WW THE FARMERS' REGISTER, A 1VI0NTHI.Y PUBXiICATIOir, nevotcd to the Improvement of the Practice svrroRT OF the mjvtereists of agriculture. EDMUND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. And he gave it for his opinion, " that whoever could make two ears of com, or two blades of grass, to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew before, would deserve better of mankind, and do more essential service to his coun- try, than the whole race of politicians put together." Stcifl, voii. vt: PETSaSBUAa, VA> PUBLISHED BY THE PROPRIETOK, 1838. V. (^ TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOL. VI Acacia, or locust, seed, germination of 207 Address of Dr. Muse, defended from exceptions taken 78 Air. remarkable clearness of, a precursor of rain 133 Agricultural publications of elementary and cheap kinds recommended 262, for use of schools 260, 263, 762 Agricultural Chemistry, Elements of, by Davy, the latest edition republished entire, begining57S. (For the heads of lectures of the above, see table of con- tents, at 704) Agricultural county reports, British, utility of 742 Agricultural paper in Wisconsin 215 Agricultural professorships 706 Agricultural report of survey of Essex, Mass. extracts from 96 Agricultural school of Templemoyle 341 Agricultural notes of a tour in the west 304 Agricultural Societies, on proper plan, recommended 705 Agricultural societies and cattle shows, benefits of 522 Agricultural Society of Albemarle, premiums award- ed by 543 — of Charlotte, premiums awarded by 290 — of Cumberland, address to 535 — of Rockbridge, address to 538, show and premiums of 725 — of Fred- ericksburg, premiums awarded by 693 — address to 76,5 — of Nottoway and Amelia, proceedings of 416 Agricultural tour in Maryland, 453 Agricultural Surveys, recommended 707 Agriculture, progress of 288 Agriculture in England, 12 Agriculture of England and the northern states, dif- ferently affected by natural causes 271 Agriculture, Flemish 362, 731 Agriculture in France 69, 348 Agriculture, government bounties to, in appearance, b-ut to printers in reality 83 Agriculture of Gloucester county 179 Agriculture, legislative aid required for the improve- ment of, and ihe proper direction. No. I, 695 — No. II, 705— No. Ill, 755 Agriculture of middle South Carolina 436 Agriculture of upper Fauquier 456 Agriculture of Tuscany 404 Agriculture. Board of, its value as a state institution, 699 Alligator in New York 726 Animal and vegetable orgdiiization and functions com- pared 136 Ar.imals, domestic, changes produced on by the cli- mate of America 717 Anti-dry-rot 340, 4S8 Apple-tree, not jiropagated by cuttings 77 Ailichokes, Jerusalem 94 Ashes as manure 97, 299 Atmosphere, nature and constitution of, and its influ- ence on vegetation — functions of plants. (Lect. 5 Agr. Chcin. 627) B Baltic sea, change of its water-level 505 Banking, irresponsible, a system of plunder, 729 Barley 204 Beaver, remarks on 323 Beavers in Surry county, 174 Beer, effect of electricity on 1.33 Birds, the impolicy of destroying them 280 Blue grass, value of 203 Blue-mud 734 Bone manure 66, 165, 365 — abuses of 345 — beneficial effects of, 95 Bogs and peat moss, hints and directions for their cul- tivation 39 Book trade of the south, and the furnishing of school books, virtually a close monopoly in the hands of a few great publishers at the north 263, 764 Breeders of cattle, a hint to 348 Breeding of bears 415 Breeding in and in 254 Budge or tunnel proposed from Dover to Calais 76 Broken limbs of animals 446 Buck-wheat cakes 56 Bulleting, a substitute for spaying 285, 423, 503 Burdon's ointment 383 Butter making 372 C Canada Thistle, and other noxious weeds, their seeds bought and sown intermixed with grass seeds 269 Canal, Chesapeake and Ohio, description of 554 — Mi- chigan and Illinois, route of, and description of the country 170 Canal and Aqueduct, Alexandria, account of 555 Candle-wick, metallic 755 Caoutchouc, East India 132 — roofs of 76 Capons, 277, 324, 356 Carrot, field culture 439 Cattle, on fattening with different kinds of food, 103 — of Essex, Mass. 98 — on cleaning 556— of Kentucky, 557 — Devonsliire 398- Durham, value of 285 — sale of 311, at Holkham 70 Charcoal, a remedy for diseased lungs in hogs 286 Chimneys, a suggestion for their improvement 564, one oi' immense size, 719 Chinese mulberry seed, a humbug 50 Chinese treatise on silk and mulberry culture, ex- tracts from 353, English notice of 351 Clay soils, most beneficially ploughed after rain 303 [ Climate of Louisiana, friendly to longevity 709 Clover, profit from 434 I Clover hay, curing of 396 I Clover seed, raising of 201 I Coal, origin of 132 i Coke, natural, found in Virginia 117 I Collecting agencies, suspended 127 College, William and Mary, its revival and importance 293, public exercises and honors of 296 Colleges of Virginia and the south considered as works of " internal improvement" 292, reasons lor their being preferred lor soutiiern students 294 Commercial Convention, Augusta, remarks on 112 — report of 113 — of Biciunond — remarks on 251 — re- port to from Committee of Commerce 251 — of Nor- folk, its proceedings, and remarks thereon 565 Commercial reports, monthly, 61, 127, 192, 320, 384, 447,511,-576,767 Conditions of Farmers' Register, for Vol. VII, 63,767 FARMERS' REGISTER Cooking grain for stock 741 Corn, advantages of planting early, and coveringdeep- ly 110 — difference of planting on grass or stubble land 439— harvesting of 135— Baden 48, 173, 342, 489,—" Chinese," puff of 490 Corn-cob meal, and mills to grind it 380 Corn, seed, soaked in saltpetre water, incrcdiblr yield 376 Cotton culture 269— manufactories in N. C. 312 Cotton, Mexico-Egyptian 488 Cotton seed covered by the coulter 303 Coulter, a new and good kind 55 Cows, milch, 421 — useful instructions regarding the milking 446 Crops, state of in August 1838, 441 — of Nansemond, 574 — on the Eivanna 199 — on Eastern Shore of Md. 767 Crow, a bird of prey, 453 Culture and products of a lot, through a series of years 731 Cut-worm 261 D Dahlia, on the propagation of 337 Dams across rivers, for mills, &c. construction of, 36 Direct trade and internal police, report on to the Com- mercial Convention, 699 Ditches, hill-side 110 Dogs, to prevent their sucking eggs 359 Drains, covered, mode of filling 18 Draining, practical etfects of 396, implements for 17 — Johnstone's Treatise on, remarks on 61 Drought of 1838, 434, 440, 441 Dry-rot, Kyan's process to prevent 106 Ducks, 325 E Earthen-ware, foul and poisonous, 439 Economy, difference between English and American, 372 Editorial articles and remarks — on agricultural hobbies and humbugs 47; disasters on rail-ways and their causes 57; on Johnstone's treatise on draining, &ic., 61 ; to the friends and supporters of the Farmers' Register 63; the degrading of the great farmer Coke, by a title of nobility 70; the bounties of government to agriculture and to printers 83; the wines from Halifax and Scupperong grapes 92; inarl of South Carolina 111; the Southern Com- mercial Convention 112 ; the course of Massachu- setts in aiding agricultural improvement 117 ; Jauf- fret's new plan of niakins; manure 125, 311; on collecting agencies, and their discontinuance 127 ; subscriptions erased 128 ; the preference tor north- <'rn seed -wheat 129 ; the failure 1o answer the lormprquerios on marling 142 ; remarkable natural features of the rouli' of tlio Michigan and Illinois canal ]7{); fibres of certain tropical plants 198; analysis of the S/intee marl, (H. C.) 19S; use of f^ub-carbonate of soild in washing clothes 202; on obj^-ctions to reniaiks on humbugs 211 ; on ttie Chinese treatise on silk-worms 228; state u! the wheat crop 255; on the furnishini;; agricultural books for the use of schools 263 ; marling in South <'arolina 265 ; th.' couiparutive sizes of leaves of flirforent kinds of mulberry ti"ees 275 ; largo size of the native kind 417 ; on the colleges of Virginia, mil the revival isnd importance of William and Mary college 292; covering cotton seed with the lia-row 3i)3 ; on seeillings from Chinese mulbeiry seeds 316 ; the {iroht of rending the Farmers' He^9 Grasses of South Carolina 276 Grasses for sheep, (»!)() Grazing, close, denounced 109 — of sheep among grow- ing corn 253 Grease for vvheel-nxlcs 107 Green crops, their uses and culture 7.0 Green Spring lands of Louisa 4 10 Gypsum, case of retarded action of 322 H Hail-storms, protection against 486 Hall's humbug patent for cultivating corn 50 Hand-saws, to repair 423 Hay, mode of moving 507 Heating, Joyce's new mode of, 62 — apparatus for 317, 520 Herring, natural history of 3S7 Hoes, 386 — sharpening 424 Hogs, management and diseiises of 381 Honey, directions for taking, without destroying the bees 397 — antiseptic propert}'^ of 520 Horse, age of judged by his teeth 357 — description of the best form of 512 — velocity of in the race, phi- losophicall}' considered 71 Horses, singular and fatal disease of 563 — secret for taming 158 Houses, how moved in America 393 Humbug, agricultural, "Chinese" corn 489 Humbugs and hobbies, agricultural, essay on 47 — some objections to the essay on, 208 — reply to the objections 211 Hydrogen gas found in leaden water pipes 344 Hydrophobia in sheep, 394 Ice-houses, constructing and filling, 516, 550 Improving lands by other means than manuring, as burninsT, irrigating, fallowing, &c. (Lect. 8, Agr. Ch.) 656 Indian rubber, or Caoutchouc 520 Insects of destructive kinds 422 JaufTret's manure 165, 253, 303, 309 Laws of Virginia, ancient, curious extracts from 558, 711 Lead mine in N. C. 116 Leaves, manuring with, theory of 458 — statements of effects 463, 563 Libraries for common schools 357 Lightning conductors, efficacy of 279 Lime, as manure, 140 — value of 424, 736 — its applica- tion, 739 — use of in New Hampshire 292 — anec- dote of its use 261 — general want of in the soils of Massachusetts and Maine, the cause of their unfit- ness to produce wheat 102 Lime-spreader, Smith's, description of 4S7 Liming in Maryland 2— in Charles City 421— effects in raising value and price of lands 422 Liming and marling in Matthews county 142 Locks and aqueducts, selection of stone for 6 Loin-distemper of hogs 503 Lucerne 315 M Machine for ditching and banking 200 — for reajiing i 159 — lor thrashing, grinding, &,c. 275 Machines for sovving grain :iiS I Manure, materials for, 355— effects and f-^lue ofi 383 — the greatest amount to be obtained from given means 361 — quantity to apply to an acre 491 — Janf- fret's discovery of a new mode of making 65, 165, 253, 303, 309 — marine vegetable, application and value of 300 — liquid, 73 — of fish 546— compost, of peat 548 — of bones 66 Manures in general 366— of mineral origin 291,649, (Lecture 7, Agr. Chem.)— of vegetable and animal origin, (Lect. 6, Agr. Chem.) 640. Manures (oil-cake and bones,) exported from the Uni- ted States to Europe 344 Manures of salt-water rivers, inquiries and remarks on 721 Manures used in Essex, Mass. 99. Manures for wheat 157 Manuring, morals of 151 Malaria, on the sources of in Virginia, and the means of remedy and prevention 216 Marl of South Carolina, 111, 173, 265, 324— use of in South Carolina 689 Marl as manure, inquiries as to the effects, and an- swers 406-7 Mari-indicator, account of 454— objections to 759 Marling and liming in New Jersey 56 Marling in Queen Ann's, Maryland 144 Married and unmarried life, statistics of 89 Marsh grass as manure 359 Marsii-mud as manure, 359, 720, 722, 723 Massacliusetts, the appropriations and works of, in aid of agricultural improvement 117 Melons grown over water 111 Milk, quality of 212— from cows fed with distillery swill 401 Milk-sickness of the west 313, 533, 719, its supposed cause 719 Mine, catastrophe in 138 Moon, philosophical speculations concerning 694 Morus multicaulis— see "Mulberry, Chinese" Mould, formation of 206 Mowing 309 Mulberry, account of different varieties, 257, large leaves of different kinds 417 Mulberry, Chinese, fmorus multicaulis,) its culture, 414, 429, 492, 742— its introduction into this conn- try, and diffusion of the knowledge of its value 497, 753— when genuine .502— not exempt from the de- predations of insects 502— superior growth in the south 511— the speculation in and high prices 355, 503— not well suited for the northern states 521— re- moval of plants 575— in Florida 274 Mulberry culture, Chinese methods 353 Mulberry and silk culture, encouraged by old enact- ments of Virginia, 5.59 Mulberry crop lor silk raising 734 Mulberry, from seed of the Canton, described 424 Mulberry seedlings, remarks on 445, from .seed of the Chinese, 316 Mulberry speculation and mania, 425, 445 Mulberries on Long island, failure of 445 N Negroes, dance and .=;ongs of 59 New Zealand flax lilly, account of 87 North-western states— some of their disiidvanta^es 521 Onions, culture of 173, 438 Orange groves of Floiida 709 Oxen and horses, comparative expense of 545 Peach crops, prospect of in Delaware 261 Peach tree 277, to protect from worms 428 Peas, as food lor horses 254 FARMERS' REGISTER. Peat, 18 Peat-ashes, as manure, old article on 214 Persimmon tree and beer 58 Pise buildings 322 Pig, statement of cost and profit, 250 Pigeon roosts in the west 366 Planters' Society of Monticello, S. C. proceedings of 199 Plants, lost species of 174, phosphorescent 129, grow- ing under glass 139, fibrous leaved, 289, their or- ganization, and chemical constitution of, and the sub- stances found in them (Lect. 3, Agr. Chem.) 559 Ploughing deep 164, 418 Poor Richard's Almanack, or the "Way to Wealth" 736 Potato (Irish,) preservation of 575 Potatoes, sweet, inquiries in regard to keeping, 502 Poudrette, manufacture of in New York 201 Poultry, domestic, on rearing 118, 278, 376, 741 Prairies, formerly existing in the valley of Virginia 319 Primiogeniture, law of, how affecting agriculture 126 Princeana, 511 answer to, 757 Pruning trees 254, in summer 256 Pump logs, best timber for 203 Pumpkin, citron, 286 — Spanish cheese, 542 Pumpkin seed oil 405 Q Queen bee, her existence questioned 428 R Rabbit, account of its habits 507 Rabbits, profit of their keeping — management of 374 Rabbit-warren, account of 313 Raft in Red river 16, 377 — removed 174 Railway, Baltimore and Ohio, account of 555 — of Philadelphia and Reading, description of, 691 — of Danville and Pottsville, 692 — Philadelphia and Co- lumbia 755 — Lancaster and Hanisburg 755 — Ston- jngton 756 — Boston and Providence 756 — Boston and Lowel 757 — Lowel and Nashua 757 — Portsmouth and Roanoke, report of the President and Directors 330 — Eastern Shore, remarks on 246 — Louisville, Cincinnati and Charleston, and Bank Company 437 Railway, branch to Deep Run coal-pits 447 Railway bridge across James river 415 Railway steamer, 4 Railways, disasters on, and their causes 56, 57 Railroads and steamboats, 131 Rat-proof meat-houses 109 Rats in grain, 501 Rents, prices of in Ireland 154 Rhubarb, culture of 426 Rice, first introduction into South Carolina 214 Root culture 426 Roots compared with hay in value as food 250 Rotation of crops for grain farms 177 Ruta Baga 264 Saintfoin 316 Salt hay 97 Saltpetre-water, used to soak seed-corn 502 Sassafras, experiment to destroy 109 Sea ore, or ware, as manure 435, 722 Season and state of crops in October 1838,510 Seed trodden in 418 Seeds, selection of 356 Sheep husbandry 546 Sheep, Etall-feeiling of 267 Sheep-worm 418 Shell-fish, disease among 207 Silk-convention, account of proceedincs of 7 !5 Silk culture, report of a first tiial in Virginia ;>7i'?, re- marks tliereon 379 Silk culture 401 — estimates of value of 259 Silk culture in New Jersey 355 Silk culture of the United States, general remarks on 389, affected by speculations in mulberry plants 392 Silk culture, its state in the north and prospects in the south 449 — reasons for being best suited to the southern states 464 — statements of, 557 Silk culture, Treatise on by G. B. Smith, No. 1, 4 No. 2, 481— No. 3, 513 Silk-worms, directions for the management of, accord- ing to European practice, 464 — extracts from old Chinese works on their rearing and management 228 — fed with wet leaves 400 — fed on rice 174 Smoke burner 414 Snow-owl, 725 Soap suds as manure, and to destroy insects 127 Soapers' waste as manure 744 Soil, frozen, of Siberia 420 Soil, geological origin and formation of 248 Soil, the part it acts in the process of vegetation 726 Soils, their constituent parts, and the mode of ana- lyzing described at length, and the means of im- provement (Lect. 4, Agr. Chem.) 615 Soils, relation of to manures 152— capabilities of, 266 Soup-making 575 Sowing early, produces less straw, compared to the crop of grain 740 Spring-wheat humbug, 335 — remarks on same 336 Squashes turning to pumpkins 427 Steam canal boats 238 Steam power 400 Stone-cutting chisel, 279 Stone fence, the building of, 284 Straw, as top-dressing for young clover 112 Strictures and remarks on former articles 433 Subscribers, delinquent, plan proposed for dunning them 342 — remarks on 343 Subscriptions erased for non-payment, 128 Subsistence and occupation, the laws of 7 Subterranean river 253 Subterranean travelling 247 Suckf rs on corn 254 Sugar, beet, manufacture of, 201 Sugar and cotton regions of the United States 418 Sun-fiower culture 207 Survey (engineer's) from the Dismal swamp canal to Winy aw bay, 408 Swamps, and swamp mud 398 Swamp land, its sinking after being drained, 544 '•Swathing" wheat, in reaping, better than "handing" 347 Tar, the commencement of its production in this country 215 Temj^erature of the interior of the earth 283 Toad, account of its habits and usefulness 373 Tobncco, its culture proposed to be substituted by other new crops in Eastern Virginia 747 Tobacco trade 160 Trade of the west, by the James river and Kanawha improvement 5 Trees, ages and sizes of 175 Tropical plants, Dr. Perrine's plan for introducing 84, 19S — remarks on 85 Trough for pigs 503 Turnip drills, 278 V Vegetable physiology 266 Vegetables which have formerly covered the eaiih at ditierent epochs oi' its formation 325 W Washing clothes aided much by us? of sub carbonate ol' soda 202 FARMERS' REGISTER. Vll Water filterer, a new one 216 Weather, signs and prognostications of 244 Weather table 244— remarks on 245 Wheat, spring, a humbug 50— Egyptian, do. 46, 52 White-washing of trees 344 Wine, secret for making 710— from Halifax and Scup- pernong grapes, 92 Wire-worm 15 wneat, spnng, a numuug ou — xjtji^vici", v*". ^", — •■"■' ■• .- . . n,^ Wheat, seed, proper selection o? 396-benefit of ob- 1 Wisconsm prices current 216 tainiLg from colder regions 129-remark3 on 129 | Wo f catching in Norway 372 Wheat crop, state of 319, 255-cause3 of the frequent i Wolves in Fauquier 395 failures of 322 ' TO K F A H M E R S ' KE GISTER. . Vol. VI. ATPJllL I, 1838. No. 1. ' ' ■. ' E DMUND' RC F F rjf, ErrxTOR. AND P R 0 I' R r E T 0 R . STATt3MK^•'t'i? OF PARTl'CLyLAB, AKJ>.> (JKNK- BAL MA.\AGE'ME,*T',AiVD. .J'UOBCGTS, ',15j: FAlRFAXl. " ■ '•,... ,■'•».'', ' ■ • [It has not been left ftff'us to iiifer, merely ftom the contents df the following communication, that ti].^ wri- ter both possesses and exerts^ ia a high- degree, the disposition and talent which ale necessary to consti- tute a sood Clruier. W« hacl heard, long ago, that Coaiinoilore Jones hid rendered valuable services to his country, by improving her soil, as well as by de- fending it in battle. It is hoped that this first communi- cation to the Farmers' Rfgister from his pen, is the precursor of others; and the evidence here exhibited of value, both in working and in writing on so small a space, shows that our correspondent cannot want ei- ther a field, or fit subjects, for more extended treat- ment.— Ed. Far. Reg.] To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Prospect Hill, Ta., February I6ih, 1S38. Dear Sir: — Forced to take shelter in the house from the peltin,? storm now raging, and of course to suspend all ouf-door farming operations, I turn- ed to my acricuiturai library, to seek in theory that which I may apply to practice, when the sea- son for operation arri\-es. Tlie January and Feb- ruary numbers of the Farmers' Register having just come to hand, [ turned to the index, which di- rected me to your appeal to "subscribers in arrear' at pa m rapiility litile If^s that) that of thought i'sell ! ! Tlie iilli- ma(e consequences cannot be apprei-iaKHl at prc- Fiint; l)iit we may sak'ly roiiclude tiiat the b-pcv- olcnt aiiihor of our oxisteiic.e did not endow the mind of jna/i with such extraordinary powers of invention, wilhout the design ot'linal advantaire to liis physical wants, his social reiaiious, and his spiritual nature. Ions In euccessdil operation, furnished up with the (aris which were oriifinally employed hy the ad- vocates ol' similfir eiiierprif-'es in this country; and it is not easy to chanjxe a hahit ol' ihinkiiiir which has been lonir established, and to which the mind has V)ecome attached by the indulfrence. But when we estimate the probable consetjuen- ces, and value of an improvement adapted to the p.eculiar condition and jirand divisions of this country, we must view the subject in an asfject diiferenl from that of a work connectinjr two lakes or towns, where the trade already is, and where theconsequences of their connexion may be de- termined from existinir facts. liere ihiiiirs are dil- iereiii; the improvement creates the trade, and the traile which it. creates su[)ports the work that brought it into existencf;. 'I'he value of a work liere^depends on the place to which it reaches but in a secondary desiree; the primary considerations beintj, nearly always, the character of the soil through which it passes, and the length of the line of the imfirovemenl. The Erie canal is not stipported hy the trade of^ the lakes; and until the last year, the influence of that trade on the revenue of the work was tiardly appreciable. Fn 1835, when that line paid into the treasury of New York nearly one million three hundred thousands dollars, the tonnage of western produce comipir from other states to BiiflTalo, and that passing up the canal to the lake, was but six per cent, of the whole tonnage constituting the trade of the work. The residue— namely, the 94 per pent. — was made up along the line of the canal' tural, manulactunng and mercantile interests, of jtself, and consisted of the produce of farms which, cutting oti' the eight hundred thousands tons of I were chiefly brought into cultivation by the im- produce and merchandise that annually pass j provement of the forests to which it became the through it; of destroying the improvement that j out-let, of the mines which owe to il their value, THE TUADK FROM TIIK W KST, BY THE JAMKS RIVKR AiVD KANAWHA IM PRO VKMENT. Extract from the Report of the Chief Engineer, Charles Ellett esq., to the late General Meeting of the Company. It is not my intention to indulge at this time in any general reflections on the probable result and prospective advaiitaaes of the imiirovement. In- deed it would be as unnecessary as it would be ditB- culi, to attempt an examination of all the influ- ences which a work of this nature exercises over the prosperity of a state. It would be to trace the consequences of a general difl'usion of wealth and coniniercial prosperity through every department ot' business and every branch of trade. If we were anxious, we might arrive at a more accurate and useful result, by considering the present con- sequences of a stoppage of some irreat work in active operation — as, Icjr instance, the Erie canal of New York; by reflecting on the consequences to the emporium of that state, and to her airricul manulitcturing and mercantile interests, created the line of towns and cities li-om Bufl'alo to Albany, and that lorces every cultivated acre north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi to contribute to the growth of her wealth and power. During the last year a breach occurred on the long level of that work, and the New York papers inlormed us that before it was repaired seven miles of canal boats collected near the tidjacent locks. And now to stop the Erie ctmal would be more withering to her prosperity than to close up the "Narrows'"' which admits her Ibreiirn commerce, and more latal io her advancement than any mis- fortune she could experience, excepting the loss of the energy and enterprise of her population. I am sensible that there are those who are suffi- ciently aware of the importance of tiiat work to the state by which it was made, and who can ap- preciate the consequences of its destruction, but who are disposed to doubt whether the James river improvement can be regarded as an analo- gous project. These will admit, what is undenia- ble— that a considerable portion of the country traversed by the latter work is quite as Jertile as that which contributes to the trade of the firmer, and that its mineral wealth is incomparably greater; but, by over-estimating the influence of the lake trade on the tolls of that improvement, are brought to a false comparison. Notwilhstanding the rapid and unparalleled pro- gress of internal improvements in this country, our minds are still embarrassed by the mode of considering the subject applicable to prominent European examples. Works having there been and of the supplies of towns and cities^ on its banks, the very foundations of many of which were laid after the commencement of the construc- tion of the work. I by no means desire to depreciate the value of that western trade, which, notwithstanding its present inferiority, I regard as by far the most im- portant of the prospective resources of the rme,_ and the city which it sustains. The increase of its value in one year— the last year— was 71 per cent, over that of the precedinii, and there is eve- ry rea.«on to believe that the rate of its increase vvill continue to be progressive. The great conn- try surrounding the lakes and the tributaries ol'tlie Ohio has but begun ro receive the population which it is capable of sustaining, and has hardly begun to send off the surplus produce which is not reqiiired for the supply of the emigrants. The hundred thousands persons who annually go westward by the packets on the Erie canal, and the unestimated thousands who cross the Allechany by some other route, are almost lost in the forests and prairies. They are now but seed- ing the ground; and we may ask in admiration, what wiTi be the efl'ect of the Erie canal ten years hence, when the country is in some measure pop- ulated, and the reaping shall commence— and the splendid schemes of improvement now in contem- plation or in progress, leading from the interior of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Canada, have becrun to pour the produce of those states, destined for the city of New Y''ork, into the lakes'? The trade of the Ohio, which is one of the ob- FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 1 jecis sought by the improvement we have on hand, is not less important. Its tribularies, and those of ihe slreani of which it is a tributary, spread over a slili wider area, and penetrate a still richer country. The number ofstearuboais, which may be regarded as the measure of the trade, is •many times more numerous, and increasinir far more rapidly than the number of those on the lakes. The Pennsylvania improvement last year, though operating under most uiiliivorable cir- cumstances, and in only the third year of its exis- tence, carried to and from Pittsburg, over the ten inclined planes and broken line, a quantity of goods and produce exceeding by a vast amount that which circulated between New York and Butialo. And this line through Pennsylvania, from the Ohio to tide water, is open and successful. This is not the time to draw a comjiarison between that work and the one which we are constructing; but they who are disposed lo doubt the success of the James river and Kanawha improvement, or its ability to bring the trade of the Ohio to Richmond, and forward supplies to the west, would do well to examine the list of articles transported on that line. Perhaps they will find in the fact, that there were carried from Piitsburg to Philadelphia, the last year, more than one million four hund.ied thousand bushels of wheat, and three hundred and thirty thousand bushels of corn; and towards Pittsburg from Philadelphia and the iutermediate places, twenty thousand tons of merchandize, and nine thousand tons of groceries; an argument worthy of their consideration. Though these articles are among the most im- portant carried on the line, they constitute but a small portion of the aggreoate tonnage. What will be the amount carried on the James and Kanawha improvement, or what influence the superiority of" its termination on the Ohio, and the advantage of i's climate may have on its suc- cess, we may leave for the event to determine, and lor a rational public to anticipate. As things are, it remains but for this company to go on as they are going — to expend their present capital to the best advantage — and trust to the evidence which the works they finish will afford, and that perseverance to which they owe their present ex- istence, for raising the balance. THE NECESSITY FOR GREAT CARE, AND .lUDG- MENT, IN SELECTING STONE FOR LOCKS, AQUEDUCTS, AND OTHER PUBLIC WORKS. Extract from ihe Proceedings of the James River and Kanawha Company. To the President and Directors of the ? James River and ICanawfia Company. ^ Gentlemen — the chief engineer has permittfed me lo peruse his report of the 19th instant, on the Bubject of a change of plan, by the substitution of wooden locks lor stone, as a temporary measure, which was referred to him and myself by the board in October last. By this report, it appears that the saving of out- lay in the first instance, is about 8000 dollars per lock, and the real loss on a final result, about 370 dollars per lock. This view of the change is quite as liivorahle on the side of the stone locks as I could make it. It is well known, that from a point a little above the Rivanna river to the Blue Ridge, along the valley of James river, or in the vicinity ofit, there has not been found any stone fit for locks, with two or three exceptions — and these exceptions only gave stone of bad shape, and which worked into locks willi great expense. I have just returned li-om a visit along the Erie canal; and an examination of the locks (built 16 to 19 years past, of stone, which was then thought by all who examined them to be good,) has proved that we ought to be very particular in our selections of stone tor locks or aqueducts. In many of those locks I now reler to, the stones have scaled off on the face, and become decom- posed, so as to require blanking to keep them np, until new locks can be erected; and so particular are the board of commissioners of that canal, in their selection of stone lor new locks, that they are transporting stone fi-om 50 to 120 miles on the canal to build locks and aqueducts. The aqueduct over Genesee river, consisting of nine or ten arches, of 50 (eei chord each, was built of stone, which was approved at the time, and found in the quarries in the vicinity; they have failed entirely, and a new aqueduct is now build- ing with stone brought 120 miles. The masonry of a lock is the most frying and severe test in which stone can he placed — and the greatest care and caution should be taken in selecting them. I believe it will be found, that by erecting wooden locks, and placing them on the hill side of the canal, so as to build a stone lock in its proper place next the towing path, and by faking time to select good stone, from a quarry near the canal, and of a quality that will come out with good par- allel beds, and cut well, a lock can be built of such stone when brought 100 to 150 miles on the canal, cheaper than the locks can now be erected. And I add to this, that in the choice of good stone and good cement, and selected mechanics, it is proba- ble the real worth of the lock would be double the value of such as we should be oblij/ed to build, if we persist in the construction of stone locks now, under all disadvantages. I passed through the Pennsylvania canal, be- tween Pittsburg and Harrisburg, in June last — and found three fourths of their locks were wood, backed up with dry walls. These, I believe, are intended to be permanent, and to be repaired from time to time as the wood decays, which can be done in winter. Taking a view of all the bearings of the ques- tion referred to the chief engineer and myself, I concur with him in recommending the wooden locks; and I would advise the board to have a model made of one inch to the foot, representing^ every piece of timber, and the manner it is put to- gether— so that contractors cannot mistake the in- tention of the board, and may understand their own proposals. Respectfully submitted. Benj. Wright, Consulting Engineer. Richmond, Nov. 27, 1837. 1888] FARMERS' REGISTER. For the Farmers' Register. THE LAWS OF SrUSISTKKCE AND OCCUPA- TION CONSIDERED, IN KELATION TO THE AGRICULTUUAL I31PKO VE3IENT AND GENE- RAL WELFARE OF THE COUNTRY. Of all the errors, (and there are many and grievous ones,) in the present system of political economy, there is none so fireal, and utterly liilla- cious and mischievous, as that of viewinjj manua' the power and means of ihe produclioi! of food, are in e.xact |)roportion to the nature and extent of consumption; the true law of the produciion of Ibod, beincr in exact accordance wiih the law of maiVs legitimate swhsisience. That il'he suhsisis upon bread or potatoes, or rice or hon)iiiy, or ani- mal (bod alone, wliich nature did not Ibirn him to do, just so are his means of procurint^ suh.'^istence curtailed, with increase of population; but as he subsists upon animal and vejxeiable food in certain operative /i«?7io/i labor, as a mere dead or barter proportions, and upon all their varieties, as he was commodity; as if its compensation, value and de mand, were merely regulated and required only by the wants of the few rich; as Wits consumption, alihouirh forming the7?ias?of mankind, had noth- ing whatever to do with the means, power and purpose of all human exertion and industrj', exis- tence and subsistence: just as if the few rich choose lo demand it — very well; and if they do not, it must eutier and abide !I! and the rich receive no injury 1 ! In thus considering that three-fburthsof mankind, and more, are not men>, nothing can morelamenlahly show the withering, blasting effects of aristocratic feelings and principles; for this is the fbundation ol it all. The earth was created for the use of mart, without any regard to any distinctions of wealth or poverty, manual or intellectual labor, size or color. In one respect, all are upon a perfect equality — the stomach; as this is filled, so are nations pros- perous and advancing, or poor and declining. li the rich man has his venison, turtle, canvass-back ducks, wood-cock and asparagus, the operative must have, and with equal if not superior enjoy- ment, his fat beel", pork and mutton, bread, cab- bage and potatoes. No individual can be cheat- ed out of and deprived of his natural rifjhts, with- out a corresponding loss to all. Feed the mass upon rice, Indian corn, potatoes and dry bread, and what is the result? — the utter stagnation of ag- riculture; no flocks and herds to maintain, create and increase the fertility of the soil, and with the consequent due economy; no price, for there is no demand to justify improvement, no means to ac- complish it; all is stagnant and dead, destructive and impoverishing. If agriculture is drooping and dead, what profession is alive and flourishing? None. Agriculture is the fbundation of all pros- perity, and its prosperity depends upon all men be- ing aible to subsist according to the natural law of subsistence. Set the people to work according to the law of occupation, that is, every one being employed according to his natural taste, capacitj'^, and power, and then all will have the means of legitimate subsistence; food will then be produced -according to the law of man's subsistence, and the consequent and attendant true principles of agri- culture, and all will flourish together; deficiency of food and excess of population^ will then be things to be talked of as occurrences gone by. Yet po- litical economists seem to consider low wages and excess of population, as evils of the people's own making, and of which they alone arethe suflerers; and hence the Rlalthusian theory of ''moral re- straint," for their exclusive practice and benefit ! How ignorant was the founder of that wretched system of the true system of the laws of the occu- pation and subsistence of man, and of the produc- tion of his fbod ! Niching is plainer and more obvious, to me at least, (and the world will understand it too. bv obviously organized to do, exactly and duly, so are the power and means of increasing his means of subsistence, with increase of [topulaiion. This is certainly a more comfortable doctrine than that of Malthus; that most hideous, blasphe- mous and atheistical of all theories ever broached by iiinorant man; but not intentionally so; but it is founded upon the most consummate ignorance of first principles, and utter ignorance of any know- ledge whatever of agriculture, grafted upon nar- row, exclusive, aristocratic habits, actions and principles of thinking. Audacious and jiresump- tuousman! profes.ging, too, to be a teacher and fbllovver of the doctrines of him "who condescend- ed to assume the garb of a Galilean peasant;" did yon believe that all this world's productions were made exclusively Ibr the few, and not for manJ Did you believe that the producers of them were only to have a nsere existence? although the physical organization of all is identically the same as to subsistence. Did you discover any differ- ence between the teeth, palate and stomach of the noble, the country-gentleman, the rich merchant, and the mechanic or cultivator of the soil.? No; they are all in this respect the same. The rich' man may have his beef, mutton and pork — veni- son, turtle and wood-cock — bread, potatoes and cauliflower, &c. Nature has evidently so ordain- ed it. But the laborer cannot be pushed from the board of beefj mutton, pork, bread and potatoes, and many other necessaries, luxuries and comlbrts, with impunity. Nature has ordained this too. Man must have his nai»ra/ rights, or the board, and all that is upon it and about it, will ultimately disappear together. The silent wrecks of the fraudful monopolizing exclusive system, are visi- ble in every quarter of the globe. They are true and unerring land-marks, to guide us and many future ages, if we will only read them aright. But it is not the "cloistered philosophers," the "elegant Iiistorians" or the dilletiante tourists, that are the men to do this. It nriust be docie by men who have lived, worked, and fed with men; and these will tell tlie world, man cannot be cheated out of his natural rights, as man, with inipunity. It is very remarkable, that Malthus ni;ver once inquires — "Have nations lijifilled their duties so as to obtain the means of subsistence?" Not hing can explain this but fiis utter ignorance of the laws of occupation, subsistence, and the production of Ibod, and their operations and effects on the one hand, and his strong political bias on the other. Such a man ought not to have written upon this greatest and most important of all questions. It was deeply criminal. No man ought to write upon it, who is not prepared to see, feel and un- derstand, that all men are men equally with him- self; he must be prepared to do his duty to himself and society, and at the same time believe that all iind-bye, to its immense advantage,) than thai i other men arc _/«/•;««/ to do that duC}' to ti.cinselves, 8 FARMERS- REGISTER. [No. i to each oiher, and to him; that they aee formed to subsist as he sutisists; and Itirit they are to be oe- cnpied ill iheir various callincrs, iree and unshac- kled, as he is occupied; to obtain their leifiliniate subsistence as he obtains his: he will then proba- bly come at soinethinir like the truth; but never with the ijj^norance (of first principles) and the political feeliuirs of iMalthus. Malthus has writ- ten a jiflorious book for the selfish — (forced to be by law) idle, rich, and titled; oC course thsij ciied up his monstrous, outra2:eous, and really blasphe- mous theory, as a master-piece oCphilosophv ! To make the scorn a' d usurped superiorilv of the ad- ventitious aristocrat a fixed and satisfied princi- ple, is an act of fearful error and mischieil The besetlins; tdult, and the true cause of the utter Ikllacy and consequent complete failure of the operation of the laws and theories of statesmen, political economists, philosophers, philanthropists, &c. are itr their viewing, partial and local thirio-.?, as the sole and main causes of great and universal evils; and partial and local remedies, as the creat and un:versal ones. Consequently, their reme- dies are ever in direct variance with the greatest and most important laws of nature; hence they cannot succeed. Deficiency of food and excess of population, affect the condition of all; they arise tioni the ignorance and errors of all; thev must be removed and remedied by the just observance of the laws of nature by all. How then can partially checkinir population in one class, remedy the exis- tence of universal deficiency of fiiod and excess of population, when all are placed m utter dispropor- tion of the law of occupation, and the mass with that of subsistencel — thus, all making the produc- tion of food for the mass defective and deficient. If the whole non, undue, disproportional and de- fective observance of the law of occupation, makes the production of food deficient, how then can any partial and arbitrary check to population, even if practicable^ possibly remedy the evil, leaving the teal causes still in full operation as before? The production of population belongs to the laws of nature; man has nothing to do with either checking or resjulating its increase, or otherwise. The more he does so, the more mischief he will create. His: duties are to provide due and sufli- cient occupation; the food will then duly follow the consequent llill and legitimate demand, and consequent just compensation (wages) for it. The power to do so beinu then fully equal to the force and eKtent of the demand, for as is the de- mand for food, so are the povvers and means of creating it. Who can doubt that the laws of na- ture are in any degree inadequate to this pur- pose ! It is well put by H. C. Carey in his 'Essay on Wages,' that "the trade of population is the only one that has heretofore been free; and it is to be regretted, tl lat those who are in fiivor of loosing the shackleis which have bound all others, advo^ cate restrictions upon that which has heretofore escaped." If the trade of population has always been free — land God forbid it should ever be (mo- rally and le(!;itimately) otherwise — well may there be deficiency of food and excess of population, whilst nations are restricted in all sorts of ways, both as to their natural subsistence and occupa- tion! Let ■^nopalatwn alone; duly and Justly em- ploy it; and it will then be duly fed. If it is thus duly fed, th e production of food will then be full ' and ample. D'^ficiency oi'tbod and excess of pop- ulation^ .vv'ili then wholly cease and disai)pear. Let rich and poor marry as they may. All this, political economists and statesmen, and even far- mers and manufacturers, have yet to learn and understand. Il'they do not know these (when known) very simple and very obviovs ^rsf prin- ciples, what errors they must conmiit ! Not knowinw them, they have done so. Malthus has clearly and most indisputably proved (with some liicls innocently, because igno- rantly, somewhat stretched as part of his theory.) that deficiency of food and consequent excess of population, poverty and misery have existed in all ages and countries: thus opening the door to the investigation of the greatest and most impor- tant subject which ever did or can en!?a and light, seasons, every thing 1S38] F A R M E R S ' R i: G I S T E R . — arc all duly and exactly proportioned to each other, surely the naliir.il tastes nml abilities of all human individuals, are as justly and equally pro- poriioiu'il to eiicl) other, so as to iluly, Hilly, exact- ly, and pro|)orti()nately, supplyerich other's wants. Whether a certain piece or Uind of timber, or a certain other piece or kind, is made into a table, a chair, a box. or a coffin, or somethiii reverse is the larl. The more ;)i productive, and rcullij eroiumiical system of agriculture, can only exist vviih the bulk of the population otherwise [iroductively employ- ed than in artility of the soil; and without es- sentially increasing the labor. Which produces improving quality as well as quantity of produce. Which diminishes the growth of weeds with- out any labor being expressly and exclusively ap- plied tor their destruction. Which makes the crops more and more inde- pendent of seasons, and proof against the attacks of insects. Which returns the greatest possible quantity of vegetable matter and animal manure to the soil, without at all curtailing the sale of the just and due proportions and quantities of produce, in ac- cordance with the legitimate wants and demands of society. If sufficient manure cannot be made, either the crops are very unduly proportioned, or they are still deficient. In short, that is the true system which will fur- nish food to all in accordance with the law of man's subsistence, as he is organized to subsist. The true principles of agriculture must be, and are, in accordance with that law. And man's or- uanization must be, and is, in accordance with the true principles of the law of the production of his food; and the law of his occupation must be and is in accordance with both these. George Henry Walker. From tlie Nantucltet Inquirer. PEAT. Peat is of vegetable origin, aud is formed in cold, moist situations, where vegetables may be decom- posed without putrefaction. Hence, in the torrid zone it is never found; but as we advance north it occurs, and on the borders of frigid regions it is found in great abundance; a cold humid atmos- phere being peculiarly lavorable to its generation. 14 FARMERS' R E G r S T E R [No. ! Peat is composed of aquatic; planis, such as reeds, nisiies, etc., hut a species ol moss (Spiiao;- num Paiiisire) is o-enprally found more abunduni than any of tiie former class; it havinji the proper- ty ol' sprouting, and cuntinuhig 10 grow, while its roots are decaying. In some peal, (as is the case with our own,) plants are found with their organization so distinct, that we can even d(>termine their species. As is said in one of the Bridirewater Treatises, "that we may almost seize nature in the act of makinof coal helore the process is completed, ' so it may he said in retjard to peat; ibr the rude fraiiments of undecomposed plants we trace the process to per- fectly tbrmec) peat, where a comrjle'e decomposi- tion has taken place; and from thence to anthra- cite. There is, however, a striking ditieronce be tween the periods in which the veijetable de|)0si- tions that torn) anthracite and peat took place. Geologists agree in assiirninu' the epoch to be antediluvian in which the vegetable deposits that form coal were made; and ihey also conclude, that the temperature of the earth was much higher than at present; for (bssil ferns are fbmid in coal formations, of the astonishina- length of fitly feet, and other plants bear the sante ratio. Now plan's of this species in the torrid zone are found lo ap- proach this size at the present time; but coal is found in the temperate and frigid zones — conse- quently, we are led to suppose, that a higher tem- perature once existed in those regions. But peat is of recent origin, as may be shown by the following facts. In Hatfield, England, as in niany other places in Great Britain, Roinan roads have been discovered eight feet below the peat; and their arms, axes, coins, etc. have been found in the same situation, showing that these peat bogs have been formed since the invasion of Cssar. Nor can any traces of the irreat l()rests Kpokenof by this general in his 'Commentaries,' be discovered, except by their fragments, which are found in peat. And De Lue has ascertained, that the very positions of the Ibrests spoken of by Cae- ear, viz. Hercinia, Semana. Ardennes, and others, are now occupied by peat-borrs. As orders were given by Severus and other Ro- man emperors, to destroy all the forests in the conquered provinces, it is evident whv the re- mains of these once majestic tracts are found im- bedded in peat: for when they were prostrated, their trunks, limbs and leaves, would check a free drainage of the water falling from the atmosphere, and also prevent in some measure its evaporation. Consequently, a decomposition of the foliage and branches of the trees would commence — aquatic plants would spring up, and decaying, add to the mass which is found in time completely to envel- ope the pristine forests. An occurrence of the recent formation of peat took place in Roos-shire, Eng. During a violent storm, a forest was overthrown, and in fifty years, the people dug peat, from a mass occasioned by this overthrow. On examining some of the peat formations which are so extensively scattered over our island, we have observed large stumps, trunks, and limbs of trees completely immured in peat. There seems to have been a deposition of shrubs, flags, and other plants, which we find but partially de- composed. After this formation had taken place, forests sprang up, which have been cut down, probably witfiin a century, and heir fragments have aided in l()rming our peat botrs. which are now discover- ed tiom one to fburieeu feet in depth. Without doubt, most of our peat formations have taken place since the pristine forests were destroyed, and are comparatively of recent origin. We will fur- ther state what seems a curious, but is a well as- certained fa<'f, that not only here, but wherever the peat is iliscovered, it is generally found to oc- cupy the position of ancient forests. For in most bogs, stumps, and trunks of trees are found sur- rounded by pear, while their roots remain in their natural position, immured in clay, or some other soil. In some countries, peat mosses are found of great extent. One mentioned by Dr. Boate on the Shannon, was fifty miles; and Blavier speaks of one at the mouth of the Loire, more than fifty leaorues in circumference. The texture of peat is such, that it absorbs lariie quantities of water; and it has often happen- ed, when bogs were very much swollen, that they have burst and deluged the surrounding country with their contents. We are inlbrmed by Deguer that the remains of ships, nautical instruments, and oars, have been found in many of tlie Dutch mosses; and Gerard in his history of the valley of Somme, mentions that in the lowest tier of that moss, a boat was Ibund loaded with bricks, proving that these morasses were at one period navigable lakes, and arms ot the sea, as were also many on the coast of Picardy, Ireland, and Friesland, from which soda and salt are procured. "The canoes, stone hatch< t ■, and stone arrow heads Ibund in peat in diffiereut parts of Great Biilain, lead lo similar conclusions." One more fact in relation to peat is worthy of our notice. It is the preservation of animal sub- stances wdiich have been buried in it. A great many instances are recorded, wliich go to prove this property; a few, however, will only be men- tioned. "In June, 1717, the body of a woman was found six feet deep, in a peat moor in the isle of Axholin, in Lincolnshire, England. The antique sandals on her feet afforded evitlence of her having been buried for many ages; yet her nails, hair, and skin are described as having shown hardly any marks of decay. In the 'Philosophical Transactions,' we find an example recorded of the bodies of two per- sons having been buried in moist peat, in Derby- shire, in 1674, about a yard deep, which were ex- amined twenty-eight years and nine months after- wards; the color of their skin was fair and natural, their flesh soft as that of persons newly dead." At the battle of Solway in the time of Henry VII. (1542,) when the Scotch army commanded by Oliver Sinclair was routed, an unibrlunate troop of horse, driven by their fears, [)lunged into Sol- way morass, which instantly closed upon them. The tale was traditional, but it is now authentica- ted; a man and horse in complete armor having been found by peat diggers, in the place where it was always supposed the event had happened. The skeleton of each was well preserved, and the different parts of the armor easily distinguished. — Obs. on Picturesque Beauty, 1772. ISf^S] F A R M K R S^ R I^ G 1 S T K R 15 For the l-'armer's Kegidter. March i:?//t, 1838. For tho Iii-si fillepn or twenty years, onr crojjs of coni hiive liiv>n ttiatfriiilly slioiteiieil, and ospocinl- ly ht^s lilt' lahor of niiikinii; ihcni siiUR), heen nuich iiu;reat!eil, liy ili« nilacks ofii piiiall worm, not uti- K|)tiy (frurii ils i=izf und liirin) c.iille.d the wire worm — hy soiiu"! called llie web-worm. Tliis lit- tle aniniiil lives durini; the winter in the pith of weeds ; espefially the stick-weed, and has been 1ut into the pocket of the farmer, above the larii'est numerical result he can obtain hv his mode of cultivation. Thus far as to his private interest; hut in this operation the |)ublic would also be a uuiner, inasmuch as by rneans of it, two more quarters of whftat per acre would be sent into the market — a circumstance, which in the year 1832, would have prevented iheneces- ,sity of import iiiir into this country 463. .502 quar- ters of foreiirn wheat, as appears fiom a return njade to an order of the House of Commons in 1833. But even tliis marvellous result of Flemish ma- nurin.ix, in the cultivation of wheat lands, falls into insiffnificnnce, when compared to that which it yields when applied to other cultivations, the pro- duce of which, as I ascertained by minute person- al inquiries at some of' the larirest f^irmino; estab- lishments in Beli!;ium, instead of beintjnine only, above the ordinary produce, as before mentioned, rises as hicrh as 12, 15, 20 and even 40 per ar- pent. The same may be said of it, when applied to lands con)pletely barren, and which, havintr been orisiinally rented for one florin the arpent, have, in the course of four years, been improved, through Flemish manuring, into an easy rent of t Tnis is assumin2;a most favorable return, since I tiiid in a report on the "Allotments," in the par's!) of Missenden, (as a fact of which they seem proud) that the land would, under the plonnjh, in an average year, produce only 20 bushels of wheat, or 2.J quarters: and even Mr. Birrows, in his first-rate experiment of four acres of drilled wheat, obtained no more than sixteen quarters and three bushels, making four quarters and less than one bushel per acre. Now I have it in my notes, tak^n under the distation of Mr. Smet, a great farmer ia East Flanders, that a measure of wheat land corresponding to an English acre, manured with Flem- iiih manure, produc-^d last year 7^ sacks of wheat of the best quality. The sack contains four measures each, weighing 180 lbs. of 16 ounces; consequently there grew upon that acre .5,400 lbs. of wheat. Where- as, taking the Winchester bushel of wheat to weigh 60 lbs.; the acre of wheat land among the " Allot ments" at Missend^-n, produced only 1,200 lbs. and the experiment of Mr Burrows 1,980 lbs.; while ad- mitting even my assumption of fivequaiters to be cor- rect, the acre in England would yield no move than 2,400 lbs., being less than the half of the Flemish produce. 30 florins per arpent. Examples of this sort are nunierous, and many such were furnished me by the authorities at Brussels, La Haye, Rotterdam, and Berlin. From tlie St. Louis Bulletin. THK KAFT IK RED RIVER. The obstruction originally occupied a space of upwards of two iiundred miles; and, there is suf- ficient evidence thai it has existed for ages before the discovery of the country, while its banks ex- hibit indubitable proof, that it once extended not within fifty miles of the confluence of that river with the Missi&si|)pi. 'J'he annual increasement has been estimated at two miles; and once lijrmed, the serpentine course of llie stream forbids all pos- sibiliiy of removal, except by artificial measures, or the slow [irocess of decay, in some places the raft is condensed to an astonishing depth, and forms what is called "the sunken rail:" a single strong log removed will sometimes liberale hun- dreds. The raft region may now be considered under three divisions; that from which the raft is entirely removed, extending 140 miles from the commencement; that in which the raft is cut up and pulled m pieces, and not floated off — for which nothing is wanted but a strong current, which must immediately take place — 33 nules m exti-nt; and that, lastly, which has not yet been com- menced. Tiie water expelled from the channel l>y the rait into the lakes, parallel to the banks as the obstruction is removed, turns and deepens the bed of the stream. At the commencement of the raft there is little or no current. This has added much to ihe labor in romoving the obstruction; and many of the logs removed, have floated back subsequently by a rise in the Mississippi. The removal now of a few yards of solid raft causes a fall of eighteen inches above it, and a rise six feet below. There remains only about four miles of the raft to be removed, and, when the channel is once clear, the current will be powerful and deep, and the banks on either side will be lofty and firm. Capt. Shrieve declares, that all can be accom|)lish- ed in three months, after a suitable appropriation fiom Congress is made. The magnitude of this undertaking, and the re- sults which must ensue from its accomplishment, cannot be too hiirhly appreciated. The river is navigable for more than 2,000 miles above the raff, and through a reirion unrivalled in fertility Though now thinly settled, it is rapidly populating — hundreds await the removal of the raft as a signal ibr entering the country — and all its vast resources and natural wealth must soon be devel- oped. The result of this undertaking once in- volved in doubt, as well as the permanent advan- tages which must ensue, are no longer problema- tical. The indefiiitigable industry, the untiring enterprise — the indomitable perseverance, and the enlarged and truly scientific designs of Capt. M ' Shrieve, the projector and accomplisher of this noble national work, can never be estimated be- yond their merits. His history is identified with that of the empire of the west; and his fame will endure so long as the magnificent streams with which his name is associated, shall continue to roll on their volumed waters to the deep. 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. Johnstone's 'treatise on draining, embankmjiNts,' &c. (Continued, from page 728, of Vol. V, and concluded.) Plate XIX. [mplements for draining — described or referred to, in preceding pages (f the Trectil PARTS and appendages OF THE AUGERS. Pouble Woodnn Hanrflr, havinsaii iron plate on liotli sides, to strengthen the hole for the rods. IVeci^t 1 IVedno Auger and shell, 1 foot, 6 inches. Iron Key. Iron key Handle. Rod— 4 feet long. Chisel faced with steel. Instrument for cleaning the shell of the Auger. Punch with steel point. OTHER IMPLEMENTS FOR DRAINING. Wooden spade for peat soils. Upper draining spade. Bottom shovel, with edges turned up. Draining spade pointed at the end. Vol. VI -S Scoop for smoothing and cleaning out the bottom of the drains. 18 FARTrlERS' REGISTER No. 1 Plate XX. Sections representing the Mode of filling the various kinds of covered Brains, 8fc. No. 5 No. 1 Porous upper soil. Sand or gravel. Clay. 18 in. Loose mould thrown in one foot. Thin sod inverted 2 inches thick. Round land stones, one foot thick Flat stone or cover 4 inches thick Sough or Conduit 6 inch, square lined with stone. Loose mould thrown in 1 foot. Clay, &c. Straw, &c , 6 inches thick. Brushwood laid longitudinally & suspended by : cross billets of wood, leaving the bottom and^sides to the height of the cross billeta open, which is one foot 6 inches. 1 foot. No. 2 Porous uppfr •oil. Sand or gravel. • uS^:^-ii-i ■ : \'^'~r'\JT-~~-\ Clay. "• liiiiiiiiiiiiJiiiliSi ■ i v%.^/ . 18 in. No. 3 \ L-ecftcW \ Sand or gravel. \^M \ 18 in. No. 4 Clay, Sic Loose mould as above. Thill sod inverted, straw, heath, or rushes. Round land stones, or faggots of brushwood. Flat stone or cover, 4 in. thick. Triangular opening of 6 or 8 in. Land stones, &c. same as above. Triangular, or coupled opening of 6 or 8 inches. Loose mould or gravel, 1 foot. mj \ Sod, straw, heath, or rushes, 4 in. jLand stones thrown in proniis" i cuously, one foot iiuohestliick- 1 foot. No. 6 Clay, &,c. 1 foot. -7 Loose mould or gravel, 1 foot. Sod inverted 6 in. Pipe, or opening formed by the draining spade Ift.deep, &8in. wide at shoul- ders. No. 7 Gravel or Porous soil. Clay. L 1 8 in. Gravel 1 ft. deep. Clay tramped in 6 inches. Pipe or opening formed by the draining spade, 1 foot deep, and till- ed with three large straw ropes, laid longitudinally. The depth of the above Drains is mostly three feet, but as tlie nature of the soil may require, the depth may be more or iMs; and tlie materials and mode of lilUng proportioned accordingly. Draining Bricks. No. 2 2 in. (i inches. 2 in. 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER 19 ON EMBANKMENTS. Introduction. The object of these introduciory ohservhtions is, to show the. iiuporttuice, ol" enib;iiilp injin-ed. and sometimes swept oil" in time of floods; and from the rivers, when swell- ed with rain, flowinu back into the chatmels and streams that conduct the water trom the upper irrounds into them, these smaller streams are also made to overflow their banks, and do similar in- jury. From the nature of its soil, its situation and climate, such land is more |)roductivethan any other. To secure its produce, therelbre, is of the firs) importance. From the general advantages attending cm- bardunents, it seems just to conclude, that in a country like Britain, whose inhabitants are re- mnrkablefor intelligence, and for their spirit of en- ter[)rise, and where agricultural improvements have attracted such general attention, embank- rnenis, on a large and comprehensive scale, would no longer remain neglected; especially when so great an acquisition might, by their means, be added to the productive territory of the country. Notwithstanding the general indolence, and seeming aversion that appears, respecting the ac- quisition of land that might be gained by embank- ing; yet there are many intelligent and public- spirited individua's in both parts of the kingdom, possessing property capable ol' this improvement, who are fiiliy sensible of its advantages, and have already had the advice of profi'ssiunal men res- pecting if. By this means, they can (brm a judg- ment whether the acquiring a large addition to •heir estates in ths manner, is an object of pru- dence, or one adequate to the expense attend- ing it. In attempting to mark out the causes of this gen- eral nerjlect or indolence, it is impossible to join with some writers, who' endeavor to trace it to the facility with which this country has always ob- tained supples from abroad; or to any general im- pression of security which may have prevailed in that respect. There is no instance in which in- dividuals were ever found to be guided by such general an.l distant considerations of policy in their private conduct. Every man is sufliciently anxious to secure the harvest of his labor, and to protect his lands from encroachment; as well as readily disposed to adopt any measure, that off'ers a fiiir prospect of territorial acquisition ; and it is folly to imaijine, that his endeavors will, in the smallest degree, be increased by any impres- sion of what the country miceivex1 that any piece of wood, or accidental im- ' pediment to the. coiir.-:e of the sand, raised a iiill: 'it immediately occurred to me, that by making a 'hedge at tlie weak and low places, with wings to • catch the sand as the wind blew it in diH'erent di- rections, I should obtain the desired effect. I therefore directed stakes, nine feet long, to be cut and drove one foot and a half into the sand, at two feet and a half distance from each other; be- twixt which I had flirzi- interwoven, so as to form a regular furze hedw, seven feet aiid a half hiiih. Of this, since last June, T have done eleven hun- dred and thirty-seven y"ards; and in October last, when I was there, a great deal of the hedije was vcovered: and since that time, I am informed by letter, that a great deal more of it is so, and that the neighboring inhabitants draw great comfort to themselves, li-om the security my furze embank- ment gives them, as its present appearance plain- ly evinces, that, at a tnfling expense, I can secure Lord Ashburnham's estate from beins inundated; for whenever the first hedge is not hitrh enough to prevent the sea overflowing, another may be built upon the sand formed by that hedge, and so on in succession, till it is perfectly safe." Even when a regular embankment is required against the sea, it is proper, a year or more before it is erected, to fix fascines of brushwood down in the clay, by strong palisades, in the line in which the bank is meant to be rai-^ed. By this line, the mud and vegetables, which would otherwise be washed away, are arrested, and a most valuable addition made to the soil. In raising regular embankments to exclude the sea from low tracts of ground, it is necessary to distinguish between those cases in which the water only overflows during spring-tides, and those in which the land is covered every tide. In the one, the operation is easy; but in the other, attended with considerable difRcul')'. When the land is only overflowed during spring-tides, there is time in the intervals, eithe'r to complete the embankment required, or to finish it in such a manner, that the flowing of the tide can do it no injury. But if the sea ebbs and flows every tide upon the land which is to be re- claimed, only small pieces of the work can be ex- ecuted at a time, and the force of the water, at the flowing of each tide, is apt to destroy all that has been previously performed. In either case, when only a part of the embank- ment can be executed before the return of the flood, it is proper that what is done should be done in a finished manner. Thus, supposing a length of thirty or forty feet, or yards, can be completed in one tide, it is better to raise it to its intended height, and to face the elopes well with turf, than to commence a greater extent of bank, and leave it in an unfinished state, exposed to the violence of the waves, it may be fiirther remark- ed, that in low-flooded lands of the kind under no- tice, there are always several hollows or water- runs, formed by the regress of the tide; and where the embankment has to be executed in diff"erent portions, it may be proper to build in the first place, across the spaces between these water- runs, so that the sea, having its usual channels of evacuation left open, will have the less tendency to injure the work. The spaces, thus left unem- banked, may be filled up during the intervals be- tween spring-tides. All the inconveniences, however^ which arise from the interruption given by the sea to the pro- iiress of buildincf embankments, may be eflecmal- ly avoided bv the following plan, df^vised and ex- plained by Mr. J. Loudon, tiie insrenious author, compiler, and editor of many usef il books: — "Let trianixular trusses of wof)d be prepared and placed at low water, snrroundino- a part of the foundation of the proposed embaidalisfying the claims, and reconciling the competins interests of the bur- gesses, many of whom would not readily consent to relinquisli their ancient right of pasturage, or exchange the insignificant profit derived i'vom it, for the contingent benefit resulting from the melio- ration of the common on which it is exerpised. h is scarcely probable that it vv^ill be shi. about in ear- nest, till a recurrence of violent floods and high tides, which fjrmer experience has phown to be not impossible, shall endanger the existence of the town, and compel the inhiuiinuits to unite in this work as a measure of tjelf- preservation." The last branch of sea .ejnbanking, of wh'ch it is necessary to lake notice, is that fi»r recovering tracts of land, uiinecessarily occupied at the estu- aries or mouths of rivers. Jfi consequence of flie regorging action of the sea, a!! streams spread greatly at dieir mouths, and the earth they bring down is deposited there, and accumulates into shoals and islets. The soil which is thus f()rmed, is invariably of the richest kind, and the recovery of it becomes of course an object of proportional advantage. The most advisable and eJectual plan ((jrlhis purpose, when it can be executed at a remunera- ting expense, is to alter the course of the river al- together, and make it discharge itself' at some new point of the coast, where the land that would be occupied by its channel, might l)e of less value, and its discharge less exposeil to be choked or shifted by the regorging action of the tide. Where this has been done, it has been lijuudi that tlic oiu channel, in the course of a fiiw years, was filled up, and the sea quite excluded. If such a com- plete change cannot however be eflected, the whole river should be collected into one stream, the channel should be deepened, to mv.ke the wa- ter How with celerity ; and embankments should be raised on each side, to prevent it from spread- ing in fliture, over a space that may be converted into useful land, PART 11. ErVBAWKMKNT ON RIVKRS. SECTION I. On protecting land from thz encroachment of riv- ers, by defending and securing their banks, fyc. A river that flows in a confined channel, is apt to conmiit ravages on adjoining land, by the contin- ued action of the stream gradually breaking down, and carrying away the banks, where they are of a soft, loose, and friable or penetrable nature. The danger of the soil being carried away in floods, js increased or diminished, according to cir- cuiDstances; such as the form of the banks; the nature of the soil; the rapidity of the current; and the quantity of water that, after floods, lodges on the margin of the banks, or fills over them into the river. When the banks of a river are perpendicular, or nearly so, if the soil be of a sandy or moulder- ing quality, the danger of their being washed down and carried away by floods, is greater than where they slope gently, li'om the surface of the field to the bed of the river. But, if the soil and sub-soil be of a clayey or adhesive loam, and the current presses equally, and not more upon one [lart than upon another; a simple and efficacious improvement may be made, by sloping the bank ■ so, that it forms an easy declivity, from the sur- face of the field to the bed of the stream. This slope soon becomes closely coated with grass, and the water, by gliding gently along, is in no danger of making a breach or encroachmeent nt in any part of ii. Asa proof of tliis, it always appears, that wher- ever (here is a gradual slope u])on the btink of the river, and the grass growing upon it naturally, that (he greatest flood makes no impression, nor does it any injury; as the water passes over it gently; and, not being confined or opposed, has room to expand. On the contrary, when it comes against a rafrijed or abrupt bank of earth, it soon undenriines, and brings it down in great quantities. This is so obvious to the sliirli'est observer, that it is astonishing so simple and icasy a remedy should not be resorted to, in all cases where the banks are of ihi.=; last description. A stream of water bavins naturally a greater in- clination to recede from, than to surmount the ob- siiscies if meets, it always takes an angular or ser- pentine course; and it is in con.sequence of the riv- er thus dashing from side to side, thai injury is ^ done to the banks. Were a river to flow in a straight line, or nearly so, \yhich it would invaria- i)ly do, if not interrupted, it would make no en- croachment on its banks. . Ths most eiTectual remedy, in such cases, must, therefore, be to straighten the course of the stream. Tiiis is an operation, which, in respect of natu- ral circunisiance, mig'u in many cases be perform- 28 FARMERS' REGISTER [N(x ed with liltle difficulty and expense; and, where \ most essential, uswally vvitn the greatest lacility. ', Bat the snialii'St improvement of this Uind, is in ' general rendered impracticable by minute divisions I of property, and otiier attendant causes. A river' is considered to be so far a common subject, that whde a proprietor is enlided to take every natural advantage of the stream in passing, he is inter- dicted from executing any operation upon it, which pan prove injurious to the other individuals who possess lands upon its banks. For example, if, by ponds or dams, he throws back the water upon a superior properly; or by juttees, directs its strength upon the opposite bank; or by straiii'btening the cfmnnel, makes the river rush with more than usu- al violence upon the infi^rior lands; he will commit an injury in each case, of which his neighbor has a right to complain. There is, in fact, in every situation, such a collision of interests, that it is sel- dom possible to reconcile them toanv extraordina- ry alteration on a river; and above all, in so direct and radical a one as that of straightening the channel. The case in which this measure may be re- commended as most expedient, is that of those mountain streams which intersect the haughs, or hollows between the diii'erent ranures of hills or high lands. All these haughs are composed of soil of \he richest kind, formed of particles of earth washed down from the heights; and thus are the most valuable portions of land, both in the low country and in the highlands. But, in conse- quence of the streams that intersect them being allowed to roam at pleasure, a (jreat portion of soil is, in such instances, unnecessarily lost; and what remains is so constanly liable to be broken up and destroyed, that the produce of haugh lands rests altogether upon a most precarious tenure. To explain these facts, it may be remarked, that when a stream is permitted to wander at will through such hollows, it occupies, by its devious course, four or five times the quantity of n-roimd which it would do, if carried in a straight line; that, m consequence of the angular outline of the banks, the water strikes against them with vio- lence, and continually makes encroachments; and that, by the circuitous direction of the stream, and the turbulence which that occasions, the evil ef- fects of every flood are greatly increased. The advantages of straightening such a stream are, accordiniily — 1. That a great addition of val- uable soil will be obtained; 2. That the stream will be rendered more placid; less capable of doino- injury to the banks; and less extensive in its inun- dations, and ir. ite ravages. The execution of the operation is moreover much easier in this than in other cases. The streams which takes their course through hauo-h lands, are in general nearly exhausted, sometimes enirely so, during the pummer months; so that an alteration of the channel at that period of the year may be accomplished with comparative fa- cility. And further, the soil, as well as substra- tum of haugh lands, consists generally of loose and incohesive materials, which are easily du^ out and removed. The great object, in improving the course of a haugh stream, should be, to lead it as straight forward as possible. If the haugh be winding, or there be obstructions, which prevent a cut from being made in a straight line from the entrance to the outlall, the stream should be led from to sid^ of the haugh in straight reaches; alwaya endea". voring to make some prominent rock, or point o' sufficient firmness to resist tlie current, the vertex o' each angle; or, where such cannot be tburui, raising an artificial bulwarlc of stones in its place; it may be led along the foot of the bank all the way, by which means the haugh will be kept entire, and the natural bank will be a barrier on the one side; and the earth thrown out of the cut, will be suffi- cient to form an embankment on the other, and to fill up the old channel also. When a new channel is designed to be cut, its breadth may be less than that of the old, while its depth ought to be greater; because the narrower and deeper a channel is, the water always flows with greater ease and regularity. The lines of the intended banks being marked out, the earth should first be dugout fi-om the middle of the inclosed space, lothe fulldeplh proposed; and on each side, the depth of the excavation should be gradually lessened, so as to form a convex slope to the tops of the banks, this form being of all others the best fitted for diminishing the pressure of the water, either in ordinary or extraordinary floods. To secure the new banks against the action of the stream, they should be carefully faced with stones or turf. The former compose the best de- li'nce, and may, in most cases be employed; as abundance of stones is generally to be found on the banks of mountain streams. At the bottom of the liicing, the stones should be of the largest sort, and sunk well into the ground, to prevent the wa- ter from uudermiiiing them. In carrying up the rest of the wall, the stones should be laid end- iDuysj i.e. their inner ends pointing to the same centre like the stones of an arch, and earth or gravel should be rammed firmly in behind, as the work proceeds. Between the stone-work and the green sward on the top of the bank, there should be several layers of thick tough sods or turf, which will not only seive to bind the stones, but make the junction of work with the natural bank smooth and compact. When the whole facing is execu- ted, the stones and sods should be forcibly beaten into the bank with mail-'^ts and rammers, in order to make it more firm and secure. If any fissures still appear, long splinters of stone should be driv- en in, which will not only fill up the vacant spaces, but act as wedges to fasten and consolidate the rest of the work. When sods are employed to make the lacing instead of stones, the foundation ought at all events to be defended by large stones; and it may also be proper to drive a single or double line of stakes into the bank to prevent the current I'roin tearing away the sods, or even disarranging the stones. In the case either of stone or turf facings, it has been found useful to scatter a quantity of coarse hayseeds over them; as the}^ vegetate quickly, and tend greatly to fasten the work The firm- ness of the bank may also be considerably in- creased, by setting willows or other aquatic plants along the top. * The most difficult branch of the whole opera- tion, is that of leading the stream out of the old ♦These should never be allowed to grow up as trees; bat be cut over occasionally, so as their roots may spread, and they may not be shaken and affected by the wind. i>irxS] FAR M !-: R S ' R F: (i 1 S T K R . 29 iiiro the .Revv chtinnd. When the mouih oflhe iMMV cut ivui he ninde to fall in wilh a bend of llie oM chanirel. the chaiiire may be iiuule with com- p irntive ease, as the current will flow into the ti.-w chaFiiiel in a slraifrlit lin^. In tliis case, the niaicrials diiij out in liirminjr the mouth of tiie new cut. may be sufficient, wheii thrown across the old stream, to turn its course. But rt the al- teration of the channel he abrupt, atid the stream strontr, it will be reciuisiie to raise a pier of stone upon the bank of the old channel, to direct the current Ibrward to the new one; a water-tiirht dam beiuiT ibrnied between the point ol the pier and the ne-w bank. The materials dufjout from the new channel may either be emplo\ed in fillinn: up the old one, and thus fHcilitatinij its future conversion into ara- ble or pasture land ; or if the stream be liable to high floods, thev mav be used in erecting embank- ments on each side of the new channel. hi the case ol' vale rivers,* the expedient of etraiiihteninjT ihe channel is equally advisable, thoufrh not so easily practicable, as it is upon al- pine streams. In the latter case, a cut three or four feet deep may frequently suffice, and stones for erecting piers, and facinn; the banks, are found m abundance; while in thelormer, a depth of from six to twelve feet is sometimes necessary, and siones are not obtained without considerable difficulty, There may, nevertheless, often be situatioiit ires of this partial improvement soon become so obvious, that the greiitest part of tlie contermin- ous heritors concurred with Sir ArchibaKI, in pro- secuting the plan, though not altogether upon such hberal terrns, as a just sense of their own in- terest n\ight have diciaied. Early in the course of the second year, the cut was completed. The diuiensions of ihis cut were varied judi- ciously, according to the gradual increnu^nt whiih the river receives in its course. For the first mile from above, where llie river is of considera- ble extr-nl, it is from eiglileen to twenty feel wide at the surface, by ten to twelve at the bottom. Throi;ffhout the second mile, it is fiom lw(Mity-two to Iwenty-luur feet wide at the snrliice. iiy (bur- teen or sixteen at the botton). Throuiihoul the the remaininir parr, it is about lwt'nty-eie useful, in directing the execution of operations of the same kind, it is giv- en at length. In the parish of Kilsyth, Stirling- shire, the river has its course, lor upwards of four miles, over a plain of small declivity, and of a soft loamy soil. It formerly slragjiled in many directions over this plain, in a channel of very lit- tle depth. At every turn it took, it was gorged up into a pool, and was overgrown with aquatic ve- getables. At every flood, the whole valley pre- sented the appearance of a lake; the hay and corn harvests were frequently ruined; and several fields, naturally of a rich soil, were rendered inca- pable of cultivation. About the year 1793, Sir Archibald Edmon- ptone, of Duntreath, Bart, who was proprietor of the lands on the north side of the river, for more than four miles, employed Mr. Whitvvorth, an eminent engineer, to fJirm the plan of a new cut sufficient at all times to contain the waters of the river, and as nearly in a straight line as the situ- ation of the grounds and the course of the river would admit. To induce the proprietors on the Bouth side to join in this useful undertaking, he generously offered to lay out two-thirds of tiie ex- pense himself So slow, however, are persons of unenlightened minds in discerning their own in- terest, that only a few of them, at that period, ac- ceded to these advantageous terms. During the first year, only about a mile and three quarters of the new cut were executed. But the advanta- * Those flowing through holms, haughs, or mea- dows, in the loic country. work would not probably be now undertaken for less than fburpen^-e per cubic yard. The expense of the whole of this cut did not exceed £600. The embankment on the sides of the cut is erect- ed about three feet fiom the brink, and is, for the most part, somewhat more than three feet in height; and could contain nearly double the quan- tity n{ water than now runs in the new channel. The improvement, which has been now de- scribed, has been productive of' very important advantages in this naturally liirtile district. Tlie declivity or fall of the river, throughout the tract, is about eighteen feet. The waters which former- ly, in their crooked course, were almost wholly stagnated, now run at the ordinary rate of the de- clivity which is given them. They never overflow their banks. Cattle can now pasture upon those grounds, in which they would h:»ve formerly been swamped. The surlace of the water being now, for the most part, four, and sometimes six feet be- low that of the adjacent fields, this cut serves as a general drain to the whole valley; so that three hundred acres of meadow may be converted into arable land; sixty acres of moss maybe convert- ed into meadow; and five hundred acres of ara- ble land are already rendered of double value. If the windings of a river cannot be altered, either from natural obstacles, or from the opposing interests of proprietors — or if the expense of the alteration be such as to reader it unprofitable — it becomes the duty of proprietors then to consider, how far the subsisting channel can be improved, so as to lessen the ravages of the stream; or what means can be adopted for guarding their own lands, without injuring those of their neighbors. 1 As the impediments a river meets are the cause 30 FARMERS- R ]<; G ! S T E R [No. 1 of its being turbulent, the finst and most obvious thitijr to be done, ip to leniove al! heaps of mud. eiones, trees, or bushes, which are collected in the chaiuiel, and obstruct the course of the wafer. At those places wliere the river encroaches, f!ie nie/ans wliich may be used to delend the banks are various, iin some instances, bulwarks of stone, laid re,a;alarly in wood.m ['ranges, have been raised; but ihoucrh such wooden frames facilitate the con- >.siruction of the work, fhey prove uhimately inju- rious to it; for in conse(|uence of heins alternatoiv W(U and dry, they soon rot and fr'we way, ieavinjy wide yaps, lhrou= has heiMi explMined in .set'linn 1.). the surlliff of the vviiole fieiils, ihu.=' situated, is e.\|)ose(l to inun(hition. when the river is swollen by tiie rain, and the torrents whiih descend from the iieii'liborinir hei<>lits: often sweepins? away the crop, and deterioratinif tiie soil, by iiie lodgincr of Siind and irravel at one place, and the carryinff Hway the mould at another. A snddi^n and rapid flood has akso the eiiect of chnntjina' the course of a river; makiiiir it abandon the old, and taice a new channel, throu>rh part of the crround. perhaps more valuable, by \ts being better cultivated, and on that account more loose, and easily acted upon by the current. In this case, the lo.ss is am that moment its rapidity is checked, which is the rea- son why inundations always continue several days; fur, though the r|uantity of water should be diminished after the commencement of the itiun- dation, u would, notwilhsanding, continue to over- flow; because this circumstance depends more on the celerity than the quantity of water. If it were otherwise, rivers would often overflow their banks for an hour or two, and then retire to their channels, which never does happen. An inunda- tion, on the contrary, always lasts some days, sup- posing the rains have ceased; and l<;ss water runs in the river, because the overflowing of wafers di- minishes their celerity; and, consequently, al- Vol. IV— 5 though the same quantity of water arrives not in the same time as lijrmeriy, the effect is the same as if a larger qnaniiiy had been brought down." Farlher, it may be observed on the motion of water, that, mathematically speaking, if a river runs on a bottom havinii-an equal descent, (he ve- locity of the water will increase, the fiirther it runs. Thus, suppose the descent to be one fliot per mile, after the first mile the water will have acquired a velocity of eight fi^et per second; after four miles, its velocity would be sixteen feet per second; and at the end of sixteen miles, it would run at the rate of thirty-two feet per second — its velocity at every point being the same proportion- ally, as would be acquired by a f)ody filling the same perpendicular height. These rules, with re- gard to the motion of rivers, cannot however be so accuiately observed, on account of the perpetu- al obstruction the water meets with against the sides and bottom of the i hannel it flows in, which counteracts the power of gravity, and reduces the water to an uniform motion, where the declivity of the bottom and sides are regular. Supposing a given quantity of water is to be carried off', the smaller the descent, the width and depth, or sec- tion of the river, must be the greater; for the water, running in a large body, and slower, meets with a less proportional obstruction from the sides and bottom. Also, supposing the same quan ity to be discharged, the larger the body it runs in, and the slower the motion, the more liable its course ia to be obstructed by stones, mud, weeds, &c. Large and deep rivers run sufficiently swift, and discharge vast quantities of water, with a descent of one foot per mile. Small rivers and large burns require about two feet per mile. Small burns scarcely keep a free course under four feet per mile. When a cut or channel, therefore, is to be made ibr a river or stream of water, through a tract of level ground, it is preferable to make it deeper at the lower extremity, in order to give a greater de- scent upon the bottom all the way, than to make a broad and less deep channel all the way upon a less descent; for the former method is attended with less expense of digging, and is better calcu- lated to keep an open course. From this explanation, it is obvious that the leading principle of all operations, to prevent a river from overflovving, should be to increase and preserve its celerity. For this purpose, if may be first observed, that it is much better to deepen than to widen a chan- nel. A contrary advice is given by some writers,* but, it is apprehended, without a sufficient atten- tion to circumstances. If a river were always equally full, there can be no doubt that to widen its channel would prove a most eflTectual method to confine if within its banks. But as the quantity of water is constantly fluctuating, the widening of the channel would produce the following bad ef- fects:— 1. That when the stream happened to be small, if would scoop out a winding bed for itself in thetniddle of the channel; and upon swelling, would follow the direction of this bed, and thereby strike with violence against the banks. 2. That by lessening the depth of the river, its celerity would be diminished, and its liability to overflow of course increased; for it is an established fact, * Beatson, Marshall, he. 34 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1 that celerity depends less upon the declivity of the channel than upon the weifjht of water. The importance ot" this ohjectiou is confirmed hy this remarkable fact, tliat when once a river acqiiires a great celerity, it will bolh preserve it while run- ning through a level country, and even surmount heights without spreading much to a side, or, at least, without producing any inundation of any moment.* 3. That by diminishing the celerity of the river, it woahl be ni'^re liable lo be warped and impeded, as a greater quantity of sulliagei would thus be deposited in the channel. At the same time, a caution must be given against carrying the principle here laid down to an extreme. It is as ineffectual to confine a river within too narrow boimds, as it is to give it loo lari^e an expanse. The, width of the channel, therefore, should be such as will admit the water to flow freely, and maintain a proper or safo velo- city. To deepen the channel of a river, all the means which have been recommended lor defending banks from encroachments — the removal of ob- Btructions, and the erection of bulwarks to prevent the stream fi"om spreadintr — will be lound extreme- ly conducive. In some instances, these operations may even preclude the necessity of embiuikini)-. Where rivers flow through a very flat country, and their current is consequently less rapid, their overflowing, instead of being destructive, often produces beneficial effects, by depositiniz; mud and other rich sediment, which tends to fertilize the soil in a very high degree. Where this is the case, embankment has a double advantage; (or by means of sluices, a portion of the water can bp adn)iltcd at the upper side, and retained at pleasure, iiv which means the influence of its effects can be * Buffon on rivers. t Shmy, sandy ,^or other earthy deposit. regulated as circumstances' require. Those large rivers that flow through valleys of wide expanse, have always a lengthened and crooked course, oc- casioned by the frequent chances thai lake plac-e, by floods acting against ihe soil of which the Kjvv ground is composed. To make new and straiLfht channels for such rivers, would be the most eflec- tual improvement; but this, in many cases, would be attended with an expense much oreater than the advantages to be gaiueil. In others, however, it would be advisable to straighten such parts as are very crooked, and where the length of cutting would be short, ami the expense moderate. By this means, the length of embiud-, and deepening the channel, is llie first and greatest improvement; and, in many cases, these opera- lions alone may be sufficient lo confine the whole body of water in a flood, and so render anv eui- bankment or furtlier defence unnecessary. If the capacity of the channel is not suflii-iently enlargi-d by these means, the wilth between the embank- ments will require to be the greater, and their * Brooks, in England. Plate III. Plan and Section representing a New Channel and Eiubankment for a River. The Points at^A should bt- guarded by a facing' of Stones or by Piles of AVood. The embankments for the new cut is represented by the straight double rows of dotted lines, and should be 10 feet distant from the edge of the cut. The dimensions of the new cut should be 30 feet wide at top; 10 feet at bottom, and 6 feet deep, or in these proportions, according to the size of the stream. Section. — A, Slope faced with turf B, Sown with grass. C, Scarcement three feet broad. D, Pahng. Trees must be removed by the roots. 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER, 85 heiiflil, ami breadih at the bafjc, iiTcater also in proportion. By examining: tlio (looH-mark?, ami nieasurinir their hoiirht, (hat of the enil>aiilo en- croachment from 'he current. If there are any heiirhts in the field adjoininfr, within a short d's- tance, the earth may he parily taken from Miese. and from the cut that may be necessary at the back of the embankment, for receivini;r the siir- fiice-water li'om the fields. The eartli (iom this cut should be removed with a irradual slojie liack- wanis. so as to uive an easy descent fr-om the sur- face to the boiiom of the drain. All trees and brushwood, should be removed from the space be- twixt the embankment and the slream, to nive no inierrupiion to the current, or throw the force of the water airain-t the snound. Any tree or bush, in the line of the haidc, should be removed bv the root; otherwise, it may shake and keep ilie mound loose at that place, and oive adn:iicsion lo the water. A wooden f'rame of the exact shape and size of tite hank shoidd be made, that the work- nuMi may execute it with accuracy; for it is of con- sequence to have the mound firmed recruiarly, and as even and smooth as possible, that the watef may meet wiih no ohsi ruction, nor take hold ol' any inequality on the surface of the side next it. In consiructing tlie bank, the earth should be well tramped, and beaten down with heavy mallets, and that part ofit of the firmest consisience should be used on the s de next the river. That side should also be t'aced with well swarded turf, as soon as the slope is finished. It may be necessa- ry to pin down the lowermost layers of turf, and to water them (if a dry season), that they niav ad- here the more firmly, and prevent the jirass fi-om decay. The side next the field may be sown vvith glass seeds, which ma)' also be sown upon the other side, to close the interstices beiween the turfs, and to thicken the sward. In executing an embankment, it should always he begun at the upper end, and proceeded with downwards; finishing, if possible, the portion of work liir the day, in case of any sudden swell of the river injuring it, if left irregular and not com- pleted. It is not necessary to faind the bank any lower than the adjoining surface; the turf only may be taken off, which will be useful in covering the slope, and the earth will unite more readily ihan it would do otherwise. A scarcement, or un- broken space, of two or three feet must be left be- tween the edge of the embankment and the trench that is cut along the back of it. A paling should be erected along the inner side of the scarcement, to prevent cattle from going up, trampling upon, atiil breaking down the bank, till ii be fully con- solidated, and swarded with grass. Embankments are usually executed by contract, and may cost from Iburpence to sixpence the cubic yard. The contracior, for the sake of greater se- curity in the execution of the work, should be hound to uphold them for the first two years. All the water that may collect in the fields ad- joining, should only have one outlet through the '■mbaukment to the river, at the lowest point, and tliat by a pipe or square box of wood, with a ■< iil,'e or lid, fixed to the mouth of it by hinges on the upper side. The valve will shut in flooils, to exclude the river, and the pressure of the land water will open it when the flood subsides. It is improper to sow or [ilant any tree, hedge, or slirub, that takes deep root, or grows to any heiiiht, on the sides or top ofthe embankment; for by these, the earlh would be loosened, the water admitted, and the mound shaken arid carried away. If the seeds of rushes, flags, tussilago, or florin grass, be sown, these will bind the snrlace, and prevent the water from making any impres- sion upon it. Holes made by moles or mice are also danger- ous, on account of their admiUing the wafer into the bank, and should therefore be immediately closeil np. Lastly, when the smallest breach ap- pears, it should be iusiantly remedied; lor if the water once takes hold of a broken space, it ia sometimes difficult to slop its proiriess. For these purposes, if is necessary to rnnke a frequent in- spection, where works of this kind are on an ex- tensive scale. On iheViver Spey in Badenoch, the meadows on the estates of BeKille and Invenshie,* that were formerly overflowed and inundated by every flood, are now embanked in the most complete and secure manner, accordiuir to the description that has just been given; whereby above a thousand acres of land are now rendered safe and produc- tive. On the Gordon and Findlater estates, much m.ijhl be done in 'he same way. On the rivers ?5eau!v. Carron, Clyde, Dee, Don, Earn, Esk, Forth', Isla, Ken, Nith, Tay, Tiviot, Tweed. &c. a great deal of land !ias been also embiinked in an efl'ectual ma.iner; and on these, as well as many other rivers in Scotland, the extent of land that * The latter, accordinfi; to a plan and specification by tht' author; as a'so, olhers of considerable magni» tiido on the rivers Dee, Don, Eden, Ken, See. 36 F A R M E R S' R E G I S T 10 R. [No. 1 miffht be preserved and improved by this means, would amount to many thousand acres. PART III. ON THE EniliAKK JtlOKT OF LAKES. Ail lakes are suliject to temporary, and some- times to extraonhnary, swells, occasioned by great falls of rain and snow descendiny from the moun- tains that surround them; consequently, ihey often spread beyond their usual limits, overfiowiuij; and injuring the contiguous grounds. The damage they do in these cases is not attended w^ith such devastation as the overflovvinii of rivers, whose current carries every thing before it, for as the water of lakes subsides gradually, it acts with less violence, and commits less injury. The conse- quences, however, are always so hurtful, as to raake it an object of considerable importance to prevent or lessen them, by confining the water within proper limits. Lakes that are surrounded with mountains, BUch as those in the northern parts of Scotland and of England, are known io have increased consid- erably in height; but in the same time their depth has diminished. This is occasioned by the rapid Ftrearas li'om the hlls thai run into them, brinirintr down sand, gravel, and other loose matter, which being deposited in the bottom of the lake, raises its bed, and tends also to choke the outlet, and to re- tard the dischariie. This has also the liad effect of raising the channel, and obstructing the current of such streams as flow 7/7/0 ihem throuiih level ground, and causing these streams likewise to overflow the land adjoining. This is the case with many large lakes, tiiat have stretched be- yond their original bounds, particularly that ol Loch Lomond, where a small island called Cam- ptradden, which existed in the time of Camden, is now covered with water to the depth of two or three fathoms. At the upper end of the same lake, there is at present a large extent of flood- ed meadow, that formerly must have been a part of the lake, of no inconsiderable depih. As lakes subside greatly in the summer season, and swpII much in winter, or after heavy fails of rain and snow, it would be desirable to confine them to their lowest limits; and to cat ofT' such creeks and bays where the water is seldom of great depth, and where an acquisition of pasture or meadow ground might be sained. In some lakes, indeed, the extent" of surfiice overflown in winter, so much exceeds what the water covers in summer, that it would be a very desirable object to confine such lakes to their smallest extent. The first thing, then, to be attempted is to enlarge the outlet, that the water may at all times have a free and easy disrharire. It would be advi- pable to deepen this, if the level admits ; but jri all cases, it will be proper to widen and en- large it, as much as the expanse of the lake, and the body of water it contains, niav require. If rock, this may be difflrult and expensive; but may be compensated by the advantages to be acquired, and the certainty of its always remaining open and entire. ^ The form and construction of the embankment that is to surround the lake, may be similar to that |or the sides of rivers, as already described; but as llie water, in the former case, presses more directly upon th" bank, the slope next it should be greater on that account. The exact deffree ol" sln|)e will depend upon the stillncf^s, or airitrition, which the waters of the lake are known to exhibit. In those sub)ect to high waves, li'om thcirextent, situation, and exposure to winds, the slope will require to be hi.'ice as much as that which is necessary lor river etnbankments, where the water presses only in a lateral direction , and where the current glides gently. 'I'he embankment should not be cotifin- ed to the vero-e of the lake only, but should extend alons the sides, both of the stream that flows into it, and that by which it is discharged, as fiar as the level requires: or must be carried Io the higher "jroiind on both sides, above reach of the flood, as shown bv the dotted lines marked hank in the plan. There must bealiack trench or drain to in- tercept the land-water, and discharge it at the lowest point; and al^o one, under the hijjh ground, for the same purpose, as represented iii the an- nexed Plate, No. IV. It may he proper to observe, that where a lake is ettcompnssed on all?sides by the lands of one proprietor, iie may perform such operations upon it as he thinks expedient; but, if the adjacent lands are the property of several individuals, and they have also a mutual share of the lake, every opera- tion on it must be regulated b}' an attention to their respective interests. Or, if the lake is situa- ted at the head of the river or brook, it may be considered the source of the stream, and no alter- ation can be made upon it, which may in any de- cree prove injurious to the proprietors below. It may, however, be remarked, that it is only by such alterations upon the area of the lake, by which an undue portion of water may be taken from, or thrown upon an opposite proprietor, or the general supply of the stream diminished, that a lesjal cause of complaint can arise; lor it is the right of ever}' proprietor to defend and improve his own land, provided it is tiot done with the e\ ident in- tention of injuriui; his neiehbors. PART IV. ox THE CO?.'STRLCTIO?«- OF WEARS ARD I3A1WS ACROSS RIVERS, FOR THE LSE OF JVIILLS ; AKD ON THE FOKMATIOK OF RAM.S OR HEADS, FOR ARTIFICIAL 1 OJNDS AKli PIE- CES OF WATEK, &C. This is a branch of the subject v.'nich requires considerable attention; for there is no species of em- bankment or fiance, upon which more money is expended, or where more litilures take place. Dams or wears across rivers, ibr the purpose of raising the wati r to such a level tlial it may be conveyed in a lead for the use of mills, &c.' are of^en expensively executed tit first; and, Ibr want of being properly constructed, are in constant need of repair, tind are sometimes sv.ept av\ay allo- o'eiher in time of floods. It has hitherto been the custom to erect them in a straight or oblique line across the stream, and to construct the dike in a triangular form, wide at t lie base, aid (rmiiig gradually narrower towards the top, where it ends in a point, as represented by Fig I. in Plate No. V. A dike of this form and structure naist be very insufficient, and liable to be disarranged and thrown down by the force of running water press- ing upon and iidling over if. The upper stones J.S'Wl F A R JM E: R S' R K G I S T E R 37 Platk IV. Emhunknieiil of a Lake. The strong black luie represents i\\c. Euibunkment. Plate V. Plan and Sections of JVear and IJead for uJrificial watea. rf^'^$^^\. ^^y- ^ ^jy^i-.'^i SX'JiT7AM: ^^.^ fif.'vS.— AA, Ahiitnnent of slone. B R B B, Bank of the river. 38 FAR iM E US' R E (; I S T E R. [No. 1 a.-e firsi i()o^ipne(t and carried down, and the wa- ter sirikinir vvilh velocity on \\\e whole f.ice, ol' the dike, ui-ei'ipitiues it.i, fliat no water may escape, and that the biiildiiiij may be firm and durable. When the wall reaches the requisite heitrht, if, should be ex- at;tly lev(;l across ih?. whole length of the stream, that the water may spread over the whole, of an equal thickness, and so moderate its force in time of a flood; and upon the top, ihere should be a coping ol' Hat stones, neatly cut find jointed, pro- jectiiiiT nearly a foot over the perpendicular wall on the under side, with a rise of a few inches to- wards the upper side. The length of these stones will require to be three feet; but, if such are d;fii- cult to be got, planks of oak, or larch v*ood, may be used in their stead. That no water mny leak ihrouga the buildinsr, it will be proper to iiave a bed of clay, thr^-e or iburfiiet in thickness, along the upper side of it, well beaten down, and that to the whole height of the wail. The section of clay should be founded lower than the breast- work ol stone, to prevent the water escapinir un- der it. The coping stones should be laid on clay or tarrae, so that the upper part of the buildintr may be perfectly water-tight, which is a material object in operations of thi^ kind. Gravel, or any loose rubbish, should be tumbled over into flie dam, above the clay, shelving gradually from the dike into the water, so as to make the siope as long and easy as possil)le. The use of the projection in the coping is to throw the water cle.ir over, so as it may fall .it a distance from the bottom of the buildinir. The pavement ihere will prevent the water makinii an impression, or openinj? a cavity in the bed of the river, whereby ilie wail miiiiit be underminetl; and il is necessary that this pavement shouki extend solar as to be beyond reach oi' the iiill when the stream is in flood. JFI^ads. or hanks oj earth, for the confinement of water in artificial lakes or jionds, are often con- structed at great expense, and nut being pro|;eily formed, often break out. and occasion considerable (bimage. The error in their construction is com- monly owingto the want of breadth at the base, in proportion to their height; and to their not having a sutTicient sirjpe towards the water, nor a proper section oC puddle iti the centre. Fig. 4, in the Plate No. V. is a representation of what an embankment of this kind should be, according to the supposed dej)th of water it may have to supjjort. As this bank is acted upon by the vAJ^ater, in a similar manner as tliatlbrthe con- fining of lakes, as has been already described, its degrees of slope should be the same, more or less, according to tlie depth or shallowness of the wa- ter. If in a park, or pleasure-ground, the out- ward slope should also lie i^ieater than that of any other embankment, that ii may connect moie naturally with the adjoining' surlace, and have as little appearance of art as possible; and shrubs, or clumps of low trees, may be planted on it, to lessen that ap[)earance. Mounds fijrthis purpose are com- monly constructed across dens or hollows, where that part of the water immediately above them is of considerable depth. Where this is the case, tmd the depth exceeds ten It^et, tlie breadth ai the base of the embankment will require to be greater in proportion than the section repiesenieii in the plate; that is, if the depth is fitieen feet (which it will seldom exceed), the laeadih at bottom should be sixty feet; and at top, fifteen. The puddle will require to be equally thick in proportion, and must be sunk several feet deeper than the surface on which the bank is founded, or till a stratum of clay or other sale tbundation is got. The mound shouid be formed of as solia materials as can be (jot from the space to be occupied by the water; and to render it the more compact, it should be well beaten down, and consolidated in the course of ils beinnf formed. Both sitles should be lined with turf, and the water should not be admitted lor some months af- ter the bank is com[;leted. For want of altending^ to this, many heads have given way, by letting- in the water, and filling the pond, before the earth was sufHeiently consolidated; and it is very diffi- cult to make up a breach m the bank afteirwards. Where the artificial mound joins the natural banks, a space should be dug out, to insert, as it were the one into the other, to prevent the constant pressure and agitation of the water at these points from making a breach, and Ibrcing an outlet lliere. A sluice, strongly secured by masoi>work. should be placed in the most convenient part of the bank, to let out the water when necessary; and an over- fall, for the waste water, will also he requisite, which ought to be parhcularly attended to. This 1S3S] FARMERS' REGISTER 99 should be placeJ in I lit; suliil, or iKifura! bank, at ciilier siJe, as si'ualion and other circmiistaiices direct, and must he siroiiijiy paved vvitla stone, founded on clay: or it may i)e Ibrmed by a slopinii tunnel of s:one and liaie," ihrouffh the hank, il il rises to a considerable heiirht. This last may, in many cases, be the mostadvi.sable,'allhoLi(fh it is a plan aelduat adopted. Somelimes the fall, or out- let for the waste water is constructed of wood; but this is liable to niiiny objections; such as, its alternate exposure to wet and dry, by which means it becomes warped, and iis joints burst asunder; and its bein<]f subject to quick decay, and apt to be undermined and lifted up by a sudden swell of water. If the head is to be erected across a considerable stream, to be widened and formed so us to com am a irrealer body ol" water, that it may have the ajipearance of a river or lake, it may be construcied according to fig 2. m the plale. In these last embankments of earth (for lakes and artificial ponds), it is particularly necessary to attend to any holed or ojienings that may be made by moles or mice; for where the water is always pressing against the bank, and ready to ooze out through the smallest aperture, any outlet of that kind sh mid be immediately closed up. A thin coating of' hard irravel, immediately below the turf, well beaten down, would lend effectual- ly to prevent the workitigof vermin of that kind. CONCLUSIOiV. In arrautring the subject of this 'Treatise on Embaiikmeiiis, &:c.' into its proper heads and sac- tions, that order has been followed which natu- rally presented iisellj according lo the degrees of importance which the diti'erent branches seem to merit. Einbankme.nts from the sea, are no doubt the first in point of importance, and have a strong claim to the consideration and attention of those active, public-spirited, and wealthy ])roprietors, whose estates lie continguous to the coast. Where a great stretch of the shore, capable of being re- covered from the sea, bounds the property of va- rious individuals, the undertaking should be a joint concern; for, in many cases, it would be easier, and more efi'ectually accomplished in that way, than in separate and detached portions. The ex- pense, too, would be infinitely less, by saving the cross banks that would otherwise be necessary, were only part of a bay of the sea to be embank- ed at one time. The ideas of some ingenious and enterprising projectors upon this subject have surmounted the bounds of common understanding so far, as, by their speculations, to have deterred those from en- tering seriously upon undertakings of this nature, who otherwise might have been willing to exe- cute such plans, on a more moderate and less ex- pensive scale. Persons of this speculative turn of mind, however, are useful in society, so fiir as they are the means of setting others to'think of enter- piises that some time or other may be carried into eflfect. JVlany great works have, in time, been ex- ecuted, that were originally suggested by projec- tors of this description, whose speculations were then looked upon as tlie mere chimera of a dis- tempered imagination, and absolutely beyond the power of human exertion to accomplish. England has already shown the practicahilty of these improvements in the art of embankiiiir, in all its various degrees; and it is lK)|)ed, that this part of the kingdom will profit by her example. The second branch of this subject is less open to these objections. Thar the impravhitx the chan- nels of rivers, and embanking ihe land liable to be injured by their overflowing, is an operation of more practicability, must be generally acknowl- ediTf'd. The betiefits to be derived from it are e(]iially certain, ami are more easily attainable. 