il Ui THE FARMERS' REGISTER. A l^OBTTHLY PXTBUOATION, JDevoted to the Improvement of the Practice, SUrPORT OF THE KJVTERESTlS OF ^GRICUETURE. EDMUND RUPFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. And he gave it for his opinion, " that whoever could make twro cars of com, or two blades of grass, to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew before, would deserve better of mankind, and do more essential service to his coun- try, than the whole race of politicians put together." Swift. VOL. V- PETXIRSBUBO, Vil. PUBLISHED BY THE PROPRIETOR 1838. Pew TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOL. V Abutments, 2 Address of Mr. Madison to the Agricultural Society of Albemarle, 412 Address to the Ag;ricultural Society of Dorchester, 539 — exceptions to some of its positions, 610, 664 Address to the Agricultural Society of Fredericks- burg, 649 Agricultural schools, 14 Agricultural journals, influence of, 34---importance of 599 Agricultural tour in western N. York, extract from, 224 Agricultural condition of Alabama, 294 Agricultural communications, the use of real signa- tures to 249 Agricultural Convention in Virginia, failure of, 63 Agricultural Convention of New York, proceedings of 28, 762 Agricultural improvement, governmental action in aid of, 449 — by small farmers, 101 Agricultural Survey of Massachusetts, remarkson,253 Agricultural Societies, Arthur Young's opinion of, 602 Agricultural Society, Central, proceedings of, 614 Agricultural Society of Fredericksburg, proceedings of, 609— Address'to, 649 Agriculture, the morals of, 304 Agriculture, some of the common errors which serve to depress it, 187 Agriculture connected with physics, 278 Agriculture in Maryland, improvement of, 124 Agriculture of Virginia, prospects of, 127 Agriculture of Nelson and Amherst, 7, 460 — of Camp- bell, 34 Agriculture, in Calvert, Mar}'land. 49 Agriculture of Halifax, Virginia, 117 Agriculture of western New York, account of. No I, 441— No. II. 555 Agriculture, and other notices of Warren county, N. C. 228 Agriculture, British, improvements and prospects of, 107 Agriculture, Board of, (British) on the establishment of, 641 Agriculture, law for aiding improvement of, in New York, 764 America, observations on, in several voyages, (extract from an old publication,) 81, 146 Animalcules from flint, 53 "Anirnalized carbon," identity of with prepared hu- man excrements, 251 Anirnalized carbon. Lance's, 250 — Owen's, 397 Apple trees, new method of propagating, 206, 213 Apples, to keep sound, 181 Arable land, 564* Asparagus, culture of, 37, 398, 662 B Banks, the several operations of, on agricultural and general interests, 422 BaVtram, the self-taught American botanist, 455 Beans, to harvest 558* Beavers on Nottoway river, 561— proposal to domes- ticate, 616 Bedding land, 3 Bees, new mode of hiving swarms of, 13 Beet sugar, 695, 552— bounty for, 47— full directions for manufacture of, 91— fabrication of in France. 150, 374. 428 Beet sugar culture, extension of in Europe, 107 Birds, remarkable attraction of, 398— to keep from seeds 246 Birds, migration of 570 Black-weevil 551 Bhghtin pear trees 188, 359, 552 Bone manure 90, 183, 250 Book farming 607 Boring for water near London 177, 178 Bots, or grubs in horses 457 Bread baked by steam 286 Bread as food for cattle and horses 90 Bricks, dilference of wet and diy in masonry 293 Bridge of Fiibourg, account of 396 Bridges 72 British opinions on the 'Essay on Calcareous Ma- nures,' and the original discovery of one of its po- sitions 380 Buckwheat as a green manure 219 Bud, each one has its roots 640 Bull, short-horned, Mr Booths 383 Burnt earth, its influence on the spirit in wine 264 Burnt clay as manure, its preparation and application 134 C Calcareous earth, action of in preserving putrescent matters 154 Canal boats, experiments on, at high velocities 79 Canals, resistance to motion in, relative to velocity 575 * The eight pages (sigjnature 71) which follow 552, were numbered incorrectly, by mistake of the printer. All theait icies on them are here marked (thus*) and the references arp made to the proper numbers for those pases. The reader can mnke the corrections re- quired, by referring to the pivceding and succeeding pages. FARMERS' REGISTER, Caprification, process of 393 ''Carrying coals to Newcastle" 174 Cattle, feeding on different kinds of food 265 — short- liorned, high prices of 505— English, the difierent breeds of 454 — imported, recent sale of 377 Cattle-show of the Dorchester Agricultural Society 546 Cauliflowers, to preserve through winter 260 Cellars 226 Chemistry applied to agriculture 270, 273 Clay as manure 1S3 Clay farms, management of 313 Climate of the west 54 Climate, on the alleged change of in this country 664 Clover, sapling, or large red 188 Clover fallow for wheat 287 Clover-seed, Brooks' machine for thrasliing out 668 Coal, consumption of in Great Britain 693 Coal pits, Graham's, visit to 315 Combustion, spontaneous, 255, 492 Commercial reports, 63, 126, 191, 256, 320, 447, 578. 767 Convention, Southern, report of 506 — Remarks on 506 Convention of Editors, proceedings of 669 — report of in regard to delinquent subscribers, 671 — and reso- lutions, 672 — report and resolutions in regard to ed- itorial conduct, 673 Convention, Agriculture], of New York, sketch of pro- ceeding of 28, 762 Corn, cultivation of 691 — experiments on 754, 565* Corn, heavy crop of 756 Corn-fodder, experiments to test the propriety of gath- luring 254 Corn-suckers, products of 203, 309, 754 Corn, twin, experiments on the product of 483. 754 Corn, questions as to the economy of cutting up 330 Correspondence, private, extracts fiom, 189, 511, 674 Cotton culture, not suitable for lower Virginia 5 Cotton, long staple, on the cultivation of in South Car- olina 44 Cows, on milking, 662 Cow-tree 262 Crops, state of 128, 255, 319 Crops, prospect of in South Carolina 252 Crops, mixed, on raising 389 Crows, method of destroying 213 Cucumbers, to have early 459 Curculio, fruit, habits of and remedies for 74 Currants, cultivation of 2C0 Cut-worm 440 — habits of and remedies for 74 D Diking in Charlotte county 116 Disease, remarkable case of in an ox 605 Piseases (and remedies) of live stock in g?nerai 618 — of oxen and cows 622 — of calves, 623 — of horses, 624— of sheep, 627— of lambs, 635— of swine, 635 Dog, sagacity of 675 Draining, &.c. Treatise on, by Johnstone, commei-'ced 613, and continued, 697 to 728 E Economy, items of 210 Editorial notices and remarks onttie bounty on wheat, in Maine 44 — Malaria, and autumnal diseases, causes and prevention of 41 — salt, a manure for cotton 46 — lime as manure, 46 — bounty on beet sugar in Massa- chusetts, 47 — Chinese Mulbfrrv, not produced from seeds 48 — the flour riot in N. York, and progress and prospects of mob-rule 49, tii" Brussa Mulberry 55 — wheat crop of 1S37, 62— d-.mger of using imperfect seedrvvheat 63 — the failure of the proposed Agricul- tural Convention, and on the petition for a Board of Agriculture 63 — rotatory steam engine 117 — on edi- torial puffs, 125 — prospects oi' agriculture in Va., 221 <=-8paaon and state of crops, 128 — on anonymous and avowed communications 189 — on faults charged to the Farmers' Register 190 — t!ie course of the legis- lature of Va. in regard to agriculture 191 — season and crops, 192 — ^suckering corn — on G. H. Walker's writings 220 — the diseases of wheat 233 — Kyan's procissto prevent dry rot 243 — on "asperities of re- mark" of correspondents 249 — identity of "animaliz- ed carbon" vvitli prepared human excrements 251 — on the agricultural survey ordered of Massachusetta 253 — experiments on corn-fodder recommended 254 — explanation of mistake 254---on the supposed fall of young frogs from the clouds 255— the relation of certain plants to the soils on which they grow 276 — the advantage of wet bricks for masonry 293 — the injurious effects to horses of eating corn from new-ground 303 — native silk worm 308 — corn suckers 309 — encouragement of wheat culture in Maine 311— agricultural <»xcursions 319 — season and state of crops 319— on Washington's cor- respondence 321 — the "Poudrette Company" of N. York 353 — denial of the alleged disappearance of lime, after its application 373 — machine tor extract- ing stumps 374 — spring wheat in w^-stern New York 375— Mr. Herbemont's productive vines 379 — on some British opinions in regard to the doctrines of (he 'Essay on Calcareous Manures' 381 — foreign publications, the diflicuitiesof procuring for the Far- mers' Register 399 — the operations and injurious effects of banks of circulation 427 — governmental action in aid of agricultural improvement 429 — sea- son and crops, in October 418 — on republishing Johnstone's work on draining, and Alton's Essay on Peat 461 — on the commencement of a cattle-mania, as shown by the high prices paid for Durham stock 505 — on the marl of Virginia being used in Connec- ticut 506— on the 'lieport of the Southern Conven- tion' 306. Plan and queries for obtaining full infor- mation as to the pructical effects of marl and green- sand 509, 510, 511. Sheep husbandry for middle Virginia 512 — preface to Johnstone's Treatise on Draining, and remirks on Elkington's method 513. On the calcareous deposite on the pebbles of the rid^e near Lake Ontario 560* — on agricultural ex- cursions 569* — injustice and ill-policy of the higher rates of post.ige on periodical magazines, and espe- cially on the Farmers' Register572---on the limestone (so called) oi- marl of South Carolina, and the re- markable and total neglf^ct of its use 597, 693 — the difference of value in different kinds of lime 605 — on some positions deemed erroneous in Dr. Muse's Address 610 — on domesticating beavers 616 — on the extension of manuring witii leaves 665 — on the pro- ceedings of the Editorial Convention 669 — notices to subscribers, on arrears, erasures of names, and postages 690— the safety of rail road travelling 752. Contrast of the course of New York and Virginia, in regard to governmental support to agriculture 762 Eggs, 360 Electro-magnetic machine, 129, 232, 300, 603, 694, 757 Embanking low grounds 438 Emigration to the west, results of 117 Enactments of the legislature of Va. aiding cajials, railways, roads. Sec, 87 Experiments, unsuccessful 171 Explanation of mistake 254 F Facts worthy of consideration 123 Fare, old English 107 Farm, Shirley, notice of, 184, Mr. Venable's, account of 30 Farm Reports, (British) — of North Hampshire, 676, of Kyle, in Ayrshire 729 Farmers' Register, conditions of publication, as made conformable to the resolutions of the Editorial Con- vention, 696 Farming, the general want of economy in 207 FARMERS' REGISTER. Faiining of J. F. Edmunds, same account of 211 — of Richard Sampson, 364— of Mr. Steenrod 616 — in Loudoun 5J>3 Ferret, notice of 392 Fi;r, account of 393 Filberts, to keep sound, 675 Filth, police of in towns, an'TY, BY SUBSTITUTING CAAAI.S FOU PO.\DS, TO SUPPLY WATJill POWER TO MILLS. To the Kilitor of the [■armors" Register. Perliaps the most efficient aid ever renderec] by the Vir>xiiiiii lei!;i.slatLire to tlie cause of aijriculture, was the |)as.-!aire of tl^^act whicli affords facilitie.'^ to millers lor di.-5|)eiisiair with mill ponds and suli- etitutiiii^ canals in tiieir sleaii. JMany millers in this county have availed themselves of the privi- K'ire conilMTed by this act: and ! consider it more than probable, that in the sjjace of twenty years, Avhen the present ex|)erimen;s, now in operation, have fully developed the advanta<::es of the canal over the dam system, there will not be a pond in the county of Charlotte. The obvious advantajres of canals over ponds arc — on the score of heah h — the draining of land — the increase of water fall — and the less apparent ailvaiuaiie of increasing the quantity ol water in a •riven time. No facts or artjuments are necessary to afford addilional confirmation to the well-established and very prevalent ojiinion, that mill ponds engender sickness. But when these ponds are thoroughly dramed and put under cultivation, as they are in many parts of this county, the vicinity of the canal becomes as healthy as any oilier situation on a run- ning stream, as the exj)erinients in tliis county most am])ly show. As regards the fill, it is generally increased by giving such a length to the canal as, with a small stay, to throw the back water above the extreme poiot of eddy water from the pond. Airreeably to ray promise, Mr. Editor, I proceed to give an account of the practical operation of these mills that 1 have visited in this county, that are supplied with water by canals that were for- merly supplied by ponds. The first I will notice is Major William Gaines', on Little Warrislbrk Creek. The stream affords at his mill seat a sufficiency of water for a good common country grist mill. For many years, a large pond supplied this mill with water. The re- peated coiDplaiiits of the neighborhood of its nn- ^ healthiness, and the large quantity of valuable land submerged by the pond, induced the present proprietor to take down his dam and substitute a canal. The canal was cut about two thousand yards long, and made to take in at its mouth nearly (or quite) the whole stream. Its cost I un- derstand was about fitieen hundred dollars. The cost was greatly increased by an unusual quantity of solid rock encountered by the ditchers. The land reclaimed, is about forty acres, which, if well drained, would command in this county, with its peculiar advanti'ges of location, the high price of three or four thousand dollars. The pond vvas drained in the early part of the last year, it was too late, however, for the natural grass crop that grew on it, to come to lull maturity ; yet with this disadvantage, and the additional one of very im- Vol. V— 1 perfect draina£re, the pond produced a crop of wild grass ecpial in luxuriance to the thickest set artifi- cial meadow I ever saw. Although many parts of the pond were covered with water, yet it vvas estimated that more than a hundred stacks ol'good hay might have been saved fi-om it, if the whole had been cur. The value of this (juantily of hay might be estimated at a thousand dollars, which sum is a moderate calculation for the annual nett profit of th(! Ibrty acres, if they were well drained and set in grass. This canal has been so recently cut, tliat the effect of draining ihe pond, on the health of the neighborhood, has not been fully as- certained. The proprietor, however, thiidis'that he hi'.s a be;ier mill than tbrmerly. His mill, by the way, is built with a reaction wheel, and until the summer droughts set in, its merits cannot be fiillv compared with the old mill. One of the greatest advantages, in my view, of a long canal over a pond, is the gain in tlie quantity of water. It is readily conceded, that a pond, by accumulating water when the mill is idle, will lor a time supply a better head of water than the ca- nal; but when such accumulated water is spent, the supply of water is much less from the pond than would be from a canal: the reason of which is, that :i very large portion of the water in all large ponds, is lost by evaporation. An old miller once told me, that in windy weather, the wind would drive the water back, and would not permit it to leed his mill as freely as in a calm day. I have no doubt tiu-re was a smaller supply of waler in windy weather, but the true reason was the great increase of eviiporation in windy weather. When a fresh is anticipated in our large rivers, high winds are always considered a favorable prognostic. This loss from evaporation is alwaj's greater in the dry hot weather of summer, when the millers are most in want of water, and it is at such times that I have observed a great superiority of the water-power of canals. It will therefore be seen, that with a pond of a given extent, the smaller the stream, the greater will be the [)roportional loss from evaporation. So that mill seats upon small streams would be more benefited by a change Irom a pond to a ca- nal, than those on large ones. But perhaps the very greatest advantage of a canal, is that it may- be made of any length, and thus increase the fall of water, and the length of the diameter of the water-wheel, to any desired extent. And this in- crease is made at little expense, compared with the expense and loss of land caused by raising a dam to a very unusual height. The next chtuige from a pond to a canal, that I will notice, is the canal that supplies the mill of Dr. Isaac Read. This mill is situated, also, on VVarddlbrk, very near its junction with Little Ro- anoke. The pond formerly attached to this mill, was drawn off many years ago, bya former owner, Mr. Allen. And it is supposed that a most deci- ded benefit has been produced on the health of the neighborhood. Settlements in its vicinity that were formerly considered sickly, are now remarkable for health. A bare view of the premieea would in fact FARMERS' REGISTER [No. I. convince any one that no source oi' disease existed in or about the canal or stream. The canal is constantly supplied with fresh run- ninir water; as well as the old channel of the creek, and but little stagnant water is any where to be Ibund in the flat, ahhough it is not well ditched. The canal to this mill, is upwards of two thou- sand yards long, and the original cost nearly 81,500. For the want of sullicieiit width, and sutTicient slope to the canal banks, the expense of cleaning out, and recently o!' widening, has been considerable. I would urge it upon all those who contemplate cutting long mill races, to give suffi- cient width to the canal, and good slope to the ca- nal baid-ether, tlvat I have confined myself to a few mill seats on Wurdsfbrk, not because they illustrate the superiority of the canal plan, over the pond, better than others in the county, but sim[)ly because they were convenient to inspection. There are others, that upon one point particularly, show the superiority of the canal more fully than any of those already mentioned. 1 al- lude to the increase of fkll and consequent en- largement of the diameter of the waier wheel. Every person with whom 1 have conversed who has made the exchange from a pond to a canal, considers his mill as improved. If the above re- marks have no other efiect than cansing an inquiry into some of the facts aud conclusions above stated, I shall flatter myself that some little good is ef- fected; for an investigation of this subject, I am well convinced, will lead mill owners to the game conclusions as are here expressed. E. PLAN OP A DRAINED MILL POND, ON WARDS- FORK CREEK. — HILL SIDE DITCHES. — MA- KING MANURE. To the Editor of tlie Farmers' Register. In accordance with j^our request, made some- time since, I now proceed to give you a plain des- cription of an enibankment, or dike, surroundiui!; a portion of low grounds, consisting of about thirty acres. The land in question, is situated extremely low, and, in its naiural state, about one-iburth of it was covered with water, and nearly all the remainder, badly " water-sobbed" or saturated, and unfit for cultivaiion. Ft is now l(M-tile, and has borne re- peated and heavy crops of tobacco and corn with- out assistance. It has been in cultivation five or six years, and the toltacco crops averaged from three to lour plants to the pound, the first corn crop, about twelve barrels to the acre, and the last, not so nmch, on account of the extreme wet- ness of the season. It is now laid down in wheat, and intended to be sown in herds grass. It is en- tirely surrounded by an embankment, the base of whiidi is twenty feet wide, gradually slo[)ed from bottom, to two and a half feet at io[). The annex- ed drawing represents the form ol"the land, and tho dike and ditches by which it is reclaimed. The dotted lines, passing between a and j, and by 0 to k, represent the former bed of the stream oi" Wardslbrk creek, li-om which the water is novr diverted by the dam, or stop, l.j, into the canal, /, m, 71, which was made to supply Watkins' mill, instead of the pond which formerly covered all this low land. North. ^ South. The broadest surrounding line, passing through the letters, a. b, c, d, represents the dike, and gives the form of the land reclaimed. It is graduated by a level, and is about eight feet high. The straight line from e is a reclaiming ditch, FARMERS' REGISTEU [^0. 1 two and a half feet wide, passinf]^ mrougli the centre of the ground, (from north to south,) and empties into the receiver o crossino; at ritrht an-xles. Anotlierreclaiminir ditcli, in the same course (horn e,) marked g, commences below the bank made by the receiver o, and empties into another recluim- injr ditch at c, the southern extremity. The cross lines, h, o, and m g, represent receiving ditches, to which the rows ol' corn or tobacco run, at riirht anizles, and into which tiieir water fijrrows empty. These receiving ditches empty into the reclain)ing ditcli, e, g, and also into another run- ning along the inside oi' the base of the dike, (as a line runs,) the whole distance, and which is emp- tied through the dike, by a water gate, at i. The largest receiving ditch, o, running east and west across the centre of the dike, is six teet wide, the earth dug out of it, thrown on tlie lower side, and is connected with the dike at both ends. — There is a water gate in tliis ditch, at the base of the dike at the eastern end (o,) the object of which is to cut off all communication, between the upper and lower halt; so that in excessive rams each half will retain the water only that falls on it. Other- wise, the water would all settle down at the lower end, and drown the crop before it could be dis- charged. When the water has fallen in the creek, both gates are hoisted, that at o, in the six foot re- ceiver, and that at i, through which the water fi- nally passes off into the stream below. The lines in the piece p, runninflr north and south, from the bank of the large receiver, n, and emptying into the smaller one, g, represent corn or tobacco rows. Each row has a water iurrow, which IS never suflered to be filled with dirt in the process of cultivation, but is kept well opened, so that it will drain off into the receiver, and that into a reclaiming ditch, and all is finally discharged ihrouirh the bank, by a water gate at i. The reader will perceive, that the corn or to- bacco rows are all emptied into receivers or cress ditches, and these again communicate with the reclaiming ditch, passing through the centre and that located at the base of the interior oi' the em- bankment, and finally, the whole is discharged through the bank, by the water gat^, at the lou-er end, at i. In great freshets, this gate is closed, and prevents all communication between the wa- ter outside, and the inside of the dike. It is raised as soon as the creek falls, and the water collected jn the dike, is discharged into the stream below. Before closing this communication, I will add a few remarks on the subject of hill side ditches, or conductors. My first observation is that they are generally, in this section of the country, made too Email. They are not suflicient to hold the water in excessive rains, and consequently the water spills over the banks and, in many cases, tliey do more harm than good. I have had some of this Icind of experience myself, but have not on that account lost my fiiith in hill side ditches. Another fault in the construction is that they are fretiuently made too long before they are emptied, and in consequence of that fault, in proportion as the ditch increases in length, the collection of water is increased, until it is iiot sufficient to hold it, and it breaks over before it has arrived at the appointed emptying jilace. They are likewise frequency broken by collec- tions of water in the intermediate spaces between the conductors. In these intermediate spaces the water collects and forms sluices and runs into the ditches and fills then) with sand, the water com- ing down the ditch from above, meets wiili the obstruction formed by the sand, and breaks over. This may be remedied by running a furrow m a gently sloping direction across the sluice, froni just below the ijank of the upper, to the lower conduc- tor, so as to prevent the collection which forces the sand into the ditch and causes it to break. The true principle to avoid washing, is to [irevent the collection, and pass off the water \n smfdl bodies. It is the small drops of rain which fail and col- lects into little rills, and these again into larger bodies, that fills the ditches with sand, and causes them to break over and ultimately wash tfie land into gullies. The true principle then is to stop ihe little rills with gently sloping fiirrows and prevent the tbrniation of those larger bodies, which fill the conductors with sand, and cause them to be bro- ken. In conclusion, I will add a remark on the subject of raising manure, because it is in vain tocalcuiaie on success in farminr up the stalks, a bad one. Tthe stalks are wortli sompihinir to remain in the field, tliey arc valuable, it" ploui^Hied in with the wheat crop in the fall, and worth somelhirig it' cut down and not I'lounhed in, consecjuently, there is some loss ol labor, especially when we take into the account, that leaves, or other ve<2:etable matter is cenerally more convenient to our farm pens. We have so little labor to bestow to raisinj^ manure, we surely oiifrht to lose none, every lick onsrht to count. By haulnifj corn stalks, we are more or less, robbintr Peter to pay Paul. We can ijeneraliy ffet leaves from land which we do not desiirn for cultivation. J. F. Edmunds. fVardsfork, Charlotte. For the Fanners' Register. TiiR u^'FIT?f^:ss and unsuxtablenkss of THE CUI/rt'RIO OF COTTON ON OUR FARMS, WHKN THKIR IMPllOVEMENT IS DESIRED. THE ABUNDANCE AND VALUE OF MARL AND GREEN SAND IN SURRY COUNTV. Surry County, February, 1S37. As the season is now fast approachinelled at some I'uturc day to pay double their value. For ordmary Carmers, the sinirle horse raUe will answer everv purpose; it is more simple in its construction, less liable to be broken or cleranijed, and may be used wiihoiit ioar ul' patents, prosecutions, orcoii- tliclinir claims. For the Fanners' Register. OX THE AGUICULTURK OP NEI.,SON AND AM- IltlRST. No. II.* The coimlry east oftlie Blue Iliilixe, for twenty miles or more iu width, is very hilly, and in some pliices moiuitaiiioiis, bein/j bilersected with sjiurs from the main rid^^e runuin<^ oH" at riijht angles, and small chains running parallel to the great mountaui, it. i.s watered in every direction, either hv clear and copious streams, heading iu the nioimtains, and pursuing their course with a rapid fall to James river, or smaller streams flowing from springs which issue from the base of almost every liill. No country f have ever seen, is so abundant- ly and delightfully watered. It is difficult to find an hundred acres any where, that has not a stream ofclear water passing through it. The climate is eminently healihy, human hie being protracted to as great length as in any quarter of the globe. The midday of the summer season is sultry, the thermometer of Fahrenheit someliuies rising to tiinetv three or four degrees, and very generally to eiifhtv. Cut the niirhts, particularly near the Blue Ridge, are exceedingly pleasant, and gene- rally refreshed with a breeze, which sets in about sunset, oralitde alter, fi'om the mountain, and continues for some hours after night, dispelling the languor occasioned by the heat of the day, and rendering sleep sound and deliirhtful. The soil IS generally a red clay, varying some- what in shade, and often of very great depth. In m:inv instances, excavations of more than twenty feet (leen, exhibit no change. The grey lands I think, are rrenerally less productive, of which, however, there is not alarjie proportion; and those approaching to white, sometimes found in consid- erable, tracts, are by no means fertile. From the red lands, of which the writer has the most experience, when in good condition, an aver- asTo of six hundred weiirht of tobacco, twenty bush- els of wheat, and from six to eight barrels of corn, may be obtained from the acre, by good cultivation. The (Tenera! product of the country, is much less. If the farm requires imnrovement, in order to at- tain these residts, the fields to be cultivated in corn and wheat, should not be less than four — the ro- tation to consist of corn, wheat, and clover for two * Though this article is the second of a series, it has no dependence on the preceding number, which con- sisted of more general remarks, applicable to our agri- eultura in general. — Ed. Far. Reg. years. Thus, one lielil will be in corn, one in wheat, and two in clover every year. If'the land is alrea- dy in a state of' fertility, it vvill not maintain it, if corn is taken from it oftener than once in lour years. Nor does it seem expedieiu to let the land lie longer without a cleaning crop ; as locusts, sas- safras, briers, and weeds of various kinds, occupy it so rapidly, as to retpiire ii'reat labor again, to put it in proper condition lor proiiiabh! |)roducti()n. The ground intended l<)r tobacco, if highland, I would also divide into four smaller fieliis or lots. The rotation to be, tobacco, wheat, and clover for two years. As a preparation lor corn or tobacco, the laud should be broken deep with a good plough drawn by three strong horses, and as much of the ploughiuij as possible done in the fall and winter, because the winter's frosts assist materially in pul- verizing the land, and destroying insects injurious to the cro|)s, which are generally, or their eggs, deposited a few inches beneath the sod. In the, spriuiT, the land should be well harrowed, and rendered as smooth as possible. Then, (if not previously done) water furrows should be laid off with a rafter level, from forty to sixty fi^et apart, in proportion to the steepness of the land, having a fall of one inch, to every ten feet, and emptying into the nearest ravine. These furrows should be as deep and wide as they can be made with the plough, assisted by hoes or shovels to throw out the dirt. The system of ditching, as practised in the country bordering on the Roanoke, would [)er- haps be more eti'ectual against washing, but the ditches are very inconvenient to cross with the teams, in getting olf the crops. The larsre fur- rows made by the |)loughs, if kept carefully opea through the season, will, under ordinary circum- stances, prevent any serious loss of soil. Betweent these water furrows, and parallel with them, smal- ler furrows should be opened by single-horse ploughs, for receiving the planted corn. It is im- portant that the smaller furrows should be parallel to the larger, that in the cultivation of the corn, the ilirrows of the cultivating plouifhs, should assist in bearing ofi' the surplus water, from heavy rains, to the ravines. Injury from washing requires to be sedulously guarded against, by all who wish, in this region, to improve, or retain the fertility of their lands. Tlie corn, previously to planting, should be rolled in tar, in the pro|)orlion of a quart of the latter to a bushel of the ibrmer, and as much ground gypsum sprinkled over the mass as can be made to adhere. It is a grest advantage to the crop, when the corn is about a foot high, and directly after thinning, to re-plaster, by putting a small quantity on each hill. The cultivation of the crop consists in keepmi!; it free from weeds and grass, by as many plough- ings and as much hoe work as may be necessary for the purpose, remembering it is incurring con- siderable risk to plough afler harvest, during a dry season. It is usual with us, to gather the blades and tops, to rernove and slack them, as the first pro- cess. The corn is then cut up, and stacked on the ground, and the ground, if clean enough, sown with wheat, at the rate of a bushel and a half' to the acre, and put in with small ploughs. If the ground is loul with ijrass or weeds, it is broken by ploughs and smoothed by ban-owing; the wheat then sown and covered by liarrows. In the spring, near the last of FebruEiry, or during the first ten ••s FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 1. ^or twelve days of March, clover seed, in the qiian- 4i};y«ar a gallon to the acre, should be sown on the wheat, during the morning when the ground is frozen. The ihaw of the Bucceeding day, per- mits it to eater the soil and be covered vvilh great Tewularity. The writer hag found advantage in ;r6lliTig his clover seed in tar and ground gypsum, before sowinii. A gallon of hot water to a quart ■of Har, dilutes it, without destroying its adhesive properties. Clover seed, immer.sed in this mixture, :and then made to re(;eive as much gypsum as will adhere, is materially assisted in its subsequent Igeriiiination and growth, by the process. The •ensuing sjiring, after the clover is sown and in •an early stage of vegelation, the clover should be pJastered, with not less than a bushel of gyp- •Sum to tlie acre. This will ensure a good crop, 'in almost every instance, where there are plants ••enough en the ground to form an adequate cover. The galls and gullies, where they exist, (and they ■are the too frequent product of oiir bad agriculture) •must be strengthened by the i.pplicalion of fiirrn pen or stable manure, before they can produce and support grasses. I'he best land is chosen for tobacco, and none but the best will afford any profit in t lie culture. The [ireparation does not diller troni that lor corn, ■except that no furrows are to be run for planting tobacco, but places marked with the hoe at the usual distance of hills apart, and the plants de- posited there. The surfiice between the water liirrows, should be kept as smooth as possible dur- ing the cultivation of the crop, and the water fur- rows carefidly kept open. Wheat in the fall, and clover seed in the sprinir, follow the tobacco crop. And under this system, the land, if not loo severely scourged by grazing or mowing, will be Ibund im- proved in fertility at every rotation. In truth, this ursorne other analagous mode nuist be resorted to, il'the culture of tobacco is continued in this region; as the forest is cut down to so great an exicni. that | in many instances, woodland enough is not left lor the support of the respective farms. Havino- hastily sketched the system of culture, let us compute the probat)le income lo be obtained li-om a farm containing lour fields applied to the culture of corn and wheat, and lour smaller to the culture of tobacco. Suppose the larger fields to contain one hundred acres each, and the smaller thirty. If the land is brought to as high a state of fertility, as a few rotations such as I have describ- ed, or rather alluded to, may be expected to brinfr it, the land in corn will produce, according to the season, from six to eight barrels. The corn land sown with wheat, may be computed at ten bush- els, the tobacco land at twenty bushels per acre. Six hundred weight of tobacco "to the acre is a mod- erate crop. The wheat and tobacco crops are always for market, the corn only so far as there is a surplus beyond the wants of the farm. Suppose the farm to consist of one thousand acres, six hundred cleared, four hundred in wood, at ten dollars an acre, (the flill selling price for high land in this part of the country.) The stock to work it — ten horses, each at 8 GO 00 Twenty laborers per annum, each hired at 60 00 Farming utensils, waggons, &c. 500 00 The capital invested, would be S 11,100 00 The product, one thousand six hundred bushels of wheat, per bushel, $ 1 00 1,600 00 Tobac-.co, eighteeii thousand pounds, at $ 8 per cwt. 1,440 00 83,040 00 Deduct S 1,200 for the hire of labor, and $ 400 for the other expenses of the liirm, a sum that will be found ample, and -S 1,440 will remain, being about 13 per cent, profit on the capital invested. Or if the laborers, with their families, are the pro- perty of the land holder, supposing the whole number to amount to forty, and estimating them at an average of -^ 400 each, the capital then in- vested, would be ;J 27, 100; from the gross pro- duct, 3,040, deduct :$ 800 necessary annual expen- diture, and add 3 per cent, for annual increase ir« value of slaves, and the profit on the capital em- ployed will be about 10 jier cent. The price of la- bor would not be higher with us, than the amount charged in the ])recedifig estimate, l)ut for the com- petition of the public works, which is a temporary matter. And when the commercial embarass- ments of the south-west, are considered, witli theif efiect on the p'rice of slaves, particularly recent fai- lures, the value of that species of [iroperty, will be deemed as estimated sufficiently high. The stock of horses and other working animais^ may readily be sustained by those bred on the place, and the wear and tear of farming tools, wagons, &c. is supposed to be ftir more liian com-' pensated by the beet" and other small articles that may be annually sold. Sheep on such a liirm may be kept in suihcient numbers tofurnisli wool for the winter clothing of the laborers, and their fiimilies; and more than hoirs enough reared to supply them- with pork in the greatest abundance. In this esti- mate, no allowrmce is made lor corn sold, because it is deemed better matiagement to consume all on the firm, in siqiporting working animals ;ix lee' — the soil priucipnlly r clity. R'tween 2 and 3, is encountered a swHmp, or hijrhland slash, which was Ibund very trouble- some, bfin<2; completely covered with water during the winter and sprinji, and in suiiuiier, baked so hard, that a pick could scarcely penetrate the soil. The cleaririir through tiiis swump was very heavy. In this distance, also, is crossed Fontaine's creek. O /er this stream is erected one of the handsomest stone structiues in this country — a drawin? 