops of wheat ; and also
that on such soils the oat frequently lakes the place
of barley in the rotation— viz., after turnips, soiled
with sheep. Fine crops of oats ought to be ob-
tained after a 20-ton crop of swedes so soiled,
which had obtained a dressing, prior to sowing the
turnip-seed, of not less than 20 or 25 loads of ma-
nure, and this, be it remembered, on good wheat
land. From experience, we know that the oats
generally obtained from many soils in Scotland are
not so good as those obtained in England and Ire-
land. The reason why Scottish oats possess such
a high character arises from the fact that large
quantities are grown to be sold at high prices as
seed oats, by which means an acre of oats will often
yield a money return greater than if sown with
wheat. In other cases, it is found that, in conse-
quence of the humid and cold nature of the climate,
wheat is a very uncertain crop, particularly in the
uplands north of the Forth and Clyde. Under
such circumstances, the cultivation of the oat is
very properly adhered to. Scottish farmers are the

* It has been remarked that the above is a bad
rotation. The fact is that there are two rotations,
and those generally followed. The rotations are,
however, only alluded to as customary ones, not
such as ought to be adopted.

more encouraged to this, in consequence of oat-
meal forming the sta])le food of the country, by
which means a higher price is obtained than if they
were grown merely for provender. For beauty of
tillage, extensive breadth of land under, and high
cultivation of the oat crop, combined with scenery
harmonizing with the subject, we have never wit-
nessed anything superior to that which is to be
found on the gentle, swelling eminences rising
from the Carse of Stirling. The above modes of
management have been recapitulated for the pur-
pose of showing that circumstances obtain in Scot-
land, calculated to force, in some degree, the pro-
duction of fine oats beyond those which would
repay a south-country farmer, leaving out of con-
sideration the question of an inappropaiate climate.
That the latter may be partially overcome, we be-
heve. It happens coincidentally that a great por-
tion of the soils of the south of England are not
only the least appropriate for the growth of oats,
but at the same time are most exposed, both from
their composition and the nature of the climate, to
undue dryness, both circumstances being unfa-
vourable to their growth. It is a well-known fact
that an arid soil may be rendered fertile by high
manuring. That this should happen, may be at-
tributed to two causes — viz., the hygroscopic
quality of the manure, owing to the deliquescent
nature of the salts existing therein at the time of
application, or which are subsequently formed
during decomposition in the soil; but principally
to the fact that, by high manuring, the water ab-
sorbed by the plant contains the inorganic and
azotized elements of its structure in a compara-
tively concentrated form. That fine crops of oats
can be obtained in the south of England, under
proper management, is certain, the two great points
to be aimed at being — having the soil in a high
state of tilth, and early sowing. We shall have
more to say on the latter subject when we come to
treat on the general management. Taking into
consideration all the difficulties which a south-
country farmer may have to contend with— viz., the
combined effects of an unfavourable soil and un-
suitable climate, so far as relates to the oat crop^
we wovild recommend the following rotations—-
viz., to sow the oats immediately after the turnips
have been eaten off by sheep ; or the soiled turnips
may be followed by tares,* soiled by sheep, or

* Respecting this recommendation it was re-
marked : " We do not approve of tares being
introduced here before the seed crop, because tares
take from the soil what the seeds require, and
clovers never grow well when tares have preceded
them either in a green or a ripe state." Seeing
that clovers belong to the same class of plants
(Leguminospe) as tares, it might have been expected

480

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

converted into hay, and the land sown the follow-
ing autumn with oats, which may be laid down
with grass-seeds or clover. If lea land is broken
up, oats may be taken as a first crop, though
(other circumstances being favourable) potatoes
will generally be found to pay best,* to be suc-
ceeded by winter tares, soiled, and, lastly, followed
by oats and grass-seeds, clover, &c. The above
rotation is made on the presumption that it is car-
ried out on a stock-farm, where sheep-food, at
critical periods of the spring, is very desirable. It
is to be understood that manure is to be apphed
more or less, according to circumstances, to one or
other of the crops ; and for this purpose guano is
to be preferred. No opinion is here given as to
the profit which may be derived upon growing oats
on south-country farms according to the above ro-
tation, though, taking every circumstance into con-
sideration, perhaps it will be found as profitable as
any other. Oats being usually looked upon as a
sort of waste crop, the money return per acre is
generally low. In Lincolnshire, previous to the
repeal of the corn laws, a crop of oats after rape,
soiled, has not of late years been valued at more
than £6 per acre, including the straw, the latter
being usually consumed and trodden into manure
in the straw-yard. The rotation usually followed
in that county is as follows : Rape, manured and
soiled, oats, wheat, fallow. It will in general be
found more profitable on most south-country farms
to pay attention to the growth of the leguminous
tribe, such as tares, peas, clover, &c,, rather than
oats. As it is, however, desirable to always have
a small quantity of oats for home consumption, and
as there is also a constant but moderate demand
for fine samples of oats in the south-country dis-
trict, at prices more remunerative than those ob-
tained in Lincolnshire, Ireland, or Scotland, it will
perhaps be always advisable to grow them within
moderate limits. That this can be done on down
sheep-farms advantageously, by alternating with
soiled turnips or tares, we are perfectly convinced.

Different varieties as suited to different silualiuiis
and different purposes. — It will be difficult to
enumerate all the varieties of oats in use, many
of which are of local celebrity, though not
generally known. Prior to giving the result of our
experience we will make some lengthy extracts of
comparative experiments detailed in the "High-
land Transactions," they are generally made on
varieties not much known in South Britain, whilst
our experience has principally been with kinds not
usually cultivated in the north. A writer in the
"Highland Transactions" details the following
comparative experiments with potato, Hopetoun,
and early Cumberland varieties. He states, " The
early Cumberland is so named from being raised by
a gentleman in Cumberland, a few years ago, from
a single head. In sample it is a longish grain, and
more like the early Angus variety than the potato :
colour, dark and dull. It is much earlier than the
potato oat, as the latter is earlier than the Hope-
toun. Of a comparative trial made on two ridges
in the same field, the produce was found to be as
follows : — bolls. bush.

Potato 17 5

Hopetoun 17 4

Early Cumberland . . 24 0

but, the potato oat weighed a stone per boll, more
than each of the other two.

The following comparative experiments have been
made with respect to the Dyock and potato oats in
1841. In both instances the seed was sown broad-
cast at the rate of 5 bush, per acre ; the straw of
the potato oat was longer ; reaped the 20th Sept. —
the Dyock oat having been cut on the 31st August.
The returns were for the potato oat 6 9-20 times
the seed; from the Dyock oat, 8|. The former
weighed 36 3-5 lbs. per bush., and yielded oatmeal
17 3-20 lbs. ; the latter weighed 40 lbs., and
yielded oatmeal 21 7-9. Mr, Watson states it
usually arrives at maturity from twelve to sixteen
days before potato oats, and the higher the elevation
the greater the diflference : —

Results as compared with Potato, Flemish, and Kilmudderry Oats sown in the

SAME field at THE SAME DATE.

Dyock Oat.

Year.

1835.
1836.
1837.

1837.

1838.

Returns.

Si

61
5 7-10
10 1-6

43i lbs. per bushel.
43 „ „

42i „

41 „

4zT „ ,,

Returns.

7
3
5i

Weight per
bushel.
42ilbs.
39 „
40i „
Kilmudderry.
5 j 40 lbs.

Potato and Flemish.
8i I 42^ lbs. I 12

Late in ripen-
ing .
11 days.
17 „
14 ,.

29 „

that clovers would not do well on land previously
exhausted by tares. In the above remark, the
author presupposes that the land is kept in good

heart, which would be the case if the tares are soiled.
* This is understood conditionally that the po-
tato disease has passed away.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

461

Datk of Sowing and Reaping of Dyock Oat, with other pahticulars.

Date
of sowing.

1835, Mar. 29.

1836, „ 28.
„ Apr. 28.

1837, „ 8.
„ „ 17.

1838, „ 5.
.. 20.

Quantity

sown .
qr. bush,

Extent of
ground.
Imp.acre.

5,375

4,410

Description of soil.

Grey loam dry bottom

Black loam stiff clay bottom.
Hard poor clay — whitish. . .

Heavy soil on clay

Thin free soil till bottom. .
Good hard black loam

Date of ripen-
ing.

Sept. 9

„ 16

Oct. 3

Sept. 14

„ 18

„ 14

Oct. 10

Produce,
qr. bush.

8 3
1
0
1
4
0
4

18
2

7
28
44
15

Weight per
bushel.

42^ lbs.
43 „
43 „
42i „
41 „
42J „
41* „

Since the preceding was written, two valuable
prize papers have been published in the " Highland
Transactions :" they are exceedingly valuable, as
indicating the qualities of different varieties; it
must, however, be observed, that those varieties
which are known in drier districts as being pre-
eminently early are unnoticed ; both writers, how-
ever, agree that, for general purposes, the potato
oat is to be preferred; and this remark will be
found to hold good throughout the British Islands,
except in cases where great moisture, poor soil, low
temperature, or great elevation exists, when one or
more of these circumstances obtains some other
variety may be found succeed better. The common
black oat will, for provender purposes, be found to
yield the best on rich moist soils, particularly on
reclaimed bogs.

Our experience of the Hopetoun oat is favourable
for the yield of straw, particularly on Turbaries ;
but only a moderate amount of grain, the latter
being generally of good quality — in fact, all the
Hopetoun's we have ever seen have only possessed
a short pannicle : of the Birly, Siberian, dun, Bar-
bachla, and Kildruramie we are not acquainted; on
the contrary, the common black, Poland (black and
white), potato, and Tartarian varieties we have had
considerable experience over a great variety of soils
and climatic characteristics. For a poor soil,
with indifferent climate and elevated situation,
perhaps none exceed the black Tartary. In the
south of England this kind is well adapted for
growth, on such places as Dartmoor, Exmoor, &c.;
in the north it thrives on similar cold damp elevated
situations. What are termed "Dutch Brews,"
potato, and Poland oats ,are the kinds usually grown
in the midland and eastern counties ; the first are,
however, much later than the last-named — the yield
is inferior to the potato, and is now going much
out of use. The Poland is an excellent sort, when
an early crop is desirable— in dry years being often
fit to cut in the month of July ; and, if sown in
February, this sort might, in favourable years, be
cut in the southern districts in time to get a crop of
turnips or rape sown. The white Polands are the
most liable to be injured by moisture, whether
arising from deficient drainage or from atmospheric

humidity. Black Polands are well adapted for
growing on elevated situations with poor soils; both
kinds of Polands are very susceptible of frost when
approaching maturity, and should therefore never
be sown late — from the middle of February to the
end of March being the most favourable season.
The potato oat is best adapted for soils in good
tilth ; and, if the ground becomes well covered,
does not suffer so much as other varieties from
drought; for, if this occurs, a good crop of oats
will be obtained, although the straw may only be
very light. Polands are the least obnoxious to
drought, as compared with any other variety of oat,
Poland and potato oats are the only kinds that
ought to be grown in dry climates — the former on
rich, and the latter on inferior soils ;* both ought
to be sown early — in fact, this remark applies to all
kinds of oats. The Poland oats differ in appearance
from any other kind— never being found double —
and are to be known by their possessing a small
speck where other oats are joined double, and the
slit or mark on the seed is very close ; they are re-
markably round, and have a thickish skin. The
black Polands have a longer grain than the white.
Attention to this description of the Poland is the
more necessary, as other varieties often pass under
the name of Poland.

The black Tartary are pre-eminently adapted for
poor, cold, humid, and elevated situations ; they
also withstand the effects of spring and autumnal
frosts better than any other variety ; they are re-
markable for having the whole of the seed hanging
on one side of the straw. The black Tartary gives
extremely heavy crops on rich soils, and will yield
fair crops on poor cold and elevated lands, where

* On this it has been observed, that " We are of
opinion, that the white Tartarian will be much
more productive on poor soils than the potato oat."
Respecting which remark, the author observes that
if the land has been overcropped, the observation is
true, but not so if the land is in good tilth; in the
latter case, the potato oat will be found most profit-
able. A good farmer will never waste his time and
labour in sowing oats on exhausted soils; of course,
when the latter case occurs, Tartarian will succeed
better than potato.

482

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

scarcely any other description eowld be profitably
cultivated.

The following are extracts from Mr. John
Mitchell's prize paper in the " Highland Trans-
actions." From the experiments of two j^ears, the
following practical deductions may be made, keep-
ing the particular soil, climate, and state of culti-
vation in view : —

1. That land pastured for two years gives a
quarter of oats per acre more than land that has
been cut for hay when in first year's grass, and
pastured the second.

2. That there is a decided loss of nearly four
bushels per acre in taking seed-oats, however good
the sample, from a later to an earlier soil.

3. That there is an advantage in taking seed-
oats from a more southern and well-cultivated dis-
trict.

4. That where a fine samjjle of grain, together
with a large return, is desired, the potato oat should
l)e sown.

5. That where straw and quantity of grain, with-
out regard to quality, is desired, the late Angus oat
should be sown.

G. That although the dun oat has proved the
most prohfic in grain, yet it is of coarse quality and
deficient in straw.

7. That the sandj', Birley, and early Angus are
nearly alike in their properties ; the two former
having the greater weight of straw, and the last the
larger quantity of grain.

8. That the Siberian has proved the heaviest
sample of grain, but is inferior in its conjoined
properties to the potato, the early Angus, sandy,
or Birley.

9. That the Hopetoun oat is the most unsuitable
of all the varieties experimented on.

The field upon which the above experiments were
made was of a free clayey nature, resting upon a
subsoil of clay ; in some places open, interspersed
with sandy veins ; in others, retentive of moisture.
The more tenacious parts had been furrow-drained,
and the whole field subsoiled ; so that the land was
uniform in its qualities for growing any sort of
crop. The climate was comparatively dry, being
among the driest in Scotland (Elgin).

It will be pertinent to this part of the subject to
remark that there is every reason to believe that by
perseverance and attention varieties of oats may be
obtained adapted to particular localities, superior to
any that have heretofore been grown . On this head
it has been remarked by Mr. Archbold, who ob-
tained the medal of the Highland Society for rais-
ing improved varieties of oats, that — " On practical
experience for four years I find it consistent to
nature that improved varieties of oats may be ob-
tained from amongst the crops of oats sown in the

fields. They may be engendered by impregnation,
by diflferent kinds of oats sown in the same field,
or sown in fields adjoining to one another, where
the pollen may be carried by the action of the
wind." ii-iibnu/i

We would recommend farmers to pay attention
to this subject, as the best oat for its general quali-
ties (the potato oat) was discovered in this manner
growing in a potato-field in Cumberland about the
year 1788, from which all potato oats have subse-
quently been derived.

General Management. — From its general adapta-
tion to such a variety of soils, climates, and degrees
of fertility, added to great hardiness, the cultivation
of this cereal has never had the same attention paid
to it that is shown to the other usually cultivated
grain crops. This may be partly owing to its less
pecuniary value, and also to the circumstance of
its capability of yielding a profitable crop where no
other would be remunerative. Some conception of
its wide adaptation to different climates may be
formed when it is stated that oats are cultivated to
the extreme north point of Scotland, in lat. 58*40 ;
in Norway its culture extends to lat. 65''; in Sweden,
to lat. 63*'20 ; in Russia its polar limits correspond
with those of rye ; south of the parallel of Paris the
oat is little cultivated ; in Spain and Portugal it is
scarcely known, except in the northern mountainous
provinces of Biscay and the Asturias, yet it is culti-
vated in Bengal to the parallel of 25° north, the hot
but humid climate of Bengal being more congenial
to its growth than the colder but arid uplands of
the Castiles. Oats are much cultivated in Ger-
many on what are termed the Sauer lands, soils
analogous to our uncultivated peats. Its hardy
character and capacity for vegetating on poor and
worn-out soils have caused little attention to be
paid to any improvement in its ordinary cultiva-
tion : fortunately it does not need much attention.
If sown on lea, it ought to be well harrowed down;
if sown after turnips, potatoes, or wheat, the soil
will generally not require much additional pulver-
izing ; but if the land is foul it will be well to use
the scarifier or cultivator to drag out the weeds,
which ought to be collected, and carted off or
burned. In choosing seed care should be taken to
select a perfectly ripe sample, that has not been
overheated or become musty, for no grain sprouts
so irregularly as oats, particularly in dry seasons.
The quantity of seed sown should be five bushels
by the drill, and six bushels if sown broadcast, to
the statute acre. Oats are seldom drilled, except in
Lincolnshire and the adjoining counties: the result
of drilling has been satisfactorily shown to be from
ten to twenty per cent, in saving of seed and addi-
tional produce, besides the advantage of being so
much more easily weeded after the drill . Few crops

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

483

derive more advantage from being rolled than oats,
especially if from any accident or destruction by
the wireworm the plant has become thin : in such
cases rolling, accompanied by a dressing of two
hundred-weight of guano, will produce most sur-
prising efiects ; the remaining plants tillering out
amazingly. The ordinary time of sowing oats is
during March and April ; if delayed later than
April the chances are ten to one against the crop
proving a productive one, as it may be stopped by
the dry weather at the commencement of the season,
from which it will be difficult to recover ; and if
the harvest proves late, is apt to be spoiled by an
early frost, which blanches the whole plant in a
most extraordinary manner, when in an immature
state. Early-sown oats are invariably the best, and
self-sown crops are generally productive ones. On
this account we would recommend south of Eng-
land farmers, particularly those on the chalk downs,
to sow oats after spring tares soiled with sheep.
The rotation might be as follows : — Turnips, ma-
nured and soiled with sheep ; spring tares soiled ;
oats sown in autumn, and sown with clover in the
spring, by which means the oat crop would gene-
rally be off the ground by the end of July, and in
forward years by the commencement. Thus, a
good bite of clover would be had by the end of
August — the quality of the oats so grown would be
very superior. On wet cold clays and peaty soils
autumnal sowing of oats is not recommended, but
on all dry soils it is to be preferred, unless counter-
balanced by any particular inconvenience.

The produce and quality of oats vary greatly
with circumstances, being from 20 to 100 bushels
per acre, and weight from 28lbs. to 48lbs. per
bushel,

Oats are more liable to the smut and blight than
barley, but neither one nor the other of these dis-
eases makes its appearance on well cultivated dry
soils : in damp soils this crop is also subject to a
disease called segging or sedging. It is usually
found more ]irofitable to mow rather than reap the
oat crop. If the season will at all permit it, oats
should remain in the stook a sufficient lime to get
thoroughly dry : there is the less danger in so doing
with the oat crop, as it will stand seasonal vicissi-
tudes after being cut better than any other of our
grain crops. The best time for cutting oats is when
a few of the grains still retain the slightest possible
trace of green colour on the chaff. Very early
oats, such as winter-sown Poland or potato sorts,
may be cut slightly green with greater impunity
than late kinds, as they will ripen in the stook
rapidly during the hot weather which usually occurs
during the months of July and August, by which
time winter-sown oats will always be ready for the
sickle or the scythe. The reason why oats should

stand so long in the field after cutting, and before
carrying to the stack-yard, is on account of the
danger arising from the stack over-heating, as oats
when ripe are much more prone to heat in the
stack than either barley or wheat, whilst at the same
time oats ripen much more unevenly than either of
the grains just named ; added to which is the fact
that oats are usually cut in a more immature state
than any other grain crop.

Inconsequence of the drier climate of the southern
counties, the farmers in those districts who have
flocks sustain great inconvenience from the end
of March to the middle of May — that is, from the
time turnips and rape go out to that when tares,
clover, and rye-grass come in. This might be
somewhat alleviated by pulling and storing some
swedes, and giving them to the slock on the grass
land, in conjunction with oat hay. Oat hay has
many times been recommended, but has never re-
ceived that attention which it deserves, as there can
be little doubt but oats might be made one of our
most valuable forage grasses. On down land's oats
might be sown after soiled winter tares, by which
means it would receive the benefit of the summer
rains, and would be ready for the scythe by the
end of August or the beginning of September.
The land could at the same time be laid down with
clover and rye-grass, to produce early sj)nng
feed.

Owing to the fact that the oat, in proportion to the
weight of grain, abstracts a greater amount of the
more valuable inorganic constituents of crops from
the soil than wheat, whilst it assimilates about an
equal quantity of nitrogen, it is therefore one of our
most exhausting crops ; its quabty of growing on
inferior soils being attributable to its greater powers
of assimilating and abstracting its food from the
soil and the atmosphere. The oat is admirably
adapted for cultivation in moist and elevated situa-
tions. On dry soils and climates oats ought inva-
riably to be sown in autumn ; and the most profit-
able kind is the potato, unless a very early crop is
wanted, in which case the Poland should be pre-
ferred. For elevated moors and peats of from 900
to 1,200 feet elevation, the Dyock and the Angus
are about the best, whether cultivated for the grain
or as a forage plant ; but in such places it ought
not to be sown before the middle of March or com-
mencement of April.

Since the preceding was written I have had prac-
tical evidence afforded me of the correctness of the
views previously detailed, as regards the benefits
arising from early spring or even the autumnal
sowing of oats, in districts similar to the elevated
uplands of North Devon, and possessing a like
moist climate. Being recently called upon pro-
fessionally to make a survey of the " Poltimore"

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

484

gold mine, near North Melton, Devon, I found
instances of spring-sown oats on Exmoor being
carted home on the 1 0th November. Had they

been sown the previous autumn, they might have
been housed in good condition the latter end of
last August, or early in the succeeding month.

ON IRRIGATION AND LIQUID MANURE-THE IMPEDIMENTS
TO THEIR EXTENDED USE.

BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ., F.R.S.

The progress which the system of watering land
is now making is of a higher importance than is
generally understood. We are much too apt to
confound the use of copious supplies of water, as
in the great water meadows, with perhaps no less
valuable use of liquid manure in much smaller pro-
portions but in a richer state. It is true that to a
very considerable extent the theory of these two im-
portant operations is the same ; but still there is
a wide difference in the practical operation. The
water of rivers, to be of much use in this way, or
water meads, must be used in large quantities. Its
foreign matters are generally limited ; and although
these are the food of plants, yet still they do not
constitute the chief advantage of river water irri-
gation. When, however, by the addition of town
sewage or other foreign matters these stream waters
become very materially changed, they then as weak
liquid manures become still more valuable for irri-
gation, and this generally in proportion to the
amount of impurity present in such waters.

It is thus that the water of the Hampshire Itchin
and the Wiltshire Avon become more useful to the
farmer after they have received portions of the
drainage of the cities of Winchester and Salisbury ;
it is thus that the streams of Milan and the greatly
smaller springs of Edinburgh are enriched, till in
the latter city the sewage so far exceeds in bulk the
springs with which they are mingled that it is ren-
dered, from its richness, available a second time :
that is, after flowing by its own gravitation over and
eni'iching one large tract of water mead, it is raised
by a steam-engine on to a higher level, and ren-
dered again largely serviceable in irrigating another
large tract of water meads.

The profitable appUcation of these foul waters to
the land soon led to the use of the steam-engine for
the same purpose in two or three other places in
Scotland, where sewage was not, it is true, avail-
able, but where liquid manure can always be pro-
duced : such as Canning Paik Farm, Dunduff
Farm, and Myer Mill Farm, in Ayrshire (^00
Scotch acres), and at Mr. Harvey's farm, near
Glasgow. In these instances the home-stall liquid
manure is conveyed on to the land, and distributed
either by iron pipes only, or with the addition of
gutta-percha tubing. Still more recently, Mr.

Mechi has conferred an invaluable benefit on the
progress of this agricultural improvement by the
introduction of the same system upon his farm of
Tiptree ; and his spirited example will be followed,
there is little doubt, by many persons who have
supplies of water not more copious than he pos-
sesses. Mr. Mechi, in fact, lias only the land-
drainage of a portion of his farm to serve as the
basis of his liquid manure ; his stream is one in-
deed nearly, if not entirely, the result of his own
land -draining operations. Before we proceed to
notice the impediments which too often prevent
the use of brook or river water in irrigation, it may
be useful to refresh our memory by a statement of
the amount of the various chemical substances
withdrawn from the farmers' land by ordinary
crops, and the amount of those supplied by the
use in irrigation of impure river water. The result
of such an examination has recently been given by
the General Board of Health, as well as the amount
of these substances contained in the small river
Medlock. The following is their estimate of the

Quantities of the element.s of food re-
moved from 100 acres of soil by the usual
four-course sytsem ; and the quantities which
would be supplied by the excretions of 100 adult
persons : —

Carriedaway

from 50 acres of

Yearly Excretions

Wheat and Bar-

of 100 Adults con-

ley, and 50 acre?

tain —

of Green Crops.

lbs.

lbs.

Potass and soda ....

780

827

Lime and magnesia . .

948

3158

Phosphoric acid ....

1549

1713

Silica

450

8

166

Metallic oxides. . . .

6

Sulphur and chlorine

21

87

Nitrogen

2681

2312

It is evident, then, that if all the excrementitious
matter of a given population were returned to the
soil, it would maintain in fertility more than as
many acres as there are inhabitants, if those elements
only which are shown to be deficient were added —
viz., silica and nitrogen ; the former of which would
be supplied hy the disintegration of the soil, the
latter by the ammonia contained in rain. The re-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

U0

fuse, however, of such a town as Manchester con-
tains enormous quantities of valuable matter ; for
instance, large quantities of alkali contained in
«oap ; manure of horses, cattle, pigs, and other
animals ; and refuse from manufactories. The
quantity of such matter varies exceedingly accord-
ing to the changes in manufacturing activity.

On October 2nd, 1845, the river Medlock, accord-
ing to the analysis of Dr. R. Angus Smith, brought
down the following substances : and there is no
season for supposing that they were on that day in
unusual quantity.

Per Diem.
Cwt.

Potass 178

Soda 257

Lime 940

Magnesia 9

Phosphoric acid 71

Silica (in solution) .... 266

Alumina (do.) 18

Oxide of iron 124

Sulphuric acid 444

Chlorine 151

Organic matter, 1,355
cwt., containing 6 per

cent, of nitrogen, or. . 80
Insoluble matter, chiefly
siUca, alumina, and

iron 1,866

Per Annum.

Tons.

3,200

4,640

16,900

160

' 1,280

4,800

320

2,240

8,000

2,720

1,440

33,600

It will be noticed that five of the most valuable
substances for agricultural purposes, viz., potass,
soda, siUca, phosphoric and sulphuric acids,
are here contained in great abundance which now
run to waste. The Irwell probably brings down
twice as much as the Medlock of all these sub-
stances.

It may perhaps be not quite correct to conclude
that the quantities of these substances brought
down are always as great as on the day of examina-
tion : but if they be, the annual quantity of each,
in tons, would be as is stated in the last column of
the table. The matter contained in the water of
the Irwell has not been ascertained, but it probably
much exceeds that of the Medlock. Large quanti-
ties of materials valuable in agriculture, besides
night soil, &c., are not included in the calculation,
as, in consequence of deficient drainage, they do
not at present find their way into the rivers. When
the drainage is complete, the quantity of phosphoric
acid, nitrogen, and the alkalies will be largely in-
creased. The phosphoric acid at present brought
down by the Medlock alone is sufficient to supply
95,000 acres of ordinary wheat crops, 184,000 acres
of clover, 258,000 acres of potatoes, or 280,000
acres of oats. The silica in solution in the waters
of the Medlock would supply 50,000 acres of wheat,

and the other elements would respectively supply
still larger extent of cultivation.

If, then, the farmer has access to a stream of any
kind— whether bright or turbid — whether either
already a liquid manure, or capable of being made
so, by the addition of various decomposing sub-
stances— what are the obstacles which commonly
prevent his availing himself of the adjoining waters?
They consist, in general, of either want of a suffi-
cient lease, or want of capital, or, in many instances,
from the existence of certain water-mills whose
owners claim the sole use of the water.

It is now ten years since Mr. E. Chadwick, in
his valuable Sanitary Report, forcibly alluded to
this power of monopolising the use of river water —
a right far too often injurious both to the agri-
culture and to the health of the surrounding in-
habitants. He remarks, p. 305; "When expressing
to a gentleman who has actively promoted im-
provements in agricultural production in Scotland
my surprise at the large extent of marshy district
allowed to continue in a state of comparative
sterility, sources of rheumatism, and fevers, and
other diseases, he directed my attention to the fol-
lowing amongst other exemplifications : — About
a mile-and-a-half distant from one of the towns in
Scotland there is a moss about seven miles long
with a small stream running through it, with a fall
of about 25 feet. At the outlet of this stream there
is an old corn-mill, which yields a rental of about
£25 per annum. By the water being dammed up
to turn this mill the whole now is impeded, and
the consequent sluggishness of the stream occasions
it to be choked up with weeds. Whenever a fall of
rain takes place, the banks are overflowed, and not
only is every improvement rendered impracticable,
but on several harvests as much as £500 worth of
hay has been destroyed at a time when a heavy fall
of rain has occurred and occasioned an overflow.
There is, in fact, hardly a stream of any magnitude
in our island whose flow is not impeded by mill-
dams. The town of Cambridge has thus suffered
from the existence of a mill on the river Cam ;
Croydon from another, which dammed the water of
the river Wandle back upon the town. Birmingham
has been injured by a mill on the river Rea ; and
these are mere instances amongst the many. The
case of Tottenham was, some time since, clearly
described by Mr. Jam.es Dean, in his evidence be-
fore her Majesty's Commissioners for inquiry into
the state of large towns, — {1st Report, vol, xi., p.
520.) He alluded to the case of a water-mill in that
parish, which he describes as standing in the way
of every agricultural and sanitary improvement.
He was of opinion, that this mill by stopping the
water which comes down the river Lea, and the
water from the river Moselle, does injury to the

486

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

parish to the extent of at least £2,000 per annum.
In this case no water can be diverted for household
purposes, or for cleansing the town, or for irrigation
or farm-yard purposes ; it shuts up the outfall to
the drainage of the marsh land, and much other
land in the vicinity, and consequently it affects the
value of the land and property almost of the whole
parish. The extra expense which would be incurred
by the mill-owner by the removal of the obstacle to
these improvements would be httle more than the
expense of the erection of the steam-power, which
would answer as well or better. 'I could bring for-
ward,' added Mr. Dean, 'instances fromevery part of
the country where I have been, of streams which
should have a free flow, and should supply a town,
tailed up from 10 to 20 feet, producing a sluggish
flow; interfering not only with the whole of the drain-
age immediately adjacent to the town, but with the
beneficial use of the water, for irrigation and other
purposes, miles above and below it.' In the vale of
Honiton a mill, the rent of which was, I think,
£22 per annum, or not exceeding £30, I found
standing in the way of a number of farmsteads, and
interfering with improvements ascertained to be
worth at least £1,000 per annum. I scarcely know
one town or village in England with which there is
a stream connected, and upon which there is a mill,
where similar evils are not maintained by tailing up

the mill-stream. It is scarcely an exaggeration to say
that for every shilling of mill-rent, a hundred pounds'
worth of injury is done to other property, setting
aside all consideration as to the effect of a proper
drainage on the public health."

Such, then, is the value — such the advantage—
of the extended use of water and liquid manure ;
and such, too, are the impediments in the shape of
water-mills, and other vested rights. The removal
of the old mills which I have alluded to, is often
difiicult, not only because of their money value, but
because they belong to public companies, corpo-
rations, or to ecclesiastical bodies. Surely some
facilities might be afforded for the purchase and re-
moval of these by Parliament. The improvements
in the steam-engine have been such, that we need
no longer rely upon the water-mills for a supply of
flour. These will, it is true, sooner or later dis-
appear, and make room for other mills not only free
from the objections upon which I have been dwell-
ing, but, on the contrary, by banishing mill dams,
adding to the welfare of agriculture, and the health
of the inhabitants of the country. It is true, I re-
peat, that this result will be sooner or later attained;
but, then, in the mean time, whilst water-mills are
thus slowly supplanted by better powers, the public
health suffers ; whilst the improved cultivation of
the adjoining lands is rendered almost impossible.

IMPROVEMENTS OF HOMESTEADS, AND REMODELLING OF FARMS.

At the annual meeting of the North Staffordshire
Agricultural Society, which took place on the 7th
of October last, the following lecture, being sug-
gestions for the imj)rovement of homesteads, and
remodelling of farms, was read by G. Harding,
Esq., of Tern Hill, Shropshire.

At half-past ten o'clock a numerous company,
principally tenant farmers, attended in the Board
Room of the North Staffordshire Railway Com-
pany, for the purpose of hearing Mr. George
Harding's address.

The chair was taken by the president of the so-
ciety. Captain Mainwaring, who having briefly in-
troduced the lecturer,

Mr. Harding proceeded to deliver the follow-
ing address : — The subjects upon which I would
wish to speak are few, though importanti and I
will not trespass upon your valuable time at too
great a length. They are as follows : —

Firstly — Exchanges, and the desirability of land-
owners availing themselves of powers given for
this purpose by an Act of Parliament recently
passed, in order that they may concentrate their

estates, preparatory to a better arrangement of
their farms.

Secondly— On farm buildings, both as to their
position and construction.

Thirdly— The formation of proper occupation
roads.

Fourthly— Drainage.

Fifthly — The necessity of remodelling the fields
by taking up numerous old and useless fences, and
substituting a few new ones in lieu thereof.

Sixthly — The abolition of hedge-row timber,
more particularly upon arable farms.

And lastly — The destruction of game where un-
duly preserved, but more particularly rabbits.
All of which I purpose to explain and elucidate,
partly by plans and sketches, and partly by bring-
ing before you actual facts which have occurred
within my own practice as a land agent in this and j
the neighbouring counties ; and I have to hope
you will put a Uberal construction upon my motives
in thus venturing to appear before you, and re-
ceive what I am about to advance in the same
spirit in which it is given, my only object being to
, benefit, if possible, those connected with the soil,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

487

whether as owners or occupiers. 1 will proceed,
firstly, as I have said, with exchanges, and com-
mence Ijy statiof^r that near to where I reside there
is a small farm of about eighty statute acres, and,
from its inconvenient position, it entails upon the
tenant (although not more than three-fifths are
imder the plough) the necessity of keeping four
horses, whilst, if by any means this land could be
thrown together, two horses would be found ample
for all the work of the farm. This farm, I pre-
sume, is rented at about 35s. an acre, and conse-
quently at a gross rental of £140 per annum. The
keep of these two extra farm horses I calculate at
about £40 per annum, or nearly 30 per cent, upon
the gross rent of the farm ; add to this the incon-
venience of diiving a dairy of milking cows twice
a day the greater part of a mile, and you will find
a still further reduction in the value of the farm
from the inconvenience occasioned by the land
being scattered so widely apart from the home-
stead ; and in order to elucidate the subject in
question more clearly, I beg to hand to the meet-
ing a tracing, showing the position of the farm as
it now stands. In a parish nearer to this place than
the one already mentioned I know another farm, a
tracing of which I also beg to hand you ; but as its
inconveniences are about in the same ratio as the
one already described, I will not trouble you with
any details, and shall only add that such cases are
far too numerous. If the gentlemen comprising
this meeting, whether landowners or farmers, will
take the trouble to look at these tracings, and judge
for themselves, I feel assured they will at once
agree with me when I state that such inconveni-
ences as these at the present time amount to real
grievances, and that it is highly desirable that
landowners should at once avail themselves of the
Act already alluded to, which will enable the owners
of settled estates to get through these exchanges at
comparatively little cost. This I consider the first
step towards the proper arrangement of farms for
letting, and I have to hope that this meeting will
not think I have trespassed unnecessarily upon
their valuable time in bringing the subject under
their notice. My second subject, viz., that of farm
buildings, is more familiar to me ; and I come be-
fore you in the full hope of adding some little to
the stock of useful information already possessed by
your society. I shall first speak of their position,
as it is loo much the habit of landowners, when a
farmstead is worn out, or nearly so (in order to
save some little in the onset, or because some small
piece of bvxilding is thought too good to sacrifice,
without considering for one moment whether a
better site cannot be found for the erection of the
proposed ne ,v premises), to set to work and build
upon the old site, and thus perpetuate all sorts of

inconveniences for ages to come. That I may be
better understood, I not only beg to call your at-
tention again to the tracings already produced to
the meeting, when speaking of exchanges, but also
to hand you a tracing of another farm, showing
the position of its present worn-out and ricketty
buildings, which stand at the letter A on
the outside of the farm, and which is not
all : the produce grown upon, and the ma-
nure returned to, the land have to pass through
a ravine of some forty feet below the seat of the
homestead, and again to rise a still higher level to
three-fourths of the land, thus entailing the neces-
sity upon the tenant of using always three, and
more frequently, four horses to convey loads, which,
if the homestead were properly placed (at B), would
be invariably done by two horses. Add to this the
distance which has to be traversed to and from
each field under the old arrangements as compared
with the new, and I am strongly of opinion that
this meeting will so far agree with me as to con-
sider the matter of sufficient importance as to be
worthy of their notice. Having said thus much as
to the desirability of choosing proper sites for the
homesteads, I will proceed to state my views as to
their construction, and I shall preface the matter
by saying the subject has never received that con-
sideration which it so amply deserves ; for although
many premises maybe found which have been erec-
ted upon the principle of extensive accommodation,
still but little regard has been paid to the economy
of labour in their general use. I take my stand
upon the following grounds, and in which I hope
to be borne out by this important meeting, viz.,
economy and simplicity of construction, combined
with economy of labour in the general use of the
various buildings; and, in order to assist me in this
undertaking, I have prepared four plans of various
homesteads, and which I will designate I, 2, 3, and 4.
The first is designed for a mixed dairy and arable
farm of about 140 statute acres, belonging to the
worthy president of your society; the second (con-
sisting of outbuildings only) is now in process of
erection upon a dairy farm of about 220 acres upon
the estate of Charles Wickstead, Esq., at Baddely,
near Nantwich ; and the third is designed (and will
shortly be carried into execution) for a dairy farm
of about 200 acres belonging to Sir John Chet-
wode, situated at Lower Whitley, in the county of
Chester, all valuable and esteemed clients of mine.
The plan marked 4 is designed for an arable and
house-feeding farm of about 300 acres, one-fifth of
which is supposed to be in meadow and pasture;
all of which plans I beg to hand to this meeting,
and to place at the disposal of your valuable so"
ciety, if they should find them, on examination,
worthy of notice. An enterprising young man —

A

\r.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Mr^-George Kettle, of Newcastle — having kindly
supplied rae with a gratuitous model of the last-
mentioned plan, I will, with its aid, proceed to ex-
plain the claims which 1 hope it will be found to
have upon your notice. Having so far explained,
by the aid of this model, the various uses for which
the buildings are designed, as, also, their economi-
cal points of construction, I must leave it to this
highly respectable meeting to say how far I have
succeeded in proving the " simplicity and economy
of their construction, combined with economy of
labour in their general use ;" and if I have attained
this object, and shown how desirable it is that the
tenant-farmers should have every needful accom-
modation, I trust I may be excused for calling the
serious attention of landowners to so important a
subject. I now propose to proceed with a few ob-
servations on the necessity of establishing a better
class of private occupation roads. These are
frequently so bad through farms, that fifty per cent.,
or more, of horse power is required to pay the need-
ful loads that have to pass and repass along them,
as there can be no doubt that two horses will con-
vey a greater weight upon a good hard road than
four will upon a bad and soft one, and it is, there-
fore, a subject I conceive to be worthy the con-
sideration of the landlord, as tending to economise
the horse labour of the farm. This may, I think,
be done fairly by the joint efforts of the landlord
and tenant ; the landlord fencing (where required)
and forming such roads, and also providing the
necessary material at the nearest convenient place ;
the tenant doing the team work only. By this
method the expense would be fairly shared by land-
lord and tenant, an eat good would result to
both. On draining I propose making a few ob-
servations, and I think that all will agree with me
that the time has arrived when the land requiring
to be drained should be at once and effectually
done ; and I will not, therefore, stop to point out
the necessity that exists for draining, but at once
proceed to what I conceive will be found the best
method of effecting so desirable an object. Drain-
ing has hitherto been executed in a variety of ways :
in some few mstances the tenant has been at the
entire expense ; in others it has been done by the
landlord, charging the tenant a per-centage, or not,
as the case might appear to require : but the more
general plan has been for the landlord to find the
necessary draining material, the tenant performing
the teamwork and all requisite labour. The first-
named plan is entirely out of the question, and to
the last there are strong grounds of objection ; for
whilst there have been some lands effectually drained
by this method, there is reason to fear that there
has been a great deal executed most imperfectly,
and I have come to the conclusion that the safest

method is that the drainage should be done by the
landlord, charging a fair and reasonable per-centage
on the outlay ; by this means the draining would
have a fair chance of being perfectly and effectually
executed, and I think there is not one present in
this meeting who will not join me in stating that
benefit would result to both the landlord and the
tenant. My next sulyect is that of the necessity
there exists for remodelling the various fields of the
farm, getting rid of a vast number of old and use-
less fences, and substituting a few new ones in
their stead. To elucidate this, I will bring before
the meeting a case of rather narrow limits, but it
will, I think, serve to show that the matter deserves
consideration. A short time since, a portion of a
farm, comprising eleven fields and containing about
eighty-four acres, was taken in hand by the owner.
The old internal hedge-rows being crooked and
bad, it was decided that the greater part of them
should be taken up, and two new ones planted
(one of the old ones remaining, as being tolerably
good, and running in the right direction), thus
making the eleven small inconvenient fields into
four of fair and suitable sizes. The advantages de*
rived were as follows : — The internal fences were
reduced from 357 roods to 100 roods, thus saving
the annual maintenance of 257 roods offences ; two
acres of land were made available for crops hereto-
fore occupied by useless hedge-rows, and nearly all
timber was got rid of: the gates were reduced
in number from sixteen to seven, and then,
under the new arrangement, there is a gate
into each field from the road, and also
one between each of the fields ; 10 per cent, is saved
upon all the ploughings, harrowings, and workings
of the land, and considerable advantages are also
derived, particularly in harvest, from free access of
sun and air. In order to be better understood, I
have reduced these various items to a money cal-
culation, and find the advantages amount to £10
l6s. 6d. per annum— therefore, taking the value of
the land, including tithes, at 28s. an acre upon the
84 acres, or £117 12s. as the annual rental, you wil.
find the advantages somewhat exceed 9 per cent,
on the rental. The whole cost of this, exclusive of
timber in the rough for gates, gate-posts, and posts
and rails, has not exceeded £28. This, divided in
equal proportions between landlord and tenant,
would scarcely be felt by either. Having shown
the advantages to be derived from pursuing this
method of remodelhng, I think it may not be out
of place to state how so desirable an object may be
easily effected by the joint efforts of landlord and
tenant, and at no great cost. My proposition is,
that the landowner shall plant and properly guard
all new fences, and that the tenant shall take up
the old ones that may be necessary, in addition to

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

489

performing the needful teamwork, which method
would, I think, divide the expenses in about equal
proportions between the landlord and the tenant,
and from which, I feel assured, great good would
result to all parties concerned. Hedge-row tim-
ber (more particularly upon arable farms) I would
next speak of, as I think this is a subject in which
there is great room for reformation ; for I really
cannot think it is consistent that a farmer should
first pay to his landlord a fair rent in money, and
then upon that rent be taxed with a considerable
per-centage in the growth of timber for the land-
lord's use, to the great detriment of the farmer.
Of this I will give a very feeling instance upon the
farm in my own occupation. It happens that I am
a neighbour to a gentleman somewhat fond of his
timber, and in one hedge-row adjoining my farm,
of the length of 480 yards, there are 26 trees, prin-
cipally ash. Upon this field I had Swedish turnips
in 1849, and whilst the produce upon the other
parts of the field yielded 24 tons to the acre, the
portion (about 1 acre) aifected by these trees gave
about 12 tons to the acre, or half a crop, as com-
])ared with the remainder of the field. The prepa-
ration for this crop had, with the workings, cost
me about £8 an acre, exclusive of rent, and the loss
upon this acre by these trees I conceive amounted
to £6. In the barley crop the loss was about in
the same ratio ; and the clover and wheat crops
have also suffered materially. In the course of the
four years' tillage, I therefore calculate that I suf-
fered to the extent of about £12 upon this acre of
land, giving £3 per annum, and as this is a field of
about 16 acres, the rent of which may be stated at
£30 a year (including the tithe rent-charge), it will
be found that I am taxed with the addition of 10
per rent, by this hedge-row timber. I hope this
Utile instance which I have given will be sufiicient
to ^liovv the landowners of this district that it is a
F\.'uject worthy of their consideration, and that they
will also bear in mind it is one over which a tenant
has no control ; besides this, the amount realised
by the sale of these superfluous trees would aid in
carrying out some of the matters already spoken
of. My last subject is the destruction of game
where unduly preserved, but more particularly rab-
bits. It is admitted by most, if not all, that the
time has arrived when it will not answer the pur-
pose of the farmer to trust to the natural produc-
tions of the earth ; but that both skill and capital
must be employed to increase those productions ;
with this, surely, the time has also arrived when
crops so raised should not be destroyed by game ;
and I do hope that the landlords of this important
division of the county will take this matter into
their serious consideration. And whilst I would
by no means interfere with the fair and reasonable

recreation and yport of a Istndowner or'hi« friends,
I must confess there is something repugnant to the
feelings of a tenant who is disposed to cultivate his
land well, to feel and to know that the right of
stocking his farm and consuming his crops is con-
ceded to another party, and with whom he is fre-
quently brought into colhsion. I have an instance,
gentlemen, which I think it is my duty to bring
before you, of the enormity of the system of pre-
serving game. In the course of my practice a few
years since, I was called upon to inspect damages
done by game upon a farm occupied by an improv«
ing tenant in this district, and you will be rather
surprised when I tell you that those damages ex-
ceeded the sum of £84 upon the corn crops alone
upon a farm the rental of which did not exceed
£'250 per annum. Add to this the damage done
to winter vetches, turnips, clovers, and grass lands,
and in all probabiUty you will find a sum that
would amount to two-thirds of the entire rent.
This, I conceive, is scarcely a proper state of
things ; and although the subject is a delicate one,
I do hope it may have your grave consideration.
Having proceeded so far in detail, I will merely re-
capitulate the various subjects, viz. : Exchanges,
farm buildings, occupation roads, draining, re-
modelhng fields, destruction of hedgerow timber,
and of game where unduly preserved : and will
now ask the landowners of this meeting, whether
all these things do not bear upon the rental value
of the land, and whether it does not become their
interest, as it is assuredly their duty, to look seri-
ously how their individual cases are affected by all
or any of them. From being a native of this part
of the county, and having been actively employed
in it during a practice of thirty years, I think I may
say that I have a fair average knowledge of the dis-
trict, and have no hesitation in saying that there is
no estate to which some of the above observations
will not apply. Gentlemen, I consider that these
are the foundation stones to be laid by landowners
for an improved agricultural system, and without
them the strivings of tenants will avail but little.
Good farming is the capstone of our agriculture ;
but the foundation for this stupendous work must
be laid by the owners. I cannot conclude these
few and imperfect remarks, without reminding you
that you have in the midst of you a consuming po-
pulation of 100,000 persons, which is daily increas-
ing, and have, therefore, a ready market secured
for you at your doors — a great incentive for the
improvement of your estates. It now remains,
Mr. President and Gentlemen, for me to thank you
for the kindness with which you have heard me, and
if I have this day succeeded in adding one iota to
the stock of important knowledge already possessed
by your Society, and contributed to the welfare of
my fellow-labourers in agriculture, I shall be happy
indeed.

490

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

PRIZE FARM OF THE MA.\ CHESTER
AND LIVERPOOL AGRICULTURAL
SOCIETY.

Mil. JOHN WARUL'RTON, SAN DIM" AY HEAD.

Insi'kutor's Report. — This claimant's farm is lo2J
acres, and is held on lease for 14 years. The description of
soil is one part peaty moss, another part sandy soil, and the
remainder heavy strong soil on a clay subsoil. The culti\ ation
is as follows : — Land in pasture, 63 acres 3 roods ; meadows
and seeds mown, 27 acres ; irrigated, 9 acres ; not irrigated,
27 acres ; wheat after potatoes, 8 acres ; do. after turnips,
&c., 2 acres ; oats after lev s, 8 acres ; do. after do. and wheat,
&c., 12 acres; barley, 5 acres ; vetches and rye, 3 acres; po-
titoes, 9 acres ; turnips, 6 acres ; mangold wurzel, 5 acres ;
carrots and parsnips, 1 acre ; orchard and gardens, 1 acre ;
homestead and roads, 2 acres ; total, 152 acres. Rotation of
cropping : 1st, oats ; 2nd, potatoes, turnips, mangold wurzel,
carrots, &c. ; 3rd, wheat and barley, with seeds ; 4th, oats
after wheat, sown with grass seeds, the same being covered in
autumn, after tlie oats are cut, with bone dust. Stock kept
on this farm : 4 farm horses, 1 bull, 30 dairy cows, 10 heifers,
6 rearing calves, 175 sheep and lambs, 30 pigs ; total, 256.
(Note. — From 170 to 180 sheep are sold off annually.) The
horses, iu summer, are three months out at grass, and in winter
are fed on cut hay and wheat chaff, or on cut straw mixed
with crushel oats and carrots; for two months in spring they
have rye and vetches given to them. The cows are out at
grass from the beginning of jNIay until the month of October ;
then housed and fed on straw and turnips until calving time
(say February or March), then they are fed on hay, mangold
wurzel, and ground oats. Claimant makes from 300 to 400
tons of manure annually, which is principally used for pota-
toes, mangold wurzel, and carrots, and any remaining is put
on the grass land. The whole of the liquid manure is
collected in a covered tank. The claimant also buys annually
12 tons of bone-dust, two to three tons of which are used for
turnips, and the remainder is put upon grass land for pasture.
He also purchases two tons of guano, which, mixed with bone-
dust and salt, is used for mangold wurzel. Ten tons of farm-
yard manure, 2 cwt. o'' guano, and 2 cwt. of salt is also used
for mangold wurzel ; and for carrots and turnips, 10 cwt. of
bone-dust, 2 cwt. of guano, and 2 cwt. of salt is used per acre.
Claimant has drained eight acres annually for the last three
years, and 110 acres have been drained within the last 15
years, principally with tiles and slate soles. Claimant drained
eight acres of moss land last spring with pipes, the mains
with four inches and branches two inches. All the expense
was borne by himself, except the tiles and slates, which were
provided by the landlord at a cost of £19. Claimant last year
marled three acres, and since the year 1834 has marled 69
acres of this farm at his own expense. He has bone-dusted
all the farm, 611ed up 17 old pits, eradicaled 300 rods of old
fences, raised new ones, and found rails, posts, quicks, &c., all
entirely at his own expense. He has also filled up a bog, and
drained the same, at a cost of £30, by which means 57 perches
of land have beeu gained. He has also deepened, by an
average depth of 18 inches, a small brook which runs through
the farm, at a cost of lOd. per perch, in order to obtain fall
enough to drain the land through which it passes. The
length deepened was 1847 yards, and the cost £14. There
has also been a manure tank erected by claimant, at a cost of
£25, towards which the landlord contributed £5. All the
meadow and pasture land on this farm is in high condition.
The wheat remarkably clean, but its produc3 only medium.
The crop had evidently suffered from the light and open

iiatiue of the sod. Of the oats, those after leys were a good
produce, and those after wheat were e-jual to the best crop the
inspectors have at any time seen, both in weight and quality.
The barley was a full and clean crop ; all the green crops were
in the highest state of cultivation. The house, yards, gardtn,
and fences were most satisfactory.— Report ofihe Liverpool
and Manchester Agricidliiral Society.

BENEFIT DERIVED BY FARMERS FROM
LECTURES SHOWING THE APPLl-
CABILITY OF SCIENCE TO AGRICUL-
TURE.

At the Dorsetshire Agricultural Society's meeting, tlie
Chairman presented the handsome massive tankard, value
£20, offered by H. Ker Seymer, Esq., for the best crop of
roots, not less than forty acres, and which had been adjudged to

MR. EDWARD POPE,
with many highly complimentary remarks, declaring that he
had never felt greater pleasure than in bestowing so handsome
a gift upon a gentleman upon whom it reflected so much credit.

Mr. E. Pope, in reply, said, he had felt that if he gained
this prize he should reach the height of ambition. He had
certainly always taken the greatest interest in turnip cultiva-
tion, aud from the observation he had been enabled to make
from attending Itctures and from having acted as a judge, he
had seen the best system to pursue to arrive at this end. He re-
turned Mr. Seymer his warmest thanks for the very handsome
and munificeni; prize which he had given him an opportunity
of being the owner of, and then said he would explain the
mode he had adopted. It had not been the result of a lavish
outlay in artificial manures, but after hearing the able lecture
of Mr. Nesbit, in that tospn— (Hear, hear)— he set to work.
He certainly bought bones of Mr. Ensor, but instead of
putting them with sulphuric acid, and making them into
superphosphate of lim?, he threw them into a shed, and treated
them with liquid manure until they had almost dissolved,
constantly mixing them with ashes. About the time for
ploughing them in he put 251b3. sulphuric acid per sack to
these bones. Then when he used guano he put one cwt.
guano per acre with a sack of bones, aud mixed in this way
with two cart-loads of ashes. Now for the application. Here-
tofore he had found in drilling artificial manures that a great
body were deposited in the vicinity of the plant; that a rapid
vegetation ensued, and that th? plants burst away into a
large leaf, but did not bulb as they ought to do. But afler
listening to Mr. Nesbit, he sowed his manure broadcast, put a
ridge plough on the IdLd, thereby throwing two surfaces to-
gether, and bringing the artificial manure betvreen the surface
of the ridge. He then drilled with a Scotch drill, without
any further application of manure — the total cost of his
artificial manure being £1 Os. 6d. (cheers). He assured them
that he had not spare! manual labour ; he had horse-hoed
them as many as two or three times. Iu conclusion, he thanked
the company, ani trusted they would always find that cup full
at his house (cheers and liuj;hter).

In reply to Mr. Manfield, Mr. Pope said, where he put 1
cwt. guano he put no superphosphate, and when he used su-
perphosphate he added bones in their natural state. He had
left his implements at Mr. Galpin's for inspection. (Bravo).

The Chairman thought ihey ought to be extremely
obliged to Mr. Pope for his explanation. He was quite satisfied
the ridge system was the best, for without it they could not
keep their turnips ckan, and he was quite satisfied that they
could grow more on the ridge than on the flat.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

491

AGRICULTURAL BIOGRAPHY,

(Continued from p(i(/e^39).

LXL— Floyd, 1697-

Edward Floyd wrote, "An account of locusts in
Wales;" " On the spontaneous combustion of
several hay stacks, &c." These essays were printed
in the " Pliilosophical Transactions" of the period
above mentioned, and hardly entitled the author to
a place in an agricultural biography, as the matter
was not formed into a book. But as other lists have
inserted the name, our record follows the example.
LXIL— Donaldson, 1697.

James Donaldson, a native of Scotland, and one
of the earliest and most useful writers on the agri-
culture of that country, wrote " Husbandry Anato-
mised," London, 1697, 12mo. The libraries of the
British Museum do not possess this work, and
nothing is known of the author except what is
written above. Scotch writers place a high esti-
mation upon the book, as a valuable production of
that early time, and reckon it fully equal to any
thing of the kind that had appeared at the date of
its publication. Not having seen the book, our
notice does not add or detract.

LXIIL— NouRSE, 1700.

Timothy Nourse, Gent, wrote " Campania Felix,"
or discourses on the benefits and improvements of
husbandry, containing directions for all manner
of tillage, pasturage, and plantations ; as, also, for
the making of cyder and perry, with some consider-
ations upon justices of the peace and inferior offi-
cers ; on inns and ale-houses ; on servants and
labourers ; on the poor. To which are added
two essays — 1 "Of a country house," 2 Of the fuel
of London." The first edition of the book appeared
in 1700, and the second edition in 1707. This
writer uses no dedication, preface, nor introduction
of any kind; the contents follow the title-page,
and the matter begins on the next leaf. The first
chapter, "On country affairs in general," shows the
author to have been an educated and well informed
person, and much superior to the common calibre
of writers on agriculture. " What I have written
on this subject" he says, " is not grounded on the
reports and method of other authors, but upon my
own observations, towards which I have had some
small advantage by my long continuance in a pri-
vate and country life." He reduces husbandry
into three general heads — tillage, pasturage, and
plantation ; and recommends that land be fallowed
every third or fourth year. Dung requires digestion
or maturation, by reason of the seed which lie in

the litter. One load and a half of pigeons' dung is
sufficient for an acre of land ; four loads of sheep's
dung, eight loads of horse dung, and ten or twelve
of cow dung. It is not known what bulk or weight
of load is meant. Fresh dung is better for ster-
coration than an old putrid mass, as the saline or
sulphureous parts of the dung are wasted, in which
its vegetative power doth chiefly consist. Lime
kills the weeds, corrects the coldness of the soil,
and cherishes the grain. Four loads to an acre is
a good dressing. It supersedes [the use of marl.
Burning of land is an excellent good practice, and
the benefit to the land arises from the increased
temperature. Wheat is steeped in urine or salt
brine, and then floured with powdered lime.
Snow preserves corn by the covering it afl:brds, and
newly broken up ground is to be sown with oats.
The head lands of arable fields are to be left in
grass, and grain is recommended to be thrashed
and sold immediately.

Pasture grounds are improved by being sown
with grass seeds, as clovers and sainfoin, which
are very highly commended. Ray grass is a spiry
benty sort of grass, and thrives on a variety of
soils, but not so much in vogue as sainfoin. Top
dressings are much advocated in all fine substances,
especially malt dust where it can be got. The
watering of land is well understood and directed.
The extirpation of tall weeds, and spreading of
mole and ant hills are duly noticed. The author
recommends that all low ale-houses be abohshed,
and that magistrates exercise a vigilant care over
the licensing of these resorts. The chapter on the
poor does not suggest any scheme for their relief,
l3ut is merely observations on the means of avoid-
ing poverty.

The essay of a country house describes at some
length the form of accommodation of a country
residence, and the pity is that the author had
not favoured the succeeding generations with a
portrait of this scheme, so that it could have been
now delineated. On the subject of fuel the author
recommends wood and charcoal, in order to prevent
the smoke from coals.

Nourse's book occupies 354 octavo pages, and
is the best publication of the kind that had ap-
peared at its date. Nothing is known of the author
beyond the attachment of his name to the work.
He had doubtless been a country gentleman of
some small landed property.

2 K

492

THE FARMEIVS MAGAZINE.

LXIV.- Smith, 1704.
.Saiith wrote the Hiixbantlman's Magazine, in
12 mo. No list of writers except Weston's notices
this author, so that his catalogue is the sole autho-
rity for inserting it.

