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ONE DEPARTMENT OF THE FARM-FACTORY
A Practical Treatise on Horses, Cattle, Sheep
and Swine, including their breeding, feeding
care and management in health and disease
| By
CHARLES WILLIAM BURKETT
Editor of American Agriculturist
ILLUSTRATED
NEW YORK
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
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PREFACE
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Farm stock have played an important role in
—sAmerican farming. An immense quantity of
{ roughage material unavailable as food for man,
each year by means of live stock is converted into
appetizing and nutritious food; protection and
clothing are secured from their hair and wool;
shoes are made from their hides; labor is done by
their employment; and assistance in a thousand
and one directions is rendered—all coming as a
direct result of the breeding, feeding and raising
of farm stock on the farms of the country.
The volume herewith presented abounds in help-
ful suggestions and valuable information for the
most successful production of farm stock in all
the phases of the subject. It is an every-day hand
book of live stock and contains the best ideas
gathered from the various authorities and the ex-
perience of a score of practical men in all depart-
ments of live stock production.
CLAW. BURKETT.
New York City, June, 1910.
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I
THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK
CHA PLH RTE
THe FEEDING OF ANIMALS
CHAPTER. III
Horses
‘CHAPTER LY
BREEDS OF HORSES.
CHAPTER) V
Horst BREEDING
CHAPTER, VE
FEEDING THE Horse
CHAPTER VII
Tue Care AND MANAGEMENT OF HorsEs .
CHAPTER VIII
Tue DISEASES OF THE HORSE
CHAPTER TX
Tue MULE
CHAPT BR xX
CATTLE
CHAPTER XE
BREEDS OF CATTLE .
Page
Vii
13
26
28
41
48
58
66
76
83
86
Vill TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER XII
THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING .
| CHAPTER Sait
Tue Business oF BEEF MAKING .
CHAPTER XIV
THE CaRE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE
CHAPTER XV
Tue DISEASES OF CATTLE
CHAPTER XVI
SHEEP.
CHAPTER XVII
BREEDS OF SHEEP
CHAPTER XVIII
SHEEP FEEDING
CHAPTER XIX
THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP
CHA PRR: XOX
Tue DISEASES OF SHEEP
CHAPTER XXI
SwINE .
CHAPTER SexaT
BREEDS OF SWINE
CHAPTER XXIII
FEeEepING Hocs
CHAPTER XXIV
THe CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE
CHAPTER XXV
Tue DISEASES OF SWINE
Page
109
125
144
163
165
177 |
182
195
201
203
213
220
237
INTRODUCTION
FARM STOCK
The progress that a nation is making can, with
reasonable accuracy, be measured by the kind of
live stock it raises. Poor people and poor stock
usually go together. The most prosperous nations
of the earth get a large share of their wealth by
raising improved stock. This is the story the
world over. -Wherever agriculture is really suc-
cessful and the people prosperous, the raising of
live stock is a fixed feature of that agriculture.
While it is true that many special lines of agri-
culture are extremely prosperous with no live stock
corinected with them, still, as a general rule, live
_ stock are necessary to use up the roughage mate-
rials of the farm, thus bringing into profit a vast
amount of food material that otherwise would
be lost. |
The history of farming tells in no uncertain
terms that where live stock have not been appre-
ciated, fertile lands cannot be maintained. Its
admonition is to get live stock; to get all kinds of
farm stock; to sell your crops through them. Its
mark is against any single line of farming, because
such means inefficiency, soil depletion and worne
out land. The cotton farmer needs cattle, sheep
and hogs to consume his cowpea forage, his clover
forage, and the corn forage that were produced
as a part of the crop system to maintain the cot-
ton lands. The wheat farmer needs live stock for
a proper utilization of straw and clover and alfalfa
that are a part of good wheat farming. The corn
Z FARM STOCK
farmer needs hogs and cattle to consume the grain
and stover and the rotation crops, that his lands
may remain fertile and his farming plant be made
better.
Humus and manure must be had. They may
come from green crops or from city stables, but
their use must never be ignored, else the time
GOOD FEED—THEN GOOD CATTLE
You can stock your farm with good cattle, but if good feed
is not provided you will not get very far in the business.
will come suddenly when neither fertilizers nor
tillage will avail and when the land will be thrown
back on nature for restoration and the renewal
of life. When correct farming is practiced, crop
rotation is renewed, diversified farming follows,
live stock are restored to the farm and the land
becomes fertile and the farm productive.
The old saying that runs:
INTRODUCTION Ss
“No grass, no cattle;
No cattle, no manure;
No manure, no grass,”
applies to every American farm today. The cry
on the great majority of farms is for more manure
and for better preserved manure that shall be
applied to the soil more intelligently and more
thoughtfully than is now the case.
Just go into any old section of the country—
into New England if you please. There you will
find many deserted homes and abandoned farms.
Why? Because the fertility was sold and not re-
placed. It was sent away from the farms in bushel
baskets, in baled bundles, in cotton sacks—by the
pound, by the bushel and by the ton. Go into the
South—into the land blessed in every way beyond
measure. You find impoverished soils; you see
worn-out fields, gullied and wrinkled and cast
aside. The fat of the land was gathered up and
shipped away in cotton, in tobacco, in corn, and
none was returned to take its place. The humus
of the soil was used up and burned by one-horse
plows and shallow working tools and the land was
bereft of its powers of high production.
Go into any of the older parts of the country—
go even into the West, into the newest settlements.
You find depleted, soils, farms rendering their
owners a bare subsistence. Why is this all so
true? Because the soil robber in every instance
has been present, the farm stock have been
shunned, the fertility has been taken away and the
lands have been reduced to the lowest point of
production.
All of the trouble has been due to a disregard
of the place and importance of live stock. Farm
4 FARM STOCK
stock will remake old lands and maintain good
lands. Let your farm be a factory—a farm fac-
tory—where most of the crops raised shall be
consumed as food for live stock, that finished prod-
ucts may be made and as such be sold rather than
as raw materials, in which form they were secured.
These things it means: That there shall be diver-
sity in crops; that more livestock shall be bred
DAIRY CATTLE AT PASTURE
As the country grows older and more thickly populated
the number of dairy cows will increase, for the reason that
a larger quantity of human food is secured than through an
equal expenditure of raw materials fed to any other class of
farm animals.
and fed on the factory farm; that the entire plant
shall be managed as a business enterprise of the
largest magnitude. 3
Farm stock, then, have an essential bearing on
the profits of the farm. They stand for increased
fertility of the land. They call for the constant
rotation of crops, not only better to feed the stock,
but better to help the land.
INTRODUCTION 5
Farm stock consume many kinds of cheap
feeds that are raised on the farm. If sold on the
open market, these would seldom bring in enough
to cover the cost of transportation to market.
Therefore, farm animals are profitable machines
for using inferior cheap products and converting
them into wholesome, nutritious, animal food
They materially minimize, also, the cost of mar-
keting from farm to city or other place of con-
sumption. A ton of corn stover, wheat straw, or
corn, is marketed far more cheaply in the form
of meat, butter or cheese than if transported by
wagon to the place of sale. Not only is the cost
of transportation by means of live stock reduced
to a minimum, but a market is thus secured for
even the bulkiest of foods.
Farm stock have an important bearing on the mane
agement of farm labor. ‘They call for a high type
of labor, give this labor regular employment and
keep farm help interested in all that is to be done.
Farm stock have a marked influence in the pro-
motion of industry in all rural communities. The
most settled people in farming, the most educated
class of farmers, the most prosperous people en-
gaged in agriculture, are those engaged in some
one or more lines of live stock.
Finally, farm stock greatly influence the mental
capacity, caliber and character of the men dealing
with them, not only because a balanced sort of
food supply is provided, but the close, intimate
touch that farm stock invite, secures the highest
mark in character, industry and intelligence. It
is on the farm, in touch with farm stock and in
contact with farm animals, that are fashioned vig-
orous bodies, clear brains, steady nerves, self-
reliance, character and sympathy. |
CHAPTER I.
The Breeding of Farm Stock
The average value of farm animals in the United
States is not high; while individual animals noted
for their superior work and performance command
immense prices, the vast majority of farm stock
is not particularly good. How to raise the yearly
performance of the dairy cow, the regular effi-
ciency of a farm horse, a larger quantity of beef
in the beef cow and quicker maturity and higher
quality in the hog are all pertinent questions with
us now, as they have been in the past. These are
the problems that American farmers will need to
solve in future years. Of course feeding will do
much in improving the quantity and quality of the
animal products, but the underlying principle in
efficiency, the fundamental factor in animal pro-
duction, is good stock. Blood pays in animals as
it shows itself in men. There has been a constant
improvement from the original low strains to the
modern individuals.
MAN HAS DONE MUCH
During hundreds of years farm animals have
been adapting themselves to the various environ-
ments in which they have been placed. By man’s
help in selecting out those best fitted, results con-
stantly better have been secured. Consequently
farm animals today are of a much higher grade
than they were a century ago. Way back ten
centuries ago or twenty-five centuries ago there
6
THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK 7
was no great demand made upon farm animals.
The cow had no master. All she was interested
in was the getting just enough of food for herself
and to provide enough milk for her offspring. If
her hair was long and shaggy, it better protected
her body from cold and inclement weather. If
her horns were sharp, they gave her better pro-
tection and more certain defense. She had no
need of a large udder; that need came only after
man had found it to be useful, satisfying and
nourishing. The primitive hog was naturally
coarse and ferocious and easily angered, because
his protection lay in those directions. He needed
a long limb, because he could more easily escape
when the foe was stronger than himself. The
longer his snout the better he could root for roots,
~ and worms were good to his palate, and wholesome
medicine. If his hide was tough and thick, he
could the better stand the cold, the thorns or the
enemy’s tooth; and the stronger his tusk, the bet-
ter able he was to win the fight.
“After man took a hand in the rearing of farm
animals these things quickly underwent a change.
Man brought better food; he gave better shelter;
he looked after their pains and troubles; and they
responded by growing more rapidly. Less effort
Was required to care for themselves; so they just
naturally put on more flesh or produced more milk.
Our fathers who had charge of this breeding and
improvement had learned early of some funda-
mental principles of breeding and improvement
that they used to good advantage. They made the
best of them; they studied all the processes in-
volved and joined their practices with what sug-
gested better results.
8 FARM STOCK
THE PRINCIPLES THAT GOVERN
BREEDING
Now the fundamental principles that govern
feeding and improvement are: First, heredity; and
second, variation. Upon these two you must build
your, Stricture; but’ you must: furnish) a ame
beautify it by selection. Heredity is the law that
like produces like. Variation is the law that works
A REAL RAZOR-BACK
There is not much profit in this kind of hog. His place
is in the museum alongside of the cradle, the flail and the
Spinning-wheel.
to produce new things. Heredity is the law of
uniformity. >Variation \is)\the Jaw ) of chamere
Heredity is satisfied with what now exists. Va-
riation goes out to explore—to seek new paths and
new fields. The animal breeder builds upon the
present heredity, but he courts variation and urges
it to seek new findings. If these are to his liking,
THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK 9
he seizes them as his own, attaches them to the
old heredity and builds the new structure higher
and better. The work is now to fix the new acqui-
sition and to make it a part of the building mate-
rial. Variation all the while is allowed free range
that it may gather in new discoveries for further
improvement and use. We let heredity hold, keep
and guard the values of the best fitted animals,
but we call in variation to improve them.
WHERE SELECTION COMES IN
But where 1s selection? If its role is so im-
portant, why don’t we see it on the stage? We
do, if nothing in the play is struck out. Selection
is man’s part of the drama. It is his work to de-
cide what new things that variation has found
shall be held, what new ones shall be cast aside,
and at what point a new acquisition shall be fixed
as a part of the old stock. In beginning his breed-
ing operations, it was the breeder’s duty to as-
certain what classes and individuals already had
progressed furthest in the line in which he was
interested... Every breeder has been seeking some
special end. By looking over the field he was able,
if he was on to his job, to get some individuals
peculiarly adapted already in the direction he was
going.
HOW SELECTION IS WORKED
So if it was milk, the wise breeder sought the
breed and type that had longest been trained and
bred and had become most efficient in the produc-
tion of milk. When beef was wanted, he sought
out those breeds that had been bred most wisely and
1L@) FARM STOCK
trained most carefully to deposit meat upon the
back. When he was after pork, he chose those
breeds longest selected to produce a large quantity
of meat and fat at the least expenditure of effort
and food. In every case he rejected the little-doer
and the scrub. Just as he did not expect to do
good tillage on his soils by means of a wooden
plow nor to travel fast when an old-time engine
GRADE MERINOS ON THE RANGE >
The Grade Merino has for a long time been popular on the
sheep ranges of the West.
was used, so he did not expect to profit from live
stock grown from scrubs. All these are equally
out of date.
You are familiar with the highly specialized
breeding operations with dogs: some have been
bred and developed and trained as watch dogs,
others as hunters, others as pointers and setters,
and others in a score of other directions, peculiarly
and specially, adapted for some particular work.
THE BREEDING OF FARM STOCK ET
Now that same force and power applies to hogs
and cattle.
GET RID OF SCRUBS
The thing to do is to rid yourself of the scrubs
and poor producing individuals, because these bring
you only meager profits. I know that occasionally
an exceptional scrub cow pays in a dairy, but some-
where back in her breeding is improved blood;
something responsible for the result.
WHEN LIVE STOCK PAYS
Live stock pays only where you find well-bred
animals; this is the fundamental idea of live stock
management. If your beef business or dairy busi-
ness does not pay today, you are making a mistake
by condemning feed stuffs, lands, markets or sec-
tions before you have carefully considered the ani-
mal that works for you. Choose first the line, then
the breed, and to these other things will be added.
But high-class, special bred animals are expen-
sive; and I am not going to suggest that you start
with pure-bred animals. If you have money, and
are acquainted with the principles of breeding, it
will pay you to do this. But if you know little
about the care and attention required for pure-
bred, highly trained farm animals, your first need
will be to know how to care and tend such indi-
viduals before you become their owner.
HOW TO START YOUR HERD
I suggest, therefore, that you select for your
breeding herd or flock, the better grade of indi-
viduals that possess fairly good breeding, and such
I2 FARM STOCK
as possess those qualities as you desire when your
flock or herd shall be highly improved. You are
to use, however, for the purpose of improvement,
the best pure-bred males that can be obtained. For
the male is half or more. There must be no mon-
grel or questionable blood in his veins. He must
be no cross-bred individual. He must come from
no two breeds, even though both are pure breeds
with long lines of ancestors back of them. Real
success comes only from sticking fast to one line
of blood. Like begets like, you know. To trifle
with this principle is to end in your destruction.
You may have the best motives, but you will lose.
Nature works without sentiment, is heartless, and
her only reason for doing things is law; and from
this law she deviates not, nor does she ever stop.
Like the brook that goes on forever or until the
waters are no more, so does the fundamental law
of breeding govern and control both the improve-
ment and deterioration without hindrance or varia-
tion.
NEVER USE A GRADE SIRE
If you are a young breeder, do not make this
mistake of choosing a grade sire or an inferior
pure-bred, because such an animal may cost less
than a pure-bred one. If you do, instead of breed-
ing up to improvement, you will breed down to
inferiority and regret. Use a male of strong pre-
potency—one that possesses rich quality, high
character, and then your herd or flock can be
brought to quick productiveness in a short time.
But your herd or flock can be maintained at that
point only by the continued use of males of su-
perior breeding. Use for a single generation an
inferior sire and a backward turn will be made.
CHAPTER I.
The Feeding of Animals
It has been since the study of feeding principles
has come into use and favor that the greatest suc-
cess has been reached in the feeding of the various
classes of farm animals. Our fathers thought it
enough to supply food freely and abundantly; they
did not know that there were well-defined prin-
ciples upon which successful feeding rests. In
fact, it has only been in recent years that any care-
ful study has been made of the composition of
plants and animals, and an attempt to correlate one ©
with the other. Thanks to our scientists and ex-
periment stations, we now have the mist cleared
away and we can feed our various animals feeds
that serve the purpose best and at a time when
most needed.
THE PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING
As a result of this investigation there are certain
well-defined principles that must always be consid-
ered if the most effective methods are to be put in
operation in order that the best results may be se-
cured. The first thing that we are to bear in mind
is that plants contain many classes of ingredients.
In the same sense that a piece of meat contains
blood, fat, lean flesh, bone and other products, so
plants are found to contain several kinds of ma-
terials. |
Roughly speaking, we can divide a plant, or in
other words.a feeding stuff, into five groups of
13
14 FARM STOCK
constituents or ingredients. The first group we
call the ash or the mineral elements. You know
that plants contain mineral materials; the ashes
themselves are the evidence of that fact. A stalk
of corn or a tree develops until it reaches its ma-
turity; then decay sets in, and back to earth and
air go the elements, or man gathers. tw ome
product, uses it as fuel or for consumption in some
other way. If burnt, the ash material is left be-
hind and this is gathered up and returned to the
fields, thereby supplying the needed fertilizing ele-
ment that originally came out of the soil brought
up by plant or tree.
Now animals require mineral materials. Bones
are largely made of them—all of which come out of
the soil. First the mineral compounds are dis-
solved in the soil and carried into the plant by the
sap and distributed where needed most. It now
enters into the work of plant building. Animals
‘can usually get along without ash or mineral ma-
terials. Our plants ordinarily contain enough to
supply all the needs of the body, exceptions, per-
haps, being the two elements—sodium and chlorine,
which we know as common salt.
As our foods are commonly prepared for the
table, mineral elements are frequently lacking in
them. We take the bran of the wheat giving the
ash material largely (because deposited in the
bran) to our pigs and calves. We take the flour,
largely deficient in mineral materials, make it into
bread, feed it to our children and wonder why their
bones are not strong and their teeth not good. There
has been a deficiency of ash material and this sup-
ply could be furnished only by means of the food
set on the table.
THE FEEDING Gs aNIMALS 15
Water—You know how important water is to a
plant or an animal. Neither would survive very
long without this wholesome, life-giving influence
and agent. The water is sucked in by means of
the tiny, fibrous roots of the plant. It goes up
through cell by cell, carrying with it the mineral
elements in solution. As it passes along it gives
over to the plant the soil foods and passes out into
the air as vapor. For the time being its mission
ROUGH FEEDERS
Poor stock and poor feed, without exception, mean poor
. farming.
is finished. There is, therefore, a constant current
of water passing through the plant.
When plants are young, green and tender they
contain a great quantity of water, but when har-
vested or when old, the water content becomes ma-
terially decreased, in some cases being very small
indeed. Consequently, when animals are given dry
food or dry forage they get an insufficient quantity
of water; unless supplied in some other way they
would perish. So long as on green pastures, gath-
ering much of their food in the night time when
16 FARM STOCK
the dew is on the leaf and grass blade, they can
about supply their needs; but otherwise the water-
ing trough is essential to supply this need.
Carbohydrates—But ash and water little concern
the feeder. It is three other groups that cause the
trouble and are conducive to loss or gain. These
groups are carbohydrates, fat and protein. The
carbohydrates compose the larger part of the
rough and coarse materials. This group is known
as the heat and fat formers. When taken into the
body they supply the materials that keep up the
heat of the body, furnish the energy to keep mo-
tion and activity going; and, if there is a surplus,
it is stored in the body as fatty tissue.
This important group is composed of three ele-
ments, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The oxygen
and hydrogen come out of the ground as water.
The carbon comes out of the air, combined with
oxygen, known in this form as carbon di-oxygen.
It is exactly the same material that you and I and
all animals breathe off with every passing breath.
It is a broken-down tissue, the basis of which is
carbon.
Now what is waste for the animal-is food for
the plant, so that the carbon moving about freely
in the atmosphere, although in a combined form
with oxygen, enters through the little mouths on
the under sides of the leaves into the cells and joins
the tiny molecules of oxygen and hydrogen, and
becomes a grain of starch. This starch is now
manufactured. Unless used in the making of some
other organic compound, it will be available for the
plant itself or the animal. The starch is very easily
changed into sugar; in this way it is easily carried
to all parts of the plant.
THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS E7
Fat—The processes of plant growth are still
shrouded in mystery and always will be until the
secrets underlying life itself are learned, if they
ever are; hence, a complete statement of these
chemical changes will not be attempted here. We
WEANING-TIME
When the pigs are weaned, either let them have the run
of good pasture or plenty of slop. Weaning pigs ought not to
be an abrupt affair either.
know, however, that fat, called the oil of plants, or
the fat of the animal, is composed of the same three
elements that compose the carbohydrates—carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. The only difference lies in
the fact that a great deal more is stored in the fat
compounds than those of the carbohydrates. This
explains why fat is more effective in the production
I8 FARM STOCK
of heat and energy than are the carbohydrates. It
is more concentrated in fact. Our scientific men
tell us that a pound of fat contains 2.5 times as
much heat and fat-making ability as a pound of
carbohydrates. For practical purposes both groups
can be used together, but for purposes of lubrica-
tion and insistent demands both fat and carbo-
hydrates are essential to the life of the animal.
Protein—The last group that concerns the feeder
is the protein of the feeding stuff. In addition to
the carbon, oxygen and hydrogen found in fats
and carbohydrates, nitrogen and sulphur are found
also in protein; the contribution changing the
‘character entirely. -This protem is the basigyer
protoplasm. “Around it is centered the lite @ietme
plant and animal. The term is used simply to de-
scribe the materials that, when taken into the body,
repair the wears and tears. It supplies and keeps
up the blood, the brain, the tendons, the flesh, the
internal organs, the skin, etc. In fact, it is found
in all parts of plants or animals; for this reason
protein has been called the most important con-
stituent of a feeding stuff.
NUTRITIVE RATIO
With this classification we are now able properly
to combine feeds so as to get just what is neces-
sary to supply the daily needs of any special class
of animal fed for distinct purposes. In compound-
ing rations the ash and water can be left out of
consideration of ration making. The three groups
then to consider are protein, the fats and the car-
bohydrates. If we know just how much protein
ought to be given daily, it is not a difficult matter,
providing the feeds available are of the right kind.
Thanks again to our scientific men these facts have
THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 19
been determined. ‘Take pasture grass for instance,
the great universal farm animal food in America.
It has been analyzed and we know just how many
pounds of protein, of carbohydrates and of fat are
digested in each 100 pounds.