10,500— which, wiien we conir^uler that the stone liad to be conveyed tiiree uiik-s, is very nioierate. Tlie euibauiinient at either end ol'this briiiife is very heavy — about thirty six li'et hi^ili, auil in all, contains two thousand eigiit hundred cubic yards ol' earth. From No. 4 to 5, tliere is a beautiful straiiiht stretch of n(!ar!y Ibar miles. The cuttinjj; in sev- eral places on this i)ortion, is as much as twelve feet. Where the line crosses the head of Lynch's swamp, the riiige bemir nmch to the ri^dit, there is a very heavy embankment, thirty tJiur leet high in its deepest part, and containing nearly five thou- sand eight hundred cid)ic yards. Under tiiis bank there is an arched culvert, (six feet span, ninety feet long, and containinir tlu-ee hundred to three hundred and filiy perches,") whidi is a most beau- tillil specimen of masonry. The cuts on this por- tion, were principally ol'clay. In them were some- times encountered large isolated blocks of granite, measuring Trom five to ten leet in diameter, which had the ajipearance of having been, at one time, much subjected to iJie li-iction of water At one, place, also, the earth is impregnated with a good deaiol'iron ore, which rendered it exceedingly hard. Prom No. 6 to 7, the first half is heavy cutting, the remainder a he;ivy bank. Here, alter snikiiig the cuts eiirht or ten leet, throuirh clay, there was reached a stratuni of sand, which scarcely needed the plough or pick. On this portion is situated the first de[)ot, seven and a ludf miles Irom the junc- tion of the two roads, and midway between Eel- field and Gaston. The sliorl cut ve li'om No. 7 to 8, is on a heavy bank. From No. S to lo, which includes all that por- tion of the rail road from near Puckett's cross roads, to the summit, near the Roanoke, a dis- tance of seven miles, the location is most favora- ble— the country at one time, undulatiiiir so gen- tly and regularly, that the hills just serve to fill up the small valleys, and at another, so regular and level, that the road- way scrai'es alonirthe surlace, sometimes a foot or two above, at others, a toot or two below. The texture of the soil, very sandy and light. Between No. 12 and 13, these is a second depot. Another temporary depot is constructing at 15. The curve from No. 13 lo 14, brings you to the proper direction lor sinking the head of the ravine, by which the descent is made to the Roanoke, and the curve from 15 to 16, brings you into the direc- tion of that ravine. Tins ravine is then lidlowed to the flats of the river, and the same straight line pursued across these flats, which are here three- fourths of a mile wide, to the river. From 15 lo a point one thousand four hundred feet south of 16, there is a heavy cut, as much as thirty-one fi?et deep in one [ilace, and containing nearly seventy thousand cubic yards. The top is of a sUff clay — the middle third, stiff' clay mixed with large gravel — and the lower third, a mixture of clay and sand — the sand however prevailing. Next to this cut, the work consists principally of heavy embankment, till you reach the flats, across which there is a bank averaging about eight feet high. After passing through the last curve, or on reaching point No. 16, a spectacle no less re- markable than beautillil strikes the eye. The straight si retell of road does not slop at the river, but continues on in the same straight line, nearly to the summit on the other side — a thing unparal- leled in the annals of rail roads: not only that a per- lectly straight line could be obtained in the de- scent on this side — but that a valley should be so disposed on the opposite side, that this straight line, conlinueil, should allbrd the very best location lor the ascent to the next summit — and this too across a valley, the flats of which are two hun- dred liiet below the summit on either side. 'J'his straight line, when completed, will be tliree and a half miles long, and the Roanoke bridge, when completed, which is now in the course of construc- tion, will greatly add lo the beauty of the view. About the last seven hundred leet of the straight line between No. 16 and 17, is a [lartof the Raleigh and Gaston Rail Road. Just belbre reaching the Roanoke, the Greensville road curves down the rner and runs into a noble warehouse, which is now const ructing, three hundred leet by sixty. — This depot is immediately on the water's edge, and the Vthart, only filieen leet wide, will reach water sufficiently deep to float the largest bateaux. Cranes wul be fixed on the wharf iIjp raising produce Irom tlie boals to the level of the floor ol the ware- house, which is made as higli as the beds of the i cars, so tliat the produce can be loaded on them, I with but iitle additional trouble or ex|)ense. I At the point where the continuation of thia straight line strikes the Roanoke, the river ig aooul one thousand ieet wide at the water level. 1 A Itriilge is now constructing across it, which will j be completed in the course of the coming year — built on the plan of Townes' lattice bridiz'e, with ■double lattice, to consist of six spans — the piers ' and abutments of the finest granite, which is Ibund here in the greatest abundance. These piera and abutments will be Ibunded on the solid rock I which Ibrnis the bed ol" the river. Along the { whole of this line, stone is Ibund in great abun- ', dance and of the best (|uality. This was a most iortunaie circumstance, lor on the latter half of the ; road, the number of drains is almost unjirecedent- jed. Wherever the line varies the least from the I summii of the ridge, the head of some small ravine 1 is crossed, which calls tor at least a dry stone drain. The iiem of hauling, even now, is very considera- ble, but had stone been scarce, or only found at a distance, the expense of all the masonry, would have been very much increased. This stone most I frequently occurs in the shape of large isolated blocks, chiefly of g-ranite, varying much in de- j grees of hardness. Located as this road is, between two creeks, an abundant supply of white oak sills was easily ob- tained. Rails had to be obtained at a greater dis- tance; but the Felersbuig Rail Road and the Ro- anoke river furnished ready means for their deliv- i ery at either end of the line. Tlience they had I to be wagoned to the |;oints at which they were wanting. Grades. — The following table shows the beauty of the grades on this road. The first column con- tains mere points of reference, not corresponding to the similar numbers in the last table, but as thoso denoted points of curvCy or changes ofdirection, so these the chanires of grade. The second column, the elevation above tide vvaler at Petersburg, of the point on the same line. The third, the length 12 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1 of grade from the point opposite, to the point in the next line. The fourth, the rate per mile. The fifth, the total a.'^cent or descent in that distance. And the sixth, whether the grade rises, tails, or is level. o . O b, 2 ^ > > 4) O "3 X! J t n a, S 6 rj o CO Ascends, descends, or is level. 1 141.40 3219 19 11.50 ascends 2 152.90 4100 13.70 10.66 descends 3 142.24 1000 level 0.00 level 4 142.24 8750 32.20 53.37 ascends 5 195.61 2000 5.80 2.20 descends 6 193.41 8800 32.20 53.68 ascends 7 247.09 3000 15.84 9.00 descends 8 238.09 3824 32.20 23.33 ascends 9 261.-12 6043 15.84 15.13 descend.'3 10 216.29 6141 32.20 37.46 ascends 11 283.75 3150 level 0.00 level 12 283.75 3600 10.56 7.20 descends 13 276.55 3570 level 0.00 level 11 276.55 2100 24.82 9.87 ascends 15 285.42 6300 3.70 4.41 ascends 16 290.83 800 level 0.00 level 17 290.83 1800 12.67 4.32 ascends 18 295.15 2900 level 0.00 level 19 295.15 2800 12.67 6.72 ascends 20 301.87 2404 level 0.00 level 21 301.87 2200 16.37 6.82 ascends 22 308.69 2105 level 0.00 level 23 308.69 1500 50.16 14.25 descends 24 294.44 9100 93.45 161.41 descends 25 133.00 3200 level 0.00 level 26 No. 1, is at the junction of the two roads. No. 26, at the Roanoke. From an inspection of this table, the reader will see that all the grades are as easy as is desirable, till we come to point No. 23. From 23 to 25, the grade is very heavy. At No. 1, vou will perceive the elevation above tide, is 141.40 feet— at No. 23, 308.70 feet— and at 25, the elevation is 133 leet — about 8 feet below the point of commencement: so that from 23 to 25, a distance of only 10600 leet, the road had to de- scend through a greater space than it had risen in all the distance between 1 and 23. The great ditficulty here, arises from the fact of the summit approaching so near the Roanoke, that enough distance is not allowed ibr an easier descent. Even with the present grade, there is as much as 30 feet cutting at its head, and 12 feet filling at its foot. Previously to locating this portion of the road, the whole neighboring country was exam- ined, in hopes of a better descent ; but every where the summit was found to approach too near the river. The country was also examined with a view to an inclined plane, with stationary power ; but no location for such could be found, offering sufficient advantages to overcome the great objections always attendant on stationary power. As objectionable as this grade would be any where else, it is not attended with great dis- advantages, situated as it is, so near the termina- tion of the line. When the Raleigh and Gaston line is in operation, the locomotive which comes from Raleigh, having a head of steam, can, without expense, assist the Petersburg locomotive, with its train up this grade, and afterwards return to Gas- i ton. The Petersburg locomotive, in like manner, when it arrives at the Roanoke, can perform tha same good office for the Raleigh engine, on the south side of the Roanoke, inasmuch a3 quite a heavy grade is encountered there also, for the same reason. Again — a temporary depot, with a turn-out, is fixing at the head ot" the grade, and a locomotive can, in two or three trips, take from Gaston to this depot, as much produce as it can carry thence to Petersburg, and the train may bo thus formed on this turn-out, ready to connect to the engine bringing up the mail and passengers. A little experience will show the most economical method of managing the matter; but tiicre can be no doubt that the grade adopted is infinitely pre- ferable to the use of stationary povv'cr. Tliis grade will always be perli^ctly safe. For its superstructure, the largest timbers were selected, and iron tv/o and a hali' inches by three-eighths, is used; there is no curve at its foot, and tb.ere is a le- vel grade of nearly three-fourlhs of a mile, belbro reaching the river; eo that even should a brake give way in the descent, there would be no dan- ger of either running off, or of the passengers ta- king a cold bath in the Roanoke. The construction not being completed, it would be premature now to estimate the total cost. But that deficiency may be supplied as scon as the work is finished, from the otHcial accounts of ac- tual expenditures for the road. * Revenue. — I ■find Mr. Editor, that in these days, any rail road, or any rail road scheme, can be made on paper to yield a handsome revenue, so that under this head, I shall not resort to figures to make estimates of the future dividends which this road will probably yield, but merely satisfy myself with the statement of rather the sources, than the amount of its revenue. It will undoubt- edly bring to market all the produce, (consisting of cotton, tobacco and small grain) of the upper Roanoke — the produce from a large portion of Northampton and Halifax, fi-om Warren, Frank- lin, Wake, Chatham, Orange and Granville coun- ties. To nearly all these, will merchandize and goods of various descriptions, be returned on this road. It will be a link in the great northern and southern mail routes, and of course, the transport- ation of the mail will be secured to it, as well as the great amoimt of travel which always accom- panies, and will invariably stick to the mail. The local travelling, also, will be great. In fact, when I reflect, that in time, the Raleigh road is to bo pushed south, that an improvement will be pro- jected which will bring to this road the products of the rich lands of the Yadkin, and that the great western scheme, pushing itself into the very heart of Tennessee, and connecting with the Charleston and Cincinnati road, is to be connected at its eas- tern extremity with this work, I am completely at a loss to know what then would be the limit of its revenue, were none imposed by law. The terms on which this work was let, and the * This communication was received early in Decem- ber. The completion of the work has since been re- tarded much beyond the time then expected, by va- rious unforeseen difficulties, which have increased the total cost to $ 227,000. The railway was opened en- tirely to the Roanoke, and its regular trade com- menced on March 30th, 1837. — Ed. Far. Reg. [1837 FARMERS' REGISTER, 13 manner in which it has been successfully prose- cuted, is indeed a subject for congratulation wilh its Iricnds. At the tune it was let, a <^reat num- ber of public works were just about beino; com- menced, and labor was very scarce. The de- mand lor mechanics at the north, was so le tlie indiviihiid to form an accurate estimate of ilie relaiion ol' his own powers to them. 2. 'I'o increase the power oC the individual, and cousccpiently extend his do- minion over nature: and 3. 'I'o cnltiv^ate whate- ver liicuitics have a tendency to exalt the reli^'ious and moral PoniimiMits. appear to l)e ihe princijial objects ol' intellectual education. As the sphere is riarri)w or extended accorilinu; to the lank in soci- ety, the objects to be known must be diH'erent, or rather the pouits of view in which they are ;rani, with pome i'ew fitlditions and sulisiraclions to nrakc it perlect for tlie pur- pose. I am not aware that there is any Enixlish work like it. 6. Mechanical Drawing. — ft frequently hapfiens that fanners, when they wish an inijilenient aiier- eil, or ni;ule to a sliape ol llieir own conceiving, have dillicuUy in gtMtinir it done, from the me- chanic misunderstandiiii!;, or bein;ir unable to com- prehend, written or verbal directions. A sliolu acquaintance witii mechanical ilrawinur would ob- viate such dilTicullies, and ofien save much expense. 7. y/nunal Palhulogy, Physitdogt/, and retcri- nartj Medicine. — 1 would nolattenmt to supersede the v-ererinarian ; bui it is essential inat the iiu-mer should oe acquainted with the causes and symp- toms of the diseases catile are subject to, and of the remedies to be apjilied, in order to be able to treat them properly in cases o!" einertfencv. Phv- sioiotfy sliould be carefully culiivaied. Ereeeders are eternally falling into serious errors, from igno- rance of it. 8. J'JntomidDgij. — Only in n^laiion to the mode of propagation, and the habiis of the insects which are injurious to the farmer. 9. Oic.mistnj. — Without a perlect knowled;j;e of so much of chemistry as relates to ao;ricullure, (which would embrace a pretty (general knovv- ledije of it,) every other kind of knowledire would be comparatively useless. I need not offer a word in proof'of this. Tarncr^s, nr Brand's, Elements of Chemistry, and Davy^s jlgricuUural Chemistry, would be suiiable te.Kt books: the latter would be indispensable.* 10. English Grammer and Composition. — These should be a ir;ain consideration. laiprove- ment is generally the result of experience ; and the n)ore men communicate to each other the re- sults of their individual exf)erience, the more rap- idly will improvement advance ; as in the majori- ty of circumstances, communication can be made by writing only, it is obvious the cultivation of that art is of paramount importance. I know not that I can with property place Gal- vanic Electricity amouLr the subjects to be studied by the airnculiurist. My opinion is that it should be studied, for it appears to me, that the effects of galvanic actio;;, in the elaborating in the soil of the food of niants, slionid be taken into considera- tion. Bui I leave tho.se to determine, who are bet- ter able to judire. The works I have named as text-books, sufli- cienily point out the extent to which I would have the school education of a liirmergo. To the schools there should be attached good libraries of books, on the subjects I have named, as of History, Voyages, Travels, Geosrraphy, Statistics, and such like ; but not a volume ol" what is Termed polite literatin-e, for the moment a lad gets a taste for that sort of rubbish, it is good bye to everythinix else. Such a system of education as this, I airi aware, can be made general only by its being made a na- tional object ; and ihat it never will be, as lonu as we are ridden by the " monev- monster." Why do not the landlords sliake it off? If they tolerate it much longer, they will have to find quarters in * The private student should posses himself oi^ Far- aday, on Chemical Manipulation : it would save hiai a world of labor and disappouitinent. Vol. V— 3 the ugly lookinjT workhouses they are now so busy buildinjr to put the laborers and broken fiu-mers in, to starve them off. Every day, in the same breath that proclaims " national fLiith," they are told ihey must reduce their rents; and are held u|) in prose and verse, as they most detestable wretches unhanged. Yet, the simpletons, they hesitate to retort in the manner they should. Jjoileau, some- where or other, observes, le plus sot animal, a man avis, c'csi fhomme ; if instead oi'l'lnmime he had written le proprictaire Anglois, he would liave been nearer the mark. But much may be accomplished by private means; though not by the instrumentality of your bursting patriots, either whig or toiy ; for by theni I have always found— as the deviffound by the pig ' he sheared — more noise than wool. I need say nothing of the means: they are obvious; and any attempt at persuasion, to induce those most iulimaiely concerned, to attempt to carry some such plan as I have indicated, into general orpariiai execution, would derofjate from the im- portance of the object to be attained. B. DoNBAVAl?^D. I''rom tlie Genesee Farmer. KNOWLEDGE OF PLANTS APPLIED TO FARM- ING AND GARDENING. The chief advantage of a scientific knowledge of plants is, that it teaches the general laws of ve- ixetable economy, and we are enabled to apply this knowledge !o a great variety of cases which occur in practice. Instead ol being under the ne- cessity of ascertainini!; by experiment, a great number of iiicts, determine a general principle by experiment, and this general principle serves as a foundation liom which we may at once judfje of the truth orerrorof any thing which may bedirect- ly re.itirred to it. We hope it may be interestino- to the younger class of our readers at least to take a very brief view of the science of botany and the manner in which botanical knowledge is applied in practice. Botany is that part of natural histoiy which treats of plants. The term joZa/t^, in its most pro- per sense, applies to every thing in the vege- table kingdom, tiom the smallest herb which we tread upon, to the largest forest tree. It includes every thing fiom the minutest moss upon the rocks to the gigantic pines upon our western coast, of sixteen feet diameter and two hundred and thirty feet in height. The number of different plants which botanists have already named and described, amounts to nearly sixly thousand; hence, without scientific arranfrement, such a vast nmltitude would be but an inextricable mass of confusion. Plants are ac- cordinoly divided into classes, classes into orders, orders mto iienera, and genera into species; those he'inir placed in the same divisions or groups which have some common, fixed and leading characters or resemblances. Without this arrangement, if an unknown plant should occur to us of which we should wish to determine the name, it would be as impossible to delermme such name by description, as it would Ite to find a word in a dictionary without arrangement. V^e would have to turn over many thousand before we might chance to find the rio-ht one. But by meansof arrangement, we turn di- 18 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1. rectly to the depcriplion, in the same way Ihat we turn directly to the (iefinilion ofa word in adii'tion- ary by means of Uie alphahetical order of arrange- ment. In determining tlie name of a plant, we first find the class to which it helotios, Ilien tiie or- der ol' this class, then the genus of this order, and lastly the species of this genns. All plants belonging to the same species are considered to have originally s|)rung from the same seed. Co!ise- quently^ if there are ditierent varieties belonging to a fjpecies, they must have been produced by changes in successive generations of that species. But the seed ot one species can never so change as to produce plants belonging to a difl'ernt species. For instance, the pear and the apple belong to the same genus, hut to ditlerent species; consequently seed of the pear can never so chanire into varieties as to produce apple-trees; nor can seeds of the apple ever produce pear-trees. There are many diti'erent sorts of apples, which are all varieties produced by a change in the original seed of the species; but no change of this kind in any species can ever produce a difi'erent species. Hence, if a tarmer should hear the opinion advanced, that one plant may deteriorate, or in any way be trans- muted info another plant, he should ascertain whether the two named plants belonir to the same species or not; if they do not, he may be confident that such transmutation can never fake place, if they are found to belong to difierent genera, the certainy of no such change, becomes, if possible, still greater. The botanical or scientific name ofa plant, is the name of the genus and the name of the species to which it belong, joined together; thus the name of the genus to which the apple belongs, is pyrvs and the name of the species is 7nalus; consequently the botanic name of the apple is pyrus mains. The pear also belongs to the genus/)j/n/.s, and the name of the species is cfmmiun/s; thereidre the botanic name of the pear is pyrus convnunis. The terms apph and pear, are tlie English or common names. There is a great advantage in being able to ascer- tain the botanic names of plants, as well as in mak- inguseofthem instead ol'Englisii names,) except in the most common of all plants, as the apple, pear, currant, &c.) Many plants which are very useful either for n)pdicine, fijod, or other purposes, are known in difi'ereut parts of the country by very ditlerent Fnglish names; and often the same name is applied to very difl'erent plants; thus a name which in one place might be applied to a valuable and useful plant, might in another p.lace be applied to one which possesses no useful properties, or even to one extremely poisonous. Hence the use of English names only, is sometimes attended with damxerous consequences. But in all countries botanists make use of the same botanic names, and such difficulties are thus prevented. Plants are supplied with nourishment in two ways. The first is what they absorb at the roots through the spongioles, which contain a great num- ber of exceedingly small pores. The nourishment which the plant receives in this way is Water, with: the difierent substances which are dissolved in it, such as the soluble parts of manures. As soon as it is absorbed, it passes to the trunk or stem, and ascends in it through the sap vessels, which are very fine tubes running lengthwise through it, as well as throuo'h all the branches, the stems and email veins of the leaves. TliObC vessels or pores may be seen easily with a good microscope, by shaving ort' a thin cross slice from the stem ot a plant, or li'om apiece of wood. While this liquid is thus ascendiuii', it is called the sap. It passes into the branches, and thence into the leaves, which being flat and thin, expose it to the light and air, and it then undergoes a coir.-plete change; the greatest part of the water of the sap passes off into the air in the form of vapor, through very small pores in the surface of the leaf; at the same time, a part of the air is taken into the leatj and unites with the remaining sap, so as greatly to change its nature and quality, and it is now no longer sap, but is called \he proper juice; and this is the second way in which nourishment is supplied. It now begins to flow down the branches and stem of the plant through another set of tubes or vessels, and is gradually converted into the solid parts of the plant. Thus we see that a part of the nourishment is taken in at the roots, and a part at the leavs; but all the nourishment which every plant receives, must pass through the leaves, before it can be changed into wood. Hence we see that the leaves of plants are quite as inq)ortaRt to them as their roots. The knowledge of this principle has a vast number ol a[)plicationB in practice, some of which are of great inqiorlance. It teaches us that mutil- ating plants by stripjjing them of their leaves while in a growinij state, is always an injury to them; hence the stripping of the leaves of corn for fodder, which is in some places practised, should never be resorted to, nor should the practice oftojiping corn be pursued for the same reason; hence also the practice of cutting off' the leaves of mangel wurtzel ibr feeding cattle, before the roots have attained or nearly attained their full size, should not be adopted. But in some cases the leaves are the chiefcrop, as in the mulberry for silk; in such case it is necessary to avoid stripping them too closely or frequently, in order that the growth may not be too often nor too suddenly checked. The knowledge of this principle also teaches us an easy way to destroy hardy and pernicious weeds. It has been commonly supposed that in order to destroy them the roots must be destroyed; but this is not at all necessary; if we only destroy theleavesby burying them or cuttngof] the stems, it is plain their growth is stopped, and if this is continued the roots die. JNlany years ago, when it was found that the roots of the Canada thistle sometimes penetrate several feet into the earth, many despaired of ever being able to extirpate them; but if they had been acquainted with this principle, they would have known that the roots might have been easily killed bycutlingofi'thesupply ofnourishment fiom above. which has since been very successfully done in a multitude of instances. It is the proper juice (above referred to) which generally gives to plants all their useful properties in medicine, djeinir, &c. hence it is necessary in extracting these substances to know in what part of the plant the proper juice is to be found. The course of the small tubes or pores throuffh which the sap and juices flow, may be seen in some plants by cutting off their branclies with a very sharp knifi^- and plunging the cut ends into colored water. Thus, if a branch cut from the poke be placed in a dye made from the Bra?,il wood, and put in a warm place, in a few hours the dye will be found to have run up the stem into the leaves, flowers, and even the fruit. The part of the stem 1S37] FARMERS' REGISTER. 19 whii-h will bo. thus colored will show the place of the sap vessels. Il'tiow the upper eiul ol'ii hnnich be cur, jind plunirod into the colored water, we shall be able in the same way to trace the counse of the pores throuu-h which the proper juice de- scends. Some oflhese pores, however, cannot be discovered in this way, as they will nut take in any colored liquor. All the nurishment which a plant receives, is cither by means olthe water which is absorbed at tiie roots, or li'om the air which is absorbed into the leaves; all the wood in the lariiest and heaviest trees is formed in this way. The manner in which water and air is liuis changed into solid wood, is indeed curious, but is readily comprehended by those who are familiar v.'ilh the extraordinary chanijes shown by chemistry. The liict was very strikingly proved by a phiiosoj)her in Ilollaiui, who planted a willow weiirhino; /f/"/!/ pounds in a quantity ol' earth which he also weiirhed and covered with sheet lead. lie watered it for five 3'ears with pure distilled water: at ihe end of which lime the tree weighed one hundred andfilxty nme ponnds and three ounces, and the earth had lost only three ounces. The quantity of water which passes off into vapor from plants through the leaves, is often very great. Dr. Hales ibund. by very accurate experi- ments, that a sun-flower which weighed only three pounds, threw off in twenty-lour hours, twenty- two ounces of water, or nearly half its own weight. In the same space of time, the Cornelian cherry (Cornusmascnla) is saitl to throv.^ off twice its own weight of water. On a warm summer's day, at a time when there had been no rain for several weeks, Dr. Watson placed a bunch ol grass under a bell glass, and in two minutes the inside of the glass was covered with drops of water like dew which ran down its sides. By weighinfrthe water, he ascertained the exact amount; and from this experiment he was led to conclude that in one day an acre of grass throws off nearly two thousand gallons of water. Some plants when cut wither much sooner than others, owing to the property they have of throwins offthe water from the leaves with greater rapidity. Hence by tryinor this simple experiment, we may find at once how much watering different cultivated plants retiuire. Hence too, the reason why plants may he removed and trans[)lanted with greater success in damp weather when the leaves give ofi' but little water, (ban in dry weather when they throw it off' rapid- ly. Hence, too, the reason why, in iransplantiufi trees, if the roots are mutilated, and diminished, it is also necessary to reduce iti proportion the branches, in order to prevent the leaves throwing olf moisture faster than the roots can sujjply. Hence, also,the reason why mown grass is changed into hay in a few hours in dry weather, v/hile in damp weather no efforts of the fiirmer will enable him to succeed. The great quantity of water given off by plants, will teach us to avoid the blunder whicli some people make, of leaving weeds to grow around plants for the purpose oi shading them and prevent the ground (lryinu",when in fact they carry off a nnich greater quantity ol water than would dry ofi' the bare earth, besides diminishing the ft'Tiility of the soil. Some plants, however, give off but little water, as some kinds of moss, and may thereflirein some cases be properly' employed in shading the ground. Thus, by the study of this science, liirmers and Hardeners may find the re;ison for the difliM-ent openitions they perform; and may very often know, or be grwitly assisteil in determining what is necessary, and what is not necessary, ibr their success. At the saitie time they will be enabled to guard against mistakes, by vv||ich great injury is oJien done when least intended. From tlu: Genuessec Farmer. TIIE MORVS MITLTICAULTS ATiD MR. WHIT- MAllSM^S aiULBEUItY SEEL). Baltimore, Jan. 21, 1S37. Mr. Tucker — Please excuse my interference in the controversy in relation to CHiinese mulberry seed. From the commencement ol'the excitement on the calture ofsilkin the United States, I have lelt a deep interest in every thing that I'elales to it. For some years I was almost alone in urging it upon public attention, and have never ceased in my efforts to inculcate its highly important l)ear- ing upon the interests of my country. Thus much as an excuse for the following remarks. When "Chinese mulberry seed" has occasionally been offered ibr sale, [ have uniformly denounced the act as improper, because all of the white mulberry species are natives of China, and as moras mul- ticaulis was familiarly called "new Chinese" mul- berry, the natural inference would be that the seed offered was morus multicaulis — and /to .seed of ihe latter, to any amount, can be offered for sale. Occasionally I have seen morus multicaulis seed advertised, and I have had hundreds of aftpli- cations for it; but I have always cautioned appli- cants a.:5ainst purchasing it, because I knew tliU well that there was no such thing as morus mul- ticaulis seed to be had any tvhere. I have now in my garden the second oldest morus multicaulis tree in America — AJessrs. Prince of Flushing have the oldest. My tree is about eight years old Prince's is about 10 years. These trees bear fruit, and hfive yearly produced a little seed, but not enough to pay lor saving it. The reason is obvi- ous. The demand for trees is so great, that he would be a madman that would allow his trees to bear seed when he can make a young tree, five feet high, from every bud his tree produces. Thus every spring, every limb containing a bud is sure to be cut off and planted as a cutting, and hence no seed is produced either in Europe or America. All nurserymen know the tardiness with which mulberry seeds vegetate, and the difficulty with which weeds can be kept down until the plants are up sufficiently high to enable them to keep them (the weeds) down by ordinary cultivation. With us the time required for the seed to vegetate has generally been li-om lour lo six weeks. Usually many ot the germinating seeds have been destroy- ed in my efforts to eradicate the weeds. And when the seeds have at length begun to grow, so as to enable the nurserymen to keep the weeds down, the season has so advanced that the plants have scarcely time lo mature their wood before the severe cold of the fall .sets in, when all wood not thoroughly ripened is destroyed. These reasons, even if morus multicaulis seed were abundant, would operate against raising them from seed. And here it may be proper to remark on another improper influence that has been brought to bear 20 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1. on the quesiion. It, has been said that by raiding trees from seed we shall be likely to obtain a more hardy variety, as they will be better adapted to our climate, which is entirely erroneous, I raised the very first morus multicaulis seed ever produced in America or in Europe, in 1832, and li-om that seed I raised the fir|| seedling morus muiticaulis ever raised in Europe or America; and 1 have raised them every year since. The result ofthe ex|)eri- ment is that ill were now about to raise ten tiiou- sand trees, and could ^et the seed at ten dollars a pound, I would not use it. JVIy reasons are these; besides the ditliculty above described, which with even one pound ot seed will be enormous, I should have to protect all ihe trees liom the sold ol'the first winter; as my seedlinos have uniformly been killed to the ground every winter, while I never yet lost even a bud li'om trees raised tVom cuttings. But the cuttings must be started in a hot bed, sin- gle buds planted, and then, as cabbage plants, transplanted into the nursery, as soon as the weath- et is sufficiently warm to permit it. These will have so early a start that they will ripen their wood perfectly before cold weather — in lact, with me they often cast their leaves before any frost has occurred, showing the perfection of the wood. Now I can take from either of my old trees 2000 buds, and will engage to produce from them at least 1500 trees. Would it not be madness in me to save these trees to bear seed, when 1 know that they will not produce /ifl//" a/)- ounce.? Of all the tribe, the morus multicaulis bears the least seed, not more than one berry in twenty will have any at all, at some seasons: and in the best season 1 am eure a bushel ofthe fr-uit would not yield a pound; and furthermore I do not believe an acre of groun(l could be made to produce a bushel of Iruit. And yet from one tree I can make 1500 trees worth ^450, witii half the laborthat would be required in raising that number from seed. These remarks are founded ujion facts, elicited by my own care- ful experiments, repeated over and over for eight years; and all who enter upon the business will sooner or later arrive at the same conclusions. As to the hardinei=s of the morus nuilticaulis, much error pervades the public mind. It is a per- lectly hardy tree — the oak is not more so; but it is a dry land tree, and requires a high, dry, sandy situation. Those who plant them in rich bottom land, must expect to lose them. The reason is obvious — they grow too succulent, and are kept growing late in the fall, and are caught by frost before the sap returns to the earth. Who has not seen young suckers of the oak, that put out late in summer, killed by the winter ? Mr. Whitmarsh seems to tliink that his new va- nety ofthe mulberry, that which has been mista- ken for morus multicaulis, is better than morus multicaulis, being he says hardier, and having equally large leaves. He is mistaken, greatly mistaken, as will all be who adopt the opinion. I have seen the trees raised from the seed he sold as Chinese mulberry seed, and they are nothing more than a variety I received tiom Messrs. Prince of Flushing, in a parcel of 8 other varieties, eight years aso called the " broad-leaved," and which I discarded with all the others on discovering the valuable qualities of the morus multicaulis. As a friend to my country I would earnestly urge upon all who contemplate makiuii- silk to turn their attention exclusively upon the , morus multicaulis. Do not waste time and means in attempts to raise thein from seed, or in getting better varieties, (tlie first is ver}' ditRcult, the latter impos.