LIBRARY

OF THE

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AGRICULTURAL

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Farm Live Stock

OF

Great Britain.

Farm Live Stock

Great Britain

BY

ROBERT WALLACE, F.C.S., F.H.A.S.,

Etc., Etc.,

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL ECONOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF

EDINBURGH ;

LATE PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE AT THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL

COLLEGE, CIRENCESTER.

EDINBURGH:
OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT.

LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO.

1885.

TO

PROFESSOR JOHN WILSON, F.R.S.E., Etc.,

WHO FOR THIRTY-ONE YEARS

MOST ABLY FILLED THE CHAIR OF AGRICULTURE IN THE

UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH,

THIS WORK IS INSCRIBED,

AS A TOKEN OF THE AUTHOR'S GRATITUDE TO HIM AS A TEACHER
AND RESPECT AND ESTEEM FOR HIM AS A FRIEND.

PREFACE.

The object of this volume is to lay before the student, in
the shortest possible form, the many interesting facts
about Farm Stock which ought to be known to every one
who takes an interest in Agriculture.

The defect of most text-books on this subject is, that
they are too voluminous, so filled up with much unnecessary
book-makers' padding that it is simply a waste of time to
read them ; or else they are incomplete or incorrect, too
often the productions of men who have tried farming and
failed to make it pay, and who suddenly became inspired to
profess to teach that which they had not succeeded in
carrying out in practice. The most skilful farmers are
not usually of a literary turn of mind, and consequently
much valuable information, the result of years of success-
ful experience, is constantly being lost.

Coleman's " Cattle of Great Britain," and " Sheep and
Pigs of Great Britain," also Sheldon's " Dairy Farming,"
are suitable books for those who want to go in for
extensive reading in this subject.

I was struck with the very concise, clear, and thoroughly

8 PREFACE.

business-like style of "The Chemistry of the Farm," by Mr
E. Warington, F.C.S., published in 1881 in Morton's "Hand-
book of the Farm" series, and I have endeavoured, as near as
possible, to make my production fill the same position on
the subject of Farm Stock as has been secured in that of
Agricultural Chemistry by Mr Warington's volume.
The subject matter has been selected and arranged with
the main object of making it a students' text-book,
containing all that is necessary in this special branch
for the important examinations of The Eoyal Agricultural
College, Cirencester, The Eoyal Agricultural Society of
England, The Highland and Agricultural Society of Scot-
land, The Eoyal Agricultural Society of Ireland, and The
Surveyors' Institute. This accounts for the unusual num-
ber of intricate though very necessary calculations which
occur here and there, and which will require much close
attention and study. It is hoped, however, that all those
of the farming community who may think the book worthy
of their patronage may find the time taken up in reading it
profitably spent, as, besides a record of the many common
facts known almost instinctively to many practical men,
it contains descriptions of the causes, preventions, and
remedies of the common diseases of stock, given in the
ordinary language with which a farmer is familiar.

If. W.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introduction, . . . . . . • H

Principles of Breeding, . . . • .15

Cattle, ........ 24

Pigs, . 83

The Horse, ....... 96

Sheep, ........ Ill

Typical Examples of the Stocking of Farms in Southern

and Midland England, . . . . . 164

Farm Live Stock of Great Britain

INTRODUCTION.

A proper knowledge of the habits and treatment of the
animals of the farm is, without doubt, the most important
branch of a farmer's education. It is the one, too, which
is found to offer the greatest difficulties to men who take
to the profession of farming late in life. In fact, few men
who, as boys, have not been intimately associated with
animals, can ever hope to attain to the first rank as judges
or managers of stock. For the same reason we never find
a really first-rate shepherd in a hill district — the place
where high-class knowledge is most wanted — who has not
as a boy seen and assisted in all the many little details of the
management of a flock. He drinks in the information, as
it were, with his mother's milk, and does not know in after
life that he was not born with much of the knowledge he
possesses.

It is not only a knowledge of animals that a boy gains
by associating with them, but an interest in them. They
are the playthings of his youth, and the objects of his affec-

12 FARM LIVE STOCK.

tion as he grows in years. A first-rate judge and prize
winner — it does not matter in what class of stock — is in-
variably found to spend many hours of his time gloating
over the points of his favourite beasts. It is only in this
way, and not from books, that a man can ever master the
details of structure and the peculiarities of breed and con-
stitution, the knowledge which alone can lead to victory in
the show-ring.

A servant intrusted with the management of stock must
make his charge his hobby if he is to be a success. A man
is quite as happy in this life in the enjoyment of one
hobby as of another, provided it be his own choice ; and it
is much better for himself on account of his own happiness,
as well as of the permanency of his employment and amount
of remuneration for the same, if the hobby is that by which
he wins his daily bread. One of the weak points in the
new educational system, so far as agricultural labourers are
concerned, is, that no adequate provision is made for ad-
mitting of their learning, while young (the time when all
the deepest and most lasting impressions are formed), the
business by which they are to live. Agriculture all round
— but more particularly in the stock branch — whether it
be the knowledge required by the farmer, or that by the
labourer, is not like an ordinary trade or profession, which
admits of hard and fast rules being laid down, and of being
learnt in so many years, even after a man reaches maturity.
It has to be taken in little by little, and through a long
period of time, which must embrace a considerable propor-

INTRODUCTION. 13

tion of the boyish days. The knowledge must come, as it
were, instinctively. It cannot be learnt by rote. We
would not argue against the great necessity of giving every
working man in the kingdom a good plain education.
Putting aside all considerations of sentiment towards our
fellow-man, and the necessity of having everyone educated
who is to have a voice in the country's government, there
is an undoubted advantage in having work performed by
the aid of that intelligence which accompanies education.
But what we protest against is the virtual prohibition of
boys learning, at the only time when they can do that per-
fectly, the one branch of their education by which they
themselves shall live and in time rear families. The pre-
sent system runs all one-sided. It is the extreme into
which we have fallen after a long period of deficiency in
the branch which now receives all attention. Youth is
spent in the acquiring solely of book-learning. Interests
and inclinations which must develop are led into channels
far away from the business of the future life. Work, when
it has to be done, is performed as a drudgery and with a
heavy heart. The frame is not trained, as it is being
built up by nature, to dexterity and efficiency, nor yet is it
strengthened and enlarged by that practice which always
precedes efficiency. Why should not our educational
system provide for the training of our labouring classes in
both its branches, manual and mental, when it would con-
duce so much to their future happiness and the public
good ?

14 FAKM LIVE STOCK.

In treating the subject, " The Principles of Breeding "
will be discussed first, followed by the different branches
of stock in order, viz. : — Cattle, pigs, horses, and sheep ;
and two farm stocking calculations.

Darwin's work on " Animals and Plants under Domes-
tication " treats fully of all the trustworthy principles of
breeding that have yet been propounded, so that origin-
ality in this branch must not be expected to any large
extent. The writer, however, avoids reiterating anything
which he has not been able to verify in an experience
which has extended over a quarter of a century.

PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING.

The strong family resemblance which is seen both in
the human species and amongst animals related to each
other, is a direct consequence of the existence of the first
law of breeding, which is not constant in everything, but
always holds good in some particulars, viz., that "like
begets like/' Other laws have to be obeyed at the same
time ; consequently, when we come within the immediate
sphere of their action, this and various other laws have
to be modified so as to harmonize with surrounding
conditions. The influence of a parent, as such, in his or
her first function, is not always exerted under exactly the
same conditions, and consequently we have differences
between individuals, alike in many respects, which dis-
tinguish them from one another.

To the uneducated eye, every member of a herd of
Galloway cattle, or of a flock of Southdown ewes, looks
exactly like its neighbour, and a townsman stares when
he is told that some shepherds know individually every
member of a flock of sheep amounting to perhaps 200 or
300.

The force of inheritance is strongest in old and well
established pure breeds, but even among the best a very
inferior animal (as the American skellywag among cattle)

16 FARM LIVE STOCK.

may appear at times. This should never be allowed to
breed. It is by getting rid of all such inferior or even
moderately good animals that our breeds are improved.
This weeding by the hand of the breeder, or selection,
acts much in the same way among domesticated animals
as the law of "the survival of the fittest" does among wild
ones. A well bred, though plain looking bull, if he has
no deformity or no very objectionable points, usually gets
much better stock than a more handsome one without a
good pedigree. For example — The Duke of Buccleuch's
Ayrshire bull, "White Prince" (63), was "nothing" to
look at, but lived till over twelve years old, and bred
more good stock than any. In selecting sires, it is much
more important to have them good than the females,
because, besides the greater potency of the male, one bad one
may affect a large number of offspring, whereas an inferior
female only has to do with her own young. This becomes
n most important matter when taken in connexion with
the fact, that " the influence of the first male by which a
female produces young is seen in her future offspring by
different sires." Everyone knows, that should his English
terrier bitch get lined for the first time by a Dandie Din-
mont, she will years after throw puppies with some of the
Dandie characters. The same applies, though perhaps not
to such a marked degree, with the larger animals. For
this, and the other reasons which induce people to go in
for good stock as compared with bad, a mongrel bull
should never be put to good cows. The best bred animals

PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 17

are often far from perfect in some points. It is most im-
portant if ever a bull (or sire of any breed) with a
special defect has been used, say a hollow or weakness
behind the shoulder, that all succeeding sires should be
specially strong in the particular point, whatever it was,
else there might in time be a general defect established in
the whole descendants. Males are more variable than
females. For instance, say in a mountain breed of sheep,
it is much more easy to select a large number of ewe
lambs than of ram lambs fit to go to a show.

Animals with constitutional weaknesses amounting
to unsoundness should not be bred from. Defects from
injury, the result of accident, are sometimes transmitted to
the young, and may, or may not, be hurtful. The tend-
ency to bony exostoses on the leg bones of a horse, from
the parents contracting these through hard work on the
road, would be a case of the first kind ; the following illus-
tration of the second : A black spaniel bitch, belonging to
Commander Harrison, B.N., had the tip of her tail caught
in a door. White hairs grew from the injured part, and
she bore various puppies with white tipped tails after,
never having done so before.

Imagination sometimes comes into play in breeding,
especially with regard to colour. The colour of an object
at which an animal looks while conceiving sometimes
governs the colour of the young. A perfectly pure bred
Ayrshire cow at Auchenbrack, Dumfriesshire, gave birth
to a dark dun calf, the same colour as her mate, which was

B

18 FARM LIVE STOCK.

a cross from a Channel Islands' cow. The peculiar dun
was not an Ayrshire colour. It is recorded of M'Combie,
of Tillyfour, that he succeeded in preventing his black
polled Anguses from breeding red calves by putting up a
large black fence round the field, thus preventing them
seeing the red cattle of his neighbours. A well-lighted
byre, with whitewashed walls, is supposed to make calves
lighter. How far the colour of the sire is transmitted to
his offspring by inheritance, and how far by the imagina-
tion of the female, we do not pretend to say, but are
inclined to believe that inheritance has most sway,
especially in some crosses between two distinct breeds.

Certain colours can be, as a rule, depended upon to pro-
duce other and altogether different colours in the young ;
for instance, a black Galloway cow and a pure white short-
horn bull almost constantly throw a very dark-roan or blue-
gray. A light-roan might give the same result ;' but a dark-
roan or red bull will get either black or red colours, which
are not so fashionable. In the same way, when Ayrshire
cows are crossed with a shorthorn, a light coloured bull
throws more of the shorthorn character into the colours
of the calves, which bring better prices, as they are usually
wanted for fatting purposes.

Crossing and In-and-in-breeding.

Crossing families not related to each other usually gives
increase of vigour and larger size, though sometimes the

PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 19

distance between the characters is so great that the result
is much like a cross between two distinct breeds. For this
reason some object strongly to mixing up the blood of
Booth and Bates shorthorns.

Too close " in-and-in-breeding"," or pairing of animals
related to each other, causes great loss of constitutional
vigour, loss of size and fertility, and sometimes malforma-
tion (as a pig at Twiglees, Lockerbie, with a part of the
backbone wanting). Pigs show the bad effects sooner than
any other farm animals. Darwin points out that this is
perhaps on account of their comparatively solitary habits.
Gregarious animals do not suffer so much ; they have been
more accustomed to it, and nature has accommodated her-
self to the circumstances.

Shorthorns are not so much the worse for in-breeding as
most other stock. Their distinct type has been stamped
upon them by judicious in-breeding. This stamping of
family characters or types by in-and-in-breeding is its only
advantage, and cannot be avoided in the formation of new
breeds or the improvement of old ones.

Crosses between two distinct breeds mated the
proper way make the best fatting animals. The sire, in
virtue of his greater potency, should be of the more
improved breed; for example, the shorthorn bull breeds
well with cows of milking breeds or slow maturing
sorts, as Kerry, Highland, Ayrshire, or Galloway. Cross-
ing the reverse way is a perfect failure. Of late years,
since the Angus breed has been so much improved,

20 FARM LIVE STOCK.

farmers cross shorthorn cows successfully with Angus
bulls.

In farm stock it is usually considered that the male
gives the external form, the female more of the vital and
internal organs. This does not bar the fact that a calf has
often a very strong likeness to its mother.

With a thoroughbred horse on mares of another breed,
the result has usually a symmetrical form. The other way
the produce is often stronger and useful, but plain, usually
about the hind quarters and head.

Sheep come under the same rule. Any of the im-
proved varieties of Leicesters or Downs may be used
with advantage, under certain conditions, to put to the
various mountain breeds.

The first cross between two breeds is usually inter-
mediate between them ; but after the first cross, it cannot
be calculated how the tendency may run.

The first cross is the strougest. After-crosses get
smaller and weaker, and all the more so the longer cross-
ing is continued. This necessitates going back now and
then to one of the pure breeds for a sire to infuse new
vigour. This explains the success of crossing mongrel
cows with a pure shorthorn bull.

Atavism, or " throwing back," or " reversion," is the re-
acquiring by an animal of some character which the imme-
diate parents had not, but which existed in its ancestors.
Two classes — (1.) In Purebred Stock.
(2.) In Cross Stock.

PRINCIPLES OF BPtEEDING. 21

1st, Reversion in Pure Breeds. — The aboriginal species
of domestic cattle and sheep no doubt had horns for
defence and attack; now many are without them.
Sometimes a ram of a polled breed, as the Cheviot, has
small horns. In cattle this is also so, as imperfectly
formed horns at times appear in both Suffolks and
Galloways.

Sheep, for their better protection when wild, were
originally brown or dingy black. Now and then in the
best flocks reversion is shown by the appearance of a
black sheep ; and so frequently is this correlated with poor
quality, that it has become proverbial to describe the
unfortunate member of a family as the " black sheep."

2nd, Reversion in Cross Animals. — This is much more
common. When two distinct breeds are crossed, the pro-
duce has a strong tendency to revert to one of the pure
forms, or rather to an inferior ancestor of one of them ;
and this lasts for generations. The young often take the
colour of one parent, and in time change it for the other.
The calf from a black cow by a red bull is often born red,
becoming black ; and the foal of a chestnut mare, mouse
coloured, becoming chestnut.

"The act of crossing in itself gives an impulse towards
reversion," as seen by characters appearing in the young
that had not been seen in either pure breed for genera-
tions. Calves are sometimes produced white with dark
ears, like the ancient wild cattle, by a red shorthorn bull
on West Highland cows.

22 FARM LIVE STOCK.

Cross-breds are often wilder than pure-breds. This
is noticed particularly in cattle and sheep. Cross sheep
are not so easily fenced, and a dairy of cross cows is more
difficult to train to stand for milking in the field than
pure shorthorns.

Domestication increases the fertility of animals, if pro-
perly bred and not overfed. Being in an improving con-
dition at the time of conception increases the number of
twins. In a flock of ewes the largest number of twins is
got the first few days the ram is out. The first young of
most animals run slightly more to the female than to the
male side.

Barrenness or uncertainty may be caused by, 1st,
Over- feeding in the case of either sex, thus loading the repro-
ductive organs with fat. The remedy is judicious starving,
or working, in the case of cattle or horses. Some foods
cause this more readily than others. Sugar, molasses, and
linseed are as bad as any, but are nevertheless often used
to get beasts up for show or sale, because they give a fine
smooth and glossy skin, as well as lay on fat. These
foods would not do damage if given in moderation with
hay or straw, but it is when given in addition to a
full feed of other concentrated food that they do harm.
Foods for breeders should be particularly rich in phos-
phates, and should have more albuminoids to fat-formers
than in the case of feeding animals ; such foods are — beans,
peas, lentils, etc. Fat animals do not come in season
often, and consequently settle better and feed faster.

PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 23

2nd, Too low condition, especially if combined with
exposure to cold and wet, as with cattle wintered outside
on poor food, or heavy milking cows sucked down by a
large calf, or perhaps two. This occurs most frequently
when calves run constantly with their mothers.

3rd, Constitutional weakness from in-breeding.

4dh, Being a free-martin or dumb-martin, that is, a
heifer born one of a pair of twins, the other being a bull.
Its external as well as its internal organs of generation are
imperfectly formed and contracted. It usually has a more
or less masculine appearance, especially about the head.

Sheep or horses do not answer to this rule. Twins from
a mare are very rarely seen. They are usually born too
soon, or die if they do come to full time.

CATTLE.

Before describing the distinguishing characteristics of
the different British cattle, we shall give shortly the
general points applicable to all those kept for beef
production, when in good condition.

General Points.

Head broad between the eyes, flat across the top (with
few exceptions in polled breeds) and down the nose,
which should be neither dished nor Eonian, and of medium
length ; muzzle broad, full, distinct, and dewy ; eyes large,
full, and clear ; horns none, or varying in length, colour,
and strength, according to breed, set on crest of head, the
roots on a level with shoulder, back, and tail-head ; ears
full and sensitive, well covered with hair, and varying
slightly in position in the different breeds.

Neck lengthy, broad, and muscular in the male, but fine,
and tapering to the head.

Body long and deep, equally balanced before and be-
hind ; back broad ; the frame well and equally covered
with flesh, not patchy on the hooks, tailhead, rump, shoul-
ders or other parts (when prime, a little pit may be felt
on the point of each hook). The trunk should resemble
as nearly as possible from all points a parallelogram ; the

CATTLE. 25

under and upper lines straight ; brisket well forward ; and
a thin tail, set on well back, falling perpendicularly.

Skin moderately thick (not papery), loose, and mellow
to touch ; hair covering all parts well, with a mossy feel.

Shoulders broad above, laid well back over the ribs,
sloping downwards and forwards.

Chest full, wide, and deep.

The Forearm and Leg straight and short ; muscle large
and broad ; bone strong, though fine and flat (small bone
shows tendency to diminished size) ; legs well under ; hoofs
clear and oily.

Hind Quarters full and wTell packed, lengthy from hook
bones (which should not rise above back level) to tail-
head ; deep from the hooks to above the hock ; thighs
broad and thick.

Bibs well sprung and deep, filling up deficiency behind
the shoulder and in front of the hooks.

Fore Flanks and Hind Flanks full.

The Lines of the body flowing, not sharp or abrupt, and
a general balance of parts to please the eye.

Chaeacteeistic Differences of Breeds, taking first
Beef Producees.

The Shorthorn is represented in greatest numbers, and
more widely distributed than any other. It crosses well
with the females of all breeds, even inferior ones. Booth
cattle are better fleshed than Bates which are said to be

lib FARM LIVE STOCK.

the best milkers. Bates are thin fleshed and more in-bred
than Booths. Booth bulls cross well with Bates cows,
but the other way about does not always " nick."

Shorthorns may be red, white, or roan, but never black
or brindled. The skin, eyelids, and inside the ears, of a
yellow creamy colour ; nose, lips, palate, and eyelids free
of black markings. The nose of a red flesh colour, not
too deep either way. The shoulders of the female are
narrower at the chine (back bone). Any character of the
opposite sex in either male or female is bad. Horns
curved and flattish, wide apart, and not up at the points,
and all of a waxy yellow, without black tips.

The Longhorn Breed. — The name was taken from the
very long, strong horns, which curve down in all direc-
tions. They came originally from Craven, in Yorkshire,
and spread over the Midlands of England.

Shorthorns have greatly supplanted them since the
beginning of the century. In form, large size, and quiet
•disposition, they much resemble shorthorns, but are
coarser, and do not feed so easily. Some are deep milkers,
Avhile many are more suited for fatting than milking.

The milking qualities were neglected by Bakewell for
fine form. A herd-book has been started, and more
attention paid recently. Colours are those of shorthorn,
plus brindles. A white ridge often runs up the back.

The Hereford Breed produces the best quality of beef,

CATTLE. 27

and feeds rapidly. It is becoming widely known, and bred
both at home and abroad.

The bullocks are used as working cattle. The cows,
which have usually suckled their calves, are now being-
improved in milking powers by selection. The nostrils
are flesh coloured. The face, forward part of back, throat,
belly, inside and lower parts of legs and top of tail, white ;
the remainder rich red. The horns are medium, turning
slightly up in the female, and black-tipped. The shoulder
is particularly neat and well covered with flesh. The
twist is also good. The great defect in the fat Hereford
is want of " making up " inside. The setting on of the
tail is often not so good as in shorthorns. Salop Herefords
have had a dash of shorthorn blood, showing spots of
brown on the faces, and less white altogether.

The Devon Breed is well proportioned, and particu-
larly well made up behind the shoulder. Colour blood-red,
no white. Feeding qualities excellent. Beef well mixed.
Not so large as the Hereford. Good at farm work. The
milk is rich, but there is little of it.

The West Highland Breed or Kyloe. — Very hardy,
with thick shaggy coats of long soft hair in winter, of
various shades of dun, red, and brown; also black and
brindle. Black animals are usually thought to be hardiest,
while others feed faster. The legs are short and strong.
Altogether like the Galloway, but with horns which are

28 FARM LIVE STOCK.

fine, long, and spreading, black-tipped and sharp. The
milk is rich, but there is little of it, and it is only given
for a short season. As the calves suck their mothers^
when they become cows they are often wild. When three
years old the bullocks make handsome park cattle. They
feed slowly until over this age, when they make the finest
beef.

Scotch Polled Breeds.— (1) TJie Galloway, and (2) the
Aberdeen- Angus. Galloways are usually black, with
a brown tinge on the tip of the hairs, and sometimes
white spots on the bellies, especially where distinct families
are crossed. Now and then a brown-red appears. They
have long rough hair, and are hardier than any, except
West Highlanders, on poor and exposed land. As com-
pared with Angus cattle they do not mature so quickly, and
are thought to be a shade smaller. They have stronger
bones, coarser necks, rougher hair, longer quarters, and the
head is not so pointed at the poll. The cross with the
Hereford bull is very fine quality, with a white hornless-
head and a red or dark-gray body. The shorthorn thrown
slightly larger offspring, also prime sorts. The milk is of
excellent quality, but deficient in quantity.

The Angus and Aberdeen Breeds are now amalga-
mated. They are longer-legged and often flatter and
lighter-ribbed than Galloways. The best of them are ex-
ceedingly compact, beautiful animals, showing many points.

CATTLE. 29

of good breeding. M'Combie's cattle won the prize at
Paris in 1878 for the best lot of foreign animals. A few
rnilk well, but they are not, as a whole, firstrate in this.

Welsh Cattle.— There are several sorts, but only two
distinct strains are worth describing. The others are
•crosses or breeds becoming rapidly extinct, as the Gla-
morgan.

1st, The South Wales, or Pembroke, or Castle-Martin
lareed, is the best. The cattle resemble West High-
landers, but their strong horns are not so long. They are
very hardy, and being good milkers, are used for dairy-
ing. The colour is black, with a russet tinge more
particularly on the least hairy parts.

2nd, North Wales or Anglesea breed is wanted as
black as possible. This is more a beef-producing than a
milking breed. The bullocks go down into midland Eng-
land as "Welsh runts/' and make the finest quality of
beef (weight 50 to 60 stones each) at four years old.

Other points in the general appearance of the two
breeds are much alike. There is now a herd-book for
each, which encourages improvement.

Milking Breeds.

The Ayrshire is the most perfect type for milking. It
is essentially a cheese-dairy breed. The produce is greater
than from any other kept on poor land or inferior food.

30 FARM LIVE STOCK.

It is very hardy, and not so liable as the shorthorn to
tubercular disease. By rich feeding and selection, many
show animals have been much increased in size. The
flow of milk has not in all cases grown in proportion. The
Ayrshire bullock feeds well when three years old, but is not
often met with, as the bull-calves are mostly sold as slinks
for about 7s. or 8s. each, and killed when a day or two old.
Many are never allowed to taste milk. Fed till six or
eight weeks old, they may be sold for fat veal at 50s. to 60s.
and upwards. Heifer calves sell for 15s. up to 20s., and
are reared for dairy purposes. In the ordinary summer-
milking dairy, March and April are the usual calving
months, and on into May for heifers. Where milk is
sold, they are calved all the year round.

The following are the points of the cow and their
values in judging in the show-ring, taken from a report
by a committee of the Herd Book Society (1883) : —
" 1. Head short ; forehead wide ; nose fine between
the muzzle and eyes ; muzzle large ; eyes full
and lively; horns wide set on, inclining up-
wards, . . . . .10
2. Neck moderately long, and straight from the
head to the top of the shoulder, free from
loose skin on the under side, fine at its
junction with the head, and enlarging sym-
metrically towards the shoulders, . . 5

Carry forward, 15

CATTLE. 31

Brought forward, 15

3. Forequarters — shoulders sloping ; withers

fine; chest sufficiently broad and deep to
insure constitution ; brisket and whole fore-
quarters light ; the cow gradually increasing
in depth and width backwards, . . 5

4. Back short and straight; spine well defined,

especially at the shoulders ; ribs short and
arched ; body deep at the flanks, . .10

5. Hindquarters long, broad and straight ; hook-

bones wide apart, and not overlaid with
fat ; thighs deep and broad ; tail long,
slender, and set on level with the back, . 8

6. Udder capacious, and not fleshy, hinderpart

broad," and rounded like the side of a
cheese. " The whole firmly attached to the
body ; the sole nearly level, and extending
well forward; milk veins well developed;
teats from 2 to 2 \ in. long, equal in
thickness, and hanging perpendicularly ;
distance apart, at the sides, equal to J of
the length of the vessel, and across to about
\ of the breadth, . . . .33

(Small teats are now considered most objec-
tionable, both in the market and the show-
ring.)

Carry forward, 71

32 FARM LIVE STOCK.

Brought forward, 71

7. Legs short in proportion to size; bones fine,

and joints firm, . . . .3

8. Skin soft and elastic, and covered with soft,

close, woolly hair, . . . .5

9. Colour red, of any shade, brown, or white, or a

mixture of these — each colour being distinctly
defined. Brindle, or black and white, is not in
favour, . . . . .3

10. Average live weight in full milk about 10J

cwts., . . . . . .8

11. General stylish appearance and movement, . 10

Perfection, 100"

The Three Channel Islands' Breeds are essentially
butter-makers, giving a moderate quantity of milk, rich
in cream, composed of large globules. All usually called
Alderneys, in England, although in the spring of 1883
there were only two pure bred Alderney cows alive.