LXV.— Fleetwood, 1707.
William Fleetwood was born in London 1656,
died in 1723 ; he was much admired as a popular
])reacher, and was successively Bishop of St. Asaph
and Ely. Weston ascribes to him a book entitled
" Cnriosities of nature and art in husbandry and
gardening, in 8vo., 1707." The Bibliotheca Bri-
tannica does not mention this work, but quotes the
other book of Fleetwood's mentioned by Weston,
" Chronicon Prctiosum,"or an account of English
money &c. The libraries of the British Museum
do not possess the works, so that Weston's cata-
logue again constitutes our authority for the
name.

LXVL— Young, 1707.

Arthur Young wrote " Curiosities of art in hus-
])andry and gardening," London, 1707. This is the
same title and year of the work which Weston has
given to Bishop Fleetwood, and some mistake lies
between that list and the Bibliotheca Britannica,
which quotes the work as now given. Arthur Young,
an author in 1707, is nowhere noticed, except in the
last-mentioned classification of vvriters. The well-
known secretary of the Board of Agriculture, who
bore that name, did not appear in the world for
more than half a century behind this date of
time.

LXVn.—MORTIMER, 1707

John Mortimer, Esq., F.R.S., wrote "The whole
art of husbandry, or the way of improving and
managing of land; with the countryman's calendar,
or what he is to do every month of the year." The
book is dedicated to the Royal Society, and forms
a thick octavo of 632 pages. The books are 15 in
number, and each is divided into chapters on con-
nected subjects. The first book has four chapters —
on inclosing lands; of pastures, and meadow lands,
how to improve them, and defend by banks from
floods and tides; and of making hay; and of se-
veral sorts of grass seeds, as clover, sainfoin, and
lucern, — ray grass, trefoil, and several other
grasses. The second book has 6 chapters~~of ara-
ble land and tillage; on ploughs, of which some
are figured; andthe square earth board is shown and
recommended for stiflf clays ; the Hertfordshire
wheel-plough is still much recommended ; of
ploughing and laying land in ridges; of sowing
corn and steeping it. The third book has three
chapters, describing the different natures of soils ;
the ability and power of production. The fourth
book has seventeen chapters —

i. On the manuring and digging of lands,
with observations on each sort of ma-
nure.
n. Of the burning of land.
in. Of chalk.
IV. Of lime.
V. Of marl.
VI. Of fuUer's-earth.
VII. Of clay.
Vill. Of sand.
IX. Of earth.
X. Of sea-sand and weed.
XI. Of dungs.
XII. Of sheep's dung.

XIII. Of hog's dung.

XIV. Of urine.

XV. Of human ordure.
XVI. Of the dung of fowls.
XVII. Of several other sorts of manures, as
ashes, soap ashes, soot, rags, malt dust,
and the several soils each sort of manure
is best for.

The fifth book has 25 chapters, on grains and
pulse crops, the roots, and herbaceous plants.
The sixth book, of 21 chapters, treats on the ani-
mals, fowls, and insects that slock the farm. The
seventh book, of three chapters, describes the pests
of the farm, in four-footed and feathered beasts.
The eighth book has five chapters on the uses of
corn, and the making of malt. The four chapters
of the ninth book treat on the small tools of work.
The tenth book has four chapters on buildings and
repairs. Book eleven treats on the different trees
in 21 chapters. The twelfth book, in 12 chapters,
describes coppice woods. The thirteenth book
has two chapters on the plants of the kitchen gar-
den. The fourteenth book has 21 chapters on
fruit trees. The fifteenth book has five chapters on
English liquors, as ale, cyder, and fruit wines.

Lime is used at the rate of 160 bushels to an
acre, and laid in cinders in a bushel to a pole
square, covered with earth, and spread when dis-
solved—but better in being carried hot on the
land. It makes corn grow with a thin bark, and
does not last above five years. Forty bushels of
soot were sown by hand on an acre, and produced
a mighty sv/eet grass. The spade is figured for
paring land to be burned, and is the same now
used. Turnips are sown in broad cast on finely
fallowed lands, in midsummer, and afford food for
sheep, cows, and fatting cattle into the month of
March. The crop is a great help to dry barren
lands, and will grow on almost any ground — the
fly and caterpillar often destroy them. The crop is
thinned by twice hoeing, at an expense of 4s. to
9s. an acre, or io, daily wages of fourteen-pence.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

493

btubhle turiiijia wore aowu at. this time ul" the cul-
tivation of the plant.

The author says a bull should have a shaip
quick countenance, forehead broad and curled,
eyes black and large, horns long, neck fleshy, belly
long and large, hair smooth like velvet, breast big,
back straight and flat, buttocks square, thighs
round, legs straight, joints short. The cow ought
to have a broad forehead, black eyes, clean great
horns, neck long and thin, large deep belly, thick
thighs, round legs, short joints ; white, large, deep
udder, having four teats, and the feet large. Of
sheep, he says, the ram must have a large, long
body, forehead broad, round, and well rising, eyes
cheerful and large, nostrils short and straight. The
ewe must have the neck large and ui)right, bending
like a horse's, back broad, buttocks round, tail
thick, legs small and short, clean, and nimble,
wool thick and deep, covering all the body ; gums
must be red, teeth white and even, brisket skinned,
eye-strings ruddy, felt loose, wool fast, breath
sweet, the feet not hot. Fat pastures are said to
produce straight tall sheep, and hills and short
pastures breed square ones ; woods and mountains
yield small and slender sheep. The observations
are very judicious on the breeding and manage-
ment of sheep, and differ little from the modern
practice. It appears that many sheep were then
rotted.

The " Farmer's Calendar," in directions of
monthly work, would do credit to any modern
publication ,

The author thinks but few farms will afford the
generally allowed increase of three rents; one for
the landlord, one for charges, and the third for the
tenant. A farm of 100 acres, let at £1 per acre,
may be maintained for the charge of £100 yearly ;
but if let for £50 a year the charges will be more
than double the rent ; or there must be the quantity
of 200 acres of land in the farm.

Mortimer's book forms a very large advancement
in the progress of agriculture from the preceding
authors on the subject; trees and fruits do still oc-
cupy too much room, but the anim.als are more
largely introduced, and systematically treated. The
work was much approved, was translated into the
Swedish language, and published at Stockholm in
1727.

It appears that Mortimer was a merchant in
Tower-hill London, in 1693, and became possessed
of Toppings Hall, an estate of land in Essex which
he very much improved. Some fine cedar trees
yet grow there of his planting. He was author of
some tracts on religious education,

LXVIII.— Snoav, 1715,

T. Snow wrote the " Apopiroscopy, or a com-
plete and faithful history of experiments and ob-

ucrvations in several arts, sciences, and i)iufe;>
sioiis." The " tcrricultural" experiments and
observations are on the sowing of seeds ; on the
dunging, manuring, and soiling of land, and of
tlio nature of soil proper for several vegetables.
The observations are wholly taken from preceding
authors, and arc contained in short sentences of
recommendation. The book is very miscellaneous,
as the name imports, and can scarcely be claimed
as a work on any special subject. Tlu; date is
1702, though the author's name is always given in
lists of writers in 17 15.

LXIX.— Clarke, 1715.

George Clarke wrote " The landed man's as-
sistant," in 12mo. No author, or book of this
name and title, is any where found but in " Wes-
ton's Catalogue," so that his list of writers consti-
tutes the authority for entering the name in our
record,

LXX.-Jacob, 1717.

Giles Jacob, Gent., was born at Romsey, in the
county of Southampton, in I6s6; died in 17-11.
His father was a maltster ; and, after serving the
apprenticeship of the law, our author became
steward and secretary to the Hon. W. Blathwayt,
a celebrated courtier in the reign of William I., and
who enjoyed much preference in that and the suc-
ceeding reign. He was a poetical and dramatic
writer, and a most industrious law compiler. He
wrote some works relating to country mjatters, and
" The country gentleman's vade mecum," contain-
ing the improvements of lands, ploughing, and
sowing of corn; reaping, mowing, hedging, ditcli-
ing, and all sorts of husbandry ; of horses, cattle,
cures of diseases, and directions how to buy and
sell cattle, and breed horses ; of deers and ])arks :
fish, fishing, fish ponds, and game; in-ices of
timber, and all sorts of building and workmanship,
and the art of measurements ; rules for the manage-
ment of a family, expense in eating and drinking ;
duty and places of servants ; general account of
gardening, and of natural philosophy, in several
chapters; to which is added a general description
of England, and especially of London ; taxes,
revenue, policy, great officers, and courts of judi-
cature ; and legal observations on the several
chapters throughout the whole, and a poem in
praise of a country life.

The v/ork forms a volume of 129 pages in small
duodecimo, and shows the writer to have been a
person of very considerable learning. Unlike to
Meager, Nourse, and Mortimer, the author had
never practised nor lived among farming in any
shape or form; but his active mind had made
large excursions, and among other objects
agriculture had attracted notice. He seized the
prominent parts which formed the improvements

2 K 2

494

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of the day, and placed them in the brighter view
which arose from his education. Lands are im-
])roved by soiling, draining, watering, and grub-
bing. The first mode comprehends manuring,
and grubbing means trenching by the plough or
spade. Clover and ray grass are very much re-
commended, as being extraordinary things for en-
riching lands, especially by feeding them with
sheep.

The wages of those times are given with much
accuracy, and also the produce of crops. Reaping
of wheat is 3s. to 4s. an acre ; mowing of barley
Is. per acre; raking barley Is, per acre ; mowing
and raking of oats is the same price ; as also of
grass. Daily reapers got Is. 6d. per day for
wheat and mowing barley, for men ; for cocking Is.
per day. "Women got 6d. to 8d. per day for raking
and cocking barley, oats, and grass. Thrashing of
wheat 4d. per bushel ; barley and oats 2d. per
bushel. The straw usually defrays the expence of
thrashing. An acre of good wheat produced about
30 bushels ; barley and oats 20 to 40, according
to the quality of the land. Eiiiht or ten sheaves of
wheat afford one 1)ushel of corn. All expease re-
lating to corn, from the ploughing of the land to
the marketable rate, is worth 15s. to 20s. an acre;
and the expense of hay-making is worth about 3s.
or 4s. per load or acre. Corn sold on the ground
was worth : wheat in £2 10s. to £3 an acre ; barley
£1 10s. to £2 ; oats about £1. High pasture lands
must never be mown, as it impoverishes the
ground ; but low meadows are refined in the herb-
age by the mowing of the grass. On the breeding
of horses the author advises a strong similarity in
the jiarents, and thit they are well shaped, espe-
cially the mare, v/hich the foal most resembles.
Mares may breed from the age of 3 to 10 years.
Young horses are not to be handled or broken to
use till the age of four years, when the muscular
frame will be strong and well knit, the hoofs
tough, and the eye-sight good. Horses are hurt
by too young endurance of harness and riding.
The marks of a good cow are, full chest, thick on
the ribs, hair lying smooth and shining, handsome,
and round shaped; and a sheep being round,
having a large tail, and full cod, are good signs.
Cattle kept from Lady-day to Michaelmas should
leave of profit 30s. a piece, which makes good
interest of money, answers well— living, and to pay
rent. If sold at Midsummer 20s. of profit is good
pay. An ox weighed about 900 lbs., a cow about
500 lbs., wether sheep about 22 lbs. per quarter,
and a ewe about 18 lbs. About ten fleeces of wool
went to a weight, or 21 lbs., and sheep were
■washed for 2s. per score. Horses ran at grass for
Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. per week; oxen and cows 6d. to
Is. according to size; wintering of cows 2s. per

week, and summering Is. per week; sheep 2s. 6d.
or 3s. a score per week, and on a common Is. per
head in a year. Running of a colt Is. per week.
Yeomath, or grass produced after the hay is cut, is
worth for the winter half-year one quarter of the
yearly value of ground, which, if 20s. an acre, the
yeomath will be worth 5s. or 6s.

The other subjects of the author's notice are
treated in a similar manner, and on gardening and
fruit trees the discussions are longer and more
practical. The monthly directions are accompanied
with what clothes are required to suit the weather,
and what food to use. The yearly maintenance of
an individual of a family is calculated at al)out £40.

No book of the same bulk ever contained the
useful matter in the quantity of this little volume,
which has never been noticed, and is carefully
written by Weston as being an author, and no more
is said of it. Agriculture has ever needed, and
yet feels the want of educated men being employed
in its practice, and it has derived most of its valua-
ble advancements from persons of alien profes-
sions. Even when no originality comes from the
labours of education on that point, the existing
practice is adorned and rendered attractive. The
poem is here added, which was written by the
author in praise of a country life.

A country life, the rural seat I choose.

Where nature freely doth her charms diflfuse ;

A neat small house, near to a shady grove.

Where pleasant birds sing out harmonious love.

A river fine, not large nor deep, but clear.

With murmuring streams divert the greedy ear

An estate not large, competency good.

To relieve keen nature with a wholesome food.

A garden small, with curious plants adorned.

In pleasing shapes by skilful gardeners form'd ;

Here nature variously her beauty shows.

The fragrant lily and the blooming rose.

The lofty trees put out their verdant shoots.

And by winter's cold the long impaired roots

In spring, v/ith strength aud beauteous lustre rise.

Present a resurrection to the eyes,

And every field seems like a paradise.

Until the scorching sun with heat exhales

The nutritious moisture of the fertile vales.

And mother earth its vigorous strength hath lost.

Its prolific nature with female weakness crost.

Impotent's the fire, when water fails to serve.

It helps destroy, not vital life preserve ;

And weak is the water, when the fire's no more.

It barren makes what fertile was before.

But when the elements in consort meet.

The earth is blessed with a product great.

So when the sun its radiant beams displays.

And every field enjoys its happy rays.

Refreshing showers the scorching earth relieves.

The dry vegetable new life receives.

The ground is pleasant in most distant views.

Throws oflF its russet, brightest green renews.

Then walking is a pleasant exercise.

It moves the thoughtful, and diverts the wise ;

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

495

It health increases, and doth strength create.

Restores the patient to his pristine state.

The morning's lustre, and the sun's approach.

With exercise, recover a debauch ;

But when this sun absconds, this glorious light

Removeth from us, then approacheth night.

" Hyems " succeeds with rough and austere face.

But health affords unto all human race

Now rural sports in great variety,

So in the country there's no satiety.

Sometimes for hunt, sometimes for shoot andcourse.

Sometimes for fish, and all without remorse :

On beautiful banks, over a plenteous brook.

You drop successfully j'our baited hook;

O'er hills and vales you do your game pursue.

Still pleas'd with motion and with prospects new;

Till hunger keen takes oft' the edge of sport.

Then home to dinner with eager haste resort.

Eat plentifully the plain provided food.

With a stomach sharp and digestion good.

Dinner being o'er, your garden you survey.

View well the product, business of the day.

Let nought be uninspected that may prove.

Nature's ornament, generous passions move.

When night approaches with its dismal face,

With pleasure you your studies may embrace:

Sometimes a friend and bottle will be good.

And in this way right living's understood.

To this a pleasing female you may add,

Adorn'd with sense, and with strict virtue clad.

With her you spend your hours unemj)loy'd.

As the gallant with a mistress till enjoy'd ;

With joy reflect upon the marriage knot.

And lovely children in honest wedlock got ;

To all other women you a stranger prove.

Let thy dear consort be thy only love;

By this good way of living you'll be free

From stinging vice and all perplexity.

With health and strength spin out the thread of life.

Free from envy and the destructive strife ;

From noise, confusion, of the filthy town.

The country air in healing draught suck down ;

Not coop'd by debauchery or youthful vice.

With aged locks advance to paradise.

This is the truly hap|)y earthly state.

Ought to be valued at the highest rate ;

Free from the care attending miser's wealth,

Adds peace and comfort to a vigorous health.

From greatness likewise free the courtiers' fate.

His pride, anxiety, unstable state ;

In courts of princes this maxim is understood.

It's dangerous for a statesman to be good.

LXXL— SwiTZER, 1718.

Stephen Switzer was a gardener and seedman of
Hampshire, in the reigns of Anne and George I.
He wrote some books on gardening, and had ex:-
tended his views beyond the walls of the garden,
and looked at the policy and pleasure grounds,
plantations, and at agriculture. On the latter sub-
ject he wrote " The country gentleman's com-
panion, or ancient husbandry restored, and modern
husbandry improved ;" and " An account of the
lucerne, sainfoin, clover, and other grass seed,
with a method of turning clay for the dressing of

land." This treatise had passed through three
editions ; but the two works now mentioned are
not found in the British Museum ; but the chief
work of the author is found : " Iconographia
rustica," or the nobleman's, gentleman's, and gar-
dener's recreation, containing directions for the
general distribution of a country seat into rural
and extensive gardens, parks, paddocks, &c., and
n general system of agriculture, illustrated with a
great variety of copper plates, done by the best
hcmds, from the author's drawings.

This work is in three octavo volumes, of a thin
s"/e, in about 260 pages each. A long preface fills
15 pages, and the contents follow of each volume
separately. A history is given of gardening from
the earliest notice down to the time of the author,
and is succeeded by an essay concerning earth,
water, sun, and air, and the process of nature in
vegetation. The raising of forest trees is treated,
and of the timbers in parks and policies. The
water-works are described that must be formed in
pleasure grounds, with the grasses and gravel
walks. Figures and delineations are given of the
landscape gardening, plots and designs of various
kinds, for the use of gardeners, with the applica-
tion of instruments for the special purpose.
Orchards and fruit gardens are largely treated,
and woods and groves described and figured.

The agricultural part of the work occupies the
second part of the third volume, and is contained
in six chapters. The sections mention the subject
matter, as the management and improvement of
arable land by the plough, spade, &c. ; of winter
fallowing; of earths, and their improvements ; of
the nature of dungs, sheep, and hogs, poultry; of
marie, chalk, and lime, used before sowing ; the
superficial dressings are, coal-ashes, v/ood-ashes,
kiln-ashes, saw-dust, turf-ashes, lime, malt-dust,
sea-sand, loame, loamy sand, burnt vegetables,
soap and pot ashes, soot, rags, pigeon's dung, sea
shells, burn-bating, burning of meadows and pas-
ture ground by heath and fern, claying, and by
enclosures; of ploughs and ploughing; of sowing;
of draining of lands ; the conclusion is on hop-
yards and the management.

Switzer has ever been highly esteemed by gar-
deners of the higher degree ; and it must be added
that the portion of his work on agriculture sho\A s
a very correct information, a quick sense, and a
sound judgment. With the exception of some few
crotchets, which enlightened practice has removed,
modern farming finds nothing to reject in the
writings of Switzer. The old doctrine about
nitrous salts still lingered, but did not exist in
much vigour since the days of Plat. It yielded to
the gradual progress of scientific knowledge.
Switzer died in 1715.

490

THE FARMER'S MAGxVZINE.

IXXII.— Bradley, 1721.
Richard Bradley, F.R.S., v,as professor of
botany in the University of Cambridge, and a
most voluminous writer on agriculture and botany.
Died in 1732. Of his numerous works, the fol-
o'.ving ones relate to our purpose : — " Philoso-
))hical treatise of husbandry and gardening," Lon-
don, 1721, 4to. " Treatise concerning the fallowing
of ground, raising of grass seeds, and the training
of lint and hemp," London, 1724, 4to. "General
treatise of husbandry and gardening," London,
1720, 2 vols., 8vo. " Riches of a hop garden ex-
idained," London, 1729, Svo. "A complete body
of husbandry," London, 1 729, Svo. " Experi-
mental husbandman and gardener," London, 1729,
fulio. "Proposals for the improvement of waste
lands," London, 1730, Svo, " British housewife
and gardener's companion," Svo, 2 vols., 1730.

The works of Bradley have never baen properly
distinguished— no two lists of authors agree either
in the number or date of his publications. Addi-
tions were made from time to time, and there never
lias been a complete edition of them all. The above
list has ])een selected as appearing to contain the
tliief works on our special subject.

The libraries of the British Museum contain only
two of Bradley's agricultural works : " The com-
plete body of husbandry," and " Gentleman and
farmer's guide in regard to cattle." The first book
is an octavo, of 372 pages, in 18 chapters, which
treat of soils, water, air, and heat— their influence
on vegetables; of manures; of manuring barren
lands; of the making of potash; of composts, or
mixt manures; of draining and watering of lands ;
of the improvements of bushy and mossy ground ;
of bushy ground never before arable ; of improving
furze, or gorse, or whin ground ; of improving
Ijroom ground, and the use of broom ; of the im-
provement of heath ground, and fern or brake
ground ; of the improvement of flinty or dry
chalky ground, and of hmestone land; of im-
proving soils by means of the natural plants ; of
llie improvement of ground by the shifting of
oops; of the improvement of lands by enclosures,
the repairing of highways, and the preservation of
game ; the method of stocking a farm of 300 acres
of arable land ; expense of stocking a grass farm,
both of grazing and meadow ground ; of horses,
wliich is the concluding chapter.

The author quotes very largely from Fitzher-
bcrt, and mentions Hartlib, Houghton, and Morti-
mer. The subjects are most sensibly handled, and
show a very well informed and comprehensive
mind. The stocking of a farm of 300 acres of
arable land costs £415, including £100 for house-
hold furnitiire. The profits of a ewe in the year
is .'is., and of a hog- 20s,, and tlie poultry on such

a farm will yield £40. The yearly expenses are
£586 8s. 6d., including the rent of £150. The
profits are £800, leaving £214 for clear profit
yearly.

Bradley has introduced more methodical ar-
rangement than the preceding writers on agricul-
ture ; but much still remained to be done on that
point, one of the most important in all the records
of writing.

The book on cattle and other animals is an
octavo of 352 pages, in four chapters : On sheep;
on swine, and their improvement; on the bull,
cow, and ox ; on horses. The sheep has the pre-
ference of being first treated, on account of the
great value from the wool, flesh, tallow, and skin.
The rot is much discussed— the causes and pre-
vention. The falling, yeaning, and castrating of
lambs, are fully described ; and the severing the
sheep and parting the flocks. The wasliing and
shearing are well described, with a long quotation
from Fitzherbert. The management of wool, and
the application of it, occupy twelve pages. The
distempers of sheep are accompanied with the
cures, which concludes the first chapter.

The second chapter, on swine, reckons the crea-
ture kept with little trouble, and profitable in every
part of it. It is the chief support of the kitchen,
and the kitchen is the chief support of the swine.
The farmer is very improvident who buys bacon,
or seeks pork of the butcher ; for there is to them
who understand the management of swine a
greater advantage than can accrue to those who
keep the larger sort of cattle, either in breeding .
swine for pork or bacon. The edible parts of the
hog affbrd more variety of tastes tlian either sheep,
oxen, or twenty other creatures besides. After
this eulogium on swine, the author describes the
different kinds then living in England, preferring
the black breed for sweetness of flesh, fecundity,
and quick fattening. The cross between that
breed and the large white hog is much recom-
mended, as needing little care and yielding most
profit. The author recommends an animal of the
middling size: and, notwithstanding the old and
very common opinion to the contrary, he thinks
the pig is cleanly in its habits, and advises the
comfortable accommodation. Not more than two
broods of pigs must come from a sow within the
year, as many farrowings will very injuriously
weaken the animal. The very ample feeding, of
the sow with juicy food is stronglyurged during the
suckling period, in order both to support the sow
and to rear a strong and healthy progeny. Barley-
meal is much recommended, with wash, whey, and
grains, and all juicy matters in a liquid form. Pigs
are to be early learned to drink mixed wheys and
other liquids. Tlie sow may breed till six years

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

497

old, and then fattened. Good directions are given
in the feeding of hogs for pork and bacon, for
curing bacon and hams. The distempers of swine
are then specified, and the remedies given.

The third chapter, on the bull, cow, and ox,
begins with a view of what relates to kine from the
ancient writers of husbandry. England has ever
possessed some of the best breeds of kine, which
are modified in the districts being barren or fertile
in the soil. The counties of Lincoln and Somerset
are mentioned as producing large beasts, generally
of a red colour, or cross-stain, between them and
the black. There were white cattle in Surrey,
which yielded the richest milk, and then their flesh
more readily received the salt. The best oxen had
the following properties : — Large, well-knit, and
sound limbs ; a long, large, and deep-sided body ;
white-horned, broad-foreheaded, great-eyed, and
black ; ears rough and hairy ; jaws large and wide;
lips blackish, neck well brawned and thick ; dew-
lap large, and hangmg down from the neck to the
knees; shoulders broad; hide not hard, nor stub-
born to the feeling ; belly deep ; legs well set, full
of sinews, and straight, rather short than long, the
better to sustain the weight of the body ; knees
straight, and great feet, one far from another, not
broad nor turning in, but easily spreading; hair of
all the body thick and short ; tail long, and big
haired. Cattle bred on the ground are to be pre-
ferred to strangers. Milking cows are to be high
of stature, long-bodied, having great udders, broad
forehead, fair horns, and smooth, and almost all
other tokens that are required in the bull ; cows
may breed till twelve years old. The first calf to
be dropped at the age of three years, and come best
in the month of March. Bradley recommended
that all calves suck the dam. The vealing process
is well described, and the calf pens have a vacant
floor underneath. The diseases of calves are
treated, and the cures prescribed. The manufac-
ture of milk into cheese and butter is detailed at
length, and a section is devoted to the breaking of
oxen to the yoke or draught ; a second to the
structure of ox stalls; a third to the feeding of
oxen ; a fourth to the use of the parts of the body
of kine; and another on the distempers of kine,
and the cures.

The fourth chapter, on horses, treats the breed-
ing and training of the animal in the various breeds
which were then known and used. The cross
between the Barb and the English mare is parti-
cularly related. The best horses are got from
foreign stallions and English mares ; black
colour is hardy and enduring; white is delicate ;
chesnut and brown bay are strong and spirited ; and
the grey which tends to black is stronger than the
white greys. The origin of the pie-bald colour is

much discussed, but left unresolved. A fine-
formed animal may not possess the requisite spirit
nor strength. The bright bay colour, with black
mane and tail, the bright bay, and the dapple gray,
are the best colours, the most pleasing, and the
most lasting. The breaking of j'oung horses is
accompanied with drawings of the bridles and
saddles necessary for that purpose. This part of
the work seems to be unduly lengthened, and is
followed by a section on the distempers of horses
and the cures, which concludes the work.

The work of Bradley is the first systematic pro-
duction on the animals of the farm, and exclu-
sively devoted to the special object. It possesses
much merit, and is as well arranged and expressed
as any modern work on the subject. Poultry
might have been added, which would have com-
pleted the farmer's store of beasts that are reared
for his advantage.

The industry and talents of Bradley were not
mean, and, though unadorned by deep learning,
they procured him a very reputable degree of re-
spect with posterity, though it is said he was defi-
cient in the upright integrity and propriety of con-
duct which, beyond any endowments of nature,
stamp the character of a man. Be this as it
may, he led the world both in agriculture and
botany. His " Dictionarium botanicum " was the
first attempt of the kind in England, and exotic
botany was indebted to him for an undertaking
which he did not live to execute. This was " His-
toria plantarum succulentarum," of which only five
parts were pubhshed. His " New improvement of
planting and gardening " went through several
editions, as did his " Gentleman's and gardener's
calendar." The same may be said of his " General
treatise of husbandry and gardening ;" and his
" Philosophical account of the works of nature "
was a popular, instructive, and entertaining work,
and continued in repute several years. It seems
Bradley had forwarded qualifications and urged
pretensions which he was unable to vindicate and
fulfil, and it was proposed to dismiss him from his
professorship, when he died in November, 1732.
A regret is due that any slur or blemish should
attach to a name that dignified and forwarded a
science and an art which have no superiors in en-
lightening the mind and improving the condition
of the human race. The offence of Bradley was
neither immoral nor criminal, and a just charity
may decide that the good eflfected very much over-
balances any delinquency that was incurred.

LXXIII.— MOLESWORTH, 1723.

Weston writes, in his catalogue of authors, that
Lord Molesworth was the author of " Some con-
siderations for the promoting of agriculture and

498

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

employing the poor," Dublin, in 4to. Robert
Viscount Molesworth, of Swordes, in Ireland, was
an eminent statesman and polite writer, zealously-
espoused the revolution of 1688, and was sent by
King William as ambassador to the court of Den-
mark, of which country he wrote "An account."
He gave great offence in this work, and the fault
lay on the side of the writer by universal opinion.
It seems he was unlucky in his expressions, as he
Avas more than once removed from the privy
council of Anne and George I. ; but he was much
noticed : was a cominissioner of trade and planta-
tions, fellow of the Royal Society, and continued
to serve his country with zeal and industry till the
two last years of his life, which he spent in studious
and learned retirement. He was Baron of Philips-
town, and Viscount Molesworth, of Swordes, and
died in 1 725, at his seat at Breedenstown, in the
county of Dublin. Few men of his fortune and
quality were more learned or more highly esteemed
by men of learning. He was intimate with Shafts-
bury, and corresponded with Locke, and treated
by all with the highest regard.

The libraries of the British Museum do not con-
tain the book now mentioned ; but it is written
among Lord Molesworth's works in the accounts
of his life and publications. A regret is due to the
want of it on the subject of the poor, as that con-
sideration still forms the grand puzzle of every
social policy, and the enigma which defies solution.
Probably the learned and benevolent mind of
Molesworth may have suggested some remedy
which, like all other applications for the public
good, does not demand such a vast extent of
natural parts, as an exertion of honest}', that is
much beyond what the world has yet been blessed
with enjoying or beholding.

LXXIV.— Knowles, 1724.

Weston states that George Kno\i'les wrote a
" Treatise on the manner of fallowing ground,
raising of grass seed, and training lint and hemp,"
in l2mo. No other hst of authors, nor any library
of books, contains this work, though the other
work is mentioned that is ascribed by Weston to
George Knowles, " Materia medica botanica,
poema." The insertion of the name in our bio-
graphy rests on the sole authority of Weston.

LXXV.— Lawrence, 1720.

John Lawrence, M.A., was rector of Bishops
Wearmouth, in the county of Durham, in 1721,
and prebendary of Salisbury in 1723. He died at
his rectory in i/32. His early attention to gar-
dening produced several works on that subject, as
" The clergyman's recreation," " The gentleman's
recreation," "The fruit - gardener's calendar,"

" Paradise regained," a poem on gardening. He
published in 1726 "The new system of agricul-
ture," being a complete body of husbandry and
gardening in all the parts of them. The volume is
a large folio, in five books, of which only the first
relates to agriculture. It describes meadows and
tillage lands, ploughs and ploughing, sowing of
grains, manures, the plants used in the various
kinds ; animals of all sorts, and the productions
from them : minerals are added, and the working
of the materials. The conclusion of the whole
work treats the hindrances to improvements by
reason of beasts and weeds. Elemental matters
are largely discussed, which was a favourite topic
with the olden writers, and not discarded in
Laurence's day. This author did not add any-
thing new to agriculture, but seems to have been
well acquainted with the best practice of his time.

LXXVL— Lawrence, 1727.-

Edward Lawrence, land surveyor, was brother
to the last-mentioned author, and wrote " Young
surveyor's guide," London, 1726, 12mo. " The
duty of a steward to his lord,- with an ajipendix on
farming," London, 1727, 4to. This volume contains
212 quarto pages, and a long introduction enumer-
ates the evils and loss from improper stewardships.
The duties of a competent steward are detailed in
36 articles, most of which are used in the best
modern practice. He prohibits the keeping of
rabbits, and much game of any kind, and forbids
any grounds to be pared and burned. The abihty
and substance of a tenant should be well known
before a farm is let to him, otherwise great incon-
venience may follow, and loss to ])Oth parties. The
sub-letting of lands is forbidden, and farms are to
be augmented in size gradually as the terms of
holding are expired. The work shows an en-
hghtened knowledge of the subject, and contributes
a large advancement in agriculture. The forms of
cash and rental books are valuable even at this
day.

A long appendix of 20 articles gives as many
directions to the farmer on points of interest to the
practice of his business. Clover and trefoil are
much recommended, and lime in being rolled into
the ground. Turnips are a great improver of land
— must be hoed and well cleaned. The list of
manures does not add any new substance, and the 5
application to the soil is done as with the previous |
writers. The artificial grasses are clover, rye
grass, sainfoin, lucerne, vetches, lentils, tares, and
buck-wheat. Twelve pounds of clover sows an
acre, 3 bushels of ray grass, 4 bushels of sainfoin,
and 14 lbs. of lucerne. Vetches, in both the winter
and summer variety, are great improvers of the
ground.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

499

The practical knowledge of this author was very
correct and enlightened on every point, and he
must be reckoned a very prominent character in
the progress of agriculture. Tlie hoeing of tur-
nips, and the consuming on the ground by sheep,
are well described and recommended. The regret
is that he had not written more. The condensed
mode of writing marks a new era in the agricul-
tural world.

Weston writes Lawrence as being the author of
the "Gentleman farmer," and "Proposals for
draining Bedford level." These works are not
found in any other list in attachment to the name
of Lawrence ; and, as Weston does not make any
mention of Edward Lawrence, some mistake may
have placed the work to a wrong name.

LXXVIL— Dove, 1728.
John Dove wrote " Strictures on agriculture,
wherein a discovery of the physical causes of vege-
tation, of the food of plants, and the rudiments of
tillage is attempted." He wrote in the " Philoso-
phical Transactions " of a surprising shoal of
pumice stones found floating on the sea, 1728,
vol. viii., p. 234. This small volume occupies only
80 duodecimo pages, and is exclusively a philoso-
phical essay on improving land, dearness of pro-
visions, rights of property, and foolishness of
governors who have only one eye, and blink with
that. The author does not state any practical
knowledge, and is httle noticed.

LXXVHL— Rye, 1730.
George Rye wrote " Observations on agricul-
ture," Dublin, 1730, Svo. This statement is writ-

ten in the hst of authors by Weston and Loudon,
and in the " Bibliotheca Britannica ;" but the
book is not found in the libraries of the British
Museum.

LXXIX.— Mackintosh, 1730.
Brigadier Mackintosh wrote "Essay on ways
and means for enclosing, fallowing, planting, &c.,
Scotland, and that for sixteen years at farthest,"
Edin., Svo., 1730. This book fills 295 pages of
small octavo, and contains besides, the " Essay on
enclosing the nation, the laws for encouraging
planting and policy, anent the manufacturing of
linen cloth, and anent repairing highways." This
essay argues very strongly in favour of enclosing
lands, making plantations, and fallowing. The
author seems to have been an educated person,
and to have entertained very sound views and en-
larged comprehensions.

LXXX.— Richards, 1730.

John Richards, of Exon, wrote " The gentle-
man's steward, and tenants of manors instructed,"
London, 8vo., 1730. The book is of 127 pages,
and bound into a volume, with anonymous essays
on agricultural subjects. It treats the values of
freeholds, copyholds, and leaseholds, on lives and
for years, with the disbursements and casualties
that houses and lands are exposed to, with many
tables for valuing estates on lives, with the use and
descrip'.ion of an instrument for discovering the
number of feet in any timber trees before they are
cut down, by inspection only. The book could
have been useful only in some few cases of occur-
ring praclice.

LONDON FARMER'S CLUB.
LECIURE ON THE USE AND ABUSE OF LIME IN AGRICULTURE.

BY J. C. NESBIT, F.G.S,, F.C.S., &C.

rrincipal of the Agricultural ami Chemical College, Kennington, near London.

Tbe first monthly discussion, after tlie autumnal re-
cess, took I'lace at the Club Rooms, Blacklriars, on
Monday evening last ; Mr. R. Baker, of Writtle, in the
chair. The subject was introduced by Mr. J. C. Nes-
bit, and was thus stated in the card — " On the Use and
Abuse of Limestone in Agriculture, and the Properties
of different kinds of Limestone."

After a few introductory observations from the Chair-
man,

Mr. Nesbit then said : Mr. Chairman and gentle-
men, I feel considerable diffidence in attempting,
within one short hour, to bring forward such an import-
ant subject as that upon the card. The use of lime in
agriculture has, as you are well aware, been known from

the remotest ages ; and the relations of the different
kinds of limestone, the composition of lime and its ac-
tion in the soil, these are matters upon which a book
might be written with much more facility than a lecture
could be delivered so as to embrace the leading points.
However, as I have only a limited period for introducing
the subject, I must do the best 1 can to bring before you
its salient features. Now, in the first place, it may be
as well to describe the principal limestones of this king-
dom, and to state in what direction they are distributed.
We have in England three great divisions of limestone
rocks. The first formation to the eastward is the chalk
which, beginning at Flamborough Head, in Yorkshire,
goes south-westward to Dorsetshire, and, m'aking a

500

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

small bend, performs the circuits of Kent, Sussex,
Surrey, and Hampshire, stretching from Beachy Head
round to Folkestone and Dover. This chalk also dips
under the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex, and part
of Kent ; and wherever you bore in those counties which
lie eastward of the chalk, you come to the chalk agiin.
You have then from the Wash, and extending right
through the fens of Cambridgeshire, a soft clay ; in fact,
the very indentation of the country in that direction is
owing to the soft clay intervening between the chalk and
oolite. Passing that to the westward of the fens you
have the oolite formation, which in its various characters
extends from the Yorkshire coast r:car Scarborout;h,
through Rockingham Forest, in Nottinghamshire, to
the Cotswold Hills, and terminates in the sea at
Bridport, in Dorsetshire. The oolites contain three
varieties of limestone. First, there is what is termed the
Portland oolite, found chiefly in the Isle of Portland, but
of which a little is found near Aylesbury. Then there is
the middle oolite ; and there is, farther, the inferior
oolite found largely near Bridport, All these oolites
furnish very good lime. Besides these, there is the
great development of mountain limestone which is found
very extensively in Northumberland and Durham, in the
eastern parts of Yorkshire, in that part of Derbyshire
which is called "The Peak," and in other districts
farther to the south. I now come to the next divi-
sion of limestone, that which is found near Torquay and
in certain parts of Exmoor. This is a specimen [exhi.
biting one] of the kind of lime-stone which is found at
Exmoor. This species of lime is not very largely deve-
loped in this country ; but it exists in two or three
places, and, fortunately, just where it is most wanted.
We have also in the old red sandstone, or Devonian, the
cornstoncs or nodular masses of limestone, found in
Hertfordshire, which make good lime. We have,
moreover, the Silurian limestone, which is very much
developed in some parts of Wales. This limestone is also
found in large quantities near Dudley, and many persons
present have perhaps seen the limestone which is called
" Dudley limestone." The same limestone is also found
in an adjoining county, Shropshire, where it is known
under the name of " Wenlock limestone." There is,
also, the primitive limestone found in some parts cf
Devon and Cornwall. Another limestone I should
not omit to mention, is the shelly limestone of the
wealdea formation, found at Bethendcn, Kent, Pet-
worth, Sussex, and in the Isle of Purbeck, Dorset.
These, then, are the principal divisions of limestone ;
and let me observe that they are so distributed on the
vphole, as to leave very few parts of the country without
the advantage of being able to obtain a supply within a
distance of a dozen or twenty miles. Well, now, having
mentioned the distribution of these limestones, I will
next proceed to speak of their composition. Limestones
have been considered by some persons to be valuable in
proportion to their purity ; that is to say, in proportion
to the absence of anything else but carbonate of lime. You
are aware, I presume, that limestone is itself a carbonate

of lime. A pure limestone consists of 22 parts of car-
bonic acid and 28 of lime. When the limestone is heated
in the furnace, the carbonic acid is driven off, and pure
lime is left; behind ; that is to say, it would be pure, if
the limestone itself were pure. 1 was remarking that it
has been supposed that the purer limestone is the better.
Now, I shall endeavour to prove to you that such is not
the fact, but that impure limestone — that is to say, lime-
stone containing other substances besides carbonate of
lime, — is probably that which is best adapted for agri-
cultural purposes. There are no limestones found per-
fectly pure ; all contain a certain amount of moisture,
silica, iron, alumina, phosphate of lime, and even a little
sulphate of lime. Now, it is perfectly clear that lime-
stones must be the better for any phosphate of lime
which they may contain. As you are continually putting
into the soil bones and other substances, because they
contain phosphate of lime, it is clear that those lime-
stones which contain the largest proportion of phosphate
of lime are the most valuable, supposing the other con-
stituents to be the same. We have analyzed qualitatively
in our laboratory some hundreds of specimens of lime-
stones. None were found deficient of phosphate of lime,
and probably the average proportion was 1 per cent.
]Many limestones contain much more than 1 per cent :
some contain as much as 3 or 4 per cent. ; but, sup-
posing limestones to contain on the average 1 per cent,
of phosphate of Hme, in that case 10 tons of lime-
stone, or its equivalent of 5 or 6 tons of lime put
on the land would furnish 2 cwt. of bone earth per
acre, which I need not tell you would be a considerable
dressing, and would prove advantageous to the soil for
years afterwards. As I said befoie, it is quite clear that
limestones which contain 2, 3, or 4 per cent, are prefer-
able to others which contain only 1 or f per cent. Well,
then, many limestones also contain silica in a soluble
state, in such a state that wh;n put on the land it is
easily acted upon, and, in fact, disintegrated. I think
it veiy likely that a limestone which contains a certain
amount of such a substance as silica in a soluble state
is preferable to what is called " pure limestone." Many
limestones also contain sulphate of lime or gypsum,
and even they are better adapted for general use than
such as approach nearer to a state of purity. You
will thus see, that my opinion upon this
part of the subject is, that it is not the
purest kinds of limestone, which are calculated to confer
the greatest benefit upon the farmer, but that those
which contain a certain anlount of what are called im-
purities are the best adapted to agriculture, because
they convey to the soil other constituents besides the
calcareous matter. Now it would be impostible for me,
within the limits to which I am restricted, to give you a
distinct idea of the different kinds of lime-stone. Indeed
I may remark that the subject has not been sufficiently
investigated to enable me to enter into it as fully as I
could desire, and it would require much more time than
I have had at my disposal to make the necessary
analyses. I had intended— and if my lecture had been

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

601

postponed for a twelvemonth, I should probably have
been in a position — to bring under your notice the re-
sults of the analyses of some of the chief lime- stones of
ihe kingdom ; but as the task of analyzing would occupy
three or four months, youmay easily conceive why I iiave
not been able to execute the whole. Speaking of the chalks
generally, however, I may say, in the first place, that we
have three distinct kinds, the upper and the lower, and
the chalk marl, and that they are dislinguiished by the fact
of the lower chalk containing a greater amount of silica
and phosphate of lime, and by being more easily acted
upon by frost, than the upper chalk. The chalk marl,
below the lower chalk, contains a greater amount of
phosphate of lime than either of the others, and wherever
that is put on the land great benefit is derived from it.
The next lime-stone that I shall notice is the weald
lioie-stone. It is a fresh-water lime-stone ; that is to
say, the shells which are found in it are fresh-water
shells ; and it is found at Belhenden, in Kent, at Pet-
worth, in Susses, and in the Isle of Purbeck, in Dorset-
shire. This is a specimen of the lime-stone to which I
am now referring [exhibiting the specimen]. It is the
kind of lime-stone which was used, during the reign of
William Rufus, in laying the foundations of old London
Bridge. It contains about 20 per cent, of earthy matter,
and when properly burnt into lime it proves very valua-
ble to the land. The next lime-stones are the oolites,
well known at Pickering, in Yorkshire, at Northampton,
at Iligham Ftrrers, and in various parts of tlic country.
All these lime-stoucs contain amidst a quantify of earthy
matter f per cent, of phosphate of lime. The next class
of lime-stones are the lias, which are found in nodular
masses about Whitby and Lyme Regis, and in other
parts of the country, and which are genei-ally sent to
London to make cement. Below the lias lime-stones we
have the mountain lime-stone, which is well seen in
Derbyshire, particularly at Crich Clifi. Slany of you
may have observed a number of lime-kilns, in ])assing
by railway just where you turn off for J\Iatlock. This
is an exceedingly good lime-^tone, and is sent for miles
to be used for agricultural purposes, for which it is found
extremely beneficial. Next, there is the lime-stone
wJiich is found near Birmingham, at Dudley. That is a
lime-stone which has been pushed \ip by volcanic action
and thus it has been intruded into a spot which it
would not otherwise have occupied. That, too, is a
very good limestone ; some parts are very earthy and
otliers very pure ; and if I required a supply myself for
agricultural pui poses, I should certainly not prefer the
very purest, although the purest are of course preferred
by the iron-masters. We then have the lime stones of
Devonshire, which, generally speaking, are tolerably
puie. Well, now, gentlemen, I must speak next of the
use of lime ; and in dcing so, it will be necessary to allude
first to the practice of chalking or marling, and also of
liming. Now it has been foun.l that the use of marly
substances containing calcareous matter is cquivahnt to
the use of lime itself. It docs not seem to make much
difiWencc, gprieraliy, wheth'ryou u^o caloorcous matter

merely in the state of carbonate of lime, or whether you
use chalk disintegrated by frost, or whether you
use quicklime itself. There has been a great deal of
dif.pute on this point, but I do not think the experience
of farmers has proved that there is much difference
in the result between the use of quicklime or of marls,
or of soft limestones disintegrated by the action of the
air. And I do not see why there should be much dif-
ference. If we burn lime, when it absorbs moisture we
get it into the state of a very fine powder, a finer one
than could ever be produced by mechanical means.
This powder, or slaked-lime, absorbs the carbonic acid
from the air, and becomes again the same carbonate of
lime it was before it was burnt. But, then, its mechanical
condition is now entirely changed. Instead of being a
hard solid mass, it is a white friable powder. Burning
is chiefly useful in the case of hard solid limestones,
because by that means they are reduced to a slate of
powder, and rendered finer probably than they could be
by any mechanical means, and in that state they will
readily act upon any substance in the soil. Many per-
sons have supposed that caustic lime exerts a great and
peculiar action in the soil. I think that is very doubt-
ful. The chief use of burning hard lime-stones is, as it
appears to me, tiiat it reduces them to a minute state of
division, and that thus they act more readily on the
soil. I am not at all singular in this opinion. I believe
it is the opinion of nearly all chemists who have examined
the question, that lime in its caustic state does not exert
any peculiar action, but that it is in the slate of carbo-
nate of lime that it exercises a peculiar influence. Well,
now, you sec we are thus brought to the fact that marl-
ing, putting in chalk which is easily disintegrated, and
applying burnt limestone, all give the same result. TJie
effect differs only in proportion to the solubility or non-
solubility of the lime-stones. If these are very solid, or if
the marl containing limestone be not easily acted upon
by the air, you v,-ill find that those particular substances
will not produce so immediate an effect as others which
contain the calcareous material in a more soluble
state ; that is to say, more minutely divided. Well,
then, these marls, as I said before, will also differ
in their effect, according to the quantity of phosphate
of lime or of silica and alumina, and other things of
that kind, which they contain. Although carbonate of
lime may be the chief material, yet its action will be
modified by that of other materials with which it is con -
nected. You see, therefore, that limestones may be
regarded in two distinct points of view. First, there is
the action of the calcareous matter purely considered,
and then there is the action of the materials with which
it is connected. Having disposed of the latter part of
the subject, so far at least as my limits would permit,
let me now proceed to speak of the action of calcareous
matter in the soil. Now, lime, whether in the stale of
caustic lime or of carbonate of lime, has a distinct
action upon the mineral ingredients in the soil. In
our chemical analysis, if we v,-ant to liberate the pota.sh
and soda in the soil, we lake some of the soil, and

502

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

heat it red hot in a crucible, with lime. After this
operation we can get all the potash and soda from the
soil by the action of water alone. Even if we merely
mix a quantity of soil with some lime and water, so as
to make a kind of milk of it, and leave it for five or
six months ; at the end of that time, on filtering the
liquid from it, we shall find a considerable amount of
alkali dissolved out of the soil. In the same way, when
you put a quantity of lime into your soils, and allow
the atmosphere to act upon it, the rains dissolve it ;
it becomes intermixed, and thus acting upon every por-
tion of the soil with which it is in contact, a consider-
able amount of alkali, which is necessary for the growth
of plants, is liberated for that purpose. But lime acts
powerfully not only on the mineral, but also on the
organic matters in the soil. And this is the great point
which I shall have to illustrate to-night, namely, that
lime, when used in the soil, acts materially on the or-
ganic matters which the soil contains. All good soils
contain a considerable amount of vegetable matter, or
have the power of absorbing from the air a consider-
able amount of substances adapted to the formation of
organic matter. Now, when you have lime in the soil,
whether it is put there in the state of lime or of car-
bonate of lime, you have at once a determinate action
on the organic matters in the soil, and also a greater
power of absorption from the air. You have the de-
composition of roots and plants and other vegetable
debris very much augmented by the presence of the
carbonate of lime. These substances are not able by
themselves to decompose sufficiently rapidly to furnish
the greatest amount of nutrition to the growing crop.
There can be no quick decomposition, for the simple
reason that the substances which would be produced
by decomposition would find nothing with which they
could unite ; but in carbonate of lime you have a sub-
stance with which the various vegetable acids formed in
the various phases of decomposition can unite at once.
Now, it is a fact well known to every gentleman here,
that it is on soils which contain a great amount of or-
ganic matter, or which have not been under plough for
a great many years, that lime produces the greatest
effect. If you have worked your land for many
years as arable land ; if you have ploughed it,
and sown it, and reaped crops from it to such
an extent as materially to have affected the organic
matter of the soil and the stores of ammonia which it
has absorbed from the air, lime will do little or
no good. But if the case is otherwise, you will
find lime produce the very best effects, because it
immediately brings the stores of nitrogen and the or-
ganic materials in the soil into the best possible state for
the actio-i of living plants upon them. I may mention
also that the action of lime is very good in peat soils and
in soils which contain sulphate of iron, where it is useful
in correcting what is called "sourness," a quality
which I need not tell you is to be found in many soils.
It can scarcely be necessary to tell you that, in order
that lime may be useful, the soil must have been pre-

viously drained ; without that it will be perfectly useless,
drainage being necessary to enable lime to percolate
through the soil and perform its proper functions. Now
there is another action of lime in the soil, which it is
necessary to point ou^. You are well aware of the
existence of what is called nitre- beds. You know that
in the time of Charles I., of Cromwell, and of Charles
II.. saltpetre was manufactured in this country in rather
a peculiar manner. Patents were granted to persons to
go and dig under old stables for the soil they could find
there, and to get the mortar from old buildings, &c. ;
and out of such materials was saltpetre produced. The
process was very simple and very effective. Similarly,
during the whole course of the French Revolution the
saltpetre used by the French army was obtained in the
same manner. A quantity o-f chalk or other calcareous
matter was laid up in heaps alternately with farm-yard
manure. First there was a quantity of manure, then a
layer of mortar or other calcareous matter, then some
more manure, and then some more mortar, and so on.
All this was watered either wiih urine or some other
liquid. If urine could not be procured, pure water was
used. The whole was kept under cover in a tolerable
state of moisture, and turned every three or four months.
After twelve months no more mine was added,
but water only. At the end of eighteen months
the whole mass was put into a tank of water and well
stirred. The water, after some time, was pumped off ;
and in it the whole of the ammonia and nitrogen of the
manure and the urine were found as nitrate of lime. All
the nitrogen of the manure was converted by slow oxida-
tion into nitric acid, which united with the calcareous
matter to form a nitrate of lime. This solution was sub-
sequently mixed with wood ashes, which contain car-
bonate of potash ; and by double decomposition there
was formed carbonate of lime, which precipitated as a
white powder, and nitrate of potash (saltpetre), which
was then crystallized. In this way was made nearly the
whole of the saltpetre used by Napoleon during his pro-
tracted wars. Gentlemen, what took place in these
saltpetre beds in France is taking place in your saltpetre
beds — your fields. If your fields are properly drained,
that they may absorb valuable materials from the air,
and if they contain the proper amount of calcareous mat-
ter, there cannot be the slightest doubt that the same
process will go forward. Beyond this, it is an undoubted
fact that more saltpetre is derived from these nitre beds
than is equivalent to the nitrogen contained in the ma-
nure and urine added to them ; that is to say, that the
air acts in some way upon these beds, and that there is
an absorption of nitrogen by them from the air. In
fact, under the influence of the slow decomposition of
the vegetable and animal matters in these beds, nitrogen
and ammonia are undoubtedly absorbed. Now, if that
is the case, if you have a proper amount of calcareous
matter in your soils, and a proper amount of organic
matter, you will find them not only producing nitre by
their own decomposition, but likewise by absorbing simi-
lar valuable matter from the air. This absorption will

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

503

take place in proportion to the exposure of I he soil by
means of ploughing, and to the porosity given by efficient
draining, harrowing, and so on. Well then, besides,
there arc one or two points worth mentioning respect-
ing the absorption of ammonia. I do not know
whether you are aware that all soils contain a
considerable amount of ammonia or nitrogen in some
form which is not yet perfectly recognized, but
which does not seem distinctly adapted for the use of
plants. We have ascertained in our laboratory the
amount of nitrogen contained in a number of soils
brought from various parts of the kingdom ; some
of these soils being of the richest descriptions, and
others yielding only a rental of from 5s. to 7s. per acre.
We have found a very considerable amount of nitrogen
in the latter, evidently not available for plants, but in
such a state that it might be rendered available. This
matter will probably form the subject of a communica-
tion to the Royal Agricultural Society, when we have
completed the investigation. For the present, I only
mention the fact that there is a very large amount of
nitrogen in the soil which might be rendered useful ; for
if you use calcareous matter, you bring this material
into distinct action, and make it capable of being taken
up and absorbed by the roots of plants. You will see
at once, by recalling what I have said, that, if lime acts
distinctly upon inorganic matter ; and if it acts upon
inert organic matter containing nitrogen, in the soil, it
is chiefly in the case of those soils which contain organic
matters mixed in, and which have not been often
ploughed or exposed to the air, that lime will be of ma-
terial use. You will find that all experience bears this
out. If a man has worked his land down to a low
state, if he has been taking crop after crop, without
much manure, and then fancies that by liming that land
he can bring it back to its original state of fertility, he
will find himself mistaken. It is upon newly-broken-
up land that lime tells best. If, indeed, you go to such
a place as Exmoor, where the land has not been turned
up within the memory of man, and where the soil con-
tains only just enough lime for a chemist to swear by,
you will there find that the use of any other manure is
of no avail without lime. You may use guano, you
may use bones, you may use what you please of that
kind, but not a single crop will you get, unless you also
apply lime. In that part of the country you can see
every inch of land where lime has been. If you were
to take a handful of slaked lime, and inscribe
your name on the soil, you would be able
to trace, three or four years after, the exact
spot where it was marked. I have observed,
myself on that moor that in certain parts, where lime
had been put, turnips were splendid ; but the instant
you passed the point up to which the lime had been
applied, the crop entirely failed. It is, then, my distinct
opinion that the proper application of lime in agriculture
is to use it either on such soils as I have mentioned —
namely, such as contain a large amount of organic
matter — or when using it on arable lands never to trust

to it alone, but to use otncr manures as well, though
they ought not to be applied at the same time as quick-
lime. There is an old proverb which says —

"The use of lime without manure
Will alffl-ays make the farmer poor,"

— and I think that is a perfectly true saying. There is
another action of lime which I wish to refer to. You
know, of course, that most limestones contain sulphate
of lime. The atmosphere brings down with rain a quan-
tity of carbonate of ammonia, and this carbonate of am-
monia being a volatile salt easily evaporates again ; but
if there be any sulphate of lime in the soil, you find that
it does not evaporate, because as soon as ever it
comes in contact with the sulphate of lime, the car-
bonate of ammonia becomes sulphate of ammonia. A
change takes place again after the superfluous moisture
is evaporated from the soil ; for the sulphate of ammonia
re-acts on the carbonate of lime, and carbonate of am-
monia is again given out. This is a very curious effect,
I have here some chalk, and if I add to that some sul-
phate of ammonia I shall form a portion of sulphate of
lime ; and carbonate of ammonia will be liberated, and can
be easily detected by its odour. When soils are neither
too wet nor too dry, but only just moist, carbonate of
ammonia was liberated from existing sulphate of ammo-
nia. [Mr. Nesbit here performed an experiment in
illustration of the fact.] Well, now there is another
point which is of considerable practical importance —
namely, that there may be almost a complete absence
of lime in soils resting upon limestone. Of course it
is well known that heavy clay soils are those upon
which lime acts best ; but there are no soils on which
it is not to some extent necessary. I have found
soils resting upon limestone — the Kentish Rag, for ex-
ample— where there has been limestone within six inches
or a foot of the surface, and not the thousandth per
cent, of lime per acre in the soil itself. You know it is
the constant tendency of lime to descend ; and the con-
sequence is, that even soils which were formed by the
disintegration of limestone itself as much require liming
as any other soils. I know tliat in Dorsetshire, Wilt-
shire, and some parts of Hampshire they are absolutely
chalking the Chalk Downs with great advantage ; and
both in those counties and in Kent lime and calcareous
matters have, on my recommendation, been applied upon
soils resting upon chalk or limestone with very
great success. There is another point which I wish to
notice, namely, that without the presence of carbonate
of lime in the soil you can never have the full action of
any description of manure. Suppose you have sulphate
of ammonia in the soil, you cannot suppose that it will
be taken up into the plant as sulphate of ammonia ; the
sulphate of ammonia must be decomposed before the
ammonia can be absorbed ; there is, therefore, some-
thing required to unite with the sulphuric acid ; this is
furnished by the carbonate of lime. You must therefore
have carbonate of lime in the soil, and if you have that
you will have the sulphate of ammonia giving its am-
monia freely to the growing plants. You could not use-

504

THE FARMEiVS MAGAZINE.

fully apjjly eiilier yuaiio or any oilier arlifici.;! riiauure
with which I am acquainted, Vtithout a proper amount
of carbonate of lime in the soil. You see, therefore,
gentlemen, that it is necessary to have a certain amount
oi lime in any soil whatever if you wish to cultivate it to
the greatest advatitiige. Now I will not trespass any
further upon your time except to say that the system
which Mr. Smith has been lately bringing forward — the
old TuUyan system — is dependent upon the principle of
exposure of soils to the air. You must have, in this
case, a proper amount of lime in the soil, or you can
never have that proper absorption of manuring princi-
ples from the air upon which this system almost wholly
depends. Well, then, gentlemen, I think the conclu-
sions to be drawn from the few observations which I
have had the honour to offer to you, are these : that
lime can be used beneficially upon soils which have been
little stirred, little exposed to the air — upon soils con-
taining organic matter — upon new soils, like those of
Exmoor — or upon those which contain naturally or ar-
tificially a certain amount of organic matter ; but that
if used without manure upon arable soils from which
crop after crop has been taken, v/ithout any manure
being added, lime will not restore fertility, and that
those farmers who are in the habit of putting large doses
of lime upon their land, trusting to that alone for good
crops for six or seven years after, are the parties who
abuse this most valuable substance (cheers).

