I MW^ PROGRAM (=44 1f^ Ji \ B \ ^- ft%^ ^_^ya 0'-^ I The amrlial report glM-gfe^iiieat to the Congress on the NatlSFI eftortsto comprehend, conserve, and ^se the sea. - April 1974 W H 0 t \ DOCUMEN COLLECTION THE FEDERAL OCEAN PROGRAM J3- LO n~ 1-0 nj •r a~ ^^^ CD 1 =z CD lAI □ m CD □ The annual report of the President to the Congress on the Nation's efforts to comprehend, conserve, and use the sea. April 1974 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $2.20 Stock Number 040-000-00338-0 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL TO THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES Pursuant toP.L. 89-454, 1 am herewith transmitting to you the 1974 Annual Report on the Federal Ocean Program. The report presents a summary of national efforts to comprehend, conserve, and use the sea, and lists significant activities of the Federal Government related to the marine sciences. /!ui->dU '^. '^^^ ui PREFACE A Report to the President From the Science and Technology Policy Office, National Science Foundation, April 1974 THIS REPORT TO THE PRESIDENT ON THE FEDERAL OCEAN PROGRAM is prepared in accordance with Public Law 89-454, the Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act of 1966, which states that the President shall transmit to the Congress an annual report including: (a] A comprehensive description of the activities and the accomplishments of all the agencies and departments of the United States in the field of marine sciences during the preceeding fiscal year; (b) an evaluation of such activities in terms of the objectives set forth pursuant to Public Law 89-454; (c) such recommendations for legislation as the President may consider necessary or desirable for the attainment of the objectives of Public Law 89-454; and (d) an estimate of funding requirements of each agency and department of the Federal Government for marine science activities during the succeeding fiscal year. This report on the Federal Ocean Program is submitted to the Congress in response to that requirement. CONTENTS Page I. ADDRESSING CRITICAL ISSUES 1 National Ocean Policy Study 2 Law of the Sea 2 Energy 6 Living Resources 7 Program Emphasis 8 About This Report 9 II. POLLUTION ABATEMENT AND CONTROL 11 Protection 13 Detection and Response 19 Supporting Efforts 24 III. LIVING RESOURCES 31 Management and Assessment 32 Conservation 40 Resource Development 45 Allocation 48 IV. TRANSPORTATION 59 Ship Construction and Operation 59 Vessel Traffic Safety 62 Mapping and Charting 66 Deep water Ports 68 V. NATIONAL SECURITY 73 Ocean Operations 74 Environmental Prediction 80 Ocean Science 83 Ocean Engineering 86 Advanced Research Projects Agency Marine Science and Technology 90 vii VI. OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH 95 Near Shore Processes and Coastal Zone Management 95 Open Ocean Processes 97 Polar Ocean Studies 101 Ocean and Atmosphere Interactions 102 Environmental Quality Studies 105 Seabed History and Resources 109 Marine Life 116 Ocean Engineering 119 International Ocean Science Activities 122 APPENDICES Page A-1 Federal Ocean Program - Agency Budgets 125 A-2 Federal Ocean Program - Budget by Major Purpose Categories 125 A-3 Detail by Subpurpose and Agency 126 B. Ocean Sediment Coring Program 131 C. The French-American Mid-Ocean Undersea Study 135 D. International Field Year for the Great Lakes 139 E. Status of the Federally Supported Fleet 147 IX m% » Chapter I ADDRESSING CRITICAL ISSUES Last year's Federal Ocean Program report to the Congress identified a number of urgent national and international issues in the use and conservation of the ocean and its resources. The report focused on issues involving problems relating to energy questions and the law of the sea, and the President, in his letter transmitting the report to the Congress, also cited important problems in the management of living resources and environmental changes in coastal zones. New weapons to tackle some of these issues had been provided by legislation in the 92nd Congress, but these laws were, for the most part, very recent and had not as yet had much effect. The past year has been marked by an intensification of efforts to address these issues. A series of studies, planning efforts and changes in program emphasis has been undertaken to advance ocean programs concerned with energy, environmental protection, and living marine resources. The future of these programs will be strongly influenced by a far-reaching new Congressional ocean policy study and by the Third United Nations (U.N.) Conference of the Law of the Sea, scheduled for later this year. This chapter will summarize the scope of the ocean policy study and review U.S. positions prepared for the Law of the Sea Conference before discussing recent actions to assist in resolving energy and resources problems. Successive chapters will feature accomplishments and plans in specific areas of the Federal Ocean Program. It is believed that man's first use of the oceans was to harvest their seemingly limitless food resources. Only recently have we begun to understand that these resources are not limitless and that wise and effective conservation and management measures are required for their preservation. National Ocean Policy Study On February 19, 1974, the Senate unanimously adopted Senate Resolution 222, authorizing the Committee on Commerce to undertake a comprehensive analysis of national ocean policy and Federal ocean programs. The scope of the study will include a broad spectrum of ocean affairs. It is expected that, in its first year, the study will concentrate on fisheries problems, including extended jurisdiction and management of the ocean's living resources. Coastal zone management programs now being developed by the states pursuant to the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 will also be reviewed, with particular emphasis on the adequacy of Federal assistance to these programs for the establishment of methods for coping with questions of energy facilities siting, national growth policy, and other land and water uses in the coastal zone. Additional subjects for the Senate study include ocean transportation, ocean mineral resources, research and technology, pollution, oceanic education, recreation, marine data requirements and marine instrumentation, calibration, and standards. Law of the Sea I During the past year, preparatory work was completed for the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea. In October and November 1973 the 28th United Nations General Assembly reviewed the progress of the UN Seabed Committee, the body charged with the preparations for the Conference, and adopted a resolution calling for an opening organizational session of the Conference, which was held at New York, 3-14 December 1973, to be followed by a 10-week substantive session at Caracas, Venezuela, 20 June - 29 August 1974. The 91-member U.N. Seabed Committee divided its work among three subcommittees. Sub-Committee I was concerned with the future regime for the seabed area beyond national jurisdiction, and the powers and functions of international machinery created to administer this area. Sub-Committee II was charged with the traditional Law of the Sea issues, including the regime of the high seas, seabed resource areas, the territorial sea, international straits, and fisheries. Sub-Committee III was concerned with protection of the marine environment and the conduct of marine scientific research. During 1973, the UN Seabed Committee met for a total of 13 weeks in March/April and July/August. With regard to the substance of the preparatory negotiations in 1973, considerable progress was made by Sub-Committee I in the preparation of draft articles on the regime for the deep seabed. A working group, originally established in 1972 to prepare articles on the regime and machinery for the deep seabed, developed alternative and bracketed texts reflecting the views held by various nations on these issues. Although there were no formal negotiations to combine these texts, their preparation highlighted issues on which there appeared to be common ground and identified those issues where there appeared to be fundamental differences. For its part, the U.S. elaborated its belief that there should be timely international agreement on an effective international regime to permit the orderly development of deep seabed resources, including the creation of the stable investment climate needed to encourage development, and provision for adequate protection of the marine environment. The U.S. approach provides that a portion of the revenues from deep seabed mining be devoted to international community purposes, in particular, assistance to developing countries. U.S. representatives stressed that the efficient development of seabed mineral resources would be best served by an international legal order which insures nondiscriminatory access for all states to the resources of the area under reasonable conditions that will facilitate investment. Such an order would also provide that machinery established to administer the system would have a carefully defined mandate and would reflect a realistic and balanced system of rule and decision making. At the March-April 1973 session ofthe Seabed Committee the U.S. proposed that those portions of a Law of the Sea Treaty affecting deep seabed mining should go into effect on a provisional basis immediately following signature. This would assure that seabed mining, when it begins, will immediately be subject to an internationally agreed regime. A number of delegations have expressed serious interest in the U.S. proposal. During 1973, Sub-Committee II entertained a number of proposals regarding the territorial sea and straits, fisheries, and coastal state jurisdiction over the non-living resources ofthe adjacent continental margin. With regard to the breadth of the territorial sea, the U.S. reiterated its preparedness to accept a 12-mile limit in the context of an overall satisfactory Law of the Sea settlement provided that recognition of such a limit is coupled with agreement on a right of unimpeded passage through, over and under straits used for international navigation. U.S. willingness to recognize the legitimate safety and pollution concerns of states was also made clear in Sub-Committee II discussions. The importance of unimpeded transit of international straits, for both military and commercial vessels, was emphasized as a basic element of U.S. policy. At the July-August session, the United States placed before Sub- Committee II draft articles on the rights and duties of States with regard to the seabed resources off their coasts. The articles propose that the coastal state have the exclusive right to explore and exploit the mineral resources of the seabed and subsoil within the "Coastal Seabed Economic Area". The coastal state would also have the exclusive right to authorize and regulate the construction, operation and use of offshore installations affecting its economic interests, such as offshore ports and airports. The coastal state would undertake an obligation to conform to internationally agreed standards to prevent pollution and unjustifiable interference with other uses of the marine environment, but would have the right to apply higher environmental standards to those activities under its jurisdiction. While giving the coastal state complete discretion to decide the terms of foreign investment in the Coastal Seabed Economic Area, the draft articles require that agreements for such investment be strictly observed. With regard to fisheries, the United States continued to advocate a regime based on the biological characteristics of the fish. The coastal state would have management authority over anadramous species (such as salmon] and coastal species, and there would be international management of highly migratory species (such as tuna). Also included in our proposal are provisions for the application of conservation principles as well as for the full utilization of the resource. Consistent with efforts in other areas of the Law of the Sea negotiations, we have proposed a compulsory dispute settlement mechanism. The work of Sub-Committee III in 1973 centered in its working groups on marine scientific research and on the marine environment. The latter achieved the most progress. At the spring session, it elaborated draft articles on the general and particular obligations of States to protect and preserve the marine environment, and provisional texts on monitoring and technical assistance. During the July-August session, alternative texts were prepared on global and regional cooperation, and on the source of standards for controlling land-based, seabed-source and vessel-source pollution. During this session the U.S. introduced draft articles on the protection of the marine environment and the prevention of marine pollution. These articles reflect the belief that it is possible to have adequate protection of the marine environment and accommodate coastal state interests without prejudicing navigational rights. With regard to vessel-source pollution, the U.S. draft articles propose exclusively international standards, with the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) having the primary responsibility for establishing such standards. The U.S. proposed a Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPCj within IMCO, which was established by the IMCO AssemlDly. The MEPC will be empowered to adopt regulations on vessel-source pollution under the 1973 Marine Pollution Convention and send them directly to States without the review or approval of the IMCO Assembly or Council. Such a procedure will ensure that emergencies and new technologies are adequately and rapidly dealt with. Concerning enforcement, the U.S. proposed that port States would have the right to impose higher standards upon vessels entering their ports, and flag States would have the right to apply higher standards to their own flag vessels. Port States, flag States and coastal States would all share enforcement rights and duties. In addition, the U.S. draft articles give the coastal State extraordinary rights in three situations: a finding by the dispute settlement machinery of a persistent flag State failure to enforce; imminent danger to a coastal State, due to the violation of applicable standards, requiring reasonable emergency enforcement measures to prevent or mitigate such danger; and imminent danger to a coastal State due to a maritime casualty whish justified intervention under the circumstances spelled out in the 1969 Intervention Convention. Debate within the working group on marine scientific research of Sub-Committee III revealed a wide range of opinion, and the actual drafting of agreed or bracketed treaty texts was left for the Law of the Sea Conference itself. During the July-August session, the U.S. submitted in Sub-Committee III draft articles on marine scientific research. The U.S. proposal provides for a set of obligations on the party conducting research in areas beyond the territorial sea where the coastal State exercises jurisdiction over seabed resources and coastal fisheries. These obligations would be in lieu of the consent requirement by the coastal state advocated by many other delegations. The obligations would include advance notification, flag State certification that the research will be conducted by a qualified institution, coastal State participation, sharing of data and samples, assistance in interpreting the data, and compliance with international environmental standards. Within the territorial sea the U.S. proposal calls for cooperation by the coastal State in facilitating research. Throughout the sessions of the Seabed Committee during 1973, the United States emphasized the importance of a procedure for the peaceful and compulsory settlement of disputes as an essential aspect of a comprehensive Law of the Sea Convention. To this end, the U.S. introduced general draft articles on dispute settlement in August 1973. To allow the greatest flexibility, the U.S. draft articles provide for settlement of disputes in any manner agreed to by the parties concerned. If no agreement is reached, the dispute would be settled by a Law of the Sea Tribunal established for that purpose under the Convention. Energy In December 1973, a comprehensive report on the research and development needed to meet the Nation's energy requirements was submitted to the President by the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). This report, requested by the President in his Energy Message of June 1973, recommends a $10-billion, 5-year research and development program to regain and maintain energy self-sufficiency. The recommended program includes support for supplementary programs such as those designed to assess and reduce the environmental impact of outer continental shelf (OCS) oil and gas extraction operations and the operation of nuclear powerplants. These supplemental programs are important in preventing possible damage to the marine environment resulting from energy operations. A complementary report, OCS Oil and Gas— An Environmental Assessment, was prepared by the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) in response to another request by the President. Released in April 1974, the CEQ study report analyzes the potential impact of oil and gas development at a number of promising OCS sites along the Atlantic coast and in the Gulf of Alaska. In the performance of the study the CEQ took into consideration improvements in drilling and extraction technology to minimize hazards to the environment and the recent strengthening of regulations governing OCS operations. The report assesses the relative environmental vulnerabilities of the areas studied and recommends measures for their protection and development. It contains proposals to improve technology for use on the OCS, to further tighten the regulation and enforcement of OCS operations, and to untangle the web of Federal and State institutional interests. In accordance with the President's April 18, 1973, Energy Message, the Department of the Interior issued a tentative five-year OCS leasing schedule for 1974 through 1978. The schedule called for three lease sales annually, leasing one million acres per sale. In January 1974, President Nixon directed the Secretary of the Interior to lease ten million acres in calendar year 1975 or more than triple what had originally been planned.* Since OCS leasing began in 1954, total bonuses of nearly $13.4 billion have been paid to the U.S. Treasury through May 1974. Of this total, $3.5 billion were received for two lease sales in 1974 and nearly $9.7 billion were received since September 1972 through May * Note: President Ford repeated this direction in his speech of October 8, 1974, and the Department of Interior subsequently has released a proposed 4-year planning lease schedule. 1974. In addition to bonus payments, thfe Government has received royalty and rental payments of over $2.6 billion. Oil production from the OCS for 1973 was 394.7 million barrels. This represents a decline of nearly 4 percent from 1972 production. The drop in production is attributed to a partial moratorium on leasing, brought about by injunctions on environmental grounds, from 1970 through the fall of 1972. Production is expected to increase sharply by 1975 when leases sold since 1972 are developed. The Department of the Interior has jurisdiction over the OCS lands. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) has the responsibility of administering the OCS leasing program, including scheduling of lease sales, and preparation of environmental impact statements and public hearings for each sale in accordance with the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has regulatory responsiblity for the OCS lands. This responsibility involves development and enforcement of operating regulations for exploration and production and environmental protection. Currently, the USGS regulatory role involves about 720 producing oil and gas tracts containing more than 6,420 wells. Seventeen of the producing tracts are located in southern California, with the remaining located in the Gulf of Mexico off Louisiana and Texas. Production from new sales tracts may be expected in as soon as two years in the Gulf of Mexico and within ten years in new areas. In striving to meet the President's program of accelerated leasing on the OCS, BLM-USGS have begun baseline and other studies in new frontier OCS areas. These studies will serve to insure orderly exploration and development of leases and to formulate proper procedures to protect the environment. Living Resources A milestone in the conservation of endangered species of whale, seal, and other marine mammals was reached in May, 1973, when the first commissioners were appointed to the Marine Mammal Commission, established under the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972. A few months later, nine noted scientists were appointed to the Commission's Committee of Scientific Advisors on Marine Mammals. The Act sets forth a national policy to protect marine mammal species and population stocks from the danger of extinction. Consistent with its charge under the act, the Commission has made specific recommendations to the Secretaries of Commerce and Interior on a number of issues, and special subcommittees have been established and are preparing recommendations on other matters of special urgency. More than two-thirds of the FY '74 appropriation 598-460 O - 75 has been allocated to research and studies in furtherance of the goals and objectives of the act. A national plan for the optimum future use and preservation of fishery resources is being formulated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) as a result of recommendations made by the National Advisory Committee on the Oceans and Atmosphere. The Departments of State and the Interior, State governments, and recreation and commercial fisheries organizations are cooperating in the preparation of the plan. The preservation of fishery resources depends to a large extent on the conservation and proper management of the coastal environments where many species live at some stage of their development. Coastal zone management is now being advanced by Federal-State cooperation under the Coastal Zone Management Act, signed in October 1972. As of April 1974, NOAA has made its first six grants for management program development. The coastal States receiving the grants are located on the Atlantic, Gulf, Pacific and Great Lakes coasts. By the end of FY 1974, it is expected that about 30 States will have received grants. Ocean dumping may also have an effect on marine habitats. The first annual report has been submitted to the Congress on monitoring and research regarding the effects of ocean dumping and other man- induced changes to ocean ecosystems. The report, required by the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, examines the problems inherent in ocean dumping, reviews the more complex, longer-term impact of man's activities on the ocean, and summarizes relevant Federal programs from enactment of the legislation through December 1973. Program Emphasis The Federal Ocean Prpgram budget proposed for fiscal year 1975 is $77 million higher than the previous year's. This difference reflects the shift of national attention to energy problems and to other pressing issues. The increase in nonliving resources programs results from the near doubling of the Department of Interior budget for the investigation and appraisal of offshore sources of fossil fuels and minerals and for the leasing and management of OCS lands for oil development. The AEC also plans significant increases in its programs. Most of AEC's additional funds are scheduled to support research investigations related to the siting of offshore nuclear powerplants. Additional energy-related efforts planned for FY '75 are the design and construction of deepwater ports, advances in the development and operation of supertankers, and the improvement of coastal charts for these deep-draft vessels. 8 Investigations directed to environmental protection will receive about $20 million more under the proposed FY '75 budget than they did in FY '74. This sum includes increases for coastal zone studies, investigations to protect endangered species, environmental studies in the ocean research budget, and an additional $8.0 million in the National Aeronautics and Space Administration budget for the development of SEASAT, a satellite to be launched in 1978 for the observation of ocean dynamics. A growth of $2.2 million is proposed in expenditures for fisheries development and conservation programs exclusive of projects for the preservation of endangered species. An additional $4.6 million is planned to support the enforcement of fishery treaties. The military programs of the Department of Defense remain strong. All of these programs, supported by the Navy and Advanced Research Projects Agency, relate to the national security, but they produce technology and information which is made available to civilian programs. About This Report This year's report, like last year's, discusses only selected activities within the Federal Ocean Program. The activities discussed include pollution abatement and control, the development and protection of living resources, improvements in marine transportation, and national defense programs. The broad scope of ocean research programs in many different fields is shown in chapter VI. Appendix A consists of program budget tables. Appendices B, C, D, and E discuss special programs in detail. Appendix B summarizes progress in the Deep Sea Drilling Project of the Ocean Sediment Coring Program; appendix C discusses the French-American Mid- Ocean Undersea Study, a successful international research effort; appendix D, the International Field Year for the Great Lakes; and appendix E reviews the status of the Federally supported fleet used in the ocean program. k. . 1 7^1 f III I m i m I ^-- -^^sa^ ■^*^i* ■KJ^i Chapter II POLLUTION ABATEMENT AND CONTROL Over 14,000 reported discharges into U.S. waters involving millions of gallons of oil and hazardous polluting substances occur annually. These discharges are the result of accidents, malfunctions of equipment, and human error. They include the deliberate discharges of bilge or ballast water and convenience dumping of hazardous materials and oil. The hazardous cumulative effects of these discharges are now universally recognized. As a result, the complex problem of marine pollution is being attacked on both the international and national level. In October of 1973, The Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization convened an International Conference on Marine Pollution. The United States and some 70 other nations attending this conference, in addition to agreeing on a protocol extending the 1969 Intervention Convention to maritime casualties involving hazardous substances other than oil, negotiated a new International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships. The new Convention contains regulations for the control of pollution by oil; by noxious liquid substances other than oil carried in bulk; by harmful substances in packages, containers, or independent tanks; and by sewage and garbage. The regulations for the prevention of oil pollution contain both vessel construction standards, including mandatory segregated ballast provisions for new tankers of 70,000 tons deadweight or greater, and stringent requirements for the control of operational discharges of oil. The regulations for the control of discharges of noxious chemicals and other substances constitute a major advancement in international law for the control of maritime pollution on a global scale. On the national level, three recent legislative acts, Public Law (P.L.) 92-500, P.L. 92-340, and P.L. 92-532, have provided a new impetus to the pollution prevention, detection, and response efforts of Federal agencies involved in environmental quality programs. New York City garbage being towed to seat rom the East River, 1973 EPA Photo 11 Public Law 92-500 consists of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. This act prohibits the discharge of harmful quantities of oil and hazardous substances into or upon the navigable waters of the United States, adjoining shorelines, or waters of the contiguous zones. Designation of hazardous substances and determination of harmful quantities are the responsibility of EPA. The act provides for pollution research and monitoring and authorizes the regulation by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) of all major industrial, municipal, and other point discharges of pollutants into these waters and the preparation of a national contingency plan for the removal of oil and hazardous materials discharged into U.S. waters. The act also directs the U.S. Coast Guard [USCG] to promulgate regulations im- plementing standards of performance set by EPA for marine sanita- tion devices. The purpose of P.L. 92-340, the Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972, is to promote the safety of U.S. ports, harbors, waterfront areas, and navigable waters and to protect them from pollution resulting from vessel operation. Title I of the act authorizes USCG to establish and operate vessel traffic systems and to investigate any incident, accident, or act involving a vessel or structure that may affect the safety or environmental quality of U.S. ports, harbors, or navigable waters. Title II permits USCG to regulate the design, construction, alteration, repair, maintenance, or operation of vessels carrying bulk cargos that are characterized as hazardous polluting substances under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act as well as those that are flammable or combustible, such as petroleum. The primary purpose of P.L. 92-532, the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, is to regulate the transportation and dumping of all types of materials into ocean waters. Title I of the Act prohibits the transportation of radiological, chemical, and biological agents or high-level radioactive wastes from the United States for ocean disposal. The ocean dumping of all other materials transported from the United States is strictly regulated and requires a permit from EPA or the Corps of Engineers. No ocean dumping of material from a source outside the United States is permitted within 12 miles of the U.S. coast without a permit. Title II requires the initiation of research and monitoring efforts on the effects of ocean dumping and other pollution by the Secretary of Commerce to be conducted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in cooperation with USCG, EPA, and other appropriate agencies. 12 Protection In 1973, shortly after passage of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act, EPA's ocean disposal program became operational with the issuance of regulations and criteria to govern the ocean dumping of all wastes except dredge spoil, the disposal of which is regulated by the Corps of Engineers. The main objective of these regulations is to control the disposal of materials at sea while seeking alternative disposal methods. In starting the program, EPA set very restrictive limitations on the types of materials that can be dumped on a continuing basis so that there would be reasonable assurance of negligible environmental damage. At the same time, special interim permits for waste not complying with the limitations were issued, and dump sites presently in use were approved on an interim basis. Approximately 100 interim dumping permits were issued between May 1973 and April 1974. The permits specify the conditions under which wastes may be disposed of and provide information that is used in the assessment of the environmental impact of dumping. Further phases of the program include full implementation of the permit program on a continuing basis, the evaluation and approval of some disposal sites for dumping on a continuing basis and termination of dumping at others, and research and monitoring to improve knowledge of the impact of ocean dumping and the ability to regulate it effectively. Only general evidence is now available to determine the impact of dumping on many of the sites. To minimize the effects of waste materials on the environment, until sufficient evidence is accumulated and guidelines are prepared on the Use of individual sites, evaluation of permit applications can only be based upon a consideration of the general characteristics of dump sites. EPA is also studying the restoration of water quality in polluted coastal regions and developing predictive techniques to describe the time and space distribution of pollutants as influenced by physical transport and dispersion and by chemical and biological interaction and transformations. The Corps of Engineers is carrying out a comprehensive program of research and experimentation related to dredging and disposal of dredged material. One of the major objectives of the Dredged Material Research Program is to develop techniques for determining and reducing the polluting effects of various dredged materials on the marine environment. The program, which is expected to require 5 years to complete, is viewed as an investment that should yield appreciable dividends in the form of methodology and technology that will permit dredging operations to remain economically feasible while simultaneously assuring maximum environmental protection. 13 Although the control of ocean dumping is a well-justified, major goal, an even more serious threat to the marine environment is posed by the discharge of pollutants from ships and shore facilities. This problem is now receiving concentrated attention. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments authorize EPA to regulate major industrial, municipal, and other point discharges of pollutants. The scope of activities regulated under the permit authority of the act is wide, and the eventual impact on the marine environment will be significant. Some 45,000 of the Nation's 300,000 industrial water users will be subject to direct permit regulation. Municipal waste treatment sources are also point sources at which this pollution control program is aimed. Approximately 20,000 communities will be affected. Discharges from agricultural sources are, under certain circumstances, subject to the new permit authority. For example, discharges reaching surface water of the concentrated animal wastes from confined feedlots may require permits, as do irrigation return flows when discharged from channels, drains, or other conduits. Acid mine drainage from both surface and subsurface coal mines, where such drainage is from discrete conveyances, may also be regulated. Regulations were formulated in 1973 to control discharges from publicly owned sewage treatment works. EPA has also prepared guidelines for the issuance of discharge permits for 9 specific toxic pollutants and 27 categories of industrial operations. Under the program July 1, 1977 and July 1, 1983 are the dates by which different levels of treatment based on technology are to be implemented. For all discharges other than those from publicly owned treatment works, effluent limitations are to be met and the best practicable control technology currently available must be applied. At the same time, all publicly owned waste treatment facilities must include secondary treatment, and if an industrial discharger sends wastes through a publicly owned treatment works, certain pretreatment standards must be met. An additional requirement is that by the July 1977 date, effluent limitations may be imposed in accordance with State law. Not later than July 1, 1983, effluent dischargers will be required to use the best available, economically achievable, pretreatment technology, and publicly owned waste treatment facilities will be required to apply the best practicable waste treatment technology. Special standards for toxic substances must also be observed by both 1977 and 1983. The development of offshore petroleum and mineral resources with minimal pollution is a primary objective of the U.S. Geological Survey's (USGS] Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) lease-management program. As part of this program, operating orders and procedures are specifically drafted for each region of development. The orders 14 cover all phases of exploration, development, production, abandonment and pollution prevention and control. Compliance with these orders is checked by on-site inspections by USGS inspectors. The OCS lease management program extends well beyond the enforcement of operating regulations. In addition to formal and standardized operating procedures, USGS has recently initiated a method of identifying potential hazardous conditions through statistical analysis and a comprehensive systems design analysis program for spill and fire prevention. Refined checklists for field inspectors and unannounced inspections of randomly selected structures to obtain data under typical working conditions help provide a firm base for the analysis. USGS also is implementing a number of recommendations that have evolved from various studies. Among these are: (1) A requirement of OCS operators to submit quarterly failure analysis reports on subsurface safety devices; (2) Development of accident investigation reporting procedures that place greater emphasis on cause and effect relationships; (3) Initiation of a safety alert system to inform industry of accidents occurring during drilling and producing operations; (4), Formation of a committee on offshore safety and anti- pollution research in conjunction with the American Petroleum Institute to coordinate industry and Government efforts and to define specific future needs; (5) Establish a cooperative committee on offshore safety and anti-pollution standards in conjunction with the American Petroleum Institute to develop standards and specifications for safety and anti-pollution equipment; (6) Development of formalized procedures for the evalutation and revision of existing OCS Orders and the development of new OCS Orders. (7) Development of standardized pollution report forms; (8) Appointment by the USGS Director of a review committee on safety of OCS operators, sponsored by the Marine Board, National Academy of Engineering, and composed of experts not regularly employed by industry or Government. The Department of Interior (DOI), like other Federal agencies, also engages in a broad range of activities relating to abatement and control of pollution that may affect or result from development of the Nation's recreational and nonliving resources both on land and off 15 its shores. Such activities include the review of applications for permits and licenses to discharge or undertake engineering activities that could pollute or otherwise damage the environment and the collection of basic data that can be applied to the determination of the nature and fate of pollutants in coastal environments. The Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) is studying the consequences of further development of oil reserves on the continental shelf. NOAA through its Environmental Data Service has provided the study with historical information on the severity and frequency of natural phenomena that may lead to the loss of oil through damage to operational equipment. In addition, the National Marine Fisheries Service has provided information on the affects of development, construction, operations, and oil spills on living marine resources. In 1973, CEQ, in cooperation with the Maritime Administration, NOAA, USCG, EPA, and the Corps of Engineers, completed studies on the environmental, economic, and technical factors regarding the logistics of supertankers in our ports, harbors, and coastal waterways. This CEQ Superport Study evaluated the environmental effects of various deepwater terminal locations for supertankers. The Ports and Waterways Safety Act gives USCG new authority with respect to incidents involving vessels or structures that may affect marine environmental quality. This act also requires USCG to begin as soon as possible the publication of proposed rules and regulations setting forth minimum standards of design, construction, alteration, repair, maintenance, or operation of vessels for the purpose of protecting the marine environment. These regulations are to go into effect no later than January 1, 1976. It is hoped that by then an international agreement will have been concluded under which action by participating nations can be coordinated. In the meantime, however, USCG has begun to prepare rules and regulations that include, but are not limited to, standards to improve vessel maneuvering and stopping ability and otherwise reduce the possibility of collision, grounding, or other accident; and reduce damage to the marine environment from normal vessel operation, such as ballasting and deballasting, cargo handling, and other activities. Other USCG projects aimed at the prevention of pollution include operational risk analysis, cargo hazard assessments, and the expansion of its Pollution Incident Reporting System (PIRS). USCG is cooperating with the U.S. Navy in a joint project to develop and test ship and equipment designs to prevent pollution of navigable waters from ship operations. These include the development of high capacity oil and water separators and the use of impermeable, 16 flexible membranes to avoid mixing of ballast water with fluid bulk cargoes. USCG, with the assistance of the General Services Administration, is developing an expanded PIRS. The system is expected to be operational in May 1974. PIRS is a computerized system used to store and retrieve data on the discharge of oil and hazardous polluting substances into or upon the navigable waters of the United States, adjoining shorelines, or into or upon the contiguous zone. The purpose of PIRS is to support USCG in carrying out its responsibilities under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. With the creation and maintenance of a master file of discharge data, USCG will be able to measure the effectiveness of its marine environmental protection program, respond to inquiries from outside USCG, and provide summaries of discharge incidents for public information. Information collected for PIRS will include data on effectiveness of cleanup action and subsequent administrative actions as well as on the discharge incidents themselves. In 1974, CEQ, in cooperation with the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), NOAA, Interior, and other agencies, will complete studies on the construction and operation of floating offshore nuclear power plants. In addition to the obvious effects on the environment of these powerplants, the potential impact of a proliferation of such structures is important because the impact of many offshore structures is not necessarily a simple multiple of the effects of one. Arrangement of dual-purpose cargo/ballast tanks (C/B) with flexible mem- branes for 250,000 DWT tanker. 17 The proliferation of these units poses conflicts both among the various structures and with other uses of our coastal zone. During fiscal year '74, in addition to its coastal zone research on the environmental effects of offshore nuclear power plants, the AEC sponsored a workshop to define research needs in the coastal zone relative to offshore nuclear power plants. Both academic oceanographic research organizations and Federal agencies with coastal marine interests attended. An AEC report containing the deliberations and research recommendations of the workshop is currently in preparation. NOAA studied the probability, severity, and consequences of external threats such as hurricanes, tsunamis, storm surges, and wave actions, provided descriptions that characterize regions by kind of ecological concern, and described representative impacts in four specific east coast regions of various phases of nuclear powerplant existence, such as construction, operation, and decommissioning. Resonance effects due to external conditions and radioactive effects of normal plant operations were problems identified as requiring further study. The AEC currently has two research projects underway to evaluate the environmental impact of nuclear powerplants on the marine environment. Since 1968, comprehensive environmental Turkey Point nuclear plant on Biscayne Bay— 25 miles south of Miami. The two units on the right are the nuclear-power generating units. The stacks are associated with non-nuclear units fueled by low-sulfur oil and natural gas. 18 studies of the impact of the Turkey Point Nuclear Power Station on Card Sound and South Biscayne Bay have been directed by scientists at the University of Miami, This research formerly emphasized the effect of thermal effluents on resident biological communities, circulation patterns within the Sound and Bay confines, and the cycling of trace metals within these ecosystems. Because thermal effluents are no longer being discharged, present studies emphasize research on the rates of recovery of both aquatic plants and benthic organisms. Another AEC-funded research project is being conducted at the Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Station, still under construction on Chesapeake Bay. Preoperational aquatic studies on the distribution and productivity of phytoplankton, zooplankton, meroplankton, and benthic organisms have been in progress for 2 years. The results of these studies will be compared with those of similar studies conducted after the nuclear power station becomes operative in early 1975 to determine whether biota in the vicinity of the plant are affected adversely by thermal discharges. In another environmental preservation project, marine sanctuaries will be designated and operated by the Department of Commerce in ocean waters for the purpose of conserving or restoring such areas for their recreational, ecological, or esthetic values. Estuarine sanctuaries may be established in cooperation with State governments for the purposes of creating natural field laboratories to gather data and studying the natural and human processes occurring within the estuaries of the coastal zone. The actual acquisition, development, and operation of estuarine sanctuaries will be by individual States, which may receive matching Federal grants of up to 50 percent of their costs. Detection and Response Because of the potential severity as well as the cumulative effect of pollution by oil and other hazardous materials transported in bulk shipments, Congress included in the Federal Water Pollution Control Act special provisions for cleanup operations and other actions in response to discharge incidents involving these materials. The act further authorized the President to prepare and publish a National Contingency Plan for the removal of oil and hazardous substances including but not limited to containment, dispersal, and removal. The National Oil and Hazardous Substance Contingency Plan has been prepared to coordinate the actions of Federal agencies. Other regional contingency plans, to be implemented by mobile response teams, have been prepared by EPA Regional Offices, States, localities, and port authorities. These plans spell out what can and should be done for many types of discharges. The act also contains authority for issuance of regulations to contain discharges 19 of oil and hazardous substances and to remove such discharges from the navigable waters of the Unites States, the adjoining shorelines, and the waters of the contiguous zone. Detection of and response to oil and hazardous materials discharges into the marine environment is the responsibility of USCG. As an aid in detecting oil spills USCG has equipped six HU- 16E aircraft with a remote-sensing system that can sense, display, and record electromagnetic radiation from oil and hazardous substances in the thermal infrared and ultraviolet regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. USCG is conducting twice weekly aerial surveillance flights with these and other non-sensor-equipped aircraft over portions of the territorial waters of the United States, the contiguous zone, and random flights over the prohibited zones designated by the Convention on the Prevention of the Pollution of the Sea by Oil, as amended. In addition aerial surveillance flights have recently been initiated over port areas handling more than 10 million tons of petroleum per year. This sensor system was the result of an effort to have sensors in the air as soon as possible, using the best equipment available at the time. A more advanced system has now been developed for USCG use aboard the aircraft chosen to replace the HU-16E. The newer system is to be flight tested and evaluated in 1974. The sensors to be "■"--rr "" r ■qs.. s. The multi-sensor oil detection concept calls for the use of aircraft with side looking radar to detect and map oil spills. Multispectral scanners, microwave radiometers, and low light-level TV will enable verification of the spills and identification of ships involved. 20 evaluated include lovv-light-level TV, side-looking radar, a microwave imager and infrared line scanner with one ultraviolet channel. It promises to have all-weather, day and night capability and the ability to detect, quantify, and identify pollutants on the water. The National Response Center (NRC), operated by USCG, is the focal point for responding to oil and other hazardous substance pollution incidents. It receives current information on pollution incidents as they occur, contains technical data on hazardous substances, and inventories response resources. Unlike PIRS, which receives management information after a response has taken place, NRC provides coordination of response efforts to major incidents and disseminates operational information to all interested parties and agencies. It is manned continuously and has quick access to qualified personnel who can provide assistance and advice on a wide range of subjects required for response activities. The increasing volume of maritime bulk chemical transport and increased concern about the effects of such traffic led USCG to propose in June 1970 a chemical information and retrieval system to be incorporated as part of NRC. The Chemical Hazard Response Information System being developed by USCG will be placed in operation in 1974. It will provide field personnel with the information they need to make an effective response to discharges of hazardous polluting substances. Initially, the system covers some 400 chemicals, with room for expansion to at least 1,000. During 1973, USCG embarked on a program to increase its ability to respond effectively to polluting incidents occurring on U.S. navigable waters. A cadre of USCG personnel were trained to respond to discharges of oil and other hazardous polluting substances. This cadre, called the National Strike Force, is organized into three teams, the Atlantic Strike Team, the Pacific Strike Team, and the Gulf Strike Team. Each team, consisting of about 15 men, is knowledgeable in ship salvage, diving, and oil and hazardous material removal techniques. The teams respond to pollution discharges or threats of discharges and provide technical expertise and supervisory assistance in deployment of special pollution control equipment for removal operations to USCG, EPA, or other Federal coordinators. In order to be better equipped to control large offshore oil spills, USCG has been actively engaged in a research and development effort aimed at reducing the quantity of oil released, controlling the spread of released oil, and removing oil from water. Basic development of a system to reduce the quantity of oil released during a tank vessel accident has been completed. Known as 21 the Air Deliverable Antipollution Transfer System (ADAPTS], it was developed to provide an emergency method for removing cargo oil from tanks still intact after the accident. The pumping capability of ADAPTS has been successfully used in several pollution incidents and has prevented the discharge of large volumes of pollutants into the waters. Testing of the flexible bag into which the oil is pumped will continue in 1974. Development of a system to restrict the spread of spilled oil and to facilitate recovery has been completed. The general design goal for a high seas containment barrier is the ability to effectively contain oil in 20-mph winds and 5-foot seas and survive in up to 40-mph winds and 10-foot seas. The barrier is a fence type with a draft of 27 inches and a freeboard of 21 inches. Buoyancy is provided by inflated horizontal pillows approximately 14 inches in diameter and 6 feet long. The pillows are inserted perpendicular to the barrier fabric at 56-inch intervals. An external tension line, bridled to the barrier, is the primary strength member of the barrier. The test program has shown that the barrier can meet the design criteria but is limited to containment of oil in currents of less than 1 knot. Effort is continuing to develop a parachute delivery system and deployment technique for the barrier. Procurement of barrier sections for delivery to the site by ship has been initiated with delivery anticipated to commence during the spring of 1974. Development of high recovery rate, open ocean oil harvesting equipment is now at the prototype design and construction stage. The design goals for this equipment are to recover 2,000 gallons per minute of oil in 20-mph winds and 5-foot seas and to survive 40-mph winds and 10-foot seas. This equipment is to be air transportable but not deliverable by parachute. Use of both a wave conforming weir and rotating disc drum is being investigated. The wave conforming weir consists of two parallel oil barriers connected with a flexible curtain to form a basin. The leading barrier is slotted at the water line to permit oil to pass through and collect in the basin. The secondary barrier is also fitted with a weir that is connected to an oil transfer pump suction. The disc drum uses the principle that oil preferentially wets metal surfaces. As the disc drum is rotated into the oil slick, oil attaches to its metal surfaces. The oil is then scraped from the drum and collected in a trough for subsequent transfer to a storage container. Completion of testing of the prototype system is "planned for the spring of 1974. Procurement action will be initiated at the completion of development. As the operational systems are delivered to the National Strike Force, they will be at the major port complexes of the United States. The Strike Force will maintain the equipment in a state of readiness to allow immediate deployment at the scene of a major discharge. 22 Artists conception of rotating disc recovery system in action after a spill. Assembly of the prototype recovery system. Note rotating disc assembly in center of device. Pontoon is inserted throughi circular rings. 23 598-460 O - 7S - .? Supporting Efforts Rapidly intensifying use of the nation's coastal areas has emphasized the need for better information on the marine environment. In recent years, there have been many public controversies over uses of the coastal zone in which the most obvious common denominator among contending forces has been lack of information concerning environmental response. With heightened public environmental awareness, continued economic development of our coastal areas, and a number of dramatic large-scale developments such as superports and offshore nuclear facilities on the horizon, the need for marine environmental information will become more pressing than ever before. Many Federal agencies are helping to fill this need with a variety of projects, some of which are discussed briefly here. Research efforts, which indirectly support environmental protection, are summarized in other chapters. NOAA initiated the Marine Ecosystems Analysis (MESA) Program in 1973. MESA is concentrating efforts on discrete marine areas located in various regions along U.S. coastlines. The primary objective of these regional projects is to develop information on the biological, physical, and chemical processes of selected coastal areas, which will improve our ability to assess and predict the impact of manmade alterations on natural phenomena in selected coastal regions. The New York Bight Project, the first area selected for study, is one of the Nation's most complex and heavily used coastal areas. The New York Bight MESA project involves other Federal and State agencies, industry, and universities in an integrated study approach. An examination of the Bight has been completed, and modeling and field efforts are underway to provide information to help resolve such critical environmental issues confronting the Bight as the impact of dumping of sewage sludge on the continental shelf and slope; the accumulation rates and residence times of the various types of wastes disposed of in the Bight; the impact of siting offshore structures, such as nuclear plants and deepwater ports for supertankers, off the coast of New Jersey; and the myriad of problems facing the estuaries, barrier islands, and nearshore areas of the south shore of Long Island and the coast of New Jersey. The New York Bight Advisory committee, made up of individuals from Federal, State and local governmental organizations, scientific and academic institutions, and public and special interest groups, will assure effective communication needed to coordinate the development of the project with local requirements and activities. In preparation for a comprehensive ecosystem investigation in Puget Sound, NOAA, through its Office of Coastal Environment, has established the office of Northwest Environmental Coordinator in 24 Water samples being recovered abroad the NOAA Vessel, Ferrel, in the New York Bight. The chemical analysis of water and suspended sediment is an im- portant part of environmental assessment studies. Seattle, Wash. This office is involved in planning and coordinating NOAA's ongoing Puget Sound activities, conducted by the National Ocean Survey and the Environmental Research Laboratories. These activities include a study in northern Puget Sound carried out in cooperation with Canadian oceanographic laboratories. The study will result in establishing both the characteristics of the tides and currents of northern Puget Sound in the San Juan Island area and the basis for determining the exchange of waters between northern Puget Sound and southern Georgia Straits. It will also provide the tidal reference stations required to improve our ability to predict the tidal excursion and tidal currents in the straits and channels of northern Puget Sound. In addition to regional projects, NOAA is actively pursuing several special problems in the oceans both near the shore and in deep water. For example, hydrocarbon baseline studies in Prince 25 William Sound, Alaska are being conducted to determine levels of hydrocarbons in selected marine organisms in the food chain and sediments. Hydrocarbon analysis, using newly developed techniques, is being performed by the National Bureau of Standards to provide definitive data by FY '75 on existing levels of hydrocarbons in Prince William Sound. NOAA's National Ocean Survey is conducting a tide and circulatory survey of Cook Inlet, Alaska. This project will include the accumulation of data on tides, currents, water temperatures, salinity levels, and other variables. These data will be useful in controlling pollution resulting from accidents in oil drilling and tanker operations. The National Ocean Survey conducts a coastal estuarine and coastal circulation program that will provide information useful in pollution control activities. This program includes tidal current surveys, estuarine flushing, and nontidal current predictions. It uses both conventional and remote sensing data gathering techniques and is coordinated with programs of other Federal, State, and local organizations. NOAA's Environmental Research Laboratories are engaged in studying the impact of marine mining operations on the environment. These studies include investigations of the effects on marine life of various concentrations of suspended bottom sediment, which may be disrupted and redeposited in sand and gravel mining. The Environmental Research Laboratories are also making baseline measurements, 1,200 miles southeast of Honolulu, which will be compared with conditions after the completion of a pilot manganese mining experiment. The resulting information about the effects of manganese mining activities on physical, biological, and chemical mechanisms will be used to formulate guidelines for future large- scale mining operations. Several agencies in DOI conduct investigations contributing to marine environmental quality. The stream gaging program of USGS provides information important to pollution control, especially within estuaries, bays, and nearshore areas. In this program, USGS operates about 600 gaging stations near the mouths of streams entering estuaries, bays, and the oceans and approximately 100 stations near the mouths of streams entering the Great Lakes. Streamflow measurements at these stations provide basic information on the amounts of water available for the dilution of sewage and for the prediction by other agencies of potential pollution hazards in the coastal zone. Exceptionally large or small streamflows themselves may constitute natural environmental contaminents by significantly altering the salinity of coastal waters on which marine life depends. Knowledge of the magnitude of exceptional streamflows and the probability of their recurrence aids in managing coastal zone water resources. 26 USGS measures water quality at approximately one-third of its stream mouth gaging stations. These measurements provide synoptic data on selected chemical and physical variables and allow the calculation of mass balances and the evaluation of pollutant transfer from upstream into the Great Lakes and oceans. The USGS San Francisco Bay study illustrates application of the stream, chemical, and sediment discharge data to seasonal variation of chemical and physical conditions within this estuarine system. Here, stream discharge bears a direct relation to and exerts significant control over the residence time of water within the Bay. The estuarine system is flushed most effectively during high-flow periods when it produces a strong density-driven circulation. The northern parts of the Bay enjoy normal estuarine circulation with high-salinity water moving upstream along the floor beneath lower salinity water that flows to the Pacific. The.southern part of the Bay, with little fresh water inflow, undergoes reversals in nontidal circulation. Mercury, lead, and copper concentrations in the sediments of San Francisco Bay relate not only to geologic and hydrodynamic factors but also to industrial development within the Bay region. Total calculated volumes of selected elements within the sediments, high local concentrations, and a large range of measured values are all greater than would be expected in a natural estuarine system. Initial stages of understanding the complex interacting systems in the Bay have now been achieved, and predictive computer modeling is to be developed for comparison with continuing field measurements. Through contracts and grants, largely to academic institutions, DOI's Office of Water Resources Research supported 32 projects in FY '73, and 29 projects in FY '74 that emphasize collection of basic information relating to the source, fate, and effects of marine pollutants and to pollution control. The projects included the effects of pollutants on development and physiology of selected marine larvae, a study of the transport of chlorinated hydrocarbons in sediments of bays, the role of sea grasses and benthic algae in the geochemistry of trace metals in estuaries, and phosphorus cycling and storage by algae in bays as related to eutrophication. Another continuing study deals with devising ways for collecting, packaging, analyzing, and presenting to decisionmakers hydrologic, biologic, socioeconomic and institutional information and methods whereby fragile coastal ecosystems can be developed without undue degradation. Similar studies are being supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and NOAA. DOI Bureau of Land Management is funding environmental studies in preparation for expanded OCS lease sales. Several studies have recently been completed in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico and off the California coasts. 27 The Bureau of Land Management has established Environmental Assessment Teams of oceanographers, marine biologists, geologists, regional planners, and others in New Orleans, Los Angeles, Anchorage, and New York City. The teams assemble and analyze environmental and socioeconomic data for impact statements and establish liaison with State and local groups and with universities to assess non-Federal OCS research activities. To further implement the lease program, the Bureau of Land Management has undertaken a broad-based effort to establish baseline information for existing and proposed lease areas and pipeline corridors. This constitutes the first phase of a planned program to monitor and evaluate the environmental effects of future development. The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife* also provides biological expertise to the OCS leasing program. It prepares reports that describe important fish and wildlife resources and the potential effects of mineral development operations on them in areas of proposed lease sajes, recommends means of avoiding or minimizing harm to these resources; and designs biological sampling and monitoring programs that may be required in connection with provisions of special lease stipulations. Major EPA FY '74 efforts are aimed at controlling pollution problems in four geographically important coastal areas: the effects of digested municipal sewage sludge dumped in the New York Bight, effects of treated municipal sewage discharges in the Los Angeles Bight, heavy metal transport and accumulation in Southeast coastal ecosystems, and persistent organic and other pollutant accumulations in Puget Sound. The program has resulted in the development of a predictive model for use in vertically stratified estuaries, the establishment of a multiparameter barge dumping and particulate dispersion model, and the development of the design principles used in nearly every modern municipal ocean outfall. EPA is also attempting to establish methods of identifying oil by chemical techniques and develop technology to contain and clean up spills. This work includes spectrometric quantification of oil in water and sediments; chromatographic quantification of oil in sediments; development and test of prototype containment units; development and test of prototype systems for oil cleanup including foams, discs, belts, spraybooms, and solvent materials. NSF's Research Applied to National Needs Program supports three regional studies of coastal zone pollutants with the aim of contributing to the practical solution of management problems. In one of these projects, a four-institution consortium in the Chesapeake Bay area is studying domestic waste problems with the * Note: BSFW became The Fish and Wildlife Service on July 1, 1974. 28 objective of developing criteria for sewage effluent loading in Chesapeake Bay. Similarly, three research insitutions have been studying the important pollutants in Delaware Bay with special emphasis on oil discharges from transfer operation and oil refineries. In the third study, an attempt is being made to develop methods of assessing dredging and dredge-related impacts in the estuaries of the Pacific Northwest. In addition to the work described above, a number of broader scale research projects, some of which are summarized in chapter VI, support the attainment of marine environmental quality goals. 29 CHAPTER 111 LIVING RESOURCES Increasing demands on living marine resources, caused in part by expanding human populations around the world, lend urgency to management and conservation practices supported by the Federal Ocean Program. Fishing fleets operate in all oceans of the world in their search for harvestable populations of living resources, primarily fish and shellfish. The fishing power of the larger fleets is sufficient now to virtually wipe out some commercial fish populations within a few years. Some traditional and once abundant fish stocks in American waters have been so overfished that they can no longer reproduce themselves. Unusually heavy demands on fishery resources have intensified the pressure on U.S. fisheries and created a multitude of new sources of conflict. These problems are compounded by the mobility of the fishing fleets, global pollution of ocean waters, conservation problems related to marine mammals and endangered species, and the demands of fishery conservation groups. It is anticipated that recent international fisheries agreements. Federal and State legislation, and the current negotiations on the law of the sea will help to resolve these problems. The Federal Government works in close cooperation with States, foreign governments, and with various commissions and agencies to develop plans for living marine resources. The key Federal responsibilities are to assess, manage, and conserve living resources. This includes the development of new fishery resources and their wise allocation and use. The Atlantic menhaden fishery has been over-fished and is now beyond the point of maximum sustainable yield. These fish are in great demand for processing into poultry feed. 31 Management and Assessment Marine fish stocks off our coasts represent an enormous renewable natural resource. The total annual harvested volume of these fishery resources is about 14 billion pounds: of which 6.0 billion are U.S. commercial; 1.6 billion, sport; and 6.4 billion, foreign. This volume is less than the total possible catch. Estimates of the maximum annual catch achievable run from about 20 to 40 billion pounds. If the potential catch is assumed to have sales values similar to the present catch, the total annual retail value of U.S. fishery resources is estimated to be as much as $17 billion. Marine fisheries can be rationally managed if proper stock assessment information is available. For example, catches of yellowfin tuna in the eastern tropical Pacific in 1960 reached three times those of the early 1940's. Since 1966 the fishery has been managed by an annual catch quota, based each year on an estimate of maximum sustainable yield. Now catches each year are almost four times the 1940's level, worth over $50 million a year to U.S. fishermen. While serious sociopolitical problems remain, stock assessment and annual reevaluation make it possible to manage the stock at this level indefinitely. The greatest barrier to effective management is lack of information on the abundance, distribution, and condition of the stocks; the effects of various fishing levels on them; and the effects of environmental changes on stock abundance and distribution. Institutional problems associated with management of coastal and anadrbmous stocks will probably be eased by some form of extended jurisdiction. But rational management practice, is dependent on good information. An example is the long-term fishery and survey data base that made possible a rational approach to overfishing off the northeastern United States. In other areas we do not have comparable information. Two examples of overexploited fisheries, illustrate the very real economic consequences to our domestic fishing industry of lack of proper management. The average annual catch of haddock during the five years, 1962-1966 inclusive, was 131.9 million pounds. The catch was reduced to 98.3 million pounds in 1967 and to only 8.2 million in 1973. These catches were respectively 33.6 and 123.7 million pounds less than the earlier average of 131.9 million pounds. The 1967 price per pound was IKE; thus that year's deficit resulted in a 3.7 million dollar loss. If 3.7 million dollars had been deposited in a savings bank at 5% interest, it would have earned an additional 1.3 million dollars since 1967. As shown in the last column, the 1967 deficit, compounded at this rate, is 5 million dollars. Similar estimates are shown for succeeding years, including the effects of price increases. The California sardine catch averaged 492 million 32 pounds in the period 1946-1950 inclusive. The catch since then is tabulated in terms of 5 year-totals. Because the assumed price remained stable at 2(t a pound, the compounded deficit is highest in the five years following 1950 and declines thereafter. The total cumulative loss for these two fisheries at the beginning of 1974 as well over 500 million dollars. DEFICITS INCURRED BY IMPROPER MANAGEMENT OF TWO FISHERIES U.S. HADDOCK CATCH 1962-1966 average 131.9 million pounds YEAR CATCH DEFICIT PRICE DEFICIT 5% COMPOUNDED (Millions (Millions Per Pound (Millions (Ml llions of Pounds) of Pounds) (Dollars) of Dollars) of D ollars) 1967 98.3 33.6 .11 3.7 5.0 1968 71.3 60.6 .13 7.9 10.1 1969 42.6 89.3 .17 15.2 18.5 1970 26.8 105.1 .22 23.1 26.7 1971 21.6 110.3 .26 28.7 31.6 1972 11.7 120.2 .37 44.5 46.7 1973 8.2 123.7 .39 48.2 48.2 TOTAL 642.8 171.3 186.8 U.S. CALIFORNIA SARDINE CATCH 1946-1950 average 492 million pounds (2460 total) YEAR CATCH DEFICIT PRICE DEFICIT 5% COMPOUNDED (Millions (Millions Per Pound (Millions (Millions of Pounds) of Pounds) (Dollars) of Dollars) of Dollars) 1951-55 . 564 1896 .02 37.9 100.4 1956-60 . 452 2008 .02 40.3 83.9 1961-65 . 80 2380 .02 47.6 77.6 1966-70 . 1 2459 .02 49.0 62.6 1971-73 . 