The Alderney colour was darker than the others ; the
nose, tongue, and teats, black.

The two remaining breeds differ from one another in
that the Jersey is smaller than the Guernsey (an average cow
700 lbs. to 800 lbs. live- weight), and is purely a milking
breed. The Guernsey will lay on fat when not in milk.
The cows of both are most docile, the result of tethering
and much handlinG' for generations. The bulls often

CATTLE. 33

become wild. The points much resemble the Ayr-
shire.

Exceptions are as follows: —

1. Chest deep and broad.

2. Ears a deep yellow colour inside.

3. Hide of a yellow colour.

4. Hair fawn, mixed with dun, black, cream or white.

5. Muzzle dark, and encircled by a light colour, " mealy
mowed/'

The Jersey particularly is very handsome and deer-like ;
often seen in private parks. A few of either breed are
sometimes kept in ordinary dairies to raise the quality of
milk and butter, and to make the cream churn more
easily. The Island breeds have been kept pure, as no
cattle are allowed to be imported. Much of the best
blood has been bought at large prices, and taken to
America, where, we are told by Mr Hewet of New York,
the young of the first and second generation increase in
milk and butter - producing qualities usually \ and
frequently \.

The Kerry Breed, the only pure native Irish cattle.
Being small and handsome, they are kept as fancy cows.
The colour is black, sometimes red ; the horns fine, waxy-
yellow rather than white, black-tipped, curving slightly
up ; the yield of milk large.

The Kerry is the Irish cottiers' cow, especially in cold
and poor districts.

C

34 FARM LIVE STOCK.

The Dexter variety has more substance and more hair,
and is not so leggy as the common Kerry, but is not
so deer-like about the head. The brown and the spotted
varieties strongly resemble West-Highlanders.

Norfolk and Suffolk Polls are good milkers as well
as beef- producers. Colour a deep, rich red all over, rarely
dun ; nose flesh-coloured. Produced by crossing the
old breeds of the districts with Scotch polls.

Sussex Breed are horned, and very like the Devon, but
larger and coarser; good draught animals, and flesh
producers, as well as milkers.

Shetland or Zetland Breed, very small, and like the
Kerry, but not nearly so handsome. Small irregular
horns, and colours various. The hocks go too close
together, and the whole appearance is old-fashioned and
irregular. The breed is very hardy, with first-rate milking
qualities ; will take on flesh readily, producing the finest
beef.

Breeding and Management of Cattle.

Always have stock of good blood, though for ordinary
purposes not necessarily the strain of blood most run on,
and consequently commanding the highest prices. Deal-
ing in fancy animals and fancy prices is more or less
gambling, and is not for the ordinary farmer.

Calves, however reared, should have their mothers' milk,

CATTLE. 35

and that only, for the first three or four days. Beastings
or first milk is best for the calf, and unfit for anything
else. It often contains streaks of blood, especially from
heifers of the first calf. Good butter can be made from
" green milk " rather earlier than good cheese.

Calves may be — (1), tied by the neck; (2), kept in small
cribs singly ; or (3), let run together, loose, in a large, dry,
well-ventilated place. When loose they often suck each
other about "the parts," which causes enlargement and
often sores. To prevent this they are sometimes muzzled
by putting on a bridle with sharp prongs over the nose, to
prick other calves and prevent them standing to be sucked.
It is better to give artificial food, as cake, immediately
after the milk, to take up the attention until the strong
instinctive desire to suck passes off. Hay-racks and small
boxes for cake should be fitted up at convenient heights.

Concrete makes the best floor for all cattle houses, being
easily cleaned. Sufficient fall should be had into gratings
opening over covered drains, to prevent urine standing
in pools. The drains should be regularly swilled out.

Three Methods of Rearing Calves.— 1st, Allowing the
calf to suck its mother. This is most natural and makes
the best calf, but it is expensive, and the calf grows up
wild unless handled frequently. There is greater mortality
from foot and mouth disease among sucking calves than
hand- fed ones, as a change to healthy milk cannot be made
if the mother gets affected, and the virus of the disease in
milk acts as a blood-poison. Bulls and pedigree show-

36 FARM LIVE STOCK.

stock, especially in beef-producing breeds, are often allowed
to suck. Less milk, given in this way, suffices ; farrow
cows with little milk may rear good calves. Two calves
are often fed by the same cow. Sometimes the last of the
milk is drawn away by hand. This is richer in cream
than the first part. A cow which suckles a calf, say this
year, is none the worse for milking next, although some
dairymen are prejudiced against them.

2nd Method. — Giving full milk alone newly drawn from
the cow (then the milk is about 90° F.) Taught to drink
from a pail by giving the finger at first. An ordinary
shorthorn should get for a day or two £• gal. divided into
three meals (small breeds less). A little at first encour-
ages the calf to drink. Increase should be gradual. Some
only feed twice a day, although it is better to do it three
times. From the second week, increase to 2 gallons by
the end of the fourth week, and 2\ at three months ; then
wean by gradually reducing. Some go on, especially with
bulls, for six or nine months. Dry cake and long food
are gradually given when old enough. This method is
also expensive and not much practised. Fatting calves
should have as much milk as they will drink, and be
kept quiet and in the dark.

3rd Method. — Giving the full milk of the mother for
ten days. We believe in rubbing the calf dry with straw,
or simply covering it up with straw, and not allowing the
cow to lick or see it, as it unsettles her when removed.
Many allow the calf to suck for three or four days and then

CATTLE. 37

take it away, but the cow is apt to fall off in milk, which
does not always come back to the full amount. When ten
days to a fortnight old, gradually reduce the new milk and
substitute skim-milk made up to the standard of fall milk
by artificials, as boiled gruel, at a temperature not exceed-
ing 100° F. Begin with a tablespoonful of burst linseed :
a larger quantity would cause indigestion until the stomach
gets accustomed to digest solids. About the best mixture
is half and half linseed-meal and pea-meal. Linseed-cake
ground to meal may be used, and then it may form two-
thirds of the mixture. Oatmeal is good, but it is more
liable to cause acidity if the feeding is not well and regu-
larly attended to. Cotton-cake kills calves ; they cannot
digest it. One gallon of skim-milk per day with mixed
meal gradually increased to one pound and then to two
pounds, is enough for an ordinary calf before weaning.
Sweet whey is sometimes substituted for milk at the end, or
one-quarter of the meal may be Bewick's Lactina. Calves
like it, but it is rather dear, and requires great care to have
the water for mixing quite boiling, else calves scour and
get thin. Much less milk is often made to suffice. One
Ayrshire cow has been known to rear sixteen calves in one
summer aided by artificials, and in the summer of 1884 a
good shorthorn, close to Horsham, reared twenty-four
shorthorn crosses.

White scour (and " hoven " from indigestion) often breaks
out even in calves sucking, just when they begin to eat hay.
The stomach is too small, and unsuited to digesting any

38 FARM LIVE STOCK.

quantity of such food. Give green food or silage in place
of hay, or a little fine hay very gradually, and in hand-fed
calves the milk oftener than twice a day. The undigested
curd causes the light colour of the faeces ; the acid in the
stomach having expelled the whey, and made the curd hard
like cheese. Remedies: — In young calves, diet by feeding
often and reducing the quantity, giving boiled starch and
less cream if the milk be rich. Administer a stimulant
and purgative, as magnesia, rhubarb, or castor oil, with a
little ammonia. When older, 4 to 6 oz. Epsom salts, and
\ oz. gentian and ginger.

All calves should be taught to eat linseed-cake before
weaning, so as to make the change as slight as possible at
that time, and each should have 1 lb. per day all summer,
especially when the land is subject to black-leg. It
keeps the animal thriving all the time, and less liable to
disease. A seton is put into the dewlap also to prevent
this. Castration should be done when the calf is about a
month old. If much later it goes off thriving for a time.
When not performed till strong masculine characteristics
develop, the animal (then called a " seg ") is reduced in
value. Bulls should be taught to lead by " bull-dogs " or
" humbugs," or by a ring put through the gristle between
the nostrils, before a year old. At a year they may serve
small queys, but if not quite large enough should
not be allowed to take an advantage, say on a hill side or
slope, as they are apt to fall and injure their backs. Bulls
are now more docile than of old, owing to being more

CATTLE. 39

gently treated. While at service they should be in good
store condition, and each may have daily, according to
size, up to 5 or 6 lbs. mixed meal or bruised grain. They
are more sure, and get better calves, than when fed on cake.

Calves should be housed for the winter early in October,
as soon as cold nights come, to save flesh and prevent
" hoose," or render it less severe. Treatment of " husk "
or " hoose " (which is recognised by the unthriving appear-
ance of the animal and a husky cough) : keep warm, feed
well, and give turpentine (h oz. to 1 oz.) soaked into dry
meal and then mixed with cold gruel; repeat once, or
perhaps twice.

Young cattle particularly, if in poor condition (as
imported Irish often are), are liable to ringworm in winter.
White scaly patches without hair appear (most abundant
about the head and neck), the result of the growth of a
vegetable parasite {trichophyton), which may be destroyed
by applying paraffin oil, carbolic acid, or hot lime made
into a thin paste and spread on with a flat pointed stick.
The inside walls of the cattle-shed must be whitewashed
with lime, else the cattle wintered in it next year will take it.

Lice of two common species appear on British cattle —
(1), the large or broad-bodied, or sucking ox-louse (Hccmato-
pi?ius eurysternus), which lives by piercing the skin and
sucking blood ; and the small or biting ox-louse, which
has biting-jaws in place of a sucking mouth, " and feeds on
the decaying portions of the cuticle and hairs," and not on
blood. Loth are insects with six legs, and both do injury

40 FARM LIVE STOCK.

by causing irritation, the sucking one to the greater
degree. If cattle of any age are allowed to get too lean,
kept too hot in a close house, or fed for a time on insuffi-
cient food, as barley-straw or flying-bent (molinia) hay,
they are more liable to become infested with lice, usually
both varieties together, most abundantly about the rump,
head, neck, and shoulder tops. Lice may be destroyed by
one or two dressings, well rubbed-in, of trainoil, sour
buttermilk, black soap, or any of the various carbolic
dressings. Paraffin oil is effectual, but requires care. Any-
thing that would injure the animal through its licking
the skin, which it should do regularly, must be avoided.

Weak cattle are kept back from feeding by the others,
and therefore do badly, and should be removed and kept
separate.

The first winter a moderate amount of cake may be
continued, say 1 or 2 lbs., if fed on straw. If plenty of
good roots is given, the cake may be reduced or done
away with altogether.

Grazing Cattle.

It is more difficult to judge store cattle than fat ones.
The most important rules for this cannot be written. A
man must come to understand animals instinctively, and
through long experience, to be able to judge of the out-
come from the present appearance. In buying, one ought
to learn how the beasts have been kept for some months,

CATTLE. 41

and never take those from a better climate or better food.
Cattle moderately fed, and not kept too warm in winter,
do better by the end of the grazing season than those well
fed and in close byres, where the hair comes off, leaving
them too little cover when turned out in spring. Those
that lie out all winter often do best if not too lean to start
with. The extra constitution gained by being out enables
them to make up more than the winter loss. To those not
fed on cake in winter, a few pounds per day, given for
five or six weeks before turning out, " comes out " after-
wards in extra condition, by giving them a good start.
Cattle three or four years old feed faster than two-year-
olds, and kill better than they look, having more internal
fat — are "better made up." These ages are difficult to
get unless from poor or cold districts, where it would not
pay to force by feeding, and where maturity is more slowly
reached.

The propriety of making beasts prime at two years, or
allowing them to be three or even four before finishing,
must be determined entirely by the quality of the natural
products of the farm, the climate, and the habits of flesh
of the animals suited to those surroundings. It would be
absurd, and would never pay, to try to force a Galloway
or "West Highland to maturity at two years, when kept in
its native conditions. Time must be allowed to overcome
those natural disadvantages. It would be equally poor
practice with the best of everything in the way of food
and climate, where animals of a breed accustomed to mature

42 FARM LIVE STOCK.

rapidly would do best, to keep them a year longer than
necessary. A large proportion of food (and in this case
expensive food) is burnt up to supply the waste of the
system ; so that by keeping animals till three years old,
when by proper management they could have been off at
two, increases the loss by at least one-third.

The points of a good feeding animal are very much
those already described, under general points applicable to
all flesh producers. M'Combie says, the following denote
slow feeders : " Deep neck ; thick legs [" trousery "] and
tail ; thick skin, with hard hair and hollow eyes."

Grazings in England, may be divided into three qualities
— (1.) First-rate 'pastures, rented at £3, 10s. per acre, more
or less (much of it let each year by auction), reduced from
£5 or more a few years ago : limited in extent. Found in
Leicester, Nottingham, Somerset (the marshes), the fen
land in Lincoln and Cambridgeshire, etc. ; parts of the
Old Eed Sandstones of Herefordshire, and many small
areas along the banks of rivers. These feed large bullocks
without cake, and often keep fully one to the acre. Some-
times an extra sheep is put on per acre, but we do not
believe in the practice. The sheep do all right, but the
cattle would be better without them. The grass season
is from May 1st till November 1st. At first, if grass is
not fnlly come, a little hay is given. Thistles, nettles,
and all large weeds are cut regularly before seeding ;
tufts of coarse grass also mown. Dung is either spread or
carried off to prevent the growth of dark green "tathy"

CATTLE. 43

patches. It is considered a sign of good land to have a
perfectly even surface, and a very close cover, which should
not be allowed to get too long. Very fine pasture has a
velvety feel under foot.

Shelter is provided — natural, as hedges, trees, etc. ; or
artificial, as shelter-sheds. In Leicestershire, straw is
sometimes thrown under the hedges to make a comfortable
bed. Two lots can be made prime fat on the same land
in one season — the first going by the 1st and 2nd
week of July (without being caked), having put on from
8 to 10 stones of beef. The land is cleaned by resting for
ten days. The second lot would not be so good, as the
first in spring, and would be kept for a time on pasture
slightly inferior to that described. These require a few
lbs. of cake, as the grass begins to fall off in quality at
the end of September and in October. Some think it
pays to give cake to cattle on the best pasture through-
out.

A few rough beasts (perhaps one for four or five acres)
bought to clean up rough grass, run out all winter, do
remarkably well if sheltered from cold winds, and if a
little fodder be given in time of storm.

(2.) Second quality pasture, rented at from £2 to
£2, 10s. per acre, suited to keeping lighter breeds or
smaller animals. If these are being finished they should
have cake all the time, beginning with 3 or 4 lbs., and end-
ing with 6 or 7 lbs. ; given in troughs moved regularly to
distribute the manure equally. By feeding cake, beef is

44 FARM LIVE STOCK.

made faster, and of better quality. The land is also im-
proved and will keep more stock.

(3.) Third quality pasture, rented at from nearly £2,
down to a few shillings per acre, only suited to keeping
store cattle or sheep, or, in some localities, dairying. The
land is often good, but the climate unsuited to fatting
beasts. Besides hill and mountain lands the various
downs come in this class.

Symptoms unnatural to healthy Cattle at Grass,
and that may be seen without handling : —

(1.) An animal going by itself, if accustomed to be with
others, and perhaps cowering behind a wall with its back
up.

(2.) Not stretching itself on being quietly raised.

(3.) Hair standing on end : " Staring."

(4.) The absence of lick-marks on the hair.

(5.) Saliva flowing from the mouth.

(6.) Not feeding or chewing the cud for any length of
time.

(7.) Hollow sides consequent from want of food ; or

(8.) Blown out by gas forming through stoppage of
digestion.

(9.) Quick breathing, or a cough.

The hollow condition of a heifer " in season," from want
of settling to feed, must not be mistaken for disease. She
will then stand quietly while another jumps on her,
and again try to jump on others, which, however, do
not stand.

CATTLE. 45

House Feeding.

Three ways of arranging cattle —

1st, Tied by the neck in a byre, either in stalls or with-
out stalls.

2nd, Put in loose boxes, one in each.

3rd, Untied, several together in a shed, with an open
door and an outside (uncovered) court.

In a byre they may be arranged, if in more than one
row, either with the heads looking towards the centre of
the house, or the heads to the side walls, with or without a
feeding passage in front. It is a mistake to have stalls to
hold two, even large cows, more than 7-J- feet wide ; for
smaller ones 7 feet, and for Ayrshires 6 feet. Six feet is
long enough for the largest stall. When too long the
animal lies in its droppings and gets dirty on the thighs
and legs. The manger, 2 ft., 6 in. extra in front, gives
plenty of space to hold fodder. The bottom should be
shaped so that cake when given would be within reach of
the animal, to prevent it trying to put its feet into the
trough, which may be of glazed earthenware 18 inches
wide. Ventilation is of great importance, and can be
secured by holes low down in the walls and openings in the
roof. Where the heads are close to the wall, it is well to
have a lj-inch pipe through it, low down between every two
cows in a double stall.

Boxes (each 10 ft. square, to hold one) are best for all
kinds of stock except young stores, only they are more
expensive, as they take up more space. Litter, cut

46 FARM LIVE STOCK.

if convenient, 6 or 8 inches long, is given, 20 lbs. per
day to each animal in a box, and 40 lbs. in an open yard.
In a byre it is not positively necessary to allow any.
Cattle keep rather cleaner behind with it than without it.

Open sheds, with uncovered courts, may be —

1st, Large, each accommodating 10, 12, or more.

2nd, Small (these called Hummels), each containing two
to four together.

Sheds are best for stores or for feeders in very hot
weather. The great objections to these are — (1.) The
loss of manure by washing with rain ; (2.) The extra
straw wanted ; and (3.) Strong cattle starve the weak
ones. Beasts that are to be fed in such places should be
horned when young. This is often done with Irish cattle.

Cattle are housed in the north by the end of September.
In the south they should be in before the beginning of
November. A man at 15s. or 16s. per week can tend
30 bullocks tied in stalls, if the food be handy. He can
do 40 if they are untied.

Regularity in Feeding is the first thing, not giving too
much at once ; carefully removing any food that is left.
Each feed should be eaten before the animal leaves.
This allows time to rest and chew the cud, and to
prepare for the next meal. All changes of food should be
gradual. Large feeds of turnips at first cause scour.
Clover, if wet and in quantity, produces hoven, and often
death from suffocation.

White and yellow turnips should be used first, as swedes
are sweeter and keep better. One can never go back

CATTLE. 47

with success to an inferior food with fatting cattle.
Mangels keep best, and are best in spring. Eoots should
be stored in time, for if frosted they are bad for all animals,
especially when in the house. They are now only given
in quantity to supply water, 1 cwt. per day to an ox is
about the limit, while § cwt. is often enough. Potatoes
should never be washed (earth aiding digestion), and are
only given in moderate quantities.

Eoots are given whole, to amuse the animals, or sliced to
save waste of energy, or pulped and mixed with chaff the
day before, so as to ferment slightly and raise the tempera-
ture in cold weather. Some think cattle like the mixture
best when newly prepared. The concentrated food should
be fixed on according to what is cheapest in the market,
cotton or linseed cakes, maize-meal, Indiana or Paisley
meal, wheat, oats, barley, beans, peas, lentils, or linseed,
all ground into a fine state of division, to be more easily
digested. Whole grains come through cattle undigested.
(In the Western States of America pigs are often kept
solely on Indian corn, which they pick out of the droppings
of cattle.) All may be given dry, spread on the top of the
chaff in the feeding-troughs. The rough and short food
then go down together. A little locust bean-meal may be
added to the mixture to sweeten it, but not too much, else
it makes the animals neglect the unsweetened food.
Treacle is a good fattener, and may be used, when cheap, as
a relish. Cane sugar* is better liked by cattle than

* See a paper by Sir J. B. Lawes in the Royal Agricultural
Society's Journal, 1885.

48 FARM LIVE STOCK.

treacle, and is more easily manipulated, but is too expen-
sive for ordinary feeding. As a rule, the mixture is half
cake and half mixed meal. Some prefer giving pure
cake for one feed in the day to make greater variety.
Having begun with little, say 2 lbs. per day, if given for
the first time, gradually increase every few weeks. A fixed
quantity of concentrated food would lose its effect. Eight
or 10 lbs. per day is an average amount to get up to with an
ordinary bullock near the finish ; more that 10 lbs. is a
waste. The return after a certain point is in inverse pro-
portion to the amount supplied. Much forcing of young
animals, even for fatting, is a mistake. It is much worse
if for breeding. It is best just to keep them thriving all
through. Heifers feed faster than bullocks, especially
when young. The drawback is their coming in season
and not feeding for a day or two, and, if loose, keeping
others that jump on them from settling.

Tied-up cattle should be groomed regularly, especially
about the rump and neck, where they cannot lick them-
selves. They should be kept quiet, and at a uniform tem-
perature of 60° F. If the hair be very rough when first
put up (as is often the case when kept the first part of
winter in a straw-yard, until room is got in the stalls by
sale of those first made prime), the back, half-way down
the ribs, and all of the thighs and tail, may be clipped
bare. This prevents excess of sweating, which would take
place at first, and they can be more easily kept clean, and
consequently feed faster.

CATTLE. 49

A heifer or bullock that would weigh 40 to 45 st. dead-
weight if killed, put up to increase 12 J lbs. of dressed beef
per week, should get on an average 6 lbs. of cake and
meal mixed per day (beginning with 4 lbs. and finishing
with 8 lbs.), | cwt. roots, 1J st. straw (partly chaffed), or
a small portion of this replaced by hay of equal money
value — a small foddering once a day. It will not pay to
feed much on hay worth £4 or £5 per ton.

At 6 a.m., or earlier, give half the artificial mixture ;
when this is eaten, in an hour or so, one-third of the roots.
At 12 o'clock give another one-third of roots, and at
5 p.m. half the mixture of cake and meal ; at 9 P.M. the
remaining roots and perhaps a little rough hay in the
racks. Uncut straw should be provided through the day
as well as chaff. Depending on the condition at first, three
to five months may be taken to finish prime.

Calculation of Feeding per "Week.

3 lbs. cake 1 per day @ Id. per lb. x 7,
3 lbs. meal „ @ f d. „ x 7,
f cwts. roots „ @ 4Jd. per cwt. x 7,
1\ st. straw „ @ 3d. per st. x 7,
Attendance, ....
Cost of producing 1238 lbs. of beef,
Or about 8s. 9d. per imperial stone of 14 lbs.

1 Cake at Id. per lb. = £9, 6s. 8d. per ton ; meal at fd. per lb. =
£7 ; roots at 4£d. per cwt. = 7s. 6d. per ton ; straw at 3d. per st. = £2
per ton ; litter at ljd. per st. = £l per ton. For cake and meal the price

D

s.

D.

. 1

9

. 1

3!

. 1

Hi

2

2i

. 0

6

. 7

U

50 FARM LIVE STOCK.

Sir J. B. Lawes showed by experiment many years ago
that it required from 12 lbs. to 13 lbs. of dry food to pro-
duce 1 lb. of increase of live-weight in oxen, but his more
recent investigations make this amount of dry food too
high by a few pounds.

Applying this reduced rule (of say 1 lb. live- weight to
10 lbs. of dry food) to the calculation given —

(1.) Concentrated Food —

Cake 3 lbs. — 12 p. c. water -)

™ -. « -., - . c average, 13 p. c.

Meal 3^ lbs. - 14 p. c. water J B *

6 lbs. per day

x 7, to bring to weeks.

100 : 42 : : 87 : 36'5

(lbs. natural cake , - * (lbs. dry coke

• and meal). ^p> c* Qry-'' and meal).

Dry cake and meal, . . = 36*5 lbs.

(2.) Boots.

f cwt. = 84 lbs. — 89 p. c. water.
x 7, to bring to weeks.

100 : 588 : : 11 : 64'68

(roots, natural), (p. c. dry roots), (total dry roots).

Dry roots {nearly) . . . 64*5 lbs.

Concentrated food and roots {carried forward) = 101*0 lbs.

is rather above the present market rates, but as these vary so much
it is thought advisable for convenience not to alter the even
figures.

CATTLE. 51

Concentrated food and roots (brought forward) = 101*0 lbs.

(3.) Straw.

1\ st. per day = 1*7J lbs. — 14 p. c. water.
X 7, to bring to weeks.

100 : 122-5 : : 86 : 105*5

(lbs. straw, natural), (p.c. dry), (lbs. dry straw).

Dry straw, . . . 105*5 lbs.

Total dry food, . 206*5 lbs.

206*5 -•- 10 = 20*6 lbs. increase of live- weights. Live-
weight brought to dead- weight at 60* p. c. = 100 : 20*6 : :
60 : 12*4 (lbs. dressed beef laid on per week).

A larger bullock, getting in proportion more food, may
be calculated to lay on 1 imperial stone of 14 lbs. per
week.

From the foregoing figures it will be seen, that there

is little profit in the actual amount of flesh made by

cattle that are highly fed with this expensive food in

passing from store to prime condition. That which pays

the farmer is raising the quality of the rough beef he

began with, and consequently its price in the market;

also getting a market at his door for the least marketable

products of his farm, straw and roots, and in making

manure.

* Warington gives 60 p. c. as the proportion of dressed beef from
a fat bullock's fasted live-weight, but this is rather little for the
increase of weight through feeding at the finish.

52

FARM LIVE STOCK.

Dairying.

Conditions, suitable and unsuitable. — The climate is
the only limit to success in dairying in this country, and
that on account of wet and cold on the higher of the hilly
regions. All other difficulties, as little rainfall, clay soil,
etc., that were at one time (and not so long ago), thought
to be unsurmountable, can be overcome by adapting to the
prevailing circumstances one of the many varied systems
which are practised. There is a choice (1), of " soiling," or
keeping the cows entirely indoors and carrying all food,
green or otherwise, to them ; or (2), pasturing during
summer : besides many combinations or variations of the
two plans.

