- t pie. J a the International ; 2 Symposium: aa Le Wor tdwider ane is 5 ; a ry Volume 16 Parts 67 & 8 me Re wryis 2002 we Edinburgh E EH3 SLR, UK. ne T elephone: 0131 -248- 2973; E-mail: M. Gibbyabeeo org. uk t 5 N'>. 5 Ag i . Bic My . 4 fe if ins ‘ : vi ‘ f oa ; Ss Pan ¥ : Instructions for authors are available at http://www.eBPS.org.uk a iY. pace Avie } u nedpenicts © 2002 British raiser Society. All 1 dilits pute | publication may be reproduced in any material form (including - 1 storing it in any medium oe electronic Bee) without the eae PSCC Eee eek ee PM Ge ceo aa ad ‘ ‘THE FERN GAZETTE Volume 16 Part 5 was 2s published 0 on 115 He, ug ‘ Printed hes Metloc Printers Ltd, Old Station heck Loughton, Essex ts A cakes canal design by Hazel Mies Pipe Mermmneete wes 8 oui 4 rns ee tee Oe | ¥ - ik Par a { ‘ an Pe ’ f i i “4 , i F wy) p x . x uh ; a e ; ian” AM TEM ety pe British Pteridological Society with Species Survival Commission Pteridophyte Specialist Group Fern Flora Worldwide: Threats and Responses Proceedings of the International Symposium at the University of Surrey, Guildford, UK 23-26 July 2001 Editors: A.F. Dyer, E. Sheffield & A.C. Wardlaw SP a NEW _ ‘ ——wN We PHYTOLOGIST = == WAN gg all BY TRUST NATURE IUCN SPECIES SURVIVAL COMMISSION FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 254 PREFACE HRH THE PRINCE OF WALES ST. JAMES’S PALACE As Patron of the British Pteridological Society, | am delighted to introduce this issue of the Fern Gazette containing the proceedings of the recent symposium on ‘Fern Flora Worldwide: Threats and Responscs’. Ferns and their relations, the clubmosses, horsetails and quillworts, are an ancient group of plants, having evolved from ancestors of the Carboniferous Period. Today they are still a major component of many environments, especially tropical rain forests, where they provide habitats essential for the survival of many other organisms. Ferns have a wide range of uses, as structural materials, textiles, foods and medicines. There are also many people, of whom I am one, who find ferns highly attractive. Their particular cool, quiet dignity makes a special contribution to the landscape, both in the wild and in a garden setting. The symposium was clearly a great success, drawing together almost 100 specialists from 27 countries and from all 6 continents. The resulting papers show that useful progress was made towards understanding, and hence protecting, the fern component of the world’s biodiversity. The link with the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and its Species Survival Commission was a special dimension, which I hope will contribute to greater awareness of the actions required to conserve ferns and their allies at international, state and local levels. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 This volume is dedicated to Clive Jermy to mark the occasion of his 70" birthday Clive Jermy 255 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 256 To Clive Jermy, from Symposium 2001, With Best Wishes for Your 70" Birthday Milne C. Werdlnn PC. 4 a — FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 257 is AS J | ve Rage FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 258 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 10 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 Key to Group Photograph at the Symposium : Peter Edwards : Patrick Acock : Monica Shaffer-Fehre : Julie Barcelona : Ruth Davies : Yovita Cislinski- Yesilyurt : John Woodhams : Alison Paul : Yves Krippel : Joan Woodhams Peter Chaerle : Monica Palacios-Rios : Andrew Leonard : Clive Jermy : Anja George : Martin Rickard : Steve Waldren > Les Vulcz I9: Valerie Pence 20: F A Strang 21: Fred Rumsey 22: Alastair Wardlaw 23: Adrian Dyer 24: Rob Cooke 25: Joanne Sharpe 26: Jim Parks 27: Louis Chinnery 28: Irina Gureyeva 29: Jim Croft 30: Michael Zink 31: Kai Runk 32: Paulo Windisch 33: Ruth Aguraiuja 34: Gill Stevens 35: Smitha Hegde 36: Nick Stewart Si) 38: 39: 40: 41: ALY s ANB) 44: Ass: 46: Ae 48: 49: Wen-Liang Chiou Tom Ranker David Given Jennifer Ide John Burrows Elvira Henriquez Tomas Sanchez Elzbieta Zenkteler Liz Sheffield Rosemary Vulcz Ana Ibars Elena Estrelle Klaus Mehltreter : Tim Wilkinson : Mary Gibby : Graham Ackers FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 SYMPOSIUM PROCEEDINGS: CONTENTS FERN FLORA WORLDWIDE: THREATS AND RESPONSES Presented Papers Session 1: Setting the Scene Introduction A.C. Wardlaw Prologue A.C. Jermy Needs, methods and means (Keynote address) D.R. Given Protected areas, and IUCN’s World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) — how can they help in the conservation of ferns? A. Phillips The role of natural disturbances in pteridophyte conservation management C.N. Page Session 2: Regional and Country Reviews Conservation status of pteridophytes in the 49 continental United States: a preliminary report S. Grund & J.C. Parks Fern conservation in Brazil P.G. Windisch Biogeography, human geography and ferns in the Eastern Caribbean L.E. Chinnery Philippine pteridophyte collections as a resource for conservation planning J.F. Barcelona