1 1476 .02 29.4 30.0 TOTAL 10,219 204.2 355.4 Common property aspects of ownership of living marine resources deter private industry from carrying out extensive assessment investigations. With few exceptions, no one has exclusive rights to stocks of fish or shellfish. Since knowledge of the resources will inevitably be shared, little incentive exists for private enterprise to 33 undertake assessment programs of the magnitude required for management. The nature of the problems and the proposed solutions, involving common property resources over broad areas with international interests, requires that the Federal Government take the lead. Industry, State governments, and universities can contribute significantly to solutions, but the program must be organized on a national scale. The assessment responsibility is part of the mission of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), although the National Science Foundation also supports programs contributing to living resource assessment. MARMAP In 1971 NOAA initiated the Marine Resources Monitoring, Assessment, and Prediction Program (MARMAP) as the principal resource assessment activity within NMFS. MARMAP uses traditional methods of analysis of fishery catch data and systematic, standardized surveys of young and adult populations to define the kinds and abundance of living marine resources available to U.S. recreational and commercial fishermen. The resulting data are used to develop management recommendations for expansion of fisheries and improvement of the status of the resources. The utility of this approach is illustrated by the recent implementation of measures by the International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF) to reduce the severe overexploitation of fish stocks off New England and the mid-Atlantic coast. In 1973-74 efforts to reduce the amount of foreign fishing on all stocks in the area were agreed to by 17 nations within the framework of ICNAF. Total landings of over 1 million metric tons in 1973 will be reduced to 924,000 metric tons in 1974, to 850,000 metric tons in 1975, and possibly lower landings in subsequent years. This was possible because of the extensive data base obtained from the MARMAP prototype survey of groundfish stocks and analyses of commercial catch data by the NMFS Northeast Fisheries Center that clearly demonstrated a 65-percent reduction in total finfish biomass on the fishing grounds during the past decade. This reduction was attributable to recent heavy fishing. In 1973-74 coordinated and standardized fall and spring MARMAP groundfish surveys were greatly expanded along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Florida. Simultaneous ichthyoplankton samples and environmental observations were obtained on each of the surveys. Comparable groundfish surveys were carried out by ICNAF over most of the remaining shelf off the coast of Canada. Atlantic coastal surveys included participation by several NMFS 34 ^r^ "*: Bongo plankton samplers are used in MARMAP to assess the distribution and abundance of fish larvae. facilities, the State of South Carolina, U.S.S.R., Canada, France, West Germany, and Poland. In addition, groundfish surveys will also be conducted in the Gulf of Mexico, Western Caribbean, and in the Northeast Pacific (fig. 3-1]. Future MARMAP effort will be directed to increasing survey frequency, developing advanced fishery assessment technology particularly for pelagic species, assessing stocks, establishing a national fisheries data management system, and developing optimal yield models for coastal and oceanic stocks. NMFS is continuing to develop the program and has targeted 1978 for reaching a fully operational status. Except for the Atlantic coastal area, there is a severe lack of assessment information. In the Gulf of Mexico and off the southeastern U.S., the problems of determining the various kinds and abundance levels of fish populations are just beginning to be treated. Off the California coast better estimates on tunas and other species are required. Tuna and billfish stocks in the tropical oceans 35 NOTE • NUFS FISHERIES RESEARCH CENTERS NORTHWEST CENTER SEATTLE NORTHEAST CENTER WOODS HOLE y^^ I HIGH INTENSITY ^<<:: I MODERATE INTENSITY S ' LOW INTENSITY g MARMAP Sempling Areas are under intensive fishing pressure. The regulated catch of yellowfin tuna in the eastern tropical Pacific is now at maximum sustained yield and can be maintained only by good management; this requires additional information not presently available on stocks outside of the regulatory area. As a consequence, skipjack tuna stocks are now being subjected to increasing fishing pressure. Off the northwest and Alaskan coasts stocks of salmon, crabs, and other species are subjected to increasing foreign fishing pressure. As foreign vessels are displaced from the east coast, they go to other fisheries. For example, in 1974 one Polish vessel is operating in the northeast Pacific; six are scheduled to operate there in 1975. COASTAL UPWELLING Among the most productive fisheries in the world are those located in areas of coastal upwelling. Estimates suggest that these areas produce nearly 50 percent of the world's fish supply. This type of upwelling occurs when winds blowing along the coast, causing the surface waters of the ocean to move offshore, result in the rise of cold, nutrient-rich deep water to the surface, which then nourishes marine plant and animal life. The Living Resources Program of the International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE), supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF), focuses on each aspect of the upwelling process so that predictions about the extent of living 36 resources in an upwelling area can be made on the basis of particular oceanographic and meteorological data. Meteorologists and physical oceanographers have developed their theoretical and numerical models and experimental capabilities through a series of Coastal Upwelling Experiments (CUE I and II), which started during the spring of 1972 and 1973 off the Oregon coast. At the same time chemical and biological oceanographers also developed and refined their models and techniques in field experiments off Mexico. Data gathered during these initial upwelling experiments provided the basis for a short-term pilot project designed to aid fishermen in locating the valuable coho salmon. While mapping detailed sea surface temperatures in the upwelling region off Oregon in the spring and summer of 1972, scientists observed concentrations of fishing vessels clustered in areas where there was a sharp change in sea surface temperature. Repeated observations of this phenomenon generated a feasibility study designed to predict oceanographic conditions favorable to coho salmon concentrations. Refined airborne temperature mapping and upwelling models were used to produce a fishery forecast for a 12- to 24-hour period. Preliminary results indicate the feasibility project was successful and provided valuable assistance to local fishermen by cutting down their search time for the coho. A major international field experiment will take place between February and June 1974. It will involve National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) satellites, three ships, and one instrumented aircraft from the United States; and ships from Spain, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Ivory Coast, and Mauritania. More than 200 researchers from 15 U.S. institutions, the United Kingdom, the Federal Republic of Germany, and Ghana will participate in the experiment. Work will be coordinated with the 1974 Cooperative Investigations of the Northern Part of the Eastern Central Atlantic (CINECA) to study the Northwest African upwelling region. The field experiment will try to improve the understanding of the upwelling process as it develops from the movement offshore of surface water, its replacement by nutrient- rich waters from deeper layers, the growth of plants that use the nutrients, the growth of microscopic animals that feed on the plants, and finally, the influx and growth of fishes that feed on those smaller animals. OTHER BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH NSF's program in Biological Oceanography currently supports research concerning the distribution, physiology, pathology, and general ecology of marine living resources. A major portion of this 37 RHW-NCC Location of the JOINT I coastal upwelling experiment, involving eight foreign countries in the first full-scale integrated experiment to be conducted on a marine ecosystem. The selection of the northwest coast of Africa is based on the presence of a powerful upwelling system in that region and the extensive scientific work of the CINECA program. 38 support is directed towards gaining a better understanding of fisheries resources. Programs underway include studies of the ecology of fish communities in Norfolk Canyon and the adjacent continental slope, the community structure and reproductive biology of benthic fish populations of the Tongue-of-the-Ocean, the analysis and monitoring of kelp-bed communities, the prevention and control of microsporidian parasites in flounder, and primary production and clupeid standing stock in the Northern Adriatic Sea. In addition, several programs are providing information concerning the fish populations inhabiting the abyssal zone of the deep sea. Two programs currently funded are investigating conflicting theories concerning the migratory behavior of Atlantic sea turtle^. One theory maintains that complex navigational mechanisms are utilized by the turtles; the other theory contends that migration is passive, drifting with ocean currents. Research at both Duke and Louisiana State University is aimed at understanding the life history, viability, and transmission mechanisms of the protozoan parasites that regularly infest the blue crab populations. Several projects involving studies of the physiology of and energy flow through plant communities have direct relevance for major living resources, e.g., the surfone diatoms of coastal Washington (a major food of the razor clam) and the eastern coast salt marshes (feeding grounds for numerous fish, crustaceans and molluscs). The physiological adaptations of marine mammals, such as sea lions, dolphins, harbor seals, and elephant seals, exposed to various environmental conditions and dietary regimes are also being studied. RECREATIONAL MARINE FISHERIES The Marine Game Fish Research Program began in the Department of the Interior, with the enactment of the Migratory Marine Game Fish Act of 1959. This act provided for a broad program of research into problems affecting the health and future of the Nation's saltwater game fish populations. Later this program was transferred to NOAA. The importance of the program is illustrated by the fact that the number of saltwater anglers increased from about 4 million in 1959 to 9.4 million in 1970. Game fish research includes studies to determine the life histories, population size, and the effect of harvesting. It was recognized that no animal can exist without a healthy environment. Consequently, the program includes environmental studies as well as attempts to develop methods for habitat management. The resolution of problems related to the allocation of scarce species and the extent to which a particular species might be harvested depends upon getting 39 accurate information as to size and composition of the catch. Therefore, plans have been made to develop a suitable sampling system to collect statistics so that small samples can be expanded into total catch figures with reasonable accuracy. These activities are being carried out to some degree at all NMFS facilities, from Woods Hole, Massachusetts, to Miami, Florida, Port Aransas, Texas, La Jolla, California, Kodiak, Alaska, and Honolulu, Hawaii. Conservation The conservation of threatened living marine resources is the objective of several programs required by recent legislation to protect marine mammals and other endangered species.. Enforcement activities are of major importance in protecting these resources and in preventing the depletion of fisheries. MARINE MAMMALS AND ENDANGERED SPECIES The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 places an immediate moratorium, with certain exceptions, on the taking and importation of all marine mammals and marine mammal products. Under the act, the Secretary of Commerce is responsible for protecting and assessing the status of whales, porpoises, seals, and sea lions, and the Secretary of Interior is responsible for sea otters, walruses, polar bears, manatees, and dugongs. During the first year of administration of the act, exemptions were considered in cases where undue economic hardship would be incurred. Of the 60 applications submitted, 23 were approved, 22 denied, and 15 withdrawn. Fourteen formal public hearings on applications claiming undue economic hardship were held in nine areas around the country. Other hearings dealt with scientific research, public display, and importation, while still others were held to obtain public- comment on disposition of beached and stranded marine mammals and on measures to reduce the incidental taking of marine mammals, particularly porpoises, in commercial fishing operations. The provision allowing commercial tuna fishermen to take porpoises without a permit, when such taking is incidental to commercial fishing operations, expires October 21, 1974. The immediate goal of the Marine Mammal Protection Act is to reduce as much as possible the incidental kill or serious injury of porpoises by commercial fishing operations. Since most porpoise mortalities and serious injuries result from entanglement in nets and gear mishaps during fishing operations, 40 NMFS has been investigating new gear designs and ship maneuvers to be used in the eastern Pacific yellowfin tuna fisheries. Devices found to reduce mortalities and injuries from entrapment include porpoise safety panels of smaller than normal mesh and torque-balance cables that prevent net rollups during fishing operations. The use of speedboats to hold nets open and prevent net collapse and refinement of the backdown maneuver help to reduce mortalities further. Interim regulations, effective on April 1, 1973, governing the taking of marine mammals incidental to commercial fishing operations require the adoption of these and other techniques and require commercial fishermen in general to release marine mammals unharmed whenever possible. NMFS is conducting additional studies on new tapered purse-seine nets that provide greater swimming area and on the use of differential current meters to aid in preventing net mishaps. Results of gear testing indicate a significant reduction of porpoise mortalities is possible by the use of newly designed gear and fishing maneuvers. NMFS is conducting research to assess the impact of porpoise mortalities on the total population. This work includes life history and stock assessment programs as well as the observer program, which places personnel aboard commercial tuna vessels to collect data. To assist in the protection of large whales, NMFS is attempting to develop an independent means for the analysis of catch statistics and the assessment of stocks. St. George Island in the Pribilof Islands has been established as a research control area to compare changes in the behavior, population dynamics, and interactions of an unharvested population of northern fur seals with those of the harvested population on St. Paul Island. The feeding habits, availability of food, range, and other environmental factors that may effect the survival of fur seals will be intensively studied in the Bering Sea. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 provides for the conservation, protection, restoration, and propagation of threatened and endangered species of fish, wildlife, and plants. The Departments of Commerce and Interior will have jurisdiction over species currently listed and will investigate to determine whether other possibly threatened or endangered species, such as marine reptiles and tropical fish, should be listed. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 differs from previous acts by covering the importation and taking of species, and by allowing a. species to be listed if it is threatened locally, i.e., in part of its range. States are being encouraged to develop and maintain endangered species conservation programs through cooperative agreements with the Federal Government. The Department of the Interior's Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (BSFWj studies inshore marine and estuarine ecosystems to 41 These fur seals on St. Paul Island in thePribilofs will continue to be harvested under strict international quotas. maintain a firm basis for managing the Nation's wildlife refuge system for waterfowl, migratory birds, and other wildlife, and for recommending proper usage of coastal resources. Research covers the entire range of domestic geographic habitats, from the north coast of Alaska to the Kona coast of Hawaii, and from Maine to southern Florida. Jn Alaska for example, these studies include the distribution, size, and species composition of sea birds; a cooperative study with the Soviet Union on the life history of the polar bear in and near the Bering Sea; andthepopulationdynamicsof the walrus, sea otter, and the rare and endangered peregrine falcon on Amchitka Island, Alaska. In Hawaii, some of the studies coordinated by BSFW are aquatic surveys of the Kona coast shoreline, the ecology of coastal lava ponds, and the fauna of coral reefs. ENFORCEMENT AND SURVEILLANCE The enforcement role of the United States Coast Guard (USCG) and NMFS has grown over the past decade and is expected to continue growing for some time. The present enforcement and surveillance program responsibilities of NMFS involve the 42 development, promulgation, and enforcement of domestic fisheries regulations required under the authority of international fisheries agreements to which the United States is a party. The program also has the responsibility for monitoring compliance by foreign fishing vessels in the contiguous fisheries zone and territorial waters. In addition, the program includes enforcement of U.S. statutes concerning marine mammal protection, enforcement of U.S. statutes prohibiting possession or importation of illegally taken fish and wildlife, and surveillance of foreign fishing operations to insure compliance with the provisions of various treaties and agreements to which the United States is a party. In this latter activity, data on foreign fishing fleets off the United States developed incidentally to enforcement provides a substantial portion of the information used in negotiations regarding foreign fishing activities. USCG shares responsibility for enforcement and surveillance at sea with NMFS under an interagency agreement. USCG provides aerial and surface patrols and NMFS provides agents with fisheries law enforcement expertise to accompany the patrols. In calendar year 1973, 111 foreign fishing vessels off the east coast of the United States and 88 foreign fishing vessels off Alaska were boarded and inspected under this program. Other boardings took place in the Gulf of Mexico and off the west coast. USCG aircraft flew 4,189 hours covering approximately 630,000 miles, and cutters spent 2,224 days at sea covering approximately 300,000 miles on fisheries law enforcement. Monthly counts of foreign fishing and support vessels indicated on estimated total of 6,789 representing 17 different nations. These figures represent a modest increase in foreign fishing activity off the United States over 1972, as well as an increase in patrol activity. An active boarding and surveillance program is maintained outside the 12-mile exclusive fisheries zone to monitor compliance with international fishing agreements and to gather information used by NMFS in formulating conservation policies, by the Department of State in negotiating fisheries agreements, and by USCG in enforcement planning. As many as three USCG cutters at a time patrol off the east and northwest coasts, and at any one time up to five may patrol Alaskan waters. Some of these cutters carry helicopters, which not only extend the vessels' surveillance range, but provide an effective surprise factor for enforcement activities. There are a minimum of three surveillance flights a week off the east coast, one a week off the west coast and five a week off Alaska. The number of patrols is increased during periods of special pressure on the outer boundary of the contiguous fisheries zone or when incidents occur. For practical purposes, patrols extend to about 40 43 miles off the west coast, 800 miles offshore in the Gulf of Alaska, 350 miles in the Bering Sea, 200 miles in the Atlantic, and 60 miles in the Gulf of Mexico. Violations of international agreements by foreign vessels are handled in accordance with the terms of the agreement violated. This generally means that a report of the violation is forwarded to the country of the vessel involved with the expectation that the country will take appropriate punitive action. In some cases, foreign violators are detained for delivery to officials from their country. Violators of U.S. territorial waters and contiguous fishery zones are seized and prosecuted by the United States. During the first nine months of 1973, 13 foreign and U.S. vessels were found in violation of U.S. law and fined or penalized a total of $738,093. Enforcement of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, the Endangered Species Act of 1973, and other acts governing the sale, 'transportation, and importation of wildlife and fish, generally involve enforcement activities that go beyond commercial fishing. NMFS has engaged in, or has under development, cooperative agreements with various State and Federal agencies to supplement enforcement capabilities in areas where other enforcement agencies are in a better position to provide immediate enforcement efforts. BSFW has complementary enforcement functions, including responsibility for monitoring ports of entry. Working arrangements have been concluded with the U.S. Customs Service and BSFW. In addition, NMFS is developing working arrangements with the Department of Agriculture regarding inspection of marine mammal holding facilities located throughout the United States. Cooperative enforcement contracts with 10 coastal States to supplement in-house marine mammal enforcement capability are presently in effect. BSFW initiated a national surveillance program on August 1, 1973, to protect coastal marine habitats by assisting the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to detect and document suspected violations of the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act (33 U.S.C. 403) and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. Reports of suspected violations are coordinated with the Justice Department, NMFS, the Office of Interstate Land Sales Registration (U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development), State game and fish agencies, and other concerned State and Federal agencies. Program efforts are primarily limited to the reporting of unauthorized dredging and filling activities in estuarine, wetland, and coastal areas. However, in areas of high fish and wildlife value or intense recreation use, other encroachments such as unauthorized pier and dock facilities also are reported. In addition, BSFW personnel provide testimony as 44 expert court witnesses fordocumentation of environmental damages and acceptable mitigation or restoration measures. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has programs to insure the safety, quality, nutritional adequacy and integrity of marine foods. Inspections and analyses of shellfish and other marine food products are conducted by the National Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP) and other components of FDA. The NSSP provides comprehensive evaluations of the 23 participating State shellfish programs and four foreign programs to insure compliance with standards. The development of standards plus such training, technical assistance, and such direct field investigations as may be necessary are responsibilities of the Agency. The FDA also conducts inspections and sample examinations of seafood products, other than shellfish, to assure their safety and quality. Resource Development Short supplies of established fishery products and rising prices on the U.S. market reveal a critical need for improved management of available supplies. FISHERY DEVELOPMENT An NMFS-industry fishery development program is being formulated. Tentatively, its aspirations include the following: In New England, it hopes to develop a $10-million-a-year industry by 1978 by fishing Jonah crab, deep sea red crab, mahogany quahogs, long-finned squid, and mixed fish species such as hake and butterfish. In the Southeast, the supply of croaker and other sciaenids, mackerel, and rock shrimp should be increased by 125 million pounds in 3 to 5 years, a $30-million increase in estimated value to U.S. fishermen. In the Northwest, the program hopes to increase supplies of rockfish, sablefish, Pacific hake, and other selected ground fish. The resource potential estimated here is 100 million pounds. In Alaska, domestic supplies of pollock, snow crab, and selected groundfish could be increased to a resource potential of approximately 4 billion pounds. In the Great Lakes, domestic supplies of carp, buffalofish, sheepshead, and shad could be increased to an estimated resource potential of 400 million pounds. In the Southwest, the supply of skipjack tuna could be increased by 100 million pounds in 3 to 5 years, a $20-million increase in value to fishermen. Internationally, the development of fishery resources has been assisted by a five-year institutional grant made by the Agency for International Development (AID) to the University of Rhode Island, 45 primarily to support the University's International Center for Marine Resource Development. AID is presently considering a three- year renewal grant with an additional component for technology transfer to and research in developing countries. AID's program on participant training, through an agreement with NOAA, includes marine fisheries training in the United States for about fifty fishermen from developing countries. AID also funds several U.S. experts to assist selected developing countries in solving specific fisheries problems. AQUACULTURE Aquaculture information is being used for the enhancement of stocks. NOAA's aquaculture mission is directed toward assisting the States and other non-Federal interests on a cost-sharing basis under Public Law (P.L.) 88-309 and P.L. 89-304 to restore, maintain, and improve economically important stocks of fish and shellfish. To this end, NOAA's aquaculture research is oriented to solving the biologic problems associated with the development of various species. NMFS aquaculture research programs underway include shrimp studies at Galveston, Texas, and salmon projects at Seattle, Washington, and Auke Bay, Alaska. NMFS is coordinating its programs with the Office of Sea Grant, which funds university programs for aquaculture research. Major species being studied under NOAA aquaculture programs include shrimp, salmon, lobster, mollusks (oysters and bay scallops], and freshwater prawns. Research in penaeid shrimp culture at Galveston, Texas, has been directed to making shrimp farming commercially possible. Dependable methods for mass culture of larvae have been developed, and several commercial groups are presently using these techniques. The availability of a constant supply of postlarvae has opened the door for research in several other key areas. At present, work is directed toward finding a dependable method for maturing female shrimp in captivity; developing nutritious economical feeds for shrimp; identifying, treating, and controlling shrimp diseases; and developing methods for the intensive culture of shrimp in closed systems. In Washington and Alaska, Federal research on marine aquaculture is currently focused on extending the technology of salmon culture to saltwater rearing. As a result of this research, California, Oregon, and Washington have modified their laws regulating the private control of salmon stocks to permit commercial rearing. Seven private hatcheries have been licensed on the Pacific 46 coast, and increasing numbers of applications are being filed. Alaska is currently considering similar legislation. The development of saltwater rearing technology has opened the way to two significantly different approaches to salmon farming: f eedlot rearing, where fish are reared under controlled conditions for marketing at a size of 1/2 to 1 pound, and open-range ranching, which involves release of hatchery-reared fish for pasturing in the sea after a brief acclimation and growth in saltwater. Open-range ranching will produce full-sized, adult salmon returning to predetermined homing sites and can be expected to produce benefits to private entrepreneurs and new tools for State management agencies seeking to improve both sport and commercial fisheries. Current salmon aquaculture includes field diagnosis and treat- ment of saltwater salmonid diseases, rearing system development and evaluation, stock development and breeding, evaluation and administration of experimental feeds, and gravel incubator hatchery development (an inexpensive means of producing fry with a survival at least five times that of natural production and with greater fitness than fry from conventional hatcheries). Public aquaculture (hatchery systems) is used to increase salmon and other fish stocks. The Columbia River Fishery Development Program was born because of high fish losses suffered in the Salmon hatchery operations include the collection of salmon eggsfrom adults resdy to spawn. Over half of the Columbia River salmon caught by commercial and recreational fisheries are reared in hatcheries. 47 Columbia River mainly as a result of dam and other water development projects to this huge watershed. Working by contracts with the State agencies, 86 fishways, over 720 fish screens, and 21 fish hatcheries were constructed. BSFW's Coastal Anadromous Fish Program is concerned with the restoration of Atlantic salmon, striped bass, steelhead, and Pacific salmon, and all anadromous fish that have an impact on improving Indian self-reliance. To support this program BSFW hatcheries will produce and distribute approximately 35 million anadromous fish: 710,000 Atlantic salmon, 32,000,000 steelhead and Pacific salmon, 2,000,000 striped bass, and 500,000 other anadromous fish. BSFW supports hatchery operations, construction, research, and management and provides grant-in-aid assistance to the States. In its Pacific salmon hatchery program, BSFW operates 13 national fish hatcheries and one fish screen facility, and is constructing two new hatcheries. Six of the operating hatcheries are funded solely by BSFW, one by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, three by NMFS, two jointly by two of these three agencies, and one by all three. In addition to these facilities, BSFW operates six hatcheries on the east coast which produce Atlantic salmon. The success of the program was demonstrated by extensive fish tagging programs, conducted by both BSFW and NMFS, which showed that 70 percent of the coho salmon returns, both sport and commercial fishing, come from the 21 hatcheries funded by NMFS and operated by BSFW and the States. Fifty percent of the chinook salmon returns come from hatcheries. Salmon catches from the Columbia River, which dropped to an alltime low in 1960 of only 10 million pounds, have rebounded to a catch of over 30 million pounds in 1973. Coho salmon have a return rate of 7:1 for every dollar invested in rearing them; chinook salmon have a return rate of about 3:1. The gain in food production in the form of high-grade protein is also noteworthy. Eight pounds offish in the commercial fisheries are produced by one pound of feed expended at the hatchery to feed young coho salmon. The gain is even higher, 10:1, with chinook salmon. Allocation The resolution of conflicts over fishery resources is essential to their conservation and continued productivity. Consequently, a major effort is being made to allocate fishery resources among competing domestic interests and to develop effective mechanisms for international fisheries management and allocation. 48 DOMESTIC ALLOCATION NMFS has embarked upon a fisheries management program in cooperation with the States to rationalize problems arising out of the splintered jurisdiction and common property problems identified by the Stratton Commission in 1969. An impetus for the evolution of this program was the Administration's commitment to the New Federalism philosophy. A serious conflict between the fishermen of California, Oregon, and Washington arose out of the simple biological fact that Dungeness crabs become suitable for harvest a month or so earlier in the southern portion of their range, i.e., California, than in the northern portion, i.e., Washington. Therefore, at the request of the State of Washington, NMFS has contracted with the Pacific Marine Fisheries Commission for a series of studies relating to the harvest of the Dungeness crab. NMFS has financed economic studies that will help manage this resource, which presently yields approximately $8 to $12 million a year, more efficiently. With the completion of these studies, management proposals on a resource-wide basis will be developed for implementation. Significant progress in the development of a coastwide plan for American lobster fisheries has been made. Thirteen essential regulatory proposals developed by the Regional Resource Council, composed of State fisheries directors and the NMFS, have been submitted to appropriate decisionmaking authorities in 11 Atlantic coastal States from Maine to North Carolina. All 13 recommendations have been adopted by the State of Virginia. Other States have the proposals under active consideration, and it is anticipated that progress will be made in several of those States during present legislative sessions. Maine, which accounts for approximately 80 percent of the total U.S. lobster production, has introduced limited entry legislation. Interim cooperative regulations between the States of Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts concerningGulf of Maine shrimp, an important and developing fishery, have been adopted as a consequence of a joint NMFS-State management study that identified, on a tentative basis, the appropriate mesh size which should be used in this fishery for the purpose of maintaining its maximum sustainable yield. The study was requested by industry because of a fear that uncontrolled fishing by vessels outside the jurisdiction of the State of Maine could have detrimental effects on the resources. Atlantic surf clams, a developing fishery of considerable national importance, is presently under study by NMFS and five States in the mid-Atlantic region. Unlike some of the larger, more diffuse fisheries, such as the crab and lobster fisheries already mentioned, 49 the relatively small number of persons involved in this industry has led to unusually close cooperation between State and Federal program personnel. There appears to be agreement between the States and the menhaden industry that a cooperative State-Federal fisheries management plan for this species is desirable because the resource, which migrates between State jurisdictions, appears to be fished at the maximum sustained yield level. If so, additional effort would reduce present harvest levels, thus exacerbating the already critical shortfall of fishmeal production in the United States. The High Seas Fisheries Conservation Act of 1973, which would provide the Secretary of Commerce with the authority to cooperate with the States in developing and enforcing high-seas fishing regulations, was introduced in the Congress on February 27, 1973. Hearings have been held by the House and extensive efforts are being made by the House Subcommittee on Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation and the Environment to find ways of fashioning this legislation so that it best meets the needs of the resources, the States, and recreational and commercial interest groups. The general purpose of these activities has been to enhance the economic and social well-being not only of major segments of the U.S. fishing industry, but to insure a continuous supply of fishery products for the U.S. consumer and of feed supplements for the poultry and swine industries. These activities have reduced interstate conflicts by encouraging cooperation and have emphasized the need for decisionmaking at the State level. This latter achievement will become increasingly significant as, inevitably, management decisions become allocation decisions between recreational and commercial interests. INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS OF LIVING RESOURCES Increasing fishing effort for dwindling stocks in established fisheries prompted the United States in 1973 to seek more effective arrangements through international fishery commissions. At the ICNAF annual meeting in June 1973, the United States' proposed a new system that would limit fishing effort off the northeast Atlantic Coast. The U.S. proposal had originally been made in late 1972 and had previously been considered at a special ICNAF meeting in January 1973 and at meetings of experts in March and May 1973. In spite of significant progress, many ICNAF Members harbored considerable misgivings about an effort control scheme. Fishing effort per se had not previously been regulated, and many technical questions arose about this new approach to fisheries management. In the debate at the annual meeting it became clear that many members were not ready to accept controls on fishing effort. Some 50 saw it as unworkable; others found too many technical flaws. During the course of the debate, the United States indicated a willingness to accept, as an interim measure, a new approach that had arisen from the work of the experts. Under this approach a two-tier quota system would be established in which an overall, nationally allocated quota for all fish caught would be imposed over each country's individual species quotas; the overall quota would be less than the sum of the individual species quotas. Such a system should reduce the incidental catch of species not being primarily sought. The system would encourage nations to use methods to decrease incidental catches. If they did not, they would exceed their overall quotas before they attained the individual quotas on the species for which they were primarily fishing. From a conservation viewpoint, the value of this allocation system is that it may prevent the incidental catch of some species from resulting in their commercial extinction. The annual meeting failed to reach agreement on how to conserve the cfepleted fisheries off the U.S. Atlantic coast, and the threat of virtually uncontrolled fishing effort in these fisheries became a real possibility for 1974. Because the United States had indicated a serious intent to consider withdrawing from ICNAF unless the excess fishing effort was brought under control, the possibility of collapse of ICNAF also became very real. The United States and other ICNAF members accepted a Canadian invitation to a special ICNAF meeting in October to deal with the single question of fishing off the northeast U.S. coast. The situation in these fisheries was categorized as a "crisis" by then Secretary of State William P. Rogers in communications to the Foreign Ministers of the other ICNAF Members preparatory to the October meeting. Crisis is a term used reluctantly by the Secretary of State, and the fact that he personally communicated with the other governments demonstrated the seriousness with which the United States viewed the situation. Fortunately, the special meeting held in October was productive, with agreement being reached on a two-tier catch quota system to be implemented for a 3-year period. The agreement will reduce foreign fishing and begin the process of rebuilding the stocks to their optimum yield. At the same time the preferential interest of coastal fishermen was recognized, and as a result American and Canadian fishermen will be allowed increased catches in the area. Furthermore, gear restrictions will keep almost all foreign bottom trawlers out of the relatively shallow waters off New England for 6 months of the year. A new development at the October special meeting of ICNAF was that the German Democratic Republic (GDR) played a more active role. The GDR maintains one of the largest fishing fleets off the U.S. Atlantic coast but has not been a member of ICNAF. The GDR 51 indicated a willingness to cooperate with the ICNAF program, and reductions in the GDR catch were written into the regulations even though the GDR was not an ICNAF Member.