^^ible,) but if they have only the means to purchase one little tree, take it, cut it up, plant the cuttings, with a bud on each, in a hot bed, as above directed; the next spring, cut up all the produce in the same way; and so on the next, and if necessary the year following, and th;'y will have as many trees as they can use. Let us see. Out of one tree they can make ten the fiisl year; and ofthe ten they can make 150 the second year; and oftiie 150 they can make 2250 ihe third year: out of these they can make 33750 the 4th year, besi- des having all the old roots to form standard trees, and in the mean time be acquuing practical information in the management ot silkworms. Let them select some high dry ground lor their mulberry orchard; if sandy, all the better. Such is my advice to all who cuhivale silk: I have given the same on all occasions, when applied to lor information, and I assure all who may read this, that the above remarks are the result of practical information, which has been derived from my own practice, and with my own hands. I have had no servants to do the work for me and report to me the results; but I have done it with my own hands, and observed the results with my own eyes. I can now readily detect the mere gentleman theo- rist, (who has depended upon his nui'seryman or his gardener, or upon his books, for information,) while reading his writings. Tliese gentlemen do miich good to the cause, but they also do a great deal of harm by propagating error, not being able from practical experience to detect atid reject the erroneous and useless, with which all theories are largely encumbered. Yours, Gii:)EON B. SaiiTH. From t!ie Loiuioii Mechanic's Magazine. PROGRESS OF STKABt CARRIAGE OX COMMOX KOAIJS, IX KAGLAND. HAACOCk's STEAM CARRIAGE. One or two of this gentleman's steam carriages have been travelling without intermission since the 11th of May last. That steam locomotion on common roads is both practicable and safe to the passengers and the public, he has proved ; it now remains lor him to show (which it will be seen by the following letter, containing a statement of his late perli>rmance.s, he promises shortly to do,) that his travelling has been economical, so as to return a fiiir profit to any capitalist who may embark his money in a speculation of the kind. Mr. Hancock is now the only engineer with a steam carriaire on any road. Sir Charles Dance, Colonel Maceroni, Dr. Church, Messrs. Ogle, Summers, Squire, Russel, Redmond, Hea'on, Maudsley, Frazer, and a host of others — where are they ? Echo answers — "Where!" Strange to say, however, we see «team carriage compa- nies advertised, whose engineers have either never }-et built acarriaixe, or whose carriages when built have never stirred out of the factory j'ard ! Sir. — Tuesday evening, the 20fh inst., comple- ted twenty weeks continued running on the Strat- ford, IsliuiTton, and Paddington roads, during this year, and I beg to hand you as faithful an account as I can of the performances of my carriages. 1837] FARMERS' REGISTER, 21 Siiico th(> last notice in j-our Miio;azinP, a now carriuire, the "Aiitomutnn," has hoon brouiTtit updii the. road; Uie only din'erenco between which a!i(l those [HTcediii!:' it is, that the enirines are of irrealer power (i\avinu cyiinch^rs ot twelve inches diameter, wiiiisi (liose of the others are of nine inches,) ami tlie carriaire ailogether of iaro-cr ili- niensjoiis liian tiie others, it iiavinhe carriages, and found that the enirines have in most parts actually improved, whilst the boilers and fire places have suii'ered a deterioration, less than could have been expected, from the use they have undergone. It may be remarked, that both boilers and ma- chinery are suspended on well-acting springs, and which accounts for the state of till the parts hnincr so well preserved. Some of the boilers have been in use for two or three years. There have been consumed in the before men- tioned traffic, 55 chaldrons of coke, which is equal to 76 miles per chaldron, or about 2^d. per mile for fuel ; but this is on long journeys would be much reduced by the apjilication of" the moveable fire-place, patented by me about three years ago, as our greatest exueiiditure of coke in these short journeys is iu lowering and again raising the fire. I cannot conclude without noticing with o-rati- tude, the general civilit}' and attention which I have met with, and my pleasure in discovering' that the antipathies which existed in the earlier part of my career are gradually subsiding, and that, in fact, I never now meet with incivility, ex- ce[)ting with a iew carters or draymen, who con- sider the introduction of steam-carriages as an in- liingement upon the old established use of horse flesh. Years of practice have now put all doubts of the economy, safety, and superiority of steam travelling on common roads at rest, when com- pared with horse travelling ; and I have now in preparation calculations founded upon actual prac- tice, which when published will prove that steam- locomotion on common roads is not unworthy of the attention of the capitalist, thouyh the reverse has/ been disseminaied rather widely of late by parties who do not desire that this branch of im- provement should prosper against the interests of themselves. WALTER HANCOCK. Slratford, Sept. 22, 1836- 22 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1. From the Southern Recorder. Tim ROT IN COTTON. Last year I planted two crops ofcotton, one near Watkinsville, and the other on the Oconee near Athens, the two places beinsi; five or si>: miles apart: the crop at Watkinsville rotted so little that it maj' he said to have had no rot, while the crop on the Oconee rotted worse than any cotton I saw iast year, or an j^ other year. Beinix a country doc- tor, it was during the year an every-day occurrence to have at niy iiouse planters, who catne to obtain medical advice; I made it my business to select the most experienced and successful of them, many owners and overseers of plantations, and carry them to see my crop, relate the ditf'erence, and request their opinion of the cause: great many reasons were niven, a iew only will be noticed, which appear the most probable, after which I will add my reasons for believins ; they heated, and when plant- ed, the seed produced rot, worse than any cotton I had. Mrs. Nunnally coniinued Io |ilantfhem with- out any rot. She had a larire scafibid, and careful- ly sunned the cotton as well as the seed ; but year belbre last, they planted the whole crop of I hem : the bulk of col ton and seed was so large, that usual care could not be tuken of" them, and they produced ihe worst rolled cniiun in the neighbor- Iiood. Some years ago I went to Mr. John Puryear's plantalion ; his cotton was rotting very bad. all but about an acre of Mexican coiton — this had no rot. This was the first Mexican cotton planted in this country ; I crol some of ihe seed and planted them; this cotton had no rot; we planted this cotton, an(i it still had no rot ; 1 thuuirht 1 had got clear of the IS37] FARMERS' REGISTER. S5 po.Pt of rot; but when we beiran to plant it largely, and thi-DW the seed in large bulks, it rotted as bad as? other cotton, and was abandoned. I believe that it is possible with high culture and manure to produce, if we had no rot, five tliousaiul pounds of seed cotton to the acre. An acre, in hills three leet .square, would have near live thousand hills, one stalk to the hill ; a stalk o\' cotton, on land as rich as it can be made, will make one hundred boles, or one poiuid, which would be nearly five thousand pounds to the acre. To try this, I had one stalk of cotton highly manured and thinned to this dis- tance ; it grew very large ; 1 directed a careful wo- man every Saturday to nick all the open cotton on it, and keep it in a batr; but before it was half done opening, it accidentally got destroyed, and was for- gotten. Next year while planting, tlie woman re- minded me that what cotton she had saved was still in a bag in the house; it was sent lc>r, and as 1 could not gin it, cotton, seed and all, was planted. Very lew seed came up, but the tew stallcs it made had no rot, while the whole field roited very much. I can conceive of no other cause but its beinij- in small quantity. A gentleman of my acquaintance o:i his way ti'om Auixusta, as he passed a field of cotton, picked a bole or so, picked out the seed, and ed he had obtained in Augusta ; he carelully saved them, and for some years prized them very high, as they had no rot; but when he began to save these seed in quantity, they rotted as his other cotton. With these facts in view, let us now see if a statement of circumstances, as they occurred, will not fully explain why one of my crops rotted so very bad, the other little or none. A friend of mine who plants very largely, a few years ago, ginned out his cotton, and threw the seed together in so large a bulk, that at plantinij, his seed were found all black from overheating, and unfit lor planting. He got from me seed I'O plant his crop. Last year he moved his hands to another place, and therefore ginned out his cotton as soon as he could. Hear- ing I was in want of seed, he told me I could have from his [)lace as many as I wanted. I got my seed, therefore, from the large bulk that perhaps seventy bales of cotton produced: the}^ were put in a room, and then planted. They came up well, but no sooner was it up, than it began to die, and I thought none would be left ; for seed that has been heated will come u|), but it is no sooner up than it dies. This is the cotton that 1 say rotted more than [ have ever seen cotton rot, and I be- lieve the cause to have been the heated state of the seed. To confirm this, two other facts may be stated. On the same place [ planted some Petit Gulf seed ; they rotted very little. Aaain — the vear before, I planted one small field in cot- ton ; it rotted so much that little attention was given to it. I never had it picked till after frost, when all the cotton was open ; this was ginned, and the seed thrown in the back part of the room, the other seed being on it. The last field of cot- ton was therefore mostly |)Ianfed f>om this seeil, and it turned out as mi^rht be expected, in [ilaces it was rotted as bad as any, while in other places it had little or no rot, as the seed happened to be mixed. Of my other crop, which rotted none, I procured these seed from my brother ; he is al- ways very particular to sun his cotton well. The seed were brought home directly after ginning ; Vol. V — 4 they were put in a carriage house, the doors of which, when open, liiid open the whole end of the house, the house being so situated, that the sun came fully into it when the doors were open. Aa this house was a great place lor my children to play in, the seed were exposed to the sun every day, and frequently moved about by them. This cotton had no rot: how else shall we explain it hut by the fact that they were never in a large bulk, and had the sun on them every day? Many singular fiicts in the growth of cotton, if these opinions be correct, may be satisfiictorily explained. Why are large cotton planters more subject to loss by rot than those who plant in the small way ? — Because small planters do not have the seed heated by large bulks. Why in all fields do we find some stalks very mucfi rotted^ while others are rotted little or none? — Because those seed which were in the interior of the heap were heatetl, while those over the surface were not; some cotton was picked wet, some dry, &c. Why is any kind of new and scarce cotton for a while clear of rot? — Because the seed are not heated by being in large bulks. The Petit Gulf cotton fi'om this cause is less subject as yet to rot, but will, alter a while, rot as bad as other cotton. Of the exciting causes we have many. Every planter can fiirnish exciting cause of rot. I shall only meniron two — wet weather, and workimr cotton when the ground is wet. Now, although we cannot control the seasons, yet by preventing the predisposition, the exciting cause would do lit- tle injury, or be harmless. We have made considerable progress towards the removal of an evil, when we have come to a knowledge of its true cause or causes. If these suggestions as to the causes of the rot in cotton be correct, they will lead on to such plans as may diminish or prevent it. Of the proximate cause, or the disease after it has occurred. We have a remedy, as far as it goes, certain in its eflect : cutting oli' the stalks, or pulling them up, puts an immediate stop to the rot. 1 have more than once, when the rot was very bad, had the rankest spots pulled up and laid in heaps along the rows; the rot would then stop, and when all the boles were open, a saving crop might still be picked out. But there is an intermediate stage, when all the exciting and predisposing causes have already had their full effect, and when nothing can be elfected by way of prevention, and the rot is al- ready raging with violence; when there is not a sufficient number of boles arrived to maturity to make pulling up the stalks profitable, if it were practicable ; while at the same time the boles are observed to rot as soon as they approach maturi- ty. In this staire we are not altogether without remedy. In 1821, I had a small field of fresh land, with which I had taken great pains ; it was beau- tiltil cotton; the rot made a start in it, and pro- irressed with great violence ■, it did look like it would all rot; it was the wet rot, and the foam ran li'om the lioles in quantity. Now it was certain that pulling up the stalks would stop the rot, yet as the boles were mostly not grown, it would also ruin my cotton. I wanted a remedy which would check the action, without destroying the vitality of the stalk — a remedy which would approximate to- wards killing, without absolutely killing the stalk. A corn stalk sends out a circle of crown or hori- zontal roots, for every ear or ehoot it bears ; cut off 26 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 1 these crown roots as thev appear, and although the stalk will continue to (jrow, yet it will produce little or no corn — ti-oni which it would appear that the more perpendicular roo!s sujjplied liie stalk, while the more horii^ontal roots supplied iheear with nourishment. Why miirht not cotton be the same ? — The deep top root mainly nourislies the stalk, while the irreat number ol' more horizontal roots, which come out as the stalk begins to bole, are mainly useful to support the boles. It' this reasoninff were correct, whatever would destroy or break off these roots, would ditniiiish the action, and might check the advances of rot. Hogs, are very fond of rooting about the stalks ol' cotton and eating these roots; with this view, a large stock ol hogs was turned into my field. 1 hardly think one stalk escaped them; they rooted round and des- troyed all these hnrizontal roots ; the stalk only, as it were, being kept up by the main tap root. The effect was astonishing; the rot soon stopped, and I made on this small field, the best crop 1 have ever made belbre or since. I could mention a number ol' facts in proof of this. I state it as a fact, that hogs in sufficient numbers will stop or check the rot. I have heard it suirffp'^ied, and 1 am disposed to believe, if a small plough was run deep, very close to the cotron, both v,-a\s, so as to break the roots all around, it would check the rot. It would require a total absence of all exciting causes of rot, to be safe, while a predisposition ex- isted ; a hone ol' success v/ill thereliire mainly de- pend upon diminishing or removinir the predispos- ing cause, ftlany persons believe that the rot very much depends upon the condition of the seed, and many attemjjts have been made to prevent it, by giving their attention to the seed. Most of these attempts, accordmg to my viev/s, have Iwen ex- actly such as I would have tried if I wished to in- crease the quantity of rot. Wiien wheat has been cut and remained a considerable time in the field, then perhaps hauled home, slacked, and remained a considerable time in stacks belbre it is thrashed out, tlieii cleaned and well dried in the sun, with all this precaution, if it is then put together in a stout bulk, it will heat or go through a sweat, and spoil. If Indian corn be gathered too early, al- though to all appearance it may be dry and cured, yet put it in a large bulk, and it will heat and spoil. What should we expect of cotton 1 A prevailing opinion is, that the early open, first picking, will make best seed ; this cotton is picked while wet with dew, ofien in damp weather, and thrown to- gether in quantity early in the season, when the weather is warm. Nothing would appear more certain than that these seed wnidd heat and be injured. To prevent this, scafiijlds arc made, and the cotton sunned perhaps a day or less. This is doing less than nothing — it is this much useless trouble. The seed of cotton, surrounded first bv a hard covering, then by the fine lint attached to the seed, then by the cotton, if scattered thin and sunned every day fur a month, they would not be cured sufBciently not to heat when thrown in a large bulk in warm weather. iBut we are gene- rally in so much hurry to get our cotton tu market, that the cotton is ginned up, and this early seed thrown in heaps and saved lor seed ; in this state they are much more liable to heat, than if left without ginning. A bulk of five hundred or a thousand bushels of cotton seed, makes so close a heap, that it is air, water and sun proofl It must and will go through a sweat and heat. We could not take a better plan to cause the seed to heat than to take our first picking, sun it a day or so, and then gin it, putting the seed in bulk while the weather is yet warm. iSeed thus managed will often heat so much, that they will not vegetate at all ; but if not so far heated as to be killed, they will produce diseased plants, disposed to rot ; so that 1 say the attempt to improve the seed by sav- ing the most early seed, is exactly calculated to produce rot — not only so, but the cotton that opens iater, when care is taken to pick it only in dry weather, and have it sunned ibr several days, when put in large heaps wdl still go through a. sweat and heat to the injury ol' the seed. Any person who will think for himself on this matter, and take the trouble to examine the tciuperature of large heaps of cotton, as well as seed, with his senses to judge of its heat and moisture, also with a thermometer, will become satisfied that it is im- possible, in the large way, to save early picked cotton seed, without their being injuria by lieat- ing. [I' the heating of cotton seed is the predis- posing cause of rot, and they are so liai/ic to heat, how are we to manage to get clear of lot ? 1 sug- gest this plan, which I believe is the ] Ian which will succeed. Select a part oi' the crop purposely tor seed; let this cotton remain without picking until a killing frost; then when the weather is cool, j;ick the cotton in dry weather, expose it to the sun and air every day until it is ginned, then sun and air these seed several days uniil they are dry; now keep them thinly sp-iead in a large room, opening the doors and windows when the weaiher is lair, frequently stirring them and sunning them until planting time. Seed thus managed, I believe, will j)roduce cotton that will not rot. it may be thought a troublesome and losing plan, but it should be noticed that as we at present plant cotton, it re- quires a great quantity of seed; a considerable part of them are so heated they never vegetate, a slill greater part vegetates, but so soon as they are out of the ground sicken and die; and although great quantities of seed are put in the ground, it is diffi- cult to save a stand of catton. VVith seed which are periectly good, a bushel per acre would be an ample sufficiency ; to save this much seed care- fully, would not be very troublesome. I am not more positive that I live, than I am that this is the true predisposing cause of rot, and that I suggest a plan that will succeed in preventing it. This opin- ion has been formed iiom carelLil observation, and many experiments. 1 will attempt to give this opinion further proof by analogy. Corn, like cotton, is liable to rot — ' Ibrtunately the causes of rot in corn, are well known, and we can, with certainty, pievent it; but were the cause unknown, we would probably be as much troubled by rot in corn, as we are by rot in cotton. Three things, it is well known, will cause corn to rot; when corn is gathered early, and put in quantity, it will heat and have its color in- jured : this heated corn will vegetate, but the corn it produces will rot very much. Also, corn plough- ed when the ground is very wet rots. Again, corn planted several years on the same ground without changing the crop, will rot. Suppose we were to gather our corn as soon as it was hard, put it in a close crib that it might heat, plant this corn on ground that had been planted several years in IR37 1-^ A R M E II S ' II E CI S T i: R 27 corn, and plough it when the grotind was wet, we wniild escape well, it" one half did not rot. Wherever cotton is larireiy cultivaled, if is fo ho feared, with every precaution, tiie seed will he p!iij!illy healed, and a sliijiit predisposition to rot produced: it would reipiire, therefore, a tola! ah- seuce ol" exciiiug causes to tola!!}' prevent rot. Ii may, t!iere((.)re, be expected, that we will always iiave a little rot, many of the exciiing causes beiiio; beyond our control ; but as it would require s!ron cotton rows, and, per- haps a week alter, runninij a deep large fiirrovv in ihe middles ; this makes one fidl plouiihing liave nearly as good an eli'ect as two |ilougliiugs, and whenever the first ploughing was done in wet we;uher, being careful to run the middle furrow in drv vveather, fills up the furrows, and covers the caked ground vviih dr\' earth, and thereby counter- acts its bad effects. If these views are correct, we would have large quantities of cotton seed to spare. Perhaps an in- quiry as to the best use to make of them may not be misplaced. As food, they iiave an injurious ef- fect; an opinion prevails that the fine lint on the seed produces the bad effect, and throwing them in mud, &c., have been tried to prevent it ; this is incorrect. We see a hog does not eat any of it : I bey chew up the seed, and swallow only the nour- ishing part; but they will die from eating them. The fiict is they are of a rich oily nature, and have an injurious etiect on the sionuich ot all animala that eat them — as food, they do more harm than oood. The plan of making oil of them will never answer in a cotton making country ; any person |)ractically acquainted with making oil, will know that it must be a losing business. They are more valuable as a manure as they are now used, than to be made into oil ; but according to the present plan of using them as a manure, fully one half of their value is lost by tlieir being rotted before they are put in the ground. If'they aie put in the ground unrotted, they sprout and lose still more of their value. Whoever will take the trouble to crush a pint of seed, will find they will manure a corn hill more than a quart of rotted seed ; also, rotted seed manures only one year, and crushed, will act as a manure for several years. If cotton seed were passed through rollers and crushed, so that they would not vegetate, it would be the most valuable mode of using them ; but as this would require machinery, the next best mode of using them (and of this I speak practically) is this: a plantation wluch makes fifty bales of cottcn, would have one thousand bushels of seed to spare : furrows should be run, and the seed deeply buried, at the rate of one hundred bushels per acre ; for of all plans of manuring I think best of thinly scattering manure. This land would the first year produce five barrels more to the acre than it would without manure : next year, one-third less, and next year, one-third less, after which, not much ett'ect would be pro- duced. This increase of produce is without ad- ditional labor or expense, arid is clear profit. Rot- ted seed, as a manure, should be valued at thirty cents a bushel ; this is more than they are worth lor oil, food, or any other use that can be made of them. If this seems an over calculation, I will re- late an experiment. I manured one acre of this land with one hundred bushels of seed, and drilled with wheat, and it produced forty-five bushels clean wheat — next year, it made eight barrels of corn 5 the acre at the side of it, b}- rough measurement, made four bushels of wdieat, and less than three bushels of corn, so that the seed in two years made about sixty cents per bushel. Robert R. Harden, 28 FARMERS REGISTER. [No. 1 From Proceedings of British Association . RESISTANCE TO MOTION IN CANALS, IN KE- LATION TO VELOCITY. Mr. Russell, of Eilinburgh, was called upon to lay before the section the result of ceriain experi- ments made by him on the traction of boats in ca- nals at different velocities. On the general princi- ple of the resistance of fluids to bodies moving in them, was grounded the conclusion that it would be an impracticable thing to move the cumbrous boats upon canals at any but very low velocities, except by an expenditure ol" j)ovver so great that the ordinary methods of conveyance by roads would be cheaper. It was believed, that the re- sistance would increase with the velocity, by a law so rapid in its variation, that lor two miles an hour speed, there would be ibur times the resis- tance of one rrjile ; I'or three miles, nine times that of one mile ; for four, sixteen times ; and so on, as the squares of the velocities. Here, there was an obstacle to rapid communication by canals, which appeared insuperable. Mr. Russell has shown that there is practically a circumstance which so completely modifies the application of this principle, that when over a ceriain point of speed is attained, the resistance, instead of in- creasing when the speed is yet I'urlher increased, in point of iact diminishes. In one of his experi- ments, he found, for instance, that the resistance to the traction of a canal boat, estimated by a dy- namometer, increased with the velocity of its mo- lion nearly according to the law of the squares, up to 7^ miles per hour, being then 330 lbs. ; the speed being then increased to 8^ miles per hour, instead of further increasing, the resistance fell to 210 lbs. The speed was yet further increased, and it increased again the resistance to 236 lbs. ; yet, less, be it observed, than at 7^ miles ; 12 miles an hour brought it to 352 lbs., scarcely more than the resistance of 7^ miles speed. These results. confirmed by a number of others, had maniii^^stlv a practical application, and they have been applied to the working of fast canal boats in Scotland. Mr. Russell has devoted himself to the explana- tion of them. He states, that where the water of a canal is disturbed by any cause, as tor instance, the admission of a rush of water momentarily into one extremity of it, or the impeding of a body moving in it, there is generated a certain wave, whose motion along the canal is altogether inde- pendent of the nature or velocity of the impulse given to it, and dependent only upon the depth of the canal; its velocity being precisely that which a stone would acquire in falling down one-half the depth of the canal. With this velocity, the wave moves uniformly and steadily to the very end of this motion, moving slower (if the depth of the eanal remain unchanged,) bnt only diminishes its dimensions, until it disappears, and this not lor a very considerable space. He stated, that he had himself followed waves a mile and a half; and that they had been traced unbroken for three miles from the spot where they originated. The velocity of the wave depending on the depth of the canal, it is manifi^st, that each canal, differing in depth fiom another, will have a differ- ent velocity of wave, and that each part of the ca- nal diffiering from another, will alter the velocity ol its wave, and thus the waves near the shore will move slower than near the centre of the canal, if the side be shallower than the middle. How, then, have these IJicts their application to the phe- nomena observed ? Thus, in the experiment de- scribed above, the velocity of the wave ascertain- ed by numerous experiments, was eight miles an hour. As long then, as the boat moved at three, four, five, six, or seven miles an hour, it remained in the rear of the wave; the wave had no effect on it, as the law of the velocities was the theoreti- cal law. At eight miles an hour the boat was, in point of fact, on the wave, and it might, indeed, be seen about the centre of the boat lifting it out of the water and diminishing the traction upon it. NOVEL EXPERIMENTS IN RAILWAYS. Since the opening of the Durham and Sunder- land Railway, a novel experiment has been fried upon the line, which proves the practicability of rail road vehicles being propelled by wind. A temporary mast and sail were erected on a vehi- cle, which was set going at an easy rale. On the sail being trimmed to the wind, the speed increased to the rate of ten miles an hour. A train of five coal wagons was afterwards attached, but no ad- ditional sail hoisted. The train was set going as easy as possible to give it motion, when the speed increased to the rate above mentioned. The ex- periment was repealed ll^r several days between Sunderland and Hendbn, each way, with the same success, and was witnessed by numbers of spectators, who were much delLuhted with the no- velty of the scene. —[£';)§•.] Mining Jour. EXTRACTS FROM THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE AGRICl'LTI RAL C0NVK\T10N OF N. Y'OKK, HELD IN ALEANV, FEliRUARY 2, 1837. [In a late No. of tlie Farmers' Register, we were enabled, by the kindness of Dr. J. P. Beekman, a dis- tinguished member of the Agricultural Convention, to offer to our readers an interesting sketch, from bis own pen, of the proceedings of that body, in advance of the formal report and publication, which has since reached us in the Albany Argus, and of which the fol- lowing extracts form parts. It is proper here to correct a mistake which we fell into, in our remarks in the communication of Dr. Beekman. "The woik of Mr. Taylor, on agricul- ture," which he mentioned, was not the "Arator" of John Taylor of Virginia, as we then understood.] j^id of Government to ^'Agricultural Improvement. Mr. Buel, from the committee appointed to report resolutions lor the consideration of the Con- vention, reported in part, the following: Resolved, That in the opinion ofthis Convention, agriculture is the great business of the state; that upon its resources and improvements, the mer- chant, mechanic, manufacturer, and all other members of society, must depend mainly, for sub- sistence and lor wealth; and that upon the intel- ligence and virtue of those who manage its labors — comprising, as they do, the mass of our popu- lation— must materially depend our moral and intellectual character as a people; — 1S37] F A R M i: R S ' REGISTER. 29 That hence it is ol" primary importance to all, that thi.< irrcat branch ol'Jahor should he specially enconi-aiiccl ami honored, and that the agriculturist should hiniseir receive all those menial aids, and that stinuilus to industry, which are calcidated to make him more prosperous in Ids busmess, and more usiMid to society; — That we are now particularly adonionished, by the scarcity and veryhitrh price of all the products orairriculture, to put liirlh our ellorts to enlighten its labors and increase its productions; — That, to the leirislature of the state, as the constituted e improving system. lie iulbrmed me when lie first purciiased this estaie, the cleared high land ■was too pour to |)roduce good, or even ordinary corn. The flat land was badly drained, very much exhausted by hard eidlivatiou, and injured by be- ing repeatedly |)louglied wet. He has, by perse- vering in a system of manuring, and cultivating the grasses, made nearl}- the whole ol' his cleared high land rich; capable ol" jtroducing larce to- bacco ; more than doubled the [iroducts of some of his low grounds, and reaped durinu the lime, tine annual profits. His plantation strikingly illus- trates the hict, that judicious improvement, so far Irom beini; incoinpatible with yearly profits, con- duces to theirincrease. He told me, when he took his estate in Iiand, he Ibund the high land too j'oor for tobacco, and he considered the fiat land, (the little of it capable of producing tobacc",) too ))recarious, on account of its liability to overflow, tor its culture. He set about manuring a lot lor tobacco. He conunenced with a space suflicient to receive the whole of the year's manure, and in- creased this lot every year, scattering the land, after it was once thoroughly manured, with a very thin dressing. He contmued to enlarge and culti- vate this lot tor sixteen years in succession ; during which lime, it never rested from tobacco cultiva- tion. And thus, lor at least tor one good reason, Mr. V. is an unbeliever in the doctrine that the excrement of a plant renders land nu'apable of producing in perfection the same plant many suc- cessive years. The tobacco that has been raised on his lot, has generally been of fine size and of superior quality. His lot continued to increase until he could spare a part ol' it to put down in grass. He thinks he has now ground lor more than two hundred and fifty thousand tobacco hills, [4000 to the acre] of lot land, in fine tobacco heart. He now alternates his lot with wheat, grass, and tobacco, preserving, however, no regu- lar rotation, either on his lots, or any part of his farm. It may be considered surprisino; that Mr. V. could have raised so nujch manure as to keep such large lots in progressive improvement. In an- swer to the question, how he effected this, he said, that he used litter from the woods, weeds from the low grounds, and made every exertion to increase the quantity of manure from the ordinary resour- ces of a liirni. But the principal source of ma- nure, imUrectly, was his meadow. His meadow, by the way, is a fine scene. I would suppose that it covered about fifteen acres. It is very level and extremely productive. He is of opinion that land in grass intended to be mown or pastured, if it is in tolerably good condition, should rather be im- proved by care tnid manure, than ploughed up and resown. His meadow has been standing twenty years, and is as productive as ever it was. It has been occasionally infested with broom straw, but that was grubbed up from the root before it be- came too thick, and the meadow, ai present, seems to be almost entirely free from it. He thinks there is no limit to the time a meadow, on good land, will last; he instanced one near Farmville that has been mown, reijularly, forty years. When meadows become int(-sled with broom straw, Mr. V. thinks it an indication that they have been grazed too close, and he recommends a top dress- ing with manure, as effectual to eradicate it. There seems to hitve been a great deal of judg- ment and forecast displayed in Mr. V.'s arrange- ment of his houses, and management of his plan- tation. His barns are all situated in and around his lots, which are consolidated, excefit that a road divides them. And but a small p,ortion of his to- bacco is raised elsewhere, 'i'lie labor saved by this arrangement in hauling his tobacco to his barns, in curing time, is immense. The mostla- borious part of tobacco cultivation, is housing U: and I think it has been partly owing to the arrange- ment of his barns, that Mr. V. has been able to take care of such large crops, for his Ibrce. Nearly all the land I saw, that vvas not under preparation for a crop for the present year, is set m grass. Mr. V. bestows irreat attention to grasses, generally, and particularly to herds grass. He makes it a profitable crop on a thin iiuin, I where he resides, and which he has very niiudi I improved by its use. He cultivates orchard, Pcru- viLin,and herds grass, but prefers the latter. At 1 his piantaiion, now under review, he never sui- ters land to be grazed that has not been lying j an year, at least, in grass. This is his system ; j but, doubtless there have been occasional depar- j lures from it, under circumstances of emergency. I He thinks but little improvement can be effected, i vvhere arable lands are grazed, and where even I well set lands are grazed early in the spring. He ! considers it essential that his grass should get a I start before it is trodden by the hoof. Tliis system compels him to feed his stock later than is usual in the spring, and renders it somewhat difficult to keep them up in good condition. The rest of the year, the stock are in fine condition, and are am- ply compensated, belbre the summer is out, for this privation in spring. Mr. Venable's plantation is one of the lew where tobacco culture has been profitably carried on, and inqirovement has progressed at "the same time. But he has never made tobacco an all-ab- sorbing crop. He cultivated small crops at first, and increased the crop as he inc-eased the fenilily ol his land. The arrangement of his lots has been a singular departure from the custom of this sec- lion of the country. They lie unusually level, and have not washed perceptibly. Many tobacco cul- tivators, who have devoted their time and labor to opening l^ind, for the last ten or twenty years, and have paid no attention to manuring and the grasses, have, perhaps, made less tobacco than Mr. Venable, in the aggregate, while his planta- tion has become rich, and their's are nearly ex- hausted. When Mr. V. was asked what was the best moile of getting grass to stand on poor land, his reply was, to lake up the land and cultivate it, one, two, or three years in succession, and give it manure and properly mix and pulverize the soil. He insisted on the importance of briny:ing o-rass land to a degree of fijrtility sufTicient to produce irrass by the above process, before grass seed is wasted on it. His mode of gathering grass seed, (herds,) is to go in the best parts of his meadow when the seed have matured, and cut the grass 32 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 1. with a cradle, tie in small bundles, and stack. When the seed is wanted, the bundles are thrash- ed out — and thus, the hay sustains no injury ; and he says, the seed require no cieaninfr, having no chatf of consequence with them. Mr. V. has used only the resources of his own farm for ma- nure. E. For the Farmers' Register. MANAGEMnXT OF SLAVES, &C. CiMrlolte County. It miod. The great susceptibility of many familie?: of nejrror.s to scroliila, is to be at- tributed to hard and scanty living. There is, however, a great change tlir the better, in the arti- cle of diet to negroes, within the last ten or fifteen years. The climate and soil of Viri' vegetables, and with a little attention, [risli potatoes, field peas, beans, pumpkins, and turnips, may be raised in suf- ficient quantities lor winter use Ibr every slave on a plantation. As for summer vegetables, the va- riety is almost inexhaustible; and the master must be considered a poor proviiler, who does not, throuirh the months of June, July, Aujxust and September, furnish a daily allowance of vegetable diet. A negro slave is so constituted that he is de- pendent in a great measure for happiness on his food. And nothinjj has a greater tendency to in- spire cheerfulness and industry, than to look for- ward to the prospect of a good meal. It must, too, be a source of pleasiuir reHeciion to the mas- ter, to a{!"ord the, additional happiness which such luxuries never fail to yield. 1 am very certain, from an attentive observation to this subject, that a negro de|trived of nseat diet, is not able to en- dure the labor that those can peribrm who are liberally supplied with it; and that the master who gives his field hands half a pound of meat per day, and two quarts of meal, (or something short of this when an allowance of vegetables is made,) is better compensated by slave labor, than those who trive the ordinary quantity. Their t()o(l should be cooked tor them twice a day, and carried out to the field. It is a genered custom in this part of the state, to have their food cooked but once a day, and to re(]uire each negro to cook fnr himself at night, and carry vvith him his food for the morninsi's meal in the field ; bat his love of in- dulgence, or fatigue, fi-equently induces him to fid! to sleep as soon as he reaches his cabin, and if he is unfortunate enough not to wake at midnight and cook his morning's meal, (which indeed is a frequent habit with them,) he is compelled to fiist until his dinner hour the next day. The next most important matter to be attended to, is the slaves' lodiring. I know of no better kind of cabins than those recommended by Taylor in his jiratnr. When it is not convenient to build such, hewed log cabins vvith while oak sills, 16 feet by 18, make very comlbriable houses. The roof should be framed. The old fiishioned cabins, with log roofs, and slabs not nailed, but merely 1837] FARMERS' REGISTER, confined by lofrp, almost mvariably leak, and keep the cabin floor always wet; wiiicli, I have no donbt, is one oritrin of tim catarriial alloclions which lorniin;ite in what iscallcii "iieirroconpnni|)- tion." Bat the^e c;d)insare y surv^ey. I then inquired how the plaster held out, and to my utter astonishment, he told me it held out very well, lor there was a good deal left yet. On exam- inino; the plaster, I found there was quite a smart bulk of it, and had it measured, and found twenty four bushels oi' the fifty yet on hand, which, of course, made the sowing at the rate of only one half bushel to the acre. I was very much vexed with the seedsman, and told him be tuid lost the gauge of his hand entirely, and that I should now have to go over all the trouble of ineiisurinij, and gauging, which I had been doing alf my lite be- fore, and had hoped to avoid the trouble of in fu- ture, as he had been so accurate, for several years past : lie insisted, he liad not lost the gauge of his "one bushel hand," but told me that i had told him only to sow once on a bed this year, when, as always heretofore, when he was ordered to sow a light haudfiil, he had also been told to sow twice on each bed, and said if I would let him sow twice on a bed with the light handlijl, or once with a heavy handful, it would be riii-ht. I immediately recollected that that vvas the fact, -i-^d was at)ou1 to have tbe fifty acres sown over again, at the same rate; but there came on a spell of rain, and wind alter the rain, which prevented our sowing for sev- eral days, and in the mean time, I found another part of the field, which I thought required the gypsum, as much or more, than the one already sown; and 1 deteriniued to sow the remaining twenty four bushels of plaster elsewhere, and had it sown twice on each bed, at the rate of a bushel to the acre, leaving a bed here and there unsown, as an experiment, in both instances, as is my con- stant practice. I did not expect to see much effect from the gypsum sown at the rale of half a bushel to the acre; but to my surprise, the difference in fa- vor of the plastered beds of clover, was as great in the half-bushel instance, as the other, and was very great in both ; just as great a difl'erence, as I ever saw before, on my land. I have fi-equently had it so great, as to be considered by .all who saw it, as one hundred per cent, better on the plastered land, than the unplastered — the plastered beds looking green and luxuriant, and the other yellow and s|)indling. But the unplastered bed, between the plastered beds, is always made worse, for be- ing between the others; that is to say, the land for twelve or fifteen feet, adjoining the plastered land, is alvvays injured, or rather the clover on it, is al- ways injured, and made yellow and spindling, by the plastered clover drawing the fertility li'om the unplastered. [suppose this to be the reason, though I do not know that it is tbe correct way of account- ing for it, hut merely mention a fact, which every man who has used plaster lor any length of time, must have discovered, provided he left out narrow strifjs, or lands, as an exneriment. If lie has not discovered this fiact, liis land is not good plaster land; for one of the strongest proofs of fand being adapted to plaster, is, that where you leave out narrow strips between the plastered lands, these strips will be worse than they otherwise would have been, if the land had not been plastered at all: as is proven by the clover some distance ofl', on land ol' the same quality, being very good, as compared with the unplastered strips, between the 1837] FARMERS' REGISTER. 37 ]i!astcriHl, hut inlorior to the [ilastorcd land.* I hc- liove the iiilkiciice (ahove ?poli(Mi ol") of the plas- ter, extends some fitieen or twenty leet, and lln-- ther in a dry season, than a wet. In liict, jilasler acts nmcli l)elier in a dry season, at. least the dil- li'rence is much more perceplihle in a dry tlian a wet season. This year, 1835, in sowing my plaster on the clover, I iiad two beds plastered at the rate of two bushels to the acre, the balance of the field beino; at the rate ol" one bushel ; leaving now and then a bed unplastered, as usual, lor experiment sake; there was no pereeptiltle diderence between the one and two bushels, but very great in liu'or of the plastered over the unplaslered, in both instances. I would not advise to use plaster so economi- cally as a half bushel to the acre; lor every man can well allbrd to use a bushel to the acre, it pays so well iiir itself in the increase of crop. But a hall bushel is better than no plaster, and in the instance abovementioned, answered as well as a bushel; hut it may have been owing to my land having been so often plastered belbre, that it requires less to alfect if, (haviug used plaster tor twenty years,) though thiit is mere conjecture. While on the subject of gypsum, let me advise those who can get the French plaster, always to use that, in preference to the Nova Scotia plaster, as the French is much more apt to be ijenuine. The Nova Scotia plaster is very generally mixed with lime stone, but the French ne\'er. The French is much softer, and more easily prepared lor use, also, a very great advantage, when the liirmer pounds or beats his own plaster, which is decided economy; lor you may get plaster in the lump for half what j^ou give lor the ground plas- ter, and then you can judge whether it is genuine or not. The pounding or beating, is not so labo- rious, as one would imaoine. VV'ith a large trough dug out of a pine, or other tree, and large dog- wood pestles, or rammers, a farmer may beat his plaster every winter, on rainy days, without leel- ing it at all. In fact, those who do not make to- bacco, have very little tor their hands to do in rainy weather, and frequently expose their hands in bad weather, because they have no in-door work lor them. With old axes, or sledge hammers, you crack the large lumps of plaster, to the size of one and a half or two inches square, and put them into the trough, to be pounded, or beat by the rammers, or [)e£tles; and after beating some time, you sift the plaster through a tolerably fine wire sifter, and throw back the coarse pieces into the trough, to be beat over again with more plaster, until j'ou have it all fine enough. And it need not be very fine; twenty two or twenty three bushels to the ton, is sufficiently fine. This experiment is hardly worth recording, ex- cept that some over-economical liirmers might be tempted to use plaster, if they could do it at the small expense of half a bushel to the acre ; and I am sure if ever they saw the effect of it on their own land, they would never fail to use it alter- wards, even at the expense of a bushel, or more, to the acre. Hill Cartkr. *This remarkable effect does not rest for support only upon Mr. Carter's observation — and none is more to be relied on tlian his. But though it must be admit- ted, it seems unaccountable. — Ed. From Loudon's Gardener's Magazine. ON THE CULTURK OF ASPARAGUS. By ul. Forsyih. There is, perhaps, no article in the culture of which more unnecessary liirms ai'e gone through than with this. We see the plant (a native "^of Britain) covered with 6 in., or perhaps 1 ft., of soil or litter, in winter, to keep the li-ost li-om it, or to mulch it when it is in a dormant stale; thouiili we may as well mulch a layer of seed potatoes at Michaelmas, to benefit their buds lor the succeed- ing summer. But to come to the point, and that is, to culti- vate asparagus to the highest state of perlection at the lowest charges. "Let a heap of manure, equal to a layer of 9 in. deep all over the trround intended for asparagus, be prepared of the follow- ing materials :— One third good loamy turf, or turf ofsandy peat; and two tlurds of the best dung from the stables and cattle layers; with about two bushels of drill bones to every |)ole of ground. The turf ought to be pared off, and piled up, a year previous to its being wanted ; and the dung properly mixed and fermented at least sis weeks before. The bone manure may be spread over the rest before they are trenched into the quarter. In the process of trenching, let the manure be equally incorporated with every part. In plant- ing, let one-year-old plants be inserted 1 in. below, the level of the surface, in lines alternately 9 in.' and 3 ft. apart, in the same way as peas are gene- rally planted. If the plot be extensive, paths 3i ft. wide, may be run across the rows, at the dis- tance of 16 ft. apart, to prevent wheeling, and as much as possible, walkinff. between the lines. The plants may be i'rotn 4 in. to 6 in. apart in the row, bedded and covered with leaf-soil, or dung reduced to a soil ; and, as mulching with half- rotten dung, and extensive waterings in dry weather, are the principal leatures of culture, it is indispensably necessary that the ground be effect- ually drained, summer drought and winter satura- tion being the grand evils to be guarded against. From the latter end of May till Michaelmas'; is the time that asparagus is generally lelt without any culture, except routine weeding, &c. Now, this is almost the only season that any culture can be of much service to the plant ; lor it is evident, that, if we encourage the plants whilst they are in a state of active develcpement, that is, when they are shooting up to seed, l)y forking, freriuent hoeing, mulching, and wateriiig between the rows, as if •lowers and seed were all we wanted, we shall invigorate the plants, and enable them to form fine plump crowns for next season ; but I cannot see how banking the beds up with soil, or mulch- ing them with strawy litter belbre winter (the roots being then in a state of rest), can be of any great service to the plants. A short time before tbelauds appear in spring, a little fine soil may be drawn over the crowns, in order to blanch the lower halves of the buds. In cutting, let the earth be first scraped away from the bud, that the gatherer may see where and what he is about to cut. Two or three years must elapse, afler planting, before any buds can be profitably gathered for use ; after which term, the lines may be allowed to remain until they become straggling and un[)roductive. In most gardens, however, they are generally wanted for forcing 38 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 1 after six or seven years' bearing ; in which cape only a very slight, hot-bed is necessary (say 80^ bottom heal), with 2 in. or 3 in. of any soil under and about the roots ; and 5 in. or 6 in. ot'old tan, or any light soil, over them: atmosi'heric tempera- ture about 55°. Roots, placed between two layers of soil in pots or bo.xes, may be introduced into any eaili' forcing- house at work; or trenches may be cut between the lines in the open ground, and hot dung or leaves introduced mider hoops and mats. Beds for torcinu asparan'us, with trenches between, cased with brickwork, I consider as ex- pensive and unprofilable. Islewortli, Dec. 14, 1S36. From tlie Britisli Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. 0]V A PARTICULAR MODE OF APPLYXXG FARM- YARD MAWURli:. By Mr. John Baker, Nassau Cottage, Leeds. The present depressed state of agriculture through the kinirdom, invites the serious attention of all connected with that important branch of in- dustry; it being a lamentable liict that, whilst the most splendid discoveries in science are daily ap- plied to the improvement of our trade and com- merce, aiiricultitre, as a science, remains almost stationary, notwithstanding individual and nation- al pros[)erity are so deeply interested in pi'omoting its welliire. For more than twenty-five years I farmed from 500 to 1000 acres in the county of Norlblk, during which time my attention was care- fully directed to the consideration ol' every method or system of farming which was calculated to in- crease the productiveness of the soil, and to im- prove the condition of that numerous and indus- trious class of persons who are dependent upon it. Tlie proper use of manure is amongst the most material improvements which I have discovered. By theconmion, 1 may say ireneral, mode of mana- ging it, only half the benefit which ought to be conferred on the crops is given, whilst the system which I have adopted doubles the value of all the manure made, and at the same time it really les- sens the expense ; and it is to this point that I will confine myself in this paper. That "the muck- cart is the best farmer," is a maxim as fully ac- knowledged as it is oft-repeated, and believing that upon the proper use and appHcation of it the success of the farmer mainly depends, I have nev- er failed to attend to this imporlant branch of hus- bandry. Having experienced the practical advan- tages of my system, as well upon land under my own cultivation in Norfolk, as upon farms belong- ing to my relations and friends in that county, where it had been introduced at my suirffestion, I am induced, at the earnest recommendation of many gentlemen who have also witnessed its beneficial efi'ects in Yorkshire, to invite the atten- tion of agriculturists generally to the subject. Ma- nure of almost every description is carried from the place where it is made, and deposited on a heap, lor four, six, or eight months, where it fi?r- menls and becomes a soft, black, cohesive mass; it is then put on the land and ploughed down, afier which the crop is sown; this may not always be done, but something resembling it is the prevailing and general practice in every part of the country. My method, the success of which has been proved by numerous experiments, is to spread the dung on the land as soon as convenient after it is made, ex- cept in vvinier; the manure made at that period ot the year remains at the fold-yard till the spring, where it does not ferment. The whole is taken in the sprinir, sunmier, and autunm, fresh to the land; if in fallow, it is ploughed in with a thin furrow; the land is harrowed tmd ploughed again in a fort- night, and in a fortnight alter, harrowed and ploughed a third time; after which the muck, however long it may have been, is reduced, and the soil will he in as fine and friable a stale as the land is capable of From the time the dung is put on to the last menlioned ploughing, notlimg can be more unsightl}' than its appearance. If it is to be applied to pasture, I spread it over the surface of ihe ground from the beginning of spring to the end of autumn. Three essential points are to be observed : first, to a[)ply the manure to the soil as soon as convenient after it is made (except in the depth of winter;) secondly, to keep it as near the surface as possible ; and, thirdl}', to mix it well with the soil. These being observed, I confident- ly assert, that advanlafires equal to double those now derived from manure are communicated to the land b}^ an increase in the fertility of the soil, exhibited in healthier and more abundant crops; so that a farm of 200 acres of arable land of me- dium quality, producing 400 loads of dung or two loads for every acre, worth five shillings per load, will be benefited to the extent of ten shillings per acre annually, and where more manure is made, which on every well managed farm is done, the advantages will be greater. This result has been produced upon the farm now in my occupa- tion, belonging to Lord Cowper, in the neighbor- hood of Leeds, to which I entered at Candlemas 1831 ; it was then in the most deplorable condi- tion ; so deplorable was it, indeed, as to lead many of my friends and neighbors to predict the impos- sibility of mj' procuring a tolerable crop upon one of the fields for seven years to come; but this field, from the application of manure according to my method, has become exceedingly productiv^e. 1 fallowed it for turnips, and in May (1831,) I put on about twelve and a half tons of good fresh- made stable-dung per acre ; as much as possible was taken from the stables and carried to the land the da}' it was made. My proceedings greatly amused my agricultural neighbors. The prece- ding tenant observed, that however such a system might have answered in other parts of the coun- try, here it would be a useless expenditure both of time and mone}-, and a great waste of manure. To convince him of the benefit to be derived from such manuring, I directed one piece in the middle of the field to be left without covering. With the exception of the land upon which no manure had been laid, the field produced a very fine crop of turnips, worth at least six pounds per acre, whilst the crop raised upon the land not manured was not worth six shillings per acre. After the turnips, the field produced a very heavy crop of barley, averagmnr not less than seven quarlers per acre, and in 1833 I obtained a most abundant crop of clover without any manure except on the land omitted in the firsi year. I also covered a field of paslure the same summer with the same kind of manure, half of it in June and the rest in August. Six weeks aller the first part was done 1S37] FARMERS' REGISTER. 39 I showed it to a very shrewd and scientific gen- tleiimn, well acqiuiinted wiih roimtry afliiirs, who ex|in'Sf!(>tl h^s ar^lonishinont at the improveiiieiit. Ill OciuliiM-, the liirauT whose land adjoins my own, said lie had never belore seen sm-h exiraor- dinary iniprovenienl in any irnjnnd. Knowinii' thai he. was one ol'liiose who l>ad ridienled my sys- tem, I liinted to him liiat llie propriety of it had been naich doulited. lie acknowledged he hiul condenmed it, and said he now saw that which he would not have believed had lie not witnessed it, and that he thought the manure must have con- tained a iai-ire portion of white clover and other grass seeds, otherwise, in his opinion, such an ert'ect could not have been produced. In the liot- test part of last summer, I covered, in the same manner, the only field on my firm which had not been p.reviously dressed in a similar way, leaving two ridges in the middle unmanured. I removed all the cattle from this field tor six weeks, at the end of which the two ridges had scarcely grass to sustain a goose, whilst the rest of the field looked like a field of loi!: or aftermath. Miuiy gentlemen examined it. Some seemed satisfied that much benefit was derived at very little cost; others ex- pressed their conviction that it was the greatest improvement they had ever seen, and it is my firm belief that, from the time the duiiff was put on, to ihe end of summer, 1 had at least three times as much grass from the land manured as from the oiher. I must mention another fact. The man who spread the dung had liumed many years IbrhimsehJ and might be considered a clever man ; he said to me, " ' ou would not thus waste manure, if you had not the means of getting plen- ty more." I asked him to wait a month belore he decided ; he then declared that he had never been so much mistaken. I mention these things, knovving that my plan has much to contend against,' and hoping that noblemen and gentle- men, who try my method, may not be laughed out of it before they have applied to it the test of due experience. It may be said that, in these ex- periments, I did not comjiaredifi^erent sorts of ma- nure. I have done so repeatedly, but, in truth, I had then no rotten dung by me. I would propose, to any one who doubts the propriety of my plan, to put a given weight of tresh dung on a heap, to remain (turning it over or not) for twelve months, at which time spread it over the land, and at the same time take a similar weight of tiesli dung of the same kind, and spread it over double the space, and I doubt not the result. Hitherto I hav'e con- fined the recommendation of my plan to practical experience alone, but I am not wiihout scientific and chemical authorities to support me. Mr. Jo- seph Hay ward's 'Treatise on the Science of Agri- culture,' is worth reading by the agriculturist who searches after truth. Being aware of the great ditficulties with which the farmer has to conicnd, I should recommend any new system with great diffidence, il' attended with additional expense; but as the plan I am desirous to introduce is alike recommended by its simplicity and economy, and also eminently calculated to promote the fertility of the soil, and to secure, by that means, a more adequate remuneration to the fiirmer, I cannot doubt of its being generally adopted, whenever its practical advantages are more generally known and appreciated. With a view to facilitate its in- troduction, it will give me great pleasure to cor- respond with, or, to wait upon, any iif)blemen or irentlemen, and to explain more fully the details ol' my method of applying manure, or to assist in introducing the practice upon any farm in hand,_ either under my own superinteiuience, or that of my son, who is at this time disengaged, and who IS abundantly fjualified tor such purpose, he hav- ing for severd years having had alm-'st the eniire management of a liirm of 800 acres in the county of NoTlolk, belonging to myself, upon which, as I have before observed, the system was proved to be highly beneficial. JMy subject has drawn me on to^greater length than i expected ; I cannot, however, conclude without sayiiiiz, that if, by the system I recommend, 10s. or 15s. worth of ma- nure can be added annually to every acre of land of moderate quality, at no greater expense than by the old method", I think the landlord, the ten- ant, and the public, will be great gainers. From the British Quarterly Journal of Agricuiture. 3IODE OF SUPPORTIlVa THE POOR IN BEL- GIUM. Viscount Vilain XIII, who has been long ap- pointed Minister at Rome, has resiirned his ofllce as Governor of East Flanders. Belore quitting Ghent, Viscount Vilain addressed a circular to the litierent functionaries under his government, in which are some interesting details relating to the operations of the cliaritable workshops, {ateliers de charite,) established in difierent parts of Flanders. He states that the number of these institutions amounts to forty-three ; that the total prime cost of material and salary paid to the poor amounts to 176,378 francs, and the same of manufactured ar- ticles to 162,583 Iraiics, leaving a loss upon the whole of only 13.804 francs. Thus, at the ex- pense of 13,804 fiancs, provision and employ- ment have been given to 2265 poor people du- ring the whole of the winter and part of the spring; and thus, at the trifling expense of six francs per persons, forty three parishes have been rescued from tlie evils of mendicity, and a large body of poor creatures, who must otherwise have begged' or starved, have been actively and useful- ly employed, and have had the means of support- ing their families without other parochial relief. The letter adds, that the average loss of six francs only arises from detective administration in some of the parishes, since it results that, in twen- ty five out of forty three, the loss has not exceed- ed two francs, and indeed in some of these has not been more than eighty centimes per person. In seven parishes the receipts nearly balance the expense, so that the poor have cost little or no- thing; and in four parishes the returns have ex- ceeded the expense, so as to leave a balance in the hands of the directors, after supporting all the poor. These are remarkable results, and are well worthy the attention of the philanthropists in England and Ireland ; for what can be more praiseworth}^, more advantageous or honorable to the community, than the establishment of institu- tions by which pauperism, idleness, and immoral- ity are neutralized, without expense, and by which a number of persons, who would be otherwise thrown upon the public workhouse, or become burdens to the parish, are actively employed, and encouraged in the habits of industry and econo- 40 F A R JM E R S ' REGISTER. [No. 1. my? Viscount Vilain earnestly recommends the es- tablishment of similar workshops throughout the whole country. Were he able to effect Jiis be- nevolent object, he would obtain one of the most important and most beneficial results ever effected in a civilized nation ; and Belgium would present the phenomenon of a whole population purged, as it were, of idleness and paurierism. Whilst upon the subject, it may be observed, ac- cording to official statistical documents, published by order of the minister of the interior, that the total irross amount of the revenue of hospitals, charitable establishments, and of I he divers sums expended upon the poor, amounted, in 1S33, to to 11,647,000 francs, or about 285 irancs per indi- vidual. The number of the poor in the provin- cial workhouses has been reduced Iron) 3454 in 1827, to 2662 in 1S33, a remai^kable diminution, seeing that the population has increased in an in- verse ratio, havins: auijmenled from 3,800,000 in 1827, to 4,061,000 in 1833. The same document states, that the total number of persons receiving instruction at tlie various colleges, schools, and places of education ot all denominatioijs, amount- ed altogetlier to 353,342 in 1828, whereas in 1833 the number of children attending the 5229 prima- ry schosis alone exceeded 370,000. If the pro- gress of education had been great, the dimniution of immortality is not less striking, lor one finds the number of Ibundlinfrs (^eiifans trouves) to have amounted to 11,023 hi 1823, whilst in 1833 they did not exceed 7997. This is not a place to devel- ope subjects of this kind, but the above examples will suffice to show, that Belgium is making con- siderable progress in those branches of administra- tion and genera! morality which are the most essen- tial to the well-being of a nation. It must not be omitted to state, that the tables in question irive the population to the 1st of January 1835 at 4,165,953 souls ; the superficies of the soil at 3.420,570 hec- tares (each 2| acres,) of which 381,470 hectares, or about one-tenth, are uncultivated, not including more than 100,000 hectares, or l-34tli, of roads and canals. In France, the cultivated land, out of a superficies of 52,570,000 hectares, amounts to 9,000,000, or one-sixth ; and the roads, canals, streets, &c. to 1,216,746, or one-fitth ; both of which show a remarkable balance in favor ol" Bel- gium. THE PROGRESS OF SINKING ANB LOSS IN THE EMBANKED MARSH OF SHIRLEY. To the Editor of the Farnieis' Register. Shirhy, April 6th, 1837. 1 have long intended to communicate the result of the reclaimed swamp land at Shirley, an ac- count of which [ have already given, up to the end oft he year 1832; and although now rather out of date, I leel somewhat bound to do so, to warn oth- ers who miiiht wish to undertake a similar work; particularly, as up to the end of the year 1832, the time last reported, the experiment appeared a suc- cessful one. I will now continue the history of the reclaimed land, and by way of making it more intelligible, I will recapitulate in a concise form, the matter reported in the third number of vol. 1st of the Farmers' Register, [page 129 to 131,J to which I refer your readers. In the year 1825, I had 85 acres of swamp land reclaimed at Shirley, by throwinffup a dike anund. it of one thousand seven hundred yards in length, at the cost of one dollar and twenty-five cents per running yard. Includino; truid7] FARMERS' REGISTER. 41 could not have withstontl the tcinptation ol" rc- chiiriiiivj^ so tiiw a piece of laiiil, apparently. This; work has tauo'hl ine this much, which I now coiumuniciitc for the benefit ol" others, that it will not do to reclaim, by diliinp; alone, swamp land wiiich has no liiundaiion, and so little rise and (;i!l in the tide as we have on James River, that heinir only three feet. (By no Ibundation, [ mean swamp land lormedol" perhaps nine-tenths veiretahle matter, anil the remaider alluvial matter, brought down by the river many years back, which alluvial matter, is little else but the lightest clay or earth, which takes some time to deposite from the water.) The swamps above me, which have been reclaimed, at Woodson's, Verina, and other places above, have a much better foundation than nn'ne, and may be perma- nent; because, on a good fijundation, there is no daiiirer of the land sinking, but those so f;ir from the tiills of the river as mine, are formed of the liehfer particles or portions of the alluvial deposife, and can never have much foundation, or solidity.* The heavier portions, such as sand, clay, and rich matter from the mountains, are deposited first, and by the time the ll'eshets reach us, it has little else to de[)osite, but a light and cha:!'y clay or earth, which produces vegetable matter in our swamps, principally fibrous roots, and makes a soil black, springy, and cha'iy, which when exposed to dry, as it is when reclaimed, evaporates, or rots away, to little or nothing ; and therefore, must sink in a ibw years so low. as to prevent you from drawing off the water, without the use of pumps^ which [ once thought of trying, but found it would be too expensive. In addition to which, the dike, which is necessarily made of the vegetable swamp mud, rots and evaporates so much, that it sinks faster than you can afford to raise, or repair it; for you soon dig away all the ground near it, in keeping up the dike. Where th^? alluvial deposite is formed on a clay, sand, or any solid foundation, it is not only worih reclaiming, but nmst he very valuable land; and that should be the first thing ascertained, in re- claiming swamp lands, otherwise it will be like Dr. Franklin's whistle. I have now got ten acres clear, and a marsh, instead of a swamp, whi(;h marsh afl^brds sorces and wild ducks, instead of the wood the swamp formerly yielded. But I am determined to have the wood back again, and I have this spring set out several hundred ash trees, and shall continue to set out every sprm. Alter llic soil lias been cmi- sid(M-ed, i-eivard should be nexi had lo the manures which are applied to it. II. JMaki'iiks. Tiiose manures wliich fi-ed the plant, I term nutritive manures; while those which enable the plant to digest its ibod, I call stiniulants. I consider all putrescent animal and verretahle matter nitiritives, while the mineral substances are classed auion^ the stiviidants. Bearinjr these' distinctions in mind, it must be determined, whether, the soil lo be cultivated needs the one manure or the other. If it produces plants which irrow rank and vig- orous, neither veo-etable nor animal matter will be safe to apply. In such cases, stimulants might be applied with great success. Salt-mud, salt-marsh, and even common salt, have been all applied by our sea-island planters, as the best stimulants. I do not know that lime JiHs ever been applied. Salt-mud answers best where the land is sandy or light, but it answers also well upon land which is not too low. It is the practice with most planters to get out their mud in hand-barrows, durino; the summer months, and leaving it in heaps, to be carried out upon the land when convenient. This is called ai)plying the mud in its "dried state.'''' I object, however, to this mode; because, I think that the mud, by being heaped up to dr}^, loses most of its saline qualities, by the rains falling upon it, &c. When the mud is taken im- mediately Iroin the creek or pond, and placed upon the soil, it is called applyino; it in its '■'■green state.'''' It is then soli, and can in this state be spread out easily with a hoe, in the alleys. Aiier being thus spread out, it should be left a day or two to dry. The water will evaporate ti'om the mud, and leave the salt, and ven:etable matter of the mud behind. A cart-load of mud to each task-row, is the amount usually applied; but double, or treble the amount might be used, with great success. The mud should be placed under the first listing. Salt-marsh [grass.] This manure I decidedly prefer lor damp land. It may also be gathered in the summer, and put up in heaps, for use in the following spring. Where the planter alternates his fields, the marsh may be spread out in the al- leys of the vacant fiehl, and immediately listed in. This mode is decidedly preti^rable ; because, put- ting in the marsh at so early a period, gives it abundant time to rot, by the ensuing spring. But where the same field is planted for any num- ber of consecutive years, the marsh must be put up in heaps to rot during the summer; for the field is then occupied with the cotton. With a o-ood scythe, it may be fairly estimated, that one fi^llow will do six times as much at cutting marsh, as in digging mud: and when it is considered that six cart-loads of marsh will manure a task better than twenty-one loads of mud, the balance is greatly in favor of the marsh. Rushes do almost as well as the marsh, where the land does not require salt. But they may not be considered under the head of stimulants ; while marsh acts both as a stivntlant and a nutritive. Some planters object to marsh, and say that it produces "blue"''' in cotton ; but no one need apprehend this, if the marsh has been put into the land so as to give it sufficient time to rot, before the cotton-plant reaches it. A word about preparing marsh. Most pliuiters pile it up in small stacks, lor the purpose of tasking their negroes while cutting it. This is attended with the Iblluwing evils. It permits the sun to act so povverliiUy upon it, as to dry it comf)letely ; the rains then wash the salt away; and when the marsh is taken out it is not at all rotted. To ob- viate these evils, the marsh should, if possible, be all heaped up in one pile. The pile should be made square: and the more the marsh is trampled down the sooner it will rot, and the less apt will il be to throw away its saline properties. Experience has taught me, that three cart-loads of marsh, trea- ted in this manner, will go as far as six treated af- ter the common mode. Salt. As regards the profierties and application of this stimulant, I refer O. P. Q. to the valuable article from your pen, Mr. Editor, contained in the January number of your journal.* ISI. Tillage. Under this head I shall consi- der, in order, listintj the land, bedding, planting, hoeing, thinning, &c. If possible, cotton-land should always be listed in the fall. By doing so, at this season of the year, the grass generally becomes killed by the severe fi-osis of winter, and the soil becomes thereby im- proved. 11^ however, the land is much infested with grass, it is decidedly best to leave it for work- ing as late in the season as possible, because then, the grass has less time to overtake the cotton. In all cases, I preiisr putting the manure under the list, because the plants then receive nutriment, when they most need it, viz: when they have aitained some height. From listing, I next proceed to bedding, which requires more attention than planters are generally in the habit of paying it. The size and iormation of cotton beds are of great importance. In forming a cotton-bed, the base of the bed should be made so broad as to leave the alley as narrow as possi- ble. The more narrow the alley, the better will the water lead off after a rain. The beds on high land need not be made high, but rather broad and fiat; and I am not altoirellier convinced, but that the same shape would suit best lor low lands also. The reason gejierally assigned lor making flat beds is, that they are not so apt to be \vashed away by rains; and, in hoeing them, the beds are not cut down too much. Planting. — Hitherto, planters have been anx- ious to have their seed in the ground by the 25th of March, and fi'om thence to the middle of April. For myself, I prefer early planting. Though after the cotton has come up, it may be put back by cold, it will be, nevertheless, more forward than cotton which has come up later; and though it should be entirely killed, it is better, in my opinion, to run the risk of planting ov^er, and having early cotton, than, by planting late, to have the pods destro3^ed by an autunm frost. The best plan is, to plant the entire cotton-crop before the corn-crop is put into the ground. Next, aller the cotton-crop has been put in, the corn should be immediately planted, and alter the corn has been planted, the first cotton should be hoed, whether there is grass or not. This forms the first hoeing. Mr. Tovvnsend, of Wadmalaw Island, has intro- duced a skimmer-plough, for hoeing the bed at this, and, subsequent stages of the growth of cot- * See Far. Reg. p. 677, vol, 4. 46 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1 ton. I have never used the plough myself, but I have seen it work to such advantage, as to be con- vinced of its utility. It is a plough with a long F^vo^d upon one side, which shaves the sides of the bed, and can be had at Mr. Martin's black- smith-siiop, Wentworth-street, Charleston. As I have said, this plough shaves the sides of the bed, and one ploughman and a hand, can with ease go over ibur acres per day. The tops of the beds, near the cofion, are left untouched. This the ne- groes attend to with the hoe. One acre is given to each, and their work now is, to hoe what the plough has lell untouched, to pick the grass fi'oni the bed, and to loosen with their fingers the earth around the young plants. Those who use this plough, plant more largelj^ to the hand than those who use the hoe ; but I shall not do so, tlioiigh I shall use it. This plough may be used in hoeing grass, until the cotton grows so high as to render it unsale to use it longer. Where this plough is not used, the first hoeing of cotton consists, in each hand hoeinir, as soon after the cotton is up as possible, the sides of the beds. A chop or two should be given, on each side of the plants, with the hoe, but great care must be taken that the plant is not bruised. After this, all grass, if there be any, must be removed from the plant, and the earth loosened about it. Second loorking. — After the first hoeing has been completed, the second working should commence. This consists in going .over the field, and hauling up the earth around the plants, which has been thrown from it at the first working. Between the first and second working, some grass ma\' have grown around the plants ; this should first be re- moved by the band, and the cotton-plants in each hill should be thinned down to Ibur, five, or six, ac- cording to their strength of growth. This second working gives the plants a start, which will enable them to be left to themselves until the corn-crop has been attended to. The corn-crop having been attended to, the third working of the cotton should now commence. TTiird working. — This is done like the second, and the plants should be thinned down to two or three, as circumstances require. Fourth working — is, with many planters, the last. The plants are now thinned down, accord- ing to the nature of the land. If it be very strong, and the cotton grows high and thick, sixty stalks should be left in each task (one hundred and five feet) row. In a word, the best mode of thinning is, to leave the stalks so wide apart, as to calcu- late upon a free circulation of air around them. I am decidedly opposed to thinning out the plants after the field has been in blossom. The plants are then so high, and their roots so large, that the removal of any of them from the bed must disturb those that remain. When removal is required, I prefer cutting those to be removed, close to the roots with a knife. This can be as easily done as pulling them out, and it is much the best for the remaining plants. It will be perceived, that in making provision for the treatment of my cotton and corn, I have said nothing about potatoes. These I always cultivate with two or three old hands, whose sole business it is to attend to them. My cotton and corn are thus not interfered with. I have written this article in great haste, Mr. Editor, but I send it to you as it stands, in order that it may reach O. P. Q. in time. St. Helena. SALT, A SPECIFIC MANURE FOR COTTOIV, AND THE CAUSE OF THE SUPERIORITY OF THE SEA'ISLAND VARIETY. It seems to us that salt must act as a specific manure for cotton, and is essential to produce the fineness of fibre that constitutes the value of the sea-island cotton. As different as is the quality and appearance of this cotton from the green-seed, or short staple upland cotton, they are but varieties of the same kind, the most valued of which, rapidly runs into the other, by mere change of soil. The one kind is raised, in perfection, only on the low sandy islands on the sea coast of Georgia and South Carolina, and the adjacent shores of the main land. If the seeds (which are naked and black,) are planted in the interior, though but little remote from the sea, the product is what is called the "long staple Santee," a green seed cotton, but of longer fibre than the ordinary upland cotton, into which however, continued planting from the same, finally brings the crop. It has been supposed that the very sandy nature of the soil of the sea-islands was the cause of the peculiar value of the cotton they bear. But if so, some spots, at least, might be found equally sandy, in the interior of the country, and the same kind of cotton there produced successfully. But the account we have in the forego- ing and other articles of the peculiar value of salt mud and salt grass, as manures for cotton, indicate plainly that salt itself is necessary for the perfection of cotton, and that it is owing to the salt already in the soil of the sea-islands, and the adjacent low coast, that to such narrow limits the production of that valuable variety of cotton has heretoibre been confined. QUERIES. To tlie Editor of the Farmers' Register. Mathews C. H., Va., 3farchS0lh, 1837. 1st. If a fiirmer have a certain quantity of lime- or marl, but insufficient to cover a given quantity of land with a flill dressing, would it be better to spread it over a large surface in small quantity, or to put it on a small surface in full proportion? For example, suppose a farmer has a field containing- forty acres, and has one thousand bushels of lime; would it be more advantageous to put his lime on ten acres, at the rate of one hundred bushels per acre, or on the whole forty, at the rate of twenty- five bushels per acre? 2nd. By what means can so small a quantity of lime, as ten bushels, be spread evenly on an acre of land? 3rd. Will a bushel [one hundred bushels?] of marl, containing fifty per cent, of calcareous mat- ter, have as quick and efficacious action, as fifty bushels of shell lime, when spread upon land ? The editor is requested to answer these ques- tions in his journal, as they may gratify others, as well as W. S. Answer to 1st Qvcry. The greatest total effect (though less per acre) will be produced by spreading the marl 1837] FARMERS' REGISTER, 47 or lime over the largest surface. But as the applica- tion of a certain quantity of either manure is made more troublesome and expensive in proportion to the extent of land over which it is regularly spread, it be- comes a matter of calculation whether the increased trouble is not greater than the increase of effect, from making the coverings very light. For this reason, in the case supposed, we should prefer putting fifty bush- els of lime to the acre, rather than either one hundred or twenty-five. Jnswcr to 2nd Query. By making it an ingredient of compost, as practiced in France, and described in the Essay on Lime by M. Puvis, published in the 3rd vol. of the Farmers' Register. Jnswrr to Query 3rd. Though there is an omission or mistake in the words of the query, the writer's meaning is plain. Pure quick-lime will be much more efficacious on the next succeeding crop, than shell-marl containing the same quantity of lime, because of the more perfect state of division of the parts of the former. This supe- riority, however, is not material in subsequent crops — nor is it in the first crops so great as to direct one to use lime in preference to marl, if both are equally accessi- ble.— Editor. From the Northampton Republican. BOUNTY FOR BEET SUGAR, GRANTED BY THE LEGISLATURE OF MASSACHUSETTS. RE- MARKS ON THE NATURE AND OPERATION OF THE PLAN. One of our representatives, Mr. William Clark, Jr., returned from the General Court, on Saturday last, with the copies of the acts incorporating Ed- ward Church and others, to manufacture from beets in Northampton, and for the encouragement of making beet sugar, by giving a bounty of three cents a pound on all such manufactured withm the commonwealth. With regard to the act of incorporation, we un- derstand that nothing is wanted now but the re- turn of JVlr. Isnard from France, to commence the building of the manufactory, and to furnish it with the necessary machinery for carrying on the busi- ness. In the mean time, the company is looking for a site somewhere on the banks of the canal for the establishment. It is estimated that a capital -of $ 20,000 will be sufficient to commence the manufacture of sugar, and that every thing will be in readmess to receive the beets for the pur- pose by the month of October. This capital is already engaged by the petitioners who have ob- tained the charter, so that in fact, this most glo- rious enterprise has already commenced. With regard to the other act, we understand that the basis upon which the legislature fixed the three cents bounty, was founded on an average duty of three cents a pound on West India sugar, viz: two and a half cents lor brown Havana, and three and a half for the white ; thus it is, that a plantation ni Louisiana can furnish us with sugar at a profit of three cents a pound over our nearer neighbors in the island of Cuba, who must pay first that amount of duty on every pound imported into Boston. The legislature therefore acted very wisely in giving to our own citizens the same encouragement to man- ufacture sugar from beets, that congress indirectly gives to the people of Louisiana. But it is said fhat the bounty will make a serious impression upon the state treasury. Be it ao. The farmers will now make their own sugar, and instead of paying three cents a pound duty to Louisiana, will receive three cents a pound bounty from the com- m.onwealth. And when did the fiarmers of our state ever before receive any encouragement in their business '? They have often been called upon to aid the manufi^icturing, the commercial, and the shipping interests, and have done so with alacrity; and they have now received from the le- gislature a boon of inestimable value, which they will duly appreciate. We have one word of ad- vice which we give them with the utmost sincer- ity and singleness of purpose: — secure your beet seed — secure it immediately, for depend upon it that the children of almost every family can raise beets enough for a hogshead of sugar. [The granting a bounty of three cents the pound for all beet sugar made in Massachusetts, is sufficient evi- dence of the people of that state being determined to carry through the experiment. Whatever may be the impelling cause, and faulty as may be the mode, at least enough encouragement is thus offered for this produc- tion to give the new business a fair trial, and to show whether it is really a profitable direction for enterprise and capital, in this country. This experiment is highly important to all the states, and we rejoice that Massa- chusetts has been so generous as to have the experi- ment made at her own expense. The principle impulse to offering this very liberal bounty is the fanatical spirit of abolitionism, of the great extent and influence of which abundant evi- dence was furnished in the recent proceedings of the senate of Massachusetts. The main object is to limit the use ot sugar made by the labor of slaves. The working of this motive we predicted when the manufacture of beet sugar was first proposed in this country ; and we said then, and repeat now, that it is a matter for rejoicing, if a new and profitable culture is introduced, though by the efforts of the abolition party. In this way good may be produced by these fanatics, who are agents of unmixed evil in every other of their movements. The political economy of this mode of encouraging the new product is also very objectionable. But di- rect bounties for production, such as Massachusetts of- fers for beet sugar, are, in every point of view, less objectionable than the indirect, given in protecting du- ties, for cane sugar, by the general government. The taxing operation of the former is palpable — and the sys- tem would not long be borne, if as general and onerous as was our national protective tariff', by the most patient and stupid people on earth. If Massachusetts, by the continual payment of a bounty of three cents a pound, shall cause enough beet sugar to be produced for the consumption of all her population, the commonwealth will lose precisely the amount of the bounty paid, ex- cept to such extent as the profit of the new culture may exceed all others not sustained by bounties. If such ex- cess of profit should exist, and to the extent (for exam- ple) of the state's bounty, then there will be no general 4S FARMERS' REGISTER [No. I loss; but the effect will be merely taking the amount from one portion of the people, to give to another. In the mean time, other states will, without tax or bounty, receive equally the benefits of the fruits of the new bu- siness supported by the treasury of Massachusetts.] CHINESE MULBERRY NOT PRODUCED FROM ITS SEEDS ON THE ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE OF MR. WHITMARSH. Judging from several recent notices in di;Terent pub- lications, it seems that the opinion is now fast gaining ground that t!ie Chinese Mulberry, or moms multicaidis will not be reproduced, without change, from its own seeds. This opinion, which we r.athered from an ex- periment reported in a French jc irnal, was first made known here, and supported, in tl.is journal — but with so little success, for some two ye. i-s, that we made but few converts to the opinion, and did not prevent a sin- gle person from trusting and buying Mr. Whitmarsh's "Chinese mulberry seed" — by which so many seeds- men and others were deceived. Knough has been said in the previous volumeof this journal of this deception (to use the mildest term) practis d by Mr. Whitmarsh on the public, in selling seeds as tlioseof the "Chinese mulberry," by which name every buyer (and even his own agents,) understood the iiiorus muliicanlis to be meant. But if his defence again ;t this charge, on the supposition that the sead would produce its parent kind, had been as satisfactory, as it was flimsy and fu- tile, he no'.v yields every previon.5 ground of defence, by his admission below, that the reverse is the truth. In this statement, we have full confidence, although it proceeds from Mr. Whitmarsh ; and as a necessary deduction from it,Neven if his seed had been what they were sold for, (and afterwards admitted not to be,) they would not have produced the morus multicaulis, which was what the purchasers wanted, and expected. Mr. Whitmarsh knowing, as he now admits, that no confi- dence could be placed in such expectations, ought not to have sold such seed, whether under a true, or the false character under which his appeared. A petfy trader and retailer of seeds might have been held ex- cused, though knowing the truth of their worthless- ness, if he merely sold the true seeds of the tree by which they were stated to be produced. Such a sales- man might be permitted to say that he sold true and sound seeds of the morus multicaidis, and it was for the purchasers to know whether they would yield the same, or run into other varieties. But this excuse this throwing his defence on the general ignorance of purchasers — will not avail a man of Mr. Whitmarsh's knowledge, wealth, and position then occupied in so- ciety, and one who, professed to have been actuated by the patriotic desire of benefiting his country, by ex- tending mulberry and silk culture, in the best mode. If the apple had been but recently introduced and cul- tivated in this country, and it was known to very few persons (and not suspected by others,) that the seed would not produce its parent fruit, it would be a most dishonest act, in one of those better informed few, to sell the seeds of the Newtown pippin at hi^h prices to those who ignorantly expected to raise from them i the like delicious fruit. But, says this patriotic dis- tributor of "Chinese mulberry" seed, the product might be "superior" as well as "inferior" to the ori- ginal, "much depending on where the seed was raised." So seed of the finest known apple may, by possibility, produce a still more delicious or valuable kind ; but this rare chance would scarcely lessen the general average of loss and disappointment of buyers, who would in almost every other case get bad fruit — and not at all weaken the charge of fraud on the part of the seller. As to the last quoted supposition that the place from whence the seeds were derived can make the product better instead of worse, its truth is yet to be proved; and' as yet, it has neither probability to sustain it, nor does Mr. Whitmarsh's authority give this or any other statement additional strength. -The following paragraph is irora a letter of Mr. Whit- marsh to the editor of the "Silk Culturist," published in the last number of that paper. "Your views respecting the seed of the morus multi- caulis, as expressed in your last number so nearly co- incide with mine, and as I also receive frequent inqui- ries by letter, "if the seed of the multicaulis will pro- duce plants like those from cuttings," I ara induced to trouble you with a few lines, that the matter may be decided at once. My answer has invariably been that they luould not, and "that the plant would be diiferent, perhaps a superior or an inferior one. much depending^ on where the seed were raised. Seed from my own trees produced plants superior to the white, but much inferior to the original seeds, which were imported from Canton, three years since, by Dr. Stebbins, of this place, and which he was assured were from the multicaulis, produced plants, which arc in my opin- ion, superior to the original — leaves, quite as large, thick, fine smooth surface, and close jointed, and which the worms will select, when mixed with others. It is important for those who intend feeding silk worms, to provide a change of food, and not depend on one sort alone. When worms are falling off by disease, it will be found of great service to change the food from a watery, succulent leaf, to one of a drier nature ; lor that purpose, buddings of some sort should be had. Mulberry seed should be procured from every coun- try ; from some apparently inferior, good sorts may be obtained. 1 have selected plants v/ith leaves eight inches over, from a hedge of common white mulberry, which, by grafting and budding, may be increased to any extent. There is probably no seed known so lia- ble to sport, as the gardeners term it as the mtdberry, I would therefore forewarn all who purchase multicau- lis seed, that if they expect to produce plants like those from cutiins;s, they will be disappointf^d* It is much the cheapest and easiest way to j)ropagate this sort by cuttings." Yet notwithstanding all the evidence ofl^ered on this subject, advertisements from different persons are now seen in the northern agricultural papers, offering for sale "genuine seed of the morus multicaulis" — and if we mistake not, Mr. Whitmarsh himself has made a second importation of seed, which has been offered for sale as certainly now of the true kind. And as man- kind prefer to pay a high price for being cheated and misled, to being taught truth gratuitously, we doubt not but tliat more persons will be induced to buy these seeds, than will be prevented, and be correctly in- formed, on this subject, by the repeated exposures made. 1837] F A R M iO R S' R li: G I S V E R . 49 THE FLOUR RIOTERS OF NEW YORK. The Journal of Commerce, of New York, in repub- lishing our remarks (p. 740, vol. 4, Far. Reg.) on the late mob, and the progress and expected consequences of the mobbish spirit now working in that city, intro- duces the extract by the loilowing words : — "The sagacious editor of the Farmers' Register, ap- pends the annexed remarks to a notice of tlie late ilour riot in this city. What will he say, when he learns tliat tha as:grcgate punishment awarded to all the rioters, is thirty dollars fine, and ten months imprisonment? Such a mockery of justice was never before witnessed in this country." Our answer to t!ie question is, that this astonishing degree of indulgence siiown to even the poor wretches who liad been made the scape-goats of greater scoun- drels, in addition to the entire impunity of their leadfrs, proves that the cit)' of iVew York is ah'eady more ripe, far more advanced in the awful course that we had an- ticipated and predicted, than was supposed when those remarks were written. A symptom as alarming as any other is presented in the facts, that since the noted ex- hibition of their iniluence and strength in the flour riot, Jakes, Ming, and the otlier prominent leaders on that occasion, so far from being punished by the laws, or shrinking in silence to tiieir former ^obscurity to avoid the sight and censure of honest men, evidently triumph in their present notoriety. The same names have since been continually thrust conspicuously be- fore the public — and they have figured as insulting pe- titioners to the legislature, proud of their charged con- tempt of its authority — as orators and resolution oti'er- ers at late public meetings — and finally, Jakes is the candidate chosen in public meeting of the mob or plunder party, for the office of maj^or of the great city of New York. From their whole course sinr.e the memorable day of the flour riot, it is manifest ihat the leaders consider their position bstore the public as one of high gratification, gain, and triumph. EXTRACT FROM PROi^SJ ;OU DUCATCL S !>AST REPORT OP THE GIi^OLOaiCA^ SURVij^V OF MARYLAXD. On the present coni'dion 'if jJgriculture la Cabcrt county, and the rma:i3 of improving it. It has already been stated that most ofihe soi! of Calvert, which is a sandy loam, is kind and easily improved. When properly tended, it pro- duces tobacco oi" a fine qualify, heavy crops of oats, to wliich it is pecuiiariy well adap.eda& well as to corn and rye. Good wlieat crops have a'so been raised on the stiflerand more clayey soils that occur in some parts of the county, but more espe- cially on the flat lands of the Patuxent. Hither- to, the root crops, for other than domestic con- sumption, have been totally neglected, and tobac- co, though the most laborious and the most e.-c- pensive to cultivate, is considered the most valua- ble product, and is the s'ajjle commodity of the county. The only means of improving the soil that has as vet been resorted lo, is in the use ofplasterand Vol. V— 7 clover, which on the greater number of planta- tions, has been a very elficient one, and has con- tributed largely towards increasing their products. It is fortunate that this system, however lardy in its adoption, should hiU'C gained liuor with the planters of Calvert, with whom if is now very generally adopted; but serviceable as if has been, it is confidently asserted that the county possesses ill its marl beds, a mineral resource of infinitely more value. Jt may be a matter of immense im- portance therefore to its agricultuai mteresls to prove this assertion. There are several things to be consiilered in the use ol' plaster, that diminishes its value, when compared will) lime or marl; namely, its cost, iis limited appiication to certain soils, its uncertainly as dependent upon seasons, and tlie want ol per- manency, not only in its efa-cts, but in its eiHcacy aller a |;roionged ap[)lication. From the best inlbrmation that could be obiain- ed, It ar'pears Ihat the plaster system imposes upon tiii^ planter an annual expenditure of no less than tioo d-nuirs for every acre under cultivation. True it is that this expense is more than repaid by the increasi-d productiveness imparted by its use to thes'.jil ; but there is no desire to depreciate its value, considered abstractedly. On the contra- ry, it lias already been admitted to have rendered important services; and by no means is it intend- ed to advise its abandonment altogether., nor even to give it to be understood that one system is to supersede entirely the other. It will be sufficient to show, for the present, that marling under ex- isting circumstances, is the less expensive, and the more profitable operation. This will more satis- flictoiiiy appear, by considering the other compa- rative disadvantages of the plaster system. Every planter knows that plaster cannot be ap- plied to all soils, not even to those which, under or- dinary circumstances, he -is far from considering steril. I'hus it will not answer on very sandy soil, nor on verv slilf clayey soils, nor on wet lands. Plaster u'ill not act beiieficially in very wet sea- sons, nor during a prolonged drought. The eftecis of plaster, in the quantity usually employed, are experienced only by the crop to which it has been applied; every renewal of the crop rcfpiiiing a repetition of'the mineral. Finally, it has been confid'mtly asserted by in- telligent farmers in some portions of the state, where the use of plaster and clover dates as fiir back as fifiy years, that it is no longer found to be so efiicacious upon the same lands that formerly received from it the greatest benefits; hence the pn^ference now given in those pans to lime. Mar] on the other hand judiciously applied, is not subject to any of these drawbacks. It will improve every kind of soil, at least all those that occur in our tide-water districts; it will benefit them all under any circumstances of position or seasons, (without, of course, meaninfj to imply that it will protect them from all inclemencies of the seasons:) it may be considered as permanent in its effects; and the expense for applying it once 'or all is not .miore than every enter[)rising planter in Culver* is already willing to incur annually for for the use of plaster and clover seed. Mr. Rutlin, whose experience in the use ol shell- marl, has been so extensive and so valuable, to those who possess this resource, has furnished us 50 FARr,lL]RS' REGISTER [No. 1 with Ihe cost of marIinllow-citizeus in other parts of the state, would find themselves prospering under an ameliorated slate of things, of which they have not hitherto seemed to think their lands suscepti- ble. No more opportune moment than the pre- sent, perhaps, can have presented itself to intro- duce some expedient refi^jrm in the rural economy of the lower couniries, when the only efficient la- bor that can be applied to the raising oftlieir sta- ple commodity is bemg fast removed, and that it is becoming imperiously necessary to substitute lor it a less irksome system of cultivation. The sug- gestion, however, is submilied to the discretion of those more immediately interested. Before quitting the subject of the application of marl or lime, it may not be amiss to allude to an- other inducement to its general use, suggested from various quarters, and which must necessarily have some weight with the residents in all the tide- water counties of the stale. This allusion itus reference te the putative effects of lime in prevent- ing disease. Mr. Ruflin, in the second edition to his "Essay on Calcareous Manures,'' has lijrnished a number of facts derived from the correspondents to his valuable publication, the " Farmer's Register," 52 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 1_ which lend great supjiort to the opinion that marl has the property ofpurilying the air ami contribu- ting to heathiulness. He shites Iiis own experi- ence in Uie following terms: "Mv princiiial fiirni, until within .some iijur or five year?, was subj>'ct in a remarkable degree to the com luon mild au- lumnul diseiises of our low country. Whether it is owing to marling, or other unknown causes, these bilious diseas(>s have since become com[)ara- tively rare. Neither does mj' opinion in this re- spect, nor the libels that have occurred on my farm Ftand alone. But,' hr^adds, "in n)ost rases where I have made inriuiries as to such results, nothinij- decisive had been observed.' There is no doubt but that marl orlimelieely used, wherever, around the dwellini;, around the out-bouses, the barn and the stables, in the larm-yard, pens, &c., a quantity of putrescent matter is always fjatbered together, would have the efiect oCdiminishing the noxious exhalations from such places, and thereby contri- bute to the greater health of the adj(jinnig residen- ces. The subject deserves the especial attention of planters and farmers in all the lower counties. Inquiry has often been made, whether there are not some superficial indication of the presence of marl at a short distance below the soil ; such as the appearance ofsome peculiar gi'owth. or of peculiar plants: and the frequent occurrence of a really anomalous vegetable formation, on the fbssililerous deposites of both the eastern and western shore, has led many [>ersons to regard it as a true index of the vicinity of that valuable material, applyintr to it the name of marl weed. The plant referred to is however, well known, and its verv remarka- able aspect would naturally attract the attention of any one. It is a leafless weed, the stem of which is single, erect, very rough and regularly articula- ted, each articulation raising from atubular slieafh 6i)0ited witii black to its base and summit, ft is the equisetum hijemah of botanists, which is im- ported fi-oin Holland under the name of Dutch rushes, and is nuich used by the whitesmiths and cabinet-makers of Europe m polishino- metaisand wood, and is there quite in demand lor scoin-inir pewter and wooden utensils in the kitchen. As if is found in many places where marl is not likely to occur — atiecting deep loamy soils, especially those that have been gained from rivers — it is of course no evidence of the presence of n)arl; but may serve lo indicate the goodness of the soil pro- duced by a proper admixture of calcareous matter with the sands and clays of the tertiary fbrma- tiotis. There is not, and there cannot be expected, to be found any such superficial indications of the de- posite of t()ssils cons;ituting the marl-beds of Cal- vert county. It is sulTicient to know that these beds occur almost every where, and that the low- ermost tbssiiiterons deposite actually constitutes the substratum ol'tlie whole county, making its ap- pearance wherever denudating causes liave strip- |)ed it of its covering of sand, gravel and soil. In some places, where the surface of the marl has been lor along time exposed to the action of a stream of water, the (bssils which it contained have been washed out, leaving only their in)pressions. '^i'he principal characters of the marl are in such cases ohliteratedj but by digginir a few feet into the bed, the shells themselves will invariably be found, and the deposite will then yield a material inferior to none otlier. I It is sincerely hoped, that enough has now been said to induce the people of Calvert to turn their serious attention to the early fruition of these re- sources; and it belongs to ihe n)ore wealihy plan- ters ol" the county to commence such operations as in iheir results will exhibit, in the most saiisfiicio- ry manner, all the benefits that may be derived from then). The value of lime to the soils of Calvert county has already been demonstrared in the good effi^cts obtained by the Hon. Judge JVIoi- sell, with the use of the shells from an Indian bank, upon his estate. His example has been fol- lowed by Mr. James Morsell, at the head ofllun- geribrd's creek. An Indian shell bank of great extent occurs also, as previously stated, at Hoilow- ino; point, the enterprising proprietor of which has expressed a willingness to dispose of its contents to his less fortunate neighbours. These shells could very profitably be distributed along both shores of the river either in their present condition, or in the more valuable form of lime into which they might be converted at little expense. As yet the efficacy of the marl has not been tried in the county; but tliere is every reason to be- lieve that the many intellj(rent planters who have now been made acquainted with iis exisience in places whence it may be easily ex'racied, as well as with its value, will not long sufTi^r it to remain neglected. It is nmch to be regretted, tliat in the only instance in which a trial of it was about to be made with praiseworthy 7.en\, the gentleman en- •rairefl in carrying on tiie operations, JMr. Geo. Wil- kinson, should have found himself compelled to desist by ill bea'ih. In avio'her year, however, there wi'l no doubt be liirnished many examples of the jjreat tienefits which the materia! is destined to confer nron the soil of Calvert county, bringing about a highly improved condition in agriculture of this much favoured portion of the state. From tlie Lomtoii Morning Ilciald of Marcli 3. TOBACCO TRADE. A deputation, consisiinir of JVIr. Maury and Mr. Oxiey, reiireseniiny; the American Chamber of Commerce and Tobacco Association at Liver- pool, and of Mr. Russell and Mr. Wills, on behalf of The manutiicturers of Bristol, is now in town lor the p,urpose of obtaining a reduction in the duty upon tobacco. For this reduction, they had a powerful advocate in the late Mr. Huskisson; and many of our renders will remember that it was proposed by Lord Alfhorp, when chancellor of the exchequer; he liiiled in carrying the reduc- tion, from want of eiiicient aid boih in and out of the House oi Commons; afiributable, as these gentlemen allege, to a want of (he due understand- ing of the subject. Since then, it has been dormant untilihe present lime, when the excess of smuggling has reduced ihe honest manufacturer to the alternativ^e of abandoning his trade, and losing the value of his machinery, or of once more attempting to wrest from government the fulfilment of the oft repeated promises of several successive administrations, '• to place the t.