Mr. AiTCHlsoN said he had had a little experience
with regard to the application of lime to soils imbued
with weeds ; and in such cases it would, he believed,
generally prove beneficial. He had also witnessed the
good result of applying lime to such land as that of Ex-
moor ; and, on the other hand, he perfectly agreed with
Mr. Nesbit that when the soil had been nearly exhausted
lime would prove useless. He would like, however, to
put a question to Mr. Nesbit with reference to soils
which were strongly impregnated with ironstone, or
aciduous matter. He wished to know whether he could
say from experience how often a dose of lime might be
applied to such soils wilh advantage. He (Mr. Aitchi-
son) was in the habit of applying 120 bushels of lime to
the acre, his system being what had been termed by Mr.
Nesbit the old TuUyan one. He was living in a country
where it was necessary to make a naked fallow for wheat.
Once in four years they ploughed the land, and when they
had got it into a tolerable state they applied lime in bushel
lumps over the soil. The moment the lime was dis-
solved by the atmosphere, it was applied as hot as possi-
ble, and, even to the detriment perhaps of the ploughman
and horses, turned into the soil. His impression was,
that in a hot or warm state it was more useful to the soil
than in its previous condition, being more quickly taken
up by the vegetable and fibrous matters in the soil. He
could not, therefore, go all along with Mr. Nesbit
in saying that chalk itself, applied to the surface
of grass lands or otherwise, was as beneficial to
the farmer as lime in a hot state. The farmer could
not wait five or six vears for the result : in these times

he wanted to see the rci'Ull as quickly as possible (Hear,
hear).

Mr. Nesbit said the extent to which he would apply
lime to soils of the description mentioned by Mr. Aitchi-
son depended much on the nature of the soil itsilf ; it
also depended on the character of the limestone, and
upon the draining of the soil. He always, however,
preferred applying lime in small quantities frequently to
applying it in large quantities at long intervals. With
calcareous matters it often took two or three years to show
the erTect : with burnt lime, owing to its finer state of
division, the effect was neaily always seen in the first or
second year. He did not think there was any great benefit
to he derived from the ploughing in of lime in a quick
state, because it would in a very little while return to the
mild state. There was no proof, he believed, that caus-
tic lime vf as more beneficial than mild lime. The greater
the surface exposed, the greater the action ; but, of
course, lime did not act until it came into the liy-
drated state, and after its action it soon returned to the
mild state. In general a much smaller quantity of lime
would act on the soil than of calcareous matter, owing to
its more minute division.

Mr. Ramsey said they must all feel deeply indebted
to Mr. Nesbit for his excellent lecture on a subject so
interesting to agriculturists. It was scarcely possible
for any farmer to compete with that gentleman in che-
mical knowledge ; but there was one poi.-it which he
had not embraced, namely, that which concerned mag-
nesian limestone. There had been great disputes as to
whether the presence of magnesia rendered limestone
more valuable or not, and perhaps on that point Mr.
Nesbit would be good enough to give them some in-
formation. There was another point on which Mr. Nes-
bit's calculations did not appear quite so close as those
of farmers must be. It would appear, from his calcula-
tions, that ten tons of lime must be put on the land in
order to produce two cwt. of phosphate of lime. Now,
that would be a very expensive way of arriving at the
benefit. The laying on of ten tons of lime would in-
volve a very serious expense ; and if they were not to
reap a very large benefit, the result would be anything
but satisfactory. W^ith regard to magnesian limestone,
he was personally interested in obtaining information, as
a good deal of the limestone in his district contained so
large a proportion of magnesia that it was actually used for
the purpose of making magnesia. Dr. Johnston agreed
with Mr. Nesbit that there was scarcely any soil which did
not require some liming ; and he (Mr. Ramsey) had him-
self found the benefit of liming, three or four years after
the application. Many of the Scotch farmers thought that
once in a lease ^nineteen years being the ordinary term)
was about the proper period for liming. He had always
considered this a mistake, and he thought twice in
nineteen years was probably nearer the actual requirement
(Hear, hear). As to soils which abounded in limestone,
he knew land of that description which had been limed
every four or five years within his recollection, and that
land still derived great benefit from it. Lime, owing to

THE i'AllMKR'S MAGAZINE.

605

its gravity, went downwarils ; and hence farmers who
wished to benefit by it could not possibly pay too much
attention to deep ploughing and trenching. There could
be no doubt that soils containing a large quantity of or-
ganic matter would be the first to show the beneficial
effects of lime, the question being one of time. If he
meant to apply farm-yard manure, he would put on the
lime previous to winter, which he believed to be a very
excellent way of manuring, for fallow. He would
always avoid applying the farm-yard dung at the same
time as lime. As to the effect of lime upon old tillage
land, he might mention that he was at first disap-
pointed. Professor Johnston, however, being at his
house, he happened lo express his disappointment to
him. In consequence of thiS) the professor analyzed his
soil, and after doing so observed that the soil had been
worn out, but that in the course of a year or two he
might expect large crops. The result was in accordance
with this opinion. This showed the advantage of having
scientific men like their friend Mr. Nesbit to consult
with. No farmer could be a perfect chemist ; but so
long as they had such men to guide them, and could
place side by side their own experience and the results
of scientific investigation, he thought farmers need not
despair (Hear, hear). They might expect that, in the
end, they would be more scientific than they had ever
been yet; that their crops would be better, and their
profits larger : they might rest assured that they could
not stand still (Hear, hear). He hoped the time was
coming when science would make rapid progress, and
when they would not be groping in the dark, as thej
had been for the last half century — he hoj^ed that mate-
rials of information would be brought to bear upon agri-
culture, and they ought to be material ones ; for what
could be of such material importance as that they should
be able to discuss agricultural questions in a clear point
of view ?

The Chairman said Essex was a county in which
lime and marl, or chalk-marl, was used, perhaps, more
extensively than in any other. The large district of
Dingey Hundred would be almost useless without cal-
careous matter, and as it lay near Kent, a supply of such
matter was obtained easily. There was an application
of sixteen tons to the acre, and the result was, that land
which would never do so without that application, had
grown wheat, beans, and other crops in abundance for
ten or twenty years.

Mr. Nesbit asked whether the substance was chalk
or lime ?

The Chairman said it was chalk. It was a singular
fact, that the late Mr. John Strutt, though a very intel-
ligent man, had inserted in the leases of his tenants a
clause which prohibited marling, under the impression
that his land was thus deprived of its fertility : but he
lived long enough to be convinced of his error, and to
grant leases without the prohibition ; the result of which
was, that many of his tenants had since grown much
larger crops than formerly. Throughout that district

in Essex v.-hich lay lo the north of the eastern counties
line, the application of chalk-marl was general. It was
a chalk-marl composed of clay and chalk in admixture,
and with it were grown the finest barley and a coarse
description of wheat. The action of the a1 mosphere on
the soil was equivalent to the use of manure, and they
were able to grow four quarters of wheat and five quar-
ters of barley without the assistance of any other ma-
nure. To this day they still farmed on the same principle
on four furrow-ridges or stetches, with the best results.
Lime was now carted to the district in which he lived ;
he had him.self within the last week had some carted a
distance of 27 miles, at a cost of £1 7s. 6d. for 100
bushels. That showed what value he attached to it.
He, like Mr. Aitchison, had been led to believe that it
was desirable to apply lime in the caustic state, and he
had many times injured his hordes' feet on that account.
It now seemed, from what they had heard, that that was
quite unnecessary, and this showed, what he had often
felt to be the case, that they did not meet there without
learning something from each other (Hear, hear). Ore
or two words as to the operation of lime upon grass
lands. His grass lands were at first almost useless ; red
sorrel was produced in abundance, and almost covered
the surface. Now, in consequence of the application of
lime, red sorrel had almost dieappeared, and the crop
had become of a different character. The result of
liming was not only to bring up what was beneficial, but
also to destroy what was injurious. Sour grass, the
plant called May wheat, white charlock, and so on, dis-
appeared. He was quite satisfied that the use of lime
was not appreciated so much as it ought to be in refe-
rence to the improvement of grass lands. He was con-
vinced that nearly all the grass lands thence to Yar-
mouth might be improved by lime. This was a point
to which farmers had not sufficiently attended. Though
)hey applied lime to arable lands, they scarcely ever ap.
peared to think of applying it to pasture lands. He (Mr.
Baker) had found it even more beneficial to pasture than
to arable lands, and through the proceedings of that
club he recommended those who had pasture lands to
try the experiment for themselves.

Mr. Nesbit replied. He said he had very little to
add to his former remarks. With regard to the mag-
nesian limestone, of which Mr. Ramsey had spoken, they
were not in possession of sufficient data at that moment
to determine what was the effect of magnesia limestone
upon the soil. He had collected lime-stones from some
of the largest quarries in England, but he had not yet
had time to make analyses. He hoped ultimately to be
able to state what was the variation of action between
lime-stones containing magnesia and lime-stones which
were free from it, in reference to different descriptions
of soil. Mr. Ramsey had misunderstood him with
respect to the phosphates in limestones ; he did not
recommend parties who only wished to apply phosphates
to land to use lime for that purpose, but recommended
them when they wished to apply lime, to use that con-
taining the most phosphates, as the latter would thus be a

506

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

clear gain. With respect to the action of lime on
grass lauds, he had not the smallest doubt that
immense benefit would accrue. He had got four or five
acres himself, upon which he had been trying experi-
ments. The first thing which he did was to lime that
land, having previously ascertained by experiment that
it contained little or no lime ; the effect was instanta-
neous, and there was no comparison between the condi-
tion of the soil after and before liming.

A Member, — What manure did you apply ?

Mr. Nesbit said he applied .soap-boiler's waste — 10
loads per acre.

Mr. AiTCHisoN thought the effect must have been to
cause the ammonia to fly off.

Mr. Nesbit said his object in liming had reference
to the lime and not to the ammonia. As a general rule
it must be understood that to put caustic lime with dung
was an improper mode of proceeding, whereas to use

with dung calcareous matter which was not caustic was a
very good mode of proceeding.

On the motion of the Chairman, the following resolu-
tion was then adopted —

" That the subject introduced by Mr. Nesbit, the
use and abuse of lime in agriculture, as well as upon
the properties of various kinds of limestone, is of
deep interest, both in a chemical and agricultural
point of view, and is therefore also a question of
great national importance."

On the motion of the Chairman, seconded by Mr.
Ramsey, a vote of thanks was given to Mr. Nesbit for
his introduction of the question, and the manner in
which he had treated it.

On the motion of Mr. Aitchison, thanks were also
voted to the Chairman, which terminated the pro-
ceedings.

THE FLAX INDUSTRY OF IRELAND

Ireland is, perhaps, more particularly identified with
the flax industry than with any other department of na-
tural production or of manufacturing enterprise. Its
existence has been so cherished, and its progress so
anxiously watched and recorded, that its history, which
we may date back from the commencement of the past
century, is readily traced, and can be told in a few lines.
In 1699 we find that an act was passed for the regulation
of the linen manufacture, which provided for the appoint-
ment of a board in Ireland, to be entitled, " Trustees for
Linen and Hempen Manufactures," whose duties were
to encourage in every way the proper culture of the flax
plant, and to regulate and improve its manufacture into
linens, the entire control and direction of the culture and
manufacture of flax being vested in them. This board,
however, did not assemble for business until October,
1711, when it met under the auspices of the Duke of
Ormonde, the Lord- Lieutenant. For the first twenty-
five ycax"s the funds at its disposal averaged ^6,000 a
year ; subsequently they were increased to ,£20,000, a
sum which was fixed upon by Parliament as the annual
grant during the greater part of its existence, which ter-
minated in 1828. Notwithstanding the numerous abuses
which the bounty system naturally produced, the Linen
Board, through the stimulus which it gave to the manu-
facture generally, especially by the great increase in the
production of the raw material, was productive of much
benefit to the nation. At this period (1828) we find the
area under cultivation to amount to about 80,000 acres,
and little or no further progress was made until 1841,
when the necessity for some organized influential body
having been acknowledged, a new society was formed at
Belfast, under the title of " The Society for the Pro-
motion and Improvement of the Growth of Flax in
Ireland," under whose judicious and invigorating auspices

flax industry now enjoys a higher state of prosperity and
a more liealthy development than it has hitherto ever
possessed. In 1841, the quantity of land under flax
cultivation was 83,745 acres, of which 81,131 acres were
in Ulster, and 2,314 acres in the other provinces. In
1851 this had increased to 138,619 acres, of which
123,728 were in Ulster, and 14,891 in other districts.
Ulster appears always to have produced the great mass
of the raw material, the relative increase in the produc-
tion of the other provinces being due entirely to the
exertions of the society. The principal obstacles to its
culture in those districts have been — firstly, the want of
scutching-mills for preparing the fibre ; and, secondly,
the want of local markets for the sale of it. These are
being met, to a considerable extent, by the establishment
of retteries and scutch-mills by the landed proprietors,
assisted by Lord Naas's recent bill, which enables them
to borrow the requisite capital from the Government on
the same terms as drainage loans ; and also by the esta-
blishment of flax markets in the larger towns, at which
Belfast agents regularly attend. If these advantages are
properly met by the growers, the increase in production
will no doubt be continued, as both the climate and the
soil are well adapted for the plant. Notwithstanding the
excellent directions circulated by the Society, the tillage
operations often appear to be very carelessly performed,
and a practice, still persisted in throughout the country,
where the grower steeps his own produce, tends much
to obstruct improvement, and also to reduce the amount
of the market returns. It is calculated that the produce
of at least 100,000 acres of flax was steeped last year with-
out the seed having been taken off, and that the latter, at
mere crushing prices, was worth at least ^£300,000.
This practice is the result of ignorance on the part of
the farmer, and of a defective industrial system, which

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

607

will be speedily changed by the establishment of retteries
an-:' scntch-mills, where the farmer will meet with a ready
market for his raw produce, without having lo attempt
any portion of a manufacture for which neither his con-
venience nor his capacity is generally ad:i])icd. He
will then be left to his legitimute occupa'ion, thr.t of
producing the raw material, for which he will obtain an
immediate return, instead of the risk and uncertainty of
his present process. This would, to a great extent,
resemble the " factorage" system, which works so well
in Belgium, and which the Society endeavoured a few
years since to introduce into Ireland, but which pi;r-
tially failed, owing to the great difficulty of inducing the
farmers to dispose of their flax in a raw state. Because
they paid out no money for labour in steeping, they con-
sidered the value of their flax straw as equal to what
they would have obtained for it in the state of dressed
fibre, which left no margin for the factorase and subse-
quent operations.

The consumption of flax in Ireland has been doubled
within the last ten years. In 1841 the spinning-trade
numbered 2.50,000 spindles ; in 1851 it was close upon
half-a-million. In the place of 16,000 tons, the amount
of cor.tumplion in 1811, 32,000 tons are now required
by the trade. The entire supply of the United Kingdom
would at present consume the produce of 500,000 acres,
and it is progressively increasing. Our own growth is
quite unequal to the demand, and we are consequently
forced to rely upon the produce of other countries to
furnish the materia! for one of our most important ma-
nufactures, and a manufacture, be it observed, for which
the physical character of our own country is peculiarly
suitable. The returns of dressed fibre (flax and hemp)
imported into this country during the ten years from
1841 to 1851, give an average of about 70,000 tons per
annum, which, at £30 per ton, amounts to upwards of
£2,000,000 sterling. To this we must add about
£1,500,000, the value of 650,000 quarters of linseed,
used for seed and for cru slang purposes, and about
£500,000, the value of 70,000 tons of oilcake, which we
annually import, in addition to that ma Je at home for
feeding purposes. Thus we are contributing the sum of
no less than £4,000,000 annually to the farmers of
other countries for an article of produce especially our
own, and which on all hands is acknowledged to be,
under fair management, a paying crop.

There are several jsrocesses for converting the raw
material, the flax straw, into the dressed fibre suitable
for the spinner ; this appears, indeed, to be the depart-
ment in the flax industry that has received most attention,
as upon this point the success of the subsequent opera-
tions hinges. It will perhaps render a description of
these processes more readily understood if we briefly
give the composition of the material from which the
fibre is to be obtained. When a portion of flax straw is
examined, it is found to consist of three distinct parts :
the centre is occupied by a substance composed of cel-
lular tissue, and in appearance like wood ; round this is
a tubular sheath, composed of bundles of long and tough
fibres, cohering firmly together, the whole being cemented
together by some azotized compound, and enveloped in

a thin and delicate covering or skin. If a piece of the
dried straw be rubbed between the fingers, the skin is
iminediattly removed, and the fibrous portions are
readily detached from the woody centre. Tlicse fibrous
portions being composed of bundles of very delicate fila-
ments, may be split up into almost any degree of fineness,
according to the process adopted. Now, these various
processes difl"er very much in their mode of separating
the fibre from the other portions of the plant. They
may be classed under two heads — the " mechanical," or
dry preparation, and the " chemical," or wet prepara-
tion, by which latter the plant itself is disintegrated,
eitlier by the action of fcrmeritation which destroys, or
of some solvent which abstracts, the cementing matter
by which its various parts were held together. Of the
first but little need be said, as, except for rough goods,
not requiring to be bleached, as rick-covers, canvas, &c.,
it could not at present be advantageously used. How-
ever, as it costs as much to steep bad straw as good, and
the expenses in some cases exceed the value of the pro-
duce, it would appear desirable that the dry process
should be adopted where the raw material is of very in-
ferior quality, and also in places where there are no
opportunities of steeping and scutching the flax by the
ordinary method. Several modes have at diff'erent times
been devised for effecting this mechanical separation.
In 1815 the Linen Board expended £6,000 in an endea-
vour to introduce into Ireland a machine for the purpose,
invented by Mr. Lee, a model of which may still be seen
in the White Linen-hall, at Belfast ; and more recently,
those by Doulau, Davey, and others, have been brought
before the public. Kven in the event of a successful
result in the separation, the goods manufactured from
the fibre would appear liable to be injured by moisture,
or any other condition that would act upon the azotized
substance, which would still remain enveloping and
cementing the fibres together.

The second, the chemical process, is carried out in
several different ways — the principal one, the common
" cold-steep," either in pits or streams ; the improved
method due to Schenck, in which a regulated fermenta-
tion, at a high temperature, is maintained in vats by
means of steam pipes ; the process reintroduced by
Claussen, in which the straw is treated with a hot alka-
line solution ; and, lastly, the nev) and greatly improved
method invented by Watt, in which steam is the only
agent employed, thus avoiding the noxious influence of
fermentation, and the expense, and often injurious eifects,
of the alkaline solution. In the first two, the body of
the straw is disintegrated, the cementing substance being
destroyed by putrefactive fermentation ; in the two
latter, this substance is merely removed by solution in
the different menstrua.

The practice of cold steeping in pits or pools is that
which is most general in Ireland, each farmer superin-
tending the produce of his own land. The straw, too
frequently, with its seed, is carelessly placed in the pit,
which is usually about four feet deep and of an oblong
shape, care being taken that the whole mass is covered
by the water. Here it remains until, upon examination,
it is found to have undergone the required change, the

2 L

508

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

'line varying from lliree to six week?, beinj determined
by the tcmpirature and quality of the steep-water.
"•.Vuter containing salts of lime or iron is iiusuited for the
j,:;rpose ; the process of fermeatation is thereby retarded,
and the flax acquires a colour which it is difficult to
remove. Even under the most favourable circumstances,
this is a loose and uncertain practice ; much time is
occupied, the fermentation is irregular, and the produce
is less in quantity and inferior in quality to that obtained
by Sehenck's process. This was introduced into Ireland
in 1848, when its advantages were so obvious that the
Society at once recommended it to the notice of those
proprietors who were in a position to carry it into opera-
tion in their respective districts.

The first rettery on this principle was established in
Wayo, in 1848. At the present time there are about
twenty at work in the different provinces. In principle
it is the same as the preceding, but by using heated
\Yater for the steep, the fermenting process is accelerated,
and can be controlled according to the quality of the
straw or the produce desired. Much time is saved —
the three or four weeks of the old process are reduced to
three or four days ; the fibre is more equal throughout,
and is improved in quantity and in quality. In some
comparative e.^;periments conducted by the Flax Society
into the merits of the two methods of steeping, it resulted
that, in increased yield, Sehenck's gave an advantage of
about 20 per cent. ; that in quality, two samples of
Sehenck's spun respectively to 70 and 101 lea yarn, while
twosamplesof thesame flax, cold-steeped, only spun to 60
and 96 lea yarn ; and that in market value, tlie former
gave a return of £10 12s. the acre, against £9 8s., the
value of the latter. This process, then, was a great ad-
vance upon the old. Time was saved, a better article
was produced, and a system of divided manufacture was
introduced, which relieved the grower from a duty incon-
sistent with his vocation, and assured him of a quicker
and more certain return for his produce. The principle
of fermentation, however, is in itself faulty, as it is quite
impossible so to control it as to ensure a perfectly equal
action throughout the mass; besides which, the products
of decomposition are noxious to those employed, and
offensive to the neighbourhood. The plan reintroduced
by Claussen, of boiling the straw in an alkaline solution,
is free from these objections, and effects the same end
by dissolving, instead of decomposing, thecementingsub-
stance. The time required, too, is again much lessened,
being only from twelve to twenty-four hours. Experience
has not yet pronounced upon the value of this method :
indeed, with the exception of one or two works upon a
small scale, connected with the patent, it has made very
little progress, notwithstanding the extraordinary assist-
ance it has had from the public press.

We now come to the last new process, that just
patented by Watt, in which steam is the only agent em-
ployed, and which, from its extreme simplicity and
effectiveness, appears likely to supersede all the others.
The whole arrangements are inexpensive, and occupy but
little space. The straw is placed in a steam-tight box
or chamber, of any size or shape, the top being formed
by an iron tank containing cold water, and the lower

end having a perforated false bottom fixed at about 12
inches from the other. Steam at a low pressure is
blown into the box, and passing up through the straw,
comes in contact with the iron top, by which it is con-
densed ; then trickling down through the mass, it passes
through the false bottom, carrying with it the extractive
matter which it has dissolved out of the straw. This is
continued for from eight to twelve hours. The straw is
then removed, and is passed through four sets of rollers,
which squeeze out about eighty per cent, of the water,
and at the same time crush the stems, breaking up the
central woody substance, and materially assisting its
subsequent seffaration from the flax fibre. From these
rollers it is carried to the drying-house, which is heated
by steam-pipes from the boiler, and thence to the
scutching-frames, where the operation is performed more
rapidly and efficiently than when the flax is prepared by
steeping, owing to the thoroughly crushed state in which
it comes from the rollers.

The flax is then ready for market, having passed
through the whole process of conversion in a very shoit
space of time. This important improvement upon the
other processes is now just being c;irried out by Messrs.
Leadbetter, of Belfast, who have erected the necessary
buildings for carrying it out on an extensive scale. From
the work that has already been done, it is sliown that the
entire operation may be completed in twenty-four hours ;
that on the average, 1 ton of straw will produce 25 cwt.
of dressed flax, and that the condensed liquor from the
steaming-chest contains matter of a nutritious nature,
having, according to analysis, a feeding value equal to
distillery wash. This may be advantageously used by
lieing poured, while hot, over the broken capsules or
seed bolls, which contain in themselves much nutritious
matter, smd in this state are readily eaten by cattle or
pigs. The flax produced has already been sold at high
prices, and has been pronounced by spinners to be of
apparently unexceptionable quality.

A preliminary meeting in reference to this inventi.n
has been held by the Flax Society, and a large committee,
composed of its members and of others interested in the
trade, has been appointed for the purpose of instituting
" a careful and extensive series of experiments, with a
view to compare it both in a practical and financial
point of view with the modes of hot and cold steeping
generally practised." At present it would appear to
possess the following advantages : —

1. Great saving of time.

2. Economy of fibre, owing to the facilities with
which it is separated from the " shove," or woody centre,
in the scutch-mill, thereby producing little waste in
scutching tow, which latter is only worth from 6s. to j\
10s. per cwt., while the long fibre from which it is torn ^
away is worth from 50s. to 100s. per cwt.

3. Avoidance of any nuisance. Instead nf the offen-
sive products of the steep, an inodorous liquid is ob-
tained, which may at once be consumed advantageously
for feeding purposes.

4 . 1 he encouragement it will offer for the extension
of flax cultivation throughout the country, by affording
an opportunity to those who desire it of organizing at a

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

509

small ouilay an establishment winch will always isisure
a read}' market for the inoduce of the district.

Much good has already been done in this respect by
the introduction into several districts of retteries on
Schcnck's system, those in operation purchasing directly
from the farmer and steeping upwards of 30,000 tons in
the course of the year. The new process, however,
being able to complete the operation in a quarttr the
time required by the other, would, of course, be able to
turn out four times as much work in a given time ; and,
as the arrangements would be less expensive in outlay,
it offers an advantageous opportunity to all friends of
Irish industry who wish to encourage the home cultiva-
tion of flax, and to retain in the country a portion, at
least, of that largo sum which is annually expended in
purchasing the necessary suj>plies from foreign countries.

Having a'ready given a sketch of the production of the
raw material, and of the various modes of prepar-
ing it for the manufacturer, we will first briefly con-
sider the changes it undergoes in his hands, in order to
render it suitable to the various requirements of the
market; and, secondly, the part it occupies, when manu-
factured, in the general commerce of the country.
These changes consist of three distinct operations —spin-
ning, weaving, and bleaching, in each of which great
and important advances have of late years been made.

Up to a late period in the past century all the yarns
were produced by handspinniiig, which was carried on
in farmhouses and cottages thi-oughout the country.
These yarns were brought into the nearest town on
market- days, when they were purchased either by the
weavers or by agents, w^ho supplied them to other per-
sons; or in many cases the female members of a family
spun the yarn, which was woven by the men. In 1795
the first machinery for spinning flax was erected in Eng-
land, and, as it was speedily proved that yarns could be
thus produced both better and cheaper than by hand, it
was soon extended. At this time the flax was spun dry,
and only coarse yarns produced. In Ireland we find
that the first spinning factory was established at Cork in
1805, and consisted of only 212 spindles, adapted for
canvass yarns. The Linen Board, by a bounty of 30s.
per spindle, succeeded in causing the establishment of
several others, which in 1809, in the aggregate, con-
tained 6,369 spindles. In 1815 there were in Ulster
five mills, the largest having 1,204 and the smallest 300
spindles ; in Leinster two mills, and in Munster seven :
only one of which was in full operation, owing to the
depression of trade at that period.

The necessity, however, of increasing these spinning
machines was shown in 1825, when English and Scotch
machine- spun yarns began to be imported into Ireland,
and completely undersold the handspun product. These
yarns were produced by an improved system termed
" wet spinning," the fibre, during the process of twist-
ing, being passed through hot water. By this mode
(invented by Kaye, of Manchester) it could be spun
much finer, and by degrees, aided by continuing im-
provements, the quality and fineness of the yarn were so
much changed, and the economy of labour so much at-
tended to, that the handspun yarns were completely

superseded, except for fine caaibiic. The fi st factory
of any magnitude on this improved system was estab-
lished in In^land in 1823, others soon adopted it, and
new ones sprang up. In 1841 we find there were 41
mills, containing 260,000 spindles ; in 1830 the number
had increased to 73 mills, with 339,000 spindles ; and
in 1852 there are no less than 81 mills, having about
500,000 spindles in operation, representing an amount
of capital invested in buildings, machinery, and in the
necessary commercial oijerations, of between three and
four millions sterling. About two-thirJs of the mills
are situate at Belfast and its vicinity, which, being the
centre of the linen trade, and possessing great advan-
tages in respect to the supply of skilled labour and
cheapness of fuel, is considered preferable as a locality
to the more rural districts. As the employment of ma-
chinery for spinning increased, the linen manufacture
appeared gradually to withdraw from the south and
west, and to concentrate itself in the north, where the
spinning factories were principally situate. With the
exception of Drogheda, and, to a small extent, Cork and
Mayo, scarcely any linens are now made beyond the
boundaries of Ulster. To form a correct estimate of
the development of the industry in Ireland, we have only
to compare it with its condition in England and other
countries. In England the last report gives the num-
ber of spindles at 265,568, and in Scotland at 303,125,
giving, with Ireland, a total for the United Kingdom of
1,068,693. In France we find the number of spindles
to be about 250,000, the factories being situate chiefly
in the departments Du Nord, Calvados, Finisterre, and
Pas de Calais. In Belgium there are about 100,000
spindles in operation, the factories being at Ghent,
Malines, Brussels, Liege, and Tournai.

Holland possesses only one factory, of about 6,000
spindles, in Friesland. In Switzerland there are three
or four small establishments, working from 8,000 to
10,000 spindles in all. Pv-ussia has two large factories,
one at Alexandrofsky, and the other at Moscow, toge-
ther numbering about 50,000 spindles. Spain has two
or three, containing say 6,000 spindles. Austria pos-
sesses eight factories, with about 30,000 spindles in
operation. In the States of the Zollverein about
80,000 are estimated to be in use ; and in the United
States we find twelve small factories, situate in the
States of New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and
New Jersey, and numbering between them 14,550
spindles. Now, reckoning the average cost of buildings,
machinery, and motive power at £i 10s. per spindle
throughout, it would appear that there is altogether a
fij:ed cajntal of £8,000,000 invested in this trade, of
which sum nearly i;5,000,000 belongs to the United
Kingdom. Notwithstanding these large returns of ma-
chinery for spinning in operation both at home and abroad,
we find that the hand-spun yarn very far exceeds it in
quantity, since throughout the continent hand spinning
is still carried on to an enormous extent.

The arratigemcnts of the large spinning mills are very
complete, and well repay a visit. In the capacious
stores may be seen samples of flax of various qualities,
the produce of various countries, and varying in price

2 L 2

610

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

from £25 per (on for Egyptian to ^^140 per ton (or
Uelgian and French. The manufacture is commenced
by a process termed " heckling," which is done in the
first part by band, and afterwards by machinery. This
separates the long and perfect fibres from the faulty,
which are either used up in coarse yarns or sold as a
" sorters' tow." A loss is sustained in the first part of
from 41b. to 181bs. the cwt., according to the quality of
the flax, the Irish hand-scutched giving the greatest,
and the Belgian and French the least. In the heckling
by the machine, where fine combs are employed, an ad-
ditional loss ensues, averaging 61b. per cwt. It is then
fit for spinning. The banding, spreading, drawing, and
rowing machines are very similar in construction to those
used in cotton mills, with the exception that in the last
part of the operation (lie yarn is passed through a bath
of hot water, which softens the fibres and enables a
much finer yarn to be rove from them. The yarns are
reeled off the bobbins into hanks, and then tied up in
bundles, ready for sale. Where fine yarns are spun, the
quantity of flax worked up is about 25 tons per 1,000
spindles per annum ; for coarse linen yarns the quantity
varies from 30 to 50 tons per 1,000 spindles. The
power required to drive tlie machinery is estimated at
about six-horse power for every 500 spindles. This is
a miicli higher power than that required in cotton mills,
where 500 spindles may be driven by a one-horse power.
The greater number of mills spin the medium qualities
only— in some the finer numbers, 200's to 250's, are
produced. For these the choicest samples of flax are
chosen, the manipulation is more careful, and the ma-
chinery more delicate, than with the coarser yarns. In
these, too, the increased value which labour gives is
more promineaily shown by the difference between the
price of the raw material and the manufactured article.
For instance, a bundle of 210 lea yarns weighs 9:b.
14 oz. ; its selling price is £8 ; while the maximum
value of the material itself, the flsx, could not exceed
20s., showing tlie relation between the values of the raw
and of the manufactured article to be as 1 to 8. In the
coarse yarns this great increase is no longer perceptible.
A bundle of 40 lea yarns weighs 301b., and sells for
21s. 9d., the value of the raw material being about 15s.,
or, in relation to the nianu.raetured, at 1 to l.G.

The yarns spun in Irish mills are in general medium
numbers, suitable for both coarse and fine linens; the
numbers suitable for cambrics, lawns, &c., are chiefly
the production of the English mills, and the very coarse
yarns for canvas, bagging, and other rough goods, are
those generally spun in Scotland. Besides yarn-spin-
ning, a large and increasing trade is done in twisting
sewing-thresids, which, either as brown, bleached, or
dyed, command an extensive sale in Great Britain and
on the continent. One kind of bleached thread, made
by a peculiar process to resemble silk, has lately been
sold largely to the Nottingham lacemakers.

The employment of machinery in spinning flax may
be considered as the salvation of the Irish linen trade.
Had Ireland continued to maintain hand-spinning it
•would have been impossible for her to contend with other
manufacturing countries in the great markets of the

world. The comj)arative cheapness of mill-spun yarns,
and their superiority in the production of an even and
uniform fabric, form the basis of the present condition
of the linen trade. Formerly it was impossible for the
linen merchant to assort his parcels properly, from the
great variety of yarns employed in the manufacture, and
from their unevenness of quality. Nnw, large parcels
of linen can be made to order to any degree of fineness,
heavy or light, as may be lequired. The manufacturer
buys his yarns in quantities of the spinner, and gives
them out to his weavers, so that when he receives the
linens from them they are as nearly as possible of the
same quality and appearance ; they bleach regularly,
and when exported are always the same as the sample.

Linens are no longer sold to any extent in the open
market by individual weavers. A new system has arisen.
There are now manufacturers, many of whom employ
from 100 to 2,000 and 3,000 weavers, and who purchase
the yarn in quantities, boil it, wind it, and give it out to
be woven, receiving the webs on certain appointed days,
and paying the weaver for liis labour by the piece. There
are, however, some extensive firms who arc at the same
time both spinners and manufacturers, who send their
linen to the bleacher, and receive it from him when
finished ; after which they have it lapped and orna-
mented, and either export it direct or sell it for home
consumption. These houses make a variety of fabrics,
in which they are guided by the demand in the respec-
tive markets. As in the case of most other manufac-
tures, certain districts excel in the production of dif-
ferent kinds of fabrics. Thus, the neighbourhood of
Lurgan is the seat of the cambric and lawni manufacture,
Lisburn and Belfast of damasks, Armagh of light linens,
Ballyniena of heavy goods, and so on.

The substitution of machinery for hand labour in
weaving is a natural consequence of its successful appli-
cation in the spinning process. In England and Scot-
land the manufacturers have eagerly availed themselves
of its manifest advantages. In Ireland a power-loom is,
as yet, rarely to be seen, so difficult is it, under ordinary
circumstances, to introduce a change in the established
practices of a craft. If we turn to the Factory Inspec-
tors' report for 1850 we see, to our astonishment, that
in England there were 1,131 power-looms at work, and
that in Scotland there were 2,529, while in Ireland the
entire number amounted only to 58. But the linen dis-
tricts in Ireland are now affected by more than ordinary
circumstances, and it is no longer possible to disguise the
fact that they cannot meet the present requirements of
'the market, either in quantity or in price. The two
most important causes afiecting them are " emigration"
and " cheap food." Tiie Ulster weavers have chiefly
been small farmers, cottiers, or labourers. At seed time
and at harvest they were in the fields ; during the other
parts of the year they were at their looms. The farmers
were enabled to obtain their subsistence from their potato
crop, a pcriidii of which they ate, while the remainder
fed their. pigs or was so'd in exchange for other neces-
saries. Their rents were not paid by their produce —
that all went to their subsistence — but by the money
earned at their looms, which also met their wants for

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

SU

clothing, tea, and other cheap luxuries. The potato
blight annihilated the small farms, and their occupiers
shoaled off to the western world. The cottiers and la-
bourers are left still ; but, between the wages they earn
from farm -labour and from theii- looms, they can now,
by working only four or five days in the week, live as
well as they used to do in the old days of " Protection,"
when they were (breed to work hard the whole week.
From these two causes it results, firstly, there are fewer
weavers now tlian there were in 1846; and, secondly,
those that remain turn out fewer webs.

Since 1816, however, the demand for Irish linens has
progressively increased bt-th in the home and foreign
markets ; consequsntly the demand increases in a pro-
gressive ratio over the povver of supply, while, at the
same time, the competition for hands has increased the
cost of labour, which, in respect to cheapness of produc-
tion, places Ireland at a great disadvantage when she has
t) meet the Belgiiui and German in those foreign markets
where she had gradually supplanted them. In fact, it
appears that within these last few months Belgian goods
are competing successfully with Irish in some of the
South American markets. This condition of the Irish
linen trade demands the immediate and serious considera-
tion of every one connected with it. Every day is of
importance, as a retrograde movement has commenced,
and must be arrested at once. Two points must be
gained —an increase in the quantify and a decrease in the
cost of production. The first might to a certain extent
be obtained by the employment of additional hand -looms
in other districts ; but the south and the west are not
equal to the wants of the north. Both might be obtained
by the use of ^iower-loonis, England and Scotland have
already shown hovsr advantageously they can be used for
coarse goods. Surely Irel.ind, with such a future
threatening her staple manufacture, will produce men
with both the energy to attempt and the skill to over-
come any little mechanical difticulties that may occur in
adapting them for fir.er good;5. In Glasgow, indeed^
this has recently been accomplished; thus, while the
pructicability of the process for Ireland is proveJ,
another and a vigorous rival will take possession of the
field.

Before the linen is ready for market the greater por-
tion of it has to undergo the process of bleaching, the
sale of brovvn or unbleached goods having considerably
diminished of late years. This process constitutes quite
a separate department in the trade, the bleacher in most
cases having the goods from the manufacturer, and re-
turning them again to him when finished and ready for
sale In this department great advances have been made
during the present century. Formerly " buttermilk"
was supposed to possess peculiar bleaching properties,
the lactic acid it contained being probably the active
agent; consecjuently, a large herd of cows was a neces-
sary appendage to a bleach-green. In 176-1 Dr. Fer-
guson, of Belfast, received from the Linen Board a pre-
mium of ;£'300 for the successful application of lime in
the process ; in 1770 he introduced the use of sulphuric
acid; in 1778 potash was first used, and in 1795 chlo-
ride of lime was first practic^dly applied. In thos'^ days

the bleach-greens were more numerous than they are
now, notwithstanding the immense increase in the linen
trade. Improved processes and a better application of
labour enable the bleacher of the present day to turn out
nearly ten times the amount of work lie could do fifty
years ago. The process is commenced by steeping the
goods iu hot water to dissolve the dressing, and then fol-
lowed by boiling them in a weak alkaline ley for a cer-
tain time. They are then washed in rather a primitive
and somewhat expensive manner, after which they un-
dergo a scrubbing process with soap and water, and are
then washed again, and carried to the green to be
grassed. Here they remain spread out and exposed to
the weather so many days, according to the description
of the goods. They are then taken in for the last part
of the operation — the chloride process, which requires
both care and skill in its application. Chloride of soda
is used in preference to chloride of lime, the goods
being afterwards immersed in a weak solution of sulphu-
ric acid, and again thoroughly v/ashed. The drying is
usually done in heated chambers, whence the goods are
taken to the beetling-machines. This operation is the
last, and nothing remains but to fold them up into their
proper forms, press them, and then they are ready for
market. Some very beautiful chemical principles are
involved in the bleaehing process — the alkali in the
boiling solution combines with the greater part of the
organic colouring matter of the linen, which is dissolved
in the boiler or in the subsequent Trashing ; the bleach-
ing effect of exposure on the grass to the action of light
has long been known, though the cause v.'as until recently
but little understood : and the successful application of
chlorine belongs quite to the scientific bleacher of the
present day. Not only is the operation more perfect,
but an important saving in time is eflect^ d by the pre-
sent system, the entire process averaging now from four
to sis weeks, instead of the six months of the old sys-
tem. Indeed, the time now is often determined by the
market requirements ; in the case of an urgent demand,
goods have not unfrequently been returned by the
bleacher in a week or ten days.

Some of ihe blcachv.orks in Antrim are on an exten-
sive scale, and are conducted with great skill, giving
employment to a large number of hands. Near Lis-
burn the two firms, Messrs. Richardson, employ about
300 hands each, and in the course of the year bleach
goods having ;i market value in the aggregate of about
£1,200,000 sterling. The improvements in the spinning
and in the bleaching processes have been fallowed by a
great reduction in the price of the manufactured good:.,
the sale of which has enormously increased. The rela-
tive prices of yard-wide linen in 1805 and 1850 were as
follows : —

14QCJ 2gQQ 20°' 22°' 2-1''^

s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d.

1805 ..2 0..3 4.. 4 4.. 5 11.. 10 G

1850.. 1 2..1 8.. 2 1..2 6.. 3 6

being about 45,000,000 yards in 1805, and 110,000,000
in 1850. This increase is due chiefiy to the expoit
trade ; the home consumption, not being so much affected
by reduction in pli(•^", has not increased in the same pro-

512

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

portion. One cause probably for this is the immense
progress of the cotton manufactures after the employ-
ment of machinery in spinning cotton wool, which
caused a corresponding increase in the home consump-
tion of its fabrics many years before the linen manufac-
ture in its turn participated in the same facilities of pro-
duction ; hence cotton rapidly increased in consumption
among the lower classes of the United Kingdom, while
linens continued to be worn only by the better classes.
The export trade has steadily increased for a series of years.
Under the Linen Board bounties were paid on the ex-
port of several kinds of fabrics, the last having ceased
only in 1830. Although these bounties in the earlier
period of the manufacture tended to encourage an ex-
port trade, the true source of its late increase has been
in the improvement in the spinning and general manufac-
ture, which permitted a gradual reduction in price, and
thus supplanted the Belgian, German, and French ma-
nufacturers in neutral markets. Atone period the sup-
ply of South America and the West Indies was chiefly
in the hands of the Germans, but the Irish trade ad-
vanced so much more rapidly, owing to various improve-
ments, that German linens almost entirely disappeared,
and the Irish, until quite recently, commanded the mar-
ket. One kind of Irish linen largely sold in South
Ameiica is termed " Silesias," and is made up in imita-
tion of the goods formerly supplied by that province in
Germany. The New World takes the great mass of
linen exported, those sent to the eastern hemisphere
being of very trifling amount in comparison.

From returns recently published we find that
39,000,000 of persons in America consume annually
more than two yards of our linens per head, while
223,000,000 in Europe take but one thirty-eighth part of
a yard per head. This difference does not arise so much
from the consumption being proportionably less in the
countries of the Old World as from the high duties which
most of the European States maintain on the import of
these fabrics, and from the small disposition to use
them in Asia and Africa, where cotton fabrics are almost
exclusively used. It is more than probable that a re-

duction of price on linen may ultimately increase its con-
sumption ui the East. Already the exports to the Le-
vant have been considerably augmented.

The gross returns of the quantities, and of the de-
clared value of linen manufactures and yarns exported
from the United Kingdom during the past year, are very
satisfactory. Of woven goods there were 128,780,362
yards, having a value of £3,827,443. The thread,
tapes, and small wares were valued at ^^285, 333, and of
linen yarns there were 18,518,2731b., amounting in
value to £935,939, forming a total of £5,048,615 ster-
ling. The Board of Trade returns for the month ending
Sept. 5 give an equally satisfactory account of the pre-
sent state of the trade, the exports for the month show-
ing an increase over those of the past year of £46,625.

Without question, this prospering condition of the
trade is attributable to general improvement in manu-
facturing, and to the consqeuent reduction in price,
which has enabled our manufacturers to compete so suc-
cessfully with those of other countries. In such a trade
progress is essential to vitality. A refusal, or even a
hesitation on the part of a manufacturer to adopt an im-
proved process, even at the sacrifice of his old notions,
often gives the start to an opponent which costs him
years to recover. Disastrous as this is between indivi-
duals, it involves far weightier considerations when the
competition is between countries. The Irish portion of
the linen trade appears just now to be in a critical state,
— her means of supply are not equal to the demand ;
and already we find that foreign countries have re-
entered the lists with her in her most prized markets.
Two causes have principally effected this. These causes
remain, and become more powerful every day, But can-
not they be met ? and, if so, why this hesitation ? The
power-loom dreads not emigration ; it flourishes upon
"cheap food." The substitution of machinery for hand-
labour in the spinning process has long since shown the
immense benefits it has conferred on the trade. The
requirements of tlie market, no less than the present
peculiar condition of Ireland, call urgently for its appli-
cation to the loom. — Times,

SOME CROPS THAT MIGHT BE CULTIVATED IN GREAT BRITAIN
WHICH ARE NOT COMMONLY CULTIVATED.

Whoever recommends the agriculturists of this
country to cultivate a new crop, incurs a great re-
sponsibility ; and if his recommendation is attended
by success, he receives great credit. We are neither
presumptuous enough to venture upon the former,
nor have we sufficient ambition to aim at the latter.
Our object here is merely to enumerate certain
crops that are grown on a large scale m other
countries, but which are not cultivated by our
farmers, or concerning which tliere appears to be
sufficient evidence to warrant the possibility, at
least, of their successful introduction.

Mangold-wurzel is in England now extensively

cultivated for the purpose of feeding cattle. It is
not much grown in Scotland, as turnips are found
here to alFord in general a greater amount of food
per acre. On the continent it is grown for the sake
of extracting sugar from it; and, did the law per-
mit it, it might be profitably grown for this purpose
in this country, and also for making beer and ale.

From the official documents of the French Go-
vernment, we learn that the usual average of a
beet crop is about \0h tons an acre. Each cwt.
yields 4^ lb. of sugar; and, accordingly, the pro-
duce per acre would be riearly half a ton of sugar,
Boussingault found that, to manage an English

THE FARMER'S MAGAZLNE.

&13

acre of land under beet-root, 45^ daya of a man
and 14 days of a horse was the amount of labour
expended.

The expense of obtaining the sugar from the
beet is, however, very great. The roots are washed
and rasped, and then subjected to strong pressure;
the juice is boiled, filtered through animal charcoal,
and boiled until it is sufficiently reduced. But
owing to the improvements made in the machinery,
the cost of separating the sugar has been very
much lessened ; and it is now affirmed that a farmer
here might grow beet and se|)arate the sugar, leav-
ing himself a profit, and yet sell the sugar at 2|d.
per lb.

Beet-root may be substituted for malt in brew-
ing ; and supposing the above calculation to be
correct, it is probable that a gallon of beet-root
beer, of the strength of ordinary table beer, could
be made for about 2d. Did the law allow it, and
were it considered advisable, a spirit might be dis-
tilled from this.

In making sugar from beet, the residue is em-
ployed for feeding cattle.

Tobacco is forbidden to be grown in Britain by
the excise laws. Indeed, tobacco of the finest
quality cannot be produced in this climate ; and
tobacco grown in Europe, or even Virginia, cannot
be compared with that of the Havannah and Va-
rinas. Still, the plant does succeed in this country,
and tobacco of ordinary quality might be grown
here. About 12 cwt. per acre is a common crop;
and more could probably, by good farming, be
attained. It would therefore appear that tobacco
would be a profitable crop.

Tea is an article for which there is an immense
demand, and which, from its passing through so
many hands, and its long transit, sells at a price
that would doubtless very handsomely remunerate
the producer of it in this country, provided it were
possible to produce it. And there seems reason to
believe that the green-tea plant might be acclima-
tised. Perhaps the best plan would be to procure
seed from the north of China and Japan, in which
place, we believe, the cold of winter is more intense
than here. Certainly, if the tea plant could stand
our winters, it would be a very profitable crop.
Each plant produces about 2 lb. of tea annually ;
and the plants are planted from 3 to 6 feet apart.
When it is considered that tea sells for nearly 3s.
a lb., the money return per acre (supposing these
statements are correct) seems enormous. The
expense of preparing the tea for the market does
not seem to be great. It is hand-picked, and (in
Brazil) immediately dried. " From 4 to 6 lb. are
thrown into an iron pot, the interior of which is
polished, and which maybe somewhat more than 3
feet in diameter, by about a foot in depth. The

temperature of the pot is maintained at about the
boiling-point of water. A negro stirs the leaves
in all directions with his hands until they become
quite soft and pliant, so that they can be moulded
into pellets by movement between the hands.
When the leaves are in this state they are thrown
upon a tray made of bamboo, and strongly kneaded
for a quarter of an hour, so as to force out a green
sap of a disagreeable taste." They are then re-
turned to the pot and dried.

Chicory is a plant that might probably be in-
troduced into extensive cultivation. The powder
of its ground root was originally used as an adul-
teration amongst coftee ; but now the public have
acquired a taste for the mixture, and prefer it to
pure coffee. It is now openly and avowedly sold.
It is found that a crop of from 12 to 15 tons can
be obtained to the acre. The roots are shced and
kiln-dried, and the above weight is then found to
be reduced to about 1 ton. This sells at from £l3
to £23. The cost of labour, kiln-drying, &c., is
about £5 a ton. Consequently for rent, manure,
and profit, there is left a margin of from £10 to £18.

Oil-producin(/ plants.— The rape is the only
plant commonly cultivated by the British farmer on
account of its oil. On the continent several other
plants are grown for this purpose, two or three of
which might perhaps be advantageously introduced.
The following table, quoted from Boussingault,
shows the results of some experiments made by M.
Gauzac of Dagny.

Crop.

Winter crops —

Colewort

Rocket ,

Rape

Swedish turnips
Curled colewort
Turnip cabbage

Spring crops —
Gold of pleasure

Sunflower

Flax

White poppy .

Hemp

Summer rape . .

Seed pro-
duced per
acre.

cwt. qrs. lb
19 0 15
15

16
15
16
13

17
15
15
10

7
11

1 3

2 18
1 25

18
19

16
14
25

1 18
3 21
3 17

Oil ob-
tained Oil Cake

per.

cent
avoir-
dupois.

per acre per
in lbs. cent

875.4
320.8
641.6
595.8
641.6
565.4

545.8
275.0
385.0
560.8
229.0
412.5

40
18
33
33
33
33

27
15
22
46
25
30

54
73
62
62

62
61

72
80
69
52
70
65

We do not know what plants he means by cole-
worts and turnip cabbage, but two of the plants
mentioned in the above list, the gold of pleasure
and the white poppy, and another oil-bearing plant,
the Madia sativa, have perhaps a claim upon the
consideration of the British agriculturist.

The gold of pleasure, or the Camelina sativa of

514

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

botanists, is a native of Britain ; but whether it is
indigenous, or has been accidentally introduced
from the continent along with flax, is doubtful.
At any rate, although a much esteemed cultivated
plant of many other countries, it has never received
much attention in Britain; and yet it is not easy
to discover the reason of this. The gold of plea-
sure produces an oil for burning, which is con-
sidered to have less smoke and smell, and scarcely
any of the latter, with a brighter flame, than that
obtained from the rapes. It yields a large quantity
of oil to the acre, does well upon light soils, and
occupies the ground for a short period, coming to
maturity in the south of Europe twice in the sea-
son. Even here it may arrive at m.aturity in time
for sowing grass seeds after it. Besides affording
oil, the gold of pleasure yields a fibre which does
for thatching, sack-making, &c.

The white poppy is cultivated for the sake of its
milky juice, which in its crude form affords us
opium, and for the sake of the oil of its seeds.
This oil is in this country mainly used for some
purpose of the painter, but in many parts of the
continent it is very extensively employed as a sub-
stitute for butter. Very little English opium is
made, but about 40,000 lb. are annually imported
from Turkey, Constantinople, &c. This quantity,
if grown at home, would require about seven hun-
dred acres. The following is an account of the
produce obtained from an acre of poppies. We
have retained the value of the oil and oilcake, but
they are greatly over-estimated.

56 lb. of opium, at 36s £100 16 0

250 lb. of cold drawn oil, at Is. 6d.. . 18 15 0

125 lb. of warm do., at 6d 3 2 6

500 oil-cakes, at ISs. per 100 4 10 0

Total .

£127 3 6

The procuring of the opium, however, must be
an expensive process. When the capsules are half
grown, incisions are made into them, care being
taken that the interior is not penetrated into. A
white substance immediately flows out, which is
collected by old women and children, by means of
knives covered over v/ith sealing-wax. This juice
is scraped off into and stored up in jars. The
seeds are not injured by this process, but come to
maturity and have the oil extracted from them in
the usual manner.

The poppy, in addiuon to its opium, extracts
from the ground a larger quantity of oil tlian a cow
can do. The average quantity oi butter that a cow
can produce, may perhaps be set down at 300 lb.
per annum, and she will require an acre and a half
of ground; whereas, in the experiment we have
quoted, the poppy from that area yielded more
than 370 lbs. of oil. Still, for vegetable oils for

culinary purposes, there is little taste in this
country ; and the demand for opium will, of course,
always be limited. Hence we can scarcely expect
to see any very extended culture of the poppy in
this country.

The Madia sativa is the remaining plant of this
group that seems to demand at least a modified
attention in this country. It is sufficiently hardy,
and would appear to be productive. Boussingault,
now a dozen of years ago, planted it long with
carrots in a well-dunged field. The crop took one
hundred and twenty-seven days to come to maturity,
and the following was the result : —

Seeds, husks deducted 2424 lb.

Dried leaves used as litter 7700 „

Carrots without their leaves 31966 „

The seed gave—

Of oil G35lb.

Of cake 17067 „

And 100 parts of the seed gave —

Of oil 26.24 lb.

Of cake 70.72,,

Of loss 33.04,,

100.

It is a curious fact, and illustrative of the im-
perfect manner in which the oil is separated from
the seeds, that while the common pressman only
obtained some 26^ per cent... Boussingault, in his
laboratory, from the same seeds actually procured
41 per cent. When the oil-cakes are meant for
feeding, this loss is of little consequence, inasmuch
as the oil serves a very good purpose; but when
the cake is only intended to be used as a manure,
it is a great loss, inasmuch as the oil is of little or
no use in adding any food for crops to the soil.

There is a great lack of ])lants in this country
cultivated for the sake of the tannin that they con-
tain. As our readers are aware, the basis of the
skin of animals is composed of a substance to which
the name of gelatine is given. One of the pro-
perties of this substance is, that when combined
with tannin it forms the compound of tannate of
gelatine, or leather — a substance which is so useful
to mankind. From time immemorial the substance
employed to furnish the tannin to the hides of
animals, in order to convert them into leather, has
been oak bark. But as the purpose for which oaks
are grown is their timber, and not their bark, the
supply of oak bark cannot be calculated upon, and
this is perhaps one of the causes why tanning as an
art is in such a backward state. Could a plant
abounding in the principle of tannin be grown on
our fields, there can be httle doubt but that it would
be remunerative. Perhaps we jjossess or might
possess such in —

The sumach, a species of which is the agent em-
ployed by the Turks in tanning. There does not

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

515

seem to be any reason to believe that the common
sumach would not be hardly enough for the climate
of this country. Some other members of the
genus might probably also come to sufficient ma-
turity here.

It is possible, also, that we possess indigenous
wild plants that contain a good deal of tannin, and
which might perhaps be successfully cultivated.

There are two or three plants that might pro-
bably be advantageously cultivated in this country,
for the sake of their fibre, besides flax and hemp.
Perhaps the most important of these, ridiculous as
the assertion seems, might be the nettle. At any
rate, its claims have never been sufficiently con-
sidered. \yQ leave the nettle, however, to its insig-
nificance, and pass on to the enumeration of two
plants that, were there a demand for cheap wine
in this country, might perhaps be profitably grown
in Britain, and their juice converted into wine. In
order, however, to have clear ideas upon this point,
it is perhaps necessary to recal to our memory the
exact composition of wine.

Wine essentially consists in a mixture of alcohol
that has been produced by the fermentation of
sugar, of tartaric acid, a peculiar ether, and, per-
haps, other flavouring substances, the whole diluted
with at least seventy-five per cent, of water. Sugar
is contained in a great many vegetable productions,
and only differs in chemical composition from
alcohol in each equivalent of it containing one atom
more of carbon and two of oxygen. If we extract
these last mentioned atoms from sugar, we have at
once alcohol ; and we produce this change artifi-
cially, by what is called the process of fermentation.
In order that this process of fermentation shall
take place, the sugar must be dissolved in water,
the solution must be placed in a certain tempera-
ture, and to it a substance called ferment must be
added. Two of the commonest of our ferments are
gluten and yeast. When to a solution of sugar and
water either of these is added, an intoxicating
drink is produced. Then malt contains a large
quantity of sugar ; and if this be dissolved in water,
and fermented by having yeast added to it, we
have ale or beer. In like manner apples con-
tain sugar, water, and gluten ; and when apple juice
is placed in a proper temperature, it ferments and
forms cider. Wine, however, is not only an
alcoholic drink obtained from the action of a fer-
ment converting sugar into alcohol, but its alcohol
and v/ater essentially contain tartaric acid, ether, &c.

The grape contains water, sugar, gluten, and
tartaric acid, and hence its juice ferments, and is
changed into a mixture of water, alcohol, and
tartaric acid, and, by keeping, the formation of an
ether is eventually brought about. Hence, in all
ages, the fermented juice of the grape has been

considered the type of wine ; and the great con-
sumption of it in this country, notwithstanding its
high price, shows how very much a necessary of
life it has become. Formerly, in the south of Eng-
land, vineyards were common. It has been con-
jectured that their management was only known
to the monks, and that they fell out of cultivation
after the Reformation, because the farmers were
ignorant of the proper culture of the plant. One
or two, however, lingered on until our fathers'
times, and we know that the wine that they pro-
duced resembled claret. Provided that they would
pay, there is nothing, to our certain knowledge, to
prevent the production of good wholesome wine in
the south of England.

The expense of management in a vineyard is
doubtless great, and we have not any data just now
before us by v/hich we could estimate it. The pro-
duce of one is more easily ascertained, and the
following table indicates the wine obtained per
acre from a vineyard in Flanders, in about the
latitude of London, for 13 years. It was planted
in 1822, and began to yield in 3 years.

Wine per acre
in gallons.

209.9

.... 311. 6

413.4

620.0

544.5

184.4

Years.

1825
182G
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831

Wine per acre
in gallons.
63.75 ,,
.. 192.0
0.0
... 115.0

55.9 .,
0.0
.. 153.0

Years.

. 1832

. 1833

. 1834

. 1835

. 1836

. 1837

The average quantity, per acre, of wine obtained
yearly from this vineyard, is 224| gallons, or 110
dozens. If the average of the last six years, how-
ever, when the vines had got fairly established, be
taken, it would be considerably higher.

The vine, however, is a very uncertain crop.
Unless it receive the exact amount of heat and
light that it likes, it does not form a sufficient
quantity of sugar; and the wine that is made from
it is, of course, deficient in alcohol. The French,
who are the best wine-makers in the world, have,
however, found a remedy for this; and now, when
the juice of the grape is deficient in sugar, they add
as much sugar to it as will make up the deficiency ;
— and in this manner they secure the same strength
of their wine each year, and are in a great measure
independent of season. And by the aid of this
fact, not only might a vintage be secured in the
south of England each year, but wine might per-
haps be made farther nortJi then even was the case
before.