7'h(ii (flakes, of the nature and description that has been given, has likewise its claim to at- tention. There are many in Scotland, where a great addition of usefid land might be acquired, and that in pans of the coumry where an acquisi- tion of this kind would be doubly prized. Such woiilc'i the case in those highland districts, where low-lying ground is of tlie greatest value, for the purposes of culture and the produce of hay for the winter maintenance of stock. Lastly, the works ihat are erected, both for use and f!)r pleasure, in the amstrnct'nn of dam-dikes and format ion of artificial ponds of water, are of- ten fiiulty in the design, and expensive in the ex- ecution. The rules and directions lor these have been sugirested from observation in dificrent parts of the kingdom, where the writer has had the op- portunity of viewing and examining them, as well as from his own experience in [ilannincj and di- recting works of" the smne kind. Of sea-dikes and river embankments, he has also, in the course of his jOrofession, had the desitrning and direction. Hehns. therefore, with some degree of confidencej treated that part of the subject; and can safely re- commend to the notice of those who may be de- sirous uf undertakingsuch works, the various modes of execution that have been explained. At the same time, in sabmittinjT these observations to the public, he deems it proper to add, that they are, in a great measure, corroborated by the opinion of others who have written partly on the same subject, and wliose communications he has consulted. He has avoided en'ering into a lengthened detail; but has endeavored to explain the whole system of embankment, in as concise and perspicuous a manner as the nature of the sufiject would admit. If this short treatise, theretbre, shall be the means of promoting the knowledge, and extend- ing the practice of these useful underlakings, he will feel the satisfaction of having, in some de- gree, contributed to that effect. APPENDIX. HINTS AND DIRECTIONS FOR THE CULTURE AND IMPROVEMENT OF BOGS, MOSSES, MOORS, AND OTHER UNPRO- DUCTIVE GROUND, AFTER BEING DRAINED. It has been wisely remarked by the late excel- lent Bishop of Llandaf?', in liis 'Preliminary re- marks to the Agricultural Report of Westmore- land,' that "the waste lands of the kingdom are a public treasure in the hands of private individuals." It is from waste lands, not hitherto completely cultivated, that the greatest profit can be made (when once brought into culture), rather than from land which has been long under the plough; not merely from the rent of such land beinc com- paratively low, but, from all new land, when im- proved, yielding, when properly managed, more 40 FAR iNJ E K 8 ' R E G I S T K R. [No. 1 profitable relurns, than can be obtained from those goiis that have been ionsr under cultivation. No object in nature can a|)[)ear more unpropifious, than an undrained, uninclosed, waste tract ol ground, overrun vviih heath, rushes, and other useless plants, producinir the most stinted her- baire, and wivinij an appearance of sterihty, even to the cultivated parts that may adjoin or surround it. NotwithstaniiiniT these uniiivorable appear- ances, however, such laud is, in a irrealer or lesser dei^ree, accordini^ to situation and climate, capable of improvement; and, rohen improved, rewards the cultivator in a tenfold deirree. The next thino; to be considered, after a hoir, moss, or other kind of marshy ground, has been completely drained, is, the means most easily ac- complished, and best adapted lor iis further im- provement. If such trround is overrun with rushes and other coarse aquatics ( which is almost alvvavs the case), nothing will tend more to the_^r.sf pari of its im- provement, than nver-siockin^ it w.th cattle, so soon as it acquires a sufficient derrree of solidity to bear tiiem with safety. But care must be taken not to put them on it till it be sufficiently firm; otherwise the surtiice will be poached, and the coarse herbage not closely eaten down. Bv this means, the streii(i!:th of the rank li'oii) the small fpiantity of", lime sulTicient lor the purpo^e. The lime siionld be laid down aloni; the side of the uppermost trench or carrier, and, alier heinif slacked, put, in small (]nautities, amonij ihe water in the cut, andj beiiiiT stirred about, would be carried down by the stream, and equally di'flised over the surtiice. It is to be observed, that the lime, or shell-marl, is only to be used in this manner, the last, days of the waterincf.for that season. . The refuse of salt, used in this manner, would be a valuable im- provement; its fertilizmjif qualities beinij equally beneficial on pasture, as well as on arable land.* These experiments the author has not seen prac- tised, though he here recommends them; but it is obvious to every one who is in the least acquaint- ed with the object of fioodini'', and with the quali- ties of these manures, that it must prove henefi- cial, beyond a doubtj channel from which it spruns;. T!]at nothing can be luore absurd, the following fact will prove: — At Dray- ton-park, near Taraworth, in Staubrdshire, a consider- able extent of bog was thus wate-ed, by a cut for that purpose, conducted under the direction oi Mr. Bake- well, at a very great expense, and which, after being completed, had the effect of rendering the ground mucli worse, and rtiore swampy than before. This, to the surprise of Mr. Bakowell (but not entirely to his conviction), not having the effect which he argueil it would, Mr. Eikington was applied to, who, by means of a drain wliich he made, and which did not exceed one-lhird of the expense of Mr. Bakewell's water- works, has rend--red the ground worth ten times its former value, and it Jiovv produces crops of gnin equal in value to any that is produced in that country. This is mentioned, as a proof that land of that description, without being previously drained, can never be water- ed with advantage. * In a communication to the Board of Agriculture, on the nature and qualities of salt, as a manure, by Mr. Roalfe, of Sandwich, he says — "Salt is also excel- lent upon rushy and sour pastures, which are subject to occasion the rot in sheep: such is its effect, that it prevents that destructive evil from attacking them." t A method nearly similar to this, seems to be prac- tised in watering grOund in Switzerland, as appeal's from tlie following remark in a treatise, entitled, ""Le Socrate Rustique,'-' 1764: — "Our cultivator considera- bly augments the vegetative properties of the water by rick mould, procured, as I have already mentioned, Irom green turf, cut from eminences in pasture, or liorn fallow land. This hi throws into the principal head of water, so that the lesser channels may imbibe and communicate fertility over the meadow." In a note by the translator, alluding to this passage, he says — ••This is a good thought; but the benefit on some sods, of casting slacked lime into the stream, would be much greater, and acquired at a much less expense,." Another method, practised by Mr. Miller of Dun- stall, in Statibrdshire, merits attention. On the stream which he applies to the floating of his ground, are two i)onds, for the purpose of supplying mills situated be- ow. From these pond.3 the floating trenches are sup- plied; and as there is always a quantity of fine mud deposited in the bottom of them, this he stirs about, so as to be carried along with the water, and equallv dis- Vol. Vl-6 , " As it is only in certain situations where this mode of' improvement, by means of water, can be adopted ancl practised with advantage, it is necee- .sary to take notice of the other means that may- be used, and that are licst calculated lljr the im- provement of boirs, by convertinjr them into a state of cultivation so soon after draining as they become iv'cessible to the spade or the plough. If the bog is ot considerable extent, the first thiuii to be done after draininff, or which may be done at the satne time, is dividing it into proper incloshres, by open ditches. These will assist in carrying oflf the surface- water, which the covered drains do not eHi?ct; and part of the earth thrown out of them may be mixed in a compound with duno; and lime, or made use of in filling up some adjacent hollows. If the ground is to be pared and burnt, part of it may be burned along with the turf; but this is supposing that no thorns or quick-lence is planted along the ditches; in which case, no bank ol'earth is requisite on either side. In ploughini,'. regard must be paid to the proper direction and inclina- tion of the ridges and furrows towards the open ditches, in order to discharge the rain-water as it falls. The great object is, to get the ground brought into such a state as to be fit for being laid down with grass-seeds, after which it maj' be considered in such a state of improvement, that any subsequent crops will require no n^ore than ordinary manasement to cultivate. Some bogs, \^hen too much drained, are apt to become parch- ed in dry seasons. To remedy this, if the ground is very flat, or nearly level, sluices may be placed in the lower end of the division-ditches, which, m ver'y d-ry seasons, may be kept shut, to retain the water received from the top-drains. If the ditclies have a descent, s.) that ihe water cannot stand level all the way, several sluices of this kind will be necessary; or the water may be stopped, by building in turfs. Tiie v/ater may be allowed to stand \vithin a foot, or a foot and a half, of the surface, and,i)y its stagnation, will ooze through the peat, or upper soil, and afibrd such a degree of moisture as will greatly relieve the crop. If in pastiire, the cattle should not be allowed to feed on it while the wafer remains in the ditches, nor lor some days after, as they would poach the surface too muclj, and the heal would induce them to go into the difclies, from which they might not easily get out. In levelling or smoothing the surface, it will be necessary lo use the spade, by whiidi the work will be done nearlv as expeditiously, and much more effectually, thati with the plough at first. There are various opinions, how lii. paring and burniniT is conducive to the improvement of land. Some have condemned it, as a practice that ought to be exploded on every s^oil; yet. on a certain class of bojriry ground, it may be considered as a very great improvement, not only from the excel- lent manuH! that \h.e ashes produce, but also fiom its destroying the roots of every noxious plant more effiictually than could be done by means of fallowing alone. The ashes of the burnt turf, tributed over the surface. The success of this practice warrants its recommendation. Although the watering of land is now arri\ed at a very great deg,Tee of perfection, yet these hints seem to have escaped the attention of most practical flooderij. 42 F A R W E x1 S ^ il E ( n S T E R [No.. 1 when mixed with the soil by a superKcial plough- ing, so enrich it, as to produce excellent crops, lor two years at least, and if a lilttle lime is added, it will help sooner to pulverize and siimulate the soil, ir the bog is covered wiih long heaili, or ling, and other coarse beiihj grass, it miirht be proper tu burn it s:rnwing, withoui paring off any part of the «!oil. But this would yield only a small quantity of ashes; neither would it destroy eniirc- ]y the roots of the plants, and, when plouiihed in, would produce very little etlect. So soon as the turfs are reduced to ashes.* they ^hould be equal- ly Sj)read over the svrface, ploughed in with a liglii furrow, and turnip or potatoes ought to be the first crop. If the Ihrnier, they should be sown broad-cast, and let! o(f wiih sheej). By this the Boil will receive creat benefit Irom the duiig and urine, and from the rel'use of the phniis, and by iis being consolidated by the trampling of the sheep It wdl then be in good state lor a crop of oafs or barley, which should be sown with yirass-seeds, well rolled down. The ploughing, ulier the tur- nips are eaten off, should be very slight, not to bury the sheep's dung, &c. too deep; in which case, a crop of oats is preferable to barley, as ihe preparation of the ground re(iuircs less ploughing. If the soil is full of the roots of rushes, and orhnr weeds, a course of summer fallow wid be requi- site, before any crop is taken; and if the ashes have been made in one corner of the field, they can be spread over the surface, belhre the seed- furrow is given; and the looit? and tough clods may be collected into heaps, burnt, and spread along with them. If the bog is deep of peat, and very soft, so as not to be fil to bear horses in the act of j)louLrliing it the first year, a crop otiartiip broad-cast may be got, by sowing the seed amoiiir the spread ashes, harrowing it in with a light harrow and roller, drawn by men. Tiie turnip should be eaien ofi with sheep, and the ground will ne.xt year be so much consolidated, as to admit the plough. If the surliice is not pared and burnt at all, a course oftiiilow, even for two years, will be neces- sary, 10 reduce the soil to a proper mould; in the last stage of which, the lime, or other manure, may be applied. In this case, two white crons, with an intervening one of turnip, potatofs &c. may be taken, belbre the grass-seeds are sown.f * In burning the turfs, after they are pro|)erly dried, they should be set up in large heaps, adding to them as they burn. This confiaes the smoke and flame, by which so much of the essence is eva[)orated and lost, when the turis are burnt in small heaps. Paring and burning the turf, is, in some places, be- gun in the month of 'March; but it is bett^ir to delay the burning till Ajiril or May. The ])aring, however, may be done in March, and the turfs will be dry enough for burning in the month following. t Rye, being a hardy grain, and thriving on very poor soils, is a very profitable crop on drained boggy land, pared and burnl, as appears from the following extract of a communication to the Board of Agricul- ture, respecting the state of husbaiulry in the "neigh- borhood of Petersburgh: "Rye-bread, as every body knows, is tiie ciii^-f support of this district, as well as of the other northern parts of Russia; but, in order to save the rye-flour, and to make it last the longer, th^ inhabitants, wlien compelled by necessity, mix with it fiae-giuand oalineal, the meai of buckwheat, and the husks of tiie field mustard seed (dnapix arv(ln>iis). 'i'he produce oi rye hi vay few placjs varie/ more \ ( All boo-gy edii whatever, afiefr being once broken up, and pulverized by tillage and a course of sum- mer (allow, siiould not be overcropped before be- ing laid down in grass; and when once brought: into a good sward of grass, should not be too soon broken vp, but continue so, brush-harrowing anii top-dressing it, when the herbage begins to fog. Frequent rolling is also very necessary on such soft soils. It is better to feed sheep the first and second years on the grass, than to cut it for hay, as it causes the roots of the plants to strike more hori- zonially throuirh the soil, and more closely cover the Surface. For this purpose, a greater pro|)or- tion of white and yellow clover, and other short g/-a.ss-seeds, shoultl be sown. In the second rueaking up of the ground, after lying some years in pasture, no particular mode of practice, or rota- tion of croppiniT, can be laid down. The state of the ground, then, must be the rule for after-man- agement, by which time it will not only have at- tained a firnser texture, but also a decfree of strength to^ produce any ciopSj with proper ma- nure and cultivation. In mamiring soft boggy soils, one precaution is necessary. The deeper the ploughings are, previous to ihe duno' heiOij laid on, the better; but the subsequen' hirruws should be very superficial, and the dung intimate- ly mixed; for when it is ploughed in ion dee]), not equally distributed and incorporated with the soil, it is apt to subside below reach of the plough, or horizontal roots of the grain. The same is the case wiih lime, which always p,enetrates deeper into the soil; and marl, when buried too deep, loses ail its efi'ect.* Upon soft bogay land, intended only for pasture, nothiiig will work a more quick improvement than covering it with a thin stratum of clay, o-ravel, or any other earth heavier than that of" which the bog is composed. Clay-marl, where it can be got, is of all others to be |)relerred, both on account of its greater wei^■ht, and enriching qualities. Sea- sand, being mixed with shells, is peculiarly adapt- ed lor this purpose, if the bog is situated near the sea, where such can be easily got. The weight and pressure of these heavier bodies makes the bog soon become more solid, and likewise presses than here. The poor sandy lands will hardly produce more than three times the quantity sown. The miu- dling ,sorts of land produce tour and six times the seed. The rich and well manured lands, and such where wood has been cleared off', will produce, in a good season, ten or twelve for one sown; but the most extraordinary produce is gathered from bog°:y lands, drained, and sown with rye; as in a favorable season it increases forty times and upwards. The reason of this extiaordinary increase must be explained: it is owing to the ashes produced by burning the bogs, which assist tiie vegetation to that degree, that frequently they find one grain produce forty plants, and even more; for this reason, they generally use a much smaller quantity of seed in sowing such land. There is no need to sow clump rye (sccale muUicavie ) upon such lands, as any good common seed increases very much upon so rich a soil, to which the burning of the surface has added so much of the vegetative power. The seed is sown in July or August, and is reaped about twelve months after." * Coal ashes form an excellent manure for sour wet land, either used as a to[»-dressing for grass, or, if {)loughed in, tend greatly to destroy the tenacity of stiif soils, and render them more productive. 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER, 43 out more quickly lh« moi«tiire contained in the. pponijy peat; tlie thicker, therefore, it is laitl on, tile better. A tiiin sprinkliuii; of lime over it, will Hiid to, its clFect, and CkUIsg white clover, and other 1 sweet ^Trasses, to spring up in greater abnn(iatice. Tne most barren soil will have a sjood eO'ect, when used in this manner; bnt, of all others, limestone ixravel is p elerahle. Uy means of it, many extensive boirs are improved in Ireland, where it abonnds; but very little of it is lound either in Enfijrst years, without the aid of manure, or the intervention of a green crop or summer fallow, when such managem.'nt does not tend to deteri- rate, or exhaust the productive powers of the soil. Therefore, in this case, the first and second crops may be oats. If the ground has been in tillage before, though long neglected, and has been Iin)ed oefbre being last laid down in grass, or has been top-dressed with lime in the course of its bring in pasture, there will be no need for giving it more lime during these two crops. If it has not been limed, or ;it so early a period that its effects may now be exhausted, it will not be advisable to put on the lime till the ///(Vci year, as will afterwards be noticed. It will he necessary to attend, in the first place to the proper ploughing and harrowing; as by that, a material saving of seed will be gained. When the furrows are laid over une- qually, too thick, or too broad, openings are left between, and in these interstices an unnecessary quantity of seed is swallowed up, which either never vegetates, of it does, is so weak as to be good for nothing. To remedy this, the simple plan is, to give the ground a slight harrowing up and doivn (not ncToss} the ridges, by which the openings between the furrows will be so much filled up as not to endanger the seed. Indeed thie will be attended with another advantage, that of encouraging the ivliole to come up more early and regular, than would otherwise be the case. All the harrowings should be given in the same way, as there is a risk of reverting the furrows when done cross-ways. Rolling, too, is useful in this case, to tlestroy slugs and worms which in- fest (jround of this kind in the first crop, and which are ofien very destructive. As to the form of the ridges, none can be prescribed for the first two years, but to plough the land in the same shape So far, these hints and directions were given an the editions of 1797 and 1801, and apply more particularly to spring bogs, marshes, and peat-moss. The following further observations and directions were communicated by the author to the Board of Agriculture in 1801, in a separate form; but were not then published. They are now added, as be- ing connected vvith the subject. As there was a general scarcity in the country at that time, the Board recommended bringing into tillage all land that was capable of being' drained and brought jnto cultivation, at a remunerating expense; and accordingly the t^ubstance of what follows was ;then communicated. There is certainly no other means by which a sufficiency of grain fi^r the maintenance of the people, and of improved pasture for that of live l . Moss, here mean., what in Scotland is called fog, Btoclc,^ can be accomplished, than by that under | of so thick and close a texture as to destroy, in a great .consideration. measure, the growth of any nutritive grasses. 1S3S] F A R M K R S • R E G I S T E R 45 as it mav have been belore, even llmuixh the riilffes slioiilii lie liroad, crooked, and imoqiial. Ii'iprovinij the riilirf^s, hy lovt'lliiitr aiui sijaiirliten- iniT. will he hetier i)er|!)rnieii diirinir the third year. 'Pile vvhdie of this soil, the third year, shoii'd he iindei jrrc^en iTop, wiih the usual preparation and maiiare. It would lie needleiss to ."ay what manure is best adapte.l, or how it should (>e ap- plied, as thes;' eirriinistances depend eniirely upon the various situations in wliich such land may be placed. The lime necessary should be spread on and filouirhed in with the last liirrow onlv. il" the ridifes require any levelliiio; or new Ibrni- iuij; but if not, this rule neeil not he.. adhered lo, and the lime may be laid on alter the first plouirh- inu, by which means it will be more intimately mixed with ihe soil. I(" there is not a command oC dunir lor the whole of the soil that may have been broken up, and it niay not be convenient to have the whole under potatoes or turnips, the remainder cannot be better occupied than in ;ares or vetches, which, cut ^reen in the end of sum- mer, will afford excellent (eedintj for the working horses. By the consumption of these in the house, a sufficient portion of dung may be made for manuring this part of the ground for next crop. The application of the turnip to sfall-feedinji, or eating off with sheep, either on the turnip-irround in hurdles, or hy the same kind of shifting inclo- sure, in an adjoining field, will depend on circum- stances. Where the ground has been sufficiently manured, it would be preposterous to feed them off in the field where they grow; and in this case, they should be carted ofi, either to the house-feed- ing, if that is wanted: or to be eaten wilh sheep on some grass mclosure that is to be broken up. and is in need of manure, or perhaps, as a to;,- dressing to some stinted pasture; or, part of them may he eaten off with sheep on that portion of ground which had got no dung, and had been un- der tares. It is found to answer well, and prove very ben- eficial, to take up part of the turnips early in the season, when they are in the most nutritive slate, and by cutting olTihe shaws (leaves), to pile them up in small stacks or heaps, securely covered with straw within a house or shed; and in this gtate, if the frost be excluded, they will keep, sound lor several months. * It is of consequence to clear the ground in this way, when the succeeding crop is to be wheat, and when the consumpt can- not be so immediate as to clear it otherwise. When barley or oats is to be the next crop, it is not so material; but at all events, the saving fi'om frost is a great desideratum, and therefore, Worth attending to; and having them always at hand when the ground may be covered with snow, and thereby a difficulty in collecting and carting them off. In this class of soils, and where the climate and other circumstances favor it, wheat should be the fourth and last crop sown down with o-rass- _ * There is an excellent method of preserving tur- nips, by cutting off' the shaws and tap-root, and setting them in regular layers on old pasture. The bottom part immediately sends out fibres through the grass, and preserves the bulb or body of the the turnip en- tire for several months. Straw or grass laid over tbem, excludes the frust, and so prolongs their nutri- tive qualities. seeds. As the chief object may be, to ijet thi.s land soon aiiain into pasture, only one ciiitinsr l<>r hay should be taken, and the after-grass nut too closely eaten down. By the mimauement and rotation here specified, it is evident, ihat a very great addiiioiial siqi[)ly of grain will he produced, vviihout dcteiioraiing the soil so much as to render i's future produce in tl-rass less valuable; baton the contrary, it wdl he so much refref^hed and renewed, as afterwards to \iel(l an abundance of i£ood pasture, in phice of remaining in its Hu'mer unpro(!ucli\'e and unjiiofil- able state. If. Old pastures, ivet and nver-run t^ith riishcs and coarse grassusj the soil day, ur clay-loam. So soon as the drainingis finished, whicdi ought to be in October (or belore, if it can be accom- plished), the rushes should Ix; closely cut by a strong, short, and broad scythe, made for the pur- pose; and ihe ground plouglied with a deep fur- row, so as to bury the stools, and expose the roots and seed-bed to the winter's frost. What part of this soil mav not be so wet and rushy, should not be [iloughed with a deep furrow, but with one of eight inches broad and six inches deep. This ground should be limed on the sward (surface) with newly slacked lime, and immediately plough- ed in. The first crop invariably should be oats, and the second may be beans and peas broad- cast; or drilled, if the soil be sufficiently pulver- ized by cross-ploughing and harrowing. No- ground, unless it be very foul, and absolutely unfit lor green crop, should be put underfallow, asthere- by a crop is lost; but neitherof these (over-fbulness, or too tenacious a soi!,) can le the case with the. ground here alluded to, after the previous treat- ment it has undergone. Indeed, the nature of the soil is not adapted to such green cro[is as turnip and potatoes; but a profitable crop of drilled beans, or of cabbage, may be raised, while the ground is undergoing (b)'' the necessary operations of hoeing and cleaning) a state of preparation nearly equal; to that of a (allow. The fourth and last ypar, this ground should be sown with barley and grass-seeds. Barley in ihisca.se is preferable to oats, because the soil be- ing close and retentive, ihere is more time to pre- pare and pulverize it by li-equent ploughings, &c, tor the reception of the seed. As it should only be cut one year lor hay, the quantity of pasture grass seeds should be in a fliHer proportion. III. Light soil inclining to sand. This should be broke up wilh a crop of oa's the first year, and with a very light furrow. Next year's crop should be turnip, manured with a compound of lime and strong earth, such as scour- ings of ditches, cleanings of ponds, &c., or clay marl where it can be liad; and the turnips should be fed ofi' on the same ground, either with sheep or black cattle, in hjrdles. The turnip, in this case, may be sown in broad cast, with a less pro- portion of manure, as that from the sheep or cattle, while eating them off, will add a store of matter to enrich the soil, and the tramf)ling and treading, &c. will help to consolidate the looseness of it. Barley, with grass-seeds, next year (the third), will not fail to be a good crop; and it will be pre- 46 F A R INI E R S ' REGIS T E R . [No. 1 ferable to sow only lor papttire; in which cage. less red clover, and a lartrsr proportion of wh te and yellow, will be proper. In this li(j;ht and loose soil, the grass-seeds should be sown after the barley has srot one har- rowini^;' and it will be necessary to roll it well when the other course of harrowinaj has been completed. There may be oiher rotations lor this kind of soil, but none better adapted to it; nor anj' that will return a profit .so easily, and ieuve it a>£ain in an improved slate of pasture. IV^. j1 anther clafis nf light smh, wet, the pasture stinted and unproductive. Here, the surl'ice bein'j less rusrued and iine- yen, it may be manured on the sward with a compound of limn, earth, and farm-yard dung, at the rate of 100 cartloads per acre. This should be plouffJied down m the months of October and November, and sown with oats early in sprino'. The second crop should be peas with two fur- rows; and the third and last crop, oats, with fjrass- seeds, lor pasture only. The compoinid should be made up some months previous to its beint^ used as manure; and should be once turned over, to accelerate its decorn[iosition, and render it more easily incorporated with the soil. V. Another class of similar soil, having the sur- face over-run with coarse grass, heath, ^'c. If this soil is of sutTicient depth, it will be advi- sable to pare and burn it before the first crop. * When this is done, 150 bushels of well slacked lime to the acre should be spread on it, alons; with the ashes, which will ensure a good crop of oafs. The second year, potatoes or turnip; and for the third and last crop, barley or oats, wi'Ji grass- seeds, for pasture only. There are *he dilierent classes of soil, with the mode of management, that were proposed to be treated of in this part of the Appendix, as, being those which most generally occur. JModifications of culture may be judjjed of and apphed by the occupiers; but the leading object, aiter drainincp is to overcome the barren and unproductive state in which they lie; but not, by over-cropping, to ex- haust or deteriorate them; anments, because not sus- pected to be such, nor to be otherwise than the honest and disinterested opinions of the writers. We, who have no such connexion with seedsmen or others, and have iio such private interest to forward — and who have treated with distrust, scorn and contempt, all ef- forts to buy of us editorial piitis — yet even we can scarcely avoid giving some help to the progress of this wid,ely-spread puffing system; for so many articles in agricultural and other publications partake of this char- acter, wdthout its being apparent, that it is impossible to know all such, and thereby to exclude them fiom our pages, or to mark them with deserved reprobation, when published. We have always been very scrupu- lous and cautious on this head; and certainly have never aided, knowingly, any such plan of deception. Still, in selecting for republication the current ai tides of the day, from other journals, such as notices of particular heavy products, new and valuable seeds, plants, live-- stock, and farming implements, we may have been, iinconsciousiy, helping to extend the circulation and effect of a salesman's disguised puff. If we were to discard our scruples, and, instead of neglecting or oppos- ing, were fully to sustain the puffing system, our publi- cation would have many more articles of temporary in- terest to readers, and in more ways than one, would be productive of much more profit to the publisher. But this is not all that we suffer from the great and ever-changing demand created and maintained for new seeds, &c. Our remote readers, believing (and very correctly) that we are always pleased to serve them individually, as well as to forward the improvement of agriculture in every department, frequently write to request our aid in procui ing for them seed of spring wheat, twin corn, Baden corn, &,c. or others of the highly-praised varieties which are successively elbow- ing each other out of notice. We have done our best in such cases, and sometimes at as much gratuitous trouble and expense, as the article in question was worth; even when we had little hope of being success- ful in the safe transmission; for owing to the difficulties which any one who is not practically engaged in, or acquainted with, commercial business, finds in trans- milting articles through circuitous routes, and various conveyances, and by sundry agents, it is probable that not one such venture, in three, reaches its destination safely, after all the trouble and care taken. The regu- lar seedsmen and traders can do better in this respect ; and they can not only send any new hobby to any des- tination, (for price enough,) but moreover, they will generally have a better one ready for sale, before the first will have reached its distant buyer. Since the first commencement of agricultural jour- 48 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 1 nals in the United States, there have been many arti- cles announced as new and valuable, puiTed into noto- riety, thfnce eagerly sou2;ht afte*. by purchasers, tried, and found wantin'^— anil fim.lly abandoned and foro-ot- ten. And !t is so mucii more pleasing to mankind to be flattered by vain hones, and be deceived, than to be warned of the danjjer of, and 3;uarded against decep- tion, that editors will always advance the popularity of their publications, by floating with the general curroi)t, the former kind will be much the most productive to the acre. Many, not content with deep grains, seek for the smallest sized cobs — that the larger propoition of each ear may be of grain rather than of cob. On the contrary, John Taylor, our great and distinguished ag- riculturist, preferred ears with the largest cobs, for seed, because, a-* is evidently aiid ma'hematically true, if the grains are of equal size, there will be more of them encircling a larjre than a small cob. Some seek and falling in with evL'ry such fashionable error, while ^or large ears; others for many ears upon one stalk, it lasts. By thus flattering and ministering to the fan- I Many farmers are as curious and particular in select- cies of the ardent and sang-uine, (who are also general- j i",2: seed-wheat, either for the large size of the grair» ly the most zealous and active,) among their readers, { tl's large number of grains in the head, the large num- ber of stalks and quantity of grain from a single seed; and all confide equally in thereby securing more pro- duct in general, from the land. Now we have no at least to them they will render the publications most interesting. And though almost every new hobby may, in its turn, be found worthless, yet but few read- ers will find fault of the favor previously shown. All j ^'^'fh in any of these modes of reasoning, and therefore that the editor has to do, is to dismount, silently and [ '^one in the supposed results. Without denying that quietly, from the exposed and disgraced hobby, and i particular varieties of plants may be somewhat more mount the next one that seems most likely to en- i productive than others which are equally suitable to gage attention and interest. | the same soil and climate— and admitting that the With such aid, and by such recommendations, the j f^mallest well ascertained advantage of superiority is public attention has been at different times solicited to 1 vvorth securing — yet, in general, and in the absence of not only various new varieties of the more important grain crops, but also to such minor articles of cultiva- tion, as millet, (of various kinds.) the bene plant, Cobbett's "Russian turnips," (which, as Swedish tur- nips, had been long known, and valued for their real advantages, in England, and treated of in English books, but which it required humbug and false appreciation to bring it into use here — ); and as great expectations of profit were thereon built, as are now on sprin-^ wheat and the several new kinds of prolific corn; and as proba- bly soon will be, on the Egyptian, or many-headed wheat. Do not let tis be understood as denying all viMue to these over-rated novelties — nor as wishing to discour- age trials of new plants, or new (supposed) improve- ments of any kind. On the contrary, we would en- courage trials, if made carefully and accurately, as be- ing calculated not only to amuse and gratify all culti- vators of inquiring minds, but also as sometimes lead- ing to results which, if correctly appreciated, will be of important value to agriculture. But we do mean to avow a very general distrust of these many newly' dis- covered values in particular varieties of seeds, &c. and especially when it is manifest that he who makes or sustains the recommendation of the article, has a pri- vate and pecuniary interest in raising i*:s reputation, or maintaining for it a high selling price. Let all the at- tendant and connected circumstances be borne in mind, and the trials be economically, as well as cautiously and accurately made, and we would urge the trial of every new thing that was even plausibly recommended. In addition to all the supposed more productive kinds of grain, which have been made generally known to the agricultural public, there are hundreds of individu- al farmers who, silently and privately, cherish their own particalar fancies as to the superiority of their own selections. One aims, by selection of seed, to o-et the deepest grained corn, because an ear of such must have much more grain than one of equal size, but shallow-grained; and thence he erroneously infers that all positive proofs of exceptions, we maintain that corn, or wheat, or other grains, will produce according to the degree of fertility and mode of cultivation of the soil, and according to the adaptation of the kinds of grain to the soil, climate and season. Perhaps every variety of grain may be the most productive in some particular situation and season; for all varieties are pro- duced by nature, in the never-ceasing effort to accom- modate a mis[)laced plant to its new, and comparative- ly, inhospitable location or circumstances. It is higli- ly important to adapt the kind of seed to the soil, cli- mate, and usual seasons; and the want of such adap- t tion may reduce a crop to less than half of what might have been obtained from other seed. But we have not the slightest faith in any of the many pre- vailing opinions, that larger crops are to be obtained by choosing seed on account of the form, size, or num- ber of grains, or the size or number of ears. Sic. In- deed, (as we stated in a former volume, when touch- ing incidentally on this subject,) when ears of corn, wheat, -or other grain, are remarkably large, for the particular variety grown, or a single root is remarka- bly productive, either in number or size of ears, or quantity of grain, it furnishes sufficient evidence of in- sufficient product from the land; or in other words, that there was too little seed to the acre; and that a greater number of stalks would have yielded a better crop, though by reducing the product of every indi- vidual stalk. These views are not opposed to the fact, that the Maryland twin corn, the J3aden corn, or the Button corn, (for example) in certain situations, may be more productive than our ordinary kinds. But they are utterly opposed to the belief of either of these va- rieties, or any other, being more productive in all, or in viost situations — or of being more productive in a very great degree, in any situation. Mr. Carmichael, who was among the first to recommend the Maryland twin corn, through the pages of the Farmers" Regis- ter— and whom we still deem amonj: the best authori- 1838] F A 11 JNl K 11 S ' REGISTER. 49 ties, on account of having full experience and means for observation and comparison — confined his recom- mendation within the following limits: "My expe- rience" (he says, at p. 605, vol. 2.) "induces me to think that no great advantage is derived if this corn is planted on lands naturally poor, or exhausted by culti- vation; but wiiere in a state of fertility, either natu- rally or by improvements, I think the [increase of] product from this kind of corn will be more than iifteen per cent." Now this amount of increase, if accurate- ly estimated, is sufficiently great to induce the trial of this corn, on the soils recommended as suitable, and in a latitude not very different from that of Queen Ann's county, Md. But this increase is far sliort of what the sanguine expect, or what would have induced so many to require this kind of grain; and the writer en- tirely objects to planting it on any but the very small proportion ot rich lands. This corn is a. forward kind, even in Maryland; of course it is too forward for our lo- cation; and in southern Alabama, and lower South Carolina, it will lose the benefit of near or quite two months of the growing season, which the longer sum- mers there offer to vegetation. This corn will there become, under Nature's correcting training, more and more late in ripening, and the ears larger and fewer; and we believe that Nature knows best how to adapt particular grains to particular soils and climates, and that the more the Maryland twin-corn shall be changed by her efforts, from its present and most highly prized peculiarities, the more productive it will be in south- ern regions. Neither do these views contradict others which we have advocated, deduced from the valuable article of Dr. Bronn., in vol. 1, (at page 257) of this journal. Our deductions then made, and still adhered to, were, that northern and moist climates, and clay and cold soils, tended to increase the vegetable (or the stem and leaf) parts of a crop, at the expense of the perfec- tion of the seed; and that southern and dry climates, and hot or sandy soils, made the seed more perfect, but diminished the succulence and size of the plant in gene- ral. And, as the first progeny would partake largely of the peculiar qualities of the parent stock, it was therefore proper to bring our grass seeds from the most cold and moist situations, and the seeds of crops, val- ued mostly for the grain, from the warmest and dry- est. We may gain, in this manner, in the particular product most wanting, though at the cost of some general reduction of the product of the entire plant or crop. But, to have a tenth, only, added to the bulk of the stalk and leaf of a clover or other grass crop, want- ed for hay, pasture, or green manure, we might well afford that it should be incapable of bringing the half of a usual crop of seed; and we would be very unwilling (by change of seed, or otherwise,) to double our growth of wheat-straw, by lessening the grain only one- tenth. Both these effects, or something like them in degree, we believe might be produced by bringing grass and grain seed, from far northern regions, to be sown in the south; and in a less degree, by changes of seed from cold and moist, to hot and dry soils, on the same farm. But this is a digression from humbugs and hobbies — Vol. IV— 7 or ])erhaps, as may be charged, from those of othe"^ people, to some of our own. We do not claim exemp- tion from the liability of being deceived in such mat- ters, nor, in consequence, of thence aiding to deceive our readers. But we claim this at least, that we do not sell our humbugs, nor make any pecuniary gain in the humbug market. If we aid in forwarding decep- tion, it is done disinterestedly and honestly. To return then to the subject. The Baden corn seems now to be the most fashionable and popular variety. The following extracts will show the claims made for it to public favor. The first is a letter from the commissioner of the Patent Oflice, who exhibits a laudable, though in this respect an ill- directed, zeal for the improvement of agriculture; and the second is the material part of the letter to him from Mr. T. N. Baden, the producer and seller of the corn. "To the Editor of the Farmer and Gardener. Patent Office, Dec. 12, 1837. "Dear Sir — I have received many inquiries respect- ing the culture of "Baden corn," and addressed a let- ter to Mr. Baden on the subject. I take the libeity of enclosing his letter for publication in your valuable paper. ".Mr. Baden's experiments this season, show that his own is earlier than many other kmds. I have distri- buted the last year a great number of parcels of the Baden corn; that which has been planted in latitude not exceeding 40 or 45 north, has succeeded admira- bly. It willsoon be acclimated in the higher latitudes. Over 100 bushels has been raised per acre on the rich lands of the west and south, without any manure. Yours, respectfully, H. L. Ellsworth." "To the Hon. Henry L. Ellsworth, Washington City. Prince George's County, Md., Nov. 4th, 1837. "Dear Sir,— Acreeably to promise, I now write you a few lines to inform you, that within the last two years (and never before) there has been a report in circula- tion that my corn was a latter kind. However, for the satisfaction of my friends, I have made an experiment this yt ar, which' 1 hope will satisfy every one upon that point. I planted a lot of six acres and a half, as near as 1 could judge, (by stepping) of this kind of corn, the 20th day of May last— my book is now be- fore me. I cannot be mistaken in the date, which is more than a month later than the common time of ma- ny persons planting in this neighborhood. I gave no extra manasrem'Mit to hurry its growth, and determined to give it only tlie common routine of work that I ge- nerally give my corn. It is now perfectly ripe and hard, and has been for some time, and no frost could do it any injury in any way; and I believe it will yield as much good sound corn to tl.e acre as any that was planted in the neighborhood any time in April upon land of the same quality. This evidently shows that my corn is a forward kind, and will come to maturity as soon as any other. By the first opportunity, I will send you a few stalks of this corn that was planted the 1st day of May, with the corn on tbem. as it crew in both the lot and field, and none with less than/owr, and some with .sejjfTi and eight good ears on a stalk— then I will leave you to judge which of them is the better. As soon as" it is sufliciently dry to shell and put up, I shall send you twenty or thirty bushels of as good seed corn as you have ever seen. I have notion since dis- covered'^something in this corn, which convinces me that I can still make a great improvement on it, by adding much to the q\iantity and quality of the grain on each stalk. I am now persevering in my eiforts. 5t) FARMERS' REGISTER. [No and intend to raise a large crop every year in its puri- ty, to supply all who may apply for it tor seed. * ***** "P. S. I can sliip any seed that may be ordered each week to Baltimore, if a few days are excepted when navigation is interrupted by the ice." The grossest, and yet the most profitable fraud that has been practiced, was by an Irishman named Hall, who went through the country (in or about the year 1815,) selling patent rights (as he pretended) foradis- covery of his in cultivating corn; by means of which, two laborers only, without horse or plough, and on or- dinary land, could make a crop of 2500 bushels of corn, annually. His pl^n was to lay off a field regularly in- to squares of nine feet; and one of these squares in each contiguous nine, was to be manured and cultivat- ed, and to bear as many stalks, and (as he promised) was to yield as much product, as the whole space of nine squares, if the whole had been ploughed and plant- ed over equally, as in the usual .mode; and each square was to be thus cropped in succession, so as to make a nine-years rotation on the same field. According to his reasoning, the thickly standing corn on each plant- ed chequer, would be benefited by the surrounding vacant eight squares; and yet these eight would be resting and improving, until the turn of each came, in succession, to bear the crop. This impudent impostor did not even exhibit his patent right which he claimed to possess — nor had he any valid testimonials of the worth either of liis plan, or his character. His whole means of success consisted in the enormous profits which he promised. It was as if an agricultural Alad- din's lamp had been offered to evevy farmer. His terms too were very moderate; he asked only f 10 in hand, to permit the exercise of his right; and $40 more were to be paid after the first crop had been gathered, and the plan found to be entirely satisfactory. It is true that Hall did not make many converts; but, so far as we heard of his movements, in lower Virginia, he suc- ceeded in making sales to some five to ten farmers in almost every county which he visited during his rapid progress. With these advanced payments he was con- tent; at least he never returned to ask for the much larger balance remaining due. It was still more re- markable, that most of the persons who paid for Hall's plan, were not experimenters, but such as were called "solid, practical farmers," who had been previously es- chewers and despisers of all theory and book- farming; and many were old men, who had never before varied from the time-honored usages of their neighborhood. But few of them even tried this dearly bought privi- lege; for they became heartily ashamed of their bargain before the planting time arrived. Those who did try it, made scarcely any crop, and never repeated the experiment. The merino sheep humb«g was of a still earlier date. When the invasion and devastation of Spain by the French served to break up the great merino flocks in that country, and to remove the previous prohibitions to the exportation of sheep of the best breeds, the op- portunity was judiciously availed of to supply this country with a truly valuable stock. But the high prices obtained for them generated and nourished a 1 spirit of speculation, such as has been exhibited in sundry other commodities, in various regions and times; as in tulip roots in Holland — lots and lands in and about Richmond, formerly — and lands and sites for future towns in many parts of the \testern wilderness, recent- ly. The source and the progress of all such bubbles may be stated in a few words. The increased price has no relation to the intrinsic value (or productive use) of the commodity. But whether it be a tulip root or a merino sheep — a vacant and useless lot in a city, or the site of a prospective town in a marsh or a wilder- ness— the process is the same. The article in question rises in market price (whether by accident, by depre- ciation of money caused by excessive bank issues, or aome other delusion, or by the art of the holders,) say 50 per cent, in a few months, and is sold by A. to B. at that rate of profit. C. buys of B. at a proportional ad- vance, sim.pl}'' because of the rise in price which had taken place, and therefore still expected to advance. Probably he is not disappointed in that expectation; and whether he embarked in the speculation as knave or as dupe, he also makes a large profit by selling to D. who is still more eager to buy, that he may not lose his chance for such great profit, the regular advance of which has established confidence in a still continued enhancement of price. Thus the game goes on. The greater and the more rapid the rise in price, the mpre eager are the buyers; and every one concerned is mak- ing large profits — or is made rich^ if operating on a scale large enough — until the bubble of speculation can be no more distended, and of course bursts; and the price then is adjusted to intrinsic, instead of specu- lative value. In this way, merino sheep at one time sold in some cases for more than $1000 each. V.'e have before touched slightly on this subject; and ex- pressed the opinion that a like mania was row grow- ing as to race horses, and the improved breeds of cat- tle. Another humbug was Mr. Whitmarsh's seed of the Chinese mulberry — which has been fully exposed in the past volume of this journal. The circumstances afford a strong exemplification of the fact, that the public are better pleased to be deceived than to be un- deceived; and that if both false promises and means for their correction are presented to readers, that most will grasp at the falsehood, and pass the truth either unnoticed or unbelieved. Before any seed (real or supposed) of the morus mallicaulis had been offered for sale in this country, we published in this journal, and upon high authority, that these seeds would not pro- duce the parent kind, and therefore were not worth planting. This fact we repeated, and endeavored to enforce, from time to time — but without the notifica- tion seeming to have the least effect in preventing er- ror, or staying the frauds of sellers, or the losses of buy- ers of the seed. The humbug had its course— the sell- ers made their profit — and now all are content to ac- knowledge the truth that might have been known as well at first. The last prevailing humbug is spring wheat. Of the value of this newly introduced, or rather re-introduced old variety — for spring wheat is no novelty to well iur formed agriculturists — we have before intimated our 1SS8] FARMERS' REGISTER 51 distrust. Nevertheless, hundreds are eagerly seeking spcd ol'sprini;: wheat at $A and $5 the bushel— and as loni;; as such prices can be obtained, the hunibujj will live— and no lonoer. It has already been settled, that some kind of this wonderfid sjiring wheat is not worth sowiii?; but then, it is adiriiied that that land was not the "real Simon Pure" — and half a dozen other kinds will be succes-iively olFcred as the best, paid for at enormous prices, and found alike wantiiig. Some of the sellers of sprino; wheat seed are already quarrellina; with each other, as to the merits or demerits of their respective kinds, as is s'lown by the following extracts from late publications. "Tiahan and Siberian Spnng Wheat. — We publish- ed in our paper of the Ifith instant, a communication I '"'V „ „ „,„ i r TA A 1 11 c TTi- TVT -sr 1 • not racss work. from Dr. Goodsell, of Utica, INew York, comparing ' ^ the relative virtues of these grains, and decrying those of the former in no measured terms. Desiring to ex- ercise the strictest impartiality, and at the same time to lay every thing; touching agricultural subjects before our readers which in the least interests them, we have published in this day's paper two letters in reply, from Mr. Jay Hathaway, the gentleman who introduced the Italian spring wheat into the culture of this country. Without malvinj ourself at all a party to this contro- versy, we must express our regret that topics of the kind should be so conducted as to call forth any thing which can he tortured into motives of a sinister char- acter. It is but natural that men should be partial to products of their own; self-love inclines us to the adop- tion of such opinion; but we can see no reason why one man, who maybe satisfied with his own commodi- ty, should step out of hij way to attack that belonging to his neiglibor." — Fanner ^ Gardener. The tone of the champion of the Siberian spring wheat, may be inferred from the comments. One of the replies of him who sustains (and is sustained by) the Italian spring wheat, is copied below in full. "Dr. Goodsell of Utica, has come out in the "Culti- vator," (Judge Bael's paper,) strongly recommending his Siberian Wheat, and running down or trying to de- preciate the Italian. His letter may possibly hurt the sale of the Italian, where it has not been proven; but in this county, the experience of our whole farming popu five seasons in this county, and has not failed in any; it rarely ever rusts, although winter wheat is ruined all around it; it has justly obtained an enviable popu- larity, as the doctor knows, as a sure crop, a good crop, and a larger; — it is the onlj' article about which there was scarce a difference of opinion, until the letter in question: here it will effect little — abroad it may pre- vent a million from enjoying a certain good, which un- like th';- other, has not yet to establish a reputation. A "single swallow does not make summer" — nor the yield of a single field fix unqualified by a character. Many folks make wild gvesses: the doctor says his Quaker friend '■'thinks" tiiat he shall thresh nearly or quite 40 bushels Siberian from one bushel sown. Now this is great, if he has s;uessed truly; yet I can tell him of a man who says he sowed but tialf a bushel of Italian wheat on an acre of land, and that it yielded him 30 bushels after beinealeil ilisasiers ol' ilie same kind, and nhimately of the ruin ol' a wortiiy lanniy, ii was deservinir ol" so/«e /,7//e attention." 'riuis endetli my iioauly, ami now ll)r my dcs- cri|;lions. The first drawinir represents a gate nine lecf wide from out to out, hy five leet hiril)ute only half as much as I Jiope they will, to the henetit o!' our agricultural -brethren, it will be deemed an ample reward, to the end of life by their li'iend and yours, Jambs M. Garnett. To tlu; Editor of tlie Fanners" Register. BUCK -WHEAT CAKES. By the way of contributing a little to the useful- ness of the 'Register,' I will venture to send you a receipt lor making buck-wlieat cakes. In the room of water, mix up your batter with butter- milk; instead oi' leaven, yeast, or yeast powder, use a little saleratus, and one, two, or three eggs. If you do not pronounce it the best buck-wheat cake yoii ever cat, you and I do not agree in taste. The same receipt is likewise as good fiir other batter cakes and biscuit. The theory of this is plain, which you will at once see. R. and far more reasonable and scientific than the old theory respectinir the influence of salt water, here- tofore maintained by many, without foundation. Respectfully Charles F. Randolph. [In answer to the inquiry above, we have to say that there has been nothing found, either in later ex- perience or information, to contradict or oppose the views presented in the 'Essay on Calcareous Manures,' as to the action of gypsum on marled lands; and as to the fact, and the cause, of its not acting on all soils which most need the application of marl or lime. — Ed. Far.. Reg.] BIARLING AND LIMING IN NEW JERSEY. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. Cumberland, JV. J., March 8th, 183S. Sir — I became acquainted with your 'Essay on Calcareous JNlanures," between two and three years ago, by the way of an article in the 'New Jersey Slate Gazette', copied from the 'New York Jour- nal of Commerce.' I was so well pleased with your theory, as there laid down, that I procured a copy of the essay of Messrs. Carey Si Hart of Philadelphia, the first op|)ortunity I hud; and I can truly say I perused it with much pleasure, and 1 trust with some profit. I consider it a valuable work, especially for those making use of marl and lime. I put your 'Essay' into the 'Union Librar3^' thinking to procure one f )r myself. I have sent to Philadelphia several times, but could not obtain one at any price. It is perhaps not more than two years since people in these parts generally became in fivor of marling and liming. Havin<; got clear of their prejudices, many are perhaps acting in the other exireme. Many people in this county cart marl that contains only thirty or forty per cent of calcareous earth, 6, 7 and 8 miles, and pay for it at the pits from 50 to 65 cents for a load of 20 bushels. Our practice in this part of the country, general- ly, is to raise fi-om one to three crops of buckwheat, first, before we sow clover, or try to raise some other grain. I sowed gypsum last summer on buckwheat, from one to two bushels to the acre. The season was quite wet, and I could perceive but little dif- ference, and none between that which had but one, and tliat which had two bushels to the acre. I would like to be informed in the 'Register' or gome other way, of j'our success in using plaster; and whether you still continue to hold to your theory respecting its want of action, as laid down in your e&say. I think your theory very ingenious, From the Norfollt Herald. DISASTERS ON RAILWAYS. A correspondent calls our attention to a com- munication in the March number of the Farmers' Register, purporting to be li-om a correspondent on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, but suspected to have originated nearer home, in which the writer, while arguing against the construction of the Eas- tern Shore rail road, does injustice, we think, to Major Kearney. But what we regard as more particularly deserving our attention, and the ex- pression of our resret at such remarks from such a (juarter, are the notes by the editor of the Register, whose position towards the great body of the pub- lic, if we understand it rightly, is one of strict neutrality in regard to all questions of a local bear- ing. Whatever interest he may feel individually in the line of rail road from the Roanoke to Fre- dericksburg (and it is natural that he should feel a deep interest in it) it does not become him to make his excellent Register, which owns the whole state for the sphere ol' its usefulness, a vehicle lor ad- vancing one section of it at the expense of another. For instance: he says, "but if experience may be relied on to furnish evidence, it may be safely as- sumed, that a well managed railway is the safest mode of travelling next to well managed river (^not Allantic or Chesapeake) steam vessels." Now this is an assumption notoriously contradicted by fact. VV^ithout instituting a comparison between the safety of rail road and steam boat travelling, or between that of river steam boats (including those on the western waters) and the steam boats na- vigating tlie Chesapeake between Norlblk and Baltimore lor the last 21 years, we will only state the remarkable fact, that while the public sensibi- lity has been almost incessantly pained by recitals of "dreadful steam boat disasters" on our rivers, and "accidents and loss of life on rail roads," from> all parts of the country, no accident has ever oc- curred on board of one of the boats running on the Chesapeake, which involved the loss of a single life, or any bodily injury whatever, from their com- mencement in 1817 up to the present lime. Now we dely the editor of the Register, and the whole world to back him, to produce a corresponding in- stance of exemption li-om casualty and human suffering on any other line of travel, in so long a period of time. The fact here stated is too well known to travellers, lor the inuendo of the Regis- ter to cause the least ajiprehension for their safety in coiTimitting themselves to the Chesapeake steam boats. •The editor of the Register also takes occasion in his remarks, to notice tlie disasters on the Ports '838J FARMERS' REGISTER 57 mouth and Roanolve rail rotul, durincr the last year, ill contrast witli tlio orcat security whicii lias at- tended the oiierations of the Petershur;Lf road, wiiich he dwells upon con amore; but he says not a word about the recent one on the Kichinondand Fredericksburrr road. We can stale lor his inlbr- niation, and that of the public, that tlie directors of the Portsnioiuli road have profiled by the dis- asters to which he alludes, so tar at least, as to place it in a condition Ibr safety and expedition, not interior to that which lie vaunts of the Peters- burii: road, and certainly equal to thai of the Rich- mond and Fredericlvsburo-. The growiuii: popularity of the Chesapeake route, however, car.iiot be checked by any device, while travellers prefer, as they always do, steam boats to steam cars; Ibr when they have to choose between two routes, the one entirely by rail way, and the other ibr two thirds of the distance by steam boat, they will assuredly incline to the lat- ter.— [Ed. Herald.] When it is proposed to reply to, and still more so when lo condemn any publication, it is proper, both for fair dealing to the writer, and for the better understanding by the readers of the stric- tures, that the piece censured, itseltj should be presented at the same time. This course we have always desired to pursue, as is done in the present case; and we have never availed ourselves of the customary privilege assumed by editors, of an- swering an offensive or disatrreeahle article, before, or without, copying the article itself; and thus, in advance, raising prejudice against U in the minds of readers. We regret that our highly respected brother editor should have adopted a different course; and have done us injury in both these re- spects, by the foregoing editorial remarks, of his paper of March 30th; and whicli course is the less excusable, as the entire note, which he considered so reprehensible, is but little, if an\^, more than half the length of his remarks copied above. Of course, the lenslh did not forbid its insertion. As a matter of sheer justice, we request that he will supply the oinission to his many readers who do not see the Farmers' Register, by copying the foot-note in question, from page 762 of the March No., and also, that he will accompany it by these remarks, whxh his have rendered necessary. \ . They will be made as c mcise as possible. First — in correction of mistaken impressions. The suspicion thai the correspondent who oppos- ed the Eastern Shore Rail Road is not what hi.s communication purports, is as much unfounded, as the expression was uncalled for, in arifument, or in courtesy. The writer is a resident landhold- er and cultivator of the Eastern Shore of Mary- land, and one whose private interest in the pros- perity of that region, as well as his standing and general intelligence, isrive him a right to express opinions on that subject, even though they should be mistaken. That his views do not atrree exactly with ours, iu sufRcienllv evident to the readers of Vol. VI— 8 the notes to his piece, and of several other articles of greater length, which have before appeared m thisjournal. In reasoning on general and public facts, the name of the writer is not required as au- thority; and there is no reason why such pieces should not be anonymous. But we assure our brother editor, that we would not knowingly per- mit a correspondent, were one to attempt such a deception, lo assume false colors, to sustain private interests either opposed to those which would be in- ferred from his assumed locality or position, or with which he was desirous to conceal his connexion. In the next place — we claim for this journal, and its editorial conduct, to the fullest extent, the ground which, it is justly said above, ought to be occupied; but which, it is charged, has been aban- doned in the note referred to. In the five volumes of the Farmers' Register, there have been many articles relating to the rail roads from Petersburg, and from Portsmouth, to the Roanoke; and while these two great improvements stood as rival claim- ants, contending beibre the legislature, we confess it was dillicuit, in a journal like ours, open to both sides, and designed to favor the general cause of internal improvement, to appear so perfectly neu- tral as to satisfy all persons of both the rival inte- rests. But until now, no complaint has ever reached us of having shown less than equal favor and justice to the Norfolk and Portsmouth road and interest; though we have heard of charges of the opposite character, being made by some of our nearer neighbors. These charges had no just foundation; but there is no question, but that more selections, communications, and editorial notices, have appeared in this journal, favorable io the Portsmouth route, and its designed continuations, southern and northern, than lo the Petersburg route. The pages and indexes of our volumes of- fer ready proofs of what is here stated in general. The views of our correspondent fi-ora Maryland, if received as correct, would have operated to low- er the trueestimationoflhesafely and convenience of rail road travelling in general, and of the value of the Eastern Shore Rail Road in particular, which route has been planned solely as a most important extension of the Portsmouth and Roa- noke Road, and is expected, by 1 he fi'iends of the lat- ter, to give it double value. Now, the manifest object and purport of our note was to defend what was impugned, the safety of" rail road travelling; and in that defence, we conc-eive that Norfolk has j at least ar- deep an inlerpst as Petersburg, and that we were thereby upholding the general inte- rests of'ihe one, fully as much as those of the other. But we limited our assertion of aimoet entire security to passengers, to ''well-managed rail- roads." Would our brother editor, or our Nor- fijlk friends, have desired that the claim should have been exleiuled to. and made to include the 58 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 1 ill-managed also? Such a claim would have been as impolitic in argument, as it would have been manifestly false in point of fact. Tlie editor of the Herald does not even dissent, in the slightest de- gree, from our assertion that the accidents on the Portsmouth road, so fatal in their effects on pas- sengers, were caused by gross mismanagement, and were nol such as are "necessarily and una- voidably attendant on railway travelling." By maintaining that the causes of these disasters were not permanent and continuino-, but temporary, avoidable, and that in fact, theyAad already ceas- ed to operate on that road, and that tlie proper ami safe course of management had been there adopt- ed, surely we were sustaining instead of detract- ing from the present and future value of the Ports- mouth and Roanoke rail way. But the odious part of this branch of our re- marks was presenting the case of the Petersburg railway, as proving incontestibly, by long expe- rience, the entire safety of travelling on railways, under proper regulation. This road was not se- lected (or illustration because it is (or is consider- ed as) a rival work to that of Portsmouth, but be- cause we happened to know the facts. Any other road, presenting as strong, or stronger, and as well established facts, would have been as readily no- ticed. And shouKl any highly improper ami d;m- gerous measure be hereafter be adopted on this road, we shall be as ready to denounce it, in ad- vance of the occurrence of its expected ill efiects, as to commend what has been heretofore, and is, worthy of commendation. If such reprehension should be necessary, and be ever so sharply given, we shall deem it as friendly, instead of hostile, to the interest of rail-roads in general, and even of the very road whose conduct is then condemned. Our little note is not only censured for its sins of commission, but also of omission, in not speak- ing of a recent accident on the Richmond and Fredericksburg railway. It was not seen then, nor is it now, what bearing that accident, or any other circumstances of that road, had on our de- signed defence of the safety of railway travellintj in general. We know nothing of that road, ex- cept from the newspapers, and are not prepared to say whether it furnishes most examples of good. or of bad management. But since we are thus twitted with the omission of instances of the lat- ter, we will add, thai if its conduct had been ten times worse than any charaed, and the accidents to the trains ten times more numerous than they have actually been, it would only serve toslrenffth- en our previous argument afjainst placing the bur- den cars 6e/ii/7d instead of before the passengers. For we understand, that by simply avoiding^that very faulty arrangement, that all the accidents on that road have been entirely harmless to the lives and limbs of the numerous passengers. The only remaining charge against our note, is its admitting "well-managed ri"wer steam vessels" to be possibly safer than even well-managed rail- way passenger cars; and the denyina: that Greater degree of salely to Atlantic or Chesapeake steam navigation. The former part of the admission, whether correct or not, certainly is not obnoxiou3 to the suspicion of local or private interest. We had especially in view the James River steamers, in which Norfolk is very deeply interested, and Petersburg, scarcely at all. But without claiming the benefit of the limitation to James River, we think that truth demands the admission, and all experience proves, that ^Hvell-managed''^ river steamboats are as safe a mode of conveyance as any in this country; and that the numerous and fa- tal disasters of the badly -managed, on the western rivers and elsewhere, afford no ground of contra- diction. As to the denial of equal safety to sea steamers, it is enoucrh to veiVv to the horrible fate of the steamer Home. For the Chesapeake steam- ers, we readily admit that no loss of life lias yet occurred, and have no ground to deny that they are as well constructed, and as well navigated, as any could be. But every bay as well as sea ves- sel is liable (however small the chance, and re- mole the danger,) to destructien by water or fire, and steamers particularly to the latter most aivliil calamity; and if the vessel were about to sink, at only ten miles from shore, having on board, as is usual, twice or thrice, and ir might be five times as many passengers as could be crowded into the lew boats, the almost certain result would be the swamping of the boats, and the death of almost every passenger. Such a disaster may not occur in a century; perhaps never; but the possibility of its occurring, and the almost certainly fatal results of such an occurrence, must always put Chesa- peake, as well as Atlantic steamers, on a very dif- ferent footing of security from that of the James River steamers. In concluding, we beg leave to assure the editor of the Herald, that we are not only free from eve- ry wish and feeling inimical to Norfolk and Ports- mouth, and their interests, but that we should re- joice to see their noble seaport rapidly rising to the elevated station in commerce, population and wealth, for which, by its highly favorable location, and great natural advantages, it seems to have been desin;ned. — Ed. Far. Ri3G. THE PEKSIMMON TREE AND THE BEER DANCE. (Continued from page 5SC, vol. 5.) To Uie Editor of the Farmers' Register. When I found my "Persimmon Tree,'' group- ed with the "Persimmon Tree" of James i\l. Garnett, Esq. in }'our January No. of the Far- 1838] FARMERS* REGISTER. 59 niers' Register, I drank his health in a glass ofi persimmon beer. 1 am not only pleased with his remarks, but lii^lily liralilicd that tiie genlleii\;in has employed his able pen on the snbjeL-l of this valuable tree. I find very little diderence between his opinions and mine, and il rarely happens that two eommunii'.aiions on the same subject, acci- dentally (ailing together, should correspond in so many particulars. We agree perlectly, as it re- gards the use and value of the persimmon tree. It will be seen, however, by the reader, that he has discovered an astrinjher to the notes of the banjor ; the fourth black man held in his right hand a jug gourd of persimmon beer, and in his left, a dipper or water-gourd, to serve the compa- ny; while two black women were employed in filling the fire-place, six feet square, with larded persimmon dou^h. The rest of the company, male and female, were dancers, except a little squat wench, who held the torch light. I had neverseen Juber clapped to the banjor before, and you may suppose I looked upon such a novel peene, with some degree ofsurprise. Indeed 1 con- templated the dancing group, with sensations of' wonder and astonishment ! The clappers rested Ihe right foot on the heel, and its clap on the floor was in perfect unison with the notes of the banjor, and pahns of the hands on the correspondmir ex- tremities; while the dancers were all jigging it away in the merriest possible gaiety of "heart, having the most ludricuous twists, wry jerks, and flexile contortions of the body and limbs, that hu- man imagination can divine. "The whole world is a ball we find,- The water dances to the wind; The sea itself, at night and noon. Rises and dances to the moon. The earth and planets ro\ind the sun. Still dance; nor will their dance be done, Till nature in one blast is blended: Then may we say the ball is ended." The rude ballad set to Juber, corresponds ad- mirably with the music and actors in this wdd iiin- tastic dance. While the clappers were laboring in the performance of their office, they responded at the same to the notes of th.e banjor. ".Tuber up and Juber down, Juber all around de town, Juber dis, and Juber dat. And Juber roun' the simmon vat. Ploe corn, hill tobacco, Get over double trouble, Juber boys, Juber. Uncle Phil, he went to mill. He suck de sow, he starve de pig, Eiit the svinmon, gi' me deseed, I told him, I was not in need. Hoe corn 1 hill tobacco 1 Get over double trouble, Juber boys, Juber. Aunt Kate? look on the high shelf. Take down the husky dumpUn, I'll eat it wi' my simmon cake. To cure the rotten belly-ach. Hoe corn ! hill tobacco ! Get over double trouble, Juber boy Juber. Raccoon went to simmon town. To choose the rotten from de soun. Dare he sot, upon a sill. Eating of a whip-poor-will. Hoe corn ! hill tobaccco ! ' Get over double trouble, Juber boys Juber." When supper was announced, the banjor-man, was first served; then the clappers and beer bear- er, and lastly, the beaux and their partners. Each had a huge loaf of larded persimmon bread with a gourd of beer. Thus ended the beer dance, and as I left the house, I thought to myself, that Virginia slaves, were the happiest of the human race — and I still think so. "The learn'd is happy, nature to explore. The fool is happy that he knows no more." Solomon the wisest man, says — "' in much wis- dom, there is much grief : and he that increaseth knowledge, increaseth sorrow." The beer dance, [ have attempted to describe, is a faint representation of what actually occurred. It requires an abler pen to it justice; I feel mortified that I cannot give a more vivid and glowing des- 1838.] FARMERS' REGISTER. 61 cription of f liese black beaux, who actej so conspi- cuous a part with iheir partners in liie pcryinitnon junket. The broad Li;iin, tlir smile ot'iiie liitlo squat wench, seen ihrouirji hertorcli-iiiilit, the ininiid lip, the twiPt oi' the tonle jiir, the aHi;»cted airol' the wenches, the profuse perspiration, the cloud of dust, the lu- rid room, the phiz ol' the banjor man, the banjor's iiivu titm. litm, and Juber's sonir and clap, would call forih the combined talents and lively imasiina- tion ol" a Wirt, an Irvinir, a Burns, an Addison. and Dryilen. And if a northern abolitionist, with his pocket filled with inflainmator}- documents and resolutions, could have witnessed such a scene in Virginia, he would, in my opinion, have consiixn- ed tbeni to the Hames; his great love for the blacks, to the contrary notwithstanding. In conclusion, F otl'er no apology for introducing in your columns, and bringing before 3'our intelli- gent readers, such a novel, rude produ'?.tion, as the beer dance. We are to clerive ti-om such scenes in tills lile, much useful instruction; the poet, di- vine, statesman, philosopher, and all mankind, may be benefited by looking do?o/?.. in Iili3, in order to explore the dark corners of nature. There is this consolation to be derived from the pcene I have described; the pleasing recollection that God has placed us high in the scale of human beings; and we should all appreciate its worth. I drink you the iollowing sentiment, in a glass of persimmon ale: May the product of the persim- mon tree, substitute foreign wines, molasses, su- gar, tea, and coffee, and save the "'old dominion" thousands annually. With sentiments of regard, and esteem, I am, Your obedient servant. WiLLiABi B. Smith, remarks on the publication of 'john- stone's treatise on draining, embank- ments, &c.' In this number is completed the general 'Treatise on Draining, Embanking, &.C.' It was contrary to our intention and desire that this republication should be divided between two of our volumes. Nevertheless, the subject treated in each volume is entirely distinct and independent of the other; the one being on drain- ing in all its branches, and the portion here presented embracing all that relates to embanking low lands straightening water-courses, and constructing dams, &c. This latter portion is valuable not only in a very important degree for agricultural improvement and profit, but even more, at least in this country, and in these times, to civil engineers, and to all other per- sons who, without the knowledge possessed by engi- neers, undertake the construction of dams, making canals, straightening of rivers, and other such works. In the improvements (so often miscalled,) of rivers for navigation, in this country, millions of dollars might have been saved, if merely the theoretical principles, and practice, presented in this number had been known, and properly regarded, by the constructors. The republication of this work, in the Farmers' Re- gister, besides causing a very heavy pecuniary cost for engravings, &c. has produced delay end disorder in the heretofore very regular times of publication, and also other important difficulties in our mechanical ope- rations. But a small part of those disadvantages (the irregularity of publication,) has fallen upon our read- ers; and we hope and believe, that there is not one of them, whather he be farmer, civil engineer, mill-own- er or mill-constructor, or merely a general reader, who will not find ten-fold remuneration in the information and instruction atforded by some portion of the con- tents of this treatise, which is now, for the first time, oli'ered to the view of American readers. The English copy of this work, which this first American edition gives in full, cost $G in purchase money, as imported by our special order; and which is lower than it could be sold for, even if there were any other English copies in America, which is believed not to be the case. The subscribers to the Farmers' Register get this reprint, which gives every word, and every illustration, of the original work, (though, of course, in inferior style,) for 57 cents; that being the proportion of ^5, equal to that which this treatise occupies of the bulk of one volume of the Farmers" Register. For the Farmer's Register. commercial report. There is less demand for every description of imported goods this spring, than there has been in any previous one lor many years. Small as the importations were, they are sacrificed at less than cost in the northern markets. Merchants from the south and west cannot make collections, and con- sequently have no means of" pm'chasing. But even if collections could be made, the difftjrence of exchange is so great, even where northern funds can be procured, as to deler men of business from carryinur on their accustomed transactions. In Virginia, 5 to 6 per cent, premium is paid on New York; and in New York, western paper is 20 to 30 per cent, below par. Sterling bills on New York are at 4 to 5-^ per cent, premium; or, taking specie as the standard, 4 to 5 per cent, below par. Such a state of exchanges never beliire existed. The south-western banks have become the prin- cipal purchasers or shippers of cotton, so that the merchants are almost completely thrown out of the business. The price of cotton is higher in the towns on the Mississippi and Alabama, than in New York. In the latter it is 7 to 10 cents; in the former, 8 to 11. The rate of freights is higher than at any time since the termination of the last war. In our own markets, cotton is in fair demand at 8| to 9^ cents. Not a vessel for Europe was in port during the month of March. Tobacco is in demand at prices nearly or quite double those of last year, tor t!ie lower qualities, and 50 per cent, higher for the better sorts. The range of quotations is .S3..50 to .912. This ad- vance is owing to the diminished stocks in every market; the crops of Virginia having been small for the last two years. Flour commands Ji^7.25. Indian corn 70 cents. Of wheat, there is none brought to market. The New York and Boston hanks propose to resume specie payments next month. A conven- tion of the banks generally, is to be held in New @2 FARMERS' R E G J S 1' E R . [No. 1 York a few days hence, when the time for Gene- ral resumption will be proiioeeil; but that it will be at an early date is not expecteil. X. April 7. From Loudon's (Loufloii) Gardener's Magazine. Joyce's new moije of heating. Mr. Joyce, a commercial crardener at Camber- well, has recently made one of' the nios; extraor- dinary inventions lor producing heat, which have ever been given to the public. We question il' anv thing so remarl London, December 30, 1837. $ Sir— I beii to hiuid you a copy of a prospectus relative to anew manure, which I drew up in the course of last sprinij, by the requet^t of the Earls of Leven ami Melville, from the Report of the Committee of the Academy of Ao-riculture at Pa- ris, and from the ceriificaies given to the inventor by Ihirty-eio'ht large landed proprietors in France, testifying tiie value of his invention. Lord Leven considered, and in which opinion I had the honor to concur, that the best mode ot giving the benefit of the discovery to the British itarme'r would be, for a committee to be formed for the purpose of collectinga subscription sufficient to defray !\]. Jautl'ret's expenses to this country, for the purpose of his making experiments before some person appointed for the occasion. That an agreement should be entered into with M. Jaud'retilhat should his invention answer the description given of it, that he should communi- cdte the secret by which he eOected the operation, for a sum ol" money previously agreed upon, and that experiments should be made with the manure under diH'erent circumstances, as to soil, &c. to as- certain its relative value with regard to other ma- nures, taking all things into consideration. 1 have the honor to be, sir, your very obedient ser- vant, HUMPHREY GIBBS, Honorary Secretary of the Smithfield Club. Prospectus of a process for ohtamin^ cheap and valuable Manure, without the aid of Cattle, in- vented by M. Jauffret, of Aix. A method has been discovered in France, of making manure as it may be wanted, without cat- tle, in twelve days, and with great economy, as appears I'rom a report maile to the committee of the Academy of Agriculture at Paris, by M. Cha- telain, its secretary, who, with M. Cailleau. presi- dent of that committee. JNl. de la Gerandiere, pre- sident of the Academy of Agriculture of Blois, and the Marquis de Saint Croix, were appointed to ex- amine into the merits of M. Jauffret^s invention. These gentlemen report "that by a cheap wash or lye, the ingredients of which are to be fbnnd in all places, and which every cidtivatorcan make on his own land, all sorts of herbaceous and ligneous substances, such as heather, furze, brambles, and even the living dogstooth, can be put into a state of rapid lermentation, and not only these substances, but even earth itself, be its nature what it may, can be converted into a valuable manure. ''That the manure produced by this new system, is quite as valuable as the best horse-liller; its ef- fects are visible upon several successive crops, and it can be obtained with perfect facility, at pleasure. "That M. Jaull'ret suiii)iied the committee with Vol. VI— 9 numerous and undeniable proofs of experiments, ranging over a period of nine years, in five com- munes of the department ot the Bouches-du- Rhone, in which trials were made upon an exten- sive scale, on different kinds of soils, and on va- rious seeds, plants, and trees. The success of those trials surpassed the most sanguine expecta- tions, as has been attested, 1st, by the Academy of Aix, (annual public session 1885, at 88 and fol- lowing |)ages of the 'Report'); 2d. by the circular of ihe prelect of the Bouches-du-Rhone; 8d, by 38 certificates* from most respectable inhabitants and farmers of that department, founded upon repeat- ed experiments made by themselves; and 4tli, by the declaration of well-informed proprietors of the department of Vaucluse, who lor years have atten- tively watched the trials of the Jaufi:'ret manure. "That in order to convince themselves more thoroughly on the subject, the committee wrote, unknown to M. Jauffret, to some individuals who were most distinguished by their agricultural sci- ence, and who had given certificates to the inven- lor, and that their replies, which are annexed to the report, are of so satisfactory a nature, as to leave no doubt on the minds of the committee of the importance of the discovery. f * A printed copy of these certificates may be seen at Messrs. Thomas Gibbs &. Co., seedsmen and nursery- men to the Hon. Board of Agriculture of England, and to the Board of Agriculture of Sweden, corner of Half- Moon street, Picadilly, London. t Mons. Gauthier de Vancluse, who is about to pub- lish a new Atlas of Agriculture, says, (in print at Mar- seilles, 1832) "M. Jautfret, an intelligent farmer and acquaintance of mine, possesses exclusively the val- uable power of converting, in less than a weeii, all vegetable substances, whether dry or not, into dung of good quality, without spreading them as litter, or even submitting them to the tread of cattle. The change is effected, as if by enchantment, by means of a lye, with which he sprinkles the straw, herbs, leaves, plants of all kinds, even woody stalks of a fin- ger's thickness, previously dividing them to a certain extent by a very ingenious operation. Such is the ac- tion of the lye, that forty-eight hours after the matters are heaped, their iermentation becomes, as it were vol- canic; volumes of smoke announce the decomposition at a considerable distance; and a poor and spent soil may, without delay, receive, in the form of an excel- lent manure, that which a week before could have done nothing towards rescuing it from a state of ex- haustion." Like all other interesting discoveries, this has been the subject of fierce attack; bul experience has vindi- cated the inventor. Following the example of many landed proprietors, I determined upon making trial of this important manure, and I declare it equal to that of well-fed horses. M. Jauffret asserts that he can at pleasure increase the dose, and even confer all proper- ties required by the nature of the soil on which he uses it. One single horse-cart load of straw, or other dry material, produces more than two of ffood dung. The invtntor charges 5 francs (2s. 6d.) for each cart load : probably, to those who should etfect the operation themselves, the expense would be diminished by one- half. The advantages^of such a process are incalculable. 63 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 2 "The committee enter into the Ibllowmg details of the process: "By means of a cutting machine, the co.^t of which is about 600 Irancs (£15), and which, af- ter a careful examination, appeared well adapted for the purpose, three men and a horse can pre- pare 180 quintals, or 7,200 kilograms (about seven tons English) of manure per day, and the niacliine is easily erected. Ten quintals of straw produced 40 qumtals of manure; tliis is effected either by the addition of the lye, or by the fermentation dilating ihe material otierated on. "The Jauli'ret process admits of greater econo- my as to labor; for the wooden cistern, and the in- gredients of which the lye is made, may be car- ried to the field which is to be manured, and the compost prepared on the spot;~and thus the car- riage of the vegetable matter from the field to the yard, and back again from the yard to the field, is paved; the escape also of carbonic acid gas, one ol the most valuable component parts of manure, which takes place during removal, is thus prevent- ed. The inventor asserts, moreover, that he can vary the degree of fermentation, to suit the defijcts or qualities of different soils; and as he can raise the heat caused by the fermentation as high as 60 Reaumer (167 deg. Faronheit) his process has the additional advantage of destroying tite germ of all noxious herbs, which might foul the, land. "That m considering this process, the commit- tee were struck with the advantage that might arise from establishing manulactories, not only on large farms, but near towns and villages, to which every cultivator ntight briiiu his refuse vegetable matter to be converted into manure. The cutting machine might be worked either by horse, v/ater, or steam power. "The Jautfret process will be advanta^reous not only to large proprietors, (by whom an expense of 600 francs (£15) will scarcely be felt,) but it will be more important and useful to small farmers, who can cut their weeds by hand, and prepare a quantity as perfect as any made by the machine.* As to the conversion of earth into manure, any one can make it without the help of the niachine invented by JVl. Jaufiret, and the manure made from earth by this new process, is not less valua- ble than the compost. Thus, those who have no cattle to l(5ed may employ all their Ibdder lor ma- nure; others can render available weeds, l)riers, dofijstooth, thistles, &c.; and those who have nei- ther straw, fodder, nor weeds, can convert earth into manure; so that no discovery was ever more capable of easy or general application. The Jaut- fret |)rocess tends to supply agriculturists with new and powerful means ol'increasinir their wealth, es- pecially in tiie case of poor-land farmers, who usually find it difficult to obtain a sufficiency of manure." * Pylons. Janffrct states, the machine iiecccsary for a small farmer is only a barrel and a pail, and v.hich can be carried with ease fVom one part of tlie farm to the other. It is set to work in tlie open air, wherever materials happ(^n to be; thus tiie fields tl)at are so dis- tant as to be seldom manured, may by this manure be Tendered hip;hly productive. The mixture is made without fire, and every thing concurs to render it eco- nomical. From the British Farmer's Magazine. MODE AND EFFECT OF EMPLOYING BONE MA- NURE. By C. W. Johnson. Esq. I proceed to notice the effects and modes of ap- [)lying bones as a fertilizer, either whole, broken, or in the state of powder. The Doncaster Agricultural Association long since paid considerable attention to the use ol" bones as a manure, and they have made a very valuable report, to which I have before alluded, of the result of their enquiries, in which they say :— " The returns received by the association, sa- tisfactorily establish the great value of bones as a manure; our correspondents, with only two excep- tions, all concur in stating them to be a highly valuable manure, and on light soils, superior to farm-yard dung, and other manures. " In copying the lanii'uage of one of them, in reference to dry sandy soils, we express the opin- ions repeated in a far ijcreater number. " I consider bone tillage one of the most useful manures, which has ever been discovered for the farmer's benefit. The lightness of carriage — its suitableness (or the drill, and its general fijrtilizing properties, render it peculialy valuable in those parts where distance from towns renders it impos- sible to procure manures of a lieavier and more bulky descri[)tion." For, as stated by another farmer, "the carting of six, eight, or ten loads per acre, is no trifling expense. The use of bones diminishes labor at a season of the year when time is of the first importance; for one wagon load, or one hundred and twenty bushels of small drill bone dust, is equal to forty or fifty loads of fold manure. Upon very thin sandy land, its value is not to be estimated; it not only is Ibund to benefit the particular crop to which it is applied, but ex- tends through tfie whole course of crops." The report adds, that l)ones have been found highly lieneficial on the limestone soils near Don- caster ; on peaty soils, and on light loams ; but on heavy soils, arid on clay, they produce no benefit. The mode of applyintr them is, either sowing by broad-cast, or by the drill, either by themselves, or previously mixed with earth and fermented. Bones which have been thus fermented, are de- cidedly superior to those which have not done so. The quantity applied per acre is about twenty- five busliels of bone dust, and forty bushels of large broken bones. The dust is best for immedi- ate profit; the broken half-inch bones for more con- tinued improvement. Mr. Birk, says, "if I were to till Icjr early profit, 1 would use bones powdered as small as saw-dust. If I wished to keep my land in good heart, I would use principally half- inch bones; and in breaking tliese I should prefer some reniainino; considerably larger." The reason lor this is very obvious ; the larger the pieces of bone, the more gradually will agiven bulk dissolve in the soil. Such is the result of the application of bones in Yorkshire. In Middlesex, the practice is scarce- ly different, as will be seen by the answers to some questions I received fi-om a very intelligent correspondent, Mr. John Rayner, of Oxbridge, in November, 1S33. iSSS] F A R M E R S' R E (; I s r j: R . 67 I. On what descriplion of soil is bone-dust em- ployed vviiii tl\e greatest advantage? On light dry soils. II. Theqtiantity per acre? From twenty to tvventv-five hushelt?. III." How long has its efi'ects been observed to last? This question requires a n)ore lentrihened reply. The good etiects of bones as a manure, have been acknowledged by many agricultiirisis for a number of yearsf but as tarmers, generally speakiiiii, are men who are not K)nd of trouble, and as there was ffreat dilTicuIty in breaking bones in sutfii-ionily sruall pieces, to prevent doirs, &c. from runniiiif away with them, we can only in a few instance trace'out their good ell'ecr. There is a farmer in the neighborhood of Watford, who dressed his land with lohnle bones, some twenty years since, (at a period when you could obtain them fiom London for letchinir)" and he declares I hat to this day, to use his own expression, "ihe land has never Ibrgotten them." Although the first season or so he found but little benefit; this I attribute to the bones being so large, the (jroiuid could not so soon act upon them. The bone dtisi is supposed to last but one season; the larger sizes of hall-inch and inch, are supposed two or three years, and are always seen to most advantage after the first season. IV. What is the expense? The dust is 2s. Sd. per bushel— the half-inch 2s. — the inch Is. 9d. V. What is the season, and on what crops is it generall}' applied? The turnip season. Bone manure shows itself to more advantatje on this crop than on any other. Itis drilled with a drill made on purpose, with the turnip seed: the period is from May lo July. Bone dust is also used with great advantage on grass lands sown broad-cast. In the valuable and long-continued experiments of Mr. Robert Turner, of Tring, in Hertfirdshire, the use of bone manure has been most decidedly successful. The soil on which these experiments were made, hitherto a common, producing only furze, is san- dv, with a substratum of clay, and then chalk. He began the use of bone manure in 1831, on this land, and has continued its employment tor the last four years on a ver}' bold scale, and with unvaried success. The quantity generally applied was from twenty-lour to thirty bushels per acre, of the des- cription of halt-inch and dust, and the bones were invariably ap[)l;ed to the turnip crop. The bones are drilled with the seed at the dis- tance of eighteen inches, and the turnips are al- waj's horse-hoed. The 3'ear 1831 was a very good season (()r this crop generally. The turnips manured with bone dust, like most others in the district, were very lux- uriant. About 2,000 bushels of bone manure be- ing this year employed by Mr. Turner. In 1832, the turnips were in general a very bad plant, the fly committing general devastation. Many cultivators in the neierinicnt, the deceptive nature of this spvrious coating of fat, for so it may not im- properly be termed. We admit that this illustra- tion of his is somewhat overstrained; still, it fur- nishes an useful hint as to the propriety of due at- tention to lean as well as fiit; and, at all events, proves the truth of the old adage, "all is not gold that glitters." He fatted a pig on oil-cake alone. The animal, to all appearance, did well — in my friend'b own words, -'got fitt in no tune;" and very fat, too — but what sort of fat was it? You shall hear. On being exposed to the fire, it melted away, leaving nothinc but sheer grease! And yet, when living, he was thought "a very pretty pig" by all the neighbors! The North Devons sold on Wednesday, the 13lh, at Holkham, (the particulars of which we shall now proceed briefly to detail,) were beauti- fiil specimens of quality of meat, and symmetr}- of form; and exhibit a striking [iroof of what may be done with good blood in skilful and intelligent hands. Four bullocks of this very handsome breed, three years' old off, were justly extolled as perfect pictures, and fetched £36 each. Several others averaged £34 each. The two-shear Down wethers (splendid speci- mens ofthat truly valuable breed of sheep) fetch- ed as high as £4 8s.; and the shearlings of the same breed £3. 6s. Twenty pigs attracted great attention, and sold for £5 6s. 8d,. each. On the whole, it must liave been highly satisfactory to the noble and venerable Earl of Leicester,* to see his labors so well appreciated by the many excel- * It may not be superfluous information to most American readers, to say that this is the title, or nick-name under which the illustrious name of Coke is now disguised and hidden. The Norfolli far- mer, Thomas William Coke — whose great agricultu- ral improvements, and labors, were as valuable to his country as profitable to himself, and whose well-earned fame had extended as far as agriculture was prized, and whose name belonged to the whole world — refused, when it was ofiered at a former time, to permit his name to be exchanged for an ea,rs title. But recent- ly, whether from uxoriousness, or the commencing imbecility of old age, he has yielded his consent, and henceforth will be comparatively scarcely recognized as the Earl of Leicester. As he has consented to be thus degraded, and to forfeit the proud name for vv'hich he had acquired more true honor and respect, than can be justly claimed for any other now borne by living man, it would have been better than an un- meaning, though ancient title, if he had assumed one having reference to the labors of his long and useful life, and the grounds of his great public services and fame. Thus, it. would have been somewhat less degrading to Mr. Coke, if, instead of the earldom of Leicester, he had received the title of "Earl of Turnips," or "Duke (Dux) of South-Down Sheep," or oven the lesser dig- nitv of 'Baron of Red Clover." — Ed. Far. Reg. 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER 71 lent juclfTP«'i Pome from a considerable distance, who attended tlie sale, as purciiasers; nor could ii be ollu'ru'is:c than graiilyin<>; in the hii>'!iest deifre;' to Mr. Bulling^, the stewanl, that h'ls exertions on the occasion were crowned with so successful a result. It was o-eiierally remarked, that seldom did the noble Earl appear in better health, or more bouyant spirits, than durinix the sale. He was attended by his amiable Countess, Lord Wa- terpark, and a numerous party of distinyes of the potatoes. Next year this was done and the experiments repeated, but the potatoes still grew, but not the apple cuttings. The experi- ments were tried, not only in the country, but also in the back ground of a house in the New Town of Edinburgh, but in no instance with success. It has since occurred to me that to complete the experiment we ought to have boiled the potatoes, but this was not done and had not been suggested by the publication which mentioned the practice. In the meanwhile, so far as raio potatoes are con- cerned, my opinion necessarily is, that the plan of rearing orchards by cuttings inserted in potatoes ma)', for aught 1 know, succeed in Bohemia, but it wont do for Scotland. I do not recollect wheth- er we made a trial with turnips instead of pota- toes, although I remember we at one time talked of trying turnips. Most people are no doubt aware that there is a species of apple-tree which can be reared fi'om cuttings, like a willow or a poplar, and produces sweet apples without en- grafting. I have two of these trees in bearing. I got the cuttings from Mr. John Geddes of the Verreville Works, Glasgow. They were taken from a tree that had been removed from the col- lege garden, and that tree was said to have been propagated from a tree belonging to the Monaste- ry of A berbrothock.