The favourable conditions in some localities make dairy-
ing more remunerative in certain places than in others, but
the want of some of these does not prevent the practice.
The districts of most renown are — parts of the counties of
Cheshire, Derby, York, Leicester, Gloucester, Somerset; and
in Scotland, Wigtown, Kirkcudbright, Ayr, Eenfrew, and
Lanark. Such places have the soil and climate suitable for
growing good grass, which is the best and cheapest main
supply of food for dairy cows — grass for summer, and hay
for the winter months. Eoots were at one time considered
indispensable, and it was thought that, if roots could not
grow, dairying need not be tried ; but now that the smell and
taste of the products are more looked to, roots, for reasons
to be explained later, are not so popular, and the success

CATTLE. 53

of silage in many places too high for root-growing, has
increased the feeling against them. Extremes of either
heat or cold are disadvantageous, but these are not so
great in this country, except on high cold mountain ranges,
but that they can be easily overcome by providing shelter.
Summer shelter is necessary against the sun and flies
in warm weather, and wind and rain while stormy, and
this may be got from high hedges, belts of plantation,
high stone walls, or cheap low-roofed shelter sheds. The
winter shelter given is usually by housing, except in a
few of the milder districts; as in Cheshire, where cows
lie out all winter, and where the shelters provided in
summer prove valuable. Extreme cold reduces the flow
of milk ; and excessive heat, with its various accom-
panying irritations, lowers both quality and quantity.
There is no animal product of the farm so easily
affected by adverse circumstances as milk. Materials for
its secretion are only provided by the cow after every
other want of the animal system has been supplied j con-
sequently the maximum of milk production can only be
attained when the cow is free from all annoyances or
discomforts, so that she may settle to consume a proper
quantity of food and then make the best use of it.
Moderate exertion, as browsing in a field, is advantageous,
keeping the limbs and the constitution generally in a good
healthy condition, and preventing running to fat, as cows
tend to do if tied up all the time. Excess of exer-
cise is immediately noticed in the reduced quantity of

54 FARM LIVE STOCK.

milk ; as if cows " startle" and run frantically from the gad
fly (Tabanus bovinus), and the little gray horse fly or cleg,
also one of the Tdbanidce (Hcematqpa), which appear in
July; or, if in season, viz., "bulling;" or if hunted in any way,
or even driven a long distance to pasture, especially if not
allowed to go at the slow pace natural to a cow. More
food is necessary under these circumstances to make good
the extra waste of system, and all this comes off what should
have gone under more settled conditions to the formation of
milk. The milk secreted is also inferior in quality, being
poor in heat-producers, especially butter-fat (cream), and
more liable to spoil in keeping or in the manufacture of
its products : this is supposed to arise from the presence of
an alkaloid which appears in the systems of all animals that
are excitable or over-heated, as in a lit of bad temper or after
being hunted. The amount of milk given by a cow in the
morning as compared with the evening (twelve hours elaps-
ing in each case after the previous milking), varies with
varying conditions. When cows lie out all night, and when
day and night are both mild, there is usually more milk at
the evening meal than in the morning. When the nights
are cold this is more marked ; but should the nights be
warm and comfortable, and the days too hot and cows
unsettled, there will be most milk in the morning. In
moderate weather cows feed more by day than by night,
and the result of this is immediately seen in the milk- pro-
duction.

A Cow -pasture is better undulating than flat —

CATTLE. 55

the banks not being too steep, to avoid accident. It is a
mistake to have it all thoroughly drained as if for arable
land — unless it be arable land that is soured from stagnant
water. It should be dried sufficiently to enable cows to
walk over the surface without breaking and poaching it, but
the hollows should be left moist enough to encourage the
growth of different food-plants and grasses than those seen
on such land when thoroughly dried. These provide a
variety of food during the whole grass-season, and are
particularly serviceable in a scorching hot summer, and at
all times in autumn. Deep drains are better than open
surface-drains where the land is good enough to stand the
expense. Large open ditches, especially with steep banks,
are most objectionable in cows' pasture, as there is always
a danger among horned cattle of their being pushed or
" dunched " into them.

The water supply is of extreme importance, as animals
giving daily such large quantities of fluid produce require
to drink deeply. The smallest inconvenience from want of
water is seen immediately in the diminished flow of milk.
It must be pure as well as abundant, as with contaminations
from decaying organic matter, more particularly if it be of
animal origin, the milk and its products do not keep so
well, and are liable to objectionable tastes and smells ;
besides, outbreaks of typhoid fever are every now and
then traced to sewage in cows' drinking water. A pure
running stream, with a hard bottom and gradually sloping
sides, is the best possible watering-place ; but where

56 FAEM LIVE STOCK.

drainage or river water is not plentiful, it should be safely
stored in tanks in times of rain against the dry season, and
in such a way as to keep it clean. A stagnant pool which
cows can walk into and stand in, is extremely undesirable.
Droppings are left in it, and it soon becomes filthy. Cows
are fond of standing in water in hot weather, which is not
only injurious, inducing rheumatism, but it is a waste of
feeding-time, and a loss of produce in the end.

Natural herbage from good old pasture, being a mixture
of the best matured grasses and leguminous plants, makes
the finest quality of dairy products; forced grass from
high manuring or irrigation is watery and imperfect ; and
when that and young " seeds" grass are used alone, perhaps
because there are fewer varieties, there is often a difficulty
in the manipulation of the products, more especially in
the case of cheese. Young grass has one advantage in
coming earlier in the season, and it is very good in con-
junction with old pasture. There are many hill grasses
and plants, on which mountain sheep live, that must not
be considered inferior for dairying; as light hardy cows
often do exceedingly well on very wild-looking pasture in
upland districts, rented at 6s. to 10s. per acre, if plenty
of room is given, so that they may have a choice — say
between three and four acres of pasture, and the aftermath
of two acres cut for hay. This hay meadow should pro-
duce a little over 2 tons, or sufficient fodder for a small
cow during winter, without roots or any artificial food
till after calving in spring, when each cow would require

CATTLE. 57

of mixed meal and cake up to the value of 20s. to 25s.,
to keep up the flow of milk till grass came.

Of weeds that give a taste and smell to milk or butter,
the different species of garlic (Allium) are perhaps the
worst and most common, besides being very difficult to
get rid of. Garlic mustard (Alliaria officinalis), and
several other varieties of wild mustard, also camomile
(Anthemis), and ivy (Hedera), give a taste to milk. As
several of the latter grow mostly in the shade and shelter
of fences, the injury may be minimised by frequently
cutting the weeds along such places. Buttercups (Ranun-
culacece) are thought by some to give a rich golden tint to
butter, and by others to produce an acrid taste in milk.
Most probably both ideas are wrong. Grass-butter in May
and June, the buttercup season, is naturally yellow from any
good pasture, even when free from them. The change to
the yellow colour is more noticed at this time, coming in
contrast with the pale house-butter of winter and spring.
Cows do not, if they can avoid it while grazing, eat the
flower stalks and heads. Buttercups are said to be an
indication of good land, but they appear abundantly on
both good and bad. As a rule, it is not the presence or
absence of weeds that indicates the quality of land so
much as their size and habit of growth ; for instance, a
well-developed thistle (Carduus), or a large cowslip {Pri-
mula veris), will not grow on poor land. Small and inferior
specimens only, although often in great abundance, are to
be seen there.

58 FAEM £lVE STOCK.

Dairy Land. — Three acres of good grass (rented at not
over £2 per acre, including taxes) is sufficient to set aside
for the keep of each cow during both summer and winter :
rather more than an acre would be cut for hay, and the
remainder, along with the aftermath of the hay land,
would be grazed.

About A acre of roots is often made to replace so much
grass, but there is a danger of milk-fever, if roots are given
along with a full supply of hay, if this is of very fine quality.

If roots are given without concentrated food in autumn
before going dry, more milk is produced, but cows are thus
made much leaner and are more difficult to winter. The
average return of a well-managed dairy of good shorthorn
cross-cows should be about 550 gallons of milk under the
treatment described, with some artificial food in spring.
Eeally good Ayrshires on such land are not far behind.
The ordinary Ayrshire on poorer land should give about
450 gallons or upwards. Pure bred shorthorns do not, as a
class, even taking only milking strains, milk quite so heavily
as their crosses and non-pedigreed, though often well-bred,
relations, which are usually found in English dairies.

When the " soiling" system, and higher feeding and farm-
ing generally, are adopted, the yield of milk may be raised
by 150 gals, each or more, which will repay the extra labour
should conditions necessary for such a system be present.

Data for calculating the amount of cows' food in a
mixed system of summer pasturing and soiling. As in
the grazing example, 3 acres go to one cow, but the grain

CATTLE. 59

grown is sold, if it is not thought advisable to use it as
concentrated food which, in the other case, had to be
bought. Each cow requires, besides summer pasture, 2
tons of straw and hay for fodder, = 25 lbs. per day, during
the six winter months, besides concentrated bought food
given in spring, as cake and meal, which might cost from
£1 to £2, or more if cake is continued on the grass, also the
following roots and forage crops at the various seasons all
the year round : —

(1.) One- third cwt. roots per day, for 4 winter months
(18 weeks) — given mostly when cows are dry = (2 tons 2
cwts., or 1 acre for 10 cows — swedes 15-ton crop, mangels
27 tons — average 21 tons per acre).

(2.) One-half cwt. of rye per day for 3 weeks in
April = (10 cwts. per cow in 20 days, or 1 acre for 10
cows, with a 5 -ton crop).

(3.) One-quarter cwt. per day of crimson clover, rape,
vetches, etc., for 21 weeks in summer = (37 cwts., nearly,
per cow, or roughly 5 cows to 1 acre, with a 9-ton crop).

(4.) One-half cwt. cabbages per day, for 10 weeks in
autumn = (35 cwts. per cow, or 15 cows per acre, with a
26J-ton crop).

Plan of Arrangements in feeding 100 Cows on 300
acres by the above System.

100 acres arable on a 4-course rotation.
150 „ permanent pasture grass.
50 „ permanent grass-meadow, cut for hay.

60

FARM LIVE STOCK.

Annual Crops on the Arable Land.

(1.) 25 Acres.

Wheat or Oats, followed by 20
acres winter catch-crops and 5
acres winter fallow.

(2.) 25 Acres.

Roots and forage crops following
catch crops, etc.

(4. ) 25 Acres.

"Seeds" cut for hay, 20 acres
latter-math pastured, and 5 acres
cut for forage.

(3.) 25 Acres.

Oats, as a "nurse" for the
grass "seeds."

Analysis of Root and Forage Crops, including Catch Crops.

10 acres roots.

6§ „ cabbages.
10 „ rye.
20 „ vetches, clover, and rape.

46|

Total root and forage crops.

Winter Catch Crops and
Fallow after a Grain Crop.

5 ac. cleaning for mangels
to be sown next
spring.

10 ac. trifolium and vetches.
10 „ rye.

20 „ Total catch crops.

Root, Green, and Forage

Crops in the Regular

Rotation.

10 ac. roots (5 ac. mangels
and 5 ac. Swedes).
6f „ cabbages.
8 J „ vetches and rape.

25 „ Total.

CATTLE. 61

The above totals make 45 acres of root and forage crops
including catch crops, but 46 § acres are required, and can
be made up by taking a second cut off 5 acres of " seeds "
land, which is an equivalent of If acres of vetches. A
second cut of " seeds " will give 3 tons per acre, or one-
third of a good vetch crop.

Treatment of Dairy Cows. — It is of the utmost import-
ance to have the cows, byres, and everything connected
with them, kept scrupulously clean, not only because
produce is so easily spoiled by the presence of any dirty
impurity or smell, but on account of the necessity for per-
fect health and comfort in the animals to attain the maxi-
mum of production. Good ventilation keeps the tempera-
ture at about 60° F., which prevents cows losing their hair
and being too bare and susceptible to cold when turned
out for water in winter or to grass in spring ; and it also-
keeps the atmosphere pure and sweet. This may be
aided by swilling the gutter daily with water, where
means admit of the practice. Eegular grooming during
winter is necessary with cows, as with all animals that
are tied up, and thus prevented from rubbing or licking,.
or getting licked by others, on tickling or itchy parts.
General comfort means more produce, or better con-
dition, with a given amount of food. March and April
is the usual calving time for cheese or butter-making
summer dairies, so as to have cows coming to their
" flow " within two months on getting a full supply of
grass : May, June, and July being the three best months

62 FARM LIVE STOCK.

for abundance. Heifers calve usually a month later.
Pedigreed breeds calve at any time, but this is wanted as
soon after the New Year as possible. Where milk is sold,
more cows are " calved-down " in autumn to provide for
the winter demand. Milk-making then is expensive and
does not pay, but is arranged for by milk companies
in their contracts with farmers. Cows go to pasture
for good either before or after 1st May, depending on
the climate, having been gradually prepared by a short
daily run over young grass, which is usually early. The
amount and kinds of forage crops sometimes given
while cows are being milked have been already stated.
Three pounds or four pounds of cake given to each daily
while on grass no doubt increases the amount of produce,
but, unless in special cases, where the pasture is insufficient
or wants manuring, it is a question if the practice pays
when dairy produce is at ordinary prices ; for cows thus
treated are more difficult to keep up to the mark in
winter, and age more rapidly.

Milking is usually done twice a day, in the house if
possible, as cattle are more at rest in the shade and free
from flies, besides milk is kept cleaner, especially in wet
weather when rain would wash dirt into the pail from
the skin. All dirt adhering to the udder (more usual in
winter than in summer) should be wiped or sponged off to
prevent taint in the milk. The only sufficient excuse for
open air milking is when cows pasture at a great distance
from the farm buildings ; and, again, if cows are milked in

CATTLE. 63

a very close warm byre, they run the risk of being chilled
when turned out at night in autumn.

It is sometimes necessary to milk three times a day, as
when the vessel is hard and swelled soon after calving, or
where there is an excessive flow of milk, or when milk runs
from the teats. More milk can be got on the whole, but
the additional expense debars the practice unless when the
cow's comfort urgently demands it.

Cows are kept in at night, as nights get frosty and
cold, to prevent the quantity of milk falling off rapidly.
For the first few nights the yield is less, but it increases as
the animals become accustomed to the change, and remains
pretty constant for a time.

During winter they are only let out once each day, or
better twice, if their fodder is salted, to drink and lick
themselves, unless when the ground is frost-bound and
slippery, when water should be carried to them. A walk of
a quarter of a mile before drinking, and the same back,
prevents shivering, which appears frequently when cold
water is given in the house. The exercise also keeps the
limbs in good condition.

If cows are constantly milked by one person for a length
of time, they often " keep up their milk," or " don't let it
down," should another milker try. It is a usual rule in
dairies to change the milkers regularly each time to avoid
this. The custom has other advantages: it gives each
milker the same share of the "stiff" or difficult, as well as
the cows easy to milk, and prevents an inferior milker

64 FARM LIVE STOCK.

" putting the milk off," or " drying " certain ones by con-
stant bad milking.

Cows get into the habit, especially if going always on
the same pasture, of generally finding the way towards the
milking place at the right times, which should be con-
stantly kept, and should divide the twenty-four hours
equally. Each knows its own place in the byre and
goes to it, unless it is induced at times to steal food from
a neighbour.

One of the greatest difficulties of the dairy farmer is
to get good milkers.

Milking should be done as quietly, quickly, and
thoroughly as possible. If all of these requisites are not
attended to, the quantity of milk soon falls off.

A cow must not be struck or frightened in any way ; as,
in addition to the small quantity given, the quality is so
injured at times that it has been known to affect the milk
of a whole dairy when mixed with it.

A calf takes about three or four minutes to suck a cow dry.
Milking by hand should come as near this as possible. A
good man (or woman in Scotland) milking ten cows (a
usual and sufficient number) will finish in an hour, if the
work is done by contract, except when at the full flow of
milk, for a week or two. When milking in the ordinary
way, on the master's time, nearly two hours are taken up.
An hour and a half may be stated as a good average.

A milker sits on a stool close to the animal, and holds
firmly between the knees a "handy" or pail large enough to

CATTLE. 65

contain all the milk, to do away with the necessity of rising
before the finish. The hand next the cow's hind leg should
be kept close to it, to be ready to hold it back should she
attempt to kick. Some tie the hind legs together at the hocks.
If it were always done without pain this would be harmless,
but there is always the risk of workpeople doing it roughly.
It is better to " dry-milk," or handle young cows for some
weeks before calving to break them in, and be kind to
them and coax them to stand. More care is necessary at
first, while the udder is hard and painful. Sometimes a
nervous or wicked cow, or one with sore teats, from cow-
pox, or hacking with cold east wind, or kept raw by flies,
will stand in no other way than with a man holding round
her head, with a finger and thumb in her nostrils. After
a time, in many cases, the presence of a person near the
shoulder, without holding, is sufficient, showing that if
■care had been bestowed at first, this unnecessary expense
might have been avoided. Sometimes such a cow is secured
by " bulldogs," or " humbugs " put in the nostrils, and tied
up by a rope.

There is no right and wrong side on which to milk. In
double-stalled byres the milker gets between two cows,
milks one from the riojlit side, and turns round and takes
the other on the left. It is well to train a cow, especially
a show animal, to milk from both sides. This keeps the
vessel hanging " square." It usually gets heavier at, and
hangs to the milking side. The near-hind and far-fore,
and far-hind and near-fore teats should be milked together,

66 FARM LIVE STOCK.

alternately. Cows with very small teats, especially when
swelled after calving, are very hard to milk and tiring for
the hands, as the forefinger and thumb only can be used.

Others are difficult to milk, from the passages of the
teats being small. These can be widened by inserting an
instrument which opens like a glove stretcher. The cutting
surface is on the outside of one of the blades, and the work
is accomplished by opening and suddenly withdrawing it.
When overdone, milk flows without the action of milking,
which is a loss. A safer method of improvement, in
ordinary hands, is by using a small ivory cone, which is
left in the canal of the teat between milking times, to
distend it. The cutting instrument is sometimes used,
but not often successfully, when a cord forms at the neck
of the teat, through the contraction or growing up of the
milk diaphragm, usually the result of suppuration. Sore
teats should be well greased, before and after milking, with
vaseline. If a teat is very tender, the milk may be with-
drawn from it for a few days by a silver milking-tube or
syphon, while the sound teats are being milked. A piece
of red yarn or tape ought to be tied to the tube to pre-
vent its being lost if dropped among the litter.

Milking" Machines are all unsatisfactory, as the rubbing
action of the calf, which encourages milk-secretion, has
not yet been properly imitated. There are many varieties
following one or other of two principles — 1st, Letting the
milk flow by means of syphons inserted into the teats: this
is too slow, apt to do injury, and troublesome to fit on.

CATTLE. 67

2nd, Sucking the teat in imitation of the natural method.
This is likely to draw blood at the finish, and thus re-
quires much care ; it also necessitates finishing the milking
by hand.

The usual Period of Lactation is between nine and ten
months, givinsr the cow a rest of two or three months to
prepare for the next milking period. Cows naturally take
this time, more or less ; it is also affected by the kinds and
quantities of food given, and the general treatment. Some
would milk right through till the next calving, but are not
so good the following year.

M. Guenon's " Escutcheon" or "Milk-Mirror" theory
holds that the extent of surface of the udder and thighs that
is covered with hairs turning up and out in place of down
like the rest of the body is an indication of the amount of
milk the cow will give. If the surface covered by the
reverse hair is large and broad above the udder, extending
far on to the thighs, the cow should be a good milker, and
if it be broad and smooth up near the setting on of the
tail, the flow should last well out at the end of the season.
Great attention is paid to it in America and France, but
it is never thought of in England. The explanation given
seems a very doubtful one, viz., that the arteries supplying
the udder terminate in the skin and turn up the hairs, and
if there is a large surface, this shows there are larger
arteries which have more terminations.

The size of the milk -vein, taking away the refuse blood
which passes through the udder in the process of milk

68 FARM LIVE STOCK.

secretion, is a much more reliable indication of the "depth"
of a cow's milking.

De-sexed or " Spayed " Cows milk on constantly for
years, and give, on the aggregate, a larger yield than in the
usual way. They are specially suited to outlying districts
in the colonies, where there is grass all the year, and where
settlers' single cows are many miles from a bull. The
milk resembles that of farrow cows, being richer than
when cows are some months gone in calf.

The best way to put a Cow dry, without risk of
losing a quarter through suppuration, is to stop milking
and reduce the food for a time. Milking once a day, or every
second day, or after a few days, when the vessel swells
up, is now found to be a mistake. The action of milking
causes the secretion of milk, which would otherwise never
form, and only retards the drying process. Bleeding is at
times adopted, and a dose of Epsom salts is not infre-
quently administered. This is the only time that salts
may be given to a cow in milk, as they most effectually
reduce the quantity, and that in a great measure per-
manently for that season. These more extreme measures
are most applicable to cows with a considerable flow of
milk, or that have been out to grass. Inferior fodder
should be used up when cows are not in milk. If very
bad, a few roots may have to be given as well, or it might
be necessary to sprinkle it with treacle-water from a rose-
can if the taste and smell are objectionable.

Three points that a Farmer should satisfy himself

CATTLE. 69

upon before determining on food stuffs: — 1st, That the
market price, according to feeding value, of whatever has
to be purchased should not be more than those of equally
suitable foods. This is too often neglected by the farmer,
which accounts at times for the prices of certain well-
known foods being far above the real values. Farmers
are slow to learn and loath to make changes, especially
in matters where scientific advice has to be called in to
determine the quality.

2nd, He should take those foods that do not give a taste to
milk or butter, as cabbages, mangels, and the more common
meals and cakes, and avoid using turnips. Swedes are
not quite so objectionable. Soft turnips, especially, give a
disagreeable taste and smell to milk and its products. The
proper time to give such is when the cows are dry, or, in
a case of necessity, in small quantity immediately after
milking ; then they are thought to be less hurtful. It is
asserted that cutting off the part close to the base of
the leaves is a preventive. Palm-nut cake or meal, unless
in small quantities, flavours milk, but not very objectionably.

3rd, Use the proper foods to suit the condition under
which an animal is placed. Cotton-cake given in quantity
to cows in calf will at times cause the death of most of the
calves when about ten days old. Three pounds per day
may be given with safety ; undecorticated, if on grass,
as it has astringent properties. Decorticated cake, ground
line, as it is hard to chew if in lumps, is better in winter, or
mixed with maize-meal, if used on the grass.

70 FARM LIVE STOCK.

Bean-meal, perhaps to the greatest degree of any, increases
really good milk. Meals, especially of leguminous seeds,
have a binding or costive tendency, being deficient in oil.
Bran counteracts that, and is itself excellent for milk pro-
duction. Brewers' grains, costing 4d. to 5d. per bushel (a
sufficient day's allowance), are also opening, and greatly
increase the flow of milk, but it is of very poor quality.
When used freely they injure the animal's breeding powers,
and are of most service in dairies near towns, where cows
are being fatted off. A small quantity of malt dust in a
mixture gives it relish, and as a food is also a first-rate
milk producer. Clover, green and wet, unless in small
quantity, is most dangerous for cattle not accustomed to
eat it, producing hoven, especially in cows which are
ravenous feeders. The giving of clover should be begun
gradually, and when it is dry.

A mixture of good permanent grasses and other
plants, grown on soil naturally fertile, but in a state of
nature, is by far the best food for making the most perfect
dairy products. Grass or forage crops from highly improved
land or irrigation meadows, although they may increase
the quantity, diminish the quality of milk, and more
particularly its products, and make it often much more
difficult to manipulate in manufacture. The same remark
applies to cakes and the most of other foods given to cows
while on the grass. If there is not inferiority of taste
or smell, the natural conditions are changed in some
other way, and may appear, for instance, in the altered

CATTLE. 71

texture or keeping power of butter, or a greasy condition
of cheese.

Breeding", and Calving for the first time. — The
ordinary dairy farmer should not buy but always breed
his own stock if possible, paying the greatest attention to
select the calves of the best milkers, both for bulls and
heifers. There is then less risk from imported disease, and
animals of the quality wanted are not in the market. The
milking powers of a herd can be vastly improved within a
few years by this means. To fill up the places of old cows,
and those that have proved unlucky or unsuitable, young
heifers, to the number of between one -fourth and one- third
of the total of the dairy, should be available each year.
Whether it is right to calve-down at a little over two years
old or a little over three years, is simply a question of
feeding. If cattle are kept in thin condition, as the
ordinary Ayrshire is in its native county, the best results
are got by calving at three years off. At two years an
animal, if poor, is too small, will not milk satisfactorily the
first season, and is very likely to miss the bull and remain
farrow the second. If heifers are well fed, and made to
oalve at two years off, then the natural development and
growth, which go on for even years after, are led into the
lines of milk production, and the organs which are then
most active are not allowed to become stunted from want
of use, or gorged with fat in the attempt of nature to get
rid of a superabundance of material in the circulating
system. Nature gives an indication of the proper course

72 FARM LIVE STOCK.

to follow, in well-fed animals, if not over-fat, coming in

season sooner and more regularly than poor ones. Very fat

ones are most uncertain, and usually produce small calves.

The usual period of gestation is nine calendar months.

Signs of Pregnancy.

1. The cow does not come in season once in three
weeks. The exceptions to this are, when extremely poor
or very fat " eild " cattle do not come in season, and some
few continue to bull although in calf.

2. The right side of the belly gets large, and after a
time the calf, as a hard lump, can be felt with the hand
near to the flank, and seen to "jump" or "quick" at
times, especially when the cow is drinking cold water.

Signs of approaching Parturition.

1. Enlargement and firmness of the udder and teats.

2. Fluid may be drawn from the teats more milk-like
and less watery.

3. Loosening and enlargement of the hinder parts, as.
the external portions of the organs of generation, and
relaxation of the pelvic ligaments. Large heavy cows-
then find it difficult to rise or walk about. (These signs,
often last for days.)

4. Within a short time of calving, which might extend
to a few hours, a cow becomes restless, lies down and rises
often, and whisks her tail, as if in pain.

CATTLE. 73

5. The right side gets flatter as the calf goes into the
pelvic bones.

Calving. — It is wrong to assist a cow too soon, and it is
equally bad to leave her in difficult labour until she is worn
out and the pains become weak. The young within the
mother has its head and legs doubled up, and takes the
form of a ball enclosed within a bag called the " amnion,""
" clean," " foetal-membrane," or " after-birth." The bag
contains a watery fluid in which the calf floats. The fluid
lubricates the passage on the membrane being broken.
When assistance is given, the hand and arm are well
rubbed with carbolic-oil, if they have to be inserted. The
right position for the calf is with its head and fore-legs
"forward," in the position of a man diving. When the
hind-legs come first, there is greater difficulty, but it is
not often so necessary to turn the calf before pulling, as
with many other false presentations.

The cow should lie on her side, and the pulling, which
is done by the fore-legs, should not be straight, but slightly
towards the houghs of the cow : one man distending and
freeing the os-vagina with his hands. A cow should be
raised immediately after calving to prevent after-straining.
She may have a small drink (say 1 gallon) of cold water
with a little oatmeal thrown into it, and this repeated every
few hours until thirst is quenched. It is an unnecessary
precaution and a mistake to warm the water, as a cow will
often not drink it. All that is necessary is not to give too>
much at a time to chill her.

74 FAEM LIVE STOCK.

In protracted labour stimulants are necessary, as one
pint bottle of whisky, a quart bottle or more of beer, or
J oz. of carbonate of ammonia. A mouthful of cold water
is often beneficial.

Common Causes of Protracted Labour.

1. False presentations.

2. Death or deformity of the calf, at times necessitating
cutting and removing it in pieces. Sometimes it gets
mummified and remains for years: the cow coming in
season, but unable to breed. At other times it rots and
monies away gradually in small pieces or as putrid matter.
In this case the animal gets into a very lean condition and
poor state of health, and may even die of blood-poisoning.

3. Disease, or abnormality of any of the internal repro-
ductive organs. The " cleansing " hangs for a time, but
should come away within a few hours. Treatment — give
•opening food stuffs, as linseed (made into tea), bran-mashes,
and treacle.

Abortion. — " Casting," "slipping," or " picking " calf is
when a cow calves before her time. The calf is usually
-dead, but it may be alive and live even if so early as the
seventh month. In any case the loss is great, as there is
usually no adequate preparation by the cow for milking.

Causes of Premature Labour.