* One positive action taken at the June ICNAF meeting was agreement on measures to improve the international enforcement scheme for ICNAF regulations. Of prime concern to the United States was agreement to extend the scheme to the region off the mid- Atlantic coast south to North Carolina. The United States had sought even greater improvements in the scheme, and some of these proposed improvements are still under study with further action planned at the June 1974 ICNAF annual meeting. Another positive action occurred in 1973: Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union withdrew reservations that had limited the effectiveness of international inspections on their fishing vessels. This past year was the first full year of operation by U.S. vessels off northeastern Brazil under the terms of the U.S. -Brazil shrimp agreement. Operations under the agreement have apparently been carried out to the satisfaction of the fishermen and both Governments, and the agreement has been extended into 1974. Some delays were encountered in getting the implementing legislation, necessary for the agreement, through Congress. However, the legislation was passed in December after an amendment was attached declaring the northern lobster a creature of the continental shelf of the United States. Spiny lobster fishermen based in Florida continued to operate within waters over which the Bahamas extended jurisdiction in 1969. Enforcement by the Bahamas, generally sporadic, resulted in occasional arrests, fines, and jail sentences. The considerable number of U.S. fishing vessel operators from California ports who for many years fished off the coast of Mexico under Mexican licenses faced serious problems at the beginning of 1973, due to a new Mexican fishery law that placed serious burdens on foreign licensees. After several rounds of intergovernmental talks, formulas acceptable to both sides were developed, and operations continued without serious incident during the year. U.S. fishermen had a good year in the tuna fishery of the eastern tropical Atlantic, in which fishermen from a number of European and Asian nations also participate on a large scale. The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas continued to concentrate on coordinating basic research on the tuna stocks of the Atlantic and on the organization of an adequate statistical base for eventual conservation measures. The Commission's first conservation recommendation, a minimum size limit of 3.2 * The GDR joined ICNAF in May, 1974. 52 kilograms for yellowfin tuna, became effective for the 13 member countries during 1973. In the eastern Pacific, U.S. fishermen continued to be troubled early in 1973 by seizures of their vessels by Peru on the basis of that nation's claim to a fishery jurisdiction extending 200 miles from the coast. However, there were no seizures after the first quarter of the year as the fleet enjoyed excellent fishing in areas to the north and far offshore. The catch of yellowfin tuna, under conservation measures prescribed by the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, was the highest of any year on record. During 1973 the work of the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission was increasingly complicated by the de"mands of developing states for special treatment in terms of preferential allocations of catch quotas or exemptions from catch limitations. These complications delayed agreement on a yellowfin tuna conservation program for the eastern Pacific for 1974 until March 1974. In the North Pacific, the year was marked by increasing concern over the impact of foreign fishing, particularly by Japan and the Soviet Union on stocks of fish off the U.S. coast. The major targets of this foreign fishing were species not sought to any substantial degree by U.S. fishermen: for example, Soviet fishing for Pacific hake off Washington, Oregon, and northern California; and Japanese fishing for Alaskan pollock in the Bering Sea. However, such stocks offish are important to the United States as resources for the future and Hake, such as those in this 30,000 pound catch, are not now sought by U.S. fishermen, but they may have economic value in the future. 53 their conservation is therefore a matter of concern. The United States has accordingly sought in various forums with some success to place precautionary controls on the catch of these species. A more immediate threat posed by foreign fishing is the incidental catch of species that are of economic importance to United States fishermen. The incidental catch of halibut by Japanese and, to a lesser extent, Soviet trawlers in the eastern Bering Sea is believed to have been the major factor in the decline of the North American halibut fishery, which has been jointly regulated by the United States and Canada for 50 years. Discussions were held at the annual meeting of the International North Pacific Fisheries Commission in November 1973 by the United States, Canada, and Japan with a view to reducing and controlling this incidental catch. Though agreement could not be reached at that time, negotiations continued after the meeting, and at year's end the prospects were good that measures would be taken to substantially improve the situation. Salmon runs to the Bristol Bay region of Alaska became a special problem. The returns of salmon to Bristol Bay were the smallest in recorded history, and the fishery, once the largest red salmon fishery in the world, was almost a complete disaster. Though the primary cause was severe weather conditions in previous years that had severely reduced the numbers of young migrants to the sea, a contributing factor was the catch by the Japanese high seas salmon fleet operating west of 175 degrees west longitude. This 175 degree line, established by treaty between the United States, Canada, and Japan, protects all North American salmon except those of Bristol Bay and other western Alaska areas, which range in their migrations to the west of the line and are therefore vulnerable to capture by the Japanese fleet. Since the Bristol Bay runs for 1974 were again expected to be disastrously small, intensive discussions were held at the meeting of the North Pacific Fisheries Commission looking to means of protecting as many spawners as possible in anticipation of a return expected to be less than half of the number desired for spawning stock. No agreement on this complex problem could be reached during the 1-week meeting, but discussions continued at year's end. In other developments, the United States negotiated a bilateral fisheries agreement with Romania and reviewed and renegotiated several such agreements with the Soviet Union and Poland. The agreement with Poland was originally negotiated in June 1969 and renegotiated in June 1973 to extend through June 1975. The Romanian agreement was negotiated December 1973 and extends to December 1975. Both provide protection for lobster and other species of concern to U.S. fishermen. 54 The agreements with the U.S.S.R. were negotiated in February and June 1973. They pertain to fishing the king and tanner crab in the eastern Bering Sea and to arrangements whereby the U.S.S.R. may fish and conduct cargo-transfer operations in limited areas within the contiguous fisheries zone of the United States extending 9 miles beyond the 3-mile territorial sea. In return for these privileges the Soviet Union agrees to certain limitations on its fishing operations on the high seas outside the contiguous fisheries zone. The new versions of the U.S. -U.S.S.R. North Pacific agreements include substantial conservation improvements from the U.S. point of view, especially limits to the Soviet catch of certain species. The new version of the U.S. -U.S.S.R. Mid-Atlantic agreement also contains improvements including greater protection for vulnerable bottom species off New England. The two countries also negotiated and signed a new agreement applicable to the northeastern Pacific and the northwestern Atlantic Oceans. It provides for consideration, by claims boards with joint membership, of claims advanced by a national of either State against a national of the other State regarding financial loss resulting from damage to the national's fishing vessel or gear. The boards will consider claims voluntarily submitted by either side and will seek conciliation through factfinding. Juridical rights of U.S. and Soviet nationals remain unaffected. The countries also adopted a set of interim rules to govern the conduct of fishing and to prevent conflicts until further negotiations. A major difficulty in regulating the North Pacific fisheries has been the relative lack of scientific knowledge concerning some of the major species. To obtain this knowledge requires cooperation in research by all the countries engaged in major fisheries and important steps were taken in this direction in 1973. For the first time the North Pacific Fisheries Commission agreed to extend its studies to all species of mutual concern, rather than being limited to stocks exploited by two or more of the three parties. Also, the United States and the Republic of Korea under a bilateral agreement undertook the first of continuing annual meetings to exchange biological and statistical data and to review their fisheries in the North Pacific. At the June 1973 meeting of the International Whaling Commission (IWC), the United States again proposed a 10-year moratorium on commercial whaling. This proposal was supported by a simple majority of the member States, but not by the three-fourths majority necessary for a change in the whaling regulations. During the 1973 meeting, both Japan and the U.S.S.R. refused to make a final decision to implement an agreement, reached at the 1972 meeting, to enlarge the Secretariat of the IWC and provide it with scientific expertise. 55 Although the IWC failed to achieve the moratorium and the strengthening of its Secretariat, the United States was able to win support on other conservation measures. Catch quotas were reduced for the North Pacific fin whale, which is generally agreed to be overexploited; for the Antarctic fin whale, which is the most seriously depleted of the whales currently exploited; and for the Antarctic sei whale. For the sperm whale the overall quota was not reduced, but area quotas were set in the southern hemisphere to halt overexploitation in local areas. The reduction in quota for the Antarctic fin whale was accompanied by a provision that all taking of this whale would cease in 1976. The Japanese objected in September to the provisions setting area quotas for the sperm whale and providing for the cessation of the taking of the Antarctic fin whale in 1976, as well as to a provision on the catch quota for the minke whale. The Japanese action was followed by the Soviet Union joining in objecting to the provision relating to the sperm whale and the quota on the minke whale. According to IWC regulations, if a country objects to a provision, that provision will not come into effect for that country unless the objection is withdrawn. The United States strongly protested to Japan and the U.S.S.R. and urged them to reconsider their decisions. The protests stressed the large public and Congressional interest in the conservation of whales, and the fact that the actions by Japan and the U.S.S.R. were contrary to the recommendations of the IWC's Scientific Committee. 56 t-*l? t\ Chapter IV TRANSPORTATION Efficient maritime transportation depends on ships that can be operated economically and safely. Essential elements include modern, well-equipped ships, adequate ports or shipping terminals, smoothly operating vessel traffic systems, and accurate navigation charts. Since World War II the United States has increasingly relied on vessels of foreign registry to transport its foreign trade goods. In recent years, hov^ever, a major effort has been made to modernize the U.S. merchant fleet. Other efforts have been launched to improve our ports and navigation systems to meet the needs of the large, deep- draft bulk carriers now in use. Ship Construction and Operation New shipbuilding activity under the President's Maritime Program for the 1970's has laid the groundwork for attaining the goal of the Merchant Marine Act of 1970: the establishment of an economically competitive U.S. -flag fleet composed of the best equipped, safest, and most efficient vessels for domestic and foreign waterborne commerce. Since the passage of the Act, contracts have been awarded for the construction of 52 new ships and the conversion of 16 conventional freighters to container carriers. The new ship construction program featured the following: — tankers varying in size from 35,000 to 265,000 deadweight tons, including the first 9 very large crude carriers (VLCC's) over 200,000 deadweight tons ever built in the United States; — the first fleet of technologically advanced liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers; The LASH vessel, Delta Mar, delivered in 1973, was the first ship built under the Merchant Marine Act of 1 970. Each LASH vessel is part of a complete transpor- tation system. Barges can be loaded inland, towed down river, lifted aboard ship, transported to another port, and towed up river to their destination. 59 — advanced general-cargo container carriers designed to permit more economical loading and unloading operations, such as lighter-aboard (LASH) ships, which carry loaded barges, and roll-on/roll-off ships, which carry loaded highway vehicles. As a result of this activity, domestic shipyards have the highest peacetime level of backlog orders in history. For example, current projections for this decade show a demand for LNG carriers sufficient to sustain four LNG yards. Continuous operation of ship- yards is a key element in their productivity. To support the modernization of the merchant fleet, a strong research and development effort is required to provide the technical innovation necessary to the continuing improvement of ships and ship operations. R&D programs concerned with ship design and construction are funded jointly by the U.S. Maritime Administration (MarAd) and the shipyards. These programs have resulted in lower costs for welding, materials handling, coding, and general shipyard operations and management. Contracts were initiated with five major shipyards to use advanced computer design and fabrication techniques, which promise to halve the man-hours required per ton of fabricated steel. A new process for transporting heavy ship sub-assemblies has been developed by the MARAD R&D program. The supporting platform rides on bearings over a thin film of water. Friction is reduced to the point that a 500-ton load can be maneuvered by a small fork-lift truck. 60 Accomplishments in the development of advanced ship machinery include the engineering design and economic evaluation of two planetary transmission systems particularly applicable to use with marine gas turbines. The midpoint has been reached in a 5-year Government-industry program to develop a marine industrial gas turbine having a reversing capability and able to use low-cost Bunker-C fuel instead of the more refined fuels used in the standard systems with reversing propellers. An engineering study of a new marine nuclear propulsion system for commercial use, which includes considerations of economics, safety, and public acceptance, is nearing completion, with the expectation of a decision on feasibility by the end of FY 1975. Studies are underway in LNG transport development to identify areas of possible technical risk, such as the effects of liquid slosh in the tanks of LNG carriers. Test and evaluation programs are being initiated at the National Maritime Research Center at Galveston, Tex., to improve leak and crack detecting equipment. In the area of ship operations, programs are underway to increase efficiency in the operation and management of global fleets. This work includes the development of real-time satellite-aided maritime communications systems; shipboard automation to improve the performance of shipboard operations such as machinery operation, ship maneuvering, cargo control, navigation, communication, and ship administration; and an integrated advanced shipping operations information system using satellite communications to aid in effective cargo space use, documentation, and fleet management. These developments in advanced ship operations are needed to keep pace with change from the small-ship, labor-intensive industry of the 1950's and 1960's to the large, expensive ships of the 1970's requiring efficient fleet management, strong coordination with land transportation systems, and modern terminal operations. During the past year a maritime coordination center was established at the National Maritime Research Center at Kings Point, N.Y., for the purpose of establishing the economic feasibility of satellite communications and navigation for commercial vessels at sea. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) satellites and nine commercial vessels are being used in the experiments. The eventual goal of this project is to develop a global fleet control system. Ground has been broken at the National Maritime Research Center at Kings Point for the world's most advanced ship operations simulator, the computer-aided operations research facility (CAORF). This facility will investigate, through highly sophisticated visual and aural simulation of ship operations, the performance of innovative hardware and concepts and will facilitate 61 the application of these developments to the maritime industry, CAORF will be ready for full operation in July 1975. The facility is expected to have widespread appeal to organizations and agencies other than MarAd, e.g., the U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. Navy, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, American Bureau of Shipping, Insurance Underwriters, shipping companies, research organizations, and universities directly concerned with maritime affairs. Vessel Traffic Safety A concern in port development is averting the hazard of ships colliding in congested traffic lanes or running aground as the result of poor traffic control. This risk is compounded by the increase in size of bulk petroleum carriers and the consequently greater threat of large-scale oil pollution. These problems, however, are being reduc- ed by the introduction of vessel traffic systems in port waterways and their approaches. The need for vessel traffic services and systems began to be recognized in the late 1940's in limited port and waterway areas where congestion and hazards were commonplace. Formal systems were established in several European ports with an encouraging reduction in accidents. In 1970, after two years in the development stage, the Coast Guard opened an experimental harbor advisory radar station in San Francisco Harbor, which led to the design and development of an advanced system. This effort also produced a means for acquiring operational data and for obtaining user reaction. The Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972 gave USCG the responsibility for the establishment, operation, and maintenance of vessel traffic systems in congested ports and waterways of the United States. On August 22, 1972, the San Francisco vessel traffic system assumed operational status, and in March 1973 a voluntary traffic separation scheme became effective. The San Francisco vessel traffic system is a voluntary vessel movement reporting system combined with a traffic separation scheme and radar surveillance. Vessels are furnished information on traffic congestion by radio. Such information is particularly useful during periods of reduced visibility. The Puget Sound Vessel Traffic System commissioned in late 1972 consists of a traffic separation scheme and a communications network. Limited radar surveillance of the more congested traffic area is planned for 1974, and expansion of the system into the Strait of Juan de Fuca, as far west as Cape Flattery, is being discussed with Canada. 62 Estimated percent reduction in collisions, rammings, and groundings (C/R/G) by different vessel traffic systems (VTS) levels. Reduci tion level Is by VTS" and accii dent type (pi ercent) Accident type^ L-0 L-1 L-2 L-3 L-4 L-5 1 80 90 98 100 100 100 2 50 65 65 75 80 80 3 0 10 30 40 50 50 4 0 0 30 40 50 50 5 25 40 50 70 80 80 Average reduction ofallC/R/G3 .... 30 38 51 65 72 72 ' Definition of VTS levels. L-O, Mandatory vessel bridge to bridge radiotelephone (passive); L-1, (B-B) + Traffic separation scheme (TSS) (passive): L-2. (B-B) + TSS + Vessel Movement Reporting System (VMRS) (advisory); L-3, (B-B) + TSS + VMRS | basic surveillance (active); L-4, (B-B) + TSS + VMRS + advanced surveillance (active); L-5, (B-B) + TSS + VMRS + automated advanced surveillance system (active). ^ Definition of accident types. 1, Collision between two or more moving vessels (crossing, meeting, and overtaking); 2, collision involving a moving vessel and a vessel(s) at anchor, moored, docking, or undocking; 3, rammings of fixed objects, such as bridges and piers; 4, rammings of nonfixed objects, such as buoys or floating or submerged objects; and 5, groundings with or without damage to the vessel. ' Present distribution of C/R/G by type is 19 percent for type 1, 16 percent for type 2, 24 percent for type 3, 14 percent for type 4, and 27 percent for type 5. Increases in ship sizes and speeds and the resultant reduction in their maneuverability make it necessary to improve the ability of these ships to navigate in confined waters during periods of reduced visibility. USCG is continuing its studies to determine the requirements for various maneuvering devices in light of the increased size of ships. It is also developing procedures and equipment for tank vessel inspections, analysis of new marine construction materials, and collision analysis to lessen casualties at sea. Despite all precautions, there will always be a need for search and rescue. USCG, which responds an average of 140 times each day to emergency afloat situations, supports R&D to improve the speed and efficiency of rescue craft, illumination from helicopters for night searching, and the rapidity of personnel recovery systems. Better identification and location systems for use in search and rescue missions are also being explored. To facilitate communications, a vital part of search and rescue, USCG is developing L-band (100- 4000 MHz] communications equipment for its ships and aircraft, obtaining necessary data for the development of a maritime satellite 63 SAN PABLO BAY To Sacramento and Stockton /" SAN RAFAEL / / 1 / / / / / / / / / // / /'' SAN PABLO ' ' ^ "T^ STRAIT < / \ RICHMOND RICHMOND-SAN // / RAFAEL BRIDGE //' POINT POTRERO PI. BONITA Radar Site y^ SAN FRANCISCO BAY PRECAUTIONARY AREA ("TREASURE RECREATIONAL "^^ AREA SAN FRANCISCO OAKLAND BAY BRIDGE \ f\ \ ISLAND PACIFIC OCEAN SAN FRANCISCO Approximate Scale [ iHlinl 1 0 1 2 Miles RESTRICTED TRAFFIC ZONE \ \ VERBA BUENA Radar Site and Traffic Center I i^ San Francisco Harbor Vessel Traffic System 64 BELLINGHAM Puget Sound Vessel Traffic System 65 Ten-watt silicon solar-ceil modules are being tested to power typical naviga- tion buoy signal lantern. system, as well as evaluating the MarAd-developed selective calling equipment which uses middle-frequency, high-frequency, very- high-frequency, and L-band transmissions via satellite. Mapping and Charting Another factor that must be considered in the modernization of our maritime transportation system is the inadequacy of existing navigational and tidal current charts. Survey and chart construction criteria have been based on maximum vessel drafts of 45 feet. The emergence of the new crude oil carriers, with drafts approaching 100 feet and lengths of nearly a quarter of a mile, has changed the requirements for chart information. The sites thus far proposed for the location of offshore terminals are all in waters deep enough to permit ships with shallower drafts to traverse them easily and safely using existing charts. New deep-draft ships in these areas, however. 66 would often risk running aground unless they had extremely accurate charts of bottom depths and contours. Such exact and detailed charts do not exist. Erecting the terminals farther off shore in deeper water would solve this problem but, because construction and operating costs increase progressively with distance from shore and depth of water, this solution is economically unfeasible. One of the objectives of the charting program of NOAA's National Ocean Survey is to provide special format navigation charts and tidal current charts for each terminal or superport before it becomes operational. Because of the importance of these installations and the danger of oil spills, detailed hydrographic and possibly wire-drag surveys of all proposed sites and the fairways leading to and from the terminal areas are being planned. As tidal currents are also critical to terminal and ship operations, extensive tide and current surveys will be made. In the meantime, an attempt is being made to make the best use of presently available data and of survey efforts now in progress. Some 2,700 hydrographic charts, prepared in non-machine-readable form before 1965, are being digitized by the National Climatic Center. The National Ocean Survey is currently conducting hydrographic surveys in Prince William Sound, Cook Inlet, and Shelikof Strait, Alaska, and Puget Sound, Washington. These surveys were programed in anticipation of increased Alaskan maritime activity and mineral exploration. NOAA nautical charts covering the Gulf of Mexico and other areas where the Bureau of Land Management is selling mineral leases have been overprinted, or are being compiled as the need arises, with designated navigational fairways and oil field blocks delineated by special symbols. Other charting projects include coastal surveys and the preparation of charts for the use of coastal shipping and recreational boating interests. In this connection a total of eight National Ocean Survey vessels have been scheduled to conduct operations in U.S. coastal waters, and one will be employed in nautical surveys in the Great Lakes. NOAA also supports an R&D program to improve the quality of its charts and to lower their production costs. One of these efforts has provided a method for expediting the production of charts of certain warmwater areas. Research in the use of colored aerial photographs for charting purposes has made it possible to rapidly and economically survey semitropical waters containing only a minimum of suspended sediment. Bathymetric mapping by photogrammatic means, however, is not at present suitable for use in most waters of the temperate zone. Another project is directed to adapting orthophoto techniques and random dot printing to the production of. harbor charts. 67 Orthophotography removes the normal distortions in aerial photographs caused by the tilt of aerial cameras and varying ground elevations. The result is a precise photograph in which the horizontal positioning of surface features is correctly depicted. The random dot printing of negatives retains important details that are commonly lost in other methods of reproduction. Harbor charts incorporating these techniques will combine standard hydrographic information such as water depth contours and bottom characteristics, with random dot printing of orthophotographs of the adjacent land areas. Prototype charts of this type have been well received, and a chart of Fort Pierce Harbor, Florida, has been issued. Similar charts of four other Florida harbors are now in the planning stage. Deepwater Ports No existing U.S. harbor receiving crude petroleum has either the facilities or the natural depths to handle supertankers ranging upward to 540,000 dwt and drawing as much as 94 feet of water. Moreover, problems resulting from this inadequacy to handle large ships are becoming more severe because the increase in vessel size being experienced in the shipment of crude petroleum is now beginning to develop, although to a lesser extent, in the shipment of Detail from chart of Ft. Pierce, Florida 68 dry bulk commodities. The existing depths of channels serving the dry bulk carriers are generally inadequate to accommodate the larger vessels being employed in these trades. As noted in chapter III of last year's Federal Ocean Program report, Congress, recognizing the growing inadequacy of the U.S. ports, authorized the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to conduct regional deepwater port studies on the North Atlantic, Gulf, and the Pacific coasts. Interim reports resulting from these studies have now been completed. While the reports made no recommendation for Federal participation in the development of deepwater port facilities, they have reached some general conclusions. First, deepwater port facilities can be justified only by a present or near future need to import foreign crude petroleum. Such a need exists, and there is economic justification for one or more deepwater port facilities on the North Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts to serve superships transporting crude petroleum. Several likely alternative systems and potential site and facility combinations were identified on each DISCHARGING/ LOADING TANKER MOORING LINES MONO MOORING BUOY FLOATING HOSES ANCHORS Artist's concept of a single-buoy mooring facility. 69 coast. Second, monobuoy technology provides the most efficient, economic, and environmentally acceptable method of accommodating very large crude oil carriers at offshore locations. Third, deepwater ports are environmentally preferable to the present method of transporting crude petroleum in small tankers. By decreasing the number of ships, the chances of collision and grounding are reduced. Fewer ships will also reduce the number of transfer operations and the consequent risk of spills. Fourth, landside adverse environmental impacts resulting from expanded oil refinery and petrochemical complexes should be carefully controlled through coordinated land-use planning by local interests who have the ability to regulate the extent and nature of such growth through permits and through local land-use control. Fifth, private or non-Federal public ownership, financing, and operation of deepwater port facilities are compatiQle with the public interest if accomplished under adequate and effective Federal control and regulation. Finally, there is presently no precedent or foreseeable need for the Federal Government to undertake the major capital investments that would be required to bring deepwater crude oil transshipment facilities, storage facilities, and pipelines into operation. Federal involvement should be limited to permits or licenses, except for traditional Federal activities such as providing access channels, nautical charts, and pertinent facilities for deepwater ports. Should further initiatives be undertaken by States or other non- Federal interests to develop crude oil transshipment facilities, the reports contain considerable economic, engineering, and environmental data that should be employed in any Federal evaluation of such facilities. MarAd completed a broad study of offshore ports in 1972 and is now supporting a study to evaluate techniques of offshore single point moorings from which petroleum can be piped ashore. The MarAd is also supporting an investigation to determine means of reducing wave heights in the vicinity of offshore moorings to reduce periods when such terminals may be inoperable because of sea-state. In FY '75, MarAd is planning a study to evaluate deepwater port construction costs and will start work on the design of a tug, or service vessel, to handle the arrival and departure of large petroleum carriers at the offshore sites. Other Federal agencies have also conducted studies relating to deepwater ports. This work was largely concerned with the environmental impact of these facilities. Additional data useful in planning deepwater ports may be gathered in environmental studies performed for other purposes. 70 Chapter V NATIONAL SECURITY National security is the product of economic, industrial, and military strength capable of protecting and enhancing our opportunities to do the things we want to do as a nation. Each of these three aspects of national security — economic, industrial, and military — is dependent upon the others for the support that contributes to our overall strength as a nation and enables us to compete effectively in the increasingly complex international arena of commercial, diplomatic, and military activities. The responsibility of the Department of Defense (DODj is to provide, develop, and maintain capabilities to counter existing and future military threats to national security. Within DOD, the U.S. Navy is responsible for providing oceanographic services and marine research activities related to national security. Because of the Navy's need to operate above, across, and under the surface of the sea, it is essential that it have the means for measuring and predicting ocean features, and processes that influence naval operations. Improving national security through the use of oceanic surveillance systems relies almost entirely upon a thorough knowledge of the physics of underwater sound, which in turn is directly and significantly affected by most oceanographic variables. The Navy therefore supports significant activities and programs in the marine sciences. The Navy coordinates its marine science activities with those of other Federal marine science organizations and maintains a thorough knowledge of related international activities. There is increased national awareness of the ocean and of the necessity for developing it for the benefit of the civilian sector. The Navy, with its long history of oceanographic operations and marine science activities, has a technologically competent base of personnel The new twin-hulled USS Pidgeon (ASR #21 ), home-ported at San Diego, and her sister ship, the USS Ortolan (ASR #22), home-ported at Norfolk, provide unique capabilities for submarine rescue and deep saturation diving. They are configured for surface support of the Navy's DSRVs. 73 and facilities and a broad spectrum of environmental and other knowledge applicable to civilian use as well as to naval operations. The Navy must insure a rapid transfer of this technology to the civilian sector, particularly in the areas of ocean engineering and ocean science where the Navy has made its most important advances. Most of the Navy's oceanographic work is conducted in the deep ocean, although shallow waters, characteristic of coastal zones, where over-the-beach and mine warfare operations may occur, are also of interest. Some of the Navy's oceanographic needs in shallow waters are filled by the investigations of numerous Federal, state, and local marine scientists whose interests and responsibilities are concentrated in that area. The Navy Oceanographic Program, coordinated by the Oceanographer of the Navy, is divided into four management areas: ocean operations, environmental prediction services, ocean science, and ocean engineering. Other related defense programs are the mapping, charting, and geodesy (MC&G) programs of the Defense Mapping Agency Hydrographic Center (DMAHC) and the marine science and technology programs of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Ocean Operations The operations program consists of deep ocean and coastal bathymetric and geophysical surveys, which serve as the major source of data for the Defense Mapping Agency's (DMA) nautical chart production. Of equal importance as a part of ocean operations are deep ocean and coastal oceanographic surveys to meet specific fleet and research and development (R&D) needs. The general information and data gathered from these ocean surveys are used in numerous ways to support naval operations. Although the survey work uses dedicated ships adapted to special program requirements, every attempt is made to collect as much marine oceanographic and hydrographic data as possible from all oceangoing ships. Because requirements for deep ocean surveys far outstrip available survey resources, all Navy fleet resources are used, whenever possible, to collect ocean data. The Defense Mapping Agency (DMA), established by Secretary of Defense Directive of January 1972, became operational July 1, 1972. It provides nautical chart production and distribution services to DOD users for a variety of military needs ranging from dissemination of safety-at-sea information to special naval charts for ASW, USW, and Naval Operations. In addition, DMAHC provides worldwide nautical charting and safety-at-sea information to the U.S. merchant marine and mariners in general. 