^ade upon such a footing that the profit and traffic of the smuggling would be anni- halated.'' For the purpose of enforcing their arguments in favor of the reduction of the duly, they have 1S37] FARMRJIS' REGISTER. 63 siibmiltpil to us the following stiitement ol' Ihcts illustmtive of the st;ite oi' llie tnule : Facts relative to the tobacco trade. cost of Amencnn toliacfo to iho has uf^iiully avi-iaged 3d to id "Tho pririK nianulacturer, pt-r lb. "The duty is 3s. per lb. "Tile exj)ense of sniugti-liiijT tobacco by iho car- go, from the first cost to tiiat ol' latidliig, is 92(1 per lb. '•The snu'.frgl-'r receives percariro at the rate of 2s 6d i)er lb ; or in other words, a |.rofit of Is. S^d. per lb. "Our remarks upon the above retiuire to he con- fined only to the opinion o(" the committee oi' the House of Commons on the growth of tobacco in Ireland, in 1830. "That it liirther appears from the evidence, that smug'ilino' of foreign tobacco is at present carried on to a great extent, and that all the mea- sures now adopted, at great expense to the coun- try, are, and will be, inefi'ectual to suppress it, so long as the temptation of evading a duty equal to twelve times the value of the article upon which it is imposed remains. i "Observe how increased population, when ac- 1 companied by decreased duties, has operated upon ! certain articles compared with tob;icco. ! "We may also add citjars — the amount upon j which duty was paid in 1823, at the rate of 18s. per lb. S,GOO lbs.— 1&30, ai 9s. per lb., 66.000 lbs.~ 1835, at 9s. per lb., 144,600 lbs. "Thus the revenue derived from the latter source is nine times greater than when the dmy was double the present rale. From the above facts, we arrive at this conclusion, that were the duty so reduced as effeciually to put down the smuirgler, all the tobacco now consumed in the United Kingdom would pay duty. "The total consumption is estimated at 50,000- 000 pounds, of which 22,000,000 pounds only pays duty. By reducinir this duty to Is. per lb., the illicit trade would be destroyed, and the con- sumer would pay to the government Is. per lb., for the remaining 28,000,000 \bs^., with which he is now suj)plied by the smugirler at 2s. 6d. per lb. "The expensive eslab'ishinent r{' the coast guard service would thus he rendered useless. "We deem it unnec(-ssary to adduce fiirther reasons for advocating a reduction of duty to Is. per lb." EXTRAORlJINAUY EXPERIMENT. The public are aware that Mr. Andrew Crosse has been recently pursuing a series ol' researches into the process of crystallization by means of his galvanic batteries, and that he has made discove- ries which have thrown quite a new Iii.):ht upon science. Some weeks atjo he prepared a sllicious fluid for the purpose of crystallization. He heat- ed a flint to a white heat, and then plunged it in water to pulverize it. The silex, thus reduced, was saturated to excess with muriatic acid. The mixture was placed in ajar — a piece of flannel was suspended in i^, one end of which extended over the side, and thus, by capilliary attraction, the liquor was slowl)' Gliered, lell into a funnel. and thence dropped on a piece of iron stone from Mount Vesuvious, upon which were laid the two wires connected with either pole of" the battery. We should state that the iron stone had been pre- viously healed to a white heat, so that no jierms of life could have existed upon it. J\ir. Crosse made his daily observations of the wires to disco- ver the beginningof the process of crysiallizaiion. On the 4th day he saw some small white specks upon the stone. Four days afterwards they had elona'ated, and assumed an oval form. He con- cluded that they were incipient crystals. Great was his surprise on the 23d to find eight legs project- ing from each of these wliite bodies; still he could not believe that they weie living beings. But on the 26th day his surjirise was complete; there could be no doubt they moved, they led, they were perfect insects. Eighteen or twenty of iliem have since a|/peared. Many persons have seen them, but there is no record of such an insect. It is in form of something like a mite. It has eight legs, four bristles at the tail, and the edges of the body are very bristly. Its motions are visible to the naked eye — its color is gray — its substance is pulpy. It appears to feed upon the silicious par- ticles in the fluid. The most extraordinary cir- cumstances in the phenomenon is the nature of the fluid in which this insect lives and thrives. This acid destroys instantly, every other living being. But a second trial has confirmed the fact beyond a doubt. Another portion of silex was prepared in the same manner and reduced to a glutinous form, but without the acid. A coil of sil- ver wire was suspended in itirom one of the poles of the battery, and the other pole was immersed, so as to send through the mass an incessant stream of the electric fluid. About three weaks after- wards Mr. Crosse examined the poles to search for crystals, and in one of the coils of wire he found one of these strange insects. This proves ihat it is produced from the silex, and not from the acid. Mr. Crosse, with his usual modesty, has content- ed himself with stating the tiict, wiihout attemp- ting to account for it. He is in correspondence with Professor Buckland upon the subject, and the learned professor has suggested an exj^lana- tion, which it will be for future observeis, by re- peated experiments, to confirm. We should state that the insects were principally found at the neg- ative pole of the battery. A German naturalist has recently discovered that silicious and other rocks are chiefly coni|;osed of the remains of in- sects. May not the germs of some of them, re- leased fVoni their prirson house, and placed in a position favorable to the developement of vitality, have sprune along," moving slowly from her. She now obeyed, fol- lowing him several times around the room. He Katted her neck, and as she wa-^ following him, e suddenly darted away, and began with the whip, crying "come along." instantly she was at his side, and the whip ceased to flash through the air, and he was patting her neck as she fol- lowed him around. Whenever she lagged, he was away, and the whip applied. Never after that would she remain two feet fi'om him. "You see, gentlemen," said he, "the principle. The whip never touches her to hurt when near me; nothing near me, or that I bring to her, is to hurt her so much as her fear of me. or any thing in con- tact with me." He then took off his glove, thrust his fist into his armpit and then rubbed it on and in her nostrils. After a ^ew more times around the room, the mare followed close to him, he said open the door." The door was opened, and the mare Vol. V— 8 followed close to him ofl'to the crowd, and through it, and back again into the stable. He came out, closed the door, and said, "this, gentlemen, is al- ways the first lesson, and nuver has to he repeated. After a horse follows in the stable, it is but to nmke him do it in a small lot, where he cannot escape you. It has taken about thirty minutes. On liie whole, it is humane, for it prevents all future con- tention. On entering her stable hereafter, she should be reminded by a single touch of the whip, and "come along." She will now follow the small- est boy, wlio will go in alone, give her the hint with the whip, and say "come alontr," ibr a treaty has been formed with her to this effect, that when near yuu^ she is never to be struck; but if at a distance and disobedient, she suffers, not after the fault, but daring its amimission. By this treatment her whole nature will be changed, and she may be taught, by the rational application of the principle, to do any thing that a horse can do. I will now show you that she will let me handle her feet. &c.so soon aa 1 teach her wliat I want her to do." He went in,- and closed the door. She came up to him; he patted her shoulder, then her arm, and carried his hand down the foreleg; she drew hack and trem- bled. In an instant he was away fi-om her, and the lash a|iplied, with "come alonir." Up she came, and he began aoiain; she now stood fast, vvhile he ran his hand over the lesr, patting and soothing her. "She is now satisfied, you see, that she is not to be hurt when [ touch her." He then went fi-om leg to leg, till she stood pcrfectl)' quiet while he handled them. He then slightly tapped The inside of the foreleg, and sai§ 1, 2, and 3 tor the several grades of quality. I'l Virginia, $ 1 25, to 6. Flour is quoted at § 7 to !•;. Foreign wheat, ^1 37 to 1 50. These quotali-ns arc ot various markets norlh and south. The price of stocks cannot be ascertained. The buyer will oifer S 50, the seller ask 75, lor what a lew weeks ago vva=5 worth $ 90 or 100. The causes oi this change have been so fre- quently alluded to, as to render any further re marks imnecessary. The explosion was long an licipated — it has at length burst forth. Errata. The reader is requested to correct the fullowina; nu- meral errors in the Account of the Greensville and Roan- oke Raihcaij. Page 11, column 1, line 7, for " 2,800," read "28,- 000." Page 11, column 1, lines 15 and 16, for "5,800," read "58,000." Page 12, column 2, line 19, for "three-eighths" read "five-eighths." T^hle of€oiiteMts of Farmers^ Megister, J^o. ^ ? ^''°<»?' ^^• ORIGINAL COJIBIUNICATIONS. Pasro. Great improvements made in Charlotte county by substituting canals for ponds, to supply wa- ter power to mills, ^ . - - Plan of a drained mill-pond on Wardsfork creek. Hill side ditches. Making manure. The unsuitableness of cotton culture I'or lower Virginia. Abundance of marl and srreen sand in Surry, . . . . . On the agriculture of Nelson and Amherst, Account of the Greensville and Roanoke Rail- way ..... Value of tomatoes as food, and for the benefit of health, ..... Remarks on Mr. Venable's farm, Management of slaves, ... Remarks on rakes and hoes. Narrow beds, Valuable influence of agricultural journals. Ag- riculture of Campbell county. Sheep shearing, .... Gypsum in light dressings, . . . The progress of sinking, and loss, in the embank- ed marsh of Shirley, General remarks on the causes of. and means to prevent, the formation of malaria, and the au- tumnal diseases which are the etfects of it in Virginia, ..... Salt, a specific manure for cotton, and the cause of the superiority of the sea-island variety. Queries, ..... Bounty for beet sugar in Massachusetts — to fos- ter home industry and abolitionism, Chinese mulbeny not produced from its seeds — on the additional testimony of Mr. Whitmarsh, The flour rioters in New York, Culture of silk. Brussa mulberry. Wild geesp domesticated, ... Report of the survey foi ra ail road from Pe- tersburg to Farmville, 41 46 46 47 48 49 55 60 60 Prospects of the wheat crop. Effects of using imperfect or damaged seed. . . - Prospects for wheat. Spring wheat. Failure of the Agricultural Convention and the petition for a Board of Agriculture, - Monthly commercial report, . . - 62 6;^ 6.3 erli)rm it with skill and d.-xterily. in l''.)reii>-!i cuusilne.s, where pilk is exleiisively grown and manufactured, the b isiness of rcelinjr is kept, to a iireat extent, dis!- tinct fron) the growing-; but I think it desirable ti)r ■every grower in this country to acquaint, hinisell" and "laniiiy with the art, as the value of the silk is more easily and accurately ascertained, and is less Hable to injury in transportation. Thus far, the production and manuliicture of silk may be carried ■oi\ in the f.unily of every fanner, and at a profit I'ar beyond his expectations. "From all the iiicts in my possession, I am satis- fied that every (iirmcr may devote a portion ot his tarm and attention to the growth of siik, and there- bv mucii increase the value ot" its products. The galherinir ol' tlie loliage, and the feeding of the worms, niav be performed by the children, and such other members of the family as are incapa- ble of more arduous labor; and who, if not thus employed, would spend their time m idleness, or, what is worse, mischief. If productive labor is a principal source of wealth, both to nations and in- dividuals, it is desirous it should be increased lo its greatest possible extent. This can only be done by seekinix out obiects to which the labor of the young, old, and infirm, is adapted; and, among these, I know of none more ap[)ropria.te than the culture of silk. The same remarks are substan- tiallv true with respect to its manufacture. It has also been erroneously supposed that the manufacture of silk was artended with extraordi- nary difiieuliies; that it required much complex and expensive machinery, and a skill which Ame- ricans were inca|)ab!e of acquiring; but it has been found to be as simple as tiiat of cotton or wool, and requiring a liir less expenditure in buiidinirs, ma- chinery, and fixtures. The weavinijof silk fiibrics on power-looms has been attempted, and the suc- cess that has resulted fi-om the experiment is of the leost flattering character. Fabrics for gentlemen's wear, cravats, &c., have been woven on power- looms, which, lor beauty of" texture, fall but little, if any. b'Mow those of loreisn manufacture. In this respect, we are already in advance ot" the silk nianufiictnrers of" Europe and India; and it is be- lieved that the advantage the American manufac- turer will derive from the aid of" labor-saving ma- chines, will more than counterbalance the advan- ■tage the fbreiirn manuiacturer does or can derive from the reduced price of labor in countries ol"a more dense population. Hence it is believed that this country can successfully compete with other countries, both in the culture and manufacture of eilk. The importance of introducing this species of manufacture maybe Estimated by the fact, that the importations of manufactured silks, during the year endinrr the 30th of September last, amounted to .$ 17,497,900, beina nearly a million more than the previous j-ear. Most of this enormous amount is consumed in this country, and is an annual tax upon the consumers. It is also to them and the country a total loss; for it is believerl there are in the country a sufficient mtmber of laborers to pro- duce and manufacture the whole amount, who are unproductively or unprofitably employed. If this be so, it follows, as a necessary consequence, that we sustain an annual loss of double that amount in our unemj-.loyed and misapplied labor. This amount will also be astonishingly increased, if we aiid to it all the evils of" crime and pauperism, which are the legit nnate and unavoi(iabi<> conse- quences ol" idleness and unproductive labor. The connection between idleness and poverty has not, and never will be dissolved, so loni!; as the relation between cause and eli'ect exists; and though crime may not be a necessary concomitant, yet it is a common attendant. The same is true, though in a less degree, in regard lo misapplied labor. The t"ruits of unproductive labor are poverty and wretcli- edness, and those are often the remote, if not the immediate, causes of" crime. I'he importance, therefore, of the culture and manufacture of silk, both in a pecuniary and moral point ol" view, is immense. Our independence also urges ns to encjage in the culture and manufacture of" silk. Fabrics, of which silk is the whole, or a component part, are indispensable. In the early ages of the world, when the customs and fashion of society were rude and unpolished, silk was considered a luxury which none but princes could indulge; and even in them it was supposed to be unpardonable extrava- gance, for it was among the enumerated prodigali- iies of Heliogabalus, that he had a garment made wholly of silk. The Emperor Aurelian, also, two hundred and seventy years afterwards, rel"used his empress a silk robe, merely because he could not incur the expense. In still later timi^s silk has been considered luxurious, for it is said ofjames I, before his accession to the English throne in 1603, that he was compelled to borrow a pair oi" silk hose of" the Earl of Mar, when he first appeared before the ambassador. But the customs and habit of" soci- ety have since underirone an astonishing change. Silk is no longer considered a luxury, but an indis- pensable article. So common has it become, that it forms a considerable part of our wardrobes, and enters more or less into almost every garment, both of male and icmale dress. However unnecessary and extravagant silk may have anciently been con- sidered, it cannot now be dispensed with, neither can its consumption be confined to the v/ealthy. Time was, and now is in some countries, when different orders in society, growing out of rank and wealth, existed; but this state of tilings no longer continues in this country. Wealth and descent are no longer the thermometer of respectability, but industry, frugalitj', and the practice oi" the moral and social virtues. The poor as well as the rich must be clothed in silk: and why should they not? they are as meritorious, and often more so. The question is, therefore, settled, that there can be no diminution in the consumption of siik; and unless measures are taken to encom'age its culture, we must be forever dependent on foreign labor for its production. Thongii foreign laborers may be dependent on us for the consumption of their pro- ducts, yet it detracts much from our independence to be dependent on them for necessarj^ articles of clothing. It is true, while our amicable relations with foreign countries continue, we shall be sup- plied; the advantage they derive fi-om tliis item of our commercial dealing will ever afford us a guar- anty awinst want in times of peace; yet our in- tercourse may be interrupted b}" war, and we be thrown upon our own resources ibr the production of this staple article of' consumption. Cut if this state of" things cannot be reasonably anticipated, our love of independence, and, aliove all. n pru- 68 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. dent national economy, should prompt us to pro- Becute a branch of imlustry which promises such important resuhs, and the practicability or leasibil- ity of which is no longer a problem. "The importance ol'this branch ofrural economy is also much increased, by the laciliiies it atibrds to all to attain competeuce and wealth. There is probably no other business, in which the same amount of capital will yield an equal amount of income. It will not be expected that 1 shall go into an accurate calculation of the product and profit of a plantation and cocoonery; yet, perhaps, I ou^ht to say, that, wilhin the range of my own observation, "there can be no better investment of capital. The small amount of capital necessary to a commencement of the business is also a fa- cility which no other branch of business, within ray knowledge, holds out to the enterprising. A few acres of land of ordinary fertility, and a few dollars in money for the purchase of seed and plants, will enable a silk grower to lay the foun- dation for a plantation on a considerable scale. Another iaciiity peculiar to the business is the ease with which operations are extended, without a corresponding extension of capital. The ratio in which the morus muUicaulis may be multiplied, by means of cuttings and layers, is truly astonish- ing. Experiments have proved that, with a little labor and attention, they may be more than quad- rupled every year. This will enable the farmer in moderate circumstances to compete with the capi- talist, and prevent monopolizers from engrossing the whole of the business and its profits. To the individual of limited means, and a large family of children dependent on him lor support and educa- tion, the culture of silk holds out encouragement of extraordinary promise; while, at the same tune, it aflbrds ampfe opportunity lor the capitalist, or the incorporated company, to make large investments with the moral certainty of success. The culture and manufacture of silk must also, for a long time at least, be tree from the depres- sions and embarrassments which, at times, are thrown upon other species of manufiicture by en- terprise and competition. Before the present pri- ces can be materially reduced, an amount of do- mestic silk equal to the large amount annually im- ported must be produced; and this cannot be ex- pected, while enterprise antl labor have so many objects on which to expend themselves, as the va- rious sections, climates, interests, and pursuits ol this exiensive country present. The dispropor- tion also which has existed for the last twenty or thirty years, between the increase in the consump- tion of silk, and the increase of population, and which is becoming greater every year, will, it is believed, prevent the American silk growers, with all the aid and encouragement which may be ex- tended to I hem by the national and state legisla- tures, from produeinti; the raw material in sufficient quantities to supply the demand, for at least another century. A good beginning, however, has been made, and the business commenced under the most fa- vorable auspices. In the month of Septe.mber, I caused a circular to be prepared, propounding twenty-six interrogatories to silk growers, manu- facturers, and other gentlemen interested in the Bubject. Several hundred were circulated; and many have been returned with answers to the in- quiries. It isj howQVQr, to be regretted they were not forwarded at an earlier day, as a more punc- tual and general return would have been the con- sequence, and a greater amount of inibrmation col- lected. The facts, however, as tar as they have been collected, (and they are as numerous and circumstantial as under the circumstances could he expected,) are of the most flattering character. From the answers to the interroo-atories, the com- munications of gentlemen in different par;s of the country, and such other means of inlormaiion as I have been favored with, I am enabled to give the Ibllowmg exhibit of the progress and .prospect of both branches of the business. The staiem^nts being made fiom correct data, may be relied on, as approximating to accuracy, as far as they go: but it is reasonable to suppose that the view is imperfect, as the business has probably been com- menced in many parts of the country, fi'om which no information has been received. Thb^se,ofcoursey are not embraced: and the business is, no doubt, fur- ther advanced, and in a more prosperous condition, than will be exhibited. Kew England States. The six New England States are, more or less, engaged in the culture and nuinuliicture of silk ; and lour of them are encouraging the business by legislative bounties. In Maine, a bounty of five cents on every pound of cocoons grown, and fifty cents on every pound of silk reeled, is paid from the state treasury. The growing of silk has also been commenced in several towns in difierent parts of the state, and the experiments which have been made confirm the belief that the climate is no obstacle in the way of the silk grower; espe- cially fiorn the foliage of the Italian mulberry. In Newport, Fryeburg, Saco, Hiram, and Liming- ton, nurseries have been planted, and are said lo be in a flourishing condition, esj.ecially in the first mentioned town. This town is situated at about equi-dislance between the Kennebec and Penob- scot rivers, and within a few miles of the 45th de- gree of latitude ; and yet the young plants with- stood the severity of the last winter unin]ured. A gentleman in Fryeburg has 10,000 or 12,000 Ital- ian mulberries, four years old, and several thou- sand more in his nursery. He fed the last season 5,000 worms, which produced about the usual quantify ofsilk. His confidence is so strong in the success and profit of the business, that he intends to extend it asliisl as his means vvilladn)il. About forty dollars worth ol" silk was made in Hiram the last season, and manufactured into sewing silk ; the quality of which is said lo be eipial to the best Italian. A few pounds were also made in Lim- ington of excellent quality. In New Hampshire, the business has been be- gun, and is prosecuted with considerable spirit, though no |)ublic encouragement is given. At Concord, there is an incorporated company, with a capiial of i575,000, for ihe growth and manufiic- lure of silk. 'J"he company have purchased a fiirm of 250 acres, and are stocking it with both kinds of the mulberry as fist as circumstances per- mit. Individuals, also, in most parts of the state, are planting the mulberry, preparatory to feeding the worm. In the vicinitj' of Portsmouth many ijentlemen are engaging in the business. Expe- riments have also been made in South Weare, Newport, DunbartoUj Warner, llopkinton, Keene, lsr,T] FARMERS' REGISTER 69 iuitl many 01 her towns; aiul i!ir nsulis have sat- isiieii the experiiiuMitors tliat llie l)iiyiiu'ss is bolli praciicahlc ami |nu(ilable. Tho li>o;isla*iirt' of Vernmnt, by an aot passed on the lOili of November, 1835, have aiuhoiizetl anil iliroi'tod ihe slate treasuiTr to pay a bounty of ten cents on e\"ery pouml ol" coeocjiip yrown with- in the siaie. 'i'liis boniity, and a iroud degree of niterest whieh previously was awakened, has piven the business a good befj;innin' the different species are the white, the black, tlie red, and the morus mnlticaalis. The silk business first found its way into Italy by obtaining the cixi^s secrelly from China, and with them the seed ot" the while mult^erry. This circumstance, no doubt, established the character of the white mulberry in that country as the only species proper for makinij silk; and a firm belief in this point, v/Hether prejudice or hot, came with tlie first attemjjis to introduce the business into th.is country, and has maintained its ground until very lately, flat reci^nt experiments made in dil- ierent pans of the United States, sufticiently exteu- tiive, and sufficiently authenticated to establish the fiict, have shown that several other species of tlie mulberry are as congenial to the taste, growth and health of ilie silkworms as the white, and that the worms fed on them produce as much silk, and fijr all that a common eye can discover, as beautiful and as useful. The species called the morus muliicaulis has lately found its was li-om China, by way of the Philiippine Islands, to the United "States. This kind, it appears, was selected by the Chinese emi- grants to those islands fijr their own use. It has no doubt been in use, for the purpose of feeding silkworms in China, fiom time iumieniorial, and there are pretty stroni>- reasons to believe that it is a favorite in that country. The spirit of enterprise which the subject has nt)\v awakened, has also in- troduced several other species or varieties, all of which are, no doubi, good, and among the rest the JBrussa mulberry, brought from Brussa, a city oi Turkey, by Mr. Charles i{hinii,lale United Slates Consul at Odessa, and a gentleman well deserv- ing the respect and gratitude of his country. Mr. Rhind was aware that the silk produced in the neighborhood of Brussa is of the first (lualily, and very naturally sup()osed it derived ils excellence from the kind of mulberry it fed on; and in the true spirit of patriotism, seized upon the opportunity to introduce that kind to hi.-? own country. There rtiay Unquesfio'uably be some characteris- tic difierence in the silks proiliiced by the different branches of the mulberry family, which mav enfi- Vol. V— 10 tie them respectively to preference for particular purposes. But they are all valuable, and perluips equally so, each for its respective purpose ; anil it would be a sid)ject of regret, should a partiality for or against any of the difi'erent kimls raise party warfiire, which should in any deeree interrupt or retard the progress of prej)aration lor silk grow- ing. The 7norus 7niillicaulif^, on i!s first intrnchiction, was hailed wiih unbounded applause, and supjiosed to be of inestimable value. Some It-ars, however, were soon excited as to its ability to witlisiand our winter. But these fears are now dispelled froiil all who have given it a fiiir trial : and it can now be proved, in spite of any thing to the contrary, to be as hardy as the white mulbeiry, and sutricient- ly so to endure common winters, without protec- tion, ill part of the United States. But it would seem that the advocates for the Brussa mulberry are determinijd, as far as their in- fluence will go, to drive it out of the country- The Brussa must of course be a very valuable mulberry, fJir there can be no silks inrtre va'ua!)le than it pro- duces in i's native counlry, even under the most awkward management; and should it be Ibunu ever so inferior to the viulticaulh. it would detract nothint!; from the merit of Air. Rhind in introduc- ing it: for there is no probahiliiy that IMr. R. had any knowledge of the moras viidiicaulis, when he left Brussa. I would £ro any reasona.ble lenu'th to acknowledge the gratitude which the country owes to Mr; Rhind for his pains to introiluce the Brussa mulberry; but the same patriotic feelini)^ which actuated him to do it, actuates me to endeavor to (jive the subject a fair trial, and to give the besl kind the preference. The public have now, in the derision of Judge Snencer, the utter condeninaiion of the morus mal- iicaulis, and the unqualified superiority^ of the Brussa mulberry overall others. And certainly Judge Spencer "is an honorable tiian ;" at any rate, I hold him in high estimation as such ; but I cannot sacrifice to that estimation my right to judge from the evidence of" my own senses, or to com- pare the weight of other testimony according to my own vimv of the subject. It is beyond the reach of controversy, that, owing to the ra|)id growth of the Chinese mulberry, the business may be pro- fitably commenced from ils leaves in half the time required by any other kind. It is equally certain that a given weight of leaves will afibrd more i()od (probably one quarter) than those ot others, as the worms leave little or no refuse ; and it is no less certain that the leaves can be gathered with one-third of the expense required to gather those of ttny other kind known in this country. Anoth- er fact rests on the concurrent testimony of numer- ous persons of hiyh respectability, who have giveii the experiment a fair trial, that the worms' gener- ally eat the leaves in prefiirencc to any other; For the evidence of its hardiness, at (east twenty names of high and known respectability can be ijiven, who have cullivateil it extensively since its first introduction, and of numerous piherS who have witnessed it— not that it bids defiance to the frosta of winter, but that with proper Uiunagement there is no more danger of its being killed by fi-ost, than of the while mulberry; that where they have srrown toirether, they have in some instances sur- vived, in safety, frosts whiidi have killed the wliite mulberrv bv the side of them ; and that some of 74 FARMERS' REGfSTER, [N'o. 2 these casess have occurred in tlie most northerly parts ol'the Uniteil Slates. Arf lesp >x1h its litness, on account ot the ta.ste and health oi' the worms, we can have the evidence ol'evcry o.ie, I believe, who has tried it since iis first intj'*)dai;tiun. i have never heard of a dissen'ini!; opuiion from any ^Wi who had led wiih it. Ii ^voald be needless ; tointiojuce a c.iiaioirue oi'nanies, as ( have jady ijiveti niiiay in ilie previnas niinihers ot' e 'Sdkw )rui ;' l»ai eniia^'h can !)e g vea in sup lor; ot' a I lii.; aa )ve latls lo esiaUlish aav laci ca- p lit e orb,'ia_rs,itii)oried l»y ha mm i it's iin ) ly. With r.'sp.'ci M ili.i (|ii iliiv oiihe silk, tlie onlv cvi lence ! can oaia n lioai any (av',ail)ie so, nee, is that it is Ii n'.r an.l siron^'-r in projjorlion lo ihc t-liti ol the fil):-!'. I h ive l);3i'n aljle lo olitain no evidence Wiiicii cnaid he relied on. ii[)o!M'i:li!'rside ot" ihe qaesiion, Irani experinsents in Ann'rica; hal lr"j II I^arope, thou^'li many can he tpioied, I will ffive hat one — in a re[)ori on the snliject, hy Al. !Matihevv lian iliinx, the disrijile of Caant 'l)an- d.)!o, and now director of the royal irardens ai Turin, and r)rol) alily the hiijlicst aullioriiy on any qaesiion lespeciina' l!ie irrowih of silk, oiaiiv man II >w livinir. He l['..\ a nuinlim- of worms on the leaves ol" the white nialherry, and an ecMiai riuni- [li^r on those of the m')/-us ?7i,7/ixa.ii;'s. Bath fin- ished in llie same time. Oi'lhe cocoons | roliiced liythe white mnlherry, it reipiired 410 lothelli., ol tho.>ie ol \\rn-' 771 iras muUicauiis, 3S4. I^aidi j oinul gave two ounces of piik of ecjiial lieani\-; Imt in win iiiiiT, natathreadofthoseledon thi'inulticaiilis WiiS lirok m, which was not the case widi ilie olher. These are hut a brief selection of ilie evidences in fivor oi" the Chinese malherry; and wi.ai are thiMii ajrain-:! it l A letter li-i.m a o-enileman in Paris, wiio could have no (known) madve to mis- represent, and concurrent opiniou of a iransien; man (a refugee or exile) ti-om lialy. And what are the evidences inliivor of the for- tunate rival of the morus muiticaidis ? Of its hiir- diness, we have no pariicular evidence, to (rive it the advantai^e over the other. It is a native of Brussa, which is in latitude 40, and sixty miles eouth Irom Constantinople, and in the neiirhbor- hood of Mount Olyirjpus, vviiich, beinii TOGO feet hiirh, has snow on its toj'. Uut tlie Andes, Vvdiiclr are nearly three times as high, do not make win- ter at their base. Mr. Rup-gies has ten or twelve thousand trees growincr, which have not been in- jured by the winter. There are several ixentlemen who have many times that number ol" the iniilti- caulis growing, as clear from injury. There were eet last spring on the judge's f"arm, 100 of the Brussa and 50 ol'the miilticaulis. The former were taken fresh irom the ground, the latter came by the pack- et from Boston, and of cour.se were exposed some weeks. Both, lor aught I could see, were in equal- ly good condition. Of the Brussa but one died, of the other I believe none. The 7nuUlcaulis were cut down in the fall within six inches of the around; the Brussa left standing. Both appeiir to be still equally alive, though the ground has frozen to an unparalleled depth : 1000 cuttings of the imilti- caiilis were set, and about 300 of the Brussa. The tnulticaulis cuttini.fs had lain all winter, and the Brussa were cut irom the branches. The weather was extremely unfiivorable. Only about 300 of the muiticaidis lived, and 3 of the Brussa. 1 have yet discovered no diaracteristic marks between the Bruesa and the white mulberry, except such as may have been made by location and by peculiar treatment. Wiih all possible deference therefore to the judge's superior talents, (^tliough I believe he has not ha. I any more experience in the <2rowing of silk than i have) I must beg leave to appeal from Ins decision in this case to the future exfierience of the [aililic ; ami I ctmfidenlly trust tliat his gener- ous spirit will not It-el any displeasure at my p,er- Ibnning what the sitiiaiion 1 am in imiicraii\ely dmri III, Is of" me as a duty. I am confident that 01 is: ol the d lli-rcni -■pecies ot miiiiierrv will pro- duce L''oo I sill< ; aal'igy, and none is generally less leirarded, Vhe. numerous class of insects diat blast the niiist fiatteriiiLi' pros|)ects, aie sufiered yearly to repeat their ravages, wiihout a serious efi'ort to obviaie the evil, and the vast varieiies, so uselul, are suffered to perish, li-om the want of knowledge lo preserve them. To learn the natural history ; to enquire into the habitudes of lilij; the charac- ters, changes, and metamorphoses, of beings so important, are objects not so frivolous as they may appear to the ostentatious, but superficial ob- server; it is the only mode raiional or practicable, whereby the propagation of the one, and the destruction of the other, may be accomplished. With these views, I have made repeated ex- periments in EaUmwlosy ; and one of the first ob- jects that attracted my attention, was the worm that inhabiis the corn, usually called the grub- worm. I had seen a paper on this subject, by Richard Peters, Esq. in which he represents its parent slate to be the '' scarabaus uo/ue/is." This liicl I doubted, as Mr. Peters hiid not himself wit- nessed the experiment reported by him, though he believed the i'act, and proposed a remedy tbunded upon it: I doubted it, because I had seen the scar- abceus volveiis, in so small a state, as to be almost invisible to the naked eye ; upon which the rea- soning occurred, that the product of a crysalis so large, as must necessarily be that of a grub-worm, could not, by analogical inference, be as diminu- tive as the scarabavs volvens is frequently seen and known to be, and consequently, that Judge Peters was deceived. To come at the fact, I car- 1837] FARMERS' REGISTER. 