There is a great deal of incredulity, first, upon
the possibility of making wine at all in this country ;
and, secondly, upon the jiossibility of making good
sound v/ine from unripe, or partially unripe, grapes.

616

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Besides the statement that wine used to be annually
made in England, we may, regarding the first point,
quote the experience of Mr. Hamilton, who made
champagne upon his property in England. " Many
good judges of wine," he says, " thought it superior
to the best champagne they ever drank, even the
Duke de Mirepoix preferred it to any other wine ;
but such is the prejudice of most people to any-
thing of English growth, that I generally found it
prudent not to declare where it grew till after they
had passed their verdict upon it. The surest proof
that I can give of its excellence is that I sold it to
wine merchants for 50 guineas a hogshead ; and
one wine merchant to whom I sold £500 worth at
one time, assured me that he sold some of the best
of it at 7s. 6d. to 10s. 6d. per bottle."

Upon the second point, we will state the authority
of Dr. Macculloch. " It has been fully proved,"
he writes, " that a compound of an artificial must
can be fabricated from due mixture of sugar with
the extractive matter and saline substances of fruits
capable of undergoing a regular fermentation, and
of forming good and perfect wine. Long ago, ex-
periments were made in France, by several chemists,
with green grapes and sugai', with complete suc-
cess. I have repeated these experiments, and
varied them, with the best effects. The produce is
varied with the management, and the result of the
trials has been wine resembling champagne. Grave,
Rhenish, and Moselle; and of qualities so perfect,
that the best judges and wine-tasters have not been
able to distinguish them from foreign wines. The
grapes maybe used inany state, however immature."
One {)uund of sugar fermented affords as much
alcohol as makes two bottles of a wine of the strength
of champagne.

Considering all the above facts, and, moreover,
the possibility, which we here leave out of the
question, of other vegetable productions aflfording
wine, there is a probability that the time may come
when the British farmer, like the French one, will
grow upon a part of his farm something that will
be converted into wine.

Madder is a plant that can perhaps be grown to
greater perfection in this country than anywhere
else. We doubt, however, if it is grown at all ;
and yet it would appear to be a profitable crop. In
Alsace it is propagated by using the sprouts that
it throws out in spring, and which very readily
strike. The soil is heavily manured and trenched,
and the planting takes place in May. The roots
are not ready for gathermg until the second No-
vember following, and the crop is estimated to
average about 33001b. per acre. This is equivalent
to an annual crop of 1650 1b., or nearly 15 cwt.
The price of madder fluctuates ; but it is often, we
fancy, £3 a cwt.

A number of leguminous plants might be culti-
vated in this country for the sake of their ripe
seeds. The following table, copied from Schwertz,
indicates the produce per acre, and the weight of
a bushel of haricots, lentils, and vetches : —

Weight Produce

of bushel per acre

in lb. in bushels.

Haricots . . 47.5 . . 66.7

Lentils .. 62.3 .. 39.8

Vetches „„ 62.3 .. 41.2 . ■

Weight of
dry straw
per acre.
Not stated
Do.
2 tons 4 cwt. 2 qrs. 1 lib.

The Transactions of the Highland and Agricul-
tural Society for July, 1852, contain an essay on
the cultivation of lentils, by M. Guillerez.

A still more valuable suggestion was recently
made by Professor Voelcker, in his paper, in our
pages, upon Quinoa, If, as seems very probable,
this plant could ripen its seeds at a high elevation
above the sea, many of our uncultivated mountains,
now scarcely worth anything, might afford a due
supply of grain.

Not only is the introduction of a new crop a
source of direct profit to the farmer, but its good
influence often extends further than this, and
greatly improves agriculture. As instances of the
truth of this, we may cite the introduction of clover
and turnips. — Journal of Agriculture.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS

Amongst the class of experimenters there is none
so valuable as those which aim at setthng principles
in cultivation. It is useful — it is often very valu-
able — to possess experiments with a particular
manure on a certain soil ; but he who, like Lawes or
Boussingault, or Henneberg or Polstorff, tries ex-
periments with a view to settle the very grounds of
action of all manures, goes far beyond all this, and
lays the foundation broad and deep for a vast suc-

cession of future successful efforts in the cultivation
of the soil. Mr. Lawes began by sowing the land
with corn, without any manure, till he arrived at a
production which he considered the natural growth
of the soil. Starting with this as soil, lie made a
series of most valuable experiments.

Polstorff and Henneberg arrived at the same re-
sult by a different, and, perhaps, on the whole^ less
exceptionable means; for if Lawes' experiments

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

617

would be more satisfactory to practical minds,
theirs would be more so to scientific. Lawes com-
menced with natural soil itself, as it was denuded
of manure by corn-growing, and so perhaps much
better resembled the generality of soils for the good
of which he laboured. PolstorfF, however, adopted
a different course. He compounded soils with
known materials, and experimented upon these, and
so his deductions were, perhaps, on the whole,
much more abstract, though they may not have so
much weight with cultivators, being less modified
by circumstances of subsoil, climate, natural
mechanical mixture, &c. PolstorfF arrived at the
following conclusions from a series of experiments
made in artificial soil in boxes, which he communi-
cated to the Agricultural Society of the Duchy of
Brunswick, viz. : -—

" 1. A soil which is endowed with the most ap-
propriate and most superior physical properties for
the cultivation of plants, yields no crops when
limited to these alone.

" 2. A soil which is free from all organic sub-
stances yields the highest return, provided it
possesses the appropriate physical qualities, and
contains, in a suitable form, the necessary mineral
constituents of plants,"

Now, these practical and experimental deduc-
tions seem somewhat in keeping with the theoretical
opinions of Liebig. He made out that decay-
ing vegetable matter had no favourable influence
in producing a crop of barley, and in one set of ex-
periments more produce was obtained from a soil
destitute of humus than from one to which a cer-
tain pi'oportion was added.

Dr. Henneberg repeated the experiments to a
certain extent, and the result we shall give below.
The artificial soil was made to represent the chemi-
cal constituents of the ashes of barley, and con-
sisted, in parts, by measure, as follows : —

wr^^il' J''''J^^'''''^^'^I 1 part by measure.
White chalk, 2 parts „ J

Wood charcoal 1 j „ „

W^hite sand ... 3 „ „

li lbs. of dry decayed vegetable matter burnt, and
the ashes added.

1 1 lbs. of feldspar and burnt lime, heated to red-
ness, and pounded.

This was the soil. Then diff"erent manures were
added, which are called A, B, and C. They were a
mixture of — 6 parts of bone-ash, and one each of
calcined soda, burnt magnesia, burnt gypsum, and
common salt, and differed merely in their mode of

mixture or combination, not very materially alter-
ing their operation. They were thus applied —

Box No. 1. — Manured with burnt vegetable matter.

„ „ 2. — Burnt feldspar, burnt vegetable mat-
ter, and the manure.

„ „ 3, 4, 5. — With the manure alone.

„ „ G, 7, and 8. — The manure and about 350
lbs. of sal ammoniac.

At germination, after the whole were sown with
barley, the box No. 1 had the greatest development,
and appeared the most vigorous, while the boxes
6, 7, and S had a colour of a far darker green.
The box No. I continued to grow in a thriving and
uniform state, while some of the others grew un-
equally and slowly; and though some misfortunes
attended the experiment, it was as carefully col-
lected as possible, and the following are the propor-
tions of corn : —

No. 1 672

„ 2 166

„ 3 : 565

» 4 297

No. 5.
„ 6.

„ 7.

„ 8.

519
553
699
898

Now, though there is somewhat of comjjlexity in
the results, as might perhaps be expected in all the
imitations of soil, which must be bungling as com-
pared with the operations of nature, we must say
we lean to the combination of mineral and organic
manures.

For although No. 1 stands somewhat high as
regards No. 6, yet if we take the average results of
6, 7, and 8, we shall find it absolutely inferior.

And if No. 2 be vastly inferior to both, it becomes
a question what kind of manure the vegetable mat-
ter consisted of? We will venture to say, that if an
ammoniacal mixture were added to this formula, we
should have had the largest return.

We well remember a practical case in point. An
incendiary reduced a pile of barley-stacks, repre-
senting some twelve or fifteen acres of barlej'', to
ashes. The whole of tliese were scattered over the
land adjoining the stacks, covering some half-an-
acre : the straw and corn were therefore all, as re-
gards mineral constituents, left on that small
quantity of land. W^e have watched a turnip crop,
a hurley crop, and a crop of seeds since that
period, and there has been no perceptible superiority
in any one of them over the rest of the field, nor
have the crops either in that or any other part of
the field been extraordinary.

We do not know a more complete refutation of
the mineral theory than this. — Gardeners' and
Farmers' Journal.

518

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

THE AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS OF ENGLAND.

[from the times' commissioner.]

December 17.
Having now traversed 32 of the 40 counties of
England, it is time that our mission should draw to
a close, the many facts already collected forming a
sufficient basis for an accurate estimate of the pre-
sent condition of agriculture in this country. Since
Arthur Young's tours in 1770-1, there has been no
similar inquir^'^j the agricultural reports of counties
collected by the Board of Agriculture, and those at
present being published by the Royal Agricultural
Society, being the work of separate individuals, full
of instructive information, but wanting the link of
combination and comparison which is obtained from
the single point of view whence one mind surveys
in succession the various modes of husbandry prac-
tised throughout England.

An interval of 80 years affords ample room for
denoting with precision the progress of agriculture.
Young's Six Months'' Tow- concludes with very
specific data, showing the actual state of rents, pro-
duce, prices, and wages in 1 770-1, in the 28 counties
which he then examined. The information on which
his data are based seems to have been the same as
ours — personal inquiries from the most trustworthy
sources. As regards rent and produce, it is obvious
that, unless the same farms had been spoken of,
exactness of comparison is impossible. The figures
which we gave are therefore not offered as perfectly
correct, but as the nearest approximation to correct-
ness in our power. Until Government shall take
up the important question of agricultural statistics,
we must be content with such broad results as it is
in the power of individual inquiry to elicit, conscious
though we may feel of the comparatively limited
data from which we are obliged to generalise.

In 28 counties of England s. d.

the average rent of arable

land, in I770,appearsfrom

Young's returns to have

been

For the same counties our

returns* in 1850-51 gave

an average of , < 26

13 4 an acre.

10

IncreaseofrentinSOyears. . 13 6 orlOOperccnt.

Bushels.
In 1 770 the average produce

of v/heat was 23 an acre.

In 1850-51, in the same

counties, it was 26f „

Increased produce of wheat

per acre 3j or 14 per cent.

* These returns will be found in detail in the
collected letters now passing through the press, and
to be published by Messrs. Longman.

d.

3 a-weck.
7 „

4 or 34 per cent.

Butter.

s. d.

Meat.
d.

0 6 .

1 0 .

. 3i per lb.
. 5 „

. . 5id.perlb.
. Is. „

In 1 770 the labourers' wages
averaged

In 1850-51, in the same
counties, they averaged. .

Increase in wages of agricul-
tural labourers

Bread,
d.
In 1770 the price of

provisions was . . \\ . ,
In 1850-51 it was .. U ..

In 1770 the price of

wool was. ..,.,..
In 1850-51 it was ....

In 1770 the rent of labourers' cottages averaged
36s. lOd. a-year; in 1850-1, in the same counties,
70s.

It thus appears that, in a period of 80 years, the
average rent of arable land has risen 100 per cent.,
the average price of wheat per acre has increased
14 per cent., the labourers' wages 34 percent., and
their cottage rents 1 00 per cent. ; while the price
of bread, the great staple of the food of the English
labourer, is abovrt the same as it was in 1770. The
price of butter has increased 100 per cent., meat
about 70 ])er cent., and wool upwards of 100 per
cent.

The increase of 14 per cent, on the average yield
of wheat per acre does not indicate the total in-
creased produce. The extent of land in cultivation
in 1770 was, without doubt, much less tlian it is
now ; and the produce given then was the average
of a higher quality of land — the best having, of
course, been earhest taken into cultivation. The
increase of acreable corn produce has therefore been
obtained by better farming, notwithstanding the
contrary influence arising from inferior soils. The
increased breadth now under wheat, with the higher
average produce, bears, however, no proportion to
the increase of rent in the same period ; and the
price of wheat now is much the same as it was then.
We must, therefore, look to the returns from stock
to explain this discrepancy.

While corn has not increased in price, butter,
meat, and wool have nearly doubled in value. The
quantity produced has also greatly increased, the
same land now carrying larger cows, cattle which
arrive at earlier maturity and of greater size, and
sheep of better weight and quality and yielding
more wool. On dairy farms, and on such as are
adapted for the rearing and feeding of stock, espe-
cially of sheep stock, the value of the annual pro-
duce has kept pace with the increase of rent. With
the corn farms the case is very different. In former
times the strong clay lands were looked upon as

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

619

the true wheat soils of the country. They paid the
highest rcntj the heaviest tithe, and employed the
greatest number of labourers. But modern im-
provements have entirely changed their ])osition.
The extension of green crops, and the feeding of
stock, have so raised the product ive quality of the
light lands, that they now produce corn at less cost
than the clays, with the further important advan-
tage, that the stock maintained on them yields a
large profit besides. In all parts of the country,
accordingly, we have found the farmers of strong
clays suffering the most severely under the recent
depression of prices.

The rent of land is denned by Mr. M'CuUoch to
be " the result of the unequal returns of the capi-
tal successively employed in agriculture." But in
practice we have found rent to be a very capricious
thing, often more regulated by the character of the
landlord or his agent and the custom of the neigh-
bourhood than by the value of the soil or the com-
modities it produces. There is not a county in
England wl.ere this is not exemplified. On one
estate we shall find land let at 20s. per acre, and on
the next farm, of the same quality and with the
same facilities of convej^ince, let at 30s. With
farmers of equal skill and enterprise this difference
of rent remains in the pocket of the fortunate
tenant who holds under an easy landlord. But
exertion is generally the chdd of necessity, and the
man who must pay 30s. is obliged to be industrious,
while his neighbour may be indolent, and, in that
case, the difference of rent is lost to all, because in-
dolence leads to diminished production. The active
and industrious man employs more labour to raise
an increased produce, that he may be enabled to
pay his higher rent.

While, however, we deprecate the underletting of
land as injurious to the landlord, and frequently in
its consequences to the public, we must guard
against an error of the opposite character, which is
much more hurtful— the over-letting of land.
When the rent of land is raised to such a point
that the profits of the farmer's industry are absorbed
by it, he loses the motive for exertion, and, if a man
of capital, he carries it, on the first opportunity, to a
farm where it can be more profitably employed. In
other cases he may struggle on, in hope of success,
till his capital is so seriously diminished that he has
little to withdraw, his farm all the while rapidly de-
teriorating in cultivation and produce till it is at
length abandoned to the landlord.

It may be very difficult to hit the happy mean
between these extremes, and, if there was no ex-
traneous element to influence the result, that mean
would probably be best regulated by supply and
demand. But the preference over other creditors
given to the landlord by the law of distraint is
sometimes used to encourage competition between
men of capital and skill, and men who have little
of either, and the rent may thus be unfairly raised.
Competition in the open market, therefore, is not
always, in the present state of the law, the fair mea-
sure of the value of land to the tenant of capital.

Three remarkable examples of the different re-
sults produced by the mode of letting land have
been detailed in these letters. In Oxfordshire we
have found a great landlord so injudiciously requir-

ing an increase of rent that his best tenants have
left and a large portion of the estate is being
abandoned to him. We have described the rela-
tions between aiiother nobleman and his tenants in
Durham, v/here neither the rent is raised nor the
tenants changed, where the bulk of the land is con-
fessed to be underlet, and yet the tenants are not
prosperous nor satisfied. In these two cases we
have the ojiposite extremes, producing in the one
case ruin and diminished produce, and in the other,
indolence and discontent. How nearly alike is the
result of conduct dictated by principles so different !
The third example is shown m Bedfordshire,
where another landlord, fully recognizing his duty,
puts his farms into a proper state as regards the
l)ermanent improvements necessary for their pro-
fitable occupation, and then lets them on lease to
selected tenants, at a fair rent, estimated by his
agent, v/ho is practically acquainted with the value
of land. Undue competition is thus discouraged,
while at the same time the landlord participates, by
gradually im]5roving rents, in the increasing wealth
of the country. The tenants have their caiiital left
free for the cultivation of the land, in the full benefit
of which they have the option of being secured by
lease. A living sympathetic interest is thus main-
tained between landlord and tenant, the result cf
which is seen in improving farming, increased em-
ployment, and a cordial understanding between a
wise and considerate landlord and an intelligent and
independent tenantry. On many other estates
mentioned in these letters the same principles are
followed by similar results.

The influence of proximity to large populations
in enhancing the rent of land varies in different
parts of the country. The lowest rented counties
in England are Surrey, Sussex, and Durham, two of
which may be said to be in the vicinity of the me-
tropolis, and the third has a large and well era-
ployed native po})ulation. The highest rented
counties are Lancashire and the West Riding, many
parts of which are continuous villages, and l)oth
contain a large proportion of grass land. In 1770,
distance from the metropolis seems to have in a
great measure regulated the rent, which begins, ac-
cording to Young, at 19s. 6d. an acre in Berkshire,
and gradually falls to 7s. 6d. in Cumberland. But
the means of communication in his time are de-
scribed by him as " execrable." " Let me most
seriously caution all travellers," he says, " who may
accidentally purpose to travel this terrible country,
to avoid it. They will here meet with ruts which I
actually measured four feet deep, and floating with
mud only from a wet summer. I would advise no
one to journey further north than Newcastle-under-
Lyne. Until better management is produced I
would advise all travellers to consider this country
as sea, and as soon think of driving into the ocean
as venturing into such detestable roads." Matters
are changed nov/. We have railways traversing
every part of the country, steam vessels sailing from
almost every port, and generally good houses of ac-
commodationbetween every village and market town.
Rent, in so far as regulated by external circum-
stances, we shall find depends now on other influ-
ences than proximity to or distance from the me-
tropolis. To illustrate this, among other points.

520

THE FARMER*S MAGAZINE.

we have prepared the following table, which divides
the country into two sections from north to soiitb,
with reference to climate, the one embracing the
eastern and soutli coast, or corn side of the island,
the other the midland and western counties, where
the system of husbandry is more a mixture of corn,
stock, and dairy fanning.

Table, showing the Average Rent of Cultivated
Land, the produce of Wheat in bushels, and the
weekly wages of the Labourer in 1850-1, in the
Midland and Western Counties, being the mixed
Corn and Grass Districts ; and in the East and
South Coast Counties, being the chief Corn-
producing Districts of England.

Per Acre. |

Midland and Western
Counties.

Rent.

Pro-
duce

Labourers
Wages .

Cumberland

Lancashire

West Riding

Cheshire

Derby

Nottingham

Leicester

s.
25
42
40
30
2G
32
35
30
32
30
26
30
28
35
30

d.
0
0
0
0
0
G
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
0

bush.
27
28
30
28
33
32
21
28
30
28
25
25
23
28
20

s. d.
13 0

13 G

14 0
12 0
11 0
10 0

9 6

Staflbrd

9 6

Warwick .

Northampton

Buckinghamshire . .
Oxford

8 6
10 0

8 G

9 0

Glocestcr

7 0

North Wilts

Devon

7 6

8 6

Averages

31

4

27

10 1

1.

P

er Acre.

East and South Coast
Counties.

Rent.

Pro-
duce.

Labourers
Wages.

Northumberland . .
Durham

s.

20

17

29

22

30

25

24

26

28

25

22

26

18

19

30

25

17

20

d.
0
0
0
6
0
6
0
6
0
0
6
0
6
0
0
0
6
0

bush.
32
16
20
30
26
32
32
32
32
25
22
28
22
22
30
30
24
21

s. d.
11 0
11 0

North Riding

East Riding

Lincoln

11 0

12 0
10 0

Norfolk

8 6

Suffolk

7 0

Huntingdon

Cambridge

Bedford

8 6
7 6

9 0

Hertford

9 0

Essex

Surrey

8 0

9 6

Sussex

10 6

Berks

7 6

Hants

9 0

South Wilts

Dorset

7 0

7 6

Averages

, 23

8

26i

9 1

Average rent of cultivated
land in all the counties

Average produce per acre
of wheat

Average weekly wages of
labourers

27s, 2d.
26| bushels.
9s. 6d.

Tlie great corn-growing counties of the east coafit
are thus shown to yield an average rent of 23s. 8d.
an acre ; the more mixed husbandry of the midland
counties, and the grazing green crop and dairy dis-
tricts of tlie west, 3 Is. 4d. This striking difference,
being not less than 30 per cent., is explained chiefly
by the different value of their staple produce, as
already shown ; corn, the staple of the east coast,
selling at the same price it did 80 years ago, while
dairy produce, meat, and wool, have nearly doubled
in value. The difference in rent does not arise
from a greater fertility of soil, as may be seen by
comparing the produceof wheat. The corn counties,
in so far as they yield barley, and feed, or produce
cattle and sheep, benefit by the rise in jirice.*

Leases arc the exception throughout England ;
and though we have found them more prevalent
in the west, there has been no sufficient uniformity
to account in any degree for the difference of
rent.

But the size of farms has an undoubted influence
on the rent. In the dry climate of the counties of
the east coast, the operations of a corn farm can be
carried on, with great precision and regularity, on
an extensive scale. In the chalk districts especially,
the fields are open and unincumbered with wood ;
the dry nature of the land admits of sheep folding,
and a large tract may be conveniently managed
under the superintendence of one person. By this
means the landlord's outlay in buildings and fences
is much economised, and he finds it his interest to
encourage a class of large farmers, men of capital
and education. As we proceed westward, the
country becomes more wooded and better adapted
for pasturage ; the enclosures are smaller, the farms
less extensive, and the farmers more numerous.
Still further west the moistness of the climate

* The table is so far incomplete that our informa-
tion in regard to the different "rates" payable by
the tenant in addition to his rent shows them to be
so variable that no accurate average could be given.
Some farms were tithe-free, and on others the land-
lords are now taking upon themselves the payment
of tithe. In some parishes the poor-rates were
trifling, in others exorbitant; and the same with
highway rate and other county rates. A table (to
be given in a succeeding letter) shows that the poor-
rates are, on the average, nearly equal in their pres-
sui-e in both sections of the country. And on the
whole, though the tithe appears to be heaviest on
the south and eastern counties, the rates, in the ag-
gregate, may be held to be nearly alike in both di-
visions of the country, and will not affect the truth
of the averages we have given. We have a strong
feeling that landlords would find it a good plan to
take upon themselves the payment of all rates ex-
cept the poor-rate, letting their land, as in Scotland,
at a certain rent, free of all other rates. The land-
lords, who in effect, pay all the rates in diminished
rent, would then have a direct interest in controll-
ing and economising the county expenditure, for
which they are both best qualified and have most
time, and the tenants would know the exact extent
of their engagements, and not be obliged, as at
present, to reserve a wide margin for these uncer-
tain liabilities.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

591

materially aftects the mode of cultivation, unfavour-
able to corn crops, especially before the introduc-
tion of tile drainage, and favourable to grass. The
farms are of small extent, and held by a numerous
class of tenants, who live frugally, and, in many
cases, assist with their families, in the labours of
the farm. We have here all the elements necessary
to make a diflerence in the rate of rent. The chief
commodity of the western farmer is the produce of
his dairy, his cattle, and his flock. The large
eastern farmer looks jirincipally to his wheat and
barley. It will thus be seen that the landlord of
the western and midland counties possesses the
two great advantages of his soil being used for the
production of our most valuable agricultui'al com-
modities, while his farms, from their size, are ac-
cessible to a larger body of competitors — in short,
are in greater demand than the corn farms of the
east. Our notes of the average extent of farms in
the various counties give 430 acres for the corn
farms of the east, and '220 acres for the mixed
farms of the midland and western districts.

The geological character of ihe country has a
considerable influence on its intrinsic value, in so
far as it affects the character of the soil itself. In
all the lower-rented counties, except the three
northern-most, chalk is the prevailing characteristic.
In the high-rented counties red sandstone is the
principal geological formation.

An attentive consideration of the above table will
strike the careful reader in several new points of
view. That the large capitalist farmer of the east
coast, possessing the most cheaply cultivated soil,
and conducting his agricultural operations with the
most skill, should not only pay the lowest rent, but
be the loudest complainer under the recent depres-
sion of prices, is to be accounted for by his greater
dependence on the value of corn. The moistness
of the climate of the west, on the other hand, dis-
couraged corn cultivation, and compelled a greater
reUance on stock ; and as the country becomes more
prosperous, the diflerence in the relative value of
corn and stock will gradually be increased.

The production of vegetables and fresh meat, hay
for forage, and pasture for dairy cattle, which were
formerly confined to the neighbourhood of towns,
will necessarily extend as the towns become more
numerous and more populous. The facilities of
communication must increase this tendency. Our
insular position, with a limited territory, and an
increasingly dense manufacturing population, is
yearly extending the circle within which the pro-
duction of fresh food, animal, vegetable, and forage,
will be needed for the daily and weekly supply of
the inhabitants and their cattle, and which, both on
account of its bulk and the necessity of having it
fresh, cannot be brought from distant countries.
Fresh meat, milk, butter, vegetables, and hay, are
articles of this description. They can be produced
in no country so well as our own, both climate and
soil being remarkably suited to them. Wool has
likewise increased in value ^s much as any agricul-
tural pi'oduct ; and there is a good prospect of flax
becoming an article in extensive demand, and there-
fore worthy of the farmer's attention. The manu-
facture of sugar from beetroot may yet be found
very profitable to the English agriculturist, and

ought not to be excluded from consideration.*
Now, all these products require the employment of
considerable labour, very minute care, skill, and
attention, and a larger available application of
ca]iital than is requisite for the production of corn.
So various are the objects thus requiring attention
and economical arrangement that a very large im-
dertaking, such as is now carried on by some of
the wealthier farmers of the eastern counties, could
not, on this more elaborate system, be profitably
conducted under the single su])erintendence of one
])erson. This will inevitably lead to the gradual
diminution of the largest farms, and to the concen-
tration of the capital and attention of the farmer on
a smaller space.

The individual experience of the agricultural
class maybe appealed to in support of this opinion.
The consumption of bread in a farmer's family is
not half so large an item in the annual expenditure
of his household as butchers' meat ; and milk and
vegetables and beer, if they were purchased in the
market, would cost him more than bread. If he
looks back for 30 3'ears he will find that this dif-
ference has been gradually increasing. W^ith the
great mass of consumers bread still forms the chief
article of consumption; but in the manufacturing
districts, where wages are good, the use of butchers'
meat and cheese is enormously on the increase ;
and even in the agricultural districts the labourer
does now occasionally indulge himself in a meat
dinner or season his dry bread with a morsel of
cheese. In a gentleman's family, consisting of
himself, his wife, six children, and 10 servants, the
average expenditure for each individual per annum
for articles of food produced by the farmer was £9
10s. for meat, butter, and milk, and £1 2s. 4d. for
bread. In a large public establishment, containing
an average throughout the year of 646 male per-
sons, chiefly boys, the expenditure per head for
meet, cheese, pototaes, butter, and milk is £4 10s.
6d., and for bread £2 Is. 6d. The price of each
article is charged in both cases at the present
average rates throughout England. The first ex-
ample shows an expenditure in articles the produce

* There are two important considerations with
regard to the culture of flax and sugar beet. The .
farmer may not only receive a remunerative price
for the fibre of the one and the saccharine matter
of the other, but he retains on his farm the seed of
the flax and the refuse of the sugar manufacture to
feed his stock and increase the quality and quantity
of their manure. The uses of linseed, as food for
cattle, are well known in this country ; and, in re-
gard to the refuse of the beetroot manufacture, we
may mention (on the information of the Comte de
Gourcy, who has devoted several years to the per-
sonal investigation of continental agriculture) that
very large stocks of cattle are fed on the sugar
farms, and that a machine has been lately invented
by a sugar manufacturer at Baden, which, hke our
thrashing machine, can be introduced at about the
same expense on individual farms, and by which
the sugar can be extracted from the beet and pre-
pared for commerce at a price of 22d. a pound,
after paying the cost of manufacture and a remune-
rative value to the farmer for his beet.

622

THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE.

of grass and green crops nearly nine times as great
as in corn ; and the second, which may be regarded
as more of an average example, also shows an
outlay 2j times greater on the former articles of
produce than the latter. Here we see not only the
kind of produce most in demand, but the direction
in which household expenditure increases when the
means are ample. It is reasonable to conclude
that the great mass of the consumers, as their cir-
cumstances imj^rove, will follow the same rule.
And in further illustration of this argument it may
be mentioned that the only species of corn which
has risen materially in price since 1770 is barle}',
and that is accounted for by the increasing use of
beer, which is more a luxury than a necessary of life.
Every intelligent farmer ought to keep tliis
steadily in view. Let him produce as much as he
can of the articles which have shown a gradual
tendency to increase in value. The farms which
80 years ago yielded £100 in meat and wool, or in
butter, would now produce £'200, although neitlier
the breed of stock nor the capabilities of the land
had been improved. Those which yielded £100
in wheat then, would yield no more now, even if
the productive power of the land had undergone no
diminution by a long course of exhaustion. The
clays of Durham and Cleveland, and the wealds of
Surrey, Sussex, and Kent are in this state of re-
duced fertihty. The wheat they produce brings the
same price per bushel as it did SO years ago, but
the quantity each acre yields is diminished. The
tenants of these and similar districts are the poorest
of their class in England, and the rent of the land-
lords has scarcely increased. In Cheshire and
Lancashire there are clays as stifl' and infertile ; but
even if they produced no more than they did SO
years ago, their owners and tenants have increased
in wealth, inasmuch as that produce of cheese and
butter, the staple of their district, which then sold
for £100, is now worth £200. But the acreable
produce itself has likewise increased, and this is a
most important feature in the case ; for a large
stock of well fed animals every year adds fertility
to the land on which they are kept, while a con-
stant succession of corn crops, not yielding a cor-
responding return of manure, gradually diminishes
that natural fertility. The consequence of this,
and hkewise an illustration of our argument, is

tl)at at present corn land in the wealds of Surrey
or Sussex may be hired at 15s. or bought for £21
an acre, while grass land of much the same quality
in Cheshire lets at 30s. and sells at Lio an acre.
Nay, even in the same county the contrast is more
striking ; for in Surrey a meadow lets at £3 an
acre, while tillage land, originally of the same
quality, on the opposite side of the fence, shall
scarcely fetch 15s.

While we thus attempt to indicate the direction
in which experience seems to have shown that ag-
ricultural enterprise will for the future be most re-
munerative, it is proper to advert to the possible
eifects of such a change on the supply of food and
the demand for labour. If more land should
thereby be gradually laid to grass, or a greater ex-
tent be devoted to the production of meat and ve-
getables, we should expect, as the result of better
cultivation, that there would be little or no diminu-
tion in the annual pioduce of corn, inasmuch as
the smaller extent would yield a larger acreable re-
turn. But, although that increased return should
be found insufficient to compensate in quantity for
the diminished breadth of corn crops, no anxiety
need therefore be felt for the bread of the people.
Rest from corn cropping is the best preparation for
the future growth of corn ; and if an emergency
should ever arise by which, in consequence of war,
we should be driven back on our own resources,
we would find that we had been laying up in our
rich grass fields, and well manured green crop lands,
a store of fertility v/hich might be called into action
in a single season, and which v.'ould yield ample
crops of corn for consecutive years, with little labour
or expense.

Experience also shows that this change of hus-
bandry would not prove injurious to the labourer.
Green crops require more manual labour than corn.
And even an increase of grass, combined with
green crops, would probably not diminish the de-
mand for labour. It is in the strictly corn districts
of the south and east that the labourer's condition
is most depressed. The dairy lands of North
Wilts, the vale of Gloucester, and the vale of Ayles-
bury afford better wages to the labourer than the
corn districts of the same counties, Salisbury plain,
the Cotswolds, and the corn farms on the Chiltern
hills.

THE EFFECTS OF THE NEW GOLD FIELDS ON AGRICULTURE.

Though the gold of California and Australia is not
likely to cause any greater rise of prices than that which
took place during the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies— that rise being spread over the next fifty years —
it is by no means improbable that it may raise the price
of silver. Silver underwent a depreciation of fifty per
cent, with respect to gold, after the discovery of the
mines of Potosi. Before that event, the value of gold
to silver varied between 9 to 1 and 11 to 1. That is to
say, 1 lb. of gold, which previously exchanged for a
quantity of silver varying with the relative abundance of
the two metals between 9 lbs. and 11 lbs., exchanged,

activity, for 15 lbs, of silver. Gold has never yet effected
a revolution in prices. It was silver, not gold, which
produced that of the sixteenth century. Eager as the
Spaniards were for gold, and though they stripped the
natives of all that they had collected during centuries,
it was insignificant in quantity, and insufficient to affect
prices. The gold of Hispaniola, which furnished the
chief supply, was exhausted in twenty years. The old
relations between gold and silver may be restored should
the present yield of gold continue for many years, unless
a corresponding addition shall be made to the supply of
silver. As jet, scarcely any appreciable alteration has

when the silver mines of the New World came into taken place in the price of that metal. Some are of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

623

opinion that the produce of silver is increasing. Wyld's
estimate on this point is as follows : —

lS10..Gold.. 5,000,000 .. Silver 0,750,000
1848 ,, .. 7,000,000 .. „ 0,750,000
1850.. ,, .. 17,000,000 .. ,, 7,500,000
1851.. ,, .. 22,500,000 .. ,, 7,500,000
A greater increase in the produce of silver is by no
means improbable, for successful mining operations in
one quarter stimulate to increased exertions in others.
Silver is much more abundantly diffused in nature than
gold. There is scarcely any lead ore in which it is not
present. While it could only be separated by the pro-
cess of capellation, which destroyed a large portion of
the lead, it was unprofitable to extract the silver from
any but those of ores of lead which were rich in it.
Pattinson's ingenious process, founded on the different
temperatures at which melted lead and silver crystallise,
removes this objection, and enables the poorest silver-
lead ores to be unsilvered. The silver mines of Ame-
rica, which produced such remarkable effects in the
sixteenth century, and have shice yielded, till lately, the
greater portion of the precious metals, are remarkable,
not for the richness of their ore, but for its abundance,
and the facility with which it can be wrought. Most of
the American silver ores are too poor to pay for smelt-
ing, and recourse to amalgamation with mercury there-
fore becomes necessary. The abundance or scarcity of
mercury consequently exercises a great influence on
their produce. Next to cobalt, this is the rarest of
metals. The chief supplies are derived from two mines
— that of Almaden in Spain, and that of Huancavelica
in America. The discovery of new mines of quicksilver
would therefore increase the silver produce of Mexico
and Peru, and would contribute to preserve the existing
relations between gold and silver. If, therefore, the
)aine of New Almaden, in California, shall reduce the
price of quicksilver, and if the political state of the
silver-producing countries of southern and central Ame-
rica shall become more settled, an increased yield of
silver may be expected.

The price of commodities depends, so far as the pre-
cious metals are concerned, on the joint amount of gold
and silver. A rise, therefore, in the price of silver is by
no means incompatible with the absence of a general rise
of prices. There would be greater probability of such
a general rise should the present yield of gold continue
for many years, without disturbing the relations between
gold and silver, since this would indicate that a corres-
ponding increase was taking place in the production of
silver.

The truth, however, is, that the influence of gold and
silver on prices has been greatly diminished in modern
times by means of inventions which have economised
their use. Prices are affected' by credit, and by the
substitutes for money which it has created, more than
by money itself. These substitutes, which are the
growth of the last century and the present, have been
equivalent to the opening of mines of the precious metals

far richer than those of California or Australia. Mone-
tary transactions have so far outgrown the supply of the
precious metals, that but for these representatives of
money, prices must have declined with the increase of
commodities requiring money as a medium of exchange.
The insufliciency of all the gold and silver in the world
for the monetary transactions of modern commerce, was
lately a favourite argument with the advocates of a cur-
rency of tlepreciated met:*.!, or inconvertible paper.

Regarding the substitutes for money which credit
creates as part of the circulation, the largest probable
additions to the metallic wealth of the world will bear a
very small proportion to the total amount of that cir-
culation. Let us trace credit, therefore, through the
different forms which it assumes as a substitute for
money, and let us endeavour to estimate the effects of
its influence on prices.

In a state of commerce in which credit prevails, its
action on prices arises from this, that a person possessed
of credit, and using it for the purchase of commodities,
causes just as much demand for them, and tends to raise
prices as much, as if he made an equal amount of pur-
chases with ready money. The forms of credit which
create a purchasing power are various. The most
simple is that of accounts current, in which two dealers
have transactions together, each being a purchaser and
seller with respect to the other. The sum of the debts
of each is thus set against the debts of the other, and
the balance is settled at the end of the year, or at other
periods. A few hundreds of pounds, or even a few
pounds, may in this way liquidate transactions each of
which may be to the amount of thousands. The balance
may be settled without the intervention of money at all,
by the indebted party making over the debt of a third
person to him, through the instrumentality of a bill of
exchange.

Bills of exchange furnish means by which the debt of
one person may be made available for obtaining credit
by another. A merchant, for instance, sells goods to be
paid for at three or six months, according to the custom
of the trade. If he wishes to receive the money before
the usual time, he draws a bill, which he gets discounted
by his banker, or other money lender. Bills of exchange
not only spare the use of ready money, they in many
cases occupy its place, when the bills drawn by one per-
son are paid to another in discharge of any pecuniary
obligation. Many bills when presented for payment are
completely covered v« ith endorsements, each of which
represents a fresh transaction in which the bill has per-
formed the functions of money. As a circulating instru-
ment, acting as a substitute for money, and therefore
affecting prices by its purchasing power, it is immaterial
whether a bill which passes from endorser to endorser
represents a real sale or debt, or whether it belongs to
the class of accommodation, or, as they are not unfre-
qusntly termed, j?c#i<io?<s bills, by means of which one
person lends his credit to another to enable him to raise
money on it. Such bills are, in fact, promissory notes,

2 M

5-24

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

with this diflTerenee, that they possess the advantage of
having two names on them instead of one, with the
further security of every subsequent endorser.

The promissory notes of bankers constitute another
form of credit. They enable dealers in money to lend
not only their money but their credit, which they may
be said by these means to coin. They thus lend not only
their own credit, but their power of obtaining credit
from the public at large. They effect this ^ lending
their notes payable to the bearer on demand, which the
borrower receives as money, because he knows that the
credit of the lender will enable him to pay them away as
money to others.

Payments by cheques constitute a fourth form of
credit. If carried to the fullest extent of whicli they are
capable, the use of money might be wholly superseded by
them. If the person making payment by cheque and
the person receiving it kept their accounts with the same
banker, the payment would take place without the in-
tervention of money, by the mere transfer of the amount
in the books of tlie banker. The same would be the
case with all the traders in London, if they all kept an
i.^count with the same banker ; and by means of tho
London Clearing House, all the City bankers are ren-
dered virtually one establishment. Each banker sends
every day to the Clearing House all the cheques which
he has received on other bankers, to be exchanged for
those which they hold drawn on him, the balance being
paid in money. By this contrivance, not only the
money transactions of the City of London, but a vast
amount of country business, represented by bills drawn
by country bankers on their London correspondents, the
whole amounting, on an average, to three millions daily,
are settled by means of Bank of England notes, to the
value of not more than two hundred thousand pounds.

Book debts, bills of exchange, bankers' promissory
notes, and cheques, exercise their respective influence on
prices, in proportion to the facility or encouragement
which they give to the multiplication of credit. Book
debts stand the lowest on the scale, because they give
the seller on this kind of credit no convenient mode of
making the debt due to him from the purchaser a means
of extending his own credit, by pledging it as security
for a loan, or passing it in payment for goods. Let him
draw a bill, however, for the amount, and he can get it
discounted on the joint-credit of himself and the ac-
ceptor. He can thus obtain money wherewith to
purchase goods, or he can pay the bill away in exchange
for tliem. The person to whom it is paid may do the
same. Every fresh endorsement will thus represent a
fresh purchase.

The promissory notes of a banker have a still greater
purchasing power, because they have a more extended
credit. A bill of exchange will bs taken only by those
who are acquainted with the reputation for solvency of
t!ie acceptor and drawer ; but a banker has a wider
range : his notes are received as money by every one, at
leist in his own neighbourhood; so that by custom,

which has grown into law, a payment by bank notes is a
complete acquittance of a debt ; whereas in the case of
payment made with a bill, the debt would remain un-
discharged should the person on whom the bill was
drawn fail to pay it.

It is only the first holder, therefore, the original
borrower of the notes — from the bank — who pledges his
own credit to obtain them. Every person into whose
hands they subsequently pass can expend the whole of
them in the purchase of goods without diminishing the
purchasing power which he possessed before—the power
of obtaining goods on book credit.

Every object which is attained at pres3-i!, Ly bank-
notes might be accomplished as effectually by deques,
or by transfers in a banker's books. A baaksr, for in-
stance, instead of lending his notes, might open an ac-
count with a merchant, and might credit him with the
sum agreed to be advanced, on the understanding that
it should only be used by drav/ing cheques in favour of
those to whom he has to make payments in the way of
his business. These cheques may pass from hand to
hand like bank notes, or the receiver may pay them
into the bands of his banker, and draw a fresh cheque
against them. In a country district, the drawers of the
two cheques generally use the same bank, in v, hich case
no payment is made by money, but simply by the trans -
fer of the amount from the credit of one customer to
that of the other. If the cheque is paid into a different
bank from that on which it is drawn, it will not be pre-
sented for payment, but liquidated by a set-off against
other cheques. The banker has only, therefore, to pro-
vide money to discharge the balance, for which the or-
dinary reserve of prudent bankers— one-third of their
liabilities — will be sufficient. Had he granted this ex-
tension of credit by means of an issue of his notes, he
must have retained the usual reserve of coin, so that he
can give every accommodation by a cheque circulation
as by a note circulation. As the act of drawing a check
against another which has been cancelled can be re-
peated as often as a purchase by a bank note, it effects
the same increase of purchasing power, and the original
loan from the banker becomes multiplied, as a means
of purchase, in the hands of every person to whom por-
tions of it are successively paid, just as the purchasing
power of a bank note is multiplied by the number of !
exchanges which it effects before it returns to the issuer.
Bank notes and cheques, therefore, are more powerful
instruments in raising prices than bills of exchange, and
bills than book debts.

All this purchasing power, however, only acts upon
prices to the extent to which it is used ; and the willing-
ness of a person to use his credit depends on his expect-
ation of gain founded on the rise of price already in
progress ; or on anticipated demand arising out of the
relations between supply and consumption. Under
such circumstances, speculative purchases commence in
expectation of profits by an advance of price.

These purchases begin with the book debts, and are

J

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

525

continued by means of bills. A rise of prices is llius
often produced which there are no circumstances to
justify. As long as there appears a prospect of a fa-
vourable result, the credit of the speculative purchasers
remains unsliukeu. If some wish to realize, others are
prepared with capital or credit to take their stock off
llieir hands. If events justify the grounds of the spe-
culation, and sales for consumption come in lime to re-
place the capital embarked, all is well ; but if events
arc adverse, and forthcoming supplies are found to ex-
ceed the estimated consumption, a revulsion takes place:
and if speculation has been very general, a commercial
crisis, commonly called a panic, is produced.

During a period of speculation, increased issues of
bank-notes certainly came into play, but at a later
period than book credits and bills. Advances from the
bauks are not applied for to make purchases, but to
enable those who have made them to hold stock when
the usual term of credit has expired, and the expected
rise has not taken place.

The extent to which purchases may be carried on by
book transactions, was exemplified by the tea specula-
tions of 1839, and the operations of the corn market
between 1338 and 1842, and again in 1847. In the
corn market there were instances of persons possessing
a capital of only ^5,000, engaging in speculations
favourable in the outset, and favoured by circumstances
during their progress, who were able to make purchases
to the extent of from £500,000 to £600,000 ; and of
others who, without any capital, were able to make pur-
chases to a very great extent, so long as the aspect of
the market favoured their views. These speculative
purch.ises, moreover, were carried on in 1839 and 1840,
when the money market was in its most contracted
state, and a scarcity — as it is called — of money existed.
Credit, therefore, may raise prices, without an increased
circulation of specie or bank-notes, by assisting specu-
lative purchases for a rise.

The amount of bills of exchange in circulation in
Great Braitain at any one time is supposed, from calcu-
lations founded on the official returns of bill-stamps
issued, to be considerably above one hundred

millions sterling. The Lank-note circulnioa of
Great Britain and Ireland is less than forty
millions, which, during periods of speculation, is
not increased by more than two or three millions. The
transactions of the London Clearing House amount oii
the average to £3,000,000 daily, liquidated by means of
little more than £200,000 in bank-notes. Who will
venture to estimate the total cheque circulation of the
country, mad the amount of book credits ? What effect
can an addition, during the course of a century, to the
stock of precious metals throughout the world, to the
extent of even three hundred millions, have in incrca-iiig
the purchasing power of such a mass of credit? Sub-
stitutes for money have, in this country, superseded in
effect the use of money for large payments. Our world
of credit, like the world of the Hindoo philosophy, rests
upon an elephant, which is supported by a tortoise.
The elephant is our banknote circulation; the tortoise,
a few millions of gold in the coffers of the Bank of
England. During 1842, this fluctuated between a little
less than six millions and a little more than ten millions,
the average for the year being about eight millions. It
now amounts to more than twenty-one millions and a
half, being within about seven hundred thousand
pounds of the bank-notes actually in circulation ; for
more than twelve millions of the notes issued are lying
unemployed in the strong room of the banking depart-
ment. Has this increase in the stock of bullion in the
Bank produced any influence on prices ? Is there not,
on the contrary, a marked disinclination to speculate
in produce of any kind, as evinced by the want of de-
mand for capital, and the consequent low rate of
interest ?

The accumulation of bullion does not appear likely to
rise much beyond the present amount ; for the exports
of it now exceed the imports, and Australia, if it sends
us nuggets, is drawing upon us for sovereigns. An
efflux of gold, however, is no longer looked on with
alarm ; so that, though the new gold fields are not likely
to produce any great revolution in prices, they will
strengthen our golden tortoise, and render the super-
incumbent mass of credit more secure. T.

THE AGRICULTURE OF THE BIBLE

A GLANCE AT ITS HISTORY.

A common opinion asserts that all nations sprang
from hunters and savages. But this is a mistake.
Adam, the first man, was a tiller of the ground,
Cain and Ahel, his sons, divided agriculture be-
tween them, into the arable husbandry and the
pastoral husbandrj'. Three brothers of the seventh
generation from Adam made certain great class
improvements, which not obscurely intimate that
one was a systematic "stock-feeder, and another a
maker of agricultural implements. Noah under-

stood well the management of vineyards. All tlic-
early nations after the dispersion — the Babylonians,
the Assyrians, the Hebrews, the Egyptians, the
Phoenicians, the Persians, and probably also the
Chinese and the Indians — were agriculturists. Men
did not advance from a hunter's life to a farmer's
one, but receded from a farmer's life to a hunter's
one. They fell away from husbandry, and from
the high arts connected with it, just as they fell
away from the worship of the true God, and from

2 M 2

526

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

the practices of peace. And not till great multi-
tiides became idolaters and savages, did many, or
perhaps almost any, become 'mighty hunters.'

Another and kindred opinion supposes that agri-
culture rose originally out of a rude condition, and
advanced slowly in improvement. This also is a
mistake. The antediluvians probably were better
farmers than any who now walk the earth. Adam
got his knowledge of jjhysical things in Edin, and,
however he may have perverted it, he can scarcely
Ije supposed to have materially lost it. The light
of it was a glory, and did not wax dim for ages.
Noah took into the ark a large knowledge of natu-
ral history, a large knowledge of husbandry, and
a large knowledge of religion. The first and the
second of these were practically one, and were
afterwards put practically together, and they served
as truly to pioneer all the future interests of man-
kind in regard to time, as the religious knowledge
served to pioneer them in regard to eternity. 'The
chief tribes,' as the present writer has elsewhere
remarked, 'retained a goodly knowledge of the
principles of agriculture, and transmitted them as
precious heirlooms to their descendant nations.
The practices of the Noahic family round the sku-ts
of Ararat, were repeated on the Euphrates, and
taught throughout all the countries of the disper-
sion. The earliest nations of the several great
regions of the old world all passed through 'a golden
age,' when kings were husbandmen, and soils were
'perpetual,' and flocks and apiaries made the lands
' flow with milk and honey.' Poetry, no doubt,
waves a magic wand over these early scenes ; but
philosophy, in the light of revelation and of authen-
tic record, depicts no mean portion of them as as-
sured realities. And our theory, after a careful
consideration of the subject^ is, that agriculture was
in its glory during all the cradling periods of the
world, that it shed ease and opulence on the found-
ers and fathers of nations, that it became dimmed
and dismal by the volcano-eruptions of wickedness
and war, and that it will shine again in a brighter
than its pristine glory, only when all men shall be-
hold it through the clear atmosjihere of Christianity,
when ' they shall beat their swords into plough-
shares, and their spears into pruning-hooks, and
shall not learn war any more,' The art of the
primitive husbandmen may have been simpler,
vastly simpler, than ours ; but it was at least as
well adapted to its circumstances, and it had a hap-
pier spirit, and obtained more abundant returns.

The most eminently agricultural of the early
nations became the most eminently accomphshed
and wealthy. They passed from skill in farming
to the study of their other arts, and employed the
surplus produce of their farms to create commerce
and construct great public works. The Chaldeans

whose territory was probably the wreck of Eden,
had harvests of from two hundredfold to three
hundredfold increase, and soon were able to build
'great Babylon.' The Assyrians kept their lands
in high fertility by means of skilful and very la-
borious irrigations, and gradually adorned their
metro])olis of three days' journey with those masses
of sculpture which are striking all the antiquaries
of our own day with wonder. The Persians ever dig-
nified agriculture with the highest public honours,
and soon became famous for weaving, needlework,
and embroidery. The Chinese, whose country is
supposed by some Christian archaeologists to have
been settled by a very early branch of the Noahic
family, or even by Noah himself, rose so speedily
to magnificence, that all their early history is a
golden legend ; and, at the periods when other old
nations were sinking into decay, or had perished
from the earth, they became young again, and ori-
ginated some wise and peculiar agricultural usages,
which have come down to modern times with a
stereotyped antiquity. The Phoenicians — the abo-
riginal inhabitants of Syria, the Philistines of sa-
cred narrative — possessed the gardenesque plain
of Sharon, the ' excellency of Carmel,' and the
' glory' of the ' goodly mountain Lebanon ;' and
so magnificent a surplus produce did they statedly
obtain thence for sale over all the countries round
the Mediterranean, that their chief seaport soon
became, and long continued, 'the joyous city, the
crowning city, whose merchants were princes, whose
traffickers were the honourable of the earth.' The
Egyptians inherited so luxuriant a territory in the
long fat valley of the Nile, and devoted themselves
so sedulously and enrichingly to its cultivation,
that they have been very generally, though mis-
takenly and absurdly, regarded as the founders
of agriculture ; and out of the vast, constant accu-
mulating treasures which their husbandry yielded
them, they invented arts, created refinements, and
reared monuments which will be the wonder of all
time. The Israelites were, in several respects,
more remarkable than any. The Greeks, the
Carthaginians, and the Romans, more or less, ran
a similar course to the earlier nations ; and even
the Peruvians of the New World followed the
general law. ' All these nations, anciently celebrated
for their agriculture,' remarks Mr. Hoskyns, ' pre-
sent one common feature — that of long duration ;
and the extent is remarkable to which in all of them
other arts successively flourished, and rose to per-
fection out of the basis laid by the early industry
and success of their husbandry. By supj^lying a
larger annual amount of wealth than was sufficient
for the annual wants, it not only rendered them
rich and powerful, but it rendered them historical,
for the very records of which — in the case of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

627

Egypt, especially, a history and a chronology of the
nation might be afterwards collected — could only
be bequeathed by means of a capitalised wealth
aiijjlied to the erection of stupendous architectural
works, enclosing specimens of art.'

Palestine, under the Israelites, was an exception
to the other nations in the recording of her history,
for, though this was inscribed on many a monu-
ment, and, most of all, on her temple, it was writ-
ten also, by divine dictation, in those living
Scriptures which reveal the second life to man, and
whose lessons and influences wiU abide and live
for ever. She was an exception, too, in the asso-
ciation of her hus]:)andry with the arts ; for, though
the Israelites till the captivity, and the Jews after-
wards, were ever as accomplished, in all matters
of general skill and taste, as any of then- contem-
poraries, they never became mainly nor largely a
commercial or a manufacturing people, but con-
tented themselves throughout with the pursuits of
husbandry. They differed from all their neighbours,
also, in the systematic connection of their agricul-
ture with the institutions of the true religion.
Their landed tenure accrued from the same covenant
which made them the progenitor kinsmen of the
Saviour ; their rural economy had as surely a divine
sanction and a moral aim as their public worship ;
their agrarian laws were embodied in the same
code as their juridical, ceremonial, and moral laws;
and, altogether, their special and entire devotement
to agriculture was an adjunct of their special and
entire devotement to prefigurative Christianity.
They often fell off, indeed, from both their husban-
dry and their religion ; but, on the whole, they
continued till the advent of the Messiah both to
maintain a flourishing agriculture and to profess
the faith of the true God. They therefore perpe-
tuated for many centuries the spirit and manners
of the patriarchal times ; they repeated, down to a
late epoch, the scenes which were common among
the earliest decendants of Adam and Noah ; and
ages after other old nations had been either wasted
l)y ambition, or bloated by luxury, or driven mad
l)y heathenism, the chosen people continued to
enjoy a vigorous healthiness, or at least all the
means of it, under the strictly rural and religious
usages of the Holy Land. The flanks as well as
the centres of their glorious territory were golden
expanses of arable field, where ' floods of corn
rolled to the breeze,'

' And peaceful ploughmen then made Arnon glad,
And Kir look proudly o'er her corn-clad vales —
Made Heshbon, joyful, lift her flowery head.
And Sibmah's vine perfume the summer gales.'

COMPARISON OF IT WITH MODERN
AGRICULTURE.

The agriculture of modern times has its seat in

widely different countries from the agriculture of
ancient times. Agriculture, in the general sense,
indeed, both modern and ancient, belongs to all
climes, and prevails, in some way or other, through
all regions ; but in the sense of comparative ex-
cellence, or in the sense of a system resting on
principles, and worked by rule, as distinguished
from a rough, rude jiokering of the earth by rote
and imitation, modern husbandry thrives princi-
pally in the cool countries of the temperate zone,
and knows little of the droujfhts, and heats, and
glowing sunshine of the husbandry of the ancients.
The Romans founded it. These conquerors of the
world imported into Italy, one by one, all the gocd
agricultural usages of Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt,
Carthage, and Greece, or at least as many of them
as were suited to the Italian climate ; and they
there cast them into a new form, adapted them to
their own wants and soils and implements, added
a few inventions, and laid the foundation, or even,
in some instances, anticipated the practice, of some
of the most boasted improvements of our own
day. Roman agriculture became a glory : the
greatest statesmen practised it, the most learned
writers described it, the most tuneful of all the
poets, the immortal Virgil, sang it, and the keenest
soldiers and most impetuous victors carried it into
other lands. But as it had been mainly derived
from the east, so it became mainly lodged in the
west. It stood ever connected with hot countries
only as a debtor, and never made them any return
for what it owed them. It made all its adaptations
to comparatively cold climes and wet soils, and set
improvement processes agoing which could readily
be reduced to the circumstances of colder countries
than Italy, but not at all to the circumstances of
hotter ones; and almost in the degree in which it
had attracted an inflowing tide of knowledge from
all the Levant, it sent away an outflowing one to
the British Channel and the Baltic. The period of
the Roman empire was in every way a transition
period to enlightened agriculture, giving it a new
seat, an altered character, and totally different aims
and appliances. So long as the Roman power was
rising to the meridian, enlightened agriculture
dimmed in the sunny south, and brightened in the
foggy north ; and when the Roman power went
down to the horizon, Asiatic husbandry lay be-
nighted, and European hus])andry was a world (f
brilliance.

A knowledge of these facts will lead the way to
a right understanding of the agricultural allusions
of ancient records, and correct many monstrous
popular mistakes respecting the comparative ceo-
noinical value of the ancient husbandry and th.e
modern. Nothing can be more erroneous than to
test even the present agriculture of the east, and

628

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

much more any ancient agriculture whatever, with
the present practices of British fanners. The two
things are exceedingly dissimilar, and in some
respects contrasted. The climate, and soils, and
fcrtilisements, and efficient tillage, and proper har-
vestings, and even some of the field plants of the
several agricultural countries mentioned in the
Bil>le, all differed more or less widely from those
of modern Britain. The climate of all was dry,
and warm, and sunny ; while ours is wet, and cold,
and cloudy. The soils of all were more or less
shallow, and loose, and parched ; while ours are
generally deep, and cohesive, and wet. The very
uplands, as those of Judea, were kept in heart
mainly by means of artificial irrigations ; and the
great outspread valleys, as those of Egypt and
Mesopotamia, were maintained iji fertility solely
or principally by the floodings of the rivers ; while
almost all our lands, whether of hill or dale, of
jiasture or corn-field, require the very opposite ap-
pliance of subsoil drainage. The lands of Pales-
tine possessed special capacities for absorbing
fcrtilisements from the atmosphere, and were en-
riched by depasturement of cattle throughout the
year, and suffered no deterioration from the wash-
ing action of rains ; and the lands of the Mile and
Euphrates were kept fat and luxuriant by great an-
nual depositions of silt ; while our lands, or any,
can be made remunerating from year to year, or at
least from i-otation to rotation, only by means of
great artificial manurings. The dry field-farms of
the ancients needed but very slight tillage for either
destroying weeds or preparing the seed-bed; and
their flood-field farms, especially those of the Nile,
needed none whatever, Imt were stirred only in the
way of covering the seed and of very slender after-
culture ; while all our farms, even the highest and
driest, are subjected to deep, repeated, elaborate
tillage for every crop, and require, inaddition, either
to be under a system of biennial, laborious, clean-
ing after-culture in the manner of the drill turnip
luisbandry, or to undergo periodically the searching^
complicated, prolonged, expensive process of the
summer fallow. The harvesLings of the ancients>
up to the preparing of the corn for the mill, were
done under a constantly cloudless sky, and there-
fore needed no artificial protection, and never
suffered any mischance ; while ours, in their earliest
ttriges, are often done under fitful changes of
\veather, and always incur great risk of damage,
and, in their thrashing and cleaning stages, can be
done only mider cover of costly farm-buildings.
Some of the field crops of the east, such as vines,
olives, figs, pomegranates, terebinths, pistacias,
and date-palms, are managed somewhat in the
manner of our orchards or shrubberies ; and others,
such as cotton, rice, millet, peppcrwort, sesamum, |

lentils, gourds, and cucumbers, are powerfully
obedient to the influences of sunniness and warmth;
while all ours can exist or thrive only in the way of
yearly operose groundculture, and must go through
all their functions, from germination to decay,
within a year, and struggle severely and doubtfully
with the weather in every stage of their progress.