Let me add here that the digestibility is impor-
tant also because not all of the food taken into the
body is digestible—just a part of it; sometimes 90
per cent, sometimes 75 per cent, sometimes 50 per
cent, and with some feeds as little as 25 per cent
is digestible. Hence, with every feeding stuff a
part is lost and wasted, therefore serves no con-
tribution to the nutriment of the body. In the
case of pasture grass, you know by experience
that animals are healthy and perform their best
service when feeding freely on it. It is a balanced
food in itself. In other words, it contains protein,
carbohydrates and fat in sufficient quantities and
in just the right proportion to meet the needs of the
animal.
In roo pounds of pasture grass there are 2%
pounds of digestible protein, 10.2 pounds of
digestible carbohydrates and .5 of a pound of
digestible fat. In other words, for each pound
of digestible protein we have about five pounds of
digestible carbohydrates and fat. For every time
one pound of protein is supplied to furnish flesh
and muscles, about five pounds of carbohydrates
and fat are supplied to furnish heat, energy and
fat.. This gives rise, therefore, to the term nutri-
tive ratio. It indicates the relative proportion of
the muscle makers to the fat and heat makers.
FEEDING STANDARDS
The attempt has been made to determine the
amount of each constituent that ought to be given
20 FARM STOCK
to an animal each day. For instance, a dairy cow
giving a certain quantity of milk requires in her
food each day a certain amount of protein, carbo-
hydrates and fat. For a horse doing heavy farm
work a different ration would be required and the
constituents in different proportions. If maximum
results are to be secured, a different standard for
young calves is necessary than for fattening steers;
and a different ration for young pigs than for ma-
ture hogs ready for the block. Of course, feeding
standards are to be taken only as guides to point
out the way. They are not specifics nor receipts.
Corn, ‘for imsStance, is the great stock teed am
America. It is known as a starch or carbohydrate
food. It produces fat, but not muscle, hence it is
not a good feed for young stock or for milk cows,
because these animals require feeds rich in protein
for the muscle-making materials. It is always well
to feed a fattening hog an abundance of corn, but
there is so little protein in corn that even when fat
is the end sought, the best results are not always
obtained. The mixing of corn with other feeds
often brings better results. Our most progressive
hog growers now combine green alfalfa and clover
with the grain from the cornfield. If succulent
pastures are not available, the hay is hauled out
that protein may be given in addition to the starch
of the corn. And if hay be not available, a slaugh-
tering-house product, like tankage, or oil meal, or
some other carrier extremely and exceedingly rich
in nitrogen and protein is mixed with the corn.
In just the same way cottonseed meal is an illy-
‘balanced food. It contains too much protein. It
lacks the carbohydrates. When fed abundantly to
cattle, protein is wasted. Consequently, for the
grain part of a ration corn and cottonseed meal
THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 21
blend well together. One is rich in starch, the
other in protein. The two meet on middle ground
and supply both materials without waste of one or
the other and both are supplied with neglect for
neither.
THE BALANCED RATION
These differences existing among the different
feeds give rise to the balanced ration. No single
food suffices unless it be pasture grass. Conse-
quently, the farmer knows that when he feeds a va-
riety of food he gets the best results. He does not
need to weigh each pound of food given after he
has become schooled in the practice of feeding
farm animals. For all practical purposes, with a
little thinking and figuring, he can approximately
estimate the kinds and amounts of the different
grains and roughage materials that he ought to feed
each day so as to give his stock the right nutrients
in the proper proportions.
He would do wrong to feed corn and corn stover
and timothy hay. This mixture is bad for the rea-
son that it carries but one line of food constituents.
It runs to the carbohydrate class. Likewise cotton-
seed meal, linseed meal and gluten meal combined
and fed in conjunction with clover and alfalfa
would be undesirable, because they run in the other
direction and supply an overabundance of protein,
with too little, in fact with very little, of the
carbohydrates and fats. Every mixture must in-
clude both classes. Alfalfa and corn, cottonseed
meal and corn stover, timothy and gluten or linseed
meal, are all good mixtures for the reason that both
the “muscle makers” and “fat formers” are in-
cluded. Each of these mixtures can be improved
22 FARM STOCK
by enlarging on the number of feeds, for a variety
is always to be preferred to a few feeds.
Plan to have hay and grain, more than a single
kind of each is better; and in addition give some
succulent food like roots or ensilage. This secures
health, much milk and quick gains.
The chief value of cottonseed meal, for instance,
MEMBERS OF A FEEDING SQUAD
The two larger pigs on the right have been fed corn
and tankage, while the two smaller ones on the left have
received corn only.
rests with protein and fat. Compared with other
concentrated feeding stuffs cottonseed meal is rich
in both of these nutrients. But it is low in carbo-
hydrates. Linseed meal is rich also in protein,
moderate in quantity of carbohydrates and com-.
pared with cottonseed meal is low in fat. Corn
meal, while very high in starch, is much lower in
protein than cottonseed meal or linseed meal. It is
higher in fat than linseed meal, but considerably
lower than cottonseed meal.
THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 23
MAKING THE RATION
Cowpea hay, alfalfa hay, clover hay and other
legumes are also rich in protein when compared
with other roughage materials. They are moder-
ate in carbohydrates, and, compared with corn or
cottonseed meal or linseed meal, are low in fat.
Timothy hay, while low in fat and protein, is rel-
atively high in the carbohydrates. The table fol-
lowing shows the digestible nutrients of the feeds
mentioned :
DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN I00 POUNDS.
Protein Carbohydrates Fat
Cottonseed meal _______-_ a) 16.5 12.6
iinseed oil meal .--._2-. 30.6 eed, 2.9
@onmemied| het 66. 1 4.8
Compeatay 2... -.--_. 10.8 38.4 ins
Pinay os eo lk 10.6 Bi 1.4
Mlenemtayes 2 38.1 1.8
iimotny hays. _.._._-- Z.9 43.7 1.4
@Wormestover.. 2622. 2.0 Sore 0.6
Great Variation in Feeding Stuffs—From this
table may be seen the variation of the various nu-
trients. If one were to feed cottonseed meal, for
instance, he ought not to feed linseed meal also, but
seek some other feed that is higher in the nutrient
that is low in cottonseed meal. He might use any
of the legume hays, but these legume hays are also
rich in protein and but moderate in the carbo-
hydrates. Where a reasonable amount of cotton-
seed meal is fed, it would be better to use some
other hay not so rich in protein and higher, if pos-
sible, in the carbohydrates. Timothy hay and corn
stover are two such feeds and either is excellent to
be used with the meal. |
24 FARM STOCK
When corn meal can be obtained at a reasonable
cost per nutrient, corn meal and cottonseed meal
can be economically used together, the cottonseed
meal being rich in protein and low in carbohy-
drates, while the corn meal is high in carbohydrates,
but low in protein. From this standpoint these two
feeds make an excellent combination as the grain
portion of a ration. The objection to using them
exclusively is in the fact that they are too con-
IN NEED OF A SQUARE MEAL
When farm stock are improperly fed, they are unable
to do efficient work. Wise feeding is an art that every good
farmer must acquire.
centrated. Some bulk feed ought to go with this
combination and, therefore, any of the hays like
cowpea, alfalfa, clover, timothy or corn stover can
always be used satisfactorily.
If the legume hays are fed, less of the cotton-
seed meal and more of the corn meal should be ad-
mitted to the ration; and if timothy hay or corn
stover is used, then more of the cottonseed meal
and less of the corn meal.
THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS 25
Since protein contains nitrogen and sulphur, and
the carbohydrates and fat do not, then it is evident
that the carbohydrates cannot be used as a substi-
tute for the protein. Just as nitrogen in a ferti-
lizer cannot take the place of phosphorus or po-
tassium, so the carbohydrates and fats cannot take
the place of the protein. While protein can be sup-
plied as a provider of carbohydrates and fat, it is
neither wise nor economical, for the reason that
protein is an expensive nutrient to obtain.
The farmer can produce always in abundance his
carbohydrates. The most common plants grown
on the farm are, as a rule, rich in the carbohydrates,
and this class can be supplied at low cost. Unless
the farmer grows an abundance of legumes, his
supply of protein is short, and hence his animals
are supplied with too little of this element and they
suffer. To overcome this shortage he is forced
to purchase costly meals or grain materials in order
to overcome the deficiency in common forage crops
grown over the greater part of the country.
CHAPTER III.
Horses
When America was discovered there was not a
horse to be found. Hence, the Red-man, in his
meager attempts to bring agriculture into his
service, lacked a beast of burden to assist him. AI-
though recent investigations indicate that the
original horse stock had at one time a home on this
continent, the horse as we know him came into our
country ‘from across the: waters. To. dmdesais
original home we shall need to go into southern
Asia where the tempests rage and man lives only
with difficulty.
The horse comes to us not of his own choosing.
He left his cold and stormy home, not because he
preferred some place else, but because man claimed
him, domesticated him, put him into service and
rode him away. Why the horse preferred these
vast steppes to warm climates and more luxurious
vegetation, I do not know. It may be that he felt
safer there. He could for one thing see his natural
enemies, the wild beasts, at a greater distance, so
that escape was more easily accomplished. Nor
have we any record of the early domestication of
horses. The time is too far back in history; before
words were written or paper made or printing dis-
covered. Tradition, however, indicates that far
back in the past the horse was used for purposes of
war, service and pleasure.
It is certain, too, that the horse in the early days
found man, as well as the wild beasts, his natural
enemy, for his flesh was not bad at all, and even
26
HORSES 27,
today in Paris and other large European cities not
peeiele macat that is consumed is horse flesh.
We know nothing about the early handling of
the horse when first subdued; but we can be rea-
sonably sure that it was not by gentleness, but by
force, that he submitted to the demands of man.
Wild horses are still to be found; but their do-
mesticated kin are now our friend and helper, and
generously and willingly assist in every work and
duty which he is called upon to perform. The
horse has always retained the principal and best
qualities of his ancestors — speed: and strength.
These are the qualities, which served him once for
flight, that are now employed in the service of
man. It is not out of place to honor and caress this
noble beast, which, sturdier, stronger and fleeter
than ourselves, is, nevertheless, one of the most
serviceable and devoted of all domesticated ani-
mals.
CHAPTER IV.
Breeds of Horses
It is quite impossible to make a ranking list of
breeds. Even in the same community, under the
same conditions and environments, many breeds of
horses are observed, showing that men honestly
differ in opinion as to the merits and values and
varieties of horses, as they do in other matters in
life. It follows, then, in breeding or working, that
taste, fancy and individual choice will govern in
the selection of the breed. Following is a brief dis-
cussion of the breeds common in America, giv-
ing their chief characteristics and qualities:
The Thoroughbred was the first breed of horses
to be definitely established. It comes from Eng-
land, where it was produced by mingling many dif-
ferent strains of oriental blood. The modern
Thoroughbred is thus the oriental horse, developed
and improved by centuries of breeding and se-
lection.
Three oriental horses are mentioned by all au-
thorities as having contributed most to the forma-
tion of the modern Thoroughbred; viz., Darley
Arabian, Byerly Turk and Godolphin Arabian, the
only existing male line from these horses tracing
their ancestry to Eclipse, Herod and Matchem, re-
spectively, all from the middle of the eighteenth
century. As stated by Sanders, however, while
the oriental horse furnished good material as basis
for the breeder, the skill of the English and Amer-
ican breeder has done more than the blood of Ara--
bian and Barb horses. The Arabian is docile and
28
BREEDS OF HORSES 29
possesses great beauty of form, but he is inferior to
our Thoroughbred in size, height, speed and en-
durance. Our Thoroughbreds are imported from
England or are descendants of horses thus imported,
With an occasional mixture of the Arab or Barb,
which is not considered as vitiating the pedigree.
The Thoroughbred has been bred for the race
course and similar purposes for centuries. In this
THREE GOOD FARM-BRED PERCHERONS
Percheron horses have always been popular in America
ever since their introduction. They are good walkers, quiet
and heavy enough to perform all operations on the farm
that call for weight and pulling power.
long course of breeding, certain defects have crept
into his make-up which unfit him for farm uses.
He has become tall, lithe, light and too nervous for
everyday use. Nevertheless, the Thoroughbred has
been used in the improvement of all kinds of
horses. The favorable influence of a cross with a
Thoroughbred is recognized on every hand. Trot-
ters have been built largely on Thoroughbred blood
and this same blood is at the foundation of nearly
every fine roadster and driving horse in America.
30 FARM STOCK
A heavy Thoroughbred makes an excellent cavalry
horse, general saddle horse or carriage horse.
The Trotter—There were trotting or ambling
horses in England 600 years ago, but it was not
until 1818 that’an authentic record of a amilega
three minutes was made. In 1806 a horse named
Yankee is “said to have trotted in 2.50, Dimtaeme
record is doubtful. “The aim of the breedeqmes
trotters is to secure a fast trotting gait and the
speed of these horses has been gradually increased
during the past century.
Naturally this reduction of the time is partly
due to the use of a lighter vehicle, ball bearings,
pneumatic tires, improvement Of the track esr
but a steady increase of speed has been brought
about by breeding. The Trotter is essentially an
offshoot or variety of the Thoroughbred, produced
from the latter by breeding and selection for the
possession of a trotting gait. The first known or
definitely recorded sire of a winner in a trotting
race was Coriander, son of imported Messenger.
Several other distinguished sires of trotters de-
scended from the same Messenger. In fact, not
until 1837 did a noted trotter appear which did not
come from Messenger. The Morgan family came:
into existence in 1840, the Clay family in 1850 and
Rysdyk’s Hambletonian in 1860.
Pacers do not constitute as yet a recognized
breed. Many standard-bred trotters number pacers
among their progeny. In early days in this coun-
try, pacers were used largely as saddle horses.
Later they were put on the track. On the race
track the pace seems to be a somewhat faster gait
than the trot. For general driving purposes, how-
ever, the pacer is inferior to the trotter. The hips
BREEDS OF HORSES 1
slope, the shoulders are high and the form is other-
wise less perfect. Within the past 25 years the
speed of the pacer has been greatly increased until °
Dan Patch made a mile in 1.55%.
The American Saddle Horse—The foundation
stock of this breed was Denmark (a Thorough-
bred), John Dillard and Tom Hal (Canadian
horses), and a number of other Thoroughbred and
Morgan horses.
Saddle Gaits—To entitle him to registry the sad-
dle horse must possess five gaits—walk, trot, rack
and canter, and either the running walk, slow pace
or fast trot. The rack is also known as the single-
foot gait. Style is an important feature. Many
of these horses are good for saddle or driving and
a few of them have trotted faster than 2.30. The
hair is silky, mane of medium length, head small,
ears erect, neck arched, withers narrow, barrel
round, legs hard and flat with rather small joints.
The fox trot can be maintained all day and carries
a horse at the rate of four to six miles an hour.
The Morgan Horse originated with Justin Mor-
gan, owned by a man of the same name from West
Springfield, Mass. The foundation horse of the
breed was foaled about 1793 and was claimed to be
of Thoroughbred descent. A thorough investiga-
tion by Wallace and others shows pretty clearly
‘ that the ancestry of the original Morgan horse is
unknown. Sherman Morgan was among the
progeny of this horse, his dam being a Narragan-
sett pacing mare. He is noted as the sire of Black
Hawk, the most famous of all the Morgans. The
Morgan horse is essentially a trotter of small size,
but active and speedy. Fifty years ago they were
much more in favor than at present, and were
widely known from Maine to Iowa.
32 FARM STOCK
The Hackney originated in northeastern Eng-
land more than 100 years ago by the careful se-
lection of carriage mares and the use of Thorough-
bred sires. The breed was first called Norfolk
trotters or cobs. The actiom of, the Hackney
very high and showy, the leg and feet somewhat
larger than trotters, the general form rounder and
less angular, back short and stout, height 14.2 to
15.3 hands, hindquarters, rounded, shoulders slop-
ing, color chestnut or brown or bay. The knee ac-
tion 1s high and the hind legs are always kept under
the body. The Hackney is essentially a heavy
-harness horse. He is too small for the farmer and
too slow for racing. Huis endurance is also not
great. He is merely a park horse and high step-
per. Hackneys are bred extensively in Canada and
in recent years many have been imported into this
country, especially in New York, to satisfy a fad
among fashionable society.
The French Coach Horse was at first called
Demi-Sang on account of the fact that it was orig-
inated by crossing the English Thoroughbred on
native French mares, the latter carrying consider-
able oriental blood. Toward the end of the eight-
eenth century the French government undertook
this work in order to obtain better cavalry re-
mounts. After the type was fairly well established,
breeding was continued in the government studs
and by farmers, under government supervision.
Thoroughbred stallions are still used occasionally,
so that some French coachers may be self-breeds.
The French coacher stands higher than the Hack-
ney, the knee action is not so high and the general
form more rangy. The weight is 1050 to 1400
pounds and the color bay, brown or black. The
type is poorly fixed and it does not breed true.
BREEDS OF HORSES 33
Some are much coarser than others, which may
show their Thoroughbred ancestry. In the hands
of skilled breeders, the French coach horse may
be used in the production of heavy harness horses
and for this purpose they have been imported in
small numbers. It is probable, however, that a
much better type of this sort can be obtained from
the American Trotter by selecting the heaviest ani-
mals.
The German Coach Horse is a name used to
cover several breeds of coach horses bred in the
northern German provinces. The most important
breeds are the Oldenburg, Hanoverian, East Fries-
land and East Prussian, the first named being the
most promising. According to some authorities,
this type was known in Oldenburg as early as 1608.
The breed was greatly improved by crossing Thor-
oughbred stallions on the Oldenburg mares under
government supervision. This horse is_ black,
brown, bay or chestnut in color, 15 to 1634 hands
in height, 1200 to 1500 pounds in weight. The
Jegs are strong, but smooth and the carriage of the
head, neck and tail is graceful. The gait is much
like that of the French coacher. On the western
range, German coach horses have produced fine
grades from native mares, and the breed seems to
be on the increase in this country. é
The Cleveland Bay is a coach breed which origi-
nated in England by crossing the Thoroughbred
upon native mares of the Cleveland district. It is
noted for coaching and long distance work. The
color is bay, weight 1,200 to 1,500 pounds, height 16
to 16.2 hands. The croup is straight, back short,
thighs strong. The Cleveland bay is adapted for
pulling heavy loads at considerable speed. He has
much to recommend him to the farmer. Since the
34 FARM STOCK
establishment of the stud book in 1884, additional
speed has been secured by the further admixture
of Thoroughbred blood. The Yorkshire coach
horse is very similar to the Cleveland bay and is
considered by some as a family of the latter. It
shows more of the Thoroughbred, occasional white
PLOW HORSES
In the conquest of American lands, the farm horse has been
the most conspicuous of all farm animals
spots and does not breed as true as the Cleveland
bay.
Influence of Thoroughbred—From the above
discussion of light breeds of horses, the immense
influence of the blood of the Thoroughbred is ap-
parent. The Thoroughbred has furnished the
foundation of the Trotter, Saddle Horse, Pacer,
BREEDS OF HORSES 35
Orlov Trotter, Morgan, Hackney, French, German
and Yorkshire coach, and Cleveland bay. The ori-
ental blood is “hot blood.” The Thoroughbred and
its modifications in various modern breeds are
known as “hot blooded’ as contrasted with the
“cold blooded” draft horses which originated in
continental Europe. The blood of the Thorough-
bred is everywhere present in horses which are dis-
tinguished for speed, courage and endurance. Even
the Welsh pony carries some oriental blood.
Draft Type—As the light or “hot blooded’
horses are all descended, with modification, from
the Thoroughbred, so the draft or “cold blooded”’
horses are descended from the old black horse of
Flanders. At the dawn of history this wild black
horse was found throughout continental Europe.
In northern Europe the conditions seemed to be
favorable to the development of large men and large
horses. By skillful breeding and an occasional
mixture with oriental or native blood, several heavy
breeds have been produced from the black horse of
Europe. Thus from England we have obtained
the Clydesdale, Shire Horse and Suffolk Punch;
from France the Percheron and French draft horse;
and from Belgium the Belgian draft horse or Flem-
ish horse.
Before the days of railroads much freighting
was done by horses through Pennsylvania from the
seaboard to the Ohio river. For this heavy work
the Conestoga horse was produced and was at one
time famous as a draft horse in Pennsylvania. This
horse was a product of local breeders, based on
imported heavy horses of unknown blood. The
Conestoga horse stood 16 to 18% hands high and
weighed 1,600 to 1,900 pounds. With the advent of
railroads the breed was allowed to become extinct.
36 | FARM STOCK
The Clydesdale originated in Scotland, being
first referred toin 1715. The Black Flemish horse
and other heavy horses were crossed with the early
form of the type. At present the type is well fixed
and the breed is very true and prépotent; same
color is bay or brown with white markings on
the face and legs. Other colors, such as gray,
black and chestnut, sometimes appear. The flanks
are lighter in color, fading to a dun on the
belly. Mares weigh 1,500 to 2,000, stallions 1,800
to 2,200! andthe heielt1sv16 to 17 ance aii
head is long, neck medium, leg broad and fine,
silky feathering below the knee and _ hock,
shoulders sloping. The Clydesdale shows a fast,
elastic walk and a fairly good trot. The waist is
sometimes too small, the back too long and the
feet too flat. In these points much improvement
has been made of late. The forehead is broad,
hindquarters well developed, leg joints strong, tail
well carried. The special merits of the Clydesdale
are the smooth, clean legs, and the long graceful
strides.
The Shire Horse—The black horse of Flanders,
imported to England and crossed on native heavy
mares, gave rise to the old war horse or “great
horse,” which was much in favor as a charger in
the days of knight-errantry.
The Shire horse resembles the Clydesdale, but is
heavier and coarser. The color is black, bay, brown
or gray; height 16 to 17.2 hands, weight 1,600 to
2,300 pounds, neck short, nose Roman, shoulder
straight, body short, deep and round, back broad,
legs strong with heavy bone and “feather” extend-
ing around on the sides. The gait is slower and
less stylish than in the Clydesdale, but the animal
is stronger and less likely to be “weedy.” The
‘BREEDS OF HORSES 37
shoulders and pasterns are more erect than in the
Clydesdale and the hair is coarser.
The Percheron is the national horse of France
and originated in the district of La Perche. Until
1883 all draft horses in France were referred to
indifferently as Norman, Norman-Percheron, Per-
A TYPICAL PERCHERON STALLION
This prize-winning Percheron represents the grace, quale
ity and high breeding of the draft horse. The Percheron is
known in every state and county in the country.
cheron or French Draft. In that year the name
Percheron was adopted. At first two types, the
light and the heavy, were recognized. The light
Percheron was most in favor and was used as a
coach horse. He weighed 1,400 to 1,600 pounds,
stood about 15.2 hands high and had considerable
speed as well as strength. The neck was trim, the
38 FARM STOCK
feet well formed and the legs only slightly feath-
ered. In 1732, many of the oriental horses were
captured in France from the invading Saracens,
and this blood, mixed with that of the European
black horse, yielded the Percheron. Shire horses
were also imported from England and their blood
added to the existing mixture. Du Hays in his
treatise on the Percheron claims an Arabian ances-
try for this horse.