Fern conservation in south tropical Africa J. Burrows & J. Golding Rare fern species of Russia and reasons for their rarity II. Guryeva The only quillwort (/soetes olympica A. Braun) in Syria is threatened with extinction L.J. Musselman Session 3: Relevance of Molecular Studies to Conservation The critically endangered endemic fern genus Diellia Brack in Hawaii: its population structure and distribution R. Aguraiuja & K.R. Wood Phytogeography and conservation of Archangiopteris somai Hayata and A. itoi Shieh based on nucleotide variation of the A7PB-RBCL intergenic spacer of chloroplast DNA T. Y. Chiang, Y.C. Chiang, C.H. Chou, Y.P. Cheng & W.L. Chiou 260 266 267 269 278 284 290 295 301 307 S18 S19 324 330 a3 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 261 Session 4: Conservation in the UK: Policies and Practice Plant conservation in Great Britain: the legislative and policy framework R.J. Cooke 34] The UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) process in action: the Killarney fern, Trichomanes speciosum Willd. - a case study FJ. Rumsey, M. Gibby & J.C. Vogel 344 Principles, practice and problems of conserving the rare British fern Woodsia ilvensis (L.) R. Br. P. Lusby, S. Lindsay & A.F. Dyer 350 Session 5: Ex Situ: Means and Ends Horticultural approaches to the conservation of British ferns A.C. Wardlaw 356 Cryopreservation and in vitro methods for ex situ conservation of pteridophytes V.C. Pence 362 Ex situ conservation of globally-endangered pteridophyte species M. Gibby & A.F. Dyer 369 Ex situ breeding and reintroduction of Osmunda regalis L. in Poland E. K. Zenkteler Sit Effects of asulam on non-target pteridophytes E. Sheffield 377 Survey and evaluation of the natural resources of Cibotium barometz (L.) J.Smith in China, with reference to the implementation of the CITES convention X.-C. Zhang, J.-S. Jia, & G.M. Zhang 383 Sustainable production of tree ferns in South-East Australia R. Vulcz, L. Vulcz, L. D. Greer & G. Lawrence 388 Conservation of tree ferns ex situ A.C. Wardlaw 395 Session 6: Data-Basing for Conservation The Flora Pteridologica Latinoamericana database and its use for assessing pteridophyte diversity and biogeography K. Mehltreter & M. Palacios-Rios 398 Session 7: Conservation Assessment and Management A conservation assessment of the pteridophyte flora of the Pitcairn Islands, South Central Pacific Ocean WN. Kingston & S. Waldren 404 Relationships and genetic diversity of endemic Elaphoglossum species from St Helena: implications for conservation A. Eastwood, J.C. Vogel, M. Gibby & Q.C.B. Cronk 411 Is fern conservation in the tropics possible? A.C. Hamilton 413 Epilogue — the way forward A.C. Jermy & T.A. Ranker 417 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 262 Poster Abstracts (In alphabetical order of the first author) Identification and distribution of the endangered fern Blechnum corralense Espinosa S. Aguiar, J. Amigo, S. Pajaron, E. Pangua, L.G. Quintanilla & C. Ramirez 426 Detailed study of the protected ferns of Estonia for defence of natural populations R. Aguraiuja 427 Soil spore bank of Phyllitis sagittata (DC.) Guinea & Heywood D. Ballesteros, A.M. Ibars & E. Estrelles 428 The distribution of threatened pteridophytes endemic to the Philippines J. F. Barcelona & T. Hollowell 429 Pteridophytes of the State of Pernambuco, Brazil: rare and endangered species I. C. L. Barros & P. G. Windisch 430 Protected areas and the fern flora of Sulawesi, Indonesia J. M. Camus 431 Is the widespread Asplenium aethopicum (Burm.f.)Bech. worth preserving? P. Chaerle & R. Viane 432 Marsilea quadrifolia L. in the natural park of the Delta del Ebro (Tarragona, Spain): recovery and conservation E. Estrelles & A.M. Ibars 433 Trade and conservation of tree ferns D. Harris & A. Rosser 434 2iP: an effective cytokinin for the tissue culture of ferns S. Hegde & L. D’Souza 435 An efficient protocol for extraction and PCR amplification of tree-fern DNA from herbarium samples S. Hegde, A.L. Dhanraj, C. Suneetha & L. D’Souza 436 Ecological profiles to set targets for plant conservation R. V. Landsdown & T.J. Pankhurst 437 Asplenium majoricum Litard on the Spanish mainland: vanishing or extending? S. Pajaron, C. Prada, E. Pangua & A. Herrero 438 The tree ferns of México: their use and conservation status M. Palacios-Rios 439 Conservation status of the ferns of Veracruz, México M. Palacios-Rios 440 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 The endangered pteridophytes of México M. Palacios-Rios & K. Mehltreter The Natural History Museum’s botanical collections — a conservation resource; the rare and endangered British plants database project A. M. Paul Fern diversity in the Mbaracayu forest, Paraguay M. Pena-Chocarro, B. Jiménez, G. Marin & S. Knapp The effect of storage method on spore germination in five threatened ferns L.G. Quintanilla, E. Pangua, S. Pajaron & J. Amigo Ecological characterisation of Culcita macrocarpa C.Pres| and environmental threats in Galacia (NW Spain) M.A. Rodriguez, MI. Romero, J. Amigo, L.G. Quintanilla & R. Diaz Conserving a tropical fern in Europe F. J. Rumsey, J. C. Vogel, S. J. Russell, J. A. Barrett & M. Gibby _ Conserving the fen buckler fern (Dryopteris cristata L.) in the British Isles F. J. Rumsey, J. C. Vogel, A. C. Jermy, A. M. Paul, S. J. Russell, K. A. Simpson, J. A. Barrett, A. Lockton & M. Gibby Initial survey of the Dryopteris carthusiana complex in Estonia K. Riink Pteridogeographic analysis of Gran Canaria and its connection with the rest of the archipelago and Madeira T. Sanchez Velazques Conservation of the rare and threatened pteridophytes of the Canary Islands T. Sanchez Velasques Population survey and conservation of Tunbridge filmy fern in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg J.