Let these contrasts be taken into account, and
they will prodigiously alter the estimate which is
commonly entertamed of the comparative excel-
lency of the ancient and the modern husbandries.
Most persons think the agricultural usages of the
Egyptians and the Israelites, as mentioned in the
Bible, either pitifully rude or nonsensically foolish,
and regard those of our own country at the present
day as immeasurably superior*. But what if all the
rudeness and the folly are with ourselves ? The chief
tillage implement of the Egyptians was a thing
more like a pick-axe than a plough, and certainly
would be ludicrously useless for breaking up any of
our soils ; yet it served admirably its purpose of
shghtly stirring the soft shallow stratum of newly
deposited silt. Anything there in the form of our
tillage implements would have been monstrous.
The jjlough of the Israelites was so light, that any
ordinarily strong man could easily carry it from
place to place on his shoulders ; and it had hardly
power enough to scratch any piece of ground re-
sembling our haidest clays; yet it possessed a no-
ble fitness for the efficient tillage of Palestine — the
shallow stirring of a chalky, powdery,, and very
thirsty soil. The thrashing-floors of all the ancient
east were little else than pavements or firm earthen
esplanades in the open air; but they exactly suited
the method of beating out the grain by means of
oxen, and that, again, was best suited to the eco-
nomics of the climate and the age. So may it be
said respecting most of their other appliances.
These were the fittest and cheapest which could
have been used. No art of those times, nor even
any art of our own, could have materially improved
them. The operations to be done were facile, the
aims were near and direct, the hindrances were few
and trivial, and therefore the implements employed,
and the practices f'ollov/ed, were light and simple.
To have set up any such usages as those of modern
Britain, supposing them then possible, would have
been as absurd for the ancients as it would be for
us to yoke a horse to a wheelbarrow, or to split
quills with a hatchet. A sure evidence of the
goodness of their farm practices exists in the abun-
dance of their harvests. No people can be said to
have farmed ill, who, for years and centuries in
succession, reaped from thirty to an hundred-
fold.

The ancient husbandry, then, was a vastly finer
thing than the modern. It fought little with the

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

c29

wrath of an angry climate, it struggled little in the
slongh of spongy and mortary soils, it weltered little
in the feverish sweat of commercial speculation.
It was at once easy, and quiet, and contented. It
knew only as much labour as made the winged
hours fly cheerily away, and got but slight acquaint-
ance with the whirl and uj)roar, the heats and
maddenings of large towns. It shared as largely
as the best modern husbandry can do in all
'The boundless store
Of charms which nature to her votary yields —
The warbling woodland, the resounding shore.
The pomp of groves, and garniture of fields.'

And it possessed them with grander adjuncts, in
richer colourings, and with higher glory. It had
vastly more of the pastoral element, not only in
breadth of verdure and multitudinousness of flocks,
Init in the picturesque magnificence of patriarchal
life, and the occasional splendour of shepherd
kings. And how laughingly beauteous, how sump-
tuously rich, how lavishly varied were its arable
landscapes ! The Israelitish territory, for example,
was from end to end a magnified copy of our finest
ideal of a landscape-garden. Its own contour was
noble, and its display of the cereals, and herbs, and
groves which it produced in coasmon with European
countries, was most luxuriant ; and, among its
other features (to quote again from what the pre-
sent writer has elsewhere said) ' were the vineyards,
festooning the hills with their outspread growth,
and impurpling the vales with their clusters of
fruit — the olive groves shading the rocky mountains
and tablelands all the year round with their ash-
grey foliage — the palm plantations waving their
feathery heads and their harvests of dates over the
sunniest rills of the plains of Jordan — the orchards
of fig-trees snd pomegranates, of terebinths, and
pistacias, of all other native fruit-trees, and of the
kinds which were introduced or popularised by
Solomon, dappling and dazzling many of the
choicest tracts of both hill and dale with their
manifold tints and produce — single trees, and tufts,
and groups of all the pleasant and profitable spe-
cies, scattered athwart the general landscape, and
giving luscious relief to fields and pastures ; and
connected with these were some of the most de-
lightful and elaborate processes of rural labour —
the planting and pruning of trees, the gathering
of fruit, the clearing of the woods, and the opera-
tions of the vintage and the oil-press.'

The ancient husbandry was thus a halcyon thing.
Well might the happiest nations rejoice in it, and
the greatest sovereigns patronise it ! More is said
than meets the eye in such pregnant historical
nolices as these: ' Noah began to be an husbandman,
and he planted a vineyard : ' Isaac sowed in the
land of Gerar and received in the same year an

hundredfold :' ' Uzziah, king of Judah, had much
cattle both in the low country and in the plains :
husbandmen also, and vinc-dressers in the moun-
tains, and in Carmel, for he loved husbandry.'
Think of the vastness of David's royal farm, with
its eleven great overseers in eleven great depart-
ments ; think how the old Persian kings not only
practised husbandry on their own royal lands, but
twelve times every year mixed freely and convivially
with farmers ; and think how all the i)eaceful an-
cient sovereigns, and some of the warhke ones, too,
great and small, over all the east and the Levant,
from the earliest times of Babylonia down to the
first ages of the Roman empire, cherished agricul-
ture, dehghted in its operations, and not unfrc-
quently plied it with their own hands ; and sec
how dignified was the ancient husbandry, how high
in honour, how associated at once with mankind's
loftiest ideas of utihty, and happiness, and magni-
ficence !

The allusions of the Bible to agriculture, there-
fore, have an incomparably wider sweep, and far
more gorgeous hues, than are commonly imagined.
They dwell long and lovingly, indeed, on the^eficc-
fulness of husbandry, and make out from this an
enrapturing picture of the world's condition when
all swords shall be beaten into ploughshares, and
all spears into pruning-hooks. But peacefulness
has net always been inherent in husbandry, and
v/as long ago violated as much by hordes from pas-
toral plains as by armies from towns and sea-ports,
and may be violated again by yeomanry, or militia,
or levies en masse, or agrarian insurrections, as
truly as by standing armies or by city-mobs. The
real glory of the ancient husbandry was its enno-
bling influence on the mind. It was not an em-
ployment merely, but an occupation — not a thing
for the hands only, but a thing for the heart — not
a means of livelihood simply, but a source of hap-
piness— not an instigator of earthliness, and greed,
and avarice, but a promoter of contentment, and
polish, and practical philosophy. It shone all over
with wisdom and poetry, and did to the full as
much for the mental elevation of its simple people
as is done among the money-hunting multitudes of
our modern European towns by the best appliances
of the fine arts. It was all animus, and life, and
power. It knew nothing of the chills and damps,
the crushing cares and aching fatigues, the prosaic
spirit, and dull, flat, inky, scenery of modern
husbandry. Poets, indeed, can throw interest on
the latter, but need to cancel some features, and
over-colour others ; and even they have seldom
soared higher than to sing —

' Among the hills 'tis beautiful to see
The lambkins sporting lightly o'er the lea,

530

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

The stately steeds yolked graceful in the plough,
The hushandman with bonnet on his brow.
The sower, with his white sheet at his side.
Throwing his hopeful seed with manly stride,
The germing crops, so tender and so green.
The flowers that blush by rivulets half seen.
The song of birds, the murmur of the bees.
The sweet returning leaves on varied trees.'

Tlae agriculture of the Bible has all these fea-
tures too, but depicts them in warmer tints, and
sets them in a more sumptuous frame. Its sheep-
walks, and seed-time, and singing of birds, and
glories of spring, compared to those of the modern
European husbandry, are as a burnished day of
July compared to a leaden day of December. And
it revels, in addition, among the luscious delights
of steady seasons, teeming crops, droughty har-
vestings, and an outfield profusion of all the fruits
and flowers which we associate only with the vinery
and the greenhouse. It is all a song as well as a
picture — a music of the heart as well as a musing
of the mind. And hence does it speak so warmly
of ' shouting for the summer fruits,' of ' the glad-
ness of the plentiful field,' of ' the joy in harvest,'
and of ' the singing and shouting in the vineyards.'
And hence, also does it descant on ' the growing of
the lily,' ' the beauty of the olive tree,' and ' the
smell of Lebanon,' ' clusters of grapes,' ' boughs
of the palm-tree,' ' the smell of mandrakes,' and
' all manner of pleasant fruits,' ' mountains of
myrrh,' ' mountains of spices,' and ' the hills of

frankincense,' ' orchards of pomegranates with
pleasant fruits, camphire with spikenard, calamus
and cinnamon, with all trees of frankincense,
myrrh, and aloes, v/itli all the chief spices, fountains
of gardens, wells of living waters, and streams from
Lebanon.'

Nor is all this gorgeousness and brilhance any
more than the mere materiel of the Bible's agricul-
tural allusions, for the morale of them ascends on
the fiery chariot of Elijah, and stands with the
aagel in the middle of the sun. It sheds rays over
most departments of revealed truth, and illuminates
almost the whole long broad series of ecclesiastical
experiences, from the simple preaching of the
Gospel till the ripened glories of the mellennium.
It speaks of ' God's husbandry,' 'the planting of
the Lord ;' it tells about the ' good seed of the
word,' and the dews of divine influence, and the
rains and sunshine of God's work on the soul ; it
describes how good men grow in grace, like corn
on good soil, and how bad men resemble barren
land which ' beareth thorns and briers, and is nigh
unto cursing, whose end is to be burned.' But
especially does it illustrate the philosophy of the
propagation of the Gospel, and exhibit an analogy
of surpassing beauty and significance between the
methods of God's working in the triumphant pro-
gress of the seasons, and the methods of his work-
ing in the triumphant progress of Christianity. —
Hogg's Instructor.

(To be continued.)

LABOUR AND THE POOR.— THE RURAL DISTRICTS.

the southern and western counties.

Letter XXXI.

(From the Morning Chronicle. )

In treating, in my previous letter, of the cultiva-
tion of the hop, I have alluded to the earnings
realized by men, women, and children, in the
various stages of digging, opening the hills, and
])oling. I have not mentioned these, however, as
the wages at present received, but as the average
rate of remuneration in former years, when hop
cultivation was a less disastrous business than it
has recently been, and when the prospects before
it were of a somewhat more encouraging character
than they are now. The rates mentioned are not
to be taken as indicating the Gcale of the labourer's
earnings during the past year. The declension of
wages which has taken place elsewhere in the South
and West has extended itself to the hop districts,
giving rise to privations, on the part of the labourer,
almost equalling those which I have already de-
picted as characterizing his lot in Dorset, Devon,
Wilts, and Somerset. But to this matter I shall
have occasion, hereafter, more particularly to ad-

vert ; my sole object in here alluding to it being to
apprise the reader that the rates of wages which I
am now about to state, as well as those already
mentioned, constitute the average of the past few
years, the rates recently received being somewhat
lower.

Tying the hop is the next step after " poling,"
and may, in fact, be regarded as jiart of that process.
As soon as the plant shoots a little above the
ground it requires the support of the pole. Its
natural instinct is to climb ; and to aid it in this
efifort it is tied, generally by means of rushes, lo
tlie pole. Three plants are usually tied to a pole,
and the number of poles to a hill is frequently
three. Tying the hop is a business which com-
monly devolves upon women ; but it is by no means
confined to them. Men sometimes take it, when
driven to compete with the women from want of
other occupation. Boys may make themselves very
expert at it ; but it is seldom that children of either

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

531

sex are found thus employed, except as aids to their
mothers or other adult female relatives, who liavc
undertaken the work. It is almost invariably taken
hy the piece — a woman engaging to manage a greater
or less quantity, according to the amount of time
at her command, or of assistance on which she may
reckon. Sometimes she takes a certain specified
area, and engages to attend to it ; at others she
takes the work by the acre — the extent of surface
which she will manage depending upon her own
assiduity, and the aid which she receives. With a
little assistance a woman can tie from two acres to
two acres and a half per week. In the neighhour-
hood of Tunbridge, the wages received have been
from 9s. to 10s. per acre — making this one of the
most remunerative departments of female labour,
connected with hop cultivation. In the neighbour-
hood of Maidstone the wages have been still higher
— as much as lis. and 12s. per acre having been
paid. In Sussex the wages have averaged from
Ss. Gd. to 12s. per acre, the lowest rates being
paid for three-poled, and the highest for four-poled
gardens. Bnt the mere business of tying the hop
is only the first part of the process. The plant
has invariably to be rebound. In most cases this
business of binding requires frequent repetition ;
and in Sussex it is very common for the women to
undertake to bind the hop three times to the ])ole
at least. Generally speaking, the plants are visited
and rebound every four or five days, until at length
they have grown out of reach— which haj)pens in
about five weeks.

Like all other out-door work, that of tying the
hop is very much dependent upon the weather.
Not only does very wet weather interrupt it, but
boisterous days, even if perfectly dry, add very
much to its amount. At such times, the plants
have frequently to be tied over and over again,
from having been detached from the pole by the
wind, or twisted into positions unfavourable to their
growth. Sometimes, too, the poles themselves are
blown down, requiring the labour of men to replace
them. This seldom happens, however, until the
plant is far advanced, and the pole is more or less
overloaded by its growth. Hop-tying is one of
those operations which, when undertaken, must be
performed speedily and briskly. The plant is
tender, and the period during which it can be bound
with safety is not of very long duration. The la-
bour performed, therefore, is estimated less by the
time occupied in executing it, than by its intrinsic
value as regards the safety of the crop. It is far-
ther enhanced in value by the fact, that, whilst it is
labour which must be performed briskly and within
a given period, there is not that competition for
employment which characterizes the hop-picking
season, when there is a vast influx of strangers into
most of the hop-growing districts. Hop-tying has
all the disadvantages, with but few of the advan-
tages, physically speaking, of out-door employment.
It is an occu]5ation requiring more nicety than ex-
ertion, and hence it is that it almost exclusively
devolves upon women. The period at which it is
undertaken is generally about the end of April and
the beginning of May, when the weather is oc-
casionally rough, wet, and boisterous. Unless it is
altogether too stormy for the women to venture out.

the more boisterous the weather the more neces-
sity is there, at this critical period, for their pre-
sence in the hop-gardens — for the more dependent
is the plant, on such occasions, on the process of
binding. This frecpiently brings them out, when
they would otherwise remain at home — and, being
engaged all day in the open air, treading the cold,
moist soil, without anything approaching to violent
exercise to counteract the unhealthy tendencies of
exposure in such weather, they very frequently
contract diseases which never leave them, and
which in many cases are aggravated to a fatal ex-
tent by the sul)sequent exposures of the hojj-jiick-
ing season. Not long since, r2s. per acre was the
price at which the hops were tied ; it has more
recently ranged from 9s. to r2s.

As already intimated, it is seldom that, from the
month of February to that of September, the hop-
garden is free from occupants, male or female, old
or young, employed in some process or other ne-
cessary to the rearing of the plant. It is essential
to the well-being of the croj) that the garden, when
it becomes " foul," should be well cleaned — that is
to say, cleared of weeds. This process is called
" nidgetting " the hop. The operation, however,
is designated by a variety of terms, such as " shim-
ming," "nidging," or " breaking;" and in Surrey,
sometimes, " becking " and " spudding." In ge-
neral, the practice throughout the hop districts is
to call in the aid of horses in j^erforming this
operation. It is sometimes performed by simple
hoeing, which, although severe work, occasionally
gives employment to women. Itisunusual, however,
to see women employed at all about the business of
nidgetting — the work devolving upon men and
boys. The implement used in the nidget or brake,
which is drawn by horses. The man guides the
implement, and the boy leads the horses. For
this purpose boysof various agesareuseful, although
it is seldom that they are thus emyloyed very young.
Digging is severer labour ; but they may become
adepts at it before they are fit to be trusted with
the command of the horses in the process of clean-
ing. It is not usual to see a boy under twelve in
charge of a team thus employed. The process of
guiding the team is rather a nice one ; inasmuch as
the hills, which are only six feet apart, must be
carefully avoided — the object being not to disturb
them, but to favour the growth of the plants by
loosening the ground around the hills, and by
cleaning it of the weeds which would otherwise
soon choke up the garden. In many parts of
Surrey, this work is almost entirely of a manual
description, the beck and spud superseding the
brake or nidget. In some parts, this work is also
done by the piece, but it is now more customary
to give it out as day-work. As in the case of all
work in which horses are employed, the wages paid
for this labour are higher than for other field-work,
on account of the superior confidence reposed in
those having charge of cattle; and as the work
itself is sometimes as nice as it is always highly
essential, the wages paid to those occupied in it
are corajjaratively high. Some have told me that
they have received as much as 2s. Gd. and 3s. a
day whilst thus engaged, in addition to which the
boy earns from Gd, to 8d. per day. When performed

532

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

by the hand, the seventy of the v/ork is taken into
account in apportioning the wages to be paid for
it. In this, as in other cases, however, the wages
of the h\l)0urer have materiaHy declined.

Early in September commences the great business
of hop-j)icking. The plant is, generally speaking,
ready to be picked at the end of the third year of
its growth. By the second week of the month
above-named, hop-picking is universal throughout;
the hop-growing district. It thus follows the corn
harvest — so that the la'iourers of Kent have, as it
were, the advantage of two harvests. What this
advantage is may be inferred from the fact, that it
is generally to the extra earnings of harvest time
that the labourers throughout the entire south
look as the means of enabling them to buy clothing,
&c., and to pay their " Christmas bills." Hop-
picking is a work at which all can engage — old and
young — men, women, and children. It is an im-
portant time for the poor of Kent, Sussex, and
SiUTcy — the comforts of the ensuing winter de-
pending, in the case of most of them, ixpon the
joint earnings of the family during the brief time
for which the work Jassts. 'Jlie hop, when ripe, is
a precarious product, and must be i)icked with all
possible expedition. Hence it is that all are pressed
into the rervice— children, seven years old and
U])wards, being then of service in the hop-garden.
Such of the schools as are open at the time are sure
to be deserted until the hops are picked — when
the children, after having added some shillings to
the common stock of the family, straggle back
again to enter anew upon the work of education.
To meet the exigency of the case, most schools now
time their holidays with a view to the hop-picking
season. There aj-e occasions, but they are few, on
which hop-picking is given out as day-work, and I
have been told by boys that they have earned Is. a
day whilst thus employed. But, considering tlie
jirecarionsness of the fniit when it is ripe, the great
obj'^'ct of the grov^er is to have it picked and dried
as soon as possible ; and it is with this view that
he gives it out as piece-work, and invites to his
aid all the labour that his neighbourhood can
furnish, as well as a portion of that which annually
immigrates into the hop district at this period of
the year. The picker is sometimes paid so much
for every bushel that he or she picks — the price
being sometimes as low as l^d., and at others as
high as 7d. per bushel. It is frequently 2d. and
3ri. per bushel, but seldom rises to 7d. It is more
general, hov/ever, to pay by the " tally "—a tally
being so many bushels, according to agreement.
The number of bushels in the tally depends upon
the nature of the crop. If the yield is abundant,
the number is comparatively large — say ten bushels
to the tally; if, on the other hand, it is scanty, the
number is smaller —sometimes not m.ore than six
or seven to the tally. It is obvious that the more
abundant the crop is, tlie greater is the ease end
rapidity with which a given quantity can be picked.
Tills accounts for the variations occurring in the
tally in point of quantity, for it is seldom that there
is any variation in point of price. The sura paid is
generally Is. per tally, whether it be six, seven, or
ten bushels. That it makes very little difference,
in point of labour, to the picker, whatever the

tally is, is evident from the fact that, whatever it
may be, it is seldom that he can pick more than
two a day. Thus, if it is ten l)ushels, the crop is
so abundant that, with ordinary diligence, he can
pick twenty. If it is seven, the crop is so scanty
that, with the same diligence, he can only pick
fourteen. It is by calculating what an industrious
picker can achieve in a day, looking at the produc-
tiveness of the crop, that, in most instances, the
amount of the tally is determined — most of the
farmers being seemingly desirous to confine a
picker's pay to that for two tallies per day. This
is certainly but little for a long day's work, con-
sidering the great de.mand wdiich exists for labour
during this critical period for the hop-grower.
But if the demand is great, so also is the supply ;
and the influx of strangers, competing with the
resident labourers, enables the farmers to keep
dov»'n wages at this season. But since, with a view
to getting the fruit secured as speedily as possilde,
the grower generally gives the work out by the
tally — paying the same per tally, whether large or
small — it follows that when his crop is the least
productive he pays the most for gathering it in.
In former tim.es, when he had a monopoly of the
market, this was of little consequence, as high
prices, if the crop was generally deficient, com-
pensated him for large outlays ; but now that the
deficiency in the home supply is sure to be made
up by foreign importation, it is questionable if he
can in all cases afford to pay as much for the pick-
ing of a scanty as of an abundant crop. When
fairly carried out, the system is as fair and as
favourable as the labourer could desire. But it is
not always fairly carried out— the pickers being
sometimes m the middle of the garden, and through
a great part of their work, ere they are informed
what the tally is to be. Thus, sometimes, when
they expect that it is not be more than seven, they
are told that it is to be ten bushels. There are
circumstances in which a farmer can and does thus
take advantage of his labourers, but there are others
in which it is attempted without success. When
the supply of labour is not over-abundant in the
district, the attempt to do so might result in the
complete desertion of the hop-garden by the pickers
at the critical moment.

In average years a man, as already said, can pick
about twenty bushels a day. A boy can pick from
twelve to fourteen bushels, whilst a woman can
pick even more than a man. The work is of a
Idnd for v/hich she is better fitted than the man —
her figure being more fiexil)le, her touch more de-
licate, and her fingers more nimble than his. When
a whole family, therefore, are thus employed in the
hoji-garden, their aggregate earnings amount to a
considerable sum per day. Taking a family of four
thus employed — say a man and a woman, and two
children — they may earn among them from 6s. 6d.
to 7s. a day. This favourable episode in their lives,
however, is but of short duration — hop-picking sel-
dom extending beyond three weeks in duration.
But, at the rate alluded to, they may add about £6
to their means of subsistence for the winter; and
this, too, after they have enjoyed the pecuniary
advantages of the ordinary harvest. It is, there-
fore, no wonder that the hop-i)icking season is ge-

THE i'AKMEH'S MAGAZINE.

633

ncrally looked forward to by in any of them with
considerable anxiety, as being the turning-point as
regards their means for the year. It interposes like
a screen between many of them and the work-house ;
and if it fails them, they have, too frequently, no
alternative but to throw themselves upon the union
for the winter. It is seldom, indeed, that you find
them relying upon this alone for obtaining tlie
necessaries of life. But they do almost universally
rely upon it for sui">plying them with the means of
meeting all the extra expenses to which they have
bc^ n put, or may still be j)ut, during the remainder
of tlie year, such as for medical attendance, shoes,
change of raiment, &c. If they fail in this, they
must of course draw for these j>urposcs upon the
fund which they would otherwise apply to other
])urposes ; and then the chances will be that they
must become the recipients of public bounty before
the month of February, when their labour is again
briskly in demand. The past year was one of
grievous disap])ointment to thousands of them, in
consequence of the almost universal failure of the
hoj s. The great majority of those whom I met in
deep distress in Kent attributed much of the priva-
tion which they were enduring to having had their
calculations falsified in I'espect to tlie usual earnings
of t!ie hop-picking season. In some portions of
Surrey, where the yield was good, they were not
disappointed — which was also the case with some
labourers whom I met with, in comparative comfort,
in tlie eastern part of Hamjishire. I liave already
saiil that the hop is but partially raised in this last-
mentioned county, but it so happened that, wliilst
the crop greatly failed in the districts to the east-
ward, the yield in it was exceedingly good.

I found somewhat contradictory opinions pre-
vailing in regard to the eSect which the cultivation
of the hop has, in the main, on the health of those
emjdoyed in it. It is not easy to get at the exact
truth in reference to this matter — em])loyment in
tl'.e hop-garden being so mixed up with other out-
door avocations, that it is difllcult to trace results,
as regards the health of the labourer, to their pro-
])er causes. There can be no doul>t that, like all
other out- door pursuits, when not carried too far,
nor persisted in through ail weathers, attendance
i:i the hop-garden is conducive to the health of
those so employed. But the difficulty with regard
t ) the hop is, that, at some stages of its growth,
attendance upon it is imperative, without regard to
the v/eathcr— and som.etimes most so when the
weather is inclement and inauspicious. Ordinary
farm labourers have frequently complained to me
that, without their being consuUed, their work and
wages were suspended on vv'et days, or even on wet
forenoons or afternoons—many cf them regarding
it as a less ])rivation to work in the wet than to be
d iprived of their wages by having their work in-
terrupted. But in the hop-garden, it is frequently
during inauspicious v/eather that they are obliged
to work thelonge; t and the hardest — and that, too,
even in the case of women and children, to whom
the hop-garden affords more constant out-door
employment than the corn-fields. Boys are ex-
])oscd in the garden as early as January, when
they receive but little damage, inasmuch as they
can take what exercise they piease, the duties which

they are then called u])on to perform being neither
more nor less than those of a scarecrow. It is
witli the approach of the digging season in February
that their trials really commence. But here, again,
constant and violent exercise counteracts, to a
considerable extent, the injurious tendenccs of a
damp sod and a chilly atmosphere. The hazard
which the boys then run is that of being over-
worked, their fathers sometimes making them jiar-
ticipate in the heaviest labour undertaken. It is
seldom until the pruning season arrives that the
women are engaged.

This occurs at a time when the weather is more
varial)le, jierhaps, than inclement. Their work,
except when they are engaged in ojjening the hills,
is in general of a sufficiently active knul to keep
catarrhs and rheumatisms away from them. In
opening the hills, except where the soil is very light,
they run the risk, like the boys at digging, of being
over-worked ; but I have heard of but \'ery few
cases of anything like permanent injury having
been sustained from an over-tasking of the strength
at this species of labour. The oj)eration of poling
is generally conducive to the health af all engaged
in it. But that of tying is sonr.etimes very trying
to the wom.en and children emploj'ed at it. If the
weather is favouralde, but liltle difficulty is expe-
rienced, and the work is comparatively soon ever ;
but if it is otherwise, the labour is peculiarly
trying — whilst there is all the more necessity that
the plant should be carefully and frequently attend-
ed to. It is at this work that the seeds of future
disease arc first implanted in many a constitution.
The exercise is but sliglit, inasmuch as the v/ork is
more that of the fingers than of the limbs and
bociy, whilst the exposure is frequently protracted
and severe. In the next process — that of cleaning
or nidgetting — the female does not participate ;
but the employment is conducive to the health of
the men and boys engaged in it, although some-
times it over-fatigues the boys, and makes his "legs
ache," as he will tell you. So far, the work in-
volves little that is injurious to the health of the
adult male ; but the subsequent process-r-that of
picking — is one in which he is apt to suffer as any
of the others engaged in it. Everything, in this
respect, depends on the weather. It is commonly
said that, when the weather is good, the pickers
leave all their ailments behind them in the hop-gar-
den. But, on the other hand, when it is not — and
Vt'hen there is all the more reason for securing the
crop — numbers of them contract diseases which
l.iy them up for the winter. How can it be other-
wise, when they are sometimes compelled to stand
upon boards as the only way in which they can
keep their feet dry when engaged in an occupation
which gives l)ut little exercise to anything but the
fingers ? On the whole, although, serious diseases
do not appear to be more common in Kent than in
the other agricultural districts which I have visited,
I must say that in that county I liave met with
more of the peasantry " ailing," in proportion to
their numbers, than elsewhere. Few of the medical
men of the county admit that much of the disease
which prevails amongst the labouring classes is
attrihutalde to the nature of their occupitions —
most of ll-cm tracing it to the malaria engendered

534

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

Ijy insufficient drainage, to the habits of the peo-
ple themselves, and to the defective state of their
dwellings with regard to ventilation. There can
be no doubt that here, as elsewhere, insufficient
drainage is a prolific cause of physical derange-
ment— particularly in the valley of the Medway,
which occasionally overflows large tracts of the
country through which it runs. Of late years,
means have been taken, and not without success,
to confine these inundations to moie contracted
areas — and in other places, which are still subject
to overflow, an effective system of drainage relieves
the land of superfluous moisture, soon after the
subsidence of the river. There can be no question,
however, but that the work in the hop-garden, par-
ticularly in the lower grounds, is a cause superadded
to those otherwise existing, of such disorders as
ague, influenza, and rheumatism ; and in some sea-
sons it is not a minor one.

In corroboration of this, I find, on examining
the very elaborate tables contained in the Eighth
Annual Report of the Registrar-General, recently
published, that the average mortality during each
of the eight years from 1838 to 1845 inclusive, has
been the greatest in that section of the hop-grow-
ing district in which the plant is most largely pro-
duced. In Kent the mean average for the eight
years stands thus : — Out of every 100,000 males,
2,07S have died during each of the eight years in
question ; whilst out of every 100,000 females, the
number who have died has been 1,838 ; taking both
males and females, the mean average will give 3,916
deaths out of every 200,000 persons. In Sussex,
on the other hand, the proportions stand thus : —
Taking the same basis as above, the average num-
ber of deaths per year has been — males, 1,S65 ;
females, 1,7G6 ; and of both males and females,
3,G3 1 . In Surrey the following is the result — male
deaths per year, 1,856; female deaths, 1,715;
male and female, 3,571. I compare the three hop-
growing counties together, because they closely
resemble each other in their physical features, thus
meeting the objection which otherwise might have
been raised to the comparison, on the score of differ-
ences of climate, geological formation, and other
circumstancss. It will be seen that Kent, where
the hop is most largely produced, exceeds the other
counties in its average rate of mortality. It might
be supposed that, on the same principle, the mor-
tality should be greater in Surrey than in Sussex —
the growth of the hop being at least more ubiquitous
in the former than in the latter county. But it
must l)e borne in mind that large tracts of Sussex
are, as is the case with Kent, subject to annual in-
undations, from which Surrey is exempt ; giving
rise, from want of sufficient drainage, to a malaria
which is very prolific of disease. And this makes
the comparison, as between Kent and Sussex, at
least, 'hold good. If the Medway overflows its
l)anks, there are thousands of acres of meadow
land between Petworth and Arundel annually under
water — so much so that in travelling between these
two jjoints in winter one might almost fancy him-
self in the lake country. The sections of the me-
tropolis falling within Kent and Surrey are of course
excluded from this comparison,

I have already incidentally alluded to the effect

produced on the rate of wages by the influx of
strangers which annually takes place during the
hop-picking season. It is not easy even to approx-
imate to a correct estimate of the numbers who then
pour from all quarters into the chief hop-growing
districts. It is not so much to the population of
the different counties in question that a great addi-
tion is then made, as to that of certain localities
within them. Take Farnham, in Surrey, for
instance, and the neighbourhood of Maidstone,
in Kent ; and the entire population which con-
verges upon them about the beginning of Septem-
ber is, to a great extent, drawn from the
surrounding towns and parishes. It is true that
there is a great deal of what may be strictly re-
garded as imported labour — numbers of Irish, and
of strangers from the purlieus of London, making
their appearance in the hop districts on the occa-
sion. They come in droves, sometimes whole
families emigrating together ; at others, only a por-
tion of the family embarking on the adventure.
When families thus appear in fractional parts, it is
more commonly from the surrounding parishes that
they come than from beyond the limits of the coun-
ty. The mother and children will come for instance,
leaving the father at home, engaged perhaps in
some other occupation. The new comers, so far as
they can do so, obtain accommodation in the cot-
tages of the resident population. In districts in
which great numbers annually converge, sheds
are frequently erected for their reception; since,
witli all the crowding to which they will submit,
but a small proportion of them can be accommo-
dated in their cottages. Not a few of them— the
Irish emigrants in particular — bring with them con-
tageous disorders, which sometimes spread and
commit ravages amongst the resident population.
Scarcely a year elapses, I am told, without small-jiox
and scarlatina appearing amongst them. The
most prompt means are generally taken to check
the extension of any malady so manifesting itself
by the removal of the patients. When the season
is wet and unfavourable, the immigrants run even
a greater risk of incurring disorders than the resi-
dents ; for, bad as is, generally speaking, the house
accommodation of the latter, that of the former is,
in the main, worse. Such of them as crowd the
cottages of the residents serve to render the latter
more liable to disease than they otherwise would be.
Their stay in the hop districts lasts altogether
from five to six weeks. They begin to make their
appearance from a week to ten days anterior to the
commencement of the picking, and it is fully that
time after the work is over ere they are fairly got
rid of. Until the work begins they are frequently
in a state of the greatest possible destitution. De-
predations of all kinds are then committed by them
for a supply of food and fuel. They are, in gene-
ral, a somewhat unruly set ; but it is usually admit-
ted that the Irish are not the least peaceable and
well-disposed amongst them. Indeed, in other
])arts of the country, subjected to an annual visita-
tion of Irish migratory labour, testimony is readily
borne to their industry and good conduct whilst
the work lasts. If they break out at all, it is when
they have got some money in their pockets — not
when they are perfectly destitute, or are earning

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

535

their wages. It is, indeed, generally observed by
the captains of steamers plying bcUveen Ireland
and Liverj)OoJ, that it is when they are returning
home that they are the most riotous. They are,
in most cases, (juiet and subdued, when on their
way to England, and tolerably well behaved, until
they are about to quit it with a few sovereigns in
their pockets, when, in far too many cases, they
become turbulent and troublesome.

But we have not yet done either with the hops
or with the hop-garden. After being picked, the
I)lant has to undei-go the processes of drying and
pocketing, which also afford employment to a con-
siderable number of persons. This, however, does
not last loi^, since, in addition to its being desirable
that the hops should be ready for market as soon
as i)ossible, they must be dried (as they must be
I)icked) within a limited period, or they run great
risk of being spoiled. The work afforded in the
garden, after the picking is over, is that of pullmg
up the no longer useful plant, and stacking the
poles. This is generally the work of men and boys,
and is commonly undertaken by the piece, the
price paid being usually from 5s. to 6s. per acre.
The poles are pulled from their ])laces in the hills,
and put in stacks or upright piles together, in which
state they remain until they are again wanted for
the supjiort of the plant. The garden is then de-
serted for a brief period, after which it is again
manured — to be again dug, preparatory to receiving
a new set of plants, to be tended and managed in
the different stages of their development as their
jjredecessors had been.

Such is the cultivation of the hop in Kent, Sur-
rey, and the eastern half of Sussex. It is a depart-
ment of industry which affords employment, where
manufactures do not exist, to thousands who would
otherwise be unemployed, or who, if occupied at
all, would be so at tasks unsuited to their age or
sex. It also furnishes employment to others at pe-
riods when their ordinary pursuits may be slack or
interrupted ; for the hop-garden has its seasons
when it calls for the pi'esence of the man, as at
other times it requires that of the woman and the

child. That a department of agriculture furnish-
ing so large a stock of employment to so great a
number of ])eople, and distributing that employ-
ment over the greater jiortion of the year, super-
added to the ordinary ])ursuits of an essentially
agricultural district, should have a tendency to
keep up the general rate of wages, including those
of the ordinary farm-labourer, is too self-evident to
be dwelt upon. It would be erroneous, however,
to attribute the higher scale of wages paid for farm-
labour in the hop-growing district exclusively, or
even mainly, to the presence of an extensive and
regular hop-cultivation. If the labour in demand
in the hop-garden were in all respects such as com-
peted with that chiefly in request in the field, its
effect ui)on wages for field-work would be greater
than it is. But the employment which it affords
is such as devolves upon those who are, some of
them, of but little use, and others wholly unavail-
able, in ordinary field-labour. It, therefore, in the
main, comes in addition to, instead of in competi-
tion with, ordinary farm labour ; and thus has the
effect of enhancing the farm-labourer's means,
without materially effecting the wages paid for farm
work. But there is a very great difference between
the wages paid for farm-work in the hop-district,
and those paid in the counties to the west of it —
a difference which is generally about 50 per cent,
in favour of the former. What else is there to
create this difference, if the cultivation of the hop
but partly accounts for it ? The great cause is the
proximity of the whole district to the metropolis.
Approach London from the south or west — and I
speak of these directions only, because it is to them
that my inquiries have been confined — and you find
the scale of wages gradually rising from the moment
that you enter within the circle of its influence.
That circle embraces almost the whole of the hop-
growing district — wages being similarly affected in
such portions of it as may not be regarded as within
the immediate range of metropolitan influence,
by the different places of fashionable resort and
of business which gird it from Brighton to
Gravesend.

OUR FRIEND— THE POTATO.

At a time when fears are again being expressed
as to an extensive failure of the potato-crop, a few
words about the history of this useful esculent may
possess a more than ordinary interest : —

In the year 1584, the celebrated voyager and
courtier. Sir Walter Raleigh, stood in high favour
with the " virgin queen ;" and, ever ambitious to
extend his power and wealth, sought for and ob-
tained from his royal mistress a patent for " dis-
covering and planting new countries not possessed
by Christiaus." This document gave him power
to appropriate, plant, and govern the territories he
might acquire. Nor was he slow in availing him-
self of the privileges thus bestowed on him. Un-
dismayed by a previous personal attempt, and by
an abortive expedition in the preceding year, in

which he had adventured £2000, he organized a
body of colonists, who sailed for the shores of
America in 1585, under the government of a Mr.
Lane. They landed on the eastern shore of that
continent, near Chesapeake- bay, and named the
colony Virginia, in honour of the queen. Instead,
however, of adopting Penn's policy, and seeking by
honest and fair means to obtain a permanent foot-
ing in the country, the misconduct and aggressions
of the colonists soon plunged them into hostilities
with the Indians, and in less than a year they were
glad to make their escape and abandon their
colony. They re-embarked on board Sir Francis
Drake's squadron, which visited the coast on its
homeward voyage. Futile and void of any useful
aid as the expedition seemed, it nevertheless re-

536

TilE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

suited in the introduction into England of two
plants which have exerted a very important in-
fluence on after-ages. The governor, Mr. Lane,
brought home for the first time tobacco, which he
had seen used by the natives; and Sir Walter
Raleigh introduced smoking into this covmtry.
One of the colonists, named Thomas Heriot, wrote
an account of the country, in which lie describes a
plant called " openawk." He says : " The roots of
this plant are round, some as large as a walnut,
others much larger ; they grow in damj) soils, many
hanging together as if fixed on ropes. They are
good food, either boiled or roasted." This was
the root now so well known as the potato : and,
however, we may incline to doubt whether the in-
troduction of tobacco has been a benefit to this
part of the globe — for the universality of the custom
of smoking is no proof of its utility— there can be
but one opinion as to the vastness of the benefit
conferred by the naturalization of the potato
amongst us. So universal has the use of this root
become, that we are apt to look u])on it as a com-
mon thing, and to think slightly of its immense
im])ortance. We shall, perhaps, be able to estimate
its value more rightly, if we compare the condition
of our ancestors ivithout it, with that of our
countrymen of the present day with it. But more
of this anon.

The potato, as well as the tobacco plant, was
brought home on the return of this expedition, and
was first cultivated by Sir W. Raleigh, at Youghal,
in the county of Cork. An amusing anecdote is
related of its early history there. Sir Walter's
gardener had with care planted the roots he had
received from his master, and had diligently ten-
ded them till they had flowered, and the flowers had
given way to the round green berries — the " potato
apples," as they are called. Ignorant that the
value of the plant lay in its tuberous roots, and
not in its berries, he brought one of the " apples"
to his master, and asked if that were the fine new
American fruit ? The knight, having examined it,
either v/as or pretended to be so dissatisfied, that
he ordered the " weed " to be rooted out. The
gardener obeyed, and in rooting out the " weeds"
found a bushel of potatoes.

The cultivation of the potato very gradually
spread in Ireland : but nearly a century had elapsed
before it could be said to form an important portion
of the means of sustenance to the inhabitants of
that country. In England it met with much less
favour ; for it was considerably more than a century
before it came into anything like general cultiva-
tion, and in many parts, so lately as 1770, it was
rare to meet with a whole acre of potatoes. Lan-
cashire seems to have been the first scene of potato-
culture in England, where the mechanics and

cottagers found it a valuable addition to their
means of subsistence, from the case with which it
could be grown, and the abundant nature of its
produce. By some it was at first esteemed a de-
licacy. The old botanist Gerarde cultivated it in
his garden, and gave a drawing of it in his well-
known " Herbal" under the name of " Potato
Virginia :" he recommends that the root should
be eaten as a delicate dish. In the reign of James
I., we are told that potatoes formed one of the
articles provided for the household of the queen,
and that their price was 2s. per pound. But all
the efforts of Raleigh, and even the jjatronage of
Queen Anne, were not sufficient to push the potato
into favour, although the philoso])hers of the day
gave it their recommendation. A committee of the
Royal Society was appointed to inquire into its
merits ; all those Fellows of the society who had
suitable lands were entreated to plant them witli it.
But it v/as of no av^ail : the root had long to con-
tend with many and popular prejudices, as too
many a useful invention or discovery has had to
do. One author (Mortimer), writing in 1708,
snceringly says, that " the root is very near the
nature of the Jerusalem artichoke, although not
so good and wholesome; but that it may prove
good for swine." Woolridge, three years later,
says : " I do not hear whether it has yet been
essayed whether they may not be propagated in
great quantities for the iise of swine and oilier
cattle." Another writer speaks of them only as
being good " for poor people." A still more
strange prejudice against them was very jirevalent
amongst the Scotch, on the ground that " potatoes
are not mentioned in the Bible;" and they were,
therefore, regarded as unhallowed food. It is not,
therefore, wonderful that, with the rude modes of
cultivation prevalent in those days, the ])otato was
long in making head against the prejudices v;ith
which it had to contend, and taking its position as
the universal, useful, and agreeable esculent it now
forms.

Nor was the proper way of cooking it better un-
derstood. When the first potatoes which had been
raised in the county of Forfar were cooked and
served up, they adhered to the teeth like glue, and
were far fiom agreeable ; and the poor potato would
have been condemned through the ignorance of the
cook, but for the opportune arrival of a gentleman
who had tasted a potato in Lancashire. At his re-
commendation, the half-cooked vegetables were re-
manded back to the hot turf-ashes, till they became
as pleasant as they had before been nauseous. This
was in 1730, two years after it had been fairly in-
troduced into cultivation in Scotland. The mode
of its first introduction is interesting, as showing
how the absence of prejudice, and the earnest,

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

537

persevering attempt by trial to ascertain its real
value, soon raised the despised potato to deserved
esteem. It was a poor cottapfer, a day-labourer,
living near Kilsyth in Stirlingshire, named Thomas
Prentice, who maintained himself in jiart by the
l)roducc of a liltle plot of ground, who first suc-
cessfully attempted the cultivation of tlie potato
in Scotland. Having by some means obtained a
few roots, he planted them in his little field, and
tended them so carefully and judiciously that the
produce was very valuable, being almost instantly
in demand among the neighbouring cottagers and
farmers, who saw its use in propagating other
crops. Prentice continued thus to supply his
neighbours, till in a few years he had saved £200 —
no small fortune to such a man. He afterwards
invested his capital in an annuity, on which he
lived comfortably to the age of 86, having witnessed
the general adoption of his favourite root, and the
blessings it had conferred on his country. The
year 1'742, which was long remembered in Scotland
as " the dear year," was, however, mainly instru-
mental in promoting its universal cultivation. Old
people, who were living at the beginning of the
present century, represented the state of things in
the summer of 1743 as truly dreadful. Many of
the destitute wandered in the fields, seeking to
prolong the misery of existence by devouring the
leaves of peas, beans, sorrel, and other j)lants ;
while many perished of absolute starvation, and
others were swept away by the fevers, and those
diseases which always follow in the track of famine.
This general state of distress drew the attention of
most people to the potato, and its great value as a
substantial article of food became so apparent, that
its cultivation soon became general both in garden
and field. The urgent necessities of a superabun-
dant and v/retchedly destitute peasantry in Ireland,
and the famine in Scotland, promoted the rapid
growth of potato-culture in those countries to a
much greater extent than in England, where the
absence of any such powerful stimulus retarded
its progress. Towards the latter end of the last
century, however, the prejudices which had at first
been excited against it had in great measure sub-
sided, and its value was in consequence more truly
appreciated : it began now to form an important
part of English husbandry ; and, in 177C, no fewer
than 1700 acres in Essex were planted with potatoes,
for the supply of the London market.

Its history on the continent has been almost a
fac'simile of its progress in our own country.
Similar prejudices existed against it there : to such
an extent did they prevail, that, in Poraerania,
Frederick the Great compelled the unwilling in-
habitants to receive it by force of law. In Sweden,
the celebrated Linnaeus plied his efforts and recom-

mendations to the same end, but to little purpose,
till, in 17G4, a royal edict was issued for the en-
couragement of its culture. In Switzerland, it
appears to have met with less opposition, and the
Swiss peasants grew j)otatoes on their mountain
sides in abundance, and learnt the art of drying
them and grinding them into flour, and making
them into bread. A peasant bought a small field
near the Alps, and in two years paid the pui'chase-
money by the pi'ofits of its potato-crops. The root
is now as extensively cultivated m many parts of
the continent as in England. It has also been in-
troduced into India ; and though there at first the
subject of violent dislike, it seems to be coming
into great favour with the natives. In fact, its
culture is fast becoming universal.

It is a singular fact that the potato belongs to a
natural order in the vegetable kingdom remarkable
for its acrid and poisonous properties — the order to
which the deadly nightshade, henbane, capsicum,
mandrake, thorn-apple, and tobacco belong. It
seems strange to find so valuable an article of food
among such suspicious companions ; and it may
seem equally strange, that the only species of the
potato genus (solanum) which inhabit England are
both of poisonous nature : they are the common
nightshade (solanum nigrum) and the bitter-sweet
(solaniim dulcamara). Both are common plants.
The potato (solanum tuberosum) appears to have
been originally a native of the western coast of
South America, where it grows wild from 34 degs.
south latitude to at least 10 degs. or 20 degs. north
latitude ; that is, through the subtropical, tropical,
and equinoctial zones. It is usually found on clifis,
hills, and mountains near the sea ; and is most
abundant near Valparaiso, Mendoza, Quito, Lima,
and Santa Fe de Bogota. In its wild state the
flowers are always pure white, not purple-tinted as
in its cultivated state with us. It is needless to
describe a plant so universally well known, or to
enter into details as to the manner of its cultiva-
tion. It may surprise many, however, to be told
that the tuber of the potato, which forms so valua-
ble an article of food, is not a root, but an under-
ground stem : and that this is no mere scientific re-
finement will be evident to anyone who will care-
fully take up a potato plant and examine it. The
long, fibrous, real roots will then be readily recog-
nized ; while the tubers which grov/ from them
will be seen to be sprinkled with buds, or '' eyes,"
as they are commonly termed. Now, buds are
never found upon real roots, and their presence is
so characteristic of the stem, that even though it is
growing underground, as in this instance, its real
nature is at once shown by them.

The potato, like some other highly-cultivated
plants, is subject to peculiar diseases. One of

538

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

them is the curl. When attacked by this disease,
the plant ceases to grow, and becomes of a sickly
ajjpearance just at the time when the tubers should
form ; so that the produce, if any, is small and of
bad quahty. This disease first made its appearance
in Lancashire in 17G4, and rapidly s])read over the
]<otato districts of Britain, exciting general fears
that the plant would be exterminated. Many
theories were framed to account for it, and many
remedies advised ; but all in vain, till at length it
was found that it arose from planting, as seed po-
tatoes, tubers which were quite ripe. By the aban-
donment of this plan, and by saving such for pro-
pagation as were not fully ripe, it has been observed
that the evil could be entirely prevented.

The disease which for the last six or seven years
has infested this useful plant is of a very different
nature. In the potato-murrain, as it has been
called, the plant is commonly attacked after the
tubers have been formed and have attained some
considerable size. The leaves have been observed
to be first affected. The decay usually appears as
a bluish-brown spot, |on the under side of the leaf,
and very rapidly extends, till the whole of the plant
above ground is destroyed and rotten. Often the
whole process has taken place in a single night ;
and a field, which one day has looked healthy,
green, and vigorous, has next morning exhibited
only the smitten, blackened, and decaying haulm.
The disease of the tuber appears to be consequent
upon that of the plant : the substance of it turns
brown, emits a very peculiar and unpleasant odour,
and soon decays to a fetid, watery matter. The
fearful ravages which this disease occasioned in the
potato-crops of this and the sister country, in
1S46-7, is doubtless vivid in the recollection of all.
Space would fail us to detail the miseries which
were suffered by the Irish peasantry in that awful
winter ; how the privation of food, clothing, and
warmth, in that inclement season, hurried thou-
sands to their grave from sheer starvation ; how
they dropped down by the waysides; how malignant
fevers, the sure successors of famine, made fright-
ful havoc among those whom want had spared ;
how corpses wanted coffins ; and how bodies were
left without burial, from the debility which want of
food had brought on their neighbours; how all
the better feelings of human nature seemed to be
extinguished by the extremity of the distress :
details such as these might be multiplied in their
most horrible forms, but we must forbear. The
facts are still too fresh in general recollection to
require any repetition.

Various attempts have been made to account for
the potato disease. Some have attributed it to an
insects (aphis rapse) ; others to volcanic exhala-
tions ; others to a peculiar state of the atmosphere;

others to minute fungi or moulds. The last sup-
])osition appears to be nearest the truth. A minute
fungus (botrytis infestans) appears to be almost
invariably connected with the disease, and is found
on the decaying plants : the attack of the parasite
being probably aided by some predisposition in the
state of the vegetable, induced by the season or
the atmosphere. It is a singular fact, that the
epidemic seems to have prevailed throughout the
world, and that even the wild potatoes of Chili, &c.,
were attacked by it. Various as were the theories
as to the origin of the disease, still more numerous
were the methods proposed for its cure. It does
not appear, however, that any certain preventive
has yet been discovered. Most methods proposed
have answered in some cases, and failed in others.
The cause, whatever it may have been, though still
in operation, had seemed of late years to have very
much abated in virulence ; and it was hoped that
the disease would in time disappear, where due
care was taken in the cultivation. A top-dressing
of quick-lime was considered one of the most suc-
cessful preventives of it. At the moment we write,
however, the disease seems to have returned — in
some places with greater virulence than in 1846.
We have beside us a return from various counties
in England, which gives a very black summary of
the progress of the disease on the early crops.
Before this paper reaches the public, however,
the extent of the calamity v/ill have been nearly
ascertained.

The potato has other uses besides its property as
an article of food. One important application of
it is for the purpose of extracting its starch. If
fresh potatoes are rasped into a vessel full of cold
water, the fluid will be found to assume a milky
appearance ; and if then strained, and allowed to
stand, the water will become clear, the fecula or
starch settling at the bottom: 17 lbs. of starch
may thus be obtained from 100 lbs. of potatoes.
This farina or starch is very similar to arrow-root ;
it is very nourishing, and if properly prepared,
may be kept a long time. Even diseased potatoes,
if fit for no other use, may be employed for this
purpose, and their starch will be as good as that of
sound roots. If carefully heated till vapour rises
from it, it loses its character as starch, and resem-
bles gum. In this state it is very extensively em-
ployed, under the name of " British Gum," in the
processes of calico printing, and for stiffening
different fabrics.

But, important as these applications are, the
main use of the potato is as an esculent. Its great
value is not, however, generally appreciated. It is
in part to the potato that we owe the extended term
of human life that is now enjoyed in Britain ; for
that the average duration of life has considerably

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

539

increased during the last century is indisputable.
The banishment of at least one fearful and formid-
able disease also may be attributed to its universal
use, and the change which it has mainly introduced
into our habits as a nation has probably been the
chief means of disarming other complaints of their
\'irulence, and of rendering them of infrequent
occurrence. Before the introduction of the potato,
carrots and turnips were equally unknown in Eng-
land, and the main diet of the people used to be
butcher's meat, with ale and bread. During at
least two-thirds of the year, the great bulk of the
population lived on salted meat, and without any
vegetables but bread. In those days, one of the
most fearful scourges of England was scurvy ; not
tiiat slight affection of the skin popularly known
by that name, but a malady of great malignity and
virulence, accompanied with frightful ulcerations
and a general putrid tendency of the fluids of the
body. Every winter this pest swept off multitudes
in these northern regions, and afflicted thousands
more with sufferings which caused them to drag
on a weary existence. In the British force of
6,000 troops, stationed about a century since at
Quebec, 1,000 were swept away by scurvy in one
winter; and 2,000 more were so shattered in con-

stitution, from the same cause, that they were
obhged to be sent home. It has been most con-
clusively proved that this awful scourge was the
effect of a deficiency of vegetable food, together
with the free use of salt provisions; the use of a
vegetable diet, in persons affected with it, having
always been attended with the prompt amendment
of their symptoms, and frequently with an entire
restoration to health. To the potato, then, as
furnishing us with an abundant, cheap, and whole-
some vegetable diet, especially during winter, are
we mainly indebted for our almost total exemption
from this disease. In some of our prisons, it has
occurred that the diet of the prisoners, though
amply sufficient in other respects, has contained no
potatoes, or only a small quantity of them. The
consequence has been, that scurvy has broken out
among them, but has been promptly removed on
the addition of a few povmds of this vegetable to
the weekly dietary. During the construction of
the Hawick railway, the " navvies," in consequence
of the high price of potatoes, lived on meat and
bread; and, as the sure result, an epidemic of
scurvy broke out among them. These, then, arc
some of the uses of the potato — a vegetable which
well deserves the appellation of " the friend of man."

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND

A Monthly Council was held at the Society's
House, in Hanover-square, on Wednesday, the 3rd
of November. The following Members of Council and
Governors of the Society were present : — Lord Ash-
burton, President, in the Chair ; Earl of Ducie, Lord
Berners, Sir John V. Slielley, Bart., M.P., Colonel
Austen, Mr. Raymond Barker, Mr. Barnett, Mr. S.
Bennett, Mr. Blanshard, Mr. Brandreth, Captain Stanley
Carr, Colonel Challoner, Mr. Druce, Mr. Gadesden,
Mr. Garrett, Mr. Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Grantham, Mr.
Fisher Hobbs, Mr. Hornsby, Mr. Jonas, Mr. Kinder,
Mr. Lawes, Mr. Lawrence, Mr. Milward, Mr. Pusey,
Professor Sewell, Professor Simonds, Mr. Simpson, Mr.
G. Turner, Professor Way, and Mr, H. Wilson.

Finances. — Mr. Raymond Barker, Chairman of the
Finance Committee, presented the report on the ac-
counts of the Society, from which it appeared that the
current cash-balance in the hands of the bankers was
^£■706. He also laid on the table, for the information of the
members, the quarterly statements of account, showing
the income and expenditure, invested capital, and liabi-
lities of the Society.

Prize Essays. — Mr. Pusey, Chairman of the Jour-
nal Committee, reported the following Awards made by
the Judges of Essays : —

I. To John Donaldson, of 4, North Cumming-street,
Pentonville; the Society's Prize of 20/., for the best ac-

count of the Cultivation aud Management of UnderwooJ,
founded upon actual experience, and discussing the fol-
lowing poiots : — 1. The nature of the soil; and when it
had been recently planted, the mode of preparing it. 2.
The average number of plants per acre. 3. The desciip-
tion of underwood growing. 4. The best sorts to be
planted. 5. The cost of fencing and draining. 6. The
comparative produce of not less than five acres under the
common, and under an improved system of management.
II. To FiNLAY Dun, Jan., Lecturer on Materia Medica,
&c., in the Edinburgh Veterinary College; the Society's
Prize of 20/., for the best accouut of those Diseases in
the Horse and the Ox which either are or may become
Hereditary.

Mr. Pusey also informed the Council that the Judges
had "commended" the Essay on those Diseases in the
Horse and the Ox which either are or may become
Hereditary, bearing the motto : " Periturse parcite
chartse."

Veterinary Grant. — Sir John V. Shelley, Bart.,
M.P., Chairman of the Veterinary Grant Committee,
presented the following report, which was unanimously
adopted by the Council : —

The Committee having examined the Report of the Royal
A'elerinary Colleg^e, lind that, for the \av. year. Professor
Simonds has been liberated from all duties connected with
the Horse Department in the College, and has delivered

2 N

540

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

to the pupils aJJiticnai lectures iu the branch relating to
cattle, sheep, and pigs, namely, five lectures in the week
instead of three ; the Committee are, however, of opinion
that the connection of the Society with the Royal Vf teri-
nary College m'ght be made more practically useful :—

1. By investigating particular classes of diseases or subjects
as may be from time to time directed by the Council ;

2. By delivering lectures in the Council-room of the Society ;
and,

3. By supplying a detailed report of the cases of cattle,
sheep, and pigs, treated in the Royal Veterinary College.

With thia amended system, the Committee recommend a
renewal of the grant.

On the motion of Mr. Brandreth, seconded by Mr.
Simpson, it was then resolved that a grant of ^£^200, for
the current year, should be made by the Council to the
Royal Veterinary College.

Implements.— On the motion of Colonel Challoner,
the consideration of the conditions and general regula-
. tions of the Gloucester Implement Prize Sheet were
leferred to the Implement Committee, with a request
that they would report their recommendations to the
Council at their next Monthly Meeting.— On the motion
of Mr. Pusey, seconded by Sir John Shelley, it was
ordered as an instruction to that committee, " that they
should take into their consideration the best means for
enforcing greater punctuality in the presentation of the
Judges' Reports."

Age of Pigs. — Mr. Milward presented, on the part
of the Stewards of the Cattle Yard at Lewes, a report
on the cases referred to them by the Council on the ages
of particular pigs exhibited at the last country meeting
of the Society at that place. — This Report was adopted
by the Council.

Vice-President. —Notification was made of the
vacancy occasioned in the list of the Vice-Presidents of
the Society by the death of his Grace the Duke of
Wellington, which, by the standing regulation, would be
filled up at the ensuing Monthly Council on the 1st of
December.

Inoculation for Pleuro-pneumonia. — Com-
munications from Lord Stanley, one of her Majesty's
Under-Secretaries of State for the Foreign Department;
from Sir Emerson Tennent, one of the Secretaries of
the Board of Trade; from Professor Simonds, of the
Royal Veterinary College ; and from Dr. Willems, of
Hasselt, in Belgium : were received with thanks, and
referred to the Veterinary Committee of the Society,
with a request that they would report the result of their
investigation on this subject at the next Monthly Coun-
cil in December.