74 The DMA Nautical Charting Program furnished products in five major categories during FY '73. The first of these categories includes the worldwide standard nautical charting program for which 848 items were completed during the fiscal year. The second category, support to Naval Weapons and Warfare Systems, includes supplying special nautical charts for ASW and USW and other fleet programs; 762 charts were provided. A total of 93 Loran and OMEGA new or revised charts were furnished under the third program. Electronic Navigation Charts. Further expansion of this program is expected under the existing requirement for global coverage of OMEGA navigation charts to support the anticipated completion of the worldwide OMEGA System in late FY '75. The fourth major category consists of Special Charts, including such products as naval operating area charts, pilot charts, and plotting charts. In FY '73, 101 special charts were printed. The fifth and final major category includes all navigational publications and informational services. This program published 661 items in FY '73 and included such documents as Loran and OMEGA tables, sailing directions, and catalogs. Radio broadcasts and warning messages to mariners and chart updating information provided by the Notice to Mariners system are examples of the navigational services the DMAHC furnishes to all civilian and military users of the sea. DMA, by virtue of its management authority over the MC&G production and distribution assets of all three military services, is initiating the consolidation of MC&G production and dissemination functions to effect major economies in facilities and manpower. This effectiveness and productivity program involved over 200 studies in FY '73, many affecting the Federal Ocean Program, and resulted in several major recommendations for improvements that are being implemented in the current fiscal year. DMA is directing substantial R&D programs to improve both hydrographic surveys and production programs. A part of the DMA R&D program is to develop equipment and techniques to update the Navy's data acquisition capabilities and to increase DMA's processing capabilities for nautical chart products. Several systems have been under development for several years. One of these systems will use a wide-swath, deep ocean, depth sounding array that will, with computer assistance, automatically provide in real time, a contour strip chart of a portion of the ocean bottom several miles wide. The contract for this system was let in March 1973. Installation of the equipment on board the test ship, USNS Wyman will occur in late 1974 with testing to be completed in 1975. A system to obtain nearshore bathymetry out to about 300-meters depth is also undergoing development. This system, the Hydrographic Survey and Charting System (HYSURCH) speeds the gathering, correcting, 75 and use of hydrographic data. The system will be comprised of new high-speed boats, helicopters equipped with laser depth sounders and backed up with a photographic capability, a buoy-employed navigational system, and an automated cartographic system onboard a mother survey ship. Control will be maintained through a telemetry subsystem. HYSURCH will be able to survey and provide charts of a 70- by 15-nautical-mile area on board, in about 16 days, but usable hydrographic data can be developed in 24 hours. A coastal site test of most component systems is scheduled to be conducted in mid-1974. This will be followed by installation and testing in a hydrographic survey ship in mid-1975. The helicopter-borne laser depth sounder should be ready for test by 1977 Another continuing R&D project is aimed at automating the cartographic capabilities of theDMAHC. In order to be responsive to increasing demands for new MC&G graphical and digital products and at the same time reduce costs, DMA must develop automated cartographic equipment and procedures at the earliest possible date. Initial capability is expected at DMAHC in July 1974, and by 1977, a full capability will be developed. The work is scheduled in two phases. The first involves lineal digitizing or line following techniques to extract charting information from hard copy photographs or charts, followed by formatting, editing, and printing out the information in a form ready for publication. While this phase facilitates plotting and data bank storage and retrieval, its manual operations are time consuming. For example, lineal digitization of the planimetry of a 1:50,000 line scale chart requires approximately 80 manhours. The second phase uses raster or video scanning technology to translate graphic data to digital data and to drum plot digital MC&G data back into finished charts. The computer programs are complex and the software is still being designed, but a measure of its advantage is that it will take 30 minutes to do the job that required 80 hours in the first phase. Hydrographic and geophysical (gravity and magnetic] surveys of deep ocean and worldwide coastal areas are performed by the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) in support of DMA data requirements for nautical charting programs. Deep ocean bathymetric and geophysical surveys are conducted on board four deep ocean hydrographic survey ships. Two coastal hydrographic survey ships, USNS Chau venet and USNS Harkness, and the Project MAGNET aircraft are also platforms dedicated to conducting worldwide hydrographic, geophysical, and magnetic survey work. In FY '73 over 200,000 track miles of precision bathymetric, gravity, and magnetic survey lines were run, and 143 special bathymetric maps were produced. In FY '74 225,000 miles of lines will be run, 170 maps will be produced. In FY '73 OMEGA and LORANC 76 transmitting antennas were precisely positioned in many locations to support worldwide air and sea navigation. Magnetic data are utilized by Navy in support of antisubmarine warfare (ASW) programs and in fire control, to update of world magnetic anomaly charts at 5-year intervals, and for military and civilian navigation. In FY '73 approximately 57,000 track miles of airborne vector magnetic data were collected in the southern hemisphere for worldwide magnetic mapping purposes. In addition, 48,000 miles of airborne scalar magnetic data were collected in cooperation with the Naval Research Laboratory with the objective of using the magnetic data for mapping major geophysical features. The Geomagnetic Airborne Survey System (GASS) was installed on the Project MAGNET aircraft and is now in operational use. GASS uses an inertial navigation system to provide references for deter- mining vector components of the magnetic field. Increased accuracy in positioning (to 1 nautical mile worldwide based on a tie to the ma- jor navigational systems) and a vast improvement in dip and declination measurements have been achieved with GASS. A new prototype magnetic field chart was field tested with excellent cor- relation between the predicted and observed background noise The Navy Project MAGNET aircraft has been equipped with a new instrument system to improve the accuracy of geotnagnetic surveys. 77 levels. During the first quarter of FY '74, 40,000 miles of airborne scalar magnetic data were collected as part of the Navy Cooperative Marine Science Program with Iceland. During FY '74, the remainder of 80,000 track miles of magnetic data will be collected in this area by the MAGNET aircraft. These data are used to improve the performance of the inertial navigation system. A total of 1,037,841 point gravity observations were delivered to the DOD Gravity Library in St. Louis, Mo. Deflections and geoid heights were computed for 135,000 points on a global basis. Nine vertical deflection charts were produced. Over 540,000 sea gravity observations covering U.S. continental shelves were forwarded to the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) for use in evaluating offshore gas and oil potential. All unclassified data will continue to be forwarded to the National Geophysical and Solar Terrestrial Data Center, Environmental Data Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAAl. All gravity systems include their own special-purpose computers to filter the data digitally. New gravity systems are being tested which provide an output for the Eotvos correction. The Eotvos correction provides the means of accounting for platform movement with respect to the earth's rotation and is used to improve survey results in areas of poor navigation. FY '74 plans call for a continuation of the FY '73 rate of collection at the same density and with approximately the same amount of areal coverage. Calculations of vertical deflection and undulations of the geoid for about 90,000 points over the entire world are planned. The Harbor Survey Assistance Program(HARSAP] is intended to generate and develop the capabilities of foreign countries to conduct limited port and coastal hydrographic survey operations and prepare preliminary charts. NAVOCEANO personnnel train foreign civilian and military personnel in hydrographic techniques and the maintenance and use of equipment. This past winter, eight Latin American students participated in a 7-week hydrographic survey training course held at the Inter-American Geodetic Survey (lAGS) headquarters in the Panama Canal Zone. Six hydrographic surveys were completed in the past year, and five countries are continuing surveys with technical assistance and equipment supplied by the NAVOCEANO. Twelve new, or new editions of, charts have been produced as a result of smooth sheets furnished by HARSAP countries. The program is continuing on a slightly expanded scale during FY '74. During FY '73, a special coastal survey was conducted in Bermuda. Meanwhile, coastal surveys were conducted in the Republics of the Phillipines and Korea by the USNS '"hauvenet. During the first half of FY '74 the USNS Chauvenet continued the Korean survey and will 78 return to the Philippines for the remainder of the year. The USNS Harkness, involved in coastal surveys of Greece during FY '73, is continuing the effort through FY '74. Center-of-mass coordinates were determined for five stations in Iceland for readjustment of that country's geodetic net as a part of a joint U.S. -Iceland project. Extensive geodetic operations were carried out in the Eastern Mediterranean, the Philippines, and Korea in support of coastal hydrographic surveys. An astronomic-geodetic survey was conducted in Italy and Sardinia in response to fleet requirements, and geodetic surveys were conducted for a number of Navy commands. In FY '74 to date, additional geodetic surveys have been completed, and geosciences stations have been established in the Alaskan Naval Petroleum Reserve, the continental United States, the Indian Ocean, and the Western Pacific. Plans call for additional surveys in the United States, Thailand, Spain, Greece, and the Western Pacific and North Atlantic areas. The astronomic- geodetic survey started in Sardinia will be completed by the end of FY '74. Oceanographic surveys are conducted from three survey vessels, three ocean research laboratory pool ships, and two new specially equipped P3-A aircraft. In FY '73, the anti-submarine and undersea warfare (ASW/USW) programs of the Navy were supported by MAGNET aircraft surveys and by the USNS Kane, Bent, and Wilkes with acoustic surveys in the North Atlantic, the Caribbean Sea, the North Pacific, and the Bering Sea. Bathymetric data from these surveys are processed and delivered to the DOD bathymetric library. Geophysical data are delivered to the National Geophysical and Solar Terrestrial Data Center. In addition, summer and winter oceanographic survey operations were carried out in two west Pacific straits, aboard fleet-assigned ships, and acoustic ambient noise and reverberation data were collected from a P-3 oceanographic aircraft in the North Atlantic. In January 1973, the computer-oriented Oceanographic Data Acquisition System (ODAS) was installed in the USNS Wilkes; all three survey ships are now equipped with ODAS. In FY '74 to date, the WiJkes and Kane completed ASW/USW surveys in the North Atlantic and participated in an experimental cruise to isolate problems in low- frequency acoustic measurement techniques. The Bent continues special operations in the North Pacific. Airborne survey techniques, developed to measure acoustic bottom loss, became operational. In FY '73 NAVOCEANO continued to provide technical coordination and oceanographic support of research operations aboard three Navy oceanographic research pool ships, USNS Lynch in the Atlantic and USNS Desteiguer and Bartlett in the Pacific. In the Atlantic 3 laboratories were accommodated on 7 cruises with 241 79 at-sea days, while 10 laboratories were accommodated on 19 cruises during 482 at-sea days in the Pacific. NAVOCEANO continued to maintain and improve the capability of these ships to collect a wide range of oceanographic, geophysical, and acoustic data. The program is expected to continue at the same level in FY '74. In FY '73, special environmental surveys in coastal, inshore, and river areas were carried out, one in Europe with two NATO navies participating, another in the Pacific area with an Asian country participating, and a third by the U.S. alone in Asia during operation ENDSWEEP. The purpose of these surveyw was to acquire onsite data directly applicable to predicting the effectiveness of mining and inshore USW operations. Joint surveys are carried out under bilateral navy-to-navy agreements and involve the use of host navy ships and facilities. Nearshore water and bottom physical, electrical, and acoustic characteristics are examined. These data provide the environmental data input required by Allied technical publications. In FY '74 operations continue with two NATO and one Asian nation. NAVOCEANO continued to use its deep-towed survey/search system TELEPROBE in FY '73. Surveys include sidescan sonar data, bottom photography, and bathymetry along with measurements of conventional oceanographic data. Three of these surveys were completed in west coast submarine trial areas by the end of December 1973. Surveys are planned for additional west coast submarine trial areas in late FY '74 and FY '75. During FY '73 a total of 68 new, updated, or revised oceanographic publications and special charts were produced that provide environmental, acoustical, and climatological information in support of various fleet activities. A new publication, the Marine Environmental Planning guide, is being prepared to provide information for movement prediction of accidental oil spills and guidance for dredging spoil disposal and to assist in establishing a scientific basis for policy decisions regarding sewage and garbage dumping from Navy ships in high traffic areas. During FY '74, 39 specialized publications and charts have been published to date. Oceanographic contributions to various naval activity manuals, publications, and charts will continue in FY '75. Environmental Prediction The Navy is responsible for providing oceanographic prediction services for all DOD requirements. To execute this responsibility, the Navy operates a full-service, wide-range ocean prediction system. The core of this system is the Fleet Numerical Weather Central (FNWC) located at Monterey, Calif. Dissemination of products from the main computer processing component of FNWC is provided by the Naval Environmental Data Network (NEDN) 80 through interconnected digital computers and on-line communications equipment. FNWC processes, disseminates, and displays meteorological and oceanographic analyses and forecasts on a hemispheric basis to meet defense needs. With these facilities, realtime products are continually updated and tailored to fleet and other defense requirements. The FNWC products are distributed through the NEDN to Fleet Weather Centrals and Facilities strategically located throughout the world. Marine predictions are tailored to the special needs of the users, with much of the specific Navy support classified because of its application; however, a large part of the data collection program and data processing techniques contributes to civil needs. Routine services include wave, swell, and surf forecasts for fleet operations; warnings of significant atmospheric and oceanic conditions for ships at sea and in port and for shore-defense installations; ice condition forecasts for military operations; prediction for pollution abatement or control, search and rescue, and aircraft ditching; and complete point-to-point forecasts like those for the optimum track ship routing (OTSR) program. Most prediction products, however, are concerned with the ocean characteristics that affect the transmission of acoustic energy and are tailored to specific weapon systems. The introduction of the wave spectra concept some years ago resulted in an important advance in the understanding of the random motions of the ocean surface and in man's ability to predict these random motions. Limited computer capacity and the difficulty in applying these data have resulted in a lag in the adoption of operational wave spectra prediction programs. In FY '73 the Navy evaluated an operational wave spectral forecasting program (Pierson-Moskowitz (PM] model] for the Mediterranean and achieved results comparable to the singular wave prediction program, but with the option of greatly increased detail. Present plans call for the introduction and evaluation of the Barnet model for the Mediterranean with increased detail in the higher frequencies and anticipated greater accuracy. An improved PM wave-spectra model has been put into use in the Pacific. Forecasts to 48 hours are made twice daily. This Pacific program will be evaluated in FY '74 and FY '75. Recently the same improved model was adopted on a trial basis for the North Atlantic. It is^ intended that the Barnet model be programed in FY '74 for the entire Northern Hemisphere, and evaluations of both models will be made. Wave spectra have direct application to ship motion and to ship structure, and therefore offer the potential for improving OTSR programs. Additionally the climatological file of wave spectra and wave-spectra predictions resulting from these new prediction programs can assist in solving other ocean-wave-related problems. 81 The sea ice prediction program of the Navy has been in a transition stage with the Naval Weather Service (NWS) responsible for short- range forecasts and NAVOCEANO continuing to provide some longer range and specialized forecasts. Effective February 1973, the 15- and 30-day forecasts of the Alaskan and Eastern Arctic Regions were considered operational, and responsibility for the provision of forecasts was turned over to the Fleet Weather Facility at Suitland, Md. These two organizations continue cooperation in accumulating and using the basic data required for both programs. In 1973, NWS ice observers compiled over 4,000 observer flight hours during about 350 fleet reconnaissance aircraft flight hours and about 720 hours on board flights of which 650 were on NAVOCEANO arctic ice observation (BIRDSEYE) aircraft and the remainder on Coast Guard and other aircraft. In 1974 about 570 fleet reconnaissance aircraft flight hours are planned and over 700 other hours are anticipated, primarily during BIRDSEYE aircraft flights. Supplementing this work are satellite data, ship data, and various programs relating to vv{ind and sea surface conditions. Specialized NAVOCEANO ice prediction services in FY '73 included a 90-day outlook prepared in support of Eastern Arctic supply operations, ice forecasts in support of the Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOLJ Polar Bear II operations, ice forecasts for specific areas in the Beaufort, Chukchi and East Greenland Seas, 90-day outlooks in support of Project Deep Freeze, and ice forecasting support to submarine and in-ice transit in the Arctic. During FY '74, a long-range ice forecasting manual will be published for the Alaskan area and for the Ross Sea-McMurdo Sound area. Four 90-day outlooks were turned over to Fleet Weather Facility Suitland as of February 1974. A major technical report on a numerical ice prediction system and an operational manual for that system will be prepared during FY '74. The Navy has initiated a cooperative oceanographic observing program in which equipment is provided to non-DOD ships, such as those of the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) and civilian shipping companies. These ships, selected because of their routes through data-sparse areas, provide additional bathythermograph data, which are used to update the ocean thermal data base. In FY '73, ten additional volumes in a series of detailed marine climatic summaries extended the coverage of the coastal area series to Southeast Asia, China, and the Philippines. Efforts to improve physical property forecasting during FY '73 included investigations of the relationship between long-range sound propagation and thermal structure in the upper ocean, investigations of shallow thermal structure and ocean frontal features, and an evaluation of the relationship between radar sea return and wave characteristics. In addition, a variety of specialized 82 forecasts were prepared. False-contact data were incorporated into an automatic data processing system to be used in providing whale density information in the conduct of field experiments and in the revision of the false target and bioacoustic content of the NAVOCEANO publication, "Applications of Oceanography to ASW Warfare" (H.O. Pub. 781). Another effort, synoptic oceanographic modeling, is concerned with describing three-dimensional variations of the ocean's physical characteristics including investigations of the causative physical and dynamic processes and formulation of techniques to permit prediction of these variations. In FY '73 the conversion of the automated shipboard forecasting system to the CP 642-73 computer under the integrated command ASW prediction system was completed. These programs, which include acoustic prediction programs provided by the U.S. Navy Acoustic Modeling Coordinator, can be operated in the Integrated Operational Intelligence Center on all CV and CVA class aircraft carriers. The programs include access to historical environmental data, merges of synoptic and climatological data, and preparation of tactical acoustic indices for a variety of applications to sonar models and sonobuoys. Initial field installation and evaluation was made aboard the U.S.S. Kitty Hawk in 1973. Ocean Science The Navy ocean science program seeks to provide sufficient knowledge of underwater acoustics, physical oceanography, oceanic geology and geophysics, biological oceanography, and chemical oceanography to enable Navy planners, designers, and operators to optimize system design and performance. While the ocean science program responds to the full spectrum of Navy and Marine Corps missions for strategic deterrence, sea control, projection of power ashore, and ocean support, the greatest part of the program concentrates on the narrower field of ASW. Activity within the ocean science program ranges from the broad contract research program of the Office of Naval Research to detailed investigation of the effect of ocean environmental factors on specific systems. In underwater acoustics, substantial work is underway in three major areas: sound transmission through the water, ambient noise in the ocean, and the modeling of environmental conditions to predict system performance. Sound transmission R&D is concerned with the identification and evaluation of the many paths sound can take as it travels through the water from a source to a receiver and the determination of how it is affected by the environment. A combined theoretical and experimental program is underway to further understanding of 83 wwrrw^swf^Fwmmm^msmwm^w^^mww^M'^maamm NATURAL SOUNDS REFLECTION Transmitted and Reflected Sound; Useful for Detection Scattered Sound; Usually Obscures Submarine Echoes & Degrades System Performance A significant problem in acoustic detection is the result of sound scattering and reverberation. these paths through experiments at sea and computer simulations. Because sonar systems must detect their target signal against a background of sea noise, it is important that the noise field be as well understood as transmission phenomena. Present investigations are concerned with identifying the possible sources of the noise, measuring their strength, and statistically describing their fluctuations in time. In addition, measurements of ambient noise as a function of depth and of horizontal and vertical directionality are important aspects of this program. Major experiments have recently been conducted in the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and Caribbean Sea to measure transmission loss, ambient noise, biological reverberation, currents, and other characteristics. Computer models (simulations] enable the Navy to predict environmental effects on system performance throughout the oceans by suitable manipulations of computer input parameters. With the cost of going to sea increasing rapidly, model development has become a key part of the Navy's ocean science R&D program. The Navy's contract research program, carried out primarily through academic and nonprofit institutions, continues to achieve goals that enhance naval operations. Among recent accomplishments in physical oceanography are improved models to 84 assist in the prediction of ocean surface currents, development of an oceanic circulation model, and the discovery of close correlation between sea surface temperatures and temperatures down to 800 meters, indicating that remote sensors in satellites and aircraft may become more important for future Navy operations and oceanographic research. Accurate remote tracking of drifting surface buoys promises increased accuracy in weather and oceanic condition forecasting. Over-the-horizon radar may permit accurate forecasting of ocean wave height and direction using backscatter techniques. The Navy's geophysics research program has contributed data on sound velocities in deep sea sediments thus permitting more accurate sound propagation models to be constructed. The ability to conduct bathymetric surveys has been increased through the correlation of airborne magnetic anomaly detections with surface ship surveys. Chemical oceanographers have developed a better understanding of the anomalous sound absorption characteristics of sea water through studies of -the chemical rate constants of ion pairs in seawater. A discovery of importance to future manned undersea structures is the possible use of dissolved air in seawater for the atmosphere of underwater habitats. Improved methods for tracking radioisotopes in seawater to monitor intrusions of nuclear fallout have increased our ability to monitor the oceans. A discovery important to environmental quality was that the persistence of fossil fuels, including spilled oil, is considerably greater than anticipated. Increased understanding of the biological processes by which shipworms and barnacles attack structures promises increased savings in maintenance costs resulting from destruction and fouling by these organisms; studies of the bioluminescence of some marine species indicate that this phenomenon may account for their aggregations, which in turn cause marked sound scattering in certain locations. The training of sea animals, principally porpoises and sea lions, to do useful work has continued with greater understanding of the unique capabilities of these animals. Two new small (300 gross tons/1075 displacement tons) oceanographic research ships have joined the Navy in the past year. They are the Gyre and the Moana Wave. Gyre will be operated for the Navy by Texas A&M Research Foundation and Moana Wave by the University of Hawaii. A major technological advance culminated in the recent successful testing of the Deep Submergence Research Vehicle Aivin, whose new titanium personnel sphere has doubled its safe operating depth to 12,000 feet. The use of titanium required special forming and welding techniques that were developed by in-house Navy 85 The new smaller class of Navy-built oceanographic ships uses an adaptation of an economical standard ship design. These ships, like the Gyre, can be used in deep ocean research as well as coastal investigations. laboratories and the San Francisco Naval Shipyard. Aivin is now capable of performing useful work on 30 percent of the world's ocean floor. Ocean Engineering. Historically, navies of the world have operated in the upper 5 percent of the oceans. This limitation has been governed chiefly by a lack of the ocean engineering technology necessary to develop the equipment and techniques for operating at greater depths. Within the past few years, the U.S. Navy has embarked upon a program to develop the technology necessary to operate at greater ocean depths, to provide operational options, to improve our defense capability, to protect national security. Testing is an important part of this development and it requires the assembly of components into systems and exposure of these systems to the deep ocean environment to identify deficiencies in technology. Therefore, Navy's ocean engineering program includes design and assembly of many unique items to permit testing of components and technology. These items may have a specific application, or they may be single components of larger systems being developed on a step-by-step basis. 86 The ocean engineering program has recently designed, fabricated and installed, in the Navy-owned submersible Alvin, a 7-foot diameter titanium pressure sphere, a new ballast system, and improved electronics, which give Alvin a 12,000-foot depth capability. Not only will this permit Aivin to conduct in situ research at greater depths, it affords the opportunity to test the technology that went into the design and fabrication of these new components and to evaluate their applicability to other systems. The cable-controlled recovery vehicle (CURV III), ooriginally designed for 7500-foot depths, has been redesigned and tested to 10,000 feet. This vehicle will now be useful to the Navy in conducting search and salvage operations. Deploying and using it also provides insight into how such vehicles can be made more useful and aids in determining weaknesses in the technology. At the present time a similar unmanned vehicle called the Remote Unmanned Working System (RUWSj is being designed and fabricated for a 20,000-foot depth capability. RUWS is an example of the integration of several new components into one system. It will have a head-coupled television in which the TV camera on the submerged vehicle follows the head motion of the operator on board the ship; a manipulator with 7 degrees of freedom which employs force and position feedback; numerous tools adaptable to the manipulator and carried on the vehicle while submerged; a self-contained auxiliary lift device to provide an additional 200 pounds of lift at 20,000 feet if needed; lightweight electromechanical cable that will employ a new synthetic material for strength; and computerized sonar navigation coupled with realtime cathode ray tube displays to track the position of the vehicle relative to the ship. The RUWS is beginning its in-water testing in FY '74, and deep ocean tests are scheduled for FY '75. In the area of underwater construction, it is planned to install a triangular-shaped cable array off the west coast in the summer of 1974. Implantation of the array will permit evaluation of cables, implantment techniques, embedment anchors, wet-make electrical connectors (a development sponsored by Navy and presently produced commercially), a motion compensating lift system, underwater work vehicles, and other equipment and systems. The array will be instrumented to measure currents and array motion to provide more insight into the response of underwater structures to currents. A major ocean engineering effort during the past few years has been the design, assembly, and testing of the Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV). This submersible is intended to give the Navy the capability to rescue personnel from distressed submarines. The DSRV, which is the first of its kind, embracing the most advanced underwater technology, is undergoing extensive testing 87 that has revealed certain deficiencies in DSRV performance that are being corrected. For example, at the present time, batteries do not provide sufficient reliable sustained power. Therefore, the engineering program is undertaking the development of a fuel cell suitable for deep ocean applications. This effort was initiated in FY '74 and is expected to continue through FY '79. In luly 1972 a recordbreaking open sea dive was conducted by U.S. Navy divers to a depth of 1,010 feet. The dive was conducted in conjunction with the operational evaluation of the Deep Dive System, Mark 2 — Mod O. This dive was a test of selected, newly developed equipment and techniques. In other efforts to improve the safety and efficiency of diver operations, the Navy is continuing its work on diver heating apparatus, communications gear, physiological monitoring equipment, means of conserving or reusing breathing gases, diver navigation equipment, and diver tools. Physiological monitoring equipment is presently undergoing testing and evaluation. The Navy's deep submergence biomedical research program constitutes about 90 percent of the nation's research in this field. The objectives of the program include determining man's physiological diving limits while providing the biomedical knowledge necessary for safe support of deep submergence operations. Decompression schedules for various deep dive systems have been developed, tested, and refined. Thermal requirements of divers in various environments have been defined to provide data necessary for the development of diver heating systems. Studies have been initiated with animals to identify drugs that will prevent decompression sickness and oxygen toxicity. Methods are being evaluated to prevent and treat hearing loss in divers. Future work will also include evaluating the doppler bubble detector as a means of determining the onset of decompression sickness. The salvage program is designing and testing equipment to permit the recovery of large objects from 850-foot depths. Shallow water tests, to 100 feet, have been conducted with pontoons providing 100 tons of lift. Pontoon dewatering techniques that have been tested include the use of compressed air and liquid nitrogen. A pontoon propulsion system has also been fabricated and undergone preliminary tests. Two pontoons will be fabricated with propulsion and dewatering subsystems. A final test of this system, involving salvage of a large object, is planned for FY '76. Studies on breakout forces have been conducted, and an explosive system capable of penetrating heavy steel plates to provide lift points has been successfully tested. There is also a small program directed towards improving oceanographic survey instruments. Most instruments are available 88 A new propulsion system has been successfully tested for this pontoon used in the Large Object Salvage System Project. commercially, but models and instrument characteristics change rapidly. The result of frequent changes is to diminish reliability, foster excessive spare parts inventories, and require continuous retraining of operators and maintenance personnel. Present efforts are directed to the design of a reliable and easily maintained deep ocean current meter. Progress of the work thus far has been good and includes the preparation of specifications and drawings for the meter. Recent at-sea tests of several of these current meters were quite satisfactory. Future efforts in instrument improvement will include work on subbottom profilers. In recent years the tools and techniques developed by the Navy's ocean engineering program have assisted the civilian community. The Navy assisted in the recovery of the Canadian submersible 89 Pisces in August 1973, the Sea Link in June 1973, and the recovery of a NASA data package from a 5,800-foot water depth in March 1970. Navy personnel, technology, and equipment were also utilized in the Tektite diving experiments and to locate and photograph the sunken French submarine Eurydice in April 1970. The goals of the ocean engineering program are to provide the Navy with new and improved means for deep ocean search, location, rescue, recovery, and construction. These capabilities are made available to assist others and the advances in deep ocean technologies are disseminated broadly to national industrial and commercial enterprises. Advanced Research Projects Agency Marine Science and Technology The research effort for development of stable floating platforms was completed at the end of 1973. The goal of this program was to design, build, and demonstrate the feasibility of large, stable, floating platforms in open seas. Research was directed toward a design that was capable of expansion into a platform with large area and load handling capabilities. Completion of 1/8 scale model tests during two separate at-sea operations in August and September 1973 proved that results of this program provide the preliminary design from which a full-scale platform could be developed for support of a variety of military missions. The development of the arctic military potential of the Surface Effect Vehicle (SEV) is concluding with the preliminary design of three arctic SEV's, two of nominally 150 tons gross weight and one of nominally 500 tons gross weight. Each would be capable of performing one or more missions in which the SEV is superior to other arctic military platforms. Essentially all the initial subsystem developments necessary to support the design and construction of these SEV's have been completed. Subsystem technology development includes critical terrain sensing systems, such as a 94- GHz obstacle detection system, stabilizing systems, deep skirt configuration and materials, and pilot display components. An SEV handbook is under preparation that includes the background and rationale leading up to the arctic SEV technology. This handbook will be of value in providing information to Government agencies and departments that are planning future related programs. The Unmanned Arctic Research Submersible (UARS) System was developed under the sponsorship of ARPA. The UARS system has two major elements; an unmanned untethered submersible vehicle that serves as a mobile instrument carrier and a remote tracking, guidance, and recovery system. The objective of this program is to 90 The UARS vehicle as seen through the launching hole cut through 20-foot- thick ice. The vehicle is about 40 feet below the surface of the Arctic Ocean. provide a capability to conduct research under ice with unmanned, untethered vehicles. This will permit necessary work under ice in support of arctic environmental, submarine, and weapon programs to be conducted with a high degree of control at relatively economical support costs, as compared to operations that use manned submersibles. The UARS system has been deployed to arctic areas on two occasions and used successfully there to support R&D programs. A wide variety of oceanographic and other environmental information can be collected with different configurations of the system including profiles of the under-ice surface; lower ice surface profile and texture; water temperature, sound velocity, and salinity variations; acoustic volume reverberation data related to biological activity; internal wave measurements; ocean bottom magnetic field strengths, and subbottom geophysical characteristics. The system can also be applied to numerous other studies by varying its instrument packages. At the request of the Navy, control of the UARS system was given to the Naval Ordnance Systems Command in the spring of 1973 for use by that organization in arctic research and development missions. 