* The apples are rather small, round, and may be eaten from the tree, being quite sweet. NOTICE OF AN EXPERIMENTAL FARM IN FRANCE. B]/ Col. Le Couteur. It is situated, in a beauiilltl and fertile countr}', well wooded and watered, but cultivated by the Breton li:irmers just as their lathers tilled it 200 years since. The college or experimental farm appears like a garden in a smiling wilderness, so fiiras culture goes. I rose at four in the morning, in order to witness the whole course of labor in this interesting institution. There were from 80 to 90 students under the superintendence and tuition of a director, a pro- lessor of agriculture and agricultural chemistry, a veterinary surgeon, and an agricultural implement maker. At half past four they took a slight re- past, and as the clock struck five, all were employ- ed; some in harnessing the horses and oxen, others in carting ont and properly disposing the implements in the field, others set to hoeing, others weeding, some ploughing, some hay ma- king, in a word to all the various labors of the season. * The Arbroath Oshnor Original Apple, here alluded to, is a well known variety. It may be added, that all the burr-knot and codlin tribes of apple-trees grow freely from cuttings. — Edit. ■78 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 2 The school is divided into working parties of ten; at the liead of each is a steady young man of experience, called the 'decurion,' who directs the Avork of his party. In all difficult operations, a regular farming laborer is at hand to perlbrm them; but such is the ardor and j)erseverance of the youths, that Ihey rarely allow any difficulty to arrest their progress. The duty of one 'decury' or ten, is to dress, litter and feed the cattle, with as much regularity as a cavalry corps dress their horses; alio to keep the fiirm-yard in order. Thus all, in turn, are made acquainted with every thing connected with a liirm, whether in regard to horses, oxen, cows, pigs, or manures. These last are made and husbanded with the greatest care, the mixons being formed of sweepings, leaves, and weeds that had not seeded, in alternate layers with stable manure. The drainings of the stables and straw-yard, run into a tank, to be pumped out when required as liquid manure, which is in the best, most port- able, but least known in this country. The learned professor M. Donku, who is an admirable practical ftirmer, as polite and commu- nicative as he is learned, complained that he had not a sufficient quantity of manure. I urged him to burn the underwood and decaying timber of the large adjacent forests, through which wide roads were cut, which would enable him to obtain an inexhaustable supply of ashes the best of all ma- nures either for turnips or wheat; the cartage of ashes being easy, and the quantity required to dress the land not being great; in which he entire- ly coincided. At nine all come into their studies, when they write remarks on the various operations of the morning. From eleven to twelve is the breakfast hour. From twelve to three is the time fi)r recre- ation and study, which embraces for the first class questions of the following nature: — "His farm of 600 acres, one eighth of which is always to be in beet-root, is to be divided into the most eligible rotation of crops; show the most profitable course, and describe the nature and chemical properties of the soil in each field, the proper manures to be ap- plied to them, the quantity of seed required for the crop, its culture by previous ploughings, by after-hoeing or weeding, the cost and labor, and the probable return'?"' The plans of farming given by some of the youths, would have done credit to an experienced i'armer, and demonstrated clearly that though iheory alone in firming is an absurdity, the com- bination of the practice with scientific acquire- ments, will soon operate great melioration in the agricultural world. From three till seven they prosecute their labor in the fields, being eight hours work in the day. They then come in for dinner. At eight the director receives the report, from every decurion, of the day's work of his par- ty of ten. He then orders the work for the ensu- ing day, givinii a concise lecture on the subject when necessary to the culture of any unusual crop. A library of agricultural works is open to the studenis till bed time, a quarter past nine. * * * The crop that appeared to me to be most carefully cultivated, was beet-root in drills, which produced per acre about 750 pounds of sugar, sell- ing at ten pence per lb. as last as it could be man- ufactured. REMARKS ON THE EXCEPTIONS TO DR. MUSE's ADDRESS, To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. March 25, 1838. You will allow, if you please, an earnest patron of the "Farmers' Register," to make a few re- marks upon your "Exceptions to some positions in Dr. Muse's Address," including, also, others of a similar import, under the signature of 'N. L.' in your late 10th and 11th Nos. First, as to his belief of the transmutation of wheat — besides the numerous evidences referred to by him, he has lately received from a farmer of intelligence and high standing, other conclusive testimony. What I chiefly design in this brief communica- tion, is fo call your attention to the fact, that your 'Exceptions' to Dr. Muse's views of the deterio- ration of our climate, and its approaching unfitness for the profitable growth of wheat, are founded, exclusively, upon one, only, of the grounds which he has taken to arrive at his conclusion, to wit: the general lowering of the temperature of the globe; and you consequently "difl^er widely as to Uie rate of the progress of "the change." Were he to confine himself to this single cause, as you have done, he might probably agree with you, that the rate of the progress should be shown. In his address, Dr. Muse has called in the aid of co-operative causes, which, he maintains, where they exist, will greatly accelerate the ordinary rate of this progress. Among these auxiliaries, he names the extensive clearing of the country, and the felling of the forests of the United States, which, from the geographical position of this sec- lion of the globe, in relation to the northern re- gions of the same hemisphere, and their mode of connexion, will, he thinks, in all human probabili- ty, upon well-known philosophical principles which he explains, produce such efi'eets as he enumerates; and which, he thinks, have already operated to the injury of the wheat plant; and, as this cause is progressive in a kind of geometric ratio with the increase of the population, and the spreading of new settlements, so he thinks, that in a short lapse of time, not to be measured by a single rule, the meteorological character of the United States will be so considerably altered, not only in the de- gree of cold, but in the suddenness and frequency of the transitions, at all seasons of the year, and in the frequent and critical droughts, as to com- pel a resort to other crops, which may be found more suitable to \he partially present and reasona- bly anticipated condition. And the motive of Dr. Muse appears to have been, not to exche alarm, or despondency, but to warn his fellow-citizens, of the necessity of gradually introducing new crops, in place of that, which experience and reason both declare to be on the decline. You say, "if this (the general lowering of the temperature of the globe,) were the cause of the frequent failures of our wheat crops, the effect would be more striking, as we advanced to the- colder stations;'''' which, you add, "is not the case." Dr. Muse adduces authentic proof, in the records of the "Northern Farmer" of New England that fifiy years ago the New England states made fine: crops oi'tointer wheat; and that now, they cannot produce enough of this grain to pay costs." They 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER, 79* nre, at present, tryini^ the sprinplh of win- Mr no other change was perceptible than a ihw refreshing showers, which jjrave mellow and ver- nal softness to the fields, while no sudden or vio- lent transitions ever disturbed the serenity of the mild atmosphere." yVgain, on their excursions into the interior of the "Northern Island, they re- j Tuark, " there was one feature of the country j \vhich every where struck us w;lh admiration; and ! tiMtwasthe fine rich verdure of the landscape I wherever we turned our eyes, and wliich gave us at the same time a high opinion of the genial in- fluence of the climate. In 'Hawkesworth's V^oy- ages,' v. 3, p. 34, it is said, "From the vegetables found here, there is reason to conclude tliat the winters are milder than those of England; and vve found the summer not hotter, though more equally warm. Of mosquitoes and sand-Mies, a lew were found in almost every place where we went ashore." In another place, it is observed that the English vegetables left by Cook on his first voy- age, continued to proparrate themselves, alihongh many of them were too tender to survive a winter in the open air of England. The character of vegetation also confirms my opinions. Many New Zealand plants are such as are found within the tropics or on their borders. The shores in many parts are beset with mangroves; the interior is covered with arborescent flirns, and in many parts the woods are so overrun with supplejacks, that it is scarcely possible to force one's way amonij them. Among the trees, were obs^^rved two or three kinds of lern like those of the West Indies. Al Norfolk Island, where a sort of spruce pine 'trees are very larnje and very abundant, cabbage palms, of 10 to 20 i'eet high, are also a spontane- ous growth; and here the fiax lilly is still more luxuriant than in New Zealand. In New South Wales they ffive a decided preference to the flax lilly of Norfolk Island both for quantity and quality. JBut in both islands, whether in pine forests or undulating savannahs, whether on theseaeoast or in the inferior, on hills or in valleys, the flax lilly flourishes in the greatest proflision, as well in the ■ most exposed, as in the most sheltered situations. Enough, however, I trust, has been said to prove that this flax lilly can be propagated easily, at least throughout all Florida, and probably throughout all our southern and south-western states. As the fi Mds of France already furnish lil- ly flax enough to afford employni'^nt in manufiic- tories to several thousand workmen, it may be an- ticipated that the forests of Florida will furnish soon flax lilly leaves enough to employ a mdlion of family manufacturers. Henry Piurrtxe. Washington, D. C, Idth Feb., 1838. that bachelors are less long-lived than married men. Hufeland and Dcparcieux were of this opinion; and Voltaire observed that there were more suicides among those who had not given hostages to fortune, than among those who had. Odier, however, was the first who set on loot the inquiry with exactitude, and he found (Hibl. Rri- laiuiique, 1814) that, in the case of fiMuales, the mean duration of life for the married women of 25, was about 36 years; while lor the unmarried it was about 30^. At 30 there was a difference of four years in favor of the married; and at 35 two years, and so on. It may be said, perhaps, that married females ought to be considered as picked lives; but, as Dr. "Casper observes, this is liirfrom being generally the case, especially in the middle and upper classes of society; it is chiefly among the lower orders, where a livelihood is procured by labor, that importance is attached to the bodily health and vigor of the fijmale. With retrard to men, we gather from Deparcieux's and the Amsterdam tables, that the mortality of those iVom 30 to 45 years of age, is 27 per cent, for the unmarried, wliile it is but IS for the married; and that for 41 bachelors who attam the age of 40, there are 78 married men. The difference be- comes still more striking as age advances; at the aire of 60 there are but 22 unmarried men alive for 48 married; at 70, 11 bachelors f)r 27 married men; and at SO, for the three bachelors who may chance to be alive, there are 9 benedicts. The same proportion very near holds good with re- spect to the fiemale sex; 72 married women, for ex- ample, attain the age of 45, while only 52 unmar- ried reach the same term of life. Mr. Casper, in conclusion, considers the point as now incontesta- bly settled, that, in both sexes, marriage is condu- cive to longevity. THE CLEXDING OF WINE, SILK AND DAIRY ESTABLISHMENTS. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. jBrinkleyville, FJaUfax Co., N. C. March 16, 1838. From the Journal of Ajrricultiirc. THE BIARRIED AND UNMARRI .i?.}. Some very curious facts on the subject of mar- riage, as connected with longevitv, are stated by J)r. Casper, in a paper of his, lately published at Berlin. It had been long ago vaguely asserted. Vol. Vi-12 Having reason to believe it not contrar}' to the wishes of the writer, I send you, and offer for pub- lication, a letter I received Ijy our last weekly mail li-om N. Herbemont, Esq. of Columbia, S. Carolina; a gentleman, long known by the inlelii- irent American public, as a zealous promoter, by his pen and example, of agriculture in general, as well as of the wine culture in particular. I beg leave, however, to accompany the publicity of this letter with a passing remark or two on some of the topics noticed therein. As to honoring my name by conferring it on the kind of grape I have been instrumental in bringing into notice, I consider the doing of this rather premature, to say the least of it. The pe- culiar excellencies of this grape may be merely local. In our locality, it has amply proved itself to be as I have described. And it is the opinion of all intelligent visitors lo my vineyard, who have seen it, partaken of" its fruit, and judged of the wines thereliom, that it will prove a first rate kind lor our country in general. But this remains to be tested by experience, the only infallible crite- 90 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 2 rion in such matters. Apart from its locality, it niay not be Ibund worthy to retain a name at all. And the above-named criterion will be had ere long; for I have lately sent vines and cuttintjs thereof into various sections of our country, as New England, and the states of New York, Ala-- bama, South Carolina, and Ohio. N. Longworth, Esq. of Cincinnati, now noted as one of the great- est vignerons of our country, assured me in a late letter, that he would test the qualities of the Hali- fax as a wine grape in 18 months. And if permitted to compare facetiously little matters vvhh great ones, I know not but if I assent to Mr. Herbemont's proposition, I miirht do a like injustice as that done by Americus Vespucius to Columbus. As named, in answer to late inter- rogatories propounded to me in a letter ti-om a liighly esteemed correspondent, A. J3. Spooner, Esq. this vine first attracted my attention in a vineyard of a Mr. Smith of this county; or, m an enclosure of his I call nature's vineyurd, because formed by leaving vines in woods while clearing, and the trees round which they had entwined themselves. But if still thought, by those com- petent to judge, that the successful cultivator ought rather to be entitled to have the honor of the name, than the original discoverer, I should, as I And here I am tempted to branch of}" into a long digression on the great advantages of clover, other grasses;, and root culture, to sujiport the stock, as well as for other purposes; and advantages of stock, on the other hand, lor keeping up and en- riching lands preparatory to the above objects of culture; but aware that time and space forbid, I beg leave to add, in conclusion, a ft^w remarks only on the dairy, and means of sustaining one to the greatest advantage in our southern country. And first, a general error is to be avoided; that is, of sufiering cattle to run at large, instead of soiling- or pasturing, as is done inEi;gland, whence como the improved breeds of cattle, and as is done in Goshen, the famous place for butter in New York state. Another error connected with the above, and unknown, I believe, in the above-named places, is that of allowing the calves to suck the milch covvs. I say, connected with the above, for I cannot conceive any reason for the practice, ex- cept that of inducing the dams, wandering in the woods in the day time, to return to their calves at night. Now field-pasturing avoids the trouble- some business of whipping calves avvay from their dams before a moiety of the milk can be obtained, and absurd notion that cows cannot be induced to ''letdown their milk" before the calves first suck. have said to Mr. Herbemont, in answer to his But here, to avoid these errors, I confess requires suggestion, prefer retaining the Halifax, and have the grape called JFeller^s Halijax, if found, in due time, worthy of a name., or change of name. On reading Mr. Herbemont's letter, I was highly gratified to find that, in publicly avoiding an opinion that the grape and silk culture might^ with the greatest advantage, he conducted by the same hands and in the same establishment, I was but reiterating the sentiments of so good a judge on such subjects. The peculiar advantages of blending a dairy es- tablishment with those of the vine and silk culture, never occurred to ray mind till suggested by JMr. Herbemont's letter. But, as he states, it must be evident to every competent judge on the subject, that negatively, the business of "the dairy estab- lishment would not interrupt the business of the others, but would posiiively conduce, by its heal- thy diet and profit, to the advantage of all concern- ed. But here, I confess that the advantages of stock or cattle for enriching the ground, preparato- ry to the culture thereon of vines or the mulberry, are not, I consider, so great as some would sup- pose. According to my 'American System of Vine Culture,' manures (so far as necessary) from the place of wood-pile, from low-grounds and sides of ditches, and from the woods, are compe- tent, in general, to ensure complete success. That ja, I conceive other than animal manure is better for both vine and mulberry culture; and that the resources on almost every plantation of chip ma- nure, swamp or ditch bank dirt, rotten logs from the woods, surface earth fi-om the same, and, after vines or trees have sufficiently advanced, leaves, pine straw, or green pine boughs strewed thickly underneath, answer all purposes of sustaining the bearing and flourishing. But suppose, as Mr. H. states, the poorer lands of a plantation, (with the above help,) will answer for vine and silk culture, independent of help from the kine of the dairy, yet the richer lands need the latter help to sustain the stock in return, by clover and grasses, and foots, as well as to afibrd bread-stuff ifor all. preparatory steps — steps almost as necessary as to have a mulberry orchard before you can make silk. The clover, or other grass culture, should be first attended to, in order to sustain both calves and cows; and it is also desirable to enter upon ruta-baga culture, not to name other esculents. And I candidly confess, that in our southern clime, connected with sandy soil, are peculiar difficulties to overcome, in order to successful clover culture; which culture may be called the key to all after permanent improvement and sustaining of lands. But such difficulties (as I, in common with others, have proved) are not insurmountable. I have found that even on most light and sandy soils, by first manuring well, if necessary, (leached ashes highly important,) and sowing clover with wheat early in the fill, alter taking off a forward crop of corn, or cutting up some after grains are glazed, good clover lots may be had, and a system of im- provement thereby kept up, as well as the dairy. The object in sowing clover in the fall on light sandy soils, is to have the clover grown in the fall beyond danger of being winter-killed, and to have it so well rooted in the spring, as to sustain safely the summer droughts, so heating to sandy soils. For greater security of the crop, by push- ing the growth, I sow a mixture of plaster of Pa- ris and leached ashes — say, one bushel of the for- mer to three of the latter per acre, after the clover is in third leaf An old field of broom sedge en- closed, will answer for a standing pasture till the clover is in blossom, or fit to pasture or cut for soiling. The ruta-baga 1 have found a sure and very abundant crop, by manuring plentifully in the drill where necessary, and sowing, or rather planting, about or before the middle of July. No better vegetable, not only for family use in general, but for fallening cattle and making cows give abun- dance of milk in winter. By the aforesaid plan of managing cows and calves, 1 have had both to do far better than those of my neighbors, by the old one in practise here. 188S] F A R M E R S' R E (i I S T E R . 91 From two cows, I have had produced more milk ami butter than some around nic from two dozen.. It is true, at first, I had to use personal viirilance, as well as example, to prevent ignorant hirelings irom bringiniT to pass, by negligence, their own prophrcUs of cows going dry, and calves starving, under tiie new plam Had to supervise the milk- ing process, and teach the calves by insertion of a linger in their mouths, under the milk at firet, to drink (their mother's milk li)r two or three weeks, ilterwards corn meal grnel); but this done, even jirejadiced ignorance itself had to confess my plan the best. As lam for abridging labor in all lea- sible cases (my vineyards afford an example, un- der the '•American System," of pruning only in summer, and after prevented being bushy vines not curtailed in length, and no necessary work on plantation by common quota of hands much in- terrupted,) shall 1 suggest a method to save the hard work of a hand, where the dairy establish- ment is considerable; which saving may be con- sidered especially important, where the three sorts of business may be conducted in the same estab- lishment. The method I would propose, is that of putting the labor of churning upon dogs; and that, too, without abridging the plantation usefulness of these animals. Various expedients were once re- sorted to in the Goshen district of butter celebrity, as that of a rolling or log machine drawn by a horse. But finally, they fixed upon a process that combined simplicity and economy. A machine, costing a mere trifle, consisting in part of boards or planks, so put together that the surflice resem- bled a large cart wheel, and this, in the position of an inclined plain, was the receptacle for the dog; so placed thereon that he must step and turn the wheel, or choke; (the former alternalwe he always chooses.) The turning of the wheel moved some simple machinery above, connected with the churn within doors. In fine, JMr. Editor, to bring this communication to a close (now extended to a length unthouo-ht of at first on my part,) I would most respectfully suggest, that at this period, when premiums are ottered by a wise munificence of some leirislative bodies of our country, to encourage silk culture, as well as other airriciiltural pur-uils, that a hand- some reward be held out to individuals of capital, as well as of spirit and enterprise, to exhibit prac- tically the benign bearing or eifects of combining the vine and silk culture, and dairy business, in one large or considerable establishment. And may I here be permitted to express a wish, that the legislative bodies of the Old Dominion and Carolinas would snatch the laurel from their sis- ter states, in being first to call Ibrth this enterprise by their timely munificence. Sidney Wellkr. A remark or two I wish to add, or wish to be added, if deemed best, by way of notes or P. S. The entire Goshen system alluded to, of man- aging cows and calves,' is to let the calves intended for veal suck all the milk of their dams, for three or lour weeks, and then butcher them. But those intended for raising, as before stated, are immedi- ately separated from the cows, and learned to drink. One advantage, not to be overlooked, of com- bining silk and vine culture, is the healthiness of grape fruit; or that all emploj-ed in the blended establishmerits may have, in the most sickly sea- son of the year, free access to a diet, that uot only counteracts or aniic:|)ates disease, but excellent, if from any cause disease occurs. Invalids, by ad- vice of physicians in parts of Europe, with the happiest effect, confine themselves for months to a grape diet; making it answer for both meat and drink. That a grape diet of the right kind (I mean ripe berries of select varieties for American vine- yards, not green ones, or those sna/c/ted from the birds and opossums in the woods,) I know is ex- cellent, from the experience of my own family and neighborhood. We are in general never more healthy than in grape culture; and none of my household and handsj of late years, have been stinted, but have partaken abundantly of grapes about two months. I have known persons, in cases of severe and contiimed sickness, to relish good grapes when tliey could eat nothing else, and there was reason to believe their lives were thereby saved. The Isabella grape is particularly recommended in cases of bilious fever, and from trial, I believe the Scuppernong, and my Halifiix, are not behind it in point of healthiness. But it may be objected, that grapes for common diet must be very cos//j/. Not so. If vineyards have a proper selection and management, there are few things else cultivated will produce more human food from the same space of groimd. Mr. Broddie's Scuppernong vineyard, (I have noticed before.) of half an acre and fourteen vines, yields 20 barrels of wine annually; and all his neighbors partake abundantly, by visitations and carrying away baskets of the fruit. Of the yield of my vines I intend to speak, in a se- parate communication, to sustain the same position. Suffice it to say here, that owing to the fatality of the past season to grapes predisposed to rot, my chief dependence for fruit and wine was on the Scuppernong and Halifax. Avoiding particulars here, I will say, that from a small space of ground, canopied with these vines, after bushels being ta- ken away by visitors (often 20 a day) and sold to those sending from a distance, I made upwards of 100 gallons of wine. I have noticed, after a visitation of 20 or more persons to a few vines of the above-named sorts, no perceptible alteration of appearance, but the same thick purple or dark cloud of fruit remaining. I cannot forbear here stating a particular or so in regard to the yield of these vines. One Scuppernong, a square of ten lljet of canopy being measured, produced at the rate of 870 bushels per acre, (a bushel of Scupper- nong grapes makes nearly four gallons of wine when well pressed,) and that, too, after giving its share of fruit to visitants. One Halifiix, at the 3rd year's cultivation, yielded a half bushel of grapes; another at the 5th year, a bushel; and another grafted one at the 4th year's growth, one ami a half bushels. (One bushel of Halifiix berries in racemes, makes more than three gallons of wine; if pulled from racemes, would make as much as Scuppernonir, I presume.) And considering the space occupied by the foregoing vines, I believe the yield full as great for the ground, as that of the Scuppernong above-named. By the tacts of warning against disappointment of success in clover culture, in our southern sandy soils, 1 would not be understood to discourage 92 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No, 2 sowing clover in the spring, in ordinary soutliern soils. The state of North Carolina is now p;oing ahead in clover culture in many sections ol' the country, through the light thrown thereon by our agricultural periodicals. Last summer, I saw as fine a field of clover as ever I beheld, on the plan- tation of Mr. Massenburgh, a very intelligent, en- terprising farmer, near Louisburgh, N. C; and if I recollect his information, he was not even indebt- ed to plaster of Paris (or his success. My excel- lent and intelligent neighbor, Mr. William Thome, has successfully cultivated clover for several years; but the first year he commenced would have been a total failure, had he not resorted to a dressing of plaster. A long dry spell came on in the sum- mer, after he had sowed a bushel of clover seed in the spring, and his young clover vvas apparently killed; but the plaster revived it, and a very fine crop was the consequence of its resuscitation. S. VVellkr. OJV GRAPE AXD SILK CULTURE. To Sidney Weller, Esq. Columbia, S. C, March 8, 1S38. Dear Sir — I have, yesterday, received 3'our obliging letter of the 26th ult., and also three small cuttings of your grape vine, which you call '-Hali- liix," and which I propose to call "Weller,'" after you. It is perfectly fair to name plants, or fruit of great value, by tho name of the person who intro- duces them, not only into notice, but takes great pains to extend theirculture. By thismeans, bene- factors of mankmd have their names honorably transmitted to poslerit}'. I am glad that your opinion coincides with mine, as relates to the culture of the vine and silk at the same time by the same person. There are, perhaps, no two articles of culture, the prosecution of which interferes as little widi each other; for at the very lime that the silk worms require all the attention and care necessary to their wellare, the vineyard should not be entered, and indeed with the proper degree of industry required in the culture of any thing, the vines must be, durin;^that short period, in such a stale as not to require any thinir being done to them. Besides this coincidence, as to lime, much is to be done in the vineyard that requires more attention than strength; so that ihe same persons who are aderjuate to the cares of the silk- worms, are also sulncient to do much that is re- quired in the vineyard. What sources of wealth and comlijris will, I hope, be some day produced, hy the joint culture of these two valuable articles. They are the more valuable that they require no capital of any amount to be established, provided there are larger proprietors in the neighborhood. These would 'dlways be ready and willing to pur- chase of their poorer neighbors, their cocoons and the grapes of their own raisings; and these would gradually learn the arts of preparing the silk iur market, and of making wine, secundum artem, as their profit would, in time, afford them the means of forming suitable establishments for these purposes. Another great advantage attending these cultures, so as to make them suitable for the poorer class of farmers as well as the richer ones, is that both these articles of culture, require land only of in- ferior quality for their fijllest success. It is cer- tainly a fact that the wines produced on poor light lands, are of a superior quality to those produced on richer clay lands. I have no experience in the culture of silk sufficient to enable me to speak of my own knowledge; but the books I have read on the subject, state the fact clearly and distinctly, that the mulberry leaves produced on poor land pro- duce finer and superior silk. Here are, then, two objects as valuable, if not more so, than any other yet cultivated in this country, which offer the in- calculable advantage of leaving the richer lands for other necessary articles of culture. I regret much that I am too old to hope to see the immense benefits, which our country will derive llrora the culture of silk and the vine. ( VVe are never at a loss for finding a good reason for wishing to live long.) There is, 1 think, another object of rural economy that would harmonize well with the two mentioned above, and would tend to the great comfort of the Cultivator, and that is the dairy. It appears to me that a dairy establishment would scarcely interftjre at all, either with the raising of silk or of wine, and it would undoubtedly add much to the convenience and comforts, not only ol' the cultivators, but also of all the country around. I liad no idea at all of writing on these subjects, wiien I began to write; but my pen would go on, and I gave it its way. I merely intended to say, that I had received the three grape cuttings you were so obliging as to send me; that I gave one of them to one of my neighbors, who is also a zealous cultivator of the vine, and that I grafted the other two. I hope the box you are sending, will also arrive safe and in due season. I am respectfully, sir, your ohd't. serv't. N. Hereebioist. MR. WELLER S WINE. We lately received from Mr. Weller, two bottles of wine, made by him from the native grapes referred to in the foregoing and a previous communication. One was labelled "Scuppernong," and the other, "Hahfax Grape;" and both were of the pure juice of these grapes, except for the addition of sugar before fermen- tation. The two wines were tasted and drunk, not at the same time, but at times a week apart; and there- fore we may have been mistaken in supposing that there was no difference in the flavor; nor was there any appa- rent difference in any other respect. From this close resemb]ance,it would seem that it is the process used, and not any peculiar quality of either grape, which gives character to this wine. Though fond of good wine, we make not the slightest pretension to the character of a connoisseur, and therefore our opinion on this sub- ject may be worth very little. But according to that opinion, this wine is the most delicious drink that we have ever enjoyed. It is altogether unlike any known imported wine, except champagne, which it resembles in flavor, color, and transparency, but not in sparkling, as these are "still" wines. Eut what is most remarkable and admirable in them, is the preser- vation, in a high degree, of the sweet and rich scent of ripe muscadine grapes. Mr. Weller's wine has more of saccharine flavor, and less alcohol, than would please regular drinkers. It is altogether 1S38] FARMERS' REGISTER. 93 diiFerent, in color aiul flavor, (and often too in in- gredients,) from what is sold under the nameof Scup- pernong wine; and it would be judged of very erro- neously, if considered as merely a superior kind of the liquor generally sold as Scuppernong, or other com- mon home-made wine, whether the latter be really principally a product of tire grape, or merely a facti- tious compound. KEMARKS 0\ SOME PARTS OF BIR. GARNETT S ADDRESS. Communicated for publication in the Fanners' Register. Coluvibia, S. C, Feb. I7ih, 1S38. J. M. Garnett, Esq. My dear Sir — I have read with much plea- sure, approbation and benefit, your "Address to the Agricultural Society ot" Fredericksburg," pub- lished in the last "Farmers' Register," and take advantage of a very cold morning, when I cannot go out, to make a few observations on some part of'it. (I cali this a cold morning; my thermome- ter was yesterday at 66° and it is now 32'', 9 o'clock A. M.; and now, when I finished writing, 3 P. M., it is 34°, although the sun has been shin- ing ever since morning. The account of your experiments on corn are very interesting, and it is very desirable that far- mers and planters generally would do the same. Besides the advantages expected from experi- ment, such as the obtaining better and more pro- ductive varieties of the articles experimented upon, there is another great one, which is, that it has a tendency of producing a habit of careful culture and of observation; tor the experimentor naturally wishes to succeed in what he undertakes, and will pay, in the conducting of his experiments, more care and attention than he would do in the ordi- nary course of his pursuits. He may do this un- consciously; and even in this he is benefited by the habits acquired by it. Agriculture being the real business of this country, particularly of the southern states, every effort should be made that has a tendency to produce a state as nearly approaching perfection as is practicable, by every means in our power. The aim of a shoemaker should be to become as great at his trade as he can; thai of a lawyer to gain, by fair and honest means, as ma- ny causes lor his clients as he can, that he may have an opportunity of reaching the first rank in his profession, and finally, to be at the very head of it. It is so with every pursuit, and we ought to keep the old adage in remembrance, "that what is worth doing at all, is worth being done well." Now, sir, as v/ithout agriculture, we can have nothing to eat, except what nature spontaneously affords, nor any clothing to keep us warm such cold weather as this, it ibilows that, if every man is not an agricultor, he is interested in the success of agriculture, as much so as he who pursues it as his profession. The natural and fair conclusion of this indi-sputable mode of reasoning is, that every , indi\idual in the country is interested in having I agriculture carried up to as high a degree of perfect tion as it is possible. This renders the thought- llees folly of our legislatures in relusing any and every sort of encouragement and assistance to eo useful and essentially beneficial a profession as agriculture, unaccountable, and I hesitate not to say, criminal. AVe may, it is true, find some ex- cuse lor such members of our legislatures us are not agriculturists, and that is that they do not know the wants of those that are, nor in what manner due encouragement and assistance are to be afforded. This excuse, however, does not reach the agriculturists themselves, who have much in their power to promote the great interest of the country and neglect doing so. The princi- ple of ^^laissez-nous faire,^^ which is by some in- sisted upon, does not apply here to its tlill extent, because, before we can carry on any business pro- perly, there must be capital and stock in trade pro- videil, and the doctrine of "/a/ssez-no«s/aire" (let us alone) will not go far in procuring these; for they are chiefly knowledge promoted by a judi- cious application of pecuniary means and judicial enactments. The elements of agriculture should be taught in every school, and a professorship es- tablished in every college, that this most essential science in this country should be understood in some degree by every person in it; for there is no useless knowledge, and the professional man and mechanic who reside in cities can be but benefit- ed by any extent of knowledge in a business like this, although ii does not apply directly or imme- diately to the objects of their pursuits. This brings me to notice this most shameful fact for the United States, a country which is able to furnish bread to a great portion of the civilized world, that they have received, within a year or two, grain from Europe to the enormous amount of $5,333,- 962, as stated by you in your address. But, sir, you may not be aware that there is a considerable and shamellil great addition to the amount of agricultural product imported from Europe into this country, to be added to your statement: That is, that a considerable quantity of hay has been lor a couple of years imported to Charleston, not merely from the northern States, but from Europe. I believe, that notwithstanding this strange article of importation, there are few countries in the world better calculated for the production of the grasses and the making of hay, than South Caro- lina, and yet we import it and pay lor it sometimes as high as .§2 50, or even $3 per hundred weight. Wealthy as this state may be in its other agricul- tural productions, can the dilTiculties of the pre- sent times be a matter of surprise? It is only to be wondered at, thiit we have not suffered much more. It will probably be thought that I am of a querulous disposition, which may be true; at any rate, 1 hope you will not accuse me of this your- seli; lor if you did, I would say you have awaken- ed the fit in me. Our excuse, is a very natural and aged one, that we have for many years made all the exertions in our power to produce a better state of things, and that, besides, it belongs to our time of life to bear such things somewhat impa- tiently. This being my acknowldeged infirmity, I beg my friends to put up with it as well as they can, in consideration of the undoubted good mo- tives that prompts it. There is, however, in the ways of the world, as relates to agricultural affairs, enough to vex the patience of even younger men. The very great liberality of the Editor of the Farmer's Register, in lately proposing to render his most invaluable u FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 2 publication, considerably cheaper than it is now, by additional subscribers, induced me, during the late session of our legislature, to make as much exertion as my leeble health would permit, and I had full expectation to succeed to some extent. Another subject, however, had taken hold of uur representatives, and nothing could be noticed by them, but a subject upon which they could not le- gislate, and which ninety-nine hundredths of them did not at all understand, viz.: the currency. The consequence was a total disappointment; and noth- ins to which my etiort tended was effected. I also endeavored to procure some aid of the marl dis- tricts of this state, from the members from that part of the country; but, as I could not mingle currency and banks, or no banks and the svblren- sury scheme, I could not draw the least attention on the subject I wished to promote. I see, by a short communication, near the end of the last number of the Farmers' Register, by the Honorable F. H. Elmore, who is truly deserving of the epithet prefixed to the names of the members of con- gress, and a great friend to agriculture, that he sent a small specimen of marl to the editor, whose observations and well deserved reproofs on the in- attention paid by the agriculturists of the lower part of the state to so valuable a resource at their hand, and which they totally neglect, and that his (the editor's) "request, advice, and instruction have not served to induce a single cultivator to marl even so much as an acre of land." "Truly," (continues he) "we have but small encourage- ment to persevere in offering to them advice and instruction." Is it not surprising, my dear sir, how difficult it is to introduce any thing new, or improvements in our habitual practices? and this is more especi- ally true in agriculture. It is not that they doubt the efficacy of the use of marl and other carbon- ates of lime, so much as that it is a deviation from their usual practice; for none of those to whom I have mentioned the great benefit derived else- where from its use, have shown any sign of dis- belief, and the only objection that I could ever observe, was the necessity of making some exer- tion in a waydifferent from their usual course, and also the expense attending it; although this last would not have been a material objection, if it could have been effected by merely paying the money. Although I agree very well, generally, with you in your views of agricultural things and poli- cy, yet there is one subject on which I cannot go so far as you do. You seem inclined to the opin- ion that, in the cultivation of corn, the cutting of the roots by the plough and other instruments is benficial to its growth. I admit with you that generally the benefit obtained from the ploughing out-does the disadvantage of cutting the roots; but I think that the corn does well, not in conse- quence of the roots being cut ; but in spite of this mutilation. The land being in good heart, and stirred deep, has undoubtedly, the state of weather being favorable to thesti'ength, caused many small roots with their spongioles to push from the ends of the mutilated old roots, and by this the crop does not seem to suffer. I have often seen, after such a ploughing, the weather being unfavorable, the corn to be much injured, by what is usually called "firing," which I attributed, perhaps erro- neously, to the roots having been cut when the corn waff not able to produce afresh supply of them. The producing of these new roota with their spongioles is, however, in every case, an effort ol" the plant, which might probably be other- wise applied to other useful purposes to the plant's weiliu'c. It is true we have no experi- ments that 1 know of tending directly to prove or disprove clearly and distinctly my opinion; but I tliink the experiment of Mr. James Camak, of Georgia, goes far to prove on one side of the ques- tion, that the roots of the corn never being cut in the course of its growth, is not an obstacle to the producing of a large crop. You know that his experiment was, first to plough his ground well and deep, plant his corn, and when it was only a lew inches higher, to give it a sligb.t hoeing, and then cover tlie whole field with leaves from the woods, three, four or five inches thick, and then let the field alone without any further work at all, till it was fit to be gathered. By this method, he obtained more than double the quantity of corn usually produced by the land. Now, I was for- merly personally well acquainted with Mr. Ca- mak, and know him fully deserving of confidence in his assertions, and incapable of wilfully assert- ing that which was not most strictly true. His plan of cultivating corn is only practicable in new settled countries, where the abundance of forests affords a full supply of leaves, of which a very great quantity is required to cover a field. The cultivators in the old settled states, have put it out of their power, by their unprovidence in most wastefully desti'oying their timber; but it seems to me that this experiment favors my opinion very strongly. There are many other parts of your most use- ful and interesting address, on which 1 intended making a few observations; but as these would have been of little Vv^orth, and that you must be tired of reading this long epistle, 1 shall close it here by assuring you that I am, most respectfully, Dear sir, your obd't. serv't. N. Herbemont. Extract from the London Farmers' Magazine. JERUSALEM ARTICHOKES. I was determined to prove whether or not they could be cultivated to greater advantage than the potatoe, as food for cattle. One sack was con- sumed by a young calf at hand; it eat them with avidity, and improved on them. I took the other two sacks, and planted them in the midst of a five acre piece of potatoes. I set them without cut- ting,— measuring correctly an eighth part of an acre; the pi'oduce was in proportion to 630 bushels per acre, — the potatoes 327 bushels. The follow- ing year, the memorable one of 1826, I planted half an acre on a piece of thin gravel, old tillage land, in its regular course of preparation for a vege- table crop after wheat; they maintained their ver- dure through that extraordinary dry summer, and produced 150 bushels; but the potatoes by the side of them were completely set fast; they never form- ed a bulb. The year following, I set an acre on part of the same kind of soil, but of better quality; it produced 570 bushels, without any dung. A half acre on the same land, with the usual quanti- ty of dung for turnipf;, produced 290 bushels (a 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER 95 bad compensation for eight loads of excellent dunif.) This present season-, an acre on tiie same land (part of my turiiip-l;iiiows) produced 57(5 bushels, but the wet state ol" the soil when talcen up, and beinfi a veiretable of uneven surlace, which causes the soil to aelhere to it more than to a potaloe, renders it dillicult to cotne at the exact quantity. From an experiment ( made of wash- ing a sack, I can safely assert, I have 580 bushels of clean roots; whilst the vegetables on our flat gravels do not equal this by full 50 per cent, in value, except the polatoe, which produced 308 bushels on the same soil. I never- could raise more in favorable seasons. "The cultivation of the artichoke is the same as of the potatoe, except that it re(]uires to be set ear- ly— not later than March; if laid above ground all winter, it is proof against the severest frost. When once cleaned, no weed can live in its dense shade; horses, beasts, and sheep consume it with avidity; pigs prefer a potatoe to it in its raw state, but prefer the artichoke when boiled or steamed. It attracts the game in a most extraordinary way; they resort to its shade in autumn; it forms one of the finest covers in nature. We are so fortunate as to have but little game in our lordships; I do not recollect ever having seen even a Swedish turnip bitten by a hare or rabbit, notwithstandinij; fhe}^ will consume the artichokes left by the men in securing them. If potatoes can be profitably cultivated as food for cattle, compared with Swedish turnips, nian- gelwurtzel, the sugar beet, &c. (which I nmch doubt,) the artichoke is vastly superior to them. The expense of culture is no more; it is not liable to be injured by frost; can be taken up at pleasure; it produces at least 30 per cent, more, and on poor land full 50 per cent., is far more nutritious, and leaves the land perfectly clean. The only objec- tion that can be urged against their cultivation for cattle in competition with potatoes, is, that they require more care in taking them up. The frost not acting upon them so as to destroy vegetation, what are missed will, of course, grow among the succeedincr crop, but I have found very little incon- venience in this respect." From the British Farmer's Magazine. RENEFtCIAL EFFECTS OF BONE MANURE. The very interesting details of the efficacy of the bones of animals when employed as manure, as set forth in Mr. Johnson's paper in your last number, induces me to trouble you with a short relation of their lasting effects on a small farm with which I was intimately connected. On the northern slope of the river Colne. which separates the counties of Buckinghamshire and Middlesex, and within a mile or two of the town of Rickmersworth, lies a little farm which is famed for its great fertility. The lands on each side of this little Goshen were of the same quality, had the same south-east aspect, and were in every respect simdar to the little farm itself; but the crops on this were invariably and constantly better than on the neighboring fields. It was an appen- dage to a much larger farm at some several miles' distance, at which the owner resided, and at which his numerous flocks and herds were kept; except a score' or two of store sheep, which were occasionally sent to have the run of the leys and stubbles of the small liirm. The system of cropping was the same on this as on the purrounding farms, namely, the five- course: — fallow lor turnips — barley and seeds — clo- ver mowed twice — wheat — oats. But whatever were the crops, they were always superior, and created envious feelings among the surrounding liirmers. I, as one of these, set my head to work, to discover what local circumstance could possibly render this spot more productive than the Iand3 adjoining. It was, like all other land sloping to the east, of a deeper staple, and a finer loam, than the more abrupt and gravelly or rocky slopes which faced the westward. For this is a geologi- cal tact, and observable over all the continents of Europe, Africa, Asia, and America, that the west- ern sides of all their hills are more precipitous than the eastern; and the western shores of these con- tinents are more abrupt and broken than the eastern. This has been accounted for by the supposition that the grand current of the Noachian deluge flowed from the westward, washing hare the western sides of hills and continents, and deposit- ing the finer earths, thus removed, on the eastera slopes, as we find them at the present day. That the surface of the little farm we are no- ticing was oi' this diluvial deposit, was very evi- dent; bat not more so than the other lands to the south and north of it; and yet, as already staled, it was of superior fertility. In questioning an aged laborer who had long been employed on and about the said farm, as to- how long it had had the character of being emi- nently productive? he answered, ever since it was farmed by the grandfather of the present owner^ who, he said, was a very curious man in his farm- ing; for he not only chalked all his land, but limed it fi-equendy for turnips. And besides laying on it all the yard dung, he used to buy all other kinds of dress he could muster from the skinners and curriers of the neighborino; town. But. above all, he used to collect bones from all the dog kennels around, had them broken into small pieces with sledge hammers, and spread them upon, and ploughed them into, the land, for an}'- crop he wished to raise; and this he continued to do as long as he lived. At his death this dressing with bones was given up; his son thinking them of no great value; and the larger farm at which he resided engrossing his chief attention, the small larm was but seldom visited, notwithstanding it still continued to main- tain its old character. The operations of the grandfather in improving his little farm, must have been carried on about 1765, and were almost forgotten till about fifteen years ago. when a Lincolnshire bailiff was hired to superintend the business of a large farm in the immediate neighborhood. This stranger began his improvements by applying crushed bones upon his turnip fallows, and upon some of his upland meadows. And when this was observed by the old laborer before alluded to, he declared that it reminded him of what he had seen done when he was a boy, by his old master on the little farm. The discussions which took place among the farmers, as to the efi'ects and value of bone ma- nure, as recom.mended by the Lincolnshire bailiff, 96 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 2 nnd the reports which appeared weekly in "The Farmer's Journal," produced a conviction in the minds of every one acquainted with the history of the little farm, that its extra feriiiity arose entire- !v from the great quantity of bones which had been imbedded in it so many years before. And it was Pirons proof of wiiat was asserted by the bailiff, that their eflect as manure would last for forty years. The ai)ove account is a corroboration of what now appears to be a very general opinion respect- ing the use of bones as a powerful and lasting manure; and in this instance, the imperfect man- ner in which the bones were broken, has caused them to act more permanently than if they had been crushed inio dust. Vkkitas. EXTRACTS FROM THE Rr^PORT ON TIIK AGRI- CUI/rURK OF F.SSEX, MASS., 1837. ' By the Rev. Henry Colman. Essex county lies at tlie north-eastern part of Massachusetts; and is bounded on the northwest by New Hampshire ; on the east and northeast by the Atlantic Ocean ; and southeast by P»Iassachu- setts Bay ; and on the southwest by the county of Middlesex. Ir embraces in extent 360 square miles. Its population in 18.30 was 82.8S7: iis pre- sent population 93,689 ; being about 260 inhabi- tants to a square mile, it contains twenty-six towns. It is intersected throucrh its whole width by the river Merrimack, which empties into Mas- sachusetts Bay at Newburyporr; and the rivers Shawsheen and Agawam or Ipswich. Parker and Saugus rivers are likewise found, but are in- considerable in length and magnitude. The general surface of the county is uneven ; but there are no hills of great elevation, and few, which may not be cultivated to theif summits. The county, for lis whole length on the eastern side, is washed by the Atlantic Ocean. Cape Cod, its eastern extremity, projects into the sea, a distance of sixteen miles; and the coast is lined with a rocky shore or extensive beaches ; and pierced by innumerable inlets and creeks, on which are extensive tracts of salt alluvial meadow. The county abounds likewise in tracts of a greater or less extent of iresh meadow or peat-bog. A con- siderable amount of this land has been drained; and by the application of sand, gravel or loam to its surface, has been converted into profitable niowinir. Much of this same description of land remains fo he redeemed; and will fully compensate fijr the expenditure, which this improvement may require. There are considerable tracts on the Atrawam river, the waters of which are forced back by the mdl-dams thrown across it near its mouth, which must be regarded as irreclaimable while those ob- structions remain. The climate of Essex county is affected by its maritime situation. The proportion of snow which falls m the course of the year is considerably less than falls in the interior and western parts of the state ; the proportion of moisture in the form of vapor, snow, and rain, is greater. The degree of cold is sometimes as intense, but not as long con- tinued. The spring is in advance of the interior of the state generally, from a week to a fortnight; and the frosts, excepting in some particular locali- ties, are not so early, nor severe. For healthi- ness, as far as this may be determined by the ta- bles of longevity, this county may be safely com- pared with any part of the known world. The whole number of acres in Essex county according to the report? of the valuation commit- tee in 1831, is as follows: Tillage, 14,113 English and Upland mowing, - 31,947 Fresh meadow . - . . 15,471 Salt marsh, 14,139 Pasturao-e, 100,309 Wood, ' _ - - . . 22,058 Unimproved, _ . . . 34,281 Unimprovable, _ _ . - 10,417 Owned by towns and other proprietors, 3,604 In roads, . - - . _ 6,606 Covered with water, . _ - 17,176 Total, 270,121 The soil of Essex countv is of a primitive for- mation; and of various characters. There is a lo- cality of limestone mentioned by the geological surveyor in Newbury and Bradford; but if is be- lieved of small extent. There is little purely san- dy land excepting on the sea-shore. There are extensive tracts of peat-bog. The soil on the sea-shore among the projecting clilTs and ledges, on the peninsulas and islands on the coast, with the exception of Plum Island, which is almost un- mixed sand, is a deep rich loam, highly produc- tive in grass, corn, oats, and potatoes. On the main eastern road from Salem to the extreme line of t'le country, there prevails generally a gravelly loam from six inches to a foot in depth; not difii- cult to be worked ; and productive under good cultivation. The lands bordering on the Merri- mack are much broken; but the hills are gene- rally rounded, of not difTicult ascent, and com- po?ed of a rich dark clayey loam. They ordina- rily produce good crops of wheat, barley, corn, oats, and potatoes. This variety of soil embraces an extent of three or four miles from the river on the south side. On the west side the land is much more charged with sand, and is not so fer- tile. With the exception of a considerable tract in Haverhill and an island of fifty acres lying be- low the bridge in Haverhill, there is no fresh allu- vial meadow on the river. The towns in the in- terior of the county are of various character, in some places presenting long strips and high emi- nences of rich clayey and gravelly loam ; and in other parts a broken, thin, hnnfrry. and stony soil, the cultivation of which is difficult and unproduc- tive. The primitive forests have been long since removed; but there are extensive tracts of' wood in different parts of the country. The maritime parts are principally supplied with fuel by impor- tations of wood from Maine, or coal from Penn- sylvania. The interior have a supply from their own wood lots; or their peat-bogs, the value of which is becoming more highly appreciated. The soil has in parts of the country liecome ex- hausted; and in no part of it can it be advantage- ously cultivated without manure. The stony and rocky character of the soil is in some places an impediment to cultivation; but a large proportion 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 97 of the land in tlie coimly is already under partial improvement or susceptible at |)rcsent prices of labor, while present prices of produce remain, of profitable culture. The county is well watered; and contains seve- ral ponds of some extent, the scenery in the ncinrh- borhood of which is picturesque and beautiful. Some of the situalionson the Merrimack and ma- ny on the sea-shore arc commandinij^ in their |)o- sition, and present views of large extent and great variety and beauty. The firmers in Essex are particularly favored in respect to markets. Boston is easily accessible to most parts ol' this county, being from its tiirthest point not more than forty miles distant; and the large commercial and manufacturing towns of Sa- lem, Lynn, Newburyport, Marblehead, Danvers, and Lowell, furnish a ready demand for whatever (he farmer will produce. 01' the whole popula- tion in Essex, there is reason to believe that not one-fifth part are engaged, properly speaking, in agriculture. The remaining four parts are con- sumers, not producers. The county of Essex is essentially a commercial and manufacturing dis- trict. Besides what may be called marketing, in- cluding the selling of hay, she sends no agricultu- ral produce away ; and she imports largely of bread-stuffs, vegetables, dairy-produce, mutton, beef and pork, together with a greatamount of oats and corn for horse-feed. Rye is cultivated to a small extent, and tlie bread of the population is almost entirely corr.posed of the superfine flour of western New York and the middle states. Size of farms. — The average size of the farms in Essex, will not exceed one hundred acres, and farms of three or four hundred acres are scarcely to be found. The population of the county be- coming daily more numerous, the land is continu- ally undergoing subdivisions; and a large propor- tion of the persons engaged in the manufacturing and mechanic arts, are anxious to secure to them- selves small parcels of land, for the sake of keep- ing a cow or raising their own fruits and vege- tables. Farming in the county is scarcely pursued as a distinct or exclusive profession; but as subsidiary to some other business or pursuit. In this way it has been eminently conducive to health, and pro- ductive of innumerable comforts; but no fair ex- periment has been made of it under the fair ad- vantages of capital and labor and exclusive en- terprise and attention, as matter ol' pecuniary in- come and profit. From the same. SALT HAY, A large amount of salt hay is cut in the county. The marshes in Saugus, Lytm, Essex, Ipswich. Rowley, Newbury, and Salisbury, are extensive and productive. The grasses produced on the salt marshes are various m kind and value. I prefer to give the common names, though these names may be re- garded as local and provincial. Black grass — deemed the best product: grows on the higher parts of the marsh, where it is only occasionally flooded by the tide; it is often thick and heavy, and it is desirable that it should be cut early. When well cured it is much relished by cat- Vol. \T-13 tie; and deemed of almost equal value as tlie best English hay. I have seen this grass growing luxuriantly high up on the upland, where the seed was dropped from the cart; ana it vvould be well worth tiie experiment to lest its value as a culti- vated urass in such locations. A liu-mcr in Ips- wich is of opinion, that if tiiis grass is not cut very early, it should be cut very late, after the season of the Hy has passed, which is apt to impregnate it, and occasion maggots in the mow, oH'ensive to cattle. Other farmers deem this matter of little moment. The cattle themselves ought to be judges in the case. The next grass is the red grass or fox grass, a very fine reedy grass, abundant and excellent. The next is goose grass, deemed excellent, but not abundant. Sheep, it is said, will entirely de- stroy this grass, if sufi'ered to feed on the marshes. Branch grass, a short reedy grass, resembling much the tbx grass, and by some persons pro- nounced the same; it branches much, and from this circumstance derives its name; it is not abun- dant, but the hay is much valued. Sedge, a pointed long flat- leaf, grows in low places and on the sides of creeks, much valued when not too large. Thatch, a grass differing little from sedge, which grows in creeks as high as the tide rises; and is cut principally lor litter or manure. The average ])roduct of well-managed salt marshes is from three-fourths of a ton to one and a quarter ton. The hay is valued at half the price of English hay. In Salem and Boston markets, where it'is purchased for a change of diet or to be mixed with English, it usually bring two-thirds of the price of English. The farmers in the interior of the county, even at a distance of fifteen miles or more from the sea-shore, are glad to own or hire a piece of salt marsh, considering a portion of this fodder of great service to the health of their stock. A shrewd farmer in Lynn considers salt hay as worth five dollars a ton, merely to spread upon his grass land for manure. His judgment is to be relied on. It is stated likewise that those fiirmers, who carry it into the interior in a green state and cure it in their fields, find this process almost equal to a top- dressing of maimre. This comes undoubtedly from the salts, which it deposites. The quantity of salt hay which is cut, enables the larmers to sell much of their English hay, without injury to their farms. These lands, according to their situation, are valued at from ten to fii'ty dollars per acre. Their value is likely to be much increased in many places from improvements of which I shall speak presently. Considerable quantities of fresh meadow or swale hay is cut; but it is composed of aquatic plants, which contain little nourishment; and is of comparatively little value. The manure of cattle liid upon it or littered with it is of inferior quality. From the same. ASHGS AS BIANURE. The farmers on Long Island have been accus- tomed to send to towns on our sea-shore, to Mar- blehead lor example, to purchase for their wheat fields, our leeched ashes, at ten cents per bushel; 98 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 2 these contain a good deal of lime, which had been used by the soapboilers.* They ascertained that there was an advantage in it. It is known likewise, that foreign agents are visiting different towns and places on the sea -board, to purchase the refuse bones, and the animal carbon, after it has been used by the sugar refineries, in order to enrich the wheat fields in Europe, which have been, for the last two years, to a considerable ex- tent, and to our great disgrace, the granaries ol the United States. From tlie same. NEAT CATTLE. Essex county is not a ijrazing territory. Few cattle are raised in it. The stock generally to be found in it is what is called our "native stock,'* which is a mixture of no certain oriiiin; but in which the Devon race ijreatly preponderates. Some cows, which have been owned in Essex, have probably never been exceeded, for their dai- ry produce, by any in any part of the country. The Oakes cow, owned in Dnnvers, made in 181--.', 180 lbs. of butter, in 1814, 300 lbs.; in 1815, over 400 lbs.; in 1816, 484^ lbs. At the same time, the family reserved one quart of milk per day for their own use; and she suckled four calves four weeks each in the course of those years. She made in one week 19j lbs. butter; and she ave- raged over 16 lbs. of butter per week, for three months in succession. The Nourse cow, owned in North Salem, made 20 lbs. of butter in one week; and averaixed 14 lbs. butter per week for four successive months. The Haverhill heifer, two to three years old, produced 14 lbs. of butter in a week after her calf was killed at six weeks old: and more than 18 lbs. of butter in the ten days after her calf was killed. These cows were all of native stock. The largest amount of milk given in one day by the Oakes cow, is 44-| lbs. In the case of the two first cows, they were fed in the most liberal man- ner, with meal and their own skim milk. In the case of the heifer, the feed was grass and pump- kins. I subjoin a list ofa few other cows in the county, whose yield is well authenticated. 1. Cow owned by John Barr, in Salem. In 274 days the weight ol milk was 7611 lbs. 1822. No. of quarts, beer measure, 2965.^- 1823. In 268 days, weight of milk was 7-517 lbs. No. of quarts, beer measure, 2923. The sales from this cow, including the calf at 5 dollars, and milk at 5 cents per quart, in 1822, was $153.25. In 1823, iB151.15. 2. Cow. John Stone, Marblehead. From June to October, this cow averaged 11 lbs. of but- ter per week. 3. Cow. N. Pierce, Salem. 3,528 quarts milk per year, — nearly 10 quarts per day. 4. Jeremiah Stickney, Rowley. 19 quarts dai- ly; calf at six weeks old weighed 196 lbs. — gain 2} lbs. per day. * And also, a much larger proportion of the car- bonate and phosphate of lime, as original ingredients of all wood-ashes.— Ed. Far. Reg. 5. Cow. Isaac Osgood, Andover. 17 quarts of milk per day; made 50 lbs. of butter in the month of June. 6. Cow. S. Noah, Danvers. In 148 days from 2d iMay, gave 587|- gallons milk; — more than four gallons per day for that time. 7. Cow. T. Flanders, Haverhill. From 20th April to 22d September, besides 46| gallons milk used for flimily, made 163 lbs. 4 oz. butter. 8. Cow. Daniel Putnam, Danvers. " This cow calved iNlay 21st. The calf was sold June 20th for .S7 621. during the 30 days that the calf sucked there were made from her milk 17 lbs. of butter. From June 20th to September 26th (14 weeks) she gave 3370 lbs. of milk, or more than 34 lbs. 6 oz. per day. The greatest quanti- ty on any one day was 45 lbs., or 17^ quarts, 'i'lie weight ol a quart of her milk is 2 lbs. 9 oz. The greatest qaaiitity in one week was 288 lbs. The quantity of butler made in the same 14 weeks 'was 139 lbs. The greatest amount in one week was 12 lbs. 2oz." 9. Cow. Owned by William Osborn, Salem, The milk of this cow fiotn January 24th to April 10th, was 3127 lbs., vaiying from 33 to 48 lbs. per day, averaging 40^^ lbs. per day during that time. 10. Cow. Owned by Richard Eliot, Danvers. This cow's milk gave 16 lbs. of butter in one week; and she yielded on an average from 15 to 18 quarts per day, beer measure, lor a length of time. All these cows were what is denominated our native stock. An intelligent gentleman, the own- er of an extraordinary cow in the interior, remarks, in a letter detailing her yield, what is highly im- portant to be remembered. '' From the expe- rience I have had with this cow, I feel quite sure that many cows, which have been considered quite ordinary, might, by kind and gentle treat- ment, good and regfiZar "feeding, and proper care in milking, have ranked among the first rate." The yield of a cow now owned in Andover, is remarkable. Her origin is not known, but her appearance indicated a mixed blood; and I was led to believe she partook ol' the Yorkshire blood, a race of cattle which I have found in the neigh- borhood of Moultenboro' and Canterbury, N. H., but whose introduction I am not able to trace. In 1836, besides supplying the family with cream and milk, there were sold 127^ gallons milk at 14 cenis per gallon, ijpl7 88 166 lbs. butter at 25 cents, 41 50 Calf sold, 8 00 867 38 " The keeping was good pasture and swill of (he house, including the skim milk, with three pints of meal per day." These statements show, in a strong light, the difference between a good and a poor cow; and the utility oi" liberal keeping. The difference in the butter properties of diH'er- ent cows is not generally considered. In a yard of five cows, upon repeated trials, made at similar times, and as near as could be under the same circumstances, by a farmer in this county, the dif- lerence in the yield of cream upon 9 inches of milk, was found to be as 13 to 3. Attempts have been made to introduce some improved foreign stocks into the county; the Al- derney, the Holderness, and the improved Dur- ham short-horn. These experiments are report- 1838] FA II ME US' REGISTER. 99 f ed to have been satisfactory to those who have made them; but. I have been unable to procure any exact returns. Admiral Sir Isaac Collin pre- sented a valuable improved Durham short-horn bull and cow to the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, which were placed on the farm of a gen- tleman in Salem, who retains some of the lialf- blood stock. The amount of the yield in milk of this short-horned cow is mislaid ; but the owner states from recollection, '' that her milk nicrht and morning, weighed 48 lbs., when she had nothing more than pasture feed in June." Respecting this stock, the gentleman adds, — " In my ojiinion, they combine the two qualities of milk and beef in a greater deirree, than any other stock I am ac- quainted with. With me, the pure bloods, and a large proportion of the mixed blood, have proved great milkers, and, when not in milk, take on flesh very rapidly. I have slaughtered two half-blood heilt?rs, which have weiirhed at four years old over 700 lbs. A pair of half-blood steers, at four years old, became so very fit from common keep, that I was induced to dispose of them to the butch- ers; they weighed 1100 lbs. each. The greatest objection to tliem, in ray opinion, is, that they in- cline to go dry a longer time than our native stock." My own experience differs somewhat from the respectable authority just given. I have had some of the full-blood and some of the mixed breed; and I am not able to say anything in favor of their milking properties. I have seen some re- markably fine specimens of early maturity and thrift among them; and more beautiful models of cattle than some specimens which I have seen of them, I believe are no where to be met with. Another public-spirited gentleman, in Bradford, imported some of this fine stock for his farm. His expectations do not appear to have been fully an- swered, though I was not able to obtain any exact information of their yield in milk or butter. From the letter of his correspondent, whom he employ- ed to procure these fine animals for him without limit as to expense, I extract as follows. " I nuist observe that this breed ol'stock has not been held, of late years, in great estimation for milkincr." He adds, that ''short-horns are only calculated for the best and most powerful land; on poor soils they will do nothing. The most improved plan of keeping them in winter is to have them loose in open warm hovels, two or four together. The bulls you will find it necessary to keep inaltoijellier, from one year old. The milch cows are kept at the stake in enclosed houses; and turned out a short lime in the day time — they bear the cold badly." There is another very sirona: testimony, that of Mr. Shiriff, who travelled in this country (or agri- cultural information in 1834-.5; and vvlio is pro- nounced, by one of the most eminent br.eders of the Durham short-horns in England, a farmer of the first rank. In his journal, he remarks, — " There was a fine short-horn bull, intended to improve the dairy stock, Avhich I did not see. I took the liberty of advising the cross to be tried on a small scale, believing the short-horns the worst milking breed in Britain." I give these opposite authorities, in justice to the agricultural commimity. The subject de- serves much farther inquiry, and the test of actual experiment. On this account, it were greatly to be desired, that the gentlemen who own this fine stock, and li'om the most public-spirited designs have introduced them into the country, would give the public exact statements of their product. Some oxen in the county, descended fi-om the short-horned bull Admiral in the second genera- tion are very fine cattle, in point of size, docility, condition, and work. I have seen the Importa- tions of this stock made by the Ohio Company; and it seems impossible to imagine animals of more perfect symmetry and beauty; or of better promise in point of thrift and condition. They may, however, suit far better the luxuriant mea- dows of Ohio and Kentucky, than our bleak and short pastures. From the same. MANURES. Much and increasing attention is paid through- out the county to the saving of manures and the formation of compost. Vastly more remains to be done. In many parts of the county, cellars are considered a necessary appendage to the barn, where the manure is sheltered from the sun; and, by soaie of the niost careful, from the external air likewise. A Dnnvcrs farmer, on whose good judgment 1 place great confidence, expresses his strong conviction, that the value of his manure is doubled in a dosed cellar, in comparison with it under the former mode of exposure to the sun, and air, and rain. In most of these cases, the barn is placed on a side hill; the cellar is high enough to load in and turn the team and cart; and a trap door is in the barn floor, so that bog- mud, litter, or other refuse, may be easily thrown in to be formed into compost by the store hogs, which are put there to work, and which faithfully earn their living. In two places, I found provi- sion made for saving all the liquid manure from the stalls and the barn yards. It was conveyed by gutters into a capacious cistern, from which it was occasionally pumped into a waterin, sent it to be steeped on 12th April, and used it in a wrythed hand-rail on 21st June of the same year. He cut another piece out of a loir of the same kind of mahogany on 25th March, 1833, sent it to be steeped on the 4th June, and used it in a clamptflap and frame on 30th August of the same year. On 5th July, 1834, he says, " in neither oi' the above instances has there been the least shrinking of the wood since it has been used, nor has the color of the mahoirny been at all injured by the process." It must be owned no severer trial for warping could unseasoned timber be subjected to, than in hand- railing and clampt-framing. We observe in this city that many cabinet-makers, rather than place their capital in a dormant state by storing up tim- ber to be seasoned, send it to Kyan's lank to be steeped and seasoned just as they require it. The ravages of the dry-rot among the ships of the navy are feirlui. Independently of the enor- mous cost for repairs which this disease causes to be incurred to the nation, the jeopardy in which men's lives are placed at sea in ships in a state of dry-rot is worthy of the nation's consideration. It is not uncustomary for vessels to cruise on fo- reign stations for three years, and yet many of the ships of the navy have been obliged to be docked for repairs in a shorter time than that af- ter they have been prepared ihr sea. Out of 23 seventy-fours, only nine exceeded three years be- fore they were obliged to be docked for repairs af- ter being built. The Ajax, seventy-four, was only five months at sea after being finished in 1798. The I'Achille, one year five months; and six others not exceeding two years. The Kent was longest in being docked, being seven years one month at sea. The average of the whole number did not exceed three years five months. But it is not the loss ofservice alone of such valua- ble ships when in dock that is most to be deplored, the pecuniary loss arising from repairs, entirely occasioned by the ravages of the dry-rot, is of greater importance. The hull of the Ajax cost in isss] FARMERS' REGISTJER 107 building £89,030, and alier she had only been five months at sea, ilic rcpaiis lor dry-rot cost 26,683/. The six ships that had only served two years at eea cost in buildint!: their hails in 1810, 1811, 1812, and 1813, £349,971, and afterwards in repairs lor dry-rot £297,368. Eiost extends a very little way down. It is only a thin shell, as if were, that extends deep enontrh to kill shallow-covered corn, but does no injury to corn which is covered very deep. Against this early planting, some argue that nature is a correct guide, if we would observe and follow her; and that corn should not be planted till the trees show young leaves, and weeds, grass, &c. begin to show themselves. When we see the young peaches killed by frosts more than one year in two, and often the leaves in the woods all killed by frost, it certainly gives reason to think that nature is not a sure guide as to the time of planting. But in reality, if we would fillow na- ture close,, she would give us much better direc- tions. It should be considered that the trees are, as it were, planted all winter, and all the seeds of weeds, &c. have been planted all winter; and that we should not consider the time they becrin to vegetate the proper time for planting. They re- quired a time of preparation, and corn should be planted several weeks before, that the corn may also have this time of preparation in the ground. All practical planters know that late corn should be covered deep. Every body knows that when covered shallow, if a dry spell happens, the ground becomes so dry that the seed is very long coming up, and then comes up very irregularly; that it is much more injured by birds, squirrels, worms, &c. than when covered deep. The result is a thin stand of irregular corn, and late corn replanted makes very little, every practical planter knows by experience; for the difference is very percepti- ble, that late corn should be planted deep to make good corn. This is a fact s^) plain, that it is a common maxim with practical planters; but the very common theory to explain the fact, is wild and altogether erroneous. They say, as the corn is late, plant it deep that the roots may be deep, to contend with the long dry hot days which are to come. When corn is planted, cover it deep or shallow, the seed sends out the sprout and its roots; the seed and these roots nourish the plant till it grows perhaps four inches high. It then sends out a circle of horizontal roots, just under the surface; and as soon as these roots are suffi- ciently extended to nourish the plant, all below them dies; so that whether the seed is one inch or six inches deep, by the time the plant is six inches high, the roots are of the same depth, and wholly unconnected with the seed, and all the first roots that came from it. I once pulled up some stalks of corn, and showed an old planter that all below these horizontal roots died as soon as they were extended a little in the ground; he said he was obljired to confess that he had always reasoned wrong respecting the roots of deep-covered corn being deeper than shallow-covered corn; but said he cared not for reasons; he knew the li'ct from the experience of a long file, that the later corn was planted, the deeper it sliould lie covered. If this is liict, which all will admit, that late corn covered deep will produce much more corn than shallovv-i)lanted ; ami this is fact, which every one can satisfy himself of by pulling up a stalk of corn six inches high, that it does send out this cir- cle of horizontal roots just under the surface, and all below them dies immediately. Why is deep- planted corn better for a lar-, whose skill and persevering industry are well known, and insure success. LATE WORKS OF MASSACHUSETTS IN AID OF AGRICULTURAL. IMPROVEMENT. We have received several valuable publications, which exhibit evidences of the recent progress made in Massachusetts in promoting agricultural interests, both by the action of the government and the people. In addition to the other and greater merits of these se- veral publications, one, far from unimportant, is, that they are published in the uniform and handsome form of large octavo, and the paper and typography are such as to be worthy of the subjects, and to facilitate the use, as well as to induce the binding and preservation of these and similar publications. In this minor re- spect, of form and appearance, these pubhcations are very greatly superior to the documents published by the legislature of Virginia; though even that great in- feriority is as nothing when compared to the immea- surable inferiority of the substance — the acts and works — of the commonwealth of Virginia in support of agri- culture, compared to those of Massachusetts. Among the most important, and the first in order of these publications, is the 'Agricultural Report of the County of Essex, Mass.' This is the first part of the labors of the Rev. Henry Colman, commissioner of the agricultural survey of Massachusetts, ordered by the legislature of that state; and though the subject is a county which is one of the least agricultural of a state which, if compared to Virginia, is generally but little fitted to reward cultivation, or improvement, still, the report is an earnest of the value of such surveys to agriculture, and of the ability of the surveyor and re- porter selected for this noble work. In the foregoing pages of this number, we have copied parts of this re- port, which our intelligent readers will doubtless find interesting, if not instructive, notwithstanding the great difference of the circumstances of Essex in Mas- sachusetts, and every part of Virginia. There is not a county in all the wide extent of Virginia, and no matter whether it be the best or the worst cultivated at present, of which a similar minute and careful re- port would not be highly interesting, and highly in- structive, to a large portion of the farmers of our state; and if a general agricultural survey of Virginia were or- dered, and properly executed, such as is now in progress in Massachusetts, it would do more good to agricul- ture, and to the general interests of this commonwealth, than the worst and most stupid course of any recent legislature has done harm; and that is a very strong assertion. But it is in vain to expect any such things here; and useless to refer to them, except to denounce, in deserved terms of reprobation and contempt, the le- gislation of a great state, much wanting and highly susceptible of profiting by agricultural improvement. which has continually refused the smallest aid to such improvement, and lends all its energy, and gives near- ly all its labors, and all the spare revenue of the state, to endless and useless talking about federal relations, sustaining the baid<-ocracy in its every iniquity, help- ing demagogues to the o/Jices they seek, and giving fat jobs and profits to numerous individuals, under the false pretence of aiding pubhc improvements. The other publications referred to, whicii are strict- ly agricultural, arc the 'Transactions of the Essex Agri- cultural Society, for 1837,' and separate memoirs of the commissioner of the agricultural survey, 'On the cultivation of Spring Wheat,' and 'On Bone Manure.' Another, which is principally and most usefully, though not entirely directed to benefit agricultural improvement, is the 'Re-examination of the Economical Geology of Massachusetts,' by Prof. Edward Hitch- cock; which, in its general features, seems to compare with the geological reports of Virginia, pretty much in the same manner as the business-like and matter-of- fact doings of the legislature of Massachusetts, witli the eloquent declamation and endless and fruitless speech- making in that of Virginia. Some extracts from this excellent and practical report, and also some animad- versions on particular portions of it, may be given in this journal at a future time. NATURAL COKE FOUND IK VIRGINIA. "There seems to be no end to the mineral trea- sures of Virgirua. Yesterday we heard of another discovery, which, according to present appear- ance, is destined to prove of incalculable service. The reader will recollect, that during ihe last au- tumn we spoke of a rich vein of iron ore, which was in a course of exploration, on the south side of the James River, near the coal pits, and iiom two to three miles of the river. The ore has been further opened ; and we are happy to learn, pro- mises to be of great value. It is under the auspi- ces of John lieth, Esq., and is immediately on the new rail road, which will soon be opened, from the coal pits to the river. But the discovery embraces a new object — a large and rich bed of natural coke, which is just below the iron ore — and is suspected of being in a large field— and of being near 17 leet thick. The coke was first discovered by those who are engaged in laying down the rail road. They thoughr of burning it as fuel, and the experiment has an- swered. It is said that Professor Rogers has pro- nounced it to be a natural coke — and we under- stand, that Mr. Deane is about to try its virtues in his iron rolling mill. Should it correspond with the indications which have so far transpired, it will prove a source of great wealth to its worthy, libe- ral, and enterprising proprietor — as well as of advantages to the rising manufacturers of Rich- mond.— Enquirer. We have seen experiments made in the foun- dry of this city, upon specimens of the coke, found in Chesterfield county. In the course of an hour and 39 minutes, near 1200 lbs, of iron, brought from the mine near Fredericksburg, were fubcd; and the castings were uncommonly smooth. 118 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 2 There seems to be no doubt, that it will answer admirably the purpose ol' sraehiug the iron from the ore. The fire, Avhich is made of it, is intensely hot. It much resembles the anthracite ; but it has a lit- tle more flame. It is considered a very valuable discovery — and it is unique in this country. Analysis gives more than 70 per cent, of carbon — small portions of iron, earth and volatile matter. — lb. From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. ON REARING DOMESTIC POULTRY. It has frequently occurred to us, that the man- agement of a poultry -yard is not so rationally con- ducted as it ought to be. When we consider the rapid advances that have been made of late years among the industrious classes of the community in intellectual acquirements, more especially in the southern parts of the kingdom — Scotland hav- ing been for a series of years an educated coun- try, while the same classes in England were yet in ignorance — we feel warranted in our objections, because we have practically pioved the lallacy of flie '' auld warld" methods of treating that por- tion of our live-stock, and have established our right to make those objections, by the success which has attended our own plan. The best test of our ability in the office which we can offer to our readers is, that we pay nature the compliment to suffer her to dictate to us, and that, as far as fossible, we attend to her wise and simple laws, f this candid acknowledgment be in our favor, we fear not to gain proselytes from the old to the new method, and proceed to the detail. In large farms, and among the very poor, it would not be desirable to have a poultry-yard por- tioned off ; in the former case, because that part of the live-stock is subsidiary, in the latter, be- cause the outlay, though trifling, would be too considerable. A very numerous class of persons, however, remain, to whom the rearing of poultry might be an object of emolument ; and others again, who seek for no remuneration beyond the pleasure which arises from possessing the means of consuming those animals which are the pro- duce of their own estates. In all cases it is gra- tiiying to know and to follow a plan which leads to the most satisfactory results; and that is pre- sumed to be the best, which is fjunded upon the experience of years. We will begin with The poultry-yard. — This ought, when practica- ble, to be separated from the other portions of the premises devoted to live-stock, and even subdivi- ded when various kinds of fowls are kept which are inimical to each other, as is the case with the guinea-fowls (or Pintadas, or Gallinte, as they are indiscriminately called), and the more familiar tribe of cocks and hens. The yard should be dry. as nothing is so injurious as damp; in order to effect this, the surface should be gravel, on a foundation of chalk, for the benefit of quick drain- age. This preliminary we consider all but indis- pensable; the difference that would be experi- enced in the well-doing of poultry that is reared on a gravel or chalk-paved yard from those that drag- gle through their existence on wet clayey ground or grass is astonishing. The yard should have a full exposure to the south, and contain an open shelter from either sun or rain. Within it should be placed dry sand, ashes, small gravel, and chalk, for the use of the birds; the two first named ma- terials they require for the purpose of dusting themselves, a process in which they not only de- light, but which is essential for their health; the fine gravel is constantly picked up by them, and without it, their Ibod would not under dents. One rooiii\f — nay, lofiy lowl-liouso, will be sulliiiietil, where judicious aUeiition i'? paiil to the lollowinnj piiniculars. Veniilation is hiirjiiy requisite, ibr wiiere numerous creatu-es consre- gMii anil remain shut up for many hours, an un- heakhy iieat will be generateti, and a had ellluvia jrom the manure will stagnate and create disor- ders which would never exist if free ventilation and cleanliness were attended to. We have seen in those anomalous spots peculiar to England, yet christened by a French nime, and styled "i^ermes Ornees,^^ wiiere every item was pretty, and ex- pensive, and ornamental, and artificial, and, con- sequently, liable to lailure; we say, in such places, we have seen Rnvl-houses, barely seven lijet in height, with plastered walls and ceiled ceiling, Avith close-slmiting door, and a glazed casement, not made to open! The inevitable consequences were most ofiensive odors, and a sickly stock, which of course consisted of the most expensive, because rare species, and were contmually obliged to be renewed. Fowl-houses, we repeat, should be lofty, and securely closed in the lower part, to prevent the ingress of vermin, not only foxes, but stoais, weasels, rats, &c. The upper portion may be very open, as much so indeed as is consistent with due shelter li-om rain. As it is the nature of warm air to ascend, it is evident that the atmos- phere which is heated with, and contaminated by, the creatures and their odor, will ascend and pre- vent the descent of cold air. The floor of the dormitory oui^ht to be formed of any convenient material which will be ibund to be most dry, even, and commodious, in order to allow of its being frequently washed. In laying the floor, a gradual slope should be made towards the middle, or to one side, where a drain might carry ofl' the mois- ture, after it had been scrubbed with a birch- broom. All good farmers and gardeners are aware of the value to their land of every kind of manure, and need not our recommendation to save every portion; hence, the drain ti-om the hen-house will of course be made to communicate with the general reservoir ol" liquid sullage, which every country homestead ought to possess in the most convenient corner of the premises, where it could be covered in and kept li-om evaporation, by a rough building or shed erected over it. The boxes lor nests should be constructed of unplaned boards, and fastened to the walls about three feet from the ground, and by no means should ihey be placed in the fowl-house; an out-building ought to be devoted to the purpose, where the birds may fulfil their duties either of layino; or sitting quite undisturbed; a fowl-house appears to be se- dulously avoided by poultry, excepting at the hours of rest. Clean straw, not very lon£f, must be coiled round in the nests, but hay should never be made use of; the scent is said to be too power- ful for the birds, and to harbor insects. We do not assert this of our own knowledge, but had we not heard any objections made to the use of the latter, we should give the preference to straw. The fowl-house should be lime-whited every spring. The perches for roosting should be of dif- ferent heights, but wider apart than the length of the larger sized birds, to prevent the fowls which may roost on the lower poles from being incon- venienced by those abov^e them. A slopins board with slips of deal nailed on to it, at distances of three inches, should be fixed from the floor to the lower range of perches, to liicilitate the ascent of chickens when they have left their coops, and be- Lnn to assume the dignity of roosting fowls. The door of the iiouse should be set open every morn- mg when the birds are let out, to preserve the place healthful by constant ventilation; and where no objection exisis to its being kept open all day, there need be no other place of ingress and egress; where, however, such objection does exist, an opening must be made in the door itsell' at the bottom, large enough to admit the birds, which (the opening) should have a sliding board made to run in grooves, that must b(? closed in the even- ing when the fowls are locked in, and this is a precaution which no one will neglect vvho values his poultry. It will be seen that by closing the little door, we prevent all egress in a morning, until some one of the family may be stirring. Lorn; experience has taught us the value of the regulation; Ibr not only are the fbwis thus pre- served from the attacks of early marauders of eve- ry kind (and many persons would not hesitate to run down and appropriate a wandering pullet who would ft'.ar to rob a hen-roost!), but the yoimu chickens are thus prevented from strolling into the grass while yet it remains saturated with rain or heavy dew; nor will the creatures be de- barred from their favorite and natural morning meal by this arrangement, since, where animals are kept in an establishment, persons must be abroad sufficiently early to allow of their finding worms, &c., belbre the sun shall have exerted so much power upon them, as to drive ihem into their holes, and remove the dew from the grass. Treatment of the Poultry. — Having cared for their accommodation, we will proceed to the birds themselves. The stock being chosen — in which we would recomm.end that some of the "everlast- ing layers" be introduced — the proprietor will commence his observations. A poultry-yard is replete with interest, but, as every one may not i'ed equally impressed with a sense of it, and, moreover, possess neither time nor inclinaiion to give the subject personal attention, and thus gain experience Ibr himself, we will do our best to im- part our own. We are convinced, however, that if the "master's eye" be not upon the creatures of his farm, they will fare the worse. Servants, however faithful and trust- worthy, cannot accom- plish all that is wished of their vigilance, nor can they (eel tiiat degree of interest which is necessa- rv in the creatures committed to their charge. Their minds are not of the same calibre, their edu- cation has not fitted them to comprehend the phi- losophic motives which their employers might bring to bear upon the subject; hence, to have proper attention paid, it is absolutely requisite that a master should not only say to his servant — "Do!" but see that "he doelh." A stock of fowls should consist of pullets and hens of from one to lour years of age; they usu- ally are supposed to decline after the third year; but when anj' good quality is evinced, such as be- ing good layers, close sitters, or careful mothers, it is obvious that, to deprive ourselves of valuable dependents, only because "it is said" that they are on the wane at a certain age, is sufficiently ab- surd. It is a fallacy to deem those hens interior which happen to possess large combs; it is equal- ly a mistake to consider that those which crow 120 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 2 like a cock are worthies?; and to attempt to refute the popular superstition that it is "unlucky" to keep a crowing hen woukl be idle; it is too ridicu- lous to be /urllier alluded to. The number ot^lay- ing fowls, will, oi' course, depend on the wish oi the nidividual, and his facilities for their accommo- dation. A large number is quite as easily attend- ed to as a scanty stock. If only four, five, or six hens be kept, one cock will be sutficient, and it will be better to increase the stock by degrees, lor a year or two, by allowing a young cock to grow, rather than to introduce another trora a foreign collection. Battles and persecution would be, in the latter case, endless. A change of breed can always be accomplished, by procuring egEcs from an approved stock. Eggs that are intended for sitting, '-it is said,"' should not exceed a month old; and as, in a slate of nature, a hen would oc- cupy nearly that period in laying the usual com- plement of eggs, the rule is a good one; but a simple process, which we shall hereafter describe, whereby they may be preserved Iresh, eatable, and sitiable, lor many months, will render all pre- caution as 10 the length of the time they may have been laid unnecessary. Fifteen eggs will be generally sufficient for hens oi the usual size, thouch the very finest, healthiest, and most suc- cessful breed we ever had, was the produce of a white hen which had "stolen a nest," had laid sixteen eggs, and brought forth the whole number of chickens, every one of which she reared. We would not recommend that hens be allowed to sit until after the turn of days. Early in January, if the weather be mild, they will sometimes indicate a wish to incubate which need not be thwarted, if conveniences can be commanded for the accom- modation of the mother and her brood. Constant attention, however, is requisite, and, from being reared totally under shelter, the chickens, like hot- house plants, will be so tender, that there is small chance of ultimate success. The same objection exists against attemptmg to rear a brood late in the autumn; the first week in September is the latest period at which it ought to bs hazarded. There is yet another time, during which it is ab- solutely indispensable that hens be prevented from sitting, and that is the month of June. Close ob- servation (after having suffered at that season nu- merous fiiilures most unaccountably) enabled us to discover the cause, and thereby verify the truth of an old saying which we have since met with — "Between the sickle and the scythe, What you rear will seklom thrive." We had noticed that chickens which were hatched during the month of July were almost all attacked about the time of their first moulting (a period always attended with much suffering to them) with a flital disorder, the symptoms of which were unvarying. The chickens appeared to collapse, and moved about with difficulty, as if their joints were stiffened, or rather as if the skin had become tight and tender; their feathers be- came rough and stood out; their wings drooped and dragged on the ground; they refused suste- nance; and becoming more and more weak and torpid, they, in a day or two, died off in great numbers. Every rational means was resorted to, in order to arrest, or even account for, the disor- der; at length it was discovered, that they were in a high state of fever, and that the extreme red- ness of the skin was caused by the irritation of, hundreds of that minute pest the harvest bug. Some — very i'ew — were recovered by anointing them all over with oil and vhiegar;* but the recipe is too rotigh for little delicate creatures, ahead} enduring the pain attendant on the season ol mouhinij. It became obvious, that the period du- ring which harvest bugs are most numerous and tormenting, must be inimical to the rearing o.' chickens; and that, if the hens were not allowed to sit in June, or rather, if the chicks were either strong enough to cope with the evil, or were no' hatched until the season for the pest had passec by, thai the destruction might be prevented, ant so it has proved. We do not suppose that we are addressing readers who are entirely ignorant on the subjec of poultry, and therefore omit the more obviout' and simple directions and information; such as the indications by which it may be known when a hen is inclined to sit; how long a time elapses be- fore her chickens will be hatched, &c.; yet we would not that one reader should be disappointed by the incompleteness of the subject on which we are writing. It may be as well therefore to state, that vvhen hens shall have laid from ten to twenty eggs, they generally, but not ahvays, show the first symptom of a desire to incubate, which is re- maining a long time upon the nest; they then be- gin to cluck, and their combs lose that bright red color (the infallible sign of good health, and dis- position to lay) which they had shown. Very young hens sometimes deceive by evincing all these s3'mptoms, and will even take to an empty nest, and remain close for a day or two, yet direct- ly after they are put in possession of all they ap- pear to require, will capriciously leave the eggs and resume their usual habits. It is customary to place an odd number of eggs under a hen, not "for luck," as the auld wives suppose, but because they lie more round and compact. A large sized hen will cover fifteen well; but if she find the number too many, she will reject one. Should an egg be broken it must be removed, and her feath- ers washed from the clammy substance. For the first few days, some hens will sit so steadily, that they will not leave the nest for food. Fears have been expressed for the lives of hens under these circumstances, but we incline to think they might be left to nature; however, no harm can accrue from lifiing them off the nests and placing food and water ready for them in the open air. They are refreshed by the change, and resume their solitary duty in comfort. Food and water should always be provided fi^r sitting hens once a-day, and that at a time when they cannot be persecu- ted and driven away from it by their congeners, namely, either before the fowls are let out in a morning, or after they have retired to roost. The plan of feeding them on the nest is perfectly erro- neous, and contrary to nature. It is requisite, for the sake of cleanliness and health, that hens should leave it once in twenty-four hours. As an attention to cleanliness is indispensable in every department of a homestead, we need scarcely mention that clean short straw should be provided for every sitting hen, and the nesis be thoroughly cleaned out when the brood is hatched. * It should be known, that this is the best, nay, the only remedy for the annoyance which human beings experience from the same cause. 1838] FARMERS- REGISTER 121 It is much to be ileplored ilial, in subjm'tiiijf creatures to our use, we cannot make, ilieir com ■ Ibrt a ^rreater object of altenlion. Grammy; tiiat man has had control ij;ivea i\in\ over the bruie creation, it surely would jirove his fitness jorthe gift that he should exercise his auihority with kindness, and lem|ier iiis power wilh mercy. If nature must be ihwarled, it should be etiecied in the tfentlest manner. It sometimes happens, for example, that it is desirable to prevent liens from sittmtr, when ejzi^s are more in request than chickens : to ol)tain this end, we have known very cruet methods practised, such as plun(i;in'ould be saved in dressing, since the quiliv por- tion of the feathers, when forcibly detached from Ihe skin, is generally in such a stale as, after ail; to rpquire the employment of scissors." 7%e Pintado, or Gvineo-fowl. — This bird is much esteemed for the fine flavor of its flesh, which more nearly resembles that of the pheasant than any other, und is in season when the latter IS out of request. It is said to be reareil and do- mesticated with greater dilficulty than the usual inmates of the poultry-yard. This is not the case; nor is it "delicate when first hatched," as writers assert. It, however, is more wild in its nature than other fowls, straying to a distance, and de- positing its eggs under iiedges, among furze, or even in the most exposed spots, where every chance passenger may more readily obtain pos- session of them than can their owner. We prefer to intrust a brood of pintadas to the care of a common hen, rather than to that of its own species. Their habits are not dissimilar, — as is the case with the duck, — and her nature will not be outraged in bringincr them up. A hen will, with ease, cover seventeen or eighteen pin- tada egiTs, as they are smaller than those of the common fowl. We repeat, they are not difficult to rear; we have never lost a chick, except by accident. In consequence of their small size and minute beaks, it is requisite that their first food (groats) should be broken for them. They are exceedingly fond of, and thrive rapidly on ants' eggs, — whole nesta of which should be sought for, and brought to them with a shovelful of the mould in which they are found. This, ifthrown parily within the coop, the mother will amuse herself with scralch- inff, while she at the same time instructs her chicks to seek fur their own sustenance. We have been surprised to find, that in books professintT to give the natural history of this bird, its disposition should be courageous; it is the most remote from courageous; it is cowardly, fierce, and tyrannical in the extreme. These birds persecute all other inmates of the poultry- yard, vvi'h relentless perseverance, but always in a body. We were, on one occasion, witness to an assault upon a solitary pullet, by eleven pintadas. They surrounded their victim, pecking it with vio- lence, and whenever one of the inner range of as- sailants received a blow from the poor bird, it re- tired to the outer circle. A very few minutes would have sufficed to destroy the pullet, but for- tunately, the dastardly creatures were driven away. Their beaks are remarkably strong and. sharp when they are lull grown. Their cruelty to all other poultry passes imagi- nation. While among themselves, tfiey are pla- cid and affectionate; hence they ought either to be kept in a separate yard, or, if that arrangement be inconvenient, the stock of poultry ought to be confined to these birds, or they should be rejected. The treatment of pintadas differs so little from that of other fowls, that, with the foregoing re- marks, we close the subject. Turkeys. — The following observations and method of rearing turkeys are not the results of our own experience; but are fmm the pen of the o-entleman above quoted. We have retrained from keeping them, being deferred by fear of the trouble and difficulty which writers have thrown in the way; though, in consequence of the grati- fying success which has attended us in our other feathered stock, we have no doubt our attempts would have been equally satisfactory, as we have nUv^y^ of late years taken nature for our guide, and endeavore(i to treat them rationally. For ex- 133S] FARMERS' REGISTER. 125 ample, alfhoiitjh we hiive Mowbray's authority lor tlie piaclice, we woiiUi not "witlulriuv tlie chicks fruiu the nesi, and Ixcep them very warm.'' Turkeys' are amenable to the paine wise laws, thai the common lien obeys; hence we should leave them to the more conii;eniaI warmth of the mother's breast. Indeed, we are no sooner in- structed by this author to remove the chicks, than he renders the advice nut^atDry i-y sayinir, "The turkey, trorn siuinu so close and steadily, hatches more reijularly and quickly than the common hen." (!) Who removes the chicks to a warm situation wlien the mother steals a nest, or is in a state ot nature ? In the article of food, we have equal contradic- tion, as well as absurd directions; the chicks are to have curd, eiigs boiled hard and chopped fine, oat or barley meal kneaded with milk; yet imme- diately afterwards adds — "milk is apt to scour them;" then why give it? Water is their natural beverage, and will 7iot scour them. Then, in case of cold weather ruffling their feathers, they are to have half-ground malt with their meal, "and, by way of medicine, caraway, or coriander seeds." (!) Nor must we omit "artificial worms, or boil- ed meat, pulled into strings, in running after which, the chicks have a salutary exercise." (! !) He justly observes afterwards, that "superfluous moisture, whether exiernal or internal, is death to the chickens, therefore all slop victuals should be rigorously avoided;" and in this remark we cor- dially agree. Pea-lbwis, tame pheasants, partridges, &c. we candidly own, we know nothing of practically, and, as they are only kept (or amusement, ab- stain from introducing any observations on their treatment from the same work. EXTRACTS OF PRIVATE CORRESPONDENCE, AND EDITORIAL COMMENTS. The new French discovery in making manure. Le Couteur on the varieties of wheat. Philadelphia, 22d March, 1838. Dear Sir— I have directed a copy of the Nation- al Gazette of the 20th inst. to you, so that you may see in it a notice of the process of obtaining manure without the aid of cattle, invented by a Mon. JauHret, of Aix, in France. What think you of it? As usual, in communications on agricultural subjects, the notice is not satisfactory in its details. I am under the impression that it has reference to some nostrum such as the world has often been be- guiled with, bef)re now, for the cure of olherevils besides poverty of soil, and that its value will prove as great as many of the infalliblf>s which have had their day of popularity, and have passed away. I am strengthened in this impression, because of the difficulty of reconciling the facts stated with the law of subsistence being in accordance with the laws of the production of food, as is uro'ed by my fi-iend G. H. Walker, There is a late production of a very different character, to which I beg (o urge your attention: I mean Col. Le Couteur'e work on the varieties, classification, &c. of wheat. It is a work of ffreat merit, and I think its publication in this coiintry would be a moans of doing much good. The ex- pof^iiion which he m.ikes of the relative value of did'erent varieties of wheat, is very iiisiruclive, and enforces the necessity of attention to a choice of seed and purity of stock in a manner that ought to carry conviction to the mind of every ihinkini'" farmer. The means of keeping a stock of wheat pure, by attention to the lime of flowering of the difler- eiit varieties, is also worthy of notice in this coun- try, where the well-meant eflbrts of those who have been at much pains and expense to procure select and valuable varieties, are otlen rendered of little avail, for want of attention to this amongst other points of great importance. The influence of difl'erent manures, as stated, ought to have a tendency to correct a bad practice which is almost universal in this country. I allude to that of applying stable and yard manures to the wheat crop. This error has often been remarked upon by the most intelligent of our writers on agri- culture; but very little impression has as yet been made on the public mind. The statements of an author of the character and experience of Col. Le Couteur may perhaps do more to correct this evil practice than all the arguments that have been urged heretolbre. Without further comment on the work, I will state that Mr. Walker has a copy of it, which is now in my hands, and that he has kindly consent- ed that I should ofl^er it to you if you desire to re- publish it. I am aware that it has been noticed in the Farmers' Register; but supposing it possi- ble you may not have seen more than the extracts republished, I desire to know it it would be useful to you. [The account of the French discovery in manure- making, which was sent with this letter, had before been selected for publication. It stands at the beginning of this number. We think, with our correspondent, that the plan is likely, in performance, to fall far short of its promise; and to form a new item in the long list of agricultural humbugs. Nevertheless, whether merely as agricultural news, or as information of higher or- der, it deserves notice and attention; and also fair trial from those who are able to make a trial. What we doubt, is the economy, or small cost of such speedy conversion of insoluble and inert matters, to soluble and active manure; for there is no doubt but that, by some means, every vegetable substance is thus con- vertible, and that, with the aid of time, natural causes are continually, and generally with effect, operating to produce such a conversion. The hardest wood — the driest broom-sedge, reedf, or pine leaves — in short, vegetable substances considered the most useless, or perhaps injurious to soil and growing plants, on account of their insolubility, are entirely composed of, and con- vertible to, the same chemical ingredients (hydrogen, oxygen and carbon,) as the richest and most succu- lent, and putrescent vegetable manures ; and they vary but slightly in ingredients even from dung; the latter only having something, and that a very little, in addition to the three principal elements just named. Therefore, there is nothing incredible in the supposi- 126 FARMERS'REGFSTER. [No. 2 tion that art may produce a chemical change, ia a short time, which nature alone produces by slower action. The great objection to the usual and long continued processes of this natural conversion, is,, that the larger part of the soluble products (especially on bad soils j are wasted, as produced; and this loss is still greater, usually, when man's ignorant labors, or practices of cultivation, are mingled with, and serve to impede the improving processes of nature. Even if this new French process of rapid fermentation is ef- fectual, it will require to be seen whether it wastes more of the products than would natural causes an.d time, if permitted judiciously to operate, before the discovery can be deemed as adding to the farmer's means of obtamingand furnishing manure to his lands. We have already given some account (from Euro- pean journals) of Le Couteur's opinions; but would be still pleased to see his entire work, and to publish further extracts, or even the whole, if its length does not forbid. It is a curious and mteresting subject, and one on which every farmer has much to learn.] The law of primogemture and English agricul- ture. Turnips and manure. Holmesburg, Pa., March 22, 1838. 