THE MOST COMPLETE FARM BOOK ON THE MARKET. EVERY DEPARTMENT OF PARM LIFE COVERED IN DETAIL BY EXPERTSASAMA CLASSIFIED AND INDEXED FOR CONVENIENT USE — SSS oS = = == oe 7 = 7 EE ae. _ __ 7 7 _ _ 7 a 7 - 7 a * - > i - i) as = i 7 > 5 7 - a _ te a _ _ a 7 7 - _ = - a - _2-_- =. i ' a THE Farmers Ready Relerence Book FOREWORD In compiling the Farmer’s Ready Reference Book it has been our one aim to place between its covers the greatest possible amount cv. useful and practical information of real value to the farmer. It is not a haphazard collection, gathered at random and from doubtful sources, but has been made up without sparing time, labor and ex- pense, from the experience and experiments of many who have de voted time and energies to the finding of this information. A great majority of the articles herein are taken from the bulle- tins of the Department of Agriculture and are written by men high up in their different departments. Some of the information is taken from the experience of the state experiment stations, and some from individuals who have proven especially successful in their various lines of farm work. We have made no effort at special display or outward attractiveness, but have tried in every way to produce a thoroughly simple, reliable and practical volume. We trust that the book may lessen the perplexities of our readers and assist them when in difficulty. THE PUBLISHERS. PUBLISHED BY ITEMS OF INTEREST CO. ST. JOSEPH, MISSOURI / is v INDEX ACTOAITHS Tesh OER: GB WERT HR era eu siewee cuete east: Sienetaey ee 116 AIC ATH AS bho a8 dete, oO Be 4 Sy et tet eS ee 5: fasucm cate eer aoe ee eo 123 (OW IPBEA'S © 5 as csi gree dolby rv sce le, sure (etm ay Aacin 74 CREAM SEPARATOR AND ITS OPERATIONS.................. 113 CULTIVATION OF STRAW BHR UES os pervenee 6 a. neice ns 174 CURRANT 'S v2.5 chatteue teeta nea ae ee ee 172 DATRY FUER) o5.da cen eee eee oe eine nd eee) ce, eee 42 OClLA346838 DES WWE HEUER So diss cdavcnasissrroics s sr5 tnt ci tide te Sicha a eksuspate dog esercy ace ag ava < avele ao ee 172 DISTANCES FOR ® PLANTING: 2.0. .00.000 60 ccceseu ces vous eee se 192 TPT EeTine CAE VAIN Gasca ote cy ce ewsica ce fortesGe ps) seuss oh ics cue? chee e's ata: @.2yeianate oe Se 137 TB UO CHES ERAS SWING Meegete teh cco 5 -cuesay Mee? of s'ichsserelcys aie etehe ane G0els Shs Base afb artene cua abe 155 TO IVGAS EM a ANTE IE TS tage fe an ager ttrePortara labs s- ST TED Sic rains curaires av’) set oer oar ossie: BMelisr as chis\tovaj eu etioiss oie of Setayiiice "ay Syasaraten ats 93 SLE GpATERE a CAAUIN HA Te VA RO IN otis oc actpn dt eneiz i saste cum ale) sc crs cousi'es s avetenoiere’s 106 SAMA Es Taas OHS CV ALEC Mmeyegats cunitil taeers ote deck ns ialscnelekas cdagae: syste cncatedsssuMe eke wl SNA says 64 TANKAGE OR MEAT MEAL FOR PIGS ...........000eeeeeeuees 123 TREAT OUTS CEIA PUI) sie «aley aaraitecs as. 6. spayeucovelera wie enele aye 168 SPT IVIG ERO) A MEBVARS UGH, atopic iets «iByatorae. «als fisys: ole O° Gra. lallsnonengs aye eke ele “s 42 CTBT Oe Sy oTR = USA (© EY CET ASAD) sos eri a sus wpe cheloteie ebay ste antic: sie auevs = shay 167 SFM TBV IO) MIMEAY RY vrs tery gts Raye e nt acme ee) © Feel are etoue paper caste osbsisver sy salehaye fe evecarouecen 108 RO EAC yy CUT UT occ Srewetian sic neye eocreeiiscaeislew Gereashousustionsllecedens a eicus, 6) ai Moye 18 a @ VCH ASS LCE COMIN, (CIRRUS 28s sie retusa cuererane ons (wile ieee: .) 77,440" || "5 ox2,, feet. |.4,/356 || 16 LG es teeramelan IPSS S LOO «+ .24 a | 438,560 || 5 x3 feet | 2,904 || 1644x1614 feet | 160 Itexlt, feet....| 19,360 || 5 x4 FEGE) | ZL | Lh sare feet | 150 Men Sa TOGhesx. 2.2 21,780 || 5 x5 feet | 1,742 || 18 x18 feet | 134 2 x2 feet......| 10,890 || 54%x5%4 feet | 1,417 || 19 x19 feet | 120 2%x2% feet.... 6,960 || 6 x6 feet | 1,210 || 20 x20 feet | 108 As Se 20Gb: 2: 2s: 14,620 || 61%4x6% feet | 1,03 25 x25 feet! 69 Gere, LOSby «ina | 7,260 || 7 x7 feet 881 || 30 x30 feet | 48 De ta LOG, oe als | 4,840 || 8 x8 feet | 680 || 33 x33 feet | 40 3144x38% feet.... 3,500 || 9 x9 feet | 53 40 x40 feet | 2 4 x1 feet...... 10,890 || 10 x10 feet | 435 || 50 x50 feet | 17 Tee LAGLs 3.1 < 3 | 5,445 || 11 x11 feet | 360 || 60 x60 feet 12 XA. LECH. ccs. 3.650 || 123 «12 feet 302 || 66 x66 feet 10 THE DEHORNING OF CATTLE (RICHARD W. HICKMAN, Bureau of Animal Industry) The dehorning of cattle can be very satisfactorily performed with- out other apparatus or instruments than a good strong clothesline and a clean sharp meat saw, or a miter saw with a rigid back. The same simple means for controlling the animal is just as applicable when dehorning clippers are to be used as when the horns are to be removed with the saw. The head of the animal is secured to the hor- izontal rail or stringer which holds the upper ends of the stanchion boards. The animal is put in the stanchion in the usual manner; then one end of a heavy clothesline is passed around the upper part of the neck and tied in a knot that will not slip, otherwise it will 118 LM be choke the animal. The free end of the rope is now carried between the horns, through the stanchion to the front, up and over the hori- zontal stanchion rail, then down underneath the neck and up and over the top of the stanchion rail to an assistant, who should hold it firmly. Now open the stanchion, allowing the animal to withdraw iis head; then, keeping the rope tight, pass it once around the muz- zle, up and over the stanchion rail, and through to the front again to the hands of the assistant, who should stand 8 or 4 feet in front of the animal and hold the rope firmly, but prepared to release it when told to do so by the operator. The animal is now ready for the dehorning operation. It is necessary that the rope be held by an ussistunt, as in the event of the animal struggling during the operation so as to throw itself off its feet, or if there appears to be danger of choking, the rope may be slackened promptly at the word of its operator and the animal partly released. This, however, is rarely necessary, for as soou as the head is secured the operator should be ready, standing at the right shoulder of the animal with his saw, and proceed to- saw off first the right and then the left horn. WHERE TO CUT THE HORNS. The horns should be severed from a quarter to a half inch be- low where the skin joins the base of the horn, cutting from the back toward the front. ; If the cut is made too high an irregular, gnarly growth of horn is very apt to follow. It will be seen that the point of union of the skin and horn varies in different cattle; hence there can be no rule of measurement, except as the eye becomes trained to see the point or line at which the cut should be made. In the beef breeds fully one-half inch of skin, all around, is usually taken off with the horn. TREATMENT AFTER DEHORNING. It is not usual to apply any preparation after the cperation of dehorning to prevent bleeding, as the loss of blood is not sufficient, as a ru.e, to be of consequence. Care should be taken, however, to prevent substances from getting into the openings left after the horns are removed. Occasionally animals after being dehorned and turned out of the stable will rub their heads against a dirt or gravel bank or the rough bark of a tree, and foreign material may thus get into the cavities, though usually the soreness of the parts is sufficient to prevent this. Ir the animals are dehorned in warm weather, it is well to ap- ply some pine tar wi-h a view to keeping flies from the wounds. Some operators do this in nearly all cases, thinking that it facilitates healing. The dehorning operation should always, when possible, be performed in cool weather, and upon animals which have at least attained the age of two years. HOG CHOLERA The symptoms observed in particular cases will be influenced by the virulence of the germ which is responsible for the attack, and also by the resisting power of the hogs in the herd. If this resisting power is low, or it the germ which is the cause of a particular cutbreak is of high virulence, we may have in such a herd a typical manifestation of the acute type of hog cholera. In this acute type, the chief symptoms observed are sluggishness, disinclination to move, weakness, loss of appetite, a high fever, inflammation of the eyes with gumming of the lids, and there may be diarrhoea. If the sick animals are examined carefully, red or purplish blotches may be seen on the skin, espe 11y cially over the surface of the abdomen, on the inside of the legs, and around the ears and neck. As a rule the progress of the infection is so rapid that the hog is not greatly emaciated before death; it is, in fact, usual in acute outbreaks for hogs to die after being sick only a few days. In the chronic type of the disease the symptoms are quite simi- lar to those seen in acute cases. The sick hogs are sluggish and dis- inclined to move when disturbed, and coughing is frequently heard when they are suddenly roused. They may eat very little and usually lose flesh rapidly, finally becoming so emaciated and weak that they stagger or walk with an uncertain gait, the hind legs particularly ap- pearing to be very weak. The eyes become inflamed and the lids may be gummed together. After the first few days of illness there is apt to be a profuse diarrhoea, and in these chronic cases the hog may, and usually does, linger for several weeks, sometimes months, before it finally dies. It is extremely rare for such an animal to re- cover its health and vigor sufficiently to become of value to the owner. lc. will thus be seen that before death the appearance of hogs affected with hog cholera is not particularly characteristic, for the symptoms, especially in acute cases, are only such as might be ex- pected in a severe disease of any kind. But if these symptoms are noticed in a herd of hogs, and if the disease is seen to be contagious. showing a tendency to spread from the sick to the healthy animals, it is likely that hog cholera is present. In Farmers’ Bulletin 24, Dr. D. E. Salmon gave the following formula for a medicine which was used many years ago as a pre- ventive and cure for hog cholera: Pound WOO «CHa GOAL ..<.< sane «sam a iicty wipe eee Dave w-cse Stale tor a) 1 SVU IU Gee haces foes 4 law we OS Sie kate a ese eae ere 1 SOC, GHiOTIG <=. as , Wehek a accede stale eaneo oie ae eee er 2 Sodium: bicarbonate. ...2 .v6oveee be sccpesSac ies oe eee 2 Sodium. Hy POsulpHite 2.2 ea ae 12 cc ed co be Paneer re 2 Sodium. spnOspnare: Sac sys ose ah sereet a, wma see iat 1 Antimony sulphid (black antimony) .....000,<.25..06 06 1 Experience has shown, however, that this medicine is not to be regarded as a cure or preventive in the true sense of the words, but it is nevertheless a very good condition powder. This powder is mixed with the feed in the proportion of a large tablespoonful to each 200 pounds weight cf hogs to be treated, and shculd not be given oftener than once a day. This medicine can ; ot be relied upon to prevent the occurrence of disease, except in so far as it improves the gen- eral health of the hogs. Therefore, even though this remedy be used, strict attention must be given to quarantine and sanitary measures if the disease is to be warded off when in the neighborhood. THE CARE OF MILK IN THE HOME If the milk producer and the milk dealer have done their duty there is daily left at the consumer’s door a bottle of clean, cold, unadulterated milk. By improper treatment in the home the milk may then become unfit for food, especially for babies. This bad treat- ment consists (1) in placing it in unclean vessels; (2) in exposing it unnecessarily to the air; (3) in failing to keep it cool up to the time of using it; and (4) in exposing it to flies. Milk absorbs impurities—colects bacteria—whenever it is exposed to the air or placed in unclean vessels. Some of these may be the bacteria of certain contagious diseases; others may cause digestive troubles which in the case of babies may prove fatal. Much of the 120 cholera infantum and summer bowel troubles of infants is due to impure milk. The amount of the contamination depends largely on the ecndition of the utensils and the air with which the milk comes in contact; the air of even a so-called clean rcom contains many im- purities. The science of bacteriology is raising the standard of clean- liness of utensils. Bacteria which get into the milk from the air or from the vessels multiply rapidly so long as the milk remains warm; that is, at 50 degrees F. or above. At lower temperatures the bacteria either are dormant or increase slowly. Cleanliness and cold are im- perative if one would have good milk, although if it is consumed so quickly after production that the bacteria in it do not have time to increase much—say within two or three hours—the importance of cold is lessened. Milk from the grocery store or bakery which is kept in a can, open much of the time, possibly without refrigeration, is dangerous and should be avoided. The suggestions given here regarding milk apply also to cream. RECEIVING THE MILK. The best way of buying milk is in bottles. Dipping milk from large cans and pouring it into cus‘omers’ receptacles on the street, with all the incident exposure to dusty air not always the cleanest, is a bad practice. Drawing milk from the faucet of a retailer’s can is almost as bad as dipping, because, although the milk may be ex- posed to the street air a little less than by the dipping process, it is not kept thoroughly mixed, and some consumers will receive less than their proportion of cream. If situated so that it is impossible to get bottled milk, do not set out overnight an uncovered vessel to collect thousands of bacteria from street dust before milk is put into it. Have the milk delivered personally to some member of the family if possible; if not, set out a bowl covered with a plate, or better still, use a glass preserving jar in which nothing but milk is put. In the latter case use a jar with a glass top, but omit the rubber band. Paper tickets are often more or less soiled; hence if they are used do not put them in the can, bowl, or jar. For the same reason money should not be pat in the can. Take the milk into the house as soon as possible after delivery, particularly in hot weather. Never allow the sun to shine for any length of time on the milk. Sometimes milk delivered as early as 4 a. m. remains out of doors until 9 or 10 o’clock. This is wrong. If it is inconvenient to receive the milk soon after it is delivered, indi- cate to the driver a sheltered place, or provide a covered box in which the milk bottle or can may be left. HANDLING AND KEEPING THE MILK. On receiving the milk put it in the refrigerator at once and allow it to remain there when not using from it. Except in cold weather milk can not be properly kept without ice. Unless the milk bottle is in actual contact with the ice it will be colder at the bottom of the refrigerator than in the ice compartment, as the cold air settles rapidly. Keep milk in the original bottle till needed for immediate con- sumption; do not pour it into a bowl or pitcher for storage. Carefully wipe or rinse the bottle, especially the mouth, before pouring any milk from it, so that dust or dirt Which may have gathered thereon or on the cap will not get into the milk. Do not pour back into the tottle milk which has been exposed to the air by being placed in other vessels. Keep the bottle covered with a paper cap as long as milk is in it and when not actually pouring from it. If the paper cap has been punctured, cover the bottle with an inverted tumbler. Milk deteriorates by exposure to the air of pantry, kitchen or 121 nursery. Do not expose uncovered milk in a refrigerator containing food of any kind, not to mention strong-smelling foods like fish, cab- bage, or onions. An excellent way of serving milk on the table, from the sanitary standpoint, is in the original bottle; at all events pour out only what will be consumed at one meal. When milk is received in a bowl or pitcher