Fat Cattle.— The Earl of Ducie reported to the
Coancil the extensive communication into which he had
entered, during the autumn recess, with the greater
number of those judges who had acted at the several
country meetings of the Society ; and the investigations
he had made into the proceedings of the Society from

its establishment, in reference to the increasingly stria-
gcat, but as it had proved, ineffectual instructions of the
Council to repress the evil of awarding prizes intended
for breeding stock to animals obviously inconsistent, on
account of their over- fed condition, with that character.
He was glad to find, with only one or two exceptions,
that although no case had occurred of an animal being
disq.ualified on account of its fatness, the whole of the
judges with whom he had communicated were decisive
in their opinion that something ought to be done to
arrest an evil which threatened to undermine and frus-
trate the primary object of the Society in this branch of
its operations. His lordship had ascertained that the
Highland Society already found the same tendency to
exhibit fat stock in the breeding classes gradually creep-
ing into their exhibitions, and that very summary and
exclusive measures had been taken by that Society. Tiie
Royal Agricultural Society of England would, he hoped,
be able to derive advantage from the lesult collaterally
derived from these meiisures of their friends in the
north ; in the meantime, he conceived that he had estab-
lished a prima facie case for the appointment of a com-
mittee, which he hoped the Council would grant him,
to take into consideration the whole question of the
condition of animals qualified to be shown as breeding-
stock. — The following committee r/as then unanimously
agreed to ; namely, the Earl of Ducie chairman. Lord
Berners, Mr. Milward, Mr. S. Bennett, Mr. Brandreth,
Sir John Shelley, Mr. Simpson, Mr. Fisher Hobbs, Mr.
Brandreth Gibbs, Mr. Shaw, Mr. Druce, Mr. Kinder,
Mr. G. Turner, and the Stewards of the Yard.

Miscellaneous Communications. — From Col.
Seymour, a report on the trial made with artificial ma-
nures on drained and undrained land in Windsor Great
Park. From Mr. Barugh Almack, a statement of the
advantages of Portable Farm Buildings, suggested as a
remedy in some degree for the scarcity of farm labourers.
From M. Letellier, a request for opportunity to test
practically his mode of preparing seed-grain. From Mr.
Bryant, a letter on his plan of cultivation and manur-
ing ; and from Mr. Turner, a statement in reference to
the same. Letters from Mr. Crosskill, suggesting a
prize for a bone mill ; and from Messrs. Gibson and
Richardson, suggesting a prize for a clod-crusher.
Letters from Mr. Robinson on Reaping Miichines, and
from Mr. Barthropp on Veterinary inquiries. The
Council ordered their usual acknowledgments for these
communications.

The Council then adjourned to Wednesday, the 1st of
December, the intermediate Wednesdays being reserved
for meetings of the Guano-substitute Prize Committee,
the Agricultural Implement Committee, the Veterinary
Committee, and such other Committees as may find it
desirable to assemble for business connected with re-
ports to be made at the ensuing December Monthly
Council.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

541

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENT ASSOCIATION,

Colonel Cartwright has addressed the following letter
to the Members of the Northaraptonshire Agricultural
Association :^

Gentlcmcu,— At our last meeting held at Northamptco, on
the 30th of September, I ventured to suggest certain rules for
the formation of a " District or Purochial Agricultural Imple-
ment Association," with a new of assisting industrious occu-
piers, whose strength is likely to give way under the present
burthens they have to carry ; and also of benefiting those
who, althou;,;h stronger in pocket, hare still many difficulties
to overcorae.

It appears worse than folly to blink the question of Protec-
tion, being, at all events for the present, thrown overboard by
those v,hora farmers have looked upon as their best friends.
The rolicf which may be expected by some to be given to
tenant farmers, by the shifting of burthens from one back to
aiiothcr, would most probably be more directly coudusive to
the benefit of the landlord than the tenant, inasmuch as most
burthens upon land ought to have been taken into considera-
tion by the prudent landlord and ten;nt, when the rent was
fixed for the farm ; and if so, rent would in most cases rise in
proportion to the burthens removed.

When we find ourselves thrown upon our own resources, we
are nesessarily stimulated to exertion, and it is with a hope
that the suggestions laid before you may obtain consideration
in the winds of landlords as well as tenants, that I claim your
attention.

It must be clear to all classes of politicians, that as things
are, one of the farmers' best chances of competing with low
prices, must be in employing implements or machinery, which will
do his work at leas cost than when it is done by manual labour.
Ever}' person who has one grain of common sense in his head
must see that a man who ploughs with four horses at length,
and a man and a boy, and an old parish plough, has no chance
with one who ploughs the same description cf soil with two
horses, one man, and an improved implement — that the farmer
who thrashes his grain by flail will be undersold by the farmer
who thrashes his corn by steam power — that the reaping
machine, when brought to perfection, will do its work cheaper
than the sickle — that clod crushers, horse hoes, drills, and
scufflers, will immensely diminish the account for labour — and
that the value given by such improved implements respectively,
in enabling the owner of them to take advantage of markets
and seasons, is, to say the least of it, worthy of mature con-
sideration.

In order, therefore, to place these advantages within the
reach of all industrious occupiers, my suggestions have been
oflfcred. To illustrate the working of this scheme, take a
parish containing 2,000 arable acres, whose value, at 253. per
acre, would amount to £2,500 per annum. Now, in order to
found a district or parish association, suppose the landlords
of the property subscribe towards it five per cent, on their
rentals ; that sum would give, upon the whole arable acreage
of the parish, £125 as the landlords' honorary donation ; add
to these the members' subscriptions, at four shillings an arable
aor-% which would give £400; and as a total for the purchase
of implements, the first year, a sum of £.'525.

This sum would furnish for the 2,000 acres

One steam thrashing machine.
Four reaping machines.
Tour general drills.
Four clod crushers,

and a balance to be laid out in those implements best edapted
to the soil.

With these implements the 2,000 acres might be worked in
the most economical manner, and each member cf the associa-
tion might benefit in his turn by them, as much as if he had
them in his own possession ; with this further advantage, that
lie would always have them in good order, which perhfps
would not be the case if they were his own, as in all prob-
ability they would then be left in his shed for many months
totally unnoticed.

The quarter of 2,000 acres being 500, that would be the
proportion in wheat crop ; and taking four quarters per acre
as an average yield, the gross produce would he 2,000 quar-
ters ; the steam power, thrashing forty quarters per day, would
give an average employment of the engine of fifty days in the
year, for thrashing out that crop. The reaping machine?,
which, from what I have witnessed of their working, I believe
will next season be brought to perfection, by the skill of our
noted rival implement manufacturers, would average fourteen
acres per day, four of which implements would therefore cut
the average wheat crop of 500 acres in nine days. These im-
plements would also proportionally perform the same set vice
for the spring crops, and, without entering into further detail,
the same effect would be produced by drills, clod crushers, &c.,
seufilers, &c. The difficulty attendant upon the formation of
this association I look upon to be that of getting it fairly
started, and it is to the landlords I would appeal for their
assistance in this particular. If they consider that 1 0 per cent,
given back from their rents, frequently disappoints them in
their expectations of the relief intended to be so given — some-
times being t'loney ill spent, creating jealousies and dissatisfac-
tion amongst neighbours — they may be sure that such a sum
given to an Implement Association for one year would be of
the utmost value to all the neighbouring tenantry, as well as
to themselves, as it would be the means of giving assistance to
the mdustrious farmer, and of having their own land woried
and cleaned, upon the most improved farrain?: principles, by
those from whom the old ties of mutual attachment would
make them the most reluctant to part.

The occupier no doubt would at first say that he might
require the same implement the same day that it was in use
by others. But when he reflects upon the rapidity with which
the work may be done, and the expense to be saved by its use
when he gets it, he will find that although he might be tho
last on the list for its use, he would be amply repaid by even
then obtaining its assist^ince.

An objection to this scheme will be perhaps urged, that by
it labour would be displaced. To such an argument I should
say that although it would inevitably deprive the labourers of
a certain description of work now done by hand, it would put
money in the pocket of their employers, which would most
indubitably find its way back into the hands of the labourer
for other remunerative employment, as no one knows better
than the farmer, that the cheapest labourer he can employ is
the man who can do the best day's work ; in order to perform

2 N 2

542

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

wliich he must have ample means within his reach of support-
ing nature.

In conclusion, allow me to add, that if an association en
these principles was fairly started, I feel satisfied that the
annual payments, as drawn up in the rules, would keep up the
stock of imp'ements, and that the money spent in subscription
to the association would soon prove itself to both landlords
and tenants to be money well invested. Whether any asso-
ciation may be formed or not upon these suggestions I cannot

say, but I trust that my brother members of the Northamp-
tonshire Agricultural Association will believe that my only
motive in making them public is to assist the cause of the
hard-working, industrious tenant farmer, so as to enable him
to grapple with his difficulties, and to live, doing good to him-
self and others, upon the farm which in very mmy cases has
been occupied by his family for many successive generations.
W. Cartwrigiit, Colonel.
Flore House, TVeedoa, Oct. 20th, 1852.

ROYAL AGRICULTURAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF IRELAND.

Report of the Society's Committee of Judges on Trial of Implements, at Abbotstown, Oct. 13, 1852.
(Abridged from the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society of Ireland's Journal.)

I'ULVERIZERS OF THE SOIL.

' Crosskill's Clod Crusher. — This implement fully
maintains its character, and perhaps few contrasts present
more oppositely rude and skilled labour than the array of men
who may be seen during a dry spring breaking the stiff clods
one by one, in preparation for green crop, with mallets, and
this powerful crusher reducing a breadth of six feet with three
horses, after the grubber that has raised them to the surface,
la very foul laud it has two disadvantages — the couch and
other root weeds have a tendency to clog it unless when per-
fectly dry, and it cuts and breaks them up in a manner that
tends to their propagation, and in such instances we should
prefer the common roller, though in tolerably clean or very
stiff c'ay land this is greatly superior. We hope that these
crushers may be extensively tried and reported upon, not only
in soils of various tenacity and stiffness, but also as to their
effect when used in early spring upon old pastures where the
pressure and earthing, by the tread of sheep, are known to be
so beneficial in spreading the growth of white clover and the
most valuable grasses. Further, this crusher, by interval re-
volving parts being taken out, could be used beneficially in
working between green crop drills.

"Gibson and Co.'s, or the Northumberland
Clodcrusher. — This implement appears to us to be not cor-
rectly named. Its action upon the clods, at Abbotstown, was
that of fine wheels slicing the soil, but leaving a fluting of
pressed earth, which we were able to lift up like diminutive
horse- shoe tiles ; the second series of wheels completely clean
the first, and there is no clogging ; but it wants the abraiding
principle of a true crusher, and seems to deserve more the
name of a laud presser. We think that as such in light soils,
it would be a most valuable precursor of the barley or wheat
crop, and are satisfied that wherever minute subdivision con-
nected with pressure of the surface is desirable, it is very well
adapted to effect the object. It was drawn with much greater
ease than the clod-crusher.

" The Norwegian Harrow. — This was the first time we
believe that this implement has been at work in this vicinity,
and it attracted general admiration, drawn with a pair of horses,
with apparently not more exertion of power than is required
by an ordinary plough, cultivating a breadth of five feet, the
earth of which was reduced to a fine state. It separated with
its revolving teeth or tines the rough ridge, and tmrned up the
mould instead of pressing it downwards, and thus pulverized
without showing any injurious marks of consolidation. The
three rows of star-shaped tines playing into each other, pro-
duced a perfectly self-cleaning action. Altogether, it appears
to us that this implement is capable of effecting good on almost

any soil whenever the land ought to be tilled at all, and that
it will probably soon prove a most valuable auxiliary to the
grubbers, which ought to be more extensively used.

" We have here an instance of three implements, all excel-
lent in their various adaptations, but which scarcely can be
brought into competition with each other, though to us it
appears that the Norwegian harrow can be more generally
used with advantage. We then proceeded to the trial of the
several field grubbers.

"Kirkwood's Grubber. — This is an excellent imple-
ment. It is adjusted, by a very ingenious piece of mechanism,
to creep over furrows, and maintain its depth throughout ; the
adjustment of the tines being also such as to cause the weeds
and clods to be thrown off laterally, instead of being drawn
within the framework, and so choking the implement. The
draught of the one exhibited, which covered a width of five
feet, and worked with seven tines, would not, in ordinary soils,
be excessive for two good horses. This and the following
work to a maximum depth of between twelve and fourteen
inches.

" Five-tined Grubber, by Law, of Shettleston. —
This was selected for competition with Mr. Kirkwood's from
its having been tried at Hamwood, in the autumn of 1351,
against the grubbers produced by Mr. Sheridan and Mr. Gra-
ham, implement makers, Dublin, when it was judged superior
to them in every respect. It is an excellent implement, and
very generally used in Scotland ; but we think Kirkwood's
superior.

" Mr. La Touche's Grubber, price £3 10s., has only
three tines, but these work to a maximum depth of sixteen
inches ; it is constructed with great simplicity and strength,
and seems admirably adapted to the uses of the small farmer.

" Ritchie's Grubber. — This implement (constructed
somewhat similar to Tennaut's grubber but without wheels,)
was also worked, and it is thought it may prove a useful two-
horse implement in a variety of light soils free of rocks and
boulders.

" The improvement introduced last year by Mr. Tenaut, of
Shields, Ayrshire, in his grubber, in making the tines with
square bar-iron, set diamond-ways, and the practicability of
adjusting tines to a greater or less width of intervening space,
according to the work required, are points well worthy of
the manufacturer's attention.

"Our notice was next directed to several drill-grubbers.
The proper time and place for trying these implements is a
turnip-field, in June ; but we thought it desirable to see the
working of several (selected from the museum) in the
track of the grubber and crusher. Of these, two seemed

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

543

to do the work well — cue by Miller, of Dunleer, and one by
Kirkwood.

"The next implements tried were the subsoil ploughs,
which we worked in the furrow, following a commou plough.
Reid's did right good work to a depth of seventeen inches,
but required the full draught of four powerful horses ; it con-
sists of a frame with four wheels, and one strong tine with a
cutting edge, and cast-iron sole, rivetted on this tine or
coulter. It is apt to bs dragged back, so as to work at an
angle acute to the surface ; and we think that a back-stay, si-
milar to those in Mr. La Touche's grubber, would mateiially
tend to its efficiency and lightness of draught.

"Mr. Kikkwood's Suhsoil Pulverizer is a closely-
set, three-tined, strong grubber, which stirs the soil with
which it comes in contact, and breaks it up, and operates to
the depth of sixteen inches worked by four horses, and twelve
inches with two horses.

"Messrs. Barrett, Exall, and Co.'s Subsoiler has a
cast-metal share with double sock, one over the other, fixed in
a wooden frame. It takes much less power than either of the
former, works to about twelve or fourteen inches in depth,
but would scarcely break up the soil sufficiently in clay land.
On a variety of soils, however, it would work well and econo-
mically, and be particularly useful in opening drains after the
first sod was cut out. These are all useful implements.

"Skim Ploughs by Messrs. Stanley, and by Hill
and Co. — From the outward appearance of these when ex-
hibited at Galway, we anticipated some practical results, but
we were soon disappointed iu our expectations. Their object
is to cover and cut a greater breadth than several ordinary
ploughs, in skimming the surface of stubbles, &c., te a depth
of three or four inches, so as to enable the harrows to shake
out and gather the weeds, the bulk of which usually pene-
trated only about that depth. One of the most fatal errors
in our autumnal tillage is the deep ploughing of stubbles at
once, so as to bury and propagate endlessly the couch, crow-
foot, and other creeping weeds. We can only speak of these
implements as they worked in a foul stubble, and as the clods
were gathered into the inside of the frame, instead of being
thrown off literally (as in the working of Kirkwood's
grubber), they so frequently clogged up as to render the use-
ful working of either of them impracticable iu such land.
What we have said in the beginning of our report, however,
of the adaptation of different implements to various soils,
must prevent our disapproving of these double skims, except
under the present circumstances. They were worked in the
same trim that they were put iu at Galway by their owners.
The horses and yoke were good, and every endeavour made by
skilful workmen to get them to work, but in vain. As far
as we can speak of these implements already exhibited at our
shows, we think a good graving or skim plough still a de-
sideratum, and we hope to see such introduced ere long, as it
is greatly required in Ireland. Kirkwood had upon the field
a stubble and couch rake, not unlike Crosskill's. There are
many varieties of this implement, which is scarcely known or
appreciated sufficiently. The saving of labour and time in
gathering weeds or rack out of foul land is incalculable.

"We have now only to notire two drill sowing machines, one
by Smith, of Peasenhall, Suffolk, and one by Mr. Ritchie, of
Ardee.

" Mr. Smith's is upon the cup principle adopted by all the
best makers, such as Smith, Garratt, Crosskill, &c., and in

general use in all the most improved agricultural districts of
England. The above would stamp its practical value, and
proves that as it really effects the object of depositing the
seed evenly at the same depth, and in rows admitting the air
and hoe during the growth of the crop, the outlay will prove
moderate iu proportion to the saving and advantages of its
use. If we can save six or eight stone of seed corn per acre,
the saving in forty or fifty acres would return the outlay
for such a machine in one season. We had no ground suf-
ficiently prepared for sowing at Abbotstown, but the machine
was worked so as to show its action, which is very simpV.
The changing of two wheels, which is the work of a couple of
minutes, regulates the exact quantity which is to be suppliel
by the revolving cups, which throw the corn into the delivery
pipes in one constant unvarying stream. The coulters make a
narrow drill where the seed is deposited and covered by the
same operation, and only requires the roller to finish the
sowing. In all these operations it is evident that the utmost
possible accuracy has been obtained ; every grain is deposited
at the same depth, and iu a regular line. A very ingeniojis
steerage has been lately adapted to enable the driver to guide
it in a right line, and it can be instantly thrown out of gear at
the headlands, and seems to us calculated to fulfil all the con-
ditions required for good sowing of corn, pulse, or turnip seed,
when sown on the flat.

"Mr. Ritchie's is a cheaper implement ; the coulters are
well arranged, and it is no doubt a very great improvement
upon the sowing sheet, but the delivery is by no means so
accurate or so easily regulated as in Smyth's. The box con-
taining the seed has a stirring rod revolving in the centre,
which forces the seeds against oblong holes in the box, and
through them into the delivery pipes; but the long seeds
such as oats, are very apt to get across the aperture and stop
the whole until freed by poking. The apertures are diminished
in size, or closed, by slides moving simultaneously, and the
work on the whole, though good, still we think the principle
and delivery not so good as in Mr. Smyth's drill, which is well
worth the difference iu expense. The drill coulters iu the latter
can be regulated to any desired spaces, and when land is laid
down with grass seeds or clover, the advantage of a free cur-
rent of air over the plants, and the weeders being able to de.
tect and extirpate every weed, even during the advanced stages
of the corn crop, cannot be too highly estimated.

THE PLOUGHS.

" The four following ploughs, though worked well in the
stubble ground at Abbotstown, were reserved for a future and
leisurely trial on lea ground.

" The ploughs so to be tried are : —

1. Miller of Dunleer's Plough.

2. Ponton's.

3- Kirkwood's East Lothian Ploi.gh.
4. Law's Plough.
" Winton's collection of spades, digging forks, &c , exhibited
by Edmundson and Co., Dame-street. These implements wcro
worked with much effect, are of first-rate material, and great
utility. Tlie judges highly commend them.

(Signed) Charles W. Hamilton.

FiNLAY W. CuSACK.

Thomas Harkness."
Tiie report was unanimously approved of and adopted.

6ii

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

^AGRICULTURE AND THE RURAL POPULATION ABROAD.
LETTER No. XLIII. FRANCE.-No. XXVL

THE VALLEY OF THE RHONE — THE MULBERRY AND THE SILKWORM.

[from the special correspondent of the morning chronicle.]

I write from the centre of the silk-making dis-
trict of France — from the banks of the Rhone, about
half-way between Avignon and Lyons. Hereabouts,
near the little town of Mon'elimar, the mulberry
M-as first planted in French soil. The event took
])lace as early as the close of the 15th century. An
old French agricultural writer attributes it to the
journey made by Charles VIII. to Naples. Some
lew gentlemen of the royal suite, remarking the
richness and glossiness of the Italian silks, deter-
mined to try whether they could not introduce at
home the creation of equally splendid fabrics. Ac-
cordingly, says the old rural chronicler, when the
v»ars of Italy were finished, they sent to Naples for
mulberry slips, which they planted in Provence, the
slight difference between the climate of southern
France and that of central Italy favouring the spe-
culation. The experiment— a whim, in fact, of the
gay noblesse of the French Court— attracted pro-
bably little attention at the time, and the planters
of the white mulberry trees near Montelimar had,
in all likelihood, but a faint idea of the grand ele-
ment of v.'ealth with which they were enriching their
country. I am told that old men still living have
seen the crumbling trunks of these, the first French
nuilberries. One very ancient tree still survives,
near a village called Rousset. The date of its
plantation is unknown, but a species of not un-
graceful homage is paid to the vegetable patriarch
by the peasantry. It still produces a few leaves,
but they are never gathered, for fear of exhausting
the feeble remnants of sap contained in the grey
old tree. The seeds or roots imported by the cava-
liers of Charles VIII. flourished their bravely, and
the mulberry tree now forms a very important part
of the rural riches of the south of France — abound-
ing in a greater or lesser degree from Lyons, or
thereabouts, to Toulon, on the right-hand, and
Toulouse on the left, and being particularly luxu-
riant along the valley of the Rhone and its tri-
butaries. The mulberry is comparatively a hardy
tree. It has been grown, and made annually to
produce a crop of leaves, as far north as Stock-
holm, and it stands out greatly against frosts which
ruin the almond tree for the season, and the olive
for ever. It mingles and flourishes with the willow
and the oak of the north, as well as with the spice
and oil trees of the south. The warmer parts of
Europe are never visited with frost on the one
hand, or heat and drought on the other, intense
enough and long-continued enough to kill it. Of
the south of France, however, the district comprised
by the departments of the Drome on one side
of the Rhone, and the Ardeche on the other, may
bs said to form the head-quarters of the mulberry

tree. There not a field exists unplanted with silk-
worm fodder, and the rearing of the insects ; and
the first stages of preparation of their produce, fur-
nish most important items of agricultural industry.
In the department of the Drome alone, the number
of mulberries is computed to exceed 3,000,000 —
and this independently of a great quantity of dwarf
trees of the same class, reckoned as equal to about
300,000 more. The plantations are said to increase
at the rate of about two or three per cent, per
annum. The quantity of silk-worm eggs annually
hatched is stated to amount to about 60,000
ounces ; and each ounce, in prosperous years, is
computed to produce no less than from 50 to 60
lbs. of silk. The average price of a pound of
cocoons is about Iff. The average price of a
pound of spun silk is about 24if., each 13lbs. of
cocoons producing about lib. of silk. The total
benefit computed to arise to the department by the
sale of cocoons is about 5,000,000f. The sums
paid for spinning the silk in the department
amount to about 700,000f., and for performing
other processes connected with the manufacture to
about ],100,000f.— making nearly 7,000,000f. an-
nually gained for the district by the labours of its
silk-worms.

Few readers will require to be told that opera-
tions connected with the silk-worm last at the
utmost for only two months of the year, ranging
from the beginning of April till the end of June.
The breeding or " education " of the insects is
curiously universal. The farmers, the peasantry,
the rural inhabitants of the villages and small
country towns, and to some degree the population
of the faubourgs of the large towns, are all, when
the season comes round, silk-worm breeders.
Every man, in fact, who has a patch of land, plants
it with mulberry trees, and almost every man who
has mulberry trees rears v^'orms, and either spins
the silk in his household or sells the cocoons. A
trifling minority of farmers may content themselves
with rearing the mulberry tree and selling the
leaves ; but the profit of producing the thread is
so great, and the tiouble com})aratively so small —
falling, in nine cases out of ten, on the females of
the family — that the production of the valuable
fibre is all but universal.

There are few or no regularly or scientifically
constructed silk-worm breeding places, although
the writers on the subject are continually recom-
mending the erection of magnamiaries — so these
places are called — duly ventilated, and prepared
expressly for the reception and convenient breeding
of the worms. Barns, lofts, lumber garrets — or
whatever outbuilding, so that there be a fire-place

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

545

in it, which cones handiest— is used ; and the
apparatus with which the place is for tlie nonce
fitted up is, perhaps, nona the less efficient for
actual working purposes than it can he cheaply
come by and easily knocked up. Travelling through
the district in the winter, the only actual vestiges
of silk-worms which I saw where the stores of eggs
for next season, commonly stuck upon folds of
cloth, and looking very like assortments of small
beads, but carefully folded in multitudinous wrap-
])ers of towels, and laid by in the warmest nooks
of the kitchen cupboards. When the early summer
time begins to vivify the world, and the mulberry
leaves to get juicily ripe, the eggs are hatched — more
anon of the several processes employed — and the
barn, or stable, or hayloft to be employed is cleaned
oat and the apparatus arranged. The latter, as it
is commonly used, is easily described. I have
alluded to the huge bamboo-like canes or rushes
which grow in the swamps and by the river banks.
These are cut, split open, and attached together, so
as to form long cane beds, about 2i feet broad,
called claies. Ranges of these couches are then
stretched shelvewise from one end of the barn to
the other, upon a rude system of frame work easily
erected — two or more passages, according to the
breadth of the chamber, being left longitudinally
for the attendants to traverse. The claies are ar-
ranged one above the other, the lowest about
eighteen inches from the floor, the others at like
spaces up to the ceihng, if necessary. The place
thus presents the aspect of a great barn-chamber,
completely filled with long, narrow cane-work
shelves, resting upon a rough extempore framework
of timber, and traversed by narrow passages from
end to end. The worms, as soon as they are hatched,
are strewed along the claies, and the mulberry leaves
at the proper moment sprinkled over and among
them. Precautions are generally taken to ensure
something like an equality of temperature. Holes
are cut in the floor and v/alls to allow the entrance
of air, and stoves are used if the nights prove cold.
The attendant makes use of a short ladder to ascend
to the higher claies. In some of the better class of
establishments, however, a different and superior
arrangement is adopted. The claies are ranged so
as to hang from the circumference of large wheels
placed at each end of the apartment. By turning
these wheels the ranges of shelves rise and fall, and
are transferred from side to side at the pleasure of
the attendant. Brisk curi-ents of air are thus made
to play amid the silkworm beds — a good fresh
atmospheric supply being usually that which the
insects suffer most from the want of — while the
operator can bring each system of shelves readily
to his or her hand, for the necessary cleaning and
feeding of the worms. At the proper moment the
creatures are furnished with due facilities for spin-
ning the valuable nest in which they enclose them-
selves and their eggs. Hedges, or fences so to
speak, composed of the cuttings of brushwood or
some such substance, are stuck erect in long lines
adown each claie, supported between the shelves,
and bristling with tough twigs and tiny forked
branches. Up these the worms climb, and in them
they lay thei'" eggs and spin their cocoons. The
whole structure of framework and shelf is then

pulled to pieces, the brushwood hedges extracted,
and the little bunches of silken film picked carefully
out from amongst the twigs. The worms inside
are killed by the application of steam or boiling
water, and if there be a sufficient number of women
in the establishment, the spinning of the fibre com-
mences ; if not, the cocoons are sold to the agents
of the spinners and throwsters, who proceed from
farm to farm, gathering in the silken harvest of
the year. The labour of attending to the silk-worms
during the several stages of their short existence
is a very trying and harassing one. The operator
must be continually on the alert, cleaning the claies,
providing fresh masses of leaves, regulating the
temperature by means of the stoves and air holes,
and removing the dead, sick, or dying worms.
The creatures have always to be tended the last
thing in the evening and the first in the morning.
Where great pains are taken, they are even visited
and arranged during the night. This labour, in
general, falls upon the women. " There is little
sleep for us in silk-worm time," said a buxom old
lady who was showing me her stores of eggs in a
poor-looking Ardechg farm-house. Sometimes,
however, the peasants of the Cevennes, who are
esteemed the most skilful silk-worm breeders in
France, descend from their hills at the proper sea-
son, and are employed in the larger establishments.
In the de])artment of the Drome it is calculated
that about 600 arrive every year to undertake the
silk-worm tending in the principal farms. They
take the whole charge of the operation, from the
hatching of the eggs to the production of the
cocoons, and are paid about 2f. per day. The wo-
men do not gain above 24 or 25 sous, although they
do the work just as well as the men. The person
who performs the duties of the magnannarie has
also to strip the mulberry leaves for food for his or
her charge— so that the office is, as may be con-
ceived, no sinecure. The cocoons secured, the
claies and their supporting frame-work are carefully
piled up in any out-of-the-way corner, ready for
the requirements of the following season, and the
barn or loft returns for the rest of the year to its
proper employment.

After the above general sketch of the manner of
silk-worm rearing in France, the reader will pro-
bably be wiUing to accompany me through some
moie minute details as to the culture of the mul-
berry tree, and the principal steps in the curious
process of the education des vers a soie.

I have stated that, through the principal silk-
producing districts of France, almost the entire face
of the country is planted with this indispensab'e
tree. Sometimes it is arranged in regular planta-
tions, the corn or grass beneath being a secondary
consideration ; sometimes itis planted in long doubl.'
or single lines, cutting the fields into narrow stripes.
The regular hedges and paths, and the main and
cross-roads, are invariably planted v/ith the shrub,
and few farm-houses are unprovided wir.h a sheltered
corner, in or near their gardens, in which colonics
of the precious seedhngs are growing. The tree
upon which all these pains are expended, and which
brings in so rich a return, is a sufficiently ugly
and unpicturesque-looking affair, scrubby and mop-
pish like the olive, and so regularly cut, and twisted,

646

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

and pruned as to destroy anything like individuality
about each distinct specimen. Its principal visible
peculiarity and the result of the mode of culture
employed, is that the tree generally presents the
appearance of a trunk, sending forth half a dozen
stumps of thick branches, cut short near the body
of the tree, and each garnished with a more or less
plentiful and thriving crop of vigorous twigs about
a yard in length, upon which the precious leaves
are produced.

The mulberry is generally reared from the seed.
When a plantation is to be formed, the seed is
gathered in June and July from old trees which
have been left for that purpose unstripped of their
crop of leaves. The germs thus obtained are flung
into water ; those which float are thrown away —
those which sink are saved for use. The destined
spot for the i^lantation — the more sunny and shel-
tered the better — is either ploughed repeatedly, or
the soil well loosened by hand labour. Manure is
applied, and the ground carefully levelled. The
seed is sown in May, generally along shallow fur-
rows, about six inches broad, and covered with a
thin layer of earth. Weeding and watering are not
neglected during the summer and autumn, and dog-
grass, which an old French farmer told me he
cordially hated, is very carefully rooted out. As
the slips shoot up, the most thriving of them are
pulled from the ground by the hand, after the
fashion of radishes, and replanted in another patch
of well-stirred, manured, and loosened earth — care
being taken that the roots of each seedling are well
and solidly covered by the soil. As the shrub in-
creases in size, it is regularly pruned, to prevent it
from throwing out too many branches, and the
ground is very carefully cleared from weeds. Very
genei-ally, the young mulberry is improved and
quickened by grafting. The ungrafted slips, called
sauvageons, are said to live the longest ; but the
grafted mulberries produce by far the lieaviest crops
of leaves. The harvest yielded by the sauvageon,
from the smallness of the leaves, is tedious and
expensive to gather, while the leaf of the grafted
mulberry is said to weigh nearly three times as
much as that of the sauvageon. As the trees grow
up, the soil is ploughed or otherwise worked every
August, and the young shoots are pruned, so as to
concentrate the sap as much as possible, and pre-
vent the seedling from being weakened by an over-
rapid growth. About the fourth or fifth year, the
mulberries are dug up from the plantation to be
set in their places in the field ; as yet they have
yielded nothing, the scanty crops of leaves having
been permitted to grow untouched. As to soil,
the mulberry is by no means difficult to please.
Asa general rule, the fields in which the tree is
planted thickly are the most middling parts of the
domain. Marsh land is the only species of soil in
which the tree makes no way — its growth is affected,
its leaves in such situations turn yellow, and aflbrd
but a small and unwholesome supply of food to
the insect for whose behoof it is reared. The mul-
berry is often planted along with the vine, although
the propriety of the practice is a mooted point,
some cultivators maintaining that the two plants
thrive best in brotherhood, others that the mulberry
ought always to be reared alone. As a general

rule, however, it is held in the south that where
the vine flourishes the mulberry will also do well.
Care is, however, at all events taken never to allow
the latter to be overshaded by any higher-growing
trees. The mulberry loves the sun, and languishes
if the golden light be not lavished upon his leaves
and branches. A tree well exposed to the solar
influence will, it is said, grow twice as quickly and
to twice the size of one less favourably situated.
This being the case, the relative distance at which
the trees may be most profitably planted becomes
an important object of consideration. Average
mulberries, planted at two metres or seven feet dis-
tance from each other, will have — so a great autho-
rity upon the subject calculates — not more than
fifteen years of useful life. The statement, of course,
refers to a superficial plantation, and not to single
or even double rows of trees. The distances which
ought to be kept depend, however, necessarily, in a
great measure, upon the size of the tree ; and mul-
berries are of many species, growing to many dif-
ferent dimensions. The largest trees are some-
times planted as much as 28 feet from each other ;
the next largest at from 14 to 17 feet ; the dwarf or
coppice variety at from 6 to S feet ; the species used
for hedge-rows, and set in a straight line, not more
than a few inches apart. In localities exposed to
the Rhone fogs, the spaces are advantageously left
larger. The trees are generally planted in regular
squares, and it is held to be of importance to sur-
round the field thus laid out by a species of zone or
border sown with oats, barley, or rye, M'hich is very
generally cut down green for the cattle. Grass
may be grown among the mulberries, but the plan
is not recommended, and in a thoroughly well-
managed plantation corn is never thought of.
Planting each tree at the distance of 1 4 feet from
its neighbours, a hectare of land will contain about
720 ; at 23 feet it will contain 230 ; at 36 feet it
will contain about 95. Previously to the trees
being set in their positions, the earth is well broken
up, and the siijets are planted along ditches dug to
the necessary depth, or sometimes formed by large
ploughs drawn by a strong team of oxen. Once
fairly planted, the mulberry groves receive two
ploughings per annum. In the smaller exploita-
tions, hand labour is employed instead, care being
always taken that the operation shall not be per-
formed during periods of intense heat and drought.
Different opinions exist as to the quantity of ma-
nure which ought to be applied to the mulberry,
and at the time at which it is to be laid down. The
more compost used, the quicker the tree comes to
maturity, and the sooner — so think many cultiva-
tors— it dies. Some mulberry-growers manure
the trees every third or fourth year. Others leave
longer spaces of time between the operations. The
compost is ordinarily the usual stable litter, and is
mingled with the ground either by manual labour
with the hoe, or by the help of the plough.

The most difficult and delicate portion of the
task of the mulberry grower is the pruning of the
tree, so as to cause it to produce each year the
greatest quantity of the richest and the juiciest
leaves. So far as I can understand, there seems
to exist a great deal of pedantry in the various
systems of " taille " as they are recommended and

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE,

347

practised by different cultivators. In almost every
district you will find some conventional shape,
which it is held necessary to give the tree, and
without which it is believed the produce would be
very inferior. Mulberry farmers indeed appear to
be ])0ssessed with the idea that they can imjjrove
upon nature in arranging the development of the
branches, just as the old-fashioned nurses held
their swathings and bandages to be necessary to
give infants a " fine figure." The more enlightened
growers cut and prune the tree with a different end
in view, contenting themselves with thinning the
occasional over-luxuriance of the branches, clearing
away languishing boughs in favour of the neigh-
bouring vigorous shoots, and always aiming at the
introduction of as much air and light as possible
into the body of each tree. As a general rule,
also, the object is to prevent the development of
thick branches — upon which, of course, leaves do
not immediately grow — and to encourage the abun-
dant shoot of fresh, young slips, which summer
will see clothed with the richest foliage. The prun-
ing season, in the most skilfully managed planta-
tions, is in the early spring, February and March.
Then the tree is said to sleep, and the operation to
be far less hurtful than when the advancing spring
has set the juices in active motion. Occasionally,
however, the ])runing process takes place in sum-
mer— principally for the sake of economy in hand
labour — the leaves upon the cut-down branches
serving for the food of the worms or their claies.
The methods of pruning are very multifarious.
There are different tailles pursued in almost every
district, by almost every proprietor, and for every
different species and age of the tree. After some
study of the subject, I confess I can see little
diversity in principle in these numerous methods ;
and the reasons by which each cultivator recom-
mends his system are commonly founded upon
purely and minutely technical grounds, connected
with the manner of branching of various species,
the activity of the sap at various seasons in various
localities, and sundry other similar circumstances,
into which I need not enter. Suffice it to say, that
the best taille is that which combines the richest
harvests of leaves each year with the method tend-
ing most surely to husband the resources and
lengthen the life of the tree. A late improvement,
only partially introduced, and adopted for the most
part only by the more extensive growers, is to leave
every year either a third or a fourth of the trees un-
pruned and unstvipped — the untouched proportion
thus enjoying a rest for which the amplitude of its
yield in the following season is said amply to com-
pensate. The pruning operations, like those relat-
ing to the olive tree, give well-paid employment to
a great proportion of the labourers of the district,
40 sous being a common daily wage for a tolerably
expert hand.

The mulberry may be made available for feed-
ing in the second year of its growth ; but it is held
to be very desirable to permit its leaves to shoot
and fall undisturbed until the tree attains double
that age. Dwarf mulberries are commonly stripjied
in their third season — the intermediate class in their
fourth --and the largest trees, called " plein vents,"
in their fifth summer. The leaves are gathered by

the hand, and some pains and skill are necessary
to glean the harvest satisfactorily. Careless strip-
ping is one of the faults which a mulberry grower
has most to guard against in his servants. The
leaves ought to be gently removed, and not a twig
is, if possible, to be broken. As I have already
said, when, as is generally the case, silk-worms are
bred in the farm, the person attending to them
strips the trees as the food is wanted. When the
mulberries are cultivated only for the purpose of
selling the leaves, the harvest is gathered in as
soon and by as many hands as possible, and des-
spatched to the large worm-breeding establish-
ments, which buy it. The second crop of leaves
is, as I have also stated, invariably used, either
green or dried, as fodder for the cattle. It is
reckoned of importance that the gathering of the
second harvest should be postponed until as late as
possible. The produce of the mulberry, like that
of the olive, is very various. From three to six
quintals of leaves may be taken as the ordinary
range, although trees exist (capable of producing
ten quintals. The price of the harvest in a great
measure depends upon the general degree of success
with which the silk-worms have been hatched and
bred. From three to five francs per quintal may
be taken as including the average rate.

So much for the production of the food of the
silk-worm. Let me now attempt some detail of the
main points of the process of breeding the insect
itself.

According to the progress of the mulberry tree
is fixed the epoch at which the eggs of the silk-
worm, carefully preserved during the winter in
folded cloth, are vivified. In its minutiae, the
process observed differs in different districts, but
the general mode of proceeding is the same. The
cloth containing the ova is first soaked, the more
easily to separate the eggs from their resting place,
the former are then scraped off — frequently, in the
Ardeche, by rubbing one portion of the texture
against the other — and heaped in a basin into wliich
clear water is poured. This detaches the eggs
from each other, the stale or spoiled ones floating
to the surface. Sometim.es wine is poured over
the good ones after they are taken from the basin.
The next process is drying the eggs, usually taking
about two days, spread either upon a bricken floor
or claies of osiers. The eggs are now ready to be
subjected to the warm temperature which hatches
them. To manage this part of the process the rude
expedient in some cases adopted is, as I have said,
for the operator to go fairly to bed with the ova
and hatch them by the natural heat of the body.
Closets, well warmed by stoves, are, however, more
often resorted to, and the eggs are ranged round
in small boxes upon shelves. The insects make
their appearance in from three to five days, more
or less, according to the degree of heat kept up.
The warmer the eggs have been kept during the
winter, the more readily they vivify in spring. A
common practice is to place sheets of paper, pierced
with numerous holes, over the eggs, as they begin
to show signs of life ; through these holes the worms
crawl up. Leaves of the mulberry, or small branches
of the tree, are laid upon the paper, and to these the
insects speedily attach themselves, beginning from

518

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

the very first to eat greedily. By the help of the
twigs in question, they are carried to the claies
prepared for them, in what I may properly call the
breeding-room, and the "education" begins. The
claies do not always consist of the split osiers I
have described. In some of the best estabhshraents
well stretched sheets of canvas are used instead.
At first a small space of date or shelf-room only is
required, but with each change of skin the quantity
must be enormously increased. Asilk-v/orm, during
its brief life of little more than a month, increases
in weight upwards of one thousand fold, four dis-
tinct skins bursting in the process, and being sup-
plied by wider and roomier integuments, ^\'e are
now, therefore, to suppose that the little newly-
hatched creatures are distributed on their shelves,
either fixed or immovable, in the breeding-room.
The more easily to convey a definite idea of the space
and the quantity of food required, we shall suppose
that the breeder intends to rear the produce of five
ounces of eggs — a quantity requiring a large atelier
and a very considerable stock of mulberry leaves.
The space at first allotted to the worms ought to be
from 36 to 40 square feet. It is of importance that
the creatures should not be crowded. The first
day they consume four meals of leaves, the whole
consisting of about 3j lbs. of the substance, selected
from the tenderest and juiciest shoots of (he tree,
and cut very small. A space of six hours intervenes
between the repasts, and as a general rule the quan-
tity of each is to be successively augmented. The
number ofwoi'ms supposed to be now feeding is
about 200,000; but great numbers die oflT, even vm-
der the most careful superintendence. Those who
eat less than the average quantity become weakly,
do not increase in size, and soon perish. Generally
speaking, the worms devour their allowance of leaves
ill ar, hour and a half, and then lie almost motion-
less till the next meal. The second day the allow-
ance IS increased by one half — six pounds of leaves
well cut up being served out to the insect guests.
The third day the quantity is again doubled, that
being one of the periods of their life when the in-
sects eat voraciously. All this time it is to be noted
that the attendants keep spreading the insects out
more and more, removing the sickly or the dead,
and watching the length of time the healthy take to
eat; since, if the meals are devoured with more than
average rapidity, a proportionately greater quan-
tity of leaves must be supplied, and less time
allowed to elapse between the repasts. The
reader will thus have a notion of the continued, ha-
rassing, fidgety species of the work required. The
neat light-handedness of women renders them ge-
nerally more fitting than men for the task.

On the fourth day the appetite of the creatures
falls off as suddenly as it augmented, and the allow-
ance is diminished to between '3 and 7 pounds.
The size of the worms has now visibly increased, and
the attendants take gre.^it pains to keep them from
overlying each other. I need hardly remark that
at this, as well as at the latter stages, the atmos-
phere ought to be kept as pure as possible. Holes
for ventilation are commonly established both in the
floor and roof; and the fires which are kept con-
stantly burning night and day tend to increase the
activity of the circulation of the air. Still, how-

ever, in the rude country concerns, the atmospheric
conditions necessary to perfect success are often
neglected. A damp fungus-like smell broods in
the dark interior, and, after their month of la-
bour is over, the breeders come forth pale, emaciated
and out of order. To continue. It is on the fourth
day that the first symptoms of the first change of
skin or mue become evident to the practised eye
of an experienced " educator." The creatures keep
moving their heads ; and the skin, from its strained
condition, takes a shiny appearance. Then the tor-
pid state comes gradually on, and by evening many
of the worms lie motionless, waiting for the change.
On the fifth day, a very small quantity, about one
pound and a half of leaves, is distributed in the vi-
cinity of those worms who appear not to be so far
gone as their companions. The exact proportion
of food given must depend upon the requirements
of the insects, ascertained by the close watchfulness
of the attendants. In the night the change of skin
frequently takes place, many of the worms appear-
ing in their new garbs next morning. The crea-
tures are now about four lines in length, and of a
dark ashen colour. The next important process,
and one which is repeated at each of the four changes,
or commencements of ages, is to transfer the worms
to fresh and larger beds — of course cleaning the
couches which the animals have already occupied.
There are different modes of accomplishing this
process. One much in vogue is to spread
branches of mulberry over the creatures, which
cling and stick to them. The loaded twigs are
transferred to little trays or platforms, the operation
being conducted as gently as possible, in order to
avoid hurting the insects, which are then deposited
upon fresh leaf-strewn claies, and the twigs which
served for their removal taken away. A newer and
better method has, however, been adopted by a few
of the most skilful breeders of the Ardeche. I saw
the apparatus employed in the beautifully- fitted
magnanncrie of M. Giraud, the proprietor of the fine
old feudal castle of Chateaubourg, one of the most
striking objects upon the right bank of the Rhone
in nearing Valence from Lyons. The contrivance
consisted in sheets of pierced paste-board, fitted to
the size of the claies. These, covered with leaves,
;ire placed over the worms ; the creatures climb to
the upper surface, and are carried away, to be
laid upon new cZsies; the process being repeated
at the next age, while the sheets successively soiled,
being thus deserted, are easily freshened and cleaned,
and made fit for further use.

The first day of the second aee the worms must be
ranged upon a square, comprehending about 74 feet.
A gentle movement of the head is the signal that
they are uji, stirring, and ready to resume their ca-
reer of mulberry-leaf devouring. A meal is accor-
dinly served out, after they have been about an hour
and a half on their new shelves. During the day
the creatures eat about nine pounds of leaves, and
are usually brisk and lively in their movements.
On the second day of the second age the allowance
of leaves is increased at once to thirty pounds, ad-
ministered as usual in four repasts, with six hours'
interval between each ; great care is taken that the
quantity consumed by each worm shall be as nearly
as possible equal. When an undue concourse of in-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

649

sects to any particular point takes place, the sur-
plusage is lifted upon twigs, and set down in more
thinly inhabited parts of the claie. The third day
of the second age the worms eat about 33lbs. of
leaves. In the morning they are ravenous, and
devour the greater proportion of the quantity.
Towards evening their appetite falls rapidly off, and
symptoms of torpidity begin again to a])pear, the
worms lying listlessly upon the leaves, holding their
heads erect, and refusing aliment. Next day — the
fourth of the second age — 9lbs. of leaves provide
for the wants of those insects which have not
.already became torpid. During the day they fall
asleep by thousands ; and, as in the case of the first
change, they burst their skins for the most part in
the night. Tlie worms are now six lines in length.
After the first change, 3,240 weighed an ounce.
Now 610 suffice to balance the weight. As these
changes take place the worms excrete more matter,
and jcquire more air, at a lower temperature. The
ventilation, therefore, is or ought to be, carefully at-
tended to.

Upon attaining the third age, the space to be
allotted to the insects is about 174 square feet.
It is a sign that they are thoroughly wakened up
if they move their heads and bodies, in curiously
vmdidating sweeps, when breathed or blown upon.
The occurrence of this phenomenon is held to be the
symptom of their entry upon the active period of
their third age. The first day 15 lbs. of leaves, and
as many of tender young twigs, are supplied. The
assistants now wear baskets suspended from their
necks, containing the food which they distribute
carefully over all the elates. During the day as
much as 60 lbs. ol leaves are distributed, and the
worms increase in size very fast, their dimensions
becoming visibly greater every hour. The second
day they eat 90 lbs. of leaves, the greater proportion
being given in the evening. The attendants must
now be busy enlarging the space which the worms
occupy, and sej'aratiag each as much as possible
from its fellow. The third day nearly 100 lbs. of
leaves are consumed, the greater quantity during the
morning. Towards night the insects ai-e relajising
again into their periodical timeof stupor^ but, sleep-
ing or waking, their bulk continues to increase
steadily. The fourth day .52 lbs. of leaves suffice.
15y evening many of the insects are asleep ; tho^e
which still show symptoms of a desire for food are
fed, little by little, with sprinkled handfnlls of leaves
—•a tedious and harassing operation. For the fifth
day 27 lbs. of leaves are necessary. On the sixth
day all the worms are torpid. By this time, they
have increased to the length of twelve lines, and
small legs and claws have developed themselves.
Daring the latter part of the third age, the pattering
of their little claws upon the leaves, as the in-
sects chmh upon them to feed, can be distinctly
heard. The noise has been compared to a fall
of rain in a wood, and to the burning of young
bi'anches.

At the commencement of the fourth age, the
v/orras require a square space of not less than four
hundred and twelve feet, and the importance of fresh
and pure air becomes greater from day to day. In
some establishments the jirevious stages of life have
been passed bv the worms in a smaller atelier than

the great one to which they are now removed ; bu
this plan is by no means needful, and is only re-
sorted to by very scientific breeders who pay great
attention to the atmospheric requirements of their
charge. In general, the animals spin their cocoons
upon the cluies, and in the chamber to which they
were transported from the hatching-room, while in
many instances one single apartment only has been
employed for the whoL' process. The worms eat
on the first day of the fourth age about 100 lbs. of
leaves and tender branches. Their removal to their
fresh dales employs several people, as it is of im-
portance that the work should be well and speedily
performed. In this age the leaf is given without
ijeing cut, as in the previous stages, and the worms
are generally thriving, vigorous, and full of life,
climbing actively upon the leaves. The skin of the
creatures is gradually growing white. On the
second day of the fourth age 105 lbs. of leaves are
given in unequal portions, the last meal being the
largest. The next day 225 lbs. of leaves are dis-
tributed, and the third day 255lbs., the three first
repasts being about 75 lbs. weight each. The worms
are now quite an inch and a half long. On the fifth
day of the fourth age the appetite falls ofl", and only
128 lbs. of leaves are distributed, the first me.l being
the greatest. Towards evening the v.'orms have
fallen for the most part asleep, and 35lbs. of leaves
suffice for the few who feel in a lively condition next
morning. The change of skin takes place as usual
in the night, the insects being now so large that
thirty-five of them weigh an ounce. Straw fires
are lighted so as to produce great blaze with little
heat, and other means are taken to stir and puiify
the air, as the worms are now undergoing their
change to the fifth and last, and most important age.
The ages already i)ast are cdlleA frezes, les pelites
frezes ; the fifth is the (jrande freze, and upon the
progress then made by the insects depends in a
great measure the success of the breeding.

In the fifth age the worms are grown so large,
and the quantity of food consumed is so great, tliat
unless proper precautions be taken the air of the
magnannaries becomes offensively putrid. In too
many instances these precautions are either neglect-
ed or inefficiently observed, and the worms and
their keepers both suffer the bad consequences. On
the return of vitahty a square place, of near 920 feet
of claies, is necessary for the accommodation of the
insects. I ought to observe that, in arranging them
on their new beds, after each change of skin, they
do not occupy the whole additional space at once.
Room is left for spreading them out, as they wax
thicker and longer, the creatures being generally
arranged at each end of the dale, with a vacant space
in the centre. On the first day of the fifth age the
worms take, in twigs and leaves, about 180 lbs. of
food. The second day, at least 270lbs. are furnish-
ed, the last meal being the greatest. The worms
are growing rapidly, and becoming white. The
third day the mulberry allowance is 420lbs. — the
last meal consisting of about 120 lbs. Many of the
insects are now 26 or 27 lines long. The next day
they consume about 540 lbs. of leaves, waxing strong
and vigorous, and the length increasing to 32 or 33
lines. The fifth day sees 810 lbs. of leaves devoured,
lesides which smnll extra allowances are frequently

550

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

given if the animals seem unsatisfied. The next
day the worms attain the height of their degustatory
prowess, eating very nearly 1,000 lbs. of leaves,
spread over fixe or six meals. Many of them are
now more than 2 inches in length. The seventh
day 900 lbs. of leaves are given — the quantity at each
meal decreasing. On this day the creatures attain
their greatest size and vigour — sixteen worms
weighing an ounce ; their weight having in seven
days increased five-fold, and their length become at
least double. The eighth day they require only
660lbs. of food. They are now going down hill in
appetite, weight and vigour, and are assuming a
yellowish tinge, which denotes the approach of per-
fect maturity. The ninth day 500 lbs. of food suf-
fices. On the tenth day the insects commonly
show symptoms of desire to weave their cocoons.
They climb upon the leaves without eating, move
their heads as though seeking something, and
begin to crawl towards all perpendicular surfaces.
The claies upon which the cocoons are spun have
then to be set up. I have already explained, in ge-
neral terms, that they consist of furzy branches of
small twigs, arranged upright between the claies, so
that the worms can easily climb into them. The
skill of the attendant is shown in arranging the claies
so as to cause them to be as shght an obstruction to
the vejitilation as possible. The meals are now
greatly reduced. Over feeding has a tendency to
retard the desire to mount the claies. Twigs and
small sticks are now scattered all along the claies,
so that the worms crawling upon them are easily
distinguished, and are moved at once to the bottom
of the brushwood ro^i'S. As a general rule, healthy
worms finish their cocoons in three or four days
after they have set fairly to work ; but in general the
task of gathering does not commence until the eighth
or ninth day after the insects have begun to climb.
In large establishments several hands are usually
employed in the task. Of the whole quantity of co-
coons about the sixtieth part is kept for the sake of
the eggs for next year. A pound of cocoons
gives an ounce of eggs — in some cases even more.
These are, of course, kept till the chrysalis makes
its way in his new butterliy dress through the gnawn
silk. The creatures are for the most part too
weak to fly, and after the female has been impreg-
nated, and has deposited her eggs upon cloth spread
out for the pvirpose, the brief but useful life of the
longest surviving silkworm is over. The others have
been stifled in the cocoons, and their silken web
spun off" from around them.

The rules of feeding which I have given above
are those observed by the most successful breeders
of Italy and France. It will be readily seen that the
exact weights of food adduced are slightly added
to or diminished according to the varying circum-
stances of each particular case. The general result,
however, as to the quantity of food and the quantity
of silk, may be thus stated : about 100 lbs. of leaf
give nearly 8 lbs. of cocoons ; 8 lbs. of cocoons give
about 18 ounces of pure cocoons, deducting
the worm and all impurities ; and these IS
ounces of pure cocoons give about 8 ounces
of spun silk. The proportion of the weight of the
cocoon to that of the leaf is thus about 1 to 90 ;
the proportion of the spun silk ro the weight of the

leaf about 1 to 150. The price of cocoons range
per pound from 2 francs to 2| francs.

In the breeding of silkworms the metayer system
is not uncommon : the farmer finds the work, and
the proprietor the leaves — the two dividing the pro-
ceeds. France annually produces about 8,000,000
kilogrammes of raw silk; and of her 84 departments,
as many as 60 growmulberi'ies, to a greater or less
extent, for the use of the silkworms bred within
them.

ANIMAL INSTINCT.— Can insects talk ? This
may indeed seem a strange question to those wlio
would limit the meaning of the word to the capability
of expressing ideas by means of articulate sounds ;
nevertheless a little reflection will convince any one who
is conversant with the habits of these creatures that,
tliough they may have no tongues, tliey can express
themselves in some way or other, ' with most miracu--.
lous organ.' Various experiments might be quoted in
proof of this assertion ; let us, however, select one or
two which seem to leave no room for dispute about the
matter. Any one who finds himself in the vicinity of
an ants' nest may soon be convinced that these indus-
trious little labourers are by no means destitute of the
power of communicating information to each other
relative to the affairs of their commonwealth. Let
him, for exainple, place a heap of food in the neigh-
bourhood of the ant-hill, and watch the proceedings
of its inmates. A short time will probably elapse be-
fore the discovery of the treasure, but at length some
wanderer, in his morning's ramble, has the good for-
tune to stumble upon it. What does he do ? He
does not, like an isolated individual incapable of ask-
ing for assistance, begin at once the task of re-remov-
ing the heap, but on the contrary, off lie scampers
with the glad intelligence, and running his head
against that of every ant he meets, manages in some
mysterious waj', not only to intimate the fact of the
discovery, but also to give information relative to the
locality where the provisions may be found, for speedily
it will be seen that troops of porters, summoned at the
call of the first finder, hasten to the spot, and all is
activity and bustle until the store is safely warehoused
in the ant-hill. Another still more striking instance of
the possession of a capability of spreading intelligence,
and that of a somewhat abstruse character, is furnished
by experiments that have been made by Huber and
others upon bees. Every one is aware that the queen-
bee is an object of the greatest solicitude and attention
to all the workers of the hive, and yet, among so
many thousands, all busily employed in different and
distant parts of the colony, it would appear impossible
for them to ascertain, at least before the lapse of a
considerable time, whetlicr she was absent from among
them or not. In order to see whether bees had any
power of conveying news of this kind, the queen-bee
has been stealthily and ciuietly abstracted from the
hive ; but here, as elsewhere, ill news was found to fly
apace. For some half-hour or so the loss seemed not
to have been ascertained, but the progressively-in-
creasing buzz of agitation gradually announced the
growing alarm, until shortly the whole hive was in an
uproar, and all its busy occupants were seen pouring
forth their legions in search of their lost monarch, or
eager to avenge with their stings the insult offered to
their sovereign. On restoring the captured queen to
her subjects, with equal secrecy, the tumult speedily
subsided, and the ordinary business of the community
was resumed, as before the occurrence. — Nat. Hist.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

551

ABSTRACT OF AGRICULTURAL CENSUS OF CANADA, 1851.

UPPER CANADA.
The total number of acres of land held in Canada
West is 9,823,233, of which are under cultivation
3,697,724, under crop 2,274,586, in pasture 1,367,649,
gardens 55,489, wild land 6,125,509. There are cropped
in wheat 782,115 acres, and the produce is 12,692,852
bushels. The county which possesses the largest num-
ber of occupied acres is York, with 390,525 ; the same
county has likewise the largest number of acres in wheat,
viz., 50,147, producing 991,608 bushels. The smallest
number of acres in wheat is the county of Bruce, where
only 489 acres are cultivated for this crop ; but as these
acres produce 9,796 bushels, or an average of
20.3 bushels per acre, Bruce has the honour of
being by a trifle the most fertile wheat county in the
Province; York comes next, with an average of
19.71 bushels per acre ; and Brant, Durham, Hal-
ton, Huron, Oxford, Stormont, and Wentworth, all
show a product either within a fraction more or less of

19 bushels to the acre. The county which exhibits the
smallest average per acre is Lennox, with 5,046 acres,
producing 30,281 bushels, little more than 6 bushels to
the acre. The average for the whole of Upper Canada
is 14.90 bushels per acre.

The total number of occupiers is 99,860, of whom
3,080 held more than 200 acres, 18,421 from 100 to
200 acres, 48,027 from 50 to 100 acres, 18,467 from

20 to 50 acres, 1,889 from 10 to 20 acres, and 9,976
10 acres or under. By far the largest number of hold-
ings, therefore, are those of parcels between 50 and 100
acres.