-L. Schwenninger & Y. Krippel Keep the places where evolution is working! E.R. de la Sota Current conservation status of Asplenium species in Brazil L. S. Sylvestre & P. G. Windisch Experimental translocation of Gymnocarpium robertianum (Hoffm.) Newman in Ireland S. Waldren, J. Martin, T. Curtis & D. Lynn In vitro techniques for the conservation of Hymenophyllum tunbrigense (L.) Sm T. Wilkinson Threats to the fern flora of Brazil illustrated by the genus Doryopteris J.SM J.C. Yesilyurt 263 44] 442 444 445 446 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 458 459 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 264 Presented Papers, Available Only as Original Abstracts The IUCN/SSC Red List Programme: an overview C. Hilton-Taylor 462 The biodiversity and conservation of the ferns and fern allies of New Guinea R.J. Johns 463 Taxon rarity and endemism versus glacial refugia and centres of genetic diversity — where should we place conservation priorities for European pteridophytes? J.C. Vogel, J.A. Barrett, M. Gibby, C. James, M. Morgans-Richards, F.J. Rumsey & S. Trewick 464 The importance of recent population history for understanding genetic diversity in natural populations of endangered Dryopteris cristata G. Kozlowski 465 | Conservation action on Pilularia globulifera L. and Lycopodiella inundata | (L.) J.Holub in England N. Stewart 466 | Documenting the conservation status of Australian ferns and fern allies | J. Croft & P. Bostock 467 Measures of biodiversity C. Humphries 468 | The IUCN/SSC species information service: a global species | information resource C. Hilton-Taylor 469 | Conservation of ferns in Mauritius: a small island with big problems S. Lindsay 470 Subject Index 47] Author Index 480 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 265 PRESENTED PAPERS FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 266 INTRODUCTION A.C. WARDLAW President of the BPS 92 Drymen Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G61 2SY, UK Ten years ago the BPS celebrated its centenary with a Special Publication The History of British Pteridology 1891-1991. This volume describes the inception of the Society by a group of fern enthusiasts in the English Lake District and the subsequent great expansion of interests and membership. In the early years the primary focus was British ferns, especially their cultivars. But during the later 20" Century, the horizons widened into a global and scientific view of the World’s pteridophytes, as reflected by the present international membership of the Society. As the topic for our Millenium Symposium, the chosen theme of Fern Flora Worldwide, Threats and Responses is highly appropriate and it is very gratifying that delegates from 27 countries were able to attend and contribute. The exact number of species of pteridophyte in the World is variously given as between 9,000 and 12,000, reflecting the breadth of the taxonomist ‘lumper/splitter’ spectrum. Not disputed, however, is the fact that a substantial number of them is now threatened with extinction, through the clearance of native vegetation from wild places. The timely purpose of this symposium is to survey the present status of pteridophyte floras worldwide, and to discuss what protective measures are being, or might be, instituted. On the geological time scale the fern ‘habit’, structural and physiological, has had notable survival value. From the earliest Psilotum-like vascular plants of the late Silurian, through the pteridophyte forests of the Carboniferous, and traversing the Permian and Cretaceous mass-extinctions (of animals), pteridophytes have not only survived but flourished. They are ecologically-civilized plants: in general, not attempting to grab the best of the sunlight, but content to occupy shady niches; not crowding out other plants, except for a few invasive species such as bracken; and conducting their sex lives discreetly under the prothallial blanket and without enslaving insects for the transfer of gametes. Ferns are thus important components of many ecosystems and much remains to be learned about their ability to survive, reproduce and evolve. This symposium could not have taken place without Clive Jermy’s unrivalled network of pteridological contacts worldwide, and it is appropriate that this volume be dedicated to celebrating his seventieth birthday. Equally, but in different ways, the symposium depended on the organisational and administrative skills of Graham Ackers