The color of the modern Percheron is black,
gray, or white. He stands 16 to 17.2 hands high,
and weighs 1,600 to 2,200 pounds. ‘The legs are
short, blocky and without feather, the hoof is good,
head small, face straight, neck arched, shoulders
and hips sloping, body deep, round and broad. The
Percheron is powerful, but his legs and feet are
his strong points. He shows his heel in walking,
and his action is good, but not quite so swinging
as that of the Clydesdale, The percentagevon
blacks has been increased by the Americans.
Roans, bays, browns and chestnuts are occasionally
observed, but probably indicate impure breeding.
The weak points in the Percheron are lightness of
leg below the knee and hock, rolling gait in front
and wide straddling behind. These defects, how-
ever, are only seen in a certain percentage. For
breeding, stallions with oblique pasterns should be
selected.
Alexander rightly calls attention to the beneficial
effects which the Percheron has exercised upon
our native horses. This horse is by far the most
popular of all the draft horses, and breeds fairly
true to type. He is docile, easily kept in condition,
of good constitution and well adapted to all sorts of
draft purposes. When crossed on native mares,
the Percheron produces excellent express, farm,
BREEDS OF HORSES 39
draft and general purpose horses, according to
the size of the mare. “Where the blood of this
breed predominates in a district, no other breed
should be used. Continued breeding in the right
line is highly advisable and will result in the pro-
duction of practically pure bred horses of great
usefulness and value.”
The French Draft has the same ancestry as the
Percheron and was once included with the latter.
CHILDREN’S HORSES
Thousands of ponies are to be found on American farms.
While intended for the enjoyment of children, they may be
made to do much useful work.
In fact, the breed is now in process of differentia-
tion from the Percheron and can scarcely be dis-
tinguished from it. The prevailing colors are
gray, bay and black. The French Draft is slightly
heavier than the Percheron and useful for fewer
purposes, being purely a heavy draft horse.
The Belgian Draft Horse, or Flemish horse,
stands nearer than any other breed to the old black
horse of Flanders. His ancestors were first used
as war chargers and later for draft purposes.
Until recently the Belgian Draft horses imported
AO FARM STOCK
into the United States have lacked quality. The
Percheron and Clydesdale possess more style and
better action than the Belgian, and are therefore
more in favor in this country. The Belgian has
less feather on the legs than the Clydesdale, shorter
neck, wider breast and larger body.
The Belgian Draft is the largest of all horses,
weighing 1,700 to 2,500 pounds. ‘The preferred
colors are brown, bay and black, with an occasional
roan or chestnut. They are closer to the ground
than the Percheron and less trim in appearance.
The head is large, ears sometimes lopped, neck
thick, shoulders straight, back short and broad,
_ chest deep, legs short and flat, feet large, heel low.
The defects of the Belgian are clumsy gait, coarse
neck, sloping croup and too erect pasterns. Atten-
tion is being given to the correction of these points.
Belgians are slowly gaining in favor among Ameri-
can breeders on account of their great power and
easy keeping qualities.
CHAPTER V.
Horse Breeding
While we have many races and breeds of horses,
we may with all correctness classify them into
three groups. By continually selecting the heaviest
animals of a heavy race and giving them such food
as their needs require, our heavy breeds of draft
horses have been obtained—horses that rear them-
selves like giants of fairy tales to the eyes of those
who see them for the first time. In using for
propagation the fleetest animals of a fleet and
noble race and giving to their product an education
that develops muscles and tendons, and by carefully
repressing all tendency to lay on fat, breeders are
obtaining more and more animals of incredible
speed which on the American race track are taking
less and less time to cover a certain distance. By
using the smallest specimens of a race of small
ponies, breeders have succeeded in producing
horses no larger than mastiffs. I saw a dwarf
horse not long ago exhibited at one of our passing
shows that was slightly less than two feet in height.
Breeders have also seized and reproduced the
freaks of nature, such as the albino horses (born
white). ;
When the horse was wild he looked after his
own food, his own protection and his own shelter.
He naturally made little progress, and what pro-
gress he did make was of a nature to fit him to his
conditions and environments of life, rather than
41
42 FARM STOCK
to fit him to do useful work, or otherwise to con-
tribute to the pleasure and happiness of his goodly
friend, man.
SELECTING TO GET HEAVY HORSES
With the coming of civilization, however, man
took the horse in hand and helped him. Inasmuch
as the horse could more rapidly till the soil, he was
used for this purpose. An early observation was
that the heavier the horse the harder work he
could do and the heavier the load he could draw;
hence there was an unconscious selection in de-
veloping animals to do the heavy draft work of
the world.
As we have the draft horse today, he possesses
striking characteristics. By looking at him from
the front you see that he is wide between the eyes,
moderately long in face and rather wide between
the shoulders. If he stands correctly there is be-
tween his feet the measured distance of another
hoof.
A plumb line dropped from the point of his
shoulder divides the forearm, knee, canon and
hoof in equal parts, thus insuring an even, regular
movement of the leg. ‘Stepping around’/to he
side, the first observation will be that the neck is
relatively short, but it is heavy and muscular. It
blends evenly and smoothly into the shoulders, the
breast at the bottom, and the withers at the top.
The shoulder slopes gently upward and, compared
with the race horse, is rather straight. The back is
well covered with muscle, is broad and well fleshed,
with well-covered hips, presenting a view that
would indicate the back not to be long. The gen-
eral slope over the hips becomes rather abrupt, for
HORSE BREEDING 43
the hips are well muscled, thus giving force and
power; for it is from the rear that ability to draw
comes. The same well-muscled form continues
about the buttocks and the thighs. Here are shown
short muscles, but muscles that are large and
strong. The knees and the hocks should be deep
and broad and rather large. The usual trouble in
the hocks, known as curb, is due often to bad con-
formation. The hock is not wide and deep enough;
leverage of muscles to stand the strain and to do
the hard work demanded of this region of the body
is not sufficient.
Special attention should be paid to the feet, for
unless a horse has strong, well-made feet, he is
poor material for either field or road work.
A further observation from the side shows the
horse to be square or of a rectangular appearance.
The height from the ground to the withers 1s
about the same as the height from the ground to the
croup. These measurements, in turn, are practi-
cally the same as the distance from the point of
the shoulder to the quarter or buttock. Carrying
these measurements still further, either of them is
just about two and one-half times the length of
the head, which in no case should be more than
three times the width between the eyes.
These measurements have been rather carefully
worked out and much of the beauty and ease of
action and grace and efficiency of this noble ani-
mal is due to these proportions along the line of
law and order, rather than of casual chance.
An awkward, ungainly horse is, as a rule, an
inefficient, little-doing horse. He is awkward and
ungainly, because his proportions are bad, and as
a result the work he accomplishes represents the
minimum quantity.
44 FARM STOCK
But there is a radical difference in the type be-
tween draft and speed horses. While the trotting
horse requires great width between the eyes (and
it might be added that width between the eyes is
an absolute beauty in any animal), he is longer in
face, longer in neck and leaner in appearance. In:
fact, the neck is thin, the chest is very deep, but
perhaps not so wide as in the case of the draft
horse. The shoulder is more sloping and longer,
and there is less muscle at the meeting place of the
FARM TEAM AT WORK
Quietly and calmly they stand; but whenever needed, the
farm horse responds willingly and faithfully
two shoulders. The back is long, but thin and nar-
row, and slightly fleshed; the hips are prominent,
the croup quite horizontal, and attached to thin,
long muscles that speed may be accelerated. The
buttocks and thighs are slightly covered with flesh,
but the hock is wide, deep and thick and the feet
are’ hard and stronge—just as they are: with jtae
draft horse. The leg and canon bones of the
speed horse are longer than those of the draft
horse. Now, why these differences? Each type
represents a specialty. The speed horse is a poor
HORSE BREEDING 45
working horse, because he lacks conformation; and
the draft horse will never win a race on the track
if competing with special-bred race horses because
he possesses no qualities of speed. The leg of
the draft horse is too short, the forearm is too
short, the shoulders are too upright and the mus-
cles are too thick and too slow-acting. The speed
horse possesses the opposite characteristics, which
are basal features of speed.
ieeeeawions, thin rubber. You can extend it
a long way and when released it passes through
the extended distance quite rapidly. Take this
same piece of rubber and lap it over itself a few
times so as to shorten it into one-fourth its original
length and you get greater power when the rubber
contracts ; but it acts more slowly and extends itself
less. That is the way it is with horses. The long-
legged, long-muscled race horse can reach out and
cover greater distances than the draft horse because
of these special features. But these differences in
type go deeper than mere skin and flesh. The
skeleton presents these differences even more prom-
inently than the living flesh. You have but to
study the skeleton to see the reason and the proof
of the foregoing explanation of differences between
the two types.
Function is based on conformation. You must
have type and conformation. It is useless to at-
tempt to press one into the service of the other.
Farmers too often make the mistake of inter-
changing type along with other breeding opera-
tions. The mating of draft with speed types for
a generation or two and then changing to the car- '
tiage type and then back again to either the
speed or draft type, causes an intermixture of
46 FARM STOCK
blood and function that makes a good-for-nothing
individual.
Select Your Line of Animals—lIi it is a large
draft type, then breed straight to that line. If you
want lighter horses, do not make the mistake of
breeding down in size. Rather take individuals of
A FOUR-YEAR-OLD SHIRE STALLION
The Shire horse is not so well known as the Percheron,
but the breed is gaining friends very rapidly.
some breed that possess already the characteristics
you want, and improve these by careful selection
and mating. By so doing you will then get quality,
an important character for any breed.
The carriage or coach horse comes in between.
the two extremes of draft and speed. These horses
HORSE BREEDING 47
supply the demand of the general purpose horse,
although they are not just that, but horses of this
class are able to do considerable work, and at the
Same time have greater speed characteristics than
the heavy draft horse. But they are neither speed
nor draft horses and would be outclassed in either
case. They do light road work or heavy harness
work and do it well. They have their work to do
just as the speed or draft horse has its work to do.
CONFORMATION OF THE DRAFT HORSE
Many farmers have attended our state fairs and
seen modern draft horses on exhibition. The up-
to-date draft horse is one that stands close to the
ground, with short legs and broad base. The feet
are well apart, with space enough for another foot
of the same size to be placed between them. The
back of this animal will be somewhat shorter than
that of the speed horse. It is with the hind legs
that he propels himself, and thus it can be easily
seen that, since the collar is on the shoulder, the
whole weight of the load is drawn by the back.
Therefore it must be short, broad and well muscled.
The shoulder of this horse is long and well
‘shaped, so as to give a good base to the collar. It
should be more nearly perpendicular than that of
the speed animal. However, sloping shoulders are
often found in our best draft horses. The hocks
of this horse will show rather a narrow angle, be-
cause it is by this that a great leverage is given
and he is able to move heavy loads. The body is
massive, low set, ample, very muscular and cylin-
drical. The horse should have solid, large, broad
bones and limbs; the latter are well formed and
properly placed under his body.
CHAPTER VI.
Feeding the Horse
The entire anatomy and physiology of its diges-
tive apparatus show that the food of the horse
should be nutritious in quality, supplied frequently,
and in comparatively smiall quantities. The food,
of whatever variety, must, of course, be of good
quality, sound and wholesome; but beyond this, no
specific rules can be laid down for general applica-
tion. The amount and character of the food must
vary with the size and constitution of the horse,
the climate and season, the amount of work re-
quired, and the country it lives in.
The horse is an inhabitant of nearly all parts
of the earth, and exhibits a wonderful adaptabil-
ity to various situations. In Arabia its principal
food is barley, varied by. scant herbage, and
even dates; in Iceland and some of the Shetland
Islands it subsists mainly on dried fish. On the
western plains, great herds of horses retain
splendid health and vigor through the rigid, stormy
winters upon the dried bunch grass, often having
to paw away the snow to reach it. In England
the food of the horse is mainly hay, cats and beans.
while in various parts of the Continent horses are
fed on rye, barley and inferior qualities of wheat,
In India the common food of horses is a plant
of the pea family. In some parts of the United
States and the southern regions of Europe, Indian
corn forms an important element in horse food,
but not to such an extent that ‘‘American horses
rarely taste oats,” as is | asserted by an eminent
FEEDING THE HORSE 49
English author. Good, well-made hay, free from
dust and dirt, and sound, well-seasoned oats may
in a general way be regarded as the staple food
for horses. But no animal can do as well on a
monotonous diet, even if of good quality, as it will
with a judicious variety. |
MIX THE FEEDS TO FIT THE NEEDS
With the results of skillful chemical analysis be-
fore him, the feeder need no longer proceed in a
haphazard manner, or follow blindly in old ruts,
often buying at heavy cost certain standard kinds
of food, when equally valuable material of other
kinds is cheap and plentiful. He has only to adjust
the rations in such a manner that they will con-
tain about the correct proportions of the various
elements. Those proportions should be varied
according to the season, the amount of work
required, and the constitution of the horse.
Roughage Feeds for Horses—Timothy hay with
oats may well be regarded in this country as the
standard article for feeding horses. But there are
many other grasses equally available. In the
prairie regions and farther west, there are several
species of blue-joint and other wild grasses scarcely
inferior to timothy. Some of these attain immense
growth in rich bottoms, and if cut at the right time,
and properly made into hay, are both palatable and
wholesome for horses.
Hungarian grass and German millet, if cut and
cured just as the first blossoms appear, make a
hay scarcely inferior to timothy.
Clover and alfalfa are rich in albuminoids.
Fither one makes a well-balanced ration with corn
meal, corn fodder, straw or other material contain-
ing an excess of carbohydrates.
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FEEDING THE HORSE 5!
Corn fodder is a better feed for horses than is
generally supposed. But it must be bright and
well cured. If allowed to stand for months in
small stooks, with the butts on the soft ground,
and the tops and leaves exposed to the weather,
it is unfit for fodder. On the other hand, if stored
away in a barn while damp, and allowed to mold
and rot, it is not only unpalatable, but actually per-
nicious to the health of animals which are com-
pelled to eat it. Corn fodder contains an excess
of carbohydrates for a well-balanced food, and
when fed either green or dry, should be mixed
with clover, bran or any other nitrogenous food
material. It is eaten with a better relish if cut up,
crushed, moistened and fed in connection with
bran, oil meal, or cottonseed meal.
Grain Feeds for Horses—Oats are pre-eminently
the grain for horses, if only one kind of grain is
fed. They contain a large per cent of nutrients in
almost the correct ratio for the horse’s require-
ments. The fibrous husk in which the grain is in-
closed serves a valuable purpose in dividing the
mass in the horse’s stomach, and exposing it to
the action of the digestive fluids. Oats should be
at least three months old before they are fed.
When new, they are difficult to digest, and liable to
give a horse the colic. They should be plump and
of full weight. The husk on light, inferior oats
is as heavy as those which are sound and heavy,
the deficiency in weight coming wholly out of the
grain. Thirty-two pounds constitute a _ legal
bushel, but good samples weigh more, running as
high as 44 pounds to the measured bushel. Six
quarts of the latter weigh nearly as much as
a peck of the former, and contain far more nutri-
ment. This fact should be taken into considera-
&
52 FARM STOCK
tion in buying and feeding. If fed whole, even
to young horses with good teeth, oats are more
or less imperfectly masticated and a part passes
through undigested. Many judicious feeders have
them crushed, to secure more complete mastication.
Indian corn is the great food grain of America,
and of the immense annual crops, aggregating
more than two billion bushels, the greater part is
fed to domestic animals. Corn is largely used as
an article of horse food, either unground or in the
form of meal. Corn is a highly concentrated food,
heating and deficient in muscle-forming elements.
When fed to horses, it should, therefore, be com-
bined with nitrogenous foods in such proportions
as are best adapted to the season, amount of work
required and other conditions. It is quite a usual
practice with many horse owners to feed their
horses corn in the ear, under the idea of saving the
expense of grinding. But this is very questionable
economy, for a considerable part of the grain must
go through undigested. On the other hand, if fed
in the form of fine meal, it should be mixed with
several times its own bulk of cut hay or other
coarse feed to separate the particles and expose
them to the action of the digestive fluids of the
stomach. If fed alone, corn meal becomes im-
pacted in the stomach, forming a plastic, adhesive
mass nearly impenetrable to the gastric juice. Se-
vere, and in some cases, fatal colic is the frequent
result. Even if the meal is mixed with oats, the
mass is too dense to form a safe and desirable
food, unless fed in combination with a coarser ma-
terial.
Barley is the principal grain food of horses in
many parts of the world. The Arabs feed their
FEEDING THE HORSE 53
famous horses largely on barley; the French in Al-
geria have adopted the same practice. In some of
the great breeding stables of Illinois barley and
oats are ground together in proportions varying
with the season, and are fed to stallions and mares.
The introduction of a black, hull-less barley into
cultivation is likely to lead to still more extensive
use of this grain as food for horses. The black,
hull-less variety is not used in malting; it yields
large crops in many parts of the Northwest beyond
the “corn belt” and is as easily raised as oats.
This new variety seems likely to become an impor-
tant item in the general grain crops of the country.
Barley contains a larger proportion of the elements
which produce heat and fat than any other grain,
except Indian corn. Moreover, it weighs one-half
more per bushel than oats, and the hull-less variety
is still heavier. When either barley or corn and
oats are ground and fed together, they should be
mixed according to weight, not bulk.
Wheat bran is a valuable article for horse feed,
both for its peculiar action on the digestive organs,
and as a balance to richer foods. When fed alone,
it is generally in the form of warm mash. To
make this, take four quarts of pure wheat bran,
add two tablespoons of salt, pour over it boiling
water, and stir quickly until all is wet, but not too
thin; cover closely to confine the steam, let it stand
until cool and give it in place of the regular
feed. Such a mash once a week, while the horse
is kept in stables, will gently open the bowels and
promote digestion. It should be given at night,
and preferably before a day of rest, as the imme-
diate effect is somewhat weakening. Bran may
also be mixed with ground oats, corn or barley.
54 FARM STOCK
Linseed cake is largely employed as animal food
in England, the greater part of that made in this
country being exported there. But Americans are
learning its value, and are feeding more of it than
formerly. It acts both as a medicine and as a
food. It is mildly laxative to the bowels, sooth-
ing to the air passages, and gives gloss to the coat.
The “new process” meal contains much less oil
than that made by the old process, and is therefore
less relaxing and fattening, while the proportion
of albuminoids is greater. As a feed substance oil
meal is useful mainly to mix in small quantities
with other materials. A ration containing six parts
of oats, four of corn, and two of linseed meal,
would be very nearly equivalent to the oats and
beans which form the grain staple of food given
to horses in England.
Cottonseed meal is similar in its chemical com-
position to linseed meal, but is more highly con-
centrated, and contains a larger proportion of
nitrogenous elements. It should be fed with
caution, in small quantities of two to four pounds.
Carrots have a food value greater than their
composition would indicate. Eighty-five per cent
of their bulk is water, and of the solids which re-
main, nearly one-tenth is fiber. Yet they serve to
cool the system, and assist in the digestion of other
food. They should be fed a few at a time, two or
three times a week. Parsnips have nearly the same
composition as carrots, except that they contain
even a larger per cent of water. In England and
France they are fed in the same way as carrots.
In making up a feeding ration for a horse, the
first point is to find out how much the horse will
eat; the next is to regulate the ration according
to the weather, and the amount and character of
FEEDING THE HORSE By
the work the horse is expected to perform. The
harder the work and the colder the weather, the
greater the proportion of carbohydrates required
in the food. |
Salt is doubtless wholesome and beneficial for
horses, notwithstanding the contrary opinion of
some people who have given attention to the mat-
ter. But horses are fond of salt, and thrive better
with it than if deprived of it. The best method
of supplying this article is to keep a lump of rock
salt at all times where the horse can lick it. Re-
ceptacles are made of wire for this purpose, but a
small wooden or iron box, fastened near the man-
ger or rack, will serve nearly as well.
WATERING THE HORSE
The horse in a state of nature feeds upon juicy,
succulent herbage, and drinks at pleasure from
pure water. When these conditions are changed
for confinement in the stable or work on the dusty
road, with a diet consisting mainly, if not ex-
clusively, of dry hay and grain, the health and
well-being of the horse, as well as common human-
ity, demand careful and judicious attention to the
matter of water supply. The water must always
be pure and fresh. No animal is more delicate and
fastidious about its drink than a horse, and one of
them will suffer agonies of thirst rather than
quench it with impure, tepid or stale water. It
should be given in small quantities and frequently,
and never in large draughts, when the horse comes
in heated, or immediately before being put to work.
Some horses require more water than others, the
quantity varying with the amount of hay they will
eat, propensity to sweat, etc. The water should
56 FARM STOCK
not be excessively cold. Copious draughts of cold
water, when the horse is heated, produce colic, or
founder is likely to ensue. If pumped from a cold
well, it may stand until the chill is taken off. Hard
water is much decried as causing harshness in the
coat, and soft water is doubtless better. Yet no
part of the country produces finer horses than the
limestone states of Vermont and Kentucky. Ifa
change is made from soft to hard water it should
be done gradually, as the horse becomes accustomed
to it. Where rain water is given it should be kept
clean and aerated. Stale, foul water from a neg-
lected cistern is unfit for a horse, and will be re-
- fused except in case of extreme thirst.
Water When at Work in Fields—Horses when
working in the field are subjected to great suffer-
ing from thirst. From morning till noon, and
again from noon until the hour of quitting for the
night, the horses are kept in the dusty field, often
under a burning sun, without a drink. The driver
makes frequent visits to the water jug in the shade,
without giving a thought to his thirsty horses. If
there is no brook or other water supply within con-
venient distance, a keg of it, with a pail, may be
carried along and kept in the shade.
When a horse comes in heated and tired from
hard driving, nothing is more grateful and sooth-
ing than a few quarts of gruel made by throwing
a handful of oatmeal or linseed meal in a gallon
of boiling water. If none of this is prepared, a
handful of oatmeal in half a bucket of cold water
may be given.
Watering at the Barn—Many good horsemen
prefer watering before feeding, which, I think, is
a good practice, especially in summer, as the horse
requires a large amount of water to supply the
FEEDING THE HORSE a7
needs of the body. After perspiring almost all
day, the horse comes in pretty much exhausted in
the evening, due to the loss of water and energy.