91 ARPA's Ocean Monitoring Program continues to explore new techniques to improve our ability to conduct military operations in the ocean. This includes extending the monitoring and detection capabilities of deep submersibles by adapting and developing advanced submarine detection concepts, by investigating new methods for conducting submerged communications, and by developing new techniques to use sonar signals for detection of objects on the ocean floor. A suite of acoustic transmitting, receiving, and recording equipment is being developed for deep submersibles. The equipment will allow measurement of acoustic parameters of midwater scatterers, small bottom features, and detailed area surveys. Experiments and data analysis are underway to determine the design parameters for a submarine-to-submarine acoustic communications system that can adapt to changes in the transmission properties of the ocean. Results of yet another program that will define dynamic and physical characteristics of deep ocean breaking waves are expected to have ASW applications and improve our capability to interpret radar and satellite observations. Under ARPA sponsorship low-frequency sound sources have been developed and are being tested to determine feasibility of developing high-power sources capable of providing significantly improved detection capability. Also under development is a large aperture array sonar that uses advanced beam forming and signal-processing techniques. This system will be used to study the limitations imposed on sonar performance by the oceanic noise field. 92 Chapter VI OCEANOGRAPHIC RESEARCH National efforts to protect the marine environment, manage and use its resources wisely, and develop its potential to contribute to the national defense require a detailed and sophisticated knowledge of its chemistry, physics, geology, and biology. This chapter summarizes the scope of Federally supported oceanographic research and provides examples of significant recent results. Near Shore Processes and Coastal Zone Management The National Sea Grant Program of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA] supports research in the social and technical aspects of coastal zone management. Under the auspices of this program, many marine localities are conducting the first comprehensive assessments of their nearshore and onshore marine resources. The Sea Grant Program is also supporting corollary assessments of existing and necessary social, political, and legal institutions required for the effective management of coastal areas. Sea Grant technical studies are ainied at developing a basic understanding of the principal natural and induced factors affecting coastal areas. For example, information about the biological and chemical processes of inshore waters gathered by Sea Grant researchers is being used to aid protective management and safeguard water quality. The dynamic processes that cause coastal erosion are being studied so that processes and structures that aid in producing shoreline stability can be evaluated. Perhaps the major contribution by the Sea Grant program to coastal zone management comes from the developing ability to respond quickly with research and advice to solve local and regional marine problems. Remote sensing from aricraft and satellites promises to be a useful tool in marine research. This image, made from the NOAA-2 satellite of the Labrador/Newfoundland area, shows the ice pack streaming southeastward in the Labrador Current. 95 The National Science Foundation (NSF) supports research in coastal zone management as well as on trace contaminants in rivers and estuaries. The Environmental Systems and Resources Division supports exploratory research necessary in resolving critical management questions dealing with ecological and environmental impacts of thermal and pollutant additions in Delaware Bay. Another project involves wastewater treatment and outfalls in Chesapeake Bay and their effect on marine life in estuarine communities. Trace contaminant work includes studies of the environmental aspects of mercury, methyl mercury, arsenic, and cadmium. Knowledge of water quality and ocean dynamics is particularly important in anticipating the consequences of siting barge-mounted nuclear reactors in the nearshore environment. For example, new data on water movements and the state of thermohaline unrest on continental shelves have come from the NSF International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) sponsored Coastal Upwelling Experiments (CUE) I and CUE II along the Oregon coast; the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) sponsored studies off the coast of Washington; the NSF Shelf Dynamics Program on the West Florida shelf; the Office of Naval Research (ONR) and NOAA-sponsored studies of the Florida Current; and a variety of measurements on the shelf and slope from Cape Hatteras to Cape Cod. The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (BSFW) in the Department of the Interior has initiated a national biological service effort to provide key biological information and technical assistance needed for more knowledgeable land- and water-use decisions. A portion of this program relates directly to the coastal zone, specifically to a better understanding of interrelationships of coastal ecosystems. Comprehensive baseline biological information will be collated and developed to aid local, regional, and national planning efforts on key estuaries and coastal areas. The effort is in response to questions relating to powerplant development, waste discharge, requests to dredge and fill, superports, outer continental shelf (OCS) pipeline corridors and storage facilities, and ancillary land and water requirements. In fiscal year 1975, the AEC will emphasize offshore powerplant siting investigations and associated coastal oceanography. This work will be performed by AEC-supported university researchers and will include joint studies with NOAA. For example, there will be a strong interaction with NOAA's marine ecosystems analysis program. Other AEC studies along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts will be inaugurated in FY '75, with additional research planned for the Pacific Coast. The major focus of this work will be on the marine 96 portions of regions where a need for offshore powerplant siting may soon arise. AEC will also emphasize studies of the fate and behavior of plutonium and other transuranics in the ocean. The Navy has developed a system for classifying the world's coasts; a new concept for investigation of the three-dimensional structure and transport of turbidity cells, a model of effluent dynamic behavior and bar formation at river mouths, and a computer program for the analysis of wave refraction from deep water to the shoreline; a satellite-derived capability for fast response prediction for some coastal environmental conditions, a model to predict beach profile changes, and a program to determine and predict delta morphologies by river discharge wave power climates. A mathematical simulation of single-wave (tsunami) runup at a coastal area is available, and the effects of rhythmic beach topography and associated rip current spacing are now understood; a model has been formulated to describe quantitatively the interaction of a river and its receiving basin; and it has been determined that wave characteristics are significantly affected by changes in surface tension. Open Ocean Processes Studies of physical and chemical processes in the open ocean seek to describe, measure, and model the ocean's dynamic phenomena and chemical constituents. Physical oceanography includes the study of currents, waves, temperature, density, and mass and energy exchange between the atmosphere and ocean surfaces and within the water column. The knowledge required in these studies has a wide number of users. The analysis and forecasting of wave height and frequency, for example, are important to shipping, fishing, the design and operation of offshore drilling platforms or other structures, and military operations. A significant advance in the state of the art of wave forecasting was marked by the recent introduction of a spectral model, now being used by the Navy, to predict surface conditions in the Mediterranean Sea. A spectral model for the North Atlantic is nearly ready for service and a similar approach to forecasting Pacific seas is under development. The physics of wave generation, propagation, and decay are also being studied, and as theory becomes more refined, the estimates and approximations used in model building are becoming more explicit. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency's Environmental Research Laboratories conduct investigations of three types of wave phenomena; wind waves, internal waves, and tsunamis. Using specially instrumented aircraft, investigators at the Atlantic Oceanographic Marine Laboratory in Miami are studying the 97 dynamics of wind-wave growth. During Hurricane Ava in June 1973 the first aircraft measurements of wave conditions in a hurricane were made to determine the role wind waves play in the behavior of these storms. These data are being correlated with Skylab measurements taken at the same time. Acoustic echo sounders are being used by the Atlantic Laboratory to measure the amplitude, speed, and direction of internal waves to determine the role internal waves play in the overall dynamics of the sea. NOAA's Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory is investigating the generation of internal waves by surface tides as they impinge on a continental shelf. Experiments have shown that semidiurnal internal waves are propagated seaward from the continental terrace as the tide moves across it. Successive studies are attempting to quantify the energy content and distribution of these internal waves. NOAA and the University of Hawaii have developed a cooperative research program to increase our understanding of the generation, propagation, and onshore runup mechanisms of tsunamis. The first station of a 10-station network of open ocean tsunami measuring instruments has been deployed on the sea bottom under a North Pacific weather ship. This device will, for the first time, measure tsunamis in the open ocean and provide earlier and more accurate tsunami forecasts. The transient and rapidly changing features of ocean circulation are proving amenable to study with airborne and satellite remote sensing techniques. For example, the Navy uses its oceanographic aircraft to investigate characteristics and life cycles of eddies spawned by the Gulf Stream and frontal systems in the western North Atlantic. It also uses a Data Acquisition and Processing satellite to determine the thermal resolution of the Gulf Stream and to identify water mass boundaries. Moreover, software has been developed to produce charts of surface thermal patterns in real time from satellite infrared imagery. The Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment (MODE), a coordinated oceanographic project supported jointly by the NSF/IDOE andONR is designed to establish a dynamically correct model of oceanic circulation. A major field experiment took place from March to July 1973 involving 30 scientists from 18 institutions in an area midway between Bermuda and the Bahamas. Investigators identified eddies with a 100-kilometer diameter that extend from the bottom of the ocean up to the lower boundary of the mixed layer, typically at a depth of 100 meters. They even observed the growth, dispersion, and decay of an eddy. In another cooperative project, NSF joined with AEG to support a 1972 study of a deep ocean boundary current in the Atlantic, off the 98 Launch of surface navigational mooring at the center of the Morie-1 experi- ment. The surface float is instrumented with a wind recorder and radar transponder to permit accurate local navigation for placement of instrument packages on the ocean floor in the vicinity of the mooring. coast of Brazil. This deep current flows along the western edge of the deep Atlantic Basin and transports cold bottom water from the Antarctic into the North Atlantic Ocean. The movement of large masses of seawater was also the subject of the NSF/IDOE Geochemical Ocean Sections Study (GEOSECS). GEOSECS is studying the processes of deep mixing and circulation by making detailed measurements of oceanic constituents at all depths along north-south sections from the Arctic to the Antarctic. These data will provide for the first time a set of physical and chemical data measured on the same water samples. In addition to establishing geochemical baselines, these data will provide the background for quantitative studies of oceanic mixing and for descriptive models of ocean circulation. The GEOSECS cruise track for the Atlantic was completed in March 1973, while the Pacific track will be completed in May 1974. Chemical oceanographers have been able to identify certain features of oceanic mixing through isotope measurements. The distribution of certain isotopes of hydrogen and lead and decay products of uranium and plutonium have indicated large-scale deepwater movements and mixing rates of surface waters with deep waters. Such deep ocean currents have been predicted on theoretical bases, but verification of their existence and properties has been 99 The GEOSECS instrumefit package includes a conductivity-temperature- depth sensor, bottom proximity pinger, dissolved oxygen probe, nephelometer, and a rosette of 30-liter sampling bottles. difficult to obtain since these currents cannot be observed directly at the ocean surface. Because sound transmission is the basis for detecting, tracking, and identifying submerged objects, the Navy has played a prominent role in supporting research on the acoustical properties of the marine environment. For example, the results of work on oceanic fronts have outlined the horizontal and vertical structure of both subarctic and subtropical fronts in the Pacific. These findings represent a start toward understanding the effects of oceanic fronts on long-range 100 sound propagation, the generation of turbulence in midocean regions, and the dynamics of intense weather systems that are generated or intensified along these fronts. The absorption of acoustical energy in seawater affects the performance of all underwater acoustic systems, but factors of chemical composition and physical processes affecting sound absorption are only partially understood. Recent research has permitted the development of a computer simulation of sound absorption in seawater, and a newly developed polarographic technique has furnished new insight into the oxidation potential of seawater. This last accomplishment is important in understanding the corrosion of material by seawater as well as in furthering the development of underwater acoustic systems. Polar Ocean Studies Although the polar oceans are the source of most of the intermediate and deep waters in the world ocean, the processes active in them have been difficult to observe. As polar areas also have major significance for atmospheric circulation and climate control, oceanographers and meteorologists have combined forces to learn more about this closely coupled ocean-atmosphere system. A series of experiments begun in 1971 as part of the Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint Experiments (AIDJEX) has resulted in the formation of scale models that describe the thermodynamics of the growth and decay of sea ice, the distribution of sea ice, the circulation of the Arctic Ocean as it impinges on sea ice, and the formulation of a constitutive numerical model of sea ice. Future plans call for a multiagency joint effort involving some 18 U.S. universities and research centers and scientists from Canada, Japan, and Denmark. The goal of this program is to provide existing atmospheric predictive models with additional information on the Arctic polar region and its influence on the weather and climate. An understanding of the icepack under pressure and its variabilities depending upon atmospheric conditions will hopefully provide data for designing hulls for trans-Arctic-Ocean transports. Research related to furthering knowledge of ice behavior and the ability to predict it was conducted by the Navy during the FY '73-74 period with a multiplatform approach on the East Greenland and Bering marginal sea ice zones. A polar experiment (POLEX) is being planned in conjunction with AIDJEX, and is specifically directed to the study of heat sinks in northern polar regions, their influence on the global atmospheric circulation and, hence, on weather and climate variations in the temperate zone. This experiment is part of the U.S.-U.S.S.R. 101 program, Cooperation on Environmental Protection. The data gathered in POLEX will be used together with data from the First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) of the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) to improve numerical modeling capabilities for applications in numerical experiments. These experiments will be directed toward improving understanding of global atmospheric circulation and the dynamics of climate variations, including periods with persistent precipitation or temperature anomalies. Ocean and Atmosphere Interactions Because the atmosphere derives most of its water vapor from the oceans and the winds are a basic force in ocean surface circulation, efforts to add to the understanding of the linkages between the oceans and atmosphere have expanded significantly over the past few years. One such effort is the North Pacific Experiment (NORPAX), sponsored jointly by the NSF/IDOE and ONR, which seeks to understand how these linkages in the North Pacific affect seasonal weather patterns over North America. Oceanographers and meteorologists from 11 universities are working in four major areas: statistical analysis of historical data, descriptive observational programs, intensive process-oriented observations, and development of analytical and numerical models. During 1973, NORPAX researchers reported that a chain of events originating in the western Pacific Ocean anticipates the onset of El Nino, the periodic warming of waters off Peru. After more research, it may be possible to predict the development of El Nino and its effect on the Peruvian anchovy catch. When the catch is poor, there is an increase in the world price of fishmeal, a transfer of fishmeal consumers to soybean, soybean price rise, and ultimately, price increases for beef, pork, broilers, eggs, and milk. Long-range weather and climate fluctuations have a profound effect on agriculture, economy, and habitability. Researchers in the IDOE climate, long-range investigation, mapping and prediction (CLIMAP) program are seeking clues to past climates. These scientists are examining changes in ocean current patterns, water mass properties, and surface temperatures in the world ocean, as recorded by fossil marine organisms in deep sea sediment cores. Preliminary analysis of the cores indicates that conditions of extreme cold have occurred about eight times over the past 700,000 years in alternation with periods of warmer climate. Scientists speculate, on the basis on these findings, that a new glacial period will eventually recur, possibly within a few thousand years. Another program, conducted by NOAA's Environmental Research Laboratories, is directed to determining thermal effects from 102 Both ships of opportunity (ships in the area for other purposes but available to gather data) and island stations are used to monitor atmospheric and oceanographic conditions in the north Pacific as part of the joint National Science Foundation-Office of Naval Research NORPAX project. variations in incoming solar radiation. The results of this work include the finding that the effects of clouds which reduce incoming radiation are noticed in the upper layers of the ocean within 1 or 2 hours and that cooler nighttime temperatures cause convective overturning in the mixed layer. Related studies of solar radiation at tropical island stations suggest that the amount of solar radiation heating the world's tropical oceans is 15 to 20 percent greater than previously indicated from climatological estimates. This implies that the magnitude of poleward heat transport by ocean circulation is much greater than previously believed and, consequently, has important implications for long-range weather forecasting In addition, NOAA's Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory is studying how ocean and the atmosphere are coupled to one another and over what temperal scales. Several models have been developed ranging from global ocean atmospheric models to mathematical composites that simulate processes at regional scales of motion. From June 15 to September 30, 1974, one-third of the earth's tropical belt will be under intensive observation in the largest and most complex international scientific experiment ever undertaken. 103 The project, GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment (GATE), is the first major international field experiment in GARP of the World Meteorological Organization and the International Council of Scientific Unions. Coordination of United States participation in the experiment is assigned to NOAA. The key objectives of GATE, as a major part of GARP, are to study the structure and evolution of weather systems in the tropical eastern Atlantic and to assess the extent to which these tropical disturbances affect the circulation of the whole atmosphere. As weather systems are closely coupled to related oceanic processes and circulation features, oceanographic studies are integral to the design of the experiment. The oceanographic studies focus on two aspects with broad scientific and practical importance. The first is the complex equatorial current system, closely related to oceanic upwelling processes and to the atmosphere's intertropical convergence zone. Understanding of this major feature of oceanic circulation is vital to the development of ocean models. The second focus of the oceanographic program is the interaction of the ocean's upper layers with the atmosphere and with organized convective systems. The broad area of the experiment includes the entire tropical Atlantic and the adjacent continental regions (about 10 degrees south to 20 degrees north latitude, 47 degrees east to 95 degrees west longitude). A selected smaller area, a hexagon with 90 nautical mile sides centered 8.5 degrees N and 23.5 degrees W, will be the subject of intensive observations with ships and aircraft. Thirteen nations, including Brazil, Canada, the Federal Republic of Germany, the German Democratic Republic, Finland, France, Mexico, the Netherlands, Portugal. Senegal, U.S.S.R., the United Kingdom, and the United States have made substantial commitments to the experiment, and many other countries in Europe, South America, and Africa have expressed their interest in participating. Dakar, Senegal, will be the principal base of operations. The experiment, which is divided into three 21-day observational periods, will involve 37 ships and about a dozen instrumented aircraft supplemented by instrumented buoys and constant level balloons, operational sun-synchronous and geostationary satellites, and the augmented World Weather Watch network of continental and island-based weather stations. U.S. participation will include at least four oceanographic ships equipped with sophisticated meteorological instrumentation and another four vessels to be devoted only to oceanographic studies, as many as eight instrumented aircraft, polar-orbiting and geostationary satellites, and a variety of buoys. 104 f iJKHWtU^mk ^ ©mm' 1 ' "^ YT /"• NOAA's National Ocean Survey Ship, Oceanographer, one of 37 ships in- volved in GATE. Environmental Quality Studies In addition to investigation projects like those described in chapter II that contribute directly to specific pollution control efforts, the solution of environmental problems requires greatly increased knowledge of oceanic conditions and processes, the nature and movement of various pollutants and their effects on marine and human life. Several Federal agencies are engaged in research directed to this goal. Research projects supported by the NSF/IDOE Environmental Quality program seek to determine existing concentrations of pollutants and trace compounds in the marine environment. Specific projects are aimed at determining sources and rates at which pollutants enter the oceans, the way in which they are carried and dispersed, and their effect on marine life. Throughout 1971 and 1972 researchers carried out regional baseline acquisition projects in1he Atlantic and Pacific oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean. Initial results indicate that heavy metals, petroleum, and chlorinated hydrocarbons were present in these areas to the extent that they constituted a problem of potentially global importance. These and other findings led to research projects that were designed to determine pollutant pathways and mechanisms controlling the rates at which these pollutants enter the oceans. 105 The quantities and forms of heavy metals, halogenated hydrocarbons, and petroleum hydrocarbons are being determined, especially at the air-sea interface and in the coastal regions where they" enter the marine environment. Special attention is directed toward the concentration and dispersal of pollutants through estuaries to continental shelf waters. Preliminary findings suggest that atmospheric transport is an important pathway for open ocean pollution. For example, 12 trace metals, petroleum, and chlorinated hydrocarbons have been detected in the air and water of the North Atlantic. Mercury, cadmium, and lead have also been found in water and biota. Laboratory and field studies to test the effects of metals, petroleum, and chlorinated hydrocarbons on marine life were started in 1973. Laboratory field work will analyze the effects of pollutants on the behavior and life processes of individual classes of organisms such as bacteria, enzymes, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and higher marine organisms. Field projects will observe the low-level and long-term effects of pollutants on the stability of natural plankton communities in water columns trapped in plastic enclosures placed in Saanich Inlet, a fjord in British Columbia, Canada. Testing of 1/4-scale models of the plastic enclosures (10 by 30 meters] indicate that the full-scale versions will withstand the rigors of the Saanich Inlet and will contain bacteria, phytoplankton, and microzooplankton identical to those in the natural environment. The effects of pollutants on these plankton communities will be assessed by subjecting one of the enclosures to low levels of pollutants over long periods and comparing the effects on these organisms with those on the plankton communities in other bags kept in their natural states. The Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) marine research program is aimed at the establishment of water quality criteria and providing information to abate contamination of the marine environment. EPA's National Marine Water Quality Laboratory in Narragansett, Rhode Island, is developing culture, rearing, and holding techniques to produce quality-controlled marine organisms for experimental use and an ecological studies system for field validation of laboratory results. It is also preparing biological criteria in support of legal standards for dissolved oxygen, temperature, and salinity. In toxicology studies the laboratory has emphasized work on biological methods for water quality assessment and the determination of acute levels of heavy materials, petrochemicals, and other materials hazardous to marine organisms. Recent accomplishments of the laboratory program have been the completion of a study on the effects of Nitrilotriacetate, a 106 -•/ '"^"^''-^c- ;•■• ■•• -«'S«£P^-^ Artist's conception of the large plastic enclosures used in the IDOE Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Experiment. phosphorus substitute used in soap, on the toxicity of metals to marine phyloplankton; the development of bioassay procedures to assess acute toxicity levels for oils and oil dispersants; the determination of safe periods of exposure to chlorine for different phyloplankton species; and the determination that 4 parts per 107 million of dissolved oxygen is essential to the completion of the life cycle of the economically important hard shell clam. Projects at the Environmental Research Laboratory at Gulf Breeze, Fla. are directed to determining the toxicity of pesticides. This work includes evaluating the impact of pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls on marine ecosystems and determining the pathways and mechanisms of pesticide degradation in the marine environment. The Laboratory also assays the effects of new pesticides on marine organisms. The Gulf Breeze Laboratory is currently studying methoxychlor, malathion, and mirex. Methoxychlor and malathion are two pesticides that are now being substituted for DDT. Mirex is an organochloride used extensively in the Southeastern United States to treat fire ants. Other agencies supporting environmental quality research are the AEG, NOAA, (through its Sea Grant Program), DOI, and the Smithsonian Institution. The AEG supports a program directed to tracing the movement of radioactive elements throughout the oceans and determining the pathways by which radioactivity may progress through the marine food chain and eventually return to man. In one of its projects, the AEG, in cooperation with the National Marine Fisheries Service is conducting basic studies relative to food web dynamics in oceanic, coastal, and estuarine environments. A major effort is underway to describe the structure and function of coastal plain estuaries near Beaufort, N. G. This research involves studies of the transfer of energy at all levels of the food web as well as studies on the physiological responses of estuarine organisms to thermal stress and the cycling of trace metals within these ecosystems. The movement of radioelements through the marine environment, the means and rates of return of radioactivity to man through marine food webs, and other ecological process are of vital concern to all mankind. Another major effort in food chain research is being conducted at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and consists of a multidisciplinary investigation directed toward understanding the transfer of energy in planktonic food webs in the North Pacific Ocean. Additional food web research is being conducted in such diverse marine environments as the Gulf of Mexico, the Ghesapeake Bay, and coastal waters of Washington and Oregon. Researchers supported by the National Sea Grant Program are monitoring the effects of thermal and radioactive discharges from nuclear power plants to assess their effects on marine life, primarily on commercial fisheries. Wastewater, dredge spoils, and solid wastes are targets of other studies on pollutants that threaten to degrade the marine environment. Scientists supported by Sea Grant are also studying the physical, chemical, and environmental 108 parameters that govern the mechanism of shoreline contamination from oil spills and natural oil seepages. The; r(!mole sensing of surface slicks, using infrared spectral information, is being evaluated for its effectiveness in oil slick surveillance programs. The Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History's collection of biological specimens represents an important source of information on environmental conditions faced by these organisms while they were alive. The study of methods for retrieving such environmental data and for enhancing the value of these preserved specimens as indicator organisms for such substances as heavy metals continued in FY '73 under a grant from NSF/IDOE. In Tunisia, the Smithsonian's Mediterranean Marine Sorting Center (MMSC) in cooperation with EPA, performs studies of eutrophication problems in brackish Lake Tunis. EPA also supported a study by the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute of various aspects of the ecology and physiology of tropical marine organisms. Smithsonian's Office of Environmental Sciences completed a study of the environmental impact of offshore oil exploitation in Indonesia and a preliminary survey of the levels of heavy metals in the food chain of the sturgeon and other fishes of commerical value in the Caspian Sea. Seabed History and Resources Geological and geophysical investigations of the ocean bottom are central to the understanding of the origin of ocean basins, the development of seawater, and the history of marine life. More immediate concerns for shortfalls in fossil fuel supplies have focused increased attention on continental margins as a potential source of oil and gas for the nation's energy needs. Scientists supported by the NSF/IDOE have been conducting research on continental margins, deep sea beds, and midoceanic ridges to identify areas of natural resources, particularly petroleum and hard minerals, and to improve understanding of the natural processes that produce these resources. Work is proceeding on the continental margins of both sides of the South Atlantic and along the co^asts of Peru and Chile. Fieldwork for an extensive geophysical and geological survey of the Eastern Atlantic Continental margin was completed in 1973. Scientists on these cruises mapped large sediment-filled basins and belts of diapirs, (areas of large-scale salt accumulation), some of which were previously unreported and none of which had been completely mapped. Several of these structures in shallow water are now prospective sources of petroleum production; others offer potential for future development. 109 INTERNATIONAL DECADE OF OCEAN EXPLORATION SEABED ASSESSMENT MANGANESE NODULES Of ABYSSAL PLAINS iNiXu.Co ETC HEAVY MINERAL DEPOSITS ON ANCIENT STRAND LINES OIL & GAS PROVINCES ON THE CONTINENTAL MARGINS HEAVY MINERAL CONCENTRATION ALONG RIFT VALLEYS IDCE 73-635 n-7-72 Artist's conception of the major areas of concentration for the IDOE Seabed Assessment Program. Understanding the origin of metalliferous ores and metal-bearing sediments is the goal of IDOE projects on active spreading zones in the deep ocean, including the mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise. In the Nazca Plate region off the west coast of South America, the complex interrelationships between sea and land geology appear to produce metallogenic zoning of copper, zinc, and tin. Highly metalliferous sediments, a potential source of heavy metals, have also been identified in the Bauer Basin located near the East Pacific Rise. Detailed studies found that these sediments may consist of distinct manganese-or iron-rich phases, as well as nickel and cobalt. Similar work on the mid-Atlantic Ridge involves use of submersibles for direct observations of geological processes in the rift valley. Preliminary site surveys and initial dives by French submersibles were completed during the summer of 1973. Joint operations by French and U.S. scientists will be conducted in 1974 as part of the French-American Mid-Ocean Undersea Study (FAMOUS] (App. Cj. The formation and location of manganese nodules has been the focus of a major seabed assessment program. A series of maps 110 Hot lava, cooling rapidly after contact with seawater, forms basaltic rocks such as these, photographed from the Atlantis II during Project FAMOUS site sur- veys. showing the worldwide chemical composition and distribution of the nodules has been compiled. Other studies on the environmental conditions under which nodules grow, their rate of growth, and changes over time have been completed. Methods have also been devised to standardize analyses to facilitate comparisons between laboratories. Plans have been prepared for a detailed sample collection program in the North Pacific over an area rich in nodules. Exploration of ocean basin structure and history acquired a new and powerful tool in deep ocean drilling supported by the Deep Sea Drilling Project, a part of the NSF's Ocean Sediment Coring Program. During 1973, the drilling ship Glomar Challenger operated in the Indian Ocean, in the southern ocean around Antarctica, and in the marginal seas of the western Pacific, the Tasman Sea, the Philippine Sea, and the Sea of Japan. Drilling in the Indian Ocean added significantly to our understanding of that ocean basin. The oldest portiort of the Indian Ocean crust was found to be in the eastern part, where sediments approximately 130 million years old were sampled in the Argo Abyssal Plain off northwest Australia. Further evidence was found of major gaps in the record of Indian Ocean sedimentation. At many sites, sediments 70 million to 35 million years old are either very thin or absent. Similar gaps in 111 sedimentation have been reported from Deep Sea Drilling Project holes in the north Atlantic, Caribbean, central and northern Pacific, and the Melanesian region. It appears that the hiatuses in Indian Ocean sediment accumulation resulted from major changes in oceanic circulation that occurred as Australia separated from Antarctica about 50 million years ago. Drilling near Antarctica expanded knowledge of the development and history of the icecap that now covers the continent. Studies of sediments recovered from the cores has demonstrated that extensive glaciers have covered the Antarctic continent since at least 20 million years ago and perhaps as early as 40 million years ago. The ice accumulation climaxed 4 to 5 million years ago after which time the ice front abruptly retreated to its present position. Gaseous hydrocarbons were encountered in sediments in three of the four holes drilled in the Ross Sea. Preliminary results indicate that the gas is dominantly methane with significant traces of ethane and, in one instance, ethylene. Traces of oil were also found in three sites adjacent to the southeastern part of Australia near Tasmania. The Tasman Sea, south of Australia, was demonstrated to be 60 to 75 million years old, as previously predicted on the basis of geophysical data. The Tasman Sea region, therefore, significantly predates the breakup of Australia from Antarctica 50 million years ago and the arrival of the southern continents at their present positions. Drilling in other parts of the Pacific showed the geologic youth of the Philippine Sea (60 million years old) and the Sea of Japan (20 million years old). Evidence of major climatic oscillations during the past million years was also detected in young sediments from the Sea of Japan. Research programs conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) are concerned primarily with energy resources. Projects involve the delineation of regional continental margin structure in areas of potential gas and oil reserves, environmental research leading to an improved understanding of the marine ecosystem and of the changes that may result from resource development, studies of geologic processes related to the accumulation of oil and placer mineral deposits, earthquake hazards and the geochemical processes involved in mineral development, and fundamental processes governing the ecosystem in estuaries and along open coasts. Recent surveys along the Arctic coast of Alaska identified an extensive, deep basin of sedimentary rocks in the southern Chuskchi Sea; rocks and structures that extend west from Alaska's petroliferous north slope were located beneath the northern Chuskchi Sea. Between 70 and SOpercent of the shelf and slope areas had favorable conditions for oil or natural gas; in the adjacent Beaufort Sea, the entire area may be petroliferous. 