75 rieil into the fii^lil ;i liirsxe transparent bottle, which I liall tilled with earili ; npon tliif; earth I lieposi- led about a dozen of lite worms, which were then devouring the corn, and ijave then) corn blades to leed upon. In a lew weeks, or lefs, perhaps, iliev disappeared ; I searched the earth, and tifund theni chrysaiids, enveloped in balls ofearih. A considvM-- nble time aCier, I a^ain examined ihem, and Ibund prveral of them matured, and exiricated Iron) their envelo|ie ; others, a soft and while pupa, with limbs more or less distinctly lormed, in various states of proirression, and exhibiting unefiuivocal j)roor of their oriL'in, and of the impossibility of mistake or deception. These destructive anintals belong to their order '' coleoptera'" of Liniiu'us havmir criifitaceaas elytra, or winir cases, wliich shut toirether, and Ibrni a longitudinal suture down the back ; they are about one quarter of an inch in length, of a shining jet black color, very quick and active in their movements, and are seen in vast numbers under wheat stacks and in wheat yards. The brief history of this insect is, that its larva, or caterpillar, having led upon the young corn, de- scends mio the eardi about the depth ol' ibur inches, where it assumes its state of chrysalis, in which it continues until the first of July, when it becomes metamorphosed into the imago, or parent, which in autumn, deposites its ova in the fields, to undergo a similar series of transitions, which is eti'ected by the heat of the ensuing season. The obvious preventive is i'all or winter plough- ing, at such a depth as will turn up and expose to the frost the ova, whereby they nuist perish. To prove the efficacy of this niethod, in Decem- ber 1S36, a field which I designed for corn, was ploughed Ibur or five inches deep ; the Ibllovvitig season, my neiglibors" corn fields, ,as well as ihuse of the county generally, were assailed and nciuly ruined by this destructive worm, when mine was almost wiiolly exempt from tlu'ir annoyance. Another insect, the "cu.-cw//ri," of which iliere are ne^u■ly one huruired species, belonixing also to the cde ipterous order, commands, from its univer- Bil ravair 'f, upon both the larmer and ihe f.uite- rer, the atic.iiion of every member ol the com- numity, who has it in his |)ower to contribute, in the smallest measure, to llie destniclion of this ru bless Ibe to the wealth and luxury of man ; which frustrates, by its concealed and wily move- meats, the; most rational and well ibimded plans, executed by the most ardent and efficient ener- gies of the human mind and body. Are we not inclined to exclaim, wiih the moral and pbili- eophical Seneca, '■^Nutura quum te coliimis inventi qiioquey How repiiunant to the proud lieefnirs of man, to stoop to combat with this insignificant animalcule? How resistlesss are the ordinances of nature, which compel us, by acts so humilia- ting, to admire and adore that complex creation, whereby the great architect has been fit to enlorce them ! I have made experiments on the larvx of seve- ral species of curciilinnes, and have Ibund the par- ents so nearly similar in /tai/7c<, metainorphoses, and most other circumstances, that one description will suffice for their whole history ; at least of those which I have examined ; and the only mark of idiocrasy in the tribes which 1 have observed, consist in their choice of a nidus : selectintr, from their peculiarities in this respect alone, the clicrry, the plum or the grain of corn, as their instinclivo or innate profiensities might incline them. In a transparent bottle containing some earthy I deposited several cherries, in which were tho /(7rfrT3A?rS OF MAKIIVG LAROK QUANTITIES OF MAAM'RE. AND THE PROPER MANNER OF APPLYING IT. To tiie Editor of tlie Farmers' Register. Philadelphia Co., Pa., y/pril 24th, 1837. Dear Sir — Being confined to the house by an awkward accident, carelessly treated, 1 know not that I can better employ my time and ihoiiirhts, than in endeavoring to contribute my mite for the Farmers' Reirisrer. I am led to believe, fi-om the tenor o'^many arti- cles in late numbers of the Reijister, that an ear- nest desire for agricultural improvement is spread- innr amongst some of the farmers ol' the present day; and I hope sugijesiions made with a view to aidino; that improvement, will be received in a kind spirit, (even should they occasionally iiear hard upon some of the habits chosen or ado[)led, without a thouirht, by almost all,) alihouirh they may not in themselves be worth much, proceeding as they do (lorn one who has seen much and practiced but little. To ascertain the means of improvement, it is sometimes well to in(]uire into the ciuise of the great want of it, which is so generally acknow- ledged, beinix manilt'st in the impoverished coii- dition of the land and many of its culiiv aiors. That this condition is not generally and liiirly at- tributable to the naturally steril character of our lands is, I think, obvious. That it caiuiot be at- tributed to our climate, I \h\uk equally obvious. For I can imagine that but lew f-ersons acquaint- ed with agriculture and its |)roducts, would be wil- ling to denounce our soil and climate. Then the cause must be sought elsewhere. May if not be found in ourselves? Is our farming Ibunded on correct principles, and sj'stemalically pursued? I think not. Do we husband and judiciously apply all the means and sources of preserving and in- cnvasing the fl^rtility of the soil? Obviously not. Do we practice strict economy, cotnbined with a generous expenditure, in the management of our crops and lands'? Do v/e not rob and impoverish the soil continually — carrying off all that we cm in any way use, (and thinking our merits and pros- perity great in proportion to the amount of coitoii, tobacco, corn, grain, &c. carried off.) and neglect- ing, abusing and destroying, even by fire, all that we cannot, or imacrine we cannot, use profitably? If the fault is not inherent in the soil and climate, it must rest with the cultivator. Let him study agriculture as it deserves to be studied, jjet him appreciate its relation to the well being of society. Let liim try to read nature aright — to understand the value and relation of things, and crops, and of their different parts to each other, and I thiid< he will become a very different farmer and political economist, to the farmers and political economists of the da}'. You have, amonirst vour correspondents, one at least, who is able to explain the principles on which improved agriculture must necessarily be based, and whose practice exhibits the irenerai correct- ness of his views. Hoping that he may soon be enabled to renew his communications, and con- scious of my own inability to explain principles fully, I shall content myself with endeavoring to explain some of ifie improved practices which have come under my observation. All fi^rmers are ready to acknowledge the effi- cacy and value of excrementitious matters com- bined with vegetable substances, commordy called manure, as one means of improvement. To make manure in large quantities, seems to the iniiialed to be the easiest thing imagiuiible; and yet how (ew fiirmers make more than a fourth part' of what they ought to make, and how many not even that! I have seen from thirty to forty per cent, of a liirm manured from the barn yards anniiallv' — although large quantities of hay, straw and trrain, are sold; this is accomplished too, with comparatively little stock. The secret, and it is one well worth know- inff, lies in carelully collecting all the rellise vege- table matter that is grown on the (arm, and sup- plying the yards, in which the stock is kept, with it from lime to time as it is wanted, not as collected, hut as it is required — and in supplying the stock 78 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 8 with plenty of good food and water, in the yards, in prelerence to turning them out day and night, to seek food, and squander manure. To show the care that is taken to collect mate- rials lor making manure, I will mention, that in a Jew weeks alter the grain har\ est, the stubbles are all carefully mown, and the -sluhhle stuH is as care- fully raked together and hauled to the vicmitj'of the yards, as is the hay or grain at their proper seasons. To facilitate the mowing, much pains is always taken in ploughing, harrowinfr, and rellitiij the land, to keep it even, and all stones or other ob- structions are gathered and carried oil'. Again — the whole produce of the corn field is carried off; tile stalks are cut even wuii the ground — not from eiiJ:ht to eighteen inches above it — and after husk- ing, the stalks with their leaves and husks are tied in bundles and hauled under cover, where they are carefully preserved, and furnish, with turnips, capital winter food for cows — the leaves, Iiusks, and small ends of the stalks being eaten, the rest making litter sufficient to keep the yards dry, and the cattle clean, except in very wet weather, when it is sometimes necessary to add a little straw, or stubble stuff. After shelling corn, the cobs are all conveyed to the yard to be incorporated in the ma- nure. All manner of refuse vegetable matter ii'om the garden, even to the trimmings of bushes, is also conveyed to the yards. In short, the greatest jiains are taken to keep the yards at all times well littered, and to keep the horses, cows and pigs in the yard, ns much as possible, withaplentilid supply of Jbod. The result is, as above stated, Irom thirty to tbrty per cent, of the farm manured annually from the yards. Now it has been, and I dare say will be again eaid, by way of objection, that corn stalks do not make good manure; that there is no substance in them; that it does not pay tot;d\e so much pains to collect the means of enriard, with turnips and corn, fodder, and oc- casionally potatoes, nubbins, a little corn meal, 1S37] FARMERS' REGISTER. 79 &c., by way ol' variety — tlie corn stalks, as before mentioned, Curnishiiitr lilter. Tlie cows are drain- ed (o bins ill the yard, when beiiif manure, it m ly nnt he auuss to u 11 a linv worils about apply- ing It. Conveiiieni-e. experience and reason, point to to|»-dressinir on younir trrass as the brst mode — above all, where find is alrea.ly in ijood condition. Il is convenieni so to ajiply it, because it need iioi iiiterltire with limel}" sowiuir and t)lantirre doubled on our railways. We have not technical skill enough to know what a gig-boat is ; but we hiler iiom the other particu- 80 t'ARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 2 lars stated, that it must be flat-bottomed in the cross section, pretty well curved upwards at stem and stern, and very \\gh\. With tliis tbrm, the quicker it is moved, the less water it will draw. At a very high velocity, it will merely skim the water as it were; the displacement of the fluid will reach only a few inches down ; and this cir- cumsiance, with the quick motion of the l)ont, causing a re-adjustment of the equilibrium of the water equally rapid, the necessary time will be vvaiuing lor the motion to propu<)-ate itself beyond tiie narrow zone ol" water which immediately en- cun)passes the boat. Such is our hypothesis, sup- posing the liict to be stated. We liave a strona' impression, however, that the result depends chiefly on the l()rm of the boat, and that a much greater de|)th than five feet vviil be no material disadvantage, except where the canal is extreniel}' narrow. "Some months ago, by the suirfrpstion of Mr. William Houston, of Johnstone, the committee of iTiiUiairement of the Ardrossan and Paisley canal were induced to make certain experimenis li')r as- certaining th(! rate ol' the velocit)-, at which a light giiT-boat miizht i)e propelled along that canal. The ex[)erimeri!s were made with a o'ig rowinif boat of about iliirty il»et in lengl'i, constructed bv Hunter, boat-builder, Brown streiit, Glasgow ; and this boat, with ten men on biiard, was drawn along the Ardrossan and Pai.-iy canal, in the space of less than ten minutes, without raisin": any s.irge or commotion on thewatjr — the force em- ployed being one horse, rode by a canal driver. No account of this trial has ever been given to j tlie public, but it was so satisfactory as to induce' the committee of the Ardrossan cunal to contract with' Mr. Wood, of Port-Glasgow, (or a nlg- shaped passage-boat, sixty liiet in length, and five in breadth, fiited to carry from thirty -six to forty passengers. In the month of April last, a num- ber of experiments were made in the Forth and Clyde canal with two gig-boats fixed together, constructed by Mr. Hunter, and thus forming what is called a twin-boat. The object of these trials was to ascertain the rate of speed at wiiich vessels might be propelled along that canal, and the eti'ecl of a liirht double, or twin-boat, in liv- ing that deirree of steadiness which it was appre- hended would be so much wanting in a light sin- gle boat. A statement of these "expermients on the Forth ami Clyde canal has already appeared in the newspapers, and the oidy fact therein men- tioned, which it seems necessary to repeat here, is the remarkable circumstance, that the quicker the boats were propelled through the water, the less appearance there was of surge or waves on the sides of the canal. The result of the experiments was so satisfactory, that a twin-boat of a gig- shape, sixty leet in length, and nine feet broad, Avas buiit by Mr. Hunter, Brown street, Glasijow, and launched in the Forth and Clyde canal in the course of the Rillowing month. "The single gig-shaped passage-boat contract- ed lor by the Ardrossan canal committee, was launched at Port-Glasgow, on Wednesdnv, the 2d of June, and she was towed up to the Bromi- law, and thence carried to Port-Eirlington the day I following; and on Friday, the 4th of June, a trial, of which the Ibllowinrr is an account, took I place. The boat is sixty fi^et long, lour feet six I inches breadth of beam, and drew on an avera"-e, 1 including a deep keel, ten inches when light : — "From the great hurry in which this trial was made, it was done under many disadvantages. The boat started from Port-Eglington for Paisley a fiiw minutes after one o'clock, wiih twenty per- sons on board, and the distance iiom Port-Eirbng- loii to Puisly being seven miles, was accomplished in one hour and seven minutes. The rider was ordered to start and proceed the first mile or so at a very moderate pace, but even at this moderate pace the wave raised in li-ont of the boat was very considerable. A high wave was seen on the ca- nal preceiling the boat, about eighty or nineiy fijet in fi'ont, and in some cases further, and causing an overflow at the bridges and in the narrow parts of the canal. The surge or the cutting wave t)ehind the boat was, however, con)[;aratively sliirht, and, except the curves, would not have caused much injury to the canal banks. The horse vvus very much exhausted when he got to Paisly, though by no means so exhausted us he was about the mid- dle of llie journey, havirig sensibly recovered af- ter the first four or five miles. "Two post horses were hired there ; and lighter towing lines being attached to the boat, it started again, on its return to Glasgow, with iwenty-lbur persons on board, lour of whom were boys, and arrived at Glasgow, a distance of seven miles, in forty- five minutes. The greatest speed attained during the journey, was two miles in eleven minutes. During this vo\'iige the surge behind was entirely got quit of, even at the curves, where it was reduceii to nothing ; and ihere was no fiont wave except at the bridges. It appeared only at the bridges, and just as the boat was about to enter under the bridge, and disaipeured as the stern of the boat cleared the bridge. T'le quicker the boat went, the /itorc entire was the diiappeaaiice of all leave and surge, except where the water escajied in the centre of" the canal j and met in two very noisy and rapid currents from each side of the boat at rudder. This noi.se and rush of waier was so great behind as to induce persons on iioard to look around expeciing lo see a great wave or surge on the banks of the canal, but on the hanks there was hardly a ripple. The two rapid noisy currents seemed to be completely spent niul ex- hausted by the shock of their concourse behind the boat. Here, therefore, there was no room lo doubt the correctness of the reports of the Forili" and Clyde canal experiments. It was not merely to be said, that the greater the speed the less surii;h- boriMy iiran- dotisviiie and Kinuwooil, to some point of the Nortii Western turnpik(\ at. or near Evansville. Survey ol" the iMononiiaMela river anil the val- Icv thereof, from the Pennsylvania line tothe jnne- tiun of the West Fork and 'rybate. ami much adversi- ty of sentiment. 1'he Louisa Rail Road bill, af? it went fi-oni the House, contained no provision in relation to the transportation of the mails. It was returned fi-om the Senate with an amendment making it the duty of the company, on bemg ap- plied to by the postmaster-general, to convey the. United States' mmls, and in case of a disagreement between him and tlie company as to compensii- tion, &c., on his application, the governor was au- thorized to appoint three cnmnussioners to fix the terms of transportation; and if the jrovernor should not approve the ref)ort of the commissioneis, he v/as to appoint tliree olher conniiissioiiers for the same purpose — the company to carry the malls, if* required by the postmaster-general, durinir the [)encloncy ofthe conlroversv, receivinir for tfiaf ser- vice payment at the rates finally fixed upon. This amendment was warndy opposed in tlie house, where it was argued that it would, in effect, place the company at the niei'cy of the postmaster-ge- neral, and subject the rail roads in this state to a control which was not alloweii over those of other stales. Two amendmenis were oH'eled by Mr. Stanard, and negatived — one exempiinir the com- pany fi-om the operation of the provision until a similar arrangement should have been agreed to by the rail road companies in contiguous slates — the other withholding the power granted the post- master-general by the Senate's amendment, until the company should reflise to carry the mail for the same compensation as might be ptud to rail road companies in the contiguous states. An amendment to the Senate's amendment was offer- ed by Mr. May and adopted, snbstitutin-ounds were full: it was recollected that the ballast would be use- lul there, and accordingly it has been laid upon one layer ol' dead to such a depth that graves Ifir a se- cond time arc now dug in the new soil. — [/6. From the Bath and Chcltenliam Gazette. WATER TANKS. At the late meeting of the Cornwall Polytech- nic Society, a description was given of nine tanks, which had proved eminently useful during the late three dry suiimiers on the Sussex properly of Da- vies Gilbert, Eso., the President of the Society. As these tanks are cheaply and easily constructed, and not liable to decay like wooden vessels, and as rain enough fills on every house in England lor the use of the inhabitants, no family would be deficient in good soft water, who made a tank 1o retain it ; and such tanks being paved over, take up no room. The tanks of East Bourn vary in size: one of less than seven If-et deep and wide his served two laborers' lamilies ((>r three jears; whilst most of the st)rinrrs in the neighborhood wen^ dry. A tank 12 leet by 7 had sutiplied with water a large finiiil}' anil six horses. This was smrounded by only 4.^ inches brick-work resting solid against the sides, in consequence of being smaller at the bottom than hiLi'her up; and the dome is con- structed on the Egyptian plan, by projecting hori- zontally each row of materials one-thiid of their length beyond those below, and filling up the back with earth as it proceeded, to balance the weight of this projecting masonry. At the East Bourn workhouse for fourteen par- ishes, a tank has been made 23 leet dee[) by 11 wide, of the roughest materials, being only flint stones, and though they require more mortar than if they had been regularly shaped, only 90 bushels of lime were allowed, includinir two coats of plas- ter, and the workmanship is executed like field walls at 10s. per 100 square feet ; the only essen- tial being that iio clay he used (which worms bore throvgh,) and that the lime, or Parker's cement be good. A current of air is said to promote the purity of water in tanks, and this is easily effected by the earthenware or other pipe which conveys the rain from the roof, being six or eight inches in diame- ter and an opening left for the surplus water to run away; and where prevailing winds do not blow soot and leaves on the house, the water remains good, even for drinking, without clearing out the rubbish more than once a year; but in some cases filtering by ascension may be found useful, and be effected by the water being delivered by the pipe at the bottom of a cask or other vessel from which it cannot escape till it has risen through the holes in a board covered with pebbles, sand, or powdered charcoal. Upwards of twenty laborers' gardens have been watered by the rain which formerly injured the public road, and was therefore turned into a sink-well, which sink-well was enlarged and sur- rounded by nine-inch masonry, and the water is drawn up by a cast-iron curb. This water was 1837] fau.mj:iis kicgister 91 used in plMiilin<;jH)l;iioes!, and occasioned grond crops in is;vl, uIhmi scis not watered fiuled. And should the prolitalile mode ot stall-feeding now practised at ArniaL'h bo happily extended to Knir- land, and lattinjjoxen be l\e()t /» pairs not tied up under shelter, it will be Inund iliat prcservinir in tanks (he water which falls on the barns and stalls will amplv supply them, whilst it prevents the rain wasliinir away the strengih ot the manure when straw issprea.l in the oj)en yard. l^onds have been made with equal success, dug only 4.\ feet below the surliice, what is excavated beiniT "added to the sides, and covered one foot thick, like a road, with pebbles and good lime mor- tar. Such ponds are becoming general on the dry soil of the South Downs lor the use of large flocks of sheep; and had such ponds been made in Rom- ney Marsh, &c., during the late dry years, the sheep vvould not have died in such numbers as malerially raised the price of meat in London. From tlie UrUisIi Fanners' Magazine. MANUFACTURE OF BEKT-ROOT SUGAR. [The following full account of the various processes required for the manufacture of beet sugar, is taken from the last number of the British Farmers' Maga- zine. It was compiled and translated from the works of M. Dubrunfaut, and others, the latest and best au- thorities on this subject, by Samuel Taylor, Jr., for the work from which we copy it. Much interest is now felt in England, as in this country, in regard to this new branch ot'industry; and it is to be presumed that as this essay is the most recent, it embraces the newest and most valuable improvements. Directions on this sub- ject, from several authors, have already been published in this and other agricultural journals in this country; but they generally are too concise, and those which are most full, and also proceeded from the highest au- thority of their time, (Chaptal's,) were written before the latest improvements in this manuficture were known, and before its now ascertained great profits were even suspected to be obtainable. Therefore, it is supposed that the publication of this treatise is not superfluous, and it i? hop 'd that in presenting it to our readers, we sliall render some service to all who desire to commence ttiis new business. — Ed. Far. Reg.] Introduction. We will now proceed to notice the methods by which the greatest quantity, and the best quality, of sugar can be obtained ii'om beet root. Sugar is a component part of this root, and that method of extracting it is to he preferred, which destroys the least portion of it in the course of the operation ; for, in the present state of the art, it is undeniable that a certain quantity is destroyed. Most of the beet sugar manufacturers refine their own sugar ; a meihod not approved of by the author. The art of refining is very complex, and difficuli to manage, and reriuires a long and inti- mate acquaintance with practical chenustry. The Rirricultural manufacturer, therefore, should con- fine his attention to the making of raw sugar only, and that of as good a quality as possible, to sell to the refiner. It is only when the making of brown sugar is fiinshed that refining can begin. Consi- denhen, the lime which must elapse before a man- ufiicturer can realize any profit u[)on his busi- ness.- f()r it wdl be remembered that the process of refining lasts for six or seven months, or the whole of the season of vegetation. From the mo- ment, therelijre, that he sows his field, he is but then finishing the manufacture of the preceding cro|) into brown sugar. Then comes the refining, which does not ternnnate till six nKUiths after; so that he has to wait fourteen or fifteen months be- t()re he can begin to sell his sugar, and probably eighteen months before the whole is sold. Add to this a credit of three or four months usually given to the buyers, and it will form a total of twenty-two months, or thereabouts, before he can expect to make his returns; whereas, if he sells the raw sugar, he will be able to begm to sell in seven or eight months after the seed time, and will have sold the whole in a year after the same seed time. Those manufacturers would be more at their ease as to capital, who would first use a part of their own crops in their manufactory, and would afterwards treat with the little ffirmers for what they could spare of their produce. Thus, those who have not the means of forming an establish- ment of their own, will yet participate in some of the advantages of beet culture, the pulp of which they can re-purchase of the manufacturers. I shall next proceed to describe the several ope- rations connected with the manuliicturing depart- ment, according to the order in which tliey follow each other. Cleaning the Beet Ranis. When the roots are to be washed, it is not ne- cessary that so nmch pains should be taken in scraping and cleaning them by hand ; but when it is not intended to wash them, the cleaning ought to be particularly attended to. This work is most- ly performed by women and children. They are furnished with a sharp knde, two or three inches broad, and about ten inches long, with a suitable handle ; and thus provided, they seat themselveg near the heap of roois to be cleaned, and scrape each root separately, taking especial care not to leave any stones or dirt adhering to Us surface. When a root is thought to be too large to enter the rasp properly, it should be cut in two or lour pieces by the cleaner, according to its size. Tliis should be done lengthways of the root. The cleaning should take place in some spot convenient for the rasping mill ami presses, and should be larjje enough to hold a quantity of roots snfTicient to supply the manufactory for at least tour or five da3's, and yet leave sufficient room l()r the cleaners to work in with comfort. Atierclean- ing, the roots are thrown into a small open basket with ears, (like our turnip skeps.) They are then carried by the women to the rasp, where they leave the full baskets, and bnng back empty ones. Two women well used to the work will clean, and carry to the rasp, three or three and Jialf tons of roots, in twelve hours. The cleaning, of course, dinnnishee, in some measure, the weiiiht: perhaps about six or seven per cent, on the gross weight of the roots. »2 F A It M E ft S REGIS I' E It. [No. 2 CITAP. II. fJ'ashing tlic Roots. Washiiioris' not indi!?peni=ilile where proper pains jv.ive been taken by ihe cleaners ; neiiher can il be done in every .situation, the (luantity of water required heinij i^o considerable. A stream of wa- ter contiiTuoui? to a su^ar iTianufarlory would be an ini|)oriant advantarre. In general, however, the washing is attended witii many difficulties, par- ticularly those arising Irom i'rosi, which not unli'e- (inenlly puts a stop to it entirely; and some are (iispoKed to thiidv that it may be (ii.«penHed wiih al- togf'ther, i)y spending a liitlemore time and money about the previous cleaning, and especially by us- ing a largi"' rough lirusli, alter the scraping knife; but this latter has not yet been tried. It is imfiortant that the vulgar prejudice in fa- vor of" washing, and even the idea that a large quantity ol water ie r'^quired in the manufactory of beet sugar, should be done away with. The manufacturers may rest asRured that the want of water need not be an obstacle to an establishment, in any case: and that the quantity absolutely ne- cessary to carry it on is very small indeed. CHAP. Ill, Rasping the Roots. When M. Achard first attempted to mfike sugar from the beet root, he began by drying the roots by steam, then reducing ihem to paste by a me- chanical process, and fiiiall}' extracting the juice by pressure. It appears that the plan did not suc- ceed, lor he abiuiduned it. In I'act, it is not that the sugar undergoes alteration from this drying or baking the roots, but that the pulp resulting iiom the drying process is so finely divided and slippe- ry, as to render it extremcdy difhcult to separaie the juice from it. After many inefi(:>clual aitonipts, M. Achard at last resorted to the method of rasp- ing raw, Tlie texture of the bc^t root is so firm and com- pact, especially the better varieties, that mere pressure will extract but a small proportion of its jince.s, which appear to be enclosed in a number ol" little cells, and it is necessary to Itreak these by rasi)ing, in order to set the juices at libertv. Other circumstances being equal, the best and most minutelv divided roots will yield the greatest quantity of juice with the least pre.'jsure ; and this constitutes the perfection of rasping. 1, BaspiPg Machines. There nre rasping mills of various kind?!, but tliat invented by M. IMolard has been considered one ol'the best in use. The principle is that of"a cast-iron eyli'ider, setrourul with jairged, saw-like blades, by means of which the roois are cut, torn, and squeezed, till they part with as much of iheir juice as is possible. It will rasp about three and half tons of beet in an hour. Price charged by M.JVlolard on deli very, 1000 francs (£41 13.s Ad) The cylinder alone is worth halt'this sum, there- fore an extra cylinder will add so luucU more to U)ti cost of the wuchiue. 2. Operation of Rapping. Two laborers are reqidred lo work JM. JVloIa"d'« rasp, or pomelimes it is worked by one man and two children. Of ail the operations connected with sugar mak- ing, the ras[)ing demands ihe greatest expediiicjn. As liltle as possible should be rasped belbrehand, because the pulp speedily ahers fiy exfosure to (he air. In fict, this alteration shows iiself in n quarter of an hour, or, at most, half an hour after ras[)ing. This operation, therefore, should oidv keep pace with that uf the press, and not be mucii in advance ol it. The rasp slioidd be washed at least once a day, and kept as free from dirt as possible, all |)articlea of juice, or pulp, being but the elements of fermen- tation. 3. Poicer for Working a Rasp Mill. The rasp ought not to l)e worked by hands, on account of the expense. Horses or oxen are far cheaper, and more powerfid agenl-s, but better than these are wind or water powers. The last decidedly the best, wherever a suflicienf fi^dl can be obtained. Of" the two first mentioned, the au- thor gives the prelijrcnce to oxen, as working e(]ually well, and requiringfarlesscostly keep than horses, the pulp from the mill being generally all that is required to keep them — a description of food which horses will not touch. M. Dubrunlaut is inclined to prefer a wind pow- er, as being a r.Tore practical and general agent than either water or steam, the former being rare- ly to be met with in level agricultural disiricis, and the latter very expensive, except in the immediate vicinity of coal. The society IJir the encourage- ment ofnational industry, aware of the importance of this po\ver, offered a premium of 4000 f"ranc9 (£160) l()r the best mill, which premium was awarded to M. de Lamolere. It is intended to be placed on some one ol" the farm buildings. Cost only 2,400 francs ( £ 100 ;) horses or oxen niaj' be attached to it in the absence of" wind ; this provi- sion is absolutely necessary in a beet-root sugar n)anuractor3\ A pair of stones may also be ad- ded, by means of which the family may l)e supplied with meal and flour. The only inconvenience at- tending a wind power is its inequality. This has sometimes been complained of by the raspers. riiAP. IV. §1. Extract ion of the Sugar. The extraction of sugar from the pulp is only to be performed by pressure; and the more power- ful this is, the more the juice from a given quanti- ty of pulp. However, it is impossible, do what one will, to get it all out; for, even after the great- est pressure, the pulp will still continue moist. In this operation, as in many others of a like nature, the last particles of matter become so diffi- cult to obtain, as to render it more economical to neglect them altogether. Thus in pressmg the pulp of the beet root, the first juice runs out of it- self" fi'om the bags, and it continues to flow abun- dantly under the slightest efforts of the press, which the first alwavs are; the quantify then de- creatfcs, i;erhaps in the inverse ruiio of the square l^^nT] F A R M K R S" ii E Tt I S T K R 95 ol" the prcpsure. The remark may appear pue- rile, but it is liiglily iinportaiit, as \vc hiluill soon SOP. Suppose, for example, thnt with a known pow-, er, a' certain quaniiiy of juire is exprosped in a given time from a ma.^s of pulp. Suppose, in onlcr toffivetlie press the maxinnim of etiet-.t of wliicli it is capable, that three men are employed lor one hour, and that by ihis mean? 70 per cent, of pynip from the juice is ohmined ; it is probable erinuixh, that by applyiiiir double liic pressure after this, not more than 10 per cent, in addi:ion will be obtain- ed. It ijien becomes a question whether the quan- tity so obtained be worth the cost of producinir it. Mr. CaOer employs a hydraulic press of the power of ten tons, on a surface of about 74 square inches. This was chartred in the presence of the author, and from the pulp about 70 per cent, of juice was obtained at the first operation. The power was then doubled, but not more than 8 per cent, ofjuice was the result, which, as before ob- served, hardly paid for the labor of producitiir it. However, on this point, much depends on the na- ture of the power used ; for it is obvious that wind, water, steam, or even horses and oxen, are less expensive than hand labour, now so commonly re- sorted to. It may be imagined that an increase of power in this department would fully answer the requir- ed end ; hut, as has been said belbre, it is to the rasp that we must look for obtaining the greatest results from the press. All roots do not give out the same quantity of juice from similar rasping and pressirifr. Those which are richest in sugar ffive far less of it than those of a more watery formation. The o[;era- tions of extraction beinir the same, it is only the different proportions of water which influence the quantity ofjuice afforded by the roots; and as the richness of the juice is ascertained in a manner sufficiently exact by the areometer, we may, by the help of this instrument, pretty nearly deter- mine the quantity of roots which must be rasj)ed to obtain a given body ofjuice. Thus, with a good map and a powerful press, the fbllowinrr quantities ofjuice may be obtained proportionably to their areomelrical densities : — A 5° 80 percent. A 6° 75 " A 7° 70 " A 8° 66 «' A 9° 63 " A 10° 60 Supposing that the experiment be tried on twenty- five hectolitres (88 English cubic feet) ofjuice, weighing 6° by the areometer, it would be neces- cessary to rasp and press 3 J- tons of roots ; at 7°, Sj tons; at 8°, 3f tons; and so on in proportion. It is important that the operation of pressing should be done quickly ; for as little delay as pos- eil.le should take place between the rasping and pressing; as also between these and the defeca- tion. §1. Of Presses. A variety of presses have been mentioned as applicable to the manuflicture of beet-root suirar, as the screw, the Jever, the wedge, the cylinder, and the hydraulic. Of these the las' is decidedly the best, as exiractingat one ojieration all the juice that the pulp is capable ol" allbrding. 2. The Acciwrpanimcnts of a Press. These accompaniments arc the following: 1st. The baffs which contain the pulp. 2nd. Osier hiudles. 