Fiscal Year 1977 Federal Plan m for Marine Environmental Prediction .S. Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ^SO* Cover: An Eagle at sea — the U.S. Coast Guard Academy bark Eagle was one of the participants in the American Bicentennial event "Tall Ships." Photo courtesy of U.S. Coast Guard. ofiMWite. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE ^VPi^ Juanita M. Kreps, Secretary :;V r^l National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Robert M. White, Administrator ^MENTOfc° Federal Coordinator for Marine Environmental Prediction Interagency Committee for Marine Environmental Prediction > D O Federal Plan for Marine Environmental Prediction Compiled and Edited by Ralph E. Meguire, Jr. Fiscal Year 1977 8 Washington, D.C. May 1977 Federal Coordinator Edward S. Epstein Interagency Committee for Marine Environmental Prediction Ledolph Baer, Chairman- Robert C. Junghans Department of Commerce Capt. W. S. M. Arnold, USN Department of Defense Robert Schoen Department of the Interior Henry S. Andersen Department of State Cdr. Martin J. Moynihan Department of Transportation William O. Forster Energy Research & Development Administration Brig. Gen. Kenneth E. Mclntyre Army Corps of Engineers H. Mathew Bills Environmental Protection Agency Morris Tepper National Aeronautics and Space A dministration Feenan D. Jennings National Science Foundation Catherine J. Kerby Smithsonian Institution James Reisa (Observer) Council on Environmental Quality John J. Carey (Observer) Office of Management and Budget Ralph E. Meguire, Jr., Acting Executive Secretary Preface The Interagency Committer for Marine Environmental Prediction (ICMAREP) annually summarizes the available environmental serv- ices and supporting research in the United States. Besides the Basic MAREP service, th3 Plan describes various Specialized MAREP Services in support of Maritime Commerce, Water Quality Assessment, Living and Nonliving Marine Resources, and National Security. Yearly funding fluctuations are indicators of program priorities and trends. For most agencies, funding levels remained close to FY 1976 expenditures. As in FY 1976. the greatest emphasis remains in support of energy-related activities in regions of .he outer continental shelf. This FY 77 report differs in format from previous years: It contains a reference directory of services for ease in locating the various descriptions. Because these programs change little from year to year, ICMAREP has decided to have its future reports contain only this directory, fiscal information, and changes to the programs. Regular users may wish to keep for future reference this FY 1977 report with its comprehensive summary. 'Edward S. Epstein f Federal Coordinator for Marine Environmental Prediction iii Contents Introduction l Marine Environmental Prediction (MAREP) Services . . 2 Basic MAREP Services 2 Data Acquisition 2 Communications 5 Data Processing and Information Dissemination ... 6 General Agency Support 12 Specialized MAREP Services 13 Maritime Commerce 13 Water Quality Assessment 13 Living Marine Resources 17 Nonliving Marine Resources 20 MAREP Research and Development 20 Basic MAREP Research 22 Specialized MAREP Service Research 32 International Activities 37 International Service Activities 37 Integrated Global Ocean Station System (IGOSS) . 37 United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) Earthwatch 38 International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) 39 International Ice Patrol 39 Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment (GIPME) 39 International Decade of Ocean Exploration 39 International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC) . . 41 Summary of Fiscal Data 43 MAREP Product Directory 47 IV Introduction This Federal Plan summarizes the Marine Environ- mental Prediction (MAREP) Program for the basic and specialized MAREP Services. The Basic MAREP Service provides for the acquisi- tion, communication, and processing of data and dis- semination of oceanic information including collection, transmission, and analysis of data and issuance of ad- visories, warnings, and forecasts. Specialized MAREP services draw upon the data output of the Basic Service. They provide support for maritime commerce, water quality assessment, living and nonliving marine resource programs, and national security. MAREP research efforts are directed toward improving both the Basic and Special- ized MAREP services. Also described are plans to improve MAREP serv- ices through expansion of existing services and research, and through U.S. participation in programs of inter- national organizations that are active in MAREP-related operations or research. Tables summarize funding for MAREP services and activities by agencies. A MAREP product directory provides easy reference to the descrip- tion of each product or service. The MAREP Plan consists of information on pro- grams of various Federal agencies that have responsibili- ties for marine environmental monitoring and prediction. Each agency provides information on its own programs. Individual programs are usually described within the context of how they contribute to the overall MAREP services and their interrelationships. Marine Environmental Prediction (MAREP) Services BASIC MAREP SERVICE The Basic MAREP Service involves a composite of interagency activities that provides environmental data, forecasts, and advisories, including warnings of hazardous conditions, for the oceans, coastal zone, and Great Lakes. Interrelationships among agencies are specified by formal and informal agreements. Coordination is carried out by the Interagency Committee on Marine Environmental Prediction (ICMAREP) and through other interagency committees. Table 1 summarizes funding for the Basic MAREP Service operations by each agency. In FY 1977 most agencies plan to maintain about the same level of funding as in FY 1976. Owing to inflationary trends, however, the effectiveness of operating funds decreased within some agencies. Increased efforts to achieve energy independence, particularly by development of offshore oil and gas potentials, are reflected in the 47-percent increase in funding by the Department of the Interior. Table 1 — Funding of the Basic Marine Environmental Prediction Service Operations, by agency Agency FY 76 FY 77 Difference -Thousand dollars— Commerce 50,660 52,032 + 1,372 Defense 1,342 1,562 + 220 Interior 18,074 26,500 + 8,426 Smithsonian 1,362 1,362 — Transportation 7,619 8,230 + 611 Total 79,057 89,686 10,629 Data Acquisition The acquisition of adequate data to describe the ocean-atmosphere system and its variations is a major activity. Also, the high costs of operating observational platforms and obtaining data require optimum utilization of the acquired data. Observations are taken by many Federal agencies to support their operations and research programs. A wide variety of methods, instruments, and observing platforms are used. Department of Commerce, NOAA The National Weather Service acquires meteoro- logical and oceanographic data for the marine and Great Lakes services that include: the Synoptic and Basic Ob- serving Stations, the U.S. Cooperative Ship Program, and Radar Observing Stations. Tidal and seismic measure- ments are also made. In addition, trained personnel and appropriate equipment aboard Ocean Weather Station HOTEL provide upper air and surface observations. The National Ocean Survey of NOAA operates a primary network of 130 tide stations, and 400 to 500 temporary, secondary, and tertiary stations. The stations are along coasts and within the major embayments of the United States, Puerto Rico, other U.S. territories and possessions, and the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. The data are used to monitor sea level, to determine tidal datums to predict tides, and to support hydrographic operations. NOS also operates a network of 54 permanent, year-round, water-level gaging stations on the Great Lakes and their outflow rivers. About 50 temporary water-level gages are installed in selected har- bors each year on a seasonal basis. In addition, NOS measures currents at selected points along the coast and in estuaries to provide information for predicting tidal currents and circulation patterns and in support of estu- arine studies. Figure 1. — Five New NO A A Prototype Environmental Buoys (PEB) near completion in San Diego, Calif. All were scheduled to be moored in 1976. (General Dynamics photo) Environmental buoys (fig. 1) are becoming an increasingly important source of continuous meteoro- logical and oceanographic data. The buoys, operated by the NOAA Data Buoy Office, have designs of three general types: • Deep ocean moored buoys • Drifting buoys • Continental Shelf moored buoys Data acquired from these buoys are used to support many monitoring and prediction activities and special studies. Meteorological observations are used to improve the accuracy and timeliness of coastal storm warnings issued in support of the National East Coast Winter Storms Operations Plan during the winter seasons and to sup- port the National Hurricane Operations plan during the periods of tropical cyclone activity. Buoys off the west coast help to pinpoint hazardous weather moving in from the Pacific Ocean. Oceanographic measurements support water quality monitoring, and exploration and use of marine resources. The National Marine Fisheries Service monitors changes in the populations of important fish stocks and their environment as part of its Marine Resources Mon- itoring, Assessment, and Prediction (MARMAP) pro- gram. To support fishery allocation and management decisions, this resource assessment program provides forecasts and warnings of changes in fish and shellfish stocks. The collected data include oceanographic and meteorological observations and data used for research and assessment of living marine resources. The Shipboard Environmental Data Acquisition Sys- tems (SEAS) is a meteorological and oceanographic monitoring system designed for use by merchant ships and other ships of opportunity, using the GOES satellites for ship to shore communications. Development of the SEAS prototype will be completed and field testing will be carried out in FY 77. SEAS was being developed partially with funds from Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Maritime Administration (MARAD). The complete system will include several options to measure and report surface meteorological and Figure 2. — GOES Data Collection System. The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite can relay environmental data from many sources to analysis centers. oceanographic parameters, subsurface thermal profiles, surface waves, and ship's position, course, and speed. The National Environmental Satellite Service of NOAA on 1 January 1976 was operating two NOAA polar-orbiting and two geostationary satellites. Pictures available at 30-minute intervals provide near-continuous viewing of clouds and aid weather forecasters in warning the public of impending destructive weather. The geostationary satellites (fig. 2) are equipped with a Data Collection System to collect and relay environmental data via each spacecraft. The system han- dles the relay of data from 10,000 or more remotely located, individual observing platforms within each 6- hour period. In addition, satellite observations of large- scale synoptic weather patterns over large oceanic areas add substantially to the forecaster's information on atmospheric conditions and enhance identification of oceanic storms. Information on sea-surface temperature, radiation, clouds, and winds is also obtained. Pictures of the Great Lakes in the winter season and sea ice coverage in polar areas are used to prepare ice advisories on the character and distribution of ice fields. Such advisories help the shipping and fishing industries. Department of Transportation Oceanographic and meteorological observations are routinely collected by U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) cutters and ice breakers, on Ocean Weather Station (OWS) HOTEL as well as on International Ice Patrols. Techni- cal and scientific support is provided by the USCG Oceanographic Unit including an extensive communica- tion network. The International Ice Patrol Vessel Ever- green continues to operate as an oceanographic research vessel carrying out descriptive oceanography, current measurements, and surface meteorology in support of special projects. Icebreakers also carried out extensive marine science operations in polar regions during 1976. USCG also has a marine and coastal weather obser- vation and reporting system. This program is a coopera- tive effort with the National Weather Service and Naval Weather Service. About 200 coastal stations and OWS HOTEL provide such data. OWS HOTEL is manned from 1 August to 15 April each year by USCGC Taney and other 327-foot cutters during relief periods. Data also are acquired by USCG aircraft using infrared radia- tion thermometers. Flights are made monthly off both the East and West Coasts. The presence of marine life, foreign fishing vessels, and observable pollution is re- ported. Airborne Radiation Thermometry data are used in law enforcement, thermal pollution, and weather forecasting. Department of Defense U.S. Navy The U.S. Navy has an essentially independently operating system of oceanographic/meteorological serv- ices that functions primarily in support of national defense applications. (See National Security Section.) Corps of Engineers During 1976, the Army Corps of Engineers contin- ued to support a wide variety of engineering studies for the coastal zone and Great Lakes. These activities in- cluded environmental observations for development of design criteria for structures, alleviation of beach erosion, mantenance of navigation, flood control, and minimiza- tion of the impact of these works on the environmental and ecological systems. In addition, data were collected for stream gaging and sedimentation studies. Department of the Interior On 773 rivers and streams, Interior's U.S. Geo- logical Survey (USGS) measures the flow of freshwater into the oceans, Great Lakes, and Gulf of Mexico. At many stations a full suite of measurements include inor- ganic and organic sediment contents, heavy metals, temperature, dissolved oxygen, specific conductance, and pH. USGS also monitors saltwater encroachment at certain localities of high interest, for example along Florida's east coast. In recent years, USGS has substan- tially increased the amount of data collected from coastal waters and has begun studies of the hydrology and hydro- dynamics of typical estuaries. Smithsonian Institution The Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center (SOSC) is a national facility for the acquisition and use of biological collections. In recent years SOSC's capa- bilities and interests have grown with the national con- cern for the environment, particularly in relation to the increasing need for biological data critical to environ- mental impact statements. Such data and first-stage analyses provide determinations of both the kinds of organisms and their relative abundances. These determina- tions are necessary for ecological assessments. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) NASA participates in the aerial mapping of snow and ice on the Great Lakes in winter. The aircraft use Side-Looking Airborne Radar in a cooperative program with the Coast Guard and the National Weather Service. The information is used for ice advisories sent to shipping interests in time for them to select sailing times and routes. Communications Warnings, forecasts, and advisories of weather and marine conditions must be widely distributed and readily available to the user. Therefore, reliable communications systems, subject only to minimum delays, are necessary. Environmental observations from a wide variety of sensors on many different types of platforms must be transmitted to data processing centers as quickly as pos- sible. Then products developed from the processed data must be disseminated as forecasts and advisories to intended users. The Basic MAREP Service is vitally dependent upon the communication systems of the Basic Meteorological Service for the dissemination of its products as well as the collection and transmission of observational data. The communication systems for the Basic Services include components of different agencies. Teletypewriter Networks Department of Commerce1 Department of Defense1 Federal Aviation Administration U.S. Coast Guard Radio Transmissions NOAA continuous VHF/FM radio broadcasts; 75 facili ties at coastal or inland water locations were opera' ing on 1 October 1976. NOAA's National Weather Service has five marine radio stations in Alaska. U.S. Navy continuous wave (CW) marine radio broad- casts. NOAA/ National Marine Fisheries Service Radio Station WWD, operated jointly with the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. U.S. Coast Guard radiotelephone, radiotelegraph, and facsimile marine radio broadcasts — 67 facilities make over 300 broadcasts per day covering essentially all U.S. maritime areas of responsibility. Facsimile Networks High-speed civil and military computer-to-computer data relay and exchange facilities are becoming increas- ingly important. These facilities include the Defense global automated environmental data networks and the five international circuits to exchange meteorological data that are operated by the Department of Commerce. NOAA's Radar Report and Warning Coordination Sys- tem and NOAA Weather Wire Service also distribute forecasts and warnings to the public press, radio, and television. The West Coast and the Great Lakes also have marine teletype circuits. NOAA operates automatic marine telephone-answer- ing services throughout the year at 57 coastal locations. These provide the latest forecasts and warnings for marine users. Similar local information may be obtained on request from most Coast Guard (USCG) stations or ' The Departments of Commerce and Defense have systems with high-speed circuits and both foreign and domestic access terminals. Figure 3. — Hurricane Gladys, one of the most powerful Atlantic storms in 15 years, was photographed by the NASA satellite SMS-1 on 1 October 1975 during a period of extreme intensification. Sustained winds in the storm were 100 mph. The storm was 500 miles southeast of Cape Hatteras, N.C., when this picture was made. (NO A A photo) NOAA's National Weather Service (NWS) offices through listed telephones. USCG cooperates with NOAA by making broadcast of marine weather information and warnings for shipping and other maritime users. Warnings of hazardous con- ditions are transmitted upon receipt and repeated periodi- cally; NWS prepares the texts for these broadcasts. USCG communications facilities also collate and relay meteor- ological and oceanographic observations, and jointly operate USCG/ NOAA radio for buoys in Miami. The National Oceanographic Data Center of NOAA operates a network of teletype terminals with selected scientific institutions. This service includes terminals in Woods Hole, Mass., La Jolla, Calif., Boulder, Colo., and Miami, Fla. In connection with the Alaskan, Hawaiian, and Pacific Tsunami Warning System, communication support is obtained through a cooperative arrangement using Federal Aviation Administration, NASA, military, and other communication channels for data collection and watch-and-warning services. The Alaska and Hawaii re- gions also have dedicated communication circuits. An extensive satellite communication system is avail- able and is being used increasingly. (See GOES in Data Acquisition.) Data Processing and Information Dissemination The processing of environmental data includes analysis, editing, preparation of forecasts and advisories, and archiving the data. Products are disseminated in various formats depending on type of data and user requirements. A directory of information produced as MAREP services has been provided. Figure 4. — The 29 November 1975 tsunami caused extensive damage in Hawaii. Real-Time Data Department of Commerce — NOAA NOAA's systems of data processing and information dissemination include marine meteorological predictions and warnings. Forecasts are currently available for break- ers and surf, marine weather, sea ice, seiches, storm surges, winds, and wind waves. NOAA operates several centers that provide products and support to marine meteorology. The National Meteor- ological Center in Maryland provides broad-scale analysis and forecasts on a hemispheric basis and graphic products for facsimile transmission to high-seas users. The Na- tional Environmental Satellite Service, also in Maryland, operates the national operational environmental satellite system to provide global cloud-cover mosaics (fig. 3), atmospheric and sea-surface temperature data, and inter- pretive products on a daily basis. There are six Satellite Field Service Stations, one each in Anchorage, Honolulu, Kansas City, Miami, San Francisco, and Washington, D.C. The National Hurricane Center at Miami issues warnings of tropical cyclones (hurricanes) in the North Atlantic, Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. Similar services are provided at San Francisco and Honolulu for the eastern and central North Pacific Ocean east of long. 180°. (The Navy provides this information west of 180°.) The hurricanes are tracked by plane, radar, and satellite. The National Severe Storms Forecast Center at Kansas City, Mo., issues warnings of severe local storms (thunderstorms and associated winds, hail, and tornadoes) over coastal waters as well as for the con- tinental United States. Weather Service Forecast Offices (WSFOs) pro- vide synopses, forecasts, and warnings for all 50 States and Puerto Rico. Twenty-three WSFOs issue forecasts and warnings for coastal waters and the Great Lakes. National Meteorological Center forecasters use nu- merical models to predict tropical storm surges. In the case of an extratropical storm surge, statistical techniques are used to give estimates of storm surge heights for certain East Coast areas. High-seas marine forecasts broadcast through Coast Guard radio facilities are also provided by NOAA. These forecasts are available on radiotelegraph voice broadcasts and facsimile. WSFOs in Honolulu, Miami. San Francisco, and Washington provide analysis and forecasting in the area of U.S. responsibility for shipping forecasts and warnings (which include large designated portions of the North Atlantic and North Pacific) under the Convention on Safety of Life at Sea and in response to agreement within the World Meteorological Organization. The Pacific Tsunami Warning System, operated by NOAA-NWS.is international in scope and involves co- ordination at the international, national, regional, and local government levels (fig. 4). The National Warning Center (Honolulu Observatory) receives data from a net- Figure 5.- — The Coastal Warning System provides visual displays to warn of impending bad weather. (Tampa Daily News) work of 24 seismograph stations and 53 tide stations around the Pacific rim and on the mid-Pacific Islands. Earthquake epicenters and magnitudes are computed, and watches and warnings2 are formulated and dissemi- nated to 15 nations and territories in or bordering the Pacific Ocean. Regional watches and warnings are issued by the Honolulu Observatory for the Hawaiian Islands, and by Adak and Palmer Observatories for Alaska includ- ing the Aleutians. Department of Defense (Navy) Naval Weather Service communications and com- puter resources obtain near real-time observations of the physical environment and input the data into numerical models that describe the physical state of the ocean atmosphere. These inputs drive numerical prediction models that forecast weather parameters and run applica- tions programs to obtain tactical indices and environ- mental response factors for both the operating forces and the Navy's industrial complex. 2 Honolulu Observatory issues two basic types of bulletins — watch and warning. Watch bulletins are issued when an earth- quake has been detected that is of sufficient magnitude and in such a location that a tsunami is possible. Warning bulletins are issued upon receipt of positive evidence that a tsunami actually has been generated. Department of Transportation — Coast Guard (USCG) MAREP services, in addition to extensive broadcast- ing, include technical support and participation in the Coastal Warning System. The USCG Oceanographic Unit processes data and provides technical and scientific support for USCG marine programs. To ensure con- tinuity of its oceanographic programs, USCG also pro- vides preliminary reduction and processing of environ- mental data from all of its sources on the East and West Coasts. The Coastal Warning System is a cooperative net- work of visual (flag and light) displays (fig. 5) that sup- plements the regularly scheduled weather broadcasts. This System consists of 359 display stations; the USCG has 113 facilities participating, and NOAA has 246. In addi- tion, small-craft pennants are displayed by State police patrol craft on Chesapeake Bay, in the New York City area, and on Lake Michigan. The Coast Guard (USCG) produces a weekly sea- surface current-chart for waters off the East Coast from Cape Canaveral, Fla., to Cape Cod, Mass. By using satellite imagery, XBTs, and airborne radiation ther- mometry, a real-time description of sea-surface currents is developed. These charts, produced primarily for search and rescue planners, are also used by other USCG units, other Federal agencies, and the maritime community. Data are computerized to provide input into the USCG computer search planning programs. USCG also prepares and broadcasts iceberg location bulletins for the North Atlantic shipping lanes during the International Ice Patrol. Non-Real-Time Data Department of Commerce Much of the Basic MAREP Service does not depend upon the real-time dissemination of data and information. These services include data management; publication of climatological summaries, atlases, and tide and tidal current predictions; and long-term studies of the environ- ment, particularly geographical regions. NOAA's National Ocean Survey predicts the times and heights of tidal high and low waters for 56 locations in the United States and its territories and possessions, and for 40 locations in 19 different nations and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands under U.S. jurisdiction. Predictions for about 6,000 secondary locations are com- puted through the application of empirical constants. Tide predictions based on harmonic analysis are made by computer and published annually in four volumes. The U.S. tables also have predictions for 100 reference ports in foreign countries, received through a cooperative ex- change program. Tidal currents are predicted for 36 U.S. coastal and harbor locations. These predictions include times of slack waters and the times, speeds, and directions of maximum tidal currents. Empirical constants provide pre- dictions for about 2,000 additional locations. U.S. tables also have predictions for 15 foreign stations, received Figure 6. — Tidal Current Charts, such as this for Long Island-Block Island Sounds, show expected tidal currents. Charts are available for nine major U.S. harbors and estuaries. through a cooperative program. Charts showing the areal distribution of tidal currents for each hour in the tidal cycle are available for nine major U.S. harbors and estuaries (fig. 6). Charts for additional estuaries are being prepared. Use of satellite data is also being investigated. The Ocean Services Division of the National Weather Service issues sea-surface temperature means, anomalies, and selected bathythermograph data in its monthly gulfstream (fig. 7). Each issue has information on the locations of the Gulf Stream axis and warm and cold eddies, and short articles on Gulf Stream research. NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service proc- esses, stores, analyzes, and disseminates marine fishery data through its Marine Resources Monitoring, Assess- ment, and Prediction (MARMAP) program. This service provides forecasts and warnings of changes in stocks of fish and shellfish. This information is used in part to assure optimal yields from other stocks (fig. 8). The fisheries stock forecasts support the United States in negotiations for management and allocation of stocks under the terms of 6 international commissions and 10 bilateral agreements. They also support domestic man- agement programs in cooperation with States in three interstate commissions and four State-Federal programs. Data analysis tasks of the MARMAP program combine survey results, catch statistics, biometric data, and infor- mation on environmental conditions and food chain dynamics to produce updated stock assessments. These analyses are used to measure fishing rates, natural mortality, .and annual changes in abundance caused by environmental changes. The NMFS Pacific Environmental Group generates a monthly upwelling index for the U.S. west coast and a monthly Ekman transport index for any latitude. NOAA's Environmental Data Service provides marine environmental data, information, and assessment products and services to users on a cost-reimbursable basis. These products and services are available through EDS' network of specialized centers, its field liaison offi- cers, and its comprehensive referral system. • The National Climatic Center, Asheville. N.C.. pro- vides global marine climatic data and data products and is the largest climatic data center in the world. The Cen- ter's Satellite Data Services Branch (Camp Springs, Md.) disseminates marine environmental and Earth resources data collected by NOAA and NASA satellites. • The National Oceanographic Data Center. Washington, D.C., has the world's largest collection of unclassified oceanographic data and is the primary source of such data for U.S. users. • The National Geophysical and Solar-Terrestrial Data Center, Boulder, Colo., provides tsunami, marine geology, and geophysics data from U.S. and some foreign sources 45° MIAMI 85° Figure 7. — Gulfstream is published monthly by the National Weather Service. It includes information on the Gulf Stream position and thermal structures, and other in teresting information. through its Marine Geology and Geophysics Branch. • The Environmental Science Information Center, Wash- ington, D.C, disseminates NOAA's marine science litera- ture and information. • The Center for Experiment Design and Data Analysis provides data management and scientific analysis services for large-scale environmental programs and, through its Marine Assessment Division, assesses the impact of man's activities upon the marine environment. • EDS regional liaison officers stationed in Woods Hole, Mass.; Miami, Fla.; LaJolla, Calif.; Seattle, Wash.; and Anchorage, Alaska, make EDS products and services available to local users. • ENDEX (Environmental Data Index) provides auto- mated referral to multidiscipline marine science data files of NOAA, other Federal agencies, State and local govern- ments, and private sources. OASIS (Oceanic and Atmos- pheric Scientific Information System) provides a comple- mentary literature referral service. Department of Defense Corps of Engineers (COE) — Several COE projects process marine environmental data that relate to marine engineering studies. Basic and applied hydraulic and hy- drologic studies include development of stage-discharge relationships in outflow rivers and determination of their effects on the levels and outflows of the Great Lakes — including such factors as natural and manmade changes in the outflow rivers, diversions into and out of the Great Lakes Basin, and fluctuations between the Lakes. General hydrologic studies involve analyses of rainfall- runoff relations, snowmelt studies, flood forecasting 10 100 M X J* SPRING toy ^* y • £5 • 6 -20 • 21-100 • 101 - 1,000 LOLIGO 1973, 1974 Figure 8.- — MARMAP surveys provide data for plotting fish distribution. The Loligo (squid) plot is an example. Figure 9. — Plankton sample is prepared for sorting at the Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center (SOSC). analyses of past floods, infiltration indexes, unit hydro- graphs, and the development of flood hydrographs and other studies related to hydrology. The National Weather Service prepares meteorological studies for COE use in planning, designing, and operating water-control struc- tures. COE also provides specialized technical services to State and local governments on request. These services consist of information on the use of flood plains of the coastal zone. U.S. Navy — The Navy's Oceanographic Program satisfies Naval requirements by providing resources for oceanographic data collection, processing, analysis, and production. Many MAREP observations made by the U.S. Navy in support of national security operations are disseminated as civil MAREP services. Included are: • Unclassified oceanographic and meteorological observa- tional data • Atlases, technical reports, and data banks • Various broadcasts of NOAA products on the Atlantic Coast • Analyses and forecasts (including waves, oceanic fronts, eddies, and thermal structure, as well as meteor- ological products). Department of the Interior— The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) analyzes and processes data collected at estuarine and coastal stations in support of its projects in hydrology and hydraulics. USGS provides data on stream discharge and water quality that are processed by its own Computer Center Division. USGS also supplies water quality information to the Storage and Retrieval (STORET) Systems, operated in cooperation with the Office of Water Programs of the Environmental Protec- tion Agency. These data are available to all users. The USGS Office of Water Data Coordination coordinates Federal activities involved in acquiring water data for estuaries, groundwaters, lakes, reservoirs, and streams. In- formation dissemination includes a Catalog of Informa- tion on Water Data for the continental United States. Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. Smithsonian Institution — The marine science activi- ties of the Smithsonian Institution include study of the systematics and ecology of marine organisms and inves- 11 Figure 10. — The impact of discharges from supertankers makes a careful environmental assessment, forecast, and monitoring scheme an important MAREP consideration for Maritime Commerce and Water Quality Assess- ment Services. tigations of marine biological and geological phenomena. Support services are provided for sampling, sorting, iden- tifying, storing, and studying these specimens. The Na- tional Museum of Natural History (NMNH) maintains the largest collection of biological specimens and geologi- cal samples in the world and operates the Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center (fig. 9). SOSC receives, sorts, records, curates, and distributes aquatic collections in order to make the specimens available to specialists. SOSC also maintains a data bank on these collections. Research projects vary considerably, but almost always include the systematic analysis of organisms studied. Also carried out are studies of species distribution and corre- lation with revelant physical data, and ecological research aimed at determining relations between organisms and their environment. A Scientific Event-Alert Network was established at NMNH in 1975. It is designed to operate as a clearinghouse for information on biological, astro- nomical, and geological events. Oceanographic research information is registered at the Smithsonian Science In- formation Exchange, which receives, compiles, cata- logues, and disseminates information concerning un- classified ongoing research and development activities in the marine sciences. General Agency Support Logistics Logistics and general support activities provide for more effective and efficient MAREP Services and include the maintenance of equipment and facilities, and the train- ing of personnel. Training Professional-level training in the marine sciences and meteorology is provided by accredited colleges and universities. Training in technical skills such as marine observa- tions, communications, and maintenance is accomplished in schools operated by Federal agencies and at several community colleges that offer associate degrees. The Naval Postgraduate School at Monterey, Calif., has an Environmental Sciences Program that provides advanced degree studies to qualify commissioned officers and other selected individuals as oceanographers and meteorologists. Technicians are trained at the Naval Air Technical Training Center, Lakehurst, N.J. Instruc- tion in this school covers oceanographic forecasting and applied geophysics. At Lakehurst the Navy also trains electronics technicians to repair and maintain equipment. 12 Coast Guard (USCG) personnel receive advanced training at USCG and Navy schools to provide the serv- ice needs of technicians trained in the collection of meteorological and oceanographic data. USCG provides an ocean science major within the curriculum of its Academy. Selected personnel from the Department of Com- merce (NOAA) also receive advanced training in their field of specialization or in complementary areas. Train- ing of NOAA Corps Officers personnel at the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy includes instruction in ocean- ography and meteorology. SPECIALIZED MAREP SERVICES Many marine operations require specialized marine environmental prediction services in addition to the basic MAREP services. Specialized services are provided for activities related to maritime commerce, water quality assessment, living and nonliving marine resources, and national security. These services, and the products they provide, rely in varying degrees upon the data output of the Basic MAREP Service. Maritime Commerce The environmental data and information services provided for maritime commerce support, first, the safety of navigation on the high seas and in coastal and inland waters and harbors. In addition to warnings of storms and hurricanes, they support routing of ships by predictions of wind wave heights, water current direc- tions and speeds, and water levels in harbors and their approaches. Table 2 summarizes funding of specialized MAREP services for maritime commerce. Table 2. — Funding of the specialized Marine Environ- mental Prediction Service for Martime Commerce, by agency Agency FY 76 FY 77 Difference — Thousand dollars — Commerce 8,788 8,950 + 162 Transportation 1,393 1,444 + 51 Total 10,181 10,394 213 Ice conditions are especially important to safe shipping. An interagency Demonstration Program to extend the shipping season on the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Seaway began during the 1974-75 winter shipping season. The Coast Guard (USCG) operates the Ice Navigation Center. NOAA's National Weather Serv- ice provides an ice analyst at the Center and an ice forecast program at the Detroit Weather Service Forecast Office (WSFO), and maintains a communications net- work around the Great Lakes to connect United States and Canadian forecast offices, the USCG Ice Navigation Center, and marine broadcast stations. USCG and NASA provide ice reconnaissance using Side-Looking Airborne Radar on flights made during the program. Improved information on ice allowed the participating carriers to operate throughout the winter of 1975-76. The need for environmental services has increased with the shipment of oil and natural gas from Alaska. The Department of Commerce provides sea ice advisories through Anchorage WSFO for Cook Inlet and the approaches to Anchorage, and from Fairbanks WSFO for operations around Alaska to the North Slope. The National Ocean Survey is expanding its efforts to develop an adequate tidal current measuring network in the Alaska area. USCG is expanding efforts to meet projected requirements for safe naviga'ion and for protection of the marine environment along the north coast of Alaska. Development of oil resources on the Alaska North Slope indicates the eventual need to ship oil by water from the Alaska north coast and from the pipeline ter- minal at Valdez, Alaska (fig. 10). USCG efforts are focused on improving safe navigation and protecting the marine environment. They include: • Developing structural requirements for Arctic oil tank- ers and barges • Determining seasonal and all-year navigability of water routes to the north coast of Alaska • Developing a routine system for navigation of ships through ice-covered waters Another service product for efficiency of maritime commerce, issued by NWS, is the analysis of the location of the inner wall of the Gulf Stream from the tip of Florida to about 38°N. These analyses are based on satellite- and ship-recorded sea-surface temperatures and expendable bathythermograph data. They are used by East Coast shipping to determine optimum tracks rela- tive to the high-speed core of the Gulf Stream. Optimi- zation of the routes conserves fuel. Major NOAA increases in specialized services for maritime commerce include expanded VHF'FM cover- age along coastal areas and, to a less degree, production of climatic data services. USCG will continue to manage and operate the International Ice Patrol, which alerts ships to the icebergs in the North Atlantic shipping lanes (fig. 11). Ice reconnaissance and observations of currents provide the International Ice Patrol with a means of predicting density and movement of icebergs. Water Quality Assessment The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend- ments of 1972 (PL 92-500) and the Marine Protection. Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (PL 92-532) were intended to improve and protect the quality of U.S. territorial waters, including coastal waters, estuaries, and the Great Lakes. Implementation of this Federal legis- lation is continuing with the development of standards. 13 gate * **<■." Figure 11. — /I twin-peaked iceberg in the North Atlantic shipping lanes. Normally, the Ice Patrol is carried out by Coast Guard planes. Cutters are called out for standby to warn ships only when heavy concentrations of icebergs threaten shipping. regulations, and enforcement procedures. The major responsibility for protection of water quality rests with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). EPA collects data from marine waters to establish a data base for water quality criteria and reviews other ongoing monitoring programs for the planned expansion of their National Water Quality Surveillance system. An area of special concern is shellfish beds, which are particularly sensitive to high concentrations of pollutants. EPA's Gulf Breeze (Fla.) Laboratory has a residual pesticide monitoring program that assesses long-term toxic effects of pesticides in marine organisms. NOAA and EPA laboratories are engaged in projects to describe the fate and effects of various pollutants. Funding by the Department of Interior shows a significant increase for the specialized MAREP service for water quality assessment (table 3). Table 3. — Funding of the specialized Marine Environ- mental Prediction Service for Water Quality Assessment, by agency Agency FY 76 FY 77 Difference — Thousand dollars — Commerce 264 264 — EPA 6,388 6,388 — Interior 14,250 18,278 4,028 Transportation 694 740 46 Total 21,596 25,670 4,074 NOAA is actively involved in baseline investigations to determine existing levels of ocean pollutants. Programs 14 are supporting the environmental assessment of the Alaska outer continental shelf and the Marine Ecosystem Analysis (MESA) Project in Puget Sound. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) monitors water quality in streams at the heads of estuaries as a part of the National Quality Accounting Network. Samples taken in estuarine areas are analyzed generally for total bacteria and fecal coliform bacteria, ion concentration, pH, temperature, and trace metals. At some sites, bio- chemical oxygen demand, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and turbidity are a'so measured. The flow of freshwater into the oceans, Great Lakes, and Gulf of Mexico is con- tinuously measured on 773 rivers and streams. Periodic or continuous measurement is made of water quality at 435 of these flow gages. USCG samples tar balls on a regular basis from seagoing cutters to evaluate distribution of such pollut- ants and effectiveness of oil control measures. USCG also has numerical modeling experiments to measure advection, diffusion, and dispersion of floating and sus- pended pollutants in U.S. coastal waters. In addition, information on water movements will be provided for several major harbors in support of harbor pollution contingency plans. Oil and Hazardous Materials DOT (USCG), EPA, DOC, DOI, and DOD are the primary agencies involved in efforts to control and pre- vent discharges of oil and other hazardous materials in coastal and inland waters. Other Federal agencies provide advisory services as may be required. Operations in sup- port of the containment or disposal of discharged oil require reliable forecasts of surface winds, waves, and currents. USCG is using wind and wave data in numeri- cal models for predicting coastal trajectories to aid in the cleanup of spills and discharges. The Deepwater Port Act of 1974 has given the De- partment of Transportation (DOT) responsibility for all deepwater ports that may be licensed, constructed, and operated in water beyond the territorial limits of the United States. The two deepwater port applications that have been filed will use a number of single-point moorings connected to a pumping platform by pipelines, and thence to shoreside terminals. Though the USCG has been delegated responsibility for most aspects of deepwater ports (DWPs), NOAA is assigned the task of reviewing USCG deepwater port environmental impact statements and making recommendations to the Secretary of the Department of Transportation concerning any applications for "adjacent coastal State" status by States not within 15 miles of the DWP or connected by pipeline to the DWP. Adjacent coastal State status is based on a deter- mination that the risk of damage to the coastal environ- ment of such State is equal to or greater than the risk posed to a State directly connected by pipeline to the proposed DWP. USCG, as designated by the National Oil and Hazard- ous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, is charged with the amelioration of containment and disposal dis- charges of oil and hazardous materials on the high seas and in the U.S. coastal waters, including ports and harbors. A National Response Center is maintained by USCG in Washington, D.C. This continuously manned operations center receives reports of discharges and co- ordinates Federal response efforts when they are needed. During a pollution event, the National Strike Force can be called to the scene to provide expertise and emer- gency equipment. Advanced techniques of monitoring, including air- borne surveillance and remote-sensing devices, are being improved and used increasingly. USCG four-sensor Air- borne Oil Surveillance System, successfully developed in fiscal years 1973-76, will be miniaturized for installation in a new medium-range search aircraft. The system, with proven all-weather, day-and-night, oil-detection capa- bilities, will continue to be improved by adding the capability to identify petroleum hydrocarbons. A study is being made of the system's usefulness in detecting ice, nonoil pollutants, and suspected violators of territorial waters. Other Federal agencies also have various roles in the prevention and cleanup of oil spills. As Interior continues to expand Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and gas operations, concern over water quality in those areas has increased. The U.S. Geological Survey is involved in monitoring and supervision of exploration, develop- ment, and production activities of oil and gas leaseholds on the OCS. It also maintains an alert system to warn of potential or actual oil spills and an inspection system to assure compliance with regulations. NOAA provides support to the On-Scene Coor- dinator with meteorological and oceanographic informa- tion. Environmental data are provided on marine re- sources, predicted meteorological, hydrological and ocean- ographic conditions for the high seas, coastal and inland waters. NOAA through its National Marine Fisheries Serv- ice assesses the damage impacts of oil spills on the living marine resources and their habitats. Routine samples of petroleum and plastic particulates present in the ocean water column are taken in conjunction with MARMAP surveys of ichthyoplankton (fish eggs and larvae). These surveys are made annually off the East Coast from Cape Cod to Cape Kennedy, and periodically off the West Coast in the California Current area. This information is used to help other agencies in combating emergency situations created by spills. By a Memorandum of Understanding between the Departments of Transportation and Interior, the Coast Guard has assumed responsibility for spill response activi- ties within the high-seas area covered by the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act. Ocean Dumping The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 committed the United States on a National 15 Figure 12. — Elkhorn coral formations photographed at a coral reef of] the coast of Key Largo, Fla. basis to ". . . regulate the dumping of all types of materials into ocean waters and to prevent or strictly limit the dumping into ocean waters of any material which would adversely affect human health, welfare or amenities, or marine environment, ecological systems, or economic potentialities." This Act is organized into three major titles. Title I deals with regulatory aspects of ocean dumping. The Act assigns regulatory authority to the Environmental Protection Agency, the Corps of Engi- neers, and the Coast Guard. Title II deals primarily with research aspects of ocean dumping that are needed to support the intent of the Act. The research responsibilities described in Title II are to be coordinated by the Depart- ment of Commerce (NOAA) in consultation and coor- dination with other Federal agencies. Title III of the Act provides for the designation of marine sanctuaries. This title is administered through the Department of Com- merce in consultation with other Federal Departments and agencies. According to Section 201 of Title II, the responsi- bility for a comprehensive and continuing program of monitoring and research regarding the effects of dump- ing material into ocean waters, coastal waters, and the Great Lakes is to assigned the Department of Commerce, in coordination with the Coast Guard and the Environ- mental Protection Agency (EPA). The Department of Commerce is responsible for reporting to the Congress on these research activities, and publishes annually The Re- port to the Congress on Ocean Dumping Research. This Report should be consulted for further information as it not only represents a Federal summary of programs in ocean dumping, but also contains excellent details of the technical aspects of the various programs. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) ocean- ographers are studying the water mass types, circulation patterns, and stratification characteristics of Deepwater Dumpsite 106 over the continental slope off Delaware. Studies include classical oceanographic measurements and monitoring of Gulf Stream eddies and rings by satellite imagery. Other Federal agencies involved in regional studies include the Smithsonian Institution study of the Indian River Coastal Zone in Florida that is attempting to de- termine sources and effects of various pollutants. Studies also are being made in the Florida Keys, particularly on coral reefs (fig. 12). Und^r an agreement with EPA, and largely funded by EPA, NASA is outfitting an EPA vessel for automated monitoring in the Great Lakes. This effort includes development of data management and display techniques, network and communication strategy, and mathematical models of transport and dispersal. 16 o» Ol en o. a> (J) CD ffi (Ji 5i (Ti Ji <71 01 en 01 ai Q D D ■* l/l (O O <_1 t_> STRESS MAC lilt.. .11 ill. .11. . .hit. ill ilhilllllinilll, iLllill., III l.llllli.Ji, .iimli ..illll ,1 il III!! EKMRN TRflN CDI Ar.. ..»**.... M.. .. .-.f«^mt\VwS?*fci imi m-^™*,tw • ^ft yj ' i^^TT>Jr'0*J I i^~ ' ' V^T* I. . i.mn I H ' I • 001 II- I "II ,.,lllll ! i,",i|ir " "" ( lllillh Illl Ml h, iii. .ill ....Mill.. II. .11.1.1. ir r •IIIIH' ,-.'■,.• Illl I •I'll' II... Hi 55. 0N. 160. 0U C0= .0013 HNG= 160.0 Figure 13. — An example of a fishery-oceanography product is the Ekinan Transport computer printout of NMFS. Data for this example were collected 30 December 1975 at 55 N, 160W. STRESS MAG surface wind stress intensity and direction of Ekman transport coastal divergence index offshore divergence index surface barometric pressure EKMAN TRANS CDI ODl PRESSURE Living Marine Resources Federal responsibility for providing a MAREP service for living marine resources is in the Department of Commerce and is administered by NMFS. The De- partment of the Interior, through the Fish and Wildlife Service, is responsible for MAREP service for living re- sources in the Great Lakes. These services are provided to a variety of user groups, including conservation, manage- ment, and commercial and recreational fishing interests. Table 4 summarizes funding of specialized MAREP service for living marine resources by agency. NMFS has also applied for supplemental funds and an increase of 246 positions in order to facilitate their new responsi- bilities under the extended jurisdiction. Table 4. — Funding of the specialized Marine Environ- mental Prediction Service for Living Marine Resources, by agency Agency Total FY 76 FY 77 Difference — Thousand dollars — Commerce 10.604 10.285 - 319 Transportation 1,125 1.215 +90 11.729 1 1 ,500 — 229 Stocks of fish off the U.S. coasts are an enormous renewable resource: the annual harvest by foreign and 17 U.S. fishermen currently averages 1 1 billion pounds. The retail value is about $6 billion. The potential annual catch for this resource is estimated between 20 and 40 billion pounds. Competitive harvesting by foreign and domestic fishermen has depleted 10 major commercial stocks (ac- cording to FAO 1974 report). The economic conse- quences of depletion, exemplified by California sardine and Atlantic haddock, have resulted in an accumulated loss to fishermen in excess of one-half billion dollars as of 1974. Another problem is allocation of this resource between commercial and recreational fishermen. NMFS has developed and is implementing a na- tionally coordinated system of resource assessment to provide annual forecasts and warnings of changes in and effects on living marine resources. This effort is called the Marine Resources Monitoring, Assessment, and Pre- diction (MARMAP) program. Principal elements of MARMAP include resource surveys (fig. 13), analysis of fishery catch data, fishery oceanography, and fishery engineering. MARMAP sur- veys of important resource stocks are carried out in the North Pacific, East Bering Sea, and Northwest Atlantic — where overfishing problems are acute, assessment data are scarce, and available information is unreliable. In addition to the depletion of certain stocks, many fishery resources are intensively fished and in danger of being overfished. These resources often involve complex systems and exploitation by several countries within the same ocean area. Management of fisheries and allocation of catches must be based on stock assessments that con- sider both biological and environmental data. MARMAP assessments are needed to support U.S. positions on regulating fisheries in waters adjacent to our Nation's coasts. NMFS uses NOAA and chartered vessels to make MARMAP assessment surveys to determine the distribution and abundance of planktonic, demersal, and pelagic resources; and to determine how these resources are related to ambient physical and chemical character- istics. Information is collected on distribution of eggs and larvae, abundance and distribution of species of shell- fish and fish, including pelagic fish. The Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976 gives NMFS the lead management responsibility for a fishery conservation zone that goes into effect on 1 March 1977. This zone (is contiguous to the territorial sea of the United States and) extends from the seaward boundary of the coastal States to an outer limit 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the territorial sea is measured. Near-real-time environmental indices are needed to predict stocks, manage the resources, and establish quotas for foreign and U.S. fishing fleets. The Coast Guard is responsible for law enforcement within the 200-mile limit. Additional funds have been requested to implement this new act successfully. MARMAP assessment surveys are also made as part of energy-related environmental studies in oil and gas leasing areas. Cooperative vessels of the merchant fleet (ships of opportunity) are used to obtain data from distant waters. These ships, with government-installed equipment for data collection, are ideal platforms for making oceanwide observations. In FY 77 several intensive investigations will be launched to determine environmental influences on living marine resources. In the Northwest Atlantic, studies will be initiated on the transport and survival of juvenile herring to provide a basis for predicting the condition of the adult stock. Because many useful environmental parameters lend themselves to remote sensing, NMFS is cooperating with other NOAA agencies and with NASA in studying the apn'ication of remote sensing to fisheries assessment, monitoring, and prediction. Geostationary satellite data are being used to study how Gulf Stream meanders in continental shelf waters are related to the presence of biological organisms. Satellite-derived and in-situ meas- urements of surface temperature are used to determine the relations between sea temperatures, coastal up- wellings, and fish migrations. NMFS, State agencies, and private industry are making a 22-month investigation to demonstrate the feasibility of using satellite data to improve the manage- ment and use of coastal fishery resources in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Real-Time Products Several marine environmental services are provided directly to industry. NOAA's radio station WWD, on the Scripps Institution of Oceanography campus in La Jolla, Calif., receives fishery and environmental data and disseminates daily forecasts of surface weather and ocean thermal structures. Weather forecasts are prepared at San Francisco Weather Service Forecast Office. Data input is primarily from the U.S. tuna fleet in the eastern Pacific. The NMFS Southwest Fisheries Center processes the data and generates forecasts. Similarly, information on ocean surface and subsurface thermal structure, de- rived in part from satellite data and XBT's, is broadcast to the coastal albacore tuna fleet in the form of a daily Albacore Advisory Service. Non-Real-Time-Products A monthly publication, Fishing Information Bulle- tin, depicts the thermal structure of the eastern Pacific Ocean and anomalies relative to the 20-year mean. NMFS is developing two annual status reports through MARMAP. A status of the stocks report en- titled The United States Marine Fishery Resource will be issued each year with a section on each species subject to harvesting. The report will include discussion on the distribution, biology, harvesting and management, status of the stocks, and recommendations for each species. A concurrent report, The Environment of the United States Living Marine Resources, will be compiled each year for the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and the Gulf of Mexico. Contributions will include reports and papers on ocean and atmosphere climatology, anomalies, and variations, and monthly summaries for the various Figure 14. — Offshore drilling platform. (Mobil Oil Corp. photo) 19 physical properties. Prototype reports were generated for CY 1974 and 1975, and regular reports will start with OY 1976. The Coast Guard (USCG) also provides services to improve the use of living marine resources. As men- tioned earlier, periodic aerial flights over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans record sea-surface temperature using remote-sensing infrared radiometers. This information is distributed monthly to various institutions and users in the form of charts of surface isotherms. These charts, now in their 12th year of publication, help fishermen select the best fishing areas. They also provide informa- tion to scientists studying the coastal waters. USCG flights also record data on the distribution of large surface animals (sharks, turtles, whales), schools of fish, and for- eign fleets. Through the auspices of its Oceanographic Unit, USCG makes spring and autumn oceanographic surveys of the northwest Atlantic fisheries area as part of its coastal monitoring and research effort. Surveys include bottle and STD casts and neuston net tows. Sample analyses include examination of biota, inorganic nutrients, and tar balls. Interior's Fish and Wildlife Service also has several programs dealing with living marine resources particu- larly as they are affected in the Great Lakes Region. The programs aim at (1) protecting, preserving, and enhanc- ing natural ecosystems associated with fish and wildlife that are affected by activities of man and (2) ensuring full consideration of fish and wildlife resources in the planning and implementation of land and water develop- ment projects where a Federal responsibility or interest exists. The goals are to ( 1 ) improve sport and commercial fisheries of the Great Lakes, stocks of coastal anadromous fish species, and migratory bird populations and the habitats in which they live, (2) ensure that all mammals, nonmigratory birds, and other wildlife continue to be parts of the natural ecosystems, and (3) develop a cen- tralized national system of biological information to provide data on key species and environments that are essential for making biologically sound decisions on plan- ning and management. Nonliving Marine Resources Increased emphasis on developing potential energy resources has led to expanded interest in the exploration and use of mineral resources particularly on the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) supervises and regulates the activities of OCS lease holders in the exploration, development, and production of oil, gas, and minerals (fig. 14). Objectives are to (1) ensure safety of industry operations, (2) attain the most efficient recovery of resources, (3) maintain a clean OCS environ- ment, and (4) collect revenues due from OCS operations. Inspections are made periodically to ensure industry com- pliance with rules, regulations, and operating plans. Data relating to OCS oil, gas, and mineral operations are com- piled and published. USGS, in evaluating the probable worth of petroleum deposits for public leasing, obtains geophysical and geo- logical data related to the stability of offshore structures. About 10 percent of the cost of obtaining high-resolution seismic and deep geologic data is borne by studies to evaluate the stability hazards of shallow foundations. In the Baltimore Canyon and Georges Bank areas, there are projects to characterize the geologic environ- ments and identify potential geologic hazards. Offshore and coastal-zone studies are being made to identify areas of unstable sediments and to determine the processes and map the dispersion pathways of sediments and poten- tial contaminants. National Security The Dspartment of Defense (DOD) provides spe- cialized MAREP services. Though the U.S. Navy has an essentially independently operating oceanographic- meteorological services system that functions primarily in support of military applications it cooperates closely with the civilian agencies. The Fleet Numerical Weather Center (FNWC) provides full-service, worldwide, real- time data processing and dissemination. FNWC provides continually updated forecasts that are specifically designed to meet the requirements of fleet operations and other military needs. Oceanographic activities in support of national security requirements are provided by the Naval Oceanographic Office, the several management offices devoted to ocean science and engineering, and Navy laboratories with ocean programs. To increase the effectiveness of its operations, DOD often uses other available services to supplement its own. Conversely, many military data observations and products are made available to civilian users. These include: • Atlases, technical reports, and data banks • Daily weather releases from FNWC • Experimental forecasts of oceanic fronts, eddies, and thermal structures DOD increased its operational budget for specialized MAREP services for National Security from $12,519,000 in FY 76 to $16,744,000 in FY 77. MAREP RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT The Interagency Committee on Marine Science and Engineering determines the marine science areas where thrusts in research and development are needed. This section of the MAREP report describes ongoing R&D activities that directly relate to MAREP functions. Research and development programs to improve the basic and specialized MAREP services are being carried out by several Federal agencies. The R&D programs for basic MAREP services are described by the marine science disciplinary categories of marine meteorology, 20 DROPSONDE MERCHANTt VESSEL T DROPSONDE AIRCRAFT CONSTANT LEVEL BALOON T COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT T RADIOS* TIROS-N RESEARCH VESSEL ^RADIOSONDE RELEASE 1 LAND STATION RADIOSONDE IOMEGA STATION SATELLITE GROUND STATION Figure 15.— First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) Concept. 21 Table 5. — Funding of basic marine environmental pre- diction research, by agency • *1 •-» » Figure 16. — 5ewage sludge tank on the M/V North River, a sewage sludge vessel. (NO A A photo by Roland Paine) physical oceanography, chemical oceanography, biologi- cal oceanography, and ocean technology. A section on interdisciplinary activities is also included. The R&D programs for specialized MAREP services are described within the context of the several services: maritime com- merce, water quality assessment, living and nonliving marine resources, and national security. Basic MAREP Research In FY 77, R&D programs for basic MAREP services are generally continuations of ongoing efforts. Table 5 summarizes funding for basic MAREP research by agency. The level of funding in FY 77 is slightly less than in FY 76. Department of the Interior R&D funds reflect continued emphasis on developing the energy potential of the outer continental shelf. Increased funding by the National Science Foundation (NSF) reflects, in part, the increased costs for three International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) field programs — POLY- MODE, GEOSECS, AND CUEA. AGENCY FY 76 FY 77 Difference — Thousand dollars- Commerce 24,507 21,475 - 3,032 Defense 6,373 7,503 + 1,130 Interior 48,494 43,623 - 4,871 Transportation 3,408 3,640 + 232 ERDA 19,800 21,300 + 1,500 NASA 780 780 — NSF 25,360 28,035 + 2,675 Smithsonian 1,757 1,757 — Total 130,479 128,113 - 2,366 Marine Meteorology Improvements in marine meteorology forecasting usually depend on R&D activities related to larger scale studies of atmospheric dynamic modeling and climatol- ogy. Air-sea interaction research by NOAA and the Navy is to understand better and to quantify the processes be- tween the ocean and atmosphere involving transfer of heat, moisture, and momentum. These energy exchange processes contribute significantly to the generation of the world's weather patterns and to the destructive forces of hurricanes and other severe storms. The Navy is develop- ing models of dynamic marine meteorological conditions and updating numerical air-ocean prediction models to use more satellite data. The National Science Foundation has several pro- grams that contribute to MAREP objectives. Research on air-sea interaction includes studies of large-scale pres- sure variations and studies of turbulent transfer, includ- ing comparison studies with the tank facility at Mar- seilles, France. Additionally, support is provided to IDOE's CLIMAP project that focuses on describing and explaining climatic changes over the last million years, including the transition between what are considered to be the two stable states of global climate — the ice age and temperate age periods. The project involves the study of climatic change from indications of the faunal record in deep-sea sediment cores. The program has 18 investigators from five institutions. The NORPAX program, under the joint auspices of NSF-IDOE and the Office of Naval Research, is a major climate-related study of long-period, large-scale ocean-atmosphere coupling in the North Pacific Ocean. Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) activities in the next few years will include analysis of 22 r *■ ■ ? -: 9 • - . * - ■ •' : * %* Figure 17. — Satellite observations may be used to monitor sources of water pollution. This image, made by a multispectral scanner on the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTA), shows S-shaped pattern resulting from the dumping of sewage sludge from tug-towed barges just outside New York Harbor. the oceanographic and air-sea interaction studies that were made during the GARP Atlantic Tropical Experi- ment (GATE) in 1974. Planning will continue for the First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) (fig. 15), in which observations of atmospheric and oceanic param- eters over major portions of the world oceans will play an important role. U.S. participation in GARP is under the guidance of NOAA with major NSF support for participating scientists from universities and the National Center for Atmospheric Research. Although this pro- gram primarily concerns the upper air, it also includes significant studies of ocean-atmosphere interaction activity. The Geostationary Operational Environmental Satel- lite (GOES) is being used to determine cloud and wind fields in near real time over land and ocean areas sur- rounding North and South America. Automated techniques for making forecasts of sur- face winds on the Great Lakes have been developed by the National Weather Service. Resulting wind predictions are used as input to a Great Lake Wave Forecast model; components are being developed for each lake. These models will provide forecasts and warnings of hazardous wave conditions and also advisories on storm surges. NOAA also does research on hurricanes and other tropical storms. Models provide insight into the nature and structure of tropical disturbances. This insight in turn provides a means to improve forecasts and lessen storm losses. Physical Oceanography The description and theoretical explanation of the physical processes in the ocean is called physical oceanog- raphy. The research includes the studies of water circu- lation and movement such as currents, waves, and trans- port. It also is concerned with temperature, density, sound and light propagation, and air-sea interactions. 23 RADAR IMAGE 27 AUGUST 1976 100 kM PRUDHOE BAY OIL COMPLEX Figure 18. — SLAR Image/Ice Chart product of Alaska north slope on August 27, 1976. NSF support is principally for individual unsolicited projects carried out by scientists from the major U.S. oceanographic institutions. About 40 to 50 awards are made annually for open-ocean studies; about 50 percent are concerned with MAREP objectives. However, NSF also supports projects of the International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE). The major projects are the North Pacific Experiment (NORPAX), the International Southern Ocean Studies (ISOS), and the Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment (POLYMODE). NORPAX objectives are to understand large-scale fluctuations in the upper layers of the North Pacific Ocean, and their relations to the atmosphere. Scientists hope that NORPAX will lead to improved prediction of weather and climate for the northeast Pacific Ocean and North America. NORPAX is jointly sponsored by IDOE and the Office of Naval Research (ONR). NORPAX scientists are actively involved in regional studies such as the "El Nino" off the west coast of South America. NORPAX involves 37 scientists from 16 institutions. The International Southern Ocean Study (ISOS) program funded by NSF is concerned with the dynamics and structure of the Antarctic Circumpolar Curren feature of major importance to deepwater exchanges tween the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The c all objective of ISOS is better predictions of gk weather and climate. Under joint sponsorship of IDOE and ONR, United States and the Soviet Union are developin large-scale Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment Progi (MODE). The current phase is called POLYMODE is based on the POLYGON program of the U.S.S.R. the MODE program of the United States and the Un Kingdom, and consists of major theoretical and exp mental efforts to understand medium-scale ocean e> circulation. The 1-year intense field phase of the progi will begin in 1978. The U.S. contribution to the pro includes 30 scientists from 10 institutions. Some EPA research is directed toward the applic tion of mathematical modeling techniques to predict 1 fate of pollutants in the marine environment and assi their effects on marine ecosystems. A model has been < veloped to predict the time-spatial distribution of sewE sludge as it is being dumped from a moving barge (1 16). 24 NOAA conducts research on the ocean currents in order to predict the movement of water, heat, and pol- lutants. These investigations include: the development of theoretical local and oceanwidc models, measure- ments of exchange rates, circulation studies, and current mappings of currents. NOAA research on wind waves includes basic observational studies of wave growth and development of wave forecasting. Methods are being derived for improved global mapping of sea-surface temperature detailed from NOAA satellites. Wind speed, upwelling, seasonal surface water changes, and other phenomena are also under study (fig. 17). Tsunamis are very long ocean waves generated by earthquakes. Their runup over coastlines has caused great damage and loss of life. Tsunami research is carried out primarily by NOAA in support of its Tsunami Warning System in the Pacific. The major research goals are to make quantitative warnings and to produce tsunami hazard statistics for the coastlines of the Pacific Ocean basin (fig. 18). Developments include an automation program for the analysis and a satellite communication system for better observational reliability. Storm surges are changes in the water levels along seacoasts or lakes caused by atmospheric events — princi- pally winds but also atmospheric pressure. NOAA and DOD study this phenomenon. NOAA's previous research on surges has included the development of numerical models applicable to uncomplicated coastlines and storm movements. The new thrusts are the consideration of coastline curvature and bridging from the open coast to bays and other semienclosed bodies of water. The extratropical surges in lakes and along coastlines are also being studied. Certain aspects of fishery oceanography also relate to MAREP. For example, an index of annual seasonal ocean upwelling has been developed for the U.S. west coast. The index appears to be highly correlated with the fish landings. Research has been performed on oceanic fronts and cold- and warm-core eddies that break away from the Gulf Stream. Long-term observations will establish migratory patterns and their degradation with time. An experimental chart of thermal anomalies in the western North Atlantic is prepared and disseminated twice weekly. The Coast Guard (USCG) performs experiments to measure advection and diffusion of floating and suspended pollutants in U.S. coastal waters. In addition, information on water movements in several major harbors will be provided in support of harbor pollution contingency plans. The leeway and diffusion of various types of oil under varying conditions of wind and sea will be studied to improve USCG prediction of movement and fate of oil spills at sea. USCG programs related to understanding the structure and motion of the ocean are also directed toward support of the International Ice Patrol and search and rescue missions. The Army Corps of Engineers has a continuing pro- gram to maintain navigable channels and provide environ- mental data to alleviate problems of beach erosion. Navy research in physical oceanography to improve wave forecasts includes consideration of the turbulent wind field, the mechanisms of wind-wave generation and growth, and propagation and modification of shallow- water waves. Solution to the problem of wave forecasting on an oceanwide basis is well underway through use of large computer facilities. A spectral wave model for the Medi- terranean Sea, North Pacific, and North Atlantic is being run twice daily on an evaluation basis. A spectral wave model for the South China Sea is being converted for Navy use. A computer program has recently been formulated for wave refraction analysis over the con- tinental shelf to the shoreline. Large-scale ocean density anomalies, which have a substantial effect on long-range acoustical propagation, are known to develop within a couple of weeks and to persist for many months. A significant NAVOCEANO effort has been de- voted toward the improvement of the Water Mass Data File and other data banks and atlases. Designed for use with onboard computer prediction systems, the Water Mass Data File and associated subroutines allow the shallow temperature observations from expendable bathy- thermographs to be merged with historical data taken by other means. Another area of Navy research is that of under- water visibility, which can be restricted by large clouds of suspended material. The Navy has programs to im- prove knowledge of coastal energy sources and response mechanisms of the shore, the sediment, and coastal water motion systems. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in coopera- tion with NOAA-produced experimental topographic- bathymetric maps as part of an effort to develop a com- patible series of coastal-zone maps showing the detailed land/water interface of the coastline. USGS provides topographic and planimetric information of the land areas, and National Ocean Survey provides the mean- high and mean-low water lines and bathymetric detail in the water areas. The Energy Research and Development Adminis- tration (ERDA) sponsors coastal circulation studies at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in cooperation with Woods Hole Occanographic Institution. ERDA's interests here are in the narrow region of the coastal zone out to about 10 kilometers — the likely sites of offshore nuclear powerplants. This program, both experimental and theo- retical, is designed to explore and understand the near- shore flow regimes induced by winds and tides. The location of the study is along the straight, relatively uncomplicated, shoreline of the south shore of Long Island, N.Y. 25 Chemical Oceanography Research efforts relative to MAREP services in chemical oceanography are focused upon the distribution and changes in the chemical constituents of seawater and the effects of chemical additives. Corrosive chemical interactions are not included. National Science Foundation supports selected pro- posals dealing with the chemical properties and processes of seawater, naturally occurring and manmade com- pounds in oceanic waters, and the chemical aspects of ocean-atmosphere interactions. It is expected that about one-third of the 50 to 60 grants awarded in this program will deal with open-ocean chemistry related to MAREP objectives. The International Decade of Ocean Exploration sup- ports research on the physical-chemical processes. North- south transects of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans in the Geochemical Ocean Sections Study (GEOSECS) have collected a large number of samples of deep ocean water, which are being chemically analyzed at shore-based labo- ratories. GEOSECS also serves as a geochemical baseline survey of the world ocean. An Indian Ocean sampling program is being planned for late 1977 by the 28 sci- entists participating in the effort. Research on pollutant transfer processes determines the rates and mechanisms by which pollutants are added to the oceans and the mechanisms by which pollutants are transferred from one part of the ocean system to another. The program has 10 investigators from nine institutions. The Environmental Protection Agency marine re- search program includes studies on the fate and effects of trace metals from sewage, dredge spoil, and industrial wastes. Similar studies are also being carried out on oil and persistent organics. The Navy has programs in chemical oceanography directed specifically to problems, such as acoustic propa- gation and research to determine the chemical constituents of seawater, to identify means by which they react, and to characterize processes they undergo in the marine en- vironment. The Bureau of Land Management, Department of the Interior, studies petroleum toxicity and heavy metals in the Gulf of Mexico and oil-spill matrices. Major in- creases in fiscal year 1976 will be used to fund en- vironmental assessments of relatively virgin areas such as the Bering and Beaufort Seas. Biological Oceanography Research efforts for MAREP Services in biological oceanography include the study of how pollutants affect the distribution and environmental interrelationships of marine biota. However, MAREP biological oceanographic research is generally exclusive of fisheries activities that are discussed under the specialized MAREP research category, Living Marine Resources. EPA's marine research program includes the de- velopment of culturing, rearing, and holding techniques capable of producing quality-controlled marine orga- nisms for experimental use. Studies are underway on the fate and effects of oil, heavy metals, and persistent organics on marine biota. Operating as part of the Smithsonian Institution, the Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center provides a service for processing collections of marine specimens to expedite their rapid analysis. The aim of the NSF biological oceanography pro- gram is to gain an improved understanding of oceanic organisms and their distribution, behavior, and nutrition as well as their interactions with the marine envronment. Studies in fiscal year 1976 were devoted to ecological and physiological adaptation to environmental and man- induced stresses. In the IDOE office of NSF, coastal projects of the environmental quality program include the study of how chemical pollutants affect marine life. A major program in this study is the Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Ex- periment in which scientists are investigating entire marine ecosystems that are enclosed in huge plastic bags in the natural environment. IDOE also supports the Coastal Upwelling Ecosystems Analysis (CUEA) pro- gram, whose main goal is to understand coastal upwelling. Prediction models might then provide the basis for im- proved management and use of living marine resources. During 1977, CUEA scientists will carry out a major field study, called JOINT-II, in the distinctive upweiling region off Peru. The U.S. effort involves 24 scientists from 13 institutions, three research ships, and one re- search airplane. The main emphasis of Naval research is in the field of bioacoustics in the Office of Naval Research and with interactions with sonar performance. The program also includes studies on the basic sensory capabilities of dan- gerous marine animals, principally sharks. The Fish and Wildlife Service of the Department of the Interior maintains a program of research on coastal anadromous fish and biological monitoring of marine and coastal species of fish and wildlife. In addition, studies are made to evaluate how various Federal construction activities affect the ecologic balance of fish and waterfowl. Polar Studies The Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (NARL) is a Navy-owned research facility about 4 miles north of Barrow, Alaska. From NARL the Navy operates several field stations, including research stations on ice islands. These programs are supplemented by airborne studies of the distribution and dynamics of pack ice. Work is continuing on a system to measure motions of sea ice in the central Arctic Ocean. Basic measure- ments of the position of ice flows were acquired by use of the Navy Navigation Satellite System and a specially designed acoustic tracking system of bottom reference. Statistical analyses show that spectral "signatures" can be correlated with other ice properties, e.g., age and thick- 26 Figure 19.— The NOAA Ship Surveyor in Icy Bay, Alaska, with Mt. St. Elias in the background. ness. Recent experiments with side-looking radar systems (fig. 19) provided direct-image maps of ice terrain with good surface feature resolution and have given en- couraging results for further development of these remote sensors. A study of Arctic sea ice organisms has confirmed the fact that a visible brown layer appears on the under- side of sea ice in mid-April. The layer is related to the increasing light levels of spring. Understanding this cycle is a key to predicting the sound scattering and sonic tar- gets that result from organisms feeding on algae. Analysis of recent oceanographic data taken from pack ice stations has confirmed the presence of a western boundary current in the Arctic Ocean. The results of this analysis will improve our understanding of the ice drift and the motion of water masses that affect the sound environment in the Arctic Ocean. The intensified flow off Point Barrow is considered analogous to the western currents of temperate oceans (Gulf Stream and Kuroshio). Field data accumulated during the field investigation of the Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint Experiment (AIDJEX) will be used to improve existing models of the flow and help understand its physical and chemical characteristics. The AIDJEX program took place between March 1975 and March 1976 in the central region of the Beau- fort Sea in the Arctic Ocean. The goal was to provide predictions of Arctic weather and ice conditions. Par- ticipating agencies were NSF, Navy (ONR), DOI, DOC (NOAA and MarAd) of the United States and the De- partment of Energy, Mines, and Resources of Canada. For its studies of the development of an ice dynamic model, the AIDJEX program made extensive use of data from NOAA and NASA satellites as well as information obtained from aircraft flights. Projections on the development of the Alaska north slope oil resources indicate the eventual need to ship oil by sea from the Alaska north coast. This has caused several agencies to initiate research in the area. NOAA has begun field work (fig. 20). Coast Guard research to develop this capability includes: • Determination of extent of seasonal and year-round navigability of the water routes to the north coast of Alaska • Development of a routing system for navigating ships through ice-covered waters NSF's planned oceanographic programs in Antarctica include completion of the Antarctic circumpolar survey, research on the formation of Antarctic Bottom Water under the International Weddell Sea Oceanographic Ex- pedition, and a physical oceanography program in the Ross Sea and a complementary program under the Ross 27 I 1L Figure 20.— Two new Prototype Environmental Buoys (PEB) being readied for tow to station by the USCG Cutter Yocona. (General Dynamics photo) Ice Shelf project. Through its U.S. Antarctic Research Program, NSF is analyzing the Antarctic marine eco- system with emphasis on the dynamics of food chains and populations. The aim is to obtain data to improve techniques of conservation and management. Also, an at- tempt is being made to determine how commercial har- vesting of krill affects the marine ecosystem. Ocean Technology Research and developments in ocean technology are constantly improving the MAREP services. More reliable instrumentation along with more demanding procedures for quality control and better systems of management are reflected in more reliable and more widely available user products. Technological advances in communica- tion, computers, and platforms also help provide im- proved MAREP products and services. NASA has a wide variety of research and develop- ment programs generally related to the use of remote- sensing techniques. SEASAT research satellite mission is the first major step in developing and demonstrating a global system of ocean dynamics monitoring. Specific SEASAT-A mission objectives are to: 1. Demonstrate a capability for: (a) Global monitoring of ocean temperature, surface wind, and wave height and directional spectrum, Measuring precise sea-surface topography; de- tecting currents, storm surges, tides, and tsunamis Charting ice fields and leads Mapping global ocean geoid (b) (c) (d) 2. Demonstrate the key features of an operational system for: (a) Global sampling (b) Near-real-time data processing dissemination (c) User feedback for operational programming SEASAT-A is scheduled for launch from Vanden- burg AFB, Calif., in May 1978. The satellite will be in- 28 Figure 21. — 5ewfl^e sludge being discharged at a dumpsite in the N.Y. Bight by the MIV Owl's Head. jected into an Earth orbit that provides near-global cov- erage. NOAA works closely with NASA in developing remote-sensing capabilities, and has begun to plan ex- periments to use SEASAT-A data. Four remote sensors are being added to the satellite: (1) a radar altimeter, (2) a microwave scatterometer, (3) a synthetic aperture radar, and (4) a visible and infrared radiometer. NOAA's National Ocean Survey (NOS) is deter- mining the accuracy expected for orbits of SEASAT, which will carry an altimeter with an expected 10- centimeter precision. NOS also is studying new methods to accurately determine geodetic control and to monitor temporal variations in horizontal and vertical positions, pole locations, and Earth rotation. Development of the third generation polar-orbiting satellite, the TIROS N series, is continuing. This satellite series is destined to replace the current ITOS system. TIROS N, the NASA prototype, is scheduled for launch in early 1978. Because of its higher data rate, its fully digital data system, and the demand or timely delivery of proc- essed data, NOAA's National Environmental Satellite Service (NESS) is building a new ground system to accommodate the TIROS N series. NESS will use unique data processing facilities and a portion of the large-scale central computing capability of NOAA. Nimbus-G, also scheduled for 1978. will carry a Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) with five color and one thermal infrared scanner. By selective absorption and scattering, chlorophyll, pollutants, gelbstoffe, sedi- ments, and other materials can be detected in coastal ocean waters. NOAA and others are supporting prepara- tions for data analysis and interpretation of CZCS data. NASA is also applying its technology toward more specific problem areas. One major area of concern is water quality and its effect on living marine organisms. NASA is determining the feasibility of using its technology to develop environmental monitoring systems for the Great Lakes Basin. In support, a comprehensive effort will be undertaken on the development of data management and display systems and transport and dis- persal models for Great Lakes application together with network strategy and communications. For the past few years, the U.S. Geological Survey has had a research project in the Sapelo Island, Ga.. area to evaluate requirements, procedures, and costs of various remote-sensing techniques for mapping and interpreting coastal wetlands. 29 The Office of Naval Research has several ocean technology programs designed to provide direct tech- nological support of scientific research and to support new areas of technology that hold promise for both future Navy programs and direct naval application by the Naval Oceanographic Office in evaluating its experimental fore- casts of oceanic fronts, eddies, and thermal structure, and determining how each affects naval operations. NOAA has established an Office of Ocean Engi- neering (OOE) for research technology development to develop services related to ocean engineering and under- sea operations and to serve as a national focal point for knowledge related to civil ocean engineering. In ocean instrumentation, OOE develops and implements programs in standards, calibration, and testing. It develops and carries on programs for data intercomparability in na- tional and international programs, develops and imple- ments an instrumentation information center, and spon- sors critically needed development. NOAA is the Federal agency with primary respon- sibility for developing buoys to obtain marine environ- mental data. NOAA's Data Buoy Office (NDBO) de- velops buoy technology; tests and evaluates prototype buoy systems for acquisition of marine envirinmental data; and procures, deploys, and operates buoys on a reimbursable basis as specified by users. NDBO serves as a national and international source of technical informa- tion and advice on environmental data buoys and their associated technology (fig. 21). Contractors are used to carry out developmental projects and to refurbish, retro- fit, and maintain deployed buoys. Coast Guard ships are used to tow, retrieve, and service buoys. NDBO is developing prototype buoy systems, in- cluding an air-deployable ice buoy and an oceanographic and meteorological ice buoy. NDBO also is developing drifting buoys for use in the open ocean in support of the Global Atmospheric Research Program. Data from these buoys will be relayed to analysis centers by the Nimbus-6 satellite. NOAA's NOS Office of Marine Technology (OMT) acts as the focal point for knowledge of technology re- lated to the testing, evaluation, and calibration of in- strument sensor systems for ocean use, and disseminates associated technical information to serve the national oceanographic community. OMT's Systems Analysis Divi- sion assesses requirements and formulates the design of marine environmental data systems to collect and process oceanographic, marine meteorological, and related marine environmental data. The Engineering Development La- boratory (EDL) develops, tests, and evaluates systems and system components; provides necessary testing, logistical, and operational documentation; and translates research results into operational systems. The Test and Evaluation Laboratory (T&EL) complements the EDL effort in providing laboratory and field evaluation of sen- sors, instruments, and complete systems to establish the sensor characteristics relative to expressed operational and scientific requirements. It also provides standards and meteorology services and consultation to support NOAA programs and to assist other agencies — public and private — on a reimbursable basis. In 1976, OMT provided calibration and meteorology services to the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office and to the Bureau of Land Management in support of the MESA New York Bight Project. EDL is also providing engineering developmental support to MESA and to the Environmental Protection Agency in support of their Outer Continental Shelf Energy Assessment Program. Interdisciplinary Activities The NOAA Marine Ecosystems Analysis (MESA) program includes studies of the ecology of the marine environment and changes that result from human activi- ties and natural forces. The New York Bight was selected as the first experimental area for intensive investigations because of the magnitude and urgency of its problems, including waste discharge and various offshore develop- ments (fig. 22). Field work is scheduled for completion in FY 1978. A cooperative, interdisciplinary research effort to study the marine environment in the Pacific Northwest began in FY 1974. The cooperators are the Canadians, other Federal and State agencies, and universities. This effort was in response to concern over the expected in- crease in oil tanker traffic and the discharge of treated sewage effluent into Puget Sound. The information gained in this preliminary effort will contribute significantly to development of a future MESA regional project. NOAA's Great Lakes Environmental Research Labora- tory provides a focus for environmental research on the Great Lakes and their watersheds. A major task to be continued in the next year is the analysis of data col- lected from Lake Ontario in 1972-73 during the Inter- national Field Year for the Great Lakes (IFYGL). IFYGL will terminate in late 1977 with the completion of eight international summary scientific reports and a wrap-up workshop to synthesize and critique this major United States and Canadian project. The NOAA Sea Grant program supports Sea Grant colleges and education and research in fields relating to development of marine resources and marine environ- mental prediction in the United States. The Energy Research Development Administration (ERDA) supports multidisciplinary studies on the en- vironmental effects of siting and operating nuclear and fossil-fuel powerplants. Research is directed toward learning how marine processes affect the accumulation of energy-related pollutants in the marine environment. This enables us to ascertain better the probable effects of powerplants and large-scale oil drilling. The ERDA marine program is based on the phi- losophy that part of its contract research must be devoted to a basic understanding of the ocean as a complete system. This necessarily requires work of a 30 Figure 22. — Liberian-flag tanker Argo Merchant floundering off the coast of Nantucket, Mass. (U.S. Navy photo) more long-term nature than many agencies typically sup- port. Scientists at Battelle Northwest Labs and University of Washington are studying the fate and effects of petro- leum hydrocarbons in Pacific Northwest areas that are likely to be affected by oil from Alaska. The U.S. Geological Survey's geography program entails land-use and land-cover mapping of coastal areas of the United States in support of coastal-zone manage- ment efforts of the States. Information developed is of immediate use in environmental impact statements, equalization of tax assessments, management of public lands, planning for urban growth, preservation of wild- life habitats, recreational development, and water re- sources planning. The Environmental Protection Agency's research and development programs relating to marine environ- mental prediction fall into four general areas: • Studies to determine how various pollutants affect marine ecosystems • Development of standardized methods and monitoring techniques to assess the effects of various wastes on marine ecosystems • Design of simulations and mathematical models to aid in predicting the environmental impact of wastes on marine ecosystems • Research to investigate and technology to control and limit the adverse effects of oil and hazardous materials on the marine environment The National Science Foundation's International Decade of Ocean Exploration sponsored the Coastal Upwelling Ecosystem program, JOINT-I, off northwest Africa in 1974. Preliminary results suggest that precise description of water movement outside an upwelling region is essential for a proper description of the total upwelling circulation and that this outer motion may be strongly affected by the shape of the continental shelf and slope. These findings are the basis for planning the operations of JOINT-II 1976 and 1977 in the upwelling region off Peru. The National Museum of Natural History has an integrated project involving the marine environment — the Investigations of Marine Shallow Water Ecosystems program. This study encompasses the physical, chemical, and biological aspects of an undisturbed coral reef ad- jacent to Belize, Central America, and can be used as a baseline against which to compare polluted or otherwise disturbed reef systems. 31 Specialized MAREP Service Research Besides having direct applications to the basic MAREP services, several research programs have been identified as providing support to the specialized MAREP Services. Maritime Commerce (table 6) Data and information services are operated to meet the requirements of shipping for safety in navigating the high seas, coastal and inland waters, and harbors. Rou- tinely included are routing services to ships including predicted height of sea waves, the direction and velocity of water currents in the oceans along the coast and in harbor areas; and the water levels in harbors and their approaches. Major NOAA increases in Specialized Service for Maritime Commerce are reflected by expanded VHF/FM coverage along the coastal areas and, to a less degree, the production of climatic data services. The Coast Guard is expanding research to meet the projected capability requirements to provide safe naviga- tion and marine environmental protection along the north coast of Alaska. The Coast Guard manages and operates the Interna- tional Ice Patrol which alerts traffic in the North Atlantic shipping lanes to the presence of icebergs. Ice reconnais- sance and current studies provide the International Ice Patrol with a means to predict iceberg density and movement. Table 6. — Research funding for the improvement of the specialized Marine Environmental Prediction Service for Maritime Commerce, by agency Agency FY 76 FY 77 Difference Commerce Transportation — Thousand dollars — 2,341 2,390 +49 409 455 +46 Total 2,750 2,845 + 95 Water Quality Assessment (table 7) Research on water quality assessment is actively performed by many Federal agencies in conjunction with their marine program initiatives. In FY 77, the area of greatest emphasis is the outer continental shelf. This research is primarily provided in support of the Depart- ment of Interior's programs related to oil and gas explor- ation and production. The Bureau of Land Management subcontracts for needed research in water quality determinations in many areas of the U.S. continental shelf. This information is used when considering potential oil and gas leaseholds and is a vital concern in determining environmental im- pacts. A new U.S. Geological Survey program of con- tract research was initiated in 1976 to develop and improve techniques and devices for assuring safe pollu- tion-free operation of offshore drilling rigs, production platforms, and pipelines. With several coastal States, USGS also has initiated cooperative research projects on local water quality. Usu- ally funded on an equal matching basis with State or local government funds, these investigations focus on solutions to specific problems faced by the States in their coastal zones. A few examples are: Saltwater encroachment of ground water — Florida and Texas Deep-well waste injection — Florida Sand dune aquifiers — Oregon Table 7. — Research funding for the improvement of the specialized Marine Environmental Prediction Service for Water Quality Assessment, by agency Agency FY 76 FY 77 Difference —Thousand dollars Commerce 7,173 5,701 - 1,472 Defense — — — Interior 500 500 0 Transportation 181 197 + 16 EPA 5,075 5,075 0 NASA 650 650 0 Total 13,579 12,123 -(1,456) The Energy Research and Development Adminis- tration is an active participant in water quality research. It is particularly concerned with the development of energy in the coastal zone and ascertaining the probable effects of large-scale oil drilling and oil spills on the continental shelf and the effects of locating nuclear powerplants both onshore and offshore in the coastal zones. The U.S. Coast Guard is studying sea-surface cur- rents and developing computerized models of these currents for the entire U.S. coastline. These models will have applications in pollution control and studies of deep- water ports. Estuarine pollution is also being studied. NASA research has been extended toward applica- tions using remotely sensed data to measure coastal zone conditions relevant to the monitoring of pollutants dumped into oceans. Under development is a joint plan to apply NASA technology to the monitoring of ocean pollution. The plan will be implemented with NOAA and other users. The determination of spectral signa- tures of pollutants in water is underway with emphasis on signatures of special significance for ocean dumping. 32 Spacecraft sensor data, particularly those obtained by the LANDSAT satellite, are being used to evaluate changes in estuarinc water quality and the occurrence and areal extent of red tides in the coastal zone. These investigations will provide the basis for a remote-sensing program to monitor the onset and growth of red tides and the dumping and dispersion of pollu- tants. They include definition of optimum spectral inter- vals and selection of data processing methods to improve the quality and quantity of information obtained from remotely sensed measurements. NOAA is continuing research in the New York Bight. Principal objectives are outlined under Inter- disciplinary Activities. NOAA is acquiring baseline environmental data at selected, representative deep-ocean mining sites for manganese nodules before commercial mining begins. NOAA's Office of Sea Grant sponsors several research projects on water quality including: • Sediment dispersal in New Bedford Harbor and Western Buzzards Bay • Oil slick control in offshore environments • Input, transport, and fate of petroleum hydrocarbons in sewage effluents • Monitoring hydrocarbons on and in seawater • Effect of crude oil on nitrogen flux in salt marshes • Hydrocarbon effects on estuarine carbon flux • A biochemical model for coastal waters with an application to red tide outbreaks • Water and sediment chemistry • The use of cannery wastes to enhance water nutrient quality. Living Marine Resources (table 8) NOAA's Office of Sea Grant sponsors research on the living resources of the oceans and Great Lakes. These projects include: • Reef fish populations of Hawaii and their commercial exploitation • Phytoplankton and red tide as a food source for inshore communities • The energetic role of amino acid and protein metabo- lism in the kelp bass (Paralabrax clathratus) • Chemical ecology of a cypress swamp • Mode of uptake and rate of release of petroleum hydrocarbons by shellfish in relation to their physio- logical conditions • Hydrocarbon concentrations in food chains • Accumulation, transport, and fate of persistent chlor- inated organics in Lake Michigan food chains • Sources, types, and seasonal fluctuations of microbial pollutants and aquatic zoonoses in Humboldt Bay, Calif. • Pathogenic enteric viruses in Hawaiian Ocean environ- ment: viability and die-off • Quantitative estuarinc and shellfish virus enumeration The Smithsonian Institution, through its National Museum of Natural History, has two projects relating to living marine resources. The Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies has a long-term ecosystem study of the Rhode River estuary and watershed on the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay. The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institution in Panama is primarily concerned with basic scientific ques- tions of the evolutionary and ecological adaptations of tropical organisms. This year there were studies of the buoyancy adjustment of seasnakes, history of coral reefs, sex change in fishes, social behavior of squid and sea urchins, and of the structure and dynamics of benthic communities. The Department of Interior's Fish and Wildlife Service performs: (1) field and laboratory research on anadromous and Great Lakes fish species focusing pri- marily on fish husbandry, pest control, and ecosystem studies and (2) research devoted to endangered wildlife species, migratory bird habitats, and the effects of pol- lutants on them. They also make recommendations for water use and waste discharge permits, and maintain a national surveillance system to identify apparent illegal construction activities in navigable waters that can dam- age estuarine and related resources. Table 8. — Research funding for the improvement of the specialized Marine Environmental Prediction Service for Living Marine Resources, by agency Agency FY 76 FY 77 Difference — Thousand dollars — Commerce 7,841 6,188 - 1.653 Interior 7.500 10.100 + 2.600 Total 15.341 16,288 + 947 Nonliving Marine Resources In support of the national effort to obtain energy independence, research is being performed on possible development of marine energy sources. In addition, pro- nounced shortages of other natural resources are forcing commercial interests to consider marine sources for fu- ture development. The U.S. Geological Survey has several ongoing pro- grams including a study of sediment instabilities in re- sponse to past drilling platform failures in the Gull ol Mexico: and an assessment of tectonic hazards for nuclear reactor siting along the southern California coastline. Studies are made on the impact ol proposed regulations that control geological and geophysical exploration on 33 Figure 23. — Manganese nodules being recovered from the seabed. the outer continental shelf. Impacts that might result from further oil and gas development are also investigated (fig. 23). Some of the Energy Resource Development Adminis- tration programs are also concerned with developing marine-related energy sources and studying potential ef- fects of energy-related pollutants on the marine environ- ment. The initial phase of the DOMES Project (DOMES I) centers on the establishment of baseline environmental data in the general area of likely industrial mining interest (fig. 24) and the establishment of preliminary environ- mental guidelines for control of this activity. During DOMES II, changes in the environment will be docu- mented, such as the development, extent, and decay of sediment plumes created during tests of prototype mining equipment. In addition, predictive models of environ- mental changes developed during DOMES I will be tested and refined. Biota in the operations area will be studied both before and after testing of prototype equipment to establish the effects of mining and rate of recovery of the environment. This project will be accomplished under contracts with private organizations and other institutions including universities, as well as by NOAA organizations. DOMES I is essential to ensure that deep-ocean mining, taking place either under a Law of the Sea Treaty or U. S. regulation, is carried out in an environmentally safe manner. A multidisciplinary interagency study of the off- shore Arctic has been formulated to assess the unique environmental characteristics of the Arctic and to carry on research on the problems expected to result from energy development there. The Geological Survey has completed the first season's data collection in conjunction with the environmental assessment of the Gulf of Alaska. 34 IS £ a: a o a X SB to 2 35 National Security (table 9) The Office of Naval Research (ONR) supports re- search on the improvement of instrumentation and its ocean technology program, which addresses two goals: research in support of the Ocean Science and Tech- nology Division of ONR, and research in support of new technological developments that will benefit Naval opera- tions. Table 9. — Research funding for the improvement of the specialized Marine Environmental Prediction Service for National Security, by agency Agency FY 76 FY 77 Difference Defense ERDA Total — Thousand dollars — 6,750 8,605 + 1,855 1,000 1,000 0 7,750 9,605 + 1,855 36 International Activities International programs designed to increase man's understanding and predictive capability have continued to expand. The United States has actively participated in many of these programs that were initiated largely by the United Nations and its members. U.S. participation in worldwide marine science activities is coordinated among interested national agencies, and foreign policy consideration is administered by the State Department. INTERNATIONAL SERVICE ACTIVITIES International service and support research programs and activities provide a wide variety of service-oriented data and information for unrestricted international use. Observational data from these programs are used for environmental monitoring and prediction and prepara- tion of advisories. They also support research projects. The information is generally made available to all inter- ested countries. Integrated Global Ocean Station System (IGOSS) The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) approved the Integrated Global Ocean Station System in 1967. This service-oriented multinational co- operative program promotes the unrestricted exchange of oceanic data, information, and services. The primary role of IGOSS, which in many respects is comparable to an international MAREP service, is to provide opera- tional ocean monitoring and prediction services for a broad spectrum of users. Technical coordination of U.S. participation in IGOSS is led by NOAA; however, there has been extensive interagency cooperation in data acqui- sition, communication, and policy considerations. IOC and WMO have both agreed that IGOSS is the system for the exchange of BATHY (bathythermograph data) (fig. 25) and TESAC (temperature, salinity, and current data) reports in real time, and have established procedures for the regular international exchange of these data on a permanent operational basis as of 15 June 1975. The BATHY Program now has 27 nations partici- pating to some extent. Efforts are being encouraged to expand international participation to include less devel- oped countries in IGOSS. A second IGOSS activity, the Marine Pollution (Petroleum) Monitoring Pilot Project, was started in January 1975, with an initial phase aimed at monitoring petroleum hydrocarbons in selected ocean areas. Thirty- three countries have expressed their willingness to partici- pate in this initial project, which is scheduled to run through 1978. A Workshop on Marine Pollution (Petro- leum) Monitoring, held in Monaco in mid- 1976. reviewed the progress of the Pilot Project, acknowledged that it was giving promise of useful results, and considered further actions required for the development of marine pollution monitoring. Additional scientific and technical details for further development of Marine Pollution Monitoring components of the IGOSS Program are to be provided by the newly established IOC Working Com- mittee on the Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment. An Ocean Current Observation Program is also under consideration, and joint IOC/ WMO studies are continuing on possible operational measurement pro- cedures and uses for ocean current data. These studies. to be completed by the end of 1977. may lead to the establishment of an Ocean Currents Observation Report- ing Pilot Project. 37 trrrr 90" N 45 N 90 E I I Glaciers l/7-\ Sea Ice |=j Land 18,000 Years Ago \W\ Warm Waters [•■] Temperate Waters 177] Cool Waters Figure 25. — C LI MAP Project. Comparison of surface features 18,000 years ago and today. Further development and improvement of IGOSS operational programs depend on continued expansion of multinational cooperation and an increase in the number of ship observations as well as the incorporation of data observations from other selected sources. Under develop- ment is a Basic Observational Network Design plan that identifies management requirements needed to im- plement the network. An oceanic monitoring subprogram, within the framework of the observational system, is to be designed to meet the oceanic data requirements of world climate studies, particularly in support of the Global Atmospheric Research Program. An IGOSS Data Proc- essing and Services System is planned and includes world, national, and specialized oceanographic data-processing centers for operational analysis and prediction of ocean data. The United States and U.S.S.R. already have in- dicated their willingness to assume responsibility for one World Oceanographic Data Processing and Services Center. The operational system may be implemented dur- ing 1977. An IGOSS General Plan and Implementation Pro- gram for 1977-82, a guide for further expansion of the IGOSS Program, has been approved by IOC and WMO. It incorporates guidance for new techniques and the re- sults of program development experience gained thus far. The next phase will be directed toward program expan- sion through such advances as the incorporation of ocean- ographic data gathered via satellites and additional en- vironmental data buoys, the automation of shipboard ob- serving techniques, the implementation of a synoptic analyses and prediction system, and the monitoring of additional marine pollutants for assessment of marine environmental quality. United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) EARTHWATCH EARTHWATCH is a functional component of UNEP. It is a global environmental program that in- cludes global monitoring, assessment, exchange of in- formation, and research. Within EARTHWATCH are components to assess the impact of pollutants upon the environment and the impact of the environment on man, and to give early warnings of potential hazards so that corrective measures can be taken. Information Referral Service A major information exchange function within EARTHWATCH is the International Referral System. It provides a means by which Member States can exchange technical information on EARTHWATCH monitoring, assessments, and studies that have been made. Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) GEMS is the global monitoring component of EARTHWATCH. The objective of GEMS is "to provide the information necessary to ensure, in conjunction with evaluation and research, the present and future protection of human health, well-being, safety, and liberty, and the wise management of the environment and its resources." The program goals include, inter alia, (1) an assessment of global atmospheric pollution and its impact on climate, and (2) an assessment of the state of ocean pollution and its impact on marine ecosystems. The Governing Council of UNEP, during April- May 1975, made the recommendation "to accelerate the development of the Global Enivironmental Monitor- ing System by convening small groups of governmental experts to work in close harmony with the relevant United Nations bodies for designing and implementing the first stage of the GEMS." The Governing Council also decided that the ocean program of UNEP should include the establishment of ocean monitoring baseline stations and should assist in the expansion of the IGOSS marine pollution monitoring program. UNEP is looking to the IGOSS program to serve as the basis of its marine environmental monitoring component of GEMS. As a first step. UNEP has requested WMO and IOC to assist in the setting up of pilot programs. In addition, UNEP has supported the development of a pollution research and monitoring program in the 38 Mediterranean. To ensure the development of an inter- national capability to assess marine pollution, UNEP has also provided assistance to IOC for the development of the Global Investigation of Po'lution in the Marine Environment program. The UNEP Governing Council has approved the continuation and expansion of UNEP's support to these programs. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) In September 1975, the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) approved the con- tinuation of two programs relevant to marine environ- mental prediction. One, the Joint North Sea Data Acqui- sition Program (JONSDAP), is cosponsored by ICES and the Joint North Sea Information Systems Group — an international, nongovernmental group of scientists. JONSDAP, carried out during March-June 1976, con- sisted of two parts: (1) an investigation of interacting biological, chemical, and physical processes in the Fladen Ground area of the North Sea, and (2) a study of the inflow, outflow, and residual circulation of the North Sea, as well as the modeling of tides and storm surges. The other program approved by the Council is the continued coordination of oceanographic observations by North Atlantic Ocean weatherships. The ocean ob- servations by these ships provide unique, long-term, time- series data that are invaluable both for studies of long- term climatic fluctuations and for studies of air-sea interaction. Observations at ocean weather stations A, I, J, K, and M are taken, and inventories of the data published annually. Taking into account the new inter- national agreement on the continued maintenance of four North Atlantic weatherships, signed in 1974, the Council recommended that ICES Member States operating these stations continue to make oceanographic observations and that all Member States make observations whenever possible at the locations of discontinued North Atlantic Ocean Stations and submit these observations to ocean- ographic data centers. International Ice Patrol From February to August each season, the Inter- national Ice Patrol warns of ice and iceberg intrusion in North Atlantic Shipping Lanes and the Grand Banks fishing region. There is statutory and treaty obligation for the U.S. Coast Guard to make studies and observations of ice and currents in the North Atlantic Ocean. Aircraft, ships, and other units are deployed each season for ice- berg detection and research. Sophisticated detection and tracking systems such as SLAR, drift models, iceberg tagging, and airborne radiation thermometry are used. Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment (GIPME) The United States actively supports and partici- pates in the IOC's Long-Term and Expanded Program of Oceanic Exploration and Research (LEPOR). GIPME, still largely in the planning stage, is a major area of U.S. involvement. The ultimate objective of a comprehensive investi- gation of marine pollution is to provide a sound scien- tific basis for the assessment and regulation of pollution, including sensibly planned and implemented monitoring programs. While monitoring, in a regulatory context, is not a part of GIPME, its proper planning and execution depend on the successful outcome of GIPME activities that eventually provide understanding of processes, their scales and variability, and the significant measurements. (Refer also to sections on IGOSS and EARTH WATCH.) The Comprehensive Plan for GIPME provides an international framework within which national and re- gional research programs on various aspects of marine pollution may be coordinated and lead to an understand- ing of global pollution problems. A first priority in GIPME is to make baseline studies on three levels: national, regional, and open-ocean. Equal priority is given to a number of more specific research activities dealing with inputs, pathways, sinks, effects, and dose/response relations. Studies are also proposed on the transfer proc- esses at the air-sea interface, and on river inputs and the exchange of pollutants between the water and seabed sediments. These tasks, when successfully completed, should give a systematic picture of the level and spatial distribution of major ocean pollutants, quantitative esti- mates of the transfer of major pollutants to and within the marine environment, a sound scientific basis for measuring the introduction of pollutants to the ocean, and a basis for development of a predictive capability to assess the potential effects of pollutants on the marine environment. Included with the implementation plan are guidelines on the conduct of baseline studies; recommended actions to enable participants to assess, promote, and coordinate the required research activities; a statement of the need to develop recommendations on future research; and encouragement to WHO and FAO to develop research programs on human exposure standards. A Task Team on Marine Pollutant Input Data will evaluate the needs for and quality of pollutant input data for mass-balance studies; recommend necessary actions required to obtain quantitative data on rates, locations, and releases of potential pollutants to the marine environ- ment; and recommend research on transfer processes as they affect pollutant inputs into the marine environment. DDT will be used as the test-case for obtaining input data. International Decade of Ocean Exploration The International Decade of Ocean Exploration (I DOE) is a U.S. -initiated, long-term, international, co- operative program to improve understanding and the use of the oceans and its resources for the benefit of mankind. U.S. activities in the IDOE actuallj began in ll)hc>. when the National Science Foundation (NSF) was charged with the responsibility to explore goals relative 39 LU o DC LU Q_ PERCENT OF TOTAL MAREP FUNDS BY DEPARTMENT OR AGENCY 1971-1977 TOTAL MAREP FUNDS BY AGENCY OR DEPARTMENT 1971-1977 uu > I I INTERIOR - SMITHSONIAN NSF 80 EPA ERD/> \TION -TRAN SPORT/ 60 DEFE NSE 40 20 n COMI dERCE INTERIOR I SMITHSONIAN ERDA- "TRANSPORTATION" DEFENSE COMMERCE 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 71 72 73 74 75 EST. FISCAL YEAR FISCAL YEAR Figure 26.- — Total and percent of total MAREP funds by department or agency, 1971-1977. 76 77 EST. CO DC _i o Q LL o co o to man's involvement with the oceans. The NSF Office for IDOE has encouraged foreign institutions and re- searchers to participate in IDOE directly and through the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO. Scientists and institutions of more than 40 nations are now participating. To encourage greater international participation, the Office for IDOE provides funds that enable IOC to convene international scientific workshops to consider and, when appropriate, recom- mend new projects for IDOE. Geochemical Ocean Sections (GEOSECS) Study This IDOE cooperative program involves geochem- ists from 14 United States universities and from Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, India, Italy, and Japan. Water and suspended material samples collected at selected geographic locations and depths are being analyzed for more than 40 physical and chemical parameters. Main survey cruise tracks were along the approximate paths of bottom water currents. Information gained from study of the data is expected to improve our understanding of ocean mixing processes. The data also will serve as base- 40 lines for assessing future concentration levels of radio- active and other pollutant wastes that are being added to the sea. Coastal Upwelling Ecosystems Analysis (CUEA) This 7-year IDOE program is designed to investigate the complex physical and biological processes in coastal upwelling ecosystems. The first integrated biological and physical field studies were those of JOINT-I off the north- west coast of Africa during spring and summer 1974. JOINT-II is planned as an intensive international study of the Peruvian upwelling ecosystem between 1975 and 1977. An intensive period of field experiments in 1976 and 1977 is being planned by scientists from Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Peru, Spain, and the United States. Observa- tions will be made from vessels in a major multiship effort. Representatives of those nations are collaborating also with the planning directorate of the International ERFEN project (Regional Study of the El Nino phe- nomenon). Climate: Long-Range Investigation, Mapping, and Prediction (CLIMAP) Study CLIMAP research focuses on describing and explain- ing climatic changes over the last million years (fig. 26). Accurate descriptions of climatic change over this period will improve research along three distinct lines: • Global Climate Reconstruction Program • Regional Climate Dynamics Program • Climatic Time-Series Program Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Experiment (CEPEX) The purpose of these IDOE studies is to investi- gate the effects of pollutants on marine organisms and ecological communities. Field studies are integrated into the Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Experiment (CEPEX). This cooperative research project of inter- national scope involves trapping water and natural com- munities in large plastic enclosures. The effects of low levels of pollutants are determined by perturbing an enclosure while maintaining another as a control medium. CEPEX involves United States, Canadian, and United Kingdom scientists and is being carried out in waters off Vancouver, British Columbia. The CEPEX project has 10 U.S. investigators from five institutions. Joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. Midocean Dynamics Experiment (POLYMODE) The United States and the Soviet Union are devel- oping a large-scale mid-ocean dynamics experiment, POLYMODE. It is based on the U.S.S.R. POLYGON program and the earlier MODE project of the United States and the United Kingdom. The POLYMODE ex- periment is under the direction of a Joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. POLYMODE Organizing Committee, established under the Agreement between the Governments of the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on Cooperation in Studies of the World Ocean. North Pacific Experiment (NORPAX) The long-term objective of NORPAX, a joint NSF (IDOE) and Navy project, is to understand fluctuations in the upper layers of the North Pacific Ocean with time scales of months to years and distances in excess of 1,000 kilometers, and to determine the relation of these fluctuations to the overlying and adjoining atmosphere. Achievement of this goal should lend to improved pre- diction of weather and climate for the northeast Pacific Ocean area, the Gulf of Alaska, and North America. NORPAX is jointly sponsored by IDOE and the Office of Naval Research. "El Nino" An important regional study linked with NORPAX and within the IDOE is the large-scale oceanographic and meteorological phenomenon known as "El Nino." It has a drastic effect on the equilibrium of the eco- systems in the South Pacific, especially off the western coast of South America. Statistics also show that this phenomenon has an important connection with abnormal rainfall in the Tropics. During the past year, scientists successfully predicted, 6 months in advance, the onset of El Nino conditions off the west coast of South America. International Southern Ocean Studies (ISOS) ISOS, another component of the International Dec- ade of Ocean Exploration, began in 1974. The results of its experiments on ocean dynamics and monitoring and accompanying modeling will contribute to the understand- ing of the long-term, large-scale response and variability of the ocean/ atmosphere system in the polar regions — a basic element in understanding climatic variability. The program is concentrating on two major phenomena: ( 1 ) dynamics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and (2) the processes and variability of the polar frontal zone. Future studies may include investigation of the processes of bottom water formation and their variability. The First Dynamic Response and Kinematic Ex- periment (F DRAKE), the first field experiment of the ISOS project, was carried out in January-March I0" Three ships measured physical and chemical properties in sections across Drake Passage. These experiments will also be directed toward meeting the First GARP Global Experiment objectives during 197S-80. Specific activities associated with international involvement include the de- velopment, by NOAA's National Data Buoy Otlice. of open-ocean drifting buoys, air-sea interaction buoys to support large-scale experiments in very large oceanic areas, and specially designed ice buoys. International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC) The International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC) of UNESCO's Intergovernmental Oceanographic 41 Commission (IOC) monitors the international dissemi- nation of warnings and the collection of tsunami information . The ITIC performs a coordinating, monitoring, and advisory role to the Member States of the International Coordination Group for the Tsunami Warning System in the Pacific (ITSU) and others to de- velop and maintain an effective international system of warnings to reduce the hazards from tsunamis. In support of this overall objective, it performs an educational role through a visiting scientist program; translating, printing and distributing educational materials; and sponsoring workshops. It provides technical advice to developing countries on observational equipment and national warn- ing systems. According to bilateral agreements, watch and warning information is disseminated to countries and territories throughout the Pacific Basin. 42 Summary of Fiscal Data The total Government expenditure designated for MAREP in FY 1976 was $300,264,000. The planned FY 1977 budget level is $313,074,000 (table 10), an increase of $12,810,000. Funding levels by individual agencies for FYs 1976-77 are listed in table 10. There were increases in total funding for all agencies except Commerce. How- ever, the increases in services and research must neces- sarily account for the impact of inflation. Funding by Service area is shown in table 11 for both operation and research activities. Operational ex- penditures for MAREP by function are shown in table 12. Major increases are shown by Defense and Interior, whereas decreases are apparent in the Commerce budget. Expenditures for research are shown in table 13; increases are shown for Defense, ERDA and NSF. Operational expenditures for MAREP by function are shown in table 12. Major increases are shown by Defense and Interior, whereas decreases are apparent in the Commerce budget. Expenditures for research are shown in table 13; increases are shown for Defense, ERDA and NSF. Figure 26 depicts the changes in MAREP funding in terms of total funds and percentage by department or agency during the 7-year period 1971-77. Commerce (NOAA) shows a gradual but constant increase through FY 1974, then shows a steady decline. A decrease in Commerce funding from 1976 to 1977 occurred in both operations and research. It is primarily due to less spend- ing for data acquisition and processing particularly for data taken using aircraft. The Defense Department, pri- marily Navy interests, shows a constant decline after FY 1974, a result of Navy reprogramming toward more mission-oriented research and operations. The most dra- matic change is shown by Interior, as their funding base has expanded rapidly since FY 1974. The most significant trends are found in the redirection of national MAREP goals. In 1971, when ICMAREP was formed, the Department of Defense reported the largest percentage of MAREP funding (32%). From 1971 through 1973 funding for the other member agencies re- mained essentially level, with only Commerce (NOAA) showing major increases (1973: 46%). Decreases by De- fense after 1973, essentially level funding by Commerce, and major increases by Interior are reflected by the grow- ing concern and redirection of priorities toward energy exploration on the outer Continental Shelf. Projected 1977 percentages show Defense providing only minor MAREP support, Commerce down slightly, and Interior continu- ing its expansion. 43 ^1 w a 41 OH a E O •■c 41 2 s 4> E B | B w 4) B s u e en •3 B 78 t. 4) 41 H o H J3 p 0- a, O r- I vo I ft: I Li- ve I Li- fe 5 l vo I ON u c u < "T3 O -s: vO n vo O CN ro ON vo ro E o U ro vo oo o\ 1-H O ©" i-T o o fN o o 00 I/O m VO CO 00 _| (S ro O o 00 ON ■* t~ f~ o 00 VO o O vo l-H r~ "3- rO O 00 Tj- ro ~h m 1-H o ■* ON VO 1-H _ rr 00 ro CO ON ro ON CN (N ro 00 ■ hH vo 00 °\ 00 r- ■* 00 00 vo- i-H (N vo vo" 00 ■*" i-H ON m vo" ro O o * rj 00 r- ON vo ON (N /-l ro VO rn fN vo (N Ov l> rM rN O o o ro o oo r~ O v-> vo i— i m r~ vo o\ vd vo 00 fN ro in — i (N oo ON ON o o oo o o CO ro vo On co 00 i-H fN vo r- t~- vo vo r-^ vo *-? 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PU < C/) F Z A 00 rn O ND in rn no' co 00 in o X m o rj r-i ON NO NO m ON NO r- ON o >n m ri en o £ 45 MAREP Product Directory Products and Services (Operational) Forecasts, Warnings, and Advisories Communications Automatic Weather Telephone Service 5 Facsimile Networks 5 NOAA VHF/FM Radio 5, 13 NOAA Weather Wire 5 Teletypewriter Networks 5, 6 U.S. Navy Marine Radio 11 USCG Marine Radio 5, 6 International Services and Products IGOSS BATHY and TESAC Data 37 IGOSS Marine Pollution Monitoring 37, 39 International Ice Patrol 13, 25, 40 Living Marine Resources Fisheries Forecasts and Stock Advisories Albacore Advisory Service 18 Ekman Transport Index 9, 17 Fishing Information Bulletin 18 Radio Station WWD 5, 18 Upwelling Index 9, 25 Marine Conditions Forecasts and Warnings Coastal Warning System (Visual Displays) 8 EPA Sludge Model 25 Great Lakes Ice 13 High Seas Forecasts 7 Iceberg Warnings and Advisories 4 Oil Spill Models (USCG) 15 Sea Ice Forecasts and Advisories 5, 13, 27 Storm Surge Warnings 6, 25 Tsunami Warnings 6, 7, 25 USN Marine Forecasts 11 Supporting Services NOAA Satellite Products 4, 7, 29 Other Products and Supporting Services Charts and Tables Great Lakes Ice Charts — NESS 4 Gulfstream Publication 8 Gulf Stream Wall Bulletin 13 Sea Surface Temperature Charts — USCG 8, 18 Tidal Datums 2 Tidal Current Charts 8 Tidal Current Prediction Tables 2, 8 Tide Tables 2, 8 Climarological Information 9 Hydrographic and Water Quality Data Catalog of Information on Water Data 11 Coastal Water Movement Information 15, 25 COE Technical Services 5, 10 Flood Plain Utilization Information 10 National Water Quality Accounting System 14 National Water Quality Surveillance System 13 Oil Spill 15 STORET System 11 Stream Discharge and Water Quality 5, 11, 15 Tar Ball Samples 15 Information Exchange Scientific Event Alert System 11 Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center 5, 11 Smithsonian Science Information Exchange 12 International Services International Referral System 39 Living Marine Resources Marine Specimen Collection 5. 15 MARMAP Reports 9, 17, 18 Oceanographic Data ENDEX — Environmental Data Index 10 OASIS 10 USN Data 25 Water Mass Data File— Navy 25 Supporting Services Data Management and Analysis 9 Sea Grant Services 33 47 NOAA--S/T 77-2609 usir