Before being fed his grain, he should be given
water and allowed to cool. If he is very warm,
only a limited amount should be given at one time,
but he must be watered frequently until he gets all
that he wants as soon as he is cool enough to
take it.
It is a good plan to allow a little time for the
horses to cool off before giving them the evening
grain ration. Some men allow them to stand and
eat hay while they themselves are at supper and
then feed the grain ration later. After standing all
night, the horse will be thirsty and will appreciate
a drink the first thing in the morning. If water
is given before feeding instead of after feeding,
there will be no tendency to wash the food out of
the stomach into the intestines.
Large quantities of cold water taken into the
stomach immediately after a meal tend to arrest
digestion by cooling the stomach and diluting the
digestive fluids, which may cause colic.
CHAPTER VM:
The Care and Management of Horses
It is no small matter to give farm horses just
the sort of care necessary and to manage them in
the most satisfactory way, unless very thoughtful
study be given that feed, work, stabling and rest be
all properly adjusted. It is a very easy thing to
overfeed, or to. feed materials not just ideally
adapted to the purpose. Just how much work a
horse ought to be expected to do in summer or
winter must always be considered by the man who
has the team in charge; likewise, when to pasture
and the sort of pasture, and both in relation to
other feed, are problems not yet solved, but yet
very important ones to both the owner and to the
animals. )
The winter period usually calls for no great
amount of work on the part of horses; and on
many farms little care and attention are paid to
farm horses. As a rule, all of the feed that is
needed is supplied; at least enough to induce fat-
tening, although the stock may be dirty and some-
what unthrifty. How often it is that we see horses
which are fat and in good condition put to hard
spring and summer work and abruptly or gradually
decrease in substance and weight! Either the
horse is worked too hard or he is not receiving
the food and kind of food and care in other di-
rections that he should have.
During the winter season good water is a first
essential, as in the summer; and the daily ration
should contain bright, clear, roughage material
58
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 59
with some grain to furnish the necessary nutrients
for the maintenance of the animal in good form
and condition.
The winter ration for the average work horse
does not need to be expensive. Some alfalfa, fed
two or three times a week (and if alfalfa is not
available, then clover or cowpea hay) should be
Supplied for the protein or muscle-making ingre-
dients. In addition you can feed oats straw, bright,
clear, corn stover or any ordinary hay. But corn
and corn stover, a common winter ration for work
horses, is not the best sort of feed, because it is
lacking in protein, and contains an over-supply of
carbohydrates.
Whether horses during the winter are to be
sheltered in stalls or allowed to run in the open
will depend upon circumstances. Where many
horses are kept together during the winter and are
not subjected to work, the open field with good
protection from wind, storm and rain by means of
sheds, covered straw-piles and the like, is very sat-
'‘isfactory.
While daily grooming is desirable, it is not es-
sential for common stock if good shelter and good
feed of the right quality and quantity are other-
wise provided. Feed should contain considerable
variety, for horses like a change just as other ani-
mals, or people.
The substance of winter treatment can be boiled
down to good food, plenty of fresh air, constant
exercise and shelter. During the summer and work
season, of course, the closest attention must be paid
to feed, daily grooming must be done, fresh water
must be provided, the most nutritious, appetizing
and refreshing grain and fodder furnished, and
the general health of the animal maintained.
60 FARM STOCK
THE MANAGEMENT OF STALLIONS
The stable for stallions must be arranged so
that they can have plenty of fresh air and sun-
shine. The stalls must be roomy and smooth so
that they can have perfect freedom to move about
in them without injury to themselves. Everything
about the stable must be kept thoroughly clean and
fresh bedding must be supplied each day in abun-
dance. In feeding, care must be taken not to over-
do it. Their appetites must be kept sharp. The
best results are obtained by frequent feeding.
Small proportions can be given at first and then
gradually increased until a full portion is given,
which varies according to the size and condition
of the horse. :
A Good Ration—For a growing three-year-old
stallion, a fair feed upon which he would do well
would be, in the morning, five quarts oats and four
fair-sized carrots; at noon, eight to ten quarts
mixed feed, consisting of two-thirds bran and one-
third oats and a small quantity of chopped hay, all
mixed together and dampened with water. They
do well on this mixture and relish it. At night,
have the same as at noon. After the horse has
finished his grain ration, he should be given a small
ration of mixed hay, timothy and clover. The
same rule applies to feeding hay as grain, namely,
a horse should not be given more than he eats up
clean.
Groom Daily—It must not be forgotten that a
horse must be well groomed each day, that is, well
brushed and rubbed, in order to keep him in good
condition. It puts a finish and gloss on his coat,
gives him a fresh appearance and makes him more
choice in every way. The tail and mane should
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 61
have every care, for they add greatly to the ap-
pearance of a fine horse. ‘The stallion should al-
ways be kept shod and the shoes should be reset
at frequent and regular intervals. This is espe-
cially true with heavy draft stallions, otherwise the
feet are in danger of being broken when the horse
is exercised or worked.
Never Shght Exercise—Exercise should be
given a horse moderately. Under all circum-
stances he should have a large box stall, wherein
he will have freedom to move around, and he
should be exercised out in the open air a half hour
each day. To walk out in the open air a half
hour each day is sufficient to keep a stallion in per-
fect health. Where a large number of stallions are
kept in one place, it is necessary to avoid excite-
ment as much as possible. Kind treatment and
quietness go together. A horse that is treated
kindly will always walk up and take his feed and is
never in fear of the man who cares for and feeds
him. Horses that are treated in a kindly, quiet
manner are always much easier handled. They
grow and thrive much better.
BREAKING THE COLT ON THE FARM:
The first step in training a colt is to make
friends with it. Gain its confidence by dividing
your apple with it, petting it and currying it. A
colt is practically half broken when you catch it
anywhere. This is brought about gradually in the
ways stated above, or by giving a little choice feed
or some salt. Do not permit any abuse or teasing,
as such treatment is often responsible for a great
many of the vicious horses. Slip on the halter, or
preferably the bridle, and, with the assistance of a
62 FARM STOCK
driver, lead it about. Repeat this frequently, Dis-
pense with the driver as soon as possible.
How to Halter-Break—A very good way to hal-
ter-break a colt is alongside a horse. The rider
then acts both as a leader and driver. Some tie
the colt to the harness of the work horse or trot-
ter. This is a good way, as it not only teaches it
to lead; it teaches also its place. Put on the harness
very gently and let the colt get used to it. Then
drive it, using two short lines.
WINTER CARE OF FARM HORSES
The feed and care of farm horses during the
winter months should be governed somewhat by
the condition of the animals and the amount of
work and exercise they are getting. Under no
conditions is it advisable to cut off the grain ration
entirely or turn the animals out to a straw stack
to get a scant living as best they can, or in other
words barely to exist until springtime and hard
work comes again. Individual horses require dif-
ferent feeds and in varying quantities during the
Winter months. Some animals when not at work
will winter nicely on silage as a principal feed with
some hay, but I prefer to add some bran and
ground oats to the ration. I would not advise the
feeding of silage to any horse that is being worked
or driven, or one that is at all subject to colic.
as already indicated, both come from Holland and
probably have a common origin, the colors being
sharply contrasted black and white in both breeds.
While, however, the black and white are irregularly
arranged in patches on the Holsteins, these colors
are placed with great regularity on the Dutch
Belted cattle. The animals of this breed are jet
black, with a broad belt of pure white encircling
the central part of the body. This belt varies in
width, but seldom reaches the shoulder blade or
hip. According to modern standards, no white is
permitted except in the belt.
In size, Dutch Belted cattle are about equal to
the Ayrshires; occasionally individual animals are
_ slightly larger. In Holland a deliberate attempt has
been made to keep this breed almost entirely under
the control of the nobility. Partly for this rea-
son the breed is not numerous, either in Europe or
in America. It was first introduced into New York
about 1838, but may possibly have been brought
over by the settlers somewhat earlier.
The average weight of cows is from 1,000 to
1,200 pounds and bulls weigh about 1,800. The
milk production of Dutch Belted is nearly equal to
that of Holsteins, and the quality is about the same.
They are good feeders, maturing at a fairly early
age, but are probably not quite so vigorous as Hol-
steins.
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8
10
CHAPTER Xa.
The Business of Dairying
There is a sentiment abroad that dairying is
becoming unpopular with many, and there is less
inclination among young men to engage in it.
If this be so, it is time dairymen took hold of this
matter to raise the standard of dairy intelligence
and education up to a point where it will be popu-
lar. The door must be opened to the boys and
girls of this country so invitingly, with so much of
interest and profit in sight, that they will without
question become our future citizen farmers. We
cannot expect much change in those with settled
opinions. While we may not change much, we
have it in our power to promote and institute a
change, an uplift, that shall be a power for good
to those who come after us. The door must be
opened wide, and the light made so clear, it will be
recognized that getting a start and winning suc-
cess in life does not imply that one must leave the
farm. It must be shown that a man may by intel-
ligent practice have a farm, high producing dairy
stock, and may know about feeds and feeding and
produce the best; but it implies study, comparison,
and gathering the best information and applying it.
Must Study Your Business—The man who
refuses to educate and broaden his mind along his
business, who pins his faith to the reckon and guess,
will always be found milking mixed-bred cows, in
which the failures are the most prolific, will be
feeding everything if it is cheap, and believing that
all failures are due to the factory and market end
109
I1O PAVRMT STOCK
of his business. As one has expressed it, too many
men go through life mistaking their gizzards for
their heads. The moment a man sees and puts
into practice the idea that he can cheapen the cost
and increase the excellence, of an articlesepmar
moment he has opened the door to enlarged oppor-
tunities.
DAIRY FARMING
Dairying has long been assuming more and
more importance as a line of animal industry, keep-
ing pace in this respect with the growth of large
cities and the consequent demand for great quan-
tities of milk and ‘other forms of dairy products.
In the northern and western states, particularly,
this development of dairying has been most pro-
nounced. In the early history of the United States,
dairying was of far less importance, relatively,
than at present, largely for the reason that there
was no steady market for large quantities of dairy
products and consequently no inducement for
farmers to keep a large number of cows for dairy
purposes. The tendency then was for each farm-
er to milk as many cows as were required for
the production of the milk, butter and cheese which:
he needed for his own family. Gradually, how-
ever, the concentration of population in large cities
furnished the demand for more dairy products and
this was the business reason for the extensive de-
velopment which has taken place along this line.
Dairy Industry-is Large—The importance of the
dairy industry is seen not only from the number of
dairy cows and their value, but from the extent of
dairy products; thus, according to the most recent
available statistics, farmers sell annually about 2,-
250,000,000 gallons of milk, and butter and cheese
SHE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING EPL
factories buy annually about 1,500,000,000 gallons
of milk. Within recent years, the development of
creameries On a co-operative or some other basis
has been rapid and extensive. They have naturally
used large quantities of milk, as just indicated, in
the manufacture of butter. Contrary to the wide-
spread notion, however, there.is more than twice
as much butter made on farms at the present time
as in factories, the amounts being 1,072,000,000
pounds on the farms, annually, and 420,000,000
pounds in the factories. The opposite tendency is
observed in cheese making. The process of cheese
making is somewhat more elaborate than that of
butter making and requires more skill and expe-
rience, as well as a more elaborate equipment in
order to produce a first-class article.
Cows for Human Food—Good dairy cows pro-
duce human food in the form of milk much more
economically than food products can be obtained
in the form of beef, pork or mutton. Naturally,
the cost of production of milk and butter varies
greatly in different localities, according to the price
of farm labor and feeding stuffs, but the relative
economy of dairy and beef production varies in the
same direction in nearly all localities. The only
apparent exceptions to this rule are found in two
extreme types of farming conditions found on the
western ranges and in the neighborhood of large
eastern cities. On the western ranges the distance
from the market is so great that milk could not be
delivered in a satisfactory condition and dairying
is practically impossible. In the neighborhood of
large eastern cities, on the other hand, the price of
land and the cost of feeding stuffs are so high that
the production of beef becomes altogether too ex-
pensive as compared with milk production. The
112 FARM STOCK
amount of feed required for the production of a
pound of modern beef steers is nearly, if not quite,
ten times as great as the amount of feed necessary
for the production of a pound of milk by the mod-
ern dairy cow.
FEEDING THE DAIRY COW
The dairy cow is fed primarily for one purpose:
that milk may be produced. Since milk is so largely
formed of the protein elements of the food; it fol-
lows that the dairyman must have the best that can
‘be secured to supply this kind of ration. Conse-
quently, the old-fashioned way of feeding any sort
of feed will no longer prove profitable; especially
since lands have increased in value, since labor has
gone up higher, and more remunerative returns
have become necessary to the farmer. It used. to
be the custom to turn the cow into the pasture in
early spring, in a somewhat depleted condition. At
this period she freshened and then for five or six
months produced milk: abundantly and satisfacto-
rily. This was because pasture grass was a bal-
anced feed and supplied her with the necessary
constituents for the production of milk and butter
food. Then in the fall, as the pasture beganete
dry up, her milk yield decreased and continued so
throughout the winter. The winter feeds were
largely corn fodder, straw and some ground feed,
like wheat, bran or corn. Naturally, under these -
conditions she never did her best. With the devel-
opment of the dairy industry there gradually spread
over the country a better knowledge of the prin-
ciples and methods of feeding, as they concern the
dairy cow. Asa result, corn has been relegated to
THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING I13
the background as unnecessary and even undesir-
able as feed for cows, except in its use as ensilage.
So the silo has come and is sure to stay. It of-
fers the best means of corn consumption for dairy
cows that we have. Corn ensilage possesses feed-
ing value of much merit and it possesses at the
same time the succulence and juices, two things
very essential in maintaining the milk flow during
the winter months. But corn ensilage in itself is
not a balanced teed. While it is succulent, it is
still lacking in nitrogenous constituents. It stimu-
lates milk flow, but it does not provide the where-
with to make milk; hence they must be fed
something that supplies this feeding constituent.
Fortunately, the range is very wide.
In the southern states cottonseed meal is right at
hand; in the West are the by-products of the cereal
factories; and transportation is so rapid that the
eastern dairyman can secure protein feeds from the
North and West at no great cost. But in all sec-
tions corn ensilage may be balanced within reason
by clover and alfalfa, and no dairy farm is complete
in its plan, equipment and management if it does
not include one or both of these great legume
crops.
To supply the grain side of the ration you will
need to go a long way in order to find any feed
more satisfactory than the cottonseed meal. Com-
pared to its commercial price, its value 1s exceed-
ingly high, and of the various feeds on the market
cottonseed meal invariably provides protein at a
less cost per digestible pound than any other food.
Cottonseed meal is generally available throughout
the country. Large quantities of it, however,
ought not to be fed. Three to five pounds for eight
or nine months in a year should cover the ground.
114 FARM STOCK
The remaining part of the daily ration and the re-
maining months of the year should be supplied
through the use of some other feed or feeds; linseed
meal, wheat bran, and others of equal worth and
value may be used for this purpose.
in producing dairy feeds you ought to make a
practice of always considering the cost of the teed
from the standpoint of its digestible nutrients. Too
often feeding stuffs have been purchased by name
rather than because of merit. The point to consider
is, How many pounds of digestible nutrients do I
get in a ton of this feed, and what does each pound
of digestible protein cost me? Figured on that
basis many dollars will be saved in the feed bill and
more satisfactory results will be had when the
profits are figured up at the end of the month or
year.
HANDLING A HERD FOR MARKET MILK
In making milk for the retail trade the producer
must consider carefully the demands of the trade.
The consumer is yearly becoming better educated as
to what constitutes good milk and as to the dangers
which are often found in milk when carelessly pro-
duced and handled. In general, the consumer is
growing more critical in his demands for high-
grade farm products and is willing to pay a fair
price 1f he can have what he wants. The farmer
must study the demands of the higher class of trade
and strive to meet them, or else expect low prices
for products of only ordinary to fair trade.
In buying for family consumption the purchaser
wants milk of good flavor, of a fair degree of rich-
ness and of good color. Bad flavor is mainly the
result of improper care in handling the milk during
THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING II5
and after milking, although it is not infrequently
caused by improper feeding and stabling. It fol-
lows then that, whatever the breed, milk of good
flavor cannot be produced except under cleanly and
healthful conditions and under the exercise of good
judgment as to the kinds and quantities of food to
be used. Garlic in pastures will surely produce
garlic flavors, and so will turnips or turnip leaves
produce a turnip-like flavor. Silage when fed in
large amounts will produce a fermentive flavor,
just as it will produce a musty flavor if fed when in
a state of partial decay.
The Reason of Bad Silage—The objection of-
fered to the use of silage by some milk shippers 1s
based on its excessive use, or on the use of poor
silage, coupled with the difficulty of controlling
these points. While it is true that flavor depends
mainly on the care used in producing and handling
the milk, it 1s also true that milk to be of rich flavor
must contain a fairly high percentage of fat. Milk
which has a creamy flavor and consistency is highly
prized by many people as a healthful drink. There
are sanitariums where the chief food for nerve and
brain-worn people is good, rich milk.
In judging the richness of the milk in fats, the
consumer is guided by the bulk of cream it will
produce. The milk from some breeds does not give
a large bulk of cream nor a well-defined cream line
after being bottled for several hours.
Color Important in Milk—But one point looked
for in a good grade of milk is color. Usually there
is a close relation in milk between color and rich-
ness in fats. Asa rule, a yellow color means milk
rich in fats. I have seen siriking instances where
this was not the case, but so usually does the belief
prevail that a yellow color in milk denotes richness
116 FARM STOCK
that it 1s wise to take notice of. Lack of color and
lack of creaminess are firmly associated in nearly
everyone’s mind with poor quality, and it is a good
business point for the farmer who retails milk to be
guided by it in selecting his cows. It must be
admitted, too, that a decidedly yellow color in the
milk does give it a more pleasing appearance than
when such color is lacking.
Get a Good Bull—In selecting the foundation
for a herd, the dairyman should not hesitate to pay
well for a bull that will stamp upon his female
progeny the power to give quantity, color and rich-
_ ness in the product. In selecting females only the
best should be used for building up the herd. It
seems to be a rule in breeding that the more mixed
the. blood of the female the greater will be the in-
fluence of the male. In selecting the females, care
should be taken to get those which have no tendency
to beefiness. By selecting foundation stock ‘in this
way, and by rearing the best of the offspring, a val-
uable herd for producing high-grade market. milk
may be built up in a comparatively short time.
PROTECT DAIRY COWS FROM FLIES
The season of midsummer is one of the most
trying times for the dairy farmer and then more
than at any time of the year is it necessary to use
special care with the dairy herd. During the time
of harvest, when flies, heat and mosquitoes make
life a burden for the old cow, she also has to cope
with dry, short pasture and a very busy keeper. I
not only sympathize with the old cow, but also
have some feeling left for her keeper; for who can
forget the milking during the fly season, when
the temperature is very high and one is tired out
THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 117
after a hard day’s work? Certainly this is not
an easy task, but the remedy we are anxious to
hear, and I do not know as I| can give a sure cure
for this complaint. In many ways life can be made
easier for both man and beast if a few things are
complied with.
In the first place, you should bear in mind that
- cows freshening in the spring will have to be milked
during the winter if they are to be made profitable,
and if they are neglected during the fly season and
their milk flow cut down, the chances are they will
be strippers the balance of the lactation period.
Therefore, it is very important from an economical
standpoint to use special care during the hot sum-
mer months. If the cow switches our face instead
of her side, and kicks over a pail occasionally, it
should remind us that it is better often to practice
winter dairying and see to it that the bulk of our
cows freshen in the fall and early winter.
It is true also that a darkened stable is a more
convenient place in which to milk than in the cow-
yard or the open shed. You might also bear in
mind that there are on the market many kinds of fly
removers, which can be sprayed on at little cost at
milking time. If this expense is considered too
high, a light burlap cow blanket will greatly help
matters; this may be thrown over the cow at milk-
ing time. I have found that by darkening the
barn the flies give me little trouble during milking
time. This can be greatly improved by first using
a strong disinfective spray, or some material that
will repel flies. Use this freely about the stalls,
gutters and windows, and upon everything, so that
the flies that are in the barn may go out; then
darken the barn and little trouble will be expe-
rienced.
T18 FARM STOCK
MAKING CHEESE AT HOME
Use milk three or four hours old that has been
held at 70 degrees and which has not as yet com-
menced to, sour. Heat to about 86 destecs, sum
commercial rennet at the rate of three ounces or
85 cc (cubic centimeters) to 1,000 pounds of milk.
Allow to coagulate for about 30 to 40 minutes,
break the curd with a spoon or three-cornered stick -
until the particles are the size of the end of the
small finger; heat slowly to about 100 degrees,
stirring almost constantly in the meanwhile, and
allow to stand at 100 degrees until the curd becomes
firm. ;
A few experiments along this line will show
about how firm the curd needs to be, but roughly it
may be stated that it will require about 2% hours
from the time the curd is broken. Drain off the
whey, stir the curd for 15 or 20 minutes, allowing
it to cool slowly. Salt at the rate of 2% pounds salt
per 1,000 pounds milk; put in a mold, square or
round, as desired, and apply considerable pressure.
The amount of pressure required is rather indefi-
nite, but should not be less than 100 pounds to each
cheese. The utensils required are a thermometer,
a tin vessel for heating and a measure for meas-
uring the rennet extract. All of these articles, in-
cluding the rennet extract, can be purchased from
any supply house.
KEEPING UP THE MILK FLOW
It is a matter of importance that the flow of milk
be kept up to the highest possible point.- It is too
often the case that the matter is not attended to on
account of the press of work during haying and
harvest. The feed gets too short in the pasture,
THE BUSINESS, OF DAIRYING IIgQ
the flies bother the cows, and as the amount of milk
is reduced a little each day it passes unnoticed until
it is too late to remedy the matter.
If supplemental feed has been provided in the
shape of oats and peas, it is well to begin feeding
them as soon as a shrinkage is discovered. In the
-absence of such feed, green clover, cut and put in
the manger for the cows to eat when they come in
at night, makes a good substitute. If fodder corn
PART OF A DAIRY PLANT
In the illustration is seen the cement silo, a permanent
improvement of the dairy farm. The silo is steadily in-
ereasing its popularity.
was sown or planted thickly for the same purpose,
one can begin on it soon after the tassels appear.
I have noticed that the best results from it are ob-
tained after the ears have formed and the kernels
are approaching the glazing point.
When I have had fodder corn to feed during the
latter part of the summer, especially sweet corn, I
have found that it was a saving of time to use it,
for the cows relish the feed so well that they would
come up for it at milking time. Those who now
I20 FARM STOCK
have a supply of silage to feed can meet the require-
ments of the cows very easily, and they are then
masters of the situation. The silage can be fed with
the least extra trouble of any of the supplemental
feeds.
ALFALFA FEED FOR DAIRY COWS
During the past few years many dairymen have
investigated the merits of alfalfa. What you have
found out about it has been sufficient inducement
for you to attempt to supply your wants by grow-
ing it on your own farm. Unfortunately for you,
_however, climatic and soil conditions offer a handi-
cap which will be hard for you to overcome in the
successful growth and harvesting of alfalfa. Our
best posted men on alfalfa have named it the king
of all forage crops for feeding purposes and the
results of feeding tests prove that it has not been
misnamed. Unlike other feeding material of the
forage character, it contains that valuable food ele-
ment known as protein, the milk producing
material.
Two equally important conditions confronting
eastern dairymen are: (1) The ever-increasing de-
mand for dairy products; (2) the insufficient sup-
ply of good milk producing feeds to keep feed prices
down to an economical basis, from the feeder’s
standpoint. It was the shortage of home-grown
feeds and the lack of protein in natural farm grains
that developed the necessity of utilizing commercial
feeds to supply what the regular farm grains
lacked, the milk producing material.
I call your particular attention to the alfalfa that
is grown out West and which is now being offered
for sale in eastern markets. It offers you an ad-
vantage you should not be slow in accepting by
SVAdMOD NO DNILSVAT SMOD
121
I22 FARM STOCK
adopting its use. Alfalfa contains more protein
than wheat bran, and, as a basis of a feed for the
dairy cow, it perhaps has no equal.
Alfalfa Meal—How are eastern dairymen to be
supplied with this alfalfa grown so far away in
these arid sections? My answer is that it is a mill-
ing proposition, just the same as supplying you with
wheat bran and concentrated feeds made from
wheat, corn, oats and barley, all of which are pro-
duced in surplus quantities throughout the middle
west and far northwest. Alfaifa mills located in
the arid producing sections will be even more neces-
sary than wheat and corn mills, from the fact that
the rate on alfalfa in the baled form is excessive,
while in the milled form 'it will be reduced to the
grain products rate basis, the same on which you
are buying all other commercial feeds.
COW FEEDING WHEN PASTURE IS SHORT |
A genuine dairy cow is a splendid machine for
converting a variety of food products into milk,
but oftentimes, especially during the busy fall, the
operator fails to realize that the task of changing
fuel. .is a ‘severe: test fer the machine, and, as’a
result, often finds himself trying to repair the
damage. ce
Cows used to making milk from grass alone find
a great difference in its palatability and nourishing
qualities as the season advances, and, while they
may not decrease the flow of milk as long as there
is an abundance of grass, a careful survey of their
general appearance will indicate that they are
“losing the-bloom, the freshness, and possibly the
vigor, that was so marked earlier in the season.
THE BUSINESS OF DAIRYING 123
Supplementing Pastures—The watchful herds-
man needs no orders. He at once begins to supply
the wants thus made known. He has found from
experience that it is a costly practice to allow the
milk system to draw from the needed physical
vigor of the animal, and realizes, too, that the milk
flow once checked is hard to restore. The alfalfa
field is called upon to furnish a little greenery,
else, he tempts their appetites with green sweet
corn fodder, second crop clover, cowpeas, a few
potatoes, or, better yet, some silage; they are in-
vited to nibble at some bran, corn meal, moistened
beet pulp, or, if necessary, some brewers’ grain,
and if one mixture fails, others are tried until the
trying fly season is passed and the needed rains
flush the dry meadows and prompt the clover and
timothy meadow to furnish a few welcome, suc-
culent mouthfuls. :
Some Grain May be Fed—Even then the grain
or selected-variety feeds are not removed entirely
from the ration, for winter is coming and the
cow’s vigor can more easily be maintained and
reinforced for the coming cold weather. Oats
and pea hay may be tried; the early corn fodder
looks very tempting, and a few hills are cut and
thrown over the fence and greatly relished by the
milkers. The straw stack needs brushing down,
and the chaff should not be left to sour or spoil,
so the cows are given a romp in the stack yard.
By this time the evenings are chilly and change-
able, so the herdsman finds it profitable to keep
the cows in the barn all night, and soon has them
on a satisfying winter ration, which he changes
occasionally for variety’s sake.
124 FARM STOCK
His cows have not missed the change from
grass to hay; they are healthy, vigorous and func-
tional, and eat with relish the various fodders and
grains which he has in store for them. The milk
flow is increasing, rather than decreasing, and all
bids fair to a profit-sharing season.
Begin Before Cold Weather is at Hand—The
wave of prosperity will not come to the farmer
who is less watchful and who waits until cold
weather before he begins feeding his winter
forage.
The grass-made flesh and vigor are lost during
early fall; the milk check is scarcely worth while
cashing; the animals have unsatisfying appetites,
and refuse to respond, even if the herdsman allows
them’ special. excursions to) the feed) troneme ae
excess energy stored while the pasture was green
was expended in trying to make milk out of dry,
dormant grass, while the milk-making function
could not be maintained when there were calls for
the nourishment of the growing feetus.
The milch cows are mere strippers during the
greater portion of the winter, and most of the
blame comes from a lack of care, feed and atten-
tion during the critical period. It is well worth
while to take simple precautions in tiding the milk
cow over from her summer to winter ration.
CHAP TAR Xi:
The Business of Beef Making
The making of beef is one of the large farm
industries and calls for much capital, great skill
in breeding and feeding, and constant attention to
details. Beef raising has had its ups and downs; at
some periods profitable, at others a losing venture.
Even the cattle kings in the older days had many
losses as well as good profits, at times. The de-
mand for beef is always equal to and sometimes in
excess of the production; and this is more likely to
be true in the future than it has been in the past.
The control of prices in the sale of beef has
brought about much hardship to the producer.
Whether co-operative slaughter houses and sale
yards will be things of the future only time can
tell. However, there is certainly now too large a
difference between the cost of the live animal and
the cost of the product to the consumer. Either the
consumer pays too much or the producer gets too,
hier Whe simple fact that a number of large
slaughtering houses have been built up, bringing
their owners immense profits and incomes, i$
enough to indicate that the margin between produc-
tion and consumption is too large.
One of the first essentials in the business of beef
making is the right sort of stock. The manufac-
turing animal should be a good_ beef-making
machine. If you have primitive live stock, you
certainly cannot expect very large profits. Deli-
cate machines produce high-grade work. Finely
125
126
THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 127
bred and carefully attended animals are profitable;
and just in proportion as the owner is skilled and
trained in the art of right breeding and right feed-
ing, will he succeed in the production of beef ani-
mals that pay. A scrub beef cow is a failure and
has been so for a long time. She is an old-fash-
ioned beef-making machine; she is out of date; she
is too slow in doing her work; and when that work
is done its quality is often so poor as to be unsatis-
factory to both producer and consumer.
‘Then you must know about the market require-
ments. [oo many men insist on growing beef to
suit their own ideas and pay no attention to what
the market requires; hence, when they sell their
stock they must take what they can get. Not
only should you study the best market from the
standpoint of your locality, but study the best mar-
ket from the standpoint of the class of beef you
raise. This refers to breed, to size of finished ani-
imals, and to their general quality.
LEARN TO JUDGE CATTLE
There are several reasons why the feeder should
be able to judge cattle. Every steer is not a good
feeder and a poor feeder.in a herd cuts down the
profits. The good judge knows which steers will
utilize their food to the best advantage, and his
herd is composed of cattle which will put on flesh
rapidly. Some experiments haye shown that pure-
bred cattle can be fattened on less than the poorer
grades, while, on the other hand, many scrubs are
found that will make larger gains than thorough-
breds, on the same amount of feed.
Reasoning from these facts, the feeder who
knows just what degree of purity will make the
128
THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 129
best feeders, and who can pick from the cattle of
_low breeding those that will make the best gains,
has a great advantage over the man who cannot
distinguish between good and bad feeders.
The success of the feeder depends as much upon
the kind of cattle bought, and the price paid for
them, as upon the way in which they are fed. It
is evident that, if a stockman buys inferior cattle
and pays a big price for them, he will not
make a very great profit on them. The buyer
should know when, where and how to buy, and,
more important, what to buy. The time of year
at which the herd is to be marketed influences the
kind of cattle demanded.
Christmas Beef—An example of this is the de-
mand for beef of fancy quality at Christmas. If
a feeder intends to market at that time, he should
buy feeders of fancy quality. To be able to do
this he must know what degree of quality is re-
quired, and what kind of cattle will finish in a
fancy condition. During the feeding period, the
| feeder should be able to determine the exact con-
dition of his herd. If his animals are not making
the proper gains, the feeder should at once detect
it, and change the ration. The expert judge knows
just when to add more roughage, or when the feed
does not contain the proper amount of carbona-
ceous or nitrogenous food.
Another very important thing that the good
judge knows, 1s that he is able to detect disease
and unhealthiness in cattle. The man who buys
diseased cattle has a poor chance of making any
profit. Unhealthy cattle do not make profitable
gains, and are as objectionable in a herd as the poor
feeder. The purchase of one diseased animal may
cause the infection of the entire herd. If disease
130 FARM STOCK
comes into a herd during the feeding period the
feeder should be able to detect it, and separate those
altected from the rest om tie herd:
Study the Requirements—A feeder learns to be
a good judge by studying the requirements of a
good steer. He must know what the form of
a steer should be, low-set, deep, broad and compact,
rather than long-legged, gaunt, narrow and loosely
put together. The broad, compact form indicates
strong constitution, and the low-set animal is
usually a good feeder. The top and underline
should be nearly parallel and the flank and twist
low. Cattle having prominent hips, tail, heads and
shoulders should be avoided, as smoothness of out-
line is essential.
The quality depends very much upon the breed-
ing of the animal, and the market class into which
the steer shall go. depends largely upon the quality.
Good quality is indicated in a smooth, refined head,
fine bones, and thin skin, covered with silky hair.
The skin should be loose and mellow. Strong con-
stitution is necessary if the animal is to make good
gains. The rapidity of gains depends largely upon
the amount of food that a steer can digest and as-
similate, and a strong constitution is required to
handle a large amount of food. Strong constitu-
tion is indicated by a wide, deep chest, long and
well-sprung ribs, compactness of form and fineness
of bone. If a breeder knows when an animal pos-
sesses these perfections, he can choose a herd that
will be good breeders and money-makers.
BABY BEEF
In the old days the idea was to raise cattle until
they reached the age of four or five years and then
to fatten them. The new idea is to grow beef,
THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING I31
starting with the young animals, that are gradually
brought to the block at as early an age as possible.
It requires a great deal of feed, much time and
effort; and money is locked up for a long period if
cattle are not sent to the market under five years
of age. If they can be brought to nearly the same
weight in from I5 or 18 to 24 months, all the
feed for maintenance is saved, but half of the labor
is expended, and the money is used but half the
period. These are important considerations in
growing beef or live stock of any kind.
The raising of baby beef is somewhat of a diffi-
cult and complicated specialty that has grown up
within the last few years. Of course, in this busi-
ness there is no chance for scrub animals. Only
highly bred individuals that possess good quality,
good health and the right type need be entered into’
the race of baby beef making. Now baby beef is
coming to be the rule. It is the sensible kind of
beef to raise. It is obvious that the sooner an ani-
mal can be brought to a market condition, the
greater is the profit. The quicker stock can be
grown and fatted for the market, the greater the
profit and the more satisfaction to the producer.
Many experiments have been conducted in the beef-
raising section which all point to the greatest suc-
cess in the production of baby beef. But this style
of farming requires just a little more skill than the
old style. Better feeds must be used, they must be
fresh and palatable and they must be presented in a
way that the animals will eat the largest possible
quantities. :
SHELTER
Several experiments have been made to determine
if shelter is necessary in the production of beef.
132 FARM STOCK
The results indicate that an open shed is preferable
to either a closed barn or an open barnyard. In
stall feeding no better results were obtained than
where fed out in the open with exposure to all kinds
of weather. The best results are obtained by al-
lowing the run of the yard with shelter provided
so that during the cold rains and snows the ani-
mals may get in out of undesirable weather. A
small amount of exercise is good for the health,
and not enough to cause any loss in feed.
FINISHING STEERS IN THE SPRING
After being fed all winter on dry foods, which,
to a certain extent, become monotonous to the fat-
tening animal, steers will frequently eat but little
else when turned suddenly upon fresh pasture.
Unless they are kept off the grass for all but brief
periods during the first weeks, there will be a check-
ing of growth due to the fact that the succulent
grass has disordered the digestion of the animals.
At the same time they will consume more of the
fresh, palatable grass and will not eat enough of
strong nitrogenous or fat producing foods.
Do Not Give Pasture Excluswely—This calls for
careful regulation of the diet of the growing steer
when first put upon the green pasture. They should
be allowed enough palatable mixed feed to take
the edge from their appetites, so they will not feed
heavily upon the grass when turned out. It has
been found that a good feed of mixed grain, early
in the morning, will serve this purpose best. If
the steers are then turned upon the pasture, they ©
will not overfeed on the green forage. At this
time the concentrated meals and ground grains are
not as good as properly mixed whole grains, for
e
es
THE BUSINESS, OF BEEF MAKING E43
the reason that if these are fed in addition to the
already extremely laxative fresh grass, the animals
will be checked in growth.
A balanced ration cannot be said to be furnished
by early spring grass alone. This early growth is
large succulent grass containing practically no ni-
trogen or fat-producing matter. For this reason
considerable corn with some dry alfalfa or clover
hay or some of the small grains should form a part
of the morning ration. The well-mixed feed com-
posed of grain, such as oats, barley, rye and corn,
is, at this time, to be preferred above one formed
chiefly of corn.
FATTENING STEERS IN SUMMER
It is a significant fact that many extensive feed-
ers, especially along the borders of what is known
as the bluegrass region, have turned from blue-
grass to the clovers, or a mixture of the same with
timothy or broom grass. They believe that the
net returns in beef per acre are thereby enhanced
and the crop rotations of the farm better provided
for.
The permanent bluegrass pasture has many ad-
vantages of its own; but in many localities in the
latitude of central Illinois and northward, large
yields of such pasture are precluded by conditions
of soil or climate. In this event, it is but the part
of wisdom to replace it by that grass or legume
crop which will contribute most largely to the an-
nual net profit of the farm and to the advantage
of the live stock thereon. Unproductive pasture
land is certainly one of the largest leaks in the
farming and animal husbandry systems of the cen-
tral west at this time.
134 FARM STOCK
One common mistake in the handling of pasture
lands is that of supposing mere grazing to be the
means of keeping up the fertility of the land. If
the cattle have their feeding, bedding and watering
places apart from their pastures, the fertility they
take from the land will be deposited about these
places. This results in a removal of plant food al-
most as marked as if hauled off in the form of
hay. ‘The mechanical application of manure to the
pasture in that case becomes of importance equal
to that of the fields devoted to, several crops.
As to the grain rations advisable for finishing
_ steers on grass, we may note, in the first place, that
the amount of grain fed should be governed largely
by the relative cost of grain and grass. That is,
when grass 1s cheap and corn dear, it is good prac-
tice to utilize the former to the greatest possible
extent consistent with the production of a satis-
factory marketable product. If the quickest finish
is wanted, the appetite of the steers is the best guide
to follow. They will commonly eat 17 or 18 pounds
of corn per 1,000 pounds live weight, or about the
same amount as in winter.
If fed a full grain ration, about one-half as much
pasture area will be required as on grass alone.
Further, the question whether such a supplement
as linseed-oil meal or cottonseed meal can be added
profitably to the corn fed, must be answered con-
ditionally with reference to the character of the
pasture crop. With any of the clovers or other
legumes the need of a nitrogenous supplement is
generally doubtful, while with bluegrass, or still
more markedly, with timothy, orchard grass or
native prairie grasses, such feeds are of distinct
value.
EWS BOSINESS “OF BEERS MAKING 135
BEEF CATTLE IN AUTUMN
The critical tirne with beef cattle is the period
when grass fails and they are not yet taken into.
winter quarters. The reference is, of course, to
cattle that are to be finished some time during the
winter. To meet the emergency of a dry summer,
the pasture provided should be in excess of the
A HOME-MADE DIPPING TANK
This dipping tank is always ready for use. An occasional
dipping wards off disease, and plays havoc with lice and
mange.
needs of the stock. Such pasture, though in ex-
cess, will not be wasted. What is not eaten in the
fall will so protect the plants that early growth
will follow in the spring, and this will probably
more than offset any loss from uneaten grass. But
even the most careful forethought will not pre-
vent a shortage at such a time in a very dry sea-
son.
Lo FARM STOCK
Supplementary Food—When pastures are short,
supplementary food of some kind must be fed.
If no increase was made during this period of
shortage, all the food eaten would be lost in the
sense that no direct profit would be made from it.
Wise forethought, then, will provide such food.
The form in which it 1s most commonly furnished
is that of corn in the stalk, and in some areas sor-
ghum. It is sometimes furnished in northern
areas in the form of rape. When thus furnished,
the cattle are introduced gradually to the rape to
avoid the danger of bloating. They are allowed
access to an old grass pasture at the same time to
counteract the tendency to scouring. Where one
has only a small bunch of cattle to carry, a few
acres of rape will go a long way toward putting
the cattle in high condition, providing the rape is
well grown. :
How Corn and Sorghum Are Fed—Of course,
the feeding of corn may begin before the season
has arrived for harvesting... But to harvest by
hand, and feed from day to day, is laborious work.
It is much easier when the corn can be harvested
with the corn harvester and can then be drawn and
spread over the pastures. Where the number of
cattle is large there should be two pastures. The
corn for one day’s feed is thrown down on a fresh
place each day on the sod, but only every other day
in each field or inclosure. The cattle that are being
led up to fattening take the choice from the food,
and other store cattle eat up what is left. Swine,
of course, glean also with the latter. Sorghum is
cut and shocked like corn or is piled in heaps and
is carried from these to the pastures or paddocks.
No additional grain is called for unless the cattle
are to be made ready for the early market; that
s
PEE BUSINESS: OF BEER MAKING 137
is, before the end of the year. If more grain is
called for it may be given most cheaply in the form
of corn. But, of course, other grains will answer
fed in the ground form. More commonly, it is
not added to the food until the animals go into
winter quarters. If farmers would only provide
for it, the cheapest food that could be used would
Pegeormt silazse. The. idea is common that corn
silage is only good for milk production. When the
silage is made from corn that is well stocked with
ears, it is even better relatively for beef produc-
tion than for milk production when it is the chief
facter in the ration, as it furnishes a:‘ration much
more nearly balanced for making beef than for
making milk. Such food would meet the needs of
cattle on short pastures better, probably, than any
other. Think also of the economy of feeding the
silage, because of the almost complete consumption
of the stalk. Should the silage not be ready for a
week or two at the first, corn in the stalk could be
fequuntil it 1s ready.. The feeding of the silage
could begin the day after the silo had been filled.
It is a matter of much importance that cattle
thus in process of fattening should be protected
from cold storms. Especially is this important at
night. During such periods they ought to be
protected. Such exposure will greatly retard in-
crease. No detail should be overlooked that will
tend to promote their comfort. They can then be
taken into winter quarters without any hindrance
to progress from the change.
SWINE FEEDING AFTER CATTLE
_ The plan of allowing swine to feed after cattle
that are being finished on corn has become so com-
mon in the corn-belt states that to fatten cattle
138 FARM STOCK
successfully in any other way than in conjunction
with swine feeding after them is looked upon as an
impossible thing. That is to say, it is looked upon
as impossible to make the financial end of the work
come out right without making swine to glean
among the droppings.
The plan of thus fattening cattle and swine in
conjunction grew out of the exigencies of necessity.
Corn was so cheap relatively in former years that
it was possible to feed it ever so freely to animals
that were being fattened. When corn was 10 to
20 cents a bushel, it did not matter much though
‘dt wasted vety freely to the cattle. It trecdiae a
large amount fattened them quickly, that was the
great consideration. It was of more consequence to
rush the cattle in the fattening process than to try
to save corn. Because of this, it became quite com-
mon to feed to a cattle beast of 1,200 to 1,500
pounds weight not less than 25 to 28 pounds of
Shelled corn per day. The animal so fed would
probably gain 2% pounds per day for the short
feeding period of 100 days, and so much of the
corn would be undigested that a pig gleaning after
it would get enough, to produce, say, one pound of
increase per day.
Putting the corn at 20 cents per bushel, the beef
made at 4 cents per pound and the pork at the same
price, the increase in meat would be worth 14 cents
and the cost in corn would be but 10 cents. There
would thus be a gain of 4 cents on the meat made
in one day, also a further gain in the enhanced value
of the meat, as shown by the live weight when the
feeding began. This does not take into account the
fodder fed or the cost of feeding, nor the value of
the manure, which would offset both by such a sys-
tem of feeding.
Ee
THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING 139
Influence of Changed Food Values—The influ-
ence of changed food values is going to affect
mightily such a system of feeding. Take corn at
40 cents per bushel. Suppose the gains in beef and
pork are the same. Present prices will scarcely war-
rant putting the average value of the finished steer
at more than 4 cents per pound in the feed lot, and
the same is approximately true of pork. The cost
of the increase in beef and pork in this case would
be 20 cents, while the value of the same in the feed
lot would be but 14 cents as before. Therefore, the
loss would be 6 cents. To offset this would be
the increased value of the meat each day that com-
posed their original weight.
It is questionable if this would offset the loss re-
ferred to. Now, suppose corn went up to 50 cents,
the prices of meat remaining the same, the chance
for making a profit would be further reduced.
What Must Happen—lIt is very evident, there-
fore, that if finishing beef by this system is to con-
tinue, there must be modification somewhere. It
may come in different ways. It may come first
through the enhanced value of meat, or second,
through modification in the system of feeding. It
is evident that the present system is not attended
with large profits as things are. The prices paid
for meat must advance or the value of grain fed
must decline. The margins at present are too nar-
row. When they become too narrow feeders must
shut down, or at least curtail their operations, and
this ultimately reacts upon those who supply the
cattle. Now, food values are not likely to decline
seriously. The trend of the level of food values is
to go up as countries grow older, hence, if meat
is to be grown in sufficient supply, it must become
140 FARM STOCK
more expensive; that is, it must become higher in
the sense that the grower shall get more for it.
Another Plan of Feeding—It may be that an-
other plan of feeding will be introduced. By this
plan the corn and other grain will be ground. It
will be mixed with ensilage and fed, or with other
cut food. Instead of feeding each animal 28 pounds
of grain a day they will be fattened on less than 14
pounds a day and the swine will be eliminated from
the feeding. The gains will be somewhat less than
two pounds a day on the average and the feeding
period will extend over five months rather than
~three* months. ? This’ system~calls’ for more iaigen
than the other, but the time is unquestionably com-
ing when it will pay better.
It may be, however, that this time is mortqmmre
here. No one in Europe or Canada would think of
feeding a cattle beast 28 pounds of grain a day.
They would not think of doing so, because they
could not afford it.
FEEDING INFERIOR CORN TO CATTLE
The feeding value of inferior grades of corn is
usually underestimated by the farmer who finds a
lot of it on his hands. Comsequently, he oites
sells it at a sacrifice to some neighboring stockman,
whose experience has taught him that such corn is
better than it looks. This is true of light-weight
corn, which has matured too early by reason of
drought, and it is true of soft, frost-bitten ears.
The former is low in starch and oil, having been
halted in its growth before the storing of these sub-
stances was completed; but the protein is there in
nearly normal amounts so that the proportion of
protein to other nutrients is greater than in sound
corn.
THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING I4t
Good Gains on Frosted Corn—Soft, frost-bitten
corn, excepting its high percentage of water, com-
pares favorably in composition with sound corn,
and its feeding value depends chiefly upon the
amount of moisture it contains. In 1896 and Igo2,
when large areas of corn were damaged by early
frosts, professional cattle feeders were able to buy
at their own prices, below ten cents a_ bushel
‘In many cases, all the corn they could tse, and in
most cases it was found that the steers fed out
_ with as good gains as in normal years. It is not
to be inferred that the highest finish can be put
on choice or fancy feeders with soft, watery corn,
but it is a fact that medium and good grades of
cattle can be made about as thick and ripe as the
market demands of these grades on a ration of
soft and even moldy corn, such as the crop of 1896.
Combined with hay at its present low price, it
should be the means of producing beef at very low
cost. Let unsound corn, therefore, be reckoned at
its true value.
The class and grade of cattle best adapted to the
circumstances is the most important matter to be
decided by the farmer who proposes to convert his
damaged crop into beef. Those who have to buy
feeders will find that the prevailing cheap hay,
plentiful grass and high-priced corn of this sea-
son generally favor the handling of yearlings
rather than calves or two or three-year-olds, be-
cause they have the greatest capacity for utilizing
a coarse ration to good advantage. The farmer
is fortiinate who can buy in his own neighborhood
native yearlings suitable for feeding, but most
buyers will have to look to one of the markets.
Quality of Feeders Important—Quality of feed-
ers is the essential point in cattle of yearling age
142
ad
WHERE BEEF IS MADE
ial
cattle barns, sheds and silos, all essent
for profitable beef making.
Just back of the Hereford calves are seen the
THE BUSINESS OF BEEF MAKING T43
whether they be natives or western range cattle.
They should be started on feed while grazing on
fall pasture, stubble or stalk fields, together with
the best available roughage. They cannot be fat-
tened most profitably under eight to ten months,
and an effort to crowd them more rapidly will
give disappointing results. Let ten or 12 pounds
of shelled corn per steer be the upper limit during
the winter. Regulate the ration so as to keep the
cattle growing fast and fattening somewhat. A
600 or 700-pound steer started in October should
weigh 300 pounds more before the opening of the
next grazing season. They may then be full fed
on grass for the July market or grazed over sum-
mer with little or no grain and fattened in the
fall. This proposition, of course, requires pasture
and a supply of good roughage like clover hay.
It would be advisable only where a part of the corn
crop matures sufficiently so that it can be kept over
winter.
Buying Feeders in Fall—Supposing that a large
amount of badly damaged corn must be disposed
of in a short time, or that pasture or leguminous
hay is lacking, the most suitable cattle to select
are usually either heavy, fleshy feeders or some
kind of thin butcher stock. Whenever medium
or good grade, 1,100 to 1,250-pound, three-year-old
feeders can be bought at feeder prices, they are the
most profitable cattle that can be fattened; but
they are difficult to find in the country, and can
seldom be bought at conservative rates at the large
markets. They must be thrifty, and not previously
burnt out with corn. They can be fattened in 90
to 120 days, according to their condition and age.
They may be started on shock or snapped corn,
and should be on full feed after about three weeks.
CHAPTER XIV.
The Care and Management of Cattle
The cattle-man, regardless of his line, recognizes
that the most intimate association must exist be-
tween himself and his stock. It is positively out of
the question to make a success of dairy cattle or
beef cattle when the tender is not in close sympa-
thy with and earnestly attentive to the animals
under his charge. :
The “animal knoweth his keeper.” He who is
abusive, rough and thoughtless is not a success.
When you see a flock of sheep, a drove of hogs or
a herd of cattle at the very heels of their master,
licking his hands and clothes, you may know that
there 1s a chord of sympathy and good will exist-
ing between the man and his animals. No slip-
shod attention and care will do.
You must study the needs of your herd from
day to day. You must feed and care for them ac-
cording to each particular period in the lives of your
animals; and you must be ever ready to make
some sacrifice in some direction, if you would se-
cure the greatest success in the raising of the stock,
in the production of milk, or in the fattening of the
steer.
Just as there is a constant changing demand for
food from early calfhood to adult age, so must —
there be constant changes of management during
the period of growth to maturity.
No general rule will apply for all classes of
cattle. The scheme or plan of managing a beef
herd will not be applicable to a dairy herd; and each
144
ARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 145
breed calls for close attention, in some single di-
rection, to some particular point; consequently, each
cattle raiser must thoroughly understand his herd,
be in close touch with the market to which his milk
or beef products go and give close attention to the
feed of his section, the community and individual
farm.
He must be conversant also with the drawbacks
JUST WAITING FOR SUPPER
This simple contrivance is much esteemed where many
calves are fed and raised. Each gets its own ration, with-
out fuss, confusion or fight.
or strong points of his own farm in its relation to
the particular breed of cattle or to style of product
he produces.
REARING CALVES ON SKIM MILK
A great many people think a good calf cannot
be raised on skim milk. For many years our calves
were such long-haired, stunted, little things we were
ashamed of them. But we kept on trying until we
had something to be proud of. After much reading
146 FARM STOCK
and experimenting, we have mastered the subject
and now raise fine, thrifty calves. After letting
the calf suck for three days we put it in a pen by
itself and let it get hungry. Then, with three pints
of its mother’s milk, we teach it to drink; this may
necessitate two or three trials. “Ay total on omlg
four quarts and a pint is given at first in three
feeds. Ii the calf does not seem to be very strong,
we give four feeds, the last at bedtime. It always
gets new milk warm from the cow until it has a
good start and is drinking well. This practice con-
tinues for two weeks.
When to Begin—At two weeks we begin to feed
skim milk. .A teaspoonful of flaxseed meal is
mixed with half a teacupful of warm waten and
placed on the back of the stove a few minutes. This
is mixed with one quart skim milk and one quart
new milk, and fed three times a day, always at a
temperature equal to blood heat. Now we have
the calf taking two quarts three times a day. The
new milk must always be sweet. We never over-
feed; if the calf does not drink its milk up clean at
once we take away what is left and give less next
time until it has an appetite for three quarts three
times a day; neyer any more: Overrecding, on
skim milk always stunts a calf. Each calf is kept
in a pen by itself. Since no two calves are alike, we
are very particular to give his own ration according
to his age. When each is a month old we begin
to feed a little hay and a few oats or a little meal,
thus keeping it growing thriftily. This method in-
volves some trouble at times, but it pays.
FEEDING THE DAIRY CALF
If strong and healthy, the calf should be taken
away from the dam when two or three days old.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 147
The calf should be fed whole milk for about two
weeks; then add about one-fourth skim milk, and
keep increasing it for a week or ten days, until
the whole milk is entirely displaced by skim milk
altogether. Frequently, with excellent results, a
little flaxseed jelly can be used in the skim milk.
Aad this when beginning to feed skim milk; and
even if the calf is a week old no bad results will
follow.
To make this jelly, soak whole flaxseed in hot
water. This is far superior for young calves to
any calf meals used as a substitute for milk. If
you cannot get the whole flaxseed, ground oil-cake
meal, as found on the market, is a very good sub-
stitute.
At two weeks old, place a little whole corn and
oats in a box so the calves can get at it—they soon
learn to eat and relish it—as well as hay. With
this system, calves do well at three weeks old on
flaxseed jelly, grain and hay, with about one pint
skim milk added to each feed, morning and even-
ing, so as to give the jelly a milk flavor.
Do not allow calves to get fat, but keep them in
a good, thrifty, growing condition. Get them to
eat a minimum amount of concentrates. Continue
this system with the calf until within three or four
months of cowhood, then feed concentrates liber-
ally so as to develop the milk-secreting organs for
service after the birth of the calf.
FEEDING MILK IN GOOD CONDITION
Many of the ills of calves arise from giving
them milk in poor condition. At the creameries
the vats are sometimes allowed to get in a very
unsanitary state. They are not emptied and
148 FARM STOCK
scalded out with sufficient frequency, and some-
times washings from the utensils are dumped into
the vats. In some instances the milk is drawn
back and kept for a day or two before it can all
be fed. It has time to become acid and otherwise
deteriorate, and when fed in such a condition does
not make a very good food for calves.
Separator Milk 1s Best—The best skim milk
that can be obtained for calves is that which has
been obtained from new milk run through the
separator soon after it has been obtained from the
cow. Itis then fresh. It is of proper temperature,
or nearly so, and is in its constituents almost as_
good as new milk for promoting growth. If the
pails in which it is kept are scalded, then the dan-
ger from bacterial contamination is obviated.
The temperature at which milk is fed is a mat-
ter of much importance. Cold milk lowers the
temperature of the stomach, and through it, the
temperature of the body. Though no further
harm be done, the lowering of the temperature of
the body means more food, as, before any gain
can result, the temperature must become normal,
and this means that it 1s made so at the expense
of food.
Milk, from what is known as the setting process,
is usually, if not, indeed, always, below the normal
temperature. If fed, therefore, at the normal tem-
perature, it must be heated.
Sometimes it is heated by adding hot water.
This dilutes it too much. Again, it is heated over
a fire. This changes its properties somewhat, and
-is troublesome. Heat is added by pouring in hot
gruel. This is as good as far as it goes, but does
not go far enough usually. Hence, simple as the
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE I49
problem of heating milk seems, it is not so simple
after all.
AMOUNT OF MILK FOR CALVES
The amount of milk for calves varies greatly
with the capacity of the calf to take it. The
amount recommended to be fed also varies great-
ly, some authorities recommending twice as much
as Others. With reference to this question it will
_be correct to say that during the earlier weeks of
the life of the calf no adjuncts will be found su-
perior or equal to milk. , It is also true at the same
time that as soon as calves can utilize other food to
good advantage, it will be found cheaper than milk.
It follows, therefore, that the calves should be
given all the milk that they can digest properly
until they can make good use of substitutes that
take the place of milk.
But care should be taken not to overfeed milk,
good as it is. This can be easily done. The indi-
cations of overfeeding soon show themselves in
deranged digestion, and such derangement is com-
monly indicated by scouring. The moment that
such an indication appears the amount of milk fed
should be reduced.
It is very evident from what has been said that
it will not be possible to name the amounts of milk
to feed that will be suitable for calves of all ages,
but it may be possible to state average amounts. It
would seem safe to say that during the first week
of the life of a calf it will safely take from six to
eight pounds of milk, the latter quantity being fed
at the close of the week. Strong, vigorous calves
may take as much as ten pounds, but ordinarily the
smaller quantity is the safer one. Then add one
150 _ FARM STOCK
pound of milk every week with the advance in the
age of the calf until it is, say, ten weeks old.
CARE OF CALVES AFTER WEANING
Subsequent to the weaning period, calves are
frequently allowed to lose in flesh, thus, -anga
measure, losing the benefit that would otherwise
result from careful feeding during the milk period.
The food and care are not exactly the same with
calves weaned in autumn as with those weaned in
the spring.
Calves weaned in spring usually go on grass
pasture as soon as it is ready. Such food is very
suitable for them, and when it is abundant, no
other food may be necessary. Usually, however,
it is advantageous to keep up the supplement of
grain, though it may be in lessened quantity.
The same is true of calves that are to be finished
quite young, as when grown for baby beef, calves
of the beef types or classes intended for breeding
should be given a less amount, and those intended
for milk production may fare well enough without
any. No kind of meal supplement, probably, is
superior to the following for summer feeding:
Ground corn, three parts; ground oats, three, and
wheat bran, one. If only one grain is fed, let it be
oats.
WINTERING YOUNG CATTLE SUCCESS-
FULLY
Four things are necessary to insure fair growth
and good condition in young cattle during the win-
ter. These are all within the power and reach of
everyone to obtain if he so desires. First, shelter.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE I5I
Since our timber has been taken away, live stock
‘cannot be left out in open lots as in former years
without suffering serious loss and discomfort.
Where the owner has not sufficient barn room and
is not able to build it, good shelter can be had by
making straw sheds for the cattle with but trifling
expense. Or, in the absence of straw, warm sheds
may be made by using fodder for sides and roof
and this can be fed in late spring when the danger
.of cold rain or snow is past. At any rate, sheds
can and should be provided for them so that they
may have protection in bad weather.
Supply Plenty of Water—Then they seat have
plenty of pure, clean water. Many farmers enter-
tain the idea that stock cattle will not drink much
in cold weather. This is a mistake. They are
eating dry fodder, hay or straw, as the case may
be, and they must have plenty of water to assist
nature in dissolving these dry feeds. And they
should have it at will. By this means they will
not be so likely to fill themselves full of cold water,
or sufficiently so to chill their entire system and
make what should be a source of comfort to them
a source of discomfort. They should also be fed
plenty of forage, either fodder or hay, clover or
mixed preferred, and straw about all they will
consume, with a small ration of grain once or twice
a day.
What Grain to Give—This grain may be fed in
the shape of corn in the shocle. if any 1s grown on
the farm small enough that they can readily masti-
cate it; if not, larger corn may be husked and
chopped into small pieces with hatchet or corn knife
so that the yearling steer can readily take hoid of
it and eat it. Some farmers shell corn, others pre-
fer grinding corn, cob and all, and:.feeding it that
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CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE 153
_way. This latter method requires more careful
equipment and greater care in feeding than either
of the other two methods. For calves, however,
we prefer shelling corn and mixing one part oats
to two parts corn. The young animal will do bet-
ter and make better growth with part ration of
oats than where corn alone is fed. There is more
protein in oats and the growing animal needs more
of that. However, if clover or alfalfa hay is used,
the protein in that will even up the corn and fod-
der and make better rations.
Helping the Manure Pile—When this method
of disposing of the forage crops of the farms is
practiced, all rough feeds, such as fodder, hay and
straw, is worked up into manure and put back upon
the land from whence it came. And we believe
that young cattle, sheep or colts, carried through
the winter on rough feeds mainly, do not pay large
profits for feeding, yet the incidental profits coming
from the business in increased fertility and conse-
quently larger yields of other crops, makes the
feeding of forage-consuming animals on the farms
almost a necessity rather than a choice. And in
these days of close competition and small profits in
business, farmers are compelled to practice such
methods as will give them maximum results at
minimum cost of producing them.
CHAPTER XY:
The Diseases of Cattle
The most successful directions in which the
treatment of cattle diseases have gone are of the
nature of prevention, of eradication of cause, and
of improved sanitary conditions. It does not pay
very well to attempt simply to cure disease, for
the cause remains just as it did before. Another
thing that has been learned is this fact. Our most
- troublesome, our chief contagious and our greatest
loss-making diseases are due to germs. Take
tuberculosis. A few years ago we.considered that
an hereditary disease only. Now we know it is not
hereditary, but solely a germ disease, easily ac-
quired by taking into the system, through air or
uncooked food, living germs that find comfortable
quarters in the body.
Take hog cholera—the most fatal and trouble-
some disease among swine raisers. It is a germ
disease. It does not pay to attempt to cure a sick
hog if the germ still remains on the premises, for
the cause is still present, ready to rise up at any
moment to attack oncoming herds.
The idea, back o£ treating disease among our
lower animals is to combat the cause, eliminate the
starting troubles so as to secure thorough sanitary
coadinons healthful environments and quarters
free of germ or insect.
SOME COMMON DISEASES
Tuberculosis—Without question, this disease is
the most far reaching among cattle. The annual
154
THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 155
loss is tremendous, not only due to diseased ani-
mals being either killed or dying of the disease, but
the loss in production, the shortage in work,
whether it is beef or milk, is somewhat tremen-
dous. Not only is this phase to be considered, but
the number of people, especially babies and chil-
dren, who by means of milk and butter from tuber-
A CATTLE BATH: TUB
The cage here shown is used for dipping the cattle for
treatment of mange. The dipping tank is now generally
used throughout the West.
cular cows, take this disease annually, is alarm-
ing. The effort of the experiment stations, the
department of agriculture, boards of health and a
score of other workers to lessen and wipe out
tuberculosis is going along right lines and in the
end will bring about great good.
Tuberculosis of cattle is similar to that of peo-
ple. It destroys the tissues of the lungs, is found.
150 FARM STOCK
in the intestines and may locate itself in various
parts of the body. The early signs of tuberculosis
are unthriftiness, poor appetite, dry cough, papery
skin, and coarse, rough hair. As the disease ad-
vances the flesh gradually wastes away, the cough
increases and often a discharge is seen from the
nose or mouth. By listening to the lungs, if far
advanced, considerable difference will be noted
from the normal action. A physical examination
may be verified by the tuberculin test, a preparation
that is injected into the animal just under the skin
and readily taken into the circulation. If the ani-
mal is tubercular, the fact is indicated by the rise
in the temperature eight or ten hours after the in-
jection. This rise continues for several hours,
reaching 105 or 106 or even 107°, and then grad-
ually declines.
Treating the Disease—There is little to be said
about the treatment of animals affected with tuber-
culosis. If they are common animals, perhaps the
best thing is to slaughter them. In many cities,
inspection of suspected herds is done under the
direction of the state, and some compensation given
by the state for the slaughtered animals.
Animals of considerable worth, especially dairy
animals, may be handled as follows: Isolate the
tubercular animals from the rest of the herd by
giving them quarters of their own, off by them-
selves, where they may have plenty of fresh air,
an abundance of ventilation in the stables, and
nutritious food. As soon as the offspring are born,
immediately remove each one from its mother,
giving it none of its mother’s milk at all. It has
been proved conclusively that this new born off-
spring does not possess tuberculosis. If now given
ati
THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 57
milk free from tuberculosis germs, it will develop
into a strong animal, free of the disease.
The milk from the tubercular herd can be made
into butter, provided it has been thoroughly steril-
ized so as to destroy all of the germs. By this
practice a costly herd of cattle can be maintained
for the time being, until the offspring are born, at
a small cost due to the isolation.
Fighting Tuberculosis in the Stable—A_ con-
tinued battle needs to be fought against tuberculo-
Sis in every stable where cattle are, in any great
quantity, housed or constantly stabled. This will
apply especially to dairy cattle. A wise practice is
to test the dairy cows in your herd at the earliest
possible moment by means of the tuberculin test.
You can do this yourself; but it is better to get a
veterinarian who is fully acquainted with all of the
details of the work. If any of your cows respond, it
is to your interest to dispose of them. They can be
sent to the slaughtering houses and there they will
be passed upon by the government officials. If not
far gone, they will pass the test and you will get
the usual beef prices. If in bad health, they will
be condemned and, of course, you would not want
them to be used or kept for any reason.
The next step is to thoroughly disinfect all of
the cattle quarters. Any of the disinfecting fluids,
and lime, will do for this purpose. A monthly
spraying of the quarters is to be advised and the
whitewashing of all of the premises at least twice
each jyear.' And ’then every six or’ ten months,
test the cows for tuberculosis, or until you are
certain that it has been eradicated. From now on,
once every year or 18 months will be sufficient and
by so doing you can be reasonably sure that your
herd is free of this dreaded disease.
HGS FARM STOCK
It is also advisable to have all purchased cattle
that go into the dairy herd isolated and tested be-
fore admitted. In this way you will avoid dangez.
Anthrav—This is an infectious disease due to
the anthrax bacillus. While most common in cat-
tle and sheep, it is known also to occur in horses,
mules and goats. The disease may be transmitted
from animals to man. It is first noticed as being
in the skin, lungs or intestines ; breathing is labored
and the intestinal discharges may be covered with
mucus and blood; swellings appear as carbuncles
which, when opened, show a yellowish mass stained
with blood. Pools of stagnant water are frequent
sources if contaminated with the bacillus. If such
a disease has been present, make a most thorough
disinfection by the use of chloride of lime or other
disinfecting substances. Vaccination of susceptible
animals for the purpose of preventing the disease
has proved very successful and is now generally
employed.
Abortion—By this is meant the premature expul-
sion of the offspring. It may be due to an acci-
dent, a noncontagious trouble; or it may be due
to an infectious germ that is contagious and unless
checked will pass through the entire herd. Symp-
toms prior to abortion are not generally observ-
able and no successful treatment has yet been dis-
covered for handling the disease. It is necessary,.
however, to use the greatest caution in isolating
aborting animals from the stables and barns, to
thoroughly disinfect the quarters in which they
have been placed, and then to frequently use disin-
fecting liquids every week or ten days so that the
disease will not spread to other members of the
herd.
—_*”
TH, DISEASES OB CATTLE 159
Texas Fever—The greatest bane of southern cat-
tle raising has been Texas fever. It has been only
recently that this ailment has been clearly under-
stood. Now we know it is due to the ticks that
seek to live on southern cattle. One of the ob-
servations early made was that young cattle never
were inconvenienced nor troubled with ticks, but
A CASE OF TEXAS FEVER
A familiar attitude assumed when afflicted with Texas fever,
caused by the cattle tick.
that old cattle, if they had never had ticks on them,
would invariably die when the ticks came. Cattle
that had carried ticks from young calfhood went
into old age bearing this parasite for years without
any disease manifestation at all. These differences
were not clearly understood until recently, when
the following facts were brought out:
160 FARM STOCK
First, that young calves are usually immune.
Cattle ticks do not bother them and by the con-
tinued carrying of ticks they carried their immu-
nity throughout life.
Second, that if the young calf was not rendered
immune by having ticks on it at an early age, that
saine cali, when reaching the ave of ts oma
months, would succumb to the disease if infested,
because it had not been rendered immune while
young.