1. Eating ergotised grass in autumn.

2. Injury, as from hunting by dogs, crushing out of

CATTLE. 75

narrow doorways, shaking and bruising on a railway
journey, etc.

3. Walking through a dung heap, or over boggy or soft
land.

4. Very cold or foul water, or too many frosted turnips,
especially if given in the house while the animal is not
moving about.

5. Superpurgation, either natural or induced by physic.

6. Any contagious, febrile disease of a serious character.

7. Sympathy, which appears very like an epidemic arising
from association with newly aborted cows, or from bad
animal smells.

The last is perhaps more common and dangerous than
all of the others put together, because its work is being
done unseen and it often cannot be easily avoided, even
when known of.

Symptoms are usually seen for some days, or even a
week or two, before it comes on. A cow should be taken
•out of the lot whenever this is noticed, which may be done
by taking the temperature if a man is on the outlook for it.
The normal temperature of a cow in a byre is usually a
little over 101° F., and it goes higher as abortion is coming
on. Quiet, and proper dieting, may sometimes avert it, if
the calf is not dead.

In cases of abortion the after- birth usually adheres firmly
to the button-like connexions (cotyledons) with the uterus,
and part often remains rotting for weeks. The cow falls
off in condition, and if not attended to there is danger

76 FARM LIVE STOCK.

of absorption of the foetid matter, blood-poisoning, and
death. Should the opening-food treatment not succeed
in two or three days, the bulk of what is left is sometimes,
removed by the hand, which should be well smeared with
carbolic-oil before being introduced to sever the connexions.
Tepid water, containing 1 per cent, of pure carbolic acid^
should then be injected to wash out twice a day. This is>
not a practice to be recommended at any time, but is most
dangerous if decay of the "cleansing" is going on and
putrid matter is present. The points of attachment to
the uterus are left more or less open sores, by which
poison may get into the circulation. Cows thus treated
do not readily conceive.

Means of Preventing Abortion.

1. Cut over in the pasture the seed stems of grasses, like
rye-grass, liable to ergot.

2. Prevent fright or injury of any description.

3. Whitewash the inside walls of byres twice each year
with fresh lime, and disinfect now and then with carbolic
acid, chloride of lime, or hot lime.

4. Eemove all decaying animal matter that is within
reach of the cows.

5. Have the floors of the stalls as nearly horizontal as*
possible.

6. Eemove at once from among the others all aborted
cows, and those that threaten to go wrong.

7. Get quit of all such unlucky ones before another
calving season.

CATTLE. 77

"Pressing," "straining," or "after-pains," producing
inversion of the uterus, is very frequent after difficult
parturition, being caused by injury or irritation. Injecting
laudanum and carbolic-oil, — carbolic 1, in 7 to 10 of oil, —
if taken early, suffices to allay it. Carbolic-oil alone has
been known to increase the irritation in the case of a
scratch or injury, and to drive the cow almost frantic.

When discovered before the uterus is far out, it is easily
replaced by closing the hand to prevent injury by the finger
tops, and pressing gently but firmly, after washing, if
required — using tepid water, as it gives less pain than cold.
The hand is withdrawn after the right position of the
uterus has been got. The most effectual way to prevent
its reappearing is to stitch over from each hip, so as to pass
over the lips of the vagina and give support, clean, white
tape or wire drawn through three holes made by a pen
knife in the skin on each side. The treatment appears
cruel, but is the only effectual remedy in serious cases.
Amputation is the only course when the ailment is allowed
to go very far. To insure safety, before any symptoms
of pressing appear, and also in mild cases, cow-breeches
are of great service, but are of little use when it is severe,
as they cannot be put on very tight.

Protrusion of the Vagina (or the " body " in common
language) occurs both before and after calving, when some
animals that are in high condition and well fed lie down.
The proper treatment is, — bathe for the purpose of cleaning,
and wash with a solution of chloride of zinc to stimulate

78 FARM LIVE STOCK.

the relaxed parts and prevent smells. The floor of the
stall should be a little higher at the heels than at the
knees of the animal.

Milk-Fever or Parturient Apoplexy occurs not so
much in fat cows as is usually supposed, as among cows
that are being well fed, and are full-blooded and thriving
rapidly at the time. Many fat cows are in this con-
dition, but very many that die of milk-fever cannot be
said to be fat. Deep milkers are more liable than others,
and only cows of more than one calf. It usually appears
within three days after calving, but sometimes, though
rarely, before it. Digestion stops, there is high fever, also
pressure of blood on the brain, with consequent loss of
power. In severe cases there is little chance of recovery
unless bleeding is resorted to in time. Eight lbs. of warm
treacle, and a teaspoonful of saltpetre (nitrate of potash),
should be given as soon as practicable. This acts quite as
quickly as Epsom salts, and is more suitable for a cow in
milk. Stimulants (as a pint of whisky, or, if not at hand,
an equivalent in strength of beer) are indispensable ; also
turning three or four times a day, friction, ironing, or a
mild blister, mustard or turpentine, to the back, cold water
to the head, and very frequent milking. It is often
induced by giving cows their own milk to drink at first,
when it is of little value, especially if not mixed with an
equal amount of water. With poor cows this is a good
practice.

An attempt at prevention is best, though at times

CATTLE. 79

all precautions fail, and it is difficult to see why. Eestrict
the amount of food for some time before (as by shutting
up at night without anything), keep the bowels open by
bran or grass. Green food in moderation is less to be
feared than that which is hard, woody, and indigestible,,
as rye-grass hay, which perhaps has been over-ripe when
cut. If the udder is very large and troublesome, milk
regularly, even ten days before calving. Should these
preventives not prove sufficient, as shown by one cow of a
number similarly treated becoming affected, the most likely
specimens may be bled and physicked a day or two beforer
or only physicked with, say, fully 1 lb. Epsom saltsr
followed, in fourteen or fifteen hours, by a pint of linseed
oil to counteract the costive after-tendency of the salts.
This may be repeated. All the above treatment is
directed to reducing the plethoric condition of the
blood, and keeping the digestive system in good working
order, without at the same time doing anything to per-
manently reduce the natural flow of milk after calving.

Trembling', or Loupin' 111, in cows is very like milk-
fever in symptoms and treatment, though the cause is quite
different. The disease is described under sheep, page 156.

"Weed. — Lean cows often go down within a few days
after calving, especially if exposed to cold or draughts,
and are quite as helpless as those in milk-fever. The
great difference as compared with milk-fever is, there is
no fever and no flow of blood to the brain, and the
animal often eats and drinks well, and will even milk

80 FAEM LIVE STOCK.

heavily for a time. The method of nursing is the same,
only part of the other treatment is varied to suit the
different condition. Bleeding, or cold water to the head,
is unnecessary. It is altogether prevented by keeping in
a warm and comfortable place after calving, and throwing
a sheet over the back for a few days.

Inflammations of the Udder. — 1st, Udder-Clap is an
affection which attacks cows that have given milk, but
are at the time yeld or dry. Heifers with fleshy udders,
but which have never bred, have been known but rarely
to take it. It is thought to be produced by the " striking "
of a gad-fly, which sets up inflammation, followed by
suppuration. It appears usually in or after hot weather
in August. One-quarter of the vessel swells and becomes
painful. If not treated in time, two or more quarters may
become affected, high fever is set up, and a hind limb
becomes involved. At times it extends along the belly and
down the fore-legs. Death is often the result in extreme
cases, and at least the loss of one-quarter, and from one-third
to one-half the value of the animal. The treatment is, —
give a dose of salts, rub, bathe, and draw the quarter every
day until pus disappears. Should it be too far gone, or if
daily attention cannot be paid, the teat is either cut off by
the neck or a good opening made with a knife in the flesh
of the udder near to it. The only difficulty after that
would be flies on the wound, unless the weather became
cold for a few days. Udder-clap is effectually prevented
by rubbing the vessel at least three times (two weeks

CATTLE. 81

between) with a mixture of Archangel-tar and butter
or grease, half of each. By beginning in July, the fly
is kept off, and, besides, the tar acts as a stimulant,
although the grease dilutes it sufficiently to prevent
blistering.

2nd, Common Inflammation of the udder comes when
cows are in milk, and have been badly managed or injured
in some way. It most frequently follows " hefting " for sale
or show. The treatment is, — rub well with grease (this
stimulates and softens the part), milk very frequently,
and foment with hot water, or, in an extreme case, use
bran poultices. Give oil or treacle to open the bowels.

Impaction of the Rumen or first stomach is not un-
common, if cattle get into very poor condition, or if too
short food is given, as when altogether fed on cut straw
and pulped roots, or when much dry concentrated rich
food is used (as cotton-cake or bruised grains), or if cattle
are turned out to bent land on the hills in spring. Treat-
ment,— withhold bulky food, and give gruels, which digest
without necessitating chewing the cud ; give stimulants and
repeated doses of oil or treacle to keep the bowels open.

Persistent impaction may be caused by something hard,
like a piece of old shoe leather which had been swallowed.
This can only be got rid of by cutting a hole into the
stomach and removing it, and giving very little food for
a few days till the wound heals.

Choking is most frequent when animals are fed on
whole potatoes or small turnips. A lump of the un-

82 FAKM LIVE STOCK.

chewed root slips over the throat and sticks there, the
gullet spasmodically closing before it. A " probang " is a
dangerous means of relief unless in very skilled hands,
the gullet being so easily ruptured if force is applied.
The most simple and most effectual plan is to gag the
animal by fastening a stick across like a bit, to keep the
mouth open to avoid choking by saliva which then runs
from the mouth, and to prevent the formation of gases in
the stomach.

Lameness may be caused by something hard, as a small
stone sticking between the digits, or scalding in wet seasons.
A hind-leg can be held up for examination and treatment
by a man on each side standing in close to the cow, and
lifting by means of a stick about the length and strength
of a single-horse whipple-tree, which is put across between
them in front of the hough.

A strip of strong canvas, drawn backward and forward
between the hoofs, clears away all dirt or foreign matter ;
when Ewing's footrot-mixture, or some other acid stimulant,
should be applied by means of a thin splinter of wood.

Cows or bulls which do not go out much, get lame through
the hoofs growing very long and turning up at the toes.
The surplus horn may be removed by sawing, and then
using a pair of long-handled powerful shears for the
purpose of finishing.

PIGS.

Pigs are divided into two groups — Sus Scrofa and Sus
Indicus.

The latter, or Chinese pig, is by far the more improved
of the two.

The Scrofa, or the European pig, is sprung from and
resembles the wild boar. As compared with the Indicus
type, it is longer, leaner, narrower, coarser in bones, hair,
and in every way, the nose longer, forehead narrower, but
with a hardier constitution.

Improved pigs in this country are divided into two
classes, White and Black.

The Whites prevail in Scotland and the north of Eng-
land ; the Blacks in southern England. Between the two,
in central England and Wales, are mixtures of two colours,
the result of crossing. All have been improved by
crossing the ancient native pigs with the improved Indicus,
and by selection. The Berkshire and Essex breeds, for
instance, were improved about half a century ago with an
Italian breed, the Neapolitan, which had a dash of Indicus
blood.

Improved breeds have a much greater tendency to

84 FARM LIVE STOCK.

fatten, have finer forms, but are not so active and hardy of
constitution as older kinds. Close breeding shows itself
by want of sufficient hair, or that too fine, inability to
breed, or deformity of structure. There are many mixed
or small local breeds in Britain, but we shall only describe
a few of the leading ones.

Points applicable to all Improved Breeds.

In judging, begin at the feet and legs ; these are most
important, having to carry the weight when fat and heavy.

Feet small and neat.

Legs perfectly straight, fine boned, and fleshed down as
far as possible, before and behind.

Back broad before and behind, not drooping too much
at the rump when walking out. Back-line straight, and
extending over the neck ; belly-line parallel, and con-
tinued below the jole.

Ribs well sprung and deep.

Neck thick and of medium length.

Ears, in most, not too large or flapping.

Head small, broad between the eyes ; nose short ; the
under jaw shorter than the upper ; cheeks very full ;
eye not too small, quick, but mild.

Tail long, and a tuft of long hairs on its tip.

Body well covered, all over, with flesh, and of a rect-
angular shape from all points ; deep and wide before and
behind.

pigs. 85

Skin medium thickness, and covered with pretty
strong hair, which should be abundant.

Distinguishing Characters.

Wliite Breeds.

The Large Yorkshire is slow of maturing; is the
largest in the kingdom. When full grown, one will weigh
as much as a good-sized bullock (50 st. and over). It
makes good bacon, but is not a favourite, requiring more
food to produce a given weight of carcass than other
breeds. The nose is longer and stronger than in other
Yorks. It has good hair, and a hardy constitution.

The Small Yorkshire is much less in size, finer in
bone, and in every way. It is more delicate, and requires
greater care while young: comes very fast to maturity, and
is thus well suited to making into "porkers." Its flesh
brings as high a price as any. Its great peculiarity is its
pug-like nose, or dish-face much exaggerated, and its head
being set on lower than usual.

The Middle-Bred Yorkshire is a more recently formed
breed. It is a cross between the large and small, which
combines their good qualities without having the defects.
The nose when young is straight, like the " large " breed,
but becomes after a time like the " small " sort, though
not so much turned up. It is, perhaps, as good a breed as

86 FARM LIVE STOCK.

any in England, having, in addition to its fatting and flesh
qualities, more constitution than many.

Lincolnshire White Pigs are large and good. They
have long straight noses, with an abundance of curly hair.
They are often a little light in the forequarters.

The Common White Pigs of Scotland have some of
the characters of the large Yorkshire; are hardier than
improved pure breeds ; have longer noses and legs. They
are slower feeders than south-country pigs, but milk well,
and breed excellent crosses by the more highly improved
boar, as Berkshire, etc. The crosses when fat, and
weighing about 12 stones, have about 1 stone less offal
than the pure Scotch pig.

Black Breeds.

The Berkshire is dark-brown or black, with a pinkish
skin ; a little white on the nose, forehead, feet, and tip of
the tail ; the nose straight, only the face a little dished, as
is the case with all pigs ; size intermediate between small
and middle Yorks.

Defects that are frequently met with : —

The Quarters droop from being too short, and the

Tail is then consequently too low set.

Tlie Ribs flat, causing deficiency of girth.

The Skin furrowed, with deep lirks down the sides.

pigs. 87

The Flank light, and the animal leggy.

TJie Absence of white on the tail shows presence of
Essex blood.

The Hair, when too hard and strong, shows want of
breeding ; when too silky and not abundant (especially in
the boar), want of constitution.

Berkshires are great favourites, the boars being most
valuable for crossing, and are widely spread over both
England and America.

The Essex is much like the Berks, but is altogether
black. Though not so widely known, it is as well-bred
and has as good points, with perhaps a finer head. It,
like other varieties of the same black type, Dorsets,
Devons, Shrops, is by natural selection made well-suited
to surrounding conditions in its own district. All these
breeds are improvements on the old forms of the localities
which give the names.

Tamworth or Staffordshire Breed, Birmingham dis-
trict, has some old Berkshire blood. The colours are
chestnut, red, or red and black. (Crosses between Berks
and Scotch whites are sometimes red-and-black spotted.)
It is fast croin£ out of fashion, owim* to not maturing
quickly enough, but it is hardy, and crosses well with
improved breeds.

88 FARM LIVE STOCK.

General Management.

The Breeding Sow should be lengthy rather than
short, yet not out of proportion, but with the good points
of her breed. She may be put to a young boar for the
first time when big enough, say five or six months old.
If missed, she will come back in three weeks exactly. A
sow goes sixteen weeks with young. Breeders should
run out till near farrowing to get plenty of exercise and
green food, and to save expense. There should be six or
eight pigs reared the first litter, and ten to twelve after, or
even more, if there are teats enough. A bad milker, or
one that kills her young, ought to be fatted off. Sows
kept to breed pigs for fatting pay best to feed for bacon
after the second or third litter. Usually two litters are
got in a year. Pigs are weaned about six to eight weeks
old, and a sow comes in season for the first time after breed-
ing (according to condition) about three days to one week
after the pigs are removed. Forty-six to fifty weeks are
thus employed, according to the age of weaning. They
may be made to have five litters in two years by beginning
to feed the young on milk at two or three weeks old.
Gradually thicken the milk with oatmeal porridge, and,
after a little, turn the mother out during the day, and feed
her well. She should then take the boar before the pigs
are weaned, and when about five weeks old. When milking
very heavily, an animal is not in that condition in which

pigs. 89

she is most likely to come in season or conceive. All pig-
houses should be warm in cold weather. No animal of the
farm does worse than the pig with cold or damp. " Sows "
should be managed so as to have the young ready when
there is most food for them, and when the weather is mild.
A few days before farrowing, a sow should be put by
herself into a place about 10 feet square, which has been
fitted round with strong planks placed horizontally, and
projecting 8 or 9 inches from the wall, and elevated the
same distance from the floor, to keep the sow from lying
close to the wall and killing the young pigs by overlying
them. One corner should be floored by a raised wooden
platform of 1-inch planks to keep the bed dry. The person
who is to attend at farrowing should take charge from the
first, and the place should be well bedded with straw. The
sow takes up straw in her mouth and makes a nest within
a few hours of farrowing. The operation may extend over
hours. The sow is very sick and quiet, and should lie all
the time. (It is rare to see a pig dropped while the sow is
standing.) When restless, she is very troublesome. Some-
times the young are put at once into a warm basket, to be
safer, in place of to the mother's side. They should have
a suck as soon as possible, and be watched day and night for
three days. A good stable-lamp may be left hanging at night
after this for some time. The food of the mother should
be sloppy, not too bulky, but nutritious, and never quite
cold. The young grow very quickly for the first few days.
The ones sucking nearest the forelegs are usually the

90 FAltM LIVE STOCK.

largest and strongest. Each has its own teat or teats,
although they steal from each other when possible. They
cannot draw milk at all times ; only when the sow wishes
it. Then she lies flat on one side, and utters every now
and then a subdued grunt.

Fatting Pigs.— A farmer or dairyman should breed his
own pigs. They vary much in price — 12s. to 30s., or even
more, at weaning : £1 is a good average, and pays well.
Pighouses should face the south, and be in a sheltered and
dry position, and have an inner compartment and outer
court, each 8 to 10 feet square, to hold five or six pigs.
Six pigs, of 12 stone each, can feed from an 8-feet trough
at one time. It is better to feed in the outer court rather
than inside, as pigs then keep the place they lie in cleaner,
by leaving their droppings outside. No bedding is re-
quired if the floor is smooth concrete with a fall inside of
2 inches to 3 inches towards the door, and swept out every
day. The outer-court floor should have more fall into a
sinkhole in the centre over a covered drain, i Feeding-
troughs are best of fire-burnt clay, and with a division for
each, to prevent the weak being driven out and starved by
the strong. At milk factories, etc., where fifty or sixty
pigs are kept in one large house and fed from long troughs,
some weak ones are always kept out till the others finish,
and do not thrive. Male pigs are castrated when about
four weeks old, but not when there is frost. Those for
bacon or breeding are turned into a yard or field, and left

PIGS. 91

for a few mouths to grow. A ring is put through the gristle
above the nostrils to prevent their digging. Boots, cab-
bages, clover, vetches, or silage may be given uncooked,
alone, or with a limited supply of other food.

Feeding. — After weaning, which should be done gradu-
ally, as before described, pigs can be fed for months on sour
whey only, and do well. Skim-milk should also be soured.
Sweet whey and milk cause constipation. It pays, when
feeding with these or with buttermilk, to thicken with
meal, boiled or steamed. A mixture of meal is best, and
may be of beans, peas, lentils, vetches, wheat (including bran,
germs, and pollards), barley, oats, maize, indiana (the refuse
from corn-flour works, viz., the outside or best part of the
grain). The selection should depend on which are cheapest
at the time. Usually small and inferior grain is taken.
Costiveness is avoided by mixing bran with the food. The
dung of a thriving pig should be soft and unformed.
Eoots are given, as small potatoes, mangels, turnips, carrots,
parsnips (extra good), also cabbages. All should be cooked
for fatteners. A little common salt is a necessary seasoning.
Any " fallen " flesh (horse or other animal of the farm)
improves the boiled mixture ; but if there is much of this
(as at a slaughter-house), or if the other foods are given
without enough meal, the pork will be soft and inferior.
Leguminous seeds, particularly, make the flesh solid. All
should be given slightly sour, and cool but not cold.
Fatting pigs are fed at least three times a day, but it is

92 FARM LIVE STOCK.

better to feed four times, and when newly weaned, five or
six times daily. As much as is eaten up, and no more,
should be given. A few coal ashes or earth thrown into
the outer yard now and then for the pigs to eat improves
digestion. Sometimes they are washed or brushed once a
week. Pigs thus kept perfectly clean will not roll in the
mire, unless it is to cool when very hot. They go into mud
to clean themselves. The mud cakes when dry, and in
falling off takes scales and dirt with it.

Warington says that "83 per cent, of the fatted live
weight of a pig (fatted for pork) should be butchers'
carcass;" and also that "91 per cent, of the increase from
100 lbs. to 200 lbs. will be carcass." About 5 lbs. of
meal eaten should give 1 lb. increase of live- weight. Pigs
are the most economical meat producers on the farm.
They consume more food per 100 lbs. live-weight than
either sheep or oxen, and have much greater capacity for
assimilation in the intestines, though their stomachs are
small. They consequently require concentrated and
digestible food.

Crosses between the Berkshire and Scotch pig will, if
properly fed and managed, in summer time, when the
weather is mild, weigh each 6 stones dead- weight at four
months old ; at six months, 12 stones. They are usually
killed for small bacon when they would dress to 12 stones
or 14 stones, and sold at from 6s. to 7s. 6d. per imperial
stone. A twelve months pig should weigh 24 stones, or
about 16 J score = 14 lbs. less than 1 lb. of increase per

pigs. 93

day for the last six months (182 days — 168 lbs.) ; while
for the sixty-one days, between four months and six
months, it lays on 1*377 lbs., or roughly, 1 J lbs. per day of
dead- weight (84 lbs. -4- 61).

A pig lays on flesh fastest when from about 9 stones to
12 stones weight, and will then take per day about 10 lbs.
to 12 lbs. of meal, and increase over 2 lbs. live- weight, or
nearly 2 lbs. dead flesh. It is thus most profitable to kill
when 12 stones to 14 stones dead- weight. A Berkshire,
or any of the improved breeds, should do about the same
as the above.

The price of mixed pig-meal should not average more
than £7 per ton = f d. per lb., which gives the fol-
lowing cost of producing a stone (14 lbs.) of pork, with
labour estimated at 7s. 6d. on a 12-stone pig : —

Calculation of Cost per Stone.

Labour, £0 0 7J

14 lbs. x 5 (lbs. meal) = 70 lbs. meal at |d.

=4s. 4Jd. ; ergo, 83 : 100 : : 4s. 4Jd. : 0 5 3}
Average price of a young pig, £1 = 3
stones live-weight = 2\ stones of
pork at 6s. = 15s.
20s.— 1 os. = 5s. for the life ; os. ^-12 (num-
ber of stones) = cost of life per stone, .005

Carry forward, . £0 6 3|

94 FARM LIVE STOCK.

Brought forward,
Deduct for offal Is. per £1 of the price
(12 stones at 6s. = £3, 12s.), viz., 3s. 6%d.
-=-12 (stones), 0 0 3J

Average cost per stone, not calculating

manure, £0 6 OJ

One gallon of sweet-milk whey is worth f d., or is equal
in value to 1 lb. of meal. Say that 550 gallons of milk be
taken as a good yield per cow in a dairy. One gallon of
milk weighs 10 lbs. 4 oz., and 1 lb. of curd is removed in
cheese-making from 1 gallon of milk. About t9o is left in
whey, or 495 gallons x fd. = 30s. lid., or roughly, 30s.
per cow.

Number of Pigs that may be kept with a dairy of 60
cows, giving sufficient meal to make good pork : — 70 pigs
killed at six months old, weighing 12 stones each; 50
finished in the summer half-year, and 20 in spring and
autumn; 10 young breeders and a boar. The extra pigs
not required to feed being sold at six to eight weeks old.

Diseases of Pigs are not so numerous as in most animals.
Pigs are much more difficult to treat when ill. If fat,
they should generally be killed on the first symptoms
appearing, if the flesh is fit for food, as at the best there
will be no improvement for a time.

By improper housing, or exposure to cold and wet, pigs
take rheumatism, inflammation, and cold.

pigs. 95

Diarrhoea often follows bad feeding. Treatment — change
to good food; give a purgative (Epsom salts) and tonic
(powdered ginger).

Foot-and- Mouth Disease is got by contagion from cows
or other farm animals, to which pigs can also give it. It
is not dangerous, though a heavy loss. The hoofs are
cast. Salicylic acid lotions are applied to the feet, and
Epsom salts, with soft food or milk, given.

Scrofula. — Tubercles form in the lungs, and the animal
dies of consumption. Most seen when pigs are in-and-in
bred. Prevent by importing fresh blood.

Protrusion of the Rectum, from having too much flesh
diet. Wash well and return ; stitch across the anus from
each hip ; and feed altogether on milk and treacle for a
time.

Measles, also called " pig typhoid " or " swine fever," is
the most common disease, noticed by a red rash, a cough,
fever, and from the animal not feeding. Keep warm, open
the bowels with castor or linseed-oil, and the skin with
sulphur, and act on the kidneys with sweet spirits of
nitre.

THE HORSE.

The early history of the horse is unwritten. Its remains
have been found in the Swiss lake-dwellings, showing it
must have existed in very remote times. There is no
really wild horse, although some have broken away from
civilisation, as in America, and, in a few generations, have
assumed very much a wild character. A horse can
endure great extremes of cold and heat. When the
ground is covered with snow, it scrapes with its fore-feet
to get at its food, showing it must have originally
belonged to a cold country. Arabs have come to
great perfection under very different conditions of tem-
perature.

Farm Horses.

British work-horses are usually classed as belonging to
three breeds, — the Clydesdale, the Shire, and the Suffolk
Punch.

Clydesdales are the Scotch agricultural horses, and
vary much in size according to the kind of work expected
of them. Though not so dear as they were a few years
ago, large prices are yet got for really good blood. The

THE HORSE. 97

Duke of Portland paid £1200 for " Cairnbrogie Keir " in
1883. This horse took the first prize in the Clyde
Stallion class at the Koyal Agricultural Society Show
(Shrewsbury) in 1884

Points of a Clydesdale.

Colour usually bay or dark brown, sometimes black or
gray, more rarely chestnut.

Height, average, about 16 hands.

Temper mild, with plenty of muscular vigour and
nervous energy.

Read medium size ; the face and jaw-bones not too large
or loaded with flesh.

Nose bones, if not straight, slightly arched ; not " dish-
faced."

Nostrils wide.

Eye bright and dark, full and prominent.

Forehead broad.

Ears a good size, neither hanging, showing sluggishness,
not " prick-eared," but with frequent motion, indicative of
a good disposition.

Neck medium length and thickness, and slightly arched.

Back straight and broad, and not so long as to make it
weak.

Tail not too drooping.

Ribs well sprung, barrel-like ; the last one a good length.

Hindquarters long, well packed, and rounded.

G

98 FARM LIVE STOCK.

Second thigh well developed and broad.

Girth round the heart good ; the body is then deep, and
the height is greater than it looks.

Chest broad and deep.

Shoulder (scapula) oblique, though not necessarily so
much so as in a hunter.

TJie humerus should form a very obtuse angle with the
scapula, else the animal cannot get its leg well forward in
moving.

Fore-legs strong, and not too far back under the body,
showing the humerus is rightly placed.

Knee-joints large.

Muscle of the arm broad and well developed.

Leg hones flat, clean (not knotted), and plenty of them.

Feathering, or long hair on the back parts of the legs,
neither deficient nor too abundant, spreading round in
front; if fine and silky, is an indication, along with a
fine skin, of good breeding.

Wliite feet, though common, are objectionable, being
softer than the others.

Fore and hind legs and feet all set on straight ; they
look better and are stronger. It is better to have a toe
pointed slightly in than out.

The hocks broad in front and not too straight, else there
is liability to thorough-pin; nor too crooked, as they do
not look well although they are quite strong. Any defect
in a hock constitutes unsoundness.

Pasterns medium length. If long, they are weak ; if

THE HORSE. 99

short, they are more liable to bony exostoses. Splints
often exist without producing unsoundness. The feet
cannot be too large, if not thin and flat or down in the
soles.

TJie action is quite peculiar, being very free and active.

Step long; walking, when unloaded, as nearly as possible
5 miles an hour.

TJie sole should be almost inverted each time it is lifted
in either trotting or walking.

The Shire, or English Black Horse is the largest
breed in England. The larger sorts, bred in the Fen
country, are more for dray-work than agricultural-work.
The points are very much like those of the Clydesdale.
The ordinary varieties of the two breeds differ more in
appearance than the better sorts, which have now been
acknowledged in many cases to be crosses of good
specimens of the two original breeds.

The differences in the Shire horse are : —

Lower and more sluggish action.

The belly or middle larger, the animal being a greater
feeder.

The quarters shorter, and the plates consequently
steeper and flatter.

The pasterns shorter, and the hoofs more upright, giving
a stilty look. Long pasterns are now sought for in the
best horses, no doubt to try to counteract the general
weakness in this point.

100 FARM LIVE STOCK.

There is more rough hair on the legs, and it extends
round in front. Howard's paper in the Boyal Agri-
cultural Society's Journal for 1884 shows this to be a
defect.

The Suffolk Punch.— Xamed from its county and from
its compact rounded form. The colours are chestnut (dark
and light) and iron gray (sorrel). The body looks much
too heavy for the limbs, which are clean and fine, with
little lono- hair. The back is often hollow, but this allows
of a finer style of neck and shoulder. SufTolks are slower
than Clydes, and twist their legs and feet more when
moving. They are steady pullers, and suited alike to
farm and dray work.

Breeding.

Select good, sound animals of the right blood, and with
good tempers.

Three years old is young enough to put a mare to the
horse ; if younger, or if too old, the foal will be small and
weakly. The period of gestation is about 11 months.
May is the best month for foaling, as there is sufficient
green food, and the weather is mild enough for brood mares
to lie out. At going out, shelters ought to be provided for
a few nights to prevent their taking cold. Give small but
increasing amounts of green food for a few days before, to
accustom the digestive system to the change, and thus,
prevent colic.

THE HORSE. 101

A farm-mare should be continued at moderate work, as
ploughing, on till the day of foaling, but should not be put
between shafts, as there is risk of injury. Eestrict the
quantity of concentrated or rich food some little time before.
Wax is seen on the teats within twenty-four hours of
foaling ; after that the mare should be regularly watched,
to prevent injury to the foal at birth by her lying down
with her tail against the wall. A roomy loose box is the
best place, and she rarely requires assistance.

The foal should be helped to suck very soon. If this is
not managed, milk a little into a spoon, and put it into its
mouth, as a foal cannot live ]ong without food. See that
the anus is open ; give the mother frequent small drinks of
cold water, with a little oatmeal thrown into it.

No nursing mare should work : this precaution prevents
souring and rickets in the foal. In any case, she should
have a clear month before working, and after work be
milked a little each time, before the foal is allowed to suck.
The milk which collects in the udder while at work changes
its character, and an alkaloid is developed, which is injurious
to the young.

A mare takes the horse from seven to ten days after
foaling, and is then most likely to conceive. If missed the
first time, she comes in season every three weeks during the
summer, remaining in use from four to eight days. By
the second time there is a large flow of milk, which so far
reduces the system. When going out of season she is most
likely to "hold." One good jump is better than more,

102 FARM LIVE STOCK.

and she should be kept quiet and away from other horses
for a few days.

A foal brought up by hand should have cows' full-milk.
Such horses are often spoiled through being played with.
In Norfolk, sometimes, after the foal is two weeks old, it
is fed on skim-milk, boiled linseed and bean-meal, getting
up to two gallons of milk, and four pounds of the mixture
per day.

A foal is weaned when five or six months old, say early
in October ; then it should be housed at night, and a halter
should be put on its head, and left to lead by. Haltering is
difficult, and requires great care. A cattle-shed with bare
wTalls and a few inches of dung under foot is the best
place. A cart rope is fastened round the neck, and the
animal drawn up to a fixed point, and made to know that
he is held. The struggle at first is often severe, and per-
spiration runs off freely with the fright and the exertion.
He must be kept in a warm place till thoroughly cooled.

Kind treatment and constant handling are necessary to
give confidence. Leading should be done as often by the
off-side as by the near, to accustom him to turn as readily
to the one side as to the other.

Young1 Horses should never be too highly fed, as this
softens the constitution, and they get too fat and heavy
for their legs. They should be kept thriving to encourage
growth, and prevent disease and injury from internal
parasites. A little lin seed-cake mixed with the oats is
an improvement, and salt should be wdthin reach of

THE HORSE. 103

all young stock, which should also have plenty of exercise
to develop muscle.

Castration is usually performed when a colt is about
one year old, then there is least risk ; or at two years if a
more masculine appearance is wanted. In some districts
of England from four to six weeks old is considered a
safer and better time. Sometimes the operation is done
with the animal standing on its feet and simply backed
into a corner, but he is more commonly cast by means of
ropes. The great danger in this is the possibility of injury
to the back, brought about by the struggling. The testicles
are usually removed by firing, but sometimes by means of
clams or by torsion. Bathing well with warm water
should be resorted to, if the animal is stiff the next day.

Breaking is attended with danger from rearing, kicking,
bolting, or sulking on the part of the horse ; and careless-
ness, drink, or bad temper on the part of the man.
Horses are more easily broken while quite young than
when a few years older. They ought to run out the second
winter, and be taken up for breaking in autumn, when
about 2 J years old. Heavy work strains and stiffens
young horses. The backbone often gets bent and stands
up, if an animal is made to draw too heavy loads.
Harrowing or light ploughing is a good, safe form of
work ; but not so carting on the hard road till after five
years old. Horses ought to be broken to every description
of farm work when about three years old or before.

Mouthing, done by tying a horse up with a large bit

104 FARM LIVE STOCK.

and side-reins, is far too little practised among draught-
horses. After this has been done for some days, long ropes
should be taken out to an open field and fastened in the
position of draught chains, and pulled by men well behind,
to accustom the animal to the chains rubbing against its
hind legs while turning in the plough. Next yoke to a
log by ropes, and when accustomed to this, put in double
with an old, steady, but active-stepping horse.

Breaking to the cart must come after all this, as it is
often a difficult task, especially with nervous animals.

The greatest care should be taken with all horses, although
reputed to be quiet. A man on each side of the head
should hold a long rein to keep the horse, if startled, from
jumping on the top of the other. Another man on each
side should fasten the attachments, the draught chains
first. The kicking strap or rope should cross over just at
the root of the tail. This is far more effectual than when
in the usual place, further along the top of the hind-
quarters. A fifth man lets down the cart behind when
the horse has been got into position. A long pole is placed
between the body of the cart and the axle-tree, and pro-
jects well behind to prevent rearing.

A young horse should be tired, but never fagged by too
much work, else he may develop temper. In a display of this
an animal which urinates is usually difficult to overcome.
The mouth should not be subjected to sudden checking or
tuning. An animal which has been thus ill-treated tries to
move away, and holds up its head on the approach of a man.

THE HORSE. 105

The shoulder and back, under the pressure of the collar
and saddle, often get " fired," hot, and painful, especially
in warm weather. Remedy. — Bathe with tepid water,
rub dry, and soak with whisky or white lotion — 1 oz.
sugar of lead and 1 oz. sulphate of zinc dissolved in a
quart bottle of water. This is the best common remedy
for broken or irritated skin.

While teething a young horse often has a tender mouth
and refuses to eat. Do not cut or fire the gums as for
lampas.

Do not feed a young horse too highly. If off food
through being feverish from work, coax him by giving
varieties of food, little at a time, and always new and
fresh.

Young horses pastured along with cattle, gallop after
them at times and prevent their thriving. Some cattle
get into the bad habit of eating the hair off the tails of
horses and their mates.

In horses with small feet, paring the edges of the hoof,
now and then, and blistering the coronet encourages the
growth of horn.

Idle horses rub, bite, and break gates, and get out to do
damage to growing crops.

The age of horses able to do work may easily be
determined by the teeth, if not more than eight years
old.

At 3 years the two central permanent incisors are up.
At 4 „ the next pair, or lateral ones.

106 FARM LIVE STOCK.

At 5 years the two corner ones are come, making a
full mouth; also the tushes in the
male.
At 6 „ the hollow on the top of each tooth of the

first pair is worn out.
At 7 „ the second pair is levelled.
At 8 „ all have usually got worn nearly level,
or lost " mark of mouth."
Indications of greater age are gray hairs about the head
and deep hollows above the eyes.

To make an animal look young, the teeth are sometimes
" bishoped " by low dealers — that is, artificial hollows made
in them.

Management of Work Horses.

Winter Season. — Full work lasts for about seven
months in the year: fully three months, on from the latter
part of August, including harvest and autumn ploughing
and cleaning, and nearly four months in spring, including
part of February on till into June ; embracing spring culti-
vation and ploughing, planting of grain crops, and preparing
the root land. The food should be full and liberal, and con-
sist of a mixture made equivalent to three bushels of dressed
oats (40 lbs. per bushel) per week. Grains should be all
bruised or broken, especially for old horses. Unless ex-
tremely dry and kept in a dry place, only a little should be
prepared at a time, as the ingredients, especially oats,
mould and spoil. The mixture should consist of several

THE HORSE. 107

kinds chosen from the following, according to what is
cheapest in the market : — Oats, beans, peas, lentils, barley,
maize, a little malt or desiccated brewers' grains to assist
the digestion, along with bran or linseed-cake (one pound
per day) to keep the bowels open. Dry bran prevents a
horse bolting its food too fast, A little fenugreek meal
acts as a good spice, but is dear as yet at 30s. per cwt.

As a horse has a small stomach, it should be fed at least
three times a day — morning, noon, and night.

Cold bran mashes are better than boiled food, which is
dangerous for colic, although it produces a line glossy skin.
Saltpetre (2 to 4 drachms) is given at times in a mash on
a Saturday night, to prevent stocking of the legs, or Monday -
morning-evil, in hard-worked and highly-fed horses.

The food for the slack season of five months may be
averaged at one bushel of oats per week.

A large horse at full work will eat, in addition to short
food, 18 lbs. to 24 lbs. per day of " seeds " hay. A few
lbs. may be saved if it is chaffed. Hay is dusty if much
heated in the stack or cut when in flower, and then it
injures a horse's wind.

When clover hay is given ad lib., 2 to 2h bushels of oats
or the mixture is considered to be enough. New oats are
not good for horses till after the New Year ; they make
impure blood and produce liability to grease. Straw is
often given during winter, and hay in spring when hard
work comes on ; but the best results are got by using a
mixture of the two all the time.

108 FARM LIVE STOCK.

It is good practice to give a few raw swedes, carrots, or
mangels at night. Potatoes are apt to cause colic. Furze
or whin is sometimes grown as a forage crop to provide
green winter food for horses, but it requires to be chaffed
or thoroughly bruised between rollers. 30 lbs. may be
given to each per day.

Two drachms of powdered sulphate of iron, mixed in a
full feed once or twice a day, is a good tonic for a horse,
and is frequently wanted along with careful feeding in the
" fall," after he goes into the stable. The system seems to
get down with the change of food. It is owing to this
peculiar condition that roadsters often become weak and
"come down" at this season. Tonics are better than physic,
unless worms have to be cleared away.

Water should be given before feeding to encourage eat-
ing, and to prevent colic and the washing of the food too
soon out of the stomach. It is safer to give it when an
animal is warm, if not over-heated, than if it is allowed
to stand till it is cold and the circulation is less active.

There is danger of inflammation if a horse's belly is wet
when the animal is not accustomed to it.

Mud-fever is the result of too frequent washing of the
legs, adopted because it is the easiest way of cleaning. If
practised, the legs should be thoroughly dried, or the animal
be made to walk a mile or two before going into the stable,
so as to quicken the circulation and prevent chilling of
the skin through the rapid evaporation of the water.

Thorough grooming of farm-horses is far too little prac-

THE HORSE. 109

tisecl. They should be well rubbed down with dry straw
on coming in, and thoroughly groomed when the hair has
dried, to get rid of dust, which is the remains of dried-up
sweat. Good grooming, by increasing its comfort, is as
good as so much more food to an animal.

Barley straw is objectionable as litter; 12 lbs. to 14 lbs.
per day of wheat or oat straw is much better. Bedding
should never be stored during the day under the manger.
When a good market can be got for straw, moss litter may
be substituted at a much cheaper rate. This costs about
45s. per ton, in 4-ton lots, carriage paid; and 1 cwt. is
sufficient per horse per month while in the house. If
moss is allowed to get too wet before it is removed, there
is danger of injury to the hind feet ; the ammonia produced
from the urine acts upon the weaker parts of the horn, and
sores break out about the heels.

Summer Season. — If horses are too highly fed when on
green food and not doing full work, they are much more
difficult to support in winter. Along with green food 7
lbs. of oats, in two feeds per day, is enough. AVhen at
hard work this may be doubled. Some horses do not care
to eat much corn when on grass ; the teeth get affected
in the same way as those of a man eating green apples.

There are two common summer systems of feeding :
First, Soiling or cutting and carrying home the green
food, and turning horses loose into a large open yard with
shelter-sheds. Clover, grass, vetches, and cabbages are
all used in their season when most plentiful. This is the

110 FARM LIVE STOCK.

more economical way if food is not plentiful, but it
requires more labour.

Second, Turning out to pasture at night and while not
at work. This is the easier and more common practice.
The disadvantages are, horses gallop and cut up the grass,
rub down fences and gates, and, besides, there is risk of
founder if carelessly turned out when too hot.

In the south of England horses often go loose in yards
during winter. They get gentle exercise and plenty of
fresh air to keep them healthy.

If a horse gets lame, do not work him, else he will get
worse. Best, cold water cloths, or fire and blister are the
usual treatments.

A winter out at grass without his shoes, and allowed to
get down in condition, but not too far, renovates an old
or any horse of whatever breed. He gets sufficient exercise
and goes so quietly about, that a weak part strengthens.
It is thought that the frost also aids in the recovery.

A horse highly fed before will get much poorer when
turned out than if he had been moderately kept, showing
the mistake of excessive feeding during summer.

A stallion will serve 80 mares in the season. Some
valuable horses, when well cared for, cover over a hundred.
A horse with one testicle down can get foals.

The average English work horse might be very much im-
proved if farmers' clubs would go more in for securing the
services of good horses in special districts, and not leaving
it to chance or private enterprise, which is always selfish.

SHEEP

Belong to the genus (his. They have been subjected to
domestication for a very long period. They are classed in
various ways in this country: Horned and Hornless,
Black-faced and White-faced, Mountain and Lowland,
Long-wools and Short-wools. A general character is the
presence of only one pair of teats.

Points applicable to most British Breeds of Sheep.
(Exceptions will be named.)

1. A good carriage and springy style of walking.

2. Neck thick towards the trunk, tapering to the head,
arching slightly, and not too short.

3. Body deep, back and belly lines straight, well over
the fore-legs.

4. Back level and broad behind and before, except in
Cheviots and Lonks, which have sharp shoulders.

5. Ribs well sprung and rounded.

6. Shoulders well covered with firm flesh. The parts
behind the shoulders well filled up.

7. TJiighs or gigots and foreflanks well fleshed down.

8. Ramp, or part near the dock, well developed, though

112 FARM LIVE STOCK.

not too large, as sometimes seen in Cotswolds and Border
Leicesters, etc.

9. Legs straight, not too long nor bone coarse. The
hocks are much better slightly out than at all in or " cow
hocked."

10. The body, and particularly the belly, well covered
with the characteristic wool of the special breed.

Characteristics of Different Breeds.

First — Long-wools without Horns (other than Mountain
Sheep).

The Border Leicester was bred at first from Bake-
well's Leicester by crossing with the Cheviot, but now
ranks as a pure breed, and is one of the best of the
Leicesters.

Special Points.

(1.) Head well set on, long, broad between the eyes,
but not up on the crown, nor too heavy behind the ears,
which would cause difficulty in lambing.

(2.) Muzzle large, open, and black.

(3.) Hair on face and legs, white and hard, but not so
wiry as in the Cheviot, extending well back behind the
ears.

(4.) Ears not too large nor drooping, white inside and
out. Black spots appear sometimes with age.

SHEEP. 113

(5.) The belly comparatively light, said to " carry little
offal," giving a leggy appearance when without the wool.

(6.) The wool long, soft, and in little locks, not too
open coated.

(7.) Fat tegs, at thirteen to fifteen months old, weigh
24 lbs. to 26 lbs. per quarter.

The Improved English Leicester is the smallest of
the Leicester breeds, and has been longer an improved
breed than any long- wool except the Cotswold. Bakewell
did this by selection. It has been much used in crossing
to improve other breeds.

Special Points.

(1.) Mild tempered, and thus suited to laying on fat.

(2.) Head not too short, though smaller than in the
Border Leicester ; the face white with a blue tinge, and
hair not so hard as in the Border Leicester.

(3.) Bones very fine.

(4.) Hindquarters often not so large as they ought
to be.

(5.) Great aptitude to fatten early, both in the pure
breed and its crosses.

(6.) Mutton best when not over twelve to fourteen
months old (weighing perhaps 20 lbs. per quarter), being
greasy and inferior if well fed till two years old.
• (7.) Ewes not first-rate milkers, and lambs inclined to
be tender on account of the close breeding.

114 FARM LIVE STOCK.

The Improved Lincoln is white-faced, and as large as
any sheep in England, — a shade larger than the Cotswold,
got by crossing the old Lincoln, which was famous for
great length and quantity of wool, with the English
Leicester. There is still a tuft of wool on the forehead,
though not so much as of old. The fatting qualities have
improved, although the wool has deteriorated. The staple
of well-bred sheep is about as broad as two of a man's
fingers.

The Long-wool Devon is very like the Lincoln, but is
not so large. It is coarser boned, and does not show so
much breeding. The face is white, with a lock on the
forehead, and woolled well on to the cheeks. It has a mix-
ture of Leicester blood, and is sometimes dashed with the
Cotswold, which it also resembles.

The Cotswold is named from the Cotswold Hills, and
is one of the oldest breeds, with very distinct characteristics.
It, too, has been improved by introduction of Leicester
blood, and is now large and hardy, and well suited to
feeding on stiff land, even when pretty wet. The flesh is
coarse. When sheep are aged, or over fifteen months old,
then they ought to weigh 25 lbs. to 28 lbs. per quarter.
Tegs more moderately fed, and " run over " till two years
old, get up to 35 lbs. or more per quarter.

Points. — Strong faces, usually white, sometimes gray, with
legs to match. Dark colouring makes it more like a Down

SHEEP. 115

cross, and helps to sell the mutton. A large tuft of wool
covers the forehead. The ewes are fair milkers, and prolific
when not too fat or the rump too large. The clip of wool
averages 6 lbs. to 8 lbs. for ewes. The staple long, neither
close nor too open, and rather coarse in quality. The
belly, and particularly the scrotum or " purse," should be
well covered.

Through being an old breed of good size, it is well
suited to crossing with ewes of short-wools and smaller
and finer varieties, provided the heads of the rams are not
too large.

The Wensleydale is a large blue-headed Yorkshire-
Leicester, the different strains of blood of which differ
much in quality. The best are very stylish, long-woolled,
rather open-coated sheep, with less tendency to lay on
masses of external fat than many others. The rams are
largely imported into Scotland to cross with mountain
sheep on the less exposed hill-pastures.

The Kent or Romney Marsh is a hardy white-faced
breed, which is related to the Cheviot, and much resembles
it in general figure. It has been improved much by
crossing with the Leicester, and is rather larger than it.
Kent sheep are often not fed in winter when on natural
pasture, and do not lamb till April. A lamb to each ewe
is thus a good crop. The wool is good, and it is one of the
closest coated of the long-wools. The forelock is some-

116 FARM LIVE STOCK.

times wanting, and on account of various irregularities the
type is not very distinct, though the form of the best class
is very compact and symmetrical.

The Roscommon is an Irish breed, seen in Con-
naught. It was improved from the old form by selection
and crossing with the Leicester. It is quite as large as, if
not larger than the Cotswold or Lincoln, and the mutton
is no finer. The fleeces are long, heavy, and silky.

Second — Short-wools ; all Hornless except where stated.

The Sussex or Southdown is the breed through which
all the other Downs have been improved by crossing with
the old-fashioned varieties of the different districts. It is
short-legged, and all round most compact and symmetrical,
but particularly good in the hindquarters. The present
form of the breed has been attained by selection from the
original breed, which was light in front, and leggy.

The face and legs are a gray-brown. Head small and
very neat, woolled close up to the ears and on the fore-
head ; naked ears are most objectionable.

The fleece weighs about 3 lbs. or 4 lbs. from ewes, and
is short, close, and of fine quality, and should be free of
hard projecting fibres. Open, long, coarse wool has been
imported in the attempt to increase the sizes by crossing,
and it is very objectionable.

The flesh is excellent quality, but can be easily made

SHEEP. 117

too fat. The average weight for well-kept tegs should be
about 18 lbs. to 20 lbs. per quarter at twelve to thirteen
months, and the offal is little in amount as compared with
others. Some wethers rising two years old, belonging to
Lord Bathhurst, sold in Cirencester market in the first week
of December 1884, dressed to 138 lbs. per carcass, or 34*5
lbs. per quarter dead-weight ; and yielded 65*83 per cent,
dead-weight to live-weight.

The original habitat of this breed was the region on the
low chalk-hills of Sussex and neighbouring counties.
Away from this they are usually kept as ornamental
sheep in parks, where they are at times made into five-
year-old mutton. They are not good rent-payers, except
in their native district, being so small, and also liable to
foot-rot.

The Shropshire Down breed of the present time has
been produced by crossing the old form with Southdowns
to give quality, and Leicesters to keep up the size. Now
any imported blood spoils the type.

The face is longer and larger than in the Southdown ;
the nose slightly Roman ; and the ears larger, and set on
to give a more sprightly appearance. The face and legs
are of a blackish-brown ; the latter often darker than the
former, which is usually tinged with gray (more at some
seasons than at others) round the nose, eyes, and on the jaw.
White spots on either are objectionable. Transparent ears
are bad, showing a want of the necessary hairy covering.

118 FARM LIVE STOCK.

The wool should be free from black, of fine quality, and
closely set, although a little longer than Southdown ; and
the skin underneath a pinky flesh-colour. A good average
of fleece in an ordinary ewe flock is 7 lbs. or 8 lbs. ; ram
tegs and highly fed ewes more ; poor ones less. Heavy
clips are often coarse. Dead-weight, 22 lbs. to 23 lbs. per
quarter at thirteen or fourteen months old.

This breed has spread quickly in England within a few
years. They were extensively tried in Scotland to cross
with native sheep (about 1882). The crosses, like the
pure breed, are remarkably well covered on the back
with flesh, and make excellent fat lamb, as they come
forward early, but they have not been a success to keep
as hoggs, being much smaller in size than the Leicester
cross, which they were expected to supersede. An-
other disadvantage for crossing with sheep on the
hill pastures is their being so bare for the first few days
after birth ; they cannot resist the cold in very stormy
seasons.

The Hampshire Down breed has its natural habitat
on the chalks of Hampshire and the immediate region
lyino- north and west ; hence called the West Country
Down. It was improved from the old Wilts and Hants
sheep by Southdown blood and selection.

It is larger, coarser looking, and lower set than the
Shropshire, and not easily fed to " handle fat" when young,
though often forced by high feeding. The ewes perhaps

SHEEP. 119

get 1 lb. per day of a mixture of equal parts of linseed-cake
and peas or Egyptian beans, until the lambs begin to eat ;
then this is gradually taken from the ewes and given to the
lambs. With abundance of natural food besides, a lamb
should increase from 19 lbs. at dropping, in January, to
150 lbs. live-weight on 1st August. Lambs can be got
early, as the ewes come in season sooner than most sheep.
If kept for tegs in an ordinary way, they should weigh
23 lbs. to 24 lbs. per quarter at thirteen to fifteen months
old. The flesh is of fine quality, and all over firm to the
touch.

Points. — Head large, with strong Eoman nose, and free
from "slugs," "snags," "snigs," or budding horns. Faces and
legs almost black ; light faces show recent crossing with
the Southdown. The wool should be free from black
patches, close up to and round the ears, close and fine all
over, shedding white, with a pink skin under. Weight of
fleece, 4J lbs. to 5 lbs. each for ewes.

Ears a good size, and more pointed than in the South-
down ; of a dark mouse colour behind, and free from light
specks.

The forequarters are particularly good, and the top of
the shoulder very broad ; sometimes a little defective in
the hindquarters and at the girth.

The Suffolk Down resembles much the Hampshire,
but is a shade darker in the face and ears, and not so
compact or low-set. It has only recently been much

120 FARM LIVE STOCK.

heard of, and is not extensively kept. The breeders claim
that it is the hardiest of all the Downs. Specimens may
usually be seen at the annual shows of the Eoyal Agri-
cultural Society of England.

The Oxford Down is a breed recently formed by
crossing Hampshire ewes with Cots wold rams. It is the
largest Down, although Hants tegs, being older, weigh
more at the London Christmas fat shows. The mutton
is good quality, weighing 24 lbs. to 26 lbs. per quarter at
twelve to fifteen months old.

Points. — The face is not so dark, nor the shoulder so
broad, as in the Hampshire. The type is not so well
denned, showing more of the crossed origin. Earns from
old-standing flocks cross well with hill-breeds and inferior
sheep, but those recently crossed are not to be depended on.

Flocks of cross-ewes are sometimes kept for breeding
fatting tegs. When they get light-faced, a pure Hampshire
ram is turned in for a year, and when rather dark a Cots-
wold. A Shropshire ram on a cross-ewe produces a sheep
much better covered with flesh along the back.