3ni. A flat reservoir for preparing the bags in. 4th. A cistern for the juice, with |)ii)es, pump, &c^ 1. The Pulp Hags. These bags should be made of strong materials : Russia canvass, for instance. The texture should not be too close, so as to injure the juice liom es- capins:, or they will be in danger of bursting; neither should tliey be too coarse, or the [)ulp wilf squeeze throuixh "the meshes. This last inconve- nience is, however, of less importance, and of" lesa frequent occurrence tlian ihe other. The size of the bags ought to be regulated by the power of the press ; observing always, ifial the surface pressed should never extend beyond the edges of the press itself As to the number of bags, that must, of course, depend on the number of working presses, their size, and the charge of pulp which each bajj is made to hold. Thus, suppose a press of which the height of the pressing space is tiiree feet three inches, and that each bag shall be so filled, as, with the hurdle, to take up a thickness of 1^ inch, it will then require Uventy-five bags for each charge pressed. Add to these, five others for extra occa- sions, it will then form what is called a set (unjeu de sacs). If the press is kept at work day and night, three sets will lie reqiired ; but, if only in the da}', two sets will be sufficient. They ought to be changed every twelve hours. In some ma- nufiictories they use but one set, even if" working day and night; but tfiis is by no means desirable, Reckonino- five months as the averaire length of the working season, one may liiirly calculate on wearing up a set of baiis in each season. The bags oiifrht to be carel"ully washed in hot water every twelve hours, in order to keep them as liee from impurities as possible. Hurdles, The hurdles are made of osier, either peeled or un peeled. They support the pile of bags under the press, and ought to be very stronfr and well put toffether, though not cumbrous. The dimen- sions will depend on those of the f"ace of the press; at all events, they ought not to be larger. It is needless to describe the destruction of these wicker hurdles further than to say that it resembles that of common hampers in its texture. The number of the hurdles must correspond with that of the bags, plus one. It will be advisable to have sev- eral sets of them, that they may be renewed every twelve hours. The same care is necessary in washing them frequently, as in the case of the bags ; this is done in a flat cistern, of which men- tion will be made by-and-by.and which also serves to arrange the bags in. For this purpose the cis- tern is half filled with cold water, into which a cer- tain quantity of unslaked lime is thrown, Kach 94 F A R M E R S ' R K G 1 S T E R [No. hurdle is then carefully passed thronfrh the Ii(:(uor, afterwards well rubbed with a brush, and then washed in clean water. Cistern in lohich the Bags are Prepared. The cistern should be larwe enouoiaiion, liie waiergoesoff in steam, and leaves the sugar behmd. What then hinders the extrac- tion of' sugar from beet-root juice by the same simple means ? The answer is obvious. Because of the foreign matter which the juice brings with it, and which, combined or mixed with the sugar, render the evaporation of the water difficult, and its crystallization extremely troublesome, if not im- possible. The atteniion of themanufiicturermust, therelbre, be directed to the separation of these particles, and this is accomplished by the process known generally by the name of defecation. This is entirely a chemical operation. It consists in finding such agents as will precipitate, in a solid form, all the substances foreign to the sugar, whether in combination with it, or solidified with- out such combination. It is necessary also that these agents shall not be of a qualify to alter the sugar when in contact with them, and that they may be afterwards carried away with the residuum. Whatever be the nature of the agent employed, it ought to be simple, and open to the comprehension of a common workman, and moreover, that it be not of too costly a description. 1837] FARMERS' REGISTER, 9h The only ajrents used in defecating are, sulphu- ric acid and lime. Great care is requisite in using tlipm. It has been elsewhere stated, that the re-action of detbcating agents ouixht to be assisted by heat ; and it is on this account, that coppers, or boilers, are resorted to. The l()llo\ving section describes this method of defecation. §. 1. Butlers for Defecation. These vessels ought to be circular, and should be formed ofcopper. Their dimensions vary with the mairnitude of" the works, fiom 22S irailons to 570 gallons; thouirh pome preli'r a number of a smaller size, saj' 40 to 50 gallons. It is agreed on all hands, that the interval between the raspage and the tbrmaiion ot'syrup ought to be as short as possible, in order to produce the most profitable results. In fact, thefric'ion occasioned by rasping is necessarily accompanied by a certain portion of heat, which tends to increase the action of the press. Now, it is well known, how detrimental the action of heat is to all organic substances, dis- solved or suspended in large watery masses. This action is easily discernible between the root and the pulp, and then atrain between this latter and the expressed juice. The chance goes on increas- ing in proportion to the interval between the rasp- ing and the defecation. The decomposition has often been such as entirely to prevent the forma- tion and separation of the sugar. The copper then should be filled in the shortest possible space of time ; hut if large masses are acted upon, and, consequenth', large coppers made use ofj it is es- sential, in order to charge them rapidly, that a number of rasps and presses should be employed, proportioned to the required despatch of the opera- tion. Thus, to charge a boiler of between 500 and 600 gallons in two hours, which would be a rea- sonable time enough, it wouM he necessary to rasp and press, during this interval, about four tons of roots. Supposing that a rasp is used which in twelve hours will finish eight tons of roots; sup- posing also a hj'draulic press which is capable of working of 8S0 lbs. of pulp in one hour, it will re- quire, in order to obtain -570 jTallons of juice in two hours, three rasping mills and five presses ; but if only this quantity is required to be obtained in twelve hours, and, consequently, that there is hut one delineating boiler, the three rasps and five presses will only work two hours a day, and remain idle the rest of the time. This is bad. On the other hand, when it is attempted to fill a boiler of 570 gallons by means of only one rasp and one press, the inconvenience will occur of delavintj the juice before the process of defecation can be begun. Both these evils ought to be avoided. A variety of reasons are given by JM. Dubrun- faut, for preferring boilers of a medium size to those of large dimensions. He consitlers those of about 90 or 100 gallons as much more convenient than the larger sizes belbre enumerated. Of course two or more would be required, according to the magnitude of the work. Two boilers of these di- mensions would readily do the work of one of 570 gallons, and the first cost of them would not be more. As soon as one is brought to the boiling point, the fire can be removed to the "rate of the other; in thort, whilst the luocess of deftjcaiiug is going on in the one, the other may be left to pre- cipitate its extraneous substances. A defecating boiler, intended to act by precipita- tion, ought to be equal m height to its diameter. A fifth of the size absolutely required to contain the juice slionld be allowed f()r boilinii; space : thus, a boiler which would hold 100 gallons, ought to be larire enoiiffh to boil one hundred and twenty gallons in. The boiler oiiiiht to be mounted to such a height as to allow of the li(|Uor running off clear, by an easy slope into the evaporatinir boiler. The femperatiu-e should never exceed 80^ of Reaumur (212 "^ of Fahrenheit.) Thus, admittinir that the boiler is 36 inches in height, and the same in di- ameter, it should have a grate of about the follow- ing j)roportions: — Length . Breadth 28 inches. 15 '• This grate is of cast iron and composed of 10 bars. The bottom of the boiler is placed about 15 inches idiove the grate, round which is a flue to enable the flame to circulate to the height of the charge. This flue, at its opening into the chimney may Ibrm, in section, a parallelogram of 140 square in- ches. A boiler on this construction presents to ihe fire a surftice of 413 s(juare feet, and will bcal its contents in about ihreequartersof an hour, with the consumption of 24 lbs. of coal. If wood is burned there must be double the quantity allowed. §. 2. j^ppendages to a Defecating Boiler. They are the following : — 1. A thermotneter and an areometer. 2. Scales and weights to weigh the lime. 3. A bin for lime, and wooden pails or buckets. 4. A measure either of lead or copper, for sul- phuric acid. 5. A wooden instrument to stir up the liquor in the boiler. 6. A platedspoon, to observe the juice with, and an exf)eriment saucer. 7. A skimmer. 8. A filter and funnel. Areometer and TTiermometer. Beaume's areometer is generally allowed to be' the best ; il should be provided with a tin case, havino; a wooden handle. The liquor about to be weijrlied is drawn up in this tin case, which is held by the handle. It is important that the juice should be examined always at the same tempera- ture. It should be taken as it comes ti'om the press, and plunged, by means of the fin case, in water from a well or pump, so as to reduce it to a temperature of 10° of Reaumur (55 ° of Fahren- heit.) Then insert the areometer ; and if all sub- sequent trials are made with the same precaution, the comparative results will not fail to be correct. In this state tlie juice varies from 5° to 10° (areo- metriques) of'Beaume. If weighed when boiling, a difference will he found of 4^^ more or less, be- cause then, the heat expanding the liquid, dimin- ishes the specific gravity of it. The areometer will also be found useful in the evaporation of the juice, to e.stimate the precise time fiivourable to clarification. Being of glass, and consequently very liable to be broken in the' S6 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 2 hands ol' common workmen, it will be necessary to have a nuiuher oftliem at hand. The thermometer is used in defecation to jud(T:e of the state of rhe temperature, and tlience to as- certain the proper lime lor adding the clarifying agents. The most convenient place to hang it is near the boiler, and it ought to be immersed in the liquor during nearly all the time of the clarihca- tion. Scales and JVeighis to weigh the Lime. These, it is unnecessary to say more ol^ than that they should be capable of weighing from 5 lbs. to 50 lbs. Bin to slake Lime in, and Backets for the Liquor. The lime employed for the defecation of beet- root juice is generally unsl.iked, weiglied in that state, then slaked wilfi water, and afterwards, by adding more water, reduced to the consistency of cream. For this operation a bin, or cistern, of a particular form is required: it is, ibr the most part, circular, with a cover. M. Dubruiitiuif, however, is of opinion that iime should not be weighed til! after it is slaked, as yielding more certain and iinilbrm results ; in which case, a lal-ge quantity mijiht be slaked be- forehand. It is sifted pretty fine, to se|)arate all the coarse and unburnt lumps, which, in the usual method of applying the lime, are reckoned as so many active agents, whereas, they are of no use at all in the clarifying process; and hence many errors in the general results. ^ Lead or Cupper Vessel for the Sulphuric jicid. The sulphuric acid is usually diluted with five of six parts of water before usiiiii. This is per- formed in a wooden bucket, the hoops of which are of copper, instead of iron. Filter for Skimmings. An enclosed or covered filter is recommended in prelc'rence to the one in common use, it being im- portant, in order to get as much liquor from the skimnungs as possible, that they should not besul- lered to cool too fast. The construction should be the same as that hereafter described Ibr the juice, only that the one may be made of coarse cloth, or canvass, and the other of fine linen. The filter should be provided with a receiver adequate to the amount of juice from one charge. §. Of the different methods of Defecation. This is one of the most difficult operations con- nected with the manufiicture of beet-root sugar. The results are perpetually changing, as the na- ture of the root changes during the progress of the work. We proceed to describe the simplest and most economical of the means employed, viz., lime alone, or sulj)huric acid and lime together. The first vieihod of defecation — that of the Colonies. After detailing the origin and progress of defe- cation in France, the author proceeds to show that lime alone, if not the best means, is at least capable, in good hands, of producing very impor- tant results; and instances the manulacture ofM< Houdarl, near Douay, as one of the best and most successful on this principle. Suppose 114 gallons of juice are to be clarified. The boiler being charged, and the fire burning, the thermo- meter is placed in it, and should be kept there till it amounts to 60" or 65" (167'= or ITS'" of Fahrenheit.) During this interval eighty-eight pounds of lime slacked and sifted, are weighed out; four or five other bags are then similarly prepared, each bag containing 7 pounds of lime. This done, the 88 liis. of lime are put into a wood- en vessel, where they are mixed with clear water, till they become like milk. This mixture is poured Instrument for stirring the Liquor in the Copper. ^ into the boiler when tlie temperature is above 60° lor 65*^ (Reaumur.) The whole is then briskly This should be a round slick or pole, twice as stirred tor some minutes, in order to incorporate long as the copper is deep. A' one end is a round the lime vvell with the liquor. Before the lime is piece of wood, about a foot in diameter, pierced | added, a thick scum will show itself on the surlitce. with holes. ji Plated Spoon t/i which to Examine the Juice, and a Saucer. The spoon should be kept bright, that the work- man may judge more readily when the clarifica- tion is complete. The saucer should be very white. The use of it is to receive the small drops of syrup of violets and tournesol, to as(;ertain, by touching them with the liquid under clarification, the excess of alkali and acid. Large Skimmer. This ought to be at least eight inches in diame- ter, and to be fixed to the end of a long handle. It is not always considered necessary to remove the scum from the boiling liquor, and especially when the precipitating system is resorted to, as it forms a sort of cover or guard to the liquor against too sudden refrigeration by the action of the air. Lime often destroys this scum, or, at any rate, it IS suspended in the liquid by agitating it when the lime is added. When thoroughly mixed, some minutes should cla[)se before the full efi'ect will be produced; then, with a bright sjioon, take a little of the liquor, and examine it carefully: if the quantity of lime be sufficient, the juice will exhibit a number of clots, or particles, in suspension, which will soon settle to the bottom of the spoon, leaving the upper part of the liquid perfectly clear and transparent, and more or less of an amber color. If, instead of this, the lumps are very much divi- ded, and only swim in the liquor wiihout settling 10 the bottom, even for several seconds, and if the juice remains of a thick milky color, it is a proof that more lime is wanted. One of the lillle parcels of 7 lbs. is then mixed with water, poured into the boiler, and well stirred as before. The juice is then again examined with the spoon, and if the symptoms are still not so favorable as they niiglit be, another 7 lbs. are added, and so on, 7 lbs. each time, till the defeca- tion ol" the whole is complete. 1837] FARMERS' REGISTER. 97 88 Ills, of lime to 114 njallons of juice m;iy al- ways be used with satety. It is, in liicf, the niiii- iinuiii (lose that ought to l)e ap|)lieil. TluMjiiaiiti- ty varie.^ with thetjuality of the beetroot, ami the perioli of the season when it is applied. Thus, at the begiunini^ of the season, when the roots arc rich and full of sugar, the greater will be the proportion of lime necessary. The object of the lime b-^iiig to |irecipitate certain substances which impede the formation of sugar, it should, of course, b-* added in riuantities adequate to the amount of these substances; tor, experience seems to show, that as the quantity of sugar increases, so will also these extraneous matters. Thus, a firm, solitl beet root requires more lime than a watery root, and vice versa. On the whole, the safest way is to begin with Utile enougli of lime, lor it is very easy to add more from time to time, as above directed. But it is not to be inferred from hence, that, on the tohole, a small quantity is preferable to a larger. So far is this from being the case, that it is consi- dered better to use too much than too little ; for though an excess of this alkali is prejudicial to the sugar, it is always less so than an insufficient quantity. The observations of the worlcman can- not be too frequently taken during the process of detecaling. A clear liquor, and a perfect precipi- tation, are the main objects to be accomplished. If these are not obtained, or imperfectly so, the results will be sure to sufTer. It has been imagined by JVI. Barruel, that the red beet requires more lime than the white ; but M. Dubrunlimt considers this opinion as not al- together correct, and is rather disposed to refer the apparent difference to the season, which might tiiat year produce a red beet of a firmer and less watery description than the yellow. The beet pjice, when it first comes from the press, it is of a nnlkv hue, and yet dingy. When heated, the scum and froih rise; but as soon as the lime is added, the black, dirty color disappears by degrees, and abumlance of flakes are seen in the liquor. These flakes are usually of a yellowish grey co- lor; when the proportion of lime is sufficient, they separate from the liquid and rapidly sink to the bottom. When arrived at this stage of the dele- cation, the fire must be withdrawn, and the boiler left to itself for an hour or two, that the whole may settle properly. The cock placed just above the bottom of the boiler should be opened, to draw ofl' the liquor clear. The juice is then con- veyed to the evaporating pans — of which more hereafter. Care should be taken to watch the liquor as it runs off", lest any part should become thick and turbid, especially towards the end ; so soon as this is perceived, the cock should be closed and the lower one opened, that the residuum may pass through the filter. When this is all drawn off, the boiler is ready for a fresh charge. The defecation by lime is denominated the sys- tem of the colonies, because there the process was made trial of, and long before beet-root sugar was even thought of. But it ought to be explained, that, in the present day, it is not used to so much advantage in the colonies as in France. There, in fact, the management is left to a slave, who, not unfi-equently applies the lime at random: and, of course, the results are, and must be^ very un- equal. It has been phown that it is better to use too Vol. V— 13 much than too little lime in defecation. Both arc slated to be evils, and yet of two evils, the former is the least. Aller having operated on the extra- neous matter in the sugar, it then begins to act on the suffar itself". Delineation by lime alone, then, has this F.) the scum had coagulated well, and the juice showed by its clearness and easy precipitation, that the proportion of lime was sufiicient. Sulj)huric acid diluted was then added, to neutralize, as much as possible, the excess of the lime; and to effect this completely, the enormous quantity of 4^ kilogram- mes (159 ounces) was found necessary. The ad- dition of the sulphuric acid increased the precipi- tation, and when boiled, the liquor was nearly without scum, and altogether, the defecation was good. Two boilers were thus treated, and their united contents boiled together; the result was per- fecdy satisfactory. The molasses had no bad smell or taste; on the contrary, they aflorded every hope of succeeding, if reboiled, and this was con- firmed by alter experience. The results of this experiment being so advan- tageous, it is hardly to be expected they will be materially improved upon; and, accordingl}^, we are told it is the method in conunon use in most of the principal establishments in France. M. Du- brunfiiut has described the various plans pursued by M. M. Chaptal, Dombasle, the Duke of Ra- gusa, and M. Bernard, concluding with his own: the clarification, in this last case, taking place in boilers of 114 gallons, (500 litres,) which is considered by the author as the most convenient size. The boiler being charged, it is heated, and then clarified with lime; when enough of this has been used to make the juice perfectly clear, the temperature may be lOO"^ to 201° (Fahrenheit,^ the lime being applied as recommended, at 178"^. The sulphuric acid is then added, having been diluted with six times its bulk of water. It is appiied in small quantities, stirring briskly each time. Every time that the acid is applied, it will be necessary to ex- amine the juice, which is done in the following manner. The operator should be provided with a spoon and a very white porcelain saucer. On the surface of this saucer, a few drops of syrup of violets should be placed, by means of a small 1837] F A R M E R S ' RE (I I S T E R . 89 fskewer, dipped into a bottle of the pyrup. It will be as wi'll, also, to iiave on this saucor a piiiall (luantity of well prepared blue tiirnsol. This done, he tlu'n may proceed to examine the juice. The thick scum is first removed, which has been produced by the lime and sulphuric acid, a quantity ofthe puriiied juice is then taken in the e])oon, to see ifthe clearness and precipitation <;o on well, provinfj, in that case, that the siil[)huric ticid has not been over-applied. The heller to assure (vne's self oflhis.leta wooden peffbe dipped in the juice contained in the spoon, which mix with one of the drops of gyrup of violet in the saucer. If the alkali is predominant in the juice, the syrup of violets will chant',p. to a fine deep green color, in proportion as the alkali becomes weaker, the ijreen wdl take the more time to develop itselt'. and will lose its deep hue. The addition of the acid must cease when the syrup, touched by the juice, turns but slowly to green. A certain number of drops of syrup have been recommended to be placed in the saucer, for the convenience of making seve- ral dhlerent experiments. It will not be amiss, alier ascertaining l>y the syrup ol' violets that the proportion ot' acid is sutficient, to touch the spots of turnsol with the juice, in order to be satis- fied that It will not turn them red; for it is the pro- perty of acids to change the blue color of the turn- Bol to red. This latter experiment is of no other use than to prove to an inexperieneed practitioner that his eye has not deceived him in the tbrmer experiment, [f too much acid, it must not only be neutralized by the lime, but there must be also a slight excess of this alkali. Care should be taken in the above trials, that the quantities of juice and syrup should be eciual, or nearly so. lor if either predominate, the results will neither be satisfacto- ry nor correct. When it is ascertained that the boiler contains but a slight excess of alkali, and after the contents have been well stirred, the fire is withdrawn, and ihey are left to settle. In about half an hour the liquor will be clear enough to draw off- One may reckon that 114 gallons of juic^, requiring 6 or 7 lbs. of lime, will take nearly a kilogramme (35 oz. av.) of acid to neutralize them sufficiently. Admitting that it requires the amount of two charges of the press to fill one boiler, from a quarter to a third of the Aveight of lime required for a defecation may be added to the juice, in tne vessel in which it comes from the first pre ss. This measure will be parti- cularly advisable when the temperature oi' the place "be at from 61" to 73° of Fahrenheit. Third Method— M. Adiard's Plan. Achard. when he established his manufactory, was indebted to no one, either for plans or machi- nery, but struck out a path for himeellj in which he has, to a certain extent, been eminently suc- cessful. His method of defecation difi'ers from those we have been describing, inasmuch as, in- stead of using the lime first, and then the sulphu- ric acid, he begins with the latter, and neutralizes with the former. It differs also in other respects, which will be hereafter alluded to. The juice, on first issuiug irom the press, was deposited in lame earthen vessels, wdiere it was acidulated. This acidulation was obtained by l-;f drachms (avoird.), 2.^ grammes of sulphuric acid foi every litre (61 English cubic inches, nearly two pinis) of juice, not more than six or sevpn hours elapsing between the extraction of the juice and its acidulation. The l()llowing is ]\1. Achard's own account of the process adopted by him. ''The boiler having been well cleaned, the botsom is unilbrmly cover- ed Avith chalk, finely powdered, in the proportion of about three drachtus (i)r every litre (61 cubic inches) of juice, acidilied the day before.* It is then about tu'O-thirds filled, that there may be room for the scum to li)rm on its surface. The contents of the several earthen vessels are then got together, and poured into the boiler. The up- per part of the acidified sugar is clear, but the bot- tom is thick, of a greyish color, from the flakes' of albumen acd other impurities precipitated by the acid. The sugar is well mixed with the chalk, in order that the combination may be complete; ibr the object of tliis operation is to saturate the sulphuric acid which has been added to the su- gar. It thus forms a sulphate of lime which is deposited at the bottom of the boiler. This preci- pitation is attributable to the insolubility of the lime, which requires 2-50 or 3C0t times its weight of water to hold it in solution. Such of it as re- mains in the sugar is separated by an alter pro- cess. • '-It would at first appear, that any sort of calca- reous earlh may be employed tor this purpose; but experience proves the conirary. The true reason of this is, perhaps, that these calcareous stones are always mixed with extraneous substances, in- somuch that their weifiht does not exactly indicate that of the calcareous carbonate; to say notliing of the obstacles which these substances interpose in the way of the clarification. By the combina- tion of the sulphuric acid with the lime, the car- bonic acid with which it is saturated is set at liber- Xy and remains in the juice, sometimes showing itself in litlle bubbles. Experience has proved the necessitv of disensrairing this acid beibre refining, because the extraction of the suirar is thereby \'a- ciiitated. The best means of eHecting this, is by adding chalk converted into quicklime by the ac- tion of fire. If burnt belbrehand, it should be carefully preserved from the elFect of the atmos- phere. The calcined chalk :;iay be added to the juice in the boiler about a quarier of an hour after the unburnt chalk, at the rate of two drachms avoirdupois lor every gallon of juice; the boiler is then covered, and the ihermometer placed in it. When at 100° the cover is half taken ofl^, and skimmed milk is added at the rate of 10 or 14 litres (2 to 3 ffallons) per 1000 litres (227 gallons) of juice. The whole is well stirred, and then covered down. When the thermometer is at 79° (210°) the fire is extinguished, and when the temperature drops to 145° oi~ 165°, tlie boiler is uncovered. Be- ibre the clarification, the albumen separaied frons * Observe, the juice is never put into tiie boiler till it has been in contact wiih the sulphuric acid about twenty -four hours. fM. Achard states 470 times its weiijht of water; but we are assured by M. Uubrniifaiit, that in beet-root juice it is much more soluble than in water, and that even in this latter it only requires 250 or .300 times its own weio-ht to dissolve it. im FA K M KRS' 11K(J 1ST ?■: R, [No. 2 the juice by the isulphunc acid, appeared in flakes lou \\^j:\\1 10 be divided from the nius!--, but, in con- seciuence of the. heat, this matter became consis- tent, an object to which the niill< contributed not a Jiitle. "All the particles separated frnm the juice float- ed on the surluce, ffirminir a dark crust, in one piece, easily renioveil witii a copper skinuner. Underneath, the juice is found perlectiy clear." So fiir M. Aeiiard, whose system has neverthe- less been adojjted but by one manufacturer, within the knowIedt on the five-course, nor the same number of cattle would not yi^ld the same quantity of matmre, on account of the loss bv beinir pastured in place of being house-fi?d; likewise, that the grain crop, al- ter clover which had been soiled, was always bet- ter than vvhat was grazed. Mr. M'Aleavy did not at first admit this; but the chairman showed that, under the four-course system, the half of the land was under grain, but in a five-course, one-fifth be- ing always under pasture, and another fifth applied tosoiliniT, there could only be tbrpe-fifths remaining for grain and fallow crops, as potatoes, turnips, &c., in place of three-fourths, which would remain for those crops under the four-course, Mr. M'Garry having expressed his opinion as to the crop after clover which had been mowed, being better than after it had been pastured, Mr. M'Aleavy con- ceded this point, but still seemed impressed in fa- vor of the five-course rotation, in which several of the company seemed to join, though Mr. Bruce, Mr. Ingram, and Mr. Jenkins all agreed that their land had greatly improved in quality since the four- course system had been adopted. Mr. Simpson, an experienced independent far- mer, expressed his belief that the quality of some lands might suit one course, and that of others a different; and Mr. Blacker acknowledged that in Berwickshire the five-course was in use; but, in regard to Berwickshire, the farmers, by sowing their turnips, which may be said to be their entire fallow crop, on bone dust, keep their farm-yard manure (or top-dressing their clover, which makes the second year's srrowth more productive; and the use of turnips in fatteninsr, by stall-feeding in win- ter, with the quantity ol'bone dust, more than makes up for what is lost in the nianuie byirrazing: so that a Berwickshire firmer had said that he manured half his entire farm every year. Mr. Blacker, in his pamphlet, suggests that it is not the turning of the land, but the scouriTing crops put in whpre the land is turned, that does the mischief: and he instances that land after be- inor turned five, six, or seven times in fallowing, will give a good crop, when without this turning it would have yieltled nothing. I am inclined to be of this way of thinking, for it is a common ex- pression to say of a farm that it is "as fi-uittlil as a garden," as describing the perfection of agricul- ture; but a market gardener makes his land pro- duce four or five crops in the year, and is turnino" it perpetually, and this near all large towns ha's been going on for centuries. I therefore am in- clined to believe the turning of land is not so pre- judicial as people think, and I believe in the coun- ties of Norfolk and Suffolk, where the four-course rotation has been many yeara practised, the soil is improving. Mr. M'Garry, without giving any decided opin- ion on the subject in discussion, begged to call the attention of thie company to the danger of sowing clover too often under the four-course system, and recommended, from his own experience, that only part of the manured land should be sowed in clo- ver, and the other half reserved for vetches, and by altering these two crops, the summer feeding might be kept up, and yet the clover would not come round to the same land in less than seven or eiirht years. In this the chairman coincided, and said it en- tirely agreed with the instructions given by Mr. Bruce, but he was afraid it had not been enough attended to, as clover was, in fact, but a new crop, irenerally speaking, and the four-course system had not been long enough in use to bring the thing to the proof in this neighborhood. He therefore strongly recommended this hint to the attention of all present; and after thanking Mr. M'Garry for the suggestion, he proposed as a toast "live and learn." He then proceeded to read the list of suc- cessful competitors for the best turnips: when it ap- peared that Mr. Bruce had the certificate for the best crop. The first premium, however, under the new regulations went to Robert Mitchell, Drumbucross; the second to Jonathan Cochran, Cabra; the third to Thomas Singleton, Drum- black; the fourth to Joseph Forster, of Ballyorgan. The chairman, in giving the health of Mr. Bruce, requested him to say how it happened that his field of turnips was quite green, without a singlfe' yellow leaf, and Mr. Singleton's at the opposite side of the road, w^as quite yelFow with the num- ber of leaves that were decayed. Mr. Bruce — "Gentlemen, this is very easily ac- counted lor. Mr. Singleton and almost all others think, when the leaves begin to cover the ground, that the horse-hoe or pony-plough is no longer necessary, and that the horses travelling through will injure the crop. Now, I think the reverse; and I ran the pony-plough three times throusrh mine after they had attained the irrowth that Mr. Singleton and others stop at.. The consequence is, that mine are still in the height of their growth, and will grow on until Christmas, whilst their's are stunted, and will not yield within one-third of the weight they would otherwise have done." The chairman here adverted to the advantage of turnip feeding, and expressed his surprise that so many peo[)le would be so blind to their owrt interests as not to see the advantage of it. He stated that a rod of well cultivated turnips would yield from eight to ten tons, or even much more,, supposing the crop to be part white, yellow, and Swedish, This, therefore, would give from eighty to one hundred pounds a day for a cow for seven months, or two hundred and ten days. Now, even a springer will give two quarts of milk more upon turnips than upon either bay or straw. A stripper might increase four, and a new calved cow would give seven or eiirht quarts more; but taking it at two quarts, which is the lowest, these two quarts are worth 2d per quart all the winter and spring; and id per day for two hundred and ten days is exactly 70s gained in extra milk by one rood of turnips, which is £14 to the acre. Thus the ex- tra of quantity pays £14 per acre for the turnips, and you have all the cow would have given with- out them lor nothing, or next to nothing, and the manure besides. This is as plain as that two and two make four, and yet it would appear that people could not see it. Mr. Parks here rose and said, he had bought a 1837] FARMERS' REGISTER, 105 sprinirer that did not s'we two pints, and upon giv- ing hiT tiirnips shp ir;ive four quarts. Roliprt Mitclioll \w\\\ir next calUnl, said his flirm f()rini'.rly |)roikict'ci him no more than about £8 16.s, which was ihe rent ho, then paid: he now had lo ]),\y more, but by tlie new system he had last year m uie £4\ 5.s 4d out of it, leaving plenty of ti)od li)r himself and nine of a liimily. He had nl-uose, a joll of salmon, and a dish of green fish, buttered, witli eirus; ttus was a first course. Then came a Lombard pie, a cowe's udder roasted, a grand boyled meat, a hedirc-hog pudding, a rabbit stufi- ed with oysters, polonian sausages, a mallard witli cabbaiie, and a pair of boiled cocks. To these suc- ceeded as entremeis — a spinnage tart, a carbona- ted hen, a pie of aloes, eg<2;s in moonshine, a chris- tal jelly, jumballs, quiddaiiy, braggat and walnut eiickets. Cockale, surtt^it-water, canary, sack, and Gascony wines, served to moisten this heieroire- nous repast. The li^llowing is taken from "Wreck- er's Secrets of Nature," published in the next reign, 1660. /J live rnafited o^nnse. The details of the pro- cess are too barbarous to repeat, but when the roast- ing is accomplished the writer adds: "then take her up, set her before your guests, and she will cry as you cut off any part from her, and will almost be eaten un before she is dead; it is mighty pleasant to beholdy—Ib. From ttie N. Y. Express. EXTENSION OF BEET SUGAR CULTURE IN EU- ROPE. Extract of a Letter from Paris. The Chamber of Deputies has not yet entered ot; the discussion of the bill for reducing the im- post duty on colonial sugar in order to enable that article lo conapete in the French markets with the beet root euirar. They appear determined on amending it in a manner calculated to secure the interests of the two parties. M. D***, a gentle- man irom Albany is here very industriously en- gaged collecting the necessary information on the best mode of extracting sugar from the beet, with a view to establish a manufacture of the kind in the neighborhood of Albany. That precious in- dustry has now extended over almmt the entire of Europe, having even penetrated into Hiissia, where it is daily acquirinj; an immense extension. In Moscow, and the adjoining governments, the richest, most populous, and most interesting in the empire, the number of beet sugar manufiicto- ries, established in the last five years, amounted on an average to 49 per annum. The cultivation of flax has been abandoned in manv parts, and , the proprietors give premiums to their peasants lo , induce them to substitute the beet root in its stead. Only a iliw mamiliictoriets have yet been establish- ed in southern Russia. [| was a Polish lord, now a reliigee in Paris, who, ten years ago, wa.^ the first to introduce on his estates of Podolia tlie culture of the l)eel, and to extract sugar ihere- Irom. His undertakinir shared in ihe^liite of itR founder; his property having been confiscateil. his manullictory ceased to exist — but the country, alive to its advantage, has benefited by the example. The impulse has now been given throughout that vast and fertile region stretching between the Danube and the Don. Some