Third, inoculation for the purpose of securing
immunity has been practiced successfully. The
most rational treatment of Texas fever is in the
order of prevention. That is, to keep the ticks off
the farm. It is not good farming to have each ani-
mal carrying thousands of big ticks, constantly
filled with blood, even though they do not threaten
the life of the animal. It should be remembered
that these ticks consume great quantities of nutri-
ents that have been given the animai in form of
good food. The flesh of tick-infested cattle is
not good, and they never reach the highest develop-
ment; and it is an easy matter to keep ticks off the
farm. By keeping cattle off the, neld Tor aweam
the ticks will be entirely destroyed. The following
year, turn the cows in a field that has been cleared
of ticks, being sure that no ticks are on the cattle;
and then, by keeping all cattle off of the infested
parts of the farm for another year, complete eradi-
cation will be effected.
Any sort of grease or lard rubbed by means of
a brush onto the cow along her abdomen and legs
and neck, or such parts of her body as touch the
ground when she lies down, will reach all of the
ticks and in a short time they will drop off dead.
Se ee ee ee ee
THE DISEASES OF CATTLE 161
Foot and Mouth Disease—This is a common dis-
ease throughout Europe and threatened our coun-
try quite seriously a few years ago, especially in
New England. The very quick and effective work
of the states in conjunction with the United States
Department of Agriculture quickly wiped out the
disease.
FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE
In this case the dreaded disease has affected the udder.
When affected, the only method of treatment is immediate
slaughter.
The disease itself is highly infectious, the virus
being found in eruptions in the mouth and on the
feet; in the milk and other products of the barn-
yard. The death rate is low. The chief symptoms
are rise of temperature, loss of appetite, followed
by blisters and sores in the mouth, on the tongue
and lips. Even the udder may show such spots.
Many cases are known where the hoofs were com-
pletely destroyed.
162 FARM STOCK
Vaccination has been practiced, but not very suce
cessfully. The best method has been to destroy
all of the diseased animals and then to thoroughly
disinfect all quarters where such animals have been.
Milk Fever—This disease is peculiar to the cow
at the time of calving. It may be due to bad sani-
_tation, poorly ventilated stables, mature age, etc.
The disease ordinarily appears from one to two
days after calving. Some claim that the disease
is due to excessive milk secretion, but the cause is
not clearly understood by the scientists.
Milk sickness is usually associated with the
heavy milking cows. The common treatment of
milk sickness now is to inject ten grams of iodide
of potash into the udder as soon as possible after
the symptoms of milk fever are noticed.
One of the most common treatments is to simply
pump air into the udder. I know many people who
have resorted to the common bicycle pump for this
purpose and in a few hours the afflicted animals
Were up, moving about, and as full of life as ever.
Cornstalk Disease—The cause of this disease is
not known. The symptoms are digestive disturb-
ances, accompanied by delirium and unconscious-
ness. The most reasonable view to take is that it
is some germ disease associated with molds in the
food. If once attacked with the disease, the afflicted
animals succumb very rapidly. The greatest
caution is here suggested in the use of moldy food.
Cornstalk disease has, perhaps, been more prevalent
throughout the western states than elsewhere in
the country.
CHAPRER XV
Sheep
From the earliest ages the sheep has been a
source of profit to mankind, and its keeping and
rearing an important industry. Abel, the second
son of Adam, chose sheep herding as his employ-
ment; and although his brother chose to till the
soil, the tending of herds and flocks became the
favorite occupation of the human race in its early
periods. In those days people did not till the soil
more than they were obliged to. Of course it was
very easy to tend the flocks, because there were
few people and much land and it is very likely
that the sheep was the earliest animal domesti-
cated.
So dependent is this animal on man that without
him he could not exist. Having always yielded
to his master’s: will, gone where that master bade
him and been protected as much as possible against
all dangers, he has become stupid and dreamy.
His senses have lost their acuteness.
As civilization progressed stage by stage, and the
manufacture of garments of wool displaced those
of skin, careful breeding began to improve the
fleece, and varieties among sheep became fixed in
type. Later on, as people became more settled in
their occupations, cities were built and demands
for mutton increased; and that demand has in-
creased, until, at the present day, it is greater than
the supply. It has been stated that the markets
of the city of New York alone require more than
one million sheep each year.
163
104 FARM STOCK
While the sheep industry has always been one
of prominence in the United States, it has always
been less than its worth has merited. There is
a place on every farm for some sheep. Wool is
in constant demand and usually commands good
prices. Mutton may be consumed at home, re-
placing some of the pork, or it may be sent away
to the markets of the world. Sheep will graze on
pastures that other farm animals reject; and
wherever the sheep’s feet tread for any length of
time, the land improves and wealth abounds. For
this reason, this beast has been termed the “‘animal
with the golden hoof.”
A PAIR OF COTSWOLDS
The ewe and ram shown here are potn prize-winning
individuals. They have to their credit silver medals and
championship ribbons.
CHAPTER XVIE.
Breeds of Sheep
Merino—The Merino sheep was evolved in
Spain, and has been reared there for centuries.
From Spain they have been exported into the vari-
ous countries of Europe, United States, Australia,
eres) Vie first importation into the United States
was made in 1802 by Col. Davis Humphreys of
Derby, Connecticut. Under the influence of Ameri-
can and French breeders, the old Spanish Merino
has been improved so that the forms now known in
the United States are the American Merino, the
Delaine Merino, and the French Merino or Ram-
bouillet. The Delaine Merino has been evolved
from the American Merino and differs from it in
the longer fieece and improved mutton form.
The American Merino is one of the smallest
breeds in the United States. The ewes at maturity
weigh from 90 to 125 pounds and the bucks, when
in good condition, from 140 to 175 pounds. The
skin of the Merino is characterized by heavy folds,
especially about the neck; wool is fine and very
dense. The fleece will weigh Io to 15 pounds
more in the rams. It is one of the hardiest sheep
in the United States and adapts itself to various
conditions of climate and food products better than
any other breed. It can be herded in flocks of
thousands where the mutton breeds cannot be suc-
cessfully herded in flocks of over 200.
They are the sheep par excellence for grazing.
They do not become fully mature until the age of
three or four years, and their feeding qualities are
165
169 FARM STOCK
inferior to those of the mutton breeds. The meat
is lacking in tenderness and flavor, and contains
a large proportion of bone to meat. Within recent
years many of the eastern flocks of Merinos have
been crossed with the mutton breeds, for the pur-
pose of producing an all-around wool and mutton
sheep. |
Delaine Merino—The Delaine Merino has been
produced from the American Merino. It has a
larger carcass, a better mutton form, is nearly free
from folds and wrinkles and carries a longer fleece,
though not quite as fine nor as well glued together
_ on the surface as the American Merino.
The chief sub-types of the Delaine Merino are
the Standard, the National and the Improved De-
laine. Closely related, to these in their leacuie
characteristics are the Black Top Spanish Merino,
the Improved Black Top Merino and the Dickin-
son. All the Delaine Merinos have horns, and
more or less wrinkles or folds about the neck and
breast. The Black Top Merinos, likewise, have
horns in the rams, but do not have wrinkles, and
the fleece is more of a black. The Dickinson or
Polled Merinos have neither horns nor wrinkles.
They are a little larger in size and the fleece is
longer than the Delaines.
Ewes of the Delaine type, when mature, will
weigh from 100 to 150 pounds, the rams from 140
to 190 pounds. They are practically equal to the
American Merinos in hardiness and grazing
powers, but are superior to them in early maturing
qualities, in the quality of the mutton produced and
in feeding qualities. The Delaines are used ex-
tensively for crossing on western range sheep,
where the fleece has become light and open. The
fleece in ewes will weigh from nine to 15 pounds,
ph -
BREEDS OF SHEEP 167
and in the bucks, 12 to 18 pounds. The minimum
length of the fleece is three inches.
Rambouillet—In 1786 the French government
imported from Spain 383 selected Spanish Me-
rinos. These sheep were kept chiefly at Ram-
bouillet, where they have been carefully bred by
rigid selection and liberal feeding, and greatly
RAMBOUILLET RAM
A sturdy representative of the old French Merino class.
improved in mutton form, quality of meat and
weight, without the introduction of any outside
blood; both the weight.of the carcass and the
weight of the fleece have been increased from 100
to £50 per cent over the old Spanish Merino.
These sheep were introduced into the United States
in 1840, but did not become specially prominent
until during the last 20 years. Full grown rams
168 FARM STOCK
of this breed will weigh up to 225 pounds and the
ewes up to 175 pounds.
These sheep are much taller, stronger limbed
and more rangy than the American sheep, have a
better mutton form, are less wrinkled and the wool
is longer, though not quite so dense or fine, and
SOUTHDOWN EWE.
A saddle of Southdown has long been considered one of
the choicest of all morsels. Some of the best in the world
are raised in this country.
freer from-yolk, than the American Merino. They
are also taller and heavier than the Delaines, but
have not quite so good a mutton form, though
very similar in other respects.
The Rambouillets have the same hardiness and
feeding qualities as the American Merinos and,
while the quality of the meat is excellent, it is
BREEDS OF SHEEP 169
not quite equal to that of the mutton breeds. These
sheep are especially valuable for crossing upon
range stock for the purpose of securing a larger
carcass and heavy fleece of wool. They are at
present largely used alternately with Cotswold
rams on western range flocks.
A SHROPSHIRE AT ATTENTION
Of the medium wool breeds, the Shropshire leads all others
in numbers. Nearly 25,000 were registered last year.
Southdown—The Southdown originated in
England, and was imported into this country at
the beginning of the nineteenth century. It 1s a
smooth, round-bodied, symmetrical sheep, with a
brown, gray or mouse-colored face and feet. The
fleece is rather dry, coarse and light. They are horn-
less and while the smallest of the medium breeds, a
170 FARM STOCK
medium fat, two-year-old wether will weigh from
130 to 140 pounds. They are especially well
adapted to hilly lands with a dry soil, short, dry
herbage. They stand in the first rank among
early maturing breeds, and the meat is of the best
quality. They are vigorous and especially desirable
A’ PAIR OF HAMPSHIRES
Hampshires are black-faced, hornless and black-legged.
This sheep is gaining in popularity, because of its heavy
fleece, good grazing quality and large size.
for crossing where mutton is chiefly sought. They
have been used to a greater extent in the produc-
tion of the various other pure, dark-faced breeds,
than any other of the Down breeds. They are
inferior 1n wool production, giving an unwashed
fleece that will average from five to seven pounds
in weight.
ee Ee ee
=“
——.
BREEDS OF SHEEP 57%
Shropshire—The Shropshire is the most popu-
lar mutton breed produced in the United States.
It is well proportioned, symmetrical, and a little
heavier than the Southdown. The ewes will weigh
up to 175 pounds, and the rams up to 225 pounds.
It is of English origin and was evolved out of the
Southdown, Cotswold and Leicester breeds. It
was first imported into the United States in 1855.
They are especially adapted to general farm con-
ditions where the land is well drained and where
pasturage is good. The ewes are very prolific,
producing on the average about 40 per cent of twin
lambs.
The unwashed fleece will average nine to ten
pounds in weight in ewes, and 12 to 15 pounds in
the rams. The face is grayish black and the legs
still darker; in recent years there has been a tend-
ency toward somewhat lighter faces.
As compared with the Southdowns, the Shrop-
shires have a longer and heavier body and a heavier
fleece. The head is more completely covered with
wool, and the wool 1s longer, though not so fine;
it is what is known on the market as medium De-
laine or half combing wool.
It is one of the best general-purpose sheep for
farm flocks, since it produces a high quality of
mutton, a good grade of wool, which brings nearly
top. prices, and a large percentage of lambs.
Hampshire—The Hampshire is a_ hornless,
black-faced, black-legged sheep. Like the South-
down and Shropshire, it originated in England and
is the outcome of a cross of the Improved South-
down upon the Wiltshire and Berkshire Knot sheep.
It is much larger than the Southdown, more pro-
lific, produces a heavier fleece, and has_ better
grazing qualities. It is larger than the Shropshire
172 , FARM STOCK
and the lambs grow more rapidly to maturity.
They are especially adapted to an intense system
of farming, and for crossing where early, quick-
maturing, large-sized lambs are desired.
The unwashed fleece will weigh from seven to
ten pounds in the ewes and a little heavier in the.
A HORNED-DORSET BUCK
For the production of hothouse lambs no breed is
more popular than the Dorset. The breed is gaining in favor
every day. ‘i
bucks. The wool corresponds to that of the Shrop-
shire, but is perhaps a little coarser. They are a
stylish, handsome sheep of the mutton form, and
are qtite widely distributed throughout the United
States.
Suffolk—This is a medium wool, hornless, mut-
ton breed, with a long, black face, and a general
ee ™
BREEDS OF SHEEP 173
absence of wool on the head and between the ears,
which constitutes the principal difference in appear-
ance between the Suffolk and Hampshire breeds.
The body is rather long, the legs jet black. The
Suffolks occupy an intermediate place between the
Shropshire and the Hampshire. They have not
been extensively bred in the United States.
Ozj,07d,-lhe Oxford Downs originated in
England as a result of crossing Cotswold rams
upon Hampshire Down ewes and the selection and
mating of the progeny. These sheep since 1857
have been known as Oxfordshire Downs or Oxford
sheep. They are widely distributed over the United
States. hey are the largest and heaviest of the
Down breeds. When in good flesh, the rams
should weigh ‘250 to 275 pounds, and the ewes
from 200 to 225 pounds. The wool is rather
coarser than any other of the medium wools and
the fleece is heavier, weighing from ten to I2
pounds unwashed.
The Oxfords resemble the Hampshires in gen-
eral form, but are a larger breed and the face is
not so dark. It is usually an even dark gray or
brown, with or without a gray spot on the tip of
the nose. They are best adapted for lands furnish-
ing good pasture, and do not succeed as well under
range conditions or on rugged, broken pastures as
either the Shropshire or Southdowns.
Dorset—The Dorsets are one of the oldest Eng-
lish breeds of sheep. Both sexes are horned. The
face is white with a tendency toward a slight Ro-
man nose. They are considerably larger than the
Southdowns. The average weight for a mature
ram is about 215 pounds and for mature ewes, 165
pounds. The wool is short and will average six to
eight pounds unwashed to the fleece.
174 FARM STOCK
The Dorset is a solidly built sheep, and especially
esteemed for its prolificacy. When properly man-
aged, two lambing seasons a year are possible
with this breed. This makes the Dorset especially
popular for the production of winter lambs. When
bred in May, they produce lambs for the Christ-
A CHAMPION LEICESTER EWE
If you do not like sheep for wool only, then why don’t you
try mutton?
mas market, and will breed again soon after drop-
ping their lambs. They frequently produce twins
and often triplets. The ewes are frequently bred
to Southdown or Hampshire rams to give the mar-
ket lamb a black face, which is generally pre-
ferred by the butchers. The Dorset is generally
regarded as the most prolific of the sheep breeds.
BREEDS OF SHEEP 175
The ewes are exceptionally good milkers. They are
a hardy sheep; good rustlers; have early maturing
qualities, and the mutton is superior. They stand
unrivaled among the sheep breeds for the produc-
tion of winter lambs; i. e., unweaned lambs which
can be marketed during the holidays and winter
months.
Cheviot—The Cheviot is a mountain breed of
sheep, hardy and does well on scant pasture. They
are native to the Cheviot hills of England. These
sheep are distributed in nearly all the states east
of the Mississippi river. They are a medium-
sized sheep, the rams weighing 175 to 200 pounds,
and the ewes from 135 to 150 pounds. The wool is
rather coarse, the fleece weighs eight to ten pounds.
They are especially sought where hardihood is im-
portant. The breed is pure white, including a
white face and white legs. Occasionally there are
small black spots on the head and ears. The end
of the nose is dark. They do not bear close con-
finement as well as some of the other breeds. The
mutton, though of good quality, is not equal to
that of the Southdown.
Leicester—The Leicester is one of the long-
wool native English breeds which, though popular
in England, have never made much headway in
America. There are two types of Leicesters, the
Bakewell and the Border Leicester. They both
have the same general style, but the Border Leices-
ter is a little the larger and not quite as compact
as the Bakewell. They are a white-faced, square-
bodied, hornless breed. The mature bucks weigh
225 to 250 pounds, and ewes 200 to 225 pounds.
The unwashed fleece will weigh from nine to II
pounds. The wool is of good length and fiber,
176 FARM STOCK
and hangs in spirals at the outer surface, cover-
ing the whole carcass except the head and legs.
They are especially suited to thickly settled condi-
tions where there is an abundance of succulent
vegetation. They are easy keepers, mature early
and make excellent use of the food given them.
They are only fairly well adapted for rough graz-
A FINE LINCOLN FLOCK
The Lincoln belongs to the large mutton class of sheep. This
breed is growing more and more popular in this country.
ing purposes. In prolificacy they are not equal to
SOmic Or the othem breeds:
Lincolu—This is probably the most popular of
the long-wool breeds of sheep. It originated in
Lincolnshire, England, and has been distributed
all over the world. They were first imported into
the United States in 1836. They are the heaviest
of all the breeds of sheep raised in this country.
CHAPTER OS Vill:
Sheep Feeding
The variety of foods suitable for the feeding of
sheep is extensive. Hay, straw, corn fodder, roots
of various kinds, corn, oats, peas, rye, buckwheat,
cottonseed and linseed-oil meal, and bran, furnish
a variety of food from which a proper choice can
readily be made. ‘The relative feeding values of
these various substances used as food will deter-
mine their relative money values, and as these dif-
fer and fluctuate from time to time, it is often
necessary, to secure the most profit on the feeding,
to choose the food that is most economical in use,
_ although it may be the highest in price.
Clover: and alfalfa hay are the most valuable
foods for winter use, cut when in blossom, cured
so as to preserve all good qualities and kept free
from damp and mold. Where the main object in
view is the production of market lambs, either kind
of hay should furnish the chief subsistence of the
ewes. They will also be found preferable as the
staple and cheapest fodder when sheep are pur-
chased for feeding for market and the most rapid
growth of flesh is desirable.
Well-cured pea straw will be chosen by sheep
next to clover or alfalfa hay, and before timothy
or any other hay. Oat straw is readily eaten by
sheep, and is a healthful food, especially if har-
vested before the oats were dead ripe. Barley,
wheat, and rye straw will help to keep life in a
flock, but are not sufficiently nutritive to contrib-
ute much to the growth of flesh or wool, and
( 177
178 FARM STOCK
should be used only as adjuncts to roots and grain
or oil-cake meal.
ROOTS ALWAYS FINE FOR SHEEP
Roots furnish a staple food of the greatest value
for winter feeding of sheep. When fed in proper
quantities, their laxative effect healthfully opposes
the tendency of dry hay or straw to produce cos-
tiveness, and in addition they supply a considerable
proportion of needed phosphates and sulphur for
the growing animal and its fleece. But if fed in
excess, the large quantity of water they contain,
and their large bulk, especially when they are fed
in the winter, reduce the temperature of the animal
too much, and gradually act unfavorably on the
health. When ewes in lamb are fed roots in any
but very small quantities, abortion is frequently
produced, and this ill effect has been noticed more
conspicuously when the roots have been manured
heavily with superphosphate of lime. This has
been noticed by some extensive feeders and breed-
ers in England, where that fertilizer is largely used
in root culture, and their experience should serve
as a warning to us.
The reason assigned for the loss of lambs by
abortion when many turnips are fed, is not only
that the foetus is affected by the presence of a mass
of very cold matter in the stomach of the ewe, but
that there is an irritation produced in the intestines
by this unacceptable food, which causes the death
and expulsion of the fcetus. Nothing of the kind
has occurred in flocks that have been largely fed
on cooked roots, applied at such a temperature that
would prevent a chill to the animal. It may, there-
fore, be understood that it is the low temperature,
}
SHEEP FEEDING 179
generally near freezing, and often below it, at
which the roots are given, and nothing in the roots
themselves that acts thus injuriously. Knowing
this, the ill effect likely to be produced may easily
be avoided. .
The roots that are generally fed to sheep are
sugar beets, mangels, rutabagas, yellow turnips and
white or corn horn turnips, and are to be preferred
in the order in which they are here enumerated.
Roots Are Nutritious—Considering the large
quantity of water contained in them, roots may be
considered as highly nutritious food, and when fed
in conjunction with dry fodder, and in proper pro-
portions, are generally conducive to the health and -
growth of the sheep. Their effect upon the quality
of the wool, especially the lustrous wool of some
of the long-wool sheep, is very favorable. The
proper quantity of roots to be given depends upon
the kind of sheep. As a safe guide, it may be es-
timated that one bushel of roots will be a sufficient
daily allowance for ten sheep weighing 150 pounds
each live weight, if along with the roots, 142 pounds
of hay and one-half pound of meal or bran per
head be given.
LET SEVERAL GRAINS BE USED
Grain, or preparations of grain of various kinds,
furnish the concentrated foods which are found
needful to maintain sheep in healthful condition,
or to induce the rapid growth and fattening for the
market. These foods exist in abundant variety, but
no one alone can be fed with the greatest benefit for
any length of time. A change of food is both ac-
ceptable to, and healthful for sheep, and the dif-
ference in the money value of these articles of food,
180 FARM STOCK
which exists at nearly all times, makes it necessary
to exercise a judicious choice in this respect, in
order to secure the greatest profit.
The fat-forming elements in any article of food
consist of starch, sugar, gum, oil and fat, all car-
- konaceous matters, or matters rich in carbon, with
the addition of certain proportions of hydrogen and
oxygen. ‘The chemical composition of these ele-
ments 1s very similar and in some of them is nearly
identical. ‘Thus an animal fed upon starch jor
sugar may become fat, and it is well known that
bees fed upon sugar are able to produce honey or
wax from this food. In the process of digestion
and assimilation, starch, sugar and gum are changed
to fat. This fat is either consumed im the process
of respiration, or is stored up in the tissues of the
body, and increases the weight of the carcass. But
in the consumption of food rich in starch, a much
larger proportion is necessary to produce a given
weight of fat, or a given result in the process of
respiration, than is required of a food rich in fat
or oil.
CHOICE MUST BE EXERCISED
In choosing the variety of food, then, for a spe-
cial object, as, for instance, the feeding of a young
erowing animal, or the fattening of a mature ani-
mal and the sustenance of a sheep that produces
fleece rich in oil or yolk, as that of the pure-bred
Merino, those foods which would furnish abundant
flesh should be chosen for the one, and those rich
in starch and oil for the others. By thus choos-
ing judiciously and skillfully, there is an economy
in the cost of food, and the object sought is gained
at the least expense,
CHAPTER XIX.