instead of in a bottle, observe the spirit of the foregoing remarks: Keep the vessel covered; expose uncovered milk to the air of any room as little as possible;- do not expose it at all in a refrigerator. Remember that exposure of milk to the open air invites contami- nation net only from odors and bacteria-laden dust, but also from flies. These scavengers may convey germs of typhoid fever or other con- tagious diseases from the sick room or from excreta to the milk, Records show typhoid epidemics from such a cause, and 100,000 fecal bacteria have Leen found on a single fly. Flies also frequently convey to milk large numbers of the bacteria that cause intestinal disorders in infants: an examination of 414 flies showed an average of 1,250,000 bacteria per fly. THE REFRIGERATOR. Keep the refrigerator clean and sweet. Personally inspect it at least once a week. See that the outlet for water formed by the melt- ing ice is kept open and that’ the space under the ice rack is clean. The place where food is kept should be scalded every week; a single drop cf spilled milk or a small particle of other neglected food will contaminate a refrigerator in a few days. CLEANING EMPTY BOTTLES AND UTENSILS. As scon as a milk bottle is empty rinse it in lukewarm water until it appears clear, then set it bottom up to drain. Do not use it for any other purpose than for milk. There is no objection to the con- sumer’s washing and scalding the milk bottle, but this is unnecessary, as the dealer will wash it again when it reaches his plant. He can not, however, do this properly if he receives the bottle in a filthy condition, and if you return such a bottle your negligence may result in the subsequent delivery of contaminated milk to some consumer, pcssibly yourself. All utensils wi'h which milk comes in contact should be rinsed, washed and scalded every time they are used. Use fresh water; do not wash them in dishwater which has been used for washing other utensils cr wipe them with an ordinary dish towel—it is better to boil in clean water and set them away unwiped. When a baby is boitle-fed, every time the feeding bottle and nipple are used they should be rinsed in lukewarm water, washed in hot water, to which a small amount of washing soda has been added, and then scalded. Never use a rubber tube between bottle and nipple, or a bottle with corners. : CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. If a case of typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, or other con- tngious d‘sease breaks out in the family, do not return any bottles to the milkman except with the knowledge of the attending physician and under conditions prescribed by him. PASTEURIZATION., While efficient pasteurization destroys disease germs and affords a safeguard against certain dangers, it should not be regarded as an insurance against future contamination of milk, and the foregoing suzgestions should be observed in the case of pasteurized milk as 122 te gs ade well as with ordinary milk can. Do not keep milk over twenty-four hours, even if it seems to be sweet, as milk may become unfit for human food before it sours. TANKAGE, OR MEAT MEAL, FOR PIGS In view of the increasing use of tankage as a food for pigs and the beneficial results reported by feeders as attending this use, the Indiana Station has carried out experiments which show that, ‘as a feeding material for pigs. tankage offers certain advantages. It con- tains a high percentage of protein and an amount of phosphoric acid that materially excels that found in any grain or by-product of mills. The phosphoric acid for pigs is useful in building up bone structure, an important feature with our pigs of to-day, while the protein has a ‘value universally recognized by feeders.” These experiments algo “strongly emphasize the weakness of using corn meal as a single ra- tion in feeding growing, fattening pigs, and indicates the great value of adding a food rich in protein (such as tankage) to the corn, thus producing a better-balanced ration and securing more desirable results in both health and growth.” The Iowa station has also reported experiments with pigs which indicate that in fattening pigs a ration containing more protein and ash than a pure corn ration gives better results than the latter. In these experiments a ration consisting of 5 parts of corn to 1 of tank- age of beef meal, and containing much larger percentages of ash and protein than one consisting of corn alone, gave from 7 to 34 per cent greater net profits than corn alone. The results reported strikingly demonstrate the value of tankage and similar animal products as food for pigs and indicate that a trial of this material is worthy of the attention of swine raisers generally, especially those so situated that they can readily obtain it. Reports from various sources indicate that the use not only of tankage but also of dried blood as feed for all kinds of farm animals is increasing. In addition to being a nutritious food, dried blood has been found by the Kansas Station to be an excellent remedy for scours in calves, CULTIVATION OF COTTON J. F. Duggar, Department of Agriculture. Disposal of Litter—Where cotton is the preceding crop, the first step in preparing the field for another crop of cotton consists in reducing the old stalks to fragments fine enough to be plowed under. This is most economically done by driving a stalk cutter along each row, the blades on the cutter chopping the stalks into short pieces. A more common method consists in beating the old brittle stalks with a heavy stick; this is best done during dry weather or on a frosty morn- ing in late winter. Sometimes the stalks are lifted by a plow or by hand and then raked and burned. This latter course should be avoid- ed except when it may be made necessary by the presence of the cotton boll-weevil. Methods of plowing.—The greatest part of the area intended for cotton receives only one plowing before the seed are planted. This usually consists in forming ridges or beds. More thorough preparation may be given by first plowing the land level or flush, afterwards form- ing the beds by a subsequent plowing. The conditions under which this double amount of preparation, namely, first broadcast plowing and then bedding is especially advisable, are the following: 1.—When the soil is a stiff loam or clay inclined to form clods. 2.—When the land has not been cultivated the preceding year, or when the preceding crop is one that has left much vegetation on the surface. The practice of plowing land twice for cotton, first fallowing it, and then throwing it into beds, is on the increase among the best farmers. Time for plowing or breaking.—February and March are the months in which the greater part of the plowing of cotton land is performed. The time of plowing is largely a matter of convenience. The general rule should be that the larger the proportion of clay in the soil, the earlier may plowing be done to advantage, provided the sur- face be freshened later. The larger the amount of trash to be buried and rotted, the earlier should be the date of plowing. Some farmers begin plowing for cotton in December or even in November. This per- mits freezes to aid in pulverizing the ground and killing some kinds of cotton insects that spend the winter in the ground. Karly plowing may cause land to become too compact before the time for planting. In this case it is desirable, shortly before planting, either to replow the land or to loosen the surface with a disk-harrow. Too early plowing of sandy land increases the Joss due to the leach- ing out of plant-food in the water that drains through the soil. Hence, sandy land, as a rule, is not plowed in the fall. However, it is good practice to plow any soils except the sandiest in the fall, provided some winter-growing crop, such as the small grains, or clovers, or vetches, are sown. The roots of the growing plants largely prevent leaching by appropriating the plant-food that becomes available as the vegetable matter decays. These green crops can be plowed under in the late winter or early spring, or grazed, or otherwise utilized. Plow- ed soil should be kept covered during winter with growing plants. Fields covered with cowpeas or other dead leguminous plants should not be plowed very early, since early fall plowing would induce rotting and leaching before the cotton plants would be ready to utilize the nitrogen made available by the decay of the legumes. A small proportion of the area in cotton is plowed only a few days before planting. This incurs the danger that some of the seed may fail to come up in the loose soil, which quickly dries. Depth of plowing.—A large proportion of the cotton fields are plowed only 3 or 4 inches deep. It is generally advisable to plow deeper than this, so as to afford a larger amount of available soil- moisture for the benefit of the plants in periods of dry weather, and to increase the feeding area for the roots. However, extreme depth, as well as extreme shallowness, is to be avoided. Plowing too deep may bring to the surface much of the subsoil, where, for a year or two, it remains infertile and subject to baking or clod-forming. Moreover, the cost of very deep plowing is excessive. A depth of 6 to 8 inches may be regarded as unusually good preparation; this depth should be attained only gradually, that is, by plowing each year only about an inch deeper that the year before. By a gradual and judicious increase in depth, a few farmers have advantageously stirred their soil to even a greater depth than 6 to 8 inches. For very deep plowing the disk plow is a favorite implement. When plowing is several months before the time of planting the seed, the depth may well be greater than in late plowing. This is be- cause the earlier plowing permits the upturned subsoil to be im- proved by the action of freezes and of the air, and because the deeper layer of stirred soil requires a longer time to settle to that degree of compactness most favorable to the germination of seeds and the growth of plant roots. The aim of the cotton grower should be grad- ually to deepen the layer of plowed soil. Subsoiling.—Is usually accomplished by first employing an ordin- ary turn-plow, and then in its furrow running a special subsoil plow. Subsoiling is a means of suddenly increasing the depth of loosened soil. The benefits of subsoiling, when done under the most favorable conditions, are the same as those that result from any form of deep plowing. 124 Forming the ridge or bed.—Most cotton fields are prepared by throwing together at least four furrow slices turned up by a moldboard plow. This forms a ridge or bed which is usually 3 or 4 feet wide, and several inches high. In regions where commercial fertilizers are used, there is first run a furrow in which the fertilizer is placed, and over which the bed is subsequently formed. This center furrow may be either (1) along the line of old cotton stalks, or (2) in the middle or water-furrow of the year before, or (3) it may be run in land already plowed broadcast. A saving of labor may be effected .by forming the beds with a disk- harrow on a field previously plowed broadcast. Planting cotton level.—Practically all the cotton of the United States is planted, on ridges or beds. However, a few farmers, on well- drained sandy soil, plant late cotton on land that is not bedded, but merely “flushed,” or ‘plowed broadcast.” This requires very shallow planting, and also requires very careful early cultivation to prevent cov- ering the plants. The object in planting on a level is to enable the plants better to endure drouth. A method that is generally an improvement on the last named con- sists in forming low beds; before being planted thay are pulled down almost level, by harrowing or dragging them whenever a crust forms or whenever young weeds appear. Distribution of fertilizers—The rows having been marked off, usually with a shovel plow, the fertilizer (if any is to be used) is drill- ed in this furrow. It is most convieniently put in place by means of a one-horse fertilizer distributor, which also draws earth over the fertilizer. Immediately a “list” is formed. The bed may be completed at once, or more frequently not until the entire area intended for cot- ton has been thus fertilized and listed. On some farms the fertilizer is distributed by hand, either through a ‘‘guano horn” or without this inexpensive device. Time of planting.—The usual date for the beginning of cotton planting is two to three weeks after the average date of the last killing frost in that locality. Planting begins in March near the Gulf of Mexico; it begins about April 1 in the central part of the Gulf States and in the extreme northern part of the cotton-belt it may be delayed until May. In the central part of the cotton-belt most of the crop 1s planted before May, but an occasional field is not planted until about the first of June. Extremely early planting increases the risk cof injury by frost in spring and increases the labor of cultivation. Rather early planting is advisable in regions where the cotton boll-weevil is present. Extremely late planting reduces the labor of cultivation and usually also reduces the yield, many of the immature bolls being de- stroyed by frost in the fall. Cotton planters. There are numerous forms of planters for cotton. Mest of them plant a single row at a time, opening the furrow, drop- ping the seed, and covering the seed, at one trip. Probably the most important features about a planter are: (1) provision for constantly agitating the mass or seed, so that the feed may be uniform, and (2) provision for rolling or otherwise pressing the soil around the seed. If the earth above the seed be rolled, or otherwise compacted, the depth of planting may be as shallow as one inch. The usual depth is from one to three inches. Quantity of seed.—A bushel of cotton seed usually contains between 120,000 and 150,000 seeds, or enough, if each one developed into a mature plant, to suffice for fully fifteen acres. However, it is custo- mary to plant 1 to 1% bushels of seed per acre. An ideal planter that places the seed in a narrow drill or in hills requires less; and still less is required when planting is done by dropping the seed by hand in separate hills. On stiff land, it is regarded as advantageous to have a thick stand of plants, so that the combined strength of the young plants may 125 be exerted to break through the surface crust, which might be too strong for a single plantlet. On the other hand, the presence of cnly one seed in a place greatly reduces the labor of chopping or thinning cotton. Broadcast tillage-—One change which should be made in cotton culture is the introduction of broadcast tillage; that is, of cultivation or tillage across the rows by means of weeders or of light, spike-tooth, adjustable harrows. ‘This kind of tillage permits a larger area to be covered in a day’s work of man and team than does any other kind of cultivation. It has the double object of breaking the surface crust before this has become very thick and hard, and of destroying weeds and grass while they are extremely small or merely sprouting. One horse drawing a weeder, or a double team drawing a light, spike-tooth harrow, may cultivate ten or more acres in a day. ‘ As soon as a crust begins to form, there is need for the use of a weeder or light harrow at the following stages in the cultivation of cotton: (1)—A few days or weeks before planting, in order to break the crust and save the moisture for the germination of the seed soon to be planted. (2)—Following a rain occurring soon after planting, which other- wise would leave too dense a crust to be easily broken by the young plants. \ (3)—Between the time when the young plants first take on their green color and the time when chopping or thinning is done. However, it may be impracticable to use either weeder or harrow (1) on stony land, (2) on a field where there is much trash, and (3) where the stand is thin or very irregular. The judicious use of the weeder or light harrow before chopping cotton permits this operation to be postponed longer and to be effected with less labor. First tillage by senarate rows.