The following are the stati^itics of crops other than
wheat for the whole of Upper Canada : — Barley, 29,916
acres, 625,875 bushels— 20.98 bushels per acre ; rye,
38,963 acres, 479,651 bushels— 12.34 bushels per acre;
peas, 192,109 acres, 2,873,394 bushels— 14,9 bushels
per acre; oats, 421,684 acres, 11,193,844 bushels —
26.54 bushels per acre; buckwheat, 44,265 acres,
639,334 bushels — 14.51 bushels per acre ; Indian corn,
70,571 acres, 1,696,513 bush. — 24.05 bushels per acre ;
potatoes, 77,672 acres, 4,989,475 bushels— 64 bushels
per acre; turnips, 17,135 acres, .'^,644,942 bushels —
212.72 bushels per acre.

The following is returned as the gross produce in
other crops : — Clover and all grass seeds, 42,460 bush. ;
carrots, 174,895 bush. ; mangold wurtzel, 54,226
bush. ; beans, 18,109 bush. ; hops, 113,064 lbs. ; hay,
681,782 tons; flax or hemp, 50,650 lbs.; tobacco,
764,476 lbs. ; wool, 2,699,964 lbs. ; maple sugar,
3,581,505 lbs.; cider, 701,612 gallons; fulled cloth,
527,466 yards ; linen, 14,958 yards; flannel, 1,169,301
yards.

The following is the census of cattle :— Bulls, o.xen,
or steers, 193,982; milch cows, 296,924; calves or
heifers, 254,988; horses, 203,300; sheep, 968,022;
pigs, 569,237.

Produce of cattle, viz.: — Butter, 15,976,315 lbs.;
cheese, 2,226,776 lbs.; beef, 817,746 barrels; pork,
528,129 barrels. And 47,589 barrels of fish were cured.

LOWER CANADA.

The whole number of acres held in Canada East is
8,113,915. Of these are under cultivation 3,605,317,
under crop 2,072,953, under pasture 1,508,355, gardens
30,209, wood or wild land 4,508,398. There are
cropped in wheat 427,111 acres, which produced
3,075,868 bushels.

The county which possesses the largest quantity of
cultivated land is Dorchester, with 479,712 acres ; and
that with the greatest quantity of wheat is Huntington,
with 40,229 acres, and 241,171 bushels; the smallest
number of cultivated acres are in Gaspe, viz., 92,210,
producing also the smallest quantity of wheat, or 641
acres, and 3,418 bushels. Stanstead grows most wheat
to the acre of any county of Lower Canada, having
4,851 acres in wheat, and 62,882 bushels— 12.96
bushels per acre ; the county producing the smallest
quantity per acre is L'Islet, from which the return is
15,531 acres, 67,912 bushels, or 4.38 bushels per acre ;
after Stanstead, Missisquoi and Sherbrooke are the
most fertile counties in wheat, both producing more
than 12.5 bushels per acre. The total production of
wheat in Lower Canada is 427,111 acres, and 3,075,868
bushels — 7.2 bushels per acre.

The total number ot occupiers of land is 94,449 ; of
these 4,585 hold more than 200 acres; 18,608 more
than 100 acres, 37,885 from 50 to 100 acres, 2,701
fiom 20 to 50 acres, and 13,261 10 acres and under;
the largest number of occupiers, therefore, are those
of from 50 to 100 acres.

The following are the statistics of crops, other than
wheat, for Lower Canada : — Barley, 42,927 acres,
668,626 bushels— 15 bushels per acre; rye, 46,007
acres, 341,443 bushels — 7.87 bushels per acre; peas,
165,192 acres, 1,182,190 bushels— 7.16 bushels per
acre; oats, 590,422 acres, 8,967,594 bushels- 15 bush,
per acre ; buckwheat, 51,781 acres, 530,417 bushels —
10.24 bushels per acre ; Indian corn, 22,669 acres,
400,287 bushels — 17.69 bushels per acre; potatoes,
73,244 acres, 4,456,111 bushels— 60.08 bushels per
acre ; turnips, 3,897 acres, 369,909 bushels— 95 bushels,
per acre.

The following is returned as the gross produce in other
crops: — Clover and all hay seeds, 18,921 bush. ; carrots,
82,338 bush. ; mangold wurzel, 103,999 bush.; beans,
23,602 bush.; hops, 111,158 lbs.; hay, 965,653 tons ; flax
or hemp, 1,867,016 lbs. ; tobacco, 488,652 lbs. ; wool,
1,430,976 lbs.; maple sugar, 6,190,694 lbs. ; cider,
53,297 gals. ; fulled cloth, 780,891 yards ; linen,
887,528 yards; flannel, 860,850 yards.

The following is the census of cattle, &c.,viz.: — Bulls,
oxen, or steers, 111,819 ; milch cows, 294,514 ; calves
or heifers, 180,317; horses, 236,077; sheep, 629,827;

552

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

pigs, 25G,2i9 ; bulter, 9,G37,lo2 lbs. ; cheese, 511,011
lbs. ; beef, 08,747 brls, ; fish, cured, 48,363.

Dorchester grew the most barley, viz., 190,799 bush. ;
Reinonski most rye, 56,304 bush. ; Huntingdon most
peas, 127,053 bush. ; Berthitr most oats, 665,509 bush. ;
Sherbrooke most buckwheat, 61,589 bush, j Missisquoi
most Indian corn, 42,394 bush. ; Montreal most pota-
toes, 310,598 bush. ; Portneuf most bay, 56,763 tons;
Berthier most flax or hemp, 92,407 lbs. ; and most
tobacco, 67,174 lbs. ; Beauharnois most wool, 74,354
lbs. ; Sherbrooke most maple sugar, 421,932 lbs.

The greatest number of bulls, oxen, and steeis are in
Dorchester, viz., 9,274; also of milch cows, 16,102;
and of horses, 60,436; and of sheep, 36,416 ; Beauhar-
nois most calves, 11,204 ; and most pigs, 14,378 ; and
the greatest quantity of butter, 946,371 lbs., the next
largest county making only 594,817 lbs.; Missisquoi
carries the pslm in cheese, making 190,788 lbs. ; Stan-
stead packs most beef, 31,432 brls.; Reinonski most
pork, 66,794 brls.

Comparative Recapitulation.

Upper Cauftda. Lower Canada.
Acres. Acres.

Lauds occupied 9,823,232 8 113,915

Lauds cultivated 3,677,724 3,603,317

Lands cropped 2,274,586 2,072,953

Pasture 1,364,649 1,502,355

Gardens 55,489 30,209

Wild lands 6,125,509 4,508,398

Acres in wheat 782,115 427,111

Busb. Bush.

Wheat. . 12,692,952 3,075,858

per acre 14 90 7-20

Wheat in best county

per acre 20-30 12-96

Barley 625,875 668,626

per acre 2098 15

Rye 479,651 341,343

per acre 12-34 ' 7-87

Ujipf-r Cn.ada. Lower Canida.

Bush. Bush.

Peas 2,873,294 1,182,190

per acre 1490 7-lG

Oats 11,193,844 8,967,594

per acre 26-54 15

Buckwheat 639,384 530,417

per acre 14-51 1020

Indian Corn 1,696,513 400,287

per acre 2405 17 GO

Potatoes' 4,981,475 4,456,111

per acre 64 60 OS

Turnips 3,644,942 359,909

per acre 212 95

Grass 42,460 18,921

Carrots 174,895 82,338

Mani-old Wurzcl 54,226 103,999

Beans 18.109 26,302

Tons. ToM^.

Hay 681.782 965,(i53

L' s. Lbs.

Butter 15,976 315 9,637,152

Hops 113,064 111,158

Cheese 2,220,776 511,051

Flax and lleaip 50,654 1,867,0 1 G

Tobacco 764,476 488.652

Wool 2,699,96 i 1,430 976

Maple Sugar 3,581,505 6,19O,'094

Yards. Yards.

Fulled Cloth 527.466 780,891

Linen 14,955 889,528

Flannel 1,169,301 860,850

Head. Heal.

Bulls, fee , 139,932 111,819

Milch Cows 296,924 294,514

Calves and Heifers 254,988 180,317

Horses 203,300 230,8-27

Sheep 968,022 629,827

Pigs , 569,237 256,219

It must be remembered that throughout the greater
part of Lower Canada the acres are arpents and the
bushels menots. An arpent is about one-seventh less
than an acre, and a menct about one-eii;hthmore than a
bushel. — Montreal Herald.

FARMING NEAR THE GOLD FIELDS

The Carlisle Patriot publishes the following letter,
dated Glassonby, near Kineton, Mount Macedon,
Victoria, Australia, from Mr. John Palmer: —

" We have had splendid health since we came to this
colony, and both myself and family are in good health
at the time I am writing (his. V/e are all abundantly
thankful that we are in this plentiful land, where there
need be no want with proper care and endeavour. Here
is the place where the industrious are rewarded for
their toil. There are no taxes, no tithes to pay, and
every one is as free as the air he breathes. I would
not return to England for the two best estates in
Glassonby, that is, to be tied to live on them, and
leave this colony for ever — not that I am boasting of my
riches. It has been <ill outlay since I came licre. The
first thing I had to do was to buy land ; then to build a
house, and the land to fence ; then the timber to clear
off it. The clearing and fencing cost 30s. an acre. I
have now 60 acres cleared, and 24 in crop, It is my in-
tention to have 80 acres in crop next year, 60 acres of
wheat and 20 of oats and potatoes. Considering it my
duty to give you some information respecting this colony,

I intend to write the truth as nearly as it is possible. I
will first give you information regarding agriculture.
Farmers here plough and sow six or eight years in suc-
cession without any management, and get very good
crops. The land then gets dirty, when they take a fresh
lot and break it up, the other lying without so-,ving any
seeds. The land produces two crops of oats v;ith once
ploughing and sowing. The farmers never think cf
summer-working the land. Potatoes are planted with-
out any manure, and produce very good crops. The
average price of grain is from 4s. to 6s. per bushel :
wheat sells at that; but tbisseasonit is from6s.tol2s.,ou
account of being to much injured by droughty weather )
3s. and 5s. have been the average prices for summer oats,
but they have risen to 8s. and 9s., everything being very
high on account of the gold diggings. Labourers can-
not be got under 10s. per day ; they are all off to the
gold mines. I will now give you information on the
subject of grazing — what is called here ' squatting.'
There are squatters that hold from 20 to 60 square miles
for their sheep run ; they pay a liceusc to Governm=nt
of ^10 per year, also Ogd. per head for sheep. Id. for cat-

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

553

tic, and Ud. for horses. Tliey never account for r.c.ir the
quantity of stock they have on their runs. It is a profit-
able game. Their profits are from £1,000 to £9,000.
yearly. Some of them have as many as 40,000 sheep
and 3,000 to 5,000 head of cattle and a great many
horses. Many of the squatters that were not worth £1
when they landed in the colony eight or ten years ai^o,
are now in possession of £30,000 to £10,000. The
stations were obtainable on favourable terms at that time.
Many have sold the good-will of the run, with their stock
of sheep, M*d leturnedto England independent. Men
that were only servcints when their masters failed nine
years ago — stock rising to such a high price and then
falling again, causing their failure — received from
Government in lieu of the wages due to them the stations
of their former employers, with the sheep thereon at Is.
a -head, and in this way were raised to great importance
and wealth. We have now got a colonial Legislature,
aud it is expected that there will be an alteration made
in the squatting regulations, as an extensive emigration
is looked for from England on account of the gold dis-
cover-es. These arc the richest gold mines in the world.
At the time I am writing there are about 20,000 diggers
at Mount Alexander, only 18 miles from where I live.
The diggers seldom make less than from £40 to £60 per
week, but I am sorry ro say that two-thirds of them are
doing themselves harm both in body and soul ; there are,
however, some, although a smaller proportion, who take
care of their earnings. Four of my sons have been two
months at the diggings, and have got me £1,000 sterling
of the precious metal. Merchants, mechanics, and men
of all occupations, are now at the gold mines. The large
towns are almost deserted ; every one is searching for
this precious metal. There is gold in abundance all over
the colony. There are many places where they are
digging for gold besides Mount Alexander in the Victoria
colony, but none moi'e rich than Ballarat, about 40 miles
from my residence. There are two Government escorts
that run from the mines at Mount Alexander to Mel-
bourne once a week with gold. Th's week they took
28 cwt. The escort being overladen, on meeting the
mail from Melbourne, they were obliged to be assisted
with the mail horses. My daughter Margaret was coming
by the mail at the time, and was an eye witness of this.
There is much gold sent by private hands ; many take
their own to Melbourne and Geelong. There are a
number of gold jobbers to buy it at the mines and s:ll
it in the towns, and in this way make good profits. The
diggers are protected by police stationed at the diggings.
A guard of nine mounted troopers accompany each
escort to the town ; they are all armed to the teeth.
A good many diggers generally go down with the
escort, with their own gold, on good horses,
and armed with rifle.'. The diggers pay 30s. a-month
to the Government for licenses and protection.
I will now leave the gold subject, and give you
information on some other things. I can truly say that
this is the best country under the sun for the industri-
ous labourer. It is a pity there are not thousands of
such here, as there is plenty of employment and goud
wages. This is the land where no one need repent com-
ing to. Every one may do well if they try, and are

steady. I dou'i mean to say that every one without ex-
ci ption will get riches, but their industry will be well
rewarded. I often do say, it is such a pity that so many
are starving in England. Here there are many thou-
sands of sheep and cattle boiled down merely for their
tallow, as there are no mouths to eat them. I cannot
give you so ju.st an account as I like of mechanics' and
labourers' wages at the present time, for they are all
gone to seek gold, but any that are employed at their
own trr.d« are getting 208. per day. Blacksmiths get
20s. for shoeing a horse, and other trades get money in
the same proportion. It is besides the finest climate in
the world, neither extremely hot nor extremely cold,
aud good land in abundance, aud very cheap. Rather
than be pinched in England, come here, and the sooner
the better. I do not ruo having done s"). Wc arc
£1,000 better than the day we left England ; many mny
dispute this, but it is a fact. The bona fide cash is in
the bank to buy land with at the first Government land
sale. I have now 200 acres of good land, which I pur-
chased soon after I landed. A man emigrating here
with a strong family, steady, and industrious in their
habits, if he has not one shilling when he arrives, is
better off than the man with £1,000 in his pocket with
no family, or one so young that he has all to hire.
Under such circumstances he is soon a £1,000 out.
Any man, with such a family as I have, be he who he
may, may consider himself worth £1,000 the day he
lands in this colony. There is an Irishman whom I am
acquainted v/ith, who landed here four years ago, with
nothing but a family of nine childien ; this same man I
saw at the last Government sale wanting to buy 300 or
400 acres of land. He told me he had saved £500
since he landed. I must tell you that a dairy is a good
thing here. I milk 14 cows at present, and I intend to
increase the number to 20 or 30. We sell all our butter
at 2s. per lb., and I have had Is. 3d. per lb. bid for all
the cheese I have ; but I refused it, as I can get a good
deal more. I know you people in England will dispute
this, but I write the truth. I am living 55 miles from
Melbourne, 1 mile from Kyneton, a town of ten
months' standing, with a population of 400 inhabitants.
The military road to Melbourne comes close past my
house, so you see I have an opportunity of seeing all the
traffic to and from the mines. In comparison, the roads
day by day are thi'onged the same as one of yours on a
market day. I am about to send to England a quan-
tity of gold to the amount of £700 to get coined into
sovereigns. We put the gold into the Bank, when they
advance 40s. per ounce upon it until the coin returns
from England. Four of my sons obtained this in six
weeks at Jlount Alexander. I remember you once say-
ing to me, near ' Long Meg,'that you would never go out
to any colony to get riches, as you would be sure to be
disappointed. My answer was, Neither would I, but I
think it will be better for my family. I never, how-
ever, thought of getting gold in pound weights. I have
much reason to praise and be thankful to God for provi-
dentially moving me and my family to come to this land
of plenty. We can do with tens of thousands ; there is
bread enough and to spare. Do your utmost to induce
your honest, well disposed, and industrious labourers to

554

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

come out here. If they have not one farthing left when
they arrive the days of their poverty are passed. You
farmers who are losing your money in England, come

here and redeem yovir condition. John M would

do well here, and every man in his circumstances. His
family would be ft^sher and more vigorous on landing
on these beautiful shores. Do not be afraid of the voy-
age, as it is the very best navigation, and the Almighty
is God of the seas as well as the land. Let a good ship
be chosen, and there is not much to fear. I always re-
spect and remember you with gratitude ever since you
set your shoulder to me as my friend. T. Glenton and
yourself, I acknowledge, were friends in need. If you
can be the means of persuading any of your industrious
poor to emigrate to this distant colony, it will be a bless-

ing both to them and yourself. The harvest is now ripe;
and the crops are abundant. I must not omit telling
you that there are all sorts of religious societies here, the
same as in England. You can worship under your own
vine and figtree. I promised to send H. Richardson a
letter, but I have not done so. Let him see this, and
any one else you think proper.

" I do conchide with a great desire to see as many come
here as can manage to do so, that they may prove for
themselves the statements I have made in this letter. I
am conscious that I have written nothing tJut the truth.
God forbid that I should unduly boast of that success
and good fortune with which it has pleased the Lord to
bless me."

REPORT UPON THE POTATO DISEASE AND ITS CURE BY DRESSING THE

SEED BEFORE PLANTING.

To the Council of the Royal Ayricultural Improvement Society of Ireland.

The Secretary reported that haviug bad a call from Mr.
Ooorge Eaton, gardener to Sir Thomas Butler, Bart., ofBal-
Jintemple, couuty Carlow, and heard the former explain in
tletail a variety of experiments in growing potatccs, whereby
Eaton stated he had discovered a mode of growing perfectly
healthy tubers, he addressed a note to Sir Tliomas Butler on
the subject, and received a reply stating that Eaton had suc-
ceeded in so dressing and planting his potato seed as to grow
oiind crops of good quality, and that " this year, although the
crop in the fields of Ballintemple is injured to nearly the ex-
tent of one-half, and not a field in the neighbourhood has es-
caped without considerable injury, I can safely assert, that in
about one rood of ground which has been planted in the garden
not a solitary plant has been affected."

The matter being one of national importance, and the hon.
baronet, who advised Mr. Geo. Eaton to apply to this office,
having vouched for the factof perfectly good and healthy potatoes,
being grown by Mr. Eaton in Sir Thomas Butler's gardens, I
considered it my duty to make a preliminary investigation of
the grower's case, and to report thereupon to the council as
follows : —

1. Mr. George Eaton explains that he was in the employ-
ment of the late Countess of Belvedere for seven years as laud
steward and gardener, during which time he obtained seventeen
prizes from the Westmeath Horticultural Society, at its meet-
ings held in Mulhngar ; some of these prizes being given for
the best early potatoes.

He afterwards lived in the service of the Eight Hon. the
Earl of Meath, during which time he was awarded at the Royal
Dublin Society's Show two medals for the best sample of
Indian corn grown by him.

He left Lord Meath's service in April, 1849. In September
thereafter he went to a Mr. Dawson, of CuUamore, where he
was till January, 1850, when he went to Sir Thomas Butler,
and with whom he has been till lately.

2. Mr. Eaton explains that subsequent to the violent attack
of the potato disease in 1845, he was doubly careful in green-
ing, preserving, and selecting the seed for his crops, but still
they failed to a large extent. But it occurring to him that
the virus of the disorganisation either proceeded from small
insects which he saw in the roots of the plants, or that these
injurious insects resulted from a deleterious fluid or substance

in the tuber, which was foreign or opposed to the plant's
health^ development, he (Eaton) bethought himself of applying
a compound dressing of certain substances to the potato tubers
when cut for planting, in order to ascertain, if possible, whe-
ther such deleterious fluid or injurious iu3ects were the cause
or effect of that vegetable disorganisation which precedes or
follows from the potato disease.

Accordingly, in 1848, he took some potato seed, purchased
from Mr. OTarrell, seedsman, Dublin, and sowed the same in
a melon bed, in the month of April. The seed sprouted, and
the plants grew up vigorously till about the middle of July,
when they were blighted in a single night. Eaton then took
up the plants, and cut them down to about four or five inches
in length. The one-half of them he planted upon a garden
border, and the other portion he replanted in the melon bed.
The latter he dressed with his composition before setting.
These grew vigorously, and were taken up in November, the
tubers being the size of hen-eggs, and perfectly sound. Those
plants which had not been dressed with the composition were
taken up at the same time, and v.ere found to be generally
diseased, many rotten.

The next experiment he made in February, 1851, by cutting
large seed, applying to it two dressings of his compound, then
planting. At the same time he planted similar seed alongside
of the dressed potatoes. When the dressed ones came to ma-
turity, they were all sound and of excellent quality. Their
haulms were vigorous and healthy all along, showing at no
time any symptom of blight, and only colouring from the fading
process inseparable from the ripening of the tuber. The
others, which had not been dressed with the compound, hut
were planted alongside of the dressed ones, showed the disease
upon the stalks at an early stage, getting worse and worse ;
and when the tubers were taken up they were much diseased.

In order to satisfy his mind that his system was not an ex-
ceptional case, but might be held to apply generally in the
preparation of seed, so as to avert the potato disease, Geo.
Eaton, in February, 1852, planted potato seed cut, dressed,
and undressed, exactly as in the experiment and process de-
scribed above, as gone through in 1851. Those grown from
the seed dressed with the compound were all sound in haulm
and tubers, above explained in the experiment of 1851. The
potatoes now on the council table are the roots so grown from

THE FARMER'S iMAGAZINE.

d55

pressed seed ; and judging from the hralthy strcalij- teitme of
the skin, and the depth of the eye of the tuber, no potatoes
seen by me since the first appearance of blight seem so vigor-
ous and safe to be used as seed ; but whctlier they would
grow p.rfeclly healthy without being dressed with Mr. Eaton's
compound is very doubtful. Ife snys, that in the expeiiments
of 1851 and 1S52 the dressed and undressed secil was set plot
beside plot, and that while the liauhu of the compound dressed
seed gre-^' always healthy aud the tubers sound, the seed which
had not been prepared with the compound produced haulms
and tubers <nion2;side of the others) affected and diseased in
the same manner as the ordinary crops of the country.

Mr. Eaton states that his preparation and application would
not increase the price of seed potatoes more than lOs. per acre,
if quite so much.

A few hours after the dressing is applied the cut seed emit,
a thickish dark coloured fluid, which has a most disagreeable
s'encb.

He has experimented successfully upon Beldrura, Pink-eyes,
Bangers, and Ox-nobles, and will undertake to extract the de-
leterious matter from any kind of potato.

September, 1852. Thos. Harkness, Secretary.

— Irish AgricuUurist.

GUANO AND THE ROT.

Sib, — While guano is occupying so much attention, with
respect to cost and supply, the Lobos Islands, and cheap im-
portation, aud adulteration for the purpose of deceptive cheap-
ness, are we careful to make the best of what we now import
genuine?

We know how strong it is ; how dangerous to touch or
come near the seed in drilling; how much dilution it requires for
liquid manure ; and do we reduce it enough in common use?

No doubt it is very effective, as now used ; but does it do
no harm as well as good ? It is the strongest animal manure
concentfat<-d by drying and full of ammonia. Dung is chiefly
vegetable, seldom containing 1 per cent, of ammonia, and this
thoroughly diffused through the mass. Guano contains 16
per cent , and when mixed with three or four times its bulk of
reducing substance, still contains 4 per cent, ammonia, only
mixed, not thoroughly diffused.

Since we l:ave employed it, the rot has attacked, not potatoes
only; but prtiitocs rot more with it than with cattle dung;
and the potato plant is quickly blighted in guano vapour.

Other rei^ons are assigned for the rot ; aud this may not be
the chief ; but will it not be safer and more economical to
reduce it much more, and with vegetable matter, where con-
venient, to assimilate it to yard dung ? Many cases are on
record, where the mixture of guano with farm dung has an-
swered better than either alone. Would it not even be better
composted, whtre the ammonia would be thoroughly diffused,
and a more nourishing and less exciting food supplied to the
plant ? All these mixtures should of course be made ou the
farm; the portability of guano being one of its chief recom-
mendations.

I have generally recommended salt to be mixed with guano,
weight for weight ; salt tending to counteract putrefaction
and overgrowth ; and in wheat, to strengthen the straw, aud
make the grain clean and heavy. Fishery fait, or other auimal-
foul suit is to be preferred ; and I believe this mixture would
also be the better for composting with sods and vegetable
matter.

For drilling, charcoal powder is probably the best admixture
— peat charcoal, tan charcDal, lime charred saw dust ; or even

chairti! (not as'i bumtj clay, or ciudery coal ashes; not less
than six or eight times the bulk of the guano— and all the
better for lying together damp five or six wcc\s before being
used.

My argument in short is, that guano is likely to go further,
do more good, and less harm, if generally mixed with an equal
weight of salt, and reduced Ijy eigiit or more times its bulk of
other materials'; allowed to lie logethtr damp soni'-' weeks ;
and when convenient, composted wiih dung aud the other
customary substances. I. Prideaux.

IMPORTANT DECISION.— THE LAW
OF FIXTURES.
COURT OF BANKRUPTCY, Oct. 29.
Before Mr. Commissioner Fonblanque.
In re Wood. — His Honour delivered the following im-
portant judgment on the law of fixtures. He said : Since the
matter was last before him he had very carefully consulted all
the cases cited in the course of the arguments, not only so far
as they might turn out to be necessary to the decision of the
question now before him, but also as a matter of curiosity to
trace, if possible, the source of so much difference of opinion,
aud £0 much diversity of judgment. He thought the source
of diversity was to be found in the efforts of the law to
adapt itself to the progress and exigences of society. In
early times the maxim of cujus est solum ejus est usque ad
coclum, borrowed from the Roman law, prevailed without
dispute ; land alone was reg.irded — land alone was called real,
and mere personals were considered, as they really then were,
of little moment, as they were of little comparative amount. It
was for this reason that, as Lord Kenyou says, in Peutoa and
Roberts, quoted by the then Chief Justice Erskine in ex parte
Lloyd, " The old cases on this subject leant to consider as realty
whatever was annexed to the freehold by the occupier ; but in
modern times the leaning has always been the other way, in
favour of the tenants, iu support of the interests of trade, which
has become the pillar of the State." If this was true in the
time of Lord Kenyou, it must have acquired addi-
tional force iu the course of the last half century,
when the advance of commerce and the )ise of experience
aud complicated machinery in every branch of manufacture
have rendered this protection so essential to the interests of
trade, that if the courts had been tmable to find a remedy
the legislature must have been called on for its interference.
Upon examination of the case before him, he found it more
simple than he had at first anticipated. Divers articles were
found in the bankrupt's possession at the time of the bank-
ruptcy. He was a brewer, and these articles were called
brewers' plant and brewers' fixtures. And here he might ob-
spne, that much of the confusion of the cases had arisen from
the popular use of the word fixture, without discriminating
between the degrees of aiuiexaticn, varying from the solidity
of a stone foundation to the tacking of a carpet or the hang-
ing of a picture. The true question was, were they goods
and chattels ? — for to goods and chattels only does the sta-
tute of James aud the 9ubie(pient statute derived from it
apply, in its enactment as to order aud disposition. Nor is
this statute s'ugular iu this limitation : only goods and chattels
could be taken in execution, only goods aud chattels could be
distrained. And under both forms such articles as the greater
part of those now in question had been taken — with this ex-
ception, that under a distress, while the law required that the
goods should be removed from the premises, only such could be
taken as could be returned on replevy in the same state. In

2 o

556

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

questions between heir and executor such articles also had been
held to pass to the executor as personalty, and not to the heir
as realty. For each of these purposfjs, therefore, the articles
were held to be goods and chattels. Why, (hen, were
they not to be so held as between the mortgagee and
assignee of a bankrupt's estate, he (the Commissicner) con-
fessed that he was iinable to discover either in reason or
equity. I see every reason (continued the learned Commis-
siocer) to prefer the doctriie, that what is in the bankrupt's
open possession by the apparent ownership of which he ob-
tains credit of the trading world, shr.ll pass to the benefit
of all his creditors, rather than to ono only, who, by means
of a private or secret convey;uice, has obtained a preference
over them. As to what is strictly realty, this is unavoid-
able ; since the right to the realty beyond this necess'ty, and
in all doubUul cases, I believe the Courts wi!l lean, as Lord
Kenyon sajs they have leant, in favour of creditors, and for
the interests of trade. It is singular, however, that, in the
diversity of opinion which has prevaded on this subject the
decisions of the Court of Bankruptcy should be less favourable
to creditors than those of the courts of common law. With
the exception of Sir George Rose, whose judgment in ts parte
Austin I shall have occasion to quote, the judges of the Court
of Review seem to have been inclined to favour the mortgagee ;
while the courts at Westminster, from the case of Home v.
Baker to that of Halliwell v. Eastwood, have laid down prin-
ciples which must necessarily lead to a contrary conclnsion.
Amongst those cases, that of Trapper v. Hartar (3 Tyrr. 603) is
one of the most important. It was decided by Lord Lyndhurst,
after he had been Lord Chancellor, and therefore when the law
of bankruptcy was more familiar to him than it might be to
other judges less frequently called upon to determine ques-
tions of this nature. This case determined that all utensils
and machinery erected for the purposes of trade, and
which could be removed without material injury to the inheri-
tance, form an exception to the general rule as to fixtures,
and are not to be taken as part of the inheritance, but as
personal estate. This judgment is said to have been doubted
by Baron Parke ; but whatever resjiect might have been due
to a doubt from b\ic\\ a qu-rter, the doubt itself is removed
by the fact that the learned baron has concurred in the judg-
ment of Halliwell v. Eastwood. Aiiotb.er judgment has also
been stt up by this case. It is that in ex parte Austin, in
which Sir George Rose said, " I have no hesitation in say-

ing that when fixtures are capable of removal, as between
landlord and tenant, without injury to the freehold, they are
within th? order and disposition of the bankrupt." The sound-
ness of this doctrine having been q\iestioned. Sir George Rose,
in ex parte Wilsoi, expressed his adherence to that opinion,
which now appears to be fully confirmed by the Court of
Exchequer. T must-, therefore, come to the conclusion : —
L That such article.^ as merely rest on the soil by their own
weight, however heavy, are goods and chattels. 2. That if
they are slightly connected one with another, and ultimately
with the freehold, yet may be severed without material in-
jury to the freehold, they follow the same rule. 3. That
articles, though tliemse'.ves fixed to the freehold by bolts
and screws, or nails, or pegs, or other similar contri^ ances,
are also goods and chattels. 1. That articles mainly sunk
in the soil, or built on it, are of the realty, and do
not pass to the ass-ignecs. I may take this opportunity
to state that I do not consider the judgment of my
brother Commissioner Holroyd, lu the Vauxhall case, at all
affected 'oy my present judgment. lu that case there was
this material distinction, that the fixtures had been originally
annexed to the freehold by the freeholder, and had therefore
by unity of title, become one freehold property, and in that
form they were demised to Hughes, the party who became
bankrupt. Then as to the question whether new things,
newly fixed, also passed; that, I think, must have very
much depended upon the peculiar nature of the property,
where, in order to fit up the place for a public exhibition,
continual changes were necessary ; and therefore, as some of
the old were removed, it was equitable that the new should
be fixed with the same rights as thobc that were removed. la
a case before Mr. Commissioner Goulburn the same principle
as that I have laid down has been adopted. And I think it
may now be considered as the doctrine of this Court, in broad-
terms, that such things as can be removed without material
injury to the freehold are goods and chattels, and pass to the
assignees.

Mr. Commissioner Goulburn, who was also on the bench,
said he fully concurred in the judgment that had been deli-
vered by his learned brother Commissioner. Having himself
been in consultation with Mr. Commissioner Evans on a si-
milar case, he knew that that learned Commissioner took the
same view of the question. — From the Morning Chronicle of
October 30.

CALENDAR OF HORTICULTURE.

PXiANT Houses.
Conservatory. — Continue to make this house the
centre of attraction, by bringing into it all the flower- I
ing plants from the subservient structures, which will !
bear the temperHture and air to which it must be
subjected, for the welfare of the permanent plants. It
is not advisable to keep any (but particularly hard i
wooded) plants which require to be kept positively ,
dormant, in this structure. The greenhouse will be i
found the best place for most kinds. A few which i
require a similar treatment to Heaths may be placed ,
in that structure; and as these will require to be kept
in a state of rest for some time, they must be kept i
moderately cool, and a eomparotively dry atmosphere

(not an arid dry one) maintained about them. Water
must only be given when necessary, and then thoroughly.
But in order that moisture may be preserved for a
longer period, without the addition of water, it is a
good plan to plunge some of the more valuable spe-
cimen plants of Heaths, Chorozcmas, Platjlobiums,
and similar sorts, into a size larger pot, and fill the
vacancy between the two pots with clean damp moss.
This will tend very much to lije preservation of an
uniform moisture at the roots. All the winter flower-
ing Heaths will be in a slightly growing state, and
according as they become sufficiently advanced should
be removed (o the coolest light and airy situations in
tht conservatory. Epacrises, which are now advancing

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

kbi

towards bloomiugr, should have ii similar tnatment.
As (ho Chrysantlicimims go out of bloom, those to he
procured for next year's s^upiily sliould have ihc j)r()-
tcction of a cold pit, or at least of some temporary
erection moderately secure from frost; the hitrr
varieties may still be supplied with liquid manure, to
assist them to expand freely; they will also be bene-
fitted by a slight increase of temperature, if the welfare
of the other plants will allow of it. As these are
removed, let their places be filled up with Chinese
Primroses, the earliest Cinerarias, and the other plant*
80 often adverted to as being necessary to be kept in
readiness for these purposes. Mi:rnoiiette in pots
will flourish well on shelves close to the ixlass, where it
can get a good circulation of air, without cutting
draughts. Be careful in watering, as damp is its
greatest enemy. Lachenalias will now be started, and
whether in cold pits, or in the groenlionse, should be
kept near the glass. Cyclamens, too, are now making
growth, after their season of rest, and are worth every
attention ; they will require a light and airy situation
on the front stage of a prtenhonse or conservatory, or
they may be kept in a pit until the advent of severe
frost, at which time they must be removed to where
they can have more light and air than can be given in
cold pits in such weather. A damp stagnant atmo-
sphere causes both leaves and embryo flowers to go
off. Kalosanthes at this season should be kept very
dormant; in fact, almost starved by the entire with-
holding of water, in order to induce a flowering habit.
The same may be observed of the general stock of
Cactus, and most varieties of Epiphyllum ; indeed, of
all similar succulent-leaved plants. In order that
their treatment may be in some degree assimilated to
the dry seasons, to which they are subjected on the
sandy plains in their native habitats.

Forcing Houses.
Pineries. — As most (if these will now be in a dor-
mant state, considerable care must be exercised in the
application of heat and moisture, both to the roots
and the internal teinperaturo. It must not, however,
be inferred that any .".re to be left without water at
the roots, as llicy will all require it occasionally; but
consideiiiig that thv other elements are applied on a
much reduced scale, it would obviously be very wrong
to apply water as often, and in such quantity, as
would be given if the whole system of tlio plants was
in an llcti^e state. In all cases the wants of the plant
in tliis respect must not be anticipated, and water only
applied when necessary, and invariably in a tepid state.
Be careful to obsei ve that tlie bottom heat is kept
down for all dormant succession and nursing plants ;
some, huwever, of i!ie \ery forwardest intended for
showing fruit early in the iorihcomiugyear, and which
should be kept b\ iliemselvcs, may be allowed a little
more bottmn-heitt ; and if it appears to be at all de-
dining, a little fresh tan may be stirred in about the
surface. These, and aho such a? arc nt preeent in

fruit, will lequire a liighcr teuipiraiurc than the gene-
ral stoek (if successions. Care must, however, be liad
to maintain a moderately dry atmosphere, ami to
admit air as often as external circumstances will allow.
Where loaves are used as the medium for bottom-heat,
and jdnnging Pines, a sufficient quantity should be
got to^ellicr immciiiitLl} , ;ind stacked uj) in as dry
a slate as possible, and afterwards thatched, to pre-
serve them so until required for use.

Vineries. — To assist the equal breaking of the vines
in the early house, let them be frequently syringed
over with tep'd water, and also keep up a genial steam
by watering and turning over the fermenting mate-
rials, and by evaporation. Continue to be moderate
in the application of fire-heat. If ihe buds are well
and equally sv.clled, and their general appearance in-
dicates an active flow of sap, the day temperature may
attain 55 degrees, and the maximum at night 50
degrees; but do not exceed those degrees at present.
Take every opportunity to give air, more or less, as
the weather permits ; but some must be given every
day, under almost any circumstances — as I am con-
vinced that the oftener the interior air of a forcing-
house is changed by admixture with the purer ex-
ternal air, tlie better for the welfare of the plants.
Let a little sulphur be used about this house occasion-
ally : it will do no harm, and may be the means of
preventing the ingress of mildew. Keep the late Vines
pruned as fast as the fruit is cut, and continue the
necessary care for the preservation of late fruit, which
has, indeed, been a difncult matter this unprecedented
wet season ; but it is the province of gardeners to
overcome obstacles ; and, doubtless, much will be done
by keeping the interior air dry, together with a free
circulation of air, and the constant removal of decay-
ing berries.

Hardy Fruit Gardkn.

Pruning and nailing will now be the principal
operations in this department, in all the open weather
for some time. Take care before the advent of severe
weatlier that all newly-planted trees are well mulched.
Peaches may now be loosened from the wall, and all
the nails and shreds taken ofi". Figs also may be un-
nailed, and the branches tied together preparatory to
being protected when frost comes. Regulate the plan-
tations of Raspberries, and make fresh ones where
required. Manure and dig between established plants.

Kitchen Garden.
From the continued wet weather, many persons will
probably not have been able to get in a first sowing of
Peas. It is imperative that this should be attended
to as soon as ever the ground is at all fit. A sowing
of Mazagiin and Early Long-Pod Beans, should also
be got in for a first crop. As this is the season when
most persons get their seed?, let mc rcconimend a
good slock of Thurston's Reliance Pea. I have found
from exiiericnc' that it is worthy the highest enco*
nnums, and shall sow it two for one of anyotheis.

2 o 2

558

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

METEOROLOGICAL DIARY.

Barometer,

Thermometer.

Wind and State. 1 Atmosphere.

1

Weat'r.

Day.

!
9 a.m. 10 p.m.

Min.

i Max.

10p.m.

1

Direction.

Force.

8 a.m. 2 p.m

10p.m.

Oct. 24 29.66 1 29.66

45

56

45

W. S. W.

lively 'fine jsun

cloudy

dry

25 29.40

i 29.43

43

! 48

42

N. Westerly

lively : cloudy cloudy

fine

rain

26 29.27

1 28.92

36

47

38 1

s. s. w.

.stroi]f( cloudy cloudy

fine

rain

27 28.81

29.16

36

44

43 j

W. by North

gentle cloudy cloudy

cloudy

ram

28 29.30

29.60

42

48

41 1

N. AVesterly

lively cloudy cloudy

cloudy

rain

29 29.75

29.46

35

48

45 1

W. by S.S.E.

fresh cloudy cloudy

fine

rain

30 29.66

29.67

45

56

45

VV. by South

gentle fine fine

cloudy

dry

31, 29.62

29.83

48

60

52 '■

W. s. w.

gentle fine sun

cloudy

dry

Nov. 1 29.83

29.72

50

61

58

South

lively cloudy cloudy

cloudy

rain

2 29.66

29.60

57

60

52

South

strong cloudy cloudy

fine

ram

3| 29.62

29.74

48

56

48

S. West

lively fine cloudy

fine

showers

4 29.85

29.70

41

56

48

S. S. E.

varibl. fine sun

cloudy

dry

5 29.44

29.56

48

61

48

S.E., S.W.

id.brsk fine sun

fine

dry

6 29.77

29.84

43

54

54

S. West

lively cloudy sun

cloudy

showers

7 29.90

30.00

48

58

50 :

S. West

strong cloudy cloudy

fine

showers

8' 30.10

30.16

52

60

52 !

S. West

strong i cloudy cloudy

cloudy

dry

9 30.20

30.10

52

60

51 :

W.byN.,byS.

gentle cloudy cloudy

cloudy

dry

10 30.03

30.00

48

52

45 1

N, East

gentle cloudy cloudy

cloudy

dry

11 29.73 29.43

42

52

52 J

S. East

lively cloudy cloudy

cloudy

rain

12 29.48 29.58

43

46

42 1

East

forcibl. cloudy cloudy

cloudy

rain

13 29.50

-1 J ' -»

29.44

42

46

44 '

Easterly

gentle |Cloudy cloudy

cloudy

dry

14 29.38

29.30

42

52 ;

49 1

S.E., S.W.

gentle

cloudy cloudy

cloudy

rain

15 29.10 ^ 29.02

48 1

55

50

S. West

lively

cloudy cloudy

cloudy

rain

16 28.93

29.07

50

57

48 !■

S. West

id. var.

cloudy cloudy

fine

showery

17 29.14

29.20

47 i

54

43

S. West

id. var.

cloudy fine

cloudy

showery

18 29.27 1

29.70

38 1

45

39 1

w. s. w.

lively i

cloudy fine

fine

night only

19 29.80 1

29.60

35

50

50

S. East

gentle

cloudy cloudy

fine

rain

20, 29.54

29.36

45

53

48 '

S.byE.,S.W.

gentle

cloudy cloudy

fine

rain

21| 29.14

29.14

45

55

47 '

3.byE.,byW.

'resh

cloudy cloudy

cloudy

rain

22

29.14 1

29.25

43

46

42 1

E. N. E.

gtl. elm

cloudy cloudy

cloudy

rain

i

estimated averages of NOVEMBER.

Barometer. | Thermometer.

High. j Low. j High. I Low, I Mean
30.27 I 29.08 I 62 | 23 | 42.9

real average TEMPERATURE OF THE PERIOD.

Highest. I Lowest. I Mean.

53.2 44.56 48.88

Weather and Phenomena.

October 24 — Fresh air; pretty fine. 25 to 29 —
Very changeable ; more or less showery; boisterous
wind on the 26th. 30 and 31 — Fineiv, with some
sun.

Lunation.— Full moon on the 27th, near mid-
night.

Nov. 1— Warm; drizzle. 2 — Wet and windy;
red at sunset. 3 — Sunny ; wet evening. 4 — Some
sun. 5 — Cheerful, lively air. 6 — Heavy shower;
drizzle. 7 — Storm all night; wet, stormy noon.
8 — Overcast ; very warm. 9 — Red cloudy suffu-
sion at sunset, preceding the reported earthquake
in the west. 10 — Chilly; overcast. 11 — Much
rain. 12 — Same, with wind. 13— Lull, calm day;
overcast. 14— Profuse night rain. 15— Wet morn-

ing and night. 16 — Showery; clear night. 17 —
Some gleams, followed by wind and rain in the
night. 18 — Fine lively day. 19 — Change; cirro-
stratus; rainy evening. 20 — Several hours' rain.
21 — Warm, showery day; martins flying about in
numbers. 22 — Drizzle, and upon the whole drip-
ping wet.

Lunations. — Last quarter, 5th day, 41 m. after
midnight. New moon, 11th day, 4h.41m. after-
noon First quarter, 18th day, 2h. 27m. afternoon.

Remarks connected with Agkiculturb.
— Subsequent to the fine weather noticed in the
last diary, and which favoured the plough, we have
nothing to report in respect to progress, and do
not intend to dwell upon the sinister prognostics of
evil " looming" in the prospect. Floods are out to
a fearful extent; and everywhere, even in our own
favoured locality, the land is deeply saturated with
water. So wet a season the writer's very long ex-
perience cannot retrace ; and to make the best of
the actual condition the farmer must stand still !
Yet, nevertheless, a few days may produce a
thorough melioration, and dissipate fear of conse-
quences. We recommend faith and hope.

Croydon, Nov. 22nd. J. Tovpers.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

659

A G RIG U L T U K A L R E P 0 R T S .

GENERAL AGRICULTURAL REPORT
FOR NOVEMBER.

From iill parts of the country accounts have
reached us to the effect that immense (jurntities of
rain have fallen during nearly the whole of the
month. In many instances, we learn that con-
siderable damage has been sustained by the floods,
whilst most of the low lands, notwithstanding the
great exertions made by the farmers to drain them^
have been comi)letely covered with water. As
might, therefore, be expected, the progress of out-
door farm labours has been greatly imi)eded, and
up to the present time, not one-third of the winter
wheats have been sown. This is a most unfortu-
nate position of affairs, since it is evident that
should a sharp and continuous frost set in, the
land will become completely ice-bound, and plough-
ing will become imjjossible. Even with the return
of fine dry weather, many weeks must, of necessity,
elapse ere that operation can be re-con menced ;
hence we are very apprehensive that an unusually
large quantity of field work will be left over till the
spring. In that case, we may look forward to a
late seed-time ; and it is by no means improbable,
owing to the increase in the emigration mania, that
wages in the whole of the agricultural districts will
advance materially above their present level; for
where, we ask, is additional labour now to be met
with, on the former scale of remuneration ? Ihe
wheats above ground are looking far from promis-
ing, in consequence of the excessive moisture; and
some time must elapse ere they wdl assume their
natural colour. The quantity of home-grown
wheats threshed out has been very moderate for
the time of year, owing to the farmers' time having
been much occupied in other details. With the ex-
ception of the northern districts, the yield has
greatly disappointed the growers, and we need
scarcely observe that the general quality and con-
dition of the samples have turned out badly, since,
in addition to the damp state in which most of the
wheats were harvested, the weather for some con-
siderable time past has prevented the grain in
stack from becoming drj', and more suited to
millers' purposes. Notwithstanding that the top
price of English flour in London has been reduced
to 40s. per 280 lbs., the wheat trade has assumed
a firmer tone, and, in most instances, the finest
parcels have realized an advance of Is. per quarter,
with every reasonable prospect of rather higher
rates. Most other articles, including flour, have
sold to a fair extent, at full quotations.

Nearly or quite the whole of the potato crop has
now been raised, and partly jiitted for winter con-
sumi)tion. In most parts of England the yield is
considered good as to quantity ; but at least one-
hall" of tlie entire crop has exhibited signs of disease.
Our maikets have been extensively supplied with
most kinds, and fine qualities have sold readily, at
full quotations, the best York Regents having
realized 120s. per ton ; but low kinds have met a
very inactive demand, at from 50s. to 65s. per ton.
In Ireland and Scotland the disease has not made
so much progress as with us. On the continent
the produce ap])eais to have somewhat exceeded
last year. The imports during the month have
amounted to about 4,000 tons, in fair average
condition, chiefly from France. On the whole,
the accounts respecting the carrot and turnip crops
are very satisfactory, the yield and quality having
been considerably in excess of some former
seasons.

Although the numbers of both English and
foreign stock exhibited in our various markets have
continued large, a very large business has been
doing, and ])rices have continued to advance.
Both beasts and sheep have suffered materially
from the effects of the prevailing unseasonably wet
weather, and great apprehensions are entertained
lest the foot-rot should make its appearance in a
bad form. The quantity of stock fatting for
Christmas consumption is represented as very ex-
tensive, and the free use of oilcake has been pro-
ductive of a steady rise in the quotations.

Up to the present time, owing to the large im-
ports of foreign grain and flour, veiy few inroads
have been made ujjon the stocks of new wheat.
Old qualities are very scarce, and mostly held by
the growers for higher rates.

In Ireland and Scotland the corn trade has as-
sumed a firmer tone; yet very little alteration has
taken place in the quotations. Fat stock has com-
manded remunerative prices, with an improved
consumptive demand. The shipments of grain to
England have been on the increase.

REVIEW OF THE CATFLE TRADE
DURING THE PAST MONTH.

The metropolitan as well as the large iirovincial
markets have been extensively supplied with beasts
during the whole of the month just concluded, but
their general quality has turned out unusually
inferior ; indeed, we may venture to observe, that

660

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

at least a moiety of the number disposed of has
been in a half-fat state. The fact appears to be
that the stock has not yet recovered from the
effects of the drought in the spring. To remedy
the present state of things, recourse has of late
been had to large additional quantities of linseed
cake, the use of which, we find, is becommg more
in fashion even amongst the smaller graziers, and
which has produced a decided advance in the prices
of both home and foreign parcels. Whether the
system will eventually pay remains to be seen ; but
our impression is that it will not, although the
value of each kind of stock is now much higher
than it has been for several years past. The sup-
plies of sheep on sale have been by no means large ;
but then we must bear in mind that slaughtering
in the country has greatly increased of late years,
and that railway facilities have induced numbers
of persons to embark in a trade which, at one time,
was wholly foreign to them. Its extent will be more
clearly apparent when we intimate that upwards of
FORTY THOUSAND CARCASSES of meat have arrived
from various quarters up to Newgate and Leaden-
hall. Even this immense supply has not had the
effect of checking the upward movement in the
quotations, for the all-im])ortunt reason that the
quantity of live stock sold in Smithfield has not
equalled many former seasons, and that consump-
tion has considerably increased. The excited state
of the tallow market, arising from the limited
shipments from Russia, and the small imports
from South America, has produced an im-
portant rise in the value of rough fat, which has
been quoted at 2s. 8d. per Slbs., with the prospect
of a further advance in it, owing to the short sup-
plies lately forv/arded to the tallow-melters. The
immense quantities of rain which have fallen in all
parts of the country have been productive of seri-
ous disadvantage and loss to the stock owners, and
the health of both beasts and sheep has suffered
to some extent. It is gratifying to observe, however,
that the stock of hay on hand for winter consump-
tion is very large, and, further, that the crops of
turnips and carrots are proving very abundant and
of fine quality.

The imports of foreign stock have been seasona-
bly large ; but v.'e must now anticipate a material
falUng off in them. The general quality of the
beasts has be r'n very inferior ; but we have noticed
a slight improvement in the sheep, calves, and pigs,
yet they have changed hands at very low prices.
The following arrivals into London have been offi-
cially reported since our last : — Head.

Beasts 3,102

Sheep 18,152

Calves 1.215

Pigs 427

COMPARISON OF IMPORTS.

Nov. Beasts. Sheep. Calves. Pigs.

1851 6,279 22,866 1,409 1,127

1850 5,928 17,662 1,058 1,486

1849 4,228 14,204 618 409

1848 3,488 13,424 669 —

1847.. .. 3,486 16,213 667 U

At the outports the arrivals have been on a very
moderate scale, they having been chiefly confined
to a few cargoes at Hull, from Germany.

Annexed are the total supplies disposed of in
Smithfield : - Head.

Beasts 23,063

Cows 462

Sheep... 108,975

Calves 1,958

Pigs 2,669

COMPARISON OF SUPPLIES.

Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov.

1848. 1849. 1850. 1851.

Beasts 19,700 19,388 19,896 23,583

Cows 600 342 419 435

Sheep.... 103,770 120,060 120,206 115,770

Calves .. 1,483 1,113 1,475 1,718

Pigs 2,326 2,116 2,872 3,210

The range of prices has been as under :^
Per Slbs. to sink the offals.

s. d. s. d.

Beef . , from 2 0 to 4 0

Mutton 2 6 to 4 6

Veal 2 8 to 4 4

Pork 2 8 to 4 0

The bullock droves from Lincolnshire, Leicester-
shire, and Northamptonshire, have amounted to
1 1,800 short-horns. From other parts of England
3,000 Herefords, runts, Devons, &c., have been
received ; and from Scotland 386 horned and
polled Scots, chiefly per railway.

Newgate and Leadenhall markets have exhibited
large supplies of each kind of meat ; nevertheless
the general demand has ruled steady at full prices.
Beef has sold at from 2s. to 38. 6d., mutton 2s.
6d. to 48., veal 2s. 8d. to 48. 2d., pork 2s. 4d, to
4s. per Slbs. by the carcass.

AGRICULTURAL INTELLIGENCE,
FAIRS, &c.

ANDOVER SHEEP FAIR— Contrary to g:eneral expec-
tation, the uumber of slicep off' red for sale was hel.w the
general averag-o. 1 he supply from the western counties, &c.,
waa very liniiteii, and sales were readily effected on terms
satisfactory to the sellers. Tiie prices obtained «erc stated as
hemfr from Is. 6d. to 23. per head higher than at the late
Appleshaw Fair, and were ab( ut as follow : — Ewes, 21s. to
34s. ; wethers, ."Os. to 41s. ; lambs, 18s. to 393. each.

ASHBOURN CHEESE FAIK.— The quantity of cheese
exceeded our expectations, this being one of the new fairs es-
tablished this year. Pr ces ran£ed from 50s. to 55s. per cwt.,
some second-rate dairies to let at 48s.

BARNSLEY FAIR.— There waa a good supply of store
pigs, but only an indifferent demand, and it was considered by
dealers that they were fully 2s. per head beloiv late rates.
! There were very few porkers shewn in the fair.

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

561

BAWTRY FAIR —The supply of stock was large, espe-
cially of barren cows. Iii-calvera were most iti demaiui, and
realized higher priroa, Sfecrs and good helA^rs wtve scarce,
and also sold well. All descriptions of grazina; beasts were
worse to sell. There vsere a gojd supply of pigs, which were
pretty well clcarc.l off at hi",h prices. The show of sheep was
small, which met with ready sales.

EEDALE FORTNIGHTLY FAIR.— We had a good show
of all sorts of stock; fat of fair average quality, and in brisk
demand at laH fortnight's figures. There is still an active
inquiry for calving cows, which maintain high prices. Holding
stock were looked after also, and well sold off. Ma'sham lambs
and lean sheep are 2s. to 3s. a head lower than 2 mouths ago.
Beef, 5a. 3d. to 6s. per st. ; mutton, 5d. to 6d. per lb.

BOSTON HORSE FAIR.— There was an excellent show
of animals, as regards both numbers and quality. Good cart
horses appeared moat in request ; several yearlings made from
£20 to £22 ; a superior one, belonging to Mr. Holland, of
Dounington Wykes, fetched 30 guineas. There was a tole-
rable siirinkling of dealers.

CALLINGTON FAIR.— There was a good show of sheep,
which sold freely. The sale for cattle was not so brisk as at
some former fairs, but still there was a pretty good clearance.

CAMELFORD FAIR was better supplied than usual with
cattle of all sorts, and a great muny bargains were effectsd at
prices much as at late fairs-

CARLISLE FAT CATTLE MARKET was badly sup-
plied with beasts, there being a fewer number than for some
weeks past, the quality also generally inferior; the prices asked
being high, there was not much business done. The supply
of sheep about au average in point of numbers, but inferior iu
quality ; there being, however, a gocd de'nand, the whole were
disposed of. Beasts, Ss. 3d. to os, 8d. per stone ; sheep, 5^d.
to 5f d. per lb. sinking oflfal.

CASTLE-DOUGLAS FAIR —The day being very wet,
the assemblage of people was not so large as we have seen ;
yet the show of horses was good upon the whole, and a good
deal of business was done. For first-rate draught-horses
there was a good demand, and several pairs exchanged hands
for prices considerably higher than the exposers anticipated
when leadii'.g them to market. One pair sold for £80 ; ano-
ther was pttrchased for 70 guineas ; and a beautiful three-
year old, reared by Mr. Marshall, Parkhouse, in the neigh-
bourhood of Kirkcudbright, met with a ready purchaser at
£40, and was considered cheap. From 30 to 40 guineas was a
current and average price for good draught horses ; and the
few posters and inferior auitEals exhibited fetched, as they
usually do, any price which they actually could bririg, some
more, some less — from £15 down to £2. As a new feature iu
a Castle-Douglas horse fair, we may mention that some of the
best p"ir3 sold to-day were purchased to order for gentlemen
in Ire-bnd ; we saw one pair of espeeiiilly good quality and
fine appearance bought for a gentleman in the county of Mayo
—one of our many enterprising countrymen who have recently
either purchased or lease t lands iu the emerald isle. Cattle :
Of two-year-old Galloways 75, ditto one-year-old 112, ditto
cows 7. Highlanders 50, Irish 46, Ayrshire queys 7 — in all
297. The market was rather a stiff one, but ultimately a
good number of the lots changed hands, and prices ranged
from £8 8s. down to £4 for Galloways, aud for Highlanders
frem £6 to £3 ; Irish from £5 to £3.

CHESTER FAIR.— Not many fat stock were shown, and
the prices varied from 4^d. to 5^d. Sheep met a ri^ady sale
at 6d. to G-^d. Milch cows were very scarce, and realized from
£10 to £14. There was a fair show of barren stack, which
sold pretty well from £6 to £9. Pig3 sold at about 4|d, The
horse fair was not numerously attended, and there was
not much demand. Good horses were inquired for, but very
few were shown. There was a particular demand for weight-
carrying hunters.

CHESTER CHEESE FAIR— There was not quite so
large a quantity of cheese pitched as in November last year,
but there was a good demand, and all qualities met with a
very ready sale. Inferior and middling qualities from 403. to
50s. The best averaged from 50s., 58s. to 60s.

CHELMSFORD FAIR, notwithstanding the extremely
wet state of the weather, was genirally well attended, and
about an average amount of business was done. The show of
beasts was larger than it has ever been known within the re-
coUectiou of those who have been in the habit of frequenting

the fair— there beiug on sale a« many as 2,500, chiefly Welsh
beasts, and about half that iiutnher were unsold. The prices
were— for Welsh steers, fr.an £5 10s. to £8 lOs. ; ditto heifers,
from £4 10s. to £7 ; ditto calves, from £3 10s. to £5 ; a few
Scots were sold at from £7 to £8 15s. ; Herefords reaflily fuuiid
purchasers at from £7 to £11 lOi. There were nearly 8,000
sheep penned, about one-third Oi which were turned out un-
sold, and the prices realized were less than at late fairs and
markets; Down ewes from 27s. to 35s. ; lamb*, from 17s. to
238. 6d. ; there were (ew lots of good wethers shown. Tlie
horse department of the fair was extremely meagre both as to
uunjber and quality, aud little business was transacted.

CHll'PING NORTON FAIR.— There was an average-
supply of mutton, which sold readily at improved prices. The
quality of beef was limited; and trade rather dull. Store things
realized remunerative rates.

CHIPPENHAM GREAT MONTHLY MARKET was
largely supplied with cheese : nearly 200 tons were pitched,
which, owing to the heavy rain, came to baud in bad condition;
consequently, the trade was dull. Broad double, 423. to 50s. ;
prime Chedder, 503. to 60s. ; thin, 36s. to 403. ; loaves, 50s.
to 58s. per cwt.

DONCASTER FAIR was very numerously attended. The
show of lean stock was unprecedeutedly large, in a great mej-
siire caused by the late floods depriving the low land larmers
of the use of their grass land during the ensuing winter. Tlie
flood had also operated injuriously in another respect, because
in consequence of it the number of buyers from Lincolnshire
was much more limited. With the excess of sellers on the one
hand, and the want of buyers on the other, feeding beasts
could be purchased on easier terms, and a great number re-
mained undisposed of. Cows and calves and in-calves were in
short supply, and commanded better rates. Of fat we bad
only a limited show, which was unaltered in value. The de-
mand for sheep was far from good. One prime lot of lambs
reahzed 34s., but prices generally ranged from 24s. to SOs.
The horse fair was almost entirely confined to those of a very
inferior class, in which there was a tolerable amount of busi-
ness transacted.