and Andrew Leonard. Likewise the financial assistance of the several organisations acknowledged elsewhere was essential to the symposium’s success. I believe this volume will for many years provide a benchmark for fern conservation and thereby contribute to the better ecological management of our planet. ——— 2 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 267 PROLOGUE A.C. JERMY Co-Chair, IAP/SSC Pteridophyte Specialist Group Godwins House, Staunton-on-Arrow, Leominster, Hertfordshire HR6 9LE, UK In 1998 the BPS Committee decided to hold an international symposium to mark the New Millennium. The year was to be 2001, and fern conservation the theme. The present volume marks the successful outcome of these decisions. As a Society, at the national level, we had supported Plantlife Link, a group of botanists co-ordinated by Plantlife - the Wild-plant Conservation Charity, and individual members had worked with our conservation UK Agencies (English Nature, Countryside Council for Wales, and Scottish Natural Heritage) on various programmes to conserve pteridophytes. Most important, the Society had both experience and expertise to organise such an international gathering. The University of Guildford, Surrey, was chosen as venue and Graham Ackers and his Symposium Committee ably organised the planning and domestic arrangements. Whilst the Society's involvement with pteridophyte conservation had hitherto been limited to UK and the wider Europe, we realised from the outset that involving an international partner in planning the actual programme would 'widen the net'. The obvious partner was the Pteridophyte Specialist Group (PSG) within the IUCN (World Conservation Union) Species Survival Commission (SSC)/International Association of Pteridologists (IAP). This Specialist Group was co-chaired by a UK- based BPS member (ACJ), who therefore joined the Symposium Committee and, with a group of international contacts, planned the scientific programme. The Symposium is a milestone in pteridophyte conservation, in providing the first opportunity for the PSG to meet as a group. Pteridologists, especially those who study floras and taxonomy, are an unfavoured race within the politics of today’s biology. Nevertheless, ferns and their allies, when compared to other vascular (i.e. seed-bearing) plants are a comparatively small, and relatively well-known element in any one biome or country. As a result they are frequently used in feasibility studies for other programmes of conservation biology. In addition, the Pteridophyta is an ancient group of plants whose distribution is associated with palaeoareas of the earth and, as such, can help to identify the priority regions for conservation. One major aim of the PSG is a Conservation Review of world pteridophytes and the conservation status of rare species and fern-rich habitats. The symposium contributed to that. Through its contributions, it also helped to develop the rationale and approach we might follow to meet our fern conservation needs. The second major aim of the Specialist Group is to publish, through the IUCN/SSC, an Action Plan — nowadays the accepted tool for promoting conservation recommendations. Such a Plan must identify the particular activities to be carried out by the actual implementers on the ground, in order to deliver solutions to the identified conservation problems. Much of what was presented and discussed at the Symposium will assist that programme. I thank the delegates for contributing to a successful symposium and for preparing the manuscripts published in this book. I am grateful to the many reviewers and especially to Adrian Dyer, Liz Sheffield and Alastair Wardlaw for their FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 268 painstaking editing of these papers. The IUCN and I are grateful to the BPS for accepting the burden of publishing these Proceedings as an enlarged issue of The Fern Gazette. We are indebted to English Nature for substantial support towards the cost of administration and the field trip; and to New Phytologist Trust for enabling a delegate from Russia to attend and present a paper. We are thankful also for the support, spiritual and financial, given by the IAP which also made it possible for some contributors lacking institutional conference budgets to attend. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 269 NEEDS, METHODS AND MEANS (Keynote lecture) D.R. GIVEN Manager, Isaac Centre for Nature Conservation, Lincoln University, PO Box 84, Canterbury 8150, New Zealand, and Chair, Species Survival Commission Plant Conservation Programme Key words: environmental health, conservation, action plan, public awareness ABSTRACT There is an increasing groundswell of attention being given to the conservation status of plants especially through the Convention on Biological Diversity. A developing global strategy recognizes fundamental objectives: integrated in situ and ex situ conservation, research on the biology, decline, monitoring and _ information management, assessment of the social benefits of plant diversity, and public awareness. Targets have been suggested