—As soon as practicable after all the young plants have appeared above ground and have taken cn a green color, the first tillage is given with some form of cultivator. The principal objects of this operation are the following: (1)—To reduce the width of the strip that is subsequentiy to be thinned by the hoe; (2)—To destroy vegetation; (3)—To put the soil into the best condition for retaining moisture in dry weather and for the growth of the roots of the young cotton pliant. Chopping or thinning.—As soon as possible after the operation of scraping or barring off, the plants should be thinned by means of a hoe. This first hoeing is called “chopping.” Usually either one or two plants are left at the desire: distance apart. Much subsequent hoe work is saved if, at the time of chopping, the plants can be safely thinned to a single one at the required distance apart. However, it may be wise to leave two or more plants in a place, or twice as many hills as will finally remain, if chopping is done when the plants are extremely small, or if many of the young plants are expected to die as the result of disease or of unfavorable weather. Second cultivation or “siding.””—The objects in “siding” cotton are as follows: (1)—To throw close about the plant, for its firmer support, earth that may have been removed from it in the first cultivation or in hoeing. (2)—To form a mulch that will retain the moisture in the soil layer just below it. (3)—To destroy weeds. Since one purpose is to throw a little earth towards the plants, 126 the scrape or sweep now used may be wider than that used at the first cultivation. To prevent the small plants being covered, it may still be necessary to use a fender attached to the stock or cultivator. This second tillage or cultivation is done by running the cultivat- ing implement close on both sides of each row of plants. Hence, for scraping, two furrows per row usually suffice, where a single scrape or sweep is used. Siding should sometimes be done as soon as practicable after chop- ping. But in order to give time for grass to be smothered by the earth thrown on it in “barring off,’ siding may be delayed. Third tillage or cultivation, or “cleaning middies.”—If the “siding” just described has been performed with only two scrape furrows per row, there is usually left a low ridge of soil, called a “balk or middle.” halfway between each two lines of plants. If this strip becomes com- pact or weedy, the next step is to cultivate it. This is usually done by a single furrow of a rather large sweep or scrape, which splits the “middle,” lapping part of it on each of the adjacent rows. When a double cultivator is employed it cultivates the plants on both sides and throws out the ‘“middles” at the same time. Even when a single scrape is used in “siding,” farmers often prefer to throw out the “mid- dle” immediately. Subsequent tillage.—The operation of “siding” is repeated as of- ten as necessary to destroy all young weeds and grass and to prevent the formation after each rain of a crust on the soil, which would has- ten the loss of water by evaporation. Likewise, the middles are cleaned or thrown out as often as necessary for the same purpose. The larger the plant becomes, the wider, as a rule, are the scrapes or sweeps employed. It should constantly be borne in mind that one of the principal objects of tillage is to form a mulch of loose dry soil through which the moisture from the lower layers cannot rise and be evaporated. Subsequent hoeing.—The hoeings subsequent to chopping are nec- essary only when vegetation grows along the line of plants in spite of the earth thrown upon the young weeds in siding. Hoeing is a cleaning rather than a true tillage or mulching process. Next to pick- ing, it is the most expensive operation in cotton culture; hence, as far as practicable, the horse implements should be made to lessen the necessity of hoeing. Amount and frequency of tilling—There can be no fixed rule as to how often cotton should be cultivated. The general rule is to culti- vate it before the formation of a crust following each rain. Four “plowings’” may be considered the minimum and six or more are often advisable. The total number of furrows per row required in good till- age is usually between twelve and sixteen. In addition to this, two or more hoeings are usually given. Depth of cultivation—The same principle applies here as in the tillage of any other crop. At the first cultivation, the depth may well be shallow, medium, or deep, as the judgment of the farmer dictates. But in the subsequent tillings, the depth should be shallow; that is, just deep enough to check evaporation. Usually a depth of 114 to 2 inches meets these requirements. The finer the soil particles forming the mulch, that is, the more com- plete the pulverization effected by the tilling implement, the less the thickness of soil-mulch required to check evaporation. A three- inch mulch of small clods is less effective than an inch mulch of well pulverized soil. Sowing seed among growing cotton plants.—When it is desired to improve the soil by growing during the cooler months, some soil- improving plant, such as crimSon clover or hairy vetch, the time se- lected for sowing the seed is usually immediately after the first pick- ing. By choosing this time, no cotton is knocked from the plants by 127 the one-horse cultivator used in covering these seed. On some farms fall-sown oats are sown among the growing cotton plants and covered as just indicated. To permit the use of harvesting machinery in the oats, the cotton plants, if large, are loosened in winter by means of a narrow plow, or by the use of a sub-soil plow, and then pulled and re- moved. Distance between rows.—In deciding on the space between rows and between plants of cotton, the general rule is as follows: The richer the land, the wider must be the rows and the greater the dis- tance between plants in the row. This rule is exactly the opposite of the practice in spacing Indian corn. The reason for planting cotton farther apart on rich land is the fact that cotton is a branching or spreading plant, and hence on rich land requires much space for the outward growth of its long branches. On the other hand, corn has no branches and may be crowded as closely together as is permitted by the supply of plant-food and of moisture, both of which are of course more abundant on rich land, The usual distance between rows of cotton on upland, where a crop of one-half bale or less per acre is expected, is 3% feet. On high- ly fertilized upland, the distance may well be increased to 4 feet. On bottom land and other very rich land, a distance of 5 feet is advisable, and occasionally even wider rows are preferable. The wider the rows can be made without reducing the yield, the cheaper is the cost of cultivation, since work with cultivators is cheap- er than work along the rows with the hoe. Distance between plants in the row.—Much of the cotton grown in the United States is unduly crowded in the row. A distance of 12 inches may be regarded as the minimum even for very poor land. With almost any character of medium or fair soil, capable of produc- ing one-half bale of cotton or more per acre, it is usually better to space the plant at least 18 inches apart. Results of distance experiments with cotton.—Most of the experi- ment stations in the Southern States have conducted experiments on this subject. Naturally the results have varied greatw as influenced by differences in soil, in fertilizer, in rainfall, and in the variety of cotton under observation. In a series of experiments at the Georgia Station, where the yield was a little more than a bale per acre, slightly higher yields were made where the plants stood 1 foot apart than where they were 2 feet apart; a distance of 3 feet between plants af- forded a slight reduction in yield; and where the space between plants was increased to 4 feet, the yield was notably decreased. SUPPLIES FOR REPAIR OF HARNESS, CARRIAGE TOPS, ETC. Every farmer should have on hand supplies for the repair of har- ness, and many will find it an advantage to have also some materials for making the simpler repairs on carriage and buggy tops. Ready- made harness and bridle parts of all kinds can be secured from many of the larger establishments. In deciding what tools and materials to purchase, always give preference to those most frequently and urgently needed, passing over those that will be rarely used. Keeping a machine or vehicle in good repair and well oiled not only increases its efficiency, but lessens the power required in using it; The proper maintenance of farm machines not only saves money but avoids danger to those who operate them. Keeping the harness and vehicles in repair may prevent a dangerous runaway. So far as practicable let the repair work be done when regular farm work is not pressing, as on rainy days and during the winter season. Pursue the repair work as a kind of recreation or rest from the regular farm operations. ¥ Do not have several places for the storage of repair tools and supplies. Have one place, and see that all tools are kept there when not in use. Tools and materials should be kept in their proper places. Do not keep all sizes of bolts or screws mixed ‘together in a single re- ceptacle, but fit up suitable boxes or bins, so that the supplies may be accessible on short notice. Keep all tools clean and free from rust, and all edge tools sharp. CHEESE MAKING ON THE FARM HENRY E. ALVORD, Bureau of Animal Industry. The ordinary process by which our American cheese is made in factories is not applicable to the farm dairy, because it takes too much time, and is so complicated that it requires years of practice to become sufficiently familiar with the varying conditions in which milk comes to the vat. The various changes that take place in milk and which are troublesome in making cheese nearly all develop in the night’s milk kept over until the following morning. So, if milk is made into cheese immediately after it is drawn, no difficulty need be experienced. By employing a simple and short method of manu- facture, anyone at all accustomed to handling milk can, with the appliances found in any well-regulated farm home, make uniformly a good cheese. DETAILS OF MANUFACTURE. Aeration and Cooling.—The best time to make farm dairy cheese is immediately after milking. First pour the milk from one vessel to another in some locality where the air is pure and fresh, raising the vessel well so that the air can pass through the milk as it is poured out and carry off the animal heat and odor. Then pour the milk into the vat, or, if no regular vat is at hand, use a large wash boiler. COLORING.—If it is desired to have more than the natural color, so that the cheese will look rich, add about a teaspoonful of cheese color to 16 gallons of milk. To do this properly take a large dipper half full of milk, mix in the color thoroughly, and stir the whole into the vat of milk. Rennet.—Now add rennet extract at the rate of 1 ounce to 100 pounds, or 12 gallons, of milk. Mix the extract with half a dipper of cold water and then pour into the milk. Rennet tablets may be used instead of the extract, one small tablet for every 5 gallons of milk, or one large tablet for 25 gallons. Small tablets are about the size of a dime; large tablets are about as large as a silver quarter of a dollar. Dissolve the tablets required in a small quantity of cold water, then pour into the milk. The rennet extract or the tablets may be procured from any dairy supply house and at many drug stores. Temperature.—Great care should be taken not to have the milk at a temperature below 86 degrees F. nor above 90 degrees when the rennet is put in. Curdling.—After the rennet is put into the milk, stir gently two or three minutes, then let stand until the curd is firm enough to cut. The milk should begin to curdle in from ten to twelve minutes. To ascertain when the curd is ready for cutting, push the forefinger into the milk at an angle of 45 degrees until the thumb touches the milk; make a slight notch in the curd with the thumb, then gently raise the finger; if the curd breaks clean across the finger without any flakes remaining on it, the curd is ready for cutting. A little practice will soon enable the operator to tell the best time to cut. Cutting.—For cutting, regular cheese knives are best, one with horizontal blades and one with perpendicular blades. In case it is intended to make only a few cheeses, a wire toaster may be used, the wires only about a half an inch apart. First cut lengthwise, then 129 crosswise of the vat or boiler, until the curd is cut into cubes about the size of small kernels of corn. Cooking. After cutting, stir the curd gently for about three min- utes, then heat slowly to $8 degrees or 100 degrees F., constantly stirring gently while the curd is being heated. Keep the curd at this temperature for about forty minutes. To tell when the curd is sufficiently cooked, take a handful and press it gently, hold for a moment, then open the hand, and if the curd falls apart it is firm enough. As soon as the curd is sufficiently cooked, draw off the whey. Then the curd is ready to put into the cheese mold, or hoop. Molding.—Fill the mold by taking a double handful of curd at a time and pressing in gently until the mold is full and well rounded up. Regular Gouda molds’ are best, but any tin or wooden receptacle will answer if small holes are made in it to allow the whey to escape. The cheese should be from 8 to 10 inches in diameter and about 3 inches thick. Then take the cheese out of the mold and turn it upside down and replace it. Put on the cover and put the cheese to press. Pressing.—The press may be a simple lever and weight described as follows: The lever should be about 12 feet long; a broken wagon tongue answers the purpose very well. Set a strong box, on which the mold may be placed, about 3 feet from a wall, post, or tree; on the latter nail a slat and under it put one end of the lever. Put a circular board about 6 inches in diameter upon the mold and on this rest the stick or lever. A pail containing a few cobblestones will answer for the weight. Do not apply full pressure at first, but let the weight hang about halfway between the mold and outer end of the stick. Let the cheese remain a few hours in the press; then take out and dress. Dressing.—To dress a cheese, first put it in warm water for a few moments and then wipe dry and rub smooth. Take a piece of linen cloth about 6 inches wide and long enough to go around the cheese and lap over a few inches. Wrap the cloth smoothly around the cheese, folding the edges down carefully over the sides; then put a circular cap of cloth of suitable size on each side. Replace the cheese in the mold, with the bandage or dress all smooth, and put it under the press, moving the pail to the end of the stick. Leave the cheese in the press for about twenty hours: then take it out and salt it. Salting—The cheese may be either dry salted or brine salted. Brine salting is the better way. Make a solution of salt and water as strong as it can possibly be made; put the cheese into this brine and sprinkle some salt on the surface which is exposed as it floats. Leave the cheese in the brine for two and a half days, turning it over every twelve hours. For dry salting rub salt onto the cheese, and all over it, twice a day for three or four days. Curing.