Oxford wool is longer and more open or loose than that
of other Downs, fleeces of ewes averaging 6 lbs. or 7 lbs.

The Clun Forest Breed, from the Clun district of
Shropshire, the south of Eadnorshire, and the adjoining
portions of Montgomery. Sometimes called the Eadnor-
forest or Kerry-hill sheep in these localities. Bred from

SHEEP. 121

the tan-face sheep that at one time abounded in that
region, by crossing with hardy Shropshire and black-faced
Longmynd mountain rams. The Longmynds have been
quite supplanted by them. Ewes are excellent mothers ;
crossed with a Shropshire ram they produce Easter fat lamb,
which would weigh, if kept till early summer, 17 lbs. to
1 8 lbs. per quarter. Ewes and two-year old wethers get
up to 28 lbs. per quarter. The wether-mutton is sold in
the " West End " as Welsh ; dressed with a tuft of wool left
on the tail, which is naturally long, on account of the
breed being semi-mountainous.

The wool is about the same weight as Shropshire, but
a little coarser.

The Dorset is a horned, white-faced breed, with a close,
short fleece, and a tuft of wool on the forehead ; clip 4 lbs.
or 5 lbs. The nose, hoofs, and legs are white. In size it
is a little larger than the Southdown.

The great peculiarity of the breed is, that ewes take the
ram as early as April, and breed " house-lamb " ready for
Christmas. They tup again soon after lambing, and thus
give two crops each year. The ewes are often tupped for
the last time by a Southdown ram, so as to get the lambs
sooner ripe, and with dark faces and no horns.

Downs or Down-crosses are usually supposed to give the
best quality of mutton, so that there is a run on dark
faces and legs, as butchers can more easily dispose of the
mutton of dark-faced sheep.

122 FARM LIVE STOCK.

The Ryeland Breed (named from the Byelands of
Hereford, an upland poor district), is perhaps the breed of
longest standing in England. Merinos are said to have
been improved ages ago by crossing with Byeland rams.
The breed now refuses to be improved by crossing with
others. It is small, compact, and hardy, and fattens
readily.

Both rams and ewes are polled, have white faces and
legs, and a tuft of wool on the forehead. Wool short and
fine, but there is little of it.

Mountain Breeds.

The Cheviot, named from the range of hills on the
Scotch and English border, its native district. The ewes
pasture on the lower and less exposed green hills all over
Scotland; Cheviot wethers and Black-faced Highland ewes
going to greater heights.

The face and legs should be well covered with short,
hard, wiry, pure-white hair, which extends over the ears
and well back behind the head.

Horns in the ram, though not always present, are
not objected to, being thought a sign of hardiness, if
" clean " and not thick like those of the Black-faced
breed. The nose of the ram is highly arched or Boman.
The nostrils are black, and the eyes dark, very full and
bright.

The wool is moderately long, very close set, not open or

SHEEP. 123

curly, but straight and free from " kerap " or dead hairs,
covering well all parts of the body, including the belly,
breast, and legs, down to the knees and hooks. Ewes clip
4J lbs. to 5 lbs. of washed wool.

The tail is long, and should be very rough. It is cut so
that the point reaches the hough. (The tails of all moun-
tain sheep are left long to protect the udders in cold
weather, and because, on natural food, they are not so liable
to scour and get dirty, like sheep on turnips and artificial
foods.

The shoulders are high and sharp at the withers.

The fashionable form is shorter, smaller, and more com-
pact, and the wool closer and thicker set, since a series of
bad seasons, down to 1879, showed that the larger
varieties with loose fleeces are not so hardy. The old,
original Cheviot was a very close-coated, short- woolled,
and remarkably hardy sheep.

The ewes are good milkers if not starved, as in bad
seasons, when the natural food on which they subsist is late
in springing.

Cast ewes fed on turnips from twelve to fourteen
weeks, and wethers from the hills at 3 years off, weigh,
killed and dressed, 70 lbs. to 80 lbs. : wethers a year
younger, and finished on turnips, come up to about the
same weight.

Cast or draught, or cull ewes, at five years old, go into
the low-country and better food to be " milled," or crossed,
with Lincoln, Border Leicester, or Wensleydale rams.

124 FARM LIVE STOCK.

The produce is called " Half-bred," or " Leicester-Cheviot."
Those kept for ewes produce " Three-part-breds."

Half-breds, when fat at twelve to fourteen months old,
weigh 16 lbs. to 18 lbs. per quarter, and the flesh is leaner
and of better quality than that of Leicesters.

The Scotch Black-faced Highland Breed is smaller
than the Cheviot, much hardier, and thrives better on
coarse pasture, as on black, heathery land. The wool is
curly, loose and shaggy, down nearly to the ground, and
more hairy and kempy : valuable for carpet making and
coarse manufactures ; and, as it is less liable to foreign
competition than other wools, fluctuates less in price;
usually clipped unwashed, the fleece averaging 3 lbs. to
3 1 lbs. from ewes. Much is exported to America when
the price is not over 6d. per lb. Then it can be imported
with a much smaller duty. Black or blue spots on the
neck, tail, or other parts are objectionable.

The face and legs are black or mottled (but the colours
distinct and clear), smooth and glossy, and no wool among
the hair.

The nose is strong and prominent, but not so much
arched as in the Cheviot, and the nostrils are wide and
black.

The horns of the ram are large, coming out flat from the
head, not rising above it or joining together at the base,
but taking one or more spiral turns, projecting forward,
leaving room between for the face.

SHEEP. 125

In the ewe they are small, thin, flattened and curved,
but not spirally twisted.

The ears are short and small, but hidden by the horns
in the ram, and not much looked to. The back is broad
all the way, including the shoulder top. The tail is natur-
ally short, not often hanging lower than the hock, and does
not require cutting. Old ewes should have rough tails.
When they lose the wool and become " whip-tailed," they
are not worth so much in the market.

The mutton is of the finest quality, especially from three,
four, or five-year-old wethers. A wether fat from the hill at
three years off should weigh 16 lbs. to 18 lbs. per quarter.

The " Black-faced " sheep is wild and active, and when
thriving best must travel about much ; suiting it to its
native pastures better than to a low district, where it is
liable to take foot-rot. It is supposed to have come
originally from Ettrick Forest.

The produce of a Black-faced ewe and Leicester ram is
called a " Cross ; " by a Cheviot ram a " Half-long " (the
latter because a Black-face is sometimes termed the
" short " sheep, and a Cheviot the " long " sheep). As ewes
these are good milkers.

The Herdwick Breed is the hardiest hill sheep ; seen
in Cumberland and Westmorland on the most exposed and
barren pastures. Earns and wethers are horned. The faces
and legs are much speckled, the shade varying from almost
black to light gray.

126 FARM LIVE STOCK.

The ears are small and pointed, and woolled close up.
This extends into a top-knot on the forehead. The wool
is very coarse — quite hairy in old sheep. A ewe's fleece
averages about 2J- lbs. to 3 lbs. Wethers three or four
years old and fat ewes weigh 12 lbs. to 18 lbs. per quarter.
The mutton is of very fine quality.

The Lonk Sheep is a native of the Lancashire, York-
shire, and some of the Derbyshire hills. It most re-
sembles the Scotch Black-face, but is leggier, has a larger
body and bigger head, and in the ewe stronger horns.
It is often light in the forequarters, and the hind-
quarters have a tendency to droop. In constitution it
is not so hardy as the Black-face, but has a shorter, closer,
finer, and heavier fleece — weighing 4 lbs. to 5 lbs. from
ewes.

The rams have been used to cross with Black-faced ewes
to try to increase the size and improve the wool, but it has
not succeeded, the constitution being softened. The fat
weight is slightly more : 18 lbs. to 20 lbs. per quarter for
wethers three years old off.

Welsh Mountain Sheep are very hardy, hornless, and
white-faced, with more or less of a brown tinge, also seen
on the legs. They are very active and difficult to fence,
on account of their jumping proclivities, when brought
down to the low country to breed the last crop of lambs,
as is usually the case with mountain sheep at five years

SHEEP. 127

old. The mutton is very fine, but the weight small — 12 lbs.
to 14 lbs. per quarter.

The wool is coarse but not very close : weight between
2 lbs. and 3 lbs. from ewes.

The Tan Pace is a very old Welsh mountain breed yet
met with, but in smaller numbers than formerly, in Ead-
norshire, about Abbey-cwm-hir 1 and St Harmon, and
shown as a distinct class at the Radnorshire Agricultural
Show, annually held at Pennybout. A short-legged, hardy
little breed, with close fleece of fine wool on the back and
sides, but rather coarse underneath.

Exmoor Sheep somewhat resemble Dorsets. They
have white faces, with black nostrils, and the horns slant
more back. They are more hardy. The wool is very close
and fine, weighing 4 lbs. or 5 lbs. a fleece. Exmoors are
larger than Welsh sheep. The mutton is also very good.

Management of Sheep on Cultivated Land and
Low Country Pastuee.

"Tupping" or "Rid" time commences usually where
the climate is moderate, and plenty of food can be got in
spring, about the first week of September, or at any later
period, varying with the district, till about 22nd Novem-
ber (Martinmas), when hill-rams go to the ewes. The

1 Cwm-liir (pronounced coom here) Welsh for valley-long.

128 FARM LIVE STOCK.

date is often governed by the time the ewes begin to come
in season : for instance, Hampshires will tup in the begin-
ning of August, whereas hill ewes frequently do not come
in before the end of October.

Cast ewes (four-year-old) and " culls," or those unfit for
breeding, are " drawn out when the lambs are weaned,
or at any more suitable time before the ram goes among
them. By putting on good food, such as rape or mustard,
for ten days before tup-time ewes get into an improving
condition and produce more doubles.

The ewes and rams should be all arranged together
according to their different qualities and characters, to
get the flock to have a type of its own. One ram goes to
sixty ewes, or more if he is kept by himself, and a " chaser "
or "teaser" lamb, with a cloth sewed on to his belly,
put out to find the ewes as they come in season.

A shepherd should notice if ewes come back at the end
of sixteen days. A mechanical way of finding out is to
use three colours of paint, usually blue, red, and black.
The breast, or sometimes the inside of one fore-leg of the
ram is rubbed with blue, for rather more than two weeks
at first : red is used for the next period of sixteen days,
and black for a third. The ewe's rump is marked while
being tupped, and according to the colour of the last mark-
ing the time of lambing is approximately known. A ewe
marked twice should be put beside another ram for the
third trial, as she is less likely to hold to the first ram
than to another. This is often accomplished by putting

SHEEP. 129

several lots together. Ewes go with lamb between twenty-
one and twenty-two weeks. At the end of six weeks,
when the tups are taken up, they should run over stubbles
and poor pasture, or follow fatting sheep to clean up
turnips, etc. : kept thriving, but not made fat.

Ewes going on pasture during winter should have
J ton of roots per 100, per day, up till lambing, and 1 ton
per day, = 22*4 lbs. each, after lambing, along with 1 lb. or
2 lbs. of hay or good oat straw in racks — increasing this
slightly should snow cover the ground. Ten days before
lambing begins, each should have h lb. of a mixture of
concentrated artificial food : as crushed peas, Egyptian
beans, and cake, with oats (whole), and bran, varying in
quantity to suit the condition of the bowels. Heavy
milking ewes, as those with doubles, should have this
increased, but not to more than 1 lb. The mixture is
gradually taken off as the lambs learn to eat more. Some
give no extra food, and some give too much, and set it
down to bad luck if the lambs do not thrive. It is as great
a mistake to have stock too fat as too lean : there is more
risk in producing young which are smaller, and there is
less milk for them. On an ordinary farm, 25 lambs to
every 20 ewes is a good crop ; 30 lambs very good.
With extra care, and breeding only from ewes that were
twins, even 35 lambs may sometimes be got.

Sheep not in lamb (eild) may be noticed near to or
in lambing time —

1. By their jumping and playing in good weather.

130 FARM LIVE STOCK.

2. Being less bulky, and no lamb being felt when
turned up.

3. Having no show or increase in size of the udder.

4. A considerable amount of yellow waxy excretion on
the bare parts about the udder, that does not look like
cleaning off; and

5. The wool is more firmly attached near to the udder.
The lambing pen is an open well-littered yard made

of hurdles thatched with straw, to give warmth and shelter
to the young lambs in stormy weather. Small covered
pens or boxes, each 4| feet square, ranged round the north,
east, and west sides : 30 to 35 for 200 ewes. The cost of
the labour of erecting one of the size named is from
£2, 10s. to £3. It should be placed on dry ground, in a
sheltered place if possible, and on a slope sufficient to let
surface water run off.

Ewes " coming near their work " are brought in at night,
so that they may be more carefully tended. Ewes do not
lamb nearly so frequently at night as late in the evening
and early in the morning. Lambing is more easy in moist
weather.

The shepherd lives in a wooden house on wheels, fitted
with a stove, and placed close to the pen to be handy.

Assistance by hand should never be given too soon.
Should the head appear, immediate action is necessary to
prevent the death of the lamb by strangulation. When
natural, the two fore-legs, then the head, come first. A
steady pull is usually successful. In false presentations

SHEEP. 131

lambs have often to be turned round before they can be
got out. The hands, after washing, should be oiled with
carbolic oil, one part of pure (Gresser's), not the crude or
brown carbolic, to eight or ten of sweet oil. Half an
ounce to one ounce of the mixture should be put into the
vagina afterwards, to prevent inflammation (the result of
injury, or the presence of putrid matter, as when the lamb
is dead), which causes " straining." Inversion of the
uterus (commonly called the " lamb-bed," or in Gloucester-
shire, the " wither " or " wether ") is thus prevented.
When this does occur, wash with tepid water (cold water
gives pain) and press gently back, with the hand held flat,
taking care not to pierce it with a finger. The oil should
in such a case have a few drops of laudanum in it to help
to soothe. Locks of wool may be tied tightly across
from each hip, or the lips of the vagina may be stitched
together.

When it is necessary to bring lambs that have been
chilled into the house, they should not be put too near a
fire, because a sudden change of temperature gives an
injurious shock to the nervous system. The full cows'
milk, without water, given warm (blood heat), should have
in it a little gin or sweet nitre to aid urination. Stricture,
the result of cold, is most common in male lambs, and is
relieved by gently rubbing the belly with the hand while
the lamb is held up by the fore-legs.

A motherless lamb, while young, should be fed five or six
times a day to prevent scour. Giving a little cows' milk

132 FARM LIVE STOCK.

to a lamb while sucking its mother often causes diarrhoea
or constipation, and in cold weather swelled and stiff
joints.

In " twinning on " a double lamb to a ewe which has a
dead one, the skin of the latter is often put on the living
lamb for a day or two to give it the smell which the
ewe knows well, and can distinguish if she has been
allowed to lick her own lamb. Should she not have licked
it, another lamb may be at once substituted for the dead
one, without any precaution. Whisky rubbed on her nose
and on the lamb destroys her scent sufficiently to deceive
her soon after lambing, when the instinctive fondness for
the young is strongest.

About the end of March or beginning of April, ewes
on arable land are removed from around the ewe-penr
where they have had sprouting, white-swedes, or late sown
green-round turnips, which stand the winter well, to
encourage the flow of milk. The lambs run a break in
front by getting through the hurdles.

One acre (15-ton crop) is usually set aside per week all
winter for every 200 ewes, = 24 lbs. each per day. Shelter
is got from thatched or wattled hurdles set up thus -f-.
Put for a week or 10 days on to early pasture (" seeds ") ;
then on to rye for 3 weeks, to finish before the end of
April ; then on to clover, vetches, etc. ; swedes or mangels,,
and later on cabbages, being thrown to them on the field
to supply a change of food.

Lambs are taught to eat cake and corn before being.

SHEEP. 133

weaned by enclosing their troughs within hurdles, through
which only they can pass. This is most important in feed-
ing for fat lamb. Store male lambs are castrated at 2 or 3
weeks old, but not during frost, which would make them
stiff, nor in a very hot sun, which might cause excessive
bleeding if the testicles are pulled. Lambs at times faint
after castration, but soon recover. Marking by taking
nips from the ears, if not done before, is now performed,
and the tail docked to keep the sheep clean.

Three common ways of Castration : — 1st, The
scrotum is either slit or the top cut off by a knife, and the
testicles drawn by the teeth.

2nd, By iron clams and the actual cautery. If one is
stiff next day it should be bathed with hot water.

3rd, By hazel-wood clams spread with lard inside and
dipped in powdered sulphate of copper, and left on for
half-an-hour to prevent bleeding after the testicles have
been cut away.

The two latter are not so liable to cause inflammation,
and there is no danger of rupture, or bleeding in the region
of the kidneys, as when drawn, causing a lamb to pine,
though it does not cause death at the time. The third
method is the safest, but takes much more time than the
others. It is the most suitable to adopt, if old lambs or
old sheep are to be castrated.

Washing 10 days before clipping is usual in the case of
most lowland breeds of sheep, though not with Black-
faced Scotch. It is never done in salt water, as it spoils

134 FARM LIVE STOCK.

the wool for keeping. There should be a watertight box
in the centre of the pond for the man doing the washing
to stand in, in place of in the water. He gets hold of a
sheep and keeps it moving about until the "yolk" or
"eik" is washed out. Yolk is a skin excretion which
keeps the wool soft and greasy to touch. It contains
much potash, and is most abundant on the Merino breed.
Hill sheep, as Cheviots, are simply thrown into a large
pond and made to swim through it once or twice.

Clipping or Shearing is dependent on the weather, and,
in the case of lean sheep, on the "rise" of new wool.
Unless for special purposes, sheep are clipped in the new
growth of wool.

Eild sheep, or those not giving milk, are shorn first : on
from the beginning of May in the south, and ewes three or
four weeks later. Exposure to cold by early clipping
greatly diminishes the flow of milk, and might also cause
death from inflammation.

The new wool left is not so close as in sheep of higher
condition. Show sheep are clipped in early spring, but
are kept under cover. Fat sheep clipped for the early
spring market have woollen sheets put on them if the
weather is at all cold. Neglect of this causes the liability
of the exposer to a fine.

Lambs are not shorn the first year, except in a few dis-
tricts : then they are highly kept, and are a good size by
summer.

Twenty-five to thirty stock sheep of large breeds is a

SHEEP. 135

good number for a man to clip in a day, at a cost of 3s. per
score, when done by piece-work. If restricted to twenty per
day, as in fat sheep for market, which have to be clipped
over the back, and done bare and well, 4s. per score.

They are usually " buisted " or marked by a large iron
letter dipped in hot Archangel tar, darkened in colour with
a little lampblack. As the wool gets pretty long, these
markings become first indistinct and then unreadable, and
paint or red keel is rubbed on the wool, after mixing either
with water, or, if wanted to be more permanent, with lin-
seed-oil.

Each fleece of wool is carefully rolled, after all earth
and dung (" clarts ") are removed, inside out, except in such
as Black-faced wool. The neck end is last rolled on, and
made into a band by twisting, to tie the whole together.
It should be packed in bags at once while warm, as it is
more easily and better accomplished.

Certain lands and climates produce better and finer
wool than others, whatever be the breed of sheep. The
Australian fine-woolled Merinos imported into this country
grow it much coarser, and produce young which grow it
coarser still. Eich and heavy soil grows strong wool ;
light soil, as down land, a finer quality. Wool " wauks,"
" mats," or " felts," i.e., sticks very closely together on the
backs and necks of lean sheep in wet winters, lowering its
value. The best wool is got from sheep that constantly
thrive ; there is then no break in the staple, as when sheep
get very poor.

136 FARM LIVE STOCK.

Weaning, in the south of England, is done about the
beginning of May and onwards : in the north, the end of
June and beginning of July and later. Lambs should
have the pastures often changed, if turned out in a
field at the breadth, and should never follow ewes or other
sheep, as they pick up parasites which have come from
these, and are seriously injured. Sheep doing badly from
ordinary causes, as grass scour, etc., may almost invariably
be " set going " by a change to sainfoin. Ewes with the
extra feeding taken off run over the poorest and barest
pasture to dissipate the milk, which causes swelling of the
udder for a few days. It is quite unnecessary to milk
after by hand, as was at one time the custom even in hill
districts. Ewe-milk cheese is very fine, and of a rich green
colour ; but as ewes are milked from behind, the operation
is not one of the cleanest either for the milker or the
produce.

When lambs are to be fed on a bulky well-grown forage
crop, as clover, rape, or vetches, they should at first go on
gradually for a few hours each day, and be perhaps turned
out into a grass field at night for a time. This should also
be done in wet weather if possible, especially if the land
is at all inclined to be heavy. There is risk of hoven,
ending in " bursting," if put on to wet clover suddenly ; or
of impaction, ending in " stomach staggers," if very dry and
on clover alone, or if there is not a proper supply of water.
Sheep drink much in very dry weather, and those giving
milk more than others.

SHEEP. 137

Sheep in the south are penned between two sets of
hurdles, the first moved forward at least once a day, and
the ones behind every second day. The grass is thus
eaten off at once, and, if properly attended to, need
not be eaten so closely as to injure its future growth. It
is then left to grow again without any further bleeding,
which ensues each time it is nibbled by sheep. When
the crop is a moderate size, larger breaks are given, and
the hurdles are not so often lifted. In Scotland and the
north, sheep get all the field at once. No doubt this is
more wasteful, but there is less expense, and Scotch sheep
are more active and require to be at liberty to move about.

In the end of September or beginning of October (and
in some few districts even earlier) fatting tegs, and on
arable farms stock tegs, go on to soft turnips, whites,
graystones, etc. If not quite ripe, these are pulled a few
days before the sheep reach them. This makes them sweeter
and prevents scour. Soft turnips are followed by yellows,
green-rounds, and swedes, then mangels in spring, and on
into July. Eoots, as a rule, unless when thrown on the
grass in spring and summer, should be cut, as they go
further, and it pays in the end ; and tegs, if made to bite
them, break their milk teeth in frosty weather, and then
cannot feed satisfactorily. A mixture of concentrated
artificial food (bruised cake and grain) prevents scour and
other diseases in fatting tegs. Begin with little, and in-
crease to about h lb. at the New Year (average \ lb. to J lb.),
then increase in the proportion of h lb. per 100 lbs. live-

138 FARM LIVE STOCK.

weight till sold. This is often mixed with chaffed hay
or straw. One ton of hay is set aside per acre of roots =
1 ton of hay to 15 tons of roots, or a little over 1 lb. of
hay per sheep per day.

Turnip - troughs should be almost square, in cross-
section, and ample in size. There should be a second set of
troughs for the artificials, which do not require to have
such capacity; the cross section of this might be in the
form of a right angle. Troughs, when not in use, should
be turned over to keep them clean and dry. A length of &
inches to 9 inches is necessary for each sheep, in the case
of the larger breeds. As these stand on both sides, each
will have at least twice that space. A man can easily
cut roots for, and take full charge of, 200 sheep, or attend
to 400 if not cutting.

Stock tegs should have little, if any, artificial food,
which might injure them for breeding.

Urinary disorders appear in some districts among sheep
on turnips, especially swedes, late in spring. All the food
then requires to be changed, and linseed-cake given, and
••£ drachm of nitrate of potash per day. And, to induce
warmth, the back should be covered with a piece of
strong canvas- cloth, 2 feet to 2 J feet square, which has
had boiled linseed-oil brushed on to one side of it to make
it waterproof.

Sheep feed faster in a well-ventilated house or shed
than in the open, especially in stormy weather. The cost
of building precludes this, except for rams or show sheep.

SHEEP. 139

With a number together they are very liable to foot-rot.
In that case it is well to have a platform, a few inches
high, covering most of the centre of the floor, and to sweep
it clean every day. Hay-racks, feeding-troughs, and
water-troughs, are also necessary.

Two hundred sheep are as many as ought to be together
in one lot on roots. In Gloucester and some other dis-
tricts that number would be divided into two or three lots
by low hurdles, or 4-inch mesh-nets.

Amount of Food. — A Cotswold teg, or one of any
of the larger breeds, from eleven months old (1st Jany.)
till fat, will eat, along with the other food mentioned, 24
lbs. roots per day, if fed three times — younger ones less in
proportion. Lean sheep eat more for their weight than
fat ones, and a Cotswold cast ewe will consume up to 35
lbs. per day.

One average acre of turnips, or 15 tons, will keep 200
sheep for one week, at 24 lbs. per day.

Experiments by Sir J. B. Lawes showed that Cots-
wolds give the largest average increase per head per
week, also per 100 lbs. live-weight. Hampshires came
next, after Crossbreds, then Leicesters, and last South-
downs, the increase in all but the Leicesters being in
inverse proportion to the quality of mutton. Under coverr
three sheep, of 100 lbs. live- weight each, consume the same
amount of food as two sheep of the same age and breed,
weighing 150 lbs. each. The mixture consumed per 100
lbs. live-weight per week was 4J lbs. cake, 4f lbs. hay, and

140 FAEM LIVE STOCK.

about 70 lbs. roots = about one-seventh of the live-weight,
after deducting the moisture of the food. The increase was
nearly 2 per cent, live- weight = 2 lbs. per week for a 100
lbs. sheep. A usual increase is 1 lb. live-weight to 8 lbs.
or 9 lbs. solid food, without its moisture. About 58 per
•cent, of the fatted live-weight of sheep, moderately fat, is
butchers' carcass (Warington) ; very fat, 6 to 8 per cent,
more in fine breeds, like Southdowns. Lean sheep give
about 50 per cent., and old ewes, unless of the more fleshy
breeds in good condition, often little over that proportion.
In ordinary sheep passing from store to fat condition, 68
per cent, of the increase is carcass.

The calculation following shows the amount of mutton
produced from the food already recommended. The
amount is reduced to percentage to correspond with
Lawes's 8 lbs. or 9 lbs. dry food example. A little more
food is allowed for sheep kept outside. This drawback is
so far made up for by the advantage gained from giving a
mixture of corn and cake.

Food per day, per 100 lbs. live- weight, would thus be J
lb. cake and corn, 12 lbs. roots, and 1 lb. hay ; or per week —

3 J lbs. cake.
7 lbs. hay.

10 J lbs. — H lbs. moisture ( = 14 p. c.) = 9 lbs. dry.

Boots 85 lbs. —76 h lbs. do. ( = 90 p. c.)

Total, 17 J lbs. dry.

SHEEP. 141

This should give 2 lbs. increase of live- weight = 1 lb. in 8}
lbs. dry.

By doubling the above figures, we get rather over what
a Cotswold teg would do from 1st Jany. till killed at thir-
teen to fifteen months old, weighing 25 lbs. to 28 lbs. per
quarter. With 200 lbs. live- weight, the increase would be
4 lbs. ; and if we apply the 68 per cent, rule in passing
from store to fat condition, the mutton would equal 2*47
lbs. ; whereas in reality a sheep of the larger breeds only
lays on about 2 lbs. of mutton per week.

In calculating the cost of artificial food, it is usually
taken roughly at Id. per lb. = linseed cake @ £9, 15s.
per ton. Seeing half of the mixture is grain, this price
would pay all carriages, and be too much at present
prices.