for a number of key indicators. Do ferns and their allies need such a strategy? This question is addressed from several points of view, especially their potential value as indicators of environmental health, as the descendants of ancient lineages of plants, their extraordinarily wide distribution combined with habitat specificity, and their widespread cultural value and public recognition. Although perhaps better known taxonomically than many other plant groups, there are significant gaps in our knowledge of ferns, especially their biology, distribution and conservation status. A tendency to be concentrated in regions and habitats at risk, and frequent local endemism especially on islands, means that a significant proportion of species may be at risk. The developing global strategy and the recently agreed Species Survival Commission conservation strategy for plants provide a robust framework for completion of an Action Plan for the conservation of pteridophytes, and development of guidelines for its implementation where it is most needed. THE BIODIVERSITY CRISIS As many as two-thirds of the world's plant species are in danger of extinction in nature during the course of the 21° Century, threatened by population growth, deforestation, habitat loss, destructive development, the spread of alien invasive species and agricultural expansion. Further loss of plant diversity is predicted through genetic erosion and narrowing of the genetic basis of many species. The disappearance of such vital and massive amounts of biodiversity provides one of the greatest challenges faced by the world community: to halt the destruction of the plant resources that are so essential for present and future needs. (BGCI 2000). David Brackett, Chair of the International Conservation Union’s Species Survival Commission asserted that, “If you like to breathe and you like to eat, you should care more about plants” (Given, 1998). We share the world with perhaps as many as 30 million organisms of which less than one million are plants. Although FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 270 outnumbered by such animal groups as the insects, it is plants that provide the vital link that allows life as we know it to exist on Earth. Plants, through photosynthesis, are the primary converters of the sun’s energy to create forms of energy that can then be taken up by animals. In a real sense, ‘all flesh is grass’. The most critical parts of the world are those regarded as biological ‘hot spots’. These are areas that are particularly rich in species found nowhere else. Recent analyses show that roughly 30-50% of plants, amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds occur in 25 hotspots that individually occupy no more than 2% of available land area (Myers ef al., 2000). A disturbing feature of this analysis is that in the 17 tropical regions designated as biodiversity hot spots, only 12% of the original primary vegetation remains. Pimm and Raven (2000) suggested that even if all the remaining habitat in these 17 areas were protected immediately there would still be an 18% loss of their species, and if habitat depletion continued at the present rate for a further decade the loss would rise to 40%. Within the quarter of a million or so vascular plants, ferns constitute only a modest percentage, with between 10,000 and 13,000 species. This is significantly smaller than flowering plant families such as Poaceae, Asteraceae or Orchidaceae. But it is the same order of magnitude as the avifauna of the world, and as a group the pteridophytes are one of the most truly global of biota. They are also vital components of the ecosystems of biological hot spots, especially moist tropical forest and oceanic islands. These are the particular systems most likely to be at risk. THE GRAN CANARIA INITIATIVE Recognizing that a critical situation exists globally for plants, and the collective responsibility to alert the global community, the XVI International Botanical Congress in St Louis, Missouri, U.S.A., in 1999, resolved that there was very urgent need to address the plight of the high number of the world’s plant species under threat of extinction. Responding to this Congress resolution, a small ad hoc group including members of the IUCN Species Survival Commission Programme met in Gran Canaria, Spain, in 2000, to consider the need for a global initiative for plant conservation. The outcome was a draft Global Strategy for Plant Conservation and a commitment to develop a programme for its implementation (BGCI 2000). It was decided that such a strategy should develop mechanisms to enhance collaboration and networking, to strengthen and support plant conservation locally as well as internationally, and to formally and informally link various partners. Rather than being something entirely new, the strategy should work through existing efforts and institutions to sustain both new and developing programmes. Above all the strategy must achieve things on the ground rather than on paper. Important in the developing strategy is integration of social, economic and biological disciplines towards plant conservation, in the process bringing a wide range of technologies, techniques and sectors together in support of plant conservation. A better means of dispersing information and techniques is recognized as a need. The Strategy also highlights ongoing needs for operational research and public education, especially to raise greater awareness of the importance of plants and the threats they face. Major elements are, in summary: Integrated ex situ and in situ conservation: conservation of important centres of plant diversity; maintenance of genetically diverse samples of flora; conservation of plant species of economic importance; control of invasive alien plants and animals; developing best practices. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 271 Research, monitoring, and information management: documenting plant diversity; making information accessible; monitoring status and trends. Social issues and services: assessing the socio-economic value and the cultural value of plant diversity; assessing products and services provided by plant diversity; ensuring that benefits from use of plants are fairly shared; identifying the underlying causes of plant diversity loss. Education and public awareness: emphasizing the benefits of conserving plant diversity and conservation options; incorporating plant conservation into formal and informal education. The process moved on from the Gran Canaria workshop to the Convention on Biological Diversity. Following adoption of 16 global targets to be reached by the year 2010, a global plant conservation strategy was adopted at the sixth Conference of Parties for the CBD in April 2002. This has very profound implications for conservation of all plants and especially for pteridophytes which are both dependent on critical habitat for survival and will benefit from targets that will conserve representative ecosystems, and occur in well defined centers of species richness (biodiversity hot spots). THE SSC GLOBAL PLANT STRATEGY The Species Survival Commission of IUCN is a partner in the Gran Canaria initiative but also has its own strategy at global level. The overall goal for SSC is to acknowledge the extinction crisis as a global problem and to decrease the current rate of loss of plant diversity. There are 28 discrete action points but the basic thrust of the strategy is simple; the objectives and key outputs are summarized in simplified form below: Sound interdisciplinary scientific information underpins decisions and policies affecting plant diversity. 1.1: Conserving important plant areas which incorporate the Centres of Plant Diversity published by IUCN and WWF. 1.2: Focusing on specific conservation issues such as the conservation of wild plants of importance for food and agriculture. 1.3: Using information networks to list conservation status of plants. Collaboration and strategic alliances, including local and national organisations outside the SSC, are increasingly used within the plant conservation community to achieve plant conservation success. 2.1: Forming working relationships with appropriate international, national, and local organisations as part of an expanding global network. 2.2: Ensuring that there is good collaboration within IUCN. Modes of production and consumption that result in the conservation and restoration of plant diversity are adopted by users of plant resources. 3.1: Identifying and supporting activities promoting sustainable use of plant resources. SSC’s plants policy recommendations, guidelines, and advice are valued, adopted, and implemented by relevant audiences. 4.1: Targeting conservation professionals and institutions. 4.2: Getting the resources to properly support awareness campaigns on priority plant conservation sites, threatened species, and related issues. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 D2 4.3: Promoting integrated plant conservation that includes sustainable use, habitat and population protection, and in situ and ex situ approaches. Capacity to provide long-lasting, practical solutions to plant conservation problems is markedly increased. 5.1: Having well-funded training, technology transfer, exchanges of people, and wide information availability. 5.2: Preserving and promoting good research in conservation biology. 5.3: Raising overall capacity and levels of both discretionary and targeted funding. A GLOBAL CONSERVATION STRATEGY FOR FERNS? Do ferns and their allies need such a strategy? Can they benefit from one? Is this just another paper war? What are some of the important features of ferns and their allies that on the one hand make them vulnerable and on the other may lead us to conserve them globally and locally? Pteridophytes often represent ancient lineages of plants. The pteridophytes are an ancient plant group whose antecedents go back to the Devonian and Lower Carboniferous. Many extant groups can be regarded as continuing lineages that separated from each other far back in the geological past. The majority of those families and tribes with few species are either regarded as primitive and not closely related to other extant groups (e.g., the families Equisetaceae and Loxsomataceae), or have long been of disputed affinity (e.g. Ceratopteridaceae and Metaxyaceae). They are of biogeographic and phylogenetic interest, and other plant groups cannot provide adequate substitutes. Losing biota, and especially biota that represent ancient evolutionary lineages, is like losing the books in a library. For some plant groups there may be a significant level of biological or systematic redundancy. In the case of pteridophytes, there are many families and genera where the loss of only a few species not only results in permanent genomic loss but blurring of the remaining evolutionary scenario. Pteridophytes have wide distribution but habitat specificity. Two generalizations about the ecology of pteridophytes are that they are rarely dominant in climax vegetation, and that their presence is dependent on conditions that, at least seasonally, allow development of gametophytes and reproduction. Palaeo-ecological investigation supports this for past geological periods. Dependence on water is reflected in the majority of African Pteridophyta being concentrated in moist forests with little seasonal drought, and the observation that about two thirds of living ferns occur in tropical mesic environments. Ferns are often habitat specialists (Given, 1994). Detailed and quantitative studies of fern ecology are surprisingly few. One of the most fascinating and detailed accounts is found in a series of papers written by John Holloway (see e.g. Given, 1994), a study of the ecology of Hymenophyllaceae in the moist temperate rain forests of the New Zealand South Island. Perhaps one of the most extreme examples of habitat fidelity is shown by Hymenophyllum malingii. This fern is virtually confined to the trunks of New Zealand cedar. Loss of cedar trees occurs both naturally and through human intervention, and means a high likelihood of local extirpation of this fern. Other examples of high habitat fidelity include New Guinea species of Cyathea, the genus Trigonospora of Malesian forest streams, and the genus Grammitis, where small- scale separation of closely related species occurs with species of overlapping geographic FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 293 range separated by small differences in slope, moisture regime and substrate. High habitat fidelity is not exclusive to closed-forest species. An important group of pteridophytes (e.g., Dicranopteris, Pteridium, Pteris, and some tree ferns) are "sun ferns". These occupy open sites especially following disturbance, as pioneers and rarely thrive in forest. Although "sun ferns" appear to tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions they are highly dependent for survival on a continual mosaic of disturbance. The point is that these and other examples of habitat restriction make pteridophytes highly vulnerable to change in vegetation and ecosystem processes at scales from small and local, to large and regional. It also means that pteridophytes have potential to provide useful indicators of disturbance and ecological processes especially in forests. Pteridophytes can be valuable indicators of environmental health. One of the consequences of habitat specificity and also the dual generation life cycle with the need, in most species, for water for sexual reproduction, is that there is high sensitivity to environmental change. A further factor is the delicate nature of the frond in many forest species, reaching its extreme in the filmy ferns. Although some filmy ferns can shrivel during drought and later readopt their original shape and texture, many dense forest species cannot readily adapt to drier and more open conditions. Water ferns such as Azolla and fern allies such as /soetes may provide sensitive bio- indicators of water quality. They are the ‘canaries of the aquatic system’ in much the ame way that canaries once were for coalmines. Pteridophytes are valued cultural icons. The ferns and their allies are icons that can speak to people. New Zealand is a country where ferns are so much a part of culture and landscape that the symbol of the national flagship airline is that of the traditional Maori koru, based on the uncurling crook of a tree fern. In any New Zealand forested landscape, ferns abound. In Appalachian woodland or a montane Asian forest it is so often the delicate tracery of the ferns which attracts the eye. If one wanders the streets of the weekend market of Kuching, in Sarawak, there is a good chance that one will be offered bundles of fern fronds as food. Pteridophytes provide the backdrop for the world’s geothermal attractions and even in deserts they are often the greenery of rock crevices. Ask any corporate office designer what he will use to create an entry into the most contemporary of establishments and it will include plants. Ask any concert-goer what will be presented to the virtuoso performer and it will be a bouquet. Ask any suitor what he or she will give to their betrothed and most likely the answer will be, “Say it with flowers”. Invariably the flowers will be set off by ferns fronds, and ferns will