—Next, put the cheese on a shelf in the cellar for curing. It must be turned and rubbed with the palm of the hand every day for a week or two: after that twice a week will suffice. While curing, cheese should occasionally be wiped with a cloth dampened in warm water, and if it gets a rough rind smooth it by using a brush and warm water. The temperature best adapted for curing is from 55 degrees to 65 degrees F., and the air should be as moist as possible. A cellar with a suitable and even temperature and not too dry is therefore a good place for curing. The cheese will be ready for use in from two to four months. The lighter the cheese is salted the sooner it will be ready for use, and the more the curd is cooked the slower it will be in ripening and the longer it will keep. Cheese made as here described is more like the Dutch Gouda than any other of the standard varieties. (From a circular issued from the Minnesota Dairy School by Prof. T. L. Haecker). S. M. TRACY, M. S. Cassava is cultivated for its starchy roots, which are used exten- sively for human food, especially in the Tropics, as food for live 130 ee ’ stock, and for the manufacture of starch. It belongs to the milkweed family (Euphorbiaceae) and is a native of Brazil, whence it has been carried to nearly all the warmer parts of the world. So far as is known, the sweet or nonpoisonous form is the only one found in the United States. USE IN FEEDING STOCK. The value of cassava for feeding stock attracted no special at- tention until within a few years, and little regular feeding was done with it. The freezes of 1894-95, which destroyed so large a part of the Florida orange groves, forced the planters to undertake new lines of work and to consider the cultivation of new crops, and, very wisely, increased attention was given to the raising of live stock. Corn, oats, and other grains do not produce so well on the light, sandy soil common to Florida as on heavier soils farther north, and some less expensive substitute for them had to be found before stock growing could be made profitable. Cassava, being already fairly well known as a garden crop, was planted in field areas and soon proved itself an important factor in solving the problem of producing meat at a low cost for feed. TIME OF PLANTING. - Planting is done as early in the spring as is safe, not later than February in Middle and Southern Florida, and not later than the first of April in any part of the cassava-growing region. Some growers prefer planting in December or January, and that practice is often very successful, but should never be followed where the soil is liable to remain water soaked for any great length of time during the win- ter. On well-drained, light, sandy soils this very early planting is often the better method, as it enables the seed canes to take advan- tage of every warm day to form roots and so be ready for active growth a little earlier in the spring, but it is not a safe method on any but the driest of soils. CUTTINGS USED AS SEED. The crop is not grown from seeds but from the canes or stalks grown the previous season and kept through the winter. When the field is ready for planting the seed canes are cut in pieces from 4 to 6 inches in length. CONDITION OF SEED CANES. Whatever may be the size of the pieces planted, care should be taken to see that they are alive and in good condition. One can usually tell the difference between live and dead seed canes by their general appearance, the live canes being plump, with fresh-looking bark, sound pith, and full eyes, while the dead canes usually show their condition by their shrunken appearance, bleached or darkened color, discolored or dried pith, and shrunken eyes. DROPPING AND COVERING THE CANES. The pieces of seed cane are dropped, one at each cross row, and covered with a plow or hoe as Irish potatoes are covered, the cover- ing being from 2 to 4 inches in depth, the deeper covering being given on the lighter soil. CULTIVATION. Cassava requires no special cultivation beyond that needed to keep the ground free from weeds and the surface loose and friable. The first cultivation is often given with a smoothing harrow before the young sprouts reach the surface of the ground. Some growers give this cultivation by plowing deeply between the rows and cleaning the 131 remainder of the surface with a hoe, while others prefer a five-toothed cultivator for the work. It really makes little difference what imple- ment is used in this first cultivation, provided it is one which will kill all the young weeds, and little is gained by deep plowing between the rows except on soils which are too heavy to be well suited to the growth of the crop. All the later cultivations, however, must be as shallow as possible, for the cassava roots lie very near the surface of the ground. Some growers use a single section of a smoothing har- row for all the later cultivations, and find it very satisfactory when used with sufficient frequency to prevent any grass or weeds from becoming firmly rooted. Others prefer a 24-inch sweep run very shal- low, while still others prefer a five-toothed cultivator. Whatever implement may be preferred should be used so frequently that the surface of the ground will at all times be covered with a dust mulch to prevent the sandy soil from becoming too dry, and the cultivation should be continued until the plants become of sufficient size to shade the ground. Two cultivations are often sufficient on land which is fairly free from weeds, as the cassava plants soon form a dense shade. The surface of the ground should always be kept as nearly level and smooth as possible, and no hilling up should be given, as many of the roots reach nearly or quite across the spaces between the rows. Hoeing will not be needed when the ground is not filled with weed seeds and when the first cultivation is given with a smoothing har- row, but the rows should be kept free from weeds, even if they have to be hoed twice. Ordinarily the crop requires about the same amount of cultivation which is given to cotton, and there is little difference between the two in the expense per acre for making the crop. VETCH (Vicia villosa) One of the n.ost valuable plants for forage and fertilizing pur- poses. It succeeds and produces good crops on poor, sandy soils as well as on good land; it is perfectly hardy throughout the United States, remaining green all winter. The root growth is very extensive, and makes quantities of nitrogen tubercles, thus giving it very val- uable fertilizing properties, and improving the condition and produc- tiveness of land for crops to follow. Common vetch (Vicia sativa) is a great nitrogen gatherer and is used as a farm crop in many different ways. In some localities it has proved valuable as a catch crop and also as a cover crop in orchards. In France it has been grown to furnish honey-making material for bees. In the eastern United States the common vetch has not proved to be so valuable as other legumes, but in Western Oregon it has become a standard stock feed and is used as hay, silage, pasture, and as a soiling crop. It makes a very palatable hay and dairy cattle prefer vetch silage to that made of red clover. On some farms vetch is replacing clover in the regular rotation. Vetches can be sown from July to November, and should be sown broadcast, at the rate of 20 to 30 lbs. per acre with one bushel of oats or rye. The oats or rye help to hold the vetches off the ground, en- abling them to make a better growth, and making it more easy to harvest and cure properly. For a hay crop, vetches should be cut just after the oats or rye with which it may be sown has headed out, before the grain matures. Under Western Oregon conditions of soil and climate it yields from 2 to 4 tons of hay to the acre. The seed crop yields from 15 to 30 bushels per acre. CANADIAN FIELD PEAS THOMAS SHAW. No other grain crop, except prehaps oats, can be devoted to so great a variety of uses. The grain is possessed of a relatively high 132 teeding value, and the same is true of the straw, as will be readily apparent by reference to the chemical analysis of each. As a pasture for certain kinds of live stock, peas may be made to serve an excel- lent purpose. The value of the crop for soiling and fodder uses is very great, and as a fertilizing crop peas are probably excelled only by clover. There is no kind of live stock on the farm to which peas cannot be fed with positive advantage, when they are to be had at prices not too high. They are not commonly fed to horses, since they can sel- dom be spared for such a use, but they make a good food for horses at work, and for colts during the period of development, if given as a part of the grain food. As a food for fattening cattle, peas are prob- ably unexcelled. Much of the success which Canadian feeders have achieved in preparing cattle for the block has arisen from the free use of peas in the diet. PREPARING THE LAND. In climates where peas can be grown at their best, namely, clim- ates with low winter temperatures, the land for peas, as for nearly all grain crops, should be plowed in the autumn; but peas will do better than the other small cereals, relatively, on spring plowed land. A fine pulverization of the soil is advantageous, but it is not so neces- sary for peas as for other grain crops, since the pea is a hardy and vigorous grower. SOWING THE SEED. Some writers advocate sowing the seed broadcast and then plow- ing it under. On heavy soils this method would bury the seed too deeply. On prairie soils it promotes the rapid evaporation of soil moisture. On fall-plowed lands the better plan is to prepare the seed bed by pulverizing it, and then to sow the seed with a grain drill. When broadcasted and covered with the harrow only and rain fol- lows, much of the seed will be exposed; but the writer has grown excellent crops on spring-plowed stiff clays from hand sowing with- out any previous pulverization. When such lands are carefully plowed, the peas fall in the depression between the furrow slices, and the subsequent harrowing covers them. Peas should be buried less deeply on stiff clays and more deeply on the soils of the prairie. The depth may be varied from 2 to 5 inches. The pea crop should be sown as soon as the soil can be worked freely; but it will suffer less, relatively, than the other grain crops if the sowing has to be deferred. The quantity of seed required will vary with the character and condition of the soil and with the variety of seed sown. Rich and moist soils do not require so much seed as where the opposite condi- tions prevail. The amount of the seed sown should usually increase with the size of the pea. The quantities to sow per acre will vary from two bushels with the smaller varieties to 3% bushels of the larger sorts. One great difficulty to be encountered in growing peas on prairie soils is the usual luxuriance of weed life, but this may be held in check by harrowing the crop before it appears above the sur- face. Harrows with teeth which may be set aslant are the most suit- able for the work. HARVESTING THE CROP. Until recent years the pea crop was harvested with the scythe or with the old-fashioned revolving hay rake. The first method is slow; the second shells out many of the peas, and it so covers the vines with soil as to render the straw practically unfit for use. Happily, a pea harvester has been introduced, by the aid of which the crop may be harvested speedily and in excellent condition on level soils. It is simply an attachment to an ordinary field mower. 133 GOOD ROADS AND THE SPLIT LOG DRAG D. Ward King, Expert in the Office of Public Roads, Department of Agriculture. The author has experimented with a great variety of devices for road dragging, but has found the two-slab log or plank drag with liberal “set back’? the most satisfactory. Double drags for working both sides of the roadway simultaneously have been tried with only limited success. The reascn for this lies in the fact that both sides of any earth road are never exactly alike. This causes the two parts of the drag to work unevenly and to interfere with each other. It is also impossible for one man to operate both parts successfully, as will be shown later on. Two mistakes are commonly made in constructing a drag. The first lies in making it too heavy. It should be so light that one man can easily lift it. Besides, a light drag responds more readily to vari- ous methods of hitching and to the shifting of the position and weight of the operator, both of which are essential considerations and are discussed more fully under the head “How to Use a Drag.” A drag can be made heavier at any time by proper weighting. The other mistake is in the use of squared timbers, instead of those with sharp edges, whereby the cutting effect of sharp edges is lost: the drag is permitted to glide over instead of to equalize the irregularities in the surface of the road. These mistakes are due partly to badly drawn illustrations and plans of drags which have occasionally appeared in newspapers and partly to the erroneous idea that it is necessary that a large amount of earth shall be moved at one time. A dry red cedar log is the best material for a drag. Red elm and walnut, when thoroughly dried, are excellent, and box elder, soft maple, or even willow are preferable to oak, hickory or ash. The log should be 7 or 8 feet long and from 10 to 12 inches in diameter, and carefully split down the middle. The heaviest and best slab should be selected for the front. At a point on this front slab 4 inches from the end that is to be at the middle of the road locate the center of the hole to receive a cross stake and 22 inches from the other end of the front slab locate the center for another cross stake. The hole for the middle stake will lie on a line con- necting and half way between the other two. The back slab should now be placed in position behind the other. From the end which is to be at the middle of the road measure 20 inches for the center of the cross stake, and 6 inches from the other end locate the center of the outside stake. Find the center of the middle hole as before. When these holes are brought opposite each other, one end of the back slab will lie 16 inches nearer the center of the roadway than the front one, giving what is known as “set back.” The holes should be 134 2 inches in diameter. Care must be taken to hold the auger plumb in boring these holes in order that the stakes shall fit properly. The hole to receive the forward end of the chain should be bored at the same time. The two slabs should be held 380 inches apart by the stakes. Straight-grained timber should be selected for the stakes, so that each stake shall fit snugly into the 2-inch hole when the two slabs are in the proper position. The stakes should taper gradually to- wards the ends. There should be no shoulder at the point where the stakes enter the slab. The stakes should be fastened in place by wedges only. When the stakes have been placed in position and _ tightly wedged, a brace 2 inches thick and 4 inches wide should be placed diagonally to them at the ditch end. The brace should be dropped on the front slab, so that its lower edge shall lie within an inch of the ground, while the other end should rest in the angle between the slab and the end stake. A strip of iron about 314% feet long, 3 or 4 inches wide and 4 of an inch thick may be used for the blade. This should be attached to tha front slab, so that it will be one-half inch below the lower edge of the slab at the ditch end, while the end of the iron toward the middle of the road should be flush with the edge of the slab. The bolts holding the blade in place should have flat heads and the holes to receive them should be countersunk. If the face of the log stands plumb it is well to wedge out the lower edge of the blade with a three-cornered strip of wood to give it a set back like the bit of a plane. A platform of inch boards held together by three cleats should be placed on the stakes between the slabs. These boards should be spaced at least an inch apart to allow any earth that may heap up and fall over the front slab to sift through upon the road again. The end cleats should be placed so that they will not rest upon the cross stakes, but drop inside them, while the middle cleat can be shifted to either side of the middle stake. These cleats should ex- tend