From weaning till 1st Jany., 30 weeks = 210

days @ J lb., or in money Jcl. per day= . £0 5 10

From 1st Jany. till fat, 12 weeks = 84 days @

f lb., or f d. per day, . . . . 0 5 3

Total cost of cake, etc., £0 11 1

Sheep are sometimes sold by the farmer to the butcher
(either rough or clipped) by the lb., " sinking the offal,"
viz., 6d., 8d., 10d., or Is. per lb. of dressed carcass, accord-
ing to the quality and range of prices in the market. The
butcher gets head, feet, skin, and intestines, including
"web tallow," all into the bargain. The web tallow, or

142 FARM LIVE STOCK.

store of fat which surrounds or encloses the bowels and
stomach of a fat sheep, often weighs 10 lbs. to 14 lbs., and
in Down breeds even more.

In English markets they are usually sold by the " hand
and eye," or a guess is made at the weight — a great dis-
advantage to farmers, who have not the constant experi-
ence of butchers. The American plan of selling by live-
weight would be much better.

Dipping is practised at various times during all of the
four seasons on a dry day and with the wool dry, as after
clipping, or better a fortnight later (when the wool has
grown a little to retain the material — lambs should also go
through at the same time), or usually in autumn or spring,
depending on the custom of the district. Ewes and tups
should either be dipped after tup time or one clear month
before it, to prevent " firing " the rams. The object is to
ameliorate or prevent altogether the attacks of parasites,
viz., — the kade or tick, Melophagus ovinus ; the grass-tick,
Ixodes ricimcs and reduvius, and perhaps other species ; the
louse, Tricliodictes splicer ocephalus ; the black fly, Anthro-
myice (several species) ; the flesh or maggot fly, four species,
Musca ccesar, 31. xomitorice, M. canaria, M. cadiverina ;
and the scab-mite or itch-mite, Dermatodictes ovis (an
acaris).

Ticks (English), Kades or Keds (Scotch), are slightly-
flattened, 6-legged insects, resembling flies without wings,
which move about in the fleeces of sheep, and live by
now and then biting and sucking blood. They may be

SHEEP. 143

kept very much under, if not got rid of altogether. They
are always most abundant on sheep in poor condition,
and in winter when there is little sun, and they do not
come out to the top of the wool to bask, and get shaken
off. On man they bite a few times and then die.

Grass-Ticks are 8 legged, and fix themselves by burrow-
ing their heads into the skins of sheep and other animals, as
•dogs, rabbits, etc., and also men. They do not often move
about, but gorge themselves with blood, increase to the
size of a large pea, and then drop off into the grass to pass
one stage of their existence independently of the sheep as a
host. It is consequently impossible to destroy them
altogether, or even to keep sheep quite free at all seasons
on land where they exist, especially in spring and
sometimes autumn, when the young ones are about in the
grass, and find their way to the bare parts about the
head, neck, and legs.

Sheep Lice are much less in size than the two pests
described, and much lighter in colour, except about the
head, which is dark brown. They are usually in greatest
abundance on the head and barer parts of the body,
causing great irritation, and preventing sheep thriving.
With a little care, and the new method of dipping
over the head, they can be quite destroyed. Many well-
managed flocks have been free from them for years.

Black Flies, such as swarm in thousands about the
hats and heads of people in summer, do not bite, and can-
not break the skin, but live by sucking any raw surface,

144 FARM LIVE STOCK.

as an accidental cut made while shearing. When very
numerous they irritate and unsettle sheep, and prevent
wounds healing, especially if these be about the top of
the shoulder, when the animal can do little to protect
itself.

Maggot Flies, sometimes called blue-bottle flies, do
damage by laying their viviparous ova, during warm showery
weather, on any part of the wool which has been wetted or
soiled with such as animal excreta. In a few hours after
the sheep are thus " fly-blown " or " struck," the maggots
are hatched, if the day be hot, and immediately find the
way to the skin, which they devour rapidly — growing in
size and strength until they are enabled to cause deatli
within two or three days. The presence of maggots may
be easily noticed by the wool on the parts attacked becom-
ing dark and damp, by the restless and uneasy movements
of the sheep, including turning round and attempting to
bite the affected part, lying down often, then rising and
running a little, and taking shelter by itself at the back of
a wall or among rank undergrowth. A sheep may at
times clear itself by rubbing in a loose sandy bank or
scar, but the shepherd has usually to dress each carefully
at least twice with a strong smelling solution, which at
the same time destroys the maggots without doing injury
to the raw parts — no ordinary dip is strong enough to
kill maggots. Sores should be kept soft with carbolic oil.
The spirit or oil of tar is very useful if there is no broken
skin, or to sprinkle on the top of the wool or on any dirty

SHEEP. 145

part to prevent a second attack in very bad cases ; but it
darkens the wool, and causes much irritation on a raw
surface. Maggots may be almost surely prevented from
appearing through keeping sheep clean by clipping away
all dirty wool from behind, and dipping in time with a
strong smelling solution containing so much of carbolic
acid and sulphur. Where it is important to have the
scrotum well covered, ram lambs are not kept in the dip
the usual time, as it has a tendency to make the wool
fall off those parts. Frequently they are not dipped, but
a strong solution of dip material, with a strong smelling
fly-powder added, is rubbed over the backs with a
Banbury brush. Sprinkling the backs with a mixture
from a rose-can is a common practice with large numbers
of sheep together. They are first packed close in a fold.
Maggots have been known to much improve a bad case of
foot-rot by feeding on the diseased part, but they must be
noticed before they have gone too far.

Scab Mites are microscopic ; very much smaller
than any of the other parasites. Patches of the wool
get white, and the sheep by biting half-pull so much
wool, leaving a rough surface. When felt with the hand
there is a hard brittle scab on the skin at the roots of the
wool. It can, as it must of necessity, be cleared out,
to prevent the spreading of the disease, which is most
contagious, and would ultimately prove fatal if not
attended to. "The Highlands of Scotland," or north of
the Forth and Clyde, was at one time the stronghold of

K

146 FARM LIVE STOCK.

scab. It some places it still lurks. There is a fact about
it which has not yet been scientifically explained, and
which should be interesting to farmers buying Scotch
Highland sheep, viz., that after a long drive or railway
journey, where sheep are packed close and heated, scab is
liable to break out in a few weeks, although there has
been no such thing seen in the flock they came from
for years. The rule is, to dip Highland sheep about ten
days after coming off rail, and then there is not the
slightest danger.

TJie common ivinter clips are preparations of arsenic^
etc., — for instance, Bigg's is mostly sulphide of arsenic, got
largely from the chimneys of chemical works. Com-
mercial arsenic (As203), boiled with a little bi-carbonate of
soda to make it dissolve, does the work well, but hardens
the wool. Oil, melted butter, or grease are used to
counteract this action and waterproof the fleece.

Summer clips are mostly carbolic, with an admixture of
sulphur, smelling strongly to unsettle flies. Carbolic is not
only able to kill the living forms, as other dips do, but to
destroy the eggs by coagulating their albumen. The so-
called non-poisonous dips belong to this class. M'DougalTs
and Cooper's are two commonly used in summer. Most
dips require to be dissolved in hot water, which is an
inconvenience. Little's is an example of dips that
dissolve in cold water, but these, as a rule, are more easily
washed off the wool by rains — the extra convenience
often overbalances this. Sheep affected with scab are

SHEEP. 147

dipped with tobacco-juice, and powdered hellebore-
root boiled for fifteen minutes, in addition to the usual
dip.

A dipper consists of a fold, tank, and dripper. The tank
may be built of bricks drawn with cement, and have a
concrete floor. The old-fashioned tub into which sheep
were turned on their backs was a mistake. Heavy sheep
got injured in lifting. Now, the best form of tank is
made wide enough to let a sheep swim through without
being able to turn easily : 15 feet to 20 feet long at the
top, 5 feet deep at the plunge-end and for J of its length,
then slanting out to the dripper at the other end. Sheep are
not lifted, but pushed forward and plunged over the head.
They close their lips and swim slowly through. They
should be in till thoroughly soaked ; men are very apt to
let them go too fast. The excess of dipping solution runs
off them, and back to the tank by the floor of the dripper,
which has a fall towards it. For a few minutes after
dripping the sheep should go for a time into a fold, or
bare place where there is no grass, to avoid poisoning
the pasture, especially when an arsenic dip has been used.
The cost of dipping, which is usually done by contract in
Southern England, is about Id. each, all over a flock,
including lambs. The cost of dipping material for Scotch
sheep is from £5 per 1000 (or a little more than Id. each),
down to half that price, but large discounts are often given
by some agents.

A home - made dip, specially intended for water-

£0

o

O

4

0

5

10

0

16

0

£1

5

2

148 FARM LIVE STOCK.

proofing the fleeces, may run up to 3d. per sheep, as
follows : —

20 lbs. of a mixture of equal parts of soft

soap and pitch-oil (the former boiled

before mixing) @ 2d. per lb.

10 lbs. tobacco powder @ 7d. per lb.

4 gallons Gallipoli oil @ 4s. per gallon .

Cost of material to dip 100 hill sheep,

The principle in pitch-oil is carbolic acid and some
chemically-allied substances. The pitch-oil and soft soap
alone make a good, cheap, summer dip.

Pouring is running a concentrated solution of, say, 5
gallons per score, against 20 gallons in dipping, into sheds
made by the hand, at intervals, in the wool along the back,
sides, and belly of the sheep. This is more effectual in a
case of scab, but is more expensive, and unnecessary for
ordinary purposes.

Smearing * with a mixture of equal parts of American
or Archangel tar, and grease, or better, butter, is a method
of waterproofing the wool and destroying parasites that
was at one time very largely and successfully practised in
exposed hill districts, especially the Highlands of Scotland.
It encourages more the growth of wool than any dip yet
used, but wool is now so low in price that the increase

1 The writer is indebted for many of the facts on this subject to
Mr Stephen Brown, Killilan, Wester Eoss.

SHEEP. 149

will not pay the extra cost of the operation, and many
have given it up. It darkens the wool, and often gives
sheep, especially if lean, a " back-set " until the tar lifts a
little from the skin. Smearing should not be practised
before the middle of October, as a strong sun melts the
smear and it runs towards the points of the wool, and,
besides, rather sickens the sheep. In the process the
smear should be laid well to the skin at the bottoms of
sheds made in the wool, and as little as possible on it.
The usual practice in preparing the material is to mix,
a fortnight before the operation, as much as will do
forty mountain sheep in a tub at one time, viz., 9 pints
(Scotch x) of tar with 9 pints of butter, melted to enable it to
mix, and well stirred together. Tar is a mild blister if
applied alone to an animal's skin, and the grease is in-
tended to dilute it. Hard grease like butter also gives it
consistency. A man smears 20 sheep per day, and receives
2s. 6d. to 3s. per day, besides food; the cost of smearing is
nearly lOd. each, as follows : —

9 pints of tar @ 8d., . . . .£060
40 lbs. butter @ 6d., .... 100

Labour @ 3s. 6d. p. score, including rations, 0 7 0

Cost of smearing 40 sheep, . . £1 13 0

Internal Parasites and Common Diseases. — Besides
these external pests, sheep are subject to numerous internal
parasites. One stage of the development of Tccnia cccnurus,
1 A Scotch pint is about equal to h gallon imperial.

150 FARM LIVE STOCK.

a tape-worm found in the dog, is passed in the brains of
sheep, causing " gid " or " sturdy." The remedies are of
more consequence to farmers with lean stock, and ram-
breeders, than to those who can send an affected animal
at once to the fat market without much loss. A ram
which has been cured of " sturdy " is none the worse after-
wards for breeding purposes. The seat of disease is
on the surface of the brain, at its base, or, in the writer's
experience, frequently in the "lateral cavities/' These
cavities are situated one on each side of the forward brain,
and there, in common language, a " water-bag " grows, con-
taining many young tape-worms. This presses against the
brain, causing absorption of that organ, with usually a
thinning and softening of the skull in one or other of the
hollows on the crown of the head, immediately in front of
a line drawn between the ears. There the skull is very
thin. Partial paralysis accompanies, and the sheep gets
blind on and turns to the opposite side to which the
" water-bag" inclines. Boring with a trochar and canula,
to extract the blob and its contents, is easy in this case.
When the disease is far back in the brain the skull is
thicker over it, and there is not sufficient time, until death
would occur, for the bone to absorb and become soft. In
Scotland this form of the disease has the special name of
" thorterill." Piercing then leaves little fractured pieces
of bone, from the skull, on the surface of the brain, which,
although the disease is cured, cause suppuration, and death
some days after. Principal Williams, Edinburgh, recom-

SHEEP. 151

mends the use of a little circular saw, called a trephine,
to remove a minute round piece of bone. The skin is
bared from the skull immediately over the spot to which
the movements of the sheep direct. All detached pieces
are washed carefully out before the external covering of
the brain is broken. Piercing in the usual way through
the brain to reach the bag is then done with comparative
safety. In districts much subject to this disease the skulls
of dead sheep should be broken up and buried with quick-
lime in a compost heap. The dogs ought to be dosed
regularly with J drachm to 1 drachm of areca nut. This
frees them from tape-worms, and lessens the risk of sheep
picking the embryos up with the grass.

Liver Rot. — Though there have been enormous losses
in this country from " rot " in sheep, the full bearing and
nature of the working of the liver fluke {Distomvmi liepa-
ticum) or (Fasciola hepatica), which is the cause of the dis-
ease, does not yet seem to be quite understood. These worms
are seldom more than an inch long, are broad, thin, and
flat, attaching themselves by a sucker on the under surface.
Sometimes hundreds have been found in the liver ducts of
one sheep. Professor Leuckart in Germany, and A. P.
Thomas in this country, traced, almost simultaneously, the
life history of this parasite through all its different stages,
and published accounts of their investigations in 1882.
They find that it lives for a time, and changes its form in
the body of a minute shell snail (Limnccus truncatulus),
which thrives in an excess of wet.

152 FAEM LIVE STOCK.

The sequence of changes in the animal system is
originated by irritation, and consequently inflammation,
beginning in the biliary ducts, and extending through the
liver, preventing it performing its proper functions to aid
digestion ; the stomach then gets disordered, imperfect
blood is the result, and time is all that is necessary to
exaggerate the consequences into a persistent anaemia
ending in death.

The great means of prevention are, draining, and in stiff
clays also keeping the arable land up in high ridges to
aid surface drainage, keeping sheep off flooded land, having
lumps of rock salt about the pasture, and giving liberal
feeding. One fact is not generally known. The presence
of flukes in the liver, in very large numbers sometimes,
does not necessitate the appearance of the disease. Few
sheep in Galloway, a large district in the south-west of
Scotland, are killed without flukes being found in the
livers, and sometimes in vast numbers. Yet "rot" to
any extent is very exceptional. Eot certainly has done
much damage, and will still do much in wet seasons, but
there are good reasons for believing that much of the
death from so-called " rot " was from a very different cause.
Scour or Diarrhoea in sheep, but more especially in
lambs, is often caused by various parasitic worms attach-
ing themselves to the inner surface of the stomach and
bowels. There they set up irritation, and live, by absorbing
what ought to go to nourish the sheep. Cure : No better
or simpler remedy can be had than turpentine. A sheep is

SHEEP. 153

very easily choked, and turpentine is one of the most
dangerous drugs to administer, not only from its highly
irritating and searching nature (causing death by spasmodic
closing of the mouth of the windpipe should it enter),
but from the fact that it will hardly mix with any ordinary
drench. The administration must be done with great
care. The turpentine (J to J oz.) should be thoroughly
soaked into a little dry meal, and this again mixed in cold
gruel, oil, or even water, and given with perfect safety.
Should the scour be the result of an over-feed of succulent
grass, or a sudden change of green food, the purgative
and the astringent action of the turpentine is generally
what is wanted. Laxity of the bowels, when there is no
positive derangement of system, is easily remedied by
altering the concentrated food from cakes, which contain
large quantities of oil, to the seeds of leguminous plants,
as beans, peas, lentils, etc., which are deficient in oils, and
have a costive tendency.

"Husk," or "Hoose" is a bronchial catarrh, the result
of the irritating action of a number of long, white, hair-
like worms (Slrongylus filaria) in the bronchial tubes.
It is most common amongst lambs, if they have been
pastured on land recently eaten over by sheep, as they
pick up the eggs {ova) with their food. The attack is
evinced by a peculiar husky cough, which is made worse
by exertion, and an unthriving appearance ; the result is
frequently death in weak specimens. To prevent, keep
sheep in good, thriving condition, and do not have young

154 FAEM LIVE STOCK.

stock on land previously soiled by sheep. Treatment is
directed towards the removal of the worms. A turpentine
drench has been long considered most efficacious. Now
the approved method is the injection, directly into the
trachea, of, perhaps, 2 drachms of turpentine, J- drachm
of tincture of opium, and 10 drops of carbolic acid.
A hypodermic syringe is used, and the point is passed
through the walls of the windpipe, between two of the
tracheal rings, at a point near to the bifurcation of the
bronchial tubes.

Lung Disease.— Cattle are subject to a contagious lung
disease. Goats have also been found liable to a disease of
the same nature at the Cape, and the writer has proved to
his satisfaction, that sheep also take lung disease one from
the other, and die, under certain circumstances, in great
numbers. It appears to have very much the nature of a
l>ad cold, and is most severe on old ewes. Should it
creak out in a flock in summer time, or in fine mild
weather in winter, deaths are not numerous, but in a cold
and stormy season, which aggravates it, one-third to one-
half is no unusual proportion to die. The symptoms are a
violent and painful cough, which seems to give no relief.
When seriously affected, the animal falls off from the
•others, and gradually stops feeding. The breathing
becomes increasingly heavy and laboured, with heaving at
the flank, and moaning in the later stages, evincing the
presence of acute bronchitis with severe pain. The ears
droop in a peculiar manner, and the head hangs down,

SHEEP. 155

while foam appears at the mouth, and a tough yellow
mucus at the nose and eyes. None recover after these
acute symptoms set in. Death supervenes generally
about the third or fourth day. The post-mortem reveals a
highly congested state of the air-passages, and large solid
pieces of lung structure, usually the upper lobes, sinking
rapidly in water.

The only efficacious treatment is, to cover the backs by
sewing to the wool with stocking yarn pieces of strong
canvas, 2 feet or 2 feet 3 inches square, which have been
waterproofed by brushing one side with boiled linseed-oil,
to keep off rain and in heat ; and to have the sheep kept
perfectly quiet in a well-sheltered place, and liberally fed.
Any attempt to drug or fumigate simply increases the
number of deaths. A few usually die of consumption
some months after the acute stage of the disease has
passed. It is necessary to state that Principal Williams
and various other good men, believe that the origin of the
disease above described is entirely parasitic, the special
worm being Strongylus filaria.

The writer freely admits the great injury that these
thread worms produce in an irritated condition of the air-
passages, and that they might determine, in some cases,
whether the affection would be severe enough to destroy life,
or mild enough to pass off after a time, without much
■or any notice, should outside conditions be favourable to
recovery ; still, at the same time, he has not the slightest
doubt of the existence of a contagious lung disease in

156 FARM LIVE STOCK.

sheep, which is, however, so varied in its ultimate results
by other and external influences, as climate, general treat-
ment, and parasitic action, that it has not been generally
recognised or acknowledged. There exist weighty reasons
for the statement that much of the so-called death from
"rot" in the United Kingdom in 1879 was due to this
disease, and not to the liver fluke at all ; although in many
districts the latter was very prevalent and most de-
structive.

Trembling or Loupin' 111 is a deadly disease which
is only known by a Scotch name, although ailments with
much of the same symptoms have been met at times in
England. It prevails most on certain rough grassy hills.
Land growing hard or mat grass (Nardus stricta) being
particularly liable to it. "Ziindel, V.S., Strasbourg,,
describes a disease in lambs in which an organism is found
very similar to that of Loupin' 111, and which, he says,
resembles the microscopic plant Pleospora Jierbarum"

It is spreading in Scotland, not rapidly, but surely. It
has been diagnosed by Professor Williams as caused by a
microscopic organism, which he found in the fluid around
the spinal cord. As in the case of the microbe of anthrax,
this form of lower life can be cultivated under suitable
conditions, as in chicken or mutton broth or jelly. By
such cultivation its virulence is gradually attenuated,
and it is hoped that inoculation with the weakened
germs will, in time, prove a preventive of the worst con-
sequences of the disease. The symptoms are a loss of

SHEEP. 157

power in the limbs and sometimes high fever, with affec-
tion of the brain. Usually the animal eats, and seems
to be perfectly well in health, but is unable to rise.
Others, again, drop down instantly and die, usually on
being suddenly started. Spring and early summer is the
most deadly time. The disease has been long known in
many parts, but its cause was quite unaccounted for till
1881. Principal Williams made his discovery while
working at the instigation of the Highland and Agricul-
tural Society of Scotland. It had been noticed that in
years when ticks {Ixodes) were most abundant there was
most death from this disease, and on examination the ticks
were found to contain the same organisms as did the
spinal fluid. This is suggestive, but the full chain of facts
necessary for confirmation of the theory has not yet been
made out. Mr Brotherston, botanist on the Highland
Society Loupin' 111 Investigation Committee, advances the
theory that it is caused by ergot, a dark, horn-like
parasitic-fungus which appears on grass.

The preventive means which have already proved useful
in practice are advocated by both, viz., cutting, or burning
at the proper season, all excess of rough herbage, and the
pasturing of cattle along with sheep, especially during
early summer.

The best treatment of affected animals, not actually down,
is to keep them in a perfectly quiet place, and allow neither
man nor dog to go within sight, so as to prevent excite-
ment.

158 FARM LIVE STOCK.

When down, fat sheep should be killed at once ; poor
ones may first be bled, if there is brain affection, then well
fed, turned, and moved regularly. Very few recover after
becoming unable to walk.

Braxy is a blood disease often described as Anthraxr
although quite distinct ; as inoculating with its virus does
not cause death in the same way. It prevails much on
certain lands in Scotland, usually in autumn and some-
times in spring, when there are sudden and severe white
frosts at night, and the grass is of a succulent or rank
growth. The rank herbage or " tath " from the droppings
of cattle is very liable to produce it. It runs its course in a
few hours, so quickly that no ordinary remedy is of much
use. The blood becomes thick and dark, and stagnates in
parts before death ; so that bleeding, which is usually
tried, is often impossible. Bleeding and moving the
animal about is about the only chance, and that only in
the very early stages. The flesh is very dark-red, particu-
larly in the region of the abdomen, and has a high and
peculiar smell and flavour. Ham made from the hind-
quarters is considered to be rather a delicacy by those
who have learnt to appreciate it in youth. Principal
Williams considers it to be " nothing more than an acute
form of indigestion, with inflammation of the bowels, and
flatulence, arising from eating food in a more or less fusted
and decomposing condition." It may be prevented, or
greatly lessened, by not pasturing cattle along with sheep
on land subject to it, or at least only in the early part of the

SHEEP. 159

season ; by keeping sheep from all quickly grown grass at
the dangerous season, or only allowing them into it for a
time in the middle of the day, when there is no frost on
the pasture.

Temporary Blindness is most frequently met with
after a long time of wet, cold weather. A dim, opaque
scum forms over the pupil of the eye. This would dis-
appear naturally in time, but as the animal cannot see to
feed, it falls off in condition, and might get into a hole.
Bleeding at the eyes is usually practised: this has the
desired effect within a few days. A pen-knife is inserted
between the frontal bone and skin, immediately below the
inner corner of the eye, and a large vein, which bleed*
profusely, is thus severed.

Foot-Rot. — It was noticed that dipping with arsenic-
much improved sheep suffering from foot-rot, and from,
this sprung up the custom, for prevention as well as cure
in mild cases, of driving sheep once a fortnight through a
box containing a solution of arsenic. The drying and
hardening action on the horn is injurious if done oftener.
In very bad cases, all horn that has separated from the
inner part of the foot by suppuration must be carefully
removed with a sharp knife, and the raw parts, which
would grow proud-flesh if not attended to, dressed with a
caustic or acid mixture, as that of Joseph Ewing, Dum-
fries, as arsenic is hurtful to a large open sore. The
arsenic box should be 12 feet long, 1 foot deep, 8 inches
wide at the bottom, and 14 inches at the top, but the ends

160 FARM LIVE STOCK.

only 3 inches deep. The sheep then easily step in, it
"being placed level on the surface of the ground, between
two rows of hurdles or paling, wide enough for them to
pass between. The solution (strength, one pound of
arsenic, dissolved by boiling with a little carbonate of soda,
in five gallons of water) is put in the trough, 1 to 1|
inches deep, not to come above the horny part of the
foot, else it would blister the skin, and cause the hair to
come off. The sheep, having first had all long or loose
horn cut away, are driven quietly through to prevent
splashing of the liquid against the uncovered skin. Crude
carbolic acid is sometimes used instead — strength 3 or
4 parts to 100 of water. The box should have a tight-
fitting lid, to close when not in use, to prevent poisoning
by stray animals drinking from it. Lime in the powdery,
caustic state is sometimes laid down at gateways or places
where the sheep often walk. The usual cause of foot-rot
is dung or some foreign matter getting at the tender struc-
tures of the internal foot in virtue of some softening,
decay, or weakness of the outer horny box ; suppuration
and fungoid growth following.

True foot-rot is not considered to be contagious, but the
writer is inclined to believe that there is sometimes a
derangement in the systems of sheep, showing itself by
symptoms almost identical with those of foot-rot, which
might one day be found to be contagious, or, at all events,
induced in a whole flock by unsuitable or possibly exces-
sive feeding, without any external cause.

SHEEP. 161

The feet of sheep that have been affected are always
more susceptible again ; thus it is very difficult to get rid
of when once well established.

Blotches, causing lameness, originates in wart-like
growths, which in the first stages are hard and scaly ex-
teriorly, and gorged with blood within. They appear in
some seasons about the coronet and lower parts of the
legs. The affection is not contagious, although it breaks
out in a flock suddenly, and at times attacks more or less
seriously the greater number of them. It is thought to be
produced by some irritating cause which shows its effect
most frequently when sheep are on pasture in autumn,
and usually disappears when the flock is put on roots.
Sheep fall off much in condition, and in some of the more
aggravated cases die of blood-poisoning, pus having got
into the blood by absorption of the foetid discharge
which comes from the sores in the later stages of their
development.

The remedies are — remove the sheep from the conditions
under which it broke out, and dress the affected parts in
time with strong caustic, or acid applications, or fire.

Dew-rot is a cause of lameness which appears in April,
and even to a greater extent in autumn, in damp, foggy
weather, or when there are sudden changes of temperature
at night, resulting in frosts or heavy dews. It appears at
first in the form of white blisters between the dibits, or
on the anterior surface of the coronet. The hair falls off
the affected parts and they are left bare, and in a short

L

162 FARM LIVE STOCK.

time become open sores. If not at once treated by using
a stimulating embrocation, after opening them with a
knife, the inflammation and irritation spread until the
whole foot-structure is involved, and the ultimate condition
becomes something like an aggravated form of foot-rot, the
whole of the horny parts sloughing off. When it takes this
serious form, the proper treatment is poulticing with tar,
bran, or linseed-cake (" burst" with hot water) to reduce the
inflammation, allay pain, and keep dirt from the wounds.