The Care and Management of Sheep
In handling sheep, just remember that they are
naturally timid and of a nervous disposition. The
highest success in sheep raising cannot be expected
unless the flock keeper by his quiet manners and
gentleness inspires confidence in them. A sudden
disturbance of any kind, like the bark of a dog,
will startle the whole flock and sometimes create
a panic. Some shepherds make a habit of whis-
tling or talking to the sheep as they approach them
unexpectedly.
Whenever sheep are handled, gentleness and
quietness should be insisted upon. This sort of
training and custom is of especial value at lambing
time. The shepherd with experience knows what
this advice means, and if you will observe him as
he works day in and day out, with rams, ewes and
lambs, the wisdom of such attention will be seen
and its force, in successful management, appre-
ciated.
And then remember, too, that the lambing period
is the most critical time in the life of a flock. Con-
stant attendance during day and night is called for.
If the lambing season occurs in cold weather, the
lambs may become chilled before they are able to
suck their mother. If twins are produced, the
mother may give attention to only the stronger one.
Here it is the shepherd’s duty to see that the
weaker one gets its full supply of nourishment.
If the young lamb is unable to suckle within a
few minutes after birth, it should have help, and it
181
182 FARM STOCK
is often necessary to hold the ewe for this purpose.
Sometimes the mother refuses to own her offspring.
This trouble can be overcome by shutting her up in
an individual pen out of the sight of other sheep
and with only the lamb for company. You may
even have to hold her a few days until she submits
to. the charge., Some shepherds. sprinkle ise
mother’s milk ever the lambs, often with good
results.
When a strange lamb is placed with another ewe,
due to the death of her own offspring, many prac-
tices are resorted to in order to induce her to own
the strange lamb. The common practice is to re-
move the skin of the dead lamb and to tie on to
‘the lamb which is to be adopted. This is an old
custom and generally satisfactory.
Should a lamb become chilled after birth, it can
often be resuscitated by putting it into a pail of
water as hot as it can stand. It should be covered
entirely with water, leaving only the nose exposed.
When the water becomes cool more warm water
should be added. It may be necessary to do this
two or three times if the lamb is chilled, after
which the lamb should be rubbed dry with a towel
and fed with warm milk heated to blood heat. In
severe cases a few drops of whisky or brandy
added to a teaspoonful of water have been given
with good success and can be generally recom-
mended.
After reviving, the lamb can be returned to the
flock and will require no further attention. When
lambs are two to six weeks old the tail should be
cut off, using for the purpose a sharp jackknife.
A stub about two inches long should be left. Some
use a chisel for the purpose. The tail of the sheep
is a useless appendage, difficult to shear and likely
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 183
to get besmeared and unsightly; consequently with
farm flocks docking has been resorted to, and is
now an universal custom.
WEANING THE LAMBS
Every flockmaster realizes that the weaning of
€he lambs from the mother ewes is generally an
ALL THREE ARE FRIENDS
A case where the dog and sheep get on well together,
ordeal that is attended with a good deal of mani-
festation of displeasure in the way of bleating on
the part of both the ewes and the lambs. - From
the time the lambs are dropped in the spring
to the time they are taken from the flock, they are
dependent on the mother ewes, first, for the milk.
which sustains them, and second, for the company
or companionship.
184 FARM STOCK
When the lambs are taken from the ewes and
compelled to suffer from hunger and lonesome-
ness, it is no wonder that they bewail their condi-
tion and shrink in flesh, and that a considerable
time may be required to recover and start along
maintaining themselves and improving in condition.
I have noticed that large, thrifty lambs, that are
good eaters, make less ado when taken away from
the flock than the weaker and unthrifty ones. I
have also found that if the lamb’s stomach is well
filled with nutritious food, it stands the loss of
companionship much better, and more readily
adapts itself to the new conditions. A little extra
_ pains taken to prepare for weaning will be paid in
saving of loss of flesh, as well as a good deal of
worry and bleating on the part of the ewes and
lambs.
A little while before weaning time arrives it is
a good plan to teach the lambs to eat some food
that will take the place of the mother’s milk better
than the grass of the pasture. Get the flock into
an inclosure, where they will be comfortable after
they have filled on the grass in the morning and
give them a light feeding of oats and wheat bran,
equal parts, and then just at night feed them again
and turn them out to pasture. The lambs will learn
to eat the grain with the ewes.
Taking Lambs from Mothers—After they have
learned to eat the grain the time can be set for
separating the ewes from the lambs. On the morn-
ing of the day set, get the flock in earlier than
usual, feed and hold until nearly time to turn out,
when the ewes can be sorted out, the lambs fed
and the ewes driven to a distant field out of hear-
ing of the lambs. The lambs can be turned into
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 185
pasture where they will give their attention to feed-
ing on the grass; and if taken in each day, fed a
fairly liberal portion of grain, given access to all
the water needed and plenty of grass to eat, they
will make a constant growth at weaning time. If
kept improving the wether lambs will soon be in
condition to command a good price for the drover
or feeder and the best ewes can be retained to in-
crease the size of the breeding flock.
SHEEP DURING THE LAMBING SEASON
It is greatly important that lambs be strong
and vigorous at birth. When they come delicate,
it is difficult to carry them on without loss, and the
extra labor entailed is very great. That they will
not come large and strong is a foregone conclusion,
unless the ewes have been properly fed, properly
housed and properly exercised.
Food for Breeding Ewes—In localities where the
ground remains uncovered during much of the
winter, fortunate are those flockmasters who have
a pasture with a reasonably tough sod on which
the sheep may graze. With grass in plentiful sup-
ply, even though partially dead, the ewes will need
but little else until the approach of the lambing
season.
Where the ground is deeply covered with snow,
the best fodder that can be given to breeding ewes
is clover or alfalfa hay. If this can be given only
once a day, the other feed may consist of a good,
finely grown corn stover, well-cured millet, or good
oat straw. If hay or alfalfa are fed but once a
day, it should be fed in the evening, as the sheep
will eat the other fodder more readily in the morn-
ing when they are hungry. Pea straw, well saved,
186 FARM STOCK ~
is also an excellent fodder for them. The same is
true of peas and oats or vetches and oats grown
together.
When thus supplied with good fodder, they do
not need much grain until toward the approach of
the lambing season. ‘They will be in better condi-
tion, however, at the lambing time if they have
been fed a small quantity of grain previously. No
grain 1s more suitable for them than whole oats
fed alone, or, what is better, along with a little bran
or oil cake. Both bran and oil cake are not neces-
sary, but they will do no harm if both are present.
Field roots are excellent, but before the lambing
season it is not necessary to feed more than two to
three pounds a day. If roots cannot be had and
corn silage can, it will be in order to feed silage
at least once a day. When clover or alfalia hay
are fed either of these goes admirably with silage.
The latter is a carbohydrate and the hay is a pro-
tein food. When straw is fed as one of the feeds,
what is left over answers nicely for bedding. As
a rule, the aim should be to clean out daily the racks
on which sheep are fed their fodder.
Suitable Shelter—The housing for breeding ewes
may be simple. It should possess two requisites.
These are freedom from drafts and capability of
protecting from storms. But in no instance should
the quarters be confined. Usually the ewes should
have perfect liberty of access to a protected yard on
the sunny side of the shed. This yard ought to be
well bedded. It is a fatal mistake to have sheep
housed too warmly, even at night. They are not
liable to suffer from the cold if protected from
winds.
Suitable Exercise—Sheep will take ample exer-
cise if they have the freedom of one or more fields
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 187
when the snow is not deep or entirely absent. It is
when the snow is deep and they are unable to paw
it off that they are in danger of becoming too slug-
gish. The more highly they are fed the more slug-
gish they are. To avoid this it may be necessary
to put feed in a rack some distance away from the
shed, and located, if possible, in a secluded and
protected spot. If the snow is deep, clear away
by using the snowplow and strew a little hay here
A PAIR OF HAMPSHIRE DOWNS
These healthy, vigorous sheep are looking into a bright
future in this country. They are good feeders, possess good
weight and give good account of themselves: wherever placed.
and there along it. The ewes will soon find the
way to the feed. They will make a pilgrimage to
it daily if the food is enticing.
Exercise Necessary—When the ewes do not take
ample exercise, the lambs are lacking in vigor when
they are born. When this happens the task of car-
ing for them while they are young is difficult and
the losses that occur will probably prove serious.
After the lambs are born and on their feet, the
ewes may be fed grain with much freedom. A
188 FARM STOCK
mixture, as of oats and barley or oats, bran and
barley, will furnish a good grain supplement. Roots
-also may be fed with the utmost freedom.
BREEDING EWES IN WINTER
Every flock owner should carefully examine his
flock in the fall, and if there are any lice or ticks
on them,; they should be dipped. Even iieapme
weather is quite cold, dip them by all means. One
can never afford to feed lice and ticks, and espe-
cially he cannot when sheep and feed are as valu-
able as they are this season. The water for dipping
may be warmed some, then 1f the sheep are kept
~ out of the wind in a reasonably warm place, they
will not suffer.
Some of the Best Feeds—For their feed in the
line of roughage, there is nothing better or cheap-
er than alfalfa or clover hay, bean straw and roots.
If the ewes go into winter in good condition and
have plenty of these feeds, they will need no grain
until within a few weeks of lambing time. Even if
one has only a fair amount of these feeds and gives
them with corn stover and straw, the flock will
usually do well. .
When one has not enough alfalfa, clover or pea-
vine hay or bean straw to supply at least one good
feed a day, some grain should be given to furnish
a fair amount of protein. The ewe must have a
certain amount of this kind of feed to properly
nourish the foetus and grow her wool. Oats are
splendid for this purpose, but in recent years they
are very high in price. I have found gluten a very
good feed to mix with silage or with the chopped
roots. If one can get cull beans, a few of them
are good.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT. OF SHEEP: 189
It is very seldom with a fair sized flock that all
the individuals feed well. Those that do not should
be separated from the flock and be given special
care.
Keep Sheep Cool and Dry—It is not necessary
that the sheep pens should be warm; in fact, it is
better that they should not be, at least until lambing ©
time. Quarters that are cool, well lighted and
ventilated—with special emphasis on the ventilated
—and will keep the feet and back of the sheep dry,
are ideal.
One of the greatest mistakes made with the
breeding flock in the winter is that the sheep are
not given enough exercise. I usually draw corn
stover to a field that is to be plowed in the spring,
and feed the sheep there at noon every day that is
not stormy, or when the ground is soft. If you
cannot feed this way, see that your ewes are ex-
ercised in some way. You cannot have good, vig-
orous sheep and lambs without it.
Amount of Grain to Feed—The amount of grain
and the length of time the flock should be grained
before lambing depends upon the condition of the
ewes, and whether you are having early or late
lambs. If the lambs are to come early, the ewes
should be in the pink of condition, or they will not
be able to keep the lambs growing well until grass
comes. On the other hand,-if the lambs are to
come late, but a short time before the mother is
to go out to grass, she will require not nearly so
much grain.
Start Grain Ration Gradually—Whether they
are to be fed little or much, great care should be
taken in getting them on the grain ration. No
farm animals are as apt to be injured by abrupt
change of feed as are sheep. Feed small amounts
190 FARM STOCK
to begin with, and see to it that a few do not get the
major portion of that. Increase the amount grad-
ually and the sheep will be all right. Very many
lambs are weakened before birth by the injudicious
feeding of the mother.
Silage has been condemned by many as a feed
for breeding ewes, but I am satisfied, after several
years’ experience, that if one commences by feed-
ing very little and increases the amount slowly, it
is not only a safe but a splendid food.
Give Plenty of Water—Sheep will get along and
live a long time without water, but for them to do
their best it is just as essential that they should be
supplied with pure water, and have it as they want
it, aS for other animals: Feed 1s so seareesaiam
high this season that many flocks will be underfed,
their owners thinking that they are economizing
by so doing. The results will be poor, light fleeces
of wool, and a small, inferior lamb crop. Economy
of this sort always makes men poorer instead of
richer. Keep no more sheep than you can feed
well.
FEEDING PREGNANT EWES
It is very essential that the rations supplied the
ewe flock possess the quality to assist rapid and
thorough assimilation. A narrow ration of wither
roughage or grain is more apt to cause a sluggish
condition throughout the digestive tract and ul-
timately influence the development of the fcetus.
Food that can be readily acted upon by the diges-
tive secretions and made available for immediate
use is very desirable in the composition of a ration
for pregnant ewes. The greater the variance in
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP I9gft
any well-balanced ration the more readily is it di-
gested and transformed into available nourish-
ment.
Exclusive Roughage Ration Undesirable—Preg-
nant ewes should never be confined to an exclusive
roughage ration, though it may possess the neces-
sary ingredients to comprise a well-balanced ration.
Clover hay is one of the best roughages available
for pregnant ewes, but under no conditions should
they be limited to this one element of diet. If it
is convenient, clover hay can be fed twice daily,
Say morning and evening, but for an intermediate
feed, corn stover, bean pods or bright oat straw
should be supplied. Under no conditions should
wet, musty roughage of any kind be fed ewes in
the advanced stage of pregnancy.
Succulent Food—It is very important in the com-
position of a roughage ration for the ewe flock at
this time to include some succulent matter. Roots
are beyond question the most succulent food avail-
able for sheep. Many flockmasters make it a point
to grow afew tons of roots to feed during the
advanced stage of pregnancy. However, the flock-
owner who has no roots at hand to feed must af-
ford some other solution. Silage can be fed with
excellent results at this time, although care must
be exercised not to overfeed. I am feeding a part
ration to my breeding ewes and they are doing
finely. I remove the larger portion of the corn,
thus reducing the danger of overfeeding on grain.
It is not advisable to feed silage more than once
daily to pregnant ewes. .
The Grain Food—vThe grain ration should be
selected with considerable precaution, so that the
right proportions can be computed. Select as wide
a ration as possible. Do not feed too heavily upon
192 FARM STOCK
corn. I have found that a grain ration composed
of three pounds of oats, one of linseed or oil cake,
one of wheat bran and from two to three pounds
of corn meal, depending upon the flesh condition
of the ewes, makes a very excellent grain ration. If
the ewes are thin in flesh the corn proportion of
the ration may be slightly increased, never to ex-
ceed the above’ proportion. The importance sar
plenty of clean, fresh water at this time cannot be
overestimated, and salt should also be constantly
before the flock.
STOCK RAMS IN SUMMER
Where but a small flock of sheep is kept and but
one ram, there are no serious objections to allow-
ing the ram to graze with the flock when the pas-
tures are good, “but should the flock be large —.
the rams many, it is different.
Several Rams im Separate Pasture—When Sev-
eral stock rams are kept they are given a small pas-
ture by themselves. If they can be given a change
of pasture occasionally, they are likely to do bet-
ter, but this is frequently found impracticable. As
stock rams are usually grained somewhat heavily
at the mating season, and as they are generally
given considerable grain food during the winter,
the aim should be to bring them through a portion
of the summer, at least, without grain.
This can usually be done when the grazing 1s
plentiful, nutritious and succulent. The effect on
the system is cooling. ‘The digestion is less taxed,
and the influence exerted is renovating. But when
the season draws near for service, it may be neces-
sary to feed grain to them again, that they may
begin the season’s service strong and vigorous.
CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 193
Sale Rams—The management of sale rams, that
is, of shearlings, may be different. With them
growth is incomplete. It is necessary that they
shall be in good flesh when sold. They should not
only have good grazing, but it may be necessary to
give them a certain proportion of grain through all
the season. Of course, the amount should not be
large nor the food stimulating and heating, as
when corn is fed. There is probably no kind of
grain better adapted for such feeding than oats,
and, in some instances, the grazing may be so good
that it is not necessary even to feed any grain. The
feeding of the grain should be gauged by the condi-
tion of the rams and the nature of the pasture.
SHEAR SHEEP EARLY
The season for shearing sheep is much affected
by locality. There are climates in which two
shearings would doubtless be better. The time for
shearing in the northern states, say north of par-
allel 40 degrees, is April, as practiced now by the
best shearers. Years ago, when washing preceded
shearing, it was common to defer shearing to a
later period. Sheep now are usually shorn without
being washed. When the flock is much infested
with ticks, the time of shearing should be advanced.
But it may be necessary to confine shorn sheep when
the shearing is done very early.
The sheep-shearing machine is fast superseding
the shears. So much more quickly and neatly does
it do the work that it will pay to invest in one of
these machines, even for a small flock of sheep. It
is usually practicable to harness various kinds of
power so as to run these machines, but when this
may not be practicable they may be run by hand,
194 FARM STOCK
one person shearing the sheep and the other fur-
nishing the power.
The machines do excellent work. Lf any criti-
cism is to be made of them on this score, it is to the
effect that they leave the sheep, as it were, too bare.
The danger of maiming the sheep by way of cut-
ting the skin is less also than with the hand shears.
Of course, shearing will still be done to some ex-
tent with the shears. When so done, it is impor-
tant that the shears be kept sharp. 1 15 faleo
important that they have a spring that works
easily. Shears with a stiff spring work hard.
Wherever done, the floor should be clean that the
wool may be kept as free as possible from all ad-
mixture with dirt and filth.
When sheep and lambs are being fattened, it is
important that the shearing be done early. The
stimulating food that is being given to them
causes more heat in the system than would other-
wise be present. This becomes so serious as soon as
the days become warm as to interfere with the
gains of the sheep. The importance of promptness,
therefore, in attending to this matter, is very con-
siderable. Years ago, shearing was often deferred
until some time in June. The suffering thus en-
tailed must have been considerable. The sheep also
frequently lost considerable quantities of wool
through rubbing and in other ways. This, in a
large flock, was a considerable item. There was
also usually some loss from the soiling of the wool
around the buttocks of the sheep when the pastures
became succulent and abundant.
CHARTER XX
The Diseases of Sheep
The diseases of sheep fall into two principal
classes, those arising from exhaustion, run-down
condition of the system and general debility; and
those due to the presence of parasitic animals.
There is no reasonable cause for the first class if
the sheep have been properly fed, handled and cared
for, but parasites are very common both on and
in the sheep. Its thick wool and comparatively
thin skin afford a most favorable lodging place
and feeding ground for the class of vermin that
dwell on the surface of the body; while of its
internal organs, not only the stomach and the
bowels, but the liver, brain and nostrils are the
chosen habitat of various low forms of animal
life.
SOME COMMON DISEASES
Colic—This is a disease similar to bloating in
cattle and is known by the swelling of the third
stomach in the sheep by food, water or gases.
The most frequent cause is due to feeding on green
clover or alfalfa, especially when wet with rain or
dew. It may arise, also, from indigestion or from
musty food. The disease is readily recognized
by the swelling of the belly on the left side, which
appears while the animal is still feeding or shortly
after. You will note, also, the oppressed condi-
tion of breathing, the bowels are constipated, and
the eyes are anxious and wild and there is much
195
196 FARM STOCK
pain. Some shepherds are not specially concerned
so long as this swelling is on the left side only,
but when it reaches the right side, the animal is
in imminent danger. About the only help now
is to use a trocar, or sharp pointed penknife,
making an opening to the point where the accumu-
lation occurs. The penetration should be kept
open by the use of a goose quill or some hollow
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TWISTED STOMACH WORMS
A common attitude observed when sheep are afflicted
with twisted stomach worms. The animal loses in flesh, and
unless relief is found in time, dies. The parasite is shown
in the illustration.
tube. Kneading with the hands the swollen stomach
is also helpfull.
Foot Rot—This is one of the most common dis-
eases of American sheep and there have been few
sections or few farms free from it. It is always
contagious, due to a germ that harbors in the earth
and grass.
The forefeet are usually first attacked. Lame-
ness is there noticed and soon becomes complete;
the appetite becomes poor; fever sets in and the
_- ™
THE DISEASES OF SHEEP 197
animal dies from general exhaustion. The offen-
sive odor of the true foot rot is so characteristic
that once experienced you can use it as a certain
guide thereafter in recognizing the disease. The
old practice has been to pare the hoof so as to
rid it of all this diseased portion. This gives tem-
porary relief only. The best sort of treatment is
to keep no animals with diseased feet on the farm,
to move the sheep from one pasture to another
and to frequently till and cultivate so as to have
the land pure and wholesome and free from the
disease. ;
Constipation in Lambs—Lambs, especially those
which are fed immoderately either on cow’s milk
or the milk of other ewes, are often liable to con-
stipation, The bowels cease to act and the animal
droops and after a while lies down. Once affected,
there is little to do for the lamb. A change in
food and some purgative or laxative are helpful.
Diarrhoea in Lambs—This disease frequently
attacks whole flocks on first feeding on green
grass. It is usually of no danger, but when indi-
vidual cases call for attention, treat on general
principles; because it may be more than a simple
loose condition of the bowels. Real diarrhcea is
often fatal and the lambs must receive the closest
attention. It may be due to exposure, some sud-
den change in temperature, but is more likely due
to improper food. The disease usually appears
without warning, the lamb becomes languid, sad,
keeping away from other lambs, and frequently
lies down. The excrement is thin, whitish or
greenish and in the later stages is quite watery
and mixed with mucus and blood.
The first thing to do in treating this trouble is to
change the food. It is not a bad idea to do that
198 : FARM STOCK >
even though the food does not seem to be the matter
in fault. If the disease seems to be passing through
the flock, it 1s wise to remove all the healthy in-
dividuals from the infested quarters, placing them
elsewhere. An immediate remedy is the use of
the white of an egg beaten in water, then mixed in
warm milk and so given.
Intestinal Worms—Sheep are liable to be in-
fested with a number of varieties of intestinal
worms, such as tape worms, thread worms and
round worms. The symptoms these produce are
very obscure and not often manifest, for the most
healthy looking sheep when slaughtered often show
the presence of these parasites in the stomach and
the intestines. But, of course, the best results can-
not be secured when present, and if they can be
gotten rid of, it ought to be done. In many cases,
the sheep show a dizziness, often staggering and
falling, and a general impairment of the sight. The
best way is to consult your veterinarian for some
treatment so that all trouble in this direction may
be removed.
Scab—This is a contagious disease of the skin
and is due to a parasite in or upon the skin. There
are different forms of scab, but each kind causes
itchiness—the most common symptom. Whenever
you see an animal presenting a very ragged appear-
ance, bare spots on the different parts of the body,
with tufts of wool pulled out, and upon examina-
tion you find reddish pimples, you may feel pretty
certain that the insect that causes the scab is
present. Any sort of dip that is now on the market
will remove this trouble. In the large sheep-grow-
ing districts, dipping plants are maintained by in-
individual growers or by small stock companies. In
this way frequent dipping is possible and takes
THE DISEASES OF SHEEP 199
care of the work very rapidly. Even the small
farm, with a few sheep, ought to have a small
dipping plant. .. eee aiesisten alo
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