about an inch beyond the finished width of the platform. An ordinary trace chain is strong enough to draw the implement, pro- vided the clevis is not fastened through a link. The chain should be wrapped around the rear stake, then passed over the front slab. Raising the chain at this end of the slab allows the earth to drift past the face of the drag. The other end of the chain should be passed through the hole in the end of the slab and is held by a pin passed through a link. One and one-half trace chains are sufficient. In many logs the grain runs around the tree in such a way that when split the slabs will be in a “wind.” If this wind is not more than 4 inches in 8 feet, the timber can be used to good advantage by setting it so that the blade end of the log shall slant forward when the other end is perpendicular. The construction of the drag in this case is the same as given above, but care must be taken that the holes bored to receive the stakes are plumb. No wedging under the lower edge of the blade is necessary in using such a log. Drags are often constructed of planks instead of logs. There is nothing in the construction of a plank drag that calls for particular mention except the strengthening of the planks along their middle line by a 2 by 6-inch strip. A triangular strip may be used under the lower edge of the blade to give it the proper cutting slope. HOW TO USE A DRAG. The successful operation of a drag involves two principles, which when thoroughly understood and intelligently applied, make road working with this implement very simple. The first concerns the length and position of the hitch, while the second deals with the position of the driver on the drag. Each influences the other to a 135 large extent, and successful manipulation of the drag is dependent upon an understanding of both of them. For ordinary purposes the snatch link or clevis should be fas- tened far enough toward the blade end of the chain to force the unloaded drag to follow the team at an angle of 45 degrees. This will cause the earth to move along the face of the drag smoothly and will give comparatively light draft to the team, provided the driver rides in the line of draft. Sometimes, however, conditions are met which require -special treatment, and in a rolling country such conditions are not infrequent. Often a flat place several rods in length or a seepy spot needs special attention. The distance from the drag at which the team is hicched affects the depth of the cutting. Shortening the chain tends to lift the front slab from the ground; a longer hitch causes the blade to cut more deeply. The length of hitch may be regulated by lengthening and shortening the chain at the end which runs through the hole in the blade end of the drag. If small weeds are to be cut or a furrow of earth is to be re- moved, the doubletree should be attached rather close to the ditch end of the drag. The drag will now move nearly ditch end foremost. and the driver should stand with one foot on the extreme forward end of the front slab. This will swing the drag back to the proper angle and will cause the blade to plow. This hitch requires slow and careful driving in order to prevent the drag from tipping forward. If the blade should plow too deeply, as it may do in a wet spot, the driver should shift his weight toward the back slab. If straw and weeds clog the blade, they can usually be removed if the driver shifts his weight to a point as far as possible from the ditch or blade end. Similarly, if he steps quickly away from the ditch end, the load of earth may be dropped into a low place or mud- hole. Some attention should be given to the edge of the blade. In the beginning, the average earth road requires no steel plate on the drag, though the drag will be better preserved if the steel is ap- plied at first. At the end of a year’s work, if the dragging has been faithfully done, a steel plate will be needed. If the twist of the log is properly used, or the three-cornered strip of wood is placed under the blade, a flat piece of steel will answer. In case the blade stands perpendicularly it should be slightly cupped when sharpened. Usually two horses are enough to pull a drag over an ordinary earth road. When four horses are used, they should be hitched to the drag by means of a four-horse evener. The team should be driven with one horse on either side of the right-hand wheel track or rut the full length of the portion to be dragged, and the return made over the other half of the roadway. The object of such treatment is to move earth toward the cen- ter of the roadway and to raise it gradually above the surrounding level. While this is being accomplished, all mudholes and ruts will be filled, into which traffic will pack the fresh earth. WHEN TO USE A DRAG. The drag does the best work when the soil is moist, but not sticky. The earth then moves freely along the faces of the slabs, If the roadway is very badly rutted and full of holes, it may be well to use the drag once when the ground is slushy. This treatment is particularly applicable before a cold spell in winter when it is pos- sible to have a roadway freeze smooth. A smooth road surface is secured by this method. Clay, when mixed with water and thoroughly worked, becomes remarkably tough and impervious to water. If compacted in this condition if becomes extremely hard. Another valuable result of dragging is the reduction of dust, for the particles of clay cohere so tenaciously that there is but little 136 wear when the surface is smooth. Dust on an earth road is due to the breaking up under traffic of the frayed and upturned edges of ruts and hoof prints. If the surface is smoothed after each rain and the road dries hard and even, no edges are exposed to crushing and the only dust which forms is that due to actual wear of the road sur- face. There are so many influences at work and conditions are so varied in different localities that it is quite impossible to lay down a general rule for the number of treatments needed to keep a road in good condition. A tough clay or a stiff sandy clay will resist the action of wheels and hoofs for a longer period than a loam, other things being equal. Certain sections of a roadway will require more attention than others because of steep grades, seepage, exposure to hillside wash, etc. The best guide in meeting these conditions is the knowledge and experience gained while dragging the roadway. : There is one condition, however, in which special treatment should be given to a road. Clay hills under persistent dragging fre- quently become too nigh in the center. To correct this it is best to drag the earth toward the center of the road twice and away from it once. USE OF A DRAG ON ROCKY OR GRAVELLY ROAD. In soils full of loose stones or even small bowlders the drag has done good service. The loose stones are drawn into a wind- row down the center of the road while the earth is deposited around the bowlders in such a way that the surface is leveled. The loose stones in the center of the road should, of course, be removed. Where there is a large proportion of small stones or gravel the drag will keep down the inequalities in the surface. CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF A DITCH CLEANER The ditcher, or ditch cleaner, is a convenient device for clearing ditches. It consists of a guide plank 2 inches by 12 inches by 12 feet, and a mold board, 2 inches by 12 inches by 8 feet. These are braced with a crosspiece 3 feet long. The mold board should be shod with an iron plate % inch by 4 inches by 3 feet, held in position with 3-8 inch bolts countersunk. The cross brace should be hellowed 3 inches on each side at the middle, the hollowing to begin not less than 4 inches from each end, in order that its bearing against the guide and mold board planks shall not be shortened, nor the nailing space decreased. This is done to prevent earth from heaping up in front of the brace. i the crop, gently press and work the contents of the crop, and endeavor to loosen up a small quantity of the matter that may thus be set free. Supply oil often while working, so that the contents of the crop may be kept as moist as possible. AS soon as the crop is emptied, put two’or three grains of baking soda in water and keen it before the fowl. Do not feed anything for a day and then very sparingly and carefully of soft foods until recovery. 163 OBSTRUCTION IN THE THROAT A fowl will sometimes attempt to swallow a piece of food which, because of its shape or size, will lodge in the throat. Unless removed at once, inflammation and consequent swelling will result and without immediate relief death will follow. Symptoms—Frequent attempts to swallow, and often a hard sub- stance can be felt from the outside. Treatment—Give a small quantity of sweet oil and work the sub- stance out at the mouth by easy pressure and movement. EGG BOUND This happens with older fowls and during the latter part of the winter. It may be traced, in most cases, to an over-fat condition due to improper feeding. ; Symptoms—The symptoms are unmistakab!e as the bird becomes listless and makes frequent attempts to expel the egg. If the bird is examined, the egg may Le felt as a hard substance in the posterior part of the body. Treatment—In ordinary cases, inject a small quantity of sweet oil into the vent and then, by gentle pressure, assist the passage of the egg. When this is accomplished, reduce the teed and give green food in abundance, wi-hho:ding all carbohydrates or fat-producing foods. EGGS WITHCUT SHELLS These are usually accounted for by a lack of shell-making mate- rial in the ration of the fowls. They may also be traced to the in- flammation of that part of the oviduct where tne shell is formed. This trouble leads to more or less irritation and should be corrected at once. This can be done by providing plenty of crushed oyster shells, mortar, granulated or broken dry bone, wheat bran, ete. We do not advise the use of egg shells as this may lead to the egg-eating habit. POISONING Through careless distribution of insect killers, salt brine, salt meat, lye, fertilizers, copperas, phosphorus from matches, rough on rats, paint left in old cans, Paris green, etc., many fowls meet death annually, It is necesary to use the utmost precaution to prevent fowls from ob- taining access to them. Symptoms—tTreimibling, convulsions, and drowsiness. The fowls seek a dark place and draw their heads into their body. As a rule, the cause of the trouble is discovered too late to permit treatment. Treatment—If the nature of the poison can be discovered in time, an antidote for same should be given. Where the poison is due to salt, lye or fertilizers which contain nitrate of soda, give as drinks strong coffee, brandy or flaxseed and water after steeping. This flaxseed preparation is also gcod for arsenic poisoning. Sulphate of iron in drinking water can also be used. Where poisoning is due to copper, zinc, phosphorus or lead, give white of egg in liberal quantities. EGG EATING While this is more of a habit than a disease, it is often caused by a physical longing for oyster shell, or other lime-containing, shell-making material, and the absence of sufficient animal food in the diet. It is a most annoying and expensive habit and a difficult one to break. No sooner is there an egg laid than it is eagerly eaten, and one fowl quickly teaches the orhers until a number in the flock may be seen to rush for an egg as soon as it igs deposited in the nest. Treatment—One of the best methods is to make a small incision in either end of an egg and allow the contents to run ovr. ‘then make a mixture of soft soap and red pepper and refill the egg, closing 164 the ends with court piaster and placing a number in the nests where the fowls can get at them. If these are eaten, fill others. It should not take long to sicken the fowls of the habit. If you see that fowls are kept busy, that shell-making material is provided, such as oyster shell, mortar, bone, ete., and that the nests are dark and well sup- plied with straw, you will have but little trouble from this cause. Remember to darken nests as much as practical, have china nest eggs, and always collect freshly-laid eggs as quickly as possible. How to Make Hens Lay in Winter—Give a portion of minced meat, mixed with their other food, every day or as often as convenient, and see that they have plenty of gravel, old plastering, or powdered egg- shell. The latter may be mixed with their food. Without some sub- stance of this kind, which cannot be obtained when the ground is frozen or covered with snow, there will be nothing to form the shell. Handling Eggs—Above all, eggs sent to market should be clean and free from all disfigurement. If the nests are kept clean, the eggs will usually be clean, but sometimes the first eggs of pullets are streaked with blood, and eggs will on occasion become soiled. A moist rag will usually clean them up without the expenditure of much time. Fattening for Market—In fattening fowls, care should be taken to give young fowls some exercise in order to keep them in a healthy and vigorous condition. Old fowls require little or no exercise. Espe- cially should little exercise be allowed for a few weeks just before killing, if a choice quality of meat is desired. Close confinement im- proves the quality of the meat. THE ORCHARD One of the first questions that confronts a person who is starting an orchard is the problem of where to put it. It is true that fruit will grow and thrive under a variety of conditions, but there is always one which fs best. This condition is based on such factors as the soil, site, location, kind of fruit that is to be grown and markets that are to be supplied. Orchard soils should be rich, as it takes a great amount of soil fer- tility to supply the necessary elements to build up the wood in the tree, and this must always be done before the fruit can be developed. NEW LAND New land is very desirable for an orchard, and especially land which has just becn cleared of a heavy growth of timber. The decaying foliage and roots of the forest growth leaves the soil with a generous supply of humus, and will produce a luxuriant growth of wood in the young trees. However, the land should be freed from all stumps and roots before the orchard is planted. In any land from which the timber 165 has just been removed it is always best to put the ground into some cultivated or soi] building crop such as corn, potatoes, clover or cow peas for a couple of years before planting the trees. Stony land is not at all objectionable for orchards, as on steep slopes the stones help in protecting the soil from excessive washing, and no doubt helps materially in warming up the soil in the spring. A stony soil ig usually a well drained soil. On lands which have a very steep slope the stones can easily be made into terraces below the trees or they may be placed in the form of terraces between each two rows of trees. Unless the soil is very thin stones may be considered as a benefit rather than otherwise, because of the value they are to the land in as- sisting in drainage and in protecting the soil from washing, Where virgin soil cannot be had for the orchard, only rich land should be used. An orchare will occupy the land for many years, and very thorough preparation should be given before the trees are planted. Never set the trees on poor land or dry land for if they do start they are so stunted that they seldom make a satisfactory orchard. Lands which have been used for grain crops for several years without the ad- dition of plenty of manure or green manuring crops should not be planted until the soil has been built up. Old pasture lands while per- haps fertile should have a cultivated crop for at least one season hke- fore planting to orchard. Before planting trees thoroughly plow the land deeply. If soil is shallow and underlaid with hardpan follow the furrow with a subsoil plow to break up the hardpan under the trees. The young roots can then