112 Geologic studies in the Bering Sea have resulted in the discovery of a gold deposit on the sea floor near Nome and in a tentative understanding of gold dispersal. In other parts of the Bering Sea, between 15 and 20 prospective areas for oil and gas have been located. The largest single structures that may have trapped oil are as large as the southern San Joaquin Valley in California. In the Gulf of Alaska theoretical predictions that large amounts of the sea floor have been incorporated into the continental slope have been confirmed by observations. An unexpected finding is that these deep sea sediments may be potentially petroliferous. Their organic content and the probability of large reservoirs has raised the possibility that accumulations of oil may exist under the continental slope. Environmental studies in the Gulf of Alaska suggest that many of the structures which may be traps for oil and gas on other parts of the continental shelf are actively growing, possibly in connection with the large earthquakes of that region, and indicate that special design considerations may be needed for offshore construction. Off Oregon and Washington, extensive sampling of the sea floor has delineated areas of potential placer deposits. Studies made of open ocean environmental processes are resulting in an initial understanding of open coastline ecosystems. In the Gulf of Mexico, a major salt dome area on the continental slope has been delineated. These domes and their related structures have a high potential for oil and gas entrapment. Environmental studies uncovered some important processes responsible for maintaining stable, nearshore barrier islands. Much has been learned about the effects of hurricanes on the shallow sea floor and within three of the estuaries along the Texas coast. Concentrations of zinc, cadmium, lead, and copper were mapped; the reasons for anomalous high concentrations of these elements can be explained on the basis of currents and seasonal processes. Other studies of currents along the coast provide the first basic data on the possible trajectories of oil spills should they occur. Along the Atlantic margin, in the OCS areas of Georges Bank and the Baltimore Canyon, an understanding of the origin of the thick sedimentary sections that are promising for oil and gas is developing. In addition, small pilot environmental studies in offshore New England and in the prospective areas are the precursors of larger studies for offshore energy facility siting in these and other open shelf areas. Other studies of basic geologic and environmental processes parallel USGS active lines of applied research. Unique sea floor structures in sediments of areas with abundant sea ice result from various processes related to the arctic ice pack. Another 113 phenomenon found in high-latitude cold regions is unexplained horizons that may be clathrates, or crystalline gas hydrates, that could form a new type of trap for oil and gas. Basic studies of processes in deep sea deltas and trenches have indicated that large deep sea reservoirs can form and that they may contain petroleum. These deposits may provide future resources and an understanding of them will provide a clearer understanding of petroliferous areas now being explored. The trans-Atlantic Geotraverse (TAG) project of NCAA's Atlantic Oceanographic Marine Laboratory is aimed at providing knowledge of the geology and geophysical characteristics of a 3 degree corridor between Cape Hatteras and Cap Blanc, Mauritania. This strip will be continuous with the crustal section already established across North America by the U.S. Transcontinental Geophysical Survey and will provide, for the first time, a standard marine section to which other oceanic geophysical activities may be related. Results to date have provided valuable information about the ocean bottom that can be applied to research for subsea oil and minerals. Preliminary work has already revealed the presence of possible salt domes in the deep ocean basin off Cap Blanc. This is the first region where possible salt domes were identified in the deep ocean basin. If these are true salt domes, their presence would indicate immense oil potential for the deep ocean basin. To date, only the shallow continental shelves have been tapped for oil. Additionally, a recent TAG cruise located the first hydrothermal mineral deposit, of very pure manganese, ever discovered in a median valley of a midocean ridge. These preliminary results would indicate that the deep ocean basins are far richer in minerals than previously suspected. In addition to its scientific significance, the ocean bottom plays an important role in naval operations. The sea floor is a highly variable and imperfect acoustic reflector and refractor. When the sea floor acts as an acoustic boundary in sound systems, the behavior of the sound propagation reflected off the sea floor or refracted through the sedimentary and crustal layers must be known. In order to define the acoustical properties of the sea floor and its deeper layers, a single- ship technique using multifrequency sources, towed hydrophone arrays, and expendable sonobuoys has been developed by Navy researchers. Analysis of the data collected with these techniques over all the major ocean basins of the world has identified the sound velocity structure of the oceans' major sediment bodies. Results from these data are being used in acoustic propagation models for system design and operational prediction. The theory of sea floor spreading, which postulates that the earth's crust consists 114 of large rigid plates moving relative to each other, provides a basis for estimating the composition and structure of the sea floor in areas where direct measurements are sparse or lacking. Reliability of the predictions will improve as the theory is extended and refined. A technique for locating those portions of a midocean ridge for which the Navy needs bathymetric data has been developed using an airborne magnetic anomaly detector. Fracture zones over the midocean ridges follow definite patterns that are dependent on the present and past motions of oceanic crustal plates. The numerous fracture zones that cross the mid-Atlantic Ridge are of interest to anti-submarine warfare community. Mapping of fracture zones from a surface vessel in the highly complex and variable terrain found along the axis of the mid-Atlantic Ridge is a difficult and time- consuming task. The fracture zones, however, are characterized by distinct high amplitude magnetic anomalies that may be readily mapped using airborne magnetometers. In the study of the mid-Atlantic Ridge, a Navy research aircraft was used to carry out aeromagnetic studies with a close grid pattern over the ridge. The magnetic anomalies were used to determine the location and direction of the fracture zone lineations. A research ship was then directed to the exact location of the fracture zones to obtain detailed subbottom profiles and other geophysical data associated with the fractures. The study demonstrates conclusively that in areas of complex bottom topography an airplane and research ship combination is an excellent technique to use in charting sea floor tectonic patterns. Studies of the gravity and geomagnetic fields over the Arctic Ocean and environs have been sponsored by the Navy. The gross magnetic field has been defined over the Arctic Ocean Basin and adjacent seas. This information assesses the relative success potential for using standard magnetic submarine detection devices in various geographic regions. Magnetic data also provided additional information concerning the Alpha Ridge and the Nansen Ridge. These two transoceanic submarine mountain chains are important factors for underwater acoustic surveillance systems. Gravity studies have provided the data base for what knowledge we have of the geopotential surface in the Arctic, which influences inertial guidance and navigationsystems and ballistic trajectories. Magnetic and gravity data combined have been the major contributors to developing a hypothesis for the origin and morphology of the Arctic Ocean Basin. With this hypothesis we can now predict, to a first-order approximation, environmental factors important to naval operations, such as topography, sea floor roughness, and sediment cover, in unsurveyed or unsurveyable areas of the Arctic Ocean. 115 Marine Life Fundamental research on marine life processes are supported by NSF. For example, one study with important implications for deep ocean waste disposal is examining whether bacterial growth in the deep sea is retarded by high pressure, cold temperature conditions, or the scarcity of organic matter in the seawater. Data from these studies indicate that microbial degradation of deep ocean organic matter was 10 to 1,000 times slower than in the controls. Furthermore, response of deep sea populations is similar to that of surfacewater populations when incubated in the deep sea or in the laboratory at normal pressure and comparable temperature. Many specimens of marine life contain physical similarities to the human organisrn and thus are a most valuable resource in biomedical research. Through research on marine organisms, scientists are able to develop new ways to treat diseases. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) have supported research on the giant nerve fibers of the squid because these nerve fibers are much larger in diameter than those of many other marine animals and may be readily dissected from the animal and maintained alive in an isolated state for many hours. The use of the squid giant axon has permitted many kinds of electrophysiological and biochemical experiments that simply could not be done on smaller nerve fibers and has yielded a large body of information on how nerve impulses are generated and how they travel down the nerve. Similarly, the retinas of some varieties of marine fishes have large nerve cells. They are also easily removed from the animal and remain alive and functional for many hours in suitable media. In particular, the isolated retina of the dogfish and of the skate are especially suitable for studies of nerve message transmission from one nerve cell to another. Scientists at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, carried out many diverse studies on the systematics and ecology of marine life. Off the British Honduras coast, Smithsonian scientists continued their investigations of a marine shallow water ecosystem, concentrating on the systematics and ecology of the organisms on a barrier coral reef. The Panama Biota Program has completed extensive baseline collections that will provide a foundation for further specialized research on shallow water marine biota from both sides of the Isthmus of Panama. At the Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies, the Smithsonian is coordinating a systems ecology study of the Rhode River watershed and estuary performed by scientists from the Smithsonian and other members of the Chesapeake Research Consortium. 116 The Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center (SOSC) in Washington, D.C., and its counterpart, the Mediterranean Marine Sorting Center (MMSC) in Tunisia, performed taxonomic sorting of marine biological samples and related specimen and data analyses for marine scientists around the world. Over 9 million specimens were sorted at SOSC and another 2 million at MMSC in FY '73. SOSC was heavily involved in the sorting and recording of samples from the Antarctic, in support of NSF's U.S. Antarctic Research Program, while MMSC sorted Mediterranean specimens, including those resulting from a biotic survey of the Gulf of Txnis. The Sea Grant program has emphasized the solution of technical problems that impede the expansion of commercial aquaculture programs. These include the diagnosis, prevention, and control of disease; the achievement of desirable characteristics such as fast growth and high product yield through selective breeding; problems of reproduction, larval development and maturation time; dietary problems such as food conversion efficiency and nutrition requirements. In addition, the economics of aquaculture is being studied to evaluate the commercial feasibility of using the technical research results. The major marine species now under study include the American lobster, brown and white shrimp, spiny lobster, English sole, yellow perch, walleye pike, oysters, salmon, and blue crab. These lobsters in planktonic stages of development are used in maturation studies sponsored by the National Sea Grant program at the University of California at San Diego. 117 In addition to these marine fish, the Sea Grant program also supports projects to develop commercial-scale cultivation and harvest techniques for seaweed and marine algae. Sea Grant also supports biological studies of species relevant to the commercial fishing industry. Current studies include the popula- tion dynamics of the Atlantic menhaden, the distribution and migra- tion of large pelagic fishes such as the Atlantic tunas and billfishes, age and growth studies of coho and chinook salmon taken in Califor- nia troll fishing, and the distribution and related abundance of the spiny lobster Panulirus gutiatus in southeastern Florida. Emphasis is also being placed on the development of new techniques of resource assessment. Acoustic assessment techniques are being evaluated, with particular attention to stocks exhibiting extremely heterogeneous spatial distributions. Fishery oceanography has two principal roles in the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS): to provide environmental support for resource assessment investigations and to conduct research on processes involved in marine organic production. Support of resource assessment generally involves processing, analysis, and synthesis of environmental data leading to understanding of the role played by environmental variations in affecting the distribution and abundance of resource species. Studies of marine organic produc- tion, on the other hand, seek understanding of the physical, chemical, and biological processes interacting in all stages of marine produc- tion, from air-sea interaction and insolation through ocean dynamics to factors controlling the abundance of harvestable adults of the resource species. Three interrelated NMFS studies are being conducted to understand the energy flow process that start with phytoplankton production, pass through the benthic herbivores and carnivores, and lead ultimately to the harvestable surplus of fish and shellfish. The purpose of the first is to identify and enumerate the benthic organisms, define their interrelationships with one another, and establish their environmental requirements. The second attempts to determine which fish eat which forage species, in what amounts, and to what result. The third is directed to estimating the numbers and the harvestable surplus of those species that can support a fishery. Marine life is not only a food for the world, but a source of problems for ships and engineering structures. For example, shipworms are the oceanic equivalent of termites on land: they eat their way into wood found in the sea, destroying it in the process. Studies of the digestion of wood by the shipworm are being actively pursued by Navy scientists in an attempt to isolate those features of the digestive process that may lead to successful control of this destructive boring. 118 Fouling of ship hulls and buoys is a biological problem distinct from that of the deterioration of submerged structures by boring organisms. Two approaches are being used by Navy investigators to study fouling problems: studies of the entire fouling community and studies of specific organisms such as barnacles. Experimental studies on the dynamics of fouling communities, which include barnacles, sponges, hydroids, and algae, are concerned primarily with the identification and understanding of the processes that change the abundance of species over time. Barnacles are among the most common, widespread, hardy, and persistent fouling organisms. Thus, in studies of the biology of individual fouling organisms, barnacles have traditionally been extremely useful. It has been known for years that they attach themselves to the substrate, whether it is a boulder or a ship's hull, with a cement secreted by specific glands. Studies on the extent to which the activity of the cement cells of adult barnacles may be associated with the molting cycle involve the development of techniques for the culture of the barnacle's living cement cells in culture dishes. A major accomplishment has been the successful maintenance of individual cement gland cells for periods up to 13 days permitting detailed study of their productive processes. Previous attempts to culture tissue from marine invertebrates were largely unsuccessful. Ocean Engineering The collection of environmental data for weather forecasting and underwater acoustic prediction purposes is a major requirement of the Federal Ocean Program. The requirement can be met economically only by ocean moored or drifting data buoys, relaying data by radio from known positions. A prototype system has been laboratory demonstrated that permits a shore station to compute the position of a remote buoy for each Navy Navigation Satellite System satellite pass over the remote location. This system includes a receiver-processor to record position data from each satellite pass and a transceiver to telemeter these data to the shore station via a communications satellite. The shore station computer is capable of handling 30 remote stations as designed, but could handle up to 100 remote stations with software modifications and computer memory capacity expansion. The possible measurement of ocean wave height and direction at extreme distances using over-the-horizon radar backscatter analysis techniques has been found to be quite promising in scientific field experiments and, in conjunction with other oceanographic and meteorological prediction systems, will have many Navy uses. 119 Large errors exist today in predicting wave heights for optimum ship routing because the forward velocity of weather fronts that generate the waves cannot be accurately predicted. ASW sonar performance predictions require the wave history in an area to provide mixed layer depth and the sound velocity gradients below the mixed layer. Scientifically, the new insight into the growth and decay of sea state will provide better understanding of atmospheric and oceanic momentum and heat exchanges leading to better long- range weather forecasts. While a large volume of scientific data has been gathered on the character and distribution of marine sediments, the technology for determining their engineering properties has not advanced to the point of soil testing procedures frequently used on land. A major problem has been to obtain in situ acoustical data and sufficiently undisturbed samples of marine sediments to perform reliable engineering tests. However, an experimental sound velocimeter mounted in a deep sea gravity corer has recently made possible the first in situ velocity measurements. These measurements have been correlated satisfactorily with laboratory velocity measurements on the same sample. The NOAA Data Buoy Office located at the Mississippi Test Facility,* is developing instrumented, unattended buoys to collect and relay data on the marine environment for operational and research use through telemetry to earth satellites and shore stations. The U.S. Coast Guard provides logistic support, particularly ships and shore facilities, high-frequency communications, and personnel. NDBO has extended the reliability of buoy components and subsystems in unattended operations, thus reducing related maintenance and logistic costs. The office is now working to improve sensors, shallow water moorings, at-sea buoy handling and servicing, and to adapt ultra-high-frequency communication equipment to buoy applications. Five severe-environment buoys were in operation in 1973 for evaluation, two off the U.S. mid-Atlantic coast, two in the Gulf of Mexico and one in the Gulf of Alaska. Despite their experimental nature, reliability was sufficient to collect routine synoptic data for dissemination on the national environmental data networks. These buoys form the nucleus of other mission-oriented buoys that will be selectively located in data-sparse regions in support of such pressing national programs as the Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. They will also serve marine environmental monitoring and prediction (disaster warning) purposes. * To be renamed the National Space Technology Laboratories. 120 The National Oceanographic Instrumentation Center, in NOAA, supports the entire U.S. oceanographic community, private, academic, and government, with technology related to testing, evaluation, calibration, intercalibration, and measurement standards of marine sensing systems. The need for these facilities is demonstrated by the fact that until FY '72 hardly any of the oceanographic instruments tested had acceptable operational lifetimes. Ocean engineering research in the National Sea Grant Program involves work on life support systems, sea floor engineering, vehicle and platform research, materials and structures, and related coastal engineering problems. In life support systems, a compact ultrasonic transmitter is being developed that will provide a routine safety system for working divers by permitting the assessment of an untethered diver's physical condition at all times during a dive operation. Sea floor engineers supported by Sea Grant are also developing and testing new equipment to measure gcotechnical properties of deep sea sediments in situ from research submersibles. This data will be used by those needing new anchoring systems or using bottom-resting devices. The National Science Foundation's Engineering Research program supports basic and applied research projects that seek to provide data and develop methodology that advance production and construction in the marine environment. For example, studies in sedimentation hydraulics and mechanics include basic research on sediment discharge in the sand bed streams with special reference to stream degradation, the fluid mechanics involved in the sediment transport and delta buildup in reservoirs, the statistical properties of sediment bed forms and sediment transport rates under various uniform and steady flows. Pollution dispersal is the result of circulation processes. The dispersion patterns from jets and diffuser pipes are being determined in projects that deal with the behavior of jets adding momentum, buoyancy, and mass and swirl to stratified layers. Both NSF's Engineering Division and NASA fund projects to understand the fluid dynamics of Lake Erie to provide a valid basis for pollution control programs. The relationships among variations in bottom topography, eddy diffusion, and wind are studied as they apply to water currents and movements. Water waves impinge on ocean structures. Applied studies of wave action from physical wavetank models include wave dynamics and kinetics, diffusion and dispersion, onshore and offshore sediment transport, and the effects on moored and tethered structures. Tank studies of wave forces on offshore pipelines are funded by NOAA. 121 The NSF Program in ocean thermal conversion supports research and technology development on the extraction of energy from adjacent water masses with different temperatures. The research program covers a broad spectrum of activities, ranging from mapping the temperatures of ocean water to work on piping and plumbing systems, protection against corrosion and biofouling, and techniques for anchoring or dynamic positioning. Examples of research supported by this program include work on the economic and technical feasibility of a solar power plant using an ocean thermal-difference-process and the design of a condenser surface to minimize thermal impediment of condensation. International Ocean Science Activities On June 19, 1973, an Agreement for Cooperation in WorldOcean Studies was concluded by the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. The U.S. position was formulated by participants from Navy, NOAA, NSF, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, the State Department, and the Office of Science and Technology. The agreement covers a period of 2 years subject to renewal at the end of that time. The initial areas identified for bilateral cooperation are large-scale ocean-atmosphere interaction, including laboratory studies, oceanic experiments, and mathematical modeling of the ocean-atmosphere system; ocean currents of planetary scale and other questions >of ocean dynamics; geochemistry and marine chemistry of the world ocean; geological and geophysical investigations of the world ocean, including deep sea drilling for scientific purposes;- biological productivity of the world ocean and the biochemistry of the functioning of individual organisms and whole biological communities of the world ocean; and intercalibration and standardization of oceanographic instrumentation and methods. Other areas of cooperation may be added by mutual agreement. NOAA has been designated the lead agency for this Agreement. For implementation of the Agreement, a U.S. -U.S.S.R. Joint Committee on Cooperation in World Ocean Studies was established and held its first meeting in Washington during February 1974. One of the main goals of IDOE is accelerated understanding of man's impact on the oceans and the ocean's impact on human activities. Consequently, NSF/IDOE has worked to develop scientifically sound cooperative programs offering opportunities for many nations to share both program responsibilities and results. In 1971 institutions in six foreign countries had committed resources, and scientists from an additional 15 countries were participating individually. By 1974 nearly 40 countries were active participants in one or more U.S. IDOE projects. 122 Specific examples of cooperative efforts developed through scientist-to-scientist cooperation are GEOSECS, continental margin studies and research on plate tectonics and metallogenesis. The Federal Republic of Germany, France, the United Kingdom, India, Italy, and Japan have participated extensively in GEOSECS with ships, personnel and laboratory facilities. During the first year of the Eastern South Atlantic Continental Margin survey, participants came from Argentina, Brazil, the Republic of the Congo, the United Kingdom, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Gabon, Ghana, Jamaica, Liberia, Nigeria, Portugal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Spain, and the United States. The Western South Atlantic continental margin survey is also underway with very active international scientific participation. Scientists from three U.S. laboratories, five Latin American countries, and the Pan Americanlnstituteof Geography and History are cooperating in the Nazca lithospheric plate project off the west coast of South America. Latin American scientists participated in all the initial cruises, and four worked in the United States on the data reduction and analysis. The planning for the 1973 research phase was a cooperative effort, as were the cruises themselves. In addition to encouraging participation by individual foreign institutions and researchers, the United States has pressed for ex- tensive internationalization of the IDOE through the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). The IOC, established in 1960, now has 79 members. At its Eighth Assembly, in 1973, the IOC provided strong endorsement for all of NSF's major IDOE projects and adopted the four major areas of concentration for the U.S. programs: environmental quality, seabed assessment, environmental forecasting, and living resources. To promote collaborative planning of IDOE programs through the IOC, NSF/IDOE has provided a 2- year planning grant to support workshops comprised of scientists who will review existing efforts and develop new IDOE programs. NOAA and other Federal agencies participating in the Integrated Global Ocean Station System (IGOSS) program will, beginning in late 1974, cooperate in a 2-year data exchange pilot project for marine pollution monitoring, designed by the joint Inter- governmental Oceanographic Commission/World Meteorological Organization Planning Group for IGOSS. The pilot project will focus initially on oil and petroleum hydrocarbon residues. The first phase of the pilot project will include observation of oil slicks and other floating substances, sampling and analysis of particulate petroleum residues or tar balls, and laboratory analysis of seawater samples to monitor concentrations of dissolved petroleum hydrocarbons. 123 In the Cooperative Investigation of the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions, ships from the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, Mexico, Cuba, Colombia, Venezuela, and Jamaica provided, for the first time, synoptic coverage of physical, chemical, and biological features of nearly the entire Gulf of Mexico and a significant part of the Western Caribbean Sea. Not all cooperative efforts are undertaken as part of a larger international program. Some are conducted on an individual agency basis. For example, the Royal New Zealand Navy Ship Tui, formerly a U.S. Navy vessel, but now on loan, conducted a research cruise over the Louisville Ridge in the South Pacific during the summer of 1973. U.S. Navy research contractors from the University of Hawaii participated in the planning and execution of the cruise. This type of cooperative effort is particularly fruitful for U.S. scientists because the area studied is remote from U.S. bases and logistically difficult to support. Further cooperative ventures are planned for the future. The Navy-owned vessel U.S.N.S. EJtanin,* which for a number of years has been used in support of the NSF Antarctic Program, is being loaned to Argentina and will be used for further cooperative Antarctic research efforts between the United States and Argentina. * Renamed Islas Orcadas 124 APPENDICES Appendix A-1 — Federal Ocean Program — Agency Budgets [In millions of dollars] Estimated by Fiscal Year 1973 1974 1975 1. Department of Defense — Military 210.7 2. Department of Defense — Civil Works 33.0 3. Department of Commerce 164.7 4. National Science Foundation 57.0 5. Department of Transportation 61.1 6. Department of the Interior 41.9 7. Environmental Protection Agency 26.8 8. Department of State' 10.7 9. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare 1.7 10. Atomic Energy Commission 7.3 11. National Aeronautics and Space Administration •. . . . 7.4 12. Smithsonian Institution 2.8 Total 631.1 225.6 223.0 31.8 31.9 190.3 214.3 62.9 66.7 47.6 61.1 46.5 66.0 26.5 25.4 12.0 13.0 8.1 7.6 7.4 16.9 5.3 15.0 2.9 2.9 666.9 743.8 Includes Agency for International Development budgets. Appendix A-2 — Federal Ocean Program — Budget by Major Purpose Categories [In millions of dollars] Estimated by Fiscal Year 1973 1974 1975 1. International Cooperation and Collaboration 10.9 2. National Security 102.0 3. Living Resources 79.0 4. Transportation 37.7 5. Development and Conservation of the Coastal Zone 95.1 6. Non-Living Resources , 20.0 7. Oceanographic Research 108.2 8. Education 8.2 9. Environmental Observation and Prediction . . . 33.6 10. Ocean Exploration, Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy 87.7 11. General Purpose Ocean Engineering 28.9 12. National Centers and Facilities 19.8 Total 631.1 12.1 13.1 109.2 97.0 85.5 94.4 35.4 41.2 105.8 115.1 23.0 39.3 116.5 131.6 8.2 9.4 37.0 38.6 94.8 106.9 28.2 42.8 11.2 14.4 666.9 743.8 125 Appendix A-3 — Detail by Subpurpose and Agency [In millions of dollars] Estimated by Fiscal Year 1973 1974 1975 10.9 12.1 13.1 7.4 7.9 8.5 (7.3) (7.8) (8.4) (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) 3.3 3.6 4.0 0.6 25.8 51.3 32.1 85.5 39.4 10.4 2.5 2.9 0.6 (0.1) (0.6) (0.6) (0.1) (0.0) (0.0) 102.0 109.2 97.0 25.8 50.7 20.5 94.4 1. International Cooperation and Collaboration (a) Marine-related activities of International organizations Department of State National Science Foundation (b) International fisheries Department of State (c) Assistance to developing nations 0.2 Agency for International Development National Science Foundation 2. National Security (a) Defense oriented surveys and services 23.0 Department of Defense — Military (b) Marine science support for defense systems 51.0 Department of Defense — Military (c) Ocean Engineering for Defense purposes 28.0 Department of Defense — Military 3. Living Resources 79.0 (a) Fishery resources assessment, develop- ment and management 38.4 Department of Commerce (b) Technical and economic assistance to the commercial fishing industry 8.0 Department of Commerce (c) Protection of endangered species, marine mammals research 1.3 Department of Commerce (d) Health, sanitation, contaminants, and inspection 5.3 Department of Commerce (10) Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (4.3) (e) Fish protein concentrate 0.2 Department of Commerce (f) Enforcement of Fisheries Treaties 22.5 Department of Commerce (1.2) Department of Transportation (21.3) (g) Use of marine life in biomedical research 3.3 Department of Health, Education, and Welfare 41.2 11.1 4.6 6.0 6.5 (1.0) (1.2) (5.0) (5.3) 0.0 0.0 24.3 28.9 (1.8) (2.4) (22.5) (26.5) 2.1 126 Estimated by Fiscal Year 1973 1974 1975 4. Transportation 37.7 (a) Maritime science and technology; advanced ship engineering develop- ment 14.6 Department of Commerce (b) Shipping economics and requirements; improvement in ship operations and shipping systems 7.9 Department of Commerce (c) Deep water ports/offshore terminal development 2.6 Department of Defense — Civil (2.0) Department of Commerce (0-6) (d) Channel and harbor improvement 6.0 Department of Defense — Civil (e) Aids to navigation 3.0 Department of Commerce (1-3) Department of Transportation [1-7] |f) Merchant Marine safety; search and rescue 3.6 Department of Transportation 5. Development and Conservation of the Coastal Zone 95.1 (a) Marine pollution abatement and control 49.3 (1) Water quality enhancement standards, and criteria Department of Defense — Civil (0.5] Department of Commerce (0.3) Department of the Interior (1.0) Environmental Protection Agency . (11.0) (2) Control and removal of pollutants Department of Defense — Civil (2.5) Department of the Interior (0.9) Department of Transportation (10.2) Environmental Protection Agency . (3.7) (3) Surveillance and regulatory activities Department of Defense — Civil (4.0) Department of Transportation (3.1) Environmental Protection Agency . (12.1) (b) Conservation and recreation 30.5 (1) Conservation of marine locales, gamefish, and wildlife Department of the Interior (13.7) (2) Planning and development of marine areas for recreation Department of the Interior (7.6) (3) Boating safety Department of Transportation (0.6) (4) Small craft harbor development Department of Defense — Civil (3.6) 35.4 13.5 8.2 4.3 105.8 43.8 41.2 12.3 9.6 0.3 1.5 (0.0) (0.0) (0.3) (1.5) 6.0 6.3 3.1 4.1 (2.5) (2.5) (0.6) (1.6) 7.4 115.1 45.2 (0.5) (0.6) (1.8) (2.4) (0.8) (0.7) (10.4) (9.8) (3.0) (3.1) (0.0) (0.0) (7.0) (7.0) (3.3) (3.3) (2.5) (3.0) (1.7) (3.0) (12.8) (12.3) 33.7 37.7 (12.9) (14.7) 10.9) (12.4) (0.4) (2.1) (4.5) (4.0) 127 Estimated by Fiscal Year 1973 1974 1975 (5.0) 15.3 28.3 32.2 (8.0) (9.0) (9.0) (4.7) (16.6) (18.1) (1.9) (2.0) (4.4) (0.7) (0.7) (0.7) 20.0 23.0 39.3 4.9 5.1 9.3 (0.1) (0.1) (0.1) (4.8) (5.0) (9.2) 9.5 13.5 26.0 1.0 3.4 116.5 (5) Beach and shore stabilization; hurricane storm surge protection Department of Defense — Civil (5.0) (c) Regional environmental systems research (Chesapeake and San Francisco Bays, N.Y. Bight, Great Lakes, Coastal Zone Management Projects, etc.) Department of Defense — Civil Department of Commerce National Science Foundation Smithsonian Institution 6. Non-living Resources (a) Assessment, investigation, and appraisal of minerals, fossil fuels, sand, and gravel Department of Defense — Civil Department of the Interior (b) Leasing and mangement Department of the Interior (c) Environmental impact of mining 1.2 Department of Commerce (d) Development and protection of fresh water supplies 4.4 Department of the Interior 7. Oceanographic Research 108.2 (a) Atomic Energy Commission (b) Department of Defense — Military^ . (c) Department of Commerce (d) Department of Transportation (e) National Science Foundation (f) Smithsonian Institution (g) Department of Health, Education, and Welfare 8. Education (a) Department of Commerce (b) Department of Defense — Military^ . (c) Department of Transportation (d) National Science Foundation (e) Department of Health, Education, and Welfare 9. Environmental Observation and Prediction (a) Data acquisition, processing and dissemination , Department of Defense — Military' Department of Defense — Civil .... Department of Commerce Department of Transportation .... (b) Model studies and development .... Atomic Energy Commission Department of Commerce (4.5) 1.0 3.0 131.6 6.4 6.5 15.6 25.3 26.7 27.6 20.3 21.3 25.1 0.5 0.2 0.2 54.2 60.1 61.