Sheep thus affected fall very much off in condition, but
there is no fear of death, if proper precautions are taken.
It is reported to have appeared in Gloucestershire, for the
first time, about 1870.

Some places are more subject to it than others. The
pastures are frequently worst which have not a good aspect,
as lying away from the sun. Instant and constant attention
is positively necessary to prevent the development of the
mature form of the disease ; and the whole flock must be
removed at once and put on arable land which is not under
pasture. Dew-rot very frequently appears among ewes
that are going with the rams, and are consequently better
fed at the time. A rapidly-improving condition may
make the system more susceptible of the disease, as is the
fact with many other diseases. Sheep that are being
forced, in cases of high farming or for show purposes, are
always more liable to give the shepherd trouble than
those fed in a moderate way; and the death-rate, as a
rule, is much higher.

SHEEP. 163

Another common cause of an excessive death-rate is the
allowing of sheep, through bad management or want of
proper food, to get into an unthriving condition, or, in
common language, to get a " back-set."

If hoggs are kept, more particularly late into spring, on
a turnip crop which has not been properly cleaned of
weeds while growing, very alarming death-rates are often
prevalent. There is a pretty widely-spread belief in
Gloucestershire, both amongst farmers and shepherds, that
chick-weed (Stellaria media), if abundant, is most hurtful
to young sheep stock.

TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF THE STOCKING OF FARMS
IN SOUTHERN AND MIDLAND ENGLAND.

Data of Use in the Calculations.

Horses. — 3 kept per 100 acres arable on light land ; 4
kept per 100 acres arable on heavy land ; cost per annum
of feeding each horse, £25 ; with shoeing and sundry bills
extra, £30 ; 1 man and pair of horses, £100to£110a year.

Grass at 3s. 6d. per week for 22 weeks, = £3, 17s., which
would pay the rent of 1J or 2 acres. One acre at least of
good old pasture should be set aside per horse.

Hay, 24 lbs. per day for 7 months = 2 J tons per horse.
Consuming value, taken at half the sale value, = £2 to £2,
10s. per ton; or use 1 ton of hay and 1J tons of good oat
straw. (A little straw would be rejected if not chaffed.)

Litter, 1 J tons to 2 tons for the winter season. Averaging
the yield of oats at 52 bushels per acre, 2 acres are con-
sumed per horse when 3 bushels are given per week in
winter and 1 bushel in summer. (So much of this might
be sold, and beans, bran, etc., bought to take its
place.)

STOCKING OF FARMS. 165

Sheep. — 2 ewes with 2 J lambs (a fair crop), or 2 J
lambs (a good crop), kept per acre on medium pasture
in summer.

Eoots, h ton given per day to 100 ewes on grass till
lambing time, and 1 ton per day after lambing, or = 1 ton
per day for 4 months, or 120 tons -J- 15 (average of ton per
acre) = 8 acres per 100 ewes.

Ewes not on grass, also clipped sheep or hoggets after
Christmas, consume 24 lbs. per day ; therefore 200 eat 1
acre (15-ton crop) in one week. Beginning with lambs
put on in September, it is approximately right to say 1
acre will keep 300 per week on an average during the
first root season = 16 lbs. of roots per day, which would not
be quite enough for the larger breeds.

Hay is also allowed = 1 ton per acre of roots.

Cake = J lb. to each per day for six months comes to
70 lbs. more than 2 tons for 100 sheep. It is near enough,
practically, to say 2 tons.

Bullocks. — One acre of good pasture, or 1{ acres to 1J
acres, according to quality, should keep one fatting bullock
all summer. One store animal might be sufficient stock
for 1 acre of second-quality land.

Turnips, f cwt. per day, or 7 tons in 6 months, is nearly
J acre for each bullock. If giving 1 cwt. per day, 1\
bullocks may be kept per acre of turnips (15 tons) between
6 and 7 months. The price at 7s. 6d. per ton = 4£d.
per cwt.

166 FARM LIVE STOCK.

Hay, 1 stone (14 lbs.) per day for 26 weeks = 22f cwts.
A large-sized fatting bullock should eat about 1J stones =
17 J lbs. per day. An ordinary crop of " seeds " hay = 1|
tons per acre ; a good crop, 2 tons.

Of natural hay, 1J tons is a good crop. Heavier
crops get white at the bottom, and are not such good
quality, except on some rich, moist meadows where the
larger grasses greatly predominate.

Of straw, a bullock in a yard will eat and trample
down 3 or 4 tons in 6 months ; 1 or 2 tons more could be
trampled down if necessary.

Of meal and cake mixture, 6 lbs. per day to each bullock
for 6 months gives a total of \ ton, less 28 lbs. Say, \ ton
each.

Cows. — One cow can be kept summer and winter on 2J
acres of superior dairy grass land, while 3 acres of ordinary
quality are necessary, and in a hill dairy district up to
5 or 6 acres.

Hay cut from 1 acre of natural meadow = 1 J tons,
or 19 lbs. per day per cow for 6 months, plus \
ton to 1 ton of good straw, is enough fodder for an
average dairy cow: 24 lbs. of hay per day = 2J tons
in 7 months; 25 lbs. of hay per day = 2 tons in 6
months.

Mixed concentrated food, given in spring after calving
and before grass comes, may vary in cost from £1 each
cow (ordinary feeding) to £2 each (high feeding).

STOCKING OF FAEMS. 167

Cotton cake given in summer on the grass, 3 lbs. per
day for 6 months = (nearly) 5 cwts. per cow, and at £6 per
ton costs 30s. per cow.

Eoot and forage crops for all the year round are already
given at page 59.

Tithe may be none, or varying from 2s. 6d. to 6s. or 8s,
per acre. This should be considered as so much rent.

Bates and Taxes amount to 3s. to 5s. per acre.

Implements. — Total cost per acre, £1 on a farm half
arable and half pasture, up to 30s. if all arable, or even £2
per acre if many new and expensive implements are
bought, or in the case of a small holding. A 500 acre
farm might thus have £500 to £750 or £1000 of capital
sunk in implements.

Capital in an ordinary farm = £10 or £12 per acre: in
high farming it may mount up to much more.

Example No. 1

Is given as an answer to the first three questions set in the
examination for the English Koyal Agricultural Society's
Diploma in 1884.

(1.) " What capital is required for a farm of 500 acres
(half arable and half pasture). The arable being turnip
and sheep land. The grass, 50 acres good feeding land, the
rest suited to young stock ?"

168 FARM LIVE STOCK.

(2.) " What proportion of capital would you apply to —

1. Cattle.

2. Sheep.

3. Horses.

4. Implements and Machines.

5. Tillages, etc ? "

(3.) " State the most suitable course of cropping."

In all farm calculations the rotation is the first point
to settle.

Question (3.)— Rotation for 250 acres arable.
A Five-Course Shift.

1. Wheat, 50 acres.

2. Oats, 50 acres (better straw for fodder than barley).

(Catch crops following more or less ; as rye, tri-
folium, vetches, rape, etc., for sheep food in spring.)

3. Eoots, 50 acres, mostly eaten on the land by sheep ;

part carted to the yard for cattle.

4 Barley, 50 acres (part might be oats instead).

5. " Seeds," 50 acres, all cut once for hay and the latter-
math eaten by sheep.

Question (2.) — To find the numbers, and affix the prices,
of the Horses, Cattle, and Sheep, that the fore-
aointf 250 acres of arable and 250 acres of grass-
land will keep.

STOCKING OF FAKMS. 169

Cattle.
250 acres, total of grass.
50 „ (the best) keep 50 fatting bullocks, worth £17

to £20 each.

200 „ left.

75 „ keep 50 bullocks 1 year younger, £11 to £13

each.

125 „ left.

16 „ (second quality) to graze 8 horses.

109 „ left.
34 „ cut for hay.

75 „ left for sheep.

Horses.
Being light land, 3 per 100 acres cultivated = 8 horses.
At £40 each = £320.

Sheep.

75 acres of grass left for sheep.
2 sheep per acre with their lambs.

150 Ewes @ £4X each = £600 total capital in ewes.

One hundred and fifty ewes get 1 \ tons of roots per day
on grass for 4 months or 120 days = 180 -s-tons 15
1 Rather high for an ordinary flock at current prices.

170 FARM LIVE STOCK.

(average crop in tons per acre) = 12 acres turnips required
for the ewe flock.

Tegs, 200 eating 16 lbs. turnips per day consume 18
acres in 6 months or 26 weeks.

Turnips.

12

acres

set aside for

ewes.

18

)>

»

tegs.

30 „ total for sheep.

20 „ for 50 cattle = 70 lbs. (fully) each per day for

— six months.

50 „ total turnips disposed of.

Fodder.
(1.) Straw.
150 acres of grain crops @ 1J tons straw per acre.
li

187 tons straw (50 bullocks eat and trample down 3 J

tons each).
175 „ for cattle.

12 „ horse litter, and to go to the cattle-yard after.
(Some of the cattle straw would first be used
for thatching, which would not spoil it
for litter.)

STOCKING OF FARMS, 171

(2.) Hay.

50 acres seeds @ 1J tons of hay per acre.
x 1J

75 tons total seeds hay.

34 „ cut from the 34 acres of natural meadow

(rather a light crop).

109 „ total hay.
18 „ for 8 horses = 2 \ tons each.

91 „ left.

30 „ allowance of 1 ton per acre of turnips for

sheep.

61 „ left to be sold, or a little more given to the
sheep and a small foddering per day to the
bullocks.

Where a good market for hay cannot be got, it might
pay better to pasture half of the " seeds " land instead of

cutting it.

Capital = Spring Valuation of Stock, etc.

Cattle,

50 bullocks @ £20 each, . . £1000

50 „ @£13 „ . . 650

£1650

Carried forward, £1650

172 FAEM LIVE STOCK.

Brought forward, £1650

Sheep.
150 ewes, with lambs, @ £4 each, . £600

200 tegs @ 60/ each (a high price), . 600

1200

Horses— 8 @ £40 each, ... 320

Implements. — £1 per acre all over, . . 500

Tillages.

50 acres wheat @ 50/, . . £125

100 „ oats and barley @ £2, . 200

50 „ " seeds " @ £1, . . 50

50 „ turnip land @ £3, . . 150

(This includes catch crops and

manures for the same.) 525

Half-year's Bent, Tithe and Taxes @

28/ per acre, per an., . . . 350

Cash in hand to pay wages and expenses, . 455

Total capital, £5000

Question (1.)
Capital required per acre = £10.

STOCKING OF FARMS. 173

Example No. 2.

The following calculation will show the rotation which
might be adopted on a 300-acre farm in the south of
England, two-thirds arable suitable for sheep, and the rest
pasture for grazing or dairy purposes ; the stock kept, and
the amount of capital required per acre, apportioning the
amount for horses, cattle, sheep, implements, etc. Also
the number of labourers required, their different duties,
and the necessary amount per annum paid for wages ;
also a Michaelmas valuation and a statement of receipts
and expenses for a year.

A four-course rotation adopted for the arable land.
50 acres wheat (or part oats to produce better fodder).
50 „ roots, mostly swedes ; average 15 tons per acre
(5 acres of mangel, 20 to 25 tons per acre,
would keep up the above average, and allow
2 or 3 acres to grow potatoes).
50 „ oats.
50 „ clover or " seeds " all cut once for hay.

200 acres, the given amount of arable.

174 FARM LIVE STOCK.

Pasture.

100 acres grass.
75 „ pasture should carry 150 ewes and their lambs
(say 200) in summer.

25 „ left.

10 „ keep 6 or 7 horses.

15 „ left for 10 cows' pasture = 1^ acres each.

Or 5 cows might be kept, and their calves
reared each year; the heifers coming into
milk at two years off, and the bullocks of the
same age put up to finish, in the autumn
following.

Roots.

50 acres, average 15 tons.

12 „ for 150 ewes = lj tons per day for 4 months
during winter while on grass (by giving
half quantity for 2 months at first, before
lambing, the turnips may be spread over
5 months).

38 „ left.
1 „ for 10 cows = 30 lbs. each per day for 4 months
in winter, including the time they are dry.

37 „ left (carried forward).

STOCKING OF FAKMS. 175

37 acres left (brought forward).

20 „ for 200 tegs (18 acres are consumed in 6
months by 200 tegs going on as lambs in
September = 16 lbs. per day, being rather
little for large breeds).

17
i

2

16*

54

11

left.

for 7 horses.

left.

for 50 tegs, bought in autumn, to feed.

left for bullocks (7 tons are consumed by a
fatting bullock in 6 months @ f cwt. per
day, or 1 ton per acre over, after feeding
2 bullocks per acre, which would make up
the possible total to 24 bullocks).

Fodder.

(1.) Straw.

100 acres grain crop @ 1J tons straw per acre (this is
a low average, but it is off light land),
x 1J tons.

125 tons straw.
20 „ for horses (half for litter, and the remainder for
fodder being sufficient with 1 ton of seeds

hay for each horse).

105 „ left (carried forward).

176 FAEM LIVE STOCK.

105 tons left (brought forward).
10 „ for part of the cow-fodder = 1 ton per cow.

95 „ left.

10 „ for cows' litter, which could be done without if

necessary.

85 „ for 24 bullocks = 3J tons each, to supplyfodder
and litter. The litter is supplemented by
the rough stable cleanings being thrown in
the open yard.

(2.) Hay.
50 acres of " seeds " hay.
1J (average number of tons per acre).

75 tons total hay.

40 „ given to the sheep (a little over 1 ton per
acre of roots consumed (37 ac), or something

more than 1 lb. per sheep per day).

35 „ left.

10 „ for 10 cows, which with 10 tons of straw
allowed provides the necessary 25 lbs. each

per day for six months.

25 „ left.

7 „ for 7 horses also getting part straw.

18 „ left, and might be sold at market or sale value
(£4 per ton more or less). If there is no
market, 10 tons given to the sheep would
be \ lb. more for each per day, and a fodder-
ing might go daily to the bullocks.

STOCKING OF FARMS.

177

light

Michaelmas Valuation (29th Sept.)

150 ewes @ £3 each, .

200 home-bred tegs 1 _ ,
m, , i T ©40/ each,

50 bought do. J ^ '

7 horses @ £35 each,
10 cows @ £20 each,

8 pigs @ 30/ (fed on small potatoes and
grain),

24 bullocks @ £17 each, .
100 acres grain crops (@ £8 to £10), say @ £9

per acre,

50 acres roots @ £5, 10/ (nearly 7/6 per ton),
75 tons hay @ £2 (consuming-value taken at
half the sale-value),
Implements @ £1, 10/ per acre, .

£450

500

245
200

12

408

900

275

150
450

£3590
Petty Cash, . 10

Total capital required, . £3600

£3600 h- 300 (the number of acres) = £12 capital
per acre.

178 FAKM LIVE STOCK.

Expenses and Purchases other than of stock bought
to fill up the places of those sold that appeared in the
first valuation.

Rent, Taxes, and Labour.
Kent (including tithe), 300 acres @ 30/, . £450 0 0

Taxes, 4/ per acre, 60 0 0

Labour, 35/ per acre,- arable, £350 0 0
10/ „ grass, 50 0 0

400 0 0

£910 0 0
Purchased Cakes and Feeding Stuffs.

For cows (@ £1 each), . £10 0 0

For 24 bullocks, 12 tons @

£7,7/, .... 88 4 0

For 250 sheep, 5 tons @

£7, 7/, . 36 15 0

134 19 0

Seed.
Eye-grass, home-grown ; clover,

10/ per acre, . . . £25 0 0
(Wheat 5/, oats 3/ per bushel),

225 bush. @ 4/= . . 45 0 0

70 0 0

Manure.
Super, 3 cwts. per ac. for
turnips = 150 cwts. @
3/6 £26 5 0

Carried forward, £26 5 0 £1114 19 0

STOCKING OF FARMS. 179

Brought forward, £26 5 0 £1114 19 0
Nitrate of soda and sulphate
of ammonia for grain crops
and potatoes, 2 tons @
£10 (average), . . 20 0 0

46 5 0

Shoeing (30/ per horse), plus sundry bills

for repair of harness, implements, etc. =

£5 each, 35 0 0

Coal, etc., for the engine (a fixture "belonging

to the farm), 16 0 0

Interest on £3600 capital @ 4 p. c. = . 144 0 0

Total expenditure for the year {carried

to page 180), £1356 4 0

Receipts from sales of farm produce for a year, leaving
the numbers and value of stock as is found in the valu-
ation at last Michaelmas.

From Sheep Stock —
Sale of wool (6 lbs.) at 5/ each on 150

ewes, £37 10 0

Death, 3 or 4 per 100, and difference in

price of old ewes sold and about 50 tegs

bought, 37 10 0

(The above balance each other.)

180 FARM LIVE STOCK.

200 lambs (produce of 150 ewes) @ £2 each, £400 0 0
250 tegs sold @ 60/ each, profit £1 each, . 250 0 0
(There is no loss on horses if young ones are
broken in and others sold at their best.)
From Cattle —
10 cows (produce 600 gals, milk at7d.=

£17, 10/ each) = 175 0 0

10 calves @ 50/ each, . £25 0 0

Less loss through sale and re-
purchase of 3 cows to prevent
depreciation of the stock, 15 0 0

10 0 0

24 bullocks @ 35/ per month of increase

(for 6 months) = 252 0 0

8 pigs yield a profit of £2 each (food sup-
plied by the farm) = . . . . 16 0 0
From sale of Grain —

(Wheat, 4J qrs. per ac. @ 35/= £7 8 9)

(Oats, 7Jqrs. „ @ 20/= £7 10 0)

100 acres grain crops.
14 „ off for horses.

86 „ @ £7, 10/ per acre (after paying

market expenses), 645 0 0

From Poultry —
5 0 hens and 20 ducks @ a profit of 2/6 each = 8 15 0

Return from produce in the year, . . . £1756 15 0
Total expenditure for the year (brought from
page 179), 1356 4 0

Total profit, £400 11 0

STOCKING OF FAEMS. 181

The loss from death is assumed to be allowed for in
stating the prices obtained. Should grain rise, say 10/
per quarter on wheat, the profit on the above farm,
due to this item alone, would be increased by £200 a
year, and in good grass seasons some of the bullocks
might be bought in spring and during summer, and
£60 or up to £100 of profit got for grazing them.

The foregoing do not pretend to be more than two of
many methods which may be adopted of arranging the
stock and crops on such farms.

The following Balance-Sheet and Eevenue and Expen-
diture Account will enable the reader to follow more
exactly the figures in the foregoing example (No. 2), and
to verify the results. The accounts are framed on the
footing of a tenant entering into possession of his farm
at Michaelmas of an assumed year, with stock, etc., as on
page 177, carrying on one year's transactions, as on pages
173 to 180 inclusive, and striking a balance at the Michael-
mas succeeding his entry, with stock, etc., then in number
and value exactly the same as at entry. In the Eevenue
and Expenditure Account, the value of grain, roots, and
hay consumed is stated on each side, as well as the other
receipts and expenditure described on pp. 178-180.

[Balance-Sheet.

Dr.

BALANCE-

As at Michaelmas

As at Michaelmas

1898.

1899.

£

s.

d.

£

s.

d.

To Ewes, .

450

0

0

450

0

0

» Tegs, .

500

0

0

500

0

0

,, Horses,

245

0

0

245

0

0

,, Cows, .

200

0

0

200

0

0

,, Pigs, ....

12

0

0

12

0

0

,, Bullocks,

408

0

0

408

0

0

,, Grain Crops, .

900

0

0

900

0

0

,, Boots,

275

0

0

275

0

0

„ Hay, ....

150

0

0

150

0

0

,, Implements, .

450

0

0

450

0

0

, , Cash in hand or bank,

10

0

0

410

11

0

3600

0

0

4000

11

0

Dr. REVENUE AND EXPENDITUEE ACCOUNT*

Expenditure.

To Ewes, Expenditure on their account,
,, Tegs, ditto,
,, Cows, ditto,

,, Ditto, Loss through Sales to prevent De-
preciation, .....
,, Bullocks, Expenditure on their account,
,, Horses, ditto,
,, Kent, Taxes, and Labour,

This after crediting pasture rent, £150, debited above
under proper heads,— E-wes, Horses, Cows.

,, Seed, ......

, , Manure purchased, ....

,, Shoeing, etc., .....

,, Coals, etc., .....

,, Interest on Capital, ....

,, Balance or Profit, ....

£

238
233

82

15
250
160
760

70
46
35
16
144
400

s.

10
0
0

0
14
15

0

0
5
0
0
0
11

d.
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

2451

15

0

* For the arrangement of these facts and figures the

SHEET.*

Cr

As at Michaelmas
1898.

As at Michaelmas
1899.

By Capital,

,, Revenue Account for Profit,
1898-9,

£
3600

s.
0

d.
0

£
3600

400

s.
0

11

d.

0
0

3600

0 i 0

4000

11 j 0

for Year assumed, say 1898 to 1899.

Cr.

Revenue.

£

s.

d.

By Grain Crop, sold or used,

900

0

0

If understated, so far as used on Farm per contra, cor-

respondingly understated, so result not affected.

Same applies to Roots and Hay.

,, Roots, used, ...

275

0

0

,, Hay, ditto, .....

150

0

0

,, Ewes, for Lamb Crop, 200 at 40s.,

400

0

0

, , Tegs, disposed of at profit (subject to Expenditure

per contra) of .

250

0

0

, , Cows, for profit (ditto)

Calves, and Milk,

200

0

0

,, Bullocks, disposed of, profit (ditto)

252

0

0

,, Pigs, ditto, ditto,

16

0

0

, , Cash, for Poultry sold , .

8

15

0

2451

15

0

Author is indebted to Mr A. T. Niven, C.A., Edinburgh.

184 FARM LIVE STOCK.

The following Labour Note shows the particulars of the
£400 stated as expense of labour on page 178.

Labour —

3 carters.

1 cowman.

2 shepherds.

4 labourers.

10 @ 13/ per week, average, . . . £338 0 0
1 bailiff @ £1 per week, . . . . 52 0 0

11 men, £390 0 0

3 extra hands at harvest for 3 weeks @

24/ per week, 10 16 0

Total labour, £400 16 0

The bailiff, carters, head shepherd, and cowman are
all supposed to have cottage and garden accommodation
in addition to the above money wages.

In some districts wages are higher, while in others they
are lower. The above may be taken as an average of the
reduced wages of the present time.

PRINTED BY OLIVER AND BOYD, EDIXBUIKill.

PROSPECTUS

OF THE

COUKSE OF EDUCATION

IN THE

SCIENCE AND PRACTICE OE AGRICULTURE

AND THE ALLIED SCIENCES,

As Taught in connexion with the Chair of Agriculture and
Rural Economy in the University of Edinburgh.

Agriculture and Rural Economy, 100 Lectures,

4 Guineas.

By Professor ROBERT WALLACE.

Periodical Excursions will be made to the best Farms in
the Lothians.

In addition to the Professor's Course, thoroughly competent
and qualified Lecturers have agreed to conduct Classes, to give
the Student of Agriculture the special training necessary to
qualify him for the Examinations of the Royal Agricultural
Society of England, the Highland and Agricultural Society
of Scotland, the Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, and the
Surveyors' Institute. The Course will also be found suitable
not only for those who are preparing for examinations, hut for
Landed Proprietors, Estate Agents, Fanners, and Law Students.

2

The previous education of the Student, the time he has at his
disposal, and the object for which he studies, will determine how
many classes it is desirable for him to attend, and whether the
Course of Study should extend over one or two Sessions.

Students are requested to consult with the Professor of Agriculture
as to the plan and arrangement of their work. They will have the
option of attending all or any of the following Classes, at the
hours named in the Syllabus : —

Agricultural Chemistry, 50 Lectures, . 3 Guineas.
By J. FALCONER KING, F.C.S., F.I.C., etc.,

Analyst to the City of Edinburgh.

Students of this Class have the privilege of attending the Sys-
tematic Course of 100 Lectures in Minto House on General Chemistry
without payment of further Fees.

Veterinary, 50 Lectures,

Specially adapted for the Student of Agriculture.

By WM. WILLIAMS, F.R.C.V.S., etc.,

Principal of the New Veterinary College, Edinburgh.

The Clinical Instruction given daily at the New Veterinary College is
Free to Students in this Class.

By payment of other 2 guineas a Student may attend 100 Lectures
on Horse and Cattle Pathology in Professor Williams's Veterinary
Course.

Botany bearing upon Agriculture, 50 Lectures,^

Also Demonstrations in the Laboratory, including ! g pnr
Microscopic Examinations of Plants, and the Iden- i

tifcation of Seeds, . . . . .J

By A. N. M'ALPINE, B.Sc, etc.,

Botanist to the Highland and Agricultural Society, and Lecturer on Botany in the
New Veterinary College, and in the School of Medicine, Minto House.

The practical working of Farm Accounts and Bookkeeping will
be under the direction of Mr A. T. Niven, C.A., Edinburgh.

Information as to the Classes of Geology, Natural History, Natural
Philosophy, and Land Measuring and Surveying will be given at a
later date.

A Medal will be given to the best Student in each Subject, which
will be decided by the results of Three Examinations conducted
during the Session.

In connexion with the Agriculture Class there are the Steven
Scholarship of £80 and the Vans Dunlop Scholarship of £100.
Particulars may be found in the Edinburgh University Calendar.
The Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland gives Ten Bur-
saries of ,£20 each and Five Bursaries of £10 each. The examina-
tions for these take place before the classes open. For particulars
refer to the Journal of the Highland Society.

Arrangements may be made for a limited number of Students
being directly under the care of the Professor of Agriculture at his
residence on the farm of Corstorphine Bank, where they will have
every opportunity of seeing practical work, and be within easy reach
of the University.

If Students desire they will be assisted to find farms where they
may board after the close of the Session.

The prominent benefits of this Course as arranged are as follows : —

(1.) Advantage is taken, at merely nominal fees, of the existing
Classes conducted by the best teachers, besides additional Lectures
giving the subjects a more direct bearing upon Agriculture.

(2.) The Classes are so planned that in two Sessions of five months
each (beginning early in November) the average Student can qualify
himself for the highest Examinations in Agriculture in the kingdom.

(3.) In view of the fact that no scientific agricultural teaching can
be thorough without intimate knowledge of practical work, the
classes are conducted during the five winter months, when there is
little agricultural work of importance to be seen, and when a farmer
can most conveniently be absent, leaving seven months of the busy
season to be devoted to Practical Agriculture.

(4.) The interest and connexion with Practical Agriculture is kept
up by periodical visits to farms in one of the best agricultural dis-
tricts in Scotland.

(5.) The inexpensive character of this Course places the best
Scientific Education within the reach of all those interested in
Agriculture.

.INTKl- BY OLIVEK AND P.OYI), EDINBUEfi]

Hf

■

'•'v.*.