FARM GRASSES LIMITED STffES JC-NRLF M JASPER SHLLMAN UNIVERSITY FARM 197 .cc c.a FARM GRASSES of the UNITED STATES Farm Grasses the UNITED STATES A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE GRASS CROP, SEEDING AND MANAGEMENT OF MEADOWS AND PASTURES, DESCRIPTIONS OF THE BEST VARIETIES, THE SEED AND ITS IMPURITIES, GRASSES FOR SPECIAL CONDITIONS, ETC., ETC. .• .• .• .• .- By WILLIAM JASPER SPILLMAN Agrostologist, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture ; In Charge of Grass and Forage Plant Investigations ,• Chairman of Committee in Charge of Farm Management ILLVS ORANGJUDD COMPANY LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LIMITED 1907 COPYRIGHT, 1905 BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY Entered at Stationers' Hall, London, England TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE xiii I. The Grass Crop ....... i II. Meadows and Pastures ...... 14 III. Meadows and Pastures (Continued} ... 26 IV. Meadows and Pastures (Concluded) ... 42 V. The Seed 56 VI. Timothy 75 VII. The Blue-grasses ....... go VIII. The Millets . . . . . . . .103 IX. Two Prominent Southern Grasses . . . 125 X. Redtop and Orchard-grass 146 XI. Brome-grass (Bromus inermis) .... 164 XII. Grasses of Minor Importance .... 176 XIII. Grasses for Special Conditions .... 192 XIV. Lawns and Lawn-making ..... 200 XV. Miscellany . . . . . . . 217 INDEX 243 ILLUSTRATIONS Mowing the Lawn .... Frontispiece 1. Percentage of Improved Land Devoted to Hay and Forage. (Compiled from Census of 1900) . . 3 2. Grain (Including Cow-peas) Cut Green for Hay. Each dot represents 10,000 acres. (Compiled from Census of 1900) ....... 10 3. Wild, Salt, and Marsh Grasses Cut for Hay. Each dot represents 10,000 acres. (Compiled from Cen- sus of 1900) ........ 13 4. Haying Scene in Nova Scotia 35 5. Rake for Moving Hay-cocks to Stack .... 37 6. Hay-stack Made too Flat ...... 38 7. Hay-derrick in Common Use in Utah 39 8. Quack-grass (Agropyron repens). A bad weed in the Northern States 50 9. Production of Grass-seed in the United States. (Com- piled from Census of 1900.) Each dot represents 10,000 bushels. Three counties not shown on the map; each produce approximately 10,000 bushels of grass-seed; they are Linn County, Oregon; Rock Bridge County, Virginia; and Salem County, New Jersey ........ 57 10. Seeds of Standard Grasses, a, Meadow-fescue; £, English Rye-grass; c, Italian Rye-grass; d, Tim- othy; e, Redtop in the chaff;/, Redtop, chaff re- moved ; g, Rhode Island Bent; h, Orchard-grass. (G. H. Hicks, Year-book, Department of Agricul- ture, 1898) 58 X ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 11. Seeds of Standard Grasses, a, Rescue-grass; b, Texas Blue-grass; c, Chess, or Cheat; d, Canada Blue- grass; e, Bromus inermis; /, Kentucky Blue-grass. (G. H. Hicks, Year-book, Department of Agricul- ture, 1898) 59 12. Gathering Kentucky Blue-grass Seed near Lexington, Kentucky. (From Bulletin 19, Bureau of Plant In- dustry, United States Department of Agriculture) 61 13. Curing Kentucky Blue-grass Seed Outdoors. 50,000 bushels in one curing-bin. (From Bulletin 19, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture) . . . . . .63 14. Weed Seeds, a, Pepper-grass (Lepidium virginicum)\ b, Slender Rush (Juncus ttnuis)\ c, Velvet-grass (ffolcus lanatus)\ d, Five-finger (Potentilla mons- peliensis)] e, Ox-eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucan- themum)\ f, Sorrel {Rumex acetosella)\ gt False Flax (Camelina sativd}\ //, Canada Thistle (Cardmts ar- vensis} ......... 67 15. Home-made Seed-tester, a, Closed; b, Open. (From Farmers' Bulletin 194, United States Department of Agriculture) 73 16. Timothy 76 17. Distribution of "Other Tame Grasses," mostly Tim- othy. (Compiled from Census of 1900.) Each large dot represents a county producing more than 5,000 acres. The smaller dots represent 1,000 acres each . . . . . . . . .7,9 18. Kentucky Blue-grass 91 19. Distribution of Kentucky Blue-grass. Each dot rep- resents a correspondent reporting blue-grass im- portant in his section ...... 94 ILLUSTRATIONS XI FIG. PAGE 20. Acreage of Millet Hay. (Compiled from Census of 1900.) Each dot represents 1,000 acres . . . 105 21. Typical Form of Foxtail Millet 112 22. Broom-corn Millet ....... 115 23. Barn-yard Grass. A representative of the Japanese millets 117 24. Bermuda Grass 126 25. Distribution of Bermuda Grass. Each dot represents a correspondent reporting Bermuda Grass important in his locality ........ 128 26. Plat of Bermuda Grass in Grass-garden at Wash- ington, D.C. (United States Department of Agri- culture) 129 27. Johnson Grass ........ 138 28. Distribution of Johnson Grass. Each dot represents a correspondent reporting Johnson Grass important in his locality 145 29. Redtop, or Herd's Grass (Agrostis alba) . . . 147 30. Distribution of Redtop. Each dot represents a corre- spondent reporting this grass important . . 149 31. Orchard-grass (Dactylis glomerata). Cocksfoot of the English 155 32. Sod of Orchard-grass. Showing its bunchy character 158 33. Distribution of Orchard-grass. Each dot represents a correspondent reporting this grass important . 161 34. Brome-grass (Bromus inermis) 165 35. Distribution of Brome-grass. Each dot representing a correspondent reporting it important . . . 167 36. Chess, or Cheat (Bromus secalinus) . . . .172 37. Rescue-grass (Bromus unioloides) .... 174 38. Crab-grass 184 Xll ILLUSTRATIONS 39. Distribution of Crab-grass. Each dot representing a correspondent reporting this grass important . 186 40. Distribution of Carpet-grass 188 41. Plat of Bluestem (Agropyron occidental] in Grass- garden at Washington, D. C. (United States De- partment of Agriculture) ..... iqo 42. Seaside Blue-grass (Poa macrantha), near Astoria, Oregon. Protecting sand-dune from erosion by the wind ......... 195 43. Typical View on Ranges of the West. Showing Ely- mus condensatus in low alkaline soil . . . 199 44. Greensward in Public Gordens, Boston, Mass. . 212 45. Lawn-mowers, or Turf-makers, in Druid Hill Park, Baltimore, Md. ....... 213 46. Varieties of Timothy ....... 230 47. Varieties of Timothy . . . . . . 231 48. Improved Varieties of Brome-grass .... 233 49. Penicillaria, or Pearl Millet 235 50. A Spike ......... 237 51. A Spikelet 237 52. A Panicle ......... 239 53. Parts of a Single Floret 241 54. Showing Action of Pollen 241 PREFACE N preparing this volume the object has been to present, in connected form, the main facts concerning the grasses grown on American farms — in so far, at least, as these facts are of interest to the farmer. Actual practice in grass grow- ing has been set forth wherever information concern- ing it has been available. The writer has attempted to view every phase of the subject from the farmer's standpoint — with what measure of success the reader must judge for himself. The country may be divided into four regions, each of which presents a different set of problems. In the region of timothy, clover, and blue-grass, grass problems are comparatively unimportant; they relate mainly to methods of growing and utilizing well-known grasses, and to methods of improving these grasses by separating them into their constituent varieties and selecting out the best. This region covers the North- eastern quarter of the country, and certain localities in the West and the Middle South. In the South, while excellent grasses are not wanting, it happens that most of the grasses best adapted to the region possess char- acteristics which render their management on the farm a matter of much difficulty. This subject is discussed at length in the chapter on Bermuda and Johnson grasses. Grasses having fewer objectionable features xiii PREFACE are much sought after by Southern farmers, and some suggestions are made in the text concerning hay and pasture plants worthy of trial. Methods of fitting grass crops into Southern cropping systems constitute another important problem which the farmer must work out largely for himself. The best we can do for him in this line is to give him the benefit of the expe- rience of the most progressive of his fellows. This the writer has attempted to do. On the irrigated lands of the West, farmers are not particularly concerned about grass problems, except where alkali has begun to appear*. But there are im- mense areas in the West at present unutilized, except in the primitive fashion of the herdsman on the open range, on which the problem is to find grasses that will produce a crop under arid or semi-arid conditions. In so far as the solution of this difficulty has been ac- complished, the results are set forth in discussing the individual grasses. Attention is called to investiga- tions now in progress with a view to finding other grasses adapted to these hard conditions. The chapter on seeds was contributed by Mr. Edgar Brown, in charge of the Seed Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture. The chapter on " Lawns and Lawn-making M was prepared by Mr. C. R. Ball, of the United States De- partment of Agriculture. The following acknowledgments, in addition to those already given, are due for illustrations used: Fig. 13 — Pieters & 'Brown, Bulletin 19, Bureau of Plant In- dustry, U. S. D. A. Fig. 14 — Pieters & Brown, Bulletin 19, Bureau of Plant In- dustry, U. S. D. A. PREFACE XV Fig. 15 — Pieters, Farmers' Bulletin 123, U. S. D. A. Fig. 21 — Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 21, U. S. D. A. Fig. 23 — Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 14, U. S. D. A. Fig. 24 — Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 7, U. S. D. A. Fig. 27— Tracy, Agros. Bulletin 15, U. S. D. A. Fig. 29 — Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 17, U. S. D. A. Fig. 31 — Scribner. Agros. Bulletin 7, U S. D. A. Fig. 32 — Scribner, Year-book 1897, U. S. D. A. Fig. 34 — Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 7, U. S. D. A. Fig. 36 — Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 7, U. S. D. A. Fig- 37— Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 7, U. S. D. A. Fig. 38 — Scribner, Agros. Bulletin 17, U. S. D. A. W. J. SPILIyMAN BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1905. FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES THE GRASS CROP HHK word ' ' grass ' ' is used in two senses. Popu- larly it is applied to those plants that furnish hay and pasture. In this sense it includes the clovers, alfalfa, the vetches, spurry, and other plants belonging to various families. Botanic- ally the term is applied only to representatives of a single family, known to botanists as the Graminetz, or true grasses. In this volume, in order to avoid bur- densome phraseology, the word is sometimes used in the one sense and sometimes in the other, but the con- text will always indicate the meaning intended. In the present chapter the term is made to include those plants which are generally grown for hay and pasture purposes. According to the Census of 1900, about 18 percent, of the total area of the United States is classed as im- proved land. This does not take into account Alaska or our insular possessions. This 18 per cent, amounts to 414,000,000 acres. Of this, only 289,000,000 is de- voted to harvested crops, including some 15,000,000 acres of wild grasses cut for hay. This leaves about 2 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES 1 25,000,000 acres of improved land devoted to orchards, woodlands, and pastures. Since practically all the improved woodland is pastured, and since the area in orchards is relatively very small, it is safe to say that at least 120,000,000 acres of this area is grass-land used for pasture purposes. Of the harvested crops, about 59,000,000 acres is devoted to hay. It is thus seen that the hay crop occupies over 22 per cent, of all land from which crops are harvested, while hay and pasture lands together constitute about 43 per cent, of the total area of improved land. The value of the hay crop for the year 1899 is estimated at $484,256,846. The only crop exceeding this was corn. It is impossible to estimate the value of the feed obtained from the 120,000,000 acres of improved pas- ture-land; but when we add the value of this and the pasture value of the remaining 82 per cent, of the total area of the country classed as unimproved land, nearly all of which is grazed, it is probable that the grass crop surpasses in value any other crop. But since hay is too bulky and usually too cheap to bear long-distance shipment, comparatively a small proportion of it finds its way to the markets. It is fortunate that at least one important crop must, from its very nature, be largely consumed on the land where it is produced. Otherwise we should long ago have reduced the fertility of practically all the farm lands in this country to so low a point as to have rendered farm- ing unprofitable, just as has been done in all the older parts of the country where livestock farming has been neglected. It is a notable fact that in those por- tions of the country which have enjoyed the most per- THE GRASS CROP 3 manent prosperity, the grasses and livestock have always occupied an important place. In the New Eng- land States, which have felt keenly the competition of the fertile lands of the Central West, agriculture has been able to maintain itself only by devoting the major portion of the improved land to grasses. Other crops may form the basis of temporary prosperity, as has FIG. I — PERCENTAGE OF IMPROVED LAND DEVOTED TO HAY AND FORAGE been the case with wheat on the prairies of the North- west and the Pacific Northwest, and cotton in the South; but it was a prosperity that rested on too slen- der a basis, and, in both cases, led to disaster. The distribution of the grass crop in the United States is shown in Fig. i . This shows the percentage of improved land in each State devoted to hay and forage. The States may be divided into four fairly distinct groups, based on these percentages. The first 4 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES group consists of the cotton-producing States, in which the area of grass lands is less than 5 per cent, of the whole. This group of States was so unfortunate in their early history as to find their lands and climate adapted to a crop that was highly profitable, but which returned nothing to the soil. Livestock farming and grass culture were almost wholly negledled. As the lands wore out, resort was had to commercial fertil- izers; but these did not add humus to the soil, and the mechanical condition of the soil has reached that stage where rain washes it so badly that it is necessary to terrace in order to keep the soil from washing away. The results achieved by many progressive farmers in the South show conclusively that a proper use of grasses and stable manure render terracing unneces- sary except on decidedly rolling lands, and make the soil highly productive. Diversified farming is rapidly coming into favor in the South, and the area devoted to hay and pasture crops is increasing. This undoubt- edly means a return to permanent prosperity. Hay production, generally speaking, is not an im- portant industry in the South. It has become impor- tant in a few localities. In the Red River Valley in Louisiana and Arkansas a considerable area of alfalfa is grown, and the area devoted to this valuable crop is rapidly extending. On a narrow strip of prairie soil extending from northeastern Mississippi through central Alabama and terminating near Macon, Georgia, Johnson grass has long been grown in considerable areas. The same grass is grown more or less exten- sively on similar soil over much of central Texas. Alfalfa thrives abundantly on these black soils, and is THE GRASS CROP 5 coming into general use as a hay crop in recent years. In the vicinity of Augusta, Georgia, on both sides of the Savannah River, considerable hay is grown for the local markets. The same is true in restricted local- ities in northern Florida. In general, however, the prevailing system of farming consists of growing cotton and corn. This system has thoroughly worn out the soil except in the richer alluvial sections, so that good crops are seldom produced, even with the stimulus of commercial fertilizers, which are universally applied — at least, to cotton — in all the older settled sections. Regarding the profit from hay farming in the South, Mr. F. A. Quinett, who operates two large hay farms near New Orleans, says, in a letter to the Depart- ment of Agriculture: " Formerly we found it difficult to sell our hay. We now have the best patronage, and are unable to meet the demand. One hundred acres last year gave about four hundred tons of hay, which we sold at $10 to $14 per ton. We consider the hay business decidedly more profitable than any other style of farming." The next group consists of the States of Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. In these, the grasses are largely confined to certain localities ; in Virginia, to the valleys between the mountain ranges in the west- ern part ; in Tennessee, to the mountain valleys of the east, and to the limestone soils of the central part of the State; in Kentucky, largely to the northern border and the north central part. In these three States the percentage of grass-lands ranges from 5 to 6.3. The third group consists of those States in which agriculture is most widely diversified, and the agricul- 6 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES tural wealth of the country is mostly concentrated. In them, from 10 to 25 per cent, of the improved land is devoted to hay and forage crops. The last group con- sists of the Rocky Mountain States and New York and New England. In these States the grass area ex- ceeds 25 per cent, of the total. The large amount of hay grown in these two groups of States is due to special conditions. In the Mountain States the chief industry is stock-raising on the ranges, and the hay is grown for winter feed. The proportion of grass to other crops is indeed larger here than is called for in properly diversified agriculture, and there is much talk of the need of grains for finishing off cattle. In New York and New England much hay is grown for market. Dairying is also an important industry. Unlike Iowa, Wisconsin, and other great dairy States in the Central West, where concentrated dairy feeds are largely pro- duced on the farm, New England finds it more advan- tageous to devote her lands to grass, and to buy grain and mill products for her cattle. The data concerning the hay and forage crops of the country are given in Vol. VI., Census of 1900, under the following headings : " Wild, Salt, and Prai- rie Grasses," " Millet and Hungarian Grasses," " Al- falfa or Lucern, " " Clover," " Other Tame Grasses," " Grains Cut Green for Hay," and " Forage Crops." The distribution of each of these crops will be dis- cussed later. The data for clover relate to clover sown alone, and include all the varieties. When sown with timothy or other true grasses, clover is included under " other tame grasses." Grains cut green for hay here includes peas as well, since, in the North, peas are THE GRASS CROP 7 usually sown with oats when grown for hay. It also includes the cow-peas of the South when cut for hay, though these are practically never sown with grain. Under " Forage Crops" are included sorghum, Kafir- corn, milo maize, Indian corn, etc., when cut and fed in the green state, made into silage, or when grown for the fodder alone, as all of these crops except Indian corn and Kafir-corn usually are. The two latter, when grown for grain, are not included here. The crop designated ' ' other tame grasses " is by far the most important of all. It includes timothy, timothy and clover, redtop, orchard-grass, brome-grass, meadow- fescue, tall meadow oat-grass, etc. There are no definite data to indicate in what proportion these grasses occur, but common observation and extensive correspondence with farmers indicate that the area of all others together is decidedly small when compared with the area of timothy, or a mixture of timothy and clover, and we may fairly refer to the region producing this crop as the " timothy region." Omitting for the present the wild grasses, these hay crops will be con- sidered in the order of their importance. By reference to the map (Fig. 17), it will be seen that the crop designated as ( ' other tame grasses ' ' oc- curs principally north of the Ohio River and east of the west line of Missouri and Iowa. The area of this crop is given as 31,302,000 acres. It therefore constitutes 74 per cent, of the total area of tame hay. The aver- age yield is i.i tons per acre, making a total of 35,- 624,000 tons of hay, consisting almost exclusively of timothy, or timothy and clover. The yield per acre of this crop is lower than that of any other tame hay 8 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES crop. This is largely due to the prevailing habit of leaving timothy meadows down after they have become unproductive. It is a remarkable fact that nearly all the grass lit- erature issued by the American experiment stations comes from those stations outside of the timothy re- gion. Inside this region the early introduction of timothy, red clover, and Kentucky blue-grass solved the grass problem in a manner satisfactory to the farmer before the establishment of the experiment stations, and these institutions have, therefore, devoted their energies to more pressing problems. The most im- portant grass literature from these States is to be found in the reports from early agricultural societies. These reports indicate that grass problems were at one time as important in the region in question as they now are outside of it. Nearly all the correspondence that comes to the office of Grass and Forage Plant Investi- gations of the United States Department of Agriculture originates either in the cotton-growing States, where grass culture has been neglected, or in the arid and semi-arid West, where satisfactory grasses are yet to be found. Clover ranks next to ' ' other tame grasses ' ' in the area devoted to it. The figures apply, of course, to the clovers when sown without timothy or other true grasses. The area devoted to clover is 4, 104,000 acres, or 7 per cent, of the total area of tame hay. The average yield of this class of crops is given at 1.3 tons per acre. The clovers, particularly the common red clover {Trifolium pratense), are much more im- portant in American agriculture than these figures THE GRASS CROP ' 9 would indicate. In the first place, red clover is very commonly sown with timothy, the area thus sown probably being several times as large as the area of clover sown alone. In the second place, they are nitrogen gatherers, and are thus of vast importance in furnishing nitrogenous material in feed-stuffs and as soil renovators. But a further discussion of this sub- ject would transcend the limits of this volume, which is confined, except in a most general way, to a discus- sion of the true grasses. The next most important crop in the list consists of grains cut green for hay. Its distribution is shown in Fig. 2. The area of this crop is 3,884,000 acres, and the average yield 1.3 tons. The grains are used extensively for hay only on the Pacific Coast. On non-irrigated lands in Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and California, where the rainfall is sufficient to per- mit of farming, wheat is by far the most important crop. Over much of this area wild oats are very troublesome, and the principal hay consists of patches of wild oats cut in wheat-fields. Even where wild oats are not troublesome, as where the rainfall is less than about eighteen inches annually, much wheat is cut for hay. If cut at the proper stage, wheat, and the other cereals as well, make excellent hay for all kinds of stock. In California beardless barley is used exten- sively for hay; this crop is also coming into use in Oregon and Washington for the same purpose. Al- falfa and brome-grass {Bromus inermis) are also rap- idly coming into favor on the wheat-lands east of the Cascade Mountains in the two States last named. Throughout the Central and Southern States the .•**" THK GRASS CROP II grain hay consists mostly of oats cut and fed in the sheaf, and of cow-peas. The thick patch of grain hay shown in southern Louisiana consists entirely of cow- peas grown on sugar plantations, both for hay and for their fertilizing effedl on the soil. At the North, Cana- dian field peas are sometimes sown with oats for hay, but the area is quite limited. They hardly extend as far south as central Pennsylvania and central Ohio. The hay crop next in importance is alfalfa, of which 2,094,000 acres is reported in the Census oi 1900. This is confined almost entirely to the West, and largely to irrigated land in that section. Alfalfa, as an important crop, stops at the western limit of 11 other tame grasses," as shown in Fig. 17. It is now rapidly gaining ground in the East and South. The average yield per acre is 2.5 tons — nearly double that of any of the preceding crops. Last in the list of tame hay crops are ' c Millet and Hungarian grasses. " Of these, 1,744,000 acres are shown in the census returns, with an average yield of 1.6 tons per acre. Their distribution is shown in Fig. 20, and the millet crop is discussed in detail in Chapter VIII. The acreage of forage crops is placed at 3,107,000. The average yield of dry forage is 2.6 tons per acre. Kansas leads in the production of forage. Sorghum and Kafir-corn are eminently adapted to the western margin of the humid region ; sorghum does equally well in the whole of the cotton-producing sedlion, where it is highly important as a fodder crop. It is also much used in the South as a green feed for sum- mer and as pasture for all kinds of stock. 12 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES The wild hay crop is much more important than is generally believed. No less than 15,417,000 acres of wild grasses were cut for hay during the census year, though the area is rapidly diminishing. The average yield is i . i tons per acre, or the same as that given for 1 ' other tame grasses. ' ' The distribution of the wild ha}' crop is shown in Fig. 3. The chief acreage is shown to be in the States bordering the western edge of the timothy region. In Iowa, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota, wild hay is cut chiefly on wet lands ; farther west, mostly on upland prairies ; still farther west, in swales and draws in the arid region. The principal grasses constituting this wild hay, and the possibility of domesticating some of them, are men- tioned later in this volume. RECAPITULATION The following table presents the statistics for hay and forage crops in more compact form. The figures are from the Census of 1900: ACREAGE OF HAY AND FORAGE Acres A verage yield in tons per acre Wild, salt, and prarie grasses 15,457,000 .1 Millet and Hungarian grasses i 744,000 .6 Alfalfa, or lucern . . . 2,094,000 2.5 Clover 4 104 ooo •3 Other tame and cultivated grasses .... O rains cut green for hay 31,302,000 3 884 ooo .1 .3 Total 58 585 ooo 1.2 Forage crops . 3 107,000 2.6 Grand total 6 1 692 ooo 1.3 \&' II MEADOWS AND PASTURES XCKPT in comparatively few localities, the American farmer has never learned the art of maintaining grass-lands in a permanently productive condition. This is partly due to the character of the grasses grown, and partly to the treatment accorded grass-lands in this country. There are only three important hay and pasture plants com- monly grown in America that naturally tend to in- crease in productiveness after the second year. These are alfalfa, Bermuda grass, and blue-grass (Poa pra- tensis). When any one of these is once established on land to which it is thoroughly adapted, it remains productive for many years, if given proper treatment. But such grasses as timothy, redtop, brome-grass, Johnson grass, orchard-grass, and tall oat-grass all decrease markedly in yield after the first crop year — at least, with the treatment they ordinarily receive. Whether a meadow consisting of these grasses could be maintained productive indefinitely is doubtful. In the real grass-growing section of the country, which lies north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers and east of Nebraska and Kansas, including portions of Virginia, Kentucky, Kansas, and Nebraska, meadows ordinarily consist of timothy and red clover. The lat- ter plant has come to be regarded as practically a bien- 14 MEADOWS AND PASTURES 15 nial. In reality it is a perennial, capable of remain- 'ing productive for many years, but it is subject to so many insect enemies and fungous diseases that it usu- ally ceases to be productive in one or two years. On the Pacific Coast, where these enemies have not yet be- come established, productive fields of clover ten or fif- teen years old are not uncommon. As stated above, timothy becomes much less productive after the first crop-year. The American farmer has, therefore, come to regard a meadow as a temporary thing, and there has not been much attempt to maintain such perma- nent grass-lands as are found in England and the Con- tinent of Europe. Among our farmers the usual method of procedure is to sow timothy in the fall with wheat, adding clover in February or March. On account of the presence of the wheat, no grass crop is produced the first year. The next year two crops of hay are cut, the first con- sisting of mixed clover and timothy, the second almost entirely of clover. A few of our best farmers get three crops, though many others get only one. The next year one or two smaller crops are cut. When timothy is sown alone, as it frequently is, there is only one cutting a year. After the second crop-year any one of three courses is followed. A good many farm- ers spread the available supply of barn-yard manure on the meadow during the winter after the second crop- year, and in the spring plow up the sod for corn. Some continue to cut it for hay till weeds compel them to plow it up. Others use it for pasture one, two, or three years before plowing it up for corn. Sometimes blue-grass is sown with the clover when the meadow is 1 6 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES laid down, and the field converted into more or less permanent pasture after one or two years' use as meadow. On account of the usual low yield of old meadows and most old pastures, progressive farmers maintain that they cannot afford to keep lands permanently in grass. This is particularly the case in sections of the country where dairying is the leading feature of farming, especially where land is high-priced. In fadl, there is a tendency in some sedlions to dispense with pastures altogether on dairy farms, except for the young stock, and to substitute the system of green feeding (soiling) instead, because of the greater amount of feed that may be obtained from the same area by this system as compared with pasturing. Whether better results could be obtained from per- manent or semi-permanent grass-lands by using such mixtures as are used in Europe, instead of depending on timothy and clover, as our farmers do, is doubtful, for the most highly prized European grasses do not thrive well in the Eastern seclion of the United States. The most important grasses of Europe are English and Italian rye-grasses, meadow-fescue, timothy, orchard- grass, and meadow-foxtail. Of these, timothy is the only one that can be said to be important in the real grass-growing section of this country. The rye-grasses and meadow-foxtail are entire failures (in our timothy region), and orchard-grass and meadow-fescue (here called English blue-grass) are important only in very restricted areas. Much has been written concerning the care of meadows in this country, a good deal of it copied from MEADOWS AND PASTURES If European authorities. With our conditions, about the best treatment seems to be to plow up the meadow for corn at the end of the second year. Where the pasture is needed, as it certainly is 011 beef-producing farms, the old meadows may well be used for pasture a year or two before plowing up for corn. Where the ma- nure is available, it is good practice to top-dress the meadow each winter after the last crop of hay is re- moved in the fall. Instead of sowing the timothy in the fall with wheat, and adding the clover in spring, it is much bet- ter, in most parts of the Timothy Region, to sow the timothy and clover together late in August or early in September, on well-prepared and well-manured land, without a so-called nurse crop of wheat or other grain. This will give a heavy yield of hay the next summer. After this hay crop is removed, top-dress well the next winter, and cut for hay again the next summer. After this, top-dress in winter and plow in spring for corn. This applies to good arable land in those parts of the country where timothy and clover thrive, and where corn is a paying crop. Such a plan, of course, presup- poses an abundance of manure. It is recognized that there is much land well adapted to meadow purposes, but not adapted to other ordinary crops. In certain sections also blue-grass is so highly productive that it pays to sow blue-grass with the timothy and clover, and make a pasture of the meadow after the second- crop year. (See chapters on timothy and blue-grass. ) There is also a great deal of land unfit for cultivation which, with proper attention, may be rendered fairly productive as pasture, It is therefore important to 1 8 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES consider the best methods of handling such lands in order to keep the grass in the most productive con- dition. The methods to be employed in any particu- lar locality depend, of course, on the nature of the grasses best adapted to that locality. Much that might be said here is therefore deferred to later chap- ters, in which the grasses are discussed individually, and in which the treatment to be accorded each partic- ular species is set forth in detail. PREPARATION OF THE SEED-BED When timothy is sown in the fall with wheat, and clover added in the spring, as is usually done in the timothy region proper, little need be said regarding the preparation of the seed-bed. Wheat, in the region in question, usually follows either oats or corn. When it follows oats it is well to plow under a light dressing of barn-yard manure in preparing for the wheat and grass crop. It is important that the land be plowed when it is in " good season," as Southern farmers say; that is, when it has just moisture enough in it to pul- verize nicely. In fact, the breaking of land should always be done when it is in this condition, but this is, of course, not always possible. The harrow should be used freely, so that a fine tilth may be secured before the seeding is done. The manure gives the timothy and clover a good start, and the fine tilth renders a catch of timothy much more certain. When wheat and timothy follow corn, it is usually sufficient to disk the corn-stubble a couple of times after the corn is in the shock, unless the land is foul. It is to be presumed that the corn-land had a good MEADOWS AND PASTURES 19 dressing of manure the previous winter or spring, in which case it is hardly necessary to manure again at this stage. Where there is a deficiency of manure, as in some parts of the East, a dressing of phosphate is usually applied to the land and harrowed in just be- fore the wheat is sown, or even with the wheat. As elsewhere stated, it is better practice to sow timothy and clover alone in the late summer or early fall. Oat-stubble is well suited for this purpose, espe- cially in the northern tier of States. In the region of the Ohio River it is possible to grow a catch crop in summer, such as millet or cow-peas, before seeding to grass in the fall. In either case it is a good plan to manure the land, the quantity required depending on the fertility of the soil before breaking up for grass. Plowing done at this season should be fairly deep — say, seven to nine inches. It is highly important to secure a good tilth before sowing the grass-seed. If the soil is inclined to be stiff, as most clay soils are, the disk- harrow is a very useful implement in putting it in shape for sowing. On loose soils the common drag-harrow is sufficient. In the Middle South, where orchard -grass, redtop, tall meadow oat-grass, and meadow-fescue partially replace timothy, more care is required in pre- paring grass-lands than in most other parts of the country. Here much of the soil has been exhausted by the continuous cultivation of cotton and corn, and barn-yard manure is frequently not available. The practice of subsoiling has become very general in this section. The usual manner of subsoiling is to run a " scooter*' in the furrow behind the turning-plow. 20 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES The scooter-plow is unknown at the North. It is a kind of shovel-plow having an oblique point. It digs up the clay, butleaves it in the furrow. A great deal of time and labor is wasted in this manner in northern Georgia, northern Alabama, and adjacent sections. It is argued that if this subsoil were turned up and mixed with the soil it would gr.eat.ly reduce the yield, which is very true. The idea is to break up the hard-pan which has been formed just below the furrow slice. But this can be done in a far better way. By plowing one inch deeper every year till a depth of ten inches is reached, a ten-inch layer of good surface soil is secured without at any time having a lot of unproductive hard- pan mixed with the soil. After this depth has been reached it is a good plan never to plow the same depth two years in succession. Plow, say, seven inches the next year, then nine inches the next, then six, then ten, then eight, and so on. If this practice is followed there will be no hard-pan to break up. There are many farms on which all the plowing must be done by one small mule. Ten-inch plowing is, of course, out of the question in such cases. The preparation of good alluvial soil for grass in the Middle South does not differ materially from the methods required in the North, but the uplands re- quire considerably more care. It is useless to attempt to grow meadow-grasses on exhausted upland soils in the Middle South. The soil must first be brought into good heart. This may be done by sowing Southern grown winter rye and turning it under about the time it heads out, and by growing and turning under cow-peas or velvet beans. It is very important, when any heavy MEADOWS AND PASTURES 21 green crop has been turned under, to allow it to decay, and let one or two good, soaking rains wash the re- sulting acids out of the soil before sowing any other crop. A very good preparation for worn upland soils would be to turn under a crop of rye, let the land lie six weeks, then sow cow-peas. Cut the peas for hay in time to sow rye again in the fall. Turn rye under again the next spring, and grow another crop of peas. By the time this second crop of peas is cut for hay the land ought to be in fairly good condition to receive a grass crop. For the particular condition here described the best grasses are orchard-grass, redtop, tall meadow oat- grass, and meadow-fescue, with red and alsike clover. On most of these soils, except where rock is near the surface, alfalfa can be started readily after the above course of treatment. A very good combination would be : orchard-grass, 10 Ibs. ; redtop, 5 Ibs. of recleaned seed, or 12 Ibs. of seed in the chaff; tall meadow oat- grass, 12 Ibs.; red clover, 8 Ibs.; and alsike clover, 4 Ibs. In the absence of barn-yard manure, a dressing of 200 to 400 Ibs. of a high-grade, complete fertilizer would give the grass a good start. After this grass has been down two years, during which time it ought to give two cuttings a year, it should be manured and plowed up for corn. The corn may be followed by rye or wheat the next winter. Cow-peas may advantageously follow the grain crop, and give way to the grass crop again in the fall. This makes a four-year rotation, which keeps the land busy winter and summer. If all these crops are fed on the place and the manure re- turned to the land, this system of cropping cannot fail 22 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES to bring the soil to a high state of fertility in a few years. We may summarize the sub j eel of preparation of land for grass by saying that it must first be made fairly fertile if it is not already so, and that it must be plowed deep when in condition to pulverize well, and then be thoroughly fined by the harrow. It is then ready for the seed. SOWING THE SEED The importance of good seed can hardly be over- estimated. In the chapter on seeds the prevalence of poor grass-seed on the markets and some of the rea- sons for the same are pointed out. A good many failures in seeding down the grasses result from insuf- ficient preparation of the land, but many failures result also from the use of seed which for one reason or another has lost much, or all, of its vitality. This is about the only civilized country in the world in which there are no laws to protect the farmer against imposi- tion on the part of dishonest seedsmen, and honest seedsmen find much difficulty in selling high-class seed alongside of dead seed, which is offered at a low price. A farmer ought always to buy grass-seed far enough in advance to enable him to send a sample of it to the seed laboratory of his State experiment sta- tion, if the station maintains one, or to that of the United States Department of Agriculture, which is always ready to test such seeds free of charge. If this practice were general, bad seed would be less plentiful on the market, and there would be fewer failures when grasses are sown. The danger from bad seed is much MEADOWS AND PASTURES 23 greater in the case of such grasses as tall meadow oat- grass, meadow- fescue, Italian rye-grass, and the like, which are so little used in this country. The stock is liable to be old, and such seeds should always be tested before risking good land to them. The same is true of blue-grass, Johnson, and Bermuda grasses, which are especially liable to be of poor quality. The rate at which the various grass-seeds are to be sown is given in discussing the individual grasses later in this volume. When mixtures are sown, a number of considerations govern the amount of each kind of seed to use. In sowing grasses and clovers together it is customary to sow enough of both grass-seed and clover-seed for a full stand. But if several grasses are used in the mixture, the amount of each is usually somewhat reduced. In parts of the Timothy Region it is customary to add more or less redtop to the timothy and clover (except when the hay is grown for sale), but the amount of timothy-seed is not thereby reduced. The amount of each kind of seed to be used depends partly on how much of each kind of grass is desired in the hay. Redtop is usually added as a " filler," to increase the yield, rather than because of its desirabil- ity in the hay, and hence the proportion of its seed is usually small. In the mixture above recommended for uplands in the Middle South, the amount of orchard- grass is about half what would be sown if this were the only grass to be sown with the clovers. The amount of redtop is about one-fourth, and that of tall meadow oat-grass about one-third of a full seeding. Some authorities recommend that nearly as much of each kind of seed be used in a mixture as if it were 24 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES to be sown alone, and this is a very good rule if one is not sure of the quality of the seed. A general rule, but one that should seldom be applied strictly, is to reduce the amount of each kind of seed in proportion to the number of kinds in the mixture. This rule should be used with much caution, yet it is a guide of some value. If more or less of a given grass is wanted in the mixture, use its seed accordingly, and always make sure of sufficient seed of the best grasses in the mixture to secure a stand if the less important kinds should fail entirely. An indefinite number -of mix- tures could be given as samples, but it would occupy more space than can be devoted to it in this volume to give the total number of such that might be used under varying conditions in the various parts of the country. Seedsmen usually make recommendations on this point in their catalogues, but such recommendations cannot be followed implicitly. Other things being equal, rich land requires more seed than poor land, and wet land more than dry. A well-prepared seed-bed requires less seed than one poorly prepared, because a larger proportion of the seed finds a chance to germinate. A single pound of timothy-seed to the acre, if every seed produced a thrifty plant, would give 27 plants on every square foot of land. Since it usually requires 12 to 15 Ibs. of timothy to secure a good stand it is evident that only a small proportion of the seed sown on even the best- prepared land produce plants. On rough, cloddy land the proportion is much smaller. Seedsmen, in their recommendations as to the amounts to sow, make a good deal of allowance for poorly prepared land, and MEADOWS AND PASTURES 25 it is well they do, or there would be more failures than there are. From the above it is evident that no absolute rules can be laid down for determining the amount of seed to sow on an acre of land. One must consider all the circumstances and be governed accordingly. A beginner will do well to consult the experience of those who have farmed in his locality for many years. In case such experience is not available, use a liberal allowance of seed until experience has taught the proper rate of seeding. As much definite information, based on farm experience, is given in later chapters as can be given on this point. Ill MEADOWS AND PASTURES (Continued) TIME TO SOW GOOD seed-bed is more important than the par- ticular date of sowing. It is unwise to sow grass-seed on soil that is too dry to give the grass a quick start. Ground that is at all weedy should never be sown in late spring, or weeds will choke out the grass. Over most parts of the Eastern United States grass- seed may be sown either in early fall or in very early spring. Fall sowing should be early enough to give the grass a good start before winter. In sedlions subject to late summer drouth it should be so timed as to escape the dry, hot weather. Spring sowing should be early enough to give the grass a start ahead of weeds. In middle latitudes most grasses and clovers -may be safely sown on a light snow in late winter. When the snow melts the seed will be sufficiently covered by the shifting of soil due to the water formed from the melting snow. Perhaps the safest general rule, to be used with judg- ment, is to sow in early fall if the season is favor- able. If not, then sow in early spring. Some kinds of seeds produce plants that are especially tender when young. This is more generally true of alfalfa and clover than of the grasses. North of the Ohio River it is safer to sow these in spring, while farther south 26 MEADOWS AND PASTURES 27 they are best sown in early fall. Yet in the North all these plants may be successfully sown in late summer if the soil is in good condition. L,ate fall sowing is seldom advisable, for it is unsafe to let a meadow of any except the hardiest grasses go into winter without a good covering on it. In the colder regions of the Prairie States it is well to plow the land in fall, then prepare it, and sow the seed in early spring. In the Pacific Northwest, on upland prairies east of the Cas- cade Mountains, it is best to plow in spring and sow the seed at once. The reasons for this are given in the chapter on timothy. In the irrigated districts of this section fall sowing is advisable, while west of the Cas- cades the same rules apply as in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and adjacent States. At high altitudes in the Rockies spring sowing is safest because of the cold winters. • MANNER OF SOWING Very light, chaffy seeds, such as those of brome- grass, especially the imported seed, and awned seeds, such as those of tall meadow oat-grass, do not feed through seeding-machines satisfactorily, and should, therefore, be sown by hand. Hand-sowing should al- ways be done when the air is as still as possible. It is well-nigh impossible to distribute the seed evenly when the wind is blowing. Unless the sower is decidedly expert, it is best to sow half of the seed at a time, making the second sowing crosswise to the first. This insures a more even stand. ' For such seeds as will feed through it, such as tim- othy, redtop (recleaned), clovers, etc., in general, for small, round, clean seeds, the wheelbarrow-seeder is 28 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES the most satisfactory implement yet invented. Re- cleaned blue-grass seed can be sown with this imple- ment, but the uncleaned seed should be sown by hand. Grass-seeders are frequently attached to grain-drills. They answer very well for timothy to be sown with grain, but are hard to keep in order. There are sev- eral cheap grass-seeding machines which scatter the seed by mechanical means. They are satisfactory for seeds that feed through them readily, but it requires some patience to regulate them properly, and the sower must walk at a uniform rate or the seed will not be scattered evenly. Seeds of approximately the same size and weight may be mixed before sowing. Very large seeds should never be mixed with small ones, or the small seed will feed out first. If heavy seeds are mixed with light ones, even of the same size, the heavy ones will feed out first unless the mixture is kept well stirred. In sowing such mixtures it is well to put only a small amount of seed in the machine at a time. By this means the separation of the heavy and light seeds- is largely avoided. NURSE CROP Just why wheat or other grain sown with the grasses should be called a nurse crop is not clear. It would be more appropriate to call it a robber crop. The idea that it protedls the grass probably arose from the fadl that, when the grain is removed in hot, dry weather, the grasses are apt to dry up. Having been shaded and weakened by the grain, they are unable to bear the full heat of the sun, particularly when the supply of moisture is short and the grain crop has MEADOWS AND PASTURES 2Q robbed them of their scant supply. In no part of the country is it a safe plan to use a so-called nurse crop for the grasses, except, perhaps, in parts of the North, where weeds are liable to take spring seeding. In this case a light seeding of oats or barley will tend to keep down the weeds, and will not seriously harm the grass if the grain is cut for hay while .yet green. If left to ripen it is liable to do the grass harm. In the South a nurse crop should never be used. The idea is prevalent that a crop can be gained by sowing grain with the grasses. This may be true of spring seeding, but it is not true of fall seeding. Fall- sown grasses without a nurse crop make their largest yield the next summer; with a nurse crop, they usu- ally make no hay till the second summer. COVERING THE SEED Seeds sown on other crops in late winter or early spring usually need no covering. At other times a light drag-harrow or a brush does the work well. Soils that are loose or inclined to be cloddy should be rolled after seeding, but the harrow should follow immediately after the roller. On clay soils particu- larly the roller has a tendency to cause the surface to bake and form a hard crust, through which the young plants cannot penetrate. A good rain just after seed- ing frequently covers the seed sufficiently. It is im- portant not to disturb the soil while the seeds are germinating, as the little plants are very easily de- stroyed at this time. No attempt should therefore be made to remedy insufficient covering after the seed have begun to germinate. 30 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES Large seeds, such as those of brome-grass, Johnson grass, etc., may be covered more deeply than such small seeds as blue-grass, timothy, and the clovers. These larger seeds may safely be put down with a drill. In light soils seeds as small as clover may be sown with a drill. On ordinary soils two inches is deep enough to cover large grass-seed, while half an inch is deep enough for timothy and clover and other small seeds. STAGE AT WHICH TO CUT GRASS FOR HAY The proper stage at which the grasses should be cut for hay has been the sub j eel: of much investigation on the part of agricultural chemists. The general con- clusion to which these investigations have led is thus stated by one of our most eminent investigators : ' l Young plants while rapidly growing contain rela- tively more protein and less fibre than more mature ones; consequently, early cut fodder must be of better quality than that cut late. It is more digestible." We have here three facts and one inference. As the point is one of much practical importance, we will consider it at length. First, the facts are: A. Young, growing plants contain relatively more protein than mature ones. B. They also contain less fibre. C. They are more digestible. The inference from these facts is: Early cut fodder is of better quality than that cut late. Is this infer- ence justified ? Concerning the first fact, it may be stated that we do not grow the ordinary grasses for the protein they contain, and the fact that mature MEADOWS AND PASTURES 31 grasses have a smaller percentage of it than immature ones is a matter of small importance. We can get portein more cheaply than by cutting immature grasses for it, when by doing so we lose considerably in yield and, perhaps, also in palatability. Especially in the South and the Far West, where the ordinary feeds are too rich in protein, is this conclusion not well founded. Even in the Timothy Region proper we can get protein in a more satisfactory way. The second and third facts (B and C above) are closely related, and may be considered together. Care- ful digestion experiments are not sufficiently numerous to show definitely that timothy cut, say, when the seed are in the dough stage, is decidedly less digestible than when cut, say, just before bloom. But grant that there is a difference; is it sufficient to compensate for the smaller yield and lower palatability of the early cut hay ? The fact is that old, experienced feeders and hay dealers almost invariably prefer timothy hay that has been cut after the seed is pretty well formed. They insist that stock like it better, and that it is a stronger feed than hay cut earlier. There is a possibility that investigators have paid too little attention to one of the most, if not the most, important factors in deter- mining the value of a given feed — namely, its palata- bility. Considering the comparatively small variation in the chemical composition of the same grass cut at different stages, the most important question is not how nutritious is a pound of it, but how much of it will an animal eat. We are all well aware that a feed has little value in most cases if stock will eat it only 32 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES when driven to do so from hunger. It is that which is eaten over and above a maintenance ration which is of real value both for work and for animal products. Is it not better to cut hay at the stage when it will be most readily eaten, and then balance up the ration by a judicious combination of feeds of different composi- tions? The writer believes this to be the case, and what is said below is based largely on the assumption that the best stage at which any grass should be cut is determined largely by palatability and yield. There is yet another factor which is really more important than the variations in chemical composition, and that is the effect on the digestive organs. Grasses cut very green are laxative in character, while those cut ripe tend to produce constipation, and this is some- times the determining factor in cutting hay. In prac- tice, therefore, the factors which determine the stage at which a grass should be cut for hay are yield, pal- atability, and effect on the bowels. In particular in- stances considerations which are ordinarily minor ones become important. In the case of Johnson grass and wild oats, for instance, both of which are vile weeds, yet excellent hay when cut at the proper stage, it is of the utmost importance to cut the hay before any seeds are mature enough to germinate. In this case all other considerations vanish. If the weather or the pressure of other work never interfered with haymak- ing, these two plants would undoubtedly be highly valued and standard crops, for they could then be cut at a stage which would prevent them from scattering by seed. Johnson grass presents another peculiarity of some importance. It yields three crops a year or- MEADOWS AND PASTURES 33 dinarily. The second and third crops come on evenly, so that all the grass is pradtically at the same stage when cut ; but the first crop is liable to be very irreg- ular, and much of it will therefore have to be cut be- fore it heads out in order to avoid ripe seed in the more advanced plants. The time to cut this grass is when the earliest portions of the field begin to bloom. Wild oats should also be cut while in bloom. In the case of timothy and most common grasses we are not bothered with weedy character, and can therefore give our whole attention to the quality and yield of hay. Horses prefer timothy cut when the seed is well formed but not fully ripe. As this class of stock is unfavorably affedled by laxative feeds, late cut tim- othy is also preferred for them on account of its favor- able effecl on the digestive tract. In the case of cattle, laxative feed is rather to be preferred. Cattle also relish timothy better when it is cut rather green. Hence, for cattle, timothy should be cut about the time it is in blossom. Any time from a day or two before the l ' first bloom ' ' till a day or two after the " second bloom " will answer. (For the meaning of first and second bloom, see Chapter VI.) The yield will be slightly larger at the later stage. Orchard-grass loses its palatability very rapidly after blooming, and should always be cut within a day or two after the blooming period is past. Brome-grass, which is becoming an important grass in this country, retains its palatability until the seed is- dead ripe. Even the straw from which the ripe seed has been threshed is eaten readily by both cattle and horses. It therefore has a considerable season during which it 34 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES may be cut for hay. The same is true of blue-grass, Bermuda grass, and Italian rye-grass. There is doubt- less a best time to cut each of these, but that depends on yield mostly. In the case of grasses that yield a second cutting, like the last two mentioned, the earlier the first cutting is made the larger the yield of the second cutting will be. The time of cutting of other grasses is discussed in sufficient detail in later chapters. CURING HAY The best hay is made without rain and with the least possible sunshine. If it were practicable to cure hay in the shade, the quality would be all the better. The curing of hay is a process of drying and of fer- mentation. Hot sun tends to stop the fermentations which produce hay of good flavor. It is important, therefore, to rake the hay into windrows as soon as it can safely be done. When the growth is light, as is usually the case with such grasses as blue-grass and redtop, and frequently with Bermuda grass, it may be raked up within two hours after cutting, provid- ing, of course, the weather is dry. Heavier growths require a longer time, sometimes one or two days, and frequently the use of a tedder is necessary to dry out a heavy growth of hay evenly, so that the upper portion of the swath may not become sun-baked and dead while the under portion is still fresh and green. When any given process can be reduced to definite rules, such rules may largely take the place of experi- ence; but in haymaking experience is necessary in MEADOWS AND PASTURES 35 order to be able to know at what stage to perform the necessary operations. Only the most general rules can be laid down. In most cases, as much as possible of the curing should be done in windrows or cocks. After the hay is cocked up there is not so much need for haste, unless there is danger of rain. It is good FIG. 4— HAYING SCENE IN NOVA SCOTIA policy, however, to get hay in stack or mow as soon as it is dry enough not to mould. The color and flavor will be the better the less rain and sunshine the hay gets after it is cut. By referring to the grades of hay in the last chapter, it will be seen that color is a leading factor in its classification. Not that color of itself is essential, but it is the most important indica- tion of the manner in which the curing was done. As 36 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES a rule, the less change that occurs in color during the curing the better the hay will be. How long to leave hay in the cock cannot be de- termined by any general rule. It depends on the kind of hay, the stage at which it is cut, the dryness of the atmosphere, and the weight of the crop. A heavy crop takes longer to cure than a light one. Timothy cures quickly, while millets require a longer time. A rule frequently followed by farmers is to begin stacking when the hay "in the center of the cock is dry enough that when a wisp of it is twisted no juice can be squeezed out of it. When a large quantity of hay is put in a single mow or stack it may be stored in a greener state than when the quantity is small. Some farmers put clover hay in the mow right from the mower. .In storing hay as green as this they usually put about a gallon of salt on each ton of hay. Some use a half gallon of quicklime instead of the salt. The salt or lime absorbs moisture from the hay, and thus aids the curing proc- ess. Hay stored before drying generally turns brown, or even black, in curing, but it is readily eaten by stock. The writer has never practiced this method of bulk-curing, though it is frequently reported in the agricultural papers. Hay cured this way is close kin to silage. The method of curing hay (timothy and clover) used by the Rev. J. D. Detrich, formerly of Flour- town, Pa., who probably raises the largest crops of hay of any farmer in this country, is given in his own words, as follows : "The grass is cut in the afternoon. The first night's dew never hurts it. The next day it is MEADOWS AND PASTURES 37 left to lie until noon. It is then put into curing cocks, which are made flat. The cocks are upset the next morning, and in the afternoon four of them are made into one weathering cock. Thus it is allowed to re- main for one day, and then hauled to the barn or rick." FIG. 5— RAKE FOR MOVING HAY-COCKS TO STACK This gives three days from cutting to hauling. The quality of this hay is unsurpassed. STACKING AND BAILING In stacking hay, especially if it is to remain long in the stack, it is important to place the hay so that it will settle evenly, arid more so near the margins than at the centre. This is accomplished by dumping the forkful in the centre of the stack, and then distribut- ing it evenly, keeping the middle a little high. If the rick form is used the fork should be dumped along 38 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES the middle, and care should be used to distribute the hay so that the whole central line of the rick is equally compressed. Neglect of this precaution will cause the centre to sag in places and leak rain into the centre of the rick. (A stack made too flat is shown in Fig. 6.) The stack or rick should have some kind of FIG. 6 — A HAY-STACK MADE TOO FLAT foundation to prevent decay from contadl with the ground. A layer of dry straw a foot deep will answer for this, but a foundation of boards or fence-rails is bet- ter. After the stack is about two-thirds as high as it is desired to make it the middle should be consider- ably raised and kept high till it is finished. This will cause the hay to settle so as to shed rain better. It is usually necessary to anchor the stack to pre- vent the top from blowing away in strong winds before MEADOWS AND PASTURES 39 it is well compacted. A good plan is to tie weights to the two ends of a rope and hang this over the top. Two such ropes crossed at right angles will hold a stack in ordinary winds, and one such rope about every six feet on a rick will answer the same purpose. Little need be said regarding the baling of hay. It FIG. 7 — HAY-DERRICK IN COMMON USE IN UTAH is unnecessary to bale hay that is to be consumed on the farm or sold for local consumption. Hay that is to be vShipped must be baled to reduce its bulk and make it more convenient to handle. The size of the bale is determined by the requirements of the markets in which it is to be sold. One hundred pounds is the usual size, though some markets require bales smaller and some much larger. On the Pacific Coast, where 40 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES considerable hay is baled for the export trade, a great deal of it is double compressed. The ordinary bales are put into a hydraulic press and the size is reduced about one-half, so that a ton of double-compressed hay occupies only fifty-five cubic feet, or a cubic space less than four feet each way. Hay thus compressed secures lower freight rates than that in ordinary bales. The practice of baling from the cock, or even from the windrow, is becoming common in some sections, espe- cially on the Pacific Coast, where fine weather is always assured in the haying season (except near the ocean) „ When baled direct from the cock or windrow it is nec- essary to let the hay get a little dryer than it needs to be for stacking to avoid heating in the bales, and the bales should not be closely bulked until they have had time to " go through the sweat. " GRAZING THE AFTERMATH It is a common practice in this country to allow stock to run on the meadow after the hay is off unless it is desired to cut a second crop. In this case stock is usually turned in after the last crop is off. (Tim- othy makes only one crop of hay, while clover makes two, and alfalfa three or more in a season. ) In the North there is little harm in this if the number of ani- mals is not too large. It is always unwise to let stock eat a meadow down very close, especially late in the fall. The meadow is much more liable to injury from cold in winter when left bare. It is decidedly bad policy to turn stock on a meadow in wet weather, for they puddle the soil and cut up the sod with their hoofs. Timothy should never be pastured close, for it MEADOWS AND PASTURES 41 is killed by too close cropping. In the Middle South a good meadow of the ordinary grasses, such as tim- othy, orchard-grass, fescue, and redtop, should never be pastured at all, and a Bermuda-grass meadow must not be pastured late in the fall. If it is, it is liable to freeze out. Johnson grass will not stand pasturing to any extent. If pastured at all closely it becomes patchy. IV MEADOWS AND PASTURES (Concluded) LONGEVITY OF MEADOWS HHE length of time a meadow will last depends on the grasses of which it is composed, on the climate and the character of the soil, and on the treatment it receives. Meadows of Bermuda grass, blue-grass, or alfalfa last almost in- definitely with proper treatment, and remain as prolific as at first ; in fact, they increase in productiveness for some years after they are laid down. Meadows of other grasses usually produce their largest yield the first year a crop is obtained, and will drop to about half this amount in one or two years more unless well manured. Even with good manuring, meadows of the common hay grasses of this country seldom remain as productive as they were the first year. Most of our meadows become weedy in a few years. A weedy meadow is an eyesore on any farm. The best remedy is to plow it up and run it through the regular rota- tion, so as to give a chance to destroy the weeds. If it is good arable land, and is not in blue-grass, Bermuda grass, or alfalfa, the best plan is to keep meadows down only two years, unless they are wanted for pasture for a year or two longer. It is, of course, recognized that special conditions may render it desir- able to keep a meadow down for a longer time. If 42 MEADOWS AND PASTURES 43 this is the case, it should be well fertilized and kept free from weeds. PASTURES Much of what has been said concerning meadows applies as well to pastures, and need not be repeated here. There are two really great pasture-grasses in this country — the blue-grass of the North and the Bermuda grass of the South. To these we may add brome-grass of the Northwestern Prairie States. These are discussed in later chapters. Practically all the meadow-grasses are used more or less for pasture pur- poses ; in fact, there is scarcely a crop grown in this country that is not utilized to some extent for pasture. In California herds of sheep graze the leaves and tender shoots on grapvines after the fruit is harvested. In the South cattle are frequently turned into the cot- ton-fields at the end of the season, where they eat the leaves and immature bolls of the cotton-plant. All the cereals are used extensively for winter pastures, partic- ularly in the South, for which purpose they are ex- tremely valuable. All over the country stubble-fields and stalk-fields are pastured after the grain is harvested. Green crops of every description, including corn, sor- ghum, rape, etc., are more or less used as pastures, and when properly managed they furnish more abun- dant forage than the ordinary hay and pasture grasses. In the more thickly populated sections of the coun- try, especially on the better class of lands, there is a marked tendency to confine permanent pastures to rough land or land otherwise unsuited to cropping. It is contended that the amount of feed secured from such pasture-land is so small that the farmer cannot 44 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES afford to devote good land to this purpose. There is much truth in this contention, particularly in view of the usual method of pasturing in this country, which is to throw all the pasture-land into a single inclosure and turn all the stock upon it. When land is pastured in this manner, if it is stocked sufficiently to keep the growth down, the yield of forage is small, for a small plant does not make as much growth in a day as a large one. On the other hand, if the amount of stock is too vSmall to keep the growth eaten down, much feed is wasted by trampling, and the grass is eaten closely in some places, while it is left to grow rank and coarse in others. The Michigan Experiment Station some years ago determined the relative yield of forage on grass-plats, part of which were kept closely clipped, in imitation of pasture, the remainder being treated as meadow, and cut when more fully mature. The yield of forage on the plats treated as meadow was three to four times that of the others. This agrees with the experience of farmers that meadows produce more feed than the same area in pastures. The practice of devoting only rough lands to permanent pastures, therefore, seems to be justified — at least in sections where farm-land is high-priced. Methods of pasturing prevail in many parts of Europe by which much more feed is obtained from the land. There cattle are frequently tethered in such manner that the area they can graze is only sufficient to furnish feed for one day. The next day they are moved far enough to secure another day's feed. In this way grass is eaten clean, and there is little or no MKADOWS AND PASTURES 45 waste from trampling. This method also permits the grasses to grow to proper maturity, so that the amount of growth is a maximum. Another method of accom- plishing the same end is to divide the pasture by means of temporary or permanent fences, and allow the stock to remain in one inclosure till the grass is closely eaten before admitting them to the next. Meanwhile the herbage in the inclosure first pastured is allowed to grow up again before it is -eaten down a second time. Both of these methods require much at- tention from the herdsman, and are hardly practicable on farms where beef production is a prominent fea- ture. One or the other of these intensive forms of pasturing might be practiced with profit with dairy cows, sheep, or hogs. Both of them are close kin to the method of soiling. In many parts of the country the cereals are used extensively for pasture with excellent results. This is particularly the case in the South. Oats are used more frequently for this purpose than the - other cereals, though in part of western North Carolina, and adjacent regions in adjoining States, a Southern va- riety of rye is used extensively. Around Sherman, Texas, a winter variety of barley has recently gained much favor, and is extensively used for winter pasture. It is said to yield more abundant feed than oats, rye, or wheat, while stock eat it with greater relish. In favorable seasons — that is, when there is no drouth to check growth — any of the cereals sown the middle of September in the South will furnish considerable feed by the first of November. Stock may be kept on these pastures till in the spring, when the grains begin 46 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES to throw up seed-stalks, after which, if the stock are removed, a fair crop of grain may be harvested. Good temporary pastures may be made in the North in summer by sowing winter cereals in the spring. A true winter cereal, if sown in spring in the North, will not head out that year, but will produce a fine growth of leaves which stock eat with a relish. They may also be pastured the following winter, and then produce a crop of grain the next spring if the stock is taken off early enough, except in the case of wheat, which is destroyed by the Hessian fly when sown in the spring and left over till next spring. For this reason, when winter wheat is sown in spring and used for summer pasture, it should be plowed up in the fall. When the cereals are used for pasture, particularly on clay soils, greater care should be taken not to allow stock on the field in wet weather than when pasturing grasses that form a dense sod. A clay soil may be pradlically ruined by the trampling of stock in wet weather, even where it has a good sod to protect it. PASTURE MIXTURES If questions concerning farm practice could be solved with pencil and paper, the problem of the best pasture mixtures would have been solved long ago. It is easy to figure out mixtures that ought to give abun- dant pasture from early spring till snow flies, and, in the South, the year round. This has been done repeat- edly for the American farmer, but he still sticks to his blue-grass and white clover or his Bermuda grass, as the case may be, thus depriving his stock of pasture MEADOWS AND PASTURES 47 for a considerable portion of the season of possible pas- ture. Whether the trouble lies with the farmer or with the mixtures it is not possible to say. Both are prob- ably to blame — the farmer for not giving the mixtures a more extended trial, and the mixtures for not giving better results when they are tried. Usually, when the American farmer wakes up to the fact that he is not getting sufficient income from his pastures, he aban- dons the use of pastures as much as possible instead of trying to make them productive enough to pay. There is room for a lot of demonstration work on this subject at the experiment stations. The methods used in Europe ought to be given a thorough trial here. Until this is done a good many people will always believe that the productiveness of English grass-lands could be duplicated here. There are some parts of the country in which blue-grass and Bermuda grass are quite satis- factory as pasture. There are many places where they are not. The use of brome-grass and alfalfa as a pas- ture mixture is mentioned elsewhere in these pages. This mixture deserves a fair trial over all parts of the timothy region where blue-grass is not highly pro- ductive. Mixtures of timothy, redtop, orchard-grass, tall fescue (the kind grown in Eastern Kansas), blue- grass, Canada blue-grass, and the clovers, including alfalfa, deserve to be tried extensively all over the northern half of the country for permanent pasture. Until this is more generally done it is impossible to state what the result would be. The writer believes a mixture of all the above varieties named would furnish more pasture in many parts of the country than the common mixtures do. 48 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES There are only about four States of the Union that have as much as 50 per cent, of their area improved. Whatever may be said of the advisability of keeping good arable land in pastures, a great deal of this unim- proved land could be made into fairly productive pas- ture. In the blue-grass country this can be done by clearing off the rubbish, burning the leaves and litter, and scattering seed of such grasses as blue-grass, white clover, orchard-grass, and redtop. On rough hill land on the farm belonging to the Missouri Experiment Station, which, during the writer's schoolboy days, was covered by a dense growth of blackjack and postoak timber, there are now fine blue-grass pastures made in this manner. The productiveness of such pastures can be continued by keeping them free from brush and weeds. WEEDS irf MEADOWS AND PASTURES Weeds may be divided into three classes — namely, annuals, or biennials, which die root and branch when they have made seed; ordinary perennials, which die down to the ground in the fall, but the roots of which remain alive for several or many years; and perennials with creeping, or underground, stems, whose aerial stems die at the approach of winter, but whose under- ground stems live over. The way to eradicate an annual or biennial weed is to prevent it from making seed. The seeds of some of them may live for many years in the soil and send up a new crop of weeds annually. If they be cut back persistently, so that no new seed is formed, they can finally be eradicated. The hardest weeds of this class to handle are those which, when cut back, produce seed MEADOWS AND PASTURES 49 on short branches near the ground. They must be treated as the ordinary perennials. Ordinary perennial weeds must be cut off below the crown. This requires the use of the hoe, the spud, or, where very numerous, the turning-plow, which, of course, means reseeding the meadow or pasture. Perennials with underground stems are the most diffi- cult to deal with. Quack-grass (Fig. 8), Johnson grass, and Canada thistle belong in this class. The surest way to kill them is to harrow out as large a proportion of the roots as possible, and then summer- fallow the land, running over it as often as the weeds get a start with some implement that shaves off a layer of the top soil. Weeds of this class that do not grow very tall may be smothered out by such dense growing crops as millet, buckwheat, sorghum (sown thick), etc. Such weeds may also be killed by cutting them back so frequently that they have no chance to manu- facture and store up food enough in their underground stems to keep them alive. The weeds which infest grass-lands vary in differ- ent sections. In the North, whiteweed (Erigeron phila- delphicus) is one of the most troublesome. In pastures this can be held in check by mowing, but when a meadow becomes infested with it the best remedy is to plow it up. Sorrel {Rumex acetosella) is probably the next most troublesome weed in grass-lands in the North. It is particularly troublesome in old grass- lands, and its presence is believed to indicate an acid condition of the soil. A good application of lime, to correct acidity, and manure or fertilizer to produce a vigorous growth of the grasses and clovers, is said to FIGf 8 — QUACK-GRASS MEADOWS AND PASTURES 51 be the remedy for it. Sorrel seldom appears in grass lands that are so treated as to keep up a vigorous growth. Its presence is a pretty good indication that it is time to plow up the sod and run it through a rotation which will give an opportunity to kill weeds and put the land in good heart. Some old timothy meadows are much overrun with plantain, especially on worn soils where the grass makes a feeble growth. It is unwise to keep meadows down on such soils after plantain becomes troublesome. In middle latitudes and in the Southern States broom-sedge {Andropogon virginicus) is probably the most troublesome weed in grass-lands. It may be kept out by prompt removal with the hoe or spud as soon as it appears. Broom-sedge does not bother on land kept in condition to grow a good crop of grass, and causes trouble only in meadows and pastures several years old. When young and tender, stock eat it fairly well, and this has a tendency to hold it in check in pastures. When it becomes plentiful in a meadow, the best plan is to break up the land and grow a culti- vated crop. Brome-sedge does not invade land that is plowed once or twice a year. Bitterweed {Helenium tenuifolium) is very trou- blesome on over-stocked and poorly fertilized grass- lands in many parts of the South. It is particularly objectionable on dairy farms, since it affects the flavor of milk very unfavorably. To get rid of it fertilize well and reduce the number of stock kept on a given area, so as to give the grass a chance to run out the weed. Being an annual, it may also be killed by pre- venting it from making seed. 52 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES On the Pacific Coast a species of fern (Pteris aqui- lina) is the worst weed in grass-lands, particularly west of the Cascade Mountains, in Washington and Oregon. It is provided with rather formidable under- ground sterns, and is difficult to eradicate. It may be held in check by cutting twice or three times a season. When young and tender, sheep and goats will eat it, and it may be eradicated by stocking the land heavily with these animals. It does not bother much on land that is plowed eight or ten inches deep once a year, and hence is not very troublesome on well-cultivated fields. MANURING GRASS-IyANDS The use of fertilizers is one of the most unsatisfac- tory subjects to handle in the whole range of agricul- tural science. It is now just one hundred years since the first carefully planned fertilizer experiments were laid out by a modern investigator. Sixty-two years ago Liebig's great work was published, in which the theory was announced that by analyzing the soil and the crop the chemist could prescribe the fertilizers to be applied in any given case. This theory was the basis of the work of the agricultural chemists for half a century. Innumerable fertilizer experiments have been conducted with the utmost care. The soil has been analyzed times almost without number. The constitution of the mineral matter removed from the soil by plants has been determined to a nicety. It is definitely known that chemical fertilizers frequently, we may say usually, exert a decidedly favorable influ- ence on growing crops. It is absolutely impossible, however, to say just what fertilizers or how much of MEADOWS AND PASTURES 53 them should be applied in any given case with assur- ance that the application will be profitable. It is fairly certain that fertilizers do not produce much effect on soils that are not pretty well supplied with decaying vegetable matter, except in the case of cer- tain sandy soils that are always in good mechanical condition. Dr. E. H. Jenkins, of the Connecticut State Experiment Station, after a lifetime spent in con- ducting fertilizer experiments, and after reading the results of practically all the experiments of this kind that have been published, both in Europe and Amer- ica, at a recent gathering of agricultural chemists said: ' ' The only recommendation I can make with confi- dence is that barn-yard manure is a good thing to put on land. ' ' While we know that many farmers in the older sections of the country are using fertilizers with profit to themselves, it is necessary for every man to depend largely on his own experience in this matter. It re- quires long years of experimenting to arrive at reliable conclusions regarding the use of fertilizers. Several of our experiment stations are doing splendid work in this line. In time we may hope that they will be able to give us safe rules to follow. Regarding the use of barn-yard manure on grass-lands it is possible to make positive recommendations; as to the use of com- mercial fertilizers, if one will take the trouble to read the recommendations of different authorities it will be seen that we are quite in the dark. The farmer who probably produces the largest crops of hay in America makes the following state- ment concerning his practice in the use of fresh stable 54 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES manure on his meadows : ' ' The grass-seeds are sown on well-prepared land in late summer. The land is manured before it is plowed for the grass crop. No top-dressing is used the first winter, as ' the young grass will not stand it.' The next winter the sod is top-dressed, as it is again the next. It is then plowed up for corn." Manure on this farm contains both the liquid and the solid excrement from the stock. On farms where manure is not plentiful it is con- sidered good practice to plow under a light dressing of manure in preparing land for grass. As a rule, no further dressing of manure is applied till the winter after the second haying season, when the sod is ma- nured before breaking it up for corn. Ten to twelve tons of barn-yard manure per acre is generally con- sidered a good dressing; four to six tons a light one. Sir John L,awes, whose valuable investigations at Rothamstead, England, extended over more than half a century, in speaking of the application of fertilizers to permanent grass-lands, says: ."A dressing of dung once in five years, with two hundredweight of nitrate of soda each year for the other four years, ' ' was the best practice. Freer, another English authority, makes the fol- lowing recommendations regarding the season of the year in which to apply manure and fertilizers to grass- lands : Barn-yard manure should be applied during winter, and not later than the last of February; phos- phates and potash, by the first of March; ammonium sulphate, by the first of March; nitrate of soda, by April 15. Professor Soule, of the Tennessee station, reconi- MEADOWS AND PASTURES 55 mends the application of fifty bushels per acre of well- slacked lime in preparing land for grass in that section. The lime should be applied to the land after plowing, and should be harrowed in. He recommends a top- dressing of fifteen tons of barn-yard manure per acre in addition to the lime, applied before sowing. If com- mercial fertilizers are used, apply 300 to 600 Ibs. of a mixture consisting of 100 Ibs. of sodium nitrate, 250 Ibs. of acid phosphate, and 50 Ibs. of muriate of potash. Professor Lloyd, of the Mississippi station, recom- mends the following: Cottonseed meal, 800 Ibs.; stable manure, 800 Ibs.; kainit, 400 Ibs. — composted, applied at the rate of i ton per acre, and plowed under; or, cot- tonseed meal, 500 Ibs.; kainit, 300 Ibs.; gypsum or slacked lime, 200 Ibs. — applied after breaking, and har- rowed in just before seeding. On sandy soils use 300 Ibs. of phosphate instead of the kainit. Professor Mell, of the Alabama station, recommends, in preparing grass-land, the use of stable manure; or, ground bone, 300 to 400 Ibs.; cottonseed meal, 100 Ibs.; nitrate of soda, 50 to loolbs. Professor Killebrew, formerly of the Tennessee station, recommends the following application to be applied to grass-lands, presumably in early spring: Top-dress with 100 Ibs. of nitrate of soda, and three weeks later with 100 Ibs. of bone meal or superphos- phate. Where there is clover, gypsum may be ap- plied. Use stable manure freely after the fall rains begin; it is the best of all fertilizers for grass- lands in Tennessee. THE SEED * SEED PRODUCTION HHE produdlion of grass-seed (not including clover-seed) for the year 1899 *s shown in Fig. 9. This map is based on the returns of the United States Census Bureau, and shows the area where grass-seed is grown in this country. As each dot on the map represents the produdlion of 10,000 bushels, only the centres of produdlion where the raising of grass-seed is an important industry are indicated. The seeds of standard grasses are shown in Figs. 10 and n. The State of Iowa leads in this industry, and fur- nishes nearly one-half of the grass-seed grown in the United States. Timothy is raised over a greater area than any other of the grass-seeds, but its produdlion on a large scale is confined to regions near the north- ern and southern boundaries of Iowa. Millet-seed is grown over a large part of the Mississippi and Mis- souri valleys, but the seed which is most sought, and known in the market as Tennessee grown, comes from a comparatively small area in the central part of Ten- * By Edgar Brown, in charge of the Seed laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture. 56 THE SEED 57 FIG. 9 — PRODUCTION OF GRASS-SEED IN THE UNITED STATES nessee. The areas of seed production of the other grasses are more limited. The famous blue-grass country about Lexington, Ky., furnishes most of the blue-grass seed, a small amount being saved in southern Illinois and along the border between Missouri and Iowa. Orchard-grass comes from near Louisville, Ky., on both sides of the Ohio River. (The method of gathering blue-grass seed FIG. 10 — SEEDS OF STANDARD GRASSES* a, Meadow-fescue; b, English Ryogruss; r, Italian Rye grass; d, Timothy; e. Redtop in the chaff; /, Redtop. chaff removed;^, Rhode Island Bent; //, Orchard-grass. (G. H. Hicks, Year-book, Department of Agriculture, 1898.) 58 FIG. II — SEEDS OF STANDARD GRASSES a, Rescue-grass; b, Texas Blue-grass; c, Chess, or Cheat; d, Canada Blue-grass; e, Bromus inermis; /", Kentucky Blue-grass. (O. H. Hicks, Year-book, Department of Agriculture, 1898. ) 59 6o FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES is seen in Fig. 12, and of curing it in Fig. 13.) Southern Illinois furnishes nearly all the redtop seed, a small amount coming from southern New Jersey. Marshall County, in northern Kansas, produces practically all of the meadow-fescue seed. A little Canada blue-grass is saved in western New York, but the bulk of it comes from the flat clay country along the northern shore of Lake Erie, west of the Niagara River. Aside from Canadian timothy, orchard-grass and Bromus inermis are the only standard grass-seeds which are imported in any quantity. During the year ending June 30, 1904, 180,239 Ibs. of New Zealand orchard-grass were im- ported, and during the same time 298,654 Ibs. of Bromus inermis, mostly coming from Russia through Germany. Bromus inermis is raised extensively in Minnesota and the Dakotas, and down the Red River Valley into Manitoba. Johnson grass seed is raised along the Gulf, from Alabama to Texas. Bermuda grass seed is all imported from Australia, none being raised in the United States. As this grass is becoming more favorably known, the amount of seed imported is increasing annually. English and Italian rye-grass seed mostly comes from Scotland and Ireland. The seed of the less common grasses, such as tall fescue, sheep' s-fescue, the bent grasses, and sweet vernal, are not saved in this country to any extent, but are im- ported from the Continent of Europe, mostly from France and Germany. COST OF SEEDING DIFFERENT GRASSES The cost of seed sufficient to sow an acre of various grasses is shown in the following table. The prices pd O a 13 J M * U 62 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES are taken from the current catalogue of a well-known seed house, and are there quoted for seed in hundred- pound lots. The quantity of seed to sow per acre, shown in the first column of figures, is in some cases less than half that recommended in the catalogue: COST OF SEED PER ACRE Lbs. Price Cents Cost per Acre Timothy . T C &/Z f 07 1/ Italian rye-grass 2^ 8 2 QO Knglish rye-grass 25 8 2 OO Redtop JC 2 40 Meadow- fescue ... 20 14 2 8O Brotne-grass 20 16 •7 2O Canada blue-grass Orchard-grass 30 24 12 10 6-^v 3.60 4 s6 Kentucky blue-grass . . Tall oat- grass . .... 40 3° 16 25 6.40 7 5° Tall fescue 2C JC 1 1 2*\ The low price of timothy is due largely to its good seed habits, because of which so much of this crop is grown as to render the seed a standard article of com- merce. On account of the low price, together with the small size of the seed, it costs less than half as much per acre to seed with timothy than with any other cul- tivated grass. The low cost of rye- grass seed is due to the great abundance of these seeds produced in England and on the Continent of Europe, where they are the leading grasses. The high price of tall fescue seed is due largely to the small amount produced. There is no in- trinsic reason why it should command a higher price i-J n !* « u & ^ w o 64 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES than meadow-fescue. From the table it is seen that the cost of some varieties of seed, such as tall fescue and tall oat-grass, is so high as to be well-nigh prohibitive. This difference in cost undoubtedly has much to do with the lack of popularity of many grasses, even in sections where they are superior to others. WEIGHT PER BUSHEL In most trade centres the sale of seed by the meas- ured bushel has been abandoned, and the much more satisfactory method of selling by the hundred pounds substituted. However, the weight per bushel is highly important as an approximate indication of quality, as it determines very closely the amount of chaff, although giving no information regarding wreed seeds and adulterants. The recognized weights for the heavier grass-seeds, such as timothy and millet, repre- sent a good grade, while with the lighter seeds, such as blue-grass, orchard- grass, and redtop, the weight per bushel of good seed is considerably heavier than that commonly used. In most States the legal weight of Kentucky blue-grass is 14 Ibs., but well-cleaned seed of good quality weighs from 24 to 28 Ibs. Or- chard-grass, which is usually considered as 14 Ibs., should weigh from 16 to 18 Ibs. While chaff redtop often weighs 8 Ibs. or less, good, solid, recleaned seed weighs 40 Ibs. One of the best safeguards in buying the lighter grass-seeds is to have the dealer determine the weight per bushel, which should, in all cases, come up to the weight shown in the following table : THE SEED 65 TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT PER BUSHEL OF GOOD QUALITY, WELL-CLEANED SEED OF THE COMMON GRASSES Weight per Bushel Bent, Creeping 20 Bent, Rhode Island 15 Bermuda Grass 36 Blue-grass, Canada , . . 20 Blue-grass, Kentucky 28 Bromus inermis 14 Fescue, Meadow -. 27 Fescue, Tall 24 Fescue, Sheep's 16 Johnson Grass 28 Meadow-foxtail 14 Millet, Common 50 Millet, Hungarian 50 Millet, German 50 Millet, Golden Wonder 50 Millet, Broom-corn 60 Orchard-grass 18 Redtop 40 Rye-grass, English 28 Rye-grass, Italian 24 Sweet Vernal 15 Tall Meadow Oat-grass 14 Timothy . . . 45 WEED SEEDS The wfeed seeds found in commercial seeds are not necessarily the most common weeds in the fields from which the seed is. saved. Only those will occur which ripen at about the same time as the grass-seed and are not easily cleaned out. Grass-seeds contain, on the average, a much smaller percentage of weed seeds than 66 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES clover, but there are a number of kinds usually present. In timothy the two most common weeds are pepper- grass (Lepidium virginicum) and false flax (Camelina sativa) , the latter being abundant in Canadian seed and especially difficult to clean out. In addition to these, timothy often carries sorrel (Rumex acetosella) , narrow- leaved plantain (Plantago lanceolata), green foxtail {ChatocMoa viridis), five-finger (Potentilla monspelien- sis), curled dock (Rumex crispus), and lady's thumb (Chenopodium album}. New Zealand orchard-grass contains more or less seed of velvet-grass (Holcus lanatus), and its presence may be taken as good evidence of the origin of the seed. Chess (Bromus secalinus), ox-eye daisy (Chrysanthe- mum leucanthemum) , slender-rush (Juncus tennis), peppergrass (Lepedium virginicum), narrow-leaved plantain, five-finger, and sorrel are also frequently found. Kentucky blue- grass usually contains seed of some of the sedges (Carex spp.), slender- rush, and often shepherd's purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris) , chick weed (Cerastium spp.), peppergrass, and sorrel. Dealers frequently attempt to distinguish Canada from Kentucky blue-grass by running the hand into the seed to see if Canada thistle spines are present. As Ken- tucky blue-grass frequently contains spines of horse- nettle (Solanum carolinense), which closely resemble those of Canada thistle, this test cannot be relied upon and is apt to be misleading. Contrary to the common belief, Canada blue- grass seldom contains seed of Canada thistle, although the spines are usually present. While the seed is much easier cleaned than that of FIG. 14 — WEED-SEEDS «, Peppergrass (Lepidium virginicum) ; b, Slender Rush (Juncus tennis} \ c, Velvet-grass (Holcus lanatus) ; rf, Fivefinger (Potentilla monspeliensis) ; e, Oxeye Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) ; /, Sorrel (Rumex acetosella) ; g, False Flax ( Camelina saliva) \ h, Canada Thistle (Carduus arvensis). 67 68 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES Kentucky blue-grass, it often contains dog-fennel (An- themis cotula) , peppergrass, and five-finger. Redtop seed usually contains but few weed seeds, among the most common being slender-rush and sor- rel. ^(The seeds of some of the most common weeds are shown in Fig. 14.) ADULTERATION A few of our common grass-seeds are frequently and wilfully adulterated. The most important of these are orchard-grass and Kentucky blue-grass. Orchard- grass is most often adulterated with meadow-fescue, although English rye-grass is sometimes used. These seeds cost about half as much as orchard-grass, and resemble it so closely that the adulteration is only detedled on close examination. The velvet-grass seed always found in New Zealand orchard-grass is har- vested with it and not mixed intentionally. But few seed-dealers can distinguish Canada from Kentucky blue-grass seed. These two resemble each other so closely that a careful comparative study with a hand-lens is necessary before a person can separate them. When a buyer is offered two lots of seed as Ken- tucky blue-grass, one containing a large percentage of Canada, and the other pure Kentucky, he will usually choose the adulterated sample, because it is brighter and cleaner, and is offered at a slightly lower price. Although but little Canada blue-grass seed is sold as such in the United States, there is an annual importa- tion of from 450,000 to 750,000 Ibs. , which is pradli- cally all sold as Kentucky blue-grass seed. THE SEED 69 Rhode Island produces what little Rhode Island bent is harvested in this country. Considerable creep- ing bent is imported, and often substituted for the Rhode Island. The seed of the annual sweet vernal is practically indistinguishable from that of the true perennial sweet vernal, and the use of the cheap annual seed as an adulterant is frequent. Red top sells for about double the price of timothy, and very often redtop carries from 15 to 20 per cent, of timothy as an adulterant. The adulteration is likely to go unnoticed unless the sam- ple is carefully examined. GUARANTEED SEEDS The selling of guaranteed seeds is practically un- known in this country. Instead, all of the principal seedsmen print on their seed packages and bills the following disclaimer clause, adopted by the American Seed Trade Association: gives no warranty, expressed or implied, as to description, quality, productiveness, or any other matter of any seeds, bulbs, or plants we send out, and we will not be in any way responsible for the crop. If the purchaser does not accept the goods on these terms, they are at once to be re- turned." The use of such a clause is in sharp contrast to the practice adopted by some of the English seed firms. For example, James Hunter, of Chester, England, prints in his price-list for 1904 a table showing the guaranteed percentage of germination, and the num- 70 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES her of germinating seeds in a pound. The following are taken from his list : KIND OF SEED Germination Per cent. Germinating Seeds Number in i Ib. Blue-grass Kentucky 85 i 581,000 Meadow-fescue 99 233,640 Meadow- foxtail 90 441 ooo Orchard-grass QS 404 700 Rye-grass English 96 214 080 Rye-grass, Italian . . ... 98 264 600 Tall fescue 96 236 1 60 Tall oat-grass . . QO 124 200 Timothy 98 1,293,600 Sweet vernal . . 80 590 400 Since the American seedsmen give no form of guar- antee with their seeds, buyers must determine for themselves the quality of seed offered for sale. There is a great need for more regularly established seed-testing stations, where farmers may send samples of seed for analysis, and so know the relative value of seeds offered on the market, and consequently secure the quality of seed desired at a reasonable price. SEED CONTROL AND SEED TESTING While properly framed seed laws would tend to improve the quality of seed on the market, farmers are not helpless in the absence of such laws. Good seeds will be supplied whenever the buyer demands them if the dealer knows that what he offers is to be tested and the purchase made according to the result of the test. This is the system which has improved the qual- ity of seeds in Europe, and any one can send samples to any of the numerous European seed-testing stations THE SEED 71 and have tests made. Fertilizer inspection is so thor- oughly established in the United States that many of the State agricultural experiment stations receive a considerable part of their income for their chemical department — at least, from the analysis of fertilizers. While a similar system of inspection may not be prac- tical with reference to the sale of seeds, it is more im- portant to know the quality of the seeds to be sown than the analysis of the fertilizer to be used. The subject of seed testing has received little at- tention in the United States as compared with that given it in Europe. Hicks* says, under the heading, " Seed Control in Europe ": ' ' European seed control may be said to have origi- nated in 1869, when Dr. Nobbe, director of the experi- ment station at Tharand, Saxony, began to devote his attention to the impurities and low germinating power of many commercial seeds for which the German farmer was paying fancy prices. The publication of the results obtained by him excited much comment and laid the foundation for the present extensive sys- tem of European seed control. At the present time there are seed-control stations in all of the principal countries of Europe, more than forty existing in Ger- many alone. In some cases these are distinct institu- tions, but frequently this work is done in connection with agricultural experiment stations, the majority of which devote more or less attention to the subject. Some countries and States have general laws concern- ing fraud which may be used to cover seed adultera- * Hicks, G. H. " Pure Seed Investigation." Year-book, United States Department of Agriculture, 1894. 72 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES tion, but, so far as we have been able to learn, there are no laws requiring English or Continental seedsmen to guarantee their wares. The work of the seed-- control stations, however, has created such a public sentiment in favor of pure seed that the best class of dealers submit samples of their seeds to be tested by the stations, which furnish, for a stipulated price, a guarantee of the vitality and purity of the seed from which the samples were taken." Several of the State agricultural experiment sta- tions have given more or less attention to seed testing, but in most cases the facilities for doing the work are limited and the total amount done is small. In 1894 seed testing was begun by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C., and has been continued by the Seed Laboratory since that time. Samples of seed sent to this laboratory for test will be examined for mechanical purity and tested for germination free of charge for purchasers of seed, pro- vided samples are accompanied by a statement giving the name and address of the firm from which the seed was purchased, and the price paid. While the farmer is able to judge the general quality of a sample of tim- othy by a careful examination, he is not able to detedl adulterations of the less common grasses or estimate the per cent, of the seed which will grow. HOME TESTING Many of the more common grass-seeds, such as timothy, orchard-grass, and millet, can be tested for germination at home. The simple home-tester shown in Fig. 15 can be made and used by any one. THE SEED 73 Mix the seed thoroughly and count out 100 or 200 seeds just as they come, making no selection. Put them between a fold of cotton flannel or some similar cloth, taking care not to let the seeds touch one an- other. Lay the cloth on a plate, moisten it well, but do not saturate it, cover with another plate, and keep FIG. 15 — HOME-MADE SEED-TESTER A , Closed ; B, Open in a warm room where the temperature will not go above 86° F. The cloth should be moistened from time to time, and the sprouted seeds counted and re- moved every day. Grass- seeds are not as easy to test as clover and many of the vegetable seeds, for they require much more exact conditions, needing an alter- nating temperature. If a sample of grass-seed tests well by use of the simple method mentioned above, it 74 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES is safe to assume that it will grow well if sown, but if it does not germinate well, the seed should not be con- demned, as the conditions for germination may not have been right, and a sample should be sent for an official* test, either to one of the State agricultural experiment stations, or to the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The follow- ing table * gives the temperature at which germination tests should be made, and the length of time required to make tests : KIND OF SEED Temperature f Degrees, F. DAY FOR MAKING GERMINATION REPORT Preliminary Final Hermuda grass 68-95 68-86 68-86 68-86 68-86 68-86 68-86 68-86 68-86 10 14 5 5 3 6 5 6 5 21 28 10 10 6 H 8 14 8 Blue-grass Brome-grass Meadow-fescue Millet. Orchard-grass Redtop Rye-grass ... . . Timothy . * Circular No. 34 (revised), Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture, " Rules and Regulations for Seed Testing." t Seeds should be kept at the higher temperature for six hours, and at the lower temperature for eighteen hours each day. VI TIMOTHY (Phleum pratense) BMOTHY (Fig. 16) is frequently known as herd's grass in New England, though elsewhere, especially in the Middle and South Atlantic States, this latter name is applied to redtop. Timothy is by far the most important hay grass in America. In spite of the fact that chemists tell us it is one of the least nutritious of the grasses, timothy, or mixtures in which it is the leading con- stituent, constitutes nearly three-fourths of the total area of tame hay and a much larger proportion of the market hay of the country. Even in the South, where it is not grown to any considerable extent, it is the principal hay on the markets of all the larger cities; in fact, no other true grass is recognized as a standard hay, except in restricted localities. There must be some reason for this apparent discrepancy between the chemical composition of timothy hay and its standing on the markets. In the first place, this grass has the best seed habits of any hay or pasture plant known. The seed from an acre of it will sow a larger area than almost any other grass. The seed is easily harvested and retains its vitality remarkably well. Being entirely unlike any other common seed, both in size and appear- ance, its purity can readily be judged by the farmer. 75 FIG. 16 — TIMOTHY TIMOTHY 77 The hay is easily cured, bears handling well, and may be cut any time between blossoming and the ripen- ing of the seed with comparatively little difference in the quality of the hay — at least, for horse feed. For these reasons, farmers prefer timothy to other grasses. On the other hand, timothy hay is exceedingly pala- table, particularly to horses, and it is the demand for horse feed in the cities that fixes the price of hay in this country. Again, horses that are kept for hire are frequently driven to the limit of endurance after a full feed. Such horses must have feed that will digest readily and not produce derangement of the digestive organs under these circumstances. For this purpose timothy hay has no equal. It is also probably true that too much stress has been placed by recent writers on the need of protein (nitrogenous material) in feeding- stuffs. A few years ago it was frequently the custom to value feeding-stuffs by the amount of protein they contained. Timothy, being low in nitrogenous con- stituents, was said to have little nutrition in it. It should be remembered, however, that an idle animal needs very little protein, while an animal at work usually gets the bulk of its protein from grain. Ex- perience has abundantly shown that timothy hay alone is an excellent ration for an idle horse, or even a horse with moderate exercise. These facts seem to justify the important place that this grass occupies in Ameri- can agriculture. There are circumstances under which other grasses deserve much more attention than they thus far have received 'in this country, as indicated elsewhere in these pages. 78 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES The outstanding importance of timothy is due largely to the fact that, except in the alfalfa regions of the West, nearly all our hay is produced in the region to which timothy is best adapted. Perhaps hay production may be largely confined to the timothy region because no other grass has been found capable of taking its place in other sections. Certain it is that, except in the Far West, hay production and live- stock farming are nearly confined to the region of timothy, clover, and blue-grass, all of which have nearly the same distribution. The lack of forage plants and grasses, and, conse- quently, of live stock, in the Southern States is prob- ably due more to the cotton-plant than to any other one cause. Should the cotton boll weevil render cotton unprofitable in the South, there is abundant reason to believe that plenty of good grasses may be grown to make stock-raising profitable south of the timothy region. It is an interesting fact, referred to earlier in these pages, that nearly all the grass litera- ture issued by the experiment stations of this country comes from those States that lie either on the border of the timothy region or entirely outside of it. In the timothy region (where clover and blue-grass also abound) the grass question ceased to be a pressing one before the experiment stations were established. Fig. 17 shows approximately the distribution of timothy in this country. This map was constructed as follows : On a county map of the United States a large dot was placed in each county showing over 5,000 acres of " other tame grasses" (mainly timothy, and mixtures in which timothy is the leading constituent), 80 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES according to the census of 1900. In counties having from 500 to 1,500 acres, a small dot was placed ; two small dots were placed in counties having from 1,500 to 2,500 acres, and so on. The border of the real Timothy Region is thus seen to traverse central Dela- ware and central Maryland. It includes in the timo- thy region the mountainous parts of Virginia, a small portion of northwestern North Carolina and of north- eastern Tennessee. Southwestern West Virginia is excluded. Thence the line runs irregularly through northern Kentucky, southern Illinois, and southern Missouri. Thence it runs northward, including one tier of counties in southern Kansas and three tiers in the north, and cutting across the southeast corner of Nebraska. It then follows the west line of Iowa, nearly to Minnesota, after which it takes an irregular course across Minnesota and Wisconsin. Timothy does very well in the eastern parts of Kansas, Ne- braska, and the Dakotas, but the enormous quantities of wild hay cut in those States (see Fig. 3) renders timothy comparatively unimportant there. A few large dots, scattered here and there near the border line, and quite generally in the Northern Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States, indicate centres in which timothy is more or less important. South and west of this border line timothy is of little impor- tance, with the exceptions noted. It cannot stand the summer climate of the South, nor the arid or semi-arid conditions of the West. North and east of this line it has heretofore been the one great hay grass. Outside of it, it will, for the most part, thrive only under the most favorable conditions. In the Northwest the su- TIMOTHY 8 1 premacy of timothy has been threatened in recent years by brome-grass, and alfalfa is now invading the whole timothy region. In Montana, northern Utah, and southern Idaho, timothy thrives well on irrigated land, though it is not usually grown where alfalfa succeeds. In the mountain valleys of all these States, and of Washington, Oregon, and northern California, it is again the leading hay grass on cultivated lands. The following notes from experiment station pub- lications and agricultural papers in the border States indicate the position of timothy in these States : South Dakota Bulletin 45. — A paying crop through- out the Big Stone Basin and the Sioux Valley ; endures the cold and dry freezing of the Dakota winters, but suffers badly from the hot sun of July and August. Generally successful over the eastern part of the State. Does well also in some parts of the Black Hills region. Kansas Bulletin 102. — Succeeds well in eastern Kansas, but is uncertain in other parts of the State. Arkansas Bulletins 29 and 36. — Of little account, except on the best clay soils of northwest Arkansas and on the best bottom-lands of eastern Arkansas, but grown generally in northwestern part of State because of its reputation elsewhere. Alabama Canebrake Station Bulletin 9. — Grew well during fall and winter, but could not stand warm weather that came in May. Not a pound of hay could be cut from the plat. Southern Planter, January, 1903. — Makes but one crop in the South, and summer will kill it out. Better sow redtop and meadow- fescue. 82 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES North Carolina Bulletin 108. — Sown in fall, it gives a crop of hay in May or June, but frequently does not survive the heat of summer. Tennessee Bulletin, Vol. IX., No. 2.— The best timothy lands in Tennessee are in the eastern valley, the central basin, and the northern and western coun- ties of west Tennessee. Adapted only to rich, moist, alluvial soils. (This last statement applies to all the border States. ) Kentucky Bulletin 87. — Excellent on good loam soils. Will not thrive on light loam. Very little after- math. Generally sown with clover. Usually grown in the Blue-Grass Region, in the mountainous counties of the east, and on the strong alluvial soils of the ex- treme western part of the State. How different this from a Missouri Bulletin, and echoed in most parts of the timothy region proper: 4 'The only hay grass grown to any extent in the State." In these border States and beyond them timothy succeeds only on^rich, moist, alluvial soil. Even in the timothy region it is particularly adapted to this class of soils, but by no means confined to them. SEEDING In the heart of the timothy region it is usual to sow timothy with wheat in the fall, adding clover in late winter or early spring. The usual amount of seed used is 8 to 12 quarts (12 to 18 Ibs.) of timothy and about 8 Ibs. of clover. The timothy-seed is usually placed in a special grass-seed compartment of the grain drill. Some farmers allow the timothy-seed to fall in TIMOTHY 83 front of the drill hoes, so that it is covered by them ; others allow the grass-seed to fall behind the hoes, leaving it to be covered by rain. It is generally recog- nized that the latter is not the best method of securing a stand of timothy, but from Illinois eastward it is fairly certain to result in a good catch. In years of light rainfall it sometimes happens that there is not enough moisture for both grain and grass, and the grass suf- fers. Sometimes also, when the grain is cut, a spell of hot, dry weather kills the tender grass, which has previously been shaded by the grain. This is particu- larly the case if the grain is allowed to stand until it is dead ripe, as at harvest-time the season of dry, hot weather is close at hand. Even where wheat is not a very satisfactory crop, as on the rich, black prairie soils of northeastern Illi- nois, some farmers sow a little wheat, in order, as they say, to have a good place to sow timothy. On this soil timothy is not as popular as it once was, partly because wheat is less grown than formerly, and partly because the development of beef-raising has created a greater demand for pure clover hay and lessened the useful- ness of timothy on the farm. Doubtless, also, the abundance of hay in the Middle West more than sup- plies the city demand, and a smaller proportion of the hay growers grow hay for the markets than is the case farther east. Since most of them use the hay on their own farms, and as they usually have a larger number of cattle than horses to feed, they grow more clover and less timothy than the farmers of sections farther east, where hay is largely grown for horses in the cities. 84 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES It is well known that when timothy is sown in the fall with grain it does not make a crop the next year. But it is not so well known, especially in the Middle West, that when timothy is sown in late summer or early fall without a nurse crop it makes the best crop of its life the next year. In this case clover should be sown at the same time as the timothy, but there are doubtless large areas in Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, and perhaps also in Minnesota and Wisconsin, where clover would winter-kill when sown in this manner. Since this method is so successful in the Eastern States it might be well for Western farmers to try it more ex- tensively. Oat-stubble would be particularly adapted for this purpose, as the grass and clover could be sown after oats early enough to get a good start before win- ter. If the method proves satisfactory it would enable the timothy grower to dispense with wheat in the ro- tation, particularly where wheat is grown mainly to have a place in the rotation to sow timothy. In New England, New York, and Pennsylvania three methods of starting timothy are in vogue. Many farmers use the method described above — namely, of seeding the timothy in the fall with wheat or rye, adding clover in early spring. Both East and West the time chosen for sowing clover in this manner is in very early spring, at a time when the ground is lightly frozen and cracked " honeycomb " fashion. The seed falls, or is blown, into these cracks, and is thus cov- ered when the ground thaws. This is usually in late February or early March. Another method, used extensively by the most progressive farmers, is to sow all the grass and clover TIMOTHY 85 seed together in late summer or early fall (usually late in August) without a nurse crop. This gives an abundant harvest of hay the next year. On soils where there has been great difficulty in securing a catch of clover by the old method in recent years this method gives excellent results. How far west this practice would be successful the writer does not know, but it is certainly worth trying in Ohio and Indiana. Where this method prevails redtop and alsike are quite generally added to the mixture. The amount of alsike-seed used in such mixtures is usually only one or two pounds. The amount of redtop varies with different farmers, from a couple of pounds to half a bushel of seed in the chaff. These two grasses are quite generally used all over the East. The most suc- cessful farmer the writer has ever known uses the above method of seeding grass, his mixture contain- ing all four of the grasses mentioned. He sows the last week in August, and cuts three times the next year. The third method, sometimes met with in New England, is to sow all the grass-seed in the spring, either with or without grain. In this case no crop of hay is secured till the next year. It is not a plan to be recommended for general use where either of the others is feasible. South of the timothy region proper early fall sow- ing, without a nurse crop, is by all means the best. In this section it is also well to add some other peren- nial grass, such as orchard-grass, meadow-fescue, or tall meadow oat-grass. These are better adapted to the region than timothy, and, except on the very best 86 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES soils, might replace it altogether. They are also bet- ter adapted to sowing with clover, since they mature at the same time that clover does. Spring sowing is particularly objectionable in the South, and the farther south the more undesirable it becomes. In the first place, spring-sown grass is likely to be taken by weeds, especially by crab-grass. It is also liable to be killed by the summer heat. On the northwestern prairies the best practice is to prepare land in fall and sow grass and clover in spring without a nurse crop. There is usually not moisture enough for both grain and grass, while fall -sown grass would hardly stand the rigor of the first winter. The same is generally true on the irrigated lands of Wyoming and Montana. On the upland prairies of eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and northern Idaho, spring sowing is necessary, for during the win- ter there are liable to occur periods of clear weather in which the ground freezes at night and thaws in day- time, a condition quickly fatal to young grass. But in this section the land cannot be prepared in autumn with safety for two reasons : first, the winter rains would wash it, for the country is quite rolling; secondly, the dry winds of early spring would quickly rob the bare soil of its moisture, while a covering of wheat-stubble prevents this. The best plan is to plow the land in early spring, harrow it down, and sow the seed at once. At low altitudes in this sedlion, as around Walla Walla and Pendleton, fall sowing is successful. In western Washington, western Oregon, and northern California timothy is nearly always sown in the fall. On sandy land in that section clover may TIMOTHY 87 be sown in either fall or spring, but on clay land it is always sown in spring. Timothy sown alone or with mammoth clover yields only one cutting a season. When mixed with common red clover two crops a year are cut, the first consisting of both clover and timothy, the second of nearly pure clover. In many localities, particularly where timothy hay is grown for market, it is customary to leave a meadow down for many years. In such cases the yield seldom exceeds a ton and a quarter a year after the first crop. This practice is hard on the soil, and cannot be con- sidered high-class farming. Yet, if kept free from weeds, pastured very lightly, and frequently top- dressed with good manure or with a complete fertil- izer, fairly good yields may be mantained for many years. FEED VALUE OF TIMOTHY The value of timothy hay for different kinds of stock depends on the stage at which it is cut. For cattle it should be cut just after it is through bloom- ing. When the stamens of the timothy flower have just protruded from the glumes, it is popularly said to be in the first bloom. When the stamens have burst and shed their pollen, and hang limp and empty on their slender stalks, it is said to be in second bloom. This, or a day or two later, is the stage to cut it for cattle. During the next week or ten days, after reach- ing the second bloom, timothy rapidly ctianges in character and flavor. Horses eat it more readily if cut when the seed is about grown. It is also less washy 88 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES when cut at this late stage, an advantage for horses, but a disadvantage for cattle. The hay is richer when mixed with clover, but unless the clover is bright and green horsemen object to feeding it. Unfortunately, clover (the common red clover) ripens a week or more ahead of timothy, and is, therefore, liable to be more or less over-mature when the hay is cut. In general timothy hay is better for horses than it is for cattle, though when cut early, and especially when mixed with clover, it is excellent feed for cattle that are supplied with plenty of protein in their grain feed. As already stated, it is the demand for horse feed in the cities that fixes the price of hay in this country. Hence timothy is the standard, and fre- quently almost the only hay on our markets. In only two cases known to the author does any other hay lead timothy in favor with the horsemen. These are the bluestem {Agropyron ocddentale) of Montana and southeastern Colorado, and South Park hay (Juncus balticus) in Denver, Colorado. Brome-grass hay is perhaps the equal of timothy hay for horses, but it is as yet hardly known on the markets. AS A PASTURE GRASS As previously stated, timothy meadows are fre- quently converted into pastures at the end of the second year, and frequently also the slight aftermath is pas- tured where hay is cut. It does not stand grazing as wdl as many other grasses. Outside of the limits of the timothy region proper, as in the Dakotas, in Ten- nessee, etc., the best authorities advise against pastur- ing it at all. TIMOTHY 89 YIELD OF SEED The yield of all grass seeds is very variable. Three bushels of timothy-seed (a bushel weighs about 45 Ibs.) is considered a low yield, five is fair, and eight is good. Yields of ten or twelve bushels are sometimes obtained. When sown for purposes of seed-growing four to vSix quarts of seed (six to nine pounds) only is UvSed. The price of the seed varies considerably, but it is always so low that it costs less to seed an acre of timothy than of any other grass. This is probably one reason why American farmers grow timothy almost to the exclusion of other hay grasses. VII THE BLUE-GRASSES KENTUCKY BLUE-GRASS (Poa pratensis) "Ever smelt Kentucky grass, Or heard about its blueness ? Seems as if the whole blamed world Was bursting out with newness. " Skies and folks alike all smiles — Gracious ! you are lucky If you spend a day in June Down in old Kentucky." — ALFRED MUNSON. LITE-GRASS (June grass, Kentucky blue-grass), Fig. 1 8, is the standard pasture-grass of the country — at least, in those sections where tame pastures are mostly found. When the American farmer speaks of grass he usually means blue-grass. It is the one grass celebrated in song and story. In the Blue-Grass Region of northern Kentucky, and in many parts of Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, blue-grass pastures are the pride of the thrifty farmer. Its palatability to all classes of stock, the evenness of the sod it forms, the beautiful color of its verdure, and its increasing productiveness with age, if properly handled, all conspire to make blue- grass the king of pasture-grasses. It is in the Blue-Grass Region that fine horses and 90 FIG. l8 — KENTUCKY BLUE-GRASS 92 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES beef-cattle attain their highest development in this country. Were it not for its habit of remaining dor- mant during the dry, warm months of summer, the length of time required to secure a good stand of it, and its comparatively low yield of forage, blue-grass would indeed leave nothing to be desired as a pasture- grass on soils to which it is suited. This is rather a formidable array of objections to bring against the "king of pasture grasses," but they are real, and the very general dependence on blue-grass for pastures leads many American farmers to the conclusion that they cannot afford to keep good land in pasture. This is particularly true in sections where the dairy industry is important. But in those portions of the country in which the production of beef is the leading feature of farming, blue-grass pastures occupy much of the most productive land; in fact, good pastures are indispens- able to the economical production of first-class beef and in raising horses on a large scale. For this reason we find these two industries most highly developed in the sections where blue-grass is at its best. Throughout the southern portion of its distribution this grass is called ' ' blue-grass "or * * Kentucky blue- grass." In Iowa and the central parts of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, the name ' ' blue-grass ' ' is generally used, while farther north it is generally known as "June grass." The name ' ' Kentucky blue-grass ' ' originated from the fact that the grass first became prominent in that State. There are now sections of Iowa, Missouri, and Illinois in which blue-grass is nearly or quite as pro- ductive and as much prized as it is in the Blue-Grass THE BLUE-GRASSES 93 Region of Kentucky. According to Bulletin 19 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, the principal centre for the commercial production of blue-grass seed is Bourbon, Fayette, and Clark counties, Kentucky, in the heart of the Blue- Grass Region. Considerable seed is harvested in the adjoining counties of Scott, Montgomery, Woodford, Franklin, and Jessamine. * * Most of the seed is secured within a radius of twenty-five miles from the centre of a triangle formed by lines connecting the cities of Lexington, Paris, and Winchester." In recent years considerable blue-grass seed has been harvested in southern Iowa and northern Missouri. Small quan- tities are also harvested in other States. Distribution. — Fig. 19 shows approximately the dis- tribution of blue- grass in this country. By referring to Fig. 17, it will be seen that blue-grass agrees very closely with timothy in its distribution. These two grasses and red clover, which has nearly the same distribution, undoubtedly account for the high de- velopment of livestock farming in the northeastern quarter of the United States. Each dot on the map shown in Fig. 19 represents a correspondent who, in answer to a circular letter, re- ported blue-grass as an important grass in his locality. The census returns give no clue to the area devoted to blue-grass. What little hay is cut from it is included in the ' ' other tame grasses ' ' of the census reports. The yield of blue-grass hay seldom exceeds half a ton per acre, except in very restricted localities on the north Pacific Coast, and it is therefore seldom cut for hay. THE BLUE-GRASSES 95 The distribution of blue-grass south of the glacial dritt is exceedingly interesting. In this region it is confined to the magnesian limestone soils of the geo- logical area known as the Cambrian. A great tongue of this limestone soil extends southward from Cincin- nati, Ohio, into northern Kentucky, a distance of about one hundred and ten miles, and is nearly one hundred miles broad. This constitutes the famous ' ' Blue- Grass Region ' ' of Kentucky. The geographical centre of this region is a point about twenty-two miles north of the City of Lexington, and it extends about twenty-five miles south of that city. It is in this re- gion that most of the blue-grass seed of the country is harvested. From this a narrow strip extends into Tennessee, and there spreads out and occupies the "central basin " of that State. Blue-grass again ap- pears in the mountain valleys of eastern Tennessee and western Virginia, where it is an important pasture- grass. It appears more sparingly in the hill country of the western Carolinas, northern Georgia, and north- ern Alabama. Some blue-grass is also grown on the black, sticky prairie soils of northeastern Mississippi. The Cambrian soils above referred to are the only southern soils that at all resemble those of the region north of the Ohio River, and it is only on them that the type of farming prevalent in the North is found in the South. Aside from the exceptions just noted, blue- grass is confined rather strictly to the glacial drift of the Northern States. Its very general distribution over the drift area is supposed to be due to the lime, magnesia, and, perhaps, potash in these soils. Climatic conditions are also more favorable to blue-grass in the 96 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES North, and it is not so particular as to soils in that re- gion as it is in the South, where the long, hot summer season is fatal to it, except under the most favorable conditions. In the extreme southern portion of its range it is decidedly shade loving, and even as far north as Minnesota it luxuriates in the shade of open woodlands. The writer has seen large areas of blue- grass cut for hay in woodlands in the vicinity of Min- neapolis. It makes excellent hay, but the yield is low. BLUE-GRASS PASTURES While blue-grass is more generally distributed over the northeastern portion of the United States than any other grass except timothy, it is only in comparatively limited areas that it is sufficiently productive to induce farmers to devote their best lands to it. Fine blue-grass pastures are common in the Blue-Grass Region of Ken- tucky, in central and northern Missouri, eastern Kan- sas, on alluvial soils in eastern Nebraska, in all of Iowa (except the north western portion), in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Elsewhere they are less frequently seen, and much of the land occupied by blue-grass is so overgrown with weeds and brush, and so badly managed generally, as to be of little value. No grass equals it for pasture purposes in open woodlands and on rough, untillable land throughout its range, but on good arable land, where the ordinary crops can be grown, its usefulness is limited to comparatively small areas. Yet it is in just these areas that the best horses and cattle are found in this country. In the northern portions of its range blue-grass f ur- nishes most feed in spring and fall, remaining dormant THE BLUE-GRASSES 97 during the hottest portion of summer and being cov- ered too deeply with snow in winter for stock to reach it. Farther south the dormant period of summer is more pronounced, but the slighter depth of snow makes it available as a winter feed, for which it is justly prized in the latitude of southern Iowa and south to the limits of its range. When winter pasture is de- sired it is wise to keep stock off blue-grass pastures in the fall. One of the most valuable characteristics of blue- grass is its exceeding palatability to all kinds of stock. This is fully as important as its well-known nutritive quality. Stock eat it so readily as to render blue-grass pastures the most valuable adjunct to grain in the fat- tening process. It is becoming more and more the practice in the region where good blue-grass pastures are common to fatten cattle while at pasture. Gains are made more cheaply on such pastures than in any other manner. Without them beef production requires the most favorable conditions for success. In most parts of the Blue- Grass Region it is custom- ary to provide other green feed for stock in midsum- mer, for pastures are liable to be short at that season, especially if rainfall is scanty. Those who manage their pastures most judiciously prefer to let them rest during midsummer, even in seasons where there is good feed on them, so as to make them more productive late in the season. It is well known that blue-grass is slow in starting on freshly seeded land. Many farmers never plow up a good blue-grass sod because of the difficulty of start- ing a new one and the great length of time required. 98 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES One of the best authorities on the subject in the Cen- tral West says it takes three years under the best con- ditions to get a good stand of blue-grass, and that it takes ten, fifteen, or twenty years to get a first-class blue-grass pasture. "The very best blue-grass pas- tures we have ever seen are on lands that have never been profaned by the plow." The same authority recommends that every two or three years a blue- grass pasture should be disked throughly and sown to a mix- ture of mammoth, red, and alsike clover. Pastures thus treated furnish feed during midsummer when blue- grass is ordinarily dormant. The difficulty of starting blue-grass is increased by the fact that much of the seed on the market is of low germinating quality. It has been shown by the inves- tigations of the United States Department of Agricul- ture that the cause of this is faulty methods of han- dling the seed during the harvest. Where large areas are to be harvested much of the seed is gathered too green. In curing it is customary to pile the freshly stripped seed in long, narrow ricks a foot and a half to three or four feet high. When heaped together thus the mass heats rapidly, and frequently the ger- minating power is thus completely destroyed. Tem- peratures of 148° F. have been observed in such ricks twenty hours after the seed was thus heaped, and only 3 per cent, of the seed retained its germinat- ing power at that time. So general was this faulty method of curing blue-grass seed a few years ago, that seed laboratories considered a germination of 25 per cent, excellent. Even now 45 to 50 per cent, is the figure usually given as the standard for germinating THE BIAJK-GRASSES 99 power of prime blue-grass seed. Yet in tests of prop- erly cured seed 90 per cent, or more have germinated. Poor seed undoubtedly accounts for many failures in attempting to start blue-grass pastures. Unless the germinating power of such seed is known, it is pure guess-work to determine the amount required to secure a stand. Ordinarily 25 or 30 Ibs. of good, germinable seed is sufficient to seed an acre, but it is usually wise to use at least twice this much of the common run of seed on the markets. Seedsmen should be required by law to guarantee the germinating power of blue- grass seed, as well as other seeds. To do this it would be necessary to charge a higher price for the seed, but in the end it would be cheaper to the farmer. Under present conditions no seedsman, however desir- ous of furnishing only high-grade seeds, can afford to guarantee his wares, for he would be compelled to charge such prices that farmers generally would buy from his competitors inferior seeds at a price which appears to be cheaper, but which in reality is not so. There is no universally recognized way of starting a blue-grass sod. This is partly owing to the numer- ous failures of all methods from bad seed. Some farmers in the Central West scatter the seed in corn- fields in late summer or early fall. Others sow it with clover on wheat and timothy in early spring. Some prefer to sow on a light snow, while others sow at a time when the ground is lightly frozen and cracked, honeycomb fashion. On account of the length of time required to start a blue-grass pasture, it is quite com- mon for the seed to be sown when a timothy and clover meadow is laid down. By the time the meadow has 100 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES been cut for hay two or three seasons there is usually a fair sod of blue- grass. These meadows are then converted into pastures, the timothy and clover gradu- ally disappearing as the blue-grass sod becomes well es- tablished. After a few years' use as pasture such fields are usually plowed up for corn. The amount of plant food that accumulates in a well-managed pasture of this kind enables the farmer to secure one or more heavy crops of corn. After running such a field through the usual rotation of the locality, it is again set to grass in the manner above outlined. The prac- tice just described is common in Kentucky, western Maryland, western Virginia, and in parts of all the other blue-grass States. The value of blue-grass for pasture purposes in wood- lands has already been mentioned. Much land that is now occupied by useless brush could be converted into valuable blue-grass pastures if rightly managed. To do this it is necessary to clear off the underbrush. If practicable the dead leaves should be burned. Blue-grass seed may then be scattered in late win- ter, and in a few years, if the underbrush and weeds are kept down, a fair stand of grass can be secured. Blue-grass pastures, to be made profitable, must be kept free from brush and weeds, and not stocked too heavily. The best methods of managing a pasture so as to secure the largest amount of feed are more fully discussed in the chapters on meadows and pastures. In the New England States, wljere more or less permanent grass-lands occupy the greater portion of the tillable area, blue-grass is nearly always an impor tant constituent of the herbage in meadows and pas- THE BUTE-GRASSES ' IOI tures. In the Northern Rocky Mountain States and in the Pacific Northwest many varieties of this species are found in the wild state, and they not in- frequently appear among the grasses on the farms. It is not very highly prized in those regions because of its low 3rield of forage. Alfalfa, timothy, redtop, and orchard-grass all do well there, and yield much more feed. In a few limited areas in the State of Washington, especially in the western part, blue- grass is a troublesome weed. The variety found there grows very rank, and sends out formidable under- ground stems that make it difficult to eradicate. Blue-grass is the universal lawn grass in the north- ern half of the United States, and it has no equal for this purpose where the soil is suitable and there is abundant water to keep it green during the summer. White clover is usually sown with it in lawns; indeed, it does better when mixed with white clover. These two plants are especially adapted to each other. The clover enriches the soil in nitrogen, greatly to the ad- vantage of the grass. CANADA BLUE-GRASS (Poa compressa) This grass is of interest chiefly from the fact that its seed is sometimes used to adulterate the seed of Kentucky blue-grass. It has some value for pasture purposes on sandy soils in the far North. It also does well on poor clay soils where Kentucky blue-grass fails. It is also a fairly good lawn grass for dry re- gions, but must be kept closely mown. If allowed to grow up, its wiry stems, when cut back, leave a coarse, hard stubble, very undesirable in a lawn. In color it 102 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES is more nearly blue than any other grass. It does not grow so tall as Kentucky blue-grass, and may be dis- tinguished from it by its flat stems and bluer color. In eastern Ontario and in western New York it is sometimes cut for hay. The hay is highly prized, being preferred by horsemen to timothy, but the small yield renders this grass of little importance for hay production. TEXAS BI.UE-GRASS (Poa arachnifera) This is a grass that is more or less favorably known over most of the cotton-growing States. It produces a very beautiful sward which retains its deep green color at all seasons of the year. It is worthy of general atten- tion in the South as a lawn grass. As is the case with Bermuda grass, it is difficult to start from seed, and it is usually started by planting small pieces of sod. The stems being upright, a sod can be separated into very small pieces, which should be set not over a foot apart each way, as it does not form a sod as quickly as Ber- muda grass. This grass remains green winter and summer in the grass-garden of the Department of Ag- riculture at Washington. The difficulty of securing sod for starting Texas blue-grass is probably the chief reason why it is not more generally grown for lawn purposes in the South. It is gradually gaining ground, and may in time become important. It is rather too difficult to start to justify its general use as a pasture- grass. VIII THE MILLETS HHK term ' * millet ' ' is applied in this country to four distinct groups of grasses. The most im- portant of these is that to which common millet, Hungarian grass, and German millet belong. We may call these the foxtail millets, from the shape of the heads. These grasses are varieties of the botan- ical species Che formed were it not for the anthers. It will be seen in the figure that at the top of the ovary there are two large feather-like projections. These are the styles. Over a portion of the surface of the style the skin is missing, the bare flesh of the style being exposed to the air. This bare area is called the stigma. At a certain stage in the develop- ment of the flower the stigma is covered with a gummy substance which is of great importance in the economy of the flower. L,et us now turn to the anthers, of which the blue- grass flower has three. When ripe these anthers are filled with exceedingly small, round, yellowish bodies called pollen grains. About the time the gummy sub- stance appears on the stigma the anthers burst and a shower of pollen falls. When one of the pollen grains strikes on the stigma it sticks there. (See/, Fig. 54). This gum seems to act as a sort of stimulus to the pol- len grain, for the grain soon sends out a slender rootlet (pollen tube, pt. Fig. 54,) which grows down into the flesh of the stigma much the same as a root grows down into the soil. Now there is down in the ovary a FIG. 52 — A PANICLE 240 FARM GRASSES OF THE UNITED STATES little body which is in many respedts a counterpart of a pollen grain, and which is called an ovule (ey Fig. 54) . The rootlet from the pollen grain continues to grow down through the substance of the stigma and the ovary until it finds the ovule. It seems to be guided in some unknown way to the very point where the ovule is found. As soon as the rootlet (pollen tube) touches the ovule, some small particles of living matter in the tube (r, Fig. 54,) pass through he wall of the tube and enter the ovule. What occurs then in the ovule would take many pages to tell. Suffice it to say that one of the living particles from the pollen tube unites with a very similar particle in the ovule, and the two then begin to grow and a seed is formed. The little particle in the ovule cannot grow unless it unites with the similar particle from the pollen tube. It is frequently the case that ears of corn on the west side of a field have grains missing. This is due to the fact that while the pollen was falling the wind blew most of it away, and some of the hairs of the silk (these hairs are the styles) had no pollen grains light on their stigmas. In some grass flowers the styles protrude from the flowers before the anthers do. When in this stage a grass is popularly said to be in its first bloom. In those that protrude their anthers first, or at the same time with their styles, before the anthers burst they are said to be in their first bloom. Later, when the an- thers have shed their pollen, and hang limp on their slender filaments, the plant is said to be in second bloom. Most of the coarser grasses make the best hay if cut in their second bloom — that is, when they are just going '- o fc O 242 FARM GRASSES OP THE UNITED STATES out of blossom. It is believed by many that if a grass is cut for hay when it is shedding its pollen that the hay is inferior in quality, because of the presence of the pollen dust. How much truth there is in this notion is not known. Recent investigations indicate that the pollen of some of the grasses, when breathed into the nostrils, causes hay-fever, a disease in which the mucus membrane of the nasal passages is much inflamed. It is possible that pollen dust in hay may cause some trouble in the nasal passages of horses and cattle. After the pollen falls on the stigma, and sends its thread-like tube down through the substance of the style and the ovary to the ovule, the seed at once be- gins to develop. The time required for the develop- ment of the seed varies with different grasses from a few days to several weeks. In the common hay grasses it is about ten days or two weeks. At first the sub- stance of the seed is watery in appearance. Just be- fore it reaches its full size it becomes milky. At this time the seed is said to be " in the milk." • If the hay is cut when the seed is in the milk, some of the seed usually matures sufficiently to grow. This is impor- tant in the case of weedy grasses, like Johnson grass and quack-grass. These should never be left till the milk stage is reached. When the milk-like substance of the seed begins to harden, the seed is popularly said to be ' ' in the dough. ' ' Most seeds will grow readily if the whole plant is cut at this stage, though they will hardly mature properly if the seed is removed from the plant in the dough stage. Very few grasses make good hay if cut after the seed is fully mature. INDEX The technical names in this Index are those which have been most generally used. They are inserted to enable those not familiar with the popular names to recognize the plants discussed in the text. PAGE Adulteration of seeds 68-69 Aftermath, Grazing of 40-41 Agropyron divergens. See Bunch-grass Agropyron occidentale. See Bluestem. Agropyron repens. See Ouack- grass. Agropyron spicatum. Same as A. divergens. Agropyrontenerum. See Slender Wheat Grass. Agrostis alba. See Redtop. Agrostis canina. See Rhode Island Bent. Agrostis stolonif era. See Creep- ing Bent. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), Area of 11,12 Distribution of 11 hay on Western markets 219 in Red River Valley 4 Longevity of 14, 42 on alkali soils 198 on wheat lands of eastern Washington 9 Turkestan 234 with Johnson grass. 142 yield 11,12 Alkali soils, Grasses for 197-199 Alopecurus pratensis. See Meadow Foxtail. Alsike Clover (Tri folium hybri- dum) 150, 193 Ammophila arenaria. See Beach-grass. Andropogon virginicus. See Broom-sedge. Arctic Grass. See Rescue-grass. Arrhenatherum avenaceum. See Tall Oat-grass. Atlantic Coast, Lawn grasses for 201 Atriplex semibaccata. See Aus- tralian Salt-bush. Australian Salt-bush for alkali lands 198 Avenafatua. See Wild Oats. Baling Hay 39-40 PAGE Barley, for pasture 45-46 for hay 9 Barn-yard Grass (Panicum crus- galli) 103,116-118 for wet lands 194 Beach-grass (Ammophila are- naria) 194 Beardless Barley, for hay 9 Bent Grasses. See Redtop. Bermuda Grass (Cynodon dacty- lon) 125-13? common names 125 curing for hay 131 distribution 128 extermination 131-134 for hay 130-131 for pasture 43, 129-130 for lawns , 201, 202 history 125, 126 longevity 14, 42 Management of 131 seed. Price of 135 seed, Reliability of 135 seeding 135-136 Stage to cut 34 winter companions. . . 136-137, 202 Bitterweed in Southern pas- tures 51 Blue-grass (Poa pratensis) .. . 90-102 Advantages of 90 common names 92 Disadvantages of 92 distribution 93-96 for lawns 101, 200, 201 hay. See Blue-grass Hay. in New England 100 in the Pacific Northwest 101 longevity 14, 42 on timothy and clover sod. . 15, 17 on waste lands 100 pasture. See Blue-grass Pas- tures. seed, Curing 98 seed, Harvesting 61 , 63 seed, production 93 seed, Quality of 98 seeding, Method of 15, 17, 99 seeding rate 99 varieties 232 243 244 INDEX Blue-grass Hay, Quality of . . . 90, 96 Stage to cut 34 yield 93,96 Blue-grass Pastures 43, 96-101 Bluestem (Agropyron occiden- tale) 189,190 compared with timothy 88 hay, rated on Western mar- kets 219 " Bottom " Grasses 150 Brome-grass (Bromus inermis) 164-175 distribution 164-168 hay 168-169 hay, Stage to cut. . . 33-34, 168-169 in Eastern States 165-168 in the Pacific Northwest 9, 164-168 longevity 14 pasture 43, 168 pasture with alfalfa 47, 168 popular names 171 seed, Native vs. imported. 170-171 seeding 170 seed production 169-171 varieties 232, 233 Bromus carinatus 178 inermis. See Brome-grass. marginatus 173 secalinus. See Cheat. unioloides. See Rescue-grass. Broom-corn Millets (Panicum miliaceum) • 114-116 Broom-sedge (Andropogon vir- ginicus) 51 Buffalo-grass (Bulbilis dacty- loides) for lawns 200 Bunch-grass (Agropyron diver- gens) 187 Canada Blue-grass (Poa com- pressa) 101-102 for lawns 200, 201, 203 name incorrectly used 176 Canada Thistle (Cnicus arvensis), Effect of millet on 108 Canada Field Pea 11 Carpet-grass (Panicum com- pressum) 185 distribution 188 for lawns 203 Cereals, for hay 9, 10 for pasture 43, 45-46 Chcetochloa sp. See Foxtail Millets. Cheat (Bromus secalinus) 173 Chess. Same as Cheat. Clover, Areaof 12 crops per year 87 seeding 15,82-87 yield 12 Cnicus arvensis. See Canada Thistle. PAGE Coarseness as related to feed value 159 Cock'sfoot. See Orchard-grass. Colorado Grass (Panicum tex- anum) 118-119 Commercial fertilizers, made necessary by system of farming 4 forgrass lands 21, 53-55 Common Millet 111,112 Cotton as a pasture plant 43 Cow-peas ( Vigna sinensis), 10, 1 1 , 107 Crab-grass (Panicum sangui- nale) 185-186 Creeping Bent (Agrostis stoloni- fera). for lawns 205 Curing hay 34-37 Cynodon dactylon. See Ber- muda Grass Cutting hay. See Hay. Dactylis glomerata. See Or- chard-grass. Distichlis maritima. See Salt- grass. Dry lands, Grasses for 197 Elymus condensatus. See Giant Rye-grass. English Blue-grass (Festuca pratensis) 176 English Rye-grass (Lolium perenne) 179-181 failure in timothy region 16 importance in Europe 16 Erigeron strigosus. See White- 'weed. European grasses in United States 16 Fads, Grass Fern, weed on the Pacific Coast. 52 Fertilizers, effect on weeds 49 for lawns 214-215 (See also Commercial Fertiliz- ers and Manures.) Fescues, for lawns 203 Festuca australis, for lawns — 203 duriuscula, for lawns 203 heterophylla, for lawns 203 ovina, for lawns 203 pratensis. See Meadow-fescue. pratensis var. elatior. See Tall Fescue. rubra. for lawns 203 tenuifolia, for lawns 203 Flowers of the grasses 236-242 Forage crops, Area of 1 Distribution of 11 Fowl Meadow-grass (Poa scro- tina) 150,193-194 Foxtail Millets (Chcetochloa sp.) 111-114 INDEX 245 German Millet Ill, 113 Giant Rye-grass (Elymus con- densatus) 198, 199 Grade of hay— effect on sale of hay 220 Grades of hay 217-220 Grain hay, area 9 distribution 10 grades 219 Grapevines for pasture 43 Grass, defined 1 Grass crop, distribution and area 3 Grass fads 232-234 Grass flower 236-242 Grasses for special conditions, 192-199 for alkali soils 197-199 for dry lands 197 for lawns 200-205 for sandy lands 194-196 for wet lands 193-194 Green manuring 20-21 Guinea-grass (Panicum maxi- mum) 190-191 name incorrectly used 137 Hay, Area of in United States.. 2 Color of, relation to quality. . 35 Curing 34-37 Grades of 217-220 measuring in stack 220-224 price, how fixed, 88, 169 Stacking and baling 37-40 Stage to cut 30-34 value of crop.. 2 Hay and forage, Per cent, of im- proved land devoted to 3 Herd's-grass (timothy in New England, and Redtop in Middle and South Atlantic States). Holcus lanatus. See Veivet- gress. Hopkins, Dr. A.. D., Improve- ment of timothy by 229-231 Hungarian Grass Ill, 113 Improved land, Area of. in United States ; . . . . 1 Improvement of Grasses 226-232 Italian Rye-grass (Lolium italicum) 179, 181-182 for lawns 204 for lawns, with Bermuda 201 importance in Europe 16 failure in timothy region 16 stage to cut for hay 34 Japanese Millets (Panicum crus-galli) 116-118 PAGE Johnson Grass (Sorghum hale- ^ense) 137-145 distribution 144-145 eradication 141 hay, Stage to cut 32, 33 hay, Value of 139 longevity 14 meadow, Management of 143 moisture, relation to 144 pasture 41, 143 soils, relation to 4, 144-145 seed, weight 143 seeding, rate 143 seeding, time 143-144 weedy character 49, 137 with alfalfa 142 Juncus balticus. See South Park Hay. June Grass. Same as Blue- grass. Kafir Corn, Distribution of 11 Kentucky Blue-grass. Same as Blue-grass. Korean Lawn-grass (Osterdamia matrella) 201, 202-203 Large Water-grass (Paspalum dilatatum) 189-190, 194 Lawn-grassesf or Atlantic States 201 for Northern States 200-201 for Southern States 201 Lawn-making 206-211 Lawns and Lawn-making. . . 200-216 Lawns, Fertilizing 214-215 Mowing 211-212 Renovating 216 Rolling 214 Watering 212-214 Weeding 215-216 Leckenby, A. B., Improvement of grasses by 230-232 Lime, effect on sorrel 49 for curing hay 36 Lolium italicum. See Italian Rye-grass. Lolium perenne. See English Rye-grass. Lucern. Same as Alfalfa. Manure for grass lands 15, 52-55 Marram Grass. Same as Beach Grass. Meadow-fescue (Festuca pra- tensis) 176-178 Adaptability of 21 Importance of , 16 weight of seed 178 Meadow-foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) 16 Meadows, grazing the after- math 40-41 time to keep down 42 246 INDEX PAGE Meadows and pastures 14-55 longevity 14-15, 42-43 Management of 15-18 Manuring 15, 52-55 nurse crop 28-29 preparation of soil 18-22 seeding 22-30 Weeds in 48-52 Mean's Grass. Same as John- son Grass. Measuring hay in stack 220-224 Medicago sativa. See Alfalfa. Millet as soiling crop 109 in rotation with rye 106 pasture 109 preparation of soil 107 seed, Yield of 110 weight 110 as feed 110-111 seeding, rate 109-110 soils, relation to 107 Millet disease 122-124 Millet hay, Curing 108 Harvesting 110 Stage to cut 108-109 value of 119-124 Millets 103-124 Broom-corn (Panicum mili- aceum) 103, 114-116 Foxtail (Chcetochloa sp.) 103, 111-114 Japanese (Panicum crus-galli), 103, 116-118 Texas (Panicum texanum), 103, 118-119 Millets and Hungarian Grasses, area 11,12 distribution 11, 104,105 yield 12 Mixtures, Amount of each kind of seed in 23 European idea of 150-151 for Middle £outh 21 for wet lands 150, 193-194 with timothy 82-87 Northern States, Lawn grasses for 200-201 Nurse crop 15, 17, 28-29, 84 Oats, for hay 10 for pasture 45 Orchard-grass (Dactylis glome- rata) 154-163 adaptability 21 distribution 160-162 feed value 158 importance 16 longevity 14, 159 pasture 158-159 seed, production 156 seed, weight 162 seed, yield 162-163 PACK Orchard-grass, seeding, rate — 163 sod, Character of 157-158 Stage to cut 33, 157 with red clover 158 Osterdamia matrella. See Ko- rean Lawn- grass. "Other tame grasses," defined. 7 area 12 yield 12 Panicle, defined 236 illustrated 239 Panicum ccmpressum. See Car- pet-grass. crus-galli. See Barn-yard Grass and Japanese Millets. maximum. See Guinea Grass. miliaceum. See Broom-corn Millets. molle. See Par& Grass. sanguinale. See Crab-grass. texanum. See Colorado Grass. Pard grass (Panicum molle), 190-191 Paspalumdilatatum. See Large Water-grass. Pasture lands, Area of, in United States 2 Pasture Mixtures 46-48, 178 Pastures. See also Meadows and Pastures and references un- der individual grasses 43-48 crops used 43 on waste lands 47 Tendency to dispense with, 16,43-44 Pasturing, Best method of 44-45 in wet weather 46 Pearl millet (Pennisetum spica- tum) 234-235 Pencillaria. Same as Pearl Mil- let. Pennisetum spicatum. See Pearl Millet. Phleum pratense. See Timothy. Plantain (Plantago sp.) 51 Poa arachnifera. See Texas Blue-grass. compressa. See Canada Blue- grass. macrantha. See Seaside Blue- grass. nemoralis. See Wood Meadow- grass. pratensis. See Blue-^niss. serotina. See Fowl Meadow- grass. trivialis. See Rough stalked Meadow-grass. Polygonum sachalinense. See £>achaline. , 50, 108 INDKX 247 PAGE Rate of seeding. See Seeding, rate. Ray-grass. Same as Rye-grass, origin of name 181 Red clover (TrifoUumpratense), 14, 15, 17 (See also Clover.) Redtop (Agrostis alba) 146-154 adaptability 21 distribution 146, 149 effect on grades of hay 148 Forms of 153 hay. Value of 148 in the Middle South 151-152 in New England 151-152 lawns 200-201, 205 longevity 14 on wet lands 150, 193 pastures 153 seed 153 seed, weight of 153 seed, where grown 146 seeding, rate 153 soils, relation to 146, 148-149 with timothy 85 Rescue-grass (Bromus uni- oloides) 173 Rhode Island Bent (Agrostis canina) 205 Rotation for Middle South 21 Rough-stalked meadow-grass (Poa trivialis) for lawns 204 Rye 45 Rye-grasses (Lolium sp.) — 179-182 Rumex acetosella. See sorrel. Sachaline, a fad 234 St. Augustine Grass (Stenota- £hrum dimidiatum), 196, 201, 202 ucie Grass 134-135,201,202 Salt, added to hay in stacking. . 36 Salt-grass (Distichlis maritima) 199 Sandy lands, Grasses for 194-196 Seaside blue-grass (Poa mac- rantha) 195, 196 Seed-bed, Preparation of , 18, 206-211 Seed control 70-72 Seed formation 236-242 Seed habits, effect on value, 224-226 Seeding 22-30, 207-210 cost of, with different grasses, 60-64 covering the seed 29-30 lawns 207-210 Machines for 27-28 Manner of 27-28 Rate of, conditions govern- ing 24-25 Sowing the seed 26-27 Time to sow 26-27 Seed production 5G-60 distribution of 57 localization of 156 Seed Testing 22, 70-74 Seeds 56-74 Adulteration of 68-69 Cost of 60-64 Guaranteed 69-70 how to get tested 22 number per pound 70 of standard grasses, ill'd 58, 59 of weeds, illustrated 65, 68 testing 22, 70-74 weight per bushel 64-65 Slender wheat grass (Agropyron tenerum) 187 Southern States, Lawn grasses for 201 Soiling vs. Pasturing 16 Sorghum, Distribution of 11 Uses 11 Sorghum halepense. See John- son Grass. Sorrel (Rumex acetosella) 49 South Park Hay (Juncus bal- ticus) 88,220 Spike 236, 237 Spikelet 236, 237 Stacking hay 34-39 Stenotaphrum dimidiatum. See St. Augustine Grass. Subsoiling 19 Tall Fescue (Festuca pratensis elatior) 176-178 Tall Oat-grass (Arrhenatherum avenaceum) 14, 21, 182-183 Tall Meadow Oat-grass. Same as Tall Oat-grass. Terracing 4 Texas Blue-grass (Poa arach- nifera) 102 Texas Millet. Same as Colorado Grass. Timothy. (Phleum pratense) 75-89 Area of, in United States 7 Distribution of 7, 78-82 for wet lands 193 hay, Stage to cut 32, 87-88 hay, Value of 87-S8 importance 14, 16, 75 longevity 14 pasture 41, 88 popularity of, cause 75-78 seed, Low price of 62 seed, Yield of 89 seed habits 75 seeding 15, 17, 82-87 yield 7, 87 varieties 229-231 Timothy and Clover Meadows as pastures 15 longevity 15, 17, 87 Management of 15 Manuring J5, 17, 52-55 248 INDEX Timothy and Clover Meadows precede corn in rotations — 17 seeding 15, 17, 82-87 yield 17, 87 Timothy region defined 7 " Top " grasses 150 Trifolium hybridum. See Alsike Clover. pratense. See Red Clover. repens. See White Clover. Turfing 211 Turkestan Alfalfa 234 Velvet-grass (Holcus lanatus), 183-185, 196 Vigna sinensis. See Cow-peas. Waste land as pasture 48 Weeding lawns 215-216 PAGE Weed seeds 65-68 Weeds in meadows and pas- tures 48-52 in lawns 215 Wet lands, Grasses for 193-194 Wheat Hay 9, 219 White Clover ( Trifolium repens) 101 Whiteweed (Erigeron strigosus) 49 Wild hay 12, 13 Wild Oat Hay. 9,32,219 Stage to cut 32 Wild Rice (Zizania aquatica} ... 194 Winter Cereals, Distinctive character of 46 for pastures 45, 46 Wood Meadow-grass (Poanemo- ralis) 204 Zizania aquatica. Rice. See Wild STANDARD BOOKS . . PUBLISHED BYS . ORANGE JUDD COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO J2 & 54. Lafayette Place Marquette Building T3OOKS sent to all parts of the world for catalog price. Discounts for large quantities on appli- cation. Correspondence invited. Brief descriptive catalog free. Large illustrated catalog, six cents : / .- The Cereals in America By THOMAS F. HUNT, M.S., D. Agr. If you raise five acres of any kind of grain you cannot afford to be without this book. It is in every way the best book on the subject that has ever been written. It treats of the cultivation and improve- ment of every grain crop raised in America in a thoroughly practical and accurate manner. The subject matter includes a comprehensive and succinct treatise of wheat, maize, oats, barley, rye, rice, sorghum (kafir corn), and buckwheat, as related particularly to American conditions. Fiijt-hand knowl- edge has been the policy of the author in his work, and every crop treated is presented in the light of individual study of the plant. If you have this book you have the latest and best that has been written upon the subject. Illustrated. 450 pages. 51-2x8 inches. Cloth $1.75 The Potato By SAMUEL FRAZER. 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This booklet is concisely written, well and profusely illus- trated, and should be in the hands of all who expect to grow this drug to supply the export trade, and to add a new and profitable industry to their farms and gardens, without inter- fering with the regular wo' , New edition. Revised and en- larged. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . , . $0.50 Landscape Gardening By F. A. WAUGH, professor of horticulture, university of Vermont. A treatise on the general principles governing outdoor art; with sundry suggestions for their application in the commoner problems of gadening. Every paragraph is short, terse and to the point, giving perfect clearness to the discussions at all points. In spite of the natural difficulty of presenting abstract principles the whole matter is made entirely plain even to the inexperienced reader. Illustrated. 152 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Hedges, Windbreaks, Shelters and Live Fences By E. P. POWELL. 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Orange Judd Company 52 am) 54 Lafayette Place, NEW YORK Books will be Forwarded, Postpaid, on Receipt of Price Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture A Compendium of Agricultural Science and Praftice on Farm, Orchard and Garden Crops, and the Feeding and Diseases of Farm Animals "By EARLEY VERNON WILCOX, Ph.D CLARENCE SEAMAN SMITH, M.S Associate Editors in the Office of Experiment Stations^ United States Department of Agriculture T|His is a new, practical, and complete pres- I entation of the whole subject of agricul- ture in its broadest sense. It is designed for the use of agriculturists who de- sire up-to-date, reliable information on all matters pertaining to crops and stock, but more particularly for the actual farmer. The volume contains Detailed directions for the culture of every important field, orchard, and garden crop grown in America, together with descriptions of their chief insect pests and fungous diseases, and remedies for their control. 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