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 0.0 0.1 0.1 8.2 8.2 9.4 4.9 5.0 6.1 2.1 2.0 2.0 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.1 0.1 0.1 33.6 37.0 38.6 31.0 34.7 36.1 (13.0) (12.4) (12.5) (1.3) (1.2) (1.3) (11.2) (16.0) (17.3) (5.5) (5.1) (5.0) 2.6 2.3 2.5 (0.3) (0.3) (0.5) (2.3) (2.0) (2.0) 128 Estimated by Fiscal Year 1973 1974 1975 57.4 66.0 75.4 (18.1) (21.1) (26.7) (39.3) (44.9) (48.7) 15.1 15.5 18.5 (5.2) (5.8) (7.3) (9.9) (9.7) (11.2) 15.2 13.3 13.0 (3.8) (0.0) (0.0) (11.4) (13.3) (13.0) 28.9 28.2 42.8 10. Ocean Exploration, Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy 87.7 94.8 106.9 (a) Nautical charts Department of Commerce Department of Defense — Military' (b) Coastal mapping Department of Commerce Department of Defense — Military' (c) Geophysical mapping Department of Commerce Department of Defense — Military' 11. General Purpose Ocean Engineering (a) Systems development (satellite, aircraft, and other sensor and instrument development) 11-1 10.7 21.1 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (7.4) (5.3) (15.0) Department of Commerce (3.7) (5.4) (6.1) (b) Data Buoy Systems 8.5 8.5 8.5 Department of Commerce (c) Deep ocean technology "7 .'7 7.4 11.0 Department of Defense — Military' (d) Manned Undersaa Technology 1.0 10 1.4 Department of Commerce (e) Power plant sitings; nuclear power sources 0.6 0.6 0.8 Atomic Energy Commission 12. National Centers and Facilities 19.8 11.2 14.4 (a) National Oceanographic Data Center . . . 3.0 2.9 3.4 Department of Commerce (b) National Climatic Center 0.1 0.1 0.1 Department of Commerce (c) Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center 0.3 0.3 0.3 Smithsonian Institution (d) Mediterranean Marine Sorting Center 0.3 0.3 0.3 Smithsonian Institution (e) National Oceanographic Instrumentation Center 1.9 2.2 2.4 Department of Commerce (f) Polar Icebreakers^ ^ 14.2 5.4 7.9 Department of Transportation ' All Department of Defense— Military funds relate primarily to National Security although they may appear in other national goal categories. ■ Includes Department of Transportation non-recurring costs of 9.0M in FY 1973 and 2.3M in FY 1975 for renovation of polar icebreakers. 129 APPENDIX B — OCEAN SEDIMENT CORING PROGRAM Deep Sea Drilling Project The Ocean Sediment Coring Program (OSCP) seeks precise comprehension of the origin, structure, dynamics, geologic history, and broad resource potential of the outer crustal layers of the earth that presently lie beneath the sea. Achievement of these goals is being realized through the OSCP's major activity — the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP). The DSDP provides core samples from the entire oceanic sequence of buried sedimentary strata and portions of the underlying crystalline rocks by employing advanced drilling technology to penetrate deep into the sea floor. The DSDP was authorized in 1966 and began Phase I drilling in August 1968. Phase II extended the project from February 1970 to August 1972. Phase III, presently underway, will terminate drilling in August 1975. The drilling ship Glomar Challenger, which was specially designed and equipped for this task, has now (as of November 1, 1973) obtained crustal samples from 313 sites located in all the major oceans and seas of the world, except the Arctic. The prime contractor for the DSDP is the University of California, which delegated management responsibility to the Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO), a part of the University of California at San Diego. Global Marine, Inc. (GMI) of Los Angeles, an experienced marine drilling company, owns Glomar Challenger and operates the ship under a subcontract with the University of California. Scientific advice and guidance for the DSDP is provided by a series of advisory panels composed of noted earth scientists chosen from a wide spectrum of universities, government agencies, and private agencies all over the world. The panels are coordinated under the auspices of the Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling (}OIDES)^ the group of oceanographic institutions that conceived the original plan for the DSDP. The drilling schedule is divided into a series of 2-month cruise legs, each of which is staffed by a different scientific party composed of about 10 senior earth scientists. The analysis of core samples begins on board ChaJJenger as soon as they are cqllected, and continues subsequently in shore-based laboratories. Results of the first comprehensive analyses are published in a series of volumes, one for each leg, entitled Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project. The 10,400-ton Glon\ar Challenger was launched in early 1968, having been designed and constructed as an offshore drilling ship and modified specifically to meet the unique requirements of the DSDP. The ship is 400 feet long and is equipped amidship with the 131 140-foot high drilling derrick which is capable of supporting up to 24,000 feet of drill pipe. A computer controlled dynamic positioning system can maintain Challenger over a drill site in water as deep as 22,500 feet. This system controls a series of auxiliary thruster engines which, combined with the main engines, furnish the power to maintain position relative to an acoustical beacon that is emplaced on the sea bed adjacent to the drill site. As a result of its proven effectiveness in extreme weather and sea states, dynamic positioning has now been installed in several ships that are used by the petroleum industry for offshore drilling. In order to allow reentry of bore hole after replacing worn out drill bits, a sonar guided reentry system was designed and has been employed successfully at several sites. The most recent technological improvement of the drilling system is a heave compensator, which is designed to isolate the drill string from the vertical heave of the ship. As a result, soft sediment cores are less distorted and drill bits last longer when penetrating harder rocks. This system was installed in November 1973 and successfully used for the first time in December 1973. The enormous contributions of the DSDP to geologic and oceanographic knowledge have now established it internationally as one of the most important and productive earth science investigations ever undertaken. Having nearly completed a broad reconnaissance of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, the Mediterranean, Caribbean, Bering, and Red Seas, and the Gulf of Mexico, drilling was accomplished in the hostile environment of the antarctic last year, an important operational as well as scientific achievement. Samples and data from 31 legs are now being studied by over 300 scientists throughout the world. Table No. 1 lists some of the significant operational statistics of these legs. ' Current institutional members of JOIDES are: Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory, Columbia University; Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami; Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego; P. P. Shirshov Institute of Ocsanology, U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences; Department of Oceanography, University of Washington; Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution; Bundesanstalt fur Bodenforschung, Federal Republic of Germany. 132 TABLE NO. 1 Operational Statistics for the First 31 Cruises of Glomar Challenger August 1968 - August 1973 Significant Operational Statistics Number of Legs (cruises) 31 Number of Sites Occupied 302 Number of Holes Drilled 448 Number of Cores Taken 6,044 Total Penetration into Sea Floor (feet) 441,030 Total Coring (feet) 174,293 Total Core Recovery (feet) 98,204 Maximum Water Depth (feet) 20,483 Average Water Depth (feet) 15,000 Maximum Drill String Length (feet) 22,192 Maximum Depth of Penetration into Sea Floor (feet) 4,265 Miles Steamed (nautical miles) 156,818 Number of Scientists Participating on board Glomar Challenger Shipboard Total (including 96 repeats) 345 Shipboard Foreign (including 31 repeats) 107 Nations Represented 23 First Operational Use of Reenttry December 1970 Number of Initial Reports Volumes Published 17 Number of Copies Printed (per volume, approximate) 3,000 Number of Initial Reports Awaiting Publication 4 Number of Core Samples Distributed (first 24 legs) 22,962 National Science Foundation National and Special Research Programs Ocean Sediment Coring Program Actual Estimate^ Estimate FY 1973 FY 19^4 FY 1975 Ocean Sediment Coring Program $9,473,000 $10,500,000 $11,000,000 133 APPENDIX C— THE FRENCH-AMERICAN MID-OCEAN UNDERSEA STUDY One of the most prominent topographic features of the deep ocean floor is the midocean ridge or mountain system. In the new global geophysical theories of seafloor spreading and continental drift, material is believed to well up from deep within the earth at the axis of this ridge system, creating fresh basaltic mountains and other features on the ocean floor for which there are no parallels on land. The extent to which this creation of oceanic crust may be related to geochemical interactions affecting mineral formation at subduction zones is poorly understood. However, there is a trend toward using tectonic plate concepts in exploration for minerals and petroleum on land and on the continental shelves. The depth and vastness of the ocean has limited our ability to perform the studies necessary to identify the geochemical and geophysical processes of emplacement, although recent studies in the Red Sea and North Atlantic have given some indication of the range of phenomena likely to occur. In 1971, a detailed investigation of part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge was initiated to concentrate on these geologic processes at ridge axes-and the landforms that they produce. The French-American Mid-Ocean Undersea Study (FAMOUS) was established as a joint project by the governments of France and the United States as a part of the U.S. -French Program for Cooperation in Oceanography. The lead agencies under which this agreement is being pursued are the Centre National pour I'Exploitation des Oceans (CNEXO) for France and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) for the United States. FAMOUS project activities of the French are being coordinated at the Centre Oceanologique de Bretagne (COB) at Brest, and U.S. activities at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Primary Federal agency participation and support for FAMOUS is being provided by the National Science Foundation, NOAA, and the Navy. Others participating include the U.S. Geological Survey, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Oregon State University, Dalhousie University (Canada), the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences (England), the Institute of Geological Sciences (England), and Centre Oceanographique de Bretagne (France) and CNEXO (France). Project FAMOUS focuses on a section of the mid-Atlantic Ridge about 400 miles Southwest of the Azores and encompasses two major fracture zones that offset the Ridge. This section of the ridge is characterized by a well-defined axial rift valley and a symmetrical magnetic anomaly pattern. The overall plan of investigation began 135 with broad regional surveys covering several hundred kilometers, followed by increasingly detailed surveys of features a few kilometers to a few meters wide, using deep towed sensors, seafloor photography, and bottom stations. Later, research submersibles will be used. In later 1971 and early 1972 an aeromagnetic survey and initial ship surveys by research vessel Knorr, U.S.N.S. Hayes and ships of the Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) were made. The bathymetry from these surveys was combined to develop a 100- fathom contour map of the FAMOUS area. In the fall of 1972, comprehensive sampling, mapping, and bottom photography were undertaken by the Jean Charcot near 37 degrees N., and similar techniques were employed by Atlantis 11 using bottom transponder navigation. In the spring of 1973, NAVOCEANO completed a very detailed bathymetric survey over the central rift valley from about 36 degrees to 37 degrees N., from which a set of detailed bathymetric charts, some with a 5-fathom contour interval, have been prepared. In the summer of 1973, several ships, including the Knorr, operated in the area, using the Scripps Deep Tow package. The Shackleton used ocean bottom seismographs, the D'entrecasteau did detailed bathymetric surveying with 200- to 300-meter line spacing, the Discovery used the 20-ton Gloria side-scan system to make a side- scan mosaic of the area, and the Atlantis II studied microearthquakes with sonobuoys and bottom heat flow. In the fall of 1973, the Hayes was used to deploy other bottom seismographs. Later Mizar undertook large-scale bottom photography with the new LIBEC camera system and, on a subsequent cruise, recalled the bottom seismographs and planted ocean bottom current meters, which in turn were recalled by Lynch late in 1973. The geophysical surface studies have provided the broad and intermediate scale plate tectonics framework essential for interpretation of the fine-scale, direct seafloor observations to be made with manned research submersibles and near bottom sensors. The primary scientific objective of the initial geophysical surveys was to isolate those regions of the ridge crest where a simple pattern of seafloor spreading could be recognized and where the crest is offset by a transform fault or fracture zone. The subsequent surface ship investigations have provided insight to the location and extent of geomorphologic expression of the zone of crustal formation or intrusion in the rift valley and enabled development of a preliminary geologic map of the prospective dive areas. The near bottom geological data allows analysis of the origin of topography by locating fault systems and mapping local volcanic 136 features. It is now known that the rift valley at this longitude is 1 to 2 kilometers wide bounded by a steep scarp to the west with a median feature of alternate elongated 100-meter high hills and similarly proportioned troughs. The French have observed that rocks from these central highs pop and break when brought to the surface and that the near bottom magnetic anomaly over the median features is especially large even for the axial valley. Although it is difficult to identify tectonic features on the rift valley floor, scarps of small dimensions are found there with trends parallel to the axial structure and general trend of the median valley. Preliminary results have already revealed regions of anomalous seismic activity, heat flow, rock types, and morphological characteristics. The followup analysis of geophysical information and rock samples will serve to relate the magnetic and petrologic properties of rock samples obtained by the submersibles with the magnetic and bathymetric profiles and to relate the seismicity and heat flow results to the tectonic structure inferred from the magnetic anomaly and bathymetric observations. The comparison of the various mapping, sampling, and photographic techniques will be one of the important results of this project. Progress has been made in a special training program for submersible pilots and diving scientists. The submersibles have been outfitted with special instruments, including rock chippers and drills, transponder navigation system, video tape recorders, and data loggers. The Alvin, owned by the U.S. Navy and operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, has been refitted with a titanium hull to permit it to dive to 12,000 feet. While the Alvin undergoes final refitting and testing, the American scientific diving team is gaining experience with the Aivin during dives in shallower water. The French have completed training dives in Archimede in the Mediterranean and seven preliminary dives in the FAMOUS area. The French and U.S. diving scientists have made a field trip to Iceland and Hawaii respectively, where rock forms were studied. Tests are being made of the new French submersible Cyana (SP3000], which will be used in 1974. Although the number of dives made by the French submersible Archimede in the summer of 1973 is insufficient to map the area covered, the dives have produced considerable data confirming bathymetric interpretations and have provided excellent detailed photographic coverage for analysis and interpretation. Plans are being formulated for some 40 dives by the three submersibles in 1974. Aivin will begin work in an area adjacent to the French dive area in 1973, covering a central graben and a second medial high. This primary dive area will extend up the west wall onto a bench above the 1300-fathom contour. The secondary 137 American dive area is also in the rift valley south of the primary target. Archimede will make a few dives in the 1973 French dive area to make 1974, however, will be in the north bounding fracture zone. Cyana will work on the western and eastern scarps of the original French area and also in the northern fracture zone. If time permits, Aivin will make additional dives in either the north or south bounding fracture zone. The principal tasks of the submersibles will be to make detailed observations of lava flow morphology, fracture systems, and vent structures and to establish the stratigraphic sequence of intrusive and extrusive rocks of layer 2 and possibly layer 3 in the rift valley walls and on the walls of a fracture zone. It is also hoped that the submersibles will obtain data indicating deformation on the rift valley walls and obtain a set of rock samples carefully documented with respect to structural features, flow boundaries, stratigraphic position, and geologic orientation. The scientific objectives of the submersible work will be to identify the active intrusion zone, to chart the zone using its magnetic, bathymetric, and geothermal characteristics and relate these to the broader tectonic framework inferred from the local seismicity. In addition to photographic coverage of the terrain from the submersibles and data logging of features seen, several bottom instruments may be deployed by the submersibles. A magnetic petrology lab and water sediment lab for processing and analyzing recovered samples, libraries of all data, and facilities for followup studies will be available on the Knorr. On board the Knorr, several ancillary experiments are planned to complement the diving program. A heat flow program and complementary gravity coring are planned for the northern fracture zone to provide data to be used in support of Archimede operations. The heat flow measurements will also complement planned studies of submarine hydrothermal activity. Photography and magnetic profiles over the area of the magnetic reversal boundary between the Brunhes and Matayama Epochs are planned and will be followed up by rock drilling. The use of sonobuoys is planned for microearthquake monitoring, especially near the submersibles. Bottom seismograph studies, current meter deployment, and additional bottom photography will also be undertaken from the Knorr. Acoustic frequencies for communication, navigation, and depth sounding are being assigned to avoid interference among the many vehicles in the area. An extensive bilingual operational report of the diving program will be prepared at the end of 1974 to serve as a basis and catalyst for further analyses. In 1975, a scientific symposium will be planned and a composite scientific publication will be issued. 138 APPENDIX D— INTERNATIONAL FIELD YEAR FOR THE GREAT LAKES INTRODUCTION Conceived as a part of the International Hydrological Decade (1965-1974), the International Field Year for the Great Lakes (IFYGL) is a joint United States-Canadian program of environmental and water resources research focusing on Lake Ontario and the Ontario basin. The field data collection period was scheduled from April 1, 1972 to March 31, 1973, however, some observations were continued through June 30, 1973. Approximately 1,000 individuals from the United States and Canada are participating in IFYGL; among the U.S. participants are representatives of seven U.S. Federal Departments and independent agencies. IFYGL OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE The central objective of IFYGL is to strengthen knowledge of Lake Ontario and the Ontario basin in order to provide a scientific basis for improved Great Lakes management activities related to water quality and quantity and environmentally sensitive operations. Examples of such activities are the provision of municipal, industrial, and rural water supply; protection of water quality; fish resource management; optimization of commercial and recreational navigation; control of water levels and flows; provision of hydropower; shore use and erosion control; and warnings of hazardous and destructive conditions. COORDINATION AND MANAGEMENT As IFYGL is part of the International Hydrological Decade (IHD), the National Committees of the IHD in the United States and Canada established an International Steering Committee for IFYGL. The International Steering Committee established policy and undertook broad planning. Policy implementation and continued coordination is the responsibility of the Joint Management Team, which is made up of the Canadian Management Team and the U.S. IFYGL Project Office. Coordination efforts are supported by six scientific panels concerned with the terrestrial water balance, energy budget, lake meteorology and evaporation, boundary layer, water movement, and biology and chemistry. Coordination of the actual field operations and of data management takes place between individuals in the United States and Canada identified by the Joint Management Team. 139 Seven major U.S. government departments and independent agencies, and the New York Department of Environmental Conservation, have participated in IFYGL (Table 1). In addition, 15 private institutions were involved in the IFYGL data collection and/or analysis, (Table 2). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the U.S. lead agency for IFYGL, established a U.S. IFYGL Project Office, which carries responsibility for the U.S. field operations, data acquisition system engineering and testing, data management, and scientific studies. Table l.—LI.S. Federal agencies participating in IFYGL Departnnent or Agency Department of Commerce Environmental Protection Agency Department of Defense National Aeronautics and Space Department of Interior Administration Department of Transportation National Science Foundation Table 2.— U.S. non-FederaJ participating institutions Beukers Laboratories State University of New York Cape Fear Technical Institute Texas Instruments, Inc. Center for the Environment and Man University of Miami CALSPAN, Inc. University of Michigan The General Electric Company, Inc. University of Nevada Manhattan College University of Rochester National Center for Atmospheric Research University of Washington New York State Department of University of Wisconsin Environmental Conservation PROGRAM APPROACH IFYGL Schedule and Technical Plan An outline of the U.S. schedule for IFYGL is given in Figure 1, which shows the phasing of six major activities over a 6-year period. The present schedule for field operations, April 1, 1972, to March 31, 1973 was agreed upon in April 1971 by representatives of the United States and Canada. Not reflected in Figure 1 is the fact that the planning began some 7 years ago in 1966. The results of the past many years of work by the Steering Committee, the scientific panels and subcommittees and the two McMaster University workshops have now been brought into focus by the IFYGL Technical Plan, a four-volume compendium issued in April 1972 (Table 3). In accordance with a decision by the Joint Management Team, a draft plan was prepared, and the Washington Workshop convened in 140 January 1972 resulted in a more complete version of the Plan. Future revisions will be handled on an ad hoc basis. ^u>c!EL^^^^->^^ -iixa&akit^ t Activity 1971 1972 1973 J \ I 1974 1975 I 1976 1977 Develop Technical Plan Prepare for Field Program Field Year Operations Engineering, Tests & Data System Comparisons Data Management— Archive Analysis Fig. 1 U.S. IFYGL Schedule Table 3.— IFYGL technical plan Volume Title 1 Scientific Program 2 Data Acquisition Systems 3 Field Operations Plan 4 Data Management Plan Contents projects, objectives, products, approach systems, elements, characteristics, deployment detailed observational procedures, schedules policies, procedures, facilities, data products, schedules Experimental field projects have been given major emphasis in IFYGL. These projects w^ere undertaken to ascertain the important large-scale spatial and temporal processes in Lake Ontario and the Ontario basin and are referred to as budget or balance projects. They include materials balance, heat balance, terrestrial water balance, and atmospheric water balance. The objective of the materials balance project is to determine the amounts and forms of materials entering, leaving, and residing in Lake Ontario, with emphasis on basic plant nutrients and, to a lesser extent, on heavy metals. The Lake heat balance project will determine the form, amount, and seasonal variation of water entering, leaving, and stored in Lake Ontario and the Ontario basin. The atmospheric water balance project will determine the magnitude of the terms in the atmospheric water balance equation and their contribution to the hydrologic cycle of Lake Ontario. Experimental projects also address the small-scale natural distribution and variability of budget terms, parameters related to 141 the prediction of the budgets, and operational parameters and related variables. These experiments cover the entire Lake, coastal regions, and the basin. Major projects deal with smaller scale natural distribution and variability of water movement, chemistry and biology, fisheries, and boundary layer. Water movement studies will include analyses of physical properties, diagnostic models, simulation models of lake and coastal circulation and diffusion, internal waves, and surface waves. The chemistry and biology project is investigating chemical and biological processes of the open Lake and the inshore zone as well as processes in selected tributary rivers. The concentration and distribution of a number of chemical substances is being investigated, and biological studies are determining the types, distributions, and amounts of phytoplankton, zooplankton and benthos. These studies also are directed toward the development of models for simulation purposes. A fisheries project investigated the Lake Ontario fish stocks, species composition, distribution, relative abundance, growth rates, and incidence of lamprey predation. The boundary layer project is determining air- water interface fluxes of heat, moisture, and momentum and is undertaking parameterization studies of the boundary layer fluxes. A synthesis of Lake Ontario evaporation will be undertaken for biweekly or monthly periods to assess Lake evaporation from terrestrial water balance, atmospheric water balance, and Lake heat balance estimates and from evaporation pan data and boundary layer measurements. While the experimental approach has been given major emphasis in IFYGL, water resource management requires improved prediction of the hydrological and limnological variables which impact upon the performance and costs of management alternatives. Modeling and simulation projects are therefore included in IFYGL to develop improved prediction of the limnological and hydrological characteristics of Lake Ontario and the Ontario basin for resource management purposes. The experimental projects are providing data describing the variations that take place in the Lake and basin and the scales of the temporal and spatial variability. These projects also provide data to examine interrelationships between parameters to analyze the reasons for observed changes. The goal is to develop improved models to simulate the environment and to yield information pertinent to meaningful water resource management alternatives. OPERATIONS AND DATA ACQUISITION The data collection program of IFYGL is the most comprehensive undertaken in any of the Great Lakes with regard to the network 142 intensity in space and time spanning the Lake and basin, the' numbers and types of data acquisition systems, and the use of advanced data acquisition systems. Figure 2 shows some of the major U.S, IFYGL data collection systems and the data flow. The U.S. Field Headquarters, located in Rochester, New York, was responsible for the deployment, operations, maintenance, and logistic support for the major U.S. data acquisition systems and for field data management activities. The Canada Centre for Inland Waters (CCIW) was the focal point for Canadian field operations. From some of the five acquisition systems identified in Figure 2, data were communicated automatically, while from others data were retrieved manually by courier. station / Water Analysis Labs / \J Fig. 2 IFYGL data collection systems and data flow. The ship systems measured the physical, chemical, biological, and meteorological properties of the Lake and atmosphere at predetermined stations and along tracks using various measurement devices, such as electronic bathythermographs. Water samples were obtained and processed at water analysis laboratories on board the vessels and also at shore facilities. Canada had three major research vessels participating in data collection, the Martin Karlsen, the Limnos, the Port Dauphines as well as smaller vessels. The United 143 States had two, the Researcher and the Advance II, and many smaller vessels. The IFYGL buoy, tower, and automatic meteorological stations measured current, water temperature, water levels, and surface meteorological parameters. This network included 11 Canadian and 10 U.S. buoys. Two U.S. and one Canadian weather radars made routine observations and measured precipitation intensity for small areas and time elements. Precipitation observations were obtained from the conventional climatological network within the basin. A special rainfall network was deployed and operated south of Rochester, a special snowfall network in the eastern part of the basin. These precipitation observations are being used to calibrate and test the radar, storm by storm, as a precipitation-measuring data acquisition system. Advanced rawinsonde systems were operated from three United States and three Canadian stations around the Lake. Aircraft were used to measure vertical fluxes of heat, moisture, and momentum in the atmospheric boundary layer and to make meteorological observations of temperature, dew point, and wind velocity. Other aircraft remotely sensed surface temperature and snowpack water content and made multispectral and radiation measurements. DATA MANAGEMENT All IFYGL data collections were submitted to the United States and Canadian data centers and there will be complete international data exchange. As shown in Figure 1, the data management activity overlaps the Field Year, but continues well into 1975. The Environmental Data Service, NOAA, is responsible for the management and coordination of all IFYGL data collected by U.S. investigators and copies of all Canadian data. The data centers will maintain an IFYGL data catalogue, summarized data, quality-controlled and documented processed data, and raw data. Processed data will comprise the largest part of the data bank and will consist of data collected by the agencies, translated, checked, and verified. The data management philosophy is to make all IFYGL data, data products, and data support information available to interested persons as easily and as inexpensively as possible. 144 ACCOMPLISHMENTS— U.S. AND CANADA The principal accomplishments to date have been: the completion of the IFYGL planning documented in the 4-volume Technical Plan, the completion of the data collection as planned from April 1972 through March 1973, and the publication of a quarterly IFYGL Bulletin and three IFYGL Technical Manuals. Analysis of the data has also began. The scope of the data collection is shown in Table 4. Table 4.— Magnitude of IFYGL data collection Observation systems and types of data No. of observations Buoys and towers; water currents, water temperature, air temperature, dew point, wind, pressure, radiation, precipitation 50 x 10^ Automatic meteorological stations: wind, temperature, dew point, radiation, pressure, precipitation . 8 x 10^ Radar and precipitation networks 30 x 10^ Rawinsonde soundings ' 2,000 Ships; BT, O^ soundings 5,000 surface meteorological data, water temperatures 3 x 10^ water samples (nutrients, heavy metals, chemicals) 4 x 10* biological (chlorophyll, zooplankton, biomass, phytoplankton, particle count, fish) 10* Aircraft: wind, air temperature, pressure, dew point, humidity, vertical fluxes, solar radiation, lake surface temperature, gamma radiation, multispectral radiation 1.3 x 10*^ Basin hydroJogic stations; stream gages, wells, soil moisture probes, snow courses, etc 2.6 x 10* Lake hydrologic stations; water levels, water temper- ature, precipitation 1.1 x 10^ FUTURE ACTIONS The U.S. analysis activity will continue some 4 years beyond the termination of Field Year operations (Figure 1). The IFYGL data collection will be used to calculate the large scale budgets and to define the natural distribution and variability that takes place in the Lake and basin. To the extent feasible, this data collection will also be used to explain natural distributions and variability and to develop models of interactive processes. 145 The 1-year data base scheduled for IFYGL limits the types of analyses that can be performed. Because the IFYGL data record is short, attention will be focused on short-period fluctuations and the theoretical modeling approach. Additional data collection may be necessary to develop the interrelationships between parameters required for simulation models. The design of future data collections, however, should be based upon the results drawn from IFYGL. Major results expected from future IFYGL analyses include the following: (1) detailed analysis of large-scale processes relative to Lake Ontario and the basin, including the terrestrial water balance. Lake heat balance, atmospheric water and heat balance, and materials balance of the Lake and selected tributaries; (2) analysis of the natural distribution and variability of budget terms, lake currents, temperature, internal waves, surface waves, thermal bar, and lake-scale circulation; (3) detailed case studies for periods of special interest relating to the lake-atmosphere system; (4) analysis of the natural distribution and variability of chemical concentrations and processes including nutrients; (5) analysis of the natural distribution and variability of selected biological properties, such as chlorophyll, zooplankton, biomass, and major plankton species; (6) models for analysis, diagnosis, prediction, and simulation of physical, chemical, and biological natural distributions and variability and analysis of alternatives pertinent to water resource management. A series of scientific reports is anticipated. The first several of the reports will, on the U.S. side, consist of detailed descriptions of the acquisition systems. The results of scientific analyses will be disseminated later in the same series. 146 APPENDIX E— STATUS OF THE FEDERALLY SUPPORTED FLEET The following table summarizing Federal Fleet size and funding over a 4-year period reflects the impact of sharply rising costs in a period of level or nearly level support for ship operations. CHANGES IN FEDERAL FLEET SIZE AND FUNDING FY 1972 THROUGH FY 1975 Agency 1972 (Actual) 1973 (Actual) 1974 (Estimated)1975 (Estimated) No. of No. of No. of No. of Oper- Oper- Oper- Oper- ating $$ in ating $$ in ating $$ in ating $$ in Ships Millions Ships Millions Ships Millions Ships Millions Academic 33 16.8 33 17.0 30 17.2 29 17.8 NOAA ... 24 17.5 24 17.9 19 16.3 20 18.9 (MCS) . . . (14) (14.9) (13) (15.1) (11) (13.7) (11) (15.4) (OF&LR) (10) ( 2.6) (11) ( 2.8) ( 8) ( 2.6) ( 9) ( 3.5) NSF 2 2.0 2 2.1 1 1.3 1 1.3 USCG .... 9 14.2 8 14.2 7 13.5 7' 13.2 uses .... 0 — 0— 0 — 0— 1 0.4 2 1.8 USN 16 26.0 16 25.5 16 28.7 14 32.9 Total ... 84 76.5 83 76.7 74 77.4 73' 85.9 Two ships will be decommissioned late FY 1975, reducing total fleet size to 71. Essentially level funding of ship operations during the period FY 1972-74 has resulted in the disposal of 10 old ships without replacement, and the relegation of 4 NOAA ships, all constructed within the last decade, to "temporarily out of service" (TOS) status. These four ships are Miller Freeman, Townsend Cromwell, Discoverer and Surveyor. (This situation will be somewhat improved by the reactivation of the Townsend Cromwell, planned in mid-FY 1975.) Escalating fuel and maintenance costs have worsened the Federal Fleet support picture since December 1973. Agency estimates of operating costs for FY 1975 indicate that an 11-percent increase in support is required to maintain a somewhat smaller fleet. A complete listing of ships serving the Federal Ocean Program in the FY '73-'75 period follows. The term "permanently out of service" 147 (POS) used in designation of operational status means that a ship has been removed from the roster of Federal agency supported ships even though it may continue to operate under other auspices. The count of scientist berths on Navy and NOAA ships in some instances includes a military or commissioned officer complement which has scientific program responsibility. Five U.S. Navy ships, Bowditch, Button, Michelson, Chauvenet and Harkness, regularly have such complements whose duties involve only scientific program activities. 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O c/3 a a. 5 fc cDi'OeococDtNt— '^lo I ocDio I cDcoinoJOii C^JintNOlNi-HCMMCOtOr-iaSCDOcsl OCOr-iOO ^T-^COCMt^OrH^OJCOCMOCOCsJ I ^100310011 rn' rH r^ | II 00 •* t CSJ O t-^ ir3 CO CD Tf 00 lO - tv CM CO CO in O inOO^t^vin ICMCDrH Ir-lrH I inr-iCDCT)COCSl lOJCOCM lt^03l t~^Cslt^CMinOcOrHCSl ICMCSjO ^r.- I O3r-icoo3ooo5in«05inooooo |coeoinino)'*"omincD'S'05r^ icooorqco rHr-ir-it-vC00303t\COOOOeO I COCOlOCOOJOOCOCDlOCOincO'J'ICO'-'^CTl CSllOCDCvJCMOCSlOlO^rHr-iCTjOrHCM CO^ CM CDC^J^^COOlOCT)'— lO oo DC ffl CD 03 c c CO CO 00 oc SI'S c c ■^ nnS^-? ? ^cc E EG:c:n ^nn^u^^-S-SOOOOO < S^ 5o 55 So 55 Sn J J Q fc o X X X ^►aS S S S S 2 O O D D H H ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ mcooomiOr-icot^ooLn^cDmocoiooooco^OLnooooiooajLniot^'^OOJ OOC000002t0003T-iCDCDlOt^030CDOt>.CO'-imLnOOOOCOrHt-^OOOCD^t^rHr-i05 i—r-iCM CSJr-^cMco'*'*'cot^cocotvOtMr-iocococo';j"00'*'coco'j'm^03m'*'coco CDCD'*CDCDt^'*"COCMCDinCOCOtvlOCDLOCOt^t-x^CDCD^CD'f'*t^^CDinCO^^'^CD^ O>CT)CTJO0O5O2O3O5O5O5CT)O3a3O5O2O5O3O3O3O3O5CTlO3O3O3O3O5O2O3O32;O5O5O5O>O5 151 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1975 O - 598- 460