1 saw little change in the agricultural districts, after an absence of seventeen years. How should there be? How can there be? Whilst that most iniquitous and most pernicious of all systems — the law of primogeniture exists? In the manufactur- ing districts, (the source of all the agriculture such as it is,) the change and improvement are won- derful. I will give^you some account of both. I shall now have more leisure than I have had. » » # * » 1 have kept 9 cows and fattened 47 sheep upon turnips this winter; the latter with part grain. This IS the true system — variety of food is every thing — because so obviously the law of nature; it is by far the best mutton I have eaten in the Uni- ted States; and if you were to see the quantity of manure I have, you would be astonished. My farm is barely 100 acres. I manure from 35 to 40 odd acres annually, and sell all my hay and straw!!! It is a fact; 1 eat no straw, cornstalks, chafi", &c.; these things are not natural food — they are forhtter, to keep the slock dry, clean, and warm, as blankets are for our use, and to keep, preserve, and increase the manure. When will farmers and planters learn and understand all this? To eat straw I hold to be the very worst and most costly and destructive of all agricultural improve- ment and economy. Draining in Scotland. Law of primogeniture as affecting agricultural improvements. [The following extract is from the letter of a sub- scriber, who, as his words convey, was engaged, not very long since, in agricultural labors and impiove- ments in Scotland.] j^pril 17///, 1838. I have read with much interest and pleasure, the reprint of Johnstone's ' Treatise on Draining, &c.' The importance of this valuable addition to the pages of the Register, cannot fail to be appre- ciated by many of your readers. From having seen many of the improvements described in the treati.se, I can fully attest to the practical value of the directions therein given, lor the performance of such improvements; particularly those relating to embankments. JVlost of the extensive improve- ments of this nature, which the author has de- scribed, I have had an opportunity of seeing; and in one instance to which he refers, I believe, from his not very distinct reference, the embankments were constructed under my own immediate direc- tion, from plans furnished by Mr. Stevens, of Edin- burgh. These were on the banks of the Isla and Tay, (in Scotland,) extending to upwards of five miles in length, and of a height of from three to nine feet, on one of the estates of Countess Fla- hault. The modes of embankment, which Mr. Johnstone has so well described, I should suppose would be as available in many sections of this country, as in Scotland. I suspect, however, that the reclaiming of the tide-marshes in this latitude would be a much more difficult operation than in that of Scotland. Tides there rise to agreat height; but at low water there is generally a sufficient itill to admit of the enclosed lands being completely drained of surface-water. The high lands being also immediately on the sea-board, admit of the alluvion brought from them being lodged or depo- sited at the confluence of the rivers to the sea, forming a soil of a fine permanent nature, and not liable, on being dried and cultivated, to sink or be- come lower, as your experience has proved to be the casein at least some instances here. The lands enclosed by some of these sea embankments are, for miles, many feet lower than high-water mark ; and a breach would be attended with disastrous results. This, however, rarely occurs. The con- flicting interests of proprietors of land have much retarded these and other improvements; such as straightening and embanking river-courses, &c. in Scotland; and 1 suspect the same obstacle would be met with in this country, in an increased degree. Landed estates here are smaller, consequently more numerous, and more frequently change own- ers; and the constantly increasing division of lands must increase and perpetuate the evil. This con- stant division of property in this country is, in my humble opinion, not the least obstacle in ilie way of real and extensive agricultural improvement ; and nothwithstanding Mr. Walker's remarks on the laws of primogeniture and entail, (in your last No.) and whatever evils may attend the existence of these laws, that of being inimical to agricultu- ral improvement, I think cannot practically be laid to then* charge. I believe that eight-tenths of the lands in Scotland are under entail; and I presume that no country can present more spirit- ed, extensive, and rapidly increasing agricultural improvements, in the same space of time, than have taken place in Scotland in the last half centu- ry. The proprietor there has the strongtest induce- ments to improve his property, under these very laws, though he may also abuse them. Some may be " compelled to be lords, who ought to be draymen," or '' clergymen, who oueht to be butchers;" but it is now, happily lor Scotland, at least becoming fijshionable in high life to be ac- quainted with rural aflairs; and many of the Scotch nobles would put many of the Virginia farming 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER 127 lox-liunters to the bUisli, were they to compare their ii^riculliiral luiuwledjio. Kvery person ol' experience must know how nmch more profitably improvements can be curried on, on a large scale, than on a small one. MONTHLY COMaiEUCIAL REPORT. AVhile (Treat inertness in the sprin^r trade has prevailed in New York, a fair portion has been transacted in the smaller marls south of it. Pur- chasers of dry goods and groceries, who usually resorted to New York, have been induced by the great dilliculties attendant on inland exchanges, to obtain their supplies in Philadelphia, Baltimore, Richmoiiil and Petersburg. Importations from Europe have been on a very small scale, and the demand lor our products there will be reduced, as a natural consequence. The increased con- sumption of other countries, and the new markets ibr cotton goods which commercial enterprise, stimulated by the low price oi'such fabrics, is con- stantly developing, compensates in part lor the deficiency of export to the United States; but the rapidly increasing product of cotton, renders a cor- responding increase of consumption necessary; otherwise, the price of the raw material must de- cline so low as to check the cultivation. The quantity already brought to market this year reaches about 1,450,000 bales, being 300,000 more than was received atthesame period of 1837, and exceeding the total receipts of that year. Prices have consequently declined in European markets, and in all others where the currency is sound. In the south-western states, the currency and not the commodity depreciates. Prices are therefore higher in Alabama and Mississippi, where bank notes are at 20 to 30 per cent, dis- count, than in New York or Liverpool, where they are at par with specie. The "experiment" which, contrary to the ex- pectations of its projectors, drove specie from the country and fi-om circulation, having almost ceas- ed to operate, a reflux has taken place; and im- portations of the precious metals to an immense amount have recently been made, by the very parties who were accused by the 'experimenters' of creating the dearth. The New York banks have already resumed specie payments; those of Boston partially, and the decision of the convention recently held on the subject is, that in all the Atlantic states, and some of the western, a general resumption shall take place in January,' 1839. It is to be hoped that trade will then resume its regular channels; that banks will oease to be dealers in produce; and that something approachinf:s majority of mankind have a strong tendency to be fools; but we may establish another theo- rem, that the more difiicult it is to make war, the less likely it is to be made. The more mechani- cal dexterity, personal ingenuity, and natural ex- pense that is required to make war, the more will success be out of the power of brute force, and tlie more in the power of intellectual superiorit}^ Let war come to a conflict of steam engines and all the barbarian rabble of the world, Turks and Tartars, Arabs and Indians, Africans and Chinese, must obviously be out of the question at once. They may massacre each other, but they must fly from the masier of the mechanics. All the half barbarians, Russian, Greek, Pole, Swede and Austrian, must make the attempt only to be shattered, and Field Marshal Stephenson, with his squadron of fire horses, galloping at a rate of eighty miles an hour, must consume their battalia with the breath of his nostrils. Thus England, instead of feeling alarmed at the sudden passion of foreigners for mechanicism, should rejoice to see the passion spreading, should encourage them to throw all their powers into mechanical rivalry, and exult in every railroad that shoots its serpent line among the hills and valleys of the continent, and hail the smoke of every steam engine that (rails its murky line along the sky, as not merely an emblem, but an instrument of their own supe- riority. Mechanicism, the great power of art, is as exhaustless as any of the great powers of na- ture, for it is only the exhaustless vigor of intellect combining with and commanding the secrets of nature. Ten thoiisand years might roll on, and every j'earsee a new advance of every kingdom of Eu- rope in invention, and England keeping ahead of them all, and like one of her own engines, show- ing her speed by the sparks that lighten the road behind. The steam engine in its effective state, is but little more than half a century old, for its in- vention, in the time of Charles II., left it upwards of a century, little more than a to3\ In half a cen- tury more, its present perfection may be looked upon as little else than that of an ingenious play- thing. It is scarcely ten years since the steam- boat first ventured to sea. Thirty years ago, the late Lord Stanhope, was laughed at by all Lon- don, for his attempt to swim the steamboat from London Bridge to Greenwich. It now dashe&from the tower to Constantinople; or shoots down the Red Sea, fis'hts the moonshine on its own ground; sweeps to Bombay, Ceylon, and Bengal, and as- tonishes the Mogul and the Emperor of China, the same mornmtT, with the month's newspapers from London. The railway, in its present power, is not ten years old, yet is already spreading, not merely over Europe, but over the vast savannahs of the New World. What will all this come to in the next fifty years. What must be the effect of this gigantic stride over the ways of this world? What tlie mi<>hty influence of that mighty commu- nication which, even in its feeblest state, has been in every age, the grand instrument of civilization? 132 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 3 Throw Jovvn the smallest barrier to become more civilized. Open the close shut coast ofChina or Ja- pan to mankind, and from tiiat hour the condition of the people will be in pronjress of improvement. The barbarian and the despot hate the stranger. Yet (or the fullest civilization, (ieedom, and enjoy- ment of which earth is capable, the one ihing needful is ihe fullest intercourse of nation with nation, and of man vvith man. The European passion for the railroad is cer- tainly one of the most singular, as it is one of the most cheering characteristics of the age. Like all instruments ol" national power, it may be made an instrument of evil. It may give additional strength to the tyrannical, and accumulate force against the weak, pour resistless invasion against the unprepared, and snfite the helpless with un- exampled rapidity of ruin. But its faculties are made for peace, its tendency is to make nations feel the value of peace; and unless some other magnificent intention shall come to supersede its use, and obliterate the memor}' of its services. we cannot suffer ourselves to doubt that the whole system which is now in the course of adoption, witli such ardor throughout Europe, will yet be acknowledged as having given the mightiest pro- pulsion to the general improvement of mankind. From tlie London Mcclianics' Magazine. EAST INDIA CAOUTCHOUC. It is well known that a large supply of this valuable substance might be procured li-om India, if the same care were to be taken in gathering it as in South America. " The London Caoutchouc Company," impressed with this idea, accordingly sent to India an offer of a premium of filty pounds for the first hundred weight of East India caout- chouc which should be shipped for England. When the offer arrived, however, it was somewhat of the latest, the great demand existing at home for the article had been previously heard of, and large quantities were already on shipboard; com- pared to which the "hundred weight." stipulated for was but a molehill to a mountain! The whole affair forms an apt illustration o( the doctrine that, in commerce, the dirce of self-interest is far supe- rior to that of artificial bounties. ORIGIN OF COAL,. Coal is supposed by some writers to be the re- mains of antediluvian timber which floated in the waters of the deluge until several mineral strata had been formed; others conceive it to be antedi- luvian peat bog. It was used in England anterior to the reign of Henry HI; fir that monarch, in 1234, renewed a charter granted by his fiithcr to the inhabitants of Newcastle, by which they were permitted to dig coal on the payment of £ 100 per annum. Coals had been introduced into London before 1306, for in that year the use of them as fijel had been prohibited, from the supposed ten- dency of their smoke to corrupt the air. About the beginning of the sixteenth century the best coals were sold in London at the rate of 4s. Id. per chaldron, and at Newcastle no more than 2s. Qd. for the same. During the ensuing century, however, they were received into such general use, that in 1648, on the scarcity of coal in Lon- don, many of the poor were said to have died from the want of fuel. The whole quantity of coal sent into London on an average of lour years, lias been estimated at 1,170,000 cbaldrons per an- num. There has been much dispute on the ori- gin of coal, but J3rogniart has given the following as the general conclusions of naturalists: — 1. That coal was formed at the same time as, or after the existence of, organizeil bodies. 2. That this mine- ral when first formed was liquid, and in a great degree of purity. 3. That the same cause which produces tliis substance is several times renewed in the same places and under the same circum- stances. 4. That the cause, whatever it may be, is nearly ihe same over all the earth, since the beds of coal always exhibit nearly the same phe- nomena in their structure and accidental circum- stances. 5. That these beds have not been de- posited by any violent revolution, but, on the con- trary, in the most tranquil manner ; since the or- ganized bodies that are found in them are often found entire, and the leaves of vegetables impress- ed in the slate which covers the coals are hardly ever bruised or otherwise deranged. — Merthyr Chronicle. From the proccodings of tlic seventli meetins; of tlic British As- sociation, for tlie advancement of Science.- REMARKABLE CLEARNESS OF THE AIR A PRECURSOR OF RAIN. Professor Lloyd said that the distinctness and vividness with which distant objects were seen in some states of the atmosphere was quite asto- nishing : on one occasion lie had seen from the neighborhood of Dublin the Welsh hills from their very bases, and brought so near, apparently, that he could absolutely see the larger inequalities of the surliice upon sides of the mountains. That the atmosphere was at the time very much loaded with vapor in a hiulily transparent state, was ob- vious fi'om the fact, that immediately after a very heavy fall of rain took place, and continued for a considerable time. Professor Stevelly wished to confirm what had fallen from Professor Lloyd and M. de la Rive by stating that whenever the Scotch hills appeared with peculiar vividness and distinctness, fi-om the Lough of Belfast, the fish- ermen always looked upon it as a sure precursor of lieavy rain and wind. A friend had inllirmed him that on one occasion lie had noticed this ap- pearance while standing on the beach at Holly- wood, and |;ointed it out to an old fisherman ; the old man immediately gave notice to all his ii'iends to whom he had access, who instantly set about drawing up tlieir boats and placing their small craft in more secure places; early the next morn- ing a violent storm came on, which did much dam- age upon the coast, to those who had not been si- milarly forewarned. It might, perhaps, be ac counted for by supposing that on these occasions the intervening air became actually converted into a large magnifying lens. From tlie same. j\lr. Black communicated a paper '-'On the in- fluence of Electricity on the processes of Brew- ing." According to his statements a thunder- storm not only checks the fermentation of worts, hut even raises the gravity of the saccharine fluid, 183S] FARMERS' REGISTER. 133 and dovelopcs in it an acid. This cfl'cct is avII- nessod principally when ihc lermcntin^ tun issunl< in moist earlh, and may be olivialeciby placinii: it upon baked wooden bearers, reslin>j; upon dry bricks or wooden piers, so as to ell'ect its insulation. JVlr. J>lack also stated, that durinji; the prevalence of hifjhly electrified clouds, the labricalion of cast iron does not succeed so well as in other slates of the atmosphere. From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. ENAMELLED HARDWARE. This admirable substance is of German inven- tion, and has only of late years been introduced into the southern part of this country, where it is still but partially known. The art of enamelling on iron, it is said, cannot be accomplished by our manufacturers; and we are in a degree disposed to give credence to the assertion; for we know two instances in which potters have given their opi- nions ofthe impracticability of its accomplishment. During a visit to London three or four years since, our attention was attracted by some iron sauce- pans and frying pans, as we passed the shop of an ironmonger at the corner ofthe Old Bailey, on Ludgate Hill, which appeared as if they were lined with white paper, instead of being tinned in the usual way. On investigation, we found them to be enamelled; and, by inquiry, learnt the fol- lowing particulars: — That they are imported, a ship-load at a time, from Germany; that the manufacture is unknown in England; that they are durable, and not liable to injure. We immediately purchased one; and, subse- quently, several others of difierent sizes, as well as a frying pan, and are entirely satisfied xoiih them all. We will enumerate their advantages, and our readers will thus judge for themselves, whether or not our panegyric is too highly colored, when we pronounce them to be the ne plus ultra of cooking utensils, — without a fault! They are kept clean with the least possible trouble; they never crack or craze, and they perfectly retain the color and the flavor of every product ofthe culina- ry art; so many sad accidents have resulted, and are still occurring, from the use of copper sauce- pans, stew-pans, &c., that it becomes a duty, with every writer of infiuence, to dissuade the public from the use of them, by urging the delete- rious nature of copper on their attention. To our readers, we are well aware, this information will be superfluous; but they must know, as well as ourselves, that errors remain unrectified, — abuses exist unabated — faults rest unreproved — dangers lurk and threaten uncared for, until our natural supineness is roused by an actual evil overtaking us, which miffht and ought to have been prevent- ed from existing. When too late to avert a ca- lamity, we wonder at our apathy, and bewail our culpable remissness. Gentlemen are out of the sphere of copper stew-pans, and provided they find their dinners well appointed, care nought for the kind of metal in which they are cooked; domestic matters being very properly consigned to the lady of the establishment. But it unfortunately hap- pens, that ladies dislike to interfere, and rely upon the sagacity of their housekeepers, who also de- pend upon the cleanliness of their subordinate kitchen-maids; and thus may the lives of a whole household be periled by the ignorance or idleness of this denizen of the scullery, as yft unvisilcd by "divine philosophy." Wc can well iniagiiM', that on reaching this period of our subject, some ''lord of a wide domain " looking off liom his " Quar- teiiy Journal," will address his lady with this startling question, " Are there any copper stew- pans or saucc-paiis in the kitchens, my love7" To wliicli she will, with unleigncd surprise, reply, "Really, my dear, I not know, but I dare say Har- ris can inform you ;" and the aflair of poison in a ragout being momentous, the housekeeper would be summoned, and be in turn astonished with a similar query. Her reply of "Yes, at least a do- zen," would complete tne incipient dismay; and an order to have the dangerous utensils abolished, with the reason assigned, would infallibly elicit a decided assurance on the part of the confidential servant, that "all stews ?wi/si be made in copper, lor iron, tinned, would impart a flavor; that pre- serves and pickles must be boiled in copper, be- cause they would lose all color, and not be fit to be placed on table, if iron was to be substituted." This imperative "wwsi" would, alas ! in too many cases, decide the matter, and that vile per- nicious copper still bear sway in the kitchens. In these admirable German stew-pans, however, we have a succedaneuni of unquestionable capabili- ties, to supersede the necessity of pleasing our eye at the risk of our lives. Every species of cooking has been performed in our own utensils for several years, and to liir greater perfection than we ever experienced, previously to the introduction of the enamelled hardware. Independently of its salu- brity, we should give it tlie preference over every other; for, in consequence of the delicate and inno- cent nature of the glaze, which resembles that of china, all color and flavor are preserved in their utmost purity; and all housewives are aware, that these are desiderata in pickling and preserving. We have stated that this ware is not liable to injure; but we ought to have placed this essential advantage in much more forcible language. The union of the enamel with the iron is so intimate, ihcy are so entirely amalgamated, that it is utter- ly impossible to effect a separation; and we have known, that in the attempt several iron tools have been broken. If we knew of a fault in them we would gladly name it, not only as a guide to ourselves in our future purchases, but because our readers would, perhaps, trust rather to qualified than unqualified praise. The only drawback which we ever ibund, was in their weight, which was greater than those made in England ofthe same size, and per- haps a dissightliness in the forms compared with those of" our own manufacture; but both of these triliing objections have recen.ly been removed. We confess that we had migivings when we made up our mind to order a frying-pan, that the enamel would not endure the very great heat to which that kind of cooking necessarily subjects the vehicle in which it is performed; but we are gratified in being able to assert, that we have had one in frequent use for some months past, and it is as white and uninjured as when we received it first. , We should rejoice to hear that our manufiic- turers intend to give their attention to this useful and beautiiul art; and what can they not achieve with that industry, perseverance, science, wealth, and emulation, for which they arc, above those of all other nations, celebrated? 134 FARMfc:RS' REGISTER. [No. 3 From the Gardeners' Magazine. CONJECTURES EESPECTING THE CAUSES WHICH PRODUCE DOUBLE FLOWERS IN plants; TOGETHER WITH THE RESULTS OF SOME EXPERIMENTS RIADE WITH A VIEW TO THE SAME OBJECT. Jjij James Munro, Forester to the Marquess of Northampton, at Castle j^shby, Northampton- shire. Of the. various phenomena which nature exhi- bits in her economy of the veoelable kingdom, the cause which produces double flowers, and Other singular varieties of plants, is, perhaps, least understood by horticulturists. Different reasons have been assigned for the presence of this liisus nalurcB among vegetables; but, when even these theories have been subjected to a practical test, disappointment has Ibliowed. The prevailing opinion, in earlier times, rested on the theory of contact; in other words, that double-flovvering plants were a result from single and double plants of the same kind grovvmg near to each other; an erroneous assumption, that dou- ble flowers possess impregnative qualities. Any person, possessing the slightest knowledge of the sexual system of plants,^knovvs that double flow- ers are destitute of the productive org.ms; conse- quently, no seed can be obtained from plants of tiiis description: they are anti-natural, and are oc- casioned by some infringement of the laws which regulate the vegetable economy. How, then, is it possible that plants thus physically incapaci- tated lor self-reproduction, by seminal process, can influence the character of their neio-hbors by the mere circumstance of proximity? Besides, the unalterable relation of the order of cause and ef- fect is fatal to this theory; for, if the agency of double flowers is required to alter tlie quality of single-flowering plants of any kind, the question arises. By what means did such flowers come to exist at first? Of late years, it has been stated that Dr. Gra- ham of Edinburgh gave it as his opinion, that, in order to have double stocks, it is only necessary to sow and rear the plants upon an exceedingly rich soil, such as the pulverised material of old hot- beds, &c. By this mode of treatment. 1 suppose it is presumed that the plants shall receive such a surfeit of alimentary matter as will cause a de- parture Irom the natural way by which their va- rious organs are formed, and their functions regu- lated. The high authority whence this tlieory was said to emanate secured it from me a fiiir trial; but the experiment failed completely. My after experience points out a cause of treatment the op- posite to that of Dr. Graham. 1 have found that, the more plants intended to save seed from are checked in their luxuriance, the greater is the chance of success. Every florist must have ob- served that all the stunted-growing kinds of annu- al stock are more productive of double flowers than are the rambling-growing sorts; and that, in both cases, the proportion of doubles is greater from seed that is saved in an exceedingly dry sea- son, when the growth is less luxuriant. From this and other circumstances which have come under my notice, I think there are grounds for questioning whether the agency of any of the afbre-mentioned theories is in the remotest deo;ree connected with the producing of double blossoms. The longer I consider this subject, the less I feel disposed to trust in the eflicacy either of the theo- ry of contact or of alimentary surfeit; the true cause, I think, is more likely to be detected by pro- perly tracing that striking analogy which subsists between vegetable and animal creation. This analogy is stronger than is generally supposed; and, therefore, if we would arrive at correct con- clusions regarding vegetable physiology, we would do well to keep constantly in view the relative po- sition which the subjects under consideration may occupy in the scale of creation. Plants are depen- dent on air and nutriment as well as animals: they are furnished with numerous organs, suited aln^ost to an animated existence; these are skin, pores, glands, hairs, bristles, flesh, or fibre: they have organs for respiration, with veins and arteries, and a circulating fluid traverses the whole. This fluid is at times held in excess by some trees; when bleeding, or an operation equivalent thereto, may be practised with propriety. Ringing the bark of fruit trees, and shortening their roots to bring them into bearing, are here alluded to; by which pro- cess, if a copious discharge is not efl'ected visibly, still a determination of sap to the head is prevent- ed: this fluid adds annually to the bulk and strength of the vegetable structure; which, as with ani- mals, the belter it is led, the better it flourishes. Nor does the analogy stop here: mutilations may be healed or replaced; wounds and bruises may be cured by ap|)!ications similar to those remedies resorted to in cases of fractures of the anima! frame. Cancerous substances and tumorous ex- crescences may be excavated from trees as from animals; and counter-irritations are successliilly employed by gardeners, many of whom well know the advantage of this process on trees technically termed hide-bound. Slitting open the bark, in such cases, produces effects on trees similar to that of the blister on animals. It has likewise been affirmed that excrementitious matter is emit- ted from the roots; and scrofulous-looking tumors, on some trees at least, are common. If due consideration be allowed to all these close resemblances which the vegetable creation bears to the animal, I trust I shall not be thought extravagant in my ideas, if I endeavor to account for the phenomena of vegetable variation by tra- cing that analogy a step farther, and assign to plants, as in animals, a plurality of fluidal sys- tems. In animals, the diflerent fluids and humors originate in one common source, the blood; in plants, each system seems to have a direct com- munication with the elements, and in their opera- tions are independent of each other. It is evident, from the manner in which its operations are con- ducted, that there is one grand system employed in forming the bark, leaves, and woody fibre; viz., the albuminous current: it is also apparent that a separate system exists in plants for the perfecting of the fruit, which may be denominated the semi- nal fluid; and it is highly probable that these sys- tems are of a compound nature, each, perhaps, furnished with organs for producing the properties of color, taste, and smell, peculiar to each divi- sion. If the progress of vegetation is watched closely, we find that every tree, according to its kind, "if raised in the natural way (that is, from the seed), has its whole powers directed to the ac- cumulation of wood, bark, and leaves, for a series 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 135 of years. Twelve years commonly elnpsc before the fruit-buds appear on the apple. In Ibrm aiul size, these buds ditier so widely in appearance from the buds which produce tlie annual spray, that the most partial observer must conclude that they cannot be the work of one and the same agent: if it were so, the li'uit-buds, of course, would be contemporary with those that produce wood; this is sometimes the case with grafted trees, but never with such as are raised from the seed. If one universal system of fluid in [jiants (a servant of all-work) is contended for, viz. the albuminous current, how are we to account for its extremely eccentric nature? To suppose that it possesses the fiiculty of communicating color, taste, and smell to the wood, bark, and leaves, of a peculiar description, whilst it supplies the flower and fruit with these properties of a totally different description, is preposterous. In its journey through the leaves, the alburnous fluid must, doubtless, all undergo the same process of elaboration; conse- quently, must possess a unity of character: the whole mass must be applicable to one purpose only, either for the creation of bark, wood and leaves, or of flowers and fruit. It cannot be cre- dited, that the same agent that gives to the capsi- cum stem and leaves the green color and insipid taste, is capable of communicating the inveterate acrimony of taste to the seed, and high color to the capsule. For my own part, 1 can see no way of overcoming the difficulty of accounting for the difference of color, taste, and smell, held respec- tively by what I shall here designate as the two grand divisions of the vegetable structure, except a plurality of fluidal systems be admitted. In short, the fact that these properties can be afi'ect- ed by the manner in which a plant is treated, is conclusive; color, in particular, may be altered by treatment, without interfijring with any of the other properties; a fact clearly demonstrative of the independent action of the different systems. There are many other facts which might be brought to bear upon this interesting subject; and I may particularise the dahlia as constituting a lucid example. Strictly speaking, the dahlia is not a double-flowering plant; still, I affirm that no plant ever introduced into our British gardens has been so rapidly improved. Great are the chan£Tes that have been efl'ected in the color, size, and form of its flowers; still the stem and leaves have kept a uniform similarity, differing but little in appearance since the day of^ its introduction; a fact clearly proving that one of the grand divi- sions of the fluidal systems in plants may be affected by foreign influence, without detriment to the others. The improved condition of the dah- lia, in regard to its flowers, I do not consider to be a consequence either of contact or of alimentary surfeit; but that it owes its origin to treatment in accordance with the theory herein contended for. Competitors at dahlia exhibitions, from observa- tion, have learned the propriety of preventing an excessive bloom on their best sorts, seldom ''per- mitting more than three or four of the flowers to expand. By this means the sphere of the seminal fluid is curtailed, and the excess thus produced, actmg upon a concentrated field of operation, un- doubtedly causes the departure of the progeny from the habit of the parent: whereas, it'' the whole of the flowers which appear upon a plant were permitted to expand successively, the semi- nal fluid would then be equally distributed, in such proportion to each seed as would accomplish the intentions of nature; namely, consentient repro- duction. The following experiment, performed by me some years smce, is so strongly corrobora- tive of what is here advanced, that'l cannot resist giving it in brief detail. At that period, I had a quantity of simple scar- let ten-week stocks. Impressed with the belief that my theory was worth a trial, I selected a number of the plants; and, as soon as I observed five or six seed-pods fairly formed on the flower spike, every succeeding flower was pinched ofl^. From the seed saved in this manner 1 had more than four hundred doubles on one small bed. Whether this success was in consequence of my mode of treatment, remains to be proved by future experiments; yet I cannot help thinking that it was; and that, if I had left fewer seed-pods on the spikes, the proportion of double plants would have been still greater. In conclusion, I shall instance one or two more facts in favor of ihis theory, which are acted on al- most every day: I allude to thinning of grapes, peaches, and other fruits; a process whereby the quality of fruit is much improved, while the woody part of the plant is not visibly affected. If the albu- minous current were alike the source of woody fibre and fruit, any operation tending to produce mimediate improvement on the one would, as a matter of course, be observable on the other: this, however, is not the case. Again, when a tree shows any decided determination to fruit bearing, little or no spray-wood is made; on the contrary, when an inclination to wood is exhibited, fruit ia less plentiflil: circumstances clearly proving that in Vegetables there do exist two principles, and, to a certain extent, opposed to each other. It is in consequence of the contention of these principles, that practical men resort to ringing of the bark, shortening of the roots, &c., as remedies bearing the sanction of experience, for counteracting any ascendency which the one may have obtained over the other. I shall only add, that the expe- rience which I have had of the working of this theory has determined me to resume my experi- ments on the first opportunity, the results of which shall be faithfially communicated. Castle j/shby, Dec. 1837. From the Franklin Fanner. HARVESTING OF CORN, To the Editor. — As the season is approaching in which the farmers will commence the securing the abundant crop of corn with which a bountifiii Providence has blessed our country, it may be pertinent to the occasion to offer a lew remarks upon the best mode of harvesting the crop. Our Virginia ancestors and those who think it wise to plant and cultivate and gather as our fa- thers have done, pursue the old method; about this time they gather the blades below the ears of corn — after they consider the corn to be ripe, they top the stalks and secure all of the fodder in stacks for winter use. In November they pull the corn and remove it to cribs, where it is husked out at leisure. This mode is rapidly yielding in the 136 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 3 stock districts to that first introduced among the irraziers on the south branch ol the Potomac. The farmers in the norliiern and middle districts of Kentucky, and in the Scioto valley of Ohio, have generally adopted this latter mode; which is to cut the stalks, corn, fodder and all, and place them in shocks commonly embracing sixteen hills square. I have seen the richest crops of many climates gathered, and there is no operation in husbandry so animating as that of cutting corn in the mode just mentioned. It is a most cheering prospect to see twenty acres of corn pass in one or two days to a condition in which it is prepared to keep in the field throughout the winter. This remark is pre- dicated particularly upon the plan of riddling the squares, instead of cutting the whole square at once, it will readily occur to any observing mind, that as corn does not ripen with precise regular- ity, if the entire square is cut out at once, some of the corn will mould and someiimes even the Ibdder will be affected, if the cuttinir shall be Ibl- lowed by warm or wet weather. To avoid this contingency, some graziers commence with the process of riddling, that is, they select only such part of the sixteen hills square as may be ripe — go through the field in this way, and in ten days complete the cutting of the square. By this pro- cess several important advantages are obtained — the greatest amount ot" fodder is secured, con- sistantly with the paramount object of saving the corn, and a nucleus lor the shock being formed by the first cutting in the square, the shock becomes settled and stands belter during the winter. In the rich counties of Clarke and Bourbon, they sometimes cut half of the square on one side and then in ten days finish it. Whilst many graziers in Fayette, Lincoln and Slielby, prefer the process of riddling. In the course of October and November, these shocks are shucked out, the corn placed in cribs and two of the shocks placed together, or one placed upon the ground and two others put around it. It is the opinion of practical farmers, that the practice of cutting corn in this mode secures the greatest amount oi" corn and fodder with the least expense, and is decidedly an improvement on the old Virginia plan, more especially when applied to the feeding of cattle or mules. " T. From the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. •ORGANIZATIOIV AND FUNCTIONS OF ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES COMPARED. It is a very important preliminary to the study for which I would gain the attention of jiraclical men, that they understand the nature of plants; of those organic creatures whose diseases they would obviate; for an ignorance of, or an inattention to this, is one of the causes that so little progress has been made in this branch of natural phTlosophy. It is absolutely necessary and important for them to understand fully that this jiart of the creation, the very grass they trample upon, is so liirrhly or- ganized, so exhibiting intimations of the functions more highly developed m the superior animals, that it is not post-iblc to point out where animal life terminates, and where vegetable life begins ; the zoophyte connects the two kingdoms. It is absolutely necessary, I think, for this to be under- stood and felt by those who enter upon the inves- tigation of vegetable diseases, because I have a strong opinion that these in many, very many in- stances, are caused by the plants which they in- fect being treated as if they were totally insensible, inorganic matters, scarcely more susceptible of in- jury at some periods of their growth than the soil from whence they partly derive their sustenance. To determine the question whether plants pos- sess a degree of sensation, is not so easy as many persons may believe. "It is as difficult," says Mr, Tupper, who has written ably upon the subject, "to ascertain the nature of vegetable existence, as to determine what constitutes the living principle in animals." Darwin, by the aid of imaginary beings similar to the Dryads and Ilarmadryads of the classic mythology, has raised plants to a posi- tion in the order of nature superior to that to which animals are entitled. Other philosophers, taking a totally antagonist opinion, estimate vege- tables as bodies, only somewhat more organized than crystals, but like these entirely and exclusive- ly subject to chemical and mechanical changes. The above opinions are equally erroneous, as will appear fi'om the facts arranged in the follow- ing pages. It might easily be made to appear that the gradation from reason to instinct, from in- stinct to inanimation, is as gradual as the transitions of light from the noon-tide to the midnight of a summer's day; but this essay must be confined to that section of creation that commences from the close of the animal classes in the zoophyte, and terminates where inorganic matter commences in the crystal; and its details must be specially direct- ed to demonstrate how closely it approaches, how indistinctly it is divided from the former. Let us first consider the comparative composi- tion of animals and plants demonstrated by the re- searches of chemists. Their constituents are iden- tical: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sul- phur, phosphorus; acids, alkalies, earths, and me- tals, are the common components of both. Ni- trogen has been considered by some chemists as the constituent, marking by its presence animal from vegetable matters, but the distinction fails in as much as that from some animal matters it is absent; whilst in the gluten of plants, a chief con- stituent of wheat, and in the whole frame of the tobacco, it is present. If we follow the above chemical bodies through their combinations, we shall find that these in ani- mals and plant.? are closely similar; and in both are equally numerous and intricate. Of the acids there are contained in Jlnhnals. J ^es;c tables. 1. Sulphuric, L Sulphuric, 2. Phosphoric, 2. Phosphoric, 3. Muriatic, 3. Muriatic, 4. Carbonic, 4. Carbonic, 5. Benzoic, 5. Benzoic, 6. Oxalic, 6. Oxalic, 7. Acetic, 7. Acetic, 8. Malic, 8. Malic, and others equally numerous in each, but not common to both. Of the earths and alkalies, lime, magnesia, silica, soda, and potass, are found in each class. Of the metals, iron and manganese are their conjoint conslituenls. 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER, 137 If we follow the two classes through their more roni|iouiHicoiislitueiits, we will firul the aiialoixy still holds: tliey contain cotiinion snirar, mucus, jelly, coloriuiX, and oilier pruiciples, irhiten.* (ihrin. oils, resins, and extractives. The functions of animals and |)lants are similarly closely analojrous. Animals take in their tiiod by the agency of the mouth, and prepare it for diijestion by various de- grees of mastication, or atiriiion, as in the pi/.zard of birds. In this they ditierfrom plants, but these have this compensation, they imbibe their food in a liquid form, and consequently in a state of the finest possible division. Animal and vegetable remains are their common food, plants havino; this superiority over animals, that, as they only absorb the soluble and finer parts, they are not obliged to throw off the grosser constituents which appear in the excrement ol"animals.t In the ani- mal stomach the food undergoes an extensive change, being reduced to a pulp of greaterspecific gravity, and being altered entirely both in taste and smell. In the lym|)hatics of plants, which may be considered their primary organ of diges- tion, their food, or lymph, undergoes a chanire precisely similar; its color and flavor are altered, and its specific gravity increased. From the stomach, the animafs food passes in- to the intestines, is there subjected to the action of the biie, and converted into chyle, the nutritive part, and excrementiiious matter. In their pas- sage through the intestines, the chyle is absorbed by the lacteal vessels, and is conveyed into the blood; by the heart, the minfrled fluids are pro- pelled into the lungs, to be there exposed to the action of the air. The vital fiuid there changes its purple hue for a florid red, loses a portion of its watery particles and carbon ; the latter combining with the oxygen of the atmospheric air in the lungs, and being breathed forth in the form of carbonic acid gas. As planrs in their food take in no gross, unnecessary ingredients, it is obvious that no process like the biliary operation of diires- tion is required. The lymph, or sap, proceeding at once along the branches, is poured into the leaves, the very lunsfs of plants. There, as in the blood, its color is chanired, oxygen is emitted from it durincT the light hours of the day; but carbonic acid gas is thrown off during the night, and at all periods a considerable quantity of water. From the lungs, by the atiency of the heart, »he blood is propelled throufrh the arteries over the whole animal system, supplying nourishment and warmth to all the parts, and where, by these abstractions, it is again converted into purple or venous blood, it is returned by the veins to under- go the chantjes that were described as being ef- fected by the lungs. The sap, after exposure to the action of the air in the leaves, is returned by another set of vessels situated in the bark, ministering to the growth and support of the whole plant. Such is the close assimilarity in the digestive and circulatory processes of the two classes; an as- similarity which obtains in all the other functions enjoyed by them in common. In respiration, the * The gluten of plants is the albumen of animals. t Is not the excretion from the roots of plants, as proved to exist by M. De Candolle, somewhat analo- gous to the excrementitious matter of animals? — Edx- TOR. Vol. VI-18 air inhaled through the mouth and nostrils pro- ceeds immediately to the lungs and acts upon the blood; in plants, when it is iiilialed by their leaves, it operates instantaneously upon the sap. The changes that take place have just V)ecn imperfect- ly noticed; but it is necessary to add, that the oxy- gen of the atmosphere, is the gas essential to the existence of animals; but it is its carbonic acid that is nearly as imporiant to vegetables. They may be considered the vital airs of the two classes. If animals are placed in a situation where they in- hale pure oxygen, their functions are highly and rapidly increased; but it is an exhilaration which would sQon terminate in exhaustion and death, if breathed by them for any extended period. So plants will flourish in an atmospliere containing yVth of carbonic acid, but if it much exceeds this pi-oportion, they are rapidly destroyed. During sleep, animals expire less carbonic acid than dur- ino their waking hours; so plants emit little or no oxyiren during the night. After an animal has enjoyed the regular course of its functions for a period varying in its duration, the time at length arrives when decay commences. The wasted, enfeebled, and relaxed form gradual- ly declines, until death finally closes all activity. The body then becomes contracted and rigid; the skin exchanges the ruddy tinge of health for death's pallid hue. Decomposition speedily en- sues, with all its offensive phenomena; and finally the only permanent remains are the skeleton and asmall amount of earthy matter. Thesame cha- racteristics attend the last period of vegetable ex- istence. Plants may flourish only lor one season, or their lives may be extended through centuries of years, yet decay eventually comes over them; becoming more and more stunted, weak, pallid, and ragged, they eventuall}' cease to live, become contracted and rigid, and pass through the same phases of putrelaction that are exhibited by the animal carcass. In both there was a time when warmth and exposure to the atmosphere were the sources of vigor, they now become the agents of destruction; they were once able to resist and to overcome the laws of chemical affinity, they now are destroyed by their attacks. What causes this most striking change? What antiseptic agent have they lost? There can be but one reply. It was their vitality. Now, let us examine how the vitality of plants in other respects resembles the vitality of animals, and I will confine this exami- nation to two or three points. Plants are excitable. Light acts upon them as a stimulus. Every body must have observed that plants bend towards the direction from whence its brightest influence proceeds. M . Bon- net, the French botanist, demonstrated this in some very satisfactory experiments, by which he showed that plants grown in a dark cellar, all ex- tended themselves towards a small orifice admit- ting a few rays of light. Every flower almost has a particular degree of light requisite for its lull expansion. The blossoms of the pea, and of other pajjilionaceous plants, spread out their wings in fine weather, to admit the solar rays, and again close them at the approach of night. Plants re- quiring a powerful stimulus, do not expand their flowers until noon, whilst some would be destroy- ed if compelled to open in the meridian sun, — the night-blooming Cereus unfolds its flowers only at night. Heat also acts as a stimulus upon plants. 138 F A R JVI E R S' REGISTER [No. 3 M. Duhamel observed, that during moderately fine weather the footslalk of a leaf of the sensitive plant (mimosa pudica) stood in the niorninir at an angle with the lower part of the stem of 100° ; at noon the angle had increased to 112", but at night had fallen to 90"^. If a leaflet of this plant be but slightly touched, it immediately shrinks away, and the impulse being communicated, each pair of leaflets on the branch collapse in succession ; and if the impulse be strong, the very branch itself will sink down by the side of the stem. Jf an in- sect alight upon the upper surface of the Venus's fly-trap"^ (diomeamuncipula,) its sides spasmodi- cally approach each other, and crush to death the intruder. If the inner side, near the base, of any one of the anthers of the barberry, (berberis vul- garis) be gently touched, as with a bristle or fea- ther, it instantly springs forward and strikes against the stigma. But the strongest indication, says Mr. Keith, of the existence of a species of sensi- tive principle in a plant, is, perhaps, that which is exhibited by the hedysarum gyrans. It is a na- tive of India, growing on the banks of the Gan- ges. Its leaves are ternate, the middle leaflet be- ing larger than the lateral ones. All of them are in constant vibratory motion; sometimes equably, at other times abruptly, but without any unison in the movements. If their motion be prevented, by grasping them in the hand, they renew it more vigorously when the confinement is removed, but by degrees subside to their natural rapidity of mo- tion. This motion does not depend upon the ap- plication of any external stimulus, for it continues throughout the night as well as the day. It is most active during a warm fine day, the leaves then having an additional tremulous motion. (Keith's System of Physiological Botany, ii. 464.) Instinct seems to be a characteristic of plants, from the following phenomena. Some of them close their flowers invariably when rain is ap- proaching. Others have an unalterable direction assumed by them when climbing. No force can make one twist round a pole from left to right, if its natural direction be from right to left. If a gar- den pot be divided by a vertical partition, and one- half filled with a poor steril earth, and the other moiety filled with a rich fertile soil, a geranium or other plant placed in this pot, with some of its roots over the steril soil, and the rest of the roots over the fertile soil, those over the first named por- tion will gradually change their direction until they can also get into the richer pasturage. In- stances have been known of the roots of trees piercing and destroying walls in their efforts to at- tain a more preferable soil than that in which they were planted. M. Sauesure relates, that he placed some plants of polygonum persicaria and bidens cannabina, in water containing acetate of lime in solution. These plants then imbibed with the water a portion of this salt; but when they had the opportunity of selection given them, by dissolving in ttie water some common salt, glau- ber salt, and acetate of lime, they absorbed the two first named, but rejected the latter entirely. (Saussure^s Recherchcs, 247-261.) From the foregoing facts, without arguing that they demonstrate sensation to exist in plants as acute as that pos^sessed by the higher or more perfect classes of animals, yet they certainly are the polypus and the hirudo, — animals that may be cut into pieces, and each section become a per- Itjct individual, — animals whose heads may be taken off and grafted upon other bodies, — animals that may be turned with their outsides inwards, and yet without any apparent inconvenience. If plants be endowed with sensation of the most li- mited degree, it explains the cause, throws light upon the prevention of many diseases that aflect those which are the object of cultivation, warns the tiller of the soils from the late performance of many of his operations, and teaches him general- ly to beless violent in his field practice. If a grape vine be pruned too late in the spring, the bleeding, or eflTusion of sap, has been known to be so vio- lent, that the tree has died from absolute exhaus- tion. Stone fi'uits, if severely wounded, are fre- quently destroyed by the inroads of a disease re- sembling in all its characteristics the cancerous af- fections of animals; and I have known a whole crop of wheat afl'ected with a swelling of the stem^ or culm, evidently caused by an extravasation of the sap from its ruptured internal vessels, owing to the roller being passed over the crop when of a growth somewhat too forward. From tlie proceedings of tlio sevenlli meetina; of tlie British As- sociation, for tlie advancement of Science. CATASTROPHE IN A MINE. Mr. Sedgwick requested the attention of the meeting to an account, which he was about to submit, of the late unfortunate accident at the Workington Colleries. He pointed out, on the geological map, the rocks which occur in that neighborhood, and stated some of the phenome- na of the stratification of the coal measures, which are there very much disturbed. There is an anticlinal line, on the opposite sides of which the strata dip differently, so that, in one place, very important beds of coal crop out under the sea. Workings, quite submarine, have accordingly been carried on for some time: in the Isabella pit, a depth of one hundred and thirty-five fathoms under high water has been reached. A culpable want of caution has been shown by the mana- gers of late, as they have caused the workings to reach too near the sea — even within fourteen fa- thoms of it; and the pillars and roof of the older works had been taken away, by which the danger was greatly increased. There had been repeated warning li-om the shrinking of the ground, and from an old work havinrr become filled with water; also in the new workings — although the pumping brought up one thousand gallons per minute, the miners were in such danger of being drowned, that several left the employment. In the latter end of July, the sea at length broke in, filling the mine in all its parts, in little more than two hours, and destroying twenty miles of railway. On one side of the Camperdown Dike, which ranges through the mine, not a soul was saved; but seve- ral escaped from other parts, and one individual,, an Irishman, called Brennagh, had not only a re- markable escape himself, but saved three others by his intrepidity. Professor Sedgwick related to the Section this man's story, which was so singu- satisfactory evidence that' plants" probably are I lar and told with such a mixture of the serious nearly as sentient as the zoophyte, or even as I and ludicrous — often in the language of the man 1838] FARMERS* R E G I S T E R 139 himself— that if, is impossilile to convey to the reader an idea of ihe cU'ect |)roduced on the audi- ence. A remarkable lact in the escape of one ol' the individuals rescued hy J>renna,n shall of the mine l)y the enormous force of the air, the noise of which was heard at a considerable distance in ilie country. The first notice to Brenna,75 Balance of cost for the first year, $ 1,65 The next year the same lot was put in oats — ■ the limed was doubly as good as the unlimed, and more than paid the balance due from the ex- pense of liming. If the calculation be made at 35 bushels of lime per acre, a profit would accrue the first year as follows : 35 bushels lime at 10 cts., $3,50' Carting and spreading, 2 cts., 70 Expense per acre. Difference of product between the limed and unlimed : 1^ barrels corn at $4.50 per barrel. $4,20 5,75 $2,55 Profit per acre, From this statement, the conclusion may be drawn, that the smaller quantity is as beneficial to the first crop as a greater ; but it would require a speedier repetition of the lime, and I do not doubt the larger dressing will eti'ect a greater ul- timate improvement of the soil. My observation of the effects of carbonate of lime, has in no instance discovered any thing con- tradictory of the positions laid down in your 'Es- say on Calcareous Manures;' on the contrary, so far as they have extended, have been confirmato- ry. It has confirmed the facts : 1st, That where lime is applied sorrel will disappear. My land, where lime was put, had been very subject to the growth of sorrel. It was a cold, compact, sour soil, but becomes more open, puts up a different growth of grass; and I noticed on a lot partly limed and partly not, that the cows, when permitted to graze it, would invariably go to that part which had been limed; thus showing that a sweeter and more nutritious grass grew on it. 2d, That lime renders land fit lor wheat which had not been be- fore adapted to that grain. I have cultivated wheat with success upon land which had never been considered adapted to wheat, and had never produced that grain until lime was applied. 3d, That it causes clover to grow luxuriantly on land that would not previously produce it. Here I would remark, that I have been strongly impress- ed with the conviction, that your views of the ac- tion of gypsum on land after liming, are correct. I never could believe the old opinion, that the sea air operated to prevent the action of this powerful manure. Your view is more reasonable and phi- losophical. I had used gypsum on some of the same land now limed, before it had been limed, without perceiving the least benefit. It is my in- tention next spring to try it again on the same land. The results I may perhaps communicate, as I look upon it as a matter of great importance to all who design to lime or marl their lands. W.M. Shultice. 144 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 3 MARLING IN QUEEN ANNE COUNTY, BID. To ihc Editor of the Farmers' Register. JVye, Queen Anne County, Md., ) lOih December, 1837. 5 I observe yoiir queries in the last, number ofthe Rerrister, and wish I could answer them, or some orihem, with accuracy to saiisly mys^eif. I com- menced the application of marl in 1-S24, with but little knowledge of its action, and liave kept no memoranda. About the same time, I began the use of marsh mud, and found its immediate ef- fects so much n)ore productive, that the marl was neglected. In the year 1833. your book on Cal- careous Manures was recommended to me by the late Col. Edward Floyd of Talbot. Your views on the subject have induced me to turn my atten- tion principally to marl, for improvement of my lands. From two fields of about 45 acres each, marled for the most part since that time, and an intervening crop of clover, I gathered this year six hundred barrels of corn, and it is not in my re- collection that they ever before produced more than four hundred ; a small quantity of putres- cent manure being carried out as usual. My marl is blue, mixed with sand, and our geologist. Dr. Ducalel, slates it at 45 and 50 parts of shell. I applied 500 bushels to the acre. Wm. Carbiichael. FARM reports: III. — Netherby, Cumberland, (^England.') management of the home farm. The management of the Park of Netherby, the extent of which is upwards of twelve hundred and ninety statute acres, (independent of the woods surrounding and interspersed through the grounds,) comprehends the practical detail of a large grass and arable farm, managed on princi- ples suited to the climate and local situation ofthe country, and occupied by the proprietor, not only with a view to the permanent improvement ofthe lands, but also to securing the largest return possi- ble from them. The detail is conducted by an active overseer or bailiff from one of the best-managed agricultural districts of Scotland. The establishment consists of four regular ploughmen, each having the charge of a pair of horses; a steady elderly person, who has the charge of the granaries, and who superintends the field operations of hand-hoeing, reaping, &c.; and a park-keeper, who acts in the double capacity of superintendent of the whole grazing stock of cat- tle and sheep, and as butcher to the family. There is, besides, a person whose sole business it is to alJtend to the open and close draining of the lands about to be described, and whose services are of much consequence towards their good manage- ment. All these under servants have been very carefully selected. The female part of the estab- lishment consists of a dairy-maid and an assistant in the cow-house. The establishment is so ar- ranged that all hands are fully employed. All extra labor required at hay and corn harvest, and in hand-hoeing the various crops, &c. is very rea- dily commanded li'om the adjoining market town of Longtown. Every account and payment inci- dent to this e8tablishment is kept by the overseer, and is regularly audited and settled by ihe agent once a month; and a copy ofthe monthly account is duly put into the proprietor's hands, who is thus enabled to have the real situation of his farming matters constantly under his eye. Extra vvork, such as mowing, draining &c. is let by contract to laborers. Description. — The management about to be described extends, as already mentioned, over about twelve hundred and ninety acres. The soils are of various descriptions, and consist ofthe following general divisions : 1st. On the banks of the river Esk, which cuts the grounds into two portions, the soil is a loamy clay on a porous bottom, and very various in point of quality, as is generally the case with all lands whose formation is the deposite or washings down of lands situated at a higher level. These landa are under permanent pasture. 2d. A mossy soil of no great extent, but of considerable depth, incumbent on clay, now irri- gated meadow land. 3d. Gravelly soil, on an open bottom of gravel, technically called a rusty gravel, held in pasture or alternate husbandry; and, 4th. A clay soil of various qualities on a close till or stubborn clay subsoil, unsuited to constant pasturage, and therelbre kept in alternate hus- bandry. The lands consist of about 480 acres loamy clay, 28}, acres meadow, 320 acres gravel, and 462 acres clay soils. The aspect is generally flat, but with a gentle undulating surface, and with a moderate inclina- tion from the river which runs through the lands in a direction from N. E. to S. VV. The whole lands lie compact and in a ring fence, and form to- gether a very beautiful park, equal to any in the north of England, not only in point of appearance, but in real value, while these lands do not lie at more than fi-om 70 to 120 feet above the level of the Solway Frith. The management of each kind of soil being different, requires a distinct and par- ticular description, as will be found in the follow- ing account. The farm buildings at Crofthead stand very nearly in the centre of the grounds, which has been found of great advantage in their manage- ment. Longtown. — A considerable market town, con- taining from 1800 to 2000 souls, through which the great road from Edinburgh to London by Car- lisle passes, is situated at theS. VV. angle of these lands. No manure can be procured here except what is produced on the farm, in the fiirm-yards at Crofthead, and what is purchased at Longtown. Of the last — as the farmers in the neighborhood procure all they can — no great quantity of manure can be obtained. There is abundance of lime, however, to be got within four miles, at a price averaging about 3s. per single cart-load at the lime-kilns, or M. per imperial bushel. No chalk, clay, or shell marl is found in the neighborhood, and the chief dependence is on dung and compost made on the lands, and lime as already staled. 183S] FARMERS' REGISTER, 145 Turnips are imleoil coiisuniod on the lands, where the soil is dry, by sheep. A trial is just now in progress of using bone dust, as a manure lor tlie production of turnips; and if it. succeeds, as i? expected, this assistant will be much usi>d here in future. Draining. — The lirst ojieration of management has been in every case to ensure a co;n|)iete under- drainage, to relieve tiie lands from the springs by which they were surcharged, as well as attending closely to open draining. The improvement ot' close draining has been most, ellectually done by tiles manutactured on the estate, at a distance of about tliree miles, and in the same manner as is practised in StaH'ordshire and Warwickshire. Ma- ny hundred roods of drains have bi en executed in this way, and with complete success. The open draining has also been a pomt of paramount con- sideration. The ditches, or main drains, have al- ways invariably been cut out to the proper level, so as readily and freely to discharge the water de- livered into them. The sides are carefully sloped back by the spade, so as to discharge the water from the ridges; and the earth so cut away, as well as all high head-ridges have been in every case most carefully mixetl up with lime, repeated- ly turned over at pioper intervals, and, lastly, ap- plied as a rich compost in top-dressing the adjoin- ing lands, after being depastured fur the first two or three years. It is very surprising that sloping in the sides of main drains, and open ditches, which is a means of providing an ample supply of rich manure in thousands of cases, is almost inva- riably neglected by the practical iarmer; and that he should equally neglect to remove the high head-ridges existing in almost every field (occa- sioned by the repeated use of the plough), which would be the means of enriching the ailjoining lands at an inconsiderable expense. This, with ditch and road scrapings, anil every possible means of increasing the quantity of putrescent manure, have been closely and successfully at- tended to here, and with great success; and as the application of compost so collected has been al- most in all ca.ses to pasture lands, the effect has been excellent; while the grounds, when broken up for white crops, after being so manured, have — even on very inlijrior soils — yielded full and fair crops. Indeed the system pursued for a number of years, of turning every particle of soil not re- quired for the production of useful crops, into com- post to be ap|)licd as a top-dressing to the grass lands has been Ibund very beneficial. Management of Pasture Lands. — The climate here, in common with the whole west coast of Britain, is rather wet; and considerable quantities of rain fall in Cuiuberland, in consequence of its proximity to the Atlantic. Dry soils therefore are of the greatest value here, and grass husbandry on many accounts is the most proper and natural tor the district. When lands are well and judiciously laid down to permanent pasture, the expense of their man- agement is at once reduced. The local situation of this part of Cumberland, bordering on Scotland, renders it in a great measure a grazing or cattle- dealing country, and pasture land, of a good quali- ty, is constantly in request, and yields full and fair rents, when let from year to year; or, when farm- ed in a run of seasons, it produces, either by rat- tle or sheep, a fair return to the grazier. Tlie Vol. VI— 19 greatest part of the cattle and sheep sold in the great Scotch markets, in Calloway, and the north of Ireland, pass through this country to Carlisle, the great jjoint where they change hands. Old Crass Lands. — Around the house of Ne- therby a very considerable extent of old graea land exists. This has been completely under- drained; and as it was disposed to produce moss — so as to render the pasturage late in cominc to maturity — a very heavy dose of hot lime was ap- plied about ten years ago to the whole, with re- markably good effect; lor after the first year's ap- plication, the moss was eradicated, and the pas- ture is now unrivalled in the country. The soil alluded to is generally good clay loam on an open bottom. Xew Grass Lands. — Whether on light or heavy soils, it has been the constant custom here, in the first place, to lay the lands completely dry by un- der-draining; then to clean and . pulverise the hauls completely by summer fallow or tureen crops; to apply all the jirutrescent manure that could possibly be produced or purchased at a lair price. On light soils, turnips are consumed, by sheep folded on the grounds; and on clay soils, the tur- nips, if any are produced, have been regularly consumed in the larm-yards, and the manure so produced has been applied to the ensuing white crop. In all cases, supposing the lands (of what- ever description of soil they may consist.) to he thoroughly cleaned, the course here has been to sow out to permanent pasture with xhe first white crop, and with the following variety uf pasture seeds, viz. If Clay Lands, Timothy Grass - - Pacey's Ryegrass - Red iClover - - - White Clover - - (f flight Dry Soils, Pacey's Ryegrass Red Clover - - White Clover - Cocksfoot - - - Rib Grass - - Pleiim prafensc. Solium perenne. Trifolium pratense. Trilblium repens. Solium perenne. Trilblium pratense. Trifolium repens. Dactylis glomerata. Plantago lanceolata. Jlay is ncv.cr taken from lands intended to re- main in permanent pasture. These lands, whether heavy or liirht soils, are constantly depastured with sheep for the first season. If clay lands, the grass is depastured from 1st May to 11th Novem- lier, and if light soil, li-om 1st May to 1st March yearly; and no stock of any kind is admitted on either description of soil between the terms men- tioned. The second year any onhnary description of stock is admitted. In the course of years it has been Ibund necessary to break up some part of these lands, and to lay them down anew to permanent pasture: the ibllowing varieties of pas- ture seed are now sown and ajiproved of here. Clay Lands, Timothy Grass - - - Pleum pratense. ("ocksl()ot ----- Dactylis glomerata. Meadow Fescue - - - Festuca pratensis. Dog's-tail ----- Cynosurus cristalus. Meadow Cat's-tail - - Pleura pratense. Pacey's Perl. Ryegrass Solium perenne. Red Clover - - ^ - Trifolium pratense. White Clover - . - - Trilblium repent'. 146 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 3 Light Lands, Timothy Grass - - - Pleum pratense. Pacey's Perl. Ryegrass Solium perenne. Cocksfoot ----- Dactyiis "lonierata. Rib grass ----- Plantago lanceolata. Dog's-tail ----- Cynosurus cristatus. Mixed Fescues - - - Festuca dunuscula, Festuca, pratensis, &c. Mixed Poas - .. - - Poa pratensis, Poa cerulea, &c. Red Clover - - - - Trilblium pratense. White Clover- - - - Trifolium repens. The inferior description of clay lauds in parti- cular have been much improved by opening the furrow every autumn, about the month of Novem- ber, by means of the furrow draining plough — an implement of simple construction, but one that cannot be too well known by the agriculturist. Its object is to cut a furrow slice out of the already existing ILirrow, 6 or 7 inches deeper, while its mould board, formed of wood, throws tliis slice 8 or 9 inches clear out on the right-hand side of the plough — thus forming a complete (we may say almost invisible) drain — which lays the land dry, and which discharges all superfluous water through the ensuing winter, while the furrow slice so re- moved is an addition to the compost heap. This simple implement has been of the greatest use here, and is strongly recommended to all farmers of wet clay lands. Double Digging or Trenching. — Last year, du- ring the distress of the hand-loom weavers, a large extent of ground of a very stiff clayey na- ture was trenched by those out of employment, in order to employ them. The deepness trenched was eighteen inches, and the inequalities of the surface were regularly reduced and attended to, and the grounds planted with potato anil mangel wurzel, properly drilled and manured. Next year wheat will be sown, and the ground laid down again to permanent pasture. Irrigated Meadoios. — Here there are IS^ acres of water meadow on the ridge or bed system, and about lOg on what is termed catch-work. It hap- pens unlbrtunately that the water collected in a brook, descending through the lands to the Esk, is hardly sufficient, except in floods, for the pur- pose of complete irrigation. But the heavy crops produced even under imperfect watering, leave no doubt, however, of the utility of this branch of agri- culture. There are no other meadows here, and indeed the want of meadow ground is seriously felt over this district. In the general management of the pastures, care is taken to eradiate docks, thistles, &c., from the surface; and moles are destroyed whenever their workings appear. ROTATION OF CROPS. The plough rotation followed on these lands has been as follovvs — on Gravelly soils. — 1. Turnips. — Generally Swedes or Aberdeen j^ellows, consumed on the ground by sheep. 2. Barley. — Sown about the middle of April with seeds lor pasture : the lands laid generally quite flat in the surface. 3. Young grass seeds depastured by sheep; ge- nerally ewes and lambs, from 1st May tolst March. 4. Pasture. 5. Ditto. — Top-dressed this season with compost. 6. Pasture. 7. Pasture. 8. Pasture. 9. Oats out of ley. Clay lands of the best description. — 1. Summer fallow, or, if the season is suitable, globe tur- nips. In cither case, the land thoroughly clean- ed and manured. Turnips pulled and consumed in the yards by cattle. 2. Wheat, sown in autumn; and grass seeds for pasture sown in the succeeding spring: no stock of any kind allowed to depasture these seeds in the ensuing winter. 3. Young pasture seeds, depastured by sheep from 1st May to 11th Novemlier; but unless the en- suing winter should happen to be particularly dry, no stock admiited afier that period. 4. Pasture for the same period. 5. Ditto, ditto. — Top-dressed with lime or com- post. 6. Ditto, ditto. 7. Ditto, ditto. If the lands now begin to show moss, so as to hurt the pastures, and render the grass later in coming to a iLill bite, they are generally ploughed for oats in the eighth year, about the middle of win- ter, so as to derive advantage from atmospherical influence, and are ploughed with a strong furrow. Clays of the. second-rate description. — 1. J3are fallow. — Thoroughly cleaned, limed, and ma- nured; the greatest pains being taken in all cases of clay land in the ploughing, so as to give the ridges a proper shape, to discharge all surface- water from the centre to the furrow. 2. Wheat, of the red kind, or oats, sown out with seeds for pasture. 3. Seeds, depastured by sheep from 1st May to 11th ISovember. 4. Depastured by any kind of stock from ditto to ditto. 5. Depastured by any kind of stock from 1st May to 11th November. Top-dressed with lime or compost. 6. Ditto, ditto. 7. Ditto, ditto. 8. Oats out of ley. These various courses of cropping have been found to suit the lands extremely well. The ap- plication of lime or compost to the third year's pasture, is a point never overlooked; for it is found to renovate the pasture grasses, and the grounds, after an interval of two or three years, break up in capital condition for oats. Wheat. — The wheat sown on the best descrip- tions of soil is invariably the white kind. That most in request for seed is understood to be what is called, in East Lothian, "Hunter's wheat." Wheat, after summer fiillow, has always been found of the best quality and greatest weight to the acre ; on inferior clays, red wheat is often sown. This variety is certainly well suited to such soils, and often fair average crops are ob- tained; but it is thicker in the husk, and therefore not so much in request with the corn-factors. The price in the market is generally one shilling per Carlisle bushel under the price of white wheat.* *A Carlisle bushel is equal to 3 A imperial mea- sure. 183S] FARMERS' REGISTER, 147 Solving. — The quantity of seed wheat to a sta- tute acre sown l)i'uud cast, is I'roui two and a hiilC to three imperial bushels. The usual return, in favorable seasons, may be about Ironi thirty-ibur to thirty-eiiTJU imperial bushels per acre. Period of sowing. — On summer fallows, wheat is sown about the second week of September; and if wheat is tried after turnips, led oil' on the lands by sheep, which is sometimes the case on lighter soils, the sowing being pcrlbrmcd during the win- ter months in proportion as the turnips are con- sumed. Tares or vetches — Are seldom or never sown in this district. They answer, however, admira- bly in this district on fresh soils : they have inva- riably yielded a very large return of green food for soiling, and have been sown on purpose to be ready to be cut as green food, between the first and second crops of clover. Tares are never made into hay in this district; and indeed from the great quantity of succulent matter they pro- duce, in a variable climate, the process ol making them into hay would be attended with much risk and probably little advantage. They are very useful when consumed in summer, in soiling by cattle or horses, and thereby adding greatly to the dunghill — a pomt of paramount importance, but in no other light is their culture recommended. Rape. — Rape succeeds here very well on lands in fair condition. An experiment on rather a large scale, was tried about eight years ago, of sowing in the month of July, no less a quantity than 120 acres of land of the first-rate quality — of loam intended for permanent pasture — with rape alone. The ground was previously tho- roughly cleaned and limed, the rape and grass seeds sown, and the rape, mimediately on arriving at maturity, eat off by sheep. The effect has answered, and the lands in question are the best pasture in the country at this moment. Turnips. — The turnips sown here are the globe, the Aberdeen yellow, and the Swedish; all these varieties, when the seed is good and fresh, and the proper culture followed, have invariably suc- ceeded here. The globe is consumed first, then the Aberdeen yellow, and lastly the Swedes. A number of other turnip seeds have been tried, such as the tankard, the green roiuid, &c.; but from experience, the three kinds first named are decidedly preferred. Drill husbandry. — Turnips are always drilled here, and without a single case of failure. The turnip husbandry of East Lothian and Berwick- shire is followed from first to last. The crops pro- duced are generally heavy, sound, and cood, even on the stifl'est description of clays. These crops are either consumed in the farm-yards by cattle, or on the ground by sheep. In eating of!' turnips by elieep, the practice here has always been at first to confine the flock on an extent calculated to support them fully for one week, and to give them a li'esh break once a week afterwards, allowing the flock the range over the first portions of ground allot- ted to them. Hay, m sheep-haicks or cribs, is given along with turnips; Swedes are undoubted- ly a most valuable crop to the farmer, and are the favorite food of all sorts of cattle and sheep. It is the custom in this establishment also to give the working horses, in the winter and sprinf; months, a considerable proportion of Swedes daily; and the efiect is to make the animals eat their oats with more avidity, and to render them more fresh, and their coats more glossy. No other crops (|)otatoes, beans, and mangel wurzel, excepted,) are drilled here. On the light soils, however, there is not tlie least doubt thut all the white crops may be drilled and hand-hoed with the greatest advantage; and it is in contemplation to resort to this mode cf culture in future, as the most garden- like management, and as yielding a heavier and better descri|ition cf grain, while at the same time all annual and olher weeds are destroy ed._ Swedish turnips are sown in the latter end of April or beginning of May; globe and Aberdeen^ yellows during the first" and second weeks of June. It is proper to mention, that the sheep ge- nerally fed off by turnips, are the best descrip- tion of Cheviot wedders from Sutherland, Rox- burgh, and Dumfi-ieshire. Ewes and lambs on tunlipj are seldom or ever attempted here. It would be reckoned very slovenly management to allow turnips to sprout in spring; they are al- ways consumed when perfectly sound in the bulb, wliether in the yards or in the fields. Barleij. — Barley succeeds turnips which were consumed on the giound by sheep: of course these crops can only follow with advantage in ro- tation on turnip soils. If the turnips have been properly managed, as already described by the eating "them on the ground, the lightest soils will be compactly beat together by the treading of the flock. One furrow on such soils is considered in general sufficient, and the proper time of sowing is from 1st April to 20th May. It is here proper to state, that barley after turnip should be sown hot furrow, that is to say, the sower should imme- diately follow the plough, and the harrow the sower; and probably, if the weather appears to set in droughty, the grass seeds and roller should close the scene behind the harrows. When the process of barley-sowing is conducted in this way, a failure of crops has never taken place here. Pure barley alone is sown; and the old variety, called rough beer or big, seems, with much pro- priety, to be quite out of fashion in the district. These grounds seldom fail to produce barley of an excellent malting quality; indeed, the vale of the Esk is celebrated for the good quality of its barley crops. Grass. — Grass never fails to succeed here after barley. If it is intended to cut the grass crop green for soiling, ryegrass, with a large propor- tion of red clover, and a small proportion of white, are sown. The soils here, from the management described, are generally fresh ; and not one single case is remembered where the clover crops have failed altogether on any of these soils. Ryegrass — As a hay grass, is a very valuable variety; but when land is intended for permanent pasture, or for lying a number of years, ryegrass does not appear to be so well adapted as many other varieties for grazing purposes, and hitherto too much seed of this kind has been sown here on permanent pasture lands. Fiorin Grass has never been cultivated here. It is probable, however, that practical agricultu- rists mav, in many cases, entertain unfounded prejudices airainst this grass. A small fiorin mea- dow, as a trial, is in the progress of being laid out at present. Sainfoin is never sown in this district, and clo- ver is seldom or never sown without a mixture of 148 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 3 gras« seeds along wilh it. One experiment, on good land, oi" sowing red clover only, succeeded admirably. Potatoes, under good management by the drill eystem, never fail here, even on the clay soils. No great quantity, however, is ever grown on this farm, except ibr the use of" the family. 3Ia)igel JVvrzel lias been cultivated lor two or three years. The growing of this esculent is, however, quite new in the district, and is there- fore only cautiously attempted at first. The re- sult, hitherto, is favorable, although the Swedish turnip is supposed to be a crop of equal value. STOCK. As feeding cattle for the butcher has alwaj's formed a principal point in the management of these lands, it is considereda matter ol'importance to select the breeds likely to arrive soonest at ma- turity. The pure short-horned breed, selected with care and expense from the stocks of the Messrs. Collins and other celebrated breeders, have long been used here, and on the best de- scription of soils, with success. Various crosses have also been often tried between the short- horned and other breeds, and the result in general has been favorable for the first cross. The second cross produces here by no means so good an ani- mal as the first. The cross between the short- horned and highland breeds produces a very good animal, wilh every tendency to leed, but of a na- ture almost as wild and untameable (and some- times more so) as its highland progenitors. The cross between the short-horned and Ayrshire breeds produces a very good animal, o-enerally well suited for dairy purposes. The cross^ between the short-horned and polled Galloway breed pro- duces a very excellent animal, possessing, in a great measure, the feeding qualities and best points of the short-horn, and the hardiness and do- cility of the Galloway cattle. On good lands, this cross is here preferred to any other stock. The pure short- horned cattle are found, after many years' experience, to be rather too tender for the climate, and difficult and expensive to winter. Galloway cattle are the general stock of the dis- trict. They possess many advantages, as they can at any time be brought to market. Their hardy and very healthy habits fit them well Ibr the climate and soils of Cumberland; and although the first cross with the ehort-horn does produce a good beast, no good breeder would choose to con- tinue his stock from these crosses. Thirty of the best West Highland heilers, and four-score aged Highland black-fltced weddcrs for the family use, along with the Galloway cattle, Ibrm the perma- nent stock on these lands. Eut from their extent, it is impossible to winter as many cattle as the grounds can summer; and therefore in April and May yearly, a flying stock of cattle, chieflv Gal- loways and West Highland heifi^rs, are purchas- ed in the local markets on their journey southward, and fed off on these pastures; and it is the custom to have an annual public sale of this flying stock. They are sold in lots, and are generally bought by cattle dealers and butchers. The greatest num- ber are resold again at the great fair of Broughhill in Westmoreland, on the Ist of October. Thus the pastures are completely eased at the proper season, and left rough for the wintering stock, and about this period all accounts are settled, the re- maining stocks, crops, &c. valued, and the profits or loss on the whole concern annually struck. Sheep. — Except the black-faced stock already mentioned, as kept Ibr the consumption of the liimily, no other sheep are kept, for it has been Ibund that cattle pay much better; pure Leicester and South Downs have been kept as breeding stocks, as we^ll as Cheviot and hall-bred sheep, but the result has been to abandon a breeding stock of sheep entirely. Lambs. — The breeding of lambs for sale to the butcher, has never been followed here, but breed- ing Ibr a stock has been. The ewes have in eve- ry case lambed in the open pastures, and little or no loss has ever ensued from the practice. In extensive stocks, it is impossible to protect the ewes in the lambing season, from the fall of ram or snow. In very small stocks, sheds for sheep may answer a ver}' good purpose, but it has never been Ibund necessary to provide such protection here. Folding ewes in a confined place in the lambing season, is decidedly an im- proper mode, and is never practised in this coun- try. The sheep commonly grazed in the distnct are the Cheviot breed, but probably the most profita- ble is the half-bred or cross, [jetween the pure Leicester, and the pure Cheviot; for these possess the stamina or hardy constitution of the Cheviot, with the docile and gentle nature and feeding qua- lities of the Leicester breed, while the wool is im- proved by the cross Sheep are seldom laid with tar and butter on these grounds, but otherwise every thing that can conduce to their health and comfort is attended to by a careful person who manages the stock. Horses. — The farm horses in greatest repute in this district are the rough-legged Clydesdale or Lanarkshire breed. In this establishment, these and the Cleveland horses are generally used. The preference in the reporter's opinion is due to the Cleveland breed, fbr they are more quick in their movements, and consequently better adapted to light soils than the Clydesdale, which breed, however, is admirably adapted to heavy soils, and are remarkably quiet, and generally possess good constitutions. Pigs. — This particular district produces great quantities of bacon and hams for the London and Liverpool markets, and the breed of pigs is in con- sequence a point much attended to. There are different breeds here, but the kind preferred in this establishment is what are provincially called the " prick ears," a well made, short-legged animal of its kind, of a yellowish-white color, averaging, when quite fat, sixteen or seventeen stone of four- teen pounds each. This variety seems of a re- markably sound constitution, and is generally fed off at from twelve to fifteen months old. In this district pigs are allowed a range of pasture, with food in their piggerj' at regular intervals, and they thrive remarkably when so managed. On this frirm, however, they are only allowed the range of the straw-yards. They consume the refuse from the kitchen, aided by potatoes, &c. steamed for their use, and they have always yielded a very fair return. Management. — Cleanliness, as well in making ready the (bod as in the piggery, is essentially ne- 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER, 149 cespary to promnto tlie health of the animal, and fresh beds ofciean slrawarererrularly jriveu them. A stoaniin^j apparatus on the, most approved prin- ciples for preparinff tlie Ibod of the horses, dairy cows and piu;s, has ahvays been used here, and ouclu to he used on every lariije farm, hut atten- tion should he paid not to give any lood more than kdvcwarm to any stock. IMPLEMENTS. Plniif;h9. — Iron ploutrhs on!}" arc used. The first of the kind was manufactured by Wilkie, of UddiniTstone, near Glasgow, but these imple- ments are now regularly made on the best con- struction, by tradesmen in the neighborhood. They are uniformly drawn by two horses abreast only, and with such ploughs and horses, any kind of soil may be well cultivated. The furrow-cut- tinfj plough, described under the head of grass husbandry, may be made by any plough-wright, and is a most useful implement. The number of horses employed in drawing it, depends on the depth of the furrow, and the nature of the soil. Carts. — Carts with iron axles and two shafts, as commonly used in Lanarkshire, drawn by a single horse, are decidedly the best, and no other kind is used here. In harvest and hay-making, a frame is mounted on the shelvintjs of such carts for bringing the crops from the fields. Harroios. — Finlayson's patent harrow is great- ly used here for cleaning lands. It is a very use- fii! and excellent implement for such purposes. The common seed harrows are in use on this farm; some of these are made of iron. Drill Machines. — A machine for sowing tur- nips by two drills at once is used here, and another machine mounted on a small wheel, and pushed by a man, for sowing grass and clover seeds, is also in use. Threshing and cleaning the Grain. — At first for many years this was done by a threshing ma- chine driven by horses — latterly, it is altogether done by hand labor and by the flail, and paid lor by the bushel of cleaned grain. The expense is probably as cheap by the flail as by the machine, and employment is thus given to the poor, and every purpose required is answered by the present practice.* No part of rural economy is less understood or attended to than the management of manure; and r1: would require a treatise on the subject to detail the systems pursued in the best farmed Scotch districts, which are always held as the fyuide lor good management here. It may be shortly staled that all the urine from the stables, yards, cow- houses, piggeries, &c. is carefully conducted by under drains into the dung-pits. The duni; col- lected is carted out during the winter for turnips, and laid up in convenient'places for a speedy ap- plication to the lands, the instant the season suits *The experience of every other district of the kingdom is contrary to this conclusion. The machine threshes much more cleanly, and it is equally benefi- cial to the consumer and the farmer, from the facility with which it enables the latter to meet all the changes and exigencies of the market. {ox sowing. The middens, or dung-hills, in the fields, are hollowed out in the hotioms, so as to prevent tiic moisture from escaping, and are regu- larly covered with mould. Tiie carts are never allowed to pass along the dung-hea[)s. The ma- nure made in summer, when cattle jzet orcen food in the house, is always of better quality than win- ter-made dung, and is generally apfdied to the summer fallows. Short dung is unquestionably most suitable fijr turnips, as in that stale it aflbrds no interruption to the plough and drill. Lono> dung, that is to say, dung not fermented, may be applied to potatoes without any impropriety. The management of compost occupies considerable at- tention; frequent turnings, and probably twelve mouths are required to reduce the stubborn lumps of clay often used in the making compost, and tur- nips are in many cases raised by no other applica- tion. GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE DISTRICT. The estate, of wliich the lands here described form a part, consists of an extensive district, in which there is a very considerable quantity of good loamy clay and gravelly soils on the rivers, but by far the greatest portion' is clay soil. Horses are regularly bred by almost every farmer, and the dairy husbandry (chiefly in the making of butter) is largely followed. 'Every person pro- duces a certain number of young cattle as well as fat beasts for market, and large quantities of pork and bacon are produced, besides considerable quantities of wheat, barley, oats and turnips. In this district, where a mixed system of husbandry is followed, from the necessity of attending mar- kets, and from having a considerable intercourse with strangers, the farmers are sharp clear-sighted people, alive and ready to adopt any successful experiment, after it has succeeded under the pro- prietor's management. On this estate, a local farm- er society, confined to its bounds, but havino- three hundred members, has long existed, by whom prizes are yearly awarded to'every branch of good management in agricultural matters, and to the various descriptions of stock. The yeo- manry thus meet regularly once a year; they hear the management of their farms discussed openly and fi-eely; good managers are praised and re- warded, and indolence and bad management would be ashamed to exhibit themselves. "All the (jood stock of the country is annually shown, and the spirit of emulation is invariably attended with good consequences at the next meeting. The country is purely agricultural. No man is above his profession, and almost all are possessed of means fully equal to managing their lands in ihe best style. The country is now enclosed and subdivided into suitably sized fields. Quick hedges of thorn, kept neady dressed by the pruning knile, arc the common fence of the country, and few countries can boast of belter hedges than this. Except along the sides of the great roads, hedge-row trees are not usually seen or planted, and the country where grain is chiefly produced, has been purposely and judiciously left open,to admit a free current of air and sun to the crops, a point of much consequence in bad seasons, and in a climate as damp as this is. This district lies low. It extends from the head of the Solvvay Frith, rising from the level of the sea, with a very 150 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 3 gentle general rise for twelve miles, to an altitutle of aliout five or six hundred feet. The district is not subject to any epidemical disease. The peo- ])le are temperate in ihcir habits, and often attain a great age : pulmonary consumption, however, frequently makes its appearance, particularly in the vales descending towards this open country; and numbers of the youth of both sexes are cut off by this fatal malady. PLANTING. The management of plantations is probably fo- reign to the common operations of the farmer, but the shelter which they aflord, render them at all times, and especially in an open district, objects of great moment even to him. Hundreds of acres have been planted on this estate, and the general success has been cheering. Trenching by the spade has never been done here preparatory to planting timber, the scale on which planting has been conducted being far loo large to be managed in this way, but the lands have in every case been laid dry by open drains, and in some cases (par- ticularly in planting land covered with short ling) the ground has been ploughed before planting by a plough drawn by lour horses. For the first thi-ee years, the young trees have not grown so luxuriantly as might be desired, but in the fourth yrrir, and afterwards, ihey push out vigorously. in every case care has been taken to plant hard- wood trees of oak and ash, &c., and at such spaces that they may ultimately become the standard trees ; and larch and Scotch fir are, in the mean- time, planted as nurses, to be removed according to the necessity of the case. Every variety of tree thrives well on this property, but more particular- ly on the loamy soils. CAPITAL AND ACCOUNTS. Without an adequate capital, good farming cannot be followed. This, however, though a point of first consequence, we fear is often too little considered by the young farmer, and probably by the proprietor in letting his lands. Before letting lands, the proprietor or his agent should, if possi- ble, be thoroughly acquainted with the farmer's means and capital, as well as his general habits and disposition ; and if this is insisted on, it will prevent, in many cases, tenants of inadequate capital and bad character from obtaining leases. Few, or almost no farmers, keep regular ac- counts, and the consequence is they are often in the dark as to the true state of their afl'airs. A system sufliciently simple and concise might be easily contrived to answer all the ends in view; but, from prejudice or want of habit, it is to be feared the general run of farmers dispense with the keeping regular accounts. Laborers. — Laborers are easily obtained here, either for piece-work or by the day. Their wa- ges by the day are generally Is. 4d. to Is. 6d. in summer, and Is. 2d. to Is. 4d. in winter. These men are bred from infancy to all kinds of agricul- tural labor, and are generally expert in the use of the spade, scythe, &c. Tlie real good farming laborer here cannot, with justice, be said to be in distress, for he always finds employment; and in this district the laborer has advantages unusual in some other parts of the country. For instance, his fuel costs only his own labor in cutting and preparing the peat ; he, in every case, keeps a pig, and sometimes two; and the manure, ashes, &c. his pigs and cottage produce, are readily laid on by the farmers on their fiillows for the cottager, who receives one crop of potatoes fi-om his own manure. The great evil is early marriages : young men generally marry belbre they are twen- ty, and the females much sooner, and the alarm- ing extent to which bastardy has increased in the country is a most serious evil. No laborers iq these parishes possess any little property, such as a cottage and garden of their own. The poor- rates have not increased here for eleven years r)ast, and the count}' rates are rather less now than at that period. The farm laborers are gene- lalljr well behaved, cheerllil, and obliging; and it is very rare indeed that any of that class ever ap- pear to solicit aid from the parish vestries. POOR-LAWS. The lands described are situated in two parish- es. The management of the poor-rates is con- ducted in each parish by a select vestry, under Mr. Sturges Eourne's Act, therectorof the parish acting as chairman. The poor, (chiefly the aged and infirm, and the hand-loom weavers of Long- town, and some small villages in the neighbor- hood,) have their various cases heard and reliev- ed, and if ever there is an appeal from these ves- tries to the local magistracy, the case of the ap- plicant is iiiirly and properly inquired into, and suitable relief afforded. Indeed, there is an evi- dent wish among all parties to do what is fair and just to the poor. The presence of the clergyman in these vestries, however, has no doubt had a great influence in checking any thing improper on the part of the members of vestries. /Iss'istani Overseer. — Each parish has an as- sistant overseer, who, besides a regular salary, re- ceives ten per cent, on all moneys he meiy recover from the fathers of ilk^iritimatc children. This is apoiiit of much consequence, for, from the local situation of the district, divided from Scotland by an ideal line, the fathers of such children, from either side of the border, easily escape from the maintenance of their progeny if they are so dis- posed. These overseers are thoroughly acquainted with their profession, are respectable in their way, have a perfect knowledge of the paupers, and are exceedingly useful in keeping down the poor-rates and seeing the funds properly applied. CHARACTER OF THE PEASANTRY. As already remarked, the peasantry are gene- rally civil and obliging in their dispositions, and grateful for the good treatment and kind words they may receive from their masters. It is a truth which constantly strikes the reporter's observation, that however illiterate they may be themselves, the peasants strain every nerve, and often deny themselves many little comforts, in order that their scanty funds may be saved to get their chil- dren decent education at the parish schools. It is no uncommon thino; for laborers to continue in one master's employment many years, and on this flirm of Netherby all the servants have been in their present service for a long period, although their engagements are only fi-om Week to week. Parish schools. — In these two parishes, there are eight endowed schools, at which all the use- 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 151 llil braches of common eiluealion nrc taiiyiht by schoolmasters appointed by the rector ol" the pa- rishes : tliese schools deserve, and do receive every support from all classes of society here, and are indeed a blessinj^ to tlie country. The many thriviny Irridinfr, shear- •nil, and ollifr wMik, 'I'licy Ihmtow tlic <>;r('alcst pan by l)C('()iiiiii>x stiiciics I'or each oiIut; in this llicy exinbit neficial interest in the farm; the practice, hy long usage having assumed Ihe character of a right — so much so. ind'^ed, that jn some places, (thtj county of J)()negal, tor in- stance,) H te^ianl, I am told, sells his inlerest in his liirm in spite of his landlord. A father leaves it by wiiJ to his children, or gives it whenever he pleases, and it pas-ses by will like real |)roperty. This may account for the peculiar iiai-dshi|)s the people leel, and the way in which they prosecute their revenire anainst the landlord, or his steward. and the incoming tenant. In many parts of Ire- land the difficulty consists not so much in dispos- sessing the present tenant, as in securing peacea- ble possession fur his successor." — VoL i, pp. 84—86. " Small faruiers pay their rent in money; labor- ers generally in lat)or. The competition for small holdings, single acres, &c., causes the tejiantry to bid any thing in order to get in. ' It' a firm of five or ten acres,' said Thomas Rogan, ' were va- cant in the barony, there would be dozens of bid- ders for it.' This witness occupied a farm of three acres and three roods Irish, for some of wliich he paid £ 1 5s. per acre, and for tnore of it Ji3. ' If 3"ou were going awp.y,' he was asked, ' what would you expect for the land?' ' I doiit think I'd leave it under £60 or £70,' was his answer. Mr. Trotter, one of the witnesses, had known £170 to be given for a farm of Lord Downshire's, at Ballykanly, The land was six acres, at a rent of £2. 2s, per acre; this value was set upon it, not because it was byilding ground — it was a common farm. The same witness staled a case where £100 per acre was given for six acres (Irish measure) paying 10s. 6^. an acre rent; this, Jiow'ever, was in the war time. " When the tenant gets a year or two in arrear, the landlord, instead of ejecting him, allows hiai to sell his 'good will,' on condition that so much of the purchase-money as will clear the arrear be given to himself. Of those thus got rid oi; some, said Mr. Gracey, go lo America; but the majori- ty repair to towns with the remainder of the money, and set up business— generally a public- house. It did not appear from any of the wit- nesses that a single penny of rents is reduced in case of a hard year; and yet it seemed that the anxiety to obtain land, even at a high rent, in- creases, as the means of paying the rent dimi- nishes. From all that could be ascertained, the farmers now give every thing towards the rent, ex- cept a bare subsistence. ' People, in fact, are mad after land, and in the bargains respecting it, ttie landlord is sure to be on the winning side.' It was stated however, that Lord Bangor, in letting some ground lately, refused the rents that were offered. He sent out his valuator, and though several offered considerably above the valuation, his lordship did not accept of any advapxe upon it. The witness who furnished this information staled also, thtit rents in general weie incretising; that Ihe avera 15 457,713 O o 1801 103,758 J <^r P 472,282 -3 1802 77,721 H c $6,220,000 233,591 2 g 1803 86,291 6 6,230,000 152,415 :- Ti 'ffi 1804 83,341 5i 6,000,000 298,139 OJ 1805 71,251 n 6,341,000 428,460 3 1806 83,186 6i 6,572,000 3S1.733 O c5 2 tl807 62,236 7^ 5,476.000 274,952 c lU tl808 9,576 838,000 36,332 a S _3 1809 53,921 51 3,774.000 350,835 « ^ §1810 84,134 5 5,048.000 529.285 c 1811 35,828 5 2,150.000 752,553 r. 111812 26,094 5 1.514,000 5SS.618 cc |1S13 5,314 5 319,000 2-J3,512 c 1814 3, 1^5 H 232,000 79.377 111815 85,337 8 S. 235.000 1,034.045 1816 69,241 15i 12,800.000 576,246 j 1817 68,365 ^^^ 9.230,000 1,115,874 5,080 $; 28 1,509 1818 84,337 10 10,241,341 1,486,240 5,513 373,875 1819 69.427 10^ 8.874,167 926,833 13,710 237.192 i 1820 83,940 8 8,188,188 59.^.358 4,996 149.589 1 1821 66,858 'i 5.798.045 1.332,949 44.552 149,083 1 18i2 83,169 H 6,380,020 1,414,^24 44,602 157,182 i 1823 99.000 H 6,437.627 1,987.507 36,684 15 ,955 ■ 1824 77,8^3 H 5,059.3.55 2.477.990 45.174 203,789 1 1825 75.984 6^ 5.287,976 1,871.368 53,920 172,353 ! 1826 64.098 H 5,347,208 2.179.774 61.801 210,134 ' 1827 100.025 H 6.816.146 2.730.255 45,H]2 239,024 ' 1828 06.278 H 5.480,707 2.63 *. 411 ,-5,655 210,747 1 1829 1 77.131 5f 5,185,370 1 2,619,399 19,509 202.390 i 1830 83,810 H 5.833.112 3.199.151 29,425 246,747 1831 86.718 ^ 4.892.388 3.6S9.856 27,967 292,475 i 18 2 106,806 H 5,999.769 3,456.071 31.175 295,771 j 1833 83.153 H 4.755.968 3,790.310 13,453 288,873 I 1834 87,979 H 6.595.305 3,956.579 57.826 328,409 1 1835 94,353 H ' 8.250.577 3,817,854 1 36.471 357.611 i It may be proper to remark, that the weight of a hogshead of tobacco is much greater now thani formerly. Originally, tobacco being less com- 1 pactly pressed, the hogsheads averaged only 600! lbs., but they gradually increased, and in 1770, reached 1,000 lbs. average. At this time Ken- i tucky averages about 1,300 lbs. per hogi^head, and the average of ail kinds (Kentucky, Virginia, i Maryland, and Ohio) we have estimated at 1200 lbs. per hogshead, which we believe to be very i nearly right. The annual averaire exportation for the last 21 years, from 1815 to 1835, inclusive,! is within a fraction of 82,760 hogsheads. Taking! our estimate of 1,200 lbs. per hogshead to be the! true weight, we shall thus have 99,313,000 lbs. as the annual average for the last tvventy-one years; and we have seen that the annual average ex- portation (or the four years ending in and includ- ing 1775, was 99,374,785 Ihs., which establishes the remarkable fact, that the exportation of leaf tobacco has remained stationary for a period of 60 years. On a careful exan)iiiation of the foregoing state- ments, it appears, that when our exports of leaf tobacco, for two or three successive years, mucli exceed one hundred millions of pounds; for some succeeding years they are proportionably reduced below that standard. It is also evident that the 'French revolution. Vol. VI— 21 jBerlin and Milan Decrees. II War with Great Britain t Embargo. •i Peace. ^ Rambouillet Decree 162 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 3 revolutionary war gave a check to the exporta- tion of leaf tobacco from which it has never re- covered; for until that period, as may be seen by reference to the preceding .statements, the annual average exportation increased regularly and stea- dily. It was 37,780,000 lbs. greater tor the years 1763 to 1770, than for the years 1744 to 1746; and lor the years 1772 to 1775, it was 31,594,785 lbs. more than the annual average for the years 1763 to 1770. In other words, for the 31 years imme- diately preceding the revolution, our exports of leaf tobacco annually increased very nearly 2,328,- 000 lbs., and for the 60 years since that period, it has remained btationary, except when interrupted by wars or other commercial embarrassments. The reason is apparent. Before the revolution, all Europe depended on us for supplies of the ar- ticle; but, being cut oil' Irom the supplies, by the war, Europeans turned, their attention to growing it for themselves, and have continued to cultivate it all over the continent. It will be observed that the exportation of manu- factured tobacco and snuff has increased more than forty-four iold since 1791, and more than three fold since 1817 ; but the gross value has not proportion- ably increased, at least since 1817. From a review of the subject, as above detailed, it will be perceived, tiiat, if it were in nur power to furnish a precise statement of the exports of each description of tobacco, and the countries to which it was exported, (althouji'h verv desirable on many accounts,) it would not lurnish satisfictory evidence that the consumption of tobacco gene- rally, or of any particular description, had increased or diminished in Europe, without knowing what they grow, as well as what ice export. We have devoted nmch labor and attention to this part of the subject ; but, althouo'h we can learn generally that the production of it in Europe keeps pace with 1 lie increased consumption, yet our researches have not enabled us to lay before you any useful statement, either as to the quantity or the (|ualities oTown, except lor three years in France, as fol- lows : — Statement shoioing the quantity of Tobacco grown in France for the years 1818 — 1820. Years. Kihigrarames. INo. of lilids., cs Pounds. tiinatcd at 1,200 ' lli.-i. per lilul. 1818 1819 1820 7,418,000 10,.360,()00 13,155,000 18.545,000 25,900,000 32,887,500 15,454 21,583 27,406 This show.s an increased production ol" nearly double in the three years. It will strike you with surprise, as it did us, that the consumption of tobacco has increased so much in our owii country, as to carry off the very lar<«;e surplus grown beyond the foreign demand. Formerly, when all the tobacco was grown in Virginia and Maryland, we exported as'mnch as we do now ; and now, in addition to those states, which produce nearly, or (piite as much as they did then, Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee, together with Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Indiana and Mis- souri, produce as much more. We must, there- fore, consume more than the quantity repuired for exportation. Remarks. — [f the preceding statements maybe relied on as correct, it appears that there has been a very surprising increase of the use of tobacco in this country, and that the annual consumption now amounts to upwards of 100,000,000 lbs. : — giving about 7 lbs. to every man, woman, and child. The sum annually paid by the consumers of this quantity of tobacco in its manufactured state, has been computed by a writer in "The Portsmouth Journal,"' at ift20,000,000. The following passage is ex-fracted from Dr. Mussey's "Essay on the Influence of Tobacco on Li(e and Health. " — " Eighty thousand dol- lars' worth of cigars, it was estimated, were con- sumed in the city of New York in 1810; at that rate, the present annual consumption would amount to more than ^200,000. The statement of Dr. Abbot, in his 'Letters from Cuba,' in 1828, is that the consumption of tobacco in that island is immense. The Rev. Mr. Ingersoll, who passed the winter of 1832-3, in Havanna, expresses his belief that this is not an overstatement. He says, 'call the population 120,000; say half are smo- kers; this, at a hit (i. e. 12.', cents") a day, would make between i2!7,000 ami .$8,000. Rut this is too low an estimate, since not men only, but wo- men and children smoke, and many at a larire expense.' He says, that ' the free negro of Cuba appropriates a bit (i. e. 12.^ cents) of his daily wages, to increase the cloud of smoke that rises from the city and country.' This, in 30 years, would amount to i«!7,058 72, a respectable estate for a negro, or even for a white man. " The Rev. O. Fowler, from considerable at- tention to the statistics of tobacco consumption in the United States, estimates the annual cost at •S 10,000,000; time lost by the use of it, at ,S12,- 000,000; pauper tax which it occasions, at ^3,- 000,000. "This estimate, I believe to be considerably below the truth. It has been estimated, that the consumption of tobacco in this country is eight times as great as in France, and three times a.? great as in England, in proportion to the popula- tion." According to an estimate given by the editor of the "New York Commercial Advertiser," in a late number oi' that journal, the cost of the tobac- co smoked in the city of New York, is much greater than is stated by Dr. Mussey ; but his es- timate will probably be thought, by most readeis, a great exaggeration. According to the " Com- mercial Advertiser," 100,000 persons in the city, (^aboul one-third of the whole population,) are supposed to be smokers ; and the average cost to each smoker is computed to be ten cents a day — total daily cost, §10,000; and the annua! cost, iS3,650,000. The annual cost ol" bread for the in- habitants of the city, allowing thirteen ounces of bread Ibr each person, and computing Hour at tea dollars per barrel would amount to ij^3,493,050. " Thus a little attention to the subject discloses the painful and disgusting fact that in the clear-headed, sharp-sitfhted, money-making city of New York, the inhabitants pay more for tobacco than they do for bread." 1838] FAllJMERS' REGISTER, 163 Statement shoioing the quantity and value of tobacco exported from the United States, from 1832 to 1835, inclusive. Treasury Department, Rejiislor's Office. July 4tli, 183G. To 1832. Russia, Prussia, Sweden find Norway, Swedish West Indies, Denmark, Danisli West Indies, Holland, Dutch East Indies, Dutch West Indies, Dutch Guiana, IJelgium, England, Scotland, Ireland, British Guiana, Gibraltar, British East Indies, British West Indies, British Am. Colonies, Hanse Towns, France on the Atlantic, France on the JMediler. French West Indies, Hayti, Spain on the Atlantic, Spain on the JMediter'n Teneritt'e, &c., Cuba, Other Span. W. Indies, Portugal, Madeira, Cape de Verd Islands, Italy, Sicdy, Trieste, Turkey, Levant, &c. (/liina. Cape of Good Hope, Mexico, Honduras, Central Rep. of Amcr. Colombia, Brazil, Argentine Republic, Chili, S. America, generally, W. Indies, generally, Asia, generally, AlHca, generally, South Seas, N. W. Coast of Amer. French African Ports, Guernsey, Jersey, &c. Malta, Bourbon, Total, 229 1,912 32 292 673 21,006 331 36,176 68 149 2,255 56 481 361 27,930 5,626 153 726 514 1,095 256 214 738 94 IS 41 45 815 164 87 2 153 906 5 10 106,806 ^7,500 117,874 874 21,134 43,093 1,115,962 14,623 2,319,596 3,783 22,071 116,612 4,046 26,799 22,070 1,192,024 662,333 7,229 49,638 28,994 52,081 13,536 14,8.36 41,670 2,712 621 1,912 2,711 10,892 9,146 5,177 137 8,429 58,883 275 496 1833. 1834. 8 1,965 8 206 252 19,022 253 5 3.224 23,772 102 10 2,455 481 521 21.408 4,670 112 477 399 489 46 1 130 209 804 14 172 403 5 70 13 141 111 71 13 6 590 1 217 !^1,164| 126,888 630 16,698 16,833 883,623 9,584 2,358 181,980 2,245,733 12,159 1,305 153,012 30,360 34,563 1,091,436 682,766 9,650 25,324 26,040 32,077 3,202 13,072 13,115 15,405 24,040 980 8,030 14,354 312 1,360 1,079 8,893 6,947 3,511 773 3,910 41,791 68 10,891 21 10 2,224 52 311 387 19,101 183 21 1,910 30,658 51 2,312 571 345 20,611 4,641 134 665 417 857 378 22 24 57 301 5 4 225 18 480 17 21 1 245 133 516 o 5,999,769 83,153 5,755,9681 87,979 6,595,305 94,353 8,250,577 * 1,966 1,100 138,279 3,926 23,128 34,526 1,012,442 15,720 1,750 96,575 2,937.020 .3,848 172,711 51,117 21,460 1,126,728 613,952 9,126 53.866 34,239 66,328 39,094 1,343 2,388 5,673 26,106 612 275 14.095 1,-328 8,561 1,240 1,171 44 15,673 12,653 49,906 234 3,006 2,116 1835. Value. 58 2,735 59 168 407 17,730 264 33 1,005 27,563 20 40 2,493 651 430 27,989 5,259 1,053 600 537 1.337 155 50 568 73 352 77 820 25 68 4 38 165 62 114 87 237 118 44 16 99 583 172 84,818 255,906 6,415 23,082 40,233 902,911 24,010 2,841 66,246 3,397,415 3,224 4,303 306,281 67,190 41,154 1,5.39,362 743,181 121,170 62,069 55,816 178,387 19,186 6,287 61,747 5,149 38,043 8,595 94.582 2,413 6,752 400 4,845 10,976 3,823 8,988 8,413 22,329 13,847 3,172 1,707 10,095 56,457 16,-557 161 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 3. For tlie Farmers' Register. DEEP PLOUGHING, &C. Tlie Athenian orator, to whom yoiir Frederic correspoiulent relerp, wlio esteemed action the first canon in the an of eloquence, had reference to the taste and genius of his own times ; such would not have been the answer of the late William Pitt, the prince of orators, in the ao-e in which he lived. Your correspondent considers deep ploughinij the first rule in successful airriculfure : if h7s tireory had been confined to the Valley of Virtrinia, "l should not feel disposed to r|ijestion its accuracy. Opinions founded on practical experience are enti- tled to great respect ; but the circumstances upon which they are formed are fiir subjects of investi- gation. 1 spent some time last summer in that part of Virginia, and I did not remark extraordi- nary diligence in improvement by lime or putres- cent manures, nor did I esteem their ao-riculiure of the highest order ; but the fine crops of Indian corn and oats afforded full evidence of the richness ol the soil. The cause is now disclosed in the sub- stratum containing a portion of carbonate of lime; and miprovements made in Maryland and lower yirginia at large cost, are accomplished in that lortunate valley, (for fortunate I must call it,) by the ordinary operations of cultivation. This pro- perty in the soil must give great value to the lands, and fully justifies deep ploughing. Successful, diligent larmers,'^who have kept their lands up to a state of moderate product, and have improved their fortunes by thrift and care, not unlhequently speak lishtly of knowlpdo-e dp! nved Irom books, and, by way of reproach, call it " book larming;" and the/ derive support from the fiict, that good theoretical writers sometimes fail greatly in their practical illu.«tralions. I do not think It can be justly denied, that books on a-rri- culture have contributed creatly to its iiT)pro"^'e- ment. By periodicals the approved experience of one region is communicated to another: I am a debtor to the Farmers' Reaister, and to the Culti- vaior ; but 1 have seen some mischief done by confident theorists acting upon limited experience. About thirty years ajio, a farmer of this state published a tract on aorricuiiure. Like your Fre- deric correspondent, he insisted that deep plouffh- ing was suitable to all soils. He supported his theory by facts, and some plausible reasons- among others, as I recollect, that the old exhaust- ed surface might be turned down to recover, and a fresh soil brought up for production. The scheme was generally condemned by the old and expe- rienced farmers, but found favour with the yonncr and confiding, and the price paid for their credulity was diminished crops and impoverished lands The late Col. E. Floyd, of Talbot, who had then recently come into possession of his estate, and was full of enterprise, was greatly taken with the plan, and experimented to the full extent of the theory. Many years afterwards, I asked him the result of^ his deep ploughins: he said it proved a most injurious business, and the lands he had so treated were greatly injured. I do not think your corrcspondenf derives support by his reference to England and Belgium ; the extent of marlino- in those countries has rarely been attained in ours in crop cultivation. By lime, ashes, and other suitra- bie manures, they there make a soil ; in ours, we only seek to improve. If one cubic foot of suita- ble manure be added to three or four cubic feet of soil, it is no great matter whether the soil be sand or clay. In this we are instructed by our o-arden cultivators; and when the facilities of labor and the prospects of profit offer the same inducements, perhaps we shall plough our lands as deep as they do theirs in the Valley of Virginia. Successful agriculture has of late become a mat- ter of national consideration ; whilst schemers and projectors, under color of increasing the national wealth, have received largely assistance from the general and state governments, no fostering ray has been shed on agriculture. Without any sup*- port but what it has derived fi'om its ovvn energies, it has been ofien embarrassed by the wild and ex- travagant schemes of the commercial and raanu- liscturing community. The failure of the grain crop for the two last years, and the large European importations, have demonstrated that the present production, in a favorable year, is but little more than suflicient to supply domestic consumption; and when the crop is diminished by an unfavora- ble season, we must look to foreign countries for supplies. In the event of a war this dependence would be exceedingly precarious. Under the ad- ministration of the younger Pitt, in a year of scarcity in England, large quantities of rice were imported from the East Indies, and our old enemy, George the Third, ate potato bread, not as a pu- nishment for his sins, but as a good example to his subjects. The " American system" (falsely so called) was adopted under color of making our country in all ihinirs independent of foreign na- tions ; and surely, if the manuliictures of cotton, wool, iron, and copper, were entitled to a high pro- tective tariff, bread, the stall of life, demands some consideration. I would not ask from congress a protective tariff; because I think the people of the country have a just claim to articles of necessary consumption at the cheapest rate, and because I think a power imparted to the general government (or one distinct, separate object, cannot be lawfully exercised for another ; but I do think that a sound and enlightened policy dictates that each state should essay the discovery of its own agricultural resources and capacities. It is little more than thirty years since inarl was first discovered in Tal- bot county; it was then thought peculiar to that reaion ; accident, more than enterprise, has dis- closed it in many parts of the Eastern Shore. A o-eolofiical survey and examination of our state by skiltul and faithful agents, I have no doubt, would lead to many important discoveries. I should be much better pleased to see a company of men en- gaged in this work, at the cost of the state, than a corps of civil enirineers surveying railroads, on the borders of our navigable rivers. In mostof the schemes of infernal improvement there are two classes of adventurers — a large one who pay their money, and who look for profit in the success of the project, and a small band of choice, adroit spirits, to whom the success or fiiil- ure of the work is a matter of secondary import- ance. They count on profit in the progress of the work, in salaries, contracts, and speculating on the fluctuating of the stocks. They fully understand the signs of the times, and in prospect of a sinking concern, sell out, clear themselves, and leave the poor gents at the bottom of the well, to surfeit on bitter waters, which they had represented as ex- ceedingly sweet. 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 165 JVIaryland ha? embarlced millions on the Chosa- peake and Ohio canal. Thf notion of carrying; it i'urther than Cnniherland, I believe, is now aban- doned by the wildest pohemers; and remuneration is promised by the rompanv lo the stale, in the transportation of coal from the Allejrhany monn- tains. Suppose roal mines should be discovered on (he waters of the Chesapeake, I apprehend the fires of the Alletjhany coal would soon go out. The projectors of this great sclieme have started on the hypothesis that no coal is to be found in Maryland but in the Alleghany mountains, and our profound legislature has adopted it. I have never heard that there has ever been any boring for coal in Maryland, excepting by Mr. Richard Caton of Baltimore, who was led by a German to believe there was coal at the head of the Severn, in consequence of a small quantity being found on the shore, which most people thought had floated up the river from a Virginia boat. Mr. Caton is an Englishman, a native, I believe, of Liverpool, and well knows what some of our wise men may hereafter discover, that coal is not confined to the mountain regions. There are many coal-mines in England and Ireland at no great distance from the sea. A remarkable one, at Baristones, was for many years worked with profit under the ocean. The Richmond mines are at no great distance from the tide, and coal is found in the champaign regions of the north. It wouid, perhaps, have been a matter of prudent calculation, before Maryland had embarked her fortunes so deeply in the Chesapeake and Ohio canal company, to have as- certained whether roa! could not be found in more accessible parts of her territory. Americans are said, by some traveller, to be a people of very rea- dy impulse. They seize a scheme with the same aviility that old Mr. Shandy did a theorv, and otien run it to the same excpps. of which full evi- dence may be found in the first annual report of the directors of the Eastern Shore railroad com- pany, to which I invite the attention of all persons who desire a short road to Mexico. I find I have sadly ditrress^d from my subject : I will conclude with a very few words to the Fre- deric farmer, I entirely concur with him in his preference of horses to mules and oxen, as beasts of the plough. Perhaps the Conestoffa is to be preferred in the Valley of Virtrinia ; but in our hard loamy lands, where there is no stone, a pair of firie-bloodeil horses will plough more in three days, than a pair of Conestoga in four. His ob- jection to the blooded horse is one of my grounds of preference : I like to see him play and gambol, even at the risk of his neck ; and I prefer him to the Conestoga, as much as I do a light-hearted, mercur'al Virginia yeoman (who, after the labors of the day, sports with his fellows, and indulcres his stray joke, at the risk of a broken head,) to a dull, heavy Dutchman, who eats his supper, smokes his pipe, and iioes to sleep. AN RASTKRN SHORE FARMER. Queenstoion, Md. May, 1838. From (Loudon's) London Gardeners' Magazine. jauffret's new manure. We have in a precedinnr page (p. 111.*) direct- ed attention to Kimberley's manure, said to be a most extraordinary and valuable discovery ; and Itiat of Jaufliet seems to be a parallel discovery of the same kind in France. M. .Jaudret, it ap- pears from '/'y/?«i' den Champs' for December, 1S37, died in November last. He was born at Aix, in the neighborhood of Provence, and suc- ceeded to a considerable landed estate there in 1798. In its cultivation, fiiulins: a great deficiency of manure, he tried innutnerable schemes to in- crease it, till at last he hit upon a certain liquid, the composition of which remains a secret, except to those who have purchased the patent right; and which, poured upon any description of soil, mixed with organic matter, produces fermenta- tion, and rapid decomposition. The ley (lessive) which is poured over the materials to be convert- ed into manure is said to consist of various ingre- dients, but not to be expensive; two large heaps of materials to be converted into manure not re- quirinff more than may be purchased for about 3s. This manure is said to have been tried in Eng- land by H. Handley, Esq., M. P., and found ef- fective; but by others, it is represented as an im- position on the public. We have applied to sources in France which will enable us, we trust, to state something positive respecting it in our next number. In the mean time, our readers may refer to a pamphlet on the subject, of which we have elsewhere given a title. That pam- phlet, however, does not give the slightest hint as to the ingredients of the ley. — Corid. * See Farmers' Register, vol. vi., p. 65. treatise on bone manure. By Henry Colman, Commissioner for the Agri- cultural Survey of Massachusetts. Bones, it is well ascertained, contain in an abundant form the food of plants. They are made up of a large amount of animal substance- mixed with earthy and saline matter; and they abound in what chemists call the phosphate of lime, a substance lound in some measure in all plants, and a powerful means and instrument of vegetable growth. Bones have been used as a manure for many years in Enirland. Used in an unbroken state, thev were slow in becoming decomposed; and their effects were not very observable. The next attetnpt was to reduce them by burning ; but be- sides the expense and trouble of doing this, much of the valuable matter contained in them escaped by the operation. Afterwards, mills were invent- ed Inr crushing or grinding them; and since that time th''v have been experimented upon in va- rious soils; and are now sought after by inlelliaent farmers abroad with the nrreatest avidity. There is no reason why they should not be used to as great advantage among us. Bones constitute a very efficient manure; a porta- ble manure; and a comparatively cheap manure. Stable manure in Boston and its vicinity costs the farmer in its first purchase, its transportation, and its preparation for the land, not far from five dol- lars a cord. His land may be manured with bone manure, with equal advantage and for a third of the expense of stable manure; and its actual im- provement of the soil will be more permanent. In England this manure has been principally used for tTirnips. This is the crop which on their 166 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 3 land commonly precedes wheat. The effect on their turnip crop is very greal; causing; lands to produce a crop, which had been comparatively barren; forwarding the crop several days in ad- vance of that manured with stable manure; and To be planted in potatoes, sup- 5 5 posed 1 _ f Best part of the grazing to remain Q I for one cow, with vetches 1 2 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 Acres 4 0 " Secohd Year of Improved System. Field No. A. R. p. 1 In clover fit for cutting 0 2 o 2 In oats, (after vetches) if a se- cond c \v has been got, one-half vetclie.: may be necessary, unless cablia^e and kale are cultivated 0 2 0 3 In barley (after turnips) laid down with clover and grass-seed 0 2 0 4 In wheat (after potatoes) supposed planted on house manure, laid down with clover 0 2 0 5 In oats (after potatoes) 0 2 0 6 In turnips, having been trenched up before the frost 0 2 0 o > In potatoes 0 Acres 4 0 0 "The ditches of Nos. 7 and 8 burned, and the pro- duce of two cows fed in the house for most part of^the year, will give the requisite manure ; and on a compa- rison of the crops and the keep of two cows, the re- turn appears to be fourfold the value of what it was, with the certainty of tlie land every jear getting bet- ter. " I think any one who will afford a few minutes' consideration to the foregoing, will be of opinion that a satisfactory answer has been given to the question proposed, and that by a simple reference to the max- ims laid down, a mode of recovery has been pointed out, which cannot fail to accomplish its object, hav- ing for its foundation, principles which may be suc- cessfully applied to the circumstances of every such farm as the case supposed ; and a more important case cannot well be submitted to the consideration of the friends of Ireland, in its present situation. The plan recommended has been selected as affording a clear and concise exemplification of the operation of the principles laid down, but it is not meant to be a pre- scribed course that every one should invariably follow , on the contrary, it may be changed and modified in a variety of ways, according to the nature of the farm. 170 FARMERS' REGISTER He concludes by showing how lie proceeded to improve the condition of the small liirmers on Jjord Gosford's estate. " In this, I hope, I have at least so far succeeded as in some degree to weaken your attachments to old cus- toms, and dispose you to follow such instructions as may be given to you ; and in order to set aside any excuses that might be made, either on account of ig- norance or inability, I have, with the concurrence of your landlords, engaged two Scotch farmers, or agri- culturists, for the purpose of giving the instructions you so much require. You will find them to be prac- tical men, who have had experience of every jer Trens. Lewis and Clark in their " Expedition," men- tion six species of firs or pines in the countrv wa- tered by the Columbia, the largest of wi'iich is doubtless the same as that called Pinws Douglas- si. " This species grows to an immense size, and is very commonly 27 feet in circumference, 6 feet above the earth's surface. They rise to the height of 230 feet, and 120 of that height without a limb. We have often found them 3(f fiiit in cir- cumtijrence. One of oar party measured one and found it to be 42 feet in circumference, at a point beyond the reach of an ordinary man. This trunk for the distance of 200 feet was destitute of limbs. Vol. VI— 23 This tree was perfectly sound, and at a moderate calculation,, its size [height] may be estimated at 300 leet." 14. The vuihogany, a tree Hiund in the West Indies and the central parts of America, is highly valued for its timber. It is a tree of rapid growth, but supposed to be not less than 200 years in ar- riving at maturity; its trunk has often a diunicter of 4 feet ; and the limber of a single tree some- times produces J§4,000 or .S5,000. The mahoga- ny, or " Swietenia 7nahngani, is perhaps the most majestic of trees ; lor though some rise to a great height, this tree, like the oak and the cedar, in- spires the spectator with the strongest feelings of its firmness and duration. It expands into so gi- ant a trunk, divides in'o so many massy arms, and throws the shade of its shining green leaves, spotted with tufis of pearly flowers, over so vast an extent of surface, that it is difficult to imagine a vegetable prodiictinn, combining in such a de- gree the qualities of elegance and strength, of beauty and sublimity. A single log, imported in- to Liverpool, weighed nearly 7 tons ; was, in the first instance sold for £378 ; resold for £525 ; and would, had the dealers been certain of its quality, have been worth £1,000." — Timber Trees. 15. The apple-tree, though not to be compared, especially in height, to the large forest trees above mentioned, sometimes irrows to a considerable size. Mr. E. Hall, of Raynhani, Mass., states, that there are two apple-trees standing near his house, the circumference of one of which is 13 feet 5 inches 5 feet from the ground, and 12 feet 2 inches 3 feet from the ground ; of the other, 12 l(?et 2 inches 1 foot from the ground, and 11 feet 6 inches 3 feet from the ground ; and the reputed age 130 years. Mr. J. Ives states, that in Wal- lingford, Vt., there is an apple-tree, whose circum- ference is 8 feet 4 inches one foot from the ground ; and about 50 j^ards distant from it, there is a but- ternut tree, the circumference of which is 9 feet 2 inches 18 inches from the ground ; and that the branches extend over a tract of land 5 rods in di- anieter. — N. E. Farmer. For tlie Farmers' Register. ON THE KOTATION FOR GRAIN FARMS. Many publications in the Register disclose a irreat difference of opinion on the routine of culti- vation in a grain country ; and some persons im- piovidently adopt plans without reference to the circumstances by which they ought to be govern- eil. I possess no science in agriculture, and my opinions are the result of a limited experience; but I think the most profitable and advantageous system depends upon the quality of the soil, iis stale of fertility, and the means possessed for its cultivation. Larfi-e crops may be made ; but the expenses may absorb all the profits. My aim is to combine profit and improvement. Many years ago, when actively engaixed in other pursuits, I purchased a small farm, which had been greatly exhausted under the three-field system. I divided it into five, planted one in corn, in which I sowed wheat; and as soon as I got my fields set in clo- ver, on clover fallow in addition. Under this system my lands improved, and my crops were good ; the fallow generally yielding fifty per cent, more than 178 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 3 the corn ground. A long-continued application of gypsum injured my wheat crop, but gave strength to the grass, which I found could not be subdued by a hoe-crop once in five years. Since that pe- riod, other lands have fallen into ray possession ; and having nearly relinquished all other |)ursuits, agriculture has become ari oljject of greater in- terest. My lands are now divided into lour fields, one of which I cultivate in corn, and another in wheat. I gather neither tops nor blades. My corn-field remains over a year, and is then sown in wheat, and the next spring in clo\'er; after re- maining two years in clover, it is pinnted in corn. I have some lots in orchard-grass, which supplied the loss of the fodder. The clover-field, at matu- rity, is surrendered to my stock. The advantage of this system is easily computed: the month of September, which was formerly spent in gather- ing fodder, is now devoted to manuring, and pre- paring my fallows. One good ploughing, rolhng and harrowing will put them in good order, and my wheat can now be put in wij,h ease and expe- dition. I select the most favorable time from the 5th to the 25th of October, I sutler my corn to remain in the field till the shuck becomes dry, which gives it I think a more perfect maturation ; and in the time between sowing wheat aai^ gath- ering corn, I can always find useful employment. farm cultivated for ten years, with four fields of fifty acres each, and tv.'enty se[)arate acres lor hay, with three acres of ruta baga in the corn-field, and worked bjr four men and two boys, would be of more value and produce more clear profit in this region, than under any other plan of cultiva- tion. I insist on the value of ruta baga. I have great respect for chemical experiments; but when ex- periment and fLict are at war, I adhere to the lat- ter. Fat cows, rich milk, and sweet yellow but- ter, are better prooi"of the nutritious properties ol' this plant, than the experin)ents of a legion of chemists. I think our encouraging prospects for a crop of wheat go to contradict the notion that the earth is waxing too cold for its produc- tion. It is strange how men of science difl^er. John C. Semraes, whom I take to be no mean phi- losoi)her, entertained the opinion, that there was a fine fertile country in the bowels of the earth, and that the Lapland deer entered it at the pole in the winter, and grew fat on the pastures; and with proper encouragement, he would have efi'ect- ed a settlement there, if he had found his theory true. Other philosophers hold that the whole is a mass of fire. Of the two, 1 rather incline to Mr. Semmes's theory; not from the lights of philosof)hy, but the impulse of taste. I do hope that the After my corn is gathered, my horses, colts, dry secretary of the navy will specially instruct the cattle, and sheep are turned into my stock- field where they find sufFicieiit provis^ion till the first of January, and sometimes till the middle. The shucks and straw are abundant for the winter, with a small allowance of corn for my horses. As an improvement to my system, 1 intend to en- large my cultivation of ruta baga ; for though you place this crop in the list of humbugs, I deem it very valuable, particularly in the spring, when cattle eat dry food with great reluctance. The objection which I have heard urged to leaving a corn-field unsown, is, that the ground sustains injury by remaining bare. This has not been my experience. My corn is cultivated be- fore harvestj the crab-grass and foxtail soon spnng up ; it grows luxuriantly till Irost, when the cattle are turned into the field ; they tread it into the scientific corps attached to the exploring squadron, if they reach the Pole, to take a peep into the great hollow and fully ascertain whether it is filled with green pastures or burning fire. RUSTICUS. Eastern Shore, Md., Wth Maij, 1838. REMARKS ON THE SOIT.S AND AGRICULTUKE OF GLOUCESTER COUNTY. Bij the Editor. The agricultural traveller, or observer, who sees the county of Gloucester for the first time, cannot \m\ to be astonished, as well as delighted, vvith the general appearance and peculiar quali- ffround, which I think tends ni^ore to improvement I ties of the great body of low-grounds; and his as •than forest-leaves, which are now extensively used in Virginia. Some of your correspondents speak of ploughing in clover in the month of June when in lull bloom ; by this and a second ploughing, harrowing, and rolling, a field may be well pre- pared for wheat ; but this n^quires hands and horses dispensable at other periods of the year. In the month of Juue, F am under hard pressure in cultivating my corn, and cutting hay. I readily admit that a clover-lallow, in a state of perfi^ct preparation, will produce more than a stock-field fiillow ; but I doubt if provitlent farmers are gene- rally able to have their clover fallows in the best order. A gentleman who has seen one of my wheat fields within a few days, thinks, if there be no disaster, it will produce thirty bushels to the acre. My calculation is not so high. It is the nature of man to be confident of his own schemes and plans, and to attach little importance to those which differ from them. Of this the United States Bankmen, the Sub-treasury, and the Conservatives at Washington, have this winter aflbrded strong illustration ; and probably, in my humble calling, I may be under strong delusion, but I believe a tonishment will not be prevented, or much dimin- ished, by any previous account which he may have heard of this far-liuned and highly eulo- gized body of land. At least so it was with my- self. It was not that I had not inquired and heard much, and even of correct description, of the land and agriculture of Gloucester, from residents, or other persons well informed by long personal ob- servation. But when viewing lor myself, and for the first time, I soon found, as is often the case, that 1 had applied all accounts, before heard, to my own preconceived impressions, which were very erroneous, because made by other "low- grounds" and soils of entirely difierent character. Thus it is that so much of what we hear, and of what would otherwise be interesting or valuable instruction, is of no effect, and is either not noticed, or is forgotten almost as soon as uttered, because the narrator and his auditor have not common or accordant views of the things which are described; or of the opinions which serve as premises and ground-work for the reasoning and deductions. Hence it is, perhaps, that in addition to the want of fitness for the task, and of oppoitunity for care- 1838] F A R JNl JC R S = R 10 (> I S T K R 179 ful and leisurely observation, of the reporter, that my sunilry altompis in this journal to fief?cribc, and to fiirnisli uselhl instruction by (locribinir, some of the most intorcstinn: and peculiar tij^ricul- fnral soils and practices in Virginia, iiave !iad but little effect in sproadini^ the praciices which were described and recommended. For this want of common views and jiremises, it also often happens that a person is tiic less filted to describe to stran- gers, becaufjc of his loni,"- and intimate acquaint- ance with the scenes and circumstances winch furnish t'le subjects ; and the reverse, that a new and even hasty and inaccurate observer and re- porter mav be more likely to seize on the most curious and novel points, and impress them the more deeply on others, who are as io;norant of the subject treated, as was the reporter bnt a short time before. I hope to be excused for thus pre- seniinir the claims of ignorance, or of very new and imperfect acquaintance with the subject, to n)ake agricultural reports ; for if that claim is not allowed, there will be but little of value left to mine, in this or in previous attempts, matle under the like or f^reater disadvantages, of want ol' know- ledge, and want of time and opportunity forproper observation. Nearly half the boundaries of the county of Gloucester are formed by the wide waters of York river; but it is not on these waters, as I had sup- posed, and as most strangers suppose, that the dis- trict known as " low-ground^' is situated. This great body of land is principally on the other side of the county, and consists of more than 35,000 acres in one body. It befjins a little below Glou- cester point, (opposite Yoiktown,) on the lower part of York river, and includes the whole coun- try to the North river. The short rivers Severn and Ware cut through the low-ground, and the extent of these and of North river, as exhibited on the map of Virginia, shows the breadth of this great body of land. The Severn, Ware, North, and East rivers, are, in fact, not rivers, but merely wide— (and my imagination did not stretch lar- iher, ) — were separated by ridges, or prujecting points of higher land, dividing the waters of each two contiguous rivers. But not so. Though there are numerous and frequent variations of level, yet thej' are so slight, that the eye can scarcely distinguish them with certainty, or know whether the general inclination of surface, lor a mile or two together, is as it may ajipear, or direct- ly the opposite. It is not by trosling to the eye, but to the standing and flowing oCrain water, and other certain indications, that the levels of the sur- face are known ; and to the sifrht alone, the whole of this great tract, varying from two to more than si.K miles in width, (or more than the whole length of the short rivers which cut through it,) and from the mouth of York to the mouth of Piankatank in length, is an almost perfect level, elevated but a few feet above the tide-waters which intersect the country. The "high-lands," which, by an abrupt and ve- ry marked change, form the land or western boun- dary of the low-grounds, are as different as one soil and surface can well be from another. The distance of twenty yards, and often much less, will (renerally take the observer from low-ground, having all its peculiar marks and qualities, to high- land possessing none of them. For the present, my remarks will be confined to the low-ground district. The four short rivers are merely creeks, fdled with the refluent waters of the Chesapeake. They receive but little spring or fresh water in streams, and therefore they furnish almost no al- luvial deposite, to have formed, or aided in forming, the low-grounds. But though not indebted to the usual mode or source of alluvion, this great and valuable body of land is not the less certainly formed by deposites of the water. But it must have been an oceanic, and not a river deposite; and I entertain no doubt, but that the land once was the bottom of the Chesapeake bay, and afterwards arms of Mobjack bay, which itself'is a broad and up-heaved by some ancient convulsion of nature, deep indentation of the jjreat Chesapeake bay North river is between Gloucester and Matihews ; and East river is wholly in the latter county; but I have named them with the others because all join to form iMobjack bay, and because the con- tinuous level body of low-grounds, of simJar ap- pearance, general character, and (jeoloirical for- mation, extends across and around the whole; so that a very uniform face and character are present- ed on all the Chesapeake slope (if that may be so called which is almost a deacl level,) of the penin- sula formed by the York and die Piankatank ri- vers. The same marked and pecidiar character which distinguishes the Gloucester low-grounds, belongs also to the Back river lands in Elizabeth City; which, like the former, also lie on the reflu- ent waters of Chesapeake bay. Indeed, the Back river lands, which I had before slightly viewed, and which are described in Vol. iii. of this work, (page 414) are as much like the GIouc<'sler low- grounds, as if they were part of them. The prin- cipal difl'erence is, that the Back riversoil contains gravel generally, and sometimes rolled stones or pebbles, both of which are entirely wanting on the Gloucester flals. Almost every stranger would suppose, that the rivers are merely bordered hy low-grounds ; which, however broad they might be— even if a mile a^, more recently, other regions have been known to be, so as to be raised above the waters which once covered it, and to which it owes its singular formation, and irreut fertility and value. Contrary to the usual mode of describing soils, I shall begin with these at the bottom, or at least as low as the foundation is yet known. This is believed to be one entire and continuous body of what is here and elsewhere erroneously called marl ; ancient sea-shells, broken down, disinte- grated, or by their soilness ready to become so ; which bed is seldom more than six feet below the surface, frequently not three, and sometimes near enough to be cut into by the plough ; and which reaches lower than any digging for wells has yet been carried. Wells, however, generally reach enough water within G or 8 feet, sometimes within four; and the deepest diggings heard of were in one well of sixteen, and another of twenty feet ; and of these, lor all but the upper three or four feet, the digging was in these shells, or marl. The earth on the marl is always wet with veins of spring-water, and generally it is sufficiently abimdant to sup[ily a well, dug any where as dt ep only as the marl, and sometimes before. There Usually lies over the marl a reddish yellow layer of sand, having enough of clay to be adhesive, and which varies in depdi from an inch, or lees, to 180 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 3 more than a foot. Upon the authority of a frood practical farmer, Mr Simcoe, who lately died, it was saiil that this yellow earth, as thrown out of the ditche?, had been loiind to be a valuable fer- tilizer; and hence it was supposed by some, to be calcareous. But upon tesliug it, 1 found that it was not in the slifjlitest degree calcareous ; nor do I believe it can have any valuable effect as ma- nure, unless it were desired lo furnish iron, or sand, to the soil, [t was probably mixed with the marl lying immediately below, and which also is very often thrown out in digging ditches of not more than 30 inches depth; and thus it might have become a manure by that admixture. The low-ground consists of what is called gray land, black land, and a small amount of a third kind, called the chocolate-colored. The gray land is a clay loam, of the color in- dicated by the name, close in texture, and lying on a very intractable clay sub-soil, which, when dug up from ditches, does not lose its barrenness by time and exposure. The gray land forms the larger proportion of the whole, and exclusively forms the points which run down lo the rivers, made by their very crooked courses, or between their branches. Hence, in such places, this kind is also called " point-land." These points of gray land are a little the highest; and on them, and close to the margins of the rivers, are most of the mansion-houses of the proprietors situated. Belbre being cleared, this land was covered by a growth of large oaks; and though low and wet, was not often covered with water. The early and best product of such soil was not more than 20 to 25 bushels of corn to the acre. It is a better rioil for wheat than for corn. Much of it is now reduced to a much poorer condition, bv long-con- tinued scourging tillage. But some" has been much improved by manuring, and the better sys- tem of farming which is now getting into use; and many farmers say that this soil, when so im- proved, is more productive and valuable than the more celebrated black lands. The black lands are interspersed on the surface among the gray in a very irregular manner, and of which there seems to be no sufficient expia- tion, except in the supposition of the original for- mation of both which I shall ofii^r, however wild and ridiculous such sfieculations may be consider- ed. While the gray land seems to be exposed at the surface in the form of long, though low and wide points, narrow streaks or ridges, and circular prominences, all of which are" but very little liigher than the adjacent and interspersed bodies of black land, the latter seems to have such outlines as ponda of water might be supposed to have, if bounded, or separated, by the gray land. And such, I think, was the former condition of both. The gray land formed the entire surface, with such slight variations of level as had been caused by the different currents and eddy waters, when covered by the Chesapeake. VVhen the highest parts were raised above the height of the tide, fresh water, from the springs and rains, filled the lower parts, rendering them shallow ponds, gradually becoming chancred, by the growth, de- cay and deposite of vegetable matter, to swamps; and which now form the black lands, so celebrated both for their original and very durable fertility. According to these views, the original gray land, should be the sub-soil of all the black land; and such appeared tome to be the case, notwithstand- ing all the present existing differences of the two sub-soils. Both are stiff, tenncious, and very intractable clays; difficult to penetrate when dry, and difficult to clear from the digging implement, when wet. But while the sub-soil of the gray land, when thrown up, remains barren, that of the black land, though cuttincj like putty or pitch, when moist, and fijrming very hard clods when first dry, moulders down, after exposure, even though but to summer weather, and becomes finely pulve- rized, mellow, and fertile, bo as not to be distin- guishable from the black upper soil. The cause of this difference of the sub-soils, I infer to be this. All, as stated before, lie over a continuous bed of marl; but, according to the supposed formation, that under the black soil is of much the least thickness. It is. even now, penetrated by the craw-fish, (orcray-fisli,) which sink their curious wells and dwellings from the surface .of all the black soil to the marl below, and bring up the shelly earlh, to form their buildings above the sur- face; and the annually renewed labors of millions of these little well-diggers, continued for ages, must have had no inconsiderable influence in ren- dering calcareous the black soil, and also its sub- soil, through which they pass. The craw-fish do not bore in the gray lamis. But a still greater operation of this kind has been carried on by the growing trees; which, by their roots penetrating the marl below, drew up lime continually, and by their subsequent death and decay, deposited ail the lime, thus incorporated in their substance, on the surface of the earth. These geological speculations (if they may be dignified by that name,) may appear to some as foolish, and to others as idle and unnecessarily- brought forward, even if true. But any plausi- ble theory of the formation, and cause of the pe- culiar features, of this region, is not foreign or useless to an investigation of the nature of the soils; and this theory seems to me in perfect ac- cordance with the now existing circumstances. This will be fijrther seen in the following as well as the precedinij parts of the description. The soil of the black land, when moist, or just turned up by the plough, is as black as any can well be; and even when dry, is so much darker, as to be easily distinguished from the gray. It is mixed with a large proportion of vegetable matter, even when worn by exhausting cultiva- tion for many years. From its being very favor- able to the growth of white and red clover, meli- lot, and other products of calcareous soils, it is evident that much lime must have been drawn from the marl below, by the trees, or otherwise, and fixed in the soil. And this lime still remains in the soil, though it is not in the state of carbon- ate of lime. The soil is not generally calcareous; but is neutral, according to the doctrine of acid and neutral soils presented in the ' Essay on Calca- reous Manures.' If any of the black soil has calcareous earth, exceeding the acid, and the vege- table matter, with which it combines, and there- fijre would show the presence of some carbonate of lime, it should be such as had been among the richest oriijinally, and the most retentive of fer- tility under as long-continued and severe cultiva- tion as any part has borne, and to which no ma- nure had ever been given. From just such as this, I selected for trial, a specimen, at Warner 183S] FARMERS' REGIS T E R . 181 Hall, the farm ol" Colin Clarke, esq. The speci- men was siibjectcil to a very delicate and sure lest, which gave evidence ol" the presence of an exceedingly niinnte proportion of carbonate of lime; but so small, that it was impossible to mea- sure It, and certainly not equal to one grain in 10,000 of soil. This therelbre, substantially, is a neutral soil. The gray has generally a sprinkling of sheep-sorrel; which proves sufficiently that tiie soil is actually, though but slightly, acid; and needs calcareous manure to remove that noxious quality, as well as tor the other advantages, which the black soil might also derive, in a less degree. Very little of this black land remains now in its natural state, in wood and almost under water, as all such was formerly. But at Warner Hall there is a large body (300 acres) both of black and gray soil in a state of nature, and which I ex- amined carefully, and with peculiar interest, as fur- nishmg the best indications of character. In this natural stale, and at this time (May 12th,) and through winter and spring generally, the uncleared black land is truly what it is called, "swamp land." The soil is saturated and in many |ilaces covered by water, li'om rain, and it is trouble- some to ride over the miry surface, and impossi- ble to walk, except through soft mud and water. The larger growth is black-gum, of great size, white or sweet-gum, ash, sycamore, and other trees seldom ibuntl en high and dry lands. The papaw is very abundant, though generally of small size. When new, the black land is of the highest grade of fertility; and even under great defects of drainage, produced 50 bushels of corn to the acre. Under tillage, the soil becomes as finely pulverized and as light as can be in any case; and therefore it is not as well suiied for wheat as for corn. After many years of scourging culti- vation, and without manure, (for that was rarely given to any of this soil,) the black lands, thus abused, can yet produce 25 or 30 bushels of corn to the acre. 1 saw on the land of Major W. K. Perrin, on Ware river, a growth of very fair red clover, regularly and thickly set, on a field which had been for the ten previous years under the two-shift rotation of corn and wheat, and proba- bly not rested from grain tillage, even one year, in the many that have passed since the land was first cleared. The soil of the black land, though so light un- der tillage, is mostly a stiff and very tenacious clay loam when ploughed up, and while nioist. Some however, as on parts of Whitemarsh, the farm of John Tahb, esq., is found much more san- dy. The soil is very deep, say one to two feet; and it then changes to the stiff "but open clay sub- soil which has been already spoken of! Still low- er, the clay is blue, close, and very heavy when dried, after being worked into a mass when wet. Still, like the upper clay, this also crumbles fine by exposure, and becomes good soil. The clay shores of Mobjick bay. where left naked at low tide, seemed to my view to be not very unlike the clay soil of the gray land; and the shallows in the Chesapeake, stretching from the lower end of Gloucester, are composed'of na- ked and solid marl, such as forms the lowest stra- tum of the low-grounds. This probably lies un- der all the adjacent shoals of the bay, and like- wise under the marshes, which, though v^overed frequently by the tide, and always as wet as j(iossible, are yet so firm that I rode briskly and easily across many acres without any danger of miring. In (Ih; firm parts of these marshes, shores, and still lower shoals, is presented ano- ther body of Gloucester gray land, which wants nothing but elevation, to be the same with such as is now distinguished by that name. Rut enough of uncertain s|)eculation. Of the "chocolate land" there is but little; and I saw none except that which is part of the farm of Jefl'erson Sinclair, esq., at the mouth of Ware, or rather on Mobjack bay. The marl there, un- der this chocolate land, is so near the surface as to be generally within reach of deep ploughing; and the common ditches of the farm sink so deeply into it, that from one-fourth to one-half of their banks is composed of a very rich marl. Thus, merely by ploughing, and by carting ofi" the ditch banks as maimre, the land is made more and more calcareous ; and was probably so to a con- siderable degree before cultivation, as the rich marl is at so little depth below the surfiice. This rnarl, by its yellowish red color, seems to contain much iron; and to this, as well as its calcareous quality, is probably due the reddish-brown color of the soil, fiom which its name is taken, and also its remarkable productiveness. This kind is the most valuable land in Gloucester. This land was, not many years ago, a shallow pond, covered with wa'.er-plants and gall-bushes, and was celebrated as a place ol' resort for wild ducks. This, as well as the greater part of the whole larm, is so low, that high tides flow up into all the ditches, or, at least, did so ffow, until a bank was made and flood-gates erected, to exclude the tides. But though lower than any other arable part of the country, this land was decidedly the driest, when visited. The marl on which it lies appears to be an almost unmixed mass of finely broken fossil shells; and this very open stratum, though so little above the level of common tides, and though always wet within a foot or two of its top, yet serves, by its openness above, as a com- plete under-draining to the land. Two specimens of this marl which I selected, as apparently presenting the average richness in calcareous matter, when analyzed, gave products of carbonate of lime, (or pure calcareous earth,) the one of 76 parts in the 100, and the other 72. The first was of the most usual appearance, con- sisting of very small, or broken and loose shells, mixed with either the oxide (or rust) of iron, or clay of that color. The last specimen was in parts tinged deeply with green by a fine green clay with which it is mixed. The chocolate soil lying above this marl is every where mixed more or less with fine particles of shells, perceptible by the eye. A specimen selected from ploughed land, and among tlie best in productiveness, yielded 6 percent, of carbonate of lime. This was more calcareous, to the eye, than many other parts, but less so than others. No marl had ever been cart- ed there. But as very deep ploughing will al- most every where bring up marl to mix with this soil, it is difficult to select an average specimen; and impossible to know whether the soil was par- tially, and to what extent, so mixed by nature, or by cultivation. Mr. Sinclair has made as much as 14 barrels of corn to the acre on some of this land. It produces clover finely; and part then had on it (after clover-fallow) the finest wheat which I saw in Gloucester. Of other marls of the county of which I took 183 FA RM ERS' REGISTER. [No. 3 specimens for analyzing, the following were the several proportions of carbonate of lime Ibund. White marl, li-om beneath black low-iiround soil?, taken out of a ditch 2.} feet deep, on Warner Hall, the estate of Colin Clarke, esq., contained •58 per cent, of carbonate of lime. Three specimens from the diggings on the highland of JohnTabb, Esq., surrounding the court-house — No. 1, yellow marl - - - 69 percent. No. 2, yellow - - - - 57 per cent. No. 3, blue - - - - 36 per cent. Two specimens from the high-land part of tlie farm of W. K. Perrin, Esq., on Ware river — No. 1, at the bottom of the digging, 47 per cent. No. 2, from the top, - "- 52 percent. When compared with marls of 70 to 80 per cent., and even richer kinds, of which reports have been spread abroad, it may be that the poorer ot these kinds may be thought too weak (or use ; and iherelbre the statement of their degree of strength may even discourage the working them. There is a general and very erroneous fastidiousness on this subject. Many are anxious to marl if they could be sure that their banks are ricli enough ; but would be reluctant to commence, a'ul doubtful of the pro- fit, with their marl, if its scrength were supposed or proved to contain less cirbonate of lime by 30 or 40 cent, than some oth^r kinds. It is undenia- ble that such differences are very important ; and that marl of 80 per cent, is worth per bushel twice as much as that of 40, and four times as much as that of 20 per cent., other circumstances being 'equal. Nevertheless, t.iey who cannot use richer, may be well content w'th making proper applica- tions of the poorest qudities. The facility of ap- plying a very poor marl, may make it cheaper to give of it to the lana a certain amount of calca- reous matter, (the onJy object of the application.) than from a bed twice or thrice as rich. My own marls used daring the first years of my practice, and through the fir^t 400 acres covered, did not average, throughout the work, more than 38 per cent. ; and in addhion, and what is more import- ant, the average cifficullies caused by depth of the over-lying carta, the wetness of the marl, and the high hills and die distances over which it was generally drawn, were unusually great, and very far greater than any required in Gloucester; and that, nevertheless, and in spite of all the errors and losses caused by want of experience, and of any practical guide, these labors were moreeli'ective, and have resulted in a higher degree of continued im- provement, and more net profit on the investment, than is known of any other prior improvements elsewhere, or of any made since, by other means than marling or liming. I have used, and in great quantities and with results entirely satisfac- tory, a body of marl which had barely 20 per cent, of calcareous earth, and the other remaining Ibur- fil'ths of worthless sand. These statements, and the egotism, may be pardoned for the lesson which they convey, to all who hesitate to use marl because it is not richer than .30 or even iO per cent. The highest point of the ridge of hitrh-land in Gloucester, is generally a loam of moderately close texture. The slopes are more sandy. All the high-land that came under my view, seemeii to be of that defective natural constitution which makes marl necessary, and which will return the largest profits for its application. I saw only one farm where it had been applied generally, or to great extent, as well as to great ad vantage. This was Dr. Wm. C. Taliaferro's. But several other gentlemen, though later beginners, have also done much in marling on the high-lands. It has been said that the variations of level, throughout the whole extent of low-ground, are scarcely disiingusliable by the eye; and not at all, except to close inspection. The view extends without interruption for some twenty miles over the low-ground; which, so far as the eye would indi- cate, is one perfectly level and unbroken surface. Though almost every- farm has more or less of wood-land, the proportion i.^ small, to the quantity of o()en and arable land; and without intercepting much of the circle of vision, or range of view, the woods add greatly to the peculiar and striking beauties of the landscape. I never had exhibited to my sight more beautiful scenery, than from se- veral different points on the brow of the hill, or long ridge of high land, which forms the land boundary, and every where overlooks the low- grounds. Among these positions, are the man- sion house on Whitemarsh, thai of Col. Thomas Smith, near Ware river, and Zion Hill, a neat little church which overlooks the winding North river and the numerous farms on its borders. The wide extent of fertile or apparently fertile land, seems perfectly level, and the surface unbroken except by the waters of the rivers, which, seen in various turns, and between different bodies of wood, or other obstructions to the view, appear like so many detached lakes of clear and placid water. To a farmer's eye, the agricultural beauty still more heightens that of the landscape. The fields are generally divided by very neat fences, which, as well as the numerous ditches, are so placed as to make the dividing lines straight, and generally at right-anirles; and thousands of acres of such regularly-shaped fields are spread before the ob- server in all the variety of naked or newly plough- ed dark soil, and the difierent shades of green of the fields of wheat, barley, oats, clover, and natu- ral grass on the pastures. The waters and the woods fill the remainder of the picture, which is further hcighened in beauty by the numerous mansions and other buildings, on neighboring low- ground farms; and to the prospect there is no limit, save that fixed by the feebleness and im- perfection of the power of seeing. From the elevated site of the Whitema."sh mansion, these general and uniform features of the low-ground scenery are exhibited to great advantage. But in addition, there is also an unusually large proportion of black soil, and of luxuriant cro|)s, in the fore-ground of the landscape ; and the waters of two of the arms of the Mobjack bay, the Severn on the right and the Ware on the left, are in full view, and the waters of the wider parts of ih( se bays are seen spread out in the distance, and over the tops of the intervening trees, and the whole so separated by land and by woods, as to appear like many lakes, varying from very small to very large size. From the same pomt of view, vessels may also be seen sailino; on the North river, thoufjh the water is too fiir distant to be vi- sible. When seen soon af^er sunrise, or before sunset, and in the position to show the ruddy glow of the sun's reflected splendor, each of these seeming lakes deserves to be compared to a 1838] F;A R M E R S ' REGISTER 183 "sheet of burnished :really reduced ; and, thoui»;h since increasiniir, the culture in ireneral still remains biit small. Another objection to this crop is the uncertainty of the market, and ihe great jluctualions of price. Barley is used in this coun- try only for makinnr malt liquors, and the demand is theretbre necessarily small. Corn is the great crop of Gloucester, and is always a sure product. To favor the cultivation of corn, it would appear, their mode of till- age is especially directed, and to great loss and inconvenience in the other crops of broad- cast grain and clover. The fields are universally kept in narrow beds, laid off generally precisely five feet in width, but sometimes an inch or two wider, and sometimes as little as four feet ten inches. The general width, however, is five feet. One object of these narrow beds is to save labor in tillage; as lour furrows, thrown by a two-horse plough, serve to reverse these beds, by lapping the first two slices and covering over eighteen inches width, unbroken, in the old alley, or water-furrow ; and four other furrows, with a one-horse plough, when the corn is well advanced in growth, will sweep out and cover the whole interval between the rows, throwing the slice towards, and up to the which I have practically and satisliictorily proved the value on my own lands, and as it seems pecu- liarly suited to ihe CJIouce.«ler low-grounds, I will state my views at length, and presume — ignorant and inexperienced as I am as to these lands— to offer advice as to their management, to those who have been long and well acquainted with them. Of course, such ojiinions and such advice will be considered of very little value, and deserving of but little notice. Compared to the proper drainage of the surface, the mode of tillage is olhut minor importance. So much mare of the facility of cidtivation and of the amount of product, would depend upon the drain- aixe than upon any other part of the management, that I dismiss any objections to narrow beds on the score of waste of labor, or waste of product ; and shall consider the shape given to the surface solely in connexion with its most important object, the relieving the surface of superfluous moisture. It should be remembered that the surface of these low-grounds receives no rain-water except that which^liiils directly on them ; and that all of that must be either absorbed by the deep soil, or the surplus part slowly conveyed to the ditches, by water-furrows and shallow cross-drains. No wa- ter can otherwise run off, because the surface has no descent ; and none can siid<, as on higher and more sandy and open soils, because the sub-soil is a compact" and tough clay, impervious to water. Of course, the object of the cultivator should be so to slope the surface as in the best manner to effect and to hasten the departure of all the excess of rain-water, beyond the wants of the soil. This is said, by the Gloucester fiirmers, to be done by narrow beds; and I maintain that it would be much more effectually and cheaply done by very plants. But even if labor is saved in corn-tillage, wide beds, if properly made and preserved. (of which I am not convinced,) it is greatly in- | In theory the narrow beds promise well ; and I creased by having such narrow beds lor broad-cast I have noticed that their advocates always refi^r to crops of grain or grass. The sowing, and getting j them in a state of perfection, which is rarely found in the seed, must be much more troubtesome, al ways imperfect compared to flat tillage, and the reaping or mowing as objectionable in both these respects. But so much do habit and long usage lessen our estimate of difficulties and losses, that none of the farmers vvith whom I talked thought these objections to narrow beds of much import- ance. My objections, however, are not wholly theoretical, but sufficiently confirmed also by the practice of several years, and on entire fields of a large farm. But the most important object designed to be gained by this plan of narrow beds, is the better drainage of a flat surface; and it is an opinion here universally established, that by wide beds that oh- in practice; and which, if greatly departed from, seems to deft-at their object. !f the narrow beds are separated by open, clean water-furrows, (called alleys in Gloucester,) well graduated, and having unbroken, and therefore not very absorbent, bot- toms, over which the water will pass to cross- drains and to ditches in the lower places— then there is in Hict a small but open and effective ditch in every distance of five feet. But this perfi;ct con- dition is seldom attained; and even if attained, by great care and pains, is lost, or greatly impaired, by every ploughing, or other tillage operation, when the field fs in corn; and even by the growth of plants, (when they can be made to grow in the allevs), when under a broad-cast crop, ^^'i— When ject could not be so well attained. To prove this, | under a tillaire crop, and the water-furrow is the fact is adduced, that many persons tried i choked by ploughing or harrowing the beds, of_ throwing two beds into one (of 10 feet) when sow- course they will be cleaned out soon after. But if ing wheat ; and that the plan was found bad for | a heavy rain fiills before that operation, the sur- drainage, by there remaininsr a sink in the middle lace of the land is as little fitted to discharge su- perfluous water, as if no beds or alleys had been made. Indeed, in such cases, or when the beddding is badly executed, the water-furrows are no better than indentations which serve, not to discharge, but to receive and retain the excess of water. But it is yielding too much to suppose any thing like the perfecfion of execution, at any time, described above, even when most perfect. Such a stale is obviously impossible. In what is con- sidered land well bedded and water-furrowed, tlie of the new bed ; and bad for the subsequent tillage of corn, when these wide beds were to be brought back to narrow ones. 1 admit fully these objections to this particular departure from the general plan, which is liar from such as I would approve; but nevertheless hold to my objections to narrow bed culture, not only for the tillage con- sidered alone, but as a means for surface-draining. As I consider the plan which I would propose to substitute as an important improvement, and of Vol. VI— 24 186 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 3 bottom of every farrow is but a sacce.'=!f5ion of long shallow depressions, separated by slight bars of fjround. more elevated naturally, or lefi so by more shallow cutting of the ploujjh in such spots. Of course, all these depressions, when filled by rain, are so many little ponds; and even if not more than an inch deep, the water must stand in every one until evaporated, or slowly sucked up by the already over-gorcred soil. As the soil of the black land is generally loo deep to be cut through by the ploughing, and is moreover very absorbent, the disappearance of this water there must be more generally caused by absorption than by evaporation. The slight and numerous inequali- ties of depth, relt^rred to, are such as it is impossi- ble to avoid leaving on the most level land, in ploughing, and of which the depressions are too small and too numerous to be cut through and re- lieved by cross-drains, or grips, as they "are called elsewhere. These cross-drains are now always made, and serve well, wherever there is any con- siderable natural depression (say even as little as 4 inches) stretching across the direction of the beds. But serviceable and well constructed as these may be, the number necessary to be made, and their being filled, and requiring opening, at every tillage |)rocess, are also serious difficulties. And when these cross-drains are caught, not pro- perly opened, by heavy rain, the evil is so much the greater than in the case of alleys, because one of these grips is designed to receive, and dis- charge into ditches, the water from hundreds of beds. The grips are, and for convenience ousht to be, but very little lower than the bottoms of the water-furrows; and therefore both are necessarily bottomed on the absorbent soil of the black land. When there is more careless and slovenly ploughing, and surface-draining, all these objec- tions are still greater. The beds under wheat have frequently an average thoush unequal width of a foot or more in the water-furrow, on which the plants have been entirely killed bv standing water; the less, though still" hiirhlv injurious, ef^ fects of which must have extended higher upon such narrow and necessarily low beds. ^On some land, the wheat plants stood throuffhout the fur- rows, and this was made a claim of merit in the system, and in the execution. But if the plants of wheat live in so low a place, through winter, as on the bottoms of the water-furrows, I infer either that the plants, though living, cannot be healthy and productive; or if productive, that the soil was, in fact, so dry as not to need a drain eve- ry five feet to keep it well drained. Upon the best executed bedding, surely the bottoms of the water-furrows must be more exposed to wet than would be the whole surface, if there were no water-furrows. But, even on the plan of narrow beds, I do not consider it better that the whole alley should bear plants. I would prefer the entire absence of thein on a narrow, but clean furrow, as best for both drainage and for immediate product. Now for the proposed substitute. Supposing the land to be already laid off accu- rately in five-feel beds, five of these should be thrown together, by a deep ploughing, so as to form beds of twenty-five feet. It should be done by beginning at, and lapping two furrow-slices on the crown of the middle bed of the five, and then continuing to plough " in-and-in" until the plough at some place touches the wafer-furrow in which the new one is to be left. Then the plough should stop, at the end of that furrow, and begin upon the intended crown of the next wide bed, and continue it in like manner until the line ibr a new water-furrow is again touched somewhere. The narrow strip left between the two new beds should then be ploughed deeply, "out-and-out," throwing the slices alternately to each bed, and closing with a furrow which will be easily sunk full six inches lower than the old alley in the same place. Still the new bed would be badly shaped, owing to the four closed old water-furrows not be- ing enough filled; and moreover it Avould be gene- rally too low, compared to its width. Hence a second ploughing would be necessary immediate- ly, or before any heavy rain. The first furrows of" this should be run as before, except that instead of meeting on the crowns of" the beds, (where there would be already a list sufficiently high,) a width of about two lijei on the crowns might be omitted, and the first slices thrown no closer than to the edges of that strip. When the plough 3gain reaches the water-furrow, it will have, by the gathering of so wide a bed, more room than before, to sink the new water-furrow, deeper, and also lo clean it out well. These two ploughings, if" well executed, and followed by a harrowing, would leave the surface of the bed tolerably well graduated, and gently sloping from the crown to shoulder; and the water-furrows at least 9 inches deeper than the old ones; and not only deeper, but generally sunk into the clay sub-soil, so as to con- vey the water off through a close and impervious pipe, as it may be called, instead of over open and loose absorbent soil. The mere consideration of the difference between the wide and the narrow beds, and the five small and shallow draining fur- rows of the former, and the broad and deep one of the latter, would show that the latter is better for drainage. Every such water-furrow is, in fact, a ditch, and a capacious and excellent one; but which is made and kept open by the plough, and furnishes no impediment to the crossing of ani- mals, or of half"-loaded carls. The fully loaded should be drawn along the bed, and would have a far better road than on narrow beds. Grips or cross-drains would still be needed, but not in half the present number; because the now deeper water-furrows would keep any shallow standing water fully nine inches lower than for- merly, and therefore less, if at all hurtf"ul. But wherever necessary to be made, the grips should now be increased in depth, of course, in propor- tion to the new water-furrows, f"rom which they are to draw the excess of water. The wide beds are never to be reversed entire- ly ; that is, the water-furrow must always be kept in the same place, and made as deep, and as clean, as ploughing can effect. For one or two crops, or ploughings, after the first, it may be best to throw the slices still towards the crown of the bed, so as to raise it higher. But if so continued, the bed would soon become too high, and the top either too round, or angular. This is easy to pre- vent. If it is desired to depress the crown of the bed, but yet to raise the sides midway between the crowns and water-furrows, let the middle and higher strips of the bed be ploughed " out-and- out,'' like a " land " in common fiush ploughing, and without caring to preserve any precise outlines. 18381 FARMERS' REGISTER, 187 When the miililles of two he.ds are thus ploughed down, or reversed, then the portion hetwecn them will he also broken up, throwinir the slires "out- and-out." and of courfse up the sides of the bed, until closinhiiiii:, as to recjuire beiiiir llattened, then the first two or three furrows should be run in the water-furrow, eo as merely to deepen and clean it, throwintj the slices neaflv up to the shoulder, or edi!;e of the bed. This beini; done in two adjacent water-fur- rows, the intermediate space should be cloven, or reversed; that is, ploutrhed downward. In this case the lists, or meeting slices, will be at the shoulders of the beds, and the operation leaves the beds in beautiful form, and irood order. In any mo !e of cleavintj down the bed, the closinti and deepest furrow is always on the crown, which beinjT before the hiirhest, prevents there beino; made too much depression. After running the harrow over, the mark of that furrow will scarce- ly be visible. The corn-rows on thr-se wide beds, are easily and accurately laid off. Theplouffhman will first run a flirrow, as near as his eye will fix, at 3 feet from the middle of the water-furrow; and then an- other, in the same manner, on the otherside of the bed. The interveninS;33.33,) and that price has been generally maintained. Under peculiar circumstances, some have been sold fornot imlf that price. Half the Elmington tract, 500 acres, with- out a house, or any thing but the land, was bought two or three years ago by Warner Talia- ferro, esq. at ^30 the acre, in cash, and at private sale. This may be therefore deemed to be the fair price of land alone. A few minutes' passage, in a beautilul sailing boat, carried us across from the last-mentioned residence to that of Wm. H. Roy, esq. in Mat- thews. This fiirm, and the adjoininij one, be- longing to Dr. Tabb, were made the limit of my excursion, liut so unilbrmly low and level are the lands of Matthews, that the smallspace which 1 saw, furnished, as I was told, a fair and sufficient specimen of the natural features of almost the whole county. Rut not so as to improvement and product; (or both of which, these two farms stand much higher than the county in ireneral, The.se are principally corn farms ; as is the case through the whole county, as wheat is consi- dered comparatively unproductive. But this is not caused by the too great sandiness of the soil, nor by wetness. The soil is a loam of medium texture, and though lying so Ioav, is drier than most of the somewhat higher lands of Gloucester. 'I'lie lands of Mali hews were originaily covered by a fine irrowth of white oak-trees, which would be sufficient to prove that the soil is not too light for iiood wheat. Until the woods were mostly clear- ed, the peoi)le were more eniraged in cutting tim- ber for sale, and in ship-building, than in cultiva- tion ; but recently, as the former pursuits have been necessarily abandoned, liu'miiig 1ms greatly im[)rove(l, in manner and in product. Air. Roy's farm has been improved, from a for- mer very poor state, to a present product of corn varying in dirt'erent fields liom 5 to 7 bbls. per acre. Of course, I inler that the soil was origi- nally good and productive, however much im- poverished afierwards. The marl stratum ex- tends also under his land ; but is there reduced to a thickness of only about 18 inches, so that its digging can scarcely be profitable. The great improvement made on this fiirm is owing to the very large quantities of farm-yard and other pu- trescent manures made and applied ; and which now extend overmuch the greater part of the field for corn in a three-shift rotation. Leaves from pine woods, m quantity, as well as all the ofi'al of the crops, are used as litter; and through all sum- mer, as well as winter, for littering standing cattle and hog-pens. No waste or other evil is found, as I had feared, from too rapid fermentation during summer. I was surprised to find that the old-fashioned three several hand-hoeings, (or weedings, as called,) of corn, were still approved and practised on Mr. Roy's farm. But as I hope to receive- from his own pen a more particular account of his- farming, I shall present no more of my own hasty and imperlijct observations. Looking from the shore near Mr. Roy's house towards the Chesapeake, there is nothing but wa- ter and sky to bound the prospect; as it is a straight course through the capes of Virginia on to the ocean. It was a clear and bright morning, with a gentle wind from the east, which is the state of weather lavorable to the optical illusion called "looming," and which I soon witnessed in a remarkable degree. Before suspecting the ef- fect produced, or thinking of it, though not entire- ly inexperienced, I saw, towards the sea, at such apparent distance as to be not distinct except in shade and in outlines, a very high and large ob- ject, nearly square in form. Had I not known that no such thing existed, I should have guessed it to be a castle, or some other pnormously large dark buildint;, at more than 20 miles distance; and, as the nearest to such an appearance that any real object could present, 1 supposed it to be really a thick cluster of very tall pines, on some low island, or point, made very conspicuous at so great a distance by being seen against the clear sky beyond. Upon asking what the object was, ( was told that it was a "sliip's-head bunch," which is a little brush fiistened down by a few low stakes, and which is made as a baiting i)lace for angling lor that kind of fish. The actual height above the water was not tlu'ee feet, and the dis- tance to the bunch was not exceeding three miles. The deception of the sight was not removed, and scarcely lessened, by being informed of the true 190 FARMERS' REGISTER. No. 3 size and distance; though doubtless those who are accustomed to the phenomenon, learn to judge much better than strangers, and therefore cannot be so much deceived. The cause oi" the decep- tion is the pecuhar state of the atmosphere, which makes a near object appear to be very distant; and as the angle, from the eye of the observer formed by hnes to the opposite outlines of the ob- ject, continues to be determined by its true distance, the supposed size is just what the extension of those lines would inclose, when at the supposed great distance of the object. As we rode along, ano- ther equally large and equally deceptions object came in view. It was nothing larger than a "blind," made for baiting and shooting wild-ducks. The roads in Matthews are the best in the world. This is owing to the almost perfect level of the surface, the absence of all streams, or other water, and to the firm, yet sufficiently open tex- ture of the soil. Every road has good ditches on each side, which serve not only to prevent water affecting it, but also furnish earth to raise slightly the middle of the road. The whole county of Matthews is so well fur- nished with tide- water rivers, and inlets, that it is believed that not a farmer in the county is more than three miles from navigable water, and most of them not one mile. Yet with all this, the coun- ty is remarkably exempt fi'om the bilious diseases wiiich are supposed to belong to the low country, and especially to the low borders of tide-water. The explanation is found in this fact — and it would be worth tnillions of property, and thousands of lives, to the country in general, if properly applied — that there is not one mill-pond in the county. One pond-mill only is on the dividing line between Gloucester and Matthews, which, as usual, se- cures its annual snug little harvest of disease and death : but beyond its influence, there exists that state ol" health, and its accompaniments of physi- cal power, energy, and capacity lor enjoyment, so as to prove clearly to any reasonable and thinking people, that not one mill-pond (of the usual varia" ble height of water,) should be suffered to remain in all the lower and miildle parts of Virginia. But the subject is too copious to treat heVe, and too UTiportant to be neglected ; and therelbre I will present these facts and my commentary thereon at another time. I will merely observe here that the uncommon exemption from autumnal diseases which are the iruit of malaria, on the low-grounds of Gloucester, in which respect that region comes next to Matthews, and li-om mill-ponds, the sources of these diseases, is a blessinir which alone gives value to their fertile soil, productive and convenient waters, and refined and delightful society. Tide-mills and wind-mills are used in Matthews ; and also, but to a less extent, in Glou- cester; as most of the low-ground proprietors there are also not far distant from some pond-mill on the highlands, of which the owner risks poison- ing his own family, and certainly brings disease or death to some of his neighbors, to gain a few hundred bushels of toll-corn, and that at an ex- pense often exceeding its value. However, I can- not blame mill-owners for availing of the profit conferred on them by law, by infecting and killing their neighbors, (when it is indeed a profit,)— no? would I propose, as a general measure, to deprive them of any such existing advantage, except for full pecuniary, or other sufficient compensation, to be made in return. But I do blame the legisla- tive bod}', which permits the continuance and in- crease of these enormous and wide-spread evils— and also the blind and besotted carelessness and contentment of the people, who suffer the heaviest of these infiiciions, and who will neither learn the cause, nor seek for a remed}'. To this subject I will return — and again and again, while there re- mains any hope of awakening proper action. From each ol" the rivers of Gloucester, there is a vessel which runs every week, to and from Norfolk; and there is one also which goes as regu- larly to and from Baltimore. These packets be- long to a number of the farmers of the neiglibor- hood, and are intended, and effect the object, ta carry their products to market, and bring back their purchased conimodities, in the most conve- nient and cheap manner. The captain of the vessel is not only the carrier of the articles, but the general agent and salesman of all the shippers: and in this manner the trouble and expense of a Gloucester farmer, in sending any surplus products to market, are not as great as if he lived only a mile or two from the town to which they are sent. This is another great source of convenience and profit to this region so favored in its position; and conduces to the economizing and selling of many small surplus products, which would otherwise be wasted. The productive value of the land in the Glou- cester low-grounds, and there being almost none which is not fit for tillage, when cleared and drained, have caused clearings to be very general; and the scarcity of wood, both for fijel and fencing, is one of the greatest inconveniences suffered by the farmers. Pit-coal is already in regular use as fuel in some houses on North river. For fencing, chestnut, which fortunately was a plenti- fiil growth of the high-lands, has been recently the main reliance for the low-ground farms, even at 7 or 8 miles distance by land-carriage, and the timber [lurchased at a high price. As rails of this timber are almost secure from rotting, when not in contact with the earth, these costly fences are still cheap improvements. But the chestnut timber is now vary scarce, and can no longer be counted on as a sufficient source of supply. Ditch- es and banks, for which the land is so admirably adapted, will probably hereafter be made to serve for inclosures; and in aid of this important oliject, deep and wide ditches will have an important va- lue, in addition to the several others already men- tioned. All the low-ground farmers are now sufl"ering greatly by the depredations of cut-worms and bud-worms, or wire-worms, on the young corn. Some have been compelled to plough up, and plant again, many acres of their fields ; and the land not so treated, in many cases, requires to have two-thirds of the places replanted; and the loss, to the future product, as well as in present labor, is enormous, this spring, throughout the low-grounds. The great number of these worms, I'should have supposed, might be sufficiently ac- counted ihr in the usual practice of breaking up the land for corn, late in winter, or in spring. On clover-sod, especially, so treated, elsewhere, great injury from worms would be counted on. But here, there must be some other cause still more favoring their depredations ; as I was told of parts of fields having been ploughed very early in win- 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 191 ter, ami on wiiicli, not\vithf!larnliniiie a ground for this opinion, 1 readily admitted its fbico as soon as the subjects Ciime under my own view. As wa- ter lies so near the surliice, and the soil is too close to permit water to sink through it, it is obvious that ice-houses cannot be made in pits, below the surfiice, as usual in the higher country. Hence, they are necessarily constructed on and above the surface of the ground. One plan of construction is general. A circular brick wall forms the bo- dy of the building, which of course is a regu- lar cylinder, surmounted by a roofj which is, in shape, a flattened cone, the base of which is so wide as to form eaves projecting unusually far without the body of house. A mound of earth, circular at the base, regularly sloping as it rises, is thrown up all around and against the body, and conceals it to within two or three feet of the eaves of the roof. The mound of earth becomes co- vered with green turf. The summit of the coni- cal roof is surmounted, in some cases, by a spire, in others by a ball, or small cupola. Altogether, in plan, proportions, and neat execution, these ice-houses are very pleasing to the eye, and add much to the beauty of the grounds around every mansion on the low-grounds, [to be continued.] LAW OF NKW-YORK IIV REGARD TO TRES- PASSING STOCK AND DIVISION FENCES. To tlie Editor of tlie Farmers' Register. I have a friend ivho lives in the western part of the state of New York, now on a visit to me here, and in conversing with him on agricultural and other subjects, I have derived many useful facts — one of them I will detail to you, because it is of striking utility in my view, and on a subject upon which you have long interested yourself. He informs me, that in the state of New York, the lavvs require every farmer to have such enclo- sures as will keep his own stock in — if he has none, he need* no enclosure, except on public highways. Ifthen the stock of our neighbor en- croaches on another, the one encroached on sends them to the nearest pound-master of the town- ship, (and there are several in each,) who pounds them, and notifies the public of the fact, describ- ing them, that the owner may come forward and claim them. The person trespassed upon then calls together three respectable, disinterested neighbors, who assess the amount of damage he has sustained by such intrusion, which the owner has to pay, together with all expenses of the pounder, &c. before the stock will be surrendered up to him ; and in default of which, they are sold to make it good, and the surplus, if any, refunded to the owner. This I consider an equitable and admirable regulation, and if adopted in this state, would save much trouble and discontent among neighbors. He also informs me of another equally just and ne- cessary regulation. In all cases ofdivision fences between neighbors, each party is bound to share 192 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 3 equally ihe expense ol" sucit an enclosure as is usual in the vicinity, and in case ol' default of either, the amount is recoverable before a magis- trate. This strikes me as a most wise provision; for occasionally you meet with a selfish, perver?e man, who will contribuie nothiniT to such an en- closure, although eqaally benefited, because he knows the other party would sooner erect the en- tire fence, than be, without it, liable to constant annoyance: and in such cases this provision would apply most happily. I have ventured, my dear sir, to give you these ideas, thinking you might choose to embody them in some publication of your own on the subject, if thought worth it: but not to be published as coming from me. [The condition required by our correspondent in his last sentence, is complied with by our withholding his signature. — Ed. Far. Reg.] For the Faimois' Register. MONTHLY C0IVI3IERCIAL REPORT. Markets have undergone little variation this month. Tobacco continues in good demand at $4 to ^11 per 100 lbs., including all sorls except fancy qualities for manufacturing. The quantity inspected greatly exceeds that oflaslyearto same date, the price being an inducement to get it to Tnarket. Cotton commands (in Petersburg) 8| to 9| ■cents, according to quality. The receipts at the various ports of shipment in the United States, are about 1,550,000 bales against 1,230,000 at same time last year. The demand lor cotton goods in England being very dull, this excess of the raw material must cause prices to continue low for some time. The growing crop of wheat is reported to look fine generally ; but in some parts of the country, the insect called chinch-bug has attacked it and done considerable injury. Internal exchanges are improving, but the dif- ference between some places is still very great; as for instance, lietween New York and Natchez, 20 per cent., IMobile 12, New Orleans 8, Charles- ton 5, and Virginia 4. Bills on London are 10 per cent, premium in Richmond. Since the resumjiliou of specie payments in New York, there is little or no pressure on the money market, and stocks generally have ad- vanced. The importations of specie have con- tinued to a very large amount. The last legislature of New York authorised the establishment of private banks to an unlimited extent. Those persons who engage in the busi- ness, are required to deposite with the couqitroller of the state, the amount of capital on which they wish to operate, in such United Stales or stale slocks bearing 5 per cent, interest, as he shall ap- prove, and can receive from him an equal amount in bank notes properly countersigned, so that the issues of notes will be limited to the amount of se- curity thus deposited, and made responsible lor their redemption. Should this system be found to work well, as is confidently believed it will, the example will doubtless be followed by other states, and it may introduce a system of banking less liable to abuse than that which now exists. The facilities of communication on the main line of rail roads have been increased this month by the opening of one between Richmond and Petersburg, and by the completion of the bridge over tiie Roanoke at Gaston, and of a portion of the rail road south of that place. X. ' 3Iay 23, 1838. Table of Contents of Warmers^ Meg ester ^ ./^>. 3, l^ol, F*!. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. Page Advantage of obtaining seed wheat from cold- er climates. Benefit of marl and gypsum on sweet potatoes, 129 Perpetual fertility of certain soils, - - - 130 Liming and marling in Matthews county, - 142 Marling in Queen Ann's county, Md., - - 144 The morals of manunng, . - - . i5i Deep ploughing, &c., Ifi4 Baden corn. Marl beds of South Carolina, - 17.3 On the rotation for grain farms, - - - 177 Remarks on the soils and agriculture of Glou- cester county, 178 Law of New- York in regard to trespassing stoclc and division fences, 191 Monthly commercial report, . - - . 192 SELECTIONS. Phosphorescent plants, 129 Rail-roads and steam-boats, - - - - 131 East-India caoutchouc 132 Origin of coal 132 Remarkable clearness of the air, a precursor of rain, 132 Beer, - - - - - - - 132 Enamelled hardware, 133 On the causes which produce double flowers in plants, 134 Harvesting of corn, Organization and functions of animals and plants compared, ------- Catastrophe in' a mine, - - - - - Plants growing under glass, . - - - Lime as manure, Report of Netherby farm, Cumberland, Eng- land, Relation of soils to manures, - - - - Use of fish manure in England, The price of rents, and of the tenant's " good- will" in Ireland, ------ Manures for wheat, Taming wild horses, Reaping machine, - - ' - General account of the tobacco trade of the United States, JaufTret's new manure, Treatise on bone-manure, . . - - On the cultivation of small farms, - - - Route of the Michigan and Illinois canal. Culture of onions, Beavers in Surry county, . - - - Loss of species of plants, . - - - Silk-worms fed on rice, Completion of removing the great raft on Red river, Age and size of trees, Page 13.5 1.36 i;38 139 140 144 1.52 152 154 155 158 159 160 165 165 167 170 173 174 174 174 174 175 THE FARMERS' REGISTER. Vol. VI. JULY 1, 1838. No. 4. EDMUND R U F F I N, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. IIUMAKKS OtV THE SOILS AND AGUICULTlTUIi OF GLOUCESTER COUNTY. By the Editor. [Coiiliiiucil fioiii page 178 of this volume] One o( the most interesting objects which I vi- sited in Gloucester, was Kosewell, the residence of the distinguished patriot John Page, Governor of Virginia, and of his family preceding and succced- inghim. Tlie house is situated on the border of York river, and commands an extensive view over the dee|) blue waters and the clean white beach of that most beautiful of all our wide wa- ters. The land, though said to be good, and pro- ductive, as a i'arm, considering its long neglected state, presented nothing which attracted my no- tice, or diverted attention from the ancient and venerable building, to see which, was the object of my visit. The walls of the mansion-house Ibrm a cube of 60 feet. The roof is Oat and cover- ed with lead, except the central and more elevat- ed parts, which are so low, however, as to be hid- den from the outer view by the surrounding para- pet wall of about 3 or 4 feet hich. The style of building is plain and simple. Though the ma- terials were of the best land, and the construction and decoration such as must have been very cosily, still the whole appearance is as plain, as if embel- lishment and display were not only not sought, but despised by the builder. It is said that the mas- sive walls contain about a million of bricks; most of which, according to the fashion of old times, were brought fi'om England. The interior walls of all but the upper apartments are wainscoted with black-walnut to the ceiling, and the balus- trade of the great staircase is of mahogany, richly carved. All appears simple and severe, and yet grand, and nothing seems designed for ornament, or ostentation. The chimneys, which so much disfigure all modern buildings, are here so massive that they seem more like the turrets of tlie an- cient structures of the Itjudal age; and the resem- blance is further increased by two small circular erections in the roof; one of which is the upper end of the flight of stairs, and the other a sort of observatory, where the extensive prosjiect and re- freshing sea-breeze might be enjoyed in the great- est perfection. Altogether, the Roscwell house bears not a very (hint resemblance to an ancient baronial castle; and, except the ivy-capf)cd ruins of the old Jamestown church, (under whose shade these lines are pencilled.) I have never seen any structure so venerable in its form, and in its pro- gress to decay. Both these buildings, and some others on hallowed spots, ought to be made pub- lic property, by purchase, and preserved, both from decay, and from any repairs except such as might be necessary to preserve the present ap- pearance. Rosewell house overlooks a wide ex- panse, rich and beautiful by nature, and now de- formed and impoverished by both the abuse and neglect of man ; and it stands alone, in solemn grandeur, though undervalued and in decay, an emblem of the old aristocracy of Virginia, of Vol. VI-25 which, with all its virtues and vices, its wealth, refinement, and vvastefulness, there is now so lit- tle left, and that little liist fading away. But though in comparison to its lormerstate, the Rosewell house may now be considered in a state of dilapidation, still, as a residence, for the i)resent, it has not greatly suffered by decay. The |)rinci- pal injury sustained, and which threatens future destruction to the interior of the building, if not soon guarded against, is the partial sinking of the ceilinl: of the great hall, on the lower floor, and which takes away the support of the second and third floors above the place ol' failure. A timely support by a central pillar would prevent (he fur- ther progress of this injury. The present owner, and recent purchaser of this estate, Mr. Booth, besides the convenience of keeping his own resi- dence in comfortable repair, doubtless feels the in- clination to preserve this noble monument of an- cient times. But the expense necessary for this purpose would exceed the cost and present valua- tion of the whole estate; and there are lew indi- viduals, in this utilitarian age, who would be will- ing to bear this burden. The estate, containing more than 1000 acres of land, was sold at auction a lew years ago, for i?? 11,000; and was bought by Mr. Booth, for a small advance on that price. This is not more than the bricks of the mansion house alone would cost; and the probable future destiny of this building, will be, after falling into complete decay, to be demolished, lor the use of the remaining materials. Such has already been the end of another building, not far distant, which not many years ago was not less an interesting object as a venerable ruin, than hallowed by historical events. This was tlie once splenditl mansion of the old Secretary Nelson, uncle to the [lalriotic Governor Nelson, in Yorktown, which in the beginning of the siege was the ijuarters cf Loi'd Cornwallis and his principal officers. The walls were perforated in many places by the cannon balls from the bat- teries of' tlie besiegers; which in part were so direct- ed by the specialorders of Governor Nelson, then commanding the Virginia militia, and who dealt (he same measure to his own dwelling-house, though tliat was better protected bydistance,and its more'humble size; and it still stands, the best re- maining building in the decayed and almost de- serted village of Yorktown. Secrclary Nelson was then "'confined by disease to his house, which stood in an angle of the Britisli interior in- trenchmenf, and directly in the most importarit line of defence, and attack, and therelbre peculi arly exposed. His three sons, as well as his ne- |)hew the governor, were in arms among the be- siegers; and he was at last permitted to take re- iuge in the American camp, on a flag of truce being sent for that purpose by Washington, and borne by one of the Secretary's sons. Before his removal, one of his servants, in the same apart- ment with his master, and while speaking to him, was killed by a ioall from the besiegers' cannon. Thouirh the "house was made a ruin by the fire of the American batteries during the siege, it long remained one of the objects of highest interest on 194 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. this ground, which is altogether so interesting as the closing scene of the vvar of the American re- volution; and twenly-seven years ago, when 1 first saw it, the greater part of the outer walls and three of the chimneys were still standing. All has since been demolished, merely lor the use of the materials; and the site is distinguished only by a greater quantity of rubbish, scattered by the side of the British line of defence. The present owner of Rosewell was not at home; but still I was obliged by the kind welcome which he had prepared lor my expected visit. If it was not so mucli out of the way of travellers, I doubt not but that Rosewell would be considered an object of interest, which would probably expose the owner to many such intrusions as mine, and which would become, by their number, more an- noying than welcome. Gloucester-town, (which has not the semblance of a town,) lies immediately opposite Yorktown ; and the former as well as the latter place was Ibr- tified by part of the British army under Cornwallis. and invested by a part of the American forces. The remains of four redoubts, which defended the point ol'land, still are seen, in quadrangular mounds of about 8 leet elevation ; and these, like the in- treuchments of both besieged and besiegers sur- rounding Yorktown on the opposite side of the river, and even the large holes in the ground which were made by exploding bomb-shells, will probably continue visible until Yorktown itself shall have reached the end of the decay and ruin to which it has long been making progress. Another redoubt, standing alone, is on the road, about a mile from Gloucester Point. This probably was an outpost of the investing force. The mound furnishes an agricultural lesson to those who main- tain that any barren sub-soil, brought up by deep ploughing, will become fertilized by exposure. The sandy sub-soil, thrown up in erecting this work fifty- seven years ago, is still bare ol' vegeta- tion. The most valuable thinir now in Yorktown, (supposing antiquities and historical memorials to be worth nothing,) is the body of rich marl which under-lies tlie town, and is exposed on the river side. It is perfectly dry, and of a texture more like very soft rock, than shell-marl or earth. It is in this that the artificial cavern was made which is called Cornwallis' cave, and which tradition tells was his lordship's quarters after Secretary Nel- son's house was no longer habitable. But like most, other traditionary accounts, the fsict is dis- puted. When I first saw the cave, in my boyhood, it was entered by a doorway of small size, and consisted of a square apartment, from which ano- ther door led to a second room of smaller size. The walls and ceilings were shaped well and neatly ; and the firmness of both showed that the excavation might be continued safely, to any ex- tent, without any other props than walls of the marl itself. This quality, and its ijreat richness, would make the bed valuable for shipping marl lor sale ; which has already been done, without the need of excavating, from a place a few miles lower down. But until within late years, I think it most proba- ble that nobody in York county knew any thing of the composition or value of the earth in question ; and still, judging from their works, but little value is yet attached by them to the use of ilie manure. When 1 last entered Cornwallis' cave, one of the apartments was nearly filled with fodder, and the other was converted to a hog-sty, which, in the darkness, I could not know by sight, but was soon m formed, by the grunting and the stench, of the presence of the successor of Lord Cornwallis. STATEMENT OF SUCCESSFUL FARMING, ON A SMALL SCALE, ON GLOUCESTER LOW-GROUND. By the Editor. The farm of Jefferson B. Sinclair was referred to in the preceding article (at page 181, No. 3,)' and the more important of the peculiar circum- stances, and qualities of the soil described general- ly. In addition to what is there stated, as part of a general sketch of the soils and agriculture of Gloucester, and to which I beg to refer, as prefato- ry to this statement, I will here report more par- ticularly on the labors expended on, and profits de- rived from, the cultivation of the farm. The choice of this liirm for more particular notice, is not di- rected by any of the considerations which might be supposed usually to operate; and Avhether it is well or ill-directed, it will at least be manifest to those best acquainted in the county, that the choice of the writer is not directed by consider- ations of self-interest, or by a desire to pay court to those enjoying high station, or exercising extensive influence. Mr. Sinclair, notwithstand- ing ills considerable gains, is not yet one of the rich men of Gloucester, nor one who makes any pretension to fiishionable, expensive, or " stylish" living; neither has his system, or general plan of farming, any thing commendable, nor is its execu- tion of that neat and perfect kind to please the eye, and command admiration. He was quite a poor man, who, by unremitting industry and care, and by making good use of some of the peculiar advantages of his land, has greatly improved both his income and his farm, and who now shows very heavy crops, and derives large profits. Others, in the county, with greater advantages of spare capital, and more extended agricultural in- formation, have performed operations in cultivat- ing or improving their lands far more likely to at- tract and gratity the observer, and to command his applause. But the past and present circum- stances of this farm will better serve to show, by example, the capacity for improvement and in- creased product of the land, and the profit which may be counted on to revk'ard steady industry and economy. Whatever has been done here is the result of labor, almost alone, at first; and since, of labor united with the capital produced by the earlier bestowed labor. This farm, as in the foregoing article stated, lies on the shore of Mobjack bay, and, with two or three adjacent farms, forms the "neck" or point between the mouths of Ware and Severn rivers. The greater part of the neck, as well as the great- er part of Mr. Sinclair's arable part of it, is so little above the level of the sea, that it has been sometimes, though rarely, covered by storm or gust-tides. The greater part is probably not more than three feet above ordinary high tide. The lather of the jiresent owner was a regular seaman, and in command of a vessel in the mer- chant service. He came fiom a very different 1838] F A K INI JO US' R K (I 1 S T 10 R 195 kind of rarminoultry, it is highly prized. Belbre the system of cutting straw, or manger- feeding was generally 206 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 4 adopted in Great Britain, barley straw, owing per- haps to its being cut early, was used as food for cattle in preference to others, as cattle could eat it uncut more readily than the harder straws. Wheat or oat straw is now preferred when it is to be con- verted into chaiT, or cut fine for mixing with hay or roots. There arc varieties of barley found in the shops, pearl and Scotch, both of which are prepared by divesting the kernel of its husk in mills, resembling in some degree the rice-mills of the south ; and in the case of the pearl barley, the grinding or rubbing is continued until the berry assumes a smooth round form. Few articles are more nutritious, or bettor adapted to the stomachs of the weak or the valetudinarian. From tlie London and Edinl)Uigli Pliilnsoplncal Magazine, ON THE FORBIATION OF IMOULD. B]i Charles Darwin, Esq., F. G. S. The author commenced by remarking on two of. the most striking characters by Avhich the su- perficial layer of earth, or, as it is commonly call- ed, vegetable mould, is distinguished. These are its nearly homogeneous nature, although overly- ing difl'erent kinds of subsoil, and the uniform fineness of its particles. The latter fact may be well observed in any gravelly country, where, al- though in a ploughed field, a large proportion of the soil consists of small stones, yet in old pasture- Jand not a single pebble will be found within some inches of the surface. The author's attention was called to this subject by Mr. Wedgwood, of Maer Hall, in Staffordshire, who showed him several fields, some of which, a few years before, had been covered with lime, and others with burnt marl and cinders. These substances, in every case, are now buried to the depth of some inches beneath the turf. Three fields were examined with care. The first consisted of good pasture land, which had been limed, without havinir been ploughed, about twelve years and a half before: the turf was about half an inch thick; and two inches and a half beneath it was a layer, or row, of small aggregated lumps of the lime, forming, at an equal depth, a well-marked white line. The soil beneath this was of a gravelly nature, and diflered very considerably from the mould nearer the surface. About three years since cinders were likewise spread on this field. These are now bu- ried at the depth of one inch, forming a line of black spots parallel to, and above, the white layer of lime. Some other cinders, which had been scattered in another part of the same field, were either still lying on the surface, or entangled in the roots of the grass. The second field examined was remarkable only from the cinders being now buried in a layer, nearly an inch thick, thfee in- ches beneath the surface. This layer was in parts so continuous, that the superficial mould was only attached to the sub-soil of red clay by the longer roots of the grass. The history of the third field is more complete. Previously to fifteen years since it was waste land; but at that time it was drained, harrowed, ])lough- cd, and well covered with burnt marl and cinders. It has not since been di.stuibed, and now supports a tolerably good pasture. The ieclion here was, linchco and a half had been well digested turf half an inch, mould two inches and a half) a layer one and a half inch thick, composed of frag- ments of burnt marl (conspicuous from their bright red color, and some of considerable size, namely, one inch, by a half broad, and a quarter thick,) of cinders, and a ihw quartz pebbles mingled with earth; lastly, about four inches and a half beneath the surlace was the original, black, peaty soil. Thus beneath a layer (nearly four inches thick) of fine particles of earth, mixed with some vegetable matter, those substances now occurred, which, fifteen years before, had been spread on the surface. Mr. Darwin stated that the appear- ance in all cases was as if the fragments had, as the farmers believe, worked themselves down. It does not, however, appear at all possible, that either the powdered hnie or the fragments of burnt marl and the pebbles could sink through compact earth to some inches beneath the surface and still remain in a continuous layer. Nor is it probable that the decay of the grass, although adding to the surlace some of the constituent parts of the mould, should separate, in so short a time, the fine from the coarse earth, and accumulate the former on those objects which bo lately were strewed on the surfiice. Mr. Darwin also remarked, that near towns, in fields which did not appear to have been ploughed, he had often been surprised by finding pieces of pottery and bones some inches below the turf. In a similar manner on the mountains of Chili he had been perplexed by no- ticing elevated marine shells, covered by earth, in situations where rain could not have washed it on them. The explanation of these circumstances, which occurred to Mr. Wedgwood, although it may, at first, appear trivial, the author did not doubt is the correct one, namely, that the whole is due to the digestive process, by which tiie common earth- worm is supported. On carefully examining be- tween the blades of grass in the fields above de- scribed, the author found, that there was scarcely a space of two inches square without a little heap of the cylindrical castings of worms. It is well known that worms swallow earthy matter, and that having separated the serviceable portion, they eject, at the mouth of their burrows, the remain- der in little intestine-shaped heaps. The worm is unable to swallow coarse panicles, and as it would naturally avoid pure lime, the fine earth ly- ing beneath either the cinders and burnt marl, or the powdered lime, would, by a slow process, be .removed, and thrown up to the surlL^ce. This sup|)osition is not imaginary, lor in the field in which cinders had been spread out only half a year before, Mr. Darwin actually saw the cast- ings of the worms heaped on the smaller fi-ag- ments. Nor is the agency so trivial as it, at first, mifjht be thought; the great number of earth- worms (as every one must be aware, who has ever dug in a grass-field) making up for the in- significant (juantity of work each performs. On the above hypothesis, the great advantage of old pasture land, which farmers are always particukirly averse from breakmgup, is explained; lor the worms must require a considerable length of time to prepare a tliick stratum of mould, by thoroughly mingling the original constituent parts of tlie soil, ao well as the manures added by man, In the peaty field, in fifteen years, about three " "" ■ ■ It is 1838] F A R M E R S ' R E G I S T E R 207 probable however, that the process is continiiec], Ihouiih Ut a slow rale, to a much rrrnatcr tlt'ptli; llir as olicn as a worm is coiiii)cllc(l hy dry wea- ther, or any other cause, to descend deep, it must briiiir to tiic surliice, when it empties the contents of its body, a lew particles of carlh. The author observed, tl>al the digestive process of animals is a fTcological power which acts in another sphere on a frreater scale. In recent coral Ibrmations, the quantity of stone converted into the most impal- jiablc mud, by the excavation of boring shells and of nereidous animals, is very great. Numerous large fishes (of the genus Spams) likewise sub- sist by browsing on the living branches of coral. JMr. barwin believes, that a large portion of the challv of Europe was produced from coral, by the digestive action of marine animals, in the same manner as mould has been prepared by the earth- worm on disintegrated rock. The author conclud- ed by remarking, that it is probable that every particle of earth in old pasture land has passed through the intestines of worms, and hence, that in some senses, the term "animal mould" would be more appropriate than "vegetable mould." The agriculturist in ploughing the ground follows a method strictly natural; and he only imitates in a rude manner, without being able either to bury the pebbles or to sift the fine from the coarse soil, the work which nature is daily performing by the agency of the earth-worm.* DISEASE AMONG THE SIIELL-FISH. " One of the most curious phenomena of the year (1836) has been the fatal effect of an epi- demic disease among the molluscous animals or shell-fish of the JVluskingum river, (Ohio.) It commenced in April and continued until June, destroying millions of that quiet, retiring race, which people the beds of streams. As the ani- mal died, the valves of the shell opened, and, de- composition commencing, the muscular adhesions gave way, and the fleshy portion rose to the sur- * Since the paper was read, Mr. Darwin has re- ceived from Stafibrdshire the two foilowinE^ state- ments : — 1. In the spring of 18,35 a boggy field was so thickly covered with sand that the surface appeared of a red color; but the sand is now overlaid by three- quarters of an inch of soil. 2. About eighty years ago a field was manured with marl; and it has been since ploughed, but it is not known at what exact pe- riod. An imperfect layer of the marl now exists at a depth, very carefully measured from the surface, of twelve inches in some places, and fourteen in others, the difference corresponding to the fop and hollows of the ridges or butts. It is certain that the marl was buried before the field was ploughed, because the frag- ments are not scattered through the soil, but constitute a layer, which is horizontal, and therefore not parallel to the undulations of the ploughed surface. No plough, moieover, could reach the marl in its present position, as the furrows in this neighborhood are never more than eight inches in depth. In the above paper it is shown, that three inches and a half of mould had been accumulated in fifteen years; and in this case, within eighty years (that is, on the supposition, rendered probable from the agricultural state of this part of the country, that the field had never before been marled) the earth-worms have covered the marl with a bed of earth averaging thirteen inches in thickness. face of fhe water, leaving the shell in the bed of the stream. As these dead bodies (loafed down (he current, the heads of islands, masses of (ixeil drill-wood, and the shores in many places, were covered with them, tainting the air in the vicinity with putrid ellluvia. The cause of the disease amongst ihe shelly race, remains as much a mys- tery as that of the Asiatic cholera amotiLrstthc human family." — l>r. S. P. JUldrath, Joitriud (f Science. From tlic Genesee Farmer. GERMINATION OF THE ACACIA OR LOCUST SICED. Mr. Loudon, in his Magazineof Natural Histo- ry, states that Sir John llerschel lately sent some seeds of the acacia iiom the Cape of Good Hope, with directions to scald them to ensure their srowth. Mr. L. having received some of them, subjected them to the lollowing experiments: — two were placed in boiling water, and left to soak for an hour, until the water had become cool; two were kept at the boiling temperature for one and a half minutes. Some were sown immediately under a hand-glass in the open border; and the rest were kept for three or four days and then sown in a hotbed. The following are the results: — Under the hand-glass. 1 boiled 1^ minutes failed. 1 do. 3 do. came up in 14 days. 1 do. 6 " " " 13 " 1 not steeped at all did not germinate. In the hotbed. 1 boiled 1^ minutes came up in 8 days. 2 a 3 £c a 7 (( J u g a (( 7 " 1 " 15 " " 13 " 2 in boiling water left to cool 9 " 2 not steeped caiTie up in 21 " Nothing can more forcibly show the hardness of the envelopes, or the tenacity of life in the acacia, than the germination of the seed after boiling 15 muiutes. We have a number of times scvdded the locust seed to produce germination, no other mode being so speedy or effectual. From the Southern Agriculturisl. SUN-FLOWER CULTURE. Effingham County, Geo. Feb. 10, 1838. Mr. Editor,— In your last September number, I saw a commimication relative to the sun-Hower, and as yoii seem willing to "gather up the frag- ments, that nothing he lost," 1 take the liberty of saying, that I have been in the habit of planting the sun-flower a number of years, to a limited ex- tent. There are sev^eral fences, which lead from my yard fence, to the surrounding woods— the weeds and grass growing up in the fence corners, formed ready ways for snakes to visit the yard. To pre- vent this, the hoe is used to keep these ways clean, and so prevent the temptation to their visits. 208 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. Now, while all this operation is going on, I have two hills of sun-flowers growing in every fence corner; two stocks (or say three or four) in a hill, plantcil early in the spring. About the time that my long forage gives out, these begin to bloona. As the^bloss'oms begin to appear, Tcut them off about a foot from the ground, and give to my horses, which eat them very readily,— leaves, buds, stocks, and all. This I consider a very wholesome, as well as nutritious food. Thus the ground that has to be kept clean, to prevent un- welcome visiters, is made in the mean time to yield profi!abl3^ If, in your judgment, you think proper to intro- duce this scrap to the company of your more use- ful communications, it is at your service. A Small Goshen Farmer. REMARKS ON, AND SOME OBJECTIONS TO, THE ESSAY ON "AGRICULTURAL HOBBIES AND HUMBUGS." To tlie Editor of the Farmers' Register. May I5th, 1S38. I have been so much amused with your article on agricultural hobbies and humbugs, (p. 47, vol. VI.)'^and think most of your remarks so perfectly just, that I could hardly prevail on myself to ex- press my dissent from such as I cannot concur in: nor would I do it, but for your oli en- avowed de- sire to have all your opinions freely canvassed, where any good to our cause might possibly result from it, in the opinion of those -who may differ from you. I have very rarely been among that number ; and where I have, it has been, in each case, with much distrust of my own opinion, and not a little fear, that my readers might so far mis- take the motives of my communications, as to as- cribe them, rather to the silly vanity of seeing my- self in print, than to their real cause — which has ever been, the hope of promoting, in some degree, the great object of your paper. With this anchor thrown out to windward. I shall commence my objections. The first is — for your apparent preference to corn with the largest cobs, of which you say, it " is evidently and mathematically true, if the grains are of equal size, there will be more encir- cling a large than a small cob." Now to me it appears " evidently and mathematically true," that this depends upon the grains being of equal loidth, and not on their equality of size ; for a broad grain may be of equal size with a long one, although the latter will certainly out-number the former, although the length and diameter of their respective cobs be precisely the same. Ajrain, it "is evidently and mathematically true," tliat al- though one, large single ear with a large cob, will liave more grain than any single ear with a small cob ; yet, if the small cob variety produces seve- ral more ears, under similar circumstances, on a single stalk, of which there are many unquestiona- ble proofs, in regard to the twin-corn, than the large-cob varieties, the former will, with mathe- matical certainty, produce the most grain. In the case of the twin-corn, fairly and accurately com- pared with two other very popular varieties, both having very large cobs, I have ascertained by ac- tual measurement, the difference in favor of the twin-corn was as nine to seven. Your second opinion from which I dissent, is that wherein you say, that "you have no fiiith either in the reasonings or the supposed results of choosing seed-wheat," either for the large size of the grain, the large number of grains in the head, or the large number of stalks and quantity of grain from a single seed. This seems tantamount to a belief, that the only circumstance worthy of atten- tion in the choice of seed-wheat, or indeed of any other seed, is, to be sure it will vegetate. In other words, that none are susceptible of any im- provement worth regarding, merely by selecting that which appears to possess most of those quali- ties almost universally believed to be essential to the perfection of all seed. 1 say almost universal, for I do not recollect ever to have met with but one person who entertained the opinion I under- stand you to express on this highly interesting subject. Possibly, however, I may misunderstand you ; and since nothing is fiirther from my wishes, let me repeat what you seem to me to have said. First, in regard to seed-wheat, that you disbelieve the common notion, that more product can be se- cured from the land by choosing seed, either for its size, the large number of grains in the head, or the large number of stalks and quantity of grain from a single seed. Secondly, in regard to seed- corn, or any other seed, I understand you to say, that you have not the slightest faith, " that larger crops can be obtained by choosing seed on account o[' the form, size, or number of grains, or the size or number of ears, Sfc^ Now this " e< ccetera,^^ I must presume, comprehends all the other quali- ties usually attributed to, and sought after in seed ; in all which, you say, that "you fmve not the slightest faith.'' But if none of them are worth regarding, does it not follow, undeniably, that the sole ground of preference left is, that one sample will vegetate better than another? It is true that you qualify, in some degree, your sweeping anathe- ma against the common creed and practice, by saying — you do not deny — that particular varie- ties of plants may be somewhat more productive than others which are equally suitable to the same soil and climate ; yet this is but cold encourage- ment, and is a very different thing from admitting the fact. Indeed, it seems nearly the same as de- claring that j^ou do not fully believe it ; although you give us the result of no experiments made by yourself or others to confirm this strongly-implied scepticism. You have classed both the creed and the practice ivhich you condemn, among "hobbies and humbugs ;" and there is nothing of which your "good-enough" farmers, (by far the most numerous class among us,) have such a mortal dread, as the ridicule attached to hobby-riding. In another place, speaking of varieties of corn, your infidelity as to their relative productiveness, is not left to implication, for you positively avow that "your views are utterly opposed to the be- lief, that either the Maryland twin-corn, the Ba- den-corn, or the Dutton-corn, are more productive in a very great degree, than other varieties in any situaiion ;" although it does not appear that you j-ourself have ever made, even a single compara- tive trial, to ascertain whether the opinion be true or false. Now, if you admit a difference of some- what more than 15 per cent., to constitute a very 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER 209 ^reat degree, as most. corn-makerf3 would proba- bly deem it, ynur own paper, I ihink, lias furnish- ed a snliicicnt number of tacts (unices you discre- dit them,) to conquer your incredulity — at least, as (o tlie twin-corn ; lor several of your correspond- ents have stated to you somethino; much more credible than mere "supposed resvlis.'''' But the utmost dill'erence in productiveness you seem will- ing to admit possible, either between varieties of corn, or of any other plants, is marked by the very qualified and discouraging expression, '^ somenihat mora productive.'''' This indicates so little differ- ence, that were the opinion to become general, it would very soon, I think, effectually prevent all trials whatever between varieties of plants, unless made (or some other purpose than to ascertain which would produce most. In commenting upon Mr. Carmichael's opinion, that more than 15 per cent, difference may be ex- pected Irom twin-corn in fertile land, you remark, that " this amount of increase, if actually ascer- tained, is sufficiently great to induce the trial of this corn, on soils recommended as suitable, and in a latitude not very different from that of Queen Ann's county, Md. But this increase is fiir short of what the sanguine expect ; and the writer entirely objects to planting it on any but the very small portion of rich lands?'' Now, I do not thus understand him ; lor his words, as you give them, are — " my experience induces me to think, that no great advantage is derived if this corn is plant- ed on lands naturally poor, or exhausted by culti- vation." This certainly admits some advantage, even on such lands, and is very diflerent from an entire objection; although to plant any one thing in preference to another, in a naturally poor or exhausted soil, would hardly be deemed of much advantage by any one who had ever tried, even without Mr. Carmichael's caution. What "the sanguine may expect'" from cultivating the twin- corn, I have no means of knowing ; but I can very confidently assert, that there is no authority, either in print or manuscript— at least none that I have ever seen or heard of— to justify them in expect- ing much, if any more, than Mr. Carmichael has stated. In the first part of your remark just quoted, you speak of "latitude?'' as the chief circumstance to be regarded in choosing among the varieties of corn ; and in a i'ew lines below you add : "This corn is a forioard kind, even in Maryland— of course, it is too forward for our location." Of its forwardness, I can assert, from three years' trial, that the difference in comparison with our common corn, does not exceed ten or twelve days ; and in regard to your conclusion, that it is " too forward for our location," I must call it a non sequHur; at least, if the opinion of Monsieur de Candolle, one of the greatest botanists who ever lived, be cor- rect. This gentleman spent six entire years in prosecuting, through the different departments of France, such investigations as were calculated to determine, with all attainable precision, the gene- ral laws by which the geography of plants isregu- lated. The very numerotis fiicts collected by him during this highly interesting research, proved conclusively, that although temperature, arising from climate or elevation, light, moisture and as- pect, exercise each a considerable influence over the growth and productiveness of vegetables, the dis- tribution of heat, in the different seasons of the Vol. VI.— 27 year, has more power than any other cause what- ever. Now, here is an opinion opposed to yours, and founded on a multitude of facts which the author was six whole years in collecting — con- firmed, too, by the general fact known to us all, that in European latitudes corresponding with ours, many plants grow in the open air, which here require the protection of green-houses for more than half the year. On the other hand, your opinion as to the effisct of much less than two degrees difference of latitude, (for the middle of Virginia is in 38", the middle of Maryland in SO'^,) is unsustained by any fiicts or experiments whatever — at least you mention none. But as a farther proof that the twin-corn is not too forward lor our location, I have authentic information ii-om several gentlemen residing in difl^erent and distant parts of our state, (one as far south as Mecklen- burg,) who speak very favorably of this corn in comparison with all the other varieties which they have heretofore tried. The only gainsayer whom I have seen in print, is your correspondent, Mr. Andrew Nicol, who has gone so far as to say — " the bread made from it appears to me less sweet, also drier and harsher to the taste, than that made from our common corn j''^ and this, too, in addition to condemning it as less productive than the commorT corn of his neighborhood. Upon this anathema against twin-corn bread, it has been remarked, that "Mr. Nicol's mouth must have got most marvellously out of taste, when he uttered this sentence." But I, who have always maintained both the truth and justice of the old adage, " de gustibus nil disputandvm,''^ have in- sisted on his right to avow any taste he pleases, notwithstanding, in this case, it is unique, and di- rectly opposed to that of some hundreds of persons, who have declared that twin-corn made the best and sweetest bread they ever ate. Having at last reached a kind of resting-place in my voluntary and unsolicited labors, I have deemed it best to look back before I proceed fiar- ther. This retrospect has elicited a "thinks I to myself," how friend Ruflin and my other read- ers, (should I get any,) chuckle and exclaim — " what a self-corn Ibrting side our friend J. M. G. has given himself on his twin-corn hobby, flatter- ing himself all the while, credulous soul ! that he is edifying us, rather than gratifying his owiipas- s(Oft lor prosing, in which he indulges somewhat too I'reely, although we are willing to allow him good motives." I have a strong presentiment that some such reflections will certainly be made, although they may not possibly find utterance in words. Yet, notwithstanding I may increase the risk of exciting a laugh against mysel/J I must add a few more words in explanation of what I have written. The facts stated in regard to twin-corn, and the conclusions I have drawn from them, are applica- ble to every variety of cultivated plant ; and my only reason for confining them to one variety of a particular species, is, that I have made more ex- periments with that than with any other. I have no pets among any of them ; my sole object be- ing to ascertain, as far as I cat , which are best in every respect to promote human comfort and gene- ral prosperity. As a proof of it in regard to corn, I am now making an experiment with six varie- ties ; and should the twin-corn prove best, it cer- tainly shall not be, from the least imaginable ad- 210 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 4 vantage derived from my management oCthe trial, which shall be as fair as I can possibly make it. But to proceed with my explanations. When I read your excellent article on agricultural hobbies and humbugs, of which 1 think precisely as you do, it seemed to me that j-ou had gone so far in denouncing and ridiculing them, "as probably to discourage all experiments made to ascertain the comparative superiority of the different varieties of plants of the same species. I therelbre deemed it important to our cause, at least to endeavor to qualify, in some degree, your general denuncia- tion, and to prove, as /ar as I could, not only that all plants heretofore tried, migiit be greatly im- proved in almost every respect, by the careful se- lection of their seed, but that there was so great a natural difference in productiveness between the different varieties of the same species, as to make it a matter ofgreat importance to ascertain how far that difference might be augmented. If you, my good friend, are right, none but the over-sancruine will ever make experiments of any kind on this highly interesting subject. But should the doc- trme /maintain be right, although hundreds and thousands of hobbies be mounted and broken down in the pursuit, ye^ should a few only prove sound, they may amply remunerate both their riders and the public, for all the losses from the hobby-horsical experiments that fail. It has been said that great inventors seldom become rich ; but may not that enthusiasm which is so essential to success in prosecuting useful in- ventions, and which is the only quality strong enough to combat the ridicule always directed against every thing new, be incompatible with such a degree of economv as would enable them to accumulate wealth? Such, I am persuaded, is the fact ; and that the money-making and saving talent is quite a difierent sort of thing from ihcTt which has so eminently distinguished the most remarkable inventors among mankind : so diffe- rent indeed, as never to be found in the same" in- dividual. The hobby of the one is movey—moiuy —money, for its own dear sake ; the hobbv of the other, something that will hand down his name to the latest posterity, as entitled to rank among the benefactors of mankind. His passion is social, philanthropic, coextensive with the wants of his species ; the passion oHhe other, begins and ends in self— self— self If any crreat inventor has ever grown rich, I have never seen nor heard of him. But if this be true, some portion of what may be called the hobby -horsical organ, (if the craniolo- gists will pardon my infrinsing their right to christen all the imaginary divisions and subdivi- sions of our skulls,) althoucrh too often injurious to the individuals whose noddles are bumpified by it, is quite as beneficial, upon the whole, to the gene- ral interests of agriculture, as it can t)e to the Gene- ral interests of any other class whatever. I^rgo, hobby-horses and hobby-horse-riders, are very useful things in a general point of view, although many of both may be often rendered worthless— the riders too much galled to ride any more, and the horses become utterly good for nothing by splints, spavins, ring-bone, and foundering, %oth in the legs and chest. The latter kind of fo'under- ing, if by chest be meant the money-chest, is so ut- terly ruinous to our class, that tlie lear of it too often deters all the half-way experimenters from attempting any thing, while it furnishes the " good-enov.ghs''^ with an everlasting pretext for attempting nothing. The two positions I have sought to establish, which I understand you deny, are, first, that alt plants heretofore cultivated, in any kind of soil or climate, wheiein they will apparently flourish, are improvable, to a great degree, simply by regard- ing, in the selection of seed, the circumstances which you appear to think of little or no import- ance. Secondly — that atnong the varieties of the same species of plants, there is naturally a great difference in productiveness, which an all-bounte- ous Creator has enabled man to make still greater by judicious selection and culture. The universal practice of those who save seed either to sell, or solely lor their own use, would seem to sanction my first position, although I admit there are many exceptions to the old saving, that " lohat every one says must be true.'''' But there is something more than mere practice in favor of this position. We have the testimony oi'very many credible persons, that they have much increased their crops, espe- cially of corn, by always selecting their seed from stalks of the same variety which produced the greatest number of ears. Three of these individu- als I know personally, and a fourth, Mr. Joseph Cowper of New .Tersey, is known by reputation to all the reading agriculturists of the United States. Now, these persons did not state it as mere matter of opinion, but of actual experience during several years' experiments ; and I have been willing to believe them ; not only because my own experi- ence confirms theirs, but because they ask no mo- ney for their disclosures on the subject ; and that being the case, could have had no possible motive for humbugging their fellow-citizens. My second position has in its favor, not only the testimony of many such men as your intelli- gent correspondent, Mr. Carmichaelof St. Mary's, Maryland, but ocular demonstration for all who are willing to sacrifice their hobbies of opinion to visual evidence. For instance, no man can look through an apple-orchard in full bearing, without being forcibly struck with the very great difl^erence m productiveness between the difierent varieties of apple, amounting often to nearly double. A similar difference may be noticed among several varieties of other fruits and vegetables, all going to prove that there is so great a natural superi- ority in productiveness among them, as to render it a matter of very great importance to those who cultivate them, either for use or sale, that they should choose among the grains, at least, only those varieties which produce most. To ascer- tain this, as I before remarked, is richly worth the breaking down of ten times as many hobbies, as the most fanciful and sanguine of all our hobby- horsical brethren put together have ever taken into training, from the days of Trismegistus to the present time. If I am right in my estimate of our state character, hobby-horsical planters and farm- ers are nearly as scarce with us as hen's teeth. The passion which makes such equestrians, is not among the besetting sins of the ancient dominion folks. 7'hey answer much better John Randolph's graphic description of them, who compared them to terrapins that would never move, after drawing their heads within their shells, until they felt the fire on their backs. In most matters, but especial- ly in all that relate to husbandry, we want, not the check-rein, but the spur and the lash ; not seda- 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 211 tive, but highly stimulating medicine; if inental slimuli can properly ho compnrcd to corporeal, ami the luriin-r can he both prepared and adniiiiif;- tered to us liir more easily iliaii many iiuafiiue. You liave only to call us ''' the sovereign. people ;^'' to translate lor us ihc old Latin blasphemy, '• vox pnpuli est vox Dei ;''' to swear, at the same time, that it is literally true, and you may lead us "into the cannon's mouth." Then huzza ! lor us Vir- jrinia hoys ; who but xvc '. although we may ac- tually have sunk ourselves by our supineness as to ail state concerns, and other political sins, to the very lowest on a clean frame. Af- terwards tl>ey must be rolled up tightly and the two ends tied with a pack-thread, (of cotton or bark of the mulberry tree,) and llie rolls placed uprifjht in a clean, cool room, where there is no smoke. "The cvenins: of the third day, the rolls must be taken, unli)lded, and extended on the hurdles. It is a very happy circumstance if none of the worms are hatched. But if by chance there are any hatched belbre the others, they must be taken and thrown out. Afterwards the leaves must be taken three too;cther, rolled in a loose manner, and deposited in the room newly warmed for the silk worms. The time of the rising of the sun must be attentively observed, then the leaves must be unrolled, and spread, one by one, upon hurdles in the middle of the yard. If there is any dew the hurdles must be placed in a cool room, or under a kind of tent. Some time after, the leaves must be transported to a room prepared for the silk worms, and they must be spread, one by one, upon hurdles placed on the ground. After a few moments the silk worms will hatch all at once, looking like small black ants. There will not be one that will hatch before or after the others. The hatched worms must then be weighed wiih the leaves of paper, to know the number of silk worms to be fed, and to calculate, in advance, the quantity of leaves which will be wanted." Same work. — When the newly hatched worms are made to descend, they must be dealt carefully with, spread upon the hurdle in an equal manner, and a proper space lelt between them. Care must be taken not to wound them, or to press one against the other. As soon as the worms are all hatched, the fresh and tender leaves must be ta- ken, and cut in very fine shreds, with a very sharp knife ; then they must be spread, with a coarse sieve, upon the sheets which are to receive the silk worms, and under which a bed of chop- ped straw must be previously spread. The cut leaves must be spread in a unilbrm manner, in very light layers. Afterwards the sheets of paper must be taken, where the worms newly hatched are, and they must be applied to the mulberry leaves ; the worms descend themselves on the mulberry leaves. Jf some worms are too long a lime in descending, or if they ascend upon the back of the sheet of paper, or if they do not de- scend, when the leaf is turned over, they must be thrown away, with the leaf to which they remain attached. They are diseased worms, that it would be impossible to raise. Same work. — The success in raising silk worms depends on the precaution which is taken in the beginning, and subsequently, not to expose them to any danger. If the silk worms do not revive all at once, from their first sleep, or moulting, it proceeds from their not having changed color, "and not hatching all at once. If they do not change color, and do not hatch all at once, it is because the rules prescribed to preserve the eggs, have not been strictly followed. Same work. — In the work entitled Thsin-kouan- tsan-chou, we read : " The first day of the last moon the eggs must be collected and watered with cow's urine : after- wards they iTiust be washed with clean water. It nmst be so done that the sheets of paper covered with eggs be not torn. (An author advises to strengthen them with threads of cotton or silk, basleersons who pound rice in mortars ; 5th. They do not like to hear strokes on sono- rous bodies; 6th, A woman, who has borne a child within a month, ought not to be the matron of silk worms ; that is to say : ought not to be charged with the raising of silk worms; 7th. They dislike men, who smell of wine, to give them food, to transport them from one place 10 another, or to spread them on hurdles ; 8th. From the time they are hatched, until ma- turity, the silk worms dread smoke and odorous exhalations ; 9th. They do not like to have skin or hair burnt near them ; 10th. They do not like the smell of fish. musk,, or the odor of certain herbaceous animals, (like- the goat, &c.;) 11th. They do not like to have a window, ex- posed to the wind, to be opened during the day ; 12th. They do not like to receive the rays of the settincr sun ; 13th. They do not like, when the temperature of their habitation is warm, to have a sudden cold or violent wind introduced there; 14th. When their habitation is cool, they do not like a sudden change to excessive heat ; 15th. They do not like dirty and slovenly per- sons to enter their room ; 16th. Care must be taken to keep all noxious effluvia and filth distant from the apartments of the silk worms. Same work. — The third day between ten and two o'clock in the afternoon, three hurdles, or frames, must be placed upon another stage. The one above protects the worms fi-oni the dust; that below protects them from dampness ; and the middle one is destined to receive the silk worms. Young silk worms when incommoded by internal heat must be changed. A small quantity of worms, occupying a space as large as a square of a chequer-board, must be deposited on the middle frame; they will soon cover it entirely. By de- grees the quantity of food must be increased. In the morning, if the weather be clear, the window situated to the east can be opened, and during the day, those which are in an opposite direction to the wind. By degrees they will change color; and, according to the color they assume, their food must be increased or diminished. When they are completely yellow, food must not be given them. They remain motionless, and thaf. is called theou-mien, (or the first moulting.) When they have been removed after their first moulting, six meals may be given them, during the space of one day and night. The second day 240 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 4 the quantity of leaves must be gradually in- creased. The windows can be half opened. From the first moment they begin 1o turn yellow, they must be kept very warm. When they are entirely torpid they require a great deal of heat; when they are perfectly recovered, they only want a moderate heat. When the silk worms are removed, after their second moulting, and are all recovered, light re- pasts ought to be given them at first. Four re- pasts in one day and night will be enough. The next day the quantity of leaves meiy be aug- mented by degrees. Some persons open the win- dows. From the first moment they begin to turn yel- low, they require a good heal; when they are once torpid, a moderate heat ought to be allowed them; when they are all recovered they require a mild heat. When the silk worms are removed after their third moultmg, and they are all revived, three re- pasts must be given them during one day and night. The first repast ought to be very light; the second lighter than the first, the third the same as the first. If these three repasts be not adminis- tered with much caution, the silk worms will feed slowly until the period of their maturity. The second day, the quantity of leaves must be in- creased by degrees. The windows can be thrown entirely open, and the dormer windows above the frames may be likewise opened. From the first moment they begin to turn yel- low, they require a mild heat; when they are completely torpid a lukewarm heat is required; when they are all revived they require coolness. After each repast a basket of leaves must be ta- ken, and the tour of the shelves made. If an empty place is perceived (upon a hurdle) it must be covered with leaves strewn with rice flour. After the seventh or eighth feeding, (fi-om ten to two o'clock,) cut leaves must bespread upon the hurdles; they must be moistened equally with fresh water ; then, after a lapse of some time, sifted rice flour must be spread, being careful to distribute it in a uniform manner. For each bas- ket of leaves a cliivg, (a kind of measure.) of fresh water and lour ounces of flour must be used. If the flour cannot be had, a basket of new leaves only must be used; it will furnish a repast for the silk worms of a frame. [Extract from Nong-tching-tsiouen-chou. The powder of leaves, which are spread on fresh leaves, fills the body of the silk worms, (that is to say: is very nourishing,) and disposes them to make a firm and thick cocoon, the silk of which is remarkably strong.] When the leaves are cut up, moisten them with fresh water: then sift the powdered leaves, and spread them in a uniform manner. After the great moulting of the silk worms (the third moulting,) from three to five meals of that kind must be given them at certain intervals. When the silk worms approach their maturiiv, they require light and frequent repasts and mo- derate heat. Same work. — If among the silk worms there be any that are backward, that is to say, which do not appear disposed to moult at the same lime with the others, frequent supplies of food ought to be given them, in order to accelerate and cause their mouUing. at the tame time ivith the rest of the hurdle. When the silkworms do not m.oult all at once, it proceeds from a species of disease, which dates from their hatching. This method must be followed to remedy it : If among the silk worms wliich are completely yellow, some change their white color, and begin to turn yellow, much time is not required to beeome completely so- By the aid of very frequent feeding they will soon overtake the others; in fact, muhijilying the feed- ing hastens the period of their moulting. But when the greatest number are completely yellow, many blue and white ones are found, they are itu- Irom becoming entirely yellow, and fre- quent repasts given them will be useless trouble; it is impossible for the latter to arrive at the moult- ing at the same time with the first. The change of color in the silk worms is the least change that as experienced. When they moult they cease eating, and shed their skin ; then they experience a great change. But the greatest of" these changes, is their metamorphosis from the chrysalis into butterflies, or moths. When a silk worm is completely yellow, its mouth is shut, it no longer eats but sleeps, or is torpid; it then resembles a man afflicted with some dreadful disease; the blood spreads throughout, its body experiences great modifications. If it remains a day and night without eating, its moult- ing produces a happy relief h] then, there be many blue and white silk worms, and their feeding be too nmch hurried, their health will be disordered, and a precocious moulting will not produce relief When those which were blue or white turn yellow, and are disposed to moult, all the others have accomplish- ed their moulting, and are recovered. When the silk worms begin to recover from their moultmg, they want but little food; they resemble a convalescent patient, to whom only slight nourishment is given to repair, gradually, their strength. If while the backward ones moult, the nourishment of the earliest be suspend- ed, they will languish with hunger and weakness, yet yo a are compelled to wait ; and besides, one will be obliged to give them food when the back- ward ones are recovering. A great number will contract diseases, and very litile silk will be gath- ered from them. For that reason the author of Tsan-klng, or the Book on Silk Worms, says, with much reason, that " the irregular moulting of the silk worms always causes a diminution of" silk." Same %oork. — When the silk worms are just hatched their color is black. Their food must be gradually increased. Three days thereafter they gradually become white; then they gain appetite. Leaves, not cut so small, must be given them. When tliey are blue, it is the period of their great appetite. Leaves must then be given them more abundantly, and not cut so small. When they again become white, they teed slowly; their food must be diminished a little. When they are turning yellow they have but a delicate appetite; tjieir food must be again diminished. When they are completely yellow, they entirely cease eating ; that is called their moulting. When they are recovered, they change from yellow to white, from white to blue, ii'om blue to a second white color; at last from white to yellow; this is their second moulting. At each moulting they experi- ence the same changes of color. They must be 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 241 observed with care, in order to diminish or to in- crease their food, of wliich the quantity ought to vary, according to the ilill'erent situations in vvliich they are Ibund. The leaves which are given them, ought to be neither wet with dew, nor dried in the wind or san, nor im|)regnated with disagreeable smells, lor as soon as tliey have ll'd upon them, they will contract diseases' If care he talien to preserve, in advance, a sutHciency ol' leaves for three days, there will be noihmg to (tjar from long rains : ilie silk worms will never have to eat damp leaves, and at the same time, they will not sutler (i-om hunger. When leaves are again gathered, the heat arising Irom the accumulation in saclcs, must be completely dissipated before giving them to the silk worms. The space of one day and night is, lor the silk worms, like unto a year with its four seasons. The morning and evening are the Spring and Autumn; the middle of the day re- sembles the Sununer; and the middle of the night Winter. In these four periods of the day tlie weather is never the same. When a good fire is preserved in the silk-room, great attention ought to be paid to keep it at the corresponding tempera- lure lor each one of those four periods. The de- gree of heat ouglit not to be constantly the same. From the time they are hatched, until their second sleep, (moultmg,) the silk worms require a mode- rate heat. The matron of the silk worms, (the person who takes care of them, ought to wear a single garment, (that is to say not double.) She must regulate the temperature of the silk-room, according to the sensation of cold and heat she feels. If she feels cold, she necessarily will judge that the silk worms are cold, and the fire must then be increased; if she feels warm, she will conclude from it, that the silk worms are too warm, and the fire must then be suitably diminished. When the silk worms are all asleep, if the sky be clear and brilliant, between ten and two o'clock the windows must be opened, to introduce air and light in the apartment. If the wind be south- erly, the windows to the north must be opened; if northerly, the windows on the south side must be opened. The air which enters from aside op- posite to the direction of the wind cannot injure the silk worm?. When the silk worms have recovered from theirgreat moulting, (the third moulting,) three repasts must be given them, then the paper that covers the windows, must be cut with a pair of scissors, to allow the air and light to penetrate into the apartment. The silk worms will not be disturbed or incommoded. Alter the great moulting, when the windows have been opened, and the paper cut from the windows, if the exterior air is too warm, anun- glazed earthen vessel must be placed at the en- trance of the door, in which the water must be otten renewed, in order that the air may be re- freshed in its passage. If the wind raises, if it should rain, or if the night becomes cold, the win- dows must be closed immediatelv. Nong-tching-tsinuen-chou. — The silk worms are of a warm constitution. It is belter to make use of a fire during the whole time of the raising. The following is a method of warming the nursery : A long stove placed upon a hand-barrow, must Vol. VI— 31 be made use of, so that it may be carried by two men. When the leaves are spread on the silk worms, wait until they have climbed upon the leaves, and then bring in the stove, which nmst be carefully lighted outside of the apartment. The fire should consist of liot coals; it must be covered over with a bed of straw ashes, to pre- vent a red and brilliant flame. When the silk worms have finished eating, the stove must be carried back. Aliervvards, when other Ibod is given to the silk worms, the same stove must be brought in each time. Then the silk worms will escajjo the diseases which heat causes; but if the stove be introduced when the silk worms are hun- gry, they soon become warm. If the stove be intro- duced soon after having given them tbod, that is to say, when they are under the leaves, not hav- ing had time to ascend them, they will soon be incommoded by the fermentation of their dung, and they will, besides, be overloaded by the leaves spread upon them. Same work. — When the air of the silk-room is warm, if it be suddenly made cold, the silk worms will lose their appetite, and feed no longer. Then a chafing-dish, filled with clods of dry cow dung, well ignited, and free from smoke, and by the aid of an iron fork, must be moved about repeatedly above the frames. That operation dissipates the cold, which benumbs the silk worms, and they soon feed with an appetite. ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THL' SILK WORMS UPON TMK FRAMES, AND THE SPACE TO BE ALLOWED THEM. Thsi-ming-yao-chon. — When the silk worms are moulting, three frames are constantly required. The middle frame is destined to receive the silk worms, the superior and the inferior ought to re- main empty. The lower frame preserves the worms from the dampness of the ground, the up- per preserves them from the dust of the apart- ment. Wou-pen-sin-chou. — When the silk worms are about hatching, they require cool air. A bed of chopped straw must be spread on the frame ; wheat straw must not be used. Every day they must be removed once upon other frames; if they are not changed, it generally happens that white spots come over them. ON REMOVING THE SILK WORM. In reiTioving the silk worms many persons must be eniployed in order to perform it quickly. If they are left for a long time, heaped up in the baskets, they become heated and perspire abun- dantly. In consequence, a great number of them fall sick and die. By degrees they will diminish every time they are removed; and those which later arrive at maturity, will only produce small and ill-supplied cocoons. The dung of the silk worms must be frequent- ly removed. If it be not carried away, they be- come heated. The heat produces fermentation, and causes a putrid efHuvia. Afterwards a Jarge number of silk worms turn white and die. Whenever the silk worms are removed they must be distributed upon the frames in such a manner as to leave some space between them ; 242 F A R IVl E R S' REGISTER. [No. 4 if they are placed too near together, the strong- est will feed at the expense of the weakest. It is necessary to make the tour of the frames ofien, and to visit them with care. Moreover, it' the air does not circulate li-eely in the apartment, and the door be suddenly opened, a I'atal wind may penetrate, and a great number, consequently turn red and die. When the silk worms are dis- tributed upon the frames, it ought to he done in a tender manner; they must not be thrown down, or they will be wounded by striking against each other. The health of a great number of silk worms will sufjier, and afterwards they will become what are called la'i-lao-ong; that is to say, lazy old. men. They leave a red clirysali:^. Nong-saag-yao-tchi. — Two frames must be placed below the one where the newly-hatched silk worms are. When the sun has risen above the horizon, a frame must be taken away and dried until the setting of the sun. It must then be replaced under the frame where the silk worms are. I'he next day remove a frame again from beneath, expose it to the rays of the sun and then replace it, as at first. In that manner the silk worms will naturally receive a mild and temperate heat. That frame must be removed as soon as they have eaten, after the second moulting. Same work. — There are some silk worms which turn white and die; it arises from their having been injured by damp exhalations, within a short lime after their hatching. When the sky is clear and serene, take three or four frames and carry them quickly into the apartment of the silk worms, after having exposed them lor some time to the rays of the sun. Then as one fi-ame is removed and replaced by another, so continue to chanire them, until all the fi-ames of the silk worms are sufficiently warmed by the heat of the sun. The country people, vulgarly say : "when the dung of the silk worms is dry and scattered, it is a sign that they are in good health." When the dung appears in damp heaps, and of a shining white, it announces that the silk worms are sick; the frames must then be quickly changed. But if at the time, when it is proper to change them, a damp rain or a cold wind comes on, it' will not do to remove them; the straw of rushes, chopped to the size of a bean, must be taken, and one or two bushels distributed on each frame; it must be spread in an equal manner upon the silk worms. Then a layer of fresh leaves must be placed over them. Soon after the silk worms ascend to eat the mulberry leaves. The bed of rush straw se- parates the silk worms from the dung, and relieves them from that inconvenience. As soon as the sky has become serene, they must be removed to other frames; if a person has no rush straw, the rice straw will supply its place. Sse-nong-pi-yo7}g. —The silk worms produced by three ounces of eggs, which occupy a sincle frame at the moment of their hatchino-, will cover thirty frames at the close, or last period of their lives. In general, one tenth of an ounce of silk worms, newly hatched, will furnish a fi-ame of silk worms, in supposing that the fi-ame is as usu- al, ten feet long, and two wide. If the frames are of a smaller dimension, they oujiht to receive a smaller quantity of newly hatched worms. If they are too numerous for the space they occupy, they will find themselves close, and, consequent- ly, serious accidents will result from it. Those persons who intend raising silk worms, to cover more than thirty fiames, ought to in- crease the number of Irames destined for the young silk worms, (hatching silk worms.) Those who only raise a small quantity of worms, can make use of baskets with small borders. Savieioork. — The third day, between ten and twelve o'clock, three frames n)ust be placed upon a separate stage. The hatching worms, which have deposited a liirht bed ol" dung, must be changed. It must be done with a delicate hand. A quantity of silk worms which (at the moment of their hatching,) occupied a space the size of a square of a chequer-board, ought lo be distributed upon the middle frame. REMOVAL, OP THE SII.K WORMS AFTER THEIR FIRST MOULTING. Sse-nong-pi-yong. — Place four frames upon a separate stage, and the worms which have depo- sited a light bed of dung must bo changed. When they have eaten abundantly, a quantity of silk worms, which, at their hatching, occu[)ied a space as large a man at draughts, will fill the two middle frames; a quantity of silk worms, which occu|)ya space no larger than a small piece of money, will cover the third frame. REaiOVAL OF THE SILK WORMS AFTER THEIR SECOND MOULTING. A f|uantity of silk worms, which at the mo- ment of their hatching occupy a space no larger than a small piece of money, will cover six frames. When they have eaten abundantly, the same silk worms will cover twelve frames. REMOVAL OF THE SILK WOR3IS AFTER THEIR THIRD MOULTING. A quantity of silk worms, which at the mo- ment of their hatching, occupy a space as large as two pieces of money, will cover twenty-five fi-ames. When they are all torpid, the bed of chopped straw must be removed; they will then fill thirty fi-ames. To remove and separate the silk worms, in a proper manner, it must be done with promptitude and tenderness. They must be separated from one another, and an equal space left between them, for fear they should wet themselves, and reciprocally injure one another. The silk worms evacuate freely; for that reason they must, abso- lutely, be separated. When they have deposited a large quantity of dung, it is necessary to remove them to other fiames. If they are not separated they will be too much crowded. If the frames are not changed, they will be injured by the abun- dant humors which they void. For that reason, these two operations ought to be performed with great celerity. The silk worms are weak and delicate beings ; they suffer much from being rudely handled. When they are small, they must be treated with great care and a kind of affection ; but when they have become large, there are few who pay any attention in removing them. They are heaped together, pell mell, for a long time, and they are 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER 243 tumbled about, or let fall. This defect of care and precaution causes their diseases, and often de- stroys them; tiierefore, they should he toiirhod with a hirht !iand, and distributed upon the liames at an equal distance from one another. Sans;-tsai}-tchi-choue. — The sillc worms of four mouhinsTs are of a different species; they are rais- ed in the same manner as the S|)rini2; silk worms, (which have but three moullmgs.) Only after the tiiird, they must be distributed upon (iliecn Iramos. When they have fed abundantly, thtjy must be spread upon twenty frames ; and after the great moultinij, (the fourth moulting) they must be dis- tributed upon thirty tt-ames. ^nng-snng-ikong-kioue.- — Upon each stagre three li-"ames are placed ; the first is destined to re- ceive the dust of the apartment, and that below, to intercept the dampness of the ground. A bed of chopped rice straw must be spread upon the middle frame, in order that it may receive the silk worms which are removed. This rice straw must be broken, and softened in an c(|ual manner, upon the middle frame ; then a sheet of paper must be spread above, of which the extremities are pasted to the edge of the frame. Upon that sheet of pa- per the silk worms must be placed. N'ong-iching-tsioucn-chou. — Hoang-sing-tseng says: When it is desirable to remove the silk worms, rice si raw, crushed in a mill, must be s|)rea(l, in advance, upon other frames. It ren- ders them healthy and active, and preserves them from diseases. Some persons change them by the aid of a net, which they strew with nmlberry leaves. ENTRANCK OF THE SII-K WORHIS IN THE COCOON ROOM. Nong-chnii. — The fioor of the cocoon room mnsi be boarded with planks of the fir tree, six feel long, and three li;et wide. A frame pierced with large holes, must be constructed of the thin bam- boo from which arrows are made. In these hole's some reeds must be inserted ; then long and large bamboo branches, stripped of their leaves must be crossed above. The cocoon room nujst be cover- ed with a frame work of woven reeds. The silk worms will then have a place, whore they can establish themselves in salety without fear of falling. When the interior of ilic cocoon room is well arranged, when it afibrds the neces- sary depth and proper security, and the fi'ame presents no interval, the silk worms' nnist be suc- cessively spread over it. At first, the frame must be a little inclined, untd the worms are emptied of excremental matter, afterwards they nmst be moderately warmed with a small brasier, or pan ol'live coals. When ihey have begun to enclose themselves in their cocoon, (that is to say, when their cocoon will have formed a light n^t work,) the heat must t^e increased by degrees. They must not stop in the middle of their work ; if the temperature be a little too cold, they walk upon their silk and cease to spin. When it comes to be reeled it will frequently break. In general, one will be obliged to have the cocoons boiled. and silk stuH'made of it, because it is impossible to reel it liom one end to the other. Thsi-min-yao-chou. — When the silk wormst have arrived at the age ol" maturity, if it happens to rain, it will injure the cocoons; it will be better also to establish tlic cocoon rooms in tlie interior ol'ihe nursery. Observation. — The round and oblong cocoons' rooms must be placed outside. A parcel of small dry branches must be laid upon the frames, and the silk worms spread on them. When that operation is peribrmed, they must be again covered over with a bed of dry branches. One stage, or story, can support ten large frames. yfnoiher method. — In place of small dry branch- es, the stalks ol' plants may be used, on which the silk worms must be spread. The frames must be suspended, between wooden pillars, with cords, or hooked sticks. Several may be arranged one above another. When the frames are suspended, they must be moderately warmed by means of chafing-dishes placed below. As soon as the silk worms fi^el the heat, they work industriously ; but if they are affected by the cold they will work slowly. The fi-amcs must often be visited. As soon as they are warm enough, the chafing-dishes must be removed. If a cool air circulates above in tJie cocoon room, (while the lower part is warm,) the silk will not be spoiled by the damp- ness produced by the silk worms ; the silk worms that die, will immediately fall, and the cocoons of the other v.-orms will not be injured by coming in contact with them, the dung will not adhere to the cocoons, nor |)roduce any blemish. If the silk be impregnated with dampness, it will be difficult to prepare it !or the die ; if the cocoon he soiled, the silk will easily break ; if the cocoon be delec- tive, it will be good for nothing. The cocoon rooms furnished with stalks of dry plants, are as advantageous as those we have just described. Same loork. — There are some countries where the place lor cocoons is outside, (in the open air;) but if in the evening the air becomes cold, no silk worm can form its cocoon. When the cocoon rooms are warmed, the silk will be fitter to receive the die; besides it acquires lustre and whiteness. fVou-pen-siii-chnii. — The ground on which the cocoon rooms are established, ought to be high and level. It mu!=t be well aired in the interior. Small branches, or dry stalks of plants, must be spread there in an equal manner; afterwards, the silk worms must be distributed there, leaving a proper distance between them ; if they are too near, tliey will create too much heat; if they are crowded, they spin with difficulty ; and, moreover, their silk will be difficult to reel. The cocoon rooms must not be established in places exposed to the north-east, nor where domestic animals are raised ; neither under trees, above a hole, nor near places covered with manure or stagnant wa- ters. JVojig-s'se-pi-ymi g. — The following is the manner of establishing the cocoon room : A dry and warm place must be chosen, in order that neither the cold nor dampness can penetrate into the interior of the cocoon room. When the worms approach their maturity, a fire must be lighted upon the ground where the cocoon room is to be located, 244 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 4 until it is perfectly dry ; afterwards, the remains of the fire and the ashes must be swept away, and the cocoon room constructed. Same Work. — Six diseases of silk worms are noted in the cocoon room : 1st. When the silk worms dirty the cocoon room; 2d. When the silk worms fall in the cocoon room ; 3d. When they move about Avithout spinning; 4th. When they change in red chrysalis ; 5ih. When they turn white and die; 6th. When they turn black. The foulness of the cocoon room arises from portions of leaves which the mature worms have brought with them; they ferment and produce a fatal moisture. The five other diseases always result from the moisture of the ground, or the cold of the exterior air. From the Wesleyan Methodist Magazine. OBSERVATIONS ON PROGNOSTICATIONS OF THE WEATHER [in ENGLAND.] By the Rev. Jdam Clarke, LL. D., F. A. S. From my earliest childhood I was bred up on a little farm, which I was taught to care for, and cullivate ever since I was able to spring the rattle, use the whip, manage the sickle, or handle the spade ; and as I found that much of our success depended on a proper knowledge and manage- ment of the weather, I was led to study it ever since I was eight years of age. I believe meteorolo- gy is a natural science, and one of the first that is studied ; and that every child in the country makes, untaught, some progress in it : at least so it was with me. I had actually learned, by silent observation, to form good conjectures concerning the cominff weather, and, on this head, to teach wisdom among those who were perfect, especially among such as had not been obliged like me to watch earnestly, that what was so necessary to the family support, should not be spoiled by the weather before it was housed. Many a time, even in tender youth, have I watched the heavens with anxiety, examined the different appearances of the morning and evening sun, the phases of the moon, the scintillation of the stars, the course and color of the clouds, the flight of the crow and the swallow, the gambols of the colt, the fluttering of the ducks, and the loud screams of the seamew — not forgetting even the hue and croaking of the frog. From the little knowledge 1 had''derived from close observation, I often ventured to direct our agricultural operations in reference to the coming days, and was seldom much mistaken in my reckoning. When I thoujjht I had a pretty good stock of knowledge and experience in this way, I ventured to give counsel to my neighbors. For my kindness, or perhaps olRciousness on this head, I met one day with a mortifyinsr rebufi'. J was about ten years of age ; it was harvest time, and ' what sort of a day to- morrow would be,' was the subject of conveisafion. To a very intel- ligent gentleman who was present, [ staled in op- position to his own opinion, 'Mr. P. to-morrow will be a fovl day.'' — To which he answered 'Adam, how can you tell?' I answered, without giving the rule on which my prognostication was founded, 'O sir, I know it will be so.' 'You know I how should you know7' 'Why, sir,' I pleasantly replied, ' because 1 am toeatherimse.'' ' Yes,' said he, ' or otherwise.'' The next day, however, proved that my augurv was well drawn. About twenty years ago, a Table, purporting to be the work of the late Dr. Herschel, was va- riously published, professing to form prognostics of the weather, by the times of the change, full and quarters of the moon. I have carefully consulted this Table for several years, and was amazed at its general accuracy : — for though long, as you have seen, engaged in the study of the weather, I never thought that any rules could be devised liable to so few exceptions. I have made a little alteration in the arrangements, illustrated it with further observations, and have sent it that you may insert it in the Magazine, as it has hitherto been confined generally to a few almanacs. A Tabt^e for foretelling the weather through all the lunations of each year for ever. This Table and the accompanying remarks, are the result of many years' actual observation ; the w^hole being constructed on a due consideration of the attraction of the sun and moon in their several positions respecting the earth ; and will, by sim- ple inspection, show- the observer what kind of weather will most probably follow the entrance of the moon into any of its quarters, and that so near the truth as to be seldom or never found to fail. If the New Moon— the First Quarter— the Full Moon — or the last Quarter happens. bi > Ol r^ o p ^^ D =- 1 1 0 c R *- b ^:t°- ' => J J fo P E: o o • J : ■! r 2 3 C J 1 :i- C n-O- C ^^^ [ -" < » c n 4 gp^. O n> 3 » g 2. £! ^§. £;S^ 3- S "-.^ ». ^ w-j o rr M 2.P g.3- p 3 p. p lir. lir and frosty if N. or N. E. a. orsn. if s. or p 3 5. O o -! "-J 5' p 3 O. a?' 3- 5i tormy. old rain, if win snow if E. 5' 3 O P 3 w O B 3 H w j: o- '< • «1 ^ ^: p- ^ (5 Observations. 1. The nearer the time of the moon's change, 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 245 first quarter, full and last quarter, are to midnight, the fairer will the weather be during the seven days lollowing. 2. The space fir this calculation occupies from ten at night till two next morning. 3. The nearer to iniii-day, or noon, the phases of the moon happen, the more toul or wet weather may be expected during the next seven days. 4. The space for this calcidation occupies from ten in the forenoon to two in the alternoon. These observations refer principally to summer, though they atlect spring and autumn nearly in the same ratio. 5. The moon's change, — first quarter; — full, — and last quarter, happening during six of the af- ternoon hours, i. e. from four to ten, may be Jbl- lowed by fair weather ; but this is mostly depend- ent on the wind, as it is noted in the Table. 6. Though the weather, from a variety of ir- regular causes, is more -jncertain in the latter part of autumn, the whole of winter, and the begin- ning of spring ; yet, in the main, the above obser- vations will apply to those periods also. 7. To proirnosticate correctly, especially in those cases where the icind is concerned, the ob- server should be in sight of a good vane, where the (bur cardinal points of the heavens are correct- ly placed. With this precaution he will scarcely ever be deceived in depending on the Table. It is said that the late Dr. Darwin, having made an appointment to take a country jaunt with some friends on the ensuing day; but perceiving that the weather would bo unfavorable, sent as an ex- cuse (or not keeping his promise, a poetical epis- tle containing an enumeration oi'most of the signs oC approaching ill iceather. — I have enlarged these by adding several new ones, and remodellinir others ; and subjoin it as very useful, and a thing easy to be remembered. Signs of approaching foul weather. The hollow loinds begin to blow ; The clouds look black, the glass is low ; The soot falls down, the spaniels sleep ; And spiders from their cobwebs peep. Last night the sun went pale to bed; The moon in haloes hid her head. The boding shepherd heaves a sigh, For see, a rainbow spans the skyT The ivalls are damp, the ditches smell, Closed is the pink-eyed pimpernell. Hark ! how the chairs and tables crack, Old Betty's joints are on the rack : Her corns with shooting pains torment her, And to her bed untimely sent her. Loud quack the ducks, the sea-fnirl cry, The distant hills are looking nigh. How restless are the snorting sivine ! The 6usi/7Zies disturb the A-me. Low o'er the grass the swalloio wings. The cricket, too, how sharp he sings ! Puss on the hearth, with velvet paxos. Sits wiping o'er her whiskered jaws. The smoke from chimneys right ascends ; Then spreading, back to earth it bends. The loind unsteady veers around Or settling in the south is found.' Through the clear stream the^s^es rise And nimbly catch the incautious ^les. The glow icorms, numerous, clear and bright, Illumed the dewy hill last night. At dusk the squalid toad was seen, Like (juadruped. stalk o'er the fjieen. The whirling wind the dust obeys. And in the rapid eddy plays. The/rog has rhanired his yellow vest, And in a russet coat is dressed. 'I'he sky is green, the air is still ; The mellow blackb'rd's voice is shrill. Tlie dog, so altered is his taste. Quits mutton bones, on gross to fi'ast. J)ehold the rooks, how odd their flight, They imitate the gliding kite. And seem precipitate to fall, As if they felt the piercing ball. The tender colts on back do lie, Nor heed the traveller passing by. In fiery red the s«/?- doth rise. Then wades through clouds to mount the skies. 'Twill surely rain, we see't with sorrow, No working in the fields to-morrow. Hoping that this paper will be of some use to your country readers, I am, dear sir, yours truly,. Ar)Aar Clarke. REMARKS ON DR. CLARKe's WEATHER TABLE. To the Editor of the fanners' Register. I now comply with your request, in sending yoti for publication, a copy of the Weather Table which was published in the New England Farm- er, in December, 1830, with the remarks, &c. an- nexed. The table will speak (or itself; but as you wished my observations relative to its correctness, and as I have had the table since 1830, and no- ticed particidarly how for it was correct, I now give you a (i^w of them. Judging from the ob- servations of seven years, I can truly say no certain re'iance can be placed on the rules in general ; but slill the table will be found more often correct than otherwise in its prognostics o^wet weather. I am now writing Monday evening, the 4th of June, and it is raining and blowing most severely. It rained on Saturday, and has been cloudy and moist ever since, and now we have a severe storm, which promises to last some hours. Well, by the Almanac, the first quarter of the moon was on the 31st May, Thursday, 25 minutes past 2 o'clock in the morning. The Weather Table says, that the weather 7 days from Thursday morning, 25 minutes past 2 o'clock, would be on the average cold, with fre- quent showers. It is cool, and we have had rain before the present violent storm, and the weather thus far has nearly corresponded with the prog- nostic. It has corresponded as to cool rainy- weather, and it will rarely be found to answer to the prognostics in the table more correctly. My observations have convinced me, that in the summer season there is much more reliance to be placed on the table than at any other season. If any change, quartering, &c. of the moon takes place near 12 o'clock in the day, I have never known ii to fail to rain copiously some time in the course of the next 7 days, and most frequently the season is a Avel one during those days. If, however, it rains copiously a day or two before such change, occasional showers onlv occur during the period. The change of the moon on the 23d day of May last, between 11 and 12 o'clock in the 240 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 4 day, was preceded by much rain, and during the 7 days Ibllovving we had but little rain, ahhough the weather was moist, with occasional showers ; and the weather is now more like what the chanire of the moon on the 23d of May prognosticated. I have thus far found tlie table much more correct in respect to rainy than as to clear weather. I remember that during, I think, the winter of 1837, the changes, &c. ot' the moon for a month, indi- cated wet weather according to the table. We had much rain and no clear weather for three weeks, but the fourth week was clear, although rain was indicated. It will not require very long observations for any person to be convinced, that the changes, &,c. of the moon between 2 o'clock in the morning and noon, are much more frequent- ly followed by rain than the evening chanires. 1 think it will also be found, that in the fall and win- ter the north-east winds accompany the rains in this state, instead of the south-west winds spoken of in the table. Being a fiirmer on a small scale, I have found from sad experience, that fiir the last five or six years we have had a spell of very wet weather between the 31st of May and the 10th of June, and four days of such weather have already passed this month. The May wheat will proba- bly be much injured, if not destroyed by the rust, in consequence of this weather. If, however, the season was not so backward, the May wheat would be past danger ; tor some few j'ears since, some crops ot that wheat were cut in this neigh- borhood on the 26th May. Much of it is now in bloom. In closing my remarks, I have this to say about the weather table. In the summer season, it wii! often assist the farmer who will attentively observe the winds and the clouds, in judging as to the pro- bability of rainy weather while about to cure his hay and his fodder, &c. A. B. S. June 4th, 1838. For the Fanners' Register. EASTERN SHORE RAILROAD. Sir — As much with a view to the spirit, as the letter of **** ****, from the Eastern Shore of Maryland, and as to a general discussion of the subject, I address you. The Eastern Shore rail- road is to cost, for il8 miles, but $8541 per mile, and, with all the insinuations to the contrary, will not, agreeably to the description given of the ground, cost more than §10,000 per mile; at the same time it will enjoy a prospect of its reasona- ble share of the 50,000 travellers passing annually from north to south. Fifty thousand, did I say"? rather 500,000 ; for, before ten years shall have elapsed, a number nearer to 500,000, than to 50,000, will pass it. In short, there will be among those who " travel by land or by water," sufficient to pay both road and steamers, and to repress feel- ings like those which have prompted this tilt against the former ; for that there will be ample room for both, there is not the slightest doubt. But how does the Eastern Shore writer sus- tain himself? He thinks Ennjineer Kearney's notion of Tangier quite out of the question ; for- gets that, as in the case of Philadelphia, it may possibly furnish an " excellent winter harbor" for Baltimore, and the probability which exists of the ships availing themselves of that harbor, instead of waiting in Hampton Roads " for a thaw." I think that, were I a Baltimorean, I should hail the project with pleasure ; inasmuch as with miles back carriage from Elkton, it vvould give my fellow citizens the same chance of Jiaving their merchandise in winter, as Philadelphia. Thatciiy, it seems, projects "a railroad from the capes, to strike the railroad at Wilmington, (note A;) and, when this shall be accomplislied, foreign goods can be transported to those cities (P. and W.) and cargoes carried by the return cars. By these means Jack Tar may be kept constantly at sea, tiee from the temptations and corruptions of the city, and perhaps Philadelphia may regain her commercial ascendency in the country." I cannot see why these arguments, will not as fully and as Ibrcibly apply to Baltimore, as to Philadelphia; and, according to **** ****'g own showing, infi- nitely more so ; for, without the Eastern Shore road, the trade of north Maryland, during the sea- son of interruption, in a great degree, will pass to Pennsylvania. Besides, trade at all times will seek that place- where supplies arrive without in- terruption. Of the facilities of Tangier as a harbor, I am ignorant; but I had thought some of the British men of vi^ar had made good use of it during the last war, and as to the sneers of **** **** rela- tive to " the musquitoes and the marshes," and "the gloomy Siberian forests," they still more strongly enforce on my mind the value of the im- provement. It is to form a link in the great chain of coast railroad; fof another from Wilmington to Charleston they begin to speak.) It is to pass through a country requiring it, and thus the ser- vices the road may render are incalculable. In page 744, of your 5th volume, and page 2 of the 6th, I see what is doing for Jersey, by means of marl, and what may be done tor Mary- land and Delaware, by means of lime; and as the upper Dekiwares are now boring for finding marl daily, I do not know whether a similar result may not be witnessed on lower Delaware, Acco- mac, and Northampton. I would observe, I am ignorant of localities, and without good maps; but, I do not fear being found in any grievous error, as my general ground is so solid. As to all the routes from the south, and vice ver- sa, there will be room enough, and travel enough, for the Avhole of them; but, as to " the most eligi- ble one" being by " Richmond, Washington, and Baltimore," **** **** is mistaken, unless he confines himself to those vvho wish to loiter and spend money in taverns, or seek office at Washington. He allows that three hours would be saved fiom Portsmouth to Philadelphia, (note B). It is 85 miles by water to Tangier, an^l may be run in G or 7 hours. Doubtless, ere the road is completed, cars will travel with perfect safety, at the rate of 20 miles an hour, and this brings you to Wilmington in 12 or 13 — so that I greatly sus- pect more than three hours will be saved in time; and I know that thrice, or more than thrice that number will be saved in dollars — and especially to families. Of personal conveniences I am silent. As to "no art" being abie to improve "the Siberian forest of Delaware" it weighs as much with me as the ultimate and prophetic clause of the communication. Of the correctness of both, I am in great doubt. Of the powers of the writer in 1S38] FARMERS' REGISTER 247 prophecy, a lull proof is 71010 (tlianU Heaven !) lo be had as to Atlantic steamer navigation; and, per- haps:, ere these lines can appear in print, the re- turn ol' the Sirius and (ireal Western will give the coiip-(le- and nearly all the top cut off at a single operation. In the first place (rees ought never to be left so long wiihout pruning, where it is ever to be ex- pected or required. The pruninij should he made annually, and keep pace with their growth. In this way such ruinous lf)[)pings off of wood will be prevented, and the injuries that result from such a course be avoided. When a li^uii tree has grown with a thick bushy top, the bark of the central branches is ten- der, and when suddenly exposed to cold winds or hot sun, the efi'ect cannot be otherwise than pre- judicial. It" the pruning is performed gradually, or annually, tlie bark is alike adapted to resist the influence of the seasons, and is not apt to become thick and tight, or tender and cracked. Perhaps the peach sutlers more from injudicious pruning than almost any other tree; and where any con- siderable part of the top is cut ofl" at once, it is most usually fatal. A mode which has been adopted to a considerable extent in Ihe peach growing districts of New Jersey obviates in a great measure this difficulty, and also another se- rious one, the danger of the branches breaking when heavily laden with fruit. After the tree is planted where it is to grow, it is allowed to stand till it becomes well rooted, when it is cut ofl' near the ground. Sprouts immediately spring up around the root, and of these five or six of the best situated ones are selected to remain, and the rest are careflilly eradicated. These shoots are either budded, or suffered to grow up the natural fruit, according to the pleasure of the proprietor. The advantages derived from this course are these: these offshoots spread more laterally than would branches from a single trunk, and of course the sun acts upon every part of the branches more fully; and when they are loaded with fruit, they will fall to the ground in every direction, rendering the gathering of the fruit easy, and preventing the breaking down of the tree. The experience of the best fruit-growers of the counliy, as well as the deductions of philoso- phy, would seem to point out the summer as the most suitable time to prune trees, as the material for covering the wounds is already elaborated, and will be immediately applied l)y the remaining branches. Prolt-ssed nurserymen are more care- ful in this respect than the coinmon farmer; prun- ing is by them carried on upon more of a system, and hence trees managed by them rarely are call- ed to undergo such amputations of the top, as those where less attention is given them, and per- ha|.s no pruning attempted. Much of the excel- lence of i)-uit, and the productiveness of the tree is dependent on pruning, and by commencing early, and following up a system carefully, such a shape may be given to the crown, and such a direction to the main branches, as most effectually to secure the advantages of sun and air. From the Genesee Farmer. BREEDING IN AND IN. The judicious breeder will not too long confine himself to his own stock, unless it be very large. The breeding from too close affinities — the breed- ing in and in ae it is called, though it has many 1S38] FAR JM K II S • R J: G I S T E R 255 advantawps, to a certain extent, in the hands of most skillul and judicious breeders; though it may he pursued until ihe excellent t'orni and qua- lily ot' a breed is developed and established, and was the source whence spruui; the superior catile an. I sheep of JJakewell, and to some extent of the superior short horns of Mr. Collinij;; yet, to it also must be traced the speedy de- 000 a year has long been spent, and mostly wasted uselessly,) that demand alone would be so large as to permit the printing of very large editions, and, conse- quently, the prices of such books might be put so low, that their greater cheapness alone ought to induce their substitution, in all common schools, for the ordi- nary reading books furnished from the northern publi- cation offices. In this manner, if the publisher were secured against loss, by a state contract for 5000 or 10,000 copies of any one work, it might be sold at less than half the usual prices for northern school-books, and yet give sufficient profit to the pubhsher. In this manner, if no other benefit were found, there would be the great saving to the literary fund, and to all the parents of young pupils in Virginia, of more than half the price of books designed merely for learning to read; and the books substituted, would be at least as serviceable in that respect, and unobjectionable in every other respect, as school-books. As, therefore, the patronage of the state would cost it no money, but on the contrary cause to the treasury a considerable saving of the money now expended for school-books, it might be hoped, even from the legislature of Vir- ginia, that such patronage to agricultural improvement would not be withheld. But the saving of money to the treasury, and the consequent hundred-fold saving to individuals, (if these cheap books were adopted in all the common schools,) would be the least of the advantages gained. A very far more important bene- 264 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 5 fit would be the making on young minds impressions wliich are the most strong and indelible, of matters of useful agricultural instruction. Most of the boys thus instructed, in country schools, would afterwards be engaged in farming ; and these early instructions would never be forgotten in after life. Besides— the school-book of the young pupil, when no longer used as such, would be left in his father's house, and would serve perhaps to engage the attention of, and to in- struct parents as well as children. And in the far greater number of cases, both of the old and the young, the agricultural instruction thus afforded would be "iven to those who would otherwise be entirely destitute of every such advantage. The private and national benefits that would certainly be derived from havin"- 10,000 or more of such persons, in Virginia, every year thus induced to read agricultural books, are beyond the powers of calculation. And there is no reason wliy the benefits should be limited to Vir- o-inia, as there would be nearly as strong inducements for attaining the same objects in the other southern states. If such a general plan as this were aslopted, the first and the most useful publications would be ele- mentary treatises on different agricultural subjects, suitable to the least informed minds, and to the plain- est understanding. But works of higher grade, and exhibiting more of scientific research, might well fol- low, though on the same cheap plan of publication ; and indeed, some agricultural works might well be adopted as text-books in our colleges, even in advance of the future establishment (so much to be desired for agricultural and national improvement,; of professor- ships of agriculture or agricultural chemistry. No- thing is required but to guaranty to the publisher a sale of so many copies of a book, as to secure him from loss, and the price of those and all other copies may be made at not more than double the cost of so much blank paper. We should be pleased to hear the opinions of others on this plan of introducing cheap agricultural tracts, and books, generally into common schools. If we were to find it enough supported by such opinions, it might induce the making a direct offer to the legisla- tures of Virginia, and other neighboring southern states, to furnisii such publications in the manner spo- ken of above; even thougli that offer to furnish valu- able and instructive works at less than half the cost of the common northern scliool-books, (worthless except merely for practice in reading,) might possibly sub- ject the proposer to the charge of seeking his own gain only, at the public expense. From Uie Gcncscc Fanner. RUTA BAGA. The value of this excellent root is rapirlly be- connuif^ properly appreciated amono; farmers, and though the feeding out the roots is attended with some trouble, (the only objection we have heard made to them,) ihe advantages of their culture are so decided, that we may expect few farmers will be Avillinir to fbrevhen planted in a botanical garden in Lon- don, sprang forth, to flourish in the present age. How long a seed, thus immured in darkness, shut out from all the causes which would produce ger- mination or decay, would remain alive, is wholly unknown ; but from the known facts respecting spontaneous rotation of crops and of forest trees, it would seem that the seed remain buried in the soil for enormous lengths of time, before the cir- cumstances necessary lor their pulling forlh ar- rive. Dead leaves of the Ibresl shut out light, and preclude, in some measure, the influence of the atmosphere, while the sombre foliage hangs over the soil, and serves, by its shade, as an addi- tional cause preventing germination. Thus, I suppose, the seed, buried in the forests, remain dormant unill the removal of the shade trees, or the burning of the leaves, gives free access to the causes requisite (or germination and growth of the hidden plants ; and we consequently perceive a new growth almost invariably follows the remo- val of the primeval forests. According to Decan- dole, plants exude from their rootlets certain sub- stances, which have the property oi' eventually eradicating their own species, while they are not preventive of the growth of other plants; hence he accounts for nauiral rotation. It is probable, also, that one kind of vegetables may exhaust their proper nutriment, and thus render the soil in- capable of supporting their kind, while there are other principles left, suitable for the support of dif- ferent species. This subject is, however, the most obscure department of vegetable physioloory, and one which demands the labor of modern chemists and botanists. Thus much we know, that the conditions above stated are essential requisites to healthy vegetation, and that the soil must furnish certain substances not attainable alone from air and water. When we analyze a plant, we al- ways find a certain quantity of silex, alumina, lime and potash, forming a large proportion of the ashes which is left on burning the plant. All these matters are contained in the soil, in greater or less proportions, and some of them are essen- tial to the growth of the plants. The coating of wheat, rye and barley straw is silex, and gives the necessary strength and hardness to the stalk. The analysis of the grain of wheat gives a large proportion of the carbonates and phosphate of lime, and we know that this grain only thrives upon a soil containing calcareous matter. It was long ago observed in Massachusetts, and is also seen in certain districts in Maine, that wheat straw grows very well, but the grain does not fill and present a plump and solid appearance, but looks wilted, and is not heavy. This was former- ly supposed to be owing to the climate, but on more careful examination it is found to arise from the want of lime in the soil. Many animal ma- nures contain a little of this substance, and it ac- cordingly appears, that where a farm is well ma- nured, wheat will grow well upon it, but a large annual expenditure is required for the purpose. It is observed, that all the grain regions of the coun- try have soils more or less calcareous, and we find, that, by adding lime to the soil, we may produce by art the material wanting; and it appears by the analyses here presented, and by the results of certain experiments which have been made in France, and repeated here, that a very minute proportion of lime is amply sufficient for the pur- pose. Thus one or two i)er cent, of carbonate of lime will answer the purpose, and this small quan- tity costs so little, that any farmer can well afford lo'apply it to the soil. Indeed, I do not see how he can aflbrd to do otherwise, since he will be a loser, and his more skilflil neighbors will be ena- 1838] FARMERS' R E G 1 S T E R 267 bled to supply the market, while lie will not be able to recover his seed. It is iigieat iiiislake to suppose, lliat wheat will frrow in any soil ; ibr 1 know, ihat in many in- stances, ilie crop raised the past season, which has certainly been very propitious, did not equal in value the seed sown; and these instances all occurred where the soil was destitute ol' lime, and was not largely manured. Unless you wish to waste your labor upon bar- ren and unproductive fields, attend careluliy to the nature of your soil, and supply those elements which are wanting, in order to render it iruitilil. From ilic Fanners' Cabinet. ON STALL-FEEDIKG SHEEP. Mr. Editor: — At a late quarterly meeting; of the "Agricultural Society of New Castle county, Delaware," it was requested of the corresponding secretary to elicit from practical farmers through- out the slate, such intbrmation and experience on matters connected with agriculture, as might be- nefit and advance the objects of the society, and when deemed ot'sulficient interest and importance, to publish the same lor the use of its members. Many of them are subscribers to your valuable paper, and most of them interested more or less in sheep. The method Mr. Bajnes adopts of mak- ing, fat mutton will, no doubt, be niteresting to .some of them, and the inlormalionhe imparts may be relied upon — founded as it is upon experience. Yours, very respectfully, Jamks W. Tlioiiisojv. Wilmington, March, 1838. correspondence, &c. Mr. Thomas Baynes — Dear Sir — I am induced from some practical remarks made by you in a late conversation on the subject of sheep, and particularly sheep for stall- feeding — to solicit ti-om you still further informa- tion on this important branch of grazing — not only for the benefit of our Delaware farmers, (who, in the prospect of a dog-law,, lor the protection of sheep, from the next legislature, will go much more largely into the business,) but also lor the sake of the agricultural interest of the country in general. In all our great markets, fine mutton is scarce, and consequently high — it is one of our most ivholesome meals, and, if properly attended to, one of the most profitable the farmer can raise. But unfortunately lor agriculture, the great and leading avocation of man — too few of its practical votaries impart their wisdom and experience to others by essays and lectures, who so much need their direction and aid. The experience you ac- quired in England, and the years of observation you have had in this country as the shepherd of that celebrated leeder of fine mutton, Samuel West, of Delaware county, Pennsylvania, will give great interest to any communications from you on the subject — and as Mr. Barney has given a reputation to Delaware s^ce/), which "they richly deserve as — among the finest in the country — practical directions from you, for their treatment, and how thej^ can be best improved and stall-fed, will be thanklully received by those who wish to emulate his example— and profit by his valuable enterprise. Below, I have proposed some que- ries lor you to answer at your leisure, on the in- teresting subject ol' feeding sheep — without a wish liowever to confine yon to them. Any other in- iormalion than they ask lor, and in yoiir power, I li'cl assured you will impart, and by so doin<', much oblige yours, &c. James VV. Thomson, Cor. Sec. Agricultural Society. Wilmington, April 8, 1838. To .Tames W. Thomson, M. D. Esteemed Friend : — Thy favor on the subject of sheep was duly received, and I will comply with thy request with pleasure as far as I am able. Samuel West, to whom thee has alluded, a practical larmer near Chester, Pennsylvania, liieds about 100 sheep per year— he purchases them in September, and, if possible, selects a mixed breed of Bakewell and Merino, or Glade sheep. After getting them home, the first thin.r •he does is to wash them in a clear stream of wa^ ter, to cleanse them from dust or mud which they may have collected in travelling. They are then turned into a pasture pretty well eaten down lor a ^Qw days, when they are changed to a better one. It is best to change their pasture every week, par- ticularly if the fields are small. They will do pretty well on grass till December, when they should be housed (see directions in answer to thy 4th question.) The cost of sheep for feedin.r)r)()lb. Knghsh weight."' The iOditor of the Mining .lonrnal adds: The importance to be attached to the new pro- cess, by smelling, of extracting gold fiom the ores, or deposits, in the Ural Muunlains, is so considerable, from the increased quantity obtained, as will be observed by rclerence to a paragraph, extracted from the columns of a coritem])oraryj and inserted in our present, number, that we are induced to direct the [larticular attention of our readers to the subiect, while it will be our province to endeavor to obtain more detailed inlornialion of" the, plan adopted. The vast outlay of capital in Brazil, where attention has been directed to the gold districts, and the numerous veins which are ibund in Virginia and in the neighborhood of Charlotte, in the United States, renders the sub- ject one deserving of the first consideration. The process of smelting, as applied to gold ores, is not novel in theory, all hough we believe the present to be the first instance of its successful practical adaptation ; and, if we are to credit the statement that the produce has been raised from five to fifty, or ten times the amount ob- tained, merely by the introduction of an im- proved mode of reduction, while the halvans, or refuse, have been found to contain a large produce, il is an epoch in mining, which will tend much to revive the spirits of the shareholders in the "Union Gold Mining Company," and others of a similar nature, and proves that this peculiar de- partment of mining is in its infancy. We ex- pressed our opinion at the time of the announced iailure of the success of the "Union Gold Mines," that an improved mode, or one perfect in itself, so far as improvements then had taken place, would doubtless have yielded profitable returns, and we sincerely trust, that the present discovery will be found applicable to the ores of America, which, however, are, if we mistake not, of a diflerent character to those of the Russian possessions. We have here, then, an additional evidence of the affinity and importance of science being com- bined with practice — of the association and the ad- vantages derived from the application of che- mistry to the operations of the miner; and hence further proof of the advantages which may be fairly calculated upon from the establishment of a "School of Mines." New process for Extracting Gold, To tlie Editor of the Mining Journal. Sir: — The following information respecting the extraction of gold in the Russian dominions, I have lately received from an intelligent and well- instructed officer of mines in the Emperor's ser- vice, and as 3-00 are properly anxious to be in^- formed on the subject, I send it to you: — "Knowintj very well the deep interest you take in all scientific discoveries, especially in the min- ing and metallurgical departments, I thought it might be agreeable to you to be informed of a new discovery made in the Uralian Mountains, in the method of extracting gold from the alluvial deposits. In theoflicial letter received in Paris, I learned that the following curious comparative experiments were made in the extracting of the gold from the sand, by Mr. Anossott: — 1. "By the common method of washing used in all countries having gold (stream- work.) 288 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 5 2. "Cy ihe amalfrfimrition — the method similar to tliat employed in Iliiii^ary in fzold mines. 3. "By the damp way, or dissolving the sands in acids. 4. "By meltinfT the sand in the blast furnaces. ''Those experiments were made hy liie order of the Minister of Finance, Comte Kancrin, to the eml of ascerraining the exact qnantity of gold contained in a <:rivea quantity of sand, and ex- tracting Ihe gold from the very middle of the grains. "By the second method ; they obtained eight times more gold than by the first (common sys- tem.) "The third method produced ftur times more gold than the first; but by the fourth method, that is to say, by melting the sand, twenty-four times more gold was obtained than by the washing sys- tem. "In that process, the produce of the melting is an alloy of cast iron and gold (fonte aurifere,) from which the ijold is separated by means of sulphu- ric acid. By putting this Inst method into prac- tice, we shall obtain yearly 8000 poods (sixty-two poods equal to one ton) of crold instead of 400, from the same quantity ol" alluvial deposit. But the conservatory principle, applied to the national wealth of the Government adopts the plan of only a moderate increase of the annual produce of gold, and securing thus a longer existence to the allu- vial deposits." The statement as to the difference produced by the modes of treatment may appear startling at first, but it may be considered as more probable if we take into account the nature of the sub- stance in which the gold is enveloped. The pro- duce of smelting, we see, is an alloy of cast-iron and (fold, indicating that, as is very usual, the substance accompanying this gold is iron. Now, to say nothing of the very imperfect results which can be obtained by the old method of washins-, if we consider the ingenious application of amalga- mation which is mentioned, we shall at once per- ceive, that every particle of gold which is wrapt up in iron must infallibly escape the action of the mercury, and it is not difficult to imagine, that a very considerable proportion may be so defended. Let the whole, however, be reduced by fusion, and all the metallic part will then be broufrht to- gether and separated at once from the earthy part, and consequently, little or none of the gold can escape. Thus, we may account for a very con- siderable difference in the results of the processes that have been employed. The separation of" the gold from the iron Ijy sulphuric acid, is not likely to produce any waste of the precious metal. It is anticipated, I know, that this improvement may be extended to other gold-producing coun- tries, and I have no doubt but it may in due time ; but it should be recollected, that smelting is a very expensive and tedious process in some of these countries, partly from scarcity of fuel, and partly from very imperfect methods for producing the ne- cessary blast, by which it happens that the de- gree of heat required is difficult to obtain. Im- provements may be made so as to remedy some of these defects, and one important one. I believe, would be, the application of the hot air blast; but those who know what the difficulties are in mak plicable, will see that considerable time may be required to accomplish the object, and the selec- tion of very judicious and well instructed agents to carry the necessary measures into operation. To any one who may be considering the sub- ject with a view to adopting the use of this disco- very, I would also siiLCgest, that the chemical separation of the metals, is an operation which must be directed by one possessed of considerable skill and experience, and that it can only be done where sulphuric acid, or substances not easily transported, can be supplied in sufficient quanti- ties. If the alloy be rich enough to bear the charge of carriage it might be better to send it to places where tlic requisite skill and materials can be had with facility, but here again, Ihe fiscal re- gulations of different countries may oppose an obstacle. I merely throw out these hints that persons who may wish to avail themselves of the advan- tages held out by this process, may be prepared to meet the difficulties that present themselves, and to set about the undertaking in a manner most likelv to ensure success. 1 am, Sir, your obedient servant, John Taylor. Chatham Place, July 6. NEW MODE OF APPLYING STEAM. The editor of the New York Herald, in one of his recent letters ii-om London, says — A new mode of applying steam has been in- vented, which will do away with horse power en- tirely on canals. On the day of the launch last, week, a small boat of forty tons was passing and repassing the river, without paddles or sails. She had a hi«j,h pressure engine on board — and there she Avent through the water, puff, puff, pufl", puff, without indicating any other symptom of motive power, or even a single ripple disturbing her course. It seems that she has under her bottom, a single paddle, in the shape of a screw, with one turn only. To this screw is given a rotary motion by the steam engine — and its motion propels her through the water without creating a single ripple on the surlace, around the boat. An experiment was made last week on the Surry canal, and it succeeded beyond all expectation. I saw the lit- tle boat myself^, moving like a living creature, over the dirty bosom oif the Thames. There is now no doubt of the entire success of the plan, and in less than a couple of years I expect to see the whole length of the Erie canal navigated by steam power, without injuring at all its banks. One such steamboat as I saw could take a train of thirty canal boats, at a speed of six miles an hour. From the Genesee Farmer. PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. When the bill providing for a continuation of the Asrricultural Survey of "Massachusetts by the ing alterations in established processes in some of i Rev. fl. Colman, came up before the legislature the countries to which these observationa are ap- 1 of that state a few weeks since, a dead set was 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER 289 made upon it by a few individuals, who included in their (leimncialioiis, not only llie survey, but all leijislativo iiieasiuTs lur tiie pioniolion of amarks called out a most triumphant re- futation from JNIr. Prince ofRoxbury, who has from the first been connected with the most efiec- tive and prosperous airricultural society in the country, that of Massachusetts ; and who for some twenty years has been secretary of that Slate Institution. Mr. Prince showed most con- clusively that the first introduction into the state, of all the improved implements of husbandry, those that have entirely superseded the clumsy contrivances of the earlier Ihrmers, were owing to agricultural associations, and exhibitions. The first ploughing match in America took place at Brighton, in 1S17, under the patronage of the Massachusetis Atrricultural Society, and then was introduced there for the first time, Wood's patent cast-iron plouo-h, made by Free- born, a plough which in its various modifications has superseded all others, and so lar as ploughing is concerned, (and all will admit that this lies at the very basis of husbandry) has effected a com- plete revolution in the ease and facility of the ope- ration. At the Brighton show in 1836 there were twentj'-two ploughs in the competition, all of which were of iron. He showed that such had been the lact with retjard to drills, cultivators, machines forsovving seeds broad cast, hay and manure forks, and numberless other implements of great value to the farmer. They were first introduced by such societies; they were tested, and their opera- tion shown at the shows and exhibitions, and they were thus brought to the notice of thousands of farmers at once, many of whom might otherwise not have heard of them for years. The Merino, and the Durham cattle, were in- troduced many years since by the president of this society; and it is mainly through the infiu- ence of this and similar associations, that the beaulil'ul McKay, Berkshire. China, and Byfield pigs, have in that state mostly superseded the long-nosed, impossible-to-liit swine that formerly devoured the corn of the bay state. This im- provement in pigs alone was many years since, by one of the most extensive dealers in pork in Massachusetts, estimated at more than a hundred thousand dollars. It gives us pleasure to state that tiie bill to con- tinue the appropriations of the state fur such pur- poses was sustained by a vote of more than twen- ty to one. The course of the Massachusetts le- gislature is one honorable to their patriotism, and a proof of their intelligence. Their bounty on wheat, will cause the production of a handsotr.e crop, we have not a doubt; we only regret that such quantities of wheat have been sent to east- ern farmers, under names to which it has not the slightest pretension. The "stafi' of life" should not be subjected to such petty speculations and deceptions. Vol. Vr.-37 FIBROUS-LEAVKD PLANTS, AND THE MODE OF PRKl'AUIXG THE l^IBUES. To the Editor of the Fiumers' Register. TFashington, D. C, Id July, 183S. Dear Sir — You may have perceived in the ncws|)apers, that on the 12ih June, the bill lo en- coura. Ponipey cow. To Mr. .loliii ]Marshai!, for the best brood mare, Whiitloborry, by Roanoke, out of Wakefield, hvSir Hal. To Capt. llonry A. Watkins, for the best yoke oxen. Do. do. do. do. mule. To Mr. Henry Carnngton, for the best beef. J)o. do. do. do. do. heili-r un- der three and over two years old, by Col. Rich- ardson's bull Powell. To Mr. Ilcnry Carrinfrton, for tlie best filly one year old, by imported Claret, out of Blanch, by (Ja.scoio;ne, c. d. JMiss Ryland. To Mr. R. I. Gaines, for the best bull. J)n. do. do. do. Saxon ram. JNlaj. "William Gaines, for the best two-year old colt, by Carolinian. IMr. Thomas F. Merryman, for the best foal, by imported Emancipation. To Mr. Wyatt Card well, for the best saddle horse, out of Amy, by Gracchus, by Gas- coiffne. ■Communicated by order of the Society, Hexry Carrington, Sccry. From the Cultivator. MINERAL MANURES. Although there is much to please and interest the mind in practical firminn;, yet, devoid and apart from the theory, it is little eipe than a rou- tine, suited to the capacity and ambition of uncul- tivated minds. An active and enlio;htened mind seeks to understand the cause and efiect — to apply the sciences; in short, it is restive, until the que- ries embraced in agriculture, are disposed of and determined upon sound philosophical principles. 'Tis this constitutes theory; and 'tis this theory, that unlblds a world of beauties to the scientific agriculturist, of which the mere prejudiced practi- cal farmer, the mere tyro and novitiate, must re- main ignorant, and that too, of the highest branch of the prolession which he follows. Tlie improvement which has been effected with- in the last twenty years in several of the eastern counties of Pennsylvania, (and especially in Chester,) is almost incredible. And the whole is mainly attributed to a regular and judicious use of lime as a manure. To me, it has been matter of astonishment, to find this inestimable restora- tive meet with so little favor in the minds of the conductor and correspondents of the Cultivator. My farm is situated in a district of secondary for- mation, and the soil is principally calcareous, yet I have seen the most surprising beneficial effects attending the free use of lime and plaster; the latter apparently reacting on the former, and con- sequently, the greatest benefit is derived by using them together. The crops, not oniy on my own farm, but on others in this vicinity, have been dou- bled by a free use of mineral manures. When a farm has been improved so as to produce heavy- crops, there will be such a corresponding increase in the quantity of stable manure as to insure its future fertility. I look upon the immense beds of limestone in this region as nn inexhaustible store designed by the wise CJovernor of the world to keep up the strength of the land, in all time to come. I regard the limestone of Pennsylvania as a mineral, which will confer more real benefit on posterity than any of her other mineral trea- sures. The aid which it promises to contribute to the support and improvement of her agriculture cannot be easily overrated. Some idea may be formed oi' the estimation in which lime is held here as a manure, by the fiict, that farmers come fiom 25 to 30 miles, i. e. i'rom Maryland and the poor district ol primitive formation in the south- ern part of Chester county, bordering on the Mary- land line, to my limekiln and others in the neigh- borhood; the lime costing those farmers 25 cents per bushel when delivered. To the liirmers in that quarter, lime is the "anchor of hope ;" there it has already made the barren and desert place glad, and is fast putting a new and improved fiice upon the country. The Itirmers, even there, with this far fetched means of improving their land, prefer bettering their condition by liming near a good market,rather than migrate to the exuberant soil, and realize the Utopian dreams and liiiry tales of the " far west." On part of my farm, 300 bushels of lime per acre have been ap|)lied within 30 years, at the rate of about 100 bushels per acre at a dressing, and always put on ireah, and slaked, then imme- diately spread. I am not inclined to believe that liaje should become carbonated before it is appli- ed. I adopt Sir Humphrey Davy for my proto- type, in every case involving agricultural chemis- try. 1 shall be encouraged so to do, until some modern wiseacre can clearly demonstrate that Sir H. is wrong. Doubtful points in Davy's theory have become demonstrable truths with me, after being aided and enlightened by the lamp of expe- rience. Lime, in its fresh caustic state, only wliile an alkali, acts as a decomposing agent in the sod; rendering v(!getable substances soluble — but when a mild carbonate, it operates only like marl, in improving the texture of the soil, according to Davy, whose authority is unquestionable, and the theory, at all events, may fairly challenge contra- diction; hence the advantage of applyng lime, like stable manure, in a fresh state. With regard to the theory, or the manner, in which gypsum operates on vegetation, an acciden- tal circumstance which occurred in my practice or under my own eye, goes further to establish the truth in my mind, than all the ink which has been spilled on the subject; even the adopted theory of Prof. Low and British Husbandry to the contrary notwithstanding. In April, 1S32, I sow- ed hall a bushel of plaster on a small piece of land in the middle of a wheal field, for experimiCnt in order to ascertain whetherthe plaster would have the slightest effect even of changing the color of the wheat. The result answered my expectations; there was not a shade of change in tlie color of the wheat in the future stages of its growth. In autumn following, the same field was again ploughed for wheat and the plaster course turned down, the field was deeply ploughed, say 7 or 8 inches — the spring fijllowing the field was sown with clover seed; the secret then was speedily developed; when the wheat was cut in harvest the growth of clover on that same land which hatl been sown with plaster, was so luxuriant as to 292 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 5 interfere with the cradle in cutting the wheat. —Soon after harvest, the clover on the said land flowered, and a heavy swath might have been mown on it in Seplemher iollowing. The adja- cent pans of the field, with the same soil and cul- liire, exhibited a sickly contrast. In the autumn of 1833, the clover on said land was trodden down by stock, returning manure to the soil, and by that means the plaster indirectly prepared the ground for a sure crop of wheat. This one sin- gle and simple fact serves to overthrow the theory that plaster must be sown on the plants, to be ab- sorbed through the pores of the leaves— attract moisture fiom the atmosphere, &c. This moot- ed point 1 consider settled, and the soil and roots made the laboratory instead of the leaves and the atmosphere. Although my agricultural career has been only short, yet the great object, improvement, has been ardently and zealously pursued — sufiiciently. in- deed, to create a most utter and implacable abhor- rence against all vague and unfounded theory, which is the bane of the agricultural press. The mere conjecture of a writer, if in error, will do no harm ; but 'tis the positive declaratory asser- tions, where wrong, that do mischief, inasmuch as many believe and adopt what they read. Quere. Why is it that lime and plaster act much more efficiently when both are applied to the soil, since the base of both is lime? "VVm. Pcnn Ktnser. Pequea, Lan. Co. , Pa., jlpril 15, 1S3S. tSE OF LIME IN NEW HAMPSHIRE. One of the shakers recently told me, they had been in the habit of buying: the best of Thomas- ton Lime, which with transportations cost them at least $3 a cask ; of breaking and slaking it, and mixing it with mud collected from bog-holes or turfs fro'mthe sides of the highways, in propor- tion of four or five casks to a hundred common ox loads; and after due llirnientation and mixture, they have found this composition not less valuable than an equal quantity of the best of stable ma- nure. If the above remarks are correct, and no doubt they are, as I find them corroborated by va- rious writers on this subject, it is an easy and cheap method of obtaining manure and well adapted for top-dressing. The Hon. John Wells of Boston, who has made several experiments with lime in the prepa- ration of compost manure for a top-di-essing, re- commends that it be prepared by first placing a layer of mud or loam, as the case may be, then a layer of unslaked lime, and so continue until the materials are used up; and in twelve or fourteen days, shovel it over and it will be fit for use. From what I am able to gather lioni this gentleman's experiments, he made use of lime in proportion, of about one cask of Thomaston lime, to five loads of loam or mud, and that he annually, for more than twenty years made use of lime, 'for agricultural purposes to the extent of more than one hundred casks.' He further says: — 'To my surprise i lound the effect produced to be equal to what is usual from common compost manure!' Lime as a top-dressing on a wheat crop is un- doubtedly valuable on many kinds of soil, espe- cially where there is a deficiency of calcareous matter. Benj. Cutter, esq., informs me that he has made use of lime at the rale of twenty bushels or more to the acre, as a top-dressing, by sowing it on in a fine pulverized slate, when the wheat was a iew inches high, and considered himself well remunerated in the wheat crop. The Hon. Levi Fisk, observed to me, that he used two tierces of Thomaston lime last spring by sowing it on nearly two acres of wheat, leaving a small piece in the same field unsown, and is confident he realized twenty-five per cent, more wheat in consequence of the lime. The above and other similar experiment.', are conclusive evidence in my mind, of the importance and value of lime as a manure. — ConanVs Cheshire j^ddress. THE COLLEGES OF VIRGINIA CONSIDERED AS WORKS OF "internal IMPROVEMENT." WILLIAM ANU MARY COLLEGE. The colleges and schools ol a country are among the most important and valuable mean.^, as well as re- sults, of its general improvement. Nor is the im- provement thus reached merely intellectual and moral. The physical improvement of the country, the en- riching of its lands, the increase of its agricultural products, and the amount of pecuniary profit to the cultivators, all are essentially aided by providing, and properly using the facilities for education afforded by schools and colleges ; though the design and direct operation of these institutions should be confined ex- clusively to literary and scientific instruction, and without any view to the physical or economical improvement of the country. And the effects so produced, in their turn become causes ; and help, in an important degree, to sustain literary and scien- tific institutions. In strict accordance with these views are found the practical results, wherever they have been permitted to be produced by the action of causes continued sufiiciently long, and with sufficient intensity. In the country which sur- rounds and sustains Hampden-Sidney College, there is found a population, whose intellectual and moral worth, economical and industrious habits, and whose marked success as farmers and men of business, prove beyond doubt or cavil, the great profits, individual and pecuniary as well as general and national, which the people have derived from their liberal and long-con- tinued support of that college. We are less acquaint- ed with Washington College ; but have been inform- ed, and believe, that similar and equal effects have there been produced by the operation of similar causes. Randolph-Macon College is yet too young an institu- tion to have given such manifest evidences of its value as a work of "internal improvement;" but it is doubtless annually producing these valuable results; and requires only as much time, with equal good man- agement, to exhibit as strong evidences of value. This manner of viewing the subject will prevent any objection to the propriety of treating of our col- leges in this journal, of which the second object is to sustain and aid all public works for the improvement of 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER 293 Virj;inia; nor will the subject be deemed unconnected with the first or principal object of the Farmers' Re- gister, which is especially agricultural improvement. The colleges referred to above, highly beneficial as they are to the commonwealth, as well as to the peo- ple more especially interested in them, are local insti- tutions—principally sustained by, and in return sus- taining and elevating, the surrounding and adjacent, though an extended region of country. And it is be- cause of this local action, and yet very general opera- tion within such limits, that the improvement made in the people and in the country can be so easily traced, and so clearly exhibited and proved. The University of Virginia, from its rich endowment, its identification with national interests, and its other peculiar and great advantages, is diffusing knowledge and improve- ment to every part of the state, and to far remote states ; and the benefits thus produced are not the less certain and important, because, from their wide diffu- sion, they are less susceptible of being accurately es- timated, and duly appreciated. William and Mary College at present partakes of both these characters. Formerly it w-as the state or principal institution of Virginia, and even of all the southern and western states then in being. Yet, in its former days of prosperity, (as they were then deemed,) and when receiving students annually from every re- gion of Virginia, and some from perhaps five or six other states, still the number of students in the scien- tific classes ranged between 60 and 90, and rarely, if ever, exceeded the latter number. The boys in the school for Latin and Greek, are not counted under the name of "students," in this institution, and are not so included in these or any of the following remarks; though all such boys, in the middle and higher classes, are so counted in most other colleges ; and thereby serve to swell their apparent numbers, and, by the com- parison, to make the number of students of William and Mary appear fewer in comparison. In making comparisons, this difference should not be overlooked. From that condition, William and Mary was struck down to the lowest state of depression, first by the war, which brought an invading enemy into its near neighborhood, and for two years caused frequent calls upon every student of military age for military service in the field. Under such circumstances, the continuance of regular or even profitable study and collegiate du- ties, was rendered impossible ; and parents either kept their sons at home, or sent them to distant col- leges, which were free from such continual alarms of invasion, or marauding incursions from the British fleets. There were afterwards transient returns of prosperity to the college, but of no long continuance; as other and different blows, not necessary here to par- ticularize, fell upon it in rapid succession, and served to impair its interests, and to thin its ranks. These changes and fluctuations will be passed over, to the session of 1S33-4, when the institution seemed to be so nearly prostrate, that the loss of any one valuable professor was feared as a blow too heavy to be then borne; and an eviJ impossible to repair, owing to the email remaining inducements to attract or retain able professors. That session, the whole number of stu- dents amounted to no more than seventeen. Not long before, more than two years had passed without a quo- rum of the board of visiters being got together, and of course without a meeting or any action of that body — those members wlio were present, and ready to act, having been rendered useless by the non-attendance of others. During that time the important professorship of mathematics remained vacant; and though its duties were performed by the extra service of another profes- sor, still the vacancy and its cause could not but great- ly impair the public confidence in the management and usefulness of the institution. This neglect of the visitors to attend, and act in convocation, was the great cause, out of which grew all the minor and auxiliary causes, of the decline and threatened extinction of the college. In July 1834, a meeting of a bare quorum (a majority of the visitors, as required by the char- ter,) was, with difficulty, obtained; and a system of reform and improvement was then begun, which has been zealously continued to this time, and which has produced the most remarkable and manifest improve- ment in the number of students, and in the value of the course of instruction. So far as the increase of number of students may serve to indicate increase of prosperity and value of the college, these will strongly enough appear in the following statement of the num- bers for the five last courses. In session of 1833-4, there were 17 students. 1834-5, 48 1835-6, 69 1836-7, 113 1837-8, 112. When the universal pecuniary difficulties and losses of the last fifteen months are considered, the last num- ber, though a little less in amount than that of the year preceding, is, in fact, a stronger evidence of in- creased public confidence in the institution, than the previous rate of progressive increase of numbers. And this high eminence will be justly deemed the more remarkable, when considered in comparison with the previous and long continued depression — in com- parison with the former state, when William and Mary had not a rival in this or half a dozen adjacent states — and considering that now there are three other col- leges deserving and drawing their shares of students, and still more the University of Virginia, in a state of high prosperity, and having from 200 to 240 students during each of the last three years. While we wish the greatest possible success to all our institutions of education and learning, it may be permitted to us, without being obnoxious to the charge of being sectional in feeling, or wanting in good will to others, to set forth more especially the claims of Wil- liam and Mary College as the now local institution of the tide-water region, in addition to its other and strong claims of a general nature. It has ceased to be the principal college of this and other states, not because of diminished value of its instruction (for that has been greatly increased — ) but because of the establishment of sundry other institutions, by public or private en- 294 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 5 dowment, which circumstance has recently changed the aspect in which each one must be now considered. William and Mary, as much as any other college, de- serves the supporl of the whole country; and in con- sideration of its mild and delightful climate, perfect healthiness during the whole time of the course, and peculiar suitableness to the constitutions of southern young men, there are strong reasons for its being pre- ferred, i'or all such pupils, to any colleges of equal scientific grade situated in more northern or elevated regions, and in a more rigorous chmate. It is too true that this comj)arison is seldom made, and that dan- ger to the health of southern boys sent to bear north- ern winters is scarcely thought of. Even the people of our low country are themselves accustomed to ac- quiesce in the general understanding that an unhealthy region is one where bilious or autumnal diseases only are to be feared ; and that if these are absent, or very ■rare, a country is healthy, no matter how much its peo- iple are scourged by catarrhs, consumptions, rheuma- tisms, and pleurisies. By one or more of these latter ^diseases, the constitution of many a southern youth has •been seriously injured, or destroyed, at northern semi- tnaries; and even if he escapes all these, he is render- ed, by a northern residence, unfit to revisit his south- ern home, in autumn, without danger; and if, to avoid that danger, he remains away for years together, he acquires a northern constitution, and is as unfit as if born in the north, to live at his proper and intended fu- iture home. But putting aside this important consideration, and viewing William and Mary merely as a local institu- tion, the tide-water region alone can and ought to fur- nish it with enough students to triple its present num- ber. And when we say ought, it is not meant that the obligation should extend further than would be limited, on full knowledge of the circumstances, by the pri- vate and individual interests of the parents, not only as parents, but as residents and property-holders of the low country. It is not their general interest to prefer this college unless it deserves a preference for the value of its instruction and training of youth, and on the grounds of the moderate rate of price at which the benefits are to be obtained. The course of classical instruction, or the school for Latin and Greek, is very defective when compared to most other colleges of high rank. Until the last session, it was a grammar-school, upon the ordinary looting of common schools forteaching Latin and Greek; and was the more liable to objection because of its connexion with a scientific institution of high order. Better in- struction in the higher classical studies was in part pro- vided for, a year ago: and by another year, it is hoped and expected thai William and Mary will exchange the grammar-school for a system ot classical instruction suited to more advanced pupils and regular students. When this is properly done, there may be justly awarded to the whole institution, the high commendation which all the other departments now well deserve. The pro- fessorships are well filled; the course of instruction is excellent, and is designed to be of practical appli- cation, no less than it is of high scientific character. The government and discipline of the students is parental, though sufficiently strict; and, while no known offender is permitted to pass unpunished by the laws of the in- stitution, still the means to govern, and the prevention of offences, are more generally and effectually found in a reliance on and appeal to the sense of honor and pro- priety of the young men; who are reminded at every step, and in every hour, by the general purport of their training and association, that the first duty of a student is to preserve, in every particular, the character o£ 3. gentleman, and man of honor and truth. This most powerful aid to the statute book, ('and without which mere enactments and punishments are of little avail,) has been strengthened and brought admirably into operation by the tact of the present faculty of the college, and by the respect and regard of the students which the professors fortunately possess, and the con- sequent influence which they can exercise. And this mode of governing, by appealing to the best feel- ings, instead of merely punishing the fruits of the worst, is further strengthened by the tone of the private society in which students here may freely mingle, and are received with welcome, and which, while it softens, refines and cultivates manners, and guards against vi- cious pleasures by substituting innocent relaxation and amusement, also, by approbation or censure, increases the inducement to do good, and to refrain from evil. Much good has always been done by the society of the inhabitants of Williamsburg to the students of William and Mary ; and, it must be confessed, also some harm — and in former times much harm. But the evils of this kind, which have existed, have been clearly seen, and are now guarded against, by exam- ple and precept, of all belonging to the best society. And, though imperfections and evils will always exist to some extent, it may now be safely asserted, that the influence of society in this place was never so benefi- cially exercised, as now; and its influence is, in the general, decidedly and greatly beneficial to the stu- dents. Either the total exclusion from private associ- ation with well-bred people (and especially from fe- male society,) or the mingling with the fashionable and often debauched society of large cities, and shar- ing in their vicious pleasures, are conditions very dirfer- ent from that of the students of this college, and the operation of either of which is always greatly to be feared. The result of all the measures of reform adopted by the board of visitors, and admirably executed by the faculty, and of the influences thereby and otherwise produced, has been the attainment of a degree of mor- al and intellectual improvement in the students in ge- neral, for the last two years, and more especially du- ring the course just ended, which furnishes to the friends of the institution very far more cause for con- gratulation, and ground for auguring still increasing prosperity and success, than merely the rapid and con- tinued increase of students. During the last course, the conduct of all but a very few of the young men, has been throughout orderly and correct, and gentle- manly in all respects; and when taken altogether, the abatement necessary to make for the few of other ha- 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 295 bits, will not prevent the general conduct of the stu- dents being considered in a remarkable degree free from the otfenccs of disorder and vicious habits so usu- al in colleges. Far otherwise was the state of tilings in former times ; and much prejudice still remains against this college in the minds of many who know and believe nothing of the true condition and higli va- lue of this institution, and who, as erroneously, in re- gard to this and to all other colleges, charge the vicious propensities of every student, which are generally caused by the improper indulgence of his own father, to the college which has in vain struggled to prevent the evils thus caused by more powerful counteracting influences. There is no cause to fear detriment to the virtues or good habits of any youth who may be now- sent to this college, unless caused by the fault either of his incurable evil propensities, or otherwise, as is most usual, by the error of his previous training and the continued improper indulgence of his parent. Al- most every case of a student proving either extrava- gant in expenditure, dissipated, or vicious, is caused by his being furnished with too much money. If a youth receives even $20 more than a sufficiently liberal allowance, the excess must do injury to his habits ; and when that excess is carried to $300, merely because the father is rich enough to afford the expense, he al- most invariably and greatly injures, and perhaps ruins his son, by such unjustifiable indulgence. The mo- ney thus annually wasted at most colleges of high grade, to the injury of all parties, is usually as large as all required for the necessary and proper expenses. The parent, who, in spite of all warning from the col- lege authorities, will commit this common error, has no right to charge the vices or idleness of his son to any other than himself. The necessary collegiate ex- penses of a junior student at William and Mary Col- lege, for professors' and other college fees, (and as many as can be usefully paid,) board, books, and eve- ry other necessary expense, amount to $228, if the student boards in college, or $248, if in a private fami- ly. Add to this what is safe and proper for pocket- money, (and that certainly ought not to exceed $50, for a young and new student,) and every expense for the junior course is provided for, except the purchase of clothing, and that is not a collegiate expense. The necessary college expenses of the senior course are still less than those of the first year. Few boys, just freed from the restrictions of a school, or their fathers' guidance, can be safely trusted at one time with even $50, to be retained and used as pocket money for the coming time of nine months. To their inexperience it would seem a sum so large that they will scarcely get through it ; and in a month, perhaps, they find that it has slipped through their fingers, and left a newly created appetite for ten times as much. In such cases, it is the father, much more than the son, who is to be blamed. What then is to be said of the parent, who, merely because he is rich and purse-proud, sends far from home an inexperienced youth, totally unused to the ways of the world, with several hundred dollars in hand more than needed for early expenses ? It is almost a miracle when it does not do great injury to the student ; and often it corrupts and destroys the man for ever. The sons of the richest parents are ge- nerally the least worthy or profitable students — and of- ten, their attendance is a loss, even in a pecuniary point of view, to the colicgo which they enter. The propensity of students to contract debts is en- couraged, first, by the extravagance engendered by pa- rental indulgence, in giving too much money, and next, by the seductions and enticements of the rapacious harpies and sharpers among the shopkeepers, tavern- keepers, and others, some of whom are as sure to be found about every college, as vultures will be seen flocking to a carcass. An excellent regulation of the visitors of this college, which has now been two years in operation, has already done much good in restrain- ing this abuse ; and it would have been effectual, if parents had properly seconded and sustained the law, and the authorities of the college. At the last session of the legislature a general law was passed for this purpose ; and it is hoped that this infamous practice will be more effectually checked. It is a fraud of the worst kind ; for it preys upon the sufferers' precious time, morals, and future prospects of usefulness and happiness, as well as upon their money, which alone is the object sought by these tempters and destroyers of heedless youths. The regular course of study, here necessary to ob- tain the degree of A. B. (Bachelor of Arts,) is of two- years' continuance. This does not include instruction in the Latin and Greek languages; which, it is presumed that the student has acquired at school, more cheaply, and far more profitably, than he would at college. To obtain the degree of A. M. (Master of Arts,) a more extended course of study, and higher attainments, both classical and scientific, are requisite; and to this end, profitable employment is furnished for one or for two years longer. Thus, although the scientific course proper of the college may be and ought to be passed through, and its honors obtained, by every properly prepared and diligent student, in two years, (which is a great advantage, and economy of time and money to those who can better prepare at lower schools,) still, if such classical preparation as makes part of the regu- lar course at most other colleges, be added to the ac- count, it would add one or tv^'o years to the beginning of this; and for the course necessary for A. M. one or two years more must be added at the end. Thus, the course of study maybe two years, or it may be four, or even six, and all well and fully occupied, according to the circumstances and attainments of the student. The diplomas are conferred only for a proper degree of pro- ficiency, to be shown upon strict examination; and in no case upon the ground of having merely passed through the whole time of the college course, and paid all the fees; which will entitle every student at most or all northern colleges to a diploma, as a matter of course. Honors thus conferred, no matter how exalt- ed in reputation and merit may be the college confer- ring them, are in most cases awarded without being deserved; and any institution thus granting them, is guilty of a despicable fraud upon the public. The same and only correct and honest mode of conferring 296 F A R JM E R S' REGISTER. [No. 5 honors and diplomas as has always been the practice at William and Mary, that is, upon full examination and evidence of proficiency, has likewise been pursued at the University of Virginia. And consequently, a student who would not even dare to ask for a degree at either of these institutions, from being conscious of not deserving it, would receive it, as a matter of course, if belonging to a northern college of the highest rank and character. Upon this deceptions system, the whole senior class graduates; or it is a very rare and re- markable occurrence if any one of the class should be refused his degree. Therefoie, if rightly viewed, the large number of degrees annually conferred, would show their very small average value; and every one, of the small comparative number, where they are con- ferred on proficiency exhibited, ought to be so much the more highly prized. We have just returned from a session of four days of the Board of Visitors, and attendance on and observa- tion of the closing scenes of the last course of William and Mary College. The evidences of the very orderly and correct deportment of the students generally, the rareness of the cases of opposite conduct, and the fruits of labor and profitable instruction shown in that portion of them who earned the honors of the college, were all highly gratifying. These extended remarks show our own individual and entire concurrence in the unanimous expression of approbation of the Board of Visitors, as copied in the proceedings below. And we assert, without hesitation, that if the people of lower Virginia alone who now send their sons to northern colleges would give their support instead to William and Mary, the gain would be not only great and im- portant to that institution, but far more so to the stu- dents and to their parents, and to the commonwealth of Virginia. We would never send a son, or advise (other parents to do so, to an inferior school, because it was in Virginia. But if equal or superior advantages are available at home, as is certainly the case, then both patriotism and economy ought to concur in causing the institutions of learning ia Virginia and the south, to be encouraged, rather than those in the northern states. Ed. Far. Reg. PUBLIC EXERCISES OF WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE, JULY 4X11, 1838. The public exercises at the close of the late ses- sion in this institution, took place on the 4th inst., as usual. At 10 o'clock, A. M., the Visitors, Professors and Students, attended by the Volunteer Compa- nies of the place, commanded by Captains Armi- Btead and Durfey, (who politely tendered their services on the occasion,) moved in procession from the College to the Church, where the exer- cises were commenced by a prayer from the Right Rev. Bishop Meade. Then, after fine and appro- priate music, for which the audience were indebt- ed to the kindness of the ladies, the exhibition by the graduates was for a moment suspended, while the President read the (bllowing resolution of the Board of Visitors : " Resolved, unanimouslj^. That the Visitors of Willam and Mary College, have learned with iin- dissembled salisfaciion of the flourishing condition of the Colleire, and of the orderly and correct de- portment of the students during the session which has to-day terminated : and that the President he requested publicly to express in the Church, to the young genilemon of the insliluiion, ihe warm and decided ap[iroval felt by the Visitors of their ex- emplary conduct." Alter which the following Orations were deli- vered : 1. Oration on tlie formation of National Cha- racter, by Samuel S. Henley, A. B. of King & Queen. 2. Oration on the rise and prospetity of the United States, by Tho's, B. Donnelly, A. B. of Williamsburg. 3. Oration on Internal Improvement and its ef- fects on the condition of Virginia, by William L. Henley, L. B. of James City. 4. Oration on the influence of Literature on Society and Government, by Herbert A. Clai- borne, A. B. of Richmond. 5. Oration on the influence of William & Mary College on the Literary. Moral and Political con- dition of this countr}^, by James A. Cloplon, A. B. of New Kent. 6. Oration on the inefBciency of Governments to conduce to their proper end, with war as their prevailing spirit, by Gawin L, C. Salter, L. B. of York. 7. Valedictory to the Members of the Franklin Society, by Robert Tyler of Williamsburg. The President then proceeded to confer the De- gree of Bachelor of Arts on the following twelve young gentlemen of the senior classes : Herbert A. Claiborne of the city of Richmond. James A. Clopion of New Kent. Benjamin F. Dew of King & Queen. Elias Dodson of Halifax. Thomas B. Donnelly of Williamsburg. John Finney, of Powhatan. John M. Gait of Williamsburg. Edward Gresham ol" King and Queen. Samuel S. Henley of Kinsr and Queen. Archibald C. Peachy of Williamsburg. Robert G. Scott of the city of Richmond. John O. Steger of Amelia. And the degree of Bachelor of Law upon the Ibllowing : William L. Henley of James City. Gawin L. C. Salter of York. The President then bestowed upon the follow- ing thirty-nine young gentlemen, of the junior classes, certificates, under the college seal, of pro- ficiency and good conduct, William Blankenship of Chesterfield : National Law— Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics— Chemistry — the Junior Mathemaiical Course — History. John B. Cary of Hampton : Natural Philo- sophy— Mathematics— Political Economy — Na- tional Law — Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics — Che- mistry—Civil Engineeriug. James L.Clarke of Gloucester: National Law — Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics— Chemistry — the Ju- nior Mathematical Course. Nathaniel C. Cocke, of Prince George: Nation- al Law— Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics— Chemistry — the Junior Mathematical Course — History. John A. Coke of Williamsburg: Natural Phi- 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER 297 losophy— Political Economy — Metaphysics— Na- tional Law — llistoiv. AVilliam Cole of Prince George ; National Law — Choiiiisti'v — Ilislory. William W. Crum"() of the City of Richmoml: Political I'jcniiomy — National Law— Rhetofic, Lo- gic and I'^ihiiv — Chemistry— History. Edwin IL Edmunds ol"J>runswick : Chemistry — History— .Jimior Mathematical Course. William H. Fiizhugh of Prince William: Na- tional Law— Rhetoric,"Lo,ijicand Ethics— Chemis- try— Junior Mathcmalical Course — History. Betijamia F. Garrett of Williamsburg: Na- tional Law — Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics— Chem- istry— History. John J. GravattofCaroline : Political Economy — Aletaphysics— National Law — Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics — History. William H. Gwa'thmey of Kin^ William : Na- tional Law— Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics— History — Chemistry. Henry Harrison of Charles City: Mathema- tics— Metaphysics — National Law — Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics — Chemistry. Jas. B. Jones of Chesterfield : National Law — Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics — Chemistry — Junior Mathematical Course — Histor}'. Alexander Jones of Chesterfield : National Law — Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics — Chemistry — Junior JVlathematical Course — History. Warner T. Jones of Gloucester : Natural Phi- losophy. VViliiam McGowan of Petersburg: Natural Philosophy — Political Economy — Junior Mathe- matical Course — Civil Enijineering. Nicholas Mills of the City of Richmond : Na- tural Philosophy — Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics- Civil Engineering. Charles P. JNIoncure of the City of Richmond : Metaphysics — National Law. Thos. B. Montague of Gloucester : Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics — History — Chemistry. Chas. W. Montague of Gloucester: Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics — Junior Mathematical Course — Chemistry — History. Woodson C. Moody of Williamsburg: Nation- al Law. Wilson N. Nicholas of the City of Richmond : Natural Philosophy — Political Economy — Meta- physics— Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics — Chemistry — History. George U. Nottingham of Northampton : Ju- nior Mathematical Course. William M. Overton of Lunenburg: Mathe- matics— National Law — History — Civil Engi- neering. William R. Pierce of Williamsburg : Che- mistry. Wdliam P. Richardson of New Kent: Nation- al Law — Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics — Chemistry — Junior Mathematical Course. Powhatan Robertson of the City of Richmond : Natural Philosophy — Chemistry. Moore Robinson of the City of Richmond : National Law— Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics— Che- mistry— Junior Mathematical Course — History. John W. Rochelle of Southampton: Chemis- try and Civil Engineering. Julian C. RufRn of Petersburg: National Law —Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics--Chemistry— Junior Mathematical Course — History. Vol. VL-3S Peter S. Smith of Nottoway: National Law — Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics — History. William M. Sutton of Hanover: Political Economy— Metaphysics— National Law — Rhe- toric, Logic and Ethics — Chemistry. William B. Taylor of Prince Gooroe : Junior Mathematical Course— Chemistry — Civil Engi- neering. William A. Thorn of Culpcper: Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics— Chemistry— Junior Mathema- tical Course — History. William Waller of Williamsburg: National Law — Chennstry. George Wingfield of Norfolk : Natural Philo- sophy—Junior Mathematical Course — Civil En- gineering. John J. Wriffht of Essex : Junior Mathema- tical Course — History. William B. Wynn of North Carolina: Na- tional Lavv--Rhetoric, Logic and Ethics— History. PUBLIC EXERCISES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIUGIKIA, JULY 4, 1838. At the close of the session, on Wednesday, the 4th July, 1838, the following public exercises took place. The exercises were opened with prayer by the Rev. A. P. B. Wilmer, Chaplain of the Univer- sity. The names of the students who had distin- guished themselves, at the public examinations held during the present session, were then an- nounced (in alphabetical order) by the Chairman of the Faculty. Diplomas were then delivered by the Chairman, to the following students, who had been ailmitted by the faculty, to graduate in the several schools mentioned : Latin Language and Literature. John W. Clay, Alabama. Wm. H. Glascock, do. Thos. J. Hungeriwrd, Westmoreland. P. Thornton Lomax, Fredericksburg. Fielding L. Marshall, Fauquier. Thomas L. Reynolds, South Carolina, Wm. W. Roper, Richmond. C. R. G. Slaughter, Charlottesville. Henrj' Spencer, Charlotte. Chapman J. Stuart, Richmond. L. M. T. Wickham, do. SCHOOL OF A^CIE^T LANGUAGES, George H. Guerard, South Carolina. Donald M. Harrison, Amelia. William H. Jones, Mecklenburg. Wm. M. Swoope, Augusta. Lewis Turner, Louisa. Charles D. Wharton, Goochland. Isaac R. Watkins, Charlotte. SCHOOL OF MODERN LANGUAGES. French — Richard W. Bushnell, Rockingham. John Critcher, jr., Westmoreland. John W. Clay, Alabama. Thomas O. Dabney, King William. Eugene Davis, University of Virginia. Donald M. Harrison, Amelia. 298 FARMERS' REGISTER [No. 5 James A. Jones, Mecklenburg. William H. Jones, do. Hunter H. Marshall, Charlotte. Lewis Turner, Louisa. Thomas Tovvles, Louisiana. Thomas H. Watts, Alabama. Spavish Language and Literature — Robert L. Brown, Nelson. Richard VV. Buslinell, Rockintrham. Thomas O. Dahnev, King William. Eugene Davis, University of Viro-inia. Donald M. Harrison, Amelia. Wm. H. Jones, Mecklenburg. James M. Morson, Fredericksburg. Thomas H. Watts, Alabama. Italian Language — George W. BIfeattermann, University of Va. James Alfred Jones, Mecklenburg. Lewis Turner, Louisa. SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS. Richard W. Bushnell, Rockingham. Solomon Carr, Nansemond. James Alfred Jones, Mecklenburg. James M. Morson, Fredericksburg. SCHOOL, OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. Richard W. Bushnell, Rockinffham. Wm. S. Barton, Fredericksburg. Solomon Carr, Nansemond. Eugene Davis, University of Virginia. Donald M. Harrison, Amelia. William J. Harris, Powhatan. Wm. W. Roper, Richmond. Wm. B. Stanard, do. Dabney Carr Wirt, do. Charles D. Wharton, Goochland. SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING. Wm. S. Goodwin, Southampton. Matthew M. Harrison, Brunswick. Calvin D. Jones, Albemarle. George W. Randolph, do. Wm. H. Woodis, Norfolk. SCHOOL OF CHEMISTRY. John B. Baldwin, Staunton. Wm. S. R. Brockenbrouiih, Hanover. George H. Guerard, South Carolina. James Alfred Jones, Mecklenburg. Benjamin B. Minor, SpottsylvaniiT. Wm. H. Phillips, Charlottesville. Wm. R. Skipwith, Richmond. Wm. B. Stanard, Richmond. Thomas H. Watts, Alabama. SCHOOL OF MEDICINE. mth the title of " Bodor of Medidne:''- Wm. F. Robertson, Alabama. George W. Roihwell, Albemarle. Wm. R. Skipwith, Richmond. Wm. D. Willis, Albemarle. Wm. P. Whiting, Cumberland. SCHOOL OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. John B. Baldwin, Staunton. James M. Browning, Alabama. John Burruss, Louisa. John Critcher, jr., Westmoreland. Thomas O. Dabney, King William. John M. Garnett, King and Queen. Robert S. Goode, Amelia. Thos. J. Hungerlbrd, Westmorelund. Wm. H. Macon, Hanover. Benj. B. Minor, Spottsylvania. Alfred H. Powell, Winchester. Elverton A. Sliands, Prince George. Joseph D. Shields, Mississippi. Wm. B. Stanard, Richmond. Thomas H. Watts, Alabama. Dabney C. Wirt, Richmond. SCHOOL OF LAW. Richard L. T. Beale, Westmoreland. Mordecju Cooke, Norfolk. James T. Dillard, Bedford. Terrisha W. Dillard, do. Wm.N. Gregory, King William. Wm. T. .Toyiies, Accomac. Peter K. Skinker, Fauquier. PROFICIENTS IN MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE. Alfred H. Powell, Winchester. John D. Wright, South Carolina. Wm. R. Roberts, Albemarle. Charles Carter, Hanover. Pririce M. Watson, Albemarle. PROFICIENTS I^^ MATERIA MEDICA. William S. R. Brockenbrough, Hanover. James Norris, Charlottesville. Wm. H. Phillips, do. PROFICIENTS IN PHYSIOLOGY. Wm. S. R. Brockenbrough, Hanover. Charles Carter, do. PROFICIENTS IN POLITICAL ECONOMY. John B. Baldwin, Staunton. John Critcher, jr., Westmoreland. Benjamin B. Minor, Spottsylvania. The followinfr students, having cridualed in the schools of Ancient Languages, Modern Lan- guages, Mathematics, Natural Philosophy. Che- mistry and Moral Philosophy, the degree ot Mas- ter of xlrts, was conlerred upon them by the Fa- culty. Thomas O. Dabney, King William. Wm. B. Stanard, Richmond. The session of this Institution was brought to a close on Wednesday last, by an exhibition in the rotunda, when the names of students who were distinguished at the intermediate and final e.xami- nations were announced by the Chairman of the Faculty, and diplomas awarded to those Avho had obtained degrees in the dill'erent schools of the University. The decree of Master of Arts was conferred upon Mr. T. O. Dabney of King Wil- liam, and Mr. Wm. B. Stanard of Richmond. There were no orations delivered or Essays read — the exercises were consequently less ititeresting, and fewer citizens and strangers were in attend- ance, than is usual on such occasions. The greater portion of the students had also left col- lege before the exhibition took place. The Visitors formed a Board on Tuesday, and were in attendance on Wednesda}^ We have not heard of any changes of importance effected by them in the regulations or by-laws of the in- stitution, except the establishment of an infirma- ry, in connexion with the medical department. — Cfutrlottcsville Advocate. 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 299 From tlie N. K. Fanner. [We Imve tlie pleasure to present to tlic agrirul- tural public ll~:e siulijoined lii Northumberland County. 5 Linden, Westmoreland County, July 6, 1838. Dear Sir, I duly received your favor of the last month, requesting me to furnish you with such informa- tion in regard to the improvement of land, by the application of " marine vegetation." as my ex- perience in the use of ir, will enable me to afford. This call for information, on a subject which I deem of vital importance to the agricultural im- provement of our beautiful tide-water country, affords me peculiar gratification; and it gives me very great pleasure to have it in my power to an- swer it in a satisfactory manner. My opinion in regard to the value of kelp or sea- weed, as manure, was given somewhat at large, in an essay on ^'■marine manures,'''' published in the Farmers' Register four or five years ago.* I beg leave to refer you to that essay as containing the result of my experience, up to that time. 1 have since applied it, wilh creek-grass, and other ma- rine manuref?, upon a very extensive scale; and I may say, with the most gratifying success. In the course of about six years, I have restored to fertility the greater part of a large farm on the Potomac, that had been reduced to the lowest state of sterilitv, by a long course of exhausting cultivation. Upon this farm, in the course of the last year, at an expense in labor, not exceeding ^300, I cfu-ried out about eight thousand loads of manure with single ox carts; and have now grow- ing upon it, the finest corn that I have ever seen upon land of any thing like the same original quality. The " grass" which you say has become abun- dant along your shores, has, of late, taken almost entire possession of the small creeks indenting our farms on the Potomac, and furnishes an inex- Iiaustible supply of the richest manure. It is more povv^erful, in its effects, than the sea-ioeed, which is driven upon the river shores; and though the assertion may seem extravagant, is to be pre- ferred to the best stable manure. Parts of my fields are manured with each, and *See Farmers' Register, Vol. I, p. 513. — Ed. the most careless observer may distinguish the superiority of the corn where the •' grass" haa been applied. It seems to possess a peculiar quickness and power, forcing the young plants forward so rapidly, that they escape the depreda- tions of insects, and seem to be little, if at all, af- fected by the coldness ol the seasons, which for se- veral years past, has retarded so much the growth of the corn. In common Aviih the sea-weed, it possesses the power of attracting moisture from the atmosphere — keeping the corn greeu and vi- gorous in the driest seasons, and justifying much thicker planting, without endangering the crop, than could be ventured on with any other ma- nure. Last year, on a lot, which had never yield- ed before more than four barrels to the acre, I planted corn, after manuring with creek-grass in the water-furrow, at an average distance of five feet and a half one way, and two feet three inches the other, leaving two stalks in a place. The stalks attained the height of thirteen feet or up- wards, and one acre that was carefully measured, yielded nine barrels of sound corn. I have this year planted a considerable part of my crop equally thick, having more than double as many of stalks on the land, as most of my neighbors. Such thick planting as this, however, could not be recom- mended in our climate, even after the application of this most certain manure, except upon land that had already been improved to a considerable extent. It is difficult for me to give you a correct esti- mate of the expense of manuring with the mate- rials to which I have adverted. Having on my land an inexhaustible supply of manures accessi- ble in some form at all times, I have been able to pursue the business of manuring as a regular system, and to devote a considerable force exclu- sively to that object. A considerable part, more- over, of the labor of collecting and scattering the manure and driving the carts, has been performed by children and small boys who would have ren- dered little or no service in any other employment, The expense, therefore, of my improvements may not be a fair criterion of the cost of manur- ing, under difl^erent circumstances. For this rea- son, I have applied to my neighbor, Mr. John T. Rice, who is a successful practical farmer, for an estimate of the expense of his improvements made with the creek-grass alone. He has kindly furnished me with a statement which you will find in his letter accompanying mine. From this you will perceive that an acre may be manured with creek-crass, at an expense of four dollars, by which the crop of corn will be more than doubled, and the land to a considerable extent permanently improved. But many of our indolent and penurious far- mers would be alarmed at the idea of incurring even this small expense. What ! give four dol- lars for manuring an acre of land that cost only six!! Permit me hereto make a slight digres- sion. Have you ever read Black's Essay on the intrinsic value of land? It was published in an early volume of the American Farmer, and is a most ingenious and able argument to prove that every acre of land in the state of Delaware, is in- trinsically worth five hundred dollars. His con- clusion is somewhat extravagant, but there is much force in his reasoning. I have reflected a great deal on this subject, and I have come to the 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER 301 conclusion th.ut whilst it is impossible to inulerrale the value of poor laiul, supposing; it to romaiii un- improved, it is cxtrenioly difficult to overrate ihe value of such as, by niaMurinjj:, and a judicious course of mana\ hen we lake into consideration the wonder- ful lertility of the soil ofOiiio, its vast and various mineral wealth, its central position in regard to the Union, its easy conimunicaiion with the great mercantile ciiies, by prompt and easy steamboat navigation, or by cawal and railroad carriage, as New York, Philadelphia and New Orleans— that the routes of the most important character, yet in contemplation, as those of Virginia, and South Carolina, wiih her associates, will, when finished, terminate ihei-e — it seems an obvious conclusion, more particularly when the sagacious, enleiprismg and perspveiinir character of the people of Ohio is considered, that that country is destined speedi- ly to attain the condition of one of the most adorn- ed of the Uniied States. Leaving Chilicothe about the 25th of April, I returned by the canal to Portsmouth, and took a steamboat there for Cincinnaii. Although long familiar with the valley of ihc Ohio, I was never so fbrcit)ly impresseii with its beauty belbre. The majesty of the river, the lertility of the lands that bind it. the rich verdure of the Ibrest just expand- ing into leaf and crowning the gently sloping highlands, that in some cases come near the wa- ter's edge, and afford the must beautiful situations for dwellings on their summits. The neat larnis, and country houses, and thriving villages, pre- sented an assemblage 1 have never seen surpass- ed, perhaps not equalled. This scene seems to have warmed the imagination of the coolest and most judicious of those foreigners who have re- cently visited our country. "The river (says M. de Tocqueville) which the Indians named by way of distinction the Ohio, or the 'Fair River,' bathes with its waters one of the most magnificent valleys, that man has ever made his residence."* The regrels of that gentleman for the loss of this fine country to France are':^eelingly expressed, (p. 299.) as are those of another lively and agreeable tra- veller, JM. Michel Chevalier, who has been recent- ly Its visitor.f 4' The abuse of English travellers, and the re- grets of the French, both springing jrom sorrow felt for the losses susiained by their respective na- tions, of territory within our boundaries, destined to become the seat of a mighty empire, however differently expressed, enable an American to calcu- late the value of his country in the eyes of foreign- ers. Indeed, the pertinacity with which the British cling to a little slip of territory on the northern boundary of Maine, to which they have no man- ner of right, is irreh-eofable evidence of their esti- mate of American soil. Nothing but a breach of the union can prevent our attaining a power, both by land and sea, in comparison with which the western nations of Europe must appear perfectly insiirnificant. We have no reason now to lear or envy any of them, and as their intercourse * Le fleuve que les Indiens avaient nomme par ex- cellence rOhio, ou la Belle Riviere, arrose de ses eaux I'une des plus masnifiques vallees dont I'homme ait jamais fait son sejour." Democratie en Anieriquc. Tome 3me p. 17.3. t See his letter at Pittsburg Nov. 24th, 1SS4.— 7;c/- tres sur VAmerique du Nord. with us is reciprocally beneficial, I hope it, may conlinue to be our policy to cultivate amicable re- lations with them. From Cincinnati, I ascended the Ohio to Pitts- burg, and was exposed as liir as Wheeling to the danger of bursting boilers, iVi conseiiuence of a race between the boat on which 1 took passage, and one which left Cincinnaii an hour or two alier us. Pillsburg, with ils dark and lurid coal- smoke atmosphere, oilers little to check a travel- ler's im|)atieiice to continue his journey. I left it ilie evening alier my arrival in a packet canal- boat Ibr the east. The boat departed about nine o'clock at night, and I was consecjuently deprived of seeing the country in the vicinity of the town, and along the Alleghany river. The next morning found us near the junction of the Alleghany with the Kiskemineias, and along the valley of the latter the canal passes on the roule to Johnstown, at the wesiern base of the Alleghany. This valley is generally narrow and ruffged, abounds in sandstone, and the Ibrest growth is chiefiy oak. Vegetation on the 27th of April was just discernible on a lew trees, near the margin of the river. A lew patches of wheat looked well, but the whole aspect was dreary and liarren, contrasted with the rich verdure of the Ohio valley. VVa arrived at .Johnstown in the night succeeding that we lelt Pittsburg — the dis- tance about one hundred and twenty-six miles — and the next morning about sunrise were trans- ferred to the railroad, which crosses the Allegha- ny mountains, and communicates wiih the east- ern portion of the canal, at Hollidaysburg, The distance from Johnstown to Hollidaysburg is be- tween fbriy-two and forty-three miles, and tliere are ten inclined planes, five lor the ascent, and ?i\e for the descent of the mountain. The cars are raised and lowered by means of a powerful rope attached to them, and worked by a stationa- ry engine at the summit of the plane. The pas- sengers' cars arc detached at those planes from those that carry produce, and are raised and let down first, then (he produce cars undergo the same process, and are reunited, at the foot, or sum- mit of the plane. This I understood was intend- ed to secure the passengers from accidents that mi(j;ht arise from overstraining the rope. And it seemed a wise precaution, lor, with all their care, one cannot help libeling that their 'Ives depend as much on the strength and secure fastening of the rope, as if they were suspended by it a mile in the air. Accidents do sometimes happen, wifh every precaution, an instance of which occurred about a fortnight previous tothe time 1 was there. Two cars, loaded with flour, became detached from the train, and rushing with fl-'arful velocity down the plane, were crushed to atoms wiih their loads. The sense of insecurity, Horn travelling across this mountain, is so extensively felt, that I was advised by several friends in ihe west to avoid this route on that account; and those who know the western people, and their general reckless dis- regard of danger, know that their cautions, on such subjects, are rarely lightly given. But my curiosity overcame my prudence, and on arriving at Hollidaysburg, about two o'clock, I felt pleased that I had paid no dearer for its jjralificalion. "There are in the Allecrhanies, (says the plea- sant traveller I have before quoted, M. Chevalier, speaking of railroads,) those which present inclin- 308 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 5 ed planes with frightful decUvities; these were only intended for the tranppurtation of merchandise; but it is now announced that travelling coaches ((Its diligences) are establis^iied, at the risk of breaking ihe necks of the travellt-rs."* Descending the valley of the Juniata, through the counties of Huntingdon, Juniata, Perry, &c. to the junction of the Juniata with the Susque- hanna, and following the course of the latter ri- ver, we reached Harrisburg, the seal of Pennsyl- vaiua government, about midnight, and in about thirty-six hours after leaving Hollidaysburg. The valley of the Juniata is wider, and far better cul- tivated than that of the Kiskeniinetas. The houses of the farmers are mostly of brick or stone, and good comibrtahle dwellings. The larms were in neat order, and the wheat fields looked very luxuriant. Farming land in this valley, I was inlbrmed, sold at about forty dollars an acre, containing an average portion of highland and low ground. The highlands seem generally to be but of moderate quality, and the mountains, which bind the valley throughout, are poor, steep, and rocky, and bear only a lew scrub pines — resembling very much the mountain range between Fincastle in Virginia and the Sweet Springs. Indeed I felt quite surprised to find so large a part of Pennsyl- vania poor and mountainous. The traveller does not escape from the mountain region until he ap- proaches the neighborhood of Harrisburg, and in passing from Pitts;>urg to Philadelphia, he sees nothing but narrow valleys and poor mountains, lor three-fourths of the distance. Since the valley of the Juniata has been canal- led, the farmers sell every thing they have to spare, in the form of provisions, at good prices. Eutter at twenty cents, beef at ten cents per pound, &c. The captain of the canal-boat in- formed me these prices were readily given, every thing being nearly equally dear, and it was diffi- cult to procure an adequate supply even at these rates. No money but of the best kind would be taken in payment. At Harrisburg, a raih"oad commences, belong- ing to a private company, to which travellers of the packet line are transferred, and which commu- nicates with the slate railroad, fi'om Columbia to Philadelphia. A rapid transit of one day over this space, aiibrded little opportunity for agricultu- ral observation. I noticed, however, in the neigh- borhood of Harrisburg, some galled and gullied fields, (a sight too familiar to the eye of a Vir- ginian.) 1 did not expect this from the reported excellence of Pennsylvania fiirming. In the coun- ties of Lancaster and Chester, the farms ap- peared small, (judging from the great number of good dwelling-houses in the vicinity of each oth- er,) and the cultivation good. But the soil did not seem to possess the fertility usually ascribed to it. Many farmers were actively engaged in liming iheif fields, I presume for corn. The wheat crop looked worse than I had seen it any where, throughout my whole journey. Ft must occur to a most superficial observ^er, that the country traversed by railroads and canals *Lettres sur I'Amerique, du Nord, Toroe Jer, p. 133. ^ from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, is greatly inferior^ in natural advantages, to that through Virginia* contemplated lor the James River and Kanawha improvement. The open country of Virginia, ia at least as good as that of Pennsylvania, and her mountain region is incalculably superior. That of Pennsylvania being steep and steril, with the ex- ception of a few narrow valleys, while the moun- tainous portion of Virginia is very fertile, the val- leys being rich and extensive, and the ridges ara- ble to a great extent, and where not so, in most cases capable of afibrding good pasturage. It is plain, in a mere pecuniary point of view, Penn- sylvania can only receive compensation tor her great and spirited works, from the western trade. Virginia, exclusive of the western trade, lor the en- joyment of which she will have many advan- tages, will be repaid by the improvement and traf- fic of Iier own territory, which has now scarcely any outlet to market, and is in a situation similar to that of the western part of the state of New York before the construction of the Hudson and Erie canal. Very large quantities of produce and merchan- dise are transported on the Pennsylvania canal and railioad. The tolls received on that line, fi-om the opening of navigation in the spring to June 2, of the present year, amounted to §561.635. 74. The price of transportation, too, is quite mo- derate ; die carriage of a barrel of flour fi^um Pittsburg to Philadelphia amounting only to one dollar and twelve and a half cents, over a distance of tour hundred and seventy-three miles, it being actually less than it often costs to send one from this neighborhood to Richmond, very little more than a fourth of the distance.* When will the people of the south learn to avail themselves of the blessings Providence has showered around them '? Never, I lear, until the wealth and strength of the nation is irreparably concentrated in the north. I am by no means envious of our northern brethren. I heartily wish them success in every legitinuie enterprise ; but I really feel mortified, that they should so fiir exceed us in all the enterprises of public utility. It is said of Dean Swift, that riding out it: his latter years, in the neighborhood of Dublin, he saw a new build- ing going up, and asking wh^t it was, was told it was a magazine. He expressed himself in the following impromptu, which I am obliged to quote from memory : "Here's a proof of Irish sense, ; Here Irish wit is seen : When nothing's left that's worth defence. We build a magazine." And when nothing is left worth struggling for, we will prosecute works of internal improvernent. My journey aflbrded nothing worth communi- cating (torn Philadelphia to Virginia. Thos. Massie. * I have seen it recently stated in the National In- telligencer, that tobacco this season has been brought up ttie Mississippi to Pittsburg, and transported thence by way of the Pennsylvania canal and railroad to the Baltimore marlcet. 1838] F A It M E U S ' REGISTER 30d MOWING. Thisisniioof the most importnnt operations in farniin£»; a jrreat deal of this work is to be done in a short time, and in a warm season, and it is of the fireatcst imporiance to liixhtcn the labor as far as possible. We have seen some very slout hardy men toil and sweat all day, and do but a small day's work, while other men of much less stren:}. prepared belbre- hand, of water, unslacked l;nie, a little sal-ammo- niac, and kitchen-water, or any sweepings, dead animals, spoiled previsions, and filth fbrm the dwelling-house. This water is to be allowed to fer- ment in a tank or pit. This is the first process. The next is to procure fiecal sulistances and urine; particularly huaian ordure, chimney soot, powder- ed trypsum, unslacked lime, wood-ashes, sea-salt, and what the inventor calls leaven of manure, being the last draimngs Irom a dunffliill already formed by the inventor's method. These articles beinix procured, and mixed together in certain firo- portiuns, (which we do not give, because we do not su|)pose there is one of our readers who would adopt them,) a quantity of the prepared li- quid is to be poured over them, and the whole al- lowed to ferment tor some weeks in a pit or cask. A piece of ground is now to be prejiared by le- velling and beating, so as to render it impervious to water; and on this raised floor the heap oC straw, heath, or other rubbish which is to under go lermentation, is to be placed. The materials may be placed in layers, and thoroughly moisten- ed and slimed with the liquid and its sediment. The heap may be raised to the heio-ht of seven feet, and then thoroughly moistened and covered over with the muddy sediment of the liquid. While the heap is making, it should be beaten or trod- den down, so a« to make the substances of which it is composed lie close and compact; and, when it is finished, it should be beaten all round with the same view. The heap is now to be covered all over with straw, branches, or herbage, so as to retain the heat and exclude the rain, or the drought. At the end of fbrty-eight hours fmm the coaipletion of the heap, a ii^rmentation ol^ from 15'-' to 20'^ of heat by Reaumur's scale (66° to 77" Fahr.) has been found to have taken place; and the following day it has irenerallv attained from 30° to 40" of Reaumur (99° to 122° Fahr.) On the third day, the top of the heap is to be opened to six inches deep with a fork, and the se- diment thrown on the top is to be turned over, and another good drenching with the liquid is to be ap|)lied to the heap, which is again to be im- mediately covered up. About the seventh day, holes about six inches distance from each other are to be made with a Ibrk, to the depth of three liiet, and another drenching is to be applied, the heap being afterwards covered up again. About the ninth day, another drenching is to be applied, through new and somewhat deeper holes, and the heap is to be again covered up. After the lapse of from twelve to fifteen days irom the mak- ing of the heap, the manure will be fit to spread. The fermentation is stopped by an excessive drenching, or by opening out the heap. If the materials of the heap are straAV only, the fermen- tation may be stopped at 55° of heat ; (156" FHhr.) oiherwise it may be allowed to proceed to 75° Reaumur, (200^ ¥tihv.)—Repertury of Arts, March, 1838, j). 172. In order to give this process a fair chance of be- ing introduced into England, M. Lozivy, one of the agents lor the patentees in France, was invit- ed to London, in order to prepare a heap of ma- terials in the Jauflret manner, as an exemplifica- tion of Rosser's patent. He came in March, 1838, and |)repared a heap of the new manure on the Earl of Spencer's estate, at Durnsfbrd Lodirey near Wandsworth, in Surry, the residence of Mr. Patterson, the ajrent to Lord Spencer. When the heap was duly lermented, and fit to spread, M. Lozivy invited a numlier of persons to inspect it, on April 16, among whom we were included. It was formed on the south-east side of a field barn, on a raised platform of clay; ten feet or twelve il^et in diameter, and covered with a very thick coating o\' straw. The outer covering of straw was removed, and the heap turned over, in the presence of tlie company ; when the materi- als, which had been chiefly straw, were found to be thoroughly rotted, black, and moist ; and, ta- ken altogether, in a very fit state tbr using as ma- nure. On examining them closely, many small branches ol heath and furze were found, the leaves and the herbaceous parts of which were decomposed, and the bark of the woody part par- tially so. On the whole, it appeared to us that every thing that was proposed to be done was ac- complished. It had required a much longer time than usual; because, owing to the extreme cold- ness of the weather, the heap could not for seve- ral weeks, be brought to a sufficient temperature to induce fermentation. The impression on our mind was, that nothing more was done by this process than what may be done in any farm-yard with similar materials, moistened with the drainings of the yard, and si- milarly heaped up and covered. All the nume- rous ingredients in Jauffret's composition would, we believe, have no more effect than clear water, without the assistance of animal matter; and, therefore, if we were going to ferment straw, or other vegetable matters, without the aid of a farm- yard, we should collect the dung and urine of all sorts of animals, and, simply throwing them into a tank or cask of water, allow them to ferment there; and, as soon as the fermentation took place, we would water the heap of materials, and cover it up. Of course, it would be of no use to at- tempt this except in mild weather; for even urine will not ferment in winter. We consider the lime, the gypsum, the sal-ammoniac, the soot, the wood-ashes, the sea-salt, and the refined saltpe- tre, as likely to have no effect whatever, in aiding 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 811 the fermentation, though they would add to ihe value ol' the heap as manure. All the good, liierelbre, which we consider may be drawn from u lino\vledi>e ot Jaufrrel's process in Englan. , by gardeners or lariners, is the con- firmation of what they already know, though sometimes, perhaps, neglect to put in practice; viz. : that the lermeiitatioii of litter may be great- ly promoted by watering it with the liquid which drains away from it, a"nd by covering it closely with thatch, straw, mats, turls, fagots, branches, or some other material, which will exclude rain and drought. Farther, that the urine of horses, and the urine and fa>cal matters of the human species, promote fermentation in vegetable matters much more powerfully than those of cows, sheep, swine, or poultry; and, consequently, that the mixing to- gether of the manures made by different animals will generally be found to increase fermentation. Finally, ifj in any part of Great Britain, there should be a quantity of such materials as, m France, would be made into manure by JauflVet's process, the shortest and most economical way would be to mix them with horse-dung, as prac- tised in Ibrming meadow-bank middens. In this way, one load of horse-dung mii^ht be made to ferment hundreds of loads of other fermentable matter. Remarks. We are enabled to give above, the earliest account of the process by which JaufFret's new preparation of manure is made. Since our first account of this dis- covery (p. 65, vol. vi. Far. Reg.) it has been cried up, by some, as a most wonderful and valuable improve- ment, and the discoverer denounced, by others, as a charlatan and a cheat. Now we differ from both these opinions; and we have not now, when the secret is fully revealed, to recall or retract any thing of our views stated in anticipation. (See page 125 of this volume.) Jauffret's process consists in applying highly putrescent liquids, as a leaven, to masses of ve- getable matter, so as to produce speedy fermentation, and to bring the hard and insoluble materials to a state fit to feed plants. There is no new principle disco- vered or established by the explanation of the process; no value found that was not before known to exist. The dead vegetable matter, which natural causes, in time, would have brought to the same state, is merely converted to food fit for sustaining living vegetables in a shorter time. It is altogether a question of economy, as to the comparison of the cost of labor in the one case compared to the loss of time in the other — and of the waste of materials in both. Where it is important to reduce hard and coarse vegetable matters in very short time to rotten manure, this process will be effectual, and perhaps profitable. But where labor is worth more than the loss by delay, as generally in this coun- try, it will be cheaper to let time, and the natural causes of fermentation, operate to produce the same results. Thus, we doubt not but that, by Jauffret's process, a farmer here might conveit all the leaves of his wood-land to a manure fit for immediate action, and as rich too as the quality of the materials will fur- bish, and the rapid fermentatioa will suffer to be saved. But, if the same leaves had been scattered a year ear- lier, as top-dressing, on land properly constituted to re- ceive and retain putrescent manure, and under a crop of young clover or other grass, perliaps a larger propor- tion of the fertili/.irig products of decomposition would have been put to use, and certainly with much less la- bor than is necessary for Jaullret's process. On the other hand, we see no ground to denounce the process as a cheat. That it falls very far short of the value expected by credulous and sanguine advocates, and in that sense is, what we before guessed it would prove, one of the many agricultural "humbugs," is very certain. But no man of common sense and judgment could have believed that the manure could possibly contain more of prepared aliment for plants, than the materials used did of unprepared alimentary matter; and no one, acquainted with the phenomena of fermentation, would have believed but that the origi- nal quantity of alimentary matter must be considera- bly lessened by the fermentative process. Therefore, if Jauffret's manure is sufficiently prepared for imme- diate use, and contains all the strength of the materials used, minus the usual loss caused by rapid fermenta- tion, it would seem that it is all that it promised to be, to judicious and reflecting minds. — Ed. Far. Reg. GREAT SALE OF DURHAM CATTLE. To tlie Editor of tlie Spirit of the Times. Cincinnati (Ohio), June 29, 1838. Sir — Believing that every thing connected with the improvement and sale of blood cattle must be interesting to the majority of your readers, allow me to furnish you with a transcript o( the prices obtained at the sale of Maj. Chas. S. Clarkson'a stock of Durham cattle, held on the 27ih and 28th inst. at his (Clifton) farm, th:ee miles from Cin- cinnati. This sale was well attended by agriculturists and stock-breeders frf.ii. the Miami and Scioto val- leys of the Ohio, as well as from Kentucky, In- diana, Illinois, &c., and went off with much com- petition and spirit. The stock, as will be seen, was very superior, and showed fine keeping, and the prices which were obtained have fully justified the enterprising proprietor that in his attempt to introduce this valuable breed of cattle into the western country he has not labored in vain. The gross sales amounted to §26.867 50, and a number of the animals have been since resold at a handsome advance of prices. I have herewith sent you a catalogue, of which you may make what use you please ; and as this is the second or third sale (only) of similar stock ever held in this section of counfrv, we ask you to furnish us with answers to the following queries, viz. : — 1st. Where (in the U. S.) has a larger number of fine stock ever been offered (at any one sale) at auction 1 2d. Where have higher prices been obtained? Waiting your reply, I am, sir, yours, &c. Buckeye. Note. — Imported Minna, and calf Colossus, sold for $1700, were repurchased by Maj. C. S. Clarkson at an advance ; also Lilly-of-lhe- Valley, Maj. C. having made no reservation of bids at sale. 312 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 5 Seven young heifers not included in the catalogue brought from $75 to #150 each. J. J. W. No. 1. Minna the 2d, 6 years - - |975 2. Octavia, 4 years . - - - 725 3. Pennsylvania, 7 years - - - 725 4. Lady Roan, 8 years - - - - 775 6. Snow Drop, 4 years . _ . 800 6. Florida and calf, 2 years - - - 1075 7. Belina, 2 years '. . - . 875 8. Kitty Clover, 7 years - - - - 700 9. Prudence, 7 years - - - - 570 10. Emma (and calf,) 3 years - - - 850 11. Hyacinth, 12, (private sale) - - 1000 12. Pink, 1 700 13. Rose- Bud, 1 850 14. White- Rose, 1 800 15. Dahlia, 1 475 16. Lilly-of-the- Valley, 1 ... 400 17. Susan, 15 months - - - - 550 18. Kate Kearney, 3 months (not sold.) 19. Stella, 7 months - . . . 410 20. Daisy and calf .... 460 21. Speckled Daisy, 4 years ... 400 22. Beauty, 3 200 23. Primrose, 2 220 24. Althea, 2, - . . . (not sold.) 25. Blue Bell, 2 months [See 22.] 26. Speckled Durham, 8 years - - 300 27. Duchess, 6 300 28. Blossom (and calf,) 3 years - - 750 29. Myrtle, 1 320 30. Alice, calf .... (not sold.) 31. Juliet, 2 years 100 32. Laura, calf 230 33. Venus, 9 years - - . . _ 150 34. Youn^ Venus, 4 years ... 185 35. Clio, 3 years .... [not sold.] 36. Matilda, 2 years - - - - 200 37. Flora, 7 years 225 38. Cornelia, 2 years - - . . 175 39. White Lilly, 1 year - . . - 330 40. Nora (and calf,) 7 years - - . 120 41. Caroline, 2 years - - - .165 42. Ruby, 1 year .... 225 43. Cherry, 7 years 135 44 and 45. Mulberry and calf . - 240 46. Old Crump, 10 years - - - [not sold.] 47 and 48. Speckled Le^s and calf- - 150 49 and 50. Old Kentuck'and calf - . 135 5i. Virginia, 10 months - - [not sold.] ■52. Clara, 3 years 53. Cora, 1 year - . . . 54. Lucy, 2 years . . . . 55. Nancy, 1 year ... 56 and 57. Harriet, 4 years, and calf - 58. Maria - ... 59. Rose, 6 years - . . . 60. Line-Back, 4 years ... 61. Spot, 4 years . . . . 62. Black-Face, 4 years 63. Clorinda and calf . . . 64. May-Flower, 1 year 65. Tulip, 4 years - . . . 66. Betsey Taylor, 3 years - 67 and 68. Miss Cleveland, calf, 69 and 70. Red-Bud, calf - 71. Miss Patton, 3 years - 72. Pet - . . 73. Hortense ... 74. Ohio, 3 years BULLS. 160 95 170 70 185 110 - 90 60 - 200 [not sold] - 205 465 - 65 [not sold.] do. 65 - [not sold.] 50 - [not sold.] 1450 Proclamation, 6 years ... Texas, 2 years last Sept. Colossus, 8 months - - - . Frederick, 9 months, ^500 offered, [not Daniel Webster, 1 year last Aug, [not Colonel Crocket, 2 years, fRe-sold foriglOOOO Loihario, foaled 1st May, sold with No. Don Juan, 1 year last Sept. Cortez, 3 years . . . - President, 1 year . . - . Cato, 1 year .... Logan, 1 year . . . - - Allred, 1 year May last Nimrod, calved Dec. last - . - Adonis, calved 23d April last, sold with No. 52. Duke Aranza, 1 year . - - 600 710 725 sold.] sold.] 575 10. 130 80 190 300 160 75 80 120 From the Western Carolinian. COTTON MANUFACTORIES IN N. CAROLINA. Since we became proprietors ofthe Carolinian, we have taken some pains to obtain all the infor- mation within our reach, concerning the cotton manufactories in North Carolina, knowing that it it would prove interesting to our readers. Our list is not yet complete, but even as far as it goes, many of our own citizens will be surprised to see the progress North Carolina has made in the esta- blishment of manufactories: — it should be recol- lected thai all these establishments, with the excep- tion of two or three, have sprung up within the past three or four years. The following is, as far as we can ascertain, A List ofthe Cotton Factories in actual opt' ration in North Carolina. 1. Factory at the Falls of Tar river, in Edge- comb county. This is the oldest in the state j owned by a company. 2. Factory near Lincolnton, Lincoln county, built by a company, — but is now owned by Mr. John Hoke. 3. One at Fayetteville, owned by Mr. Mallet, 4. Another at Fayetteville, owned by Mr. Blaek- well, and others. 5. One in Greensborough — steam power, owned by Mr. Humphreys. 6. One at Milton, owned by an incorporated company. 7. One at Mocksville, Davie county, owned by Mr. Thomas McNeely. 8. One or perhaps two, in Orange county owned by companies. 9 .One at Salem, steam power, recently started^ owned by a company. 10. One in Randolph county, owned by a com- pany. li. One at Lexington, Davidson county — steam power, if not already started, will be, within a few days, owned by a company. JBesides these, there are others now in the pro- gress of building, and will soon be in operation. List of Factories now being built. 1. One at Rockfish, near Fayetteville, a fine water power, owned by a company. 1838] FARMER'S REGISTER, 813 2. One near Rocl pro- cure even one, in consequence of a foolish and in- veterate prejudice against 600A; farming. This pre- judice is more general than I had thought, though it must yield before the light of knowledge, and 1 hope to be able still to add some new names to your list. My exertions shall be unabated. On the subject of hill-side drains, I want information; I have seen several communications in the Regis- ter for and against the system; but nothing in de- tail, or not sufficiently so, to enable me to satisfy myself as to the quo modo. I am satisfied of their efficacy, if accurately done; and if not accu- rately done, that they are manifestly injurious. If you could furnish such information, or elicit that information from some one of your corre- spondents conversant with the subject, you will much oblige your obedient servant, &.c. [If those southern and western planters, who scorn all book-farming, and are sure that no agricultural journal published in a remote region can yield to them profit or instruction, would listen to our reasoning, and not consider the gaining of their subscription mo- ney to be our sole object, we could name very many subjects on which they need such instruction, and might greatly profit by receiving it through the chan- nel of such an agricultural journal. We will name but the one to which our correspondent refers — the graduated ditches, or beds, on hill-sides, to guard the soil against being washed away by heavy rains. Full information on this subject was given in several com- munications to the first volume of this work; (which our correspondent had not then seen) and we he- sitate not to declare, that if the instruction there of- ferred on that subject alone, had been known to the planters of the hilly lands of South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama, and duly acted upon for the last twen- 818 FARMERS' REGISTER [No, ty years, the value of soil, of crops, and of labor, thereby saved to the cultivators, would have been worth millions of dollars. A very intelligent farmer of this state, who had learned and profited by this practice, settled a cotton plantation in the hilly region of Alabama. Though on new and, as yet, rich soil, he resolved to prevent its waste and destruction ; and to that end, forthwith, commenced a general system of hill-side ditches. Their useful operation was soon manifest to every ob- server; and an older settler, (who probably despised book-farming as heartily as our correspondent's neigh- bors,) pronounced the practice to be the greatest im- provement ever introduced, and that the introducer was a public benefactor, whose services to that country would prove to be beyond estimation. We fully con- cur in this opinion. But if the new settler had ob- tained his knowledge of this improvement from the Farmers' Register, as he might have done, and as every hill cultivator in the south and west might now easily do, would it not have been " book-farming'''^ Even if the still farther fertilizing of rich virgin soil is not required, the preservation of existing fertility surely is desirable; and especially if it is cheaper to preserve than to waste the richness of the land. And even if neither of these important objects is cared for, still it is as important to the cultivators of the lands of the most exuberant fertility, no less than to others less happily situated, to be apprised of agricultural news, and of the advances of agricultural knowledge — and thereby be enabled to learn every new value of agricul- tural labor and products — and eveiy means of mak- ing labor cheaper and more effective, by better im- plements and stock, and better management.] Montgomery county, Ala.^ ) March \Uh, 1838. \ I am a planter of but little experience, and re- gret much that your work, with the aid of which one may profit so much from the experience of others, is not better calculated for my latitude. Hundreds of planters here, like myself, require to be taught much that might appear common-place to the experienced; and if your work contained the desired information, I am pursuaded its circu- lation would be greatly extended in the south- west. The difficulty of procuring well written es- says and valuable papers upon our peculiar soils, staple and mode of culture, I am aware, must be very great to a distant editor. But this is a diffi- culty which it vvould be much to your interest to overcome. Southern cotton-planters are gene- rally educated, intelligent, reading men; and the Register vvould be very popular among them, if it taught them their true policy and interest, with half the skill and accuracy, which it has hitherto displayed in relation to the farming interest of the "Old Dominion." Virginia must be well-nigh ready to graduate under your instruction; turn then to the " destitute south-west" and give us the be- nefit of a few lectures. [We lament that our journal has not more southern communications. But we deny that we have been re- miss in endeavoring to obtain them. The fault is in all those, like our correspondent, who can write and instruct, and will not do so. We have throughout paid especial attention to the agriculture of the more southern states; and never fail to publish every valua- ble article found in other prints, as we have published every original communication sent directly from the south to this work. And without counting any of the articles exclusively useful for the south, and though we have never been south of Raleigh, nor west of Virginia, we dare to assert that the observations on the prairie soils of the south and west, taken in connexion with the doctrines on the nature of soils in general, as pre- sented in these volumes, offeras much of useful and pro- fitable, and practical instruction to the people of the south and west, as might have contented them in a work printed among them, and designed exclusively for their patronage. Yet we must confess, with feelings of dis- appointment and mortification, that these available ser- vices seem not to have been there appreciated, and in- deed are scarcely known. We have not withheld our "lectures" from the "destitute south-west," and are ready to deliver them as long as they are desired. But not for the reason that they are not still very much wanted, (though but little in demand, in mercantile language,) at home.] Clarke county, Va. 22d April, 1838. I received with my first No. of the Register, your "Essay on the causes of the formation of Prai- ries, &c.," which I read with much interest, and with entire acquiescence in the soundness of its views. I do not know whether you are aware of the fact, that this part of the valley — including a large portion of JefTerson and Clarke, and a less one of Berkeley counties, was, when first settled, and until about 80 years since, a perfect prairie. It is a highly calcareous region, and its geological character generally corresponds, I believe, with that of the "great west." It is now covered with a lofly growth of trees — though the forests are more open and sparse than in the argillaceous soils — and without any undergrowth except grape- vines. I believe, however, that the trees here are short-lived — having always observed that a portion of them, in the midst of their apparently vigorous and rapid growth, die annually, without any extraneous or obvious cause. These facts corroborate your theory, that soils which contain a large portion of calcareous matter are unfavora- ble to the growth or perpetuity of trees; and that the luxuriant crops of grass which they produce, and the abundant supply of dead wood, where wood ever did exist, afforded sufficient food to the annual fires, which swept over these plains and destroyed their feeble efforts to throw up a woody growth; and hence the formation of prairies^ wherever they exist. Mobile, June 23. I am pleased to see the zeal and ability with which your: paper is conducted, and think it the 1S38] FARMERS' REGISTER. 819 best agricultural paper we have ever IkhI, and likely to be of infinite advantage, though the pro- gress will he slow. The taste has to be created with that class with whom it will be most useful. The crops of corn in this state are remarUably fine, and may be said to be made. The cotton crop was worse ten days ago than I have ever seen it at the same lime. Many places lor 50 acres together there were not 50 stalks in the bald or open prairies, and the light sandy lands. The crop has been replanted, and the young cotton shows very prettily, and the weather has so far been very suitable for it ; and with a cool fall the young cotton may make a '^ crop, and the old cotton more. The month of May was very cold, the thermometer on the 24th was at 40° ; and as the cause was a general one, I think it a fair inference that the crops Jiave every where been injured. There is no calculation to be relied on as to the probable crop for the year at this time of it ; as it depends so much on the season from this time on. Since writing the foregoing I have received a letter from Arkansas. The month of May was cold and rainy, and the crops were very unpro- misino:. Baltimore. April 16, 1838. * * * Your article on " hobbies and humbugs," it seems to me, is rather severe, and calculated ra- ther to depress the spirit of enterprise than encour- age it. It we are to have no new thing, till it has been sufficiently tried to prove that it is not a hobby nor a humbug, we might as well give up improvement for the time. * * * I differ with you on some of the " hobbies and humbugs," I perfectly agree with you on some others. The Baden corn, for example, is an old worthless pony, that has been turned out to die of old age three or four times within forty years past; (I don't wish you to suppose that I have been an observer of these things myself for forty years, as I am not old enough for that — ) and it seems that even old age won't kill it, or if it does, that it won't stay killed. Lynchburg, July 11th, 1838. Our harvest is not yet completed. All accounts, until very recently, have concurred in representing the wheat crop as a very superior one. Hence, on a visit to the country ten days ago, I was much disappointed ; I saw very little that was prime, and much that was inferior, and some not worth cutting. Early sowing in good ground, well pre- pared, looks well, a good deal of it, and some, very well, but on examination, the head, a third or a half, has three grains in a mesh, then two, with four or five at top with one, and some entire skips. And I am not certain that any of the grain is superior. Such is the best. There is still a large quantity of thin corn-ground seeded, unpro- fitable as it is. This is all interior, and a good deal worthless. The crop is all late, but some is much later than the rest, as usual. Nearly all of this, including northern exposures, is sorry. J should say, that, in quantity, the crop is vastly short of the general estimate, and that a large portion is of inlerior quality. It is proper, hovve- v(!r, to say that my observations are confined to a limited region, li'om this place to the Hkie Rid're the north side of JJedlbrd, 20 odd miles. Rye, of which the quantity sown is much di- minished, is better than lor several years. Oats, moderate; on thin land, not good as common. Corn backward, and more missing than usual but a fa- vorable season may yet make a good crop. Some tobacco land has been planted in corn, for want of plants, and from that circumstance and a scarcity of planting seasons, the prospect is unpromising. Elizabeth City Co. Va., July 20, Our wheat crop was generally good. More wheat has been made this year in our county than was ever grown before in any two. The crop of corn though backward, promises a fair yield. Things have much improved here since your visit to Back river, (in 1836) and land is growing daily more valuable. We are cleaning up and manuring in every direction ; and without design- ing to flatter you, I am free to confess that much of this improvement is owfng to the influence of your valuable paper. I was much pleased with your description of Gloucester, and felt more than ordinary interest in your remarks, because they applied with peculiar force to my own neighborhood. Your theory about wide beds is certainly true. I know from experience that 11 feet beds suffer from wet much less than 5 feet ones. At any rate I will try it this fall, and will let you know the result. [From the letter of a brother editor.] Pray how do your subscribers pay? Ours are horribly remiss. [We may answer that our subscribers are " Like Jeremiah's figs, The good, are very good, indeed — The bad, too bad for pigs."] THE WHEAT CROP. The wheat harvest has been finished, and without much loss from bad weather in general, though many crops on the lower James river suffered severely from a hurricane which tore down shocks, and scattered the sheaves, wherever its power reached. In that region the crops are found to be less productive in grain than in straw ; and the yield will there be less, by perhaps one-fourth, than was counted on in our last report, made during harvest. Similar disappointment has been found elsewhere, as stated in a foregoing extract. Still the general crop will be a large one. From many other parts of the country, there is yet no abatement stated of the first anticipations of great product. S20 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 5 MONTHLY COMMERCIAL REPORT. The weather has been very favorable for har- vest, and the crops of wheat and oats were stack- ed in dry order, Tlie showers of rain were occa- sionally violent, but of short duration, and during the last fbrtniirht the weather has been dry, and the heat extreme. The product of wheat, so far as ascertained, falls short of expectation ; but proves fair for the quantity sown, and the quality is good. Some few farmers who undertook to get their wheat ready for delivery in this month and made contracts in June, obtained SI 50 per bushel; but this price soon began to decline, and subse- quent contracts have been successively at SI 40, il 30, SI 25, and $1 20, for delivery in August. Prices are expected to go still lower, unless a prospect of foreign demand shall check the decline. The crop throughout the United States, is sup- posed to be the largest that has been made for several years. The inspections of tobacco to 1st inst. show dou- ble the quantity to the same time last year, but this arises chiefly li-om a similar difference in price. A considerable portion of the crop of 1836 has been brought to market since the 1st October, 1837, and is counted in the present year's inspection. The range of prices is from S 1 for inferior and partly decayed lugs, to SH, for choice leaf. The inspections in Virginia, it is supposed, will reach about 45,000 hhds. and those of Kentucky about the same, which, with the addition of Maryland, will furnish about an average of the usual quan- tity for export. The growing crop is said to be unpromising, par- ticularly as to the quantity. The quantity of cotton reported in the table of receipts at different ports of the United States, reaches nearly to 1.800.000 bales, being an in- crease of about 450,000 bales on the receipt of last year, partly arising from the same cause that the inspections of tobacco exhibit so large an in- crease. Considering all circumstances, prices have been well supported. They have advanced 1| cent per pound in the last 6 or 8 weeks, partly owing to de- cline in freight, and rise in exchange on England. Sales have been small in Petersburg as high as 11| per cent., the range of prices 9 to 11^, but some reaction is now felt, and the accounts fmm England to 16 ult. are not so favorable as those which preceded ; indeed so large a quantity as 1.- 800,000 bales had not been anticipated. It is confidently expected that the banks in the Atlantic states will generally resume specie pay- ments next month, and that the western banks north of Tennessee will follow the example. Specie has fallen to 2 to 3 per cent., exchange on England 8^. July 24, 1838. X. Table of Contents of Warmers^ Register, JYo, 5, Woh W*l. ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS. Page Cheap elementary agricultural publications re- commended— agricultural books for scliools, 262 Fibrous-leaved plants, and the mode of pre- paring the fibres, .... - 289 Premiums awarded by the agricultural Society of Charlotte 290 The colleges of Virginia considered as works of "internal improvement." William and Mary College, 292 On the use of marine vegetable manure, - 300 Covering cotton-seed with the coulter. Bene- fit of ploughing clay soils after rain, - - 30.3 Agricultural notes of a tour to the west, - - 304 Remarks on Jautfret's new process for making manure, 311 Seedling trees from the TJiorwsTnrfZ/iCffuZi.s, - 316 On rinding or ringing fruit trees, - . - 317 Extracts from private correspondence, - - 317 Wheat crop, 319 Monthly commercial report, - - - - 320 SELECTIONS. On mulberry and silk culture, - - - 257 Books on agriculture for school-boys, - - 260 Peach prospect, 261 Anecdote of the use of lime, - - - 261 Cut-worm, 261 Ruta-baga, 264 Marl in South Carolina, .... 265 Capabilities of soils. Vegetable physiology, 266 On stall-feeding sheep, 267 Canada thistle, 269 Sow pure seed, 269 On cotton culture, 269 Effect of natural causes of difference on the agriculture of England and the United States, Page Climate and products of East Florida, - - 273 Cheap thrashing machine and horse-power, - 275 On grasses for the south, . . - . 276 Capons, 277 Peach trees, 277 Poultry, - 278 Turnip drills, 278 Smith's ever-pointed stone-cutting chisel, - 279 Efficacy of lightning-rods, or conductors, - 279 Injury caused by the destruction of birds, - 280 Increase of temperature in the interior of the earth, 283 Building stone-fence, ----- 284 Value of Durham cattle, - . . - 285 Substitute for spaying, ----- 285 Don't blame your seedsman, . . - 285 Charcoal for diseased lungs in hogs, - - 286 Citron pumpkin, - - - - - - 286 Russian gold mines. Important discovery in extracting gold from the ore, . - - 287 New mode of applying steam, - - - 28S Progress of agriculture, - - - - 288 Mineral manures, ----- 291 Use of lime in New Hampshire, - - - 292 Public exercises and liOnors of William and Mary College, 296 Public exercises and honors of the University of Virginia, ------ 297 Ashes as manure, 299 Agricultural charlatanism, - - - - 303 Mowing, 309 Jautfret's new manure, .... 309 Great sale of Durham cattle, - . - sn Cotton manufactories in N, C., - - - 312 A domestic rabbit-warren, - - - - 313 Milk-sickness, 313 Lucerne and saintfoin, - . . - 315 Joyce's new mode of heating, - - - 317 THE FAR ME US' REGISTER. Vol. VI. SEPTEMBER 1, 1838. No. 6. EDMUND RUFFIN, EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR. OIV THKFRKQUENT FAILURKS OF TIIK VVIIKAT CROPS. To the Editor of the Farmers' Register. The successive liiilures oC the three Inst crops of wheat, ami the partial injury to the present, have caused ageneral inquiry, why this crop is more un- certain than ill Ibrmer seasons, and what remedy can be Ibund lor this nr.isfortune, wliich tiireatens to destroy the cuhivation ofwheat, at least in Virginia. Being extremely partial to the golden grain, and thoroughly convinced that it ought to be the sta- ple crop of the Old Dominion, I venture, as its I'riend, to give you some thoughts on the subject. Every candid observer must admit that the last (bur seasons have been very unfavorable — severe winters, and excessive rains in May and June. The jjresent crop was very [iron)ising until the rains and exceedingly hot weather, which have created a good deal of rust in parts of the state, but still left a crop which will probably make us independent of foreign supplies. Those causes have been beyond human con- trol, and, so far as they are concerned, we can only submit to the decrees of an all-wise Providence; but it belioves us, as rational beings, to mquire whether there do not exist other causes, which may be removed by human eflbrt. There certainly is something very striking in the reHection, that a country always producinsf sufficient bread-stuff for its inhabitants since its first settlement, and latterly exporting more of that article than any oiher, should, with the view of affording a better home market to its ag- riculture, for the benefit of its manufactures — and in less than twenty years from the adoption of this policy — find its agriculture so oppressed, that these very manufacturers have to resort to foreigners for their daily bread. Thus showing the retributive justice of Heaven, who hath said: " thou shalt not nmzzle the ox that treadeth out the corn." But, thanks to the wisdom or fickleness of our le- gislators, this state of things is rapidly changing; and it becomes us to inquire, now that the effi- cient or remote cause of the disease is about to be removed, how shall the patient be restored to his pristine health and vigor? Were this the case of a lovely form, whose freshness and beau- ty were fast fading away, without any evidence of fixed disease, the physician would say, " Restore her native air, and place her amongst the soft breezes of the valley, or the bracing air of those mountains, the scenes of her childish gambols , and we may hope to see the rosy-lipped che- rub again bounding, like the antelope, from hill to hill." Now, following this metaphor, may it not be well to inquire wherein has agriculture degenerat- ed under its oppression, and to endeavor to restore that vigor, which was the cause and the conse- quence of its former health. Many of those who now guide the operations of the husbandman, have no personal recollection of the ibrmer state of things. But you and I, Mr. Editor, can now use the familiar phrase of some twenty years Vol. VI.— 41 since. We were both reapers of the golden har- vest, which seemed almost like coining money, immediately after the late war ; and though schoolboys at the time, we recollect the high price so long kept up during Bonaparte's wars. Your resideuce was on the sandy lands of the tide-water, where corn was the staple crop; but Providence cast my lot upon the green bell of the Blue Ridge, in a section, even then, rapidly im- proving in its agriculture. And I well remember, that the most usual sigh's in July and August, were large fields of clover subverted by the plough- share, and the carts and wains all busily engaged in spreading the liirtilizing jtroduce of the stable and fiirm-pen, over those portions of the field which were more scantily covered with clover; and even those farmers who had not advanced to clover, were still anxious to reap the benefits of manuring and fallowing. And, as hope is more exciting than enjoyment, many hurried into those operations without even securing the previous crop, thinking less of the !j^2,000 they could get lor it, than the ^4,000 expected lor the next year's produce; and 1 have often seen thecom- inij crop covering those fallow fields with as bright a green as the clover which had so lately clad them, wfiilst the weather-beaten shocks stood amongst the rank stubble of the late harvest. But when our wise rulers took it into their heads that we must make every thing we wanted at home, and our hoodwinked farmers took up the idea, that to buy nothing was the best Avay to get rich, without reflecting that others must follow our example, they soon found that their barns were loaded with grain, laid up for many years; and, like the man in the parable, said " soul take thy rest." They then found that fallow- ing was a very laborious and expensive busi- ness; that the crop was very uncertain, and apt to be destroyed by the blue grass. For now they could not think of crossing their fallow, which was thought an expedient operation when wheat brought 9s. to 12s. a bushel; the crack of the whip, and shrill whistle of the driver, no longer impelled the patient ox with hisfiirtilizing load; the weather was too hot in July and August; and the ma- nure either wasted in the heap, or was all expend- ed on tobacco, corn, or top-dressing. The domestic market, which we sacrificed so much to gain, came at last; but it was not lor wheat, but corn, which of course commanded the chief care and labor of the husbandman. Now 1 would say to my l)roiher larmers, resume those good old habits. This is the proper season. Select some field, or portion of one, of crood land ; not some worn-out gall, too poor for corn. Plough it well belbre the Isl September, if practicable, and re-plough it in that monlh, if necessary. Scatter all the manure you can raise, on the poorest part, and seed it well in the month of October; early, if in the upper part ol" the state, late in the month, if below. Plough or harrow in the wheat ; but, at any rate, finisli with a good smooth harrowiug. It any part is inclined to be too wet, water-fur- row it well. If your wheal has any smut, soak is 322 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 6 in a strong brine, and roll in quick-lime immedi- ately belore seedino;; and then pray to Heaven lor a good harvest. As to your corn land, sow only that which is good, and no more than you can prepare well, and in good lime; put the balance in oats. No preparation is good, unless the wheat is put in regularly at a suitable depth, and the soil well pulverized. The wheat ought never lo be sown without some previous work; the land may be ploughed up with two horses, and this is best on fiat land which requires bedding. But on dry land, I think the best mode is to cut the stalks off with a hoe, (not a knife, which leaves them too high;) pile or remove them. Plough up the stub- bles, by running a furrow with a one or two-horse plough. Harrow the land crosswise or diagonally. Sow the wheat, plough it in with small ploughs, and harrow again. This will make the land al- most as fine as a plant-bed; and although it is more trouble, if" the wheat turns out well, you will be paid; and if not, it would certainly have been worse with a worse preparation. As soon as the crop is seeded, begin to lay plans and make preparations for putting in your next crop in the same or a better manner; and if your crops fail, my word lor it, " you may thank God that your neighbors' are no better.'- Rkd Land. RETARDED ACTION OF GYPSUM. To iho Editor of the F;umers" Register. Some time last year I communicated the fact, that the efiect of plaster, applied to the young clover soon after it catne up, was not perceptible. I concluded that the soil either did not need that manure, or that the plaster was not genuine. But I am gratified to state that that plaster, though apparently useless last year, has manifested its ef- ficacy in the most striking manner this, in so much that the bed of twenty feet width through a large lot, which was left un plastered, looks, at a little distance, as if it had been mowed, while there is a lall and luxuriant growth of clover on both sides of it. I believe that experiments in plaster, and other things, often prove abortive for the want of the unremitted personal attention of farmers to the application of them, and to the not following them out by the nicest and most careful personal inspection and comparison. A. C. MOUTON. Mecklenburg Co., July 18, 1838. From the Southern Agriculturist. / ON PISE BVILDIKGS. To the distressed inhabitants of the city of Charleston. Seeing from the act of the legislature, as well as from the ordinance of our city council, that in fu- ture we are restricted to the use of incombustible materials in erecting our buildings, and knowino- as I do the high price of such, and the difficulty of" getting them at so high a price, I would su<^gest the use of pise, or rammed clay walls, '^rhis mode of building is of great antiquity, and brought to such perfection in the country about the beauti- ful city of Lyons, in France, as to appear like ele- gant palaces, some of which are known to have stood three hundred years. But to be concise on this subject: I have just erected the walls, and covered in a house ol" 48 feet long by 24 wide, containing six large rooms, and three wide pas- sages: and though built under many ditliculties, which I had to surmount as I went on, yet it will bear comparison with any brick house of the same size, and was built in nine months by two men only, (who hired out at ,^10 per month bclbre em- ployed on this work,) assisted by a black country carpenter for three weeks. From the experience I have gained m the erection of this house, I can with confidence recommend (if my directions are followed) the use oi' pise buildings j viz.: The foundation must be stone or brick, raised twelve to eighteen inches above the ground. The mould, which is very simple, must be a piece of 3 by 4 scantling, laid across the foundation, with a mor- tice at each end, describing the width of your wall, allowing for the thickness of the boards that are to stand on their edges, with their sides to the studs of scantling, standing in the mortices of the transverse scantling already mentioned, and cap- ped with a piece of the same width ; these studs to be erected three or four feet apart. The flooring- boards intended for the house, and which require seasoning, will just answer for this purpose, and will not be the least injured from this use, but bet- ter seasoned. They must be reduced to one thick- ness, and cut with a mitre at one end to meet at the corners, clasped with tin or sheet iron clasps, secured with small screws. These may be taken off every other course, and used as before. In this mould so formed, lay six inches of clay, as dry as you can procure it, (I never found it too dry,) and commence ramming, with a rammer beveled li'om a square of six inches, to one inch, all on one side. The pisadore (who is the rammer) finding it will not yield more to this rammer, then com- mences with a square rammer, till it rebounds briskly from the wall ; he then continues filling in, continuing the same process till the boards are full, and he lays another board on the edge of that just finished, and continues this process until the story is raised to receive the joists. These are laid on a piece of scantling, 3 by 4, laid along in the mould, and each end is well dove-tailed. This being effected, I would recommend that the mould be taken apart from the wall ; it will be found an equal continued surface, resembling a piece cut out of a rock, of the color of the clay. If this has any blemishes (or inequalities of surface) (rom the clay sticking to the mould, they can be im- mediately remedied by a plaster made of the same clay, with a mixture of cotton or hair. This be- ing done, lay on the whole wall a coat of linseed oil. It win immediately sink in, and form an in- durator, that will convert the surface to a crust of putty, impervious to rain, or any kind of moisture. After you have given the wall a coat or two of the oil, you may paint it of any color you wish, which it will show and retain, with the greatest brillian- cy. Then erect your mould on the next story, and continue as before, laying (which I forgot to men- tion) your door and window jambs plumb in their proper places in the mould, as you go along. This mould possesses many advantages over the one jassj FARMERS' REGISTER. 823 which I ili't'cribed in my tbrmcr article in the Airri- cultijrist. It turns oni tlic wori< in one coiiiinucd inasi?, as iC chiseled Troni a roci<, and by this liie work is reduced to three-lburths of the labor, and much more [ilanished and perpendicular. In this manner, a pis^e house can be built as eletrant. du- rable, slronij and incombustible, as oC any other material allowed to be used. Its expense will de- j)end nmch on the locality and vicinity of the clay, to tlie place it is erected. Having the clay at hand, my pisadore (or rammer) and one atten- dant, carried up sixteen inches of a wall, sixteen inches thick, in four days, all round a house, 48 leet lonn;, and 24 feet wide. Now, if to build such a wall sixteen inches high, requires four days, how many days will it take to build it thirty-six leet high, 'the full height of a three-story house? Answer lOS days ; which, at one dollar per day, would be equal to §'216. A brick house of this size would re- quire 100,000 bricks, which at $15 per M., will amount to - - ^1500 00 Lime at 25 bushels per M., is 2500 bushels, at 20 cents, - - - 500 00 Laying the bricks at §4 per M., is - 400 00 Cost of the walls of the dwelling house only, . - - - §2400 00 Deduct the price of building the pise Jiouse, 21G 00 In (avor of the pise house, - - §2184 00 But this is not all, for in a brick house you have to build a wood one within to make it fit to be inha- biled; [)lasler and studs, laths, lime, nails and stucco, will amount to .§1200, making the round sum of §3.384. In opposition to this, I will state. the pise walls require no plaster, but only to be smoothed and painted plain, or penciled, as taste may dictate. The pise liouse being painted as it comes out of the mould, is fit to be inhabited as soon as finished. But the difficulty of procuring clay is objected to. This will cease when we are informed, that all the bluffs about our harbor and rivers, contain it in abundance, and may be waited over in light- ers, and sold at a low price. Our harbor, and the rivers and creeks around us, contain inexhaustible banks of dead shells, which, if rammed in such a mould, will produce a fine wall equal to Tabby, well known to many of us. The banks of Ash- ley river abound in a concretion of calcareous matter fit lor such buildings. To this imporianf hint I call your attention. The doctrine that I have been endeavoring to inculcate, admits ot' the clearest demonstration, actual experiment. Take a box of a handy size, ram it with clay as de- scribed. When so filled and rammed, turn it up on a board, and lay it in the sun to dry, so as the box or mould may be lifted ofl' without injury to the pise-ed work. When dry, indurate it with lin- seed oil, and when it is dry, paint it on either side with any color you please. This experiment will satisfy you of the strength of the walls, the effects of the oil as an indurator, and the beautiful ap- pearance of the paint. I remain, with best wishes, yours, &c. Barth w. Carkoll. From tliu Tciuicsscc Farmer. BEAVlCll Ol' NOUTII AlUKUICA. The natural habits of the beaver are topics so generally, though olten so imperfectly handled, that we will rather speak at present of the man- ners which it is found to display in a domestic state, and of one or two other particulars less ge- nerally known. We have domesticated certain animals, and most of those only to a certain extent, and are therefore apt to fiuicy that those are the only ani- mals susceptible of domestication, and that they surpass all others in sagacity and companionable aficctions. But there is a very long list indeed, of animals, apparently the last to be thought of for domestication, but which, nevertheless, would please, and be pleased, if they, like others, lay in our bosoms, ate out of our dish, and sal at our firesides, and that would make manifest their un- derstanding, and more than answer our caresses. An example presents itself in the beaver, whose habits in domesticity are pictured by a North American trader. " I have kept several beavers," says Hearne, "till they became £0 domesticated as to answer to their name, and to follow those to whom they are accustomed, in the same manner as a dog would do, and they were as much pleased at being fon- dled as any animal I ever saw. In cold weather they were the constant companions of the Indian women and children, and were so fond of their company, that when the Indians were absent lor any considerable time, the beavers discovered great signs of uneasiness ; and, on their return, showed equal marks of pleasure, by fondling them, crawling into their laps, lying on their backs, sit- ting like a squirrel, and behaving like children who see their parents but seldom. In general, during the winter, they lived on the same food aa the women did, and were remarkably fond of rice and plum-pudding : they would eat partridges and fresh venison very fieely, but I never tried them with fish, though I iiave lieard that they will at times prey on them, in fiict, there are fi^w gram- nivorous animals that may not be brought to be carnivorous." Of the things usually eaten by the beaver, the same writergives thelbllowing account : — " 'J'heir Ibod consists of a large root, something resembling a cabbage stalk, which grows at the bottom of the lakes and rivers. They also eat the bark of trees, particularly those of the poplar, birch, and willow- but the ice preventing them li'om getting to the land in the winter, they have not any bark to feed on in that season, except that of such sticks as they cut down in summer, and throw into the water opposite the doors of their liouscs ; and as they generally eat a great deal, the roots above- mentioned constitute a principal part ol' their food during the winter. In summer they vary their diet, by eatnig diirereiu kinds of herbage, and such berries as grow near their haunts." Beavers having reiurned in considerable num- bers to Nottoway river and its tributaries, Mr. Hufiiii, of the Farmers' Register, suggests the propriety of an experiment to domesticate them, witli a view to the annual procurance of their rich furs, without deslioying iheir lives. As this inof- fensive and valuable animal is rapidly disappear- ing before the stratagems of the trapper, and the 324 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 6 inarch of civilisation, this resort may become ne- cessary, if practicable, and might perhaps turn out to be a proSlabie enterprise. Ed. Tenn. Farmer. From the Columbia Telescope. MANURES. Mr. Johnston — In Ruffin's Farmers' Reixister for May, 1838, p. Ill, is an extract from a letter by Lardner Vanuxem, esq., formerly my aid in the college here, giving a very brief account of the localities of what he terms shell marl, in South Carolina, viz. : at the Santee canal, Eutaw Springs, Dr. Jameson's, near Orangeburgh Court House, Mr. Darby's, in St. Mathew's, at God- frey's ferry, on the Pedee river, on the Edisto, &c. To which I have to add, a locality two miles south of Darlington Court House. Marie, tech- nically, is a soil composed of sand, clay, and lime- stone, where the latter earth is in the proportion of one-third or more. I have reason to believe that all the localities consist principally of limestone, with various proportions of sand, but very small quantity of clay, or argillaceous earth. My son brought me, a short time ago, a speci- men of the shells and soil from the great oyster bank on the Santee, which I believe extends eight or ten miles. I have also received from Judse D. Johnson, a specimen of the shell marl near Dar- lington Court House. I regara all these, from the character of the shells in them, to belong to the tertiary formation — in modern phraseology, ante- diluvian. Of the specimen from Santee, I took 100 grains of an oyster shell, (of an extinct species.) I dis- solved it in muriatic acid, and about 5 per cent, of sand remained undissolved. I threw down all the limestone with carbonate of potash, boiling the solution to drive away any excess of carbonic acid, which is apt to keep limestone in solution. The liquor being filtered, and the residuum dried and weighed, furnished the expected proportion of limestone. I took the earth with which the inside of the shell was filled up. I dissolved it as before, pro- curing about 90 per cent, of limestone. The re- siduum was chiefiy sand, with but little clay- earth. I took 100 grains of the common gravelly soil furnished me by Judge D. Johnson, from 'Dar- lington Court House vicinity. I rejected all the larger fragments ol shells, taking what appeared to be the soil. I treated it as before, with muria- tic acid, which dissolved perfectly 75 percent, of the gravelly soil, leaving (when dried perfectly and weighed) 25 per cent, of soil, almost entirely sand, undissolved. Here, then, in various parts of our state, are de- posits of shell limestone, just as valuable for ma- nure as any other whatever, to sandy, to clayey, or to an intermixture of sandy and clayey soil. A source of wealth that is of very great extent and very great value. Limestone in Europe is applied when burnt into lime, sometimes to the amount of 300 bushels per acre. Twenty hundred weight of limestone ought to be exposed to fire in the kiln, till it will yield but eleven hundred weight, or more accurately from 43 to 41 per cent, of carbonic acid ought to be driven off by the heat; else the lime is imper- fectly burnt, and will not make good mortar. When laid and slacked upon the land, it regains fi-om the air about 30 per cent, of carbonic acid in about 10 days, and is gradually changed into lime- stone airam. Hence the necessity of keeping lime from the air, which is to be used as a cement ; hence, too, powdered limestone may be as good as lime in most cases. I would, therefore, were I a farmer, merely grind and screen the shell marl, without burning it, and put at least 300 or 350 bushels of the screened earth per acre, on the land. This will form a good constitution of soil, and will permanently prove useful. I should deem 400 bushels per acre, on sandy soils, not too much, and the addition of clay will add to the productive power of the mixture thus made. But as I am not a practical fiirmer, I say this with de- ference to the judgment of those who are. I am, &c. Thomas Cooper, M. D. From the Farmers' Cabinet. CAPONS. Auburn, Frederick Co., Md. Nov. 23, 1837. I very much fear 5'ou will begin to think me ei- ther an epicure or the son of an epicure, it being only a short time since that I served you up a mess of bacon, and now I come with a dish of fowl. It has been said, it is not good for man to be alone. Bacon, although good alone, is very much better when accompanied with a good, round, fiit pullet. But it is not a pullet that I am about to serve up to you at present, but her brother, though in an altered li-om, as you will learn in the sequel. It is a fact known to every traveller, that there is no dish presented before him half so often as that of chicken, served up in every form of which it is capable, broiled, fried, slewed, baked, or boiled; and it is a fact equally well known, that there is no dish so often turned away untasted, in conse- quence of its disgusting appearance of bad culina- ry preparations. I allude of course to such as we too frequently meet with on our public tables and watering places, (Bedford itself not excepted.^ How often are the ears of the hungry and weary traveller assailed the moment the stage draws up to the inn, by the dying shrieks of the rooster that had but the moment before been picking up a scanty subsistence from the dunghill, and in a few moments more graces the head of the table, look- ing more like that well known waterfowl, vulgarly- called a fly-up-the-creek, which is indebted alone to the length of its legs and neck for a subsistence, than what it really is. But I have promised to give you something even better than a fat pullet, and I shall now proceed to serve it up ; I mean then that favorite dish of the ancient Romans, the " gallas spads or capon," or more plainly, the cock altered by castration, and in such high repute was it, that it generally graced the board of that most excellent judge of good eating, Lucullus, and if Shakspea're is to be believed, it was a tit-bit not only with Jack Falstafl", but whb the Justice who is represented—" In fair round body with good capon lined." In England, at the present 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER 325 day, ai every respectable eatino:-house, the first tliiiij? that tercels the eye of the traveller and heads the hill of iiire, is a ca|)oii, either boiled or baked. In France ihey are made doubly uselhl, not oidy as an article ot' Ibod, but a means of proiluction ; if I may be allowed the expression, they are used as a Ibster-moiher ti^r raising chickens, which they do nujch belter than the hen, owinc; to the hirge size and thick coat of feathers. The poulterers use a considerable number of them lor this pur- j)ose, — ihe moment the hen has hatched her brood ihey are given to the capon, which rears them with all the care of the mother, the hen is cooped and fed until she gains her flesh and strength, and then turned out to lay and set again ; in this way the poulterer is enabled to raise a large number ol chickens from half the number of hens. The ca- pon at market sells higher than any of our domes- tic fowls. VVhat is the reason then in our country, where good living is so highly prized, the capon is seldom or never seen? Should you travel from Maine to New Orleans, you will probably never have this (juestion put to you at table, "Sir, shall I help you to a fine piece of capon." I would by no means attribute this neglect of one of the fin- est dishes in the world toobiuseness of palate, but rather to a want of the necessary inlbrmation as to the maimer of performing the operation on the cock. To obviate this, I will subjoin directions, by the observance of which a man of common adroitness can make two dozen capons in an hour. Lay the chicken before you on his left side, with his head towards your right hand. Let an assistant hold him by his head and legs extended ; with a sharp knile make a transverse incision of one and a half inch or more in the side just below the ribs. Insert the fore finger, and near the middle of the body, at the distance of about three quarters of an inch from the incision, near the spine will be found the testicles, which may very easily be removed by the thumb and finger ; sew up the orifice and daub a little tar over it to keep off the flies. Care should be taken in cutting through the several integuments lest the viscera be wounded. The cock should be about half grown. Not one in a hundred will die if the operation be properly performed. After a fair trial both of the bacon and capon, should you relish them, I may be induced at some future time to serve you up some other dish, which I only hope may be found as agreea- ble to your numero js readers as was the long and learned dissertation we had some time since upon Hollow Horns. With my best wishes, I am respectfully your ob't. serv't. J. W. J. From llie Genesee Fanner. DUCKS. It is stated in a New- York newspaper, "that several of the farmers on Long Island, who raise large numbers of ducks, have had nearly their entire flocks of young ones destroyed, by a red insect named the ' Lady bug:' a post mortem exa- mination led to the discovery, as, on opening the body, the bugs still living were taken out by the handful." So far as our observation has gone, in- sects of all kinds, with perhaps a single exception, have flourished abundantly the present season, the high temperature of June having proved as propitious to their increase as to the rapid growth of vegetation. The exception to which we have alluded, is the conmion striped bug, so fatal to cucumbers and squashes, of which we have not seen a single one the present season. CONSIDERATIONS UPON THE NATURE OF THE VEGETABLES THAT HAVE COVERED THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH, AT DIFFERENT EPOCHS OF ITS FORMATION ; READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF PARIS, ON THE 11th SEPTEMBER, 1839. BY SIONS. ADOLPHE BRONGNIART. Translated from the French, and communicated for the Jour- nal or Science and Arts, by E. W. Haskins * of Buflalo, New York. ' • TJuriosity is one of the most distinctive faculties of the human mind; one of those that most clear- ly mark the distance between man and the brute creation; and for this reason it may designated one of his most noble faculties, whenever directed to any end really worthy of his being. It is this which continually excites us fo extend the field of our knowledge, and to fathom the most hidden mysteries of nature, without beincr able to hope, for the most part, any other reward than the good which will result to all intelligent beings, in proportion as they are able to form ideas more exact upon the nature of the phenomena which surrounded them. These phenomena ap- pear the more diflicult of investigation in propor- tion as, by their nature and position, they are farther removed from our direct observation; and in like manner we are struck with the results to which profound researches have conducted those men who have made these investigations the ob- ject of their studies. The invention of the telescope, by opening to our view what is passing in the elongated regions of space; and of the microscope, by revealing to us the existence of numberless beings so minute as, but for this instrument, would forever have escaped our observation, have made, upon the human imagination, the most vivid impression. The sciences have made such rapid advances, within late years, that no one can reasonably ex- pect to open new views and to disclose new truths equally exciting to human curiosity as those disclosed by the telescope and the microscope; but still, the study of the soil upon which we daily tread, has become, within the last half-cen- tury, in the hands of Werner, of Cuvier, and the crowd of learned and able men who have as- siduously followed these illustrious pioneers, one of the sciences the most fruitful in results, not only of high interest to the professionally learned, but well calculated vividly to interest the imagi- nation of all persons who love to reflect upon the great phenomena of nature. In investigating the layers which compose the superficial strata of the earth, their order of su- per-position, their nature, and the animal and ve- getable remains which they contain, geology traces for us the history of the earth, during the long periods of time that have preceded its pre- *Mr. Haskins prefers an orthography in some cases peculiar, and retains also certain French idioms. — Eds. 326 FARMERS' REGISTER. [Na.e sent condition; it makes known to us the beings which have successively inhabited its surface, the revolutions that have conduced to their destruc- tion, and those which have given birth to the mi- neral layers the earth contains, and the modifica- tions to which this surface itself has been subject by reason of these revolutions; it discloses to us, in short, that all these phenomena, which have necessarily re(iuired so many centuries for their accomplishment, were prior, in point of time, to the creation of man. It conducts us alike to ap- preciate events, and to re-construct beings which have preceded, many thousand years, not only the most ancient historical traditions, but also the very existence of our race. This prolonged history of the formation of the Buperficial strata of the earth, is constituted, like the history of nations, of periods of repose, or of tranquillity sufficiently great, at least, for the "^^w*-!- ters and the dry land of the surface to become peopled by a variety of inhabitants; and of pe- riods of revolution, during which resistless forces have agitated this surface, elevating mountains, submerging lands previously dry, and causing an- cient beds of" oceans to issue froriri, the bosom of the deep; in short, pouring over pr^-existing rocks the materials for new la3^ers which, enveloping the ruins of living beings, destroyed by these vio- lent convulsions, have thus preserved their re- mains as precious monuments which now reveal to us, after so many thousand years, the nature of the ancient inhabitants of our globe, and the or- der in which the several races of beings have suc- ceeded each other. The study of the periods of these revolutions, and of those of repose, are alike of the most vi- vid interest : but the first are entirely the province of the geologist ; while the second, on the con- trary, necessarily require the light of the zoolo- gist or the botanist; for these alone are able, by an exact comparison of the fossil remains of for- mer beings with the corresponding parts of such as are now existent, to determine the relations which exist between the inhabitants of the globe, at various and distant epochs. It was thus Cu- vier, in his admirable researches upon fossil bones, basing his investigations upon the positive data which comparative anatomy furnishes, was ena- bled to reconstruct the skeletons of the greater part of the animals of which the remains had then been discovered, and also to determine, with the greatest probability, their exterior forms, and their analogy to those animals with which we are now acquainted. Botany, nothwithstanding it has long furnished fewer documents upon the ancient state of the globe, ought, nevertheless, to be equally laid un- der contribution, by the geologist; and it is even able to cast more light than zoology upon the state of the terrestrial surliice, during the most ancient periods of its formation. Indeed, at that epoch when life first began to be manifested upon our globe, the animals were all confined to the in- terior of the waters, and even these presented but diminished specimens of their kinds; while a powerful vegetation, forming vast forests, covered at that early period, all such parts of the earth as were not submerged by the sea; and each suc- ceeding period of repose has had its own peculiar vegetation, more or less varied, and in greater or less abundance, according to the circumstances which influence the development of the beings that composed it, and perhaps, also, in proportion to the duration of these periods; but almost al- ways entirely different fiomthose of either the preceding or succeeding epochs. Of the different associations of vegetables which have successively inhabited our globe, there are none \vhich so pointedly merit oui* atten- tion as those which seem to have been first deve- loped upon. its surface; which appear during a long space of time to have covered with dense forests all those parts of the earth that rose above the general level of the waters, and of which the remains of successive growths, heaped one upon another, have formed our layers of coal, so deep, extensive and numerous; and in this form the re- mains of these primeval forests, which have preceded, by so many centuries, the existence of nijan, and which now supply us with fuel, in place of our more modern forests, of which the great in- crease of the human family is causing a rapidly augmented destruction, have become one of the principal sources of the prosperity of nations. None can doubt that coal owes its origin to ac- cumulated masses of vegetables, changed and modified, as probably the layers of peat in our marshes would be, if they had been overlaid by thick coverings of mineral substances, compressed under the weight of these, and subsequently ex- posed to an elevated temperature. If farther con- firmation of this origin were necessary, it is found in the almost ligneous structure which coal some- times presents, and in the numerous remains of plants contained in the rocks which accompany it.* But the study of the impressions of stems, leaves, and even fruit, which are in general con- tained, in so great quantities, in these rocks, proves not only the vegetable origin of this substance, but even enables us to determine the nature of the vegetables of which it has been formed, and which, consequently, at the period of such forma- tion, occupied the surface of the earth. Among these vegetable imprints, the most fre- quent are those produced by the leaves of the ferns ; yet these ferns of the primitive world are not those which now grow in our climates ; for Europe, at this time, does not produce more than fi'onu thirty to forty species, while the same regions then nourished more than two hundred, all much more analogous to those now found between the tropicks than to those of the temperate climates. In addition to the leaves of ferns, the same earths contain trunks, the dimensions of which render them comparable to the most gigantic trees of our forests, while their form is wholly diEsimi- lar; and indeed all the ancient naturalists, struck with this dissimilarity, and yet desiring to find analogous productions still existent, referred them to arborescent vegetables, then imperfectly known, as the bamboos, palms, and the great cactus, sometinjes designated torch-thistle. But a more * The most complete and valuable collection of plates of impressions of these coal plants which is ge- nerally accessible, in this country, will be found in this Journal, vol. xxix. No. 2. This volume contains Dr. Hiklretli's valuable paper upon the coal deposits of the valley of the Ohio, which he has accompanied with some thirty pages of excellent drawings of fossil remains and impressions, mostly vegetable, found in the accompanying rocks. — Translatgr. 1S3S] FARMERS' REGISTER 827 attentive comparison ot' (Iiose products of tlie equinoctial regions with tiiose trunks, the growth of tlie ancient world, sniiiccs to dis^^ipate ail rela- tions!, which are founded only on pome resem- blances in the general aspect, that have been at- tempted to be established between them ; and a more prolbund examination, either of these trunks or of the leaves which accompany them, readily shows that the vejielables which formed these primitive forests are not identical with any trees still found flourishmg upon the earth. The arborescent ferns which, by the elegance and magnitude of their exterior, now form one of the principal ornaments of the equatorial regions, are the onlj' arb'orescent vegetables which are re- cognized, even in small number, among the trees of this antique vegetation. As to the other fossil stems, remains of these primitive forests of the ancient world, it is among the most humble vegetables of our epoch that we must seek their analogues. For instance, the calamites, which attained from four to five metres (a little more than 13 to 16 feet) of height, and from one to two decimetres (not quite (bur to eight inches) of diameter, have almost a complete resemblance, in all the points of their organization, with the equiseta (horse- tails) which grow so abundantly in the marshy situations of our climates, and of which the stems, hardly as large as the finger, rarely surpass one metre (about 39^ inches) in height. The cata- mites, then, were arborescent equiseta, a form under which these plantn have wholly disappeared from the surface of the earth. ^ The lepidodendrons, of which the numerous species appear to have mainly constituted the fo- rests of this ancient epoch, and which have pro- bably contributed more than all other vegetables to the formation of coal, differ very little from our lycopodia^. We recognize in their trunks essen- tially the same structure, the same mode of rami- fication ; and in short we see inserted upon their branches leaves and fruits analogous to those of these vegetables. But, while the lycopodia? of the present day are small plants, most frequently creeping, and similar to the great mosses, attain- ing very rarely one metre (about 39J inches) in height, and covered wi:h very diminutive leaves, the lepidodendrons, preserving the same form and aspect, elevated themselves to twenty or twenty-five metres (a little more than 65 to 82 feet,) having, at their base, near one metre (about 39^ inches) of diameter, with leaves which some- times attained to half a metre (over 19^ inches) in length. These were, consequently, arbores- cent lycopodia;, comparable, by their stature, to the largest firs, of which they enjoyed the rank, m this primitive world ; forming, as these now do, immense forests, in the shade of which were de- veloped the ferns, so numerous at that period. How different this powerful vegetation from that which now clothes, in ever-varying tints, the surface of the earth! Magnitude, 'strength, and activity of growth, constituted its essential cha- racteristicks ; the smallest plants of our epoch were then represented by gigantick forms ; and yet, what simplicity of organization, and what uniformity in the midst of a vegetation so enor- mous! At the present day, even in those regions where nature has suffered no change at the hand of man, the eye reposes with delight upon trees which are immediately dislinguishuble by the di- versity of their form, and the tints of their foliage; and which often support flowers or Ir-uils of the most dissimilar colors. This variety of aspect ia still more strongly illustrated by a contemplation of the diversified shrubs and plants which fringe the borders of our forests, or adorn our meadows, and of which the flowers exhibit to us almost all the tints of the prism. Finally, there result from this divei^ity of structure, among these plants, many varieties suited to the nourishment of man or of animals; and indeed such as are even indis- pensable to their existence. The variety in the organization and aspect of the vegetables which at present cover our globe is indicated by the number of natural groups into which they are capable of being divided. These groups or natural fannlies amount to more than two hundred and fifty, of which about two hundred belong to the class of the dicotyledons, (which consequently present the greatest variety of struc- ture,) and thirty to that of the monocotyledons. Now the first of these classes, that is, the two hundred families which they contain, are com- pletely wanting in our primitive flora, and seldom can we there recognise any indications of the monocotyledons. The class which constituted, almost alone, the vegetation of this primitive world is that of the vascular cryptogamia, which at present compre- hends no more than five families; almost all of which had parallels in the ancient world ; such are the ferns, equiseta and lycopodia?. These fa- milies constitute, thus to speak, the first degree of ligneous vegetation : they present, like the arbor- escent dicotyledons or monocotyledons, trunks more or less developed, of a solid texture, although more simple than those of these trees, and gar- nished with numerous leaves ; but they are de- prived of those reproducing organs which consti- tute the flowers, and they present, in place of fruit, organs much less complicated. These plants, so simple, so little varied in their organization, and which, by their number and di- mensions, rise not above a very inferior rank, in our present vegetation, constituted, in the dawn of the creation of organized beings, almost the en- tire vegetable kingdom, and formed forests so im- mense that we find not their analogy in modern times. The rigidity of the leaves of these vege- tables, the absence of fleshy fruits and farinaceous seeds, would have rendered them very unfit to have served as aliment to animals: but terrestrial animals, at the time of their growth, had not yet existence; the seas alone offered numerous inha- bitants ; and the vegetable kingdom, at that pe- riod, maintained undivided sway over all the un- deluged portions of the earth ; upon which it seems to have been called to play another part, in the economy of nature. We cannot doubt, in truth, that the immense mass of carbon accumulated in the bosom of the earth, in a state of coal, and which is the product of the destruction of those vegetables which grew at that ancient epoch, upon the surface of the globe, has been imbibed, by those vegetables, in the carbonic acid of the atmosphere — the only form under which carbon, not derived from the destruction of preexisting, organized heings, can be absorbed by plants. 328 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 6 Now, a proportion, even very feeble, ofcarbon- ic nc.ul, in the atmospliere, is generally an obsta- cle to the existence of animals, and particularly of the most perfect classes of them, as mammifers, and birds ; while, on the contrary, this proportion is highly favorable to the growth of vegetables: and if we admit that there existed a proportion very much greater of this gas in the primitive at- mosphere of our globe than the present atmos- phere is Ibund to contain, we may consider this one of the principal causes of the powerful vege- tation of these ancient epochs. This collection of vegetables, so simple, so uni- form, and which would consequently have been so little fitted to furnish suitable aliment for ani- mals of diversified structure, such as those exist- ing at the present day, in purilying the aimo- ephere of the carbonic acid which it then contain- ed in excess, would have prepared the conditions necessary to a creation more varied : and il' we still wish to indulge that sentiment of pride which has caused man to assume that all in nature has been created exclusively for him, we may suppose tliis primitive, vegetable creation, which preceded, by so many centuries, the appearance of man upon the earth, was, in the economy of nature, designed to prepare the atmospheric conditions ne- cessary to his existence, and at the same time to accunaulate those immense masses of combusti- bles which his industry was in future time to ap- ply to his necessities. But, independently of this difference in the na- ture of the atmosphere, which the formation of these vast depots of fossil carbon renders extreme- ly probable, may not the nature of the vegetables themselves, that have produced them, furnish some data upon the other physical conditions to which the surlttce of the earth was subjected du- ring this period 7 The operations of nature now going on in different regions of the globe, may throw some light upon this question. The study of the geographical distribution oi those plants appertaining to the same families which alone composed the vegetation of the coal period, may, indeed, indicate to us the climacte- rick conditions and consequently the physical causes which lavored the increase of stature as well as the great frequency of these vegetables ; and we may conclude fiom these, with much pro- bability, that the same causes determined their preponderance at that epoch. We see Ibr example, that the ferns, equiseta, and lycopodijB attain a more lofty stature in pro- portion as their geographical position approaches the equator. Thus it is only in the hottest re- gions of the globe, that we find those arborescent ferns which combine with the towering and ma- jestick mien of the palms, the elegant foliage of the ordinary ferns, and of which we have indicat- ed the existence in the coal formations. In these same regions the equiseta and lycopodia? attain to a stature double or triple that which the largest of these species present in temperate climates. A second condition appears to have a still more marked influence upon their preponderance, in re- ference to the vegetables of other families, name- ly, humidity and uniformity of climate ; conditions which are united in the highest perfection, in the small islands situated far distant from continents. In such islands, indeed, the extent of the sur- rounding oceans fi.xes a temperature with but slight variations, and coupled with perpetual hu- midity ; circumstances which appear to favor, in a remarkable manner, the development and the variety of specifick forms among the ferns and the analogous plants; while, on the contrary, under the influence of the same conditions, the pheno- gamous plants are little varied, and are i'ar less numerous. From these causes it results, that while on the extensive continents of the earth the vascular cryptogamick plants, such as the ferns, lycopodite, equiseta, &c. often form scarcely one- fiftieth of the total number of vegetables, yet in the small islands of the equatorial regions, these same plants constitute almost half, and in some cases, even two-thirds of all the vegetables which inhabit them. The archipelagos, situated between the tro- picks, such as the islands of the great Pacifick ocean, or the Antilles, are, then, the points of the globe which at the present time present vegeta- tion the most analogous to that which existed upon the earth when the vegetable kingdom commenced, for the first time, to develop itself thereon. Detailed examination of the vegetables which accompany the coal cannot fail, therefore, to in- duce the inference that at this remote epoch the surface of the earth, in the countries where are found those vast depots of fossil carbon with which we are most familiar, namely, in Europe and North America, ofi'ered the same climacterick conditions which now exist in the archipelagos of the equinoctial regions ; and probably a geogra- phical configuration little difl^erent. When we consider the number and thickness of the layers which constitute most of the coal formations, and examine the changes that, from first to last, have taken place in the specifick forms of those vegetables of which they have been con- stituted, we cannot fail to see that this stupendous primitive vegetation, during a long interval, must have covered with its dense forests all parts o( the globe which were at that period elevated above the sea ; lor all these present themselves with the same characteristicks in Europe and America ; and equinoctial Asia, as well as New Holland, seem therefore to have participated, in this general uniformity of the structure of vegeta- bles. Nevertheless, this primitive vegetable existence promptly disappeared, to give place to a new cre- ation, composed oC beings of an organization less extraordinary than the preceding, but almost equally diflerent from such as flourish at the pre- sent dajf. To what cause can we attribute the destruction of all the plants which characterize this remarka- ble vegetation. Is it due to some violent revolution of the globe? Did it arise from the gradual change of the phy- sical conditions necessary to their existence; a change in part arising from the presence of these vegembles themselves? These questions cannot be resolved in the present state of our knowledge upon the subject. Certain it is, however, that the deposition of the last layers of the coal formation was followed by the destruction of all the species which consti- tuted this primitive vegetation, and particularly of those gigantic trees of peculiar structure, as the lycopodiacetc, the ferns and the equiseta of gi- i 1S38] FARMERS' REGFSTER. 829 crantick irrou'tli; wliich was an ossential cliamctcr- istick of this primitive creaiion.* After the (lestrui'tion of this primitive vcifeta- tion, the vejTelable kinirdoni appears for a loiiij pe- riod not to have attained the same detrree of deve- lopment. Indeed, in the numerous layers of se- condary earths which succeed the coal formations we scarcely ever find those masses ol vegetable imprints, a species of natural herbariums, which, in these ancient depots of carbon, attest to us the eimultaneous existence of a prodigious number of plants. Scarcely in any part of these formations do we meet with thick layers of fossil combusti- bles; and never are such layers often repeated, or found of such great extent as in the coal deposits. Either the vegetable kuigdom at this period ocim- pied more circumscribed portions of the surface of the earth, or its scattered individuals covered but incompletely a soil of little fertility, and of which the revolutions of the globe had not permitted them to become tranquil possessors; or, finally, the condition of the surface of the earth was not favorable to the preservation of the vegetables which then inhabited it. Yet that long period which separated the coal from the tertiary formations, a period that was the theatre of so many physical revolutions of tlie globe, and which witnessed the appearance, in the waters ol" the deep, of gigantic reptiles, types of the fantastical organizations in which we may suppose we often recognize those monsters born of the imaginations of the poets of antiquity; this period, f say, is remarkable in the history of the vegetable kinirdom, by the preponderance of two families vvhich are lost, so to speak, in the midst of the immense variety of vegetables with which the surface of the earth is covered, at the present day, but which then predominated over all the others, by their number and their magnitude. These are the conifcroi, of which the fir, pine, yew and cypress furnish well known examples; and the cycadecB, vegetables wholly exotick, less numerous at the present day, than at this ancient period, and which joined to the leaves and mien of the palms, the essential structure of the coni- ferag. The existence of these two families, du- ring this period, is of high importance as signal- izing an intimate relation between them, by^heir organization; and they form the intermediate link between the vascular cryptogamia, which com- posed, almost alone, the primitive vegetation of the coal period, and the phanerogamick dicotyle- dons, strictly speaking, which constituted a ma- jority of the vegetable kingdom, during the terti- ary period. Thus, to the vascular cryptogamia, the first de- gree of ligneous vegetation, sijcceeded the coni- fers and the cycadea?, which held a ratik more elevated in the vegetable scale; and to these last succeeded the dicotyledonous plants, which occu- py the summit of that scale. In the vegetable kingdom, as in the animal, there has been, then, a gradual improvement in the organization of the beings which have suc- cessively existed upon our earth, from the first which appeared upon its surface even to those that inhabit it at the present day. The tertiary period, during which were deposit- ed those earths that now fiirm the soil of the prin- cipal capitals of Europe, as London, Paris, and Vienna, witnessed transformations, in the organ- ick world, greater than any of those which had taken place since the destruction of the primitive vegetation. Fn the animal kinudom : the creation of mam- niilers,* a class which all naturalists concur in placing at the summit of the animal scale, and by which nature seems to have preluded the creation of man ; in the vegetable kingdom, the creation of the dicotyledons, a grand division which, by unanimous consent, botanists have always placed at the head of this kingdom, and which, by the variety of its forms and organization, by the mag- nitude of its leaves and the beauty of its flowers and its fruits, must, of necessity, have imprinted upon vegetation, an aspect very difi^erent from that which it had ofiijred through all previoug periods. This class of dicotyledons, of which we are scarcely able to cite any indications at the close of the secondary, presented itself; all at once, during the tertiary period, with preponderating influenced It then, as at the present day, held doniinion over other classes of the vegetable kingdom, both in re- ference to the number and variety of the species, as well as the magnitude of the individuals. Thus the assemblage of vegetables which inha- bited our climes during the deposition of the terti- ary formation, which enveloped their ruins in its sedimentary layers, were intimately allied to the ma.^is of our present vegetation, and more parti- cularly to the flora of the temperate regions of Europe and America. The soil of these countries was covered then, as at present, with pines, firs, culms, poplars, birches, elms, walnuts, maples, and other trees almost identical with those which stili flourish in our climates. And yet, not only do we not recognize any indications of those singular vegetables which characterized the primitive forests of the coal pe- riod, but we rarely encounter, there, even fragments of plants analogous to those which now vegetate between the tropicks. VVe do not, however, necessarily infer that the same vegetable forms have been perpetuated from this epoch, still very ancient, (since it preceded the existence of man,) to the present day. No: very sensible difl'erences almost always distintruish these inhabitants of our globe, very recent, geoloirically, but exceedingly ancient, chronologically, from our cotemporaneous vejjetables to which they seem most nearly allied ; and the existence in these same earths, in the north of France, of palms, very different from those Avhich still vegetate upon the borders of the JMediterranean, and of a small * We find, it is true, in some parts of the secondary formations, a small number of arborescent ferns and of the gigantick equiseta; but yet of a stature much less considerable than those of the coal formations ; nor do we discover, there, any trace of the arbores- cent lycopodiaceae analogous to the lepidodendrons.— Author's note. Vol. VI.— 42 * In placing the first appearance of mammifers at the epoch of the tertiary formation, I do not include the fact, unequalled elsewhere, of the fossil mammi- fers of Stonesfield; a case which forms an exception to all former experience, and which cannot be detailed in so limited an essay. — Author's note. For drawings and brief descriptions of these fossils, which occurred in oolite, see Lyell's Geology, Ameri- can edition, Vol. I, pp. \oi-^.— Translator. S30 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 6 number of other plants which appertain to famiiiea now limited to the more torrid regions, seem to indicate that at this epoch central Europe enjoyed a temperature more elevated than at present ; which, besides, accords very well with what we may deduce from the presence, in the same forma- tions, and the same countries, of elephants, rhino- ceroses and hippopotami, animals which are now rarely found to range beyond the Iropicks. What an astonishing contrast between the as- pect of nature during modern geological periods, and that which she offered when the primitive ve- getation covered the surface of the globe ! Indeed, at the periods in question of the geo- logical history of the world, the earth had already assumed, in great part, at least, the form which it presents at the present day ; continents very ex- tended, and mountains greatly elevated, fixed and determined varied climates, and thus favored diversity of beings. In this way, in countries of little extent, the vegetable kingdom offered us plants equally as diversified, one from another, as those found growing at the present daj'. To the conifera?, with their narrow durable leaves of sombre green, were joined birches, pop- lars, walnuts, and maples, with broad leaves of a more lively tint ; and in the shade of these trees, on the borders of waters or upon their surface flou- rished herbaceous plants analogous to those which at present embellish our fieids'bythe diversity of their forms and colours, and the variety of which renders them suitable to satisf>' the different tastes of an infinity of animals, of all classes. The forests of the ancient world, like those of our epoch, served, indeed, as a refuge for a vast number of animals, more or less analogous to those which still inhabit our globe. Thus ele- phants, rhinoceroses, wild boars, bears, lions and etags, of all forms and of all statures, have suc- cessively mhabited them ; while birds, reptiles, and numerous insects, complete this map of na- ture, as she presented herself, upon such parts of the earth as were elevated above the level of the oceans ; the whole forming a scene equally beau- tiful and equally varied as that which is still wit- nessed upon the emerged portions of our globe. On the contrary, at the dawn of the creation of organized beings, the terrestrial surface, divided, without doubt, into an infinity of islands, low. and with a climate almost uniform, was. it is true, covered with immen?e vegetables ; but these trees, differing little from each other in their aspect, and the tint of their foliage ; deprived of flowers and those fruits with brilliant colors which so "highly adorn many of our large trees, must have imprinted, upon that vegetation, a monotony not interrupted even by those small herbaceous plants that, by the elegance of their flowers, constitute the ornament of our groves. Add to this, that neither mammifer, or bird, nor any animal, in short, was present to enliven these dense forests, and we may be able to form a very just idea of this primitive" nature ; sombre, cheer- less and silent, but at the same time so imposing by its grandeur, and by the space which it hal been called to fill in the history of the globe. Such, gentlemen, is a rude outline of the great revolutions of terrestrial vegetation, as the research- es made upon this subject, within the last thirty years, have enabled us to trace them. Each day will doubtless add new traits to these details ; but recent discoveries, by confirming the results at which we had previously arrived, seem to assure us that this general delineation will not experience great changes when, thanks to the materials that are being collected on all sides for this object, we shall be enabled to transform this rough draught into a picture more finished and complete. SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT AND DIRECTORS OF THE PORTSMOUTH AND ROANOKE RAILROAD. In submitting to the stockholders of the Ports- mouth and Roanoke railroad a report of the pro- gress, business and prospects of the company du- ring the past year, respectfully represent : That the subscription of ^50,000, authorized by law and accepted by your last general meet- ing, was made and the money paid by the board of public works, in August last, which sum, it was believed, would enable this board, besides sa- tisfying all pressing demands, to have completed the warehouse and wharf which had been com- menced in Portsmouth ; this would have been ef- fected, but for the melancholy accident which happened about this period, A train carrying a number of persons residing along the line of the road, who had for recreation merely visited the towns, on their return were met by a train bring- ing a load of lumber, a short distance beyond Suffolk, at the onl}' point on the road where a meeting would have been considered dangerous. As both were descending, and not perceived by either until too late to arrest their progress, a col- lision ensued most disastrous in its consequences. Demands for payment increased : these and the expense in replacing the coaches destroyed, ab- sorbed all our funds, and for some time the reve- nue was insufficient to meet the current expenses. When business revived, and the Weldon bridge was nearly prepared for use, two additional en- gines were procured, which unfortunately proved too heavy for our road, a portion of which was discovered to be decaying. Another accident not less fatal in its consequences than the former, oc- curred a few days after we had succeeded in crossing the Roanoke, when our prospects seemed most promising. This was occasioned by the ele- vation of the end of an iron rail perceived too late to be prevented. By doubling it threw the engine off" the track, which suddenly checking the pro- gress of the train, caused a dreadful crush of all the coaches which were next the engine. Until that fatal event, this position was believed the least liable to injury, in case of accident, as cars in the rear had several times run off, without injury to the coaches in front of them. The practice of placing the coaches in rear of the burthen cars has from that day been adopted by us, and, we are informed, other roads have made the same change after hearing of" our misfortune. This second dreadful calamity, added to the state of dilapidation in which that portion of the road between Portsmouth and Suffolk was found to be, threatened a total suspension of all the bu- siness of the road. But by increased exertion such repairs have been effected, and by improve- ments in the condition and management of the engines, and regularity in the running, confidence 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER, 331 seems in a great measure restored, and the travel has so much increased aa to justify the opinion lierctofore expressed that lew roads in our coun- try have a hetlcr prospect of ultimate success. Amontr the errors into which we have I'ailcn, it is believed that the eHbrt to establish and carry on an extensive manufacture of machinery has proved the most expensive, thouientlen)en let me know, about a year ar proportion of seed is re- quired. The young blade is invigorated by a ju- dicious watering, and is sooner out of danger of the attacks of insects. Liquid manure is carried to the fields in com- mon water-carts, which consist of two wheels and shafts, carrying a cask containing from sixty to one hundred and twenty gallons of liquid. The cask has in the under part a hole, two or three inches in diameter, secured inside by a valve: un- der this is a board a little slanting, to spread the liquid as it flows out of the cask. A man usually rides on the horse which draws the cart, and holds in his hand a string, which passes through a hole in the cask, and opens the valve when required. There is an advantage in riding on the horse, as it does not add to the weiiiht of the load on the wheels, which in light soils would be apt to sink deep. In a momentary exertion it assists the horse by the weight on his back; and the heavy Flanders horses are well able to carry a man and draw a light load at the same time. When the cask is empty he trots home for another load, and no time is lost. It is astonishing what advantage there is in accustoming horses to trot when they have no load; it actually fi^tigues them less than the continued sleepy walk. Who would suppose that the Flemish and Dutch farmers surpassed us in activity? but whoever has been in the Nether- lands in hay-time or harvest must acknowledge it. The duiig which is carried in a solid state, is generally used at a time when it is in a state of active fermentation, as it is then supposed to have the best eflect. To ensure this in some districts, as the Waes country, where the minutest atten- tion is paid to every circumstance which can in- crease fertilhy, the dung is laid on the field in mo- derate heaps, and on each heap a certain quanti- ty of urine is poured to excite and renew the fer- mentation : when it becomes sensibly heated, the dung is spread out and immediately ploughed in. After ploughing in the manure, the land is left for some time, and then a second deep ploughing is given to incorporate the decomposed dung with the soil, hut so as not to bring any to the surface. A short time before sowing, the liquid manure is poured over ; and this enriches the surface to make the seed germinate sooner. Lime is not much used in the light soils, but commonly in the cold and stifl!". As it is general- ly brought from a distance, it is dear ; and this prevents any extensive application of it. JVIarl is found in a fiiw spots, and serves to improve the poorer lands within reach of it. BONK MANURE. In consequence of the extensive introduction of this new species of manure into our highly im- 366 FARMERS' REGISTER, [No. 6 proved system of agriculture, thousands of acres that would have been doomed to nearly total bar- renness have been broucrht under the most promis- ingcultivation. As yet, the supply has not kept pace wiih the demand. Ft will somewhat surprise our renders, that, in the county of Forfar alone, 153,000 bushels of bones were used last year — a quantity which, at three shillina's per bushel, would cost, as nearly as may be £23,000 ! This great supply came from Russia. But, for reasons not precisely known, the Russian government have issued an ukase, whereby bones to be ex- ported must, after the 1st of January next, pay a duty so high, that it is almost certain the supply from that country will be wholly cut off'. — Edin burgh Observer. From the Penny Magazine. PIGEOX-ROOSTS. Meadows." Those swamps, for the most part, are overgrown with tall coarse grass; and around many of their margins grows a profusion of alder bushes, seldom attaining more than fifteen or twenty feet. Why or wherefore the pigeons se- lect those bushes for their roosting-places might be somewhat difficult to conceive, since the forest- trees in the uTimediate vicinity would afford them much greater security ; but such is the case at present, and such it is known to have been. Although the nests and their inhabitants are exceedingly numerous in the forests where they breed, yet the number of pigeons that roost in one of those " alder-swamps'- upon which they chance to fix as a rendezvous, surpasses all belief. There are thousands and tens of thousands, and in some cases hundreds of thousands ! and they are there- fore so closely stowed together that they support and rest upon each other. The assailants, instead of going armed with guns, or even with axes, carry a pretty long pole or club, and a few dry pine-knols, to linfht up when they get to the roost- ing-pface, not fijrgetting sacks wherein to deposit their victims. Having reached the pigeon-roost towards midnight, a light is struck, and the blaze of one or two of the pine-knots astonishes and There is an extensive district of country stretch- ing eastward from the head waters of the Ohio, through the northern parts of the states of Penn- sylvania and New York, which, f'mm the major part of the forest trees being beech, is known by j confounds the unsuspecting occupants of the the general appellation of the '•' Reechwoode." I branches over-head. They move to and fro, they When there is a favorable season for the beech- j A^''^'''') l^ut- '^o not attempt to quit the bushes, tree bearing nuts, which is not always the case, I seemingly determined to retain possession of the whole surface of the ground is strewn with ' ^''"'i'' roosting-place regardless of consequences, them by the trales, about the period when the ear- While one person holds the torch the other is bu- Jy snows begin to fall. The beech-nuts remain pily engaged in dealing destruction ; when in that beneath the snow unmolested during the whole winter; about the time when the influence of the spring causes them to vegetate, myriads of pigeons are attracted to that part of the country, where lliey continue to sojourn, while this, their favorite food is in tolerable abundance. In case the temp- tation is exceedingly strong, the old birds will sometimes nest and breed again ; the place they select being generally along some ridge or emi- nence, where the branches of every tree become literally loaded with their rudely-constructed nests. When the time of incubation is over, the neigh- boring settlers resort to the breeding-ground ; and as powder and shot are expensive articles in the Backwoods, the woodsman's favorite weapon — the axe— is called into operation ; such trees as are of a moderate thickness are hewn down, and hun- dreds of young and simple pigeons, some in the nests and others perched upon the branches, are brought to the ground. Bags and sacks are then put in requisition, and such as are of approved size are huddled by scores mto those unsportsman- like receptacles ; whilst numbers of the rejected are left to perish by hunger, if they have unfortu- nately survived the concussion caused by the fall- ing of the tree. When the parties set tired of "cutting down and picking up," and have got themselves and their horses (for many brmg horses to those " pigeon frolics") pretty well load^ ed, they set out on an expedition of " "pigeon ped- dling" among such as have either no time or taste to engage in this rude and barbarous recreation. The breeding-ground is altogether distinct from the pigeon- roost; while the old ones are hatching their second broods, the young wanderers from the south are left to take care of themselves. Through- out the whole of the beechwoods there are low and swampy pieces of ground designated " Beaver particular place the ranks of the poor innocents seem somewhat thinned, the killed and wounded are placed promiscuously in the sacks, and in some other part of the roost the former scene is reacted. Those torch-light excursions yield more than abundance to the adventurers ; yet it generally happens that they resort by daylight to the scene of their nocturnal deeds, where they seldom liiil to meet with scores of the dead and wounded birds they had overlooked in the hurry and darkness of the preceding night. It is exceedingly strange, that among the thousands of |)igeons taken in the manner here described, there never happens, b}' any chance, to be any old birds ! As soon as the second broods are capable of accompanying their parents in their onward journey to tfie fiir regions of the north and west, they all as with one accord, leave this section of country ; for by this time their favorite food — the beech-nuts — is quite exhausted. From the Soutliern Review. ON MANURE. Extract from an ariide on the " Principles of y^gricuUure,^^ by Professor Thomas Cooper. By a manure, in popular language, is meant any animal or vegetable substance added to the soil^ which will undergo, or which has previously un- dergone decomposition by putrefying. More accurately, manures comprehend any ad- dition to a soil, bj' which it is rendered more ca- pable of promoting the growth of vegetables plant- ed in it. Hence, a manure may act by altering the me- chanical texture of a soil. t?i relation to the roots 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER 367 of plants planted in it; so as to enable them to tiike firm hold of the soil lor support, or to pene- trate more easilj' into the soil, in every direction that tlie roots may require. As when clay is add- ed to sand, or sand to clay, to nialic it more or less adhesive. A manure may also aUer the texture of a soil, in relation to its caparitij for imbibing or rctain- ins; moisture. The hot climate and lonfj-conti- nued droucrhts of the Carolinas and (ieortria, re- quire a ditierent texture in this respect, from the moist and misty climates of Ireland, or the high- lands ol" Scotland. A portion of clay consisting of one hundred parts by weight, being wetted until no more wa- ter would drop from it, was found to have imbibed and retained two times and a half its weight of water: the same weight of chalk (carbonate of lime,) retained one half its weight; and the same weight of silicious sand, one quarter of its weight. These experiments made by Bergman, are cited by Mr. Kirwan, in his treatise " On Manures," (p. 45.) The experiments of Fabroni are to the same purpose. Hence, whether the first men- tioned, or the last mentioned intention be required to be fulfilled, clay or marl is a proper manure for sand, and sand for clay, and calcareous earth for both. Eut the constituent portions of the vari- ous earths in a soil, fertile as to its capacity for re- taining moisture, cannot be ascertained until very many facts and experiments have been observed and detailed, beyond what we know at present: and in relation also, not merely to the quantity of rain that falls in an average of years on a given place, but to the relative proportion of dry and wet weather on the average of a series of years. Thus, at Stockport and Manchester, in England, the yearly fall of rain will be about 35 inches, ac- cording to Dr. Percival, and the number of rainy days may amount to 234 in a year, as a friend of ours has counted. As many cubic inches of rain may fiill in Charleston in a dozen days, as in the 234 days of rain in the neighborhood of Man- chester ; so that the expression of a moist and rainy climate, relates not so much to the quantity of rain that tiills, as to the number of days and hours the rain occupies in falling. Fifty inches of rain per annum, with three months of drought, will not constitute a rainy climate. Probably, five parts of silicious sand, three parts of calcareous earth, or carbonate of lime, and two parts of pure argillaceous earth, would be a mix- ture that might deserve to be regarded as fertile, as to the view now under consideration. The proposal of General Beatson to manure with clay baked in an oven, or half burnt, so as to be per- fectly friable and pulverizable without losing its capacity for imbibing and retaining moisture, seems \o us an improvement of no slight impor- tance. Trusting to his description and calcula- tions, we regard the expense as very moderate. So treated, the clay can be ground into a coarse powder, and intimately mixed wiih the soil which it is meant to improve. Besides the ways and manners above mention- ed,^ manures may be applied also to stimulate the living fibres nf the plant; and they may be ap- plied as a pabulum or food, to notirish the plant. Hitherto, in all the British publications on ma- nures, they are considered either as acting me- chanically, or by their chemical decomposition as all()rding the substances which are taken up aa niitritnent. Kirwan, indeed, "On Manures," (p. 48) seems to think that saline substances may act as condiments to plants; and enable them to take up more food. His excepting gypsum, arose l>om his considerinnr this substance as a septic, !i promoter of putrefaction in veijetables; and, ihere- liire, as haviniT no other action than Avhat it ex- erted on the dead mattnr employed as a manure. Sir H. Davy, in his fifth Lecture, seems to think it necessary' to combat the notion that vegetables are possessed of life in the same sense as animals; whose life he seems to consider as emanating from a superior immaterial ptinciple. We shall cite the passage in a note,* and only observe upon * Elements of AgncuUural Chemisin;, (p- 170.) — " It is impossible to peruse any considerable part of the vegetable statics of Hales, without receiving a deep impression of the dependence of the motion of the sap upon common physical agencies. In the same tree, this sagacious person observed, that in a cold cloudy morning, when no sap ascended, a sudden change was produced by a gleam of sunshine of half an hour, and a vigorous motion of the fluid. The al- teration of the wind from the south to the north, im- mediately checked the effect. On the coming on of a cold afternoon after a hot day, the sap that had been rising began to fall. A warm shower and a sleet storrn produced opposite eflects." [Well : is there any physiologist who denies the effect of heat and cold, upon physiological action? Are not the manifes- tations of life'in the winter-torpidity of cold-blooded animals dependent on these changes?] "Many of his observations likewise show, that the different powers which act on the adult tree, produce different effects at different seasons. Thus in the ear- ly spring, before the buds expand, the variations of temperature, and changes of the state of the atmo- sphere, with regard to moisture and dryness, exert their great effects upon the expansion and contraction of the' vessels; and then the tree is in what the garden- ers call, its bleeding season." [And is not the physi- ological effect of atmospheric dryness and moisture equally apparent in the human frame; in phtisis, in asthma, in rheumatism, in gout?] " When the leaves are fully expanded: the great determination of the sap is to these new organs. Hence, a tree which emits sap copiously from a wound, while the buds are open- ing, will no "longer emit it in summer when leaves are perfect; but in the variable weather towards the end of autumn, when the leaves are falling, it will again pos- sess the power of bleeding in a very slight degree in the warmest days, but at no other time." [Who ever doubted that heat and cold acted respectively as a sti- mulus and a sedative on the animal fibre?] "In all these circumstances, there is nothing analo- gous to the irritable action of animal systems. In ani- mal systems, the heart and arteries are in constant pulsation. Their functions are unceasingly performed in all climates and in all seasons; in winter as well as in spring, upon the arctic snows and under the tropi- cal suns. They neither cease in the periodical returns of their nocturnal sleep, common to most animals, nor in the long sleep of winter peculiar to a few species. The power is connected with animation, is limited to bein2;s possessing the means of voluntary locomotion; it co-exists with the first appearance of vitality, it dis- appears only with the last spark of life." [Can Sir H. Davy tell us how the partial suspension ot vitality during winter in vegetables, differs from the same phe- nomenon in cold-blooded animals? Have not both the one and the other a vital power of resisting to a great de- gree, the effects of cold, and of preserving the vegeta- ble and animal temperature unaffected by the atmo- spheric change? Can Sir H. Davy make the alligator 368 F A R M E R S' REGISTER [No. 6 it here, that a man may be an excellent chemist, and a miserable physiologist; and that his notion of the life of animals being a sub-agent of some governing superior principle, will carry him just as far beyond the bounds of common sense, as of orthodoxy. This is reviving the Archaeus of Van Helmont, and the Anima of Stahl. That the su- perior immaterial principle which is usually as- cribed to man, as a characteristic of his species, is common to the whole tribe of animals from the human being to the musquito, the oyster or the earth-worm, is an opinion not warranted by known facts or sound phdosophy. The best account we can give of a vegetable and animal, is nearly that o(' Mr. Keith, in his Sybtcm of Physiological Botany, (Vol. II, p. 471. London, 1816.) j1 vegetable is an organized and living sub- stance, springing from a seed or a germ which it reproduces: effecting the development of its parts by the introsusception and assimilation of unor- ganized matter, derived from the soil by means of the roots, or from the atmosphere by the ac- tion of the leaves; and possessing fibres irritable and contractile on the application^Df stimulus; but possessing no nervous apparatus, serving as the organ of feeling or of voluntary locomotion. jln fl?wmflZisan organized and living substance, springing from an egg, or embryo, which it again produces; efiecting the development of its parts by means of the introsusception of organized sub- stances or their products: possessmg fibres irrita- ble and contractile on the application of stimulus; and a nervous apparatus, the organ of perception or feeling, of intellect, of moral qualities, arid of voluntary motion. Animal matter can generally be distinguished from vegetable m&tter,'\v the strong phosphoric odor which the former does, and the latter does not exhale while burnino-. and the sea-horse, or the white bear, companions ot the same climate.] " Vegetables may be truly said to be living systems in this sense, that they possess the means of" convert- ing the elements of common matter into organized structures, both by assimilation and reproduction." [In the name of common sense what are these but the peculiar and characteristic powers of life? Of life, acting independently in these respects of any law of mechanical or cbeinlcal philosophy? Is the production of progeny one of the common physical agencies?] " But we must not sutler ourselvesto be deluded by the very extensive application of the word life, to conceive in the life of plants, any power similar to "that producing the life of animals. In calling forth the vegetable func"^ tions, physical agents alone seem to operate; but in the animal system, these agents are made subservient to a superior principle. To give the argument in plainer language, there are few philosophers who would incline to assert the existence of any thing im- material in the vegetable economy"— [no more tlian in the animal economy of a elephant, or a sponge.] " Such a doctrine is worthy only of a poetic form. The imagination may easily give dryads to our trees, and sylphs to our flowers, but neither dryads nor sylphs can be admitted in vegetable pbysiologv ; and for reasons nearly as strons:, vriiabiliti/ and aniinaiion ought to be excluded." [Upon this strange asseition, it will not be unfair to observe, that SirH. Davy ought to have furnished more unexceptionable reasons, in support of an opinion, contradicted by every known botanist and physiologist, during a centurv past, and universally rejected in the present day.] It is probable that the decompositions and com- binations which take place during digestion, assi- milation and secretion, both in animals and vege- tables, are results of galvanic action, put in force by the principle of life; but no other power or prin- ciple than that of life, can account for reproduction, as the result of the stimulus given to the ovum, the seed or the germ, by the male of every spe- cie=!, both in vegetables and animals. No che- mistry of the laboratory, no "physical agency" can explain this. The introsusception, digestion, assimilation and secretion of food, both in animals and in vegeta- bles, are processes carried on in direct defiance of all mechanical and chemical laws of action, (Sir U. Davy's Physical Agencies,) chemical action takes place and prevails in dead only, not in liv- ing matter. The living powers of vegetables and animals counteract and control chemical action. That irritability, contractility, and increased ac- tion, can be produced in the vegetable as well as the animal fibre, by the application of any stimu- lating substance, is well known to botanists; par- ticularly in the more maniftjst instances of the mi- mosa, the dionffia muscipula, the drosera, the cac- tus tuna, the berberis, the stylidium glandulosum, &c. So, the action of light upon the motion of a plant; the action of heat on the development and maturation of leaves, flowers and fruits; the at- traction of distant nutriment and moisture on roots, and above all, the phenomena of impregnation and assimilation, seem to have no more to do with Sir Humphrey Davy's Physical Agencies than they have with the phenomena of a game of chess, or the music of a ball-room. Can any "physical agency" account for the apparent vo- luntarity that so frequently takes place in the im- pregnation of the water-Illy'? Or for the sleep of plants, or the incessant motion of the leaves of hedysarum gyrans"? Respect for the well-earned reputation of SirH. Davy, as a chemist second to no other, has induced us to dwell upon this refuta- tion, perhaps needlessly. We shall, therefore, proceed, and in the course of our reasoning, con- sider a plant as other botanists and physiologists consider it, a living being. Manures then may act by stimulating the fibres of a plant to stronger action. By inducing them to eat and drink more, and digest and assimilate more perfectly: as when we take pepper and mustard, and salt and wine in reasonable quantity, or qui- nine, when vital action is languid. Also, by ex- citing the healthy living fibre to throw o& a dis- eased or dead fibre; as we apply stimulant apph- cations to ill-conditioned sores to excite the healthy parts to slough off the diseased paits. The substances used that produce this efl"ect, are generally lime, gypsum, salt and soap-boiler's ashes. Hitherto, they have been employed em- pirically; the point of view in which they are now considered, was hinted at by Kirwan, in a solita- ry sentence already quoted, and stated at length in Cooper's edition of the Domestic Encyclopadia; but no where else that we recollect. If these substances do not act as forming part of the pabulum or food of the plant; if they do not act by altering the mechanical texture of the soil, there is no other mode of accounting for their action than that now suggested ; unless, in- deed, we recur to Kirwan's theory of their septic power, which is liy no means established by ex- 1838} FARMERS' REGISTER. 369 perience in practice, or by sufficient experiments instituted for the purpose. Nor if it were, will it account for tlie efl'ects produced. We are not pre- pared or disposed to ticny, tliut these substances, eniployeil in useful proportions, may act as septics upon "undeconiposed manure in tiie ground; but nolhmj}; certain of this nature is yet known on sulTicient authority. They do not constitute the food of plants. No- thing can enter into the composition of a plant, unless accidentally, that is not an essentially com- ponent part of a vegetable. We find silicious, aluminous, calcareous earths in plants; we find common salt, gypsum, soda, potash, phosphate of lime and other substances in plants, when these substances are (bund in the soil wherein the plants grow. But the same plants can and do grow to per/ijction without them. When these substances are dissolved in minute quantities in the juices which the plants by their roots drink up ti-om the soil, they will of course enter into the sap; and if the vital power of the secretory vessels be not strong enough to excrete them, they will lie depo- sited in the vessels and joints of the plants. As the silicious tabasheer in the joints of the bam- boo; as the silicious earth in the straw of the ce- realia, and the scowring flag. So, the charcoal of an old tree will very often strike fire with steel; not so the charcoal of a young tree. So, gypsum has been fbund in rhubarb, and calcareous earth in potatoes manured with lime. So, the salsola soda^ will yield soda rear the seaside, and potash, when planted for some time inland, iill these instances are manifestly cases of accidental pro- duct and the substances enumerated are by no means essential parts of the plants wherein they happen to be fbund. [ conclude, therefore, that they cannot be con- sidered as pabula. Moreover, the increase in weight of vegetable food from these manures cannot be accounted for from the weight of the manure put on. Thus we were present at the laying out of a clover-field, of which one half was sown with clover without manure of any kind, and the other half was sown with ground gypsum after the clover had just appeared above ground, in the pro])ortion of not quite two bushels, but more than a bushel and a half to the acre. The clover hay from the unmanured part, was a ton and a half per acre; and double that quantity fi-om the portion of the field manured with irypsum. Now, the quantity of gypsum employed, even if every particle of it had been taken up and con- verted into (bod, could not have added more than its own weight, or about 120 lbs.; but its effect was, to produce an increase of a ton and a half So, when lime is strewed on the soil, it remains there; it is not eaten and digested by the planr. Both lime and gypsum also, are manures for more than one or two years. Hence, the increase of vegetation cannot be accounted for from their me- chanical action, or fi-om any chemical action, or from their forming any part of the food of plants. As to chemical action, it is none; for gypsum is not decomposable in the common atmospheric temperature; and the lime in a week becomes carbonated by attracting carbonic acid from the atmosphere. As to common salt, we know too little, experi- mentally, about it. Mr. Ijcgrand ( Young's An- nals of /Agriculture, Vol. V. p. 149) found that Vol.. VI.— 47 so far as sixteen bushels per acre, it was a usefid manure; from thence to forty bushels, it gradually destroyed vetrelation. Mr. Parke, the chemist, published a letter on the advantages of using salt as a manure, which Judge Peters procured to be republished in Philadelphia, but we know no re- sult of experience on this subject. Soap-boiler's ashes are a common manure in England; they consist of Glauber's salt, common sail, sulphuret of soda, and various impurities, whose action can only be explained on the sug- gestions we have just made. Sea-sand, the mud of salt marshes, and other substances of a saline nature, must be referred to the same explanation. They are all stimuli— they irritate the fibres of the roots — they excite stronger action. The perspiration from the leaves m a clover-field manured with gypsum, is obvi- ously increased, as well as the general vigor and growth of the plant. Manures may act by furnishing nutriment to the plant : as a pabulum or food, convertible into the substance of the plant itself Nothing can be an essential part of a plant that does not, ivhen decomposed, furnish the substance of which a plant consists. Of what substances does a plant consist % Take a piece of oak-wood, fresh from the tree; weigh it; cut it into small pieces; put it into a glass retort; lute on a glass receiver; and to this, lute on also a bent glass-tube to go under the shelf of a pneumatic trough, and convey into in- verted receivers the gases that would otherwise escape; apply fire gradually; distil and receive all the products. First, an aqueous and acid vapor will come over, which may be condensed in the receiver. This is accompanied with an empy- reumatic oil, and is, in fact, the pyroligneous acid procured by the gunpowder-makers, when they distil wood to make their charcoal. Then come over gases, viz. : carbonic acid gas, carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide and hydrogen. In the the retort, when more products come over, you get charcoal, the same bulk as the wood, and about one-fourth or one-fifth part in weight.* Burn the charcoal, and about one part in 250, by weight, in an old tree, will be ashes; the rest will burn away in the open air, in the form of car- bonic acid gas. Of these ashes, part are carbo- nate of potash, and the rest, earths of the same nature with the soil in which the tree grew. The carbonate of potash in the ashes of oak- wood, amounts to about f)ur pounds in a bushel, or 1-15 part. In hickory they amount to six pounds in a bushel of ashes. The essential oil of the pyroligneous acid, is convertible by means of a red heat in an iron re- tort, into carbonic acid and carburetted hydrogen; that is, into carbon and hydrogen. The acid liquor, which is vinegar, is formed out of oxygen, carbon and hydrogen. The water is oxygen and hydrogen. The gases that come over, are chiefly carbon and hydrogen ; in the carbonic oxide, a small quantity of oxygen. The earths are not essential to the plant, either in kind or quantity; and the alkali is about yV of * By tfie experiments of Mr. Mushet, of tlie Clyde iron works, 100 parts by weiglit of oak-wood, furiiish 76,895 of gas, water and acid; 22,682 of cfiarcoal; and 0,432 of ashes, of wliich last, we know about l-15th is carbonate of potslance actmg as a manure, whether producing fluids or gases. Nor is there any difficulty in accounting for oxy- gen contained in plants, so abundant on every side are the sources of it. But let us examine the most usual manures of nutriment. Stable-yard manure. — As this has been a vege- table before, there can be no difficulty in conceiv- ing that it may become a vegetable again. It has either fermented into the soluble butyraceous mass of the old fiirm-yard management, or it is employed fresh, and permitted to undergo a gradual decomposilion in the soil. In the first method, it acts sooner, and in the same quan- tity more efficaciously: but this management of" a dung-heap, occasions a losti^ of" at least one-half of" the niUritious matter, dissipated in the various gases that are extricated, or permitted to run away by the rains falling on the dung-heap. Kvery such heap of duno- should have a covering over it, to preserve it from excessive heat and from moisture. The great advantage of a long previous fer- mentation of the dung, especially when mixed with fresh lime, is to kill the seeds of iveeds, which the mere digestive powers of horses and cattle are unable to efl'ect. In every other re- spect, the most advantageous and economical use of" dung, is to plough it under ground in its fresh and recent stale. Night-soil: — Beyond all doubt the most pow- erful and efficacious of all manures. It would be no exaggeration to say, that if the economy used by the Chinese, or even by the French and other inhabitants of the continent of Europe, were used in America, at least ten nfillions worth of produce miirht be added to the crops of this coun- try. In France, the fosses dWisancc inodores, and the dried night-soil sold as a poudrette for ma- nure, are in common use. This substance should be mixed with at least an equal quantity of slack- ed lime, which takes away all odor, and then, with three or four times its quantity of common earth, and made into a compost. 3Iiid from ponds — the cleanings of ditches, Sfc; Require to be previously fermented to kill the seeds of weeds. The sioeepings of streets are liable to the same remark. Ground bones. — These contain phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, and from one-third to one- half"of animal gelly fat, and albumen. In Paris, bones are employed in the manufacture of" portable soup. The bones are boiled in water to get at the li^t and mucilage; and they are digested in diluted muriatic acid for about ten or twelve days; then washed in cold water to separate the solution of lime and phosphate of lime; thetransparentgelatine remains in shape of" the bone. It is dissolved in, boiling water; it is flavored to the palate of the cook who manufactures it; concentrated into port- able soup, and so sold. When young, we attended a veterinary school in London, and a repository of dead horses, at St. John's, Clerkenwell. Let us give the history of a HEAD HORSE. The owner sends him to the currier, to whom he is worth about half a gui- nea. 'J'he currier sends him to the repository, 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 371 Avhere he is skiniicil; nrul di!=.scctc(l before tlic pu- pils wlio aileiul, anil who pay from n miinea to two ijuineiis a year for the privileire. The currier takes the pIud. The flesli is cut oO', boiled, and sold to the retailers of cats' meat and dogs' meat, who sell it about the streets of London at three Iialf pence per pound. The bones beinf^ broken and boiled, the liit, when cold, is taken oif and sold to the makers of cart-ijrease liir carriao'cs. The bones are then ground by iTieans of a steam- , oncine, and sold in powder to the fi^rmers, to be used (like soot) as a top dressino; tor wheat : both these manures containinij volatile alkali when de- composed, and supplying nitrogen. The bones contain, al'ter being boiled, full one-third of their ■weight of animal irelatine, which, undergoing pu- treliiclion and gradual decomposition, becomes a valuable manm-e. All the bones from the plains of Waterloo, were actually collected and exported to England, f)rincipaliy to ISull. The price of ground bones at that port, about three years ago, was 2s. 10|rf. sterling per busliel. The bodies at Waterloo, were first searched over for money, Avatches, trinkets and clothes. Then came the purveyors of human hair, for the supply of the makers ol' f;dse hair, wi^s, curls and frizettes; then came anotlier cjas?, who ex- tracted from the dead bodies, all the sound teeth, for the supply of the dentists; then, when the flesh had putrefied, the collector's of bones search- ed the field lor their harvest. Frequently, the ground bones, instead of being bought by the larmers for manure, are sold to the tnanulftclurersof volatile aikal: and sal ammoniac, lor distillation; sometimes, for the hafts of knives and forks, and the common imitations of ivory. Woollen rags, refuse parings of skins, and other anitmal matters, having previously been ve- getables, are well adapted, by gradual decompo- sition, to be converted into ve.tretables aijain. Spring crops of tares, vetches, buckwheat, or any other venetable sown early, and ploughed in, just as they begin to flower, constitute a very ju- dicious mode of supplyintr mmiure to the earih, when no other is to he procured. It may be asked, if you plough into the irrnund the crop" which the ground has already nourished, what do you gain? The re|)ly is, you gain the whole of thenutriment that the crop has acquired from the air, and ti-om the decomposition of water: an amount of nutri ment, probably, eqnal to one-fourth, at least, of Avhat the plant can furnish by gradual decompo- sition. This brings us to the question, what parts of the plant does nature set to work to ob- tain nutriment and supnlv the rrrowth'? First — The ronls. There is no evidence what- ever, that the roots of a plant can take in anv so- lid matter, or any gaseous matter, uidess previous- ly dissolved in water. The sap of every tree and plant, whether ascending or descending, is a fluid; holding in solution more or less, of the substances destined to become parts of the plant itself How does this fluid ascend by means of the roots? As- suredly not, by capillary attraction, which would stop at an inch or two; nor by any of Sir H. Da- vy's "physical agencies," which are utterly wortli- less to account for the plienomenon. Our mode of explaining it, is as follows: a drop of fluid, containing nutriment, comes in contact with a root fibre in search of nutriment. The mouth of the fibre, that is, the internal sides of the tube, become stimulated; they contract on the ilrop of fluid, iir.d by a contraction a icrgn, propel il up- wards, where another part of the containing tube being stimulated in like manner, contracts in like manner, and the drop is thus propelled to the very top of its course, in consequence of the irritability of the living fibres of the containing vessels.* In iis course, it undergoes the processes necessary to (i-irm it into the nutriment, and assimilate it to the substance of tfie plant. This is done by means of the peculiar organization of each plant, acting as the nature of the plant requires. Were we to propose a tlieory, it should be, that the organization of vegetables and animals, in- cludes and arranges a series of galvanic batteries: by means whereof decompositions and recompo- sitions are effected in organized bodies, which the chemistry of the laboratory cannot explain. We stronirly suspect, that when two dissimilar bodies come in contact, electrical effects, chemical effects, and caloric, more or less, are always produced: whenever two dissimilar bodies, with an interven- ing conducting fluid, capable of acting upon one of them, come together, galvanic efl'ects are pro- duced. And these arrangements are certainlv found in every living vegetable and animal. But the view we can as yet take, is not clear: we see as yet through a glass darkly; and, to use the language of the poet, "the present affords but a illinipse through the gloom." However, discove- ries are in proiiress, and in this, as in every other respect, we may cheeringly say of the march of mmd, Ca Ira. During the decompositions of the sap, the ob- servations of Gay-Lussac and Thenard, Avhich we see nothing to controvert, will apply. When- ever hydrogen and oxygen unite in a vegetable, so that the oxycen is to the h\'drogen in a greater proportion than is fiiund in water, the result is an acid. Whenever they unite in the same propor- tions that form water, the produce is saccharine, or mucilaginous, or fecula, or woody fibre. When- ever tbev unite so that the oxygen is in a less proportion than in water, ive have resins, oils, gum-restns. caoutchouc, &c. In these cases, car- i)on forms the third ingredient. In pine and fir trees, there seems no doubt but water itself is decomposed, and oxygen is given out, during the formation of [)ilch, turpentine, &c. Is the common prejudice, so prevalent in South Carolina, in favor of a summer's residence in the pme-woods, confirmed by this explanation? It seems so to us. vSo much for the function of the roots. But the * We are aware of thp tfieory of Monsieur Dutro- chet in his late book, ''L\1gent immediate du mouve- iiicnt vital devoile dans sa. nature, el duns sa wode d'ac- iion, chezles vigetaux el chez tes animaux.^' — 8vo. Pa- ris; 1826. M. Dutrochet is of opinion tfiat the lym- phatic tubes through which the sap ascends, aro in- contractile; but for no valid reason in support of this doubt that we can discover. If the vegetable fibre be possessed of vegetable life, Itmustbe contractile; this being the characterist.'c property of living fibre. Nor can his obscure explanation by endnsmose and exos- niose be satisfactorily admitted, without admitting the contractile property of the cells and membranes in- troduced in his explanation, nor does the application of galvanism in the experiment of M. Porret, or in tliat of M. Dutrochet. negative the contractility of the living fibre— especially as those experiments did not succeed with inorganic substances. 372 FARMERS' REGISTER. [No. 6 leaves also play their part in the husiness of nu- triment. The experiments of Priestley, In^en- houz, Sennebier, and Woodhouse of Philadel- phia, have established the fact, beyond all doubt, that the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, is de- composed by the leaves of a plant, when the leaves are stimulated into action by ihe light of the sun. This, we suspect, is one of the great sources of the supply of carbon; and of course, a crop ploughed in, adds to the soil as so much gain, all that the leaves have acquired from the atmos- phere. But this addition of carbon, induces also from the roots, a greater supply of hydrogen and of oxygen; which would not have been needed, had not this additional carbon been procured by the industry of the leaves. The theory of ma- nure, therefore, by means of crops ploughed in, while in early flower, is supported by all the con- siderations above suggested. From the Rev. O. Dewey's " Old and New World." ENGLISH AND ABIERICAN ECONOMY. I observed that a considerable number of pas- sengers (on board a steamboat) carried a comlort- uble pic-nic box or basket with them, and spread their own table. With some, doubtless, this pro- vision proceeded from a fastidious taste that feared some poisonous dirt would be found in the com- mon fare of a steamboat. But with man}', I pre- sume, it arose from a habit which presents a marked difference between the people of Eng'and and of America — I mean the habit of economy. In America we are ashamed of economy. It is this feeling which would forbid among us such a practice as that referred to, and not only this, but a great many more and better practices. In Eng- land economy stands out prominently ; it presides over the arrangements of a family ; it is openly professed, and fears no reproach. 'A man is not ashamed to say of a certain indulgence, that he cannot afford it. A gentleman says to you, " I drive a pony-chaise this year ; I have put down my horse and gig, because I cannot pay the tax." A man whose income and expenses and style of living far exceed almost any thing to be found amongst us, still says of something quite beyond him, which his wealthier neighbor does, " We are not rich enough for that." One of the most distinguished men in Europe said to me, when speaking of wines at his table, "The wine I should prefer is claret, but I cannot atlbrd it ; and BO I drink my own gooseberry." I have heard that many families carry the principle so far, that they determine exactly how many dinners they can give in a year, and to how many guests ; nay more, and how many dishes they can put upon the table when they do entertain. This frankness on the subject of economy is amongst us a thing almost unheard of Not "that we are more wealthy, but, as I conceive, less wise. The competition of domestic life among us is too keen to admit of any such confessions oi' internal weakness. We practice economy by stealth. Nor is that the worst of it ; for one con- sequence of this habit of feeling is, that we prac- tise too little. When a stranger looks upon the strife of business in our villages and cities, he ima- gines that he sees a very covetous people ; but a nearer observation would show him that much of this eager and absorbing, and almost slavish, oc- cupation, is necessary to sustain the heavy drains of domestic expenditure. It is extravagance at home that chains many a man to the counter and counting-room. And this extravagance is of his own choosing; because he knows no other way of distinguishing himself but by the style of living. Would he but conceive that he might belter ele- vate himself in society by having a well-read li- brary, by improving his mind and conversation, by cultivating some graceful but comparatively cheap accomplishment, he might live a wiser and die a richer man. Who could hesitate to choose between such a family, and one whose house was filled with gorgeous furniture ; where the wite and daughters are dressed in the guyest of ihe fashion, and the husband and lather banishes himself the live-long day, and half the night, from that plea- sant mansion, to toil and drudge in ihe dusty ware- house? He sleeps in a very grand house; he lives in a counting-room ! From the Penny Magazine. WOLF-CATCIIING IN NORWAY. In Norway, and perhaps in some other north- ern countries, the following very simple contri- vance is used for the capture of the wolf: — In a circle of about six or eight feet in diameter, stakes are driven so close to each other that a wolf can- not creep through, and which are high enough to prevent his leaping over them. In the midst of this circle a single stake is driven, to which a lamb or a young kid is bound. Around this circle a se- cond is formed, of which the stakes are as close and as high as the inner one, and at a distance not greater than will permit of a wolf to pass conve- niently, but not to allow of his turning round. In the outer circle a door is formed, which opens in- ward, and rests against the inner circle, but moves easily on its hinges, and fastens itself on shutting. Through this door the wolves enter, sometimes in such a number as to fill the enclosure. The first wolf now paces the circle in order to discover some opening through which he can get at the lamb. When he comes to the back of the door which is in his way, he pushes it with his muzzle, it closes and fastens, he passes by, and goes the round for the second time, without being able ei- ther to enter the inner circle, or to retreat from the outer. At length he perceives that he is a prison- er, and his hideous howling announces to those who have constructed the trap that he is taken, who immediately come and despatch him. It is said that this sort of trap is also used for foxes, and even occasionally for mice. From the Maine Fartneir. MAKING BUTTER. In a ihw remarks on this subject, it is not neces- sary for us to tell the dairy- woman that it is of the first importance that her milk-pails, pans, pots, churn, &c., should be kept perfectly clean and sweet, for they are as fully aware as we can be, that unless this first grand essential of dairy man- 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 373? agemo.nl is strictly attended to, their whole efforts to produce cither good butler or cheese, are in vain. Ikil after all their care and precaution, their expectations are sonieiinies disrippointed — the pro- duce of this labor does not, in (|uality, come up to what they anticipate, and for what eartiily reason they are not able to tell. It appears to them, that no neirlect on their part can be the cause— they Iiave been careful that all the preliminaries and the whole operation should be perlbrmed with skill, but still they are disappointed— there is wrong management somewhere, but it is beyond their ken to discover it. There are some (ew iacts on this subject, which we have learned from agricultural books and papers, and confirmed by experience, which perhaps are not so generally known as they should be. That there is a great difference in the milk of different cows, every one of limited experience must have noticed, and that there is an equal dif- ference in cream, and consequently in the butter made from it, is a fact equally apparent to an ob- server. If a cow is driven a long distance or driven fast shortly before milking, it injures the quality of the milk, and it will not produce so much or so good cream. If milk is disturbed after it cools and before the cream rises, it injures its quality and diminishes the quantity. Care should, therefore, be taken to strain the milk as soon as possible after it is drawn from the cow and before it cools. If milk be kept warm for any great iength of tirie native mulberry, as on the Chinese ; though there c still enough of superior advantages in the latter nd, in other respects. 'd) The prolongation of the time before the worms ".rin to spin, whether caused by scant feeding, want ' warmth, or any thing else, is doubtless attended by - in more respects than the mere additional food re by required, and the labor of giving it. The !ih and vigor of the insects must suffer, and the i.fity of silk finally produced by each will be less. omparison of his cocoons which were not formed '■">ve the worms were 40 days old, with those of his ghbor, which were begun at 25 days old, would •obably have shown the superiority of the latter. '") We fear that the attempt at three, or even two jps of cocoons in a year, will not succeed, except to ■" great injury and destruction of our correspondent's jUP'^ mulberry trees. At least, we would advise his lalving, at first, but a small experiment of double or pie crops ; and the second or third feedings to be inned to a certain portion of his trees, so that the ree of injury may be observed, and properly esti- ted. From the Farmer and Gardener. COB-MEAL AND COB-MILLS. V friend and correspondent in Ohio has request- some information as to the value of cobs ..ound with the corn, and the cheapest and best mil! for grindinij; fhem together. That a very great saving is effected in feeding animals by grinding their food does not admit of a doubt; and the explanation of the (act, as given by Raspail and Dutrochet, is perfectly satisfactory. It is also certain that when nutritive matter is pro- per!}' divided and incorporated with some sub- stance suitable for the action and distention of the stomach, that a much less quantity will suffice, and the animal be in equally good condition. It is on this principle that the English custom of substituting cut straw lor hay in feeding with grain, a saving of one-half of the expense being made by feeding with cut straw and ground grain, over feeding with hay and unjiround grain, accord- ing to the old mode. Neither the straw, or the cob contain any great amount of nutriment in themselves, but they assist the digestive functions, and render the accompanying nutriment more available. The cob however has much the ad- vantage of straw in every respect; and experience shows that those lose much who waste this impor- tant part of the corn crop. Some interesting experiments have been record- ed, in the N. E. Farmer, on the subject ot fattening animals on corn and cob-meal. The Rev. Mr. Perley in describing his method of using the food gays:— "I have for several years practised having my corn and cobs ground together; breaking the cobs fine by pounding, and grinding one peck of corn with a bushel of the cobs. Meal made of this composition, I scalded, and made about as thick as common hasty pudding, or mixed about one peck of the meal with about three pecks of boiled potatoes, thickened to the consistency of pudding.. There were no hogs in the neighborhood grew sO' fast, or were fit to kill sooner in autumn." In the Massachusetts Agricultural Repository is. a communication from Mr. Rice of Shrewsbury,, in which he says: "The very best provender I have ever used for fattening cattle, is corn and cobs, ground together.. The reason I consider the cob useful is, it swells- in the creature, and keeps him in good order; in no one instance since I have led with this meal, have my cattle been out of order by being cloyed, or scouring; they are at all times regular; but when 1 formerly fed with clear Indian, or oats and Indian, these difRculiies frequently occurred, and they would lose as much in two or three days, as they would gain in a week. The second year that I made use of this kind of provender, I thought! would try an experiment, by feeding one ox with corn and oats ground, the other with corn and cobs, having one yoke oxen so equally matched that no one who viewed them, appeared satisfied which was best. The cob is computed to make a little more than one-third, therefore I mixed the other with one-third oats, which was my former mode. I gave each ox an equal quantity at a time, except that the one which had corn and oats some days became dainty, and would not eat his allowance; while the one fed with cob-meal kept on his regular course. When taken to market and slaughtered, the oxen weighed 28 hundred and a half, the one fed on corn and oats had 162 lbs. of tallow, and weighed about half a hundred more. The one fed on cob-meal had 163 lbs. of tallow, and the butcher pronounced his meat half a dollar in the hundred better than that of the other." In the third vol. of the Philadelphia Society for promoting Afjricuiture, i.? an excellent paper by Dr. Mease, in which the utility of giinding the cobs with the corn is clearly shown, both from analogy and actual experiment. And we believe that wherever it has been tried, or wherever the means of grinding can be had, it has been ap- proved, and will be found of great value. So far as we are acquainted, cobs after being broken, are Ground in the common millstones with the corn. The same machinery used for grinding plaster of Paris or gypsum, has been fouiid effica- cious for grinding cob-meal ; the plaster cracker reducing the cob sufficiently for the action of the stones. Mr. Buckminster, speaking of machinery for this purpose, says, — "lor making cob-meal we placed in our mill a pair of large stones, cut the eye of the runner 12 inches at top, and 14 or 15 inches at bottom, and bosomed it out large, as we term ir. In this manner it answers every purpose fbriirinding and cracking corn in the ear." The cast iron bark mill has been used for crack- ins cobs to some extent, and where a mill is con- venient to grind the cobs and corn after cracking, would answer a good purpose; and we can see no reason why one constructed on the same principle, and like those worked by a horse or water power, might not be constructed to reduce the cobs and corn sufficiently fine to answer instead of the ordi- nary process of grinding. It must be remember- ed, however, that the goodness of cob meal must always in a great measure be dependent on its fineness. Where it is an object to provide a mill of this kind, any farmer who has a horse-power 1838] FARMERS' REGISTER. 381 thrashing machine, may with Httie expense pro- cure orihnary millstones, and by attachiiiir a cracit- er as for a plaster mill, or arranfjinix the stones themselves as recommemled by INlr. J^ncKminsler, have a mill not only useful for grindinj^ cobs but all the srain he intends for feedinfj. As the pow- er required would be lessened as the velocity wne decreased, two horses would run a pair of mill- stones, it is believed, with as much ease as four do the lari^cr thrashin']: machines. From the Franklin fKy.) Farmer.) MANAGEMEXT AND DISEASES OP HOGS. To Chilton Allan, president of the Kentucky State j/gricultural Society. I have seen in a late number of the Franklin Farmer, your circular address, calling upon the friends of improvement for essays upon a number of important subjects relating to the agricultural interests and pursuits of our state. Approving hear- tily the noble objects of the State Society, I read your address with great satisfaction ; and I cannot but believe, that the action of the Society will bring about the most gratifying results in improv- ing the science of agriculture, and hence the con- dition of the husbandman: for I cannot doubt, that every one who desires improvement himself and who would derive useful information from others will hold himself bound to contribute some- thing to the fjeneral stock of knowledge. There are few intelligent farmers who do not know some- thing unknown to others, and it is by an inter- change of sentiment and opinion, as well as of ex- perience and practice, that the farmers of the country will be able to see and reject the errors of their husbandry and adopt those modes instead which lead to improvement and success. In this view. I offer an humble tribute, which at least has the merit of a well meant design of benefiting others in some respects. The commencement of our prosperity may be dated from the period when our agriculturists turned their attention to the raising of stock tor export ; and as the consumption and demand have increased in a ratio with the increase of population and wants of the people of the United States, the business has become a source of wealth to Kentucky. And no where has the improve- ment of stock been so great and so general, nor more zeal and perseverance manifested to procure the breeds of horses, asses, cattle, sheep and hogs. In enumerating these descriptions of .stock, the last is not the least important in bringing wealth to the state, and should be looked to with a foster- ing care and attention. Under tliis belief, I humbly submit to the pub- lic through you, the following; observations on the management of hogs, with some remarks on some of their diseases. In giving my views on these subjects, I deem it important to state some of the various ways of raising, feeding and fattening hogs in different sec- tions of the country, which, according to circum- stances, soil and climate, will differ; and conclude with my views as to the beet mode to be adopted by the farmers of Kentucky under her peculiar circumstances. In Europe and many parts of the United States, hogs are indispensably kept in" pens or stres, and as the numbers raised are com- piu'iitively small, there is no irreat expense attend- ing the manner of feeding them ; indeed this is the most economical, cheap and convenient me- thod of fiiilening that could be adopted in any country where the number led is small. In some of the New Englatid States large buildings have been erected lor raising and latteninir hogs on an extensive scale, fed almost exclusively on vega- tables produced on a few acres of land, which ffives a profit of 50 per cent, more than any other way in which the products of the land could be disposed of. On this extensive scale, the busi- ness is unconnected with any other, liaving (or its object the raising and fiitlening of hogs alone, for it requires the most strict attention which daily habit and the most scrutinizing observation, in time reduced to a perfect system, can give. It was a.scertained to a fraction, what each hog would eat at a meal^ which was measured out to him three limes a day, the quantity according to aire, allowing six of the same age to occupy a sty, which was re