penetrate deeply and increase their feeding area, SELECTING A SITE FOR THE ORCHARD The site for the orchard has a great influence on its_ bearing qualities. Norihern and eastern slopes are regarded as best for ap- ple orchards owing to the fact that they warm up later in the spring than others. Thig results in retarding blooming and many times avoids injury from the frost. A site facing prevailing winds often has a marked influence in the damage from frost. Soils on the n@rthern and eastern slopes are generally deeper and richer than those found on southern or western slopes, possibly be- cause the sun does not strike such slopes so directly and does not burn out the humus so quickly. Southern slopes are earlier and permit of a longer growing season. Trees which are situated on southern exposures receive more sunshine, and usually develop fruits of higher color than on the north and east. In regions where the growing season is short, it is always best to select a strong southern exposure for the orchard. In high altitudes this fact is often of great importance, as any element which will prolong the season for late apples and induce them to take on their full color should be favored. Early varieties in high altitudes will usually ma- ture on northern or eastern slopes. PREPARING LAND FOR AN ORCHARD A serious mistake that is commonly made in pianting an orchard is to be in too great a hurry. An orchard is planted to last for years, and undue haste at the beginning will generally result in a shorter life for the trees. This great hurry to get the orchard planted is most apparent in lack of preparation of the soil. It takes time to put any soil in t’e best condition to receive the trees, and frequently, to get the trees planted as cheaply as possible they are put into the ground before the soil is ready to receive them. This is especially true when orchards are planted on land from which the native growth has just been removed. Land that is to be planted to orchard should be under cultivation for at least two years before the trees are planted, and especially so on lands which have a heavy growth of timber, With such land all of 166 the stumps and roots should be removed, and this can be done at much smaller expense before the orchard is planted than afterwards. New land is always hard to cultivate, because of the roots which sprout and try to grow, and among young orchard trees such sprouts cause endless trouble until they are removed. It is best on such new land to plant some green manure crop for a year or two. In preparing the ground for an orchard it should be plowed as deep as possible to loosen the soil and make the roots penetrate deeply inio the lower soil. Shallow rooted trees do not live long. Use every effort to force the tree roots to go deeply and the wind will not then affect and blow loose the tree. The roots will also obtain more water in this way. LAYING OUT THE ORCHARD The plan for laying out the orchard can be arranged in any manner that suits the planter’s convenience, although there are two systems generally used, the square or hexagonal. With apple trees the dis- tance for planting varies in different sections. The far western states’ apples are frequently set as close as twenty feet, while in the extreme East they will be double or treble this distance. With pears the distance can be somewhat less, as most varieties are of a more upright habit than the apple. Peaches are generally set about eighteen or twenty feet apart, although when trained with an open center it crowds the trees after they have reached their maturity. Pefore laying out the orchard it is always best to figure out how the trees can be arranged to best advantage. They ought to be set so as to allow of ample room around the sides to do the necessary work without crowding against the boundary fence. It is better always to plant the trees so that they have the same, or nearly the same, dis- tance on all sides, rather than to have twice the distance in one direc- tion as in the other. There are a number of different ways of laying out an orchard and some of the simple plans are very satisfactory. In using any plan the effort should be to get all of the trees set in perfectly straight rows, so that they may be sighted over in any direction and perfect rows can be seen. This is simply to improve appearance. WHAT KIND OF NURSERY STOCK TO PLANT There is always‘more or less uncertainty with the inexperienced as to kind of stock to buy. It always pays to buy the best and is also advisable if not sure to write your state experiment station for their advice. One year trees are now the favorites for planting. It does not pay to buy trees just because they are cheap. Good trees cost money to grow, and the buyer must expect to have to pay a good round price for good trees. TIME TO PLANT Fruit trees can be set out in either the late fall or early spring months. In the Western states spring planting is preferred, as the soil is then in much better condition and more easily worked than in the fall. But in the rest of the country the land is generally in good shape in the late fall, unless excessively wet or unusually dry. Fall planting has the advantage of getting the trees into their new location with the least amount of time in storage, and trees set out in the fall will make some root growth during the winter and be in good shape to start into growth in the spring. There is generally more time for planting in the fall than in the spring and the work can be done in better shape. The amount of cutting back of the tops that is necessary at the time a tree is set depends on the age of the tree, whether peach, apple, p'um, etc. Peaches are generally cut back to a whip. Apples are shortened back about one-half. Pears, plums, cherries, etc., when two years old stock are cut back about one-third, and where one year old about one-third the length of the tree. 167 HOW TO PLANT A TREE. Many persons inexperienced in handling trees lose numbers of them by lack of knowledge. The roots should wever be exposed to the air from leaving the nursery until planted in the orchard. Don’t expose roots of trees to sun or wind. If not ready to plant when stock arrives heel them in, covering the roots with moist soil until ready to plant. The hole that is dug for the tree must be large enough so that the roots may ke spread out naturally without crowding. The hole neeil not be wide but deep enough to set a little deeper than it stood in the nursery. All of the longest roots need to be shortened in to about six inches and cut with a smooth clean cut. Any roots that are broken or bruised need to be removed, and all cut surface need to be made smooth so they will heal quickly. Filling in the soil about the trees is a very important step in tree planting. To get the best results the soil must be packed closely about the roots, so that there are no air holes or crevices. The best way to do this is with the hand. When the tree is in place spread the roots out and throw a shovelful of soil over them, shake the tree up and down several times and then work it into the crevices between the roots with the fingers. Throw in a little more soil and work into the remaining crevices, aud then with the feet tramp the soil solid. Throw in more soil and tramp, repeating until the hole is full and the dirt about the tree is packed down solid and tight. Moving the tree up and down while the earth is being thrown in will assist materially in avoid- ing air holes and in bringing the soil in close contact with the roots. There is little danger of packing the soil too tightly about the roots. The greatest danger is in not getting it packed tightly enough and leaving air holes that will let the roots dry out and the tree die. The trees should be set just a little deeper than they stood when in the nursery, although not over an inch deeper. Setting too deep is as dangerous as not setting deep enough. The best guide is the line marking the change in color of the bark at the crown where the tree enters the ground. After the tree has been firmly packed in the hole throw an inch or so of loose earth over the packed soil to serve as a dust mulch and prevent from drying out. Watering at the time the tree is planted is not necessary in the Eastern or Middle Western states, but in the semi- arid country, where the trees cannot be irrigated immediately after being planted, it is often advisable to pour a bucketful of water about the newly planted tree. This should be done before the hole is filled with soil, and the water allowed to percolate away. Then fill up with the dry soil and do not pack the surface, but rather let this soil lie loose and prevent the water from evaporating. A dust mulch will very effectively conserve the moisture in the soil for the use of the tree. ORCHARD TILLAGE. The ideal system of cultivation for any orchard, either East or West, is to combine the tillage with a cover crop. Stirring the soil is a necessity, not only for the purpose of improving the physical condi- tion of the soil, but for liberating the fertility. In soils that are plowed early in the spring air is admitted and the soil warmed up and drained of excess moisture through evaporation. In summer the plowed layer serves as a means of preventing the evaporation of moisture that is deeper down in the soil, by breaking the capilarity. It also increases the water holding capacity of the soil. By increasing the moisture in the soil decomposition of the organic materia!s is hastened, and their fertility made available for the use of the plants. The exact manner of cultivation in an orchard will be governed largely by the kind of trees and the location. It is best in most in- stances to put the young orchard into a crop of some sort which will necessitate the cultivation of the land. Crops like corn, cotton, pota- toes, strawberries, cantaloupes, or other crops of that nature make ex- cellent crops in a newly planted orchard. These crops are temporary, 168 ee ais =. — en ee ee and are planted for the profit that can be obtained from them. Their culture is intensive and requires a frequent stirring of the soil and these are the conditions needed for young trees. Every effort should be made the first few years to promote wood growth in order to get a large framework for future production of fruit. A tree starved when _ young will not be productive. Where strawherries are grown between young trees they will oc- cupy the ground for at least three years, after which time they should be plowed under, and the land planted to clover or some other legume. This is for the purpose of restoring nitrogen to the soil and stimulating the wood growth of the trees. Where corn, cotton or other ‘‘hoed” crop is grown, the land will be occupied by any one crop no longer than one year. It is considered to be the best practice not to plant the same kind of crop in the orchard for more than two years in succession. In fact soil experts will advise that any particular crop occupy the land but one year and then be followed by a crop of a different sort. This is because the soil quickly becomes impoverished where one kind of crop is repeatedly grown on the same area. [In the young orchard this is especially true, as the trees are to remain for many years and the soil’s fertility must not be reduced. A good rotation of crops in a young orchard is to plant cotton or corn the first season and follow with po- tatoes the next year, following it the next season with a legume of some kind. Vegetabies of all kinds may be grown in a young orchard in place of the crops mentioned, and will serve well in keeping the ground of the orchard well stirred and the trees growing thriftily. Sugar beets are extensively used in the irrigated districts, but are not always de- sirable because of the late watering that is needed to get the beets to mature. This late watering induces late growth in the trees and makes them liable to winter killing. Under no condition should small grain be planted in an orchard, as it will not permit of cultivation, and cultivation is necessary in a young orchard for reasons which have been mentioned. This state- ment applies to the growing of a grain crop that is to be allowed to reach maturity and be harvested either as grain or hay. Rye, wheat, oats and buckwheat are frequently planted in an orchard, but they are used altogether for green manures and under the best systems of culture are not allowed to remain for more than a few weeks, or over winter at the longest. In plowing the ground in a young orchard, the plows should be run six or eight inches deep, so as to provide a deep covering of plowed soil and to cut the surface roots of the new trees and make them penetrate into deeper soil where it is cooler in summer and warmer in winter. In the bearing orchard if any crop is grown it should be turned under, adding to the fertility of the soil. It takes an immense amount of soil fertility to produce foliage and wood and much more to furnish the fruit. Orchard land should therefore not be expected to produce a crop of some other sort also. COVER CROPS, Cover crops, called also green manures and shade crops, are such crops as are grown in the orchard for the purpose of clothing the surface of the soil during late summer and winter months. They are used to protect the soil from washing during the winter rains, and for this reason are always to be advised for orchards that are on steep, hilly land. In general orchard practice cover crops are sown late in the summer and allowed to remain throughout the winter when they are to be turned under the following spring and become a green manure. For such purposes a number of different kinds of crops are used, depending largely on the soil, climate and the needs in hand. ORCHARD HEATING Orchard heating is of very recent origin, although for many years 169 / fruit men and gardeners have tried various plans of preventing frost from injuring their plants and blossoms. OIL AND COAL FOR FUEL From the experiments that have been carried on it seems appar- ent that the source of heat must come from any one of three available sources, viz., wood, oil and coal. Which of these to use will depend on the cost of the fuel laid down in the orchard. In sections where wood is still the most abundant and cheapest fuel, it will be the best to use. In sections where oil can be had cheaper than coal or wood, it will serve; and in other sections coal will be the cheapest fuel. Doubtless at the present time more persons are using coal for fuel in some way than any other material, and are more familiar with its combustion. In the work of orchard heating it has given great satis: faction and many orchards have been saved from frost by coal burners. In heating the orchard it is not necesary to run the temperature more than to the freezing point, or at most a couple of degrees above, as there is nothing gained. In fact it may be even objectionable through causing the buds to grow a little and become even more tender than they would be if the temperature is held close to the frost line. To be certain as to the departure of the temperature above or below the freezing point it is necessary that the orchard be provided with several thermometers located at convenient places where they can be looked at frequently by the overseer of the operations. THINNING AND HARVESTING. Thinning is done for the purpose of removing a portion of the fruit on the trees so as to allow that which remains to reach a larger size. It is profitable only on trees that are carrying a heavy load. ‘To a cer- tain extent the thinning can be done by prunning away some of the fruit producing wood, but in other cases it will take hand thinning to properly distribute the fruit. It has been frequently argued that it costs too much to thin, but as a matter of fact, it will cost no more to pick the fruit when it is small than it will when it reaches maturity. In many instances it will not cost as much. It is money well invested at any rate, as the reduc- ing of a heavy crop works to the advantage of enlarging each indi- vidual fruit left on the tree, and allows the tree to form fruit buds for the next year. It is impossible to lay down any set rules for thinning as much depends on the size of the crop. Years of very light crops, thinning may not be necessary, but in heavy years it is advisable. Apples usu- ally produce fruit in clusters of three to six. All but the best should be removed. On the tips of the longest whips fruit is often formed, but will not develop into fancy fruit, so they had best be removed, allowing only the fruit on the spurs to remain, thinning out to only one on a spur. * Pears have about the same habit of fruiting as do the apples, and need to be thinned in the same way. With young trees and with trees that are not carrying a very heavy load of fruit, thinning is not always a necessity, as if thinned on such trees the fruit may become larger than is most desired for market fruit. Very large pears are not wanted by the average market, as when they have to sell at a price above 5 cents each the demands are not sufficient to warrant most dealers handling them. Peaches, plums and cherries are thinned to a large extent by the operation of pruning. Peaches especially set a far larger number of fruit buds than the tree can possibly bring to maturity, and thinning by removal of some of the fruit producing wood saves a large amount of labor later on. All of the fruit of the peach is produced on wood of 170 : the last year’s growth, and the middle portions of such branches will! have one or two buds at each node. The thinning should be done before the peaches get any larger than a pigeon egg, and need to be thinned out so that the fruit on any one branch is separated by at least six inches from any other fruit on the same limb. In thinning stone fruits the work can be done by pulling the fruits off, but with apples and pears it is safest to clip the fruit with sharp pointed shears, as if pulled there is too much liability of breaking oft the entire spur. HARVESTING. To know when to pick a fruit is a fine art. To know how to pick a fruit can be learned by practice, but not every one can or will learn how to do the operation with all of the care that is necessary in han- dling a high class crop. The commercial fruit markets of today demand fruit that is in excellent condition, and will pay prices that warrant all of the care that the grower can give the fruit during the harvest. All kinds of fruit must be picked by hand, rather than by raking off the tree, or shaking onto the ground to be picked up later on. Fruit that is picked from the tree must be laid carefully into a basket, bucket or bag and carried to the packers with the least possible shak- ing about. Most of tue fancy fruit is held in cold storage till late in the season and i‘s keeping qualities will largely determine its price. Fruit which is fully ripe but not over ripe and placed at once in storage keeps best. FRUIT PLANTING IN BRIEF APPIEES: = As a rule, the apple tree is as hardy as most of our native forest trees, and any soil that will produce good crops of grain or potatoes will be found to be adapted to the growth of healthy and vigorous apple trees. No other fruit occupies, in the north temperate zone, the command ing position of the apple. Whether it be in size, form or color; in flavor, sweet or sour, an infinite variety of shades; in crispness or tenderness, it will in some variety or other suit any taste. No or- dinary farm crop will, on the average, produce one-fourth as much income per acre as a good apple orchard. The fact that six to eight years must elapse before a newly planted orchard will begin to bear deters many from planting. But, as a matter of fact, land can be used a large part of the time for crops, and no great investment is re- quired to plant at the rate of 30 to 50 trees to the acre. When once in bearing, with little actual time spent upon it each year, it will be an unfailing source of cash income. DWARF APPLES. The dwarf apple is very much appreciated by those who have small space for planting. Grafted on Paradise stock, the trees never attain large size. They are symmetrical and produce fruit at an early age—three years from planting. They can be set 5 or 6 feet apart and the fruit is easily gathered. For orchard purposes they are as productive as the standard trees, for the increased number of trees per acre produce as much fruit as the smaller number of large trees, and the fruit is more easily gathered, and trees can be more thor- oughly and conveniently sprayed. APRICOTS. The apricot is a fruit somewhat intermediate between the peach ala and the plum. The tree is a round-headed, spreading grower, with dark, somewhat peach-like bark and very broad or almost circular leaves. The fruit, which generally ripens in advance of both the peach and plum, is peach-like in shape and color, with a smoother skin, rich ye‘low flesh, and large flat stone. The flesh is commonly less juicy than that of the peach, and, as a rule, perhaps of higher quality. Cultivate as for peach. BLACKBERRIES. Plant on good land, modcrately manured. Rows seven feet apart, three feet in the rows for field; prune as with raspberries. Form a hedge or tie to wire. Cultivate shallow. CHERRIES. The cherry thrives best on a dry, sandy or gravelly soil, and there attains its highest perfection, but will do well in almost any situation except a wet one. Cherries are divided into two classes: (1) Hearts and Pigarreaus; (2) Dukes and Morellos. The former are strong and vig- orous growers, making large, open, spreading heads; their fruit is large, heart-shaped, meaty and sweet. The Dukes and Morellos do not attain so large size, but are more hardy and less liable to injury from burst- ing the bark. Their fruit is usually sour. For dry soils we rate the cherry, and particularly the Morellos class, one of the most profitable fruits grown. The Hearts and Bigar- reaus are profitable for home market, but for shipping (except the Dikeman) the Dukes and Morellos carry the best and yield the largest returns. Ordinary well-grown trees produce from five bushels per tree upwards. CURRANTS Ripe just before raspberries are gone, and continuing in prime order for several weeks, there is no more useful fruit than the currant, and it is among the earliest to cultivate. Plant in rows 4 feet apart each way, if practicable. Light and air will do as much to enhance the value of currant bushes as with other plants. Keep the ground mel- low, free from weeds, and in a good state of fertility, and prune freely every spring. Should the currant worm appear, dust a little white hellebore powder, from a small coarse bag, over the bushes when the leaves are damp. In some instances it may be necessary to repeat this process, but the trouble and expense of exterminating the worms are trifling, if the powder is applied as soon as the worms appear. THE DEWBERRY A most wonderful berry, ripening an immense crop of fruit several weeks ahead of any:hing else in the blackberry line. In some loca- tions it ripens in May. Large, firm, of superior flavor, and attractive. A rampant grower and may be trellised like grapevines. Roots from tips like Cap Raspberries. Those who have grown it consider it to be the greatest berry ever introduced. GOOSEBERRIES. This fruit is so useful for cooking when green or ripe and may be canned with such facility that it is being cultivated extensively. Re- quires same cultivation and treatment for worms as the currant. The American varieties are best although not as large as the English kind, but are not subject to mildew. GRAPES. The vine comes quickly into bearing, yielding fruit usually the second year after planting; requires but little space, and when properly trained, is an ornament to the yard, garden or vineyard. The soil for 172 the grape should be dry; when not naturally so should be thoroughly drained. It should be deeply worked and well manured, always bear- ing in mind that it is an essential point to secure a warm, sunny ex- posure. The best grape vine trellis is probably the wire trellis, with four wires, 18 inches apart. Pruning shouid be so done that each year two or three of last year’s branches shall alone be left, at the spurs of which the present year’s growth may start. During the season when the shoots have reached the upper part of the trellis, they may be pinched to prevent further growth. The following spring the canes should be cut back to two buds. Allow but one bud to throw out a shoot, and treat as in the previous year. This system of pruning should be followed each year. MULBERRIES, Mulberry trees are particularly desirable for shade on account of their rapid growth and hardiness. Some people prize the fruit highly for pies. The fruit is used by many farmers for feeding to chickens and hogs, and a tree planted in the chicken yard is a valuable addition to it by reason of the dropping fruit. NECTARINES. Cuiture same as for the peach. The fruit having a smooth skin is liable to the attacks of the curculio, and must be sprayed as soon as the blossoms fall and again every two weeks during May and June. PEACHES. The peach tree requires a well-drained, moderately rich soil; warm, sandy loam is probably the best. In.order to preserve the continued healthy growth of the tree and the fine quality of the fruit, the peach should have the shoots and branches cut back to one-half the pre- ceding season’s growth every year, so as to preserve a round, vigorous head; this should be done the last of February, or as early in the spring as practicable. The land should not be seeded to grass, but kept in constant cultivation. PEARS. - Cultivate as for peach. Imperfect fertilization.—Kieffer, Bartlett and some other varieties of pears, when planted in a solid block by themselves, do not properly fertilize. To obviate this difficulty, other varieties should be planted with them. Another active agent in helping the spread of pollen is a hive of bees. PLUMS. The plum does best in heavy loam; but it will do extremely well on a sandy or gravelly loam, especially if there be some clay in the soil. They should be thoroughly cultivated and not allowed to stand in grass. Plums should be pruned sufficiently to prevent a straggling growth, and to keep the head from being too crowded. ‘Black knot” must be removed as soon as it is discovered. The only remedy is to cut off the diseased part and burn it. Permit no black knot to exist about your premises or your neighbor’s, if you can help it, but have it removed and burned. QUINCES. Plant 12 feet apart, 302 trees per acre. They should be thoroughly sprayed during the fruiting season. Cultivate as for peach and pear. RASPBERRIES. Coming immediately after strawberries, when there is a dearth of other fresh fruits, raspberries are equally desirable for planting in the 173 garden for home use, and in the field for market. They are very easily cultivated. Beds seldom require renewing. Their season of ripening — is long. The fruit bears transportation well, and aside from the de- mand for it for immediate consumption, it brings highly remunerative prices for drying and canning. Plant in good soil and manure from time to time freely. The hills should not be less than four feet apart each way, with two or three plants in a hill. Cut out the old and weak shoots each year, preserv- ing not over six for fruiting. If the location is so much exposed that the plants are inclined to kill down seriously, they may be bent over in the fall, on mounds of earth formed at one side of the hills and cov- ered sufficiently to keep them down until spring. Surplus suckers take strength from the bearing plants. They should be cut away or hoed up frequently. RHUBARB OR PIE PLANT. Deep, rich, moist soil is best, but it is such a strong, vigorous- growing plant, it will thrive almost anywhere. Plant in rows 4 feet apart and the plants 3 feet apart. Set the roots so that the crowns are about an inch below the surface. Rhubarb is a gross feeder; the more manure it is given, the larger and finer the yield. STRAWBERRIES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. Strawberry plants are exceedingly hardy, and as a general rule, it is very easy to get a full stand. Plants begin growing within a few days after they are set out, especially when weather conditions are favorable. Should the plants not start growing at once, do not become discouraged, but continue cultivating and hoeing. This will make a dust mulch which will draw the moisture around the plants, encourag- ing the feeding roots to take hold, and a new growth will soon start from the crown. Should an occasional plant fail to grow the runners from adjoining plants may be layered so they will fill in the vacant places. If, for any reason, your stand of plants is poor, give the plants which do live good care, and allow them to make a large number oft runners. When hoeing, draw the soil with the hoe blade over the runners just back of the node where the young plant is forming. This will aid the young plant to take root quickly. In the fall when the soil is quite moist take up the best of these runner plants, allowing as much soil to adhere to the roots as will and set them wherever the plants failed to grow. By following this plan you easily can have every row completely filled in by October 1st or earlier. In this way plants will not be checked in growth and will give a good crop of ber- ries the following spring. TIME TO SET PLANTS. The best time to set plants is in the early spring months; the earlier you can get them into the ground the better. Fall set plants do not bring good results like those set in the spring. FERTILIZING AND PREPARING THE SOIL. The best of all fertilizers for strawberries is barnyard manure. It is the great plant and fruit builder. During the winter and early spring months scatter evenly over the ground from twelve to twenty tons of manure per acre, the quantity used depending largely upon the present condition of your soil. In the spring, just as early as your soil will do to work in, plow the manure under, following with the harrow as early as possible so as to pulverize the clods before they have time to become hard. Continue the harrowing until the soil is made tine to the depth of the plowing. Then go over the soil with roller or float so as to press the soil grains firmly together. This leaves the soil in ideal condition for the tool which is to make the marks for the rows. If you are to grow berries in the single-hedge, double hedge or narrow-matted row, you should make the rows three 174 ee ae ee ee i acne, ca i it ia in a tain and one-half feet apart and set the plants two feet apart in the rows. For hill culture rows should be made from twenty-four to thirty inches apart, setting the plants from twelve to fifteen inches apart in the rows. THE CARE OF PLANTS. When plants are taken to the field to be set they should be kept covered in a cool shady place. The tip ends of the roots should be cut back from one to two inches, using shears or knife. MATING VARIETIES. In setting plants be careful to get the pistillates in rows between the rows of bi-sexuals. This insures perfect pollination, berries and lots of them. Be careful to have openings in the soil made large enough so that you can put the roots of the plants down straight into the soil. Press the soil firmly against the roots, being careful not to cover the crowns of the plants. CULTIVATION AND HOEING. As soon as plants are set you should follow up with a cultivator. You also should hoe shallow round the plants. This hoeing and culti- vation will make a dust mulch which will hold the moisture about the plants, encouraging the feeding roots to develop at once. Cultivation should be continued every eight or ten days throughout the entire growing season, unless the ground is wet. Always cultivate after a rain as soon as the soil will permit. The soil should be broken up shallow around the plants often enough to prevent crusts from form- ing. By cultivating and hoeing in this manner you will keep down all weeds and obnoxious growth. It will keep a dust mulch around the plants which will hold moisture and which will keep the plants grow- ing very vigorously. In a short time after plants are set they begin to blossom. All blossoms should be pinched or cut off as plants should not fruit the first Season set. MULCHING, | In the early winter cover plants with straw or marsh hay very lightly, just enough to slightly protect the plants. Leave the mulch undisturbed until the plants begin to grow the following spring. Then, with a fork or rake, part the mulching directly over the row. In mak- ing this opening in the mulching see that it is wide enough to allow the plants to grow without any obstruction. The mulching should remain between the rows to hold moisture and to Keep the berries clean at fruiting time. SPRAYING THE PLANTS. Fortunately, the strawberry has but few enemies. However, there are some insects which work upon the plants. For any insect which eat holes in the leaves of the plants spray with arsenate of lead, using three pounds of the lead to fifty gallons of water. Put the lead into a three-gallon bucket; pour over it enough water merely to moisten. Then with a mallet similar to a potato masher pulverize it thoroughly, adding water as you pulverize, until you have made it into a creamy paste. Add this to fifty gallons of water and mix thoroughly. Gen- erally one spraying will destroy any leaf-chewing insect. For any fungous trouble, such as leaf-blight or mildew, use lime- sulphur solution in the proportion of two gallons of solution to fifty gallons of water. This material may be purchased from any manufac- turer of spraying materials. However, it is unnecessary to spray at 175 all unless some insects are working upon your plants or some fungus is present upon the foliage. PICKING, PACKING AND MARKETING. Do not pick strawberries when the vines are wet from dew or rain, unless the season is wet and local conditions make it necessary to do so. Do not jerk the berries off, but pinch the stem with the thumb nail, leaving a short piece of stem to each berry, which will aid the berry in shipping and also will give it a better appearance. Berries which are to be shipped a long distance should be picked before they become fully ripe. Berries which are to be marketed at home may be perfectly ripe before picking. Pick over the vines every day or as often as enough berries ripen to justify it. TREATMENT OF PLANTS AFTER FRUITING. After the plants have fruited mow off the foliage, using an or- dinary two-horse mowing machine or sickle or scythe. The size ot the patch will determine the kind of tool which should be used. If the foliage dries quickly after being cut off—say within forty-eight hours—the entire patch may be burned over by setting fire on the side of the patch from which the wind is coming. The wind will blow the fire over the field quickly and it will consume all of the mulching and foliage without injuring the crowns of the plants. Should condi- tions not permit the burning over, rake up the refuse and haul it off the field. After the mulching has been taken care of either by burn- ing or hauling away, take a common breaking plow and throw a furrow from each side of the row into the center of the space between the rows. This will leave a ridge or back furrow between every two rows of plants. This may be leveled down either with a five tooth cul- tivator or with a harrow. It is well to use a harrow going both north and south, and east and west over the patch, This levels the soil and draws enough fine soil over the crowns of the plants to permit them to make their new root system. Should you not care to use a break- ing plow to narrow the rows, take a two-horse corn cultivator and tear out the sides of the rows, leaving only a narrow space in the center. Harrow the same as with the breaking plow, and be sure and use a harrow which will permit the teeth to be slanted backward, so that it will not tear out the plants. After the plants begin growing, cultivate and hoe the same as with newly set plants. When hoeing, cut out all the weaker plants, leaving only the strongest and best ones. By following these suggestions you can get a large crop of berries the following spring, making two big crops from one setting of plants. After the second crop of berries is picked, plow the plants under and sow forty to fifty pounds of winter-vetch seed per acre. This is one of the greatest legume crops ever grown, and the best crop to prepare the ground for another crop of berries. GRAFTING (By Prof. O. B. White, Colorado). It has been proven by long experience that if properly done, the grafting over of old trees by top-working brings quicker returns than the replanting of young trees. In fact, it is not uncommon to see a fairly good crop on the three-year-old top of a top-worked tree. Top working, as a means of establishing a weak-growing variety on a stronger root system than its own, is coming into high favor, The practice of grafting is not a mysterious art, aS many suppose, but is so simple that any careful orchardist»can and should do it him- self. All common fruit trees can easily be budded or grafted. The apple and pear may be inter-gratted upon each other, and this is true of the peach, plum, apricot and almond. However, such whole- sale mixing is not good practice, and the pear and apple never take a good union. 176 —T = —~ ee a Peach grafts start vigorously upon apricots, and plums upon the peach trees. ' Growth in diameter of the tree only takes place in a very small region between the bark and the sap-wood. ‘This part of the stem is called the cambium, and in this thin layer of tissue the cells are still active while the activity of each succeeding layer on each side grows less and less. The important point in grafting is to see that the cambium layers of the steck and the scion are matched at some point. When the growth is active we say the bark ‘peels.’ Budding is done during this period, not only because the ease with which the bark separates from the wood simplifies the work of inserting the bud, but as the growth is more active the tissues of the bud and the stock are more likely to unite. It does not pay to graft trees which show poor growth, and it seldom pays to top-work any crab. It is also questionable as to whether it pays to top-work stone-fruit trees. While good tops may be grown on either peach, apricot or almond, it is doubtful whether these crops will bear much quicker returns than young trees set in the place of the old ones. There are various methods of grafting, the most common in the West being cleft and kerf grafting. These operations are simple and are known to most orchardists. In cleft grafting, the limb is sawed off squarely, the stub split down about two inches with the grafting chisel, and the clefts wedged open with the scion inserted as a wedge. The first bud should be left a little below the top of the wedge, cutting the edge of the wedge opposite the bud a little thinner than the other. The scion is then driven firmly into place with the lower bud to the outside and a little below the top of the cleft. It is important that fhe inner bark on the outer edge of the wedge should be brought in contact with the inner bark on the stub. It is be- tween these parts that the union takes place. Kerf grafting is almost the same as cleft grafting, only the stub is prepared by saw cuts instead of splitting. These are made on oppo- site sides of the stub and trimmed to thin V-shaped grooves with a saddler’s knife, the scion is then trimmed to fit, driven firmly into place and waxed as in cleft grafting. It is not good practice to remove the whole top of the tree the first year and graft all the stubs. Often this proves too much for the tree and it fails even after the grafts have made a good start. They may linger two or three years and then die. A better plan is to cut away only enough limbs to set scion for a good top, generally about half of the tree. Working of more stubs re- sults in too dense a top, or necessitates their removal later. The remaining limbs may be shortened, but some foliage is needed to protect the stubs and trunk from sun-scald, as well as to supply nourishment. PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING It is an easy matter to learn how to prune where one has the plants to work upon, and the time to watch their responses to the operations made upon them; but it is a difficult matter to tell others how to prune. No two plants are alike. No two branches are alike. No definite rules can be formulated which will apply to every kind of plant in every locality in which it may be growing. While there is more or less of difference in the style or sys- tem of pruning used in different sections of the country, there are certain well defined principles which will apply to all plants in any climate, or under any system of pruning. Pruning will modify the vigor of plants, and in some ways will cause them to produce larger and better fruits. It will keep the plants within bounds and may ilzire change the habit from wood producing to fruit producing. Pruning allows the removal of superfluous parts and of injured branches or roots. Intelligent pruning will facilitate the operations of spray- ing, harvesting and cultivating the orchard, and will enable the oper- ator to train the plant in the form most fitting with his ideal. When the plants are making an excessive amount of wood growth they do not make fruit buds. Checking the growth on the top by pinching or summer pruning will tend to produce fruitfulness. And while fruit bearing may be to a large extent governed by the methods of pruning, the habitual production of fruit is better regulated by small amounts of pruning regularly done, than by heavy pruning at infrequent intervals. In the case of old trees which have been neglected, it may take two or three years after severe pruning before the balance between top and roots can reach an equi- librium and the tree become fruitful. Light pruning every year is much better for the trees than heavy pruning done occasionally. Pruning may be made a means of thinning the fruit by remov- ing the fruit producing wood. In the case of plants which produce their fruit on the long growths of the season before, as in peaches, quinces, raspberries, blackberries and grapes, many fruit producing buds will be removed with each branch that is pruned off. In the case of trees that tend to an alternation in the years of fruitfulness, as in apples and pears, the tendency to alternation may be some- what overcome through pruning. SPRAYING The operation of spraying has come to be regarded as of vital im- portance to the horticulturist, taking rank along with each of the other important cultural practices. “Spraying is only: one of the several practices which are of fundamental importance in the care of fruit plantations. Old and neglected orchards are hardly worth the labor and expense of spraying. Spraying is perhaps not always necessary unless insect or fungus troubles are present, but as these enemies are nearly always troublesome and no one can be sure of their absence, it is good insurance to spray. The risk is too great to allow the practice to be omitted. HAND AND POWER PUMPS. In orchard spraying there are but two types of sprayers to be con- sidered, one the hand pump and the other operated by power, as gas, compressed air, gasoline engine or traction power. It is the opinion of all practical orchardists who are making a success of their spraying work, that the hand power outfits are not suited to an orchard cover- ing more than four or five acres. This is because the necessary pres- sure and speed cannot be obtained in hand power machines to cover the larger acreage in the limited amount of time that is available. In point of time, any application of spray mixture must be applied when it will do the most good, and with insects this limits the number of working days to just a few, possibly ten days, when the insects can be most effectively reached. The spraying must be done during that time, as either before or after that period the spray mixture will not be so effective as the insects will have passed out of reach. The same thing is true of fungous diseases and the grower must know something of the life and habits of the pests he is combating. The time has long since passed when it is reasonable for any orchardist to ask if it pays to spray. That problem has been so thor- oughly proven and so widely advertised that anyone who asks such a question, especially if he has been anyway concerned in fruit growing or has read, even casually, any publication treating on the subject of fruit growing, cannot help being convinced that spraying does pay, and pay well, when properly done. 178 &. a But to make it pay the best the spraying equipment must be suited to the conditions under which it must be used. The chief points to be considered in this respect are the kind of plants to be sprayed—that is, whether they are strawberries, grapes or tree fruits, and the acre- age to be covered. In all machines it is important that there be an effective agitator for keeping the liquids stirred constantly while being applied to prevent the heavier part of the material from settling to the bottom and causing irregularity in the strength of the mate- rial that is applied. SPRAYING MATERIALS. Since the discovery of effective means of controlling insect and fungous diseases of plants a great number of preparations have been devised for the control of special diseases on certain crops. Such a formidable list of these preparations have been published that it would seem at first glance that one would need an elaborate chemical labora- tory in order to prepare the materials. However, the years of scien- tific and practical experimentation along this line have eliminated many of these spraying materials so that the plantsman today needs to know how to prepare less than a dozen different sprays in order to control any of the diseases for which a remedy is known. TO PREVENT HORNS GROWING ON YOUNG CALVES When circumstances are favorable, as in the case of farmers who build up their herds by raising the progeny, the horns may be prevented from growing by a simple and practically painless method, and the custom of preventing the growth of the horns is becoming more popular and more generally practiced under all conditions ex- cept in the case of calves dropped on the open range The calf should be treated not later than one week after its birth, preferably when it is from three to five days old. The agent to be used may be either caustic soda or caustic potash, both of which may be procured in the drug stores in the form of sticks about the thickness of an or- dinary lead pencil and 5 inches long. These caustics must be han- dled with care, as they dissolve the cuticle and may make the hands or fingers sore. The preparation of the calf consists in first clip- ping the hair from the parts, washing clean with soap and warm water, and thoroughly drying with a cloth or towel. The stick of caustic should be wrapped in a piece of paper to protect the hands and fingers, leaving one end of the stick uncovered. Moisten the uncovered end slightly and rub it on the horn but- tons or little points which may be felt on the calf’s head, first on one and then the other, alternately, two or three times on each, allowing the caustic to dry after each application. Be very care- ful to apply the caustic to the horn buttons only. If it is brought in contact with the surrounding skin it will cause pain. Be very careful also not to have too much moisture on the stick of caustic, as it will remove the skin if allowed to run down over the face. After treatment, keep the calf protected from rain, as water on the head after the application of caustic will cause it to run down over the face. 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