DUNSE MARKET.— The cattle were all but composed of
shorthorns from the English border countie?, with a sprinkling
of well- conditioned kyloes. The stock in general was in good
condition. Iu the forenoon sales were dull, the holders of
stock holding out for large prices ; but having given way a
little, sales were made with great rapidity. It was allowed the
prices would be about 5 per cent, above Earlston market.
There were a few lots of Irish cattle, which were in tolerably
good condition, but they met with a dull sale, and were about
10s. a-head down from Hallow Fair. One year- olds bortliorns
ranged from £4 15s. to £7 15s.; two-year-olds. £8 12s. 6d. ;
rising three years, from £8 to £10 5s. The show of sheep
and lambs was allowed to be about double of what was shown
last year, and of first-rate description. The best part of the
wether stock would bring about 6d. per lb. Half-bred lambs
at I6s. 6d. ; three-parts brouglit 18s. 9d. ; aud the highest
priced lot that could be ascertained brought 23s. A lot of
iiali-bred sheep from Tweeiside was sold at 343. 6d., and
several lots between that price and SOs., but the highest in the
market was the Brieryhdl three-parts, which brought 383. a-
head. The Keiland Lee Cheviot wethers brought SOs. 6d. ;
and a few lots of this kind ran from the above price to 243.

GLOUCESTER MONTHLY CATTLE MARKKT was
more fully supplied than usual with all kinds of stock, the
whole of which was of an inferior quality, and a great quantity
remained unsold. Beef averaged from 4^d. to 5^d. per lb. ;
mutton, from 5|d. to 6d.

GLOUCESTER CHEESE MARKET was tolerably well
supplied, thouiih the supply was smaller than last market in
consequence of the flood preventing many parties leaving home.
The quality and condition of the greater part of the cheese were
affected by the damp weather. Prices were — best double, 50c
to 56s. ; best single, 42s. to 45s. ; second ditto, 338. to 38a. ;
skim, 25s. to 28s.

ILSLEY FAIR.— The supply of sheep was about 1500,
but the attendance of dealers was small. The demand was
slow, and prices were much the same as at Appleshaw Fa r
hfld last week.

JEDBURGH FAIR.— Notwithstanding the unpropitiuus
state of the weather, the attendance was pretty numerous, al-
though unequal to former years. There wa3 a very poor show

562

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

of cattle, wli'.cli consisted priucipally of stirks ; Lut as there
were plenty of buyers prices ran as high as at any of the recent
markets, consideruig quality, the stirks bringing from 1 5 to £6
103. There were very few cows in the market The show of
horses was very good, particularly of young draught horses,
rising two-and a-half to three years old, for which there was a
good demand, at from £20 to £28, a few superior animals
bringing as high as from £30 to £32.

KENDAL FORfNIGHTLY FAIR.— Of cattle there was
about an average supply for the time of the year. The supply
consisted chiefly of cows, with a sprink'ing of heifers and
Scots. Cows of the best soit were selling at from £12 to £14;
inferior ones, £8 10s. to £10 10s. ; heifers, £9 to £12 ; Scots,
£8 to £9 lOs. lii sheep there was a great falling off in quan-
tity from last market. Soulhdowns were ou offer at from £2
to £2 4s. ; cross brteJs, £1 9s. to £1 lOs. ; black-faced sheep
at from I9a. to 2l9. Those that were unlit for slaughtering
of the black-faced breed wtre disposed of at from 14s. to 15s.
Some lots of cross breeds were offering at from 23s. 6d. to 25s.
Although dealers were numerous, and the stock of sheep good,
sales were not easily effected. The fur may be set down as a
very dull one. The average price, per lb., for btef was i^d.,
for mutton 5d. No calves at market.

KENMORE MARTINMAS MARKET.— OAing to tlie
very favourable state of tlic weather, tlie attendance of country
peiple was very great ; the:e was au a'iuudaiit supply of butler
atid chee=e, for which very high prices was demanded in the
morning, but about mid-day prices ftlUoisidcrrably.aiid butter
and cheese were freely otftred at, the furuier fiom 14s. 6d. to
153. a stone, and the latter at .sbiut 5s. to 5s. Cd. a scone ;
cattle, for which there was very httle demand, sold pretty high.
The sellers preferring keeping ihein until the Furtingill Tryst,
on the 6tli proximo, rat'ner tiian accepting the prltcs they bad
been offered.

LAUNCESTON FAIR was well supplied with caUle, and
the sale brisk.

LEEDS FORTNIGHTLY FAIR.— The number of beasts
was 650, including 43 foreii^n. There was a fair attendance of
buyers, and the trade brisker for beasts of prime quality, whicii
were disposed of at 63. 8d. per 191b3. ; whilst inferior sold at
63. 4d., and as low as 5s. 8d. ; neaily all cleared off. Siieep,
4,000 ; all sold at from 5id. to 6d. per lb.

LINCOLN FAT STOCK MARKET.— There was only a
small siip[dy of both beasts and slieep, and the traile was ex-
tremely dull throughout. In the few sales which were
effected late prices were fully maintained, beef realizing 53.
6d. to 5s. 9d. per stone, and mutton fully 6d. per lb.

LOCKERBY PORK MARKET.— More dealers and more
sellers than usual attended this market. Owiug to the very
favourable weather for curing, the sales were very brisk, and
the wliole were cleared off in a very short time at 5s. 4d. to 5s.
5d. per sione.

LOSTWITHIEL FAIR.~A considerable number of cattle
were sold at rather an advance in prices. Tlie demand for
shtep was not brisk, and but few changed hands.

LOUGHBOROUGH FAIR.— lu-calf heifers and good
cattle of other descriptions realized tolerably good prices. Tn
the horse fair good prices were readily obtained for the few
valuable anin.als shown.

LOUTH FAIR was unusually well attended. There was
a full average show of cattle, beasSs selling at the reduction of
price lately experienced at other fairs in various parts of the
country. Beef, of which there waa a scarcity of good quality,
making from 5s. to 63. per stone. There was a small show of
sheep ; mutton, 6d. per jjouud. There was a larger show of
horses than we have witnessed on any previous fair, but the
quality was very indifferent.

•MALTON FAIR. — There was a fair supply of in calving
cows and heifers, and also of barren heifers and bullocks, all
of which had slow sale. A few Galloway heifers and High-
land bullofks were about all cleared away; a good show of
Irish heifers and bullocks were nearly all sold. On the hill we
had a small number of lambs, which had heavy sale. A good
supply of pigs had dull sale at about last week's prices. The
shambles had a good supply of meat, which had moderate
sale. Beef, 5d. to 6d. ; mutton, 5d. to C^d. ; lamb, 5d. to
6d. ; veal, 5d. to Gd. ; pork, 4^d. to 55d. per lb.; pork pigs,
5s. 6d. ; ditto haras, 63. 3d. to 6s. 6d. per stone.

MARLBOROUGH SHEEP FAIR.— Contrary to general
expectation, the number of sheep was greater than has ever

been before. The trade was considered to be gool and satis-
factory to the sellers, as the whole met ready purchasers. The
average price fully equalled Appleshaw, but was aLont 3s. per
head below VVeyhill. There was a fair supply of horses, which
met with a ready sale at good prices. Horned cittle realized
a dull sale ; but altogether, it was satisfactory to the sellers.

MAYFIELD FAIR was very well aitendel. The day
beiug tolerably fine, we had a great many home stock exhi-
bited. At the early part of the day the fair was called very
brisk ; but later, things hur;g ou hand rather, and sellers had
to abate their price.

MUIR OF ORD NOVEMBER MARKET.— Scarcely a
dealer from the south appeared oa the g ound, and but very
few local purchasers __^atteuded the market; consequently there
was little demand fur the few beasts brought forward — the
show, in fact, consisted almost entirely of lots of twos and
threes. Prices were considerably below those obtained at the
preceding markets in September and October, ami sales, even
at the reduced rates, were much more dilKcult to be made than
at either of these trysts ; compared with last year, the contrary
of this was the case. The reason generally asL igned for the
small tliow of btock, was that the excellent rates which have
recently been obtained for beasts of even indifferent quality in-
duced their owners to bring tbem forward at the last tryst.
Perhaps the fact of falling markets in the south had some
effrft in keeping back stock.

NEWARK FORNIGHTLY MARKET.— We had a
tolerably good supply of stock, and a great deal of business
was done. Prices about the same. There were 325 sheep
and 71 beasts penned.

PETWORTH NOVEMBER CATTLE FAIR.- Our an-
nual fair v.ai held on Saturday, but a more luiscraMe day for
it could not have been experienced. The rain did not cease
till towards the evening, and the fair fi=Id was ankle dcjp in
" slush," so that it wa3 with difficulty any one could get about.
There was not a large assortment of cattle, but wc believe a
great deal exchanged hands at fair prices.

RICKMANSWORTH FAIR.— Theie was a large supply
of stock of all kinds. The prime store btastj of all breeds
sold well at the late high prices. The young growing and
inferior beasts hung heavily on hand, the influence of rain
checking both prices and demand, much land in this country
being inuudated with water, so that the beasts of the latter
class were sold at a considerable loss. The demand for both
sheep and lambs of all sorts was good at late high prices.
Cows for dairy purposes were easier to buy, £18 being the top
price for the best. The horse trade for all young animals was
brisk at late high figures. Pigs in good demand at an advance
of Is. to 2s. per head for stores, and about 2d. per stor.e for
porkers. Suckling calves have receded from 33. to 5s. per head.

RIPON FAIR. — There was a good attendance of both
buyers and sfcliers. New calven co.vs were readily sold; and
fat and lean stock had a fair demand.

RUGBY FAIR. — We had a short supply of hunters and
carriage horses compared with former years, and they sold
readily at good prices. A party of French dealers were
located at the George Hotel, and gave high prices for the best
horses they could procure. We understancl the horses were
for the Emperor's own private use. Working horses were
better supplied, and vast numbers were ditpused of at from £35
to £50. A large number of draught colts were brought, and
disposed of at remunerating prices. There was a good supply
of fat beasts, which sold at higher rates than last fair. Store
beasts are abundant, with au advance. Milking cows were
dear.

SETTLE FORTNIGHT FAIR was an improvement on the
last. There was decidedly a better show cf sheep. Ewes
fetched 5d. and 5^d. per lb., wethers 6d. Cows sold at IJd ,
and heifers at 5d. per lb. The sale was pretty brisk, bo;h for
beef and mutton, and all was cleared off ni go ^d time.

SHEFFIELD CHEESE FAIR was attended by a con-
siderable number of persons. So early as Friday se'nuightj
above thirty carts well laden with Derbyshire cheese arrived in
anticipation of the fair, and the increase of arrivals of cheese
from various parts of Derbyshire and Notts gave indications
which weie subsequently realized, that the fair of '52 would
prove more remarkable than any of its predecessors. There
was an increase in the supply of Derbyshire and a falling off
in the quantity of Cheshire cheese as compared with last year,
and also a corresponding increase in price. A great quantity of

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

o03

cheese was bought while bvii g bik n 1 1 tlic f.iir. On WcJ-
Lcstlay prices ranged from -.8.^. lo COs. per cwt. Cheshire
chofse met with ready sale at prices xaryiii^ fiom 55s. to 60s.
per cut., and smaller quantities In tu S^d. to 5id. per lb. A
few fine i-araples of i r''"e Cheshire were sold at 65s. per cwt.
Tlicre was but a small quantity of inferior Deibyshire cheese
in the market, which £o!d at 48s. iicr cwt. or <lid. per lb. We
were confidently informed by two large deak'rs who had been
accnsloined to attend tie Shellidd fair for 30 years, that the
scaicily of Cheshire cheese would justify an opinion that there
will I c an advance Id. per lb. before another month has ex-
pired. The general trade of Shetiield being good, a great
qi!anii(y of small purchases were made. Upwards of 300 ions
of cheese weie conveyed to Sheffield by the Manchester, Shef-
field, and Lincolnshire railway.

SHIPSrON-ON-STOUR IWIR was well supplied with fat
and store stock ; the attendance of buyers was numerous, store
ttock fetching tolerable prices: beef 5d. ; mutton, wttliers,
Gd. ; enc?, 5>d. No horses shown.

STK.\NKAER MARKKT.— There was a good desil of ani-
mation in the market, and prices fully niaintaintd what has
been curient for t«o or three mouths past. Calves were sell-
ing from 21s. to 60s. ; six quarters from £i to £5 ISs. A very
superior lot of this age, from East Diudiunie, were sold at £6
13s. each ; these were decidedly the best lot in the field, being
a fine speciu'.en of the Galloway breed, »nd appeared to engage
the atiention of both locul and diHint buyers. A bu 1 six
quart* rs old, and from the same stoik, «hs sold by Mr. Ai!ar,
Springbank, at £7. A lot of Ayrshire buHi'ckf, tit for stall
feeding, were purchased at £6 each. In this district the cat-
tle markets are now concluded for season 1852, ani it is to he
h'.ipcd the spring sales, when tl.ey come rouml, may fudy sus-
tain the autumn i>rices, as well as leave a f ir rcmunfrative
profit for winter keep, so that the farmers may lave no cause
for de^polKIel;cy.

STRATTON FAIR was rather thinly attended. The prices
of cattle appeared to be still keepiirg up ; steers, from three to
four years old, sold f.om £20 to £22 per pair; ccws and
calves. £10 to £12 per p.iir ; sheep, 5^1. per Hi.

TRURO FAIR. — There was a smaller su[)ply than usual,
and a briik sale for the animals in the fair. About 250 bul-
locks changed hands, fat cattle selling at 48j. and 50s. per
cwt., and store bullocks at 383. per c.\t. The numi er of
sheep p.iined was 586, and the selling {'rice was about 5d.
per pound.

WEST MALLING FAIR.— There was a lirge supply of
horses and cattle, and an unusually large attendaiice of buyers.
There was a f.reat deal of business transacted, and most of the
horses and cattle cleared off at high prices. The quantity of
sheep was not so large as usual. It is calculated there was
more busi.:ess transacted than there has been for thirty years
past.

YORK FORTNIGHTLY FAIR.— Wehad araiddling supply
of beastf, with a fair demand, prime fed sUling at from 5s. 6d.
to5s. 9d.; inferior, 4s. 9d. to os. per stone; mutton sheep,
light weights, 5jd. to 5i|d. ; ewes and heavy weights, 5d. per
lb. Very few lean sheep at market. Calving and dairy cows
were in good supply and demand, at former rates. Lean beasts
were p'entiful, and they sold well at prices tending upwards.
Shorlliorns and west country drape cows were most in demand.
Many Irish cattle were shown ; but they liad slow demand,
and prices lowering.

IRISH FAIRS.— MiuL!NG.A.'.i : Never, for the last twenty
years, would there have been a better in MuUingar had the
weather oidy proved favourable. The rain commenced in the
luon.ing, and continirtd to fall in torrents, and without inter-
mission. Notwithstanding this the Green was thronged from
aa early hour, and business went on with a briskness almost
tiuparalleled. There was a good demand for stock of every
description, and the superior classes of animals shown changed
owner*, at an early hour. Beef sold liigh at an advance of
fully 6 per cent, over the prices obtained at the last fair of
Ballinasloe. Three year-old bidlocks brought from 10/. to
13/., and younger annuals in proportion. Three-year-old hei-
fers were also dear, and met a ready sale. Sheep were very
scarce, and unusually dear. Wedders sold at from 40s. to
553., and some were even hrgher. Limbs were fcarce, and
some lots brought SOs. The averag; price was from 23s. to
32s. each. Pigs were very scarce, and not in demand, and
there w aa a great decline in prices. The horse fair was the

large^t we have had for a number of years. A i. r^" number
of colts and fillies, three and fuur years old, met a ready sale
at from 20/. to 30/. each. There was a scarcity of first-class
hunters, although many purchasers from England and the
continent were present to pick up anything, no matter at
what price. Of light hunters there was a large show, also of
saddle-hacks and harne-s-horses, some of which went as high
as 50/. — Westmeatk Guardian. Balling.a.kky was largely
supplied with stock, but generally of a more inferior descrip-
tion than usual. Buyers were very numerous and a large
amount of business was transacted. Fat cows brought from
8/. lOs. to 10/. ; milch cows, 8/. to 9/. ; two-year-old heifers,
6/. 10s. to 7/. 10s.; yearlings, 4/. to 4/. 10s.; weanlings, 3/.
to 3/. lOs. ; fat sheep, 32s. to £6^.; lambs, 253. to 28s. No
fat pigs; store?, 34s. to 40s. each ; bonhams, 16s. to 22s. per
coup'e — Kilkenny Modcraluv. Castlemokuis was well sup-
plied with stock, but a'so of an infeii;r description. Fat cows
brought from 11. to 8/. lOs ; milcli cows, 7/. 10s. to 8/. 10s.;
two year-old heifers, 6/. to G/. 10s. ; yeirlings, 3/. to 3/. lOs. ;
weanliirgs, 483. to 53s. ench ; fat shrep, 283. to 323. ; lambs,
24s. to 27s. ; fat}igs, of first quality, 42s. per cwt. ; stores,
38s. to 45s. each ; bonhams, 13s. to 24s. — Ibid. Knockaney.
— There was a very lirge supply of beef, which sold at 31s. to
33s. per c»vt., and sever»l h.ts left without a purchaser. Mut-
ton sold at 5d to S.^rd., 8inkii;g ofi'al. Claije. — Black cattle
and sheep were in advance of the prices given at the fair of
Q,uin. Pigs, 35s. per CSV t Great demand for young stock,
and all sold at high inices Ballinakill was, as usual,
largely supplied «itli stock and well a'.tended by buyers. Fat
cows averaged from 9/. lOs. to 11/. 10s.; new milch cows,
9/. 10s. to 10/. ; two year-olds, 7/. to 8/.; yearlings, 4/. 5s. to
5/.; weanlings, 21. IOj. to 3/. 53.; fat sheep, from oSs. to 38s. ;
lambs, 2Gs. U 29s. ; fat pigs, 4Us. per 'cwt. ; stores, 34s. to
40s. each ; bonhams, 20s. to 243. per couple. The horse fair
was well supplied, but with animals of an inferior kind, prin-
cipally those for farmers' use.

CHERTSEY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.— At the
Chertsey Agricultural .Society, a labourer named King was in-
troduced, who produced a m?gnificent sheaf of barley, the
produce of one single grain. It excited universal admiration,
but he made no statement as to the method by which he had
obtaitel so satisfactory a result. Mr. Druramond, M.P., thea
said. Every one of us, farmers or not, have been beaten by that
man. (A voice : Oh, lie couldn't, do it again.) I say there is
none of us, not the best farmer here, Imt has been beaten by
that man. Why, you never get 5,000 for one (a laugh,) 5,375
grains from one grain of barley. Now, till we can all do that,
don't let us fancy we have tinisbeJ learning to farm. That's
what we have got to do. What one man can do another can
— can't he ? 'To be sure he can. He's got just as many hands
and legs. I remember a labourer once talking to a gentleman
who seemed to knoiv what he was about, and when he left him,
some one said to the labourer, " That's a sliarpish sort of fel-
low." " Oh yes," said the labourer, " a gentleman's got a head
as well as another man, if he cnly knev,' ho.v to use it."
(Laughter ) Well, now, so has a farmer got a head, and if he
only Knew how to use it, be might get 5,000 grains from one.
Now, we are all manufacmrer.". I don't understand the differ-
ence between agricultural and manufacturing interests. We
are all maiiulaciurers. I'id you ever see a silkworm ? Is it
not very ingenious to make that Lasty looking yellow spider's
web into a lady's elegant silk dress ? TIsal's v. h£* the manu-
facturer does. What has the farmer got to do? He has to
turn a dung-hill into a loaf of bread. Is not that a manufac-
ture just ai extraordinary ? But he must do it. We have
betn talking for some time i ast about the great advantages of
reducing the cost of production and the price of labour. But
by all this emigration that is going on, the price of labour will
be enormously increased. What are you going to do, then—
because ever^boiiy used to say that nothing could save u?, but
reducing the price of labour ? Well, we must have recourse
to more machinery. You can't carry on farming as it has been
carried on for the last 500 y« ars. No business in the wor'd
can be carried on as it was 500 3 ears ago, and it is nonsense
to suppose that ours can either. We must go on improvitg,
for you may depend upon it that chemistry and those things
have done as much as they can do. It is to mechanical aid
alone, then, that you must look. We are exceedingly behind-

564

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

baud in it in the south of England, to what they are in the
north. I see, every now and then, advertisements about the
prices of production, and farmers' accounts, and so on ; and I
see everywhere put down farmer's charge for interest ou his
cspifal 1 0 per cent., or, if he i^ a very modest man, 7 per cent.
Now, I want to know in what business in the world a tnaii can
get 10 per cent, on his capital. "What tight, then, has the
farmer to expect it, when no tradesman or mercantile man can
obtain it ? You should expect no mere for it when invested in
farming than if it were in the public funds, and that is a bare
3 per cent. As for farming, it always must be the poorest
trade carried on, and for the best of all reasons, that it is the

most agreeable. Do not you know what Cobbett said V He
said, " Who would be a nightman if he did not get more for
being a nijjhtmau than being a far.ner? " (Laughter ) Isn't it
quite clear that being the most agreeable of all occupations,
there must be more persons trying to enter into it? An old
man once said to ine, " Aye, my boy, once farmers talked of
making a living, now they talk of making a fortune." Depend
upon it he never can make a fortune, lie may lead a very
pleasant, healthy, and eoraetimes a profitable occupation ; bnt
that must be by greater help than he has got now ; and for
that help he must lo^k to machinery and improved mechanical
contrivances. (Cheers.)

REVIEW OF THE CORN TRADE

DURING THE MONTH OF NOVEMBER.

The new House of Commons has been called
together, and the work of the session ha.? been
commenced. Sufficient has already transpired to
satisfy all, that the Ministry have no intention of
attempting to alter the laws regulating the import-
ation of corn into this country. Free trade is
accepted by the Derby Government, and Protection
is finally given up. Our readers will recollect that
on the advent of the present Ministry to power, we
warned them against indulging in any sanguine
e.vpectations.

The Chancellor of the Exchequer will in the
course of another week have propounded his finan-
cial scheme, aiul it will have become known what
he proposes to do to mitigate the injury which the
agricultural interest of this country has unquestion-
ably suffered in consequence of recent legislation :
it would therefore be folly to speculate in this place
on the subject.

The freetraders are evidently unwilling to admit
that farmers have been sufferers, and seem disposed
to oppose all remedial measures. We hope that
these gentlemen may yet find that they are not to
have it all their own way; but e.xpediency is the
order of the day, and farmers must not expect that
the promises made by members on the hustings
will be very rigidly adhered to.

The prospects for the agriculturists of the United
Kingdom are certainly not of the most promising
description ; we sincerely trust, however, that with
courage and energy they may yet be enabled to
overcome their difficulties. The seasons have, un-
fortunately, thus far been adverse; the last har-
vest was decidedly deficient, and we have a very
unprupitious seed-time. The weather has, since
we last addressed our readers, been very unfavour-
able. We have had almost incessant rain; and so
great a fall of wet in November has not been ex-
perienced for many years past. Large breadths of
land have been laid completely under water; rivers
have overflown their banks, and extensive mischief

has been done to various kinds of property. What
the effect of so much wet may be on the seed com-
mitted to the soil early in the autumn, cannot as
yet be determined ; but there is too much reason
to fear that it must be decidedly injurious ; mean-
while, out-door labour has been completely out of
the question, and the soil is so thoroughly satu •
rated that there appears little chance of its being
restored to anything like working order until next
spring. The probabihty is, that a portion of the
seed committed to the ground in October has been
destroyed, and that the land will have to be re-sown.
Those farmers who were most forward with autumn
work are therefore likely to be in a worse position
than those who had not commenced sowing when
the rain set in.

Altogether, the seed-time must be regarded as
backward and unfavourable — a circumstance very
likely to have a material influence on the future.
Spring-sown wheat has always been regarded as a
more precarious crop than that sown at the usual
time ; and there can be no doubt that by far the
greater breadth of land intended for whert still
remains to be sown. Notwithstanding this some-
what untoward state of things, the value of agri-
cultural produce does not advance materially,
owing to the constant large arrivals of foreign
grown corn.

Another great disadvantage under which farmers
have laboured is the inferiority of the quality of
last year's crop, and the effect of the moist weather
on the condition. The sale of the new wheat of
home growth has, imquestionably, been much in-
terfered with, and its intrinsic value lessened, in
consequence of the soft rough condition in which
it has come to hand. An interval of frost
would remedy this evil, and would be very likely
to give an impulse to the demand. Still no very
important rise in quotations can be reckoned on
so long as the arrivals from abroad continue on as
liberal a scale as they have been hitherto. The

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

&66

future range of prices must therefore depend
mainly on the extent of the foreign supplies ; and
it becomes a matter of the utmost interest to as-
certain, as far as practicable, what these are likely
to be. That a very large proportion of the late
importations of wheat has not paid a profit to the
parties importing, is certain ; and it appears only
reasonable to suppose that operations of that nature
cannot be long continued in. At present prices
are relatively lower in this country than on the
continent ; and those who make purchases abroad
must, therefore, be very strongly convinced that a
considerable rally is about to take place here. We
do not think that this feeling is so general as to
cause very large transactions to be entered into ;
and we are consequently of opinion that after what
may yet be on passage shall have reached our
shores, the supplies will be comparatively short for
some months to come.

Whilst on the subject of supplies, we are induced
to notice that which has been considered a mystery
by all commercial men, and which still remains
unexplained. For some time past wheat has been
bought at Amsterdam — one of the dearest and least
suitable markets on the Continent for such a pur-
pose— and consigned regularly to London, The
prices paid at the port of shipment have, in many
cases, been higher than those realized at Mark
Lane, independent of the expenses of freight, in-
surance, factorage, &c. The loss must therefore
have been immense ; still the same course has been
pursued week after week, and all manner of ru-
mours have been circulated to explain this ap-
parent commercial anomaly. The latest explana-
tion is attempted by the editor of the Economist,
who maintains that the Emperor of France, know-
ing the influence which the London market
exercises on prices of wheat all over the world,
and the desirableness of preventing high prices of
food in France, has been induced to sacrifice a
certain amount of money, in order to keep the
London market regularly supplied, and check any
advance there. We must leave it to our readers
to judge of the probability of this version of a
mystery, which has certainly puzzled the most ex-
perienced men in the trade.

That these imports from Holland have had con-
siderable eiFect is certain. The house to which
the consignments have been made has sold in-
variably from on board ship without reserve, and
a few thousand quarters a-week forced on the
market in this way has had a greater influence than
would, at first sight, appear likely to be produced
thereby. Whether these operations are to be con-
tinued, it is of course impossible to say; but
there is certainly no great encouragement to those
who consign, in the regular course of business, to ,

ship to Great Britain at present. Independent of
this, the time of year is against further large ship-
ments from the north of Eurojjc. In Russia,
winter has already set in, and in the ordinary course
of things we may calculate on the navigation of
the Baltic soon becoming impeded by ice. We
are therefore inclined to think that the arrivals of
foreign bread-stuff's will, for the next four months,
be on a more moderate scale than they have been
during the past summer and winter ; and we still
incline to the opinion that farmers will be enabled
to obtain somewhat more remunerative rates for
their produce during the winter.

At several of the country markets prices have
within the last week or two shown a decided ten-
dency of advance, and London has been nearly
the only place in which no movement has taken
place.

The consumption of old foreign wheat has been
enormous ; and notwithstanding the large quan-
tities received, stocks are by no means heavy.
The shortness of the wheat crop, and the loss of
potatoes in Ireland, have rendered it necessary to
obtain supplies of bread-stuff's from this side of
the Channel, and buyers from Ireland have bought
flour and Indian corn freely all through the month
at Liverpool and other ports. The shipments of
flour from Liverpool coastwise, and to Ireland,
have been considerably in excess of the importations
from America ; and prices are so much higher
there than with us, that it is not improbable that
a demand may spring up ; and we should certainly
not be surprised to see buyers of foreign wheat
and flour from Lancashire and Yorkshire at Mark
Lane.

The deliveries of home-grown wheat have, not-
withstanding the low range of prices and the unfa-
vourable state of the weather, been tolerably good,
but the demand has about kept pace with the supply
r,t most of the markets in the agricultural districts,
and it is only at the ports on the coast and in
London, where the arrivals of foreign have been
heavy, that any stocks of consequence are held by
merchants.

Though wheat has thus far been selling at rela-
tively lower prices than spring corn, the growers
have brought forward the former more freely than
the latter. This has naturally caused some surprise,
and has led to the belief that the productiveness of
the barley and oat crops may at harvest-time have
been over-rated. The general impression then
was that barley had yielded a full average in quan-
tity; and that rats were, in proportion to the
breadth sown, by no means deficient. We still
entertain that opinion, and are disposed to attri-
bute the sm.allness of the deliveries of these kinds
of grain to the fact that old stocks were com-

cC6

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

pietely exhausted at haivest-timi-, aiul that the
growers have consequently been compelled to con-
sume the commoner sorts of harley and oats exten-
sively, as feed for cattle, &c.

Until within the last eight or ten days barley
continued to vise in value; since then, however, the
\ipward moveirent has received a check. In some
parts of the country as much as 38s., and even 40s.
per qr. was at one time paid for superior malting
samples, hut since then a reaction of Is. to 2s, per
qr. has taken place.

A considerable proportion of the oats grown in
England suffered greatly from the wet weather at
harvest-time, and really fine samples are scarce.
This article has not varied materially in price either
in the farmers' markets or at the large consuming
towns. The latter have drawn the greater part of
their supplies from. Ireland and frcm foreign ports,
the consumption of English having for the most
part been confined to the localities in which they
have been grown.

The shortness of the bean crop was suflficiently
well ascertained months ago to account for the
high rates at which this article has been selling ;
and unless larger quantities reach us from abroad
than are reckoned on, prices will in all probability
be well maintained.

Peas, after a very rapid and important advance,
have suffered a smart reaction, which has, no
doubt, been caused partly by the extreme and un-
seasonable mildness of the weather.

\A'^ith this short notice of the principal changes
which have occurred in the country markets, we
must dismiss that part of our subject, and now
proceed with our usual retrospect of the proceed-
ings at Mark-lane.

The arrivals of home-grown wheat into the port
of London have been smaller in proportion than at
some of the provincial markets. A considerable
part of the shipments from Lincolnshire and
that neighbourhood, instead of being directed to
the metropolis, have gone to the north and to the
channel ports, where prices have been more satis-
factory than with us. The supply at Mark-lane
has consisted, therefore, principally of Essex and
Kent wheat; and those counties have furnished
less than usual at the corresponding period of the
year. The large choice of foreign wheat which our
market has afforded has, however, prevented any-
thing like scarcity being felt; and there has been
sufficient competition on the part of sellers to enable
purchasers to obtain all they required on reasonable
terms. Notivithstanding the very moderate cha-
racter of the arrivals of home-grown wheat, and the
fact that an advance has taken place at most of the
leading provincial markets, prices have remained
very nearly stationary at Mark-lane since our last.

If, however, we make due allowance for the very
rough condition in which the samples have come
forward, we must consider the turn as having been
rather against the buyer ; more particularly during
the last eight or fen days. "We consider that the
intrinsic value of the article has been lessened by
the extreme humidity of the atmosphere Is, to 2s.
per qr. ; and prices having, notwithstanding, re-
mained as they were before, the purchaser has
clearly been placed in a somewhat less advantageous
position. The new wheat is said to work better
than might from its appearance be expected, and
with a proper mixture of old it makes capital flour.
So small a proportion of Lincolnshire and Cam-
bridgeshire wheat has lately come forward as to
cause some competition, and wo consider that the
finer sorts from thence would at present bring fully
Is. to 2s, per qr. over the prices they might have
been bought at a month ago.

The arrivals of foreign wheat have been liberal,
and will before the close of the month probably
amount nearly to 100,000 qrs. The demand has
not been sufficiently active to take off the whole of
that quantity, and the stocks in warehouse have
consequently rather accumulated. During the first
fortnight in November the country inquiry was of
a retail character, and the town millers also ope-
rated with considerable caution ; importers had,
therefore, to choose between two alternatives: either
to incur landmg expenses, or give way in
prices. The former course was in most cases
pursued ; but here and there a parcel was forced
off at rather lower rates. Within the last
week or two we have been visited by purchasers
from different parts of the kingdom, and though
the transactions have not been on so extensive a
scale as to enable holders to establish any quotable
advance, the tendency has been decidedly that way.
The demand has run mostly on fair qualities of
red, such as have been obtainable at 44s. to 46s. ;
the finer kinds, such as prime Rostock, at 48s. to
oOs. per qr., having met with comi)aratively little
attention. This has also been the case in regard
to Danzig wheat; the demand for the finest high
mixed has been almost wholly confined to what the
London millers have taken, country buyers having
declined to pay such prices as 50s. and 52s. per
qr., preferring to take the secondary sorts, which
they have been enabled to procure at 44s. to 48s.
per qr. Black Sea wheat has met with a fair share
of attention; the town trade have given a prefer-
ence to Ghirka and similar sorts, paying 41s. to
43s. per qr. without much hesitation, and Polish
Odessa has sold for country use at about 38s. to
40s. per qr. In the early part of the month
the arrivals of wheat from ports east of Gib-
raltar off the coast were large : latterly they have

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

567

been more moderate. The greater part of the sup-
ply has been taken for Ireland, a few cargoes have
been ordered round to London, and the rest has
been distributed to various ports in Great Britain.
Very full prices have lately been paid for floating
cargoes : Polish Odessa has reahzed as much as
39s. to 39s. 6d. per qr., cost, freight, and insurance,
and other sorts corresponding rates.

The top price of town-made flour was somewhat
unexpectedly put down 3s. per sack by the princi-
pal millers on the 15th inst. in the face of rising
wheat markets ; this was, we believe, done in con-
sequence of some disagreement, and the reduction
has not influenced the value of other kinds of flour-
Good fresh country household has sold quite as
well, and at fully as good terms since as previous
to the reduction, and American has, notwithstand-
ing good receipts from the other side of the At-
lantic, crept up in value. Fair brands are now
selling, and have for some time past commanded
23s, to 24s., and superfine sorts 24s. to 25s. per
brl. Some of the purchases lately made have, we
are inclined to think, been on speculation ; but a
considerable portion has also been taken off" the
market for immediate consumption.

The supply of English barley into the port of
London has not been so large as is usually received
in the month of November ; the quantity brought
forward has, nevertheless, been sufficient to satisfy
the demand, and during the last fortnight some
decline has occurred in quotations. The highest
prices attained for malting qualities were 35s. to
36s. per qr. ; choice parcels brought these rates
for a week or two, supplies then increased, and on
the 15th inst. a decline of Is. to 2s. per qr. took
place. The fall was, however, confined mostly to
the middhng descriptions of malting and distiUing
barley, picked parcels of the former nearly main-
taining th.eir previous position ; indeed the very
best sorts are still worth the highest price named
above. The demand for foreign old barley for
grinding has been extensive, and the receipts from
abroad having been only moderate, the value of
the article has risen. The late reduction in prices
in English has had more or less eff"ect; it has
checked the advance, and in some cases some re-
action has even occurred, but not to the same ex-
tent as the fall in prices of barley of home growth.
Very moderate qualities of Danish sold currently
previous to the 15th inst. at 27s. to 2Ss., and fresh
heavy samples realized 29s. to 30s. per qr. ; the
fall from these rates, thus far, has not exceeded Is.
per qr. Egyptian barley has met with ready takers
at 22s. to 23s. per qr., but may now be rather more
easily bought at the prices quoted.

The sale for malt was lively in the early part of
the monthj and the tendency of prices was up-

wards ; the demand has within the last week or
two slackened, but the advance previously estab-
lished has been steadily supported.

The arrivals of oats coastwise into the port of
London have been trifling, and the quantity re-
ceived ])er rail from the eastern counties has been
small. From Scotland the receipts have been to-
lerably good, and from L-eland and abroad we have
had rather large arrivals. The dealers have
throughout the month conducted their operations
with great caution, and the supply has conse-
quently pressed somewhat heavily on the market.
Really fine old corn has scarcely varied in
value. Archangel and Riga oats having be-
come scarce (the arrivals from Russia having for
some time ceased), have commanded full rates ; and
sweet heavy samples of Danish and Swedish have
brought former terms ; but all out-of-conditioned
foreign, and soft new English, have receded
6d. to Is. per qr, since our last.

Irish oats, though of good quality and fair
weight, have declined to about the same extent —
a large proportion of the supply having been from
that country. Lately, ])rices have advanced ma-
terially in the sister isle, and the reports from
hence being deemed discouraging, shipments from
thence are likely to be checked. At present, how-
ever, there is a fair quantity i-emaining on the
market, and a considerable number of vessels oat-
laden are known to be on passage from Irish ports
to London ; hence there does not appear to be much
chance of any immediate rally in quotations.

English beans have come to hand sparingly, and
have brought fully previous prices — say, new ticks,
32s. to 33s.; harrows, 34s. to 35s.; and pigeon,
36s. to 38s. Old beans may be quoted at least Is.
to 2s. per qr. higher than those of this year's growth.
The Egyptians which have been received have met
ready buyers at high prices, and the article has
risen about 5s. per qr. in the course of the last three
months.

The great rise which took place in prices of
white peas in October has led to increased supplies
being directed to this market, and the mildness of
the weather having tended to lessen the consump-
tion, a considerable portion of the advance then
established has since been lost. The total fall from
the highest point has amounted to at least 4s. per
qr. ; and fine English boilers may nov/ be bought
at 40s., whilst it is difficult to exceed 3Ss. per qr.
for foreign. In the value of grey and maple peas
no material variation has taken place.

Floating cargoes of Indian corn have continued
in active demand for Irish account, and nearly the
whole of the arrival oft" the coast has been taken for
that country at gradually improving prices. Lat-
terly, as much as 31s. to 32s. per qr., cost, freight,

THE FARMER^S MAGAZINE.

and insurance, has been paid for fine Galalz, and
proportionate terms have been obtained for other
descriptions. Carfifoes still on passage have been
held at equally high rates ; and it is evident that a
continued and very large Irish demand is confi-
dently calculated on.

The tone of the foreif^n advices has not altered
since we last addressed our readers. Holders of
wheat abroad have not at any time for some months
past manifested much anxiety to realize, and latterly
a considerable amount of speculation has taken
place at several of the Baltic ports in anticipation
of an improved English demand. Prices have con-
sequently rather tended upwards in that quarter,
and freights and insurances having at the same time
advanced, it has become quite impossible to buy
there on such terms as to allow of a margin for
a profit on sales in England. The latest accounts
state that the weather had assumed a wintry aspect,
and it was deemed probable that the shipping sea-
son would be speedily brought to a close.

At Danzig, 42s. to 44s. had been paid for fine
mixed and high-mixed qualities of wheat, and
superior parcels had been held at 46s. per qr., free
on board, and even higher.

The accounts from Konigsberg are of a similar
character; indeed, taking into account the difference
in quality, we consider the first-named market the
cheaper of the two.

At Stettin some large speculative operations seem
to have taken places which had had the usual effect
of driving up prices.

The most recent reports from Rostock inform us
that good quahties of wheat deliverable imme-
diately had been sold at 40s. to 4 Is. per qr. free on
board; whilst for spring shipment holders had
asked 42s. to 43s. per qr,, showing that an advance
was calculated on during the winter.

At Hamburg some purchases of wheat appear to
have been made on Liverpool account, which had
naturally had the effect of strengthening the con-
fidence of holders, and red Upland on the spot,
weighing 61 to 61 Jibs, per bush., had risen from
43s. to 43s. 6d, per qr. free on board.

In the Dutch markets prices are still higher,
owing to continued purchases for shipment to Eng-
land ; and in some parts of France the value of
wheat is so high that it might almost pay to con-
sign from this country

In the Mediterranean markets very little change
has taken place since our last monthly notice, and
no great extent of business seems to have been done
there on English account.

From the more distant eastern ports the advices
are of some interest. From Alexandria we learn
that large purchases of wheat and beans had been
made for shipment to Great Britain at high rates.

say for the best qualities of Saidi wheat 29s. to 31s.,
for Beheira ditto 27s. 6d. to 29s. per qr. ; for Saidi
beans 263. 3d. to 26s. 8d., and for Beheira ditto
22s. Cd. to 23s. 6d. per qr, free on board. About
28 to 30 vessels were loading for English ports,
the whole of Vv'hich have still to arrive. We may
also reckon on further large supplies from Odessa,
Galatz, &c. ; and some quantity of Flour is still on
passage from America.

The latest advices from the latter country inform
us that shipments to some extent had been made,
but that prices having risen so as to exceed the
imits of the English orders remaining on hand,
•he exports had during the preceding week or ten
days fallen off. Both wheat and flour were rela-
tively dearer at New York on the 13th inst. than at
Mark Lane at present ; and freights were rapidly
rising.

CURRENCY PER IMPERIAL MEASURE.

Bbilling^B per Quarter

Wheat, Essex aud Kent, white, uew. . 34 to 42 fine up to 46

Ditto ditto old ..43 47 „ 54

Ditto ditto red, new 32 37 „ 40

Ditto ditto old 40 44 „ 48

Norfolk, Lincoln, & Yorksh., red. . 42 44 „ 45

Ditto ditto new 30 35 „ 40

Ditto ditto white new, none „ —

Ditto ditto old none „ —

Barley, malting, new 31 33

Chevalier 33 35

Distilling 29 31

Grinduig 27 29

MALT,Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk, new 54 55 extra 58

Ditto ditto old 52 54 „ E6

Kingston,Ware,andto\vnmade,new59 60 „ 63

Ditto ditto old 57 59 „ 61

Oats, English feed 16 19 fine 21

Ditto Potato 19 21 extra 23'.

Scotch feed 21 23 fine 24

Ditto Potato 22 24 fine 26

Irish feed, white 16 18 fine 20

Ditto,black 16 17 fine IB

Rye 27 29 old 27 29

Beans, Mazagan 33 34 „ 31 35

Ticks 34 36 „ 36 38

Harrow 35 37 „ 37 39

Pigeon 36 40 „ 40 44

Peas, white boUers 37 40 „ 37 40

aple 33 36 „ 33 36

Grey 31 33 „ 33 35

Flouk, town made, per sack of 280 lbs. — — „ 38 40

Households, Town 35s. Country — — „ 33 35

Norfolk and Suffolk, ex-ship — — „ 29 30

FOREIGN GRAIN.

Wheat, Dantzic, mixed. . 42 to 43 high mixed 45 47 extraSS

Konigsberg 41 43 „ 44 45 „ 47

Rostock, new 44 46 fine old 43 45 „ 48

Pomera.,Meckbg.,andUckermk.,red 42 44 extra 44 4C

Silesian „ 40 42 wliite 42 44

Danish and Holstein „ 38 40 „ 40 42

Rhine and Belgium „ 38 41 old 41 45

French „ 38 40 white 39 43

Odessa, St. Petersburg aud Riga. . 33 35 fine 37 39

Barley, grinding 26 27

DistiUuig 27 2r

Malting none — —

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

669

SliiUmjiS pir Qiiarler-

Oats, Dutch, brew, aud Polands 18 21

Feed 17 20

Danish and Swedish feed 18 20

Stralsund 18 :?2

Russian 18 19

French 17 18

Beans, Friesland and Holstein 28 34

Konigsberg 34 37

Egyptian 28 30

Pea3, feeding 30 36 fine boilers 36 38

Indian Corn, white 27 29 yellow 27 30

Flour, French, per sack .... 28 32 fine 33 'A5

.Imencau, sour per barrel 10 21 sweet 22 21

IMPERIAL AVERAGES.

Week Ending :
Oct. 16, 185?..
Oct. 23 1852..
Oct. 30, 1852. .
Nov. 6, 1852. . ,
Nov. 13, 1852. . :
Nov. 20. 1852. .

Aggregate average
of last six weeks

Comparative avge.

same time last year

Duties

For the last Six Weeks.

Barley. Oats. Rye. Beans

s. d. s. d. s. d.| 8. d.

8 18 0 30 l!34 1

Wheat,
s. d.

37 10

38 8

39 2
39 5

39 11

40 0

39 2

36 5
1 0

27

?.S S 17 10 125 8I34 2

29 5 17 6i26 0 31 7

29 9 18 3 124 10!35 3

30 2 18 7 '27 8;35 4
30 6 ! 18 9 '29 9 35 6

Peas.

s. d.

30 4

30 9

31 5
,33 5
132 6
33 3

29 4! 18 2^27 4 34 lOkSl 11

25 11 I 17 ', -il 4 28 7^27 10
1 0,1 01 01 01 0

LONDON AVERAGES.

£ s. d.
Wheat . . 2,213 qrs. 2 3 9
Barley .. 2,131 1 12 9
Oats 6,955 10 3

Bye ...

. — qrs. 0 0 0

Beans.. .

. 362 1 10 1

Peas . . .

.364 2 0 3

COMPARATIVE PRICES AND QUANTITIES
OF CORN.

Averages from last Friday's] Averages from the correspond

Gazette.

Av.

ing Gazelle in 1851

Av.

Qrs.

s. d.

Qis.

s. d.

Wheat. .

.. 96,792 .

. 40 0

Wheat.. .. 104,316 ..

36 9

Barley. .

. . 107,39 1 .

. 30 6

Barley.. .. 10,188 ..

27 0

Oats . .

.. 21,509 .

. 18 9

Oats 23,273 . .

18 3

Rye. . . .

91 .

, 29 9

Rye 85 ..

23 2

Beans . .

.. 5,229 .

. 35 6

Beans .... 5,129 ..

29 8

Peas ..

.. 3,332 .

33 2

Peas .... 2,799 ..

28 7

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE FLUCTUATIONS IN THE
AVERAGE PRICE OF WHEAT during the six

weeks ending November 20, 1852.

Nov. 20.

Oct. 16.

Oct. 23.
• • r

Oct. 30.

Nov. a.

Nov. 13. 1

_JLr

• • r

....— 1

..

..

QUANTITY OF FOREIGN GRAIN ENTERED FREE
FOR HOME CONSUMPTION during the mekk
ENDING November 20, 1852.

Wlieat, Foreign. . qrs. 22,589 1 Beans qrs. 3,888

Barley ,, 4,794 Peas „ 3,892

Oats „ 14,351 1 Flour cwts. 19,128

SEED MARKET.
Friday, Nov. 26.
Most of the late arrivals of Linseed having beeu sold
prior to being reported, the quantity on offer is very
moderate. Black Sea, for shipment next year, has
changed hands at 43s. per qr., ail charges included.
Archangel is selling at 35s. free on board. Linseed and
Rapecakes are the turn higher. Other articles steady.

BRITISH SEEDS.

Linseed (per qr.). . sowing 54s. to 58s. ; crushing 453. to 50s.

Linseed Cakes (per ton) £8 Os. to £9 IO3.

Rapeseed (per last) new £22 to £23, fiue £24, old £21 to £24

Ditto Cake (per ton) £4 10s. to £5 Os.

Cloverseed (per cwt.) (nomuial.)

Mustard (per ))ushel) new, white "s. to lOs., brown 7s. to 93.

Corian.ler (per cwt.) old 9s. to 123.

Canary (per cwt.) 42s. to 463,

Tares, Winter, per bush, 4s. 6d. to 5s Spring (nominal)

Carraway (per cwt.) new 46s. to 47s. ; fine 48s.

Turnip, white (per bush.) Swede (nominal.)

Trefoil (per cwt.) 21 s. to 248.

Cow Grass (per qr.) (nominal) . . 00s. to OOs.

FOREIGN SEEDS &c
Linseed (per qr.). . . . Baltic, 43s. to 40s. ; Odessa, 45s. to 49s.

Linseed Cake (per ton) £7 10s. to £9 10s.

Rape Cuke (per ton) £4 lOs. to £5 Os.

Hempseed, small, (per qr.) 38s.to 42s., Do. Dutch, 403. to 44s.

Tares (per qr.) old, small 25s. to 30s., large 30.s. to 328.

Rye Grass (per qr.) 28s. to 35g.

Coriander (per cwt,) (none) OOs. to OOs.

Clover, red (duty 5s. per cwt.) (nommal.)

Ditto, white (duty 5s. per cwt.)

BOROUGH HOP MARKET.

Friday, Nov. 26.

A large business is doing in Sussex Hops, at, in some
ins'ances, a furtlirr advance in the quotations. All other
kinds ;u'o in good request, and quite as dear as last week.
The show of samples is by no means large.

Mid and Eiist Kent Pockets. 86s. to 150s. per cwt.

Weald of Kent 80s.,, 92s. ,,

Sussex 78s.,, 94s. ,,

POTATO MARKETS.

Borough and Spitalfields, Friday, Nov. 26.

The arrivals of home-grown potatoes are tolerably
good, but in very middling condition. From abroad the
supply is a lair average one, viz., 100 tons from Elms-
horn, 23 bags from Rolterfbin, 80 tons from Lrer, 54
sacks from Boulogne, 110 tons from Rouen, 112 tons
from Dieppe, and 21 <ons from Dunkirk. Selected par-
cels move off steadily, at full prices, but other kinds are
dull in sale.

York Regents per ton 80s. to 120s.

Lincolnshire do 75s. to I IDs.

Kent and Essex Regents 85s. to llOs.

Scotch do 80s. to 95s.

Foreign 55s. to 90s.

CHICORY.

Per ton.
Vureiijn ioot{(l2).)£ s. £ s. £ s. £

Harlingcn nominal

English root {free)

Ouernsry no/iiinul

York 8 8 0

Hoastfd i5' ground

English 28 0 0

Foreign 46 0 0

Guernsey 42 0 0

Duty on all Coffee and roasted Chicory imported, Sd. per lb.
on Chicory Soot £21 per ton.

PRICES OF BUTTER,

Butter, j)er cut. s. «.

Friesland QStolOi

Kiel S8 BO ,

Dorset 7iew 9i 9fl

Car low ,, 82 85 ,

Waterjord 78 80

Corh ,, 80 —

Limericfi ,, 70 74 ,

Sligo ,, 78 82 j

Fresh, 2)er doz. .. U 14 '

CHEESE, HAMS, &c.

». s.

Cheese,percut.CheshireoOto70

Chedder 56 68

Double Gloncester. 62 60
Single do. . . 44 60

Hams, I'ork 94 100

Westmoreland. ... 74 80
Irish CO 70

Bacon, WiltalUi-e, green 58 60
Waterjord 52 54

670

THE FARMER'S MAGAZINE.

PROVISION MARKET.

Frioay, Nov. 26.

We have a steady detnand for all kinds of Irish
Butter, at pric;s fully equal to those paid last week.

Foreign Butter moves off freely, at a rise of from 8s.
to 30s. per cwt.

There is more doing in English Butter, the prices of
which have advanced 4s. per cwt. Fine v^'eekly Dorset,
94s. to 98s. ; middling do., 88s. to 90s. ; Devon, 80s.
to 92s. per cvct. ; fresh, 9s. to 13s. per dozen lbs.

The Bacon market is active at 2s. more money.
Hamburgh sizeable, 46s. to 48s. ; heavy, 44s. to 46s. ;
middles firm at 48s. to 50s.

Irish Beef is quoted at £b 15s. for India, and £■'4
14s. for mess. Irish Pork steady at ^""6 5s. per tierce,
and £5 15s. per barrel for prime mess.

BELFAST, (Friday last.)— Butter : Shipping price, 763. to
823. per cwt. ; firkuis and crocks, Sid. to S^d. per lb. Bacon, 48s
to 523.; Haras, prime, 643. to 6O3.; secoud quality, 54s. to 66s.
per cwt. ; mesa Pork, 72s. 6fl. to 75s. per Irl. Iriab Lard, in
bladders, 6O3. to 643. ; kegs or firkins, 58s. to COs. per cwt.

Butter.

Bacon ,

Dried Hams,

Mess Pork.

Nov.

per ctvt-

per cwt.

per cwt.

■per hrl.

18.

s. d. s- d.

s. d. s. d.

s. d. g. d.

B. d. s. d.

1B4S

77 0 79 0

58 0 60 0

70 0 93 0

80 0 82 0

1819

M 0 7;J 0

44 0 50 0

60 0 84 0:

65 0 67 6

1850

7i 0 80 0

34 0 4i 0

CO 0 Gi 0

06 0 o3 0

18.5!

77 0 84 0

45 0 47 0

60 0 62 0

68 0 Gi 0

18.52

76 0 f2 0

ic 1' v54 0

64 0 66 0

72 6 75 0

TALLOW MARKET.

Friday, Nov. 26.
Although the demand is by no means so active as on
Friday last, prices are well supported. P.Y.C. on the
spot, as well as for delivery to the end of the year, is
quoted at 47s. 6d. to 47s. 9d. per cwt. Town Tallow is
47s. per cwt. net cash; rough fat, 2s. 8d. per Bibs. This
week's imports are heavy, viz., 6,501 casks from Cron-
stadt, 1,670 do. from St. Petersburg, 275 from Port
Philip, and 630 from Sydney.

HAY MARKETS.

Thursday, November 25.
The supplies of both Hay and Straw on oiler, were by no
means extensive, yet the general demand ruled heavy, at barely
stationary prices.

Atperload of36 trusses.

Smithfield. Cumberland. Whitechapel

Meadow Hay.. 55s. to 78s. 60s. to 80s. 55s. to 783.

Clover Hay.. 75s. 978. 75s. 953. 753. 98s.

Straw 21s. SOs. 25s. 32s. 24s. 30s.

WOOL MARKETS.

Friday, Nov. 26.
With the exception of English wools being in good
request, at the extreme rates paid last week, the demand
is in a very sluggish state ; importers, however, are very
firm. This week's arrivals consist of 813 bales from
Algoa Bay, 533 from Bombay, 11 from Ostend, 1,642
from Port Philip, 3,195 from Sydney, 315 from Alex-
andria, 14 from Smyrna, 152 from Hambro', 145 from
Turkey, 2 from Copenhagen, and 555 from Taganrog.

BARK.

English Tree ..per load of 45 cwt. £\\ 0 0 to £^4 0 0

Coppice „ 13 0 0 15 0 (1

Mimosa per ton 9 0 0 10 0 0

Yalonia „ 14 0 0 16 0 0

TIMBER.

(Duty paid.)
Baltic Timber, per load ofaO cubic feet. .

i'ellow Deals per standard lUO....

Dirk Deals, jier 40 feet 9 in

I'ipe atnves, per mille

Lathwood, 2)er fatliojn of Q feet ....
Petersburg, liir/a, and Archangel )

Yip. Deals, 2fer sta7id. hundred. . J

W/rite

Yellow Biittens

Riga Logs, for i8 feet cube

Stettin Staves, per millc ofiiipe

Swedish Timber, per load

Gothcn. Yw. Deals2)er hun. 12 ft. Sin. 9in.

White ditto

Yw. Battens, 2)er lid. 12/y. 2^m. 7in.
Christiana Y w . Deals per hd.Mft.Sin.din.

White ditto

Quebec and St. John's S2)rticc Deals, }
2)er hundred, iift. Sin. Sin. .. )

\ St quality j/w'. Pine Deals, 2Jer St. hd.

Second do. do.

Third do. do.

Bed Pine Deals 2ierhd. l2ft.3i7i.Qin.

Red Pine Timber, jier load

Yclloiv ditto

Birch ditto

Elm ditto

Oah ditto

Standard Staves, 2fer mille Standard.. . .
Puncheon Staves, 2)cr mille

MAHOGANT, &C.

Mahogany, St. Domingo

Cuba

Honduras

African

Cedar Havanna

Roseivood . . liio

Bahia

£ s. d. £
3 7 6 ^0 4
0 .. '0
0 .. 1

s. d-
0 0

II 5
0 15

120 0 0
7 0 0

■3 0 0 .. )6 0 0

10 0 0

1.S 0 0

2 0 0

80 0 0

2 17 0

15 10 0

15 0 0

10 0 0

17 0 0

15 10 0

. 11 0 0
. 15 10 0
. 4 10 0
.100 0 0
.300
. 20 0 0

0 0
0 0
0 0

19 0 0

14 10 0 .. 18 0 0

0

0

0 0

14 0 0
110 0
10 10 0

15 0 0
8 10 0
3 0 0
2 5 0

2 10 0

3 10 0
60 0 0
14 10 0

17 10
12 0
11

20
4

4

0 0

0 0

0 0

8 10 0

4 0 0

4 10 0

70 0 ©

18 0 0

6d. to \s. M.jyer foot

6

4|
6
5
£12

8

1

1 0
0 6
0 6J

£'i02'f>' t07i.
10 12

HIDE AND SKIN MARKETS.

s. d. s. d.

Market Hides, 5Q to CAlhs 0 IMo) 2 2)er lb.

72lbs 0 - - ■

80 lbs 0

»8lbs 0

06 lbs 0

lOilbs 0

Horse Hides 5

Calf Shins, light 1

Do. full 8

Polled Sheep 6

Kents .0

Half-brcds 5

Do.

64

Do.

72

Do.

80

Do.

88

Do.

96

2 0 21
•4 0 oj „
2i 0 3 „

3 0 3J „
3^ 0 4 „

6 6 0 each,

0 2 6 „

6 5 0 „

0 7 6,,

2 6 4,,

2 6 4..

Downs 3 10

MANURES.

PlilCES CURRENT OF GUANO.

Guano Peruvian per ton ifc o 0 <o

,, In quantities under 5 tons „ 0 0 0

Bolivian Guano ,, 7 5 0

ARTIFICIAL MANURES, OIL CAKES,

Peat Charcoal

Nitrate Soda

Nitrate Potash or Saltpetre

S;ii)erj)hosp}iate of Lime

Soda, Ash or Alkali

Gypsum.

Coprolite

Sulphate of I'opper, or Roman

V itriol for Wheat steeping., ., „ -il

Salt ,, ;

Bones J inch per qr. 0

„ Dust (I

Oil Vitriol, concentrated 2^crlb. 0

,, Brown , o

Rape Calies ;)cr tou .1

Linseed Cakes—
Thi7i A7nerican in brls. or bags „ JO

Thick ditto 7-owid „ 8

Marseilles „ 0

English

0 0

8 0
(I 0

9 10

.^ 0
10 0
0 0

10 0

C ff

1:» 0

10 0
5 0
0 0

15 0

END OF VOLUME XXXVII.

Printed by Icogerson and Tuxford, 246, Strand, London.

V--'

^ ?

'J"

^^■7

"r ''

/ > -

^\

.^

^.

■'-^:

^

i*^

■4: