| | | | A i] | HAN Wt Hi relopel Hay t| | a HH WHTTHTE HANH WAAR WATT HE ———_eOS=ST Cl eee sre whey Sagaa EST aes ots pete ger tegen ter etahs ie Eee ERE eRe SHELTEL TL LEECH RETREAT ET ECP ETE ET TOUTE aa aes —————— a a sre TT nn Se *) a 0 Copyright N° COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT: Class Book. aa 5m 4 ery a ri ¢ * FARM HORTICULTURE PREPARED ESPECIALLY FOR THOSE INTERESTED IN EITHER HOME OR COMMERCIAL HORTICULTURE BY GEORGE W. HOOD, M.Sc. | ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA Ulustrated with 142 Engravings LEA & FEBIGER PHILADELPHIA AND NEW YORK 1919 CopyRIGHT LEA & FEBIGER 1919 PREFACE. Ir has been the aim of the author in preparing this work to bring together a few facts dealing with some of the general principles underlying horticulture. The book has been written primarily as an elementary text, so arranged and developed as to meet the needs of the undergraduate col- legiate student, as well as those who are studying agriculture in the secondary agricultural schools. The object of the book is to give a brief discussion and to supply information on some of the important subjects in horticulture. It is hoped it will be a guide to every farmer and every city man who practises any horticulture about the home. It is thought that teachers of agriculture and elementary horticulture will find it suitable as a text to cover the general field, and to give some information about those practices which many people desire and which cannot be found in any single text. Since the work treats the subject from the standpoint of production of horticultural products as well as improve- ments for the home, it should prove of value to anyone interested in this subject. The author is indebted to the following, and takes this form in expressing his appreciation to Professors Melville T. Cook, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station; A. L. Quaintance, U. S. Department of Agriculture; Donald iV PREFACE Reddick, Cornell University; H. C. Thompson, U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture; F. H. Ballou, Ohio Agricultural Experi- ment Station, and W. H. Wicks, Arkansas Agricultural College, for the figures for which they are credited in the text. Acknowledgment is also due the R. M. Kellogg Co., of Three Rivers, Michigan, the Bateman Manufacturing Co. and the International Harvester Company for furnishing photographs and illustrations, for which due credit is given under each figure. The author wishes to express his appreciation to Profes- sors R. F. Howard and J. R. Cooper, of the University of Nebraska, for reading and criticising the manuscript and for the many valuable suggestions which they offered. He also wishes to thank all others who contributed in any way to the work and to whom it is hoped due credit has been given in every case. G. Woe LINCOLN, NEBRASKA, 1919. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. renin Eon GARDEN ft. clue dee Geen. 17 CHAPTER, II. PESO AND TSUN WEDS) 29k, ep es ee ap Me yee ks on CHAPTER III. HotTseD AND CoLD FRAME will ok Aa) RROD Dae oh oe aah oh A 49 CHAPTER IV. Rate een AME DEE AAGE yo S82 Se 8 Noo ee ees a! UGE CHAPTER V. Speen EP NGA TIONS 0.5) cs) ak 9 ecrhieelewee ete nc vane Rete ee da CHAPTER VI. errreeeeCe A TGAN CrRRAGPTIMG, 32 083) PO se ee ee ay ee ee 89 CHAPTER VII. ean Lrers or CULIMVATED FLANTS . . . « .. = «% . « » 106 CHAPTER VIII. Spray MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS . . .. .. . 128 CHAPTER. FX. ren AcerRA Gr CIO NIP ES Yow 6G) Uk eles tee al dee ke ke FAO vl CONTENTS CHAPTER X. HARVESTING AND MARKETING CHAPTER XI. WINTER PROTECTION OF PLANTS . CHAP THR och THE STRAWBERRY CHAP RE Ro uu Busx Fruits CHAPTER XIV. THE BRAMBLES . CHAPTER XV. THe GRAPE . CHAPTER XVI. Tue Pome FRUITS . CHAPTER XVII. THE STONE FRUITS . CHAPTER XVIII. Tue Cirrus Fruits CHAPTER XIX. BEAUTIFYING THE Home GROUNDS APPENDIX 11 160 169 183 207 224 254 285 303 318 FARM HORTICULTURE. CAPE E.R: I. PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN. THERE are two distinct kinds of horticulture, amateur and commercial. In amateur horticulture the primary object is to supply the home table with vegetables and fruits and to furnish ornamental flowers for the decoration and the beautification of the home and the grounds surrounding the home. An ample supply in all divisions is essential. The object, however, in commercial horticulture is much dif- ferent. For this field the grower selects one phase of horti- culture, and specializes in it, growing the specialty on a large scale to supply the community in which he lives. In the commercial field the assortment might be either large or small and consist of only one vegetable, fruit, or orna- mental. Horticulture for the home is exceedingly important, and by its adoption one makes a good start for a successful and happy life. Laying Out the Garden.—In order to succeed well with any undertaking, one must first have a definite and a well-for- mulated plan to follow. A plan is essential in the home garden as well as in any other line of work, and a well-designed plan that will be readily understood is indispensable. To draw a garden plan the grower should first secure a piece of paper, which must of necessity vary in size and in shape, according to the size of the garden, ‘and the unit of measure which 1s adopted. The plan should be drawn to a definite scale. 2 18 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN This scale is called the unit of measure. The unit of measure furnishes the proper proportions, and represents the exact number of feet of ground the garden is to occupy and the distance between the rows of plants. For example, the drawing of the garden plan on the paper must necessarily be smaller than the garden, and therefore we must have what is known as the reducing unit, or scale. If the scale in which one-fourth of an inch equals one foot is used, then one-fourth of an inch on the paper will represent one foot on the ground. If the garden is twenty by thirty feet, then to reduce it to the scale in which one-fourth of an inch equals one foot, the size of the paper would have to be six by eight inches. If the garden is one hundred by one hundred and fifty feet, the paper must be twenty-five by thirty-eight inches. The sizes indicated are the exact sizes the paper must be to draw the garden, but in all plans, a larger size should always be secured to allow for an inch or two of margin. If the garden space is large, one-eighth-inch scale can be used, which means that for every one-eighth of an inch on the paper there must be one foot on the ground. By making use of the unit of measure, the rows of vegetables and fruits can be located in their proper places. In using the reducing scale the grower must always remember that for each linear foot in the garden, he must use one unit of measure, say one- fourth inch or one-eighth inch on the paper. Location of the Garden.—In selecting the site for the garden, several important points should be considered: (1) The garden should be located conveniently close to the kitchen, and since it is considered as a part of the kitchen equipment, it should necessarily be in close proximity to the objective point. (2) The soil, when possible, should be a sandy loam, but where this is out of the question and it is a heavy clay, it should be improved by adding well-rotted manure, sand, sifted cinders, ete. (3) A gentle slope to the south or south- east should be selected where this is possible. A sunny slope dries off and warms up earlier in the spring and makes planting possible earlier than if the ground sloped to the north. It is also more pleasant to work on a southern exposure. A slope also gives the garden good air drainage, SIZE OF THE GARDEN 19 because cold air is heavier than warm air and it settles to the lower levels, therefore less danger is experienced from frost. Avoid too steep a slope, one with a fall of about four or five feet to the hundred is good. A gentle slope provides good soil drainage, which is important, because neither fruit nor vegetables can thrive with wet feet. Hor- ticultural crops which are grown slowly on poorly drained land often become very irregular and gnarled in shape and poor in quality. Fruit trees are more liable to split under the strain of wind and other agencies on a poor soil than on a well-drained piece of land, and many gardens are a disappoint- ment to the owner, chiefly because they are not well-drained. (4) A good supply of water should be available for irrigation when it is needed. An immense quantity of water is required at certain seasons of the year and the value of irrigation should not be overlooked. (5) Exposed locations should be protected by windbreaks. Every experienced fruit and vegetable grower is familiar with the advantages of a wind- break. They are especially valuable in the protection of the cucurbits, such as the cucumber, the squash, etc., and the small fruits, such as raspberries, strawberries and_ black- berries. Windbreaks are of two kinds, natural and artificial. A common practice is to construct an artificial windbreak such as a fence, which serves the purpose fairly well, although natural windbreaks, such as hedges of conifers are more attractive and more economical when once they are estab- lished. Size of the Garden.—The space a garden occupies 1s largely determined by the number of individuals in the family. The garden should be the minimum size that will produce a sufh- cient supply of vegetables and fruits for home consumption. The dimensions of the garden will also depend upon the indi- vidual preference for the different kinds of vegetables and fruits, the season of the year, the fertility of the soil, the amount of land available, as well as the intensiveness of the methods which are followed. The size will necessarily vary with each family, and it should be determined in each case by trial. Always plan to use the most intensive methods of cultivation because this practice will make the garden 20 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN occupy the smallest possible space, as well as to reduce the factor of labor. Arrangement of the Plants.—In determining the position of the vegetables and the fruits in the garden it is advisable to have the small fruits such as grapes, raspberries, black- berries, dewberries, currants, gooseberries, and strawberries, placed along one side of the garden, usually in the order named, with the grapes forming one border. The perennial vegetables such as the rhubarb and the asparagus can usually find a place between the gooseberries and the strawberries, because the land they occupy is not plowed up each season. It is an advantage to place the rows the same distance apart when it is possible. The small, short-season crops, such as lettuce, radishes, and onions, should be grouped together, thus enabling the gardener to soon clear that land, so that a second crop can be planted. The long-season crops such as the tomatoes, cucurbits, corn, etc., which occupy the ground for a longer time, should be grouped in one place, thus avoid- ing the mixing up of the early and the late crops. Suggestive plans offered on the following pages will aid in simplifying the arrangement and the location of the vegetables and the fruits. In recommending the amount of seed to plant in the garden as well as the distance apart the plants should stand, only suggestive amounts of seeds and arbitrary distances can be given, since local factors, and different conditions, alter cases. It is assumed that a large share of the cultivation which is given to the farm garden will be done with horse imple- ments. This of course necessitates a less intensive plan. In the suburban garden the cultivation will be performed with hand implements, such as the hand cultivators, etc., and the plants can be grown closer together and a more intensive system of planting followed. The city garden should be the most intensive of the three gardens. In the city garden practically all of the work is done by hand, with such tools as the hand hoe, rake, trowel, etc. The plants are all given more individual attention. Such plants as the tomatoes are pruned and staked, thus allowing a greater number of plants to a given space. ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLANTS TABLE I.—DISTANCE TO PLANT VEGETABLES. 21 Beans (string) Beans (Lima) Beets ‘ Cabbage (early) Cabbage(medium) Cabbage (late) Carrots . Cauliflower Celery . Chard . Pas Sweet corn (early) Sweet corn (med- ium) Ci eens Sweet corn (late) . Cucumber Egg plant . Lettuce Melon (musk) Melon (water) Onion seed Onion sets Parsley Peas Peppers Potatoes Radishes Squash Tomatoes . Farm garden. Distance between rows, inches. 24 30 24 24 24 30 24 30 48 24 30 30 36 60 30 24 60 60 18 18 24 30 30 30 18 60 48 Distance between plants in row, inches. 4—6 6-8 3 16 24 24 3 24 6 6 24 30 30 12 24 12 15 24 5) 3 6 6 24 12 3) 24 48 Suburban garden. City garden. Distance between rows, inches. 18 24 18 24 24 30 24 30 48 18 30 30 60 24 18 60 18 18 24 30 30 30 18 60 36 Distance between plants in row, inches. 4-6 6-8 3 16 24 24 3 24 6 6 24 30 12 24 10 15 3) 3 6 6 24 12 3 24 24 Distance between rows, inches. 15 15 24 24 15 15 Distance between plants in row, inches. 4—6 3 16 24 3 Ow > 24 TABLE II.—DISTANCE TO SET PERENNIAL PLANTS AND SMALL FRUITS. Asparagus Blackberries Currants Gooseberries Grapes Horseradish Raspberries Rhubarb Strawberries Farm garden. Distance between rows, inches. 36 72 60 60 120 24 72 36 36 Distance between plants in row, inches. 12 48 48 48 96 12 36 24 12 Suburban garden. City garden. Distance between rows, inches. 36 48 48 96 24 60 24 36 Distance | Distance plants . nike = ty aed : inches. 12 36 48 48 48 48 96 12 36 24 24 12 24 Distance between plants in row, inches. 12 36 36 24 12 22 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN TABLE III.—THE AMOUNT OF SEEDS TO PLANT GARDEN. Beans (string) . Beans (Lima) . Beets ve eek Cabbage (early) Cabbage (medium) Cabbage (late) . Carrots Cauliflower Celery Chard Sate Sweet corn (early) Sweet corn (medium) Sweet corn (late) Cucumber . Egg plant Lettuce Mustard Muskmelon Watermelon Onion seed Onion sets . Parsley . Peas (early) Peas (medium) Peas (late) . Peppers Potatoes Radish . Rhubarb Spinach i ae Cate Squash (summer) . Squash (winter) Sweet potatoes Tomatoes 1 quart 1 pint 2 ounces 1 packet 1 packet 1 packet 1 ounce 1 packet 1 ounce 1 packet 1 pint 1 pint 1 pint 1 ounce 1 packet 1 ounce 1 packet 1 ounce 1 ounce 2 ounces 2 quarts 1 packet 1 quart 1 quart 1 quart 1 packet 1 bushel 3 ounces 36 plants 1 ounce 1 ounce 1 ounce 250 plants 200 plants Farm garden. Suburban garden. 1 pint 2 pint ounce packet packet packet packet packet packet packet 3 pint None 3 pint 1 ounce 12 plants 1 packet 1 packet 1 packet None 1 ounce 1 quart 1 packet 1 pint il 1 4 ee pint pint plants 3 bushel 1 ounce 24 plants 1 ounce 1 packet 1 packet None 50 plants IN THE City garden. 2 pint None 1 ounce 12 plants None 12 plants 1 packet © None None 1 packet None None None 1 packet 12 plants 1 packet 1 packet None None 1 packet 1 pint 12 plants None None None 6 plants None ounce plants packet None None - None 12 plants >_— OD TABLE IV.—THE NUMBER OF PERENNIAL PLANTS AND SMALL FRUITS TO SET. Asparagus . Blackberries Currants Grapes . Gooseberries Horseradish Raspberries Rhubarb Strawberries Farm garden. 100 plants SO) “ae Suburban garden. 50 plants 25 “ City garden. 25 plants 6 (73 6 “ 6 “cc 1OO: cers: ARRANGEMENT OF THE PLANTS 23 REVIEW QUESTIONS. Name three kinds of home vegetable gardens. What is the basis for this division? Why is it necessary to first draw a plan of your garden? What is meant by the unit of measure? What is meant by a scale? What determines the scale which should be selected? Describe the method of laying out a garden on paper. Discuss the location of a garden. . What important points must be considered in the selection of the garden site? 10. Why is a gentle southern slope preferable? 11. What is the proper degree of the slope? Why? 12. What is the value of a windbreak? How many kinds do we have? 13. What determines the size of a garden? 14. Draw a plan of a home garden for the city lot, the suburban lot and the ess ade cio oa sd aae: CS a3 8Ge PLAN OF GARDEN a two parts. Grafting will modify the stature of a plant. It is the most common means of dwarfing trees. The pear is dwarfed by grafting it upon the quince, and the apple by grafting it on the dwarf paradise stock. (4) Grafting may be used to adapt plants to adverse soils. A common example is seen when the plum is grafted on the peach so that the plum can be grown on a sandy soil, and vice versa. (5) Grafting may be used to correct a poor habit of growth, as, for example, the Canada Red apple which has a straggling habit of growth, is grafted on some straight GRAFTING 95 growing tree, as the Tolman Sweet. (6) Grafting is a means of hastening fruitfulness. It has been demonstrated that cions placed in old and mature trees will bear earlier than if they are placed in young growing trees. (7) Grafting in some cases will modify the color of the foliage, the fruit and the flowers of certain plants. (8) Grafting increases the size of certain fruits, as, for example, the fruit of a few varieties of pears is larger when grafted on the quince than when grown on the standard trees. Cion.—A cion is a twig taken from a tree which is to be used for grafting. The size is determined by the method of grafting, and by the quantity of available grafting wood. Cions vary in size from one bud to six or seven buds and in some cases even more. The latest work on grafting, however, would indicate that the number of buds should be either three or four. Taking this number of buds as a basis, the length of the cion would vary from three to five inches. The cions can be collected any time in the fall after the leaves have fallen, or in the spring. It is thought better, however, either to cut them from the tree before they have frozen, or to wait until they have thoroughly thawed out. It is sometimes injurious to cut the cions from the trees while they are frozen. In case the cions are not used for root grafting, and have to be held over winter they must be care- fully stored in a cellar. The best way to do this is to cut the cions from the varieties selected, tie them in bundles, label each bundle carefully and cover them with damp sand or sawdust, then place them in a cool cellar. The temperature must be low enough so the buds will not start into growth. About 35° F. is a good temperature to maintain in storing the cions. The cions should not be permitted to freeze or to dry out while in storage. The cions should always be cut from healthy mature trees. Only the best twigs from the current season’s growth should be selected. Wood that is two years old is occasionally used but never recommended, where the best results are desired. While the two-year-old wood will occasionally grow it will never produce as good plants as the younger wood. Occa- sionally, well-matured water sprouts are used, but this kind 96 BUDDING AND GRAFTING of wood is not recommended unless it is impossible to get enough of the better wood. The growth at the tips of the branches of a mature tree is by far the best cion wood, and whenever it is possible wood of this kind should be chosen. Stock.—The stock used in grafting is that part of the plant into which the cion is placed. It varies in size and in age. Sometimes the stock is a small root, other times it is a small twig, occasionally it is a trunk of a tree, and sometimes it is a branch one or two inches in diameter. Therefore the size or the age of the stock is determined by the kind of grafting. If the best results in grafting are expected, the stock should be in good condition, so that growth will start at the proper season. Fic. 40.—The splice graft. Splice Graft.—Splice grafting is the most simple kind of crafting. As its name signifies, it is nothing more nor less than the splicing together of two plants, both of which are about the same size. One part is called the stock and the other part is called the cion. To mak: this graft, the cion and the stock are each cut diagonally across and the two cut surfaces are placed in contact with each other. The diagonal cut should be from one to one and one-half inches in length. The two parts should be placed so that the cambium layer in each piece is In contact at one or more points. The two pieces are then tied together firmly with grafting cord, and occa- sionally they are waxed over. Splice grafting is commonly employed on such plants that have soft and tender wood which will not split without injury to the parts. Tongue Graft.—The tongue graft is very similar to that of the splice graft, and it might be regarded as a modification of it. In the tongue graft a split is made in addition to the diagonal cut of the splice graft. The split in the two parts ensures them of being held more firmly together. This form of grafting is also called whip grafting, and the expression GRAFTING OF of tongue and whip grafting is often heard. Tongue grafting is employed only upon small stocks, and in the majority of cases a seedling root is the stock which is used for this kind of grafting. The tongue or whip graft 1s very important in the propagation of nur- sery stock, because it is easily made, and usually a good percentage of the grafts grow. This graft is used almost univer- sally in root grafting. When selecting the root for the stock, all knots or. shoulders should be avoided, because they will inter- fere with the work. To make the tongue or whip graft, select stocks and cions which are of one size. The same size for each part is not abso- lutely necessary but very convenient. Cut both the cion and the stock diago- nally across. The diagonal cut should be from one and one-half to two inches in length. One-half inch from the end on the diagonal cut make a slit about one- half inch in length on both the stock and the cion. Do not split either the cion or the stock, because that will leave a rough surface, and the two parts will not fit together tightly. The stock and the cion are now fastened together by shoving the tongue of the cion into the cleft of the stock. The two parts are held together by tying them firmly with graft- ing cord or with raffia. In nursery work a method often employed is to firmly force the two parts together without tying; and pack them carefully in boxes. The grafts should then be covered with sand. By Fic. 41. — A piece-root whip and tongue graft. careful handling, the two parts will callus over and become united and a strong union will be made before the time arrives to plant the grafts. Root grafting is usually performed in the winter when 98 BUDDING AND GRAFTING other work is scarce. After the grafts are made they are stored away in a cool cellar, and usually covered with sand until the following spring, when they are set out in the nursery row. A temperature of about 35° to 40° F. is required for storing the grafts. In tongue or whip grafting the cion usually bears from three to four buds. The number of buds, however, is also determined by the section of the country in which the grafting is done. When root grafting is performed in the northern sections where winter killing is apt to occur, sometimes long cions taken from trees that are acclimated to that region are used. Cions eight or ten inches long are used in these regions because they can be planted deep, and roots will finally develop on the cion. In such a case if the stock of the graft.is winter killed the plant will still grow. The piece of root on which the grafting is done acts as a temporary sup- port and aids the plant to get started. Saddle Graft. — Saddle graft- ing is usually employed upon herbaceous plants or plants ae = Sy ee that have thick fleshy tissue one year. Note the union in’ like the cacti: it very com the longitudinal section. venient for grafting small plants. In making the saddle graft the cion is split near the middle. The stock is then cut wedge-shape by two draws of the knife, and the cion fitted over the wedge and secured in some way. In the grafting of cacti by this method it is the common practice to use one of the spines to hold the two parts together. GRAFTING 99 The union of the two parts will soon take place. In woody plants the graft is tied in the same manner as the splice or the tongue graft. Occasionally the joint is waxed over. The saddle graft is employed principally when a terminal bud is used. Fic. 43.—An excellent grafting chisel, showing the first position in the cleft graft. Cleft Graft.—Cleft grafting is preéminently the form of grafting that is the most popular in the top working of trees. Fig. 44.—The second position of the grafting chisel in the cleft graft. It can be successfully used on limbs up to about two inches in diameter, but it is not considered valuable for use on larger limbs. When the cion is placed in larger limbs the pressure 100 BUDDING AND GRAFTING of the two parts of the stock is so great that the cion is crushed. To make a cleft graft the limb is selected and sawed off squarely. It is then carefully split with a grafting chisel. If no grafting chisel is available, fairly satisfactory work can be done with a wood chisel of the proper size. In cut- ting the stock select a place free from knots, because a clean straight cut will not result if the chisel strikes a knot in the wood. The remaining portion of the limb after the top is cut off is called the “ stub.” The stub is usually large enough Fic. 45.—The cleft graft with the Fic. 46.—The bark graft with the cions clions in position. in position and the stub waxed. to accommodate two cions. Occasionally under certain cir- cumstances, four cions are placed in a stub, but this is the exception rather than the rule. GRAFTING 101 The cions are cut wedge-shape at the base and are inserted into the cleft made in the stub.’ The cions bear from two to four buds, but the number usually preferred by most grafters is three. The cions are cut by two draws of the knife, and one side should be slightly narrower than the other. This double wedge aids in holding the cion more securely in the stub. The narrow side of the cion should face toward the center of the stock. To insert the cions in the stub, first spread apart the two halves of the stub by means of the wedge on the grafting chisel. In placing the cions in the stock, the utmost care must be exercised to see that the inner bark of the cion and the stock come in contact with each other, so that the cambium layers of the two parts are together. The matching of the cambium layer of the cion and the stock is made more certain if the cions are slanted outward at a slight angle. The cions should be forced into the cleft to the first bud and sometimes deeper. The wedge should be made from one to one and one-half inches in length, and fit snugly into the cleft. After the cions are placed in the stub and properly adjusted, the cut surfaces should be covered with grafting wax. The wax should extend over the stub for a quarter of an inch. Fill the split along each side of the stub with wax in order to prevent infection of any kind entering the stub. The bark graft is similar to that of the cleft graft, except the cions are placed between the bark and the wood. Bark grafting is used on larger limbs than cleft grafting. Bridge Graft——The bridge graft is considered a form of bark grafting. Bridge grafting is not used as much as its value would warrant. ‘The purpose of the bridge graft differs somewhat from that of the other forms of grafting already enumerated. The bridge graft has for its chief purpose the preservation of a tree, rather than the propaga- tion of it. The principal use of the bridge graft is to preserve and to save trees which have been either girdled by rodents, such as mice or rabbits, or to repair trees that have been injured by cultivating implements. To use this graft the injured portion of the tree must first be cleaned out. All of the ragged edges must be made smooth. The bruised 102 BUDDING AND GRAFTING parts must be cut back to the firm bark. In order to loosen the bark so the cions can be inserted, a longitudinal slit should be made both above and below the wounded area, at the points where the cions are to be placed. The edge of the bark should be slightly raised to give a point of entrance for the end of the cion. The cions must be cut two inches longer than the space to be bridged. Each end of the cion Fic. 47.—Bridge grafting of a wounded trunk. is bevelled off on one side, and the bevelled face is placed against the wood of the limb. The cions are placed from one and one-half to two inches: apart. When the cions are in place the whole surface should be covered with grafting wax. Top Working of a Tree.—The cleft graft and the bark graft are the two forms of grafting used in the top working of large trees. The cleft graft is by far the most important GRAFTING 103 and it is principally used in working over old trees. It is preferable to graft the smaller limbs which are better suited to cleft grafting than to bark grafting. The top working of a tree is very important in many instances. It enables the grower to change an inferior sort to a good variety, after the tree has come into bearing. Occasionally it is desirable to change a given variety after the tree has become large. Top working the tree by cleft ae aceon ag" = = eel aed rs ss Oe Ae wr ‘ pet an es. et aks x ; N ¢ Fic. 48.—An apple tree top worked by cleft grafting, grafting is the only practical method. Sometimes varieties are sterile and it becomes necessary to graft other fertile varieties into these barren trees before any fruit will set. Whenever top working is practised to any great extent, it is necessary to extend the operation over a period varying from three to five years. A period of this length is necessary because when a tree is severely headed back the balance between the top and the root is broken. As a result of this 104 BUDDING AND GRAFTING unbalanced condition a large number of water sprouts will be formed. The excess number of water sprouts can be prevented if a few limbs are grafted each year. This practice enables the plant to maintain a better equilibrium and there- fore furnishes better growing conditions for the grafts. Grafting Waxes.—There are three distinct kinds of grafting waxes: (1) Beeswax and resin waxes, (2) Pitch waxes, (3) Alcoholic waxes. Within each kind of wax there are many modifications, determined largely by the varying proportion of the ingredients. The beeswax and resin wax Is generally used, because it is simple to make and is composed of mate- rials that are easy to procure. BEESWAX AND RESIN WAXES. FORMULA l. Resin ; 4 IBGeS weet tite) We ede ites Be dae oa ite 3 2 x Rendered beef tallow 1 Place the ingredients in a granite or an iron kettle and melt them until they are thoroughly incorporated. Remove the kettle from the fire and allow the mass to cool slightly, after which pour it directly into a vessel containing cold water. As soon as the mass is cool enough to handle, remove it from the water and work it with the hands until it assumes a light brownish, or a creamish color. The wax should now be made into balls of any convenient size and each ball wrapped in oiled paper until it 1s used. The hands are first greased with tallow when working the grafting wax. The tallow prevents the sticking of the wax to the hands. Where a very hard wax is wanted, and especially in the warmer sections of the country, a larger quantity of resin should be added to the mixture. Pitcu WAXES. FORMULA 2. Resin Wo sige LT 2) nite Meat GELS eat he the SUED SAT Ocala Burgundy pitch te haa Ve Sa geek ee PULSE Geo Oe eaeean ae ao ee Rendered beef tallow 3 Red ochre i 1 GRAFTING 105 Place the resin and the white pitch into a granite or an iron vessel and melt them. Melt the beef tallow in a separate vessel and add it while hot to the other melted mass. Now slowly stir the red ochre into the mixture. This can be used either hot or cold. ALCOHOLIC WAXES. FORMULA 3.—LEFORT’S LIQUID GRAFTING WAX. Resin ASE UPC cS geet Las a ee ene (dena Meo cite Rendered beet-.tallom: a, a ts Sse ea) wt ee ounee TU GOY TE a MIT Pcl MR NS dee Wes a eee Mam ORME Urs crc REVIEW QUESTIONS. . What is propagation by budding? When is the proper time to perform budding? . Discuss the cutting of the bud. . Discuss the growth of the bud after it is inserted in the stalk. . Differentiate between the shield and the plate bud. . Tell why shield budding is the most important form of budding. . Differentiate between grafting and budding. . What is the purpose and the value of grafting? . What is meant by the terms cion and stock? 10. Discuss the uses of grafting. 11. When is tongue grafting usually performed? 12. What is the difference between cleft and bark grafting? 13. Where is the bridge graft employed? 14. Discuss the top working of trees. 15. Give one formula for each kind of grafting wax. CHONBNRWNH CHAPTER VL: THE PESTS OF CULTIVATED. PLANTS. Tue great damage done to the crops grown both in the home as well as in the commercial garden is caused by several classes of pests. These pests briefly stated are: (1) insects, (2) plant diseases, (3) physiological moubl (4) predaceous animals. Fie. 49.—Southern cabbage worm, showing complete metamorphosis. a, adult; b, egg mass; d, larva or worm; e, cocoon. (Chittenden, United States Department of Agriculture.) Few people realize the enormous loss due to these enemies, chiefly because many growers are neither familiar with the injury by the insects, nor do they see the small microscopic parasitic plants which sap the vitality from the growing host. The injury usually develops slowly, and when it is discovered it is too late to remedy the damage. Many people, who are close observers, know their plants are not doing as well as they should, but they are not familiar enough with the habits of the insects or appearance of the plant diseases to correctly diagnose the trouble. INSECTS 107 INSECTS. The insects are divided into three groups: (1) the biting or chewing insects, (2) the boring insects, (3) the sucking insects. In order to understand insect injury, the reader must first know the various stages of the life history through which insects pass. ‘The changes in the life of an insect are known as metamorphosis. Complete and incomplete metamor- phosis are recognized in the life of the different insects. Fic. 50.—Showing the successive stages of the squash bug which is the incomplete metamorphosis. (Folsom.) Complete metamorphosis means that the insect passes through four complete changes during its life. Beginning with the adult, we arrange the stages in the life history in the following order: (1) the egg stage, (2) the larva stage, (3) the pupa stage, (4) the adult stage. The adult lays the egg from which hatches the little worm or the larva. ‘The worm eats the plant upon which it is placed, continues to grow larger and to consume more of the plant tissue until it finally reaches its full growth. When this feeding period is finished, the worm goes into a quiescent stage, and this stage is called the pupa. During the pupa 108 THE PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS stage the insect does no damage, but remains quiet while internal changes are taking place, and an entire reorganiza- tion of its body goes on. When the transformation period is completed the insect emerges from the pupa case or the cocoon as a full-grown insect, as, for example, a butterfly, a moth, or a beetle. These forms are called the adults. By far the greatest damage which is done by most of the insects is in the larva or the worm stage, but a few adult insects do great damage. It is because of this change in the form of an insect that it becomes imperative for the grower to know the life history of an insect before adequate measures of control can be used. Incomplete metamorphosis is, as the term signifies, an incomplete change in the development of an insect. The adult form is reached without going through the four stages necessary in complete metamorphosis. In incomplete metamorphosis the insect completes its life history without radical changes in its form. The insect hatches from the egg into a form resembling the adult, although considerably smaller and without wings. It begins to feed at once on its food plant and continues to feed for a longer or a shorter period of time, going through several moults, in which it sheds its skin when it gets too large for the old one. After passing through several of these moults, the number being determined by the species and the food supply, the nymph becomes an adult. Such insects as the common grasshopper, the cock- roaches, the bugs, and several more belong to this class. The growth of insects with incomplete metamorphosis is somewhat different from those with complete metamorphosis. It is a known fact that the skin of an insect hardens, due to the presence of a horny substance known as chitin. This hardening usually occurs to a greater extent in the adults than in the young. However, in all insects with incomplete metamorphosis the skin soon becomes so firm that it cannot stretch, and consequently this hardening prevents any more growth from taking place. The result is that the skin becomes too small, and it must be shed before the insect can grow. As the old skin grows hard a new skin forms under it and the old hardened skin splits and bursts open, permitting INSECTS 109 the insect to crawl out, clothed in a new skin which stretches for a short time. This new skin finally hardens again, and the process must be repeated. After several such moults, the msect reaches the adult stage and never passes through a quiescent or a pupa stage, but always resembles the parent. Control Measures for Insects.—Insecticides are used for the control or the prevention of insect injury. An insecticide may be defined as a chemical, either liquid or powder, that is used for the killing or the repelling of insects. An insecti- cide should be applied to the plant before any great amount of damage is done. Insecticides are divided into two classes, according to the way in which they control the insect, and based upon the manner in which the insect does its feeding upon the plant. When the insect devours or eats up the plant it is called a chewing or biting insect. It is apparent that if some poison is deposited upon the plant where such insects are feeding, it will kill the insect enemy. In such case the insect is destroyed by the direct effect of the poison acting through its digestive tract. The great majority of the insecticides used for this purpose contain arsenic as the active poison, and it is from this source that the name arsenical insecticide has been derived. Paris green and arsenate of lead are the most common arsenical poisons for the biting insects. Com- mon examples of chewing insects are the cabbage worms, the webworms, and all of the caterpillars. Besides the eating or the chewing insects there is another large class, known as the sucking insects, that is exceptionally injurious to growing plants. These are the most injurious to the woody plants. Sucking insects cannot be killed by any arsenical spray, because they do not eat the plant tissue, and consequently it is a waste of time and a needless expense to apply arsenical sprays of any kind to the plant. Sucking insects, instead of devouring any part of the plant, insert their sharp mouth parts, which are constructed in the form of a long, narrow, cylindrical tube, through the plant tissue and suck out the plant juices. An insect that feeds in such a manner cannot be killed by coating the surface of the leaves or the stems with any stomach poison, because 110 THE PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS it is impossible for the poison to reach the stomach of the insect. Hence, in order to kill sucking insects, some material that will either smother the insect by clogging up the spiracles or the openings of the breathing system, or kill it by the corrosive action on the body of the insect, must be used. Insecticides of this class are called contact insecticides. Kerosene emulsion, tobacco sprays, and lime sulphur are the most common sprays for the sucking insects. Common examples of sucking insects are the scale insects, the plant lice, and many others. Besides the biting and the sucking insects, a third class of insects exists that must be controlled in still another way. This group includes those insects that live in the tissue of the plant, and hence cannot be reached by either the arsenical or the contact insecticides. This class of insects includes all forms of borers, which burrow into the plant and spend their life within the plant tissue. There are two methods for the control of the boring insects, namely, by the use of repellants, which are chemicals used to prevent the attack of the insect, and by the digging out by hand the insects after they have entered the plant. The boring insects can be destroyed by first locating the burrows which are usually detected by the exudation of gummy material, covered by the chewings and the castings of the insect. By the use of a sharp knife the bark can be cut away and the larva killed. Another method is to probe in the burrows with a piece of wire, thus killing the larva. Common examples of the boring insects are the peach tree borer and the locust borer. Repellants.—Repellants are chemicals with unpleasant odors. ‘These materials are placed either on the ground around the plants or distributed over the plants themselves. By the giving off of unpleasant odors they drive the insects away and in this manner the plants are saved from destruc- tion. ‘Turpentine and carbolic acid are often used as repel- lants. These materials are usually mixed with ashes or any dry powder and either spread on the ground around the plant or dusted over the leaves. Repellants are effective in con- trolling the striped cucumber beetle and many other insects. PLANT DISEASES 111 Poisoned Bait.—Poisoned bait is very effective against certain kinds of insects, namely, the cutworms. Poisoned bait is made by dipping freshly cut clover into a strong mixture of Paris green and water or by making a stiff mash, composed of 6 pounds of bran to which about 4 pound of Paris green or white arsenic is added. Use bale enough water to hold the bran together. A small quantity of sugar or molasses is added to make it sweet. The bait is then placed in small piles which are scattered around the area to be planted. The best results will be secured if the baiting is done a few days before the time of planting. PLANT DISEASES. The diseases that affect the cultivated plants may be arbitrarily divided into: fungous diseases, bacterial diseases, and physiological troubles. As we go more deeply into the nature of the ee which take place in the plant which are brought about by disease, it is necessary to distinguish between the different kinds. A plant may be diseased as a whole, because all or practically all of its tissue ‘is in a diseased condition, such as occurs when a fungous or a parasitic plant invades all parts of the host. Again, a plant may die throughout, because some organ which is essential to its life is seriously affected, as for example when the roots rot, due to the presence of some parasite which hinders the supply of plant food. In a large number of cases we find the disease to be purely local and never extending into the rest of the tissue beyond that which is affected, and which only causes death to the affected part. Symptoms of Disease—Many amateurs and all experienced growers know that certain symptoms are present in the sick plant as well as in the sick animal. The symptoms in a sick plant vary according to the kind of a disease. Many symp- toms are often present which indicate that the plant is not in a healthy condition, and it should be attended to at once, but further diagnosis is difficult. Generally speaking, a common symptom in a physiological trouble is the yellowing of the leaves accompanied by wilting 112 THE PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS of the plant. This is usually attributed to the fact that the transpiration of water from the leaves is greater than the absorption by the roots. A similar condition is also noted when insects, such as the cutworms or the wireworms are Fic. 51.—A diseased tomato plant. eating the roots, thus cutting off the supply of food and water and causing the plant to turn yellow. The yellowing of plants also results from the presence of gases, either in the atmosphere or in the soil. Thistrouble is often found in cities where leaks occur in the gas mains, and it does great damage to shade trees and to ornamental shrubs. Where the root and the crown of the plant are injured from gas it results in the improper physiological process go- ing on, which in turn pre- vents the transpiration of water and the entire plant is affected. The turning brown of little patches on the leaf with the dead _ portion finally falling out, leaving a small hole in the leaf, is usually a clear symptom of a fungous trouble. The brown and the discolored areas on fruit, such as the rots of the apple or the peach, are the outward signs of a fungous disease. The abnormal swelling of certain portions of some plants are indications that they are affected with some organism. Two well-defined examples of abnormal swellings PLANT DISEASES 113 are the black knot of the plum or the cherry and the crown gall of nursery stock. The sudden wilting of a plant is usually indicative of a bacterial trouble, which attacks the plant suddenly and cuts off the water supply by clogging up the water-carrying ducts or canals. In addition to the symptoms of unhealthy plants already mentioned several more exist which can easily be detected where the plant is carefully studied. Fic. 52.—A diseased fruit. Fungous Diseases.—These diseases are caused by small, microscopic, parasitic plants living upon the tissue and sapping the vitality from the host. Some fungous diseases spread to all parts of the plants, such as the leaf spot of the apple, while others are local and only affect a small portion, as the black knot of the plum or the cherry. The greatest damage to our cultivated plants may be attributed to the fungous diseases, because they are more numerous and affect the root, stem, leaves, and fruits. The potato scab and the apple scab are good examples of fungous diseases. Control Measures for Diseases—There are various means at our command for the control of many of the diseases that affect our cultivated plants. It is apparent, however, that different methods must be adopted for the different diseases on the plants just the same as different remedies must be used for the control of diseases in the human system. 8 114 THE PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS Spraying, dusting, and controlling the conditions under which the plants are grown and removing the affected parts are some of the methods employed to save our economic plants from destruction from the various diseases that prey upon them. It is evident that certain diseases as well as certain Insects cannot be controlled by spraying, and also that several sprays are needed to control the different kinds of diseases. The fungous diseases can usually be controlled or at least held in check by the application of fungicides to the plant. The fungicide which is a chemical compound of some kind is either placed in water and sprayed on the plant or dusted on by some method. The bacterial diseases cannot be controlled by the applica- tion of any fungicide and the only means of control is to cut away the affected part or destroy the entire plant. The following troubles are a few that cannot be controlled by spraying, but must be held in check by other means: peach yellows, little peach, potato scab, melon wilt, pear blight, apple-twig blight, and dry rot of the potato. Bacterial Diseases.—Bacterial diseases are caused by the action of small microscopic organisms commonly known as bacteria. These are very small, usually one-celled plants that live for the most part in the cell sap or in the juices found in the plant tissue. From the nature of their attack it is apparent that they are responsible for a disease that from its nature is extremely difficult to control. Since the bacteria are internal, either precautionary or very drastic means must be devised to hold them in check. Bacteria ordinarily are extremely simple in form, and are usually confined to three types, namely spheres, cylindrical rods of greater or less length, and spiral rods. In size they are very minute, being by far the smallest living organisms known, and demanding the highest power of the microscope for their study. Many bacteria have the power of motion, which is produced by slender, motile hairs arising from their bodies. By moving these little hairs back and forth the bacteria produce loco- motion and change their position. These hairs are called PLANT DISEASES i Us, flagella. Bacteria are divided into three easily recognizable divisions: (1) Coccus or spherical bacteria, (2) bacillus or rod-shaped bacteria, (3) spirillum or spiral bacteria. Multiplication of Bacteria.—The common method of repro- duction of bacteria is by simple division. Although this method is common to all bacteria, there are some forms which frequently reproduce themselves by the formation of Fie. 53.—Several forms of bacteria greatly enlarged. (After A. Fisher.) reproductive bodies called spores. The spores are formed in the body of the organism in the shape of small rounded masses, and later the body bursts open and the spores are set free. The spores are known as resting forms and their function seems to be to enable the bacteria to exist through unfavorable conditions. The spores have great vitality and they can be subjected to high temperature and to long periods of drought without suffering from such treatment. 116 THE PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS The most important factor connected with the life of bacteria is their exceptionally rapid power of multiplication. The division of the bacteria which results in two plants often takes place in less than half an hour, and in less than half that time each division is again ready to’ reproduce. The reproduction in this ratio results in an Increase in number which is almost inconceivable. Bacteria are also divided into two kinds, with regard to their needs for oxygen. Most bacteria demand oxygen to enable them to grow, but there are some species, and these are quite numerous, that can live without a supply of oxygen, and in fact can only grow and multiply when in an atmosphere devoid of oxygen. | Bacteria bear the same relation to temperature as do other ordinary living organisms. If the temperature is high the multiplication of the bacteria is more rapid, and: as the © temperature approaches the freezing-point, the activity of the bacteria ceases. The temperature at which the maximum growth of bacteria occurs 1s quite variable and varies from 70° F. to about 95° F., while other forms will grow well at still higher temperatures. Environment and Soil Sanitation—The environment in- which a plant is grown regulates to a large degree the preva- lence of certain diseases. The ‘‘damping off”’ of seedlings is commonly due to poor environment. While it is known there is a definite cause for the trouble in the form of a fungus, it is conceded that if the proper growing conditions are maintained, the plants will not be attacked by this fungus. It has been demonstrated conclusively that if good fresh - air is given, the proper temperature is maintained, and the correct amount of water is given at the right time, the seedlings will not be attacked by the fungi that cause this trouble. An oversupply of water accompanied by excessive heat affords ideal conditions for the growth of fungus troubles which often attack the plant and cause serious injury. The damping off of seedlings, while due primarily to a parasitic growth at the crown of the plant, is brought about by unfa- vorable conditions of growth of the parent plant and can only be controlled by regulating the conditions under which PHYSIOLOGICAL TROUBLES Hey the plant is growing. The control for this trouble usually means the cleaning out of all diseased plants, withholding the water supply, and providing for better ventilation. The cleaning up of the soil by steam sterilization or by the treating of it with formalin is also effective in destroying certain fungous diseases which are found in the soil. These fungi oftentimes remain alive for a number of years and attack the plants when they are planted. It is always advisable, therefore, to have the soil clean and free from fungi. The plants should be grown where they will have plenty of sunshine and have a good circulation of fresh air so that the damp air will be blown away and never allowed to collect about the seedlings. PHYSIOLOGICAL TROUBLES. Any serious disturbance in the life processes of the plant which cannot be attributed to an organic factor, such as insect, fungus or bacteria, is called a physiological trouble. The peach yellows and the little peach are two common examples of injury that are included under physiological ~ trouble. The most recent work on physiological troubles seems to indicate that the plants are growing under unfavor- able conditions, and that there is a lack of certain elements in the soil which produces these troubles. In fact physio- logical troubles are not well understood, although more information is being gained every year and perhaps in the near future more suggestions can be offered. Control Measures of Physiological Troubles.—No definite remedial measures are at our disposal for the control of the so-called physiological troubles. By that is meant that it is of no avail to spray or to treat the plant with any solution for the control of this class of troubles. A physiological trouble, as the term implies, is some interference with the natural process of the growth of the plant, and is thought to be the result of insufficient iron or some other element in the soil. | | The only means of control, therefore, would be to supply. the material that is lacking, so the plant will develop normally. 118 THE PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS INJURY BY PREDACEOUS ANIMALS. Predaceous animals include all rodents, such as mice, rabbits, woodchucks, and moles. The loss due to this class of pests is confined principally to the younger trees and to bushes, yet there are many herbaceous plants in the garden like the cabbage, lettuce, etc., which are often attacked and severely injured. The loss in the aggregate due to rodents is considerable, when all plants are included. The amount of injury would be far less than it is if the rubbish and the grasses which serve as places of concealment were destroyed. In the average home orchard and in the garden the danger of rodent injury is greater than in a commercial plantation, because the possible means of protection for the plants are more generally disregarded. Control Measures fcr Predaceous Animals.—The injury done to plants by predaceous animals is due to the eating of the plant tissue by certain destructive rodents, such as mice, rabbits, or woodchucks. The control for such injury must of necessity be one of prevention rather than one of destruc- tion. The control of the predaceous animals is accomplished by protecting the plant in such a way as to keep the animals away from the plants. There are various ways and means which are used for the protection of our plants. The banking or mounding of soil about the trunk of the trees is often used. The mounding is not so very effective in itself, but when used in conjunction with other mechanical devices aids materially in the protec- tion of trees. Mice in particular rarely ever injure trees, unless grass, manure or trash is found near their bases. For mounding to be effective the grass must first be cleared away from the base of the tree, and the soil thoroughly firmed about the base of the trunk. A covering of cinders well pressed into the soil should cap each mound. The mound should be from twelve to fifteen inches in diameter at the base and from five to six inches in height. ‘The mound should be allowed to remain throughout the year, but it must be repaired from time to time to insure its efficiency. The most complete and the most ideal plant protector INJURY BY PREDACEOUS ANIMALS 119 is a wire screen. This protector is made of screen, the meshes of which vary in size from one-eighth to one-half inch, ea @ Sa, 2. Say pea: Reg, 2} as Fic. 54.—Tree protected by small Fic. 55.—A combination of mesh poultry netting. (After Ballou, wire cloth and building paper Ohio Agricultural Bulletin No. 208.) as a tree protector. (After Ballou, Ohio Agricultural Bul- letin No. 208.) but the usual size is one-fourth inch. The wire screen protector is more expensive than the earth mound, but nevertheless it is considerably more effective against all 120 THE PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS kinds of rodents which prey upon the stems of young trees. The screen protector is light and open and presents the least obstruction to strong winds, yet at the same time admits the sun and the air. The wire screen neither affords any dark nor obscure places for the concealment of any kind of injurious insect pests. The wire screen protectors vary in size, depending primarily upon the size of the tree. A good size that seems to be adapted to many trees is twelve by twenty-four inches. This protector is really nothing more than a piece of gal- vanized wire cloth with one-fourth-inch meshes. It is then bent or rolled over a small, round piece of wood, shaping it into a cylinder about two and one-half or three inches in diameter. The cylinder is then placed about the stem of the tree where its own tension will hold it in place. A protector made from the ordinary one-inch mesh, galvanized chicken wire is quite effective against rabbits, but this size of wire will not protect the trees from mice. Spiral wire protectors are sometimes made from a galvanized iron wire. The spiral protectors are in the form of a spiral or a spring, and while they are effective against rabbits they are not to be recommended generally. Their chief drawback is the large spaces between the wires, which permit the rodents either to squeeze through entirely or to push their heads in far enough to reach the base of the tree. Probably one of the most effective plant protectors for all purposes is found in the wood veneer protector. This style is quite effective against all kinds of rodents. However, they are close and tight, and exclude almost all the light, and often various forms of insects harbor in the crevices and the rough portion of the bark and may become troublesome. The veneer protectors should be removed from the trees during the summer and replaced before winter. In addition to the wire protectors already mentioned, which are classed as more or less commercial articles, there are several home devices which may be used with varying degrees of success. Cornstalks, for instance, are very effective against rabbits and ground hogs, and at the same time have the advantage of being very cheap. There is practically no INJURY BY PREDACEOUS ANIMALS 121 cost to this material. The stalks should be selected as they come from the field and all of the leaves stripped off. Square the ends of the stalks by laying them on a board or a box and using a large knife. Cut the stalks into pieces about two feet in length. When the stalks are pre- pared five or six of them are bound firmly around the stem of the young tree: A combination of the cornstalk and the wire-cloth protector is popular in some sections. This combination protector is made by an eight- or a ten-inch wire-cloth cylinder about the base of the cornstalk protector. If the tree has previously been well mounded up with soil, this combina- tion protector completely baffles all kinds of rodents and makes the trees quite secure from their attacks. Cylinders made from either the common heavy wrapping paper or the building paper make a very effective and a secure protection for the trees. The greatest drawback to this pro- tector is its fragility and its short length of life. Only the heaviest wrap- ping paper should be used, and a good grade of building paper is preferred. These wrappers are placed on the trees—either in the form of a cylin- der or wrapped spirally around the stem to the desired height. When the spiral method is adopted the paper is cut into narrow strips. Two points in favor of the spiral form, is that a Fic. 56.—A tree pro- tector made by tying cornstalks around it. (After Ballou, Ohio Agri- cultual Bulletin No. 208.) crooked bodied tree can be more closely and more neatly covered, and that it is more resistant to the strong winds. Cultural Control Measures.—The control of all pests affect- ing cultivated plants can be materially affected by cultural practices. Certain classes of pests, particularly insects, can 122 THE PESTS OF CULTIVATED PLANTS be controlled easier than certain others, but relief can be had from many pests by following good cultural methods. Crop rotation is an important factor in controlling some of our plant troubles. Rotation is beneficial in combating those insects and diseases that remain in the soil over winter and which are not killed by the cold weather. Besides insects there are many diseases which are found in the soil and that will grow on one class of plants but will not attack other classes. These diseases therefore can be killed out by the growing of a different crop on that land. For this class of diseases it is never advisable to grow the same kind of a crop on a piece of land any two years in succession. By rotating the crops we not only control many insects and diseases but we improve the general condition of the soil as well. Fall plowing is valuable in destroying some insects. Many insects pass part of their life history in the ground. These insects make small burrows or homes in which they spend the winter. If they are allowed to remain undisturbed they will live through the cold weather, but if the soil is plowed up in the fall and the insects exposed to the cold, a great many of them are killed. This same treatment is valuable in destroying the eggs of many other insects that lay them in the ground. When the eggs are exposed to the winter weather they are also killed. REVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. Describe the four classes of pests that attack plants. 2. Is the damage done to plants by these pests large or small? 3. Into what three classes are the insects divided? 4. What is complete and incomplete metamorphosis? 5. Give the four stages in complete metamorphosis. 6. Give the three stages in incomplete metamorphosis. 7. How does an insect with incomplete metamorphosis grow? 8. Name and describe the three divisions into which plant diseases are divided. 9. Discuss some of the symptoms of a diseased plant. 10. Discuss bacterial and fungous diseases. 11. Name and describe the three classes of bacteria. 12. How do bacteria multiply? 13. Discuss the injury to plants due to predaceous animals. 14. Discuss physiological troubles of plants. 15. How can physiological troubles be controlled? 16. Discuss the means of control for insects and diseases. 17. Describe several devices for the control of predaceous animals. 18. What is meant by cultural control measures for plant pests? CHALLE: VEE SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS. SPRAY MACHINERY. THE most improved spray machinery is necessary for efficient work. Without effective spraying there is seldom any good that ever results from the practice. There is no other operation in horticultural practices that calls for so thorough work as does the application of spray materials to all plants. It has been found that the most effective work can be done with those machines which permit of high pres- sure. This does not mean that the small hand sprayers are not valuable, but where the orchard or garden is large enough to warrant the purchase of a large machine better spraying can be accomplished. Kinds of Sprayers.—There are six distinct types of sprayers on the market. Each type is made primarily for certain kinds of spraying. The capacity of each one varies, and the efficiency of the several types depends to a large extent upon the size of the sprayer. The six typesare: (1) the hand atom- izer, (2) the bucket sprayer, (3) the automatic compressed- air sprayer, (4) the barrel sprayer, (5) the twin-cylinder hand sprayer, (6) the power sprayer, of which there are three sizes, namely, the pony outfit, the medium-sized sprayer, and the large sprayer. Hand Atomizer.—The hand atomizer is the most simple kind of a sprayer. It consists of a small can or glass jar attached to a tube into which fits a piston. The piston is attached to a handle and by working it back and forth the spray material is forced out on the plant. This sprayer is too small to be of much value only on small plants. Bucket Sprayer.—The bucket sprayer is the next larger size and does better work. This sprayer consists of a small 124 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS pump which usually has two small brass ball valves. The pump cylinder and air chamber is usually made of brass. This pump is capable of developing considerable pressure and is valuable for spraymg many kinds of plants. The pump is separate and in order to spray it must be set into a bucket containing the spray material. This is the chief drawback to this sprayer, since it is awkward to carry around in an open bucket filled with the spray mixture. A small piece of hose and a spray nozzle is attached to this pump. Fig. 57.—A good hand sprayer for small truck and bush fruits. (The Deming Company.) Automatic Sprayer.—The automatic sprayer is a more convenient form than the bucket sprayer. This sprayer can be filled and then pumped up with air, and the entire attention of the operator can be devoted to spraying. The automatic sprayer Is very convenient and easy to carry. It is particu- larly good for truck crops and small bush fruits. The tank of this sprayer should be made of brass. This is highly desirable, because if it is made of galvanized iron it corrodes very rapidly when used for Bordeaux mixture. The corroding action on the metal makes the life of the SPRAY MACHINERY 125 sprayer very short. Where brass is used and the tank thoroughly made, these sprayers are very durable. This is an ideal sprayer where a small amount of spraying is to be done. Barrel Sprayer.—The barrel pump sprayer is of medium capacity, and well suited for the small orchard. It has the advantage of being comparatively cheap and of doing very satisfactory work. or )) am iy f — RN : Sayin y, MFCico. iii AN SF Ele fs Mn} i Cami ta dill) inne i ual || y. pp “A\ \ eae a sea fi-..S =<) Vy My \ sc h a iy (Le \ ) als uN Is Lie a H Bz Fia. 58.—A barrel sprayer, mounted on wheels. (Barnes Manufacturing Company.) There are two ways of mounting the pump in the barrel, namely on the side of the barrel and on the end of the barrel. The side mounting of the pump seems to have a slight advantage over the end mounting in that the sprayer sets low down and is not in the way of low branches. There is also no danger of tipping the barrel over when mounted on the side. 126 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS The barrel sprayer usually holds about fifty gallons. It requires two men to operate it. The barrel is either mounted on a sled or on wheels. Twin-cylinder Hand Sprayer.—The twin-cylinder hand sprayer is decidedly the most satisfactory hand pump. By the use of the two cylinders, a balance of power is obtained, which ensures an even flow to the air chamber, which is not obtainable with a single-cylinder pump. Fig. 59.—Two-cylinder hand sprayer, mounted on a sled. This is an excel- lent type for a small sprayer. (The Goulds Manufacturing Company.) The working parts of this pump are usually made of brass. The construction is strong, compact and convenient. The pump is operated by a handle which is removable, and can be used in either a vertical or a horizontal position. The double-cylinder pump is a very efficient sprayer. It is used for orchards of considerable size, and a much greater pressure can usually be maintained with this sprayer than with any other hand pump. It is remarkably easy to operate. This pump is usually mounted on a wagon or a sled. The vessel holding the spray material may be either a tank, or. a barrel, depending upon the size of the orchard and the inclination of the owner. SPRAY MACHINERY 127 Power Sprayers.—The power sprayers vary in size. They range from a two-cylinder pump up to three- ~cylinder pumps of considerable capacity. The size of the engine varies from 13 horse power to 4 horse power. ‘The power sprayers are more complicated and require more skill to operate than do any of the hand pumps. In order to successfully operate a power sprayer one must know something about gasoline engines and understand the principles of pumps. Fic. 60.—A small power sprayer, suitable for the home or the small com- mercial orchard. The power sprayers are the most efficient sprayers on the market because they will permit greater pressure and a finer distribution of the spray material. The pressure usually carried in a power outfit varies from 150 to 250 pounds, and the tanks range in size from 125 to 200 gallons. The power sprayer is usually equipped with a tower which permits a man to reach all parts of an ordinary sized tree. These sprayers are used in the commercial orchard or on the large farm orchard. It requires three men to successfully operate any of the power sprayers. Spray Machine Parts.—In order to thoroughly understand a spray machine, one must understand some of the parts 128 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS of which it is made. Some of the most important parts are the cylinders, valves, valve seats, plungers, agitators, supply tanks, and nozzles. Cylinders.—The cylinders should always be made of brass. Sometimes brass tubing of heavy weight is threaded to fit the cylinder heads. Some firms use brass tubing clamped between the cylinder heads, while still others use a solid cast-iron chamber with a brass liner. A cast-iron cylinder, enamelled with porcelain has been used some, but the greatest difficulty with this cylinder is the unevenness of the enamel, and because of this defect it is not generally satisfactory. Valves —There are four kinds of valves found in the spray machine, namely, the ball, poppit, swing check, and steam check. These valves are used in various places in the machine and are used to control the flow of the liquid and to regulate the pressure of the air. Valves are made of rubber, steel or bronze and the bronze valve is the most durable for all kinds of work. . There are many variations in the four kinds of valves, due to minor changes in the construction of some part, but these are too numerous to discuss in detail. Valve Seat—The valve seat is the place into which the valve fits. The seats are built to receive the particular type of valve which is used. Many of the valve seats are made of iron, with a secondary seat of leather or rubber to prevent back flow. Occasionally hard-rubber seats are used, but the majority of pumps are equipped with removable brass valve seats, which are the most durable and the most desirable. Plunger.—The plunger or piston is that part which fits into the cylinder and gives compression. Plungers are fitted with various types of packing. Some of the most common materials used for this purpose are cloth reinforced with rubber, hemp, steam packing, and paraffin canvas. The most desirable packing is one that will last for a considerable period and does not require constant attention to keep it in shape. Agitators.—An agitator is a device for stirring the material in the tank during spraying. In a small tank or a barrel the swinging paddles are fairly satisfactory, but in the power sprayers the sliding agitator or propeller are preferable. The SPRAY MACHINERY 129 sliding agitator simply moves back and forth along the bottom of the tank, while the propeller whirls around in the liquid, keeping it churned up all the time. The propeller agitators are much more efficient than any other type because of their higher speed, durability, simplicity, and small size. Supply Tanks.—Supply tanks vary in shape and in size. The most popular tank, however, is the round-bottom type. This tank is easily kept tight by screwing up a few nuts on the clamp rods. The principal trouble with all tanks is the difficulty of keeping them water-tight, and when selecting one see that there is an easy way of tightening it up so that it can always be kept tight. A wooden tank is preferable to any metal tank. Fic. 61.—Different types of spray nozzles. 1, three-cluster vermorel; 2, angle Cyclone; 3, Bordeaux; 4, Whirlpool; 5, Vapo. Nozzles —The nozzles used for spraying vary greatly, and several distinct kinds are in use. The nozzle is often the source of considerable trouble, and great care should be used in selecting a good type. Some of the common types of nozzles are the Bordeaux, Cyclone, Whirlpool, Vermorel, of which there is a one-, two-, three-, and a four-cluster vermorel, the Vapo and several others. The different kinds are used for special purposes and no one general-purpose nozzle is very satisfactory. The vapo nozzle is perhaps one of the most satisfactory types and it has largely taken the place of the vermorel. A small, single vapo nozzle has the capacity of a three-cluster vermorel. 9 130 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS The chief function of a nozzle is to throw a very fine spray, and to distribute it uniformly in all directions. A nozzle clogs up easily and needs cleaning frequently for good work. Spray Rod.—The spray rod is used to facilitate spraying and to aid in distributing the spray mixture where it is wanted. It affords an easy means of extending the spray. The spray rod is often spoken of as an extension rod. It is made of bamboo and varies in length from 6 to 12 feet. Each rod is lined either with aluminum, brass or iron, but a seamless, aluminum tubing, which is screw threaded into brass connec- tions at either end is preferable. These connections sleeve over the end of the rod, which make the joints very strong. The use of aluminum tubing makes the rod very light and easy to handle. The bamboo extension rods are also fitted with rubber drip guards which can be moved up and down on the rod, and are used to catch all of the moisture that settles on the rod while spraying. Spray Gun.—The spray gun, which is the most recent devel- opment jn this line of equipment, promises to replace entirely the spray rod. This gun not only saves labor and money, but is efficient and easy to handle. It can be quickly adjusted throw either a fine or a coarse spray and at a short ora long distance. SPRAY MATERIALS. The necessity of spraying is no longer doubted. It has been demonstrated and proved beyond further doubt that unless spraying is done it is almost an impossibility to produce first- class horticultural products. The only question that remains is to determine what is the proper material with which to spray the plants. Spray materials are divided into two classes, namely, insecti- cides, which are chemicals used for the killing of insects, and fungicides, which are chemicals used to prevent or destroy plant diseases. The insecticides are divided into stomach poisons and contact poisons, based upon the way in which they kill the insect. Insecticides and fungicides are used in two ways, either in a dry state as a fine powder or dissolved in water and dis- SPRAY MATERIALS 131 tributed as a fine spray. If the material is dusted on the plants, it is distributed by the use of a dust gun which forces the powder out by the aid of a fan. Ifa spray is used, various kinds of spraying machines are employed. Sprays for the Plants and How to Prepare Them.— Poisons for Biting Insects —There are a number of insecticides which are used for biting insects. These poisons are taken into the stomach of the insects and kill them through their action on the digestive tract. There are two classes of stomach poisons, namely organic poisons, which are usually vegetable compounds, and inorganic compounds, which are of inorganic materials. The vegetable poisons are poisonous to the insects but not to the human system and therefore are safer to use on some plants, as, for instance, cabbage, lettuce, or currants. The poisonous property of these insecticides is usually volatile, that is; when the material is exposed to the air for a few days it loses its poisonous nature. Because of this fact it must be strictly fresh when it is used, and it must be kept air-tight, when it is stored, otherwise it is worthless. The two most important insecticides which be- long to this class are the white hellebore and the pyrethrum. The inorganic insecticides are poisonous to insects as well as to animals, and greater care must be used in their application to the plants. There are many poisons in this class, but the base of all of them is usually some form of arsenic. A few of the most common ones are arsenate of lead, Paris green, and London purple. These poisons are applied in both the dust form and the spray form. The method which is selected depends upon the plant and the insect which is being treated. FORMULAS FOR THE STOMACH POISONS. ARSENATE OF LEAD. Paste Form. Arsenate of lead Pte okt Romy ea ee a 2 to 5 pounds Water eet Pate Soyer A! (6,7 i tee ) gallons Powder Form. AT HCMELGIOL ICAO Fe eatig e, o. Sa ace te LE tO-8) pounds Water rte. eneeas thay cow jr) 2.” oy BQ) = salons This poison is in many respects the most satisfactory of any of the arsenical sprays. It is very{ adhesive and if 132 SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS properly made will not burn the foliage to any extent. More pounds of the paste form must be used to a given quantity of water than the powder form because of the amount of moisture present in the paste. | PARIS GREEN. PATIS @ROCD 6M os eet td). ook See ee Les Lieto ga Ea DOT EREL Stone lnme 0) oye MW ee 2 Die lete at ene Ie EOde | DOMES Water Webi h Vivi wr eh Oe va RRC, Ce ees Re. Neate 5) oaen VEE ais The chief fault with the Paris green is its tendency to burn the foliage. If it is not added to some fungicide, stone lime should be added to the water in order to reduce the amount of burning of the foliage. If Paris green is used in combination with Bordeaux mixture the addition of lime is not necessary. This insecticide is a very active poison. WHITE HELLEBORE. When Used as a Spray. White-hellebores:. - 20 20 48 a iS a Ola, eRe en Otnee Water pa heater a even bytes area 7il I ey ei When Used as a Powder. White hellebore.. ee AMEN Ibe cy bY crs) Air-slaked lime, flour or Sj aitted aad quae! nog decent hiikicn oo HOMNeEGS PYRETHRUM. When Used as a spray. Pyrethrum oo: ates ip oe ied) Be Re he he Mn te ee SOUTER Water FAM he wh eat (2 eallons When Used as a Powder. Pyrethruni ss. sheh ail e Naren a KOUHEE Air-slaked lime, flour or Weitted road dust! ee eee OU MCes The white hellebore and the pyrethrum lose their poisonous properties quickly when exposed to the air. These insecti- cides are poisonous to insects but not to higher animals. They are valuable to use on ripening fruit or just before the harvesting of such crops as the lettuce or the cabbage. These poisons must be strictly fresh or they are worthless. FORMULAS FOR CONTACT POISONS ; LIME-SULPHUR WASH. Stome; lime eo ete his ey ee ie me ee wae ee NGO) SO Tata Flowers-ol sulphur.) jo) ) Sete oo ree lo pounas Water. Mat Te ie aol Sltik ee oer ales ce ee oem (Oem Lote SPRAY MATERIALS 133 This formula is for the home-made wash. Slake the lime in a small quantity of water. Gradually stir the sulphur into this mixture. Dilute the mixture to 12 gallons and boil for one hour or longer. Remove from the fire and add enough water to make 50 gallons. Strain the wash through a fine- mesh strainer. This spray must be used when the plants are dormant, and it is either applied in the spring before the buds open or in the fall after the leaves drop. The chief disad- vantage of this home-made wash is the great quantity of sediment which is hard to remove satisfactorily so that it will not clog up the pump and nozzles. COMMERCIAL LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION. The commercial lime-sulphur is much easier to use because it is free from sediment and requires no preparation other than to dilute it with water. The commercial solutions are thoroughly reliable. They are fairly well standardized now and the standard liquid test is about 33 degrees on the Baumé hydrometer, which is the density of the solution. These solutions when used as insecticides must be diluted and sprayed on the plants when they are in a dormant state. When the solution tests 33 degrees Baumé, one gallon of the mixture should be diluted with 7 or 8 gallons of water. Solutions less dense should be diluted as follows: TABLE OF DILUTIONS FOR THE DORMANT SPRAY. Number of gallons of water to one Reading on gallon of the lime- hydrometer, sulphur solution degree Baumé. for dormant spray. 33 OR TN SALAS Cae Ne Sue rn fond UN 32 An eae 4 31 6 30 3 29 t 28 5 27 3 26 $ 25 z 24 4 23 4 22 33 Zl 33 20 3 134. SPRAY MACHINERY AND SPRAY MATERIALS SOAP SOLUTIONS. Satisfactory insecticides for soft-bodied imsects can be made from soap. Fish-oil soap is probably the best, although common laundry soap is very good. The solution is made by cutting up one pound of soap into small pieces and dissolving it by boiling in 4 or 5 gallons of water. This is a good spray for plant lice. NICOTINE PRODUCTS. The nicotine products are perhaps the most satisfactory contact insecticides we have for the plant lice. The active principle in these solutions is nicotine sulphate. Some com- mercial products, namely, the Black Leaf 40 and the Nico- fume, are very good. These materials are made from tobacco and are in a very concentrated form. They are usually pre- pared by diluting the stock solution with 800 to 1000 parts of water. Tobacco decoction is also used to some extent as an insecticide. This spray is made by boiling 1 pound of tobacco stems in about a gallon of water for one hour. Strain out the refuse material and add enough water to make two gallons. The tobacco products are excellent for controlling the plant lice, and they do no injury to the most tender plants. KEROSENE EMULSION. AUNTY SOAP! Sree Nyheter eedy Tecan ae be Mae + pound WKerGseme tO) AM ae ra se ko A a a aS Water ey sr) tee SOA aaa 0 Fe inte AN yk eo Ue, See EI Kerosene emulsion is made by dissolving the soap by boiling it in the full amount of water. Remove the mixture from the fire and add the kerosene. Stir the mixture violently for about fifteen minutes until it becomes a creamy mass that will not separate. This is the stock solution. For use dilute 1 part of the emulsion with 8 to 10 parts of water for hard- bodied insects, and 1 part with 12 to 20 parts of water for soft-bodied insects. SPRAY MATERIALS 135 CARBOLIC ACID EMULSION. Hard soap. .. ete aac eV Hate Dal Hite ae ON kt le Dente Crude carbolic pad CREA eD Sh) et UR ne ook es Pon ntig ot ween sti ss: 3) saat Peal oF Pat a. his holy Gallon: Dissolve the soap in the hot water and add the carbolic acid. Churn the mixture until it becomes creamy and does not separate. This is the stock solution. For use dilute 1 part of the emulsion to 30 parts of water. This spray is used against the different kinds of maggots, the cabbage worms, and other soft-bodied insects. Sprays for Plant Diseases.—The spray mixtures for the con- trol of plant diseases differ from those used to kill insects. The confusion which results over this question is oftentimes detrimental to the growers. BORDEAUX MIXTURE. Gappcerminhate: ps Fo a ee Re ko! el eS otek