grace the corporate window planter. THE RISK FACTOR In some parts of the world pteridophytes are at risk of extirpation and even extinction. Although the ferns and their allies are found from subpolar and alpine regions to tropical lowlands, and have evolved to fill almost every ecological niche, by far the greatest species diversity is still found in tropical and temperate rain forest. There has been rapid fragmentation of this biome over recent decades with many of their pteridophytes yet undiscovered, let alone scientifically described. The larger mature trees chosen for logging are likely to be the richest in epiphytic pteridophytes. Secondary centres of diversity occur on oceanic islands, on limestone, and in a few xeric regions. Within major regions of diversity there are also secondary centres, for FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 274 instance in the New World tropics: the Greater Antilles and southern Mexico each with 900 species, the Andean region with 1500 species, and southeastern Brazil with about 600 species. For many of these secondary centres, endemism averages about 40%. Oceanic islands and limestone regions are often under severe threat through activities such as land clearance, weed invasion and mining. Smaller azonal habitats where endemic pteridophytes are both common yet threatened, are readily destroyed. Geothermal sites where pteridophytes enjoy the damp steamy conditions adjacent to fumeroles and hot springs are often under threat from power development, tourism or mineral extraction. Another azonal habitat which is highly at risk is ephemeral wetland in Mediterranean regions. These can be quickly affected as ground hydrology changes, often to suit recreation or agriculture. The two very different and free-living stages, and the reproductive system, make many peridophytes vulnerable to even subtle habitat changes, especially where they involve water availability. Two important factors emerge from the distinctive life cycle of the ferns. One is that environmental conditions must suit not only the obvious sporophyte but also the free-living gametophyte. The second is that gametophytes require moist conditions for fertilization to occur. Ferns have been evolving for a long time and it is not surprising that they have acquired some tricks to try to escape the risks imposed by conventional reproduction. The sporophytes of many species can reproduce asexually or vegetatively. In some this is by extensive rhizomes which, once broken, can live as independent plants. Other species have bulbils, or parts of the frond or stem, which, when detached, can take root. Perhaps one of the strangest adaptations is that of species that can exist solely as gametophytes without any need to go through a sporophyte phase. Perhaps ferns have a few more tricks up their proverbial sleeves to counter human mismanagement of the planet? As a means of drawing attention to the conservation needs of plants generally, a concept being promoted by the SSC plants programme is that of a ‘Top 50 list’. This features representative threatened taxa that are selected as a priority for conservation action and publicity, and as a demonstration of the range of threats and management options relevant to the particular group from which the selection is made. For pteridophytes there has been no difficulty developing a draft Top 50 list. Some of the candidate species have interesting stories associated with them: Adenophorus periens of the Grammitidaceae, is a Hawaian endemic known from only three sites, but it is only one of several species in this genus that are highly threatened island endemics. Alsophila abbottii is a Hispaniola tree fern restricted to high mountains. It belongs to a closely-knit group of 16 species in the Greater Antilles. This is a species complex that may be the best known example of diploid hybrid speciation, and provides an excellent opportunity to study the significance of this little known speciation mechanism. Isoetes boryana is a species of the Landes region of France where it is found in lakes ponded up in ancient dunes behind the Bay of Biscay. It is threatened by pressure on the site from vacation tourists and from boats, as well as owners of riparian land, which is increasingly given over to building plots. DEVELOPING AND IMPLEMENTING A FRAMEWORK FOR CONSERVATION The developing global strategy and the recently agreed Species Survival Commission conservation strategy, along with other institutional strategies directed towards plants, FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 275 provide a robust framework for completion of an Action Plan for the conservation of pteridophytes, and development of guidelines for implementation of the plan where it is most needed. For pteridophytes, development of an action plan is under way but has been a long tortuous process. The concept of Action Plans was first developed by the Species Survival Commission in the 1980s. An Action Plan is a tool for promoting conservation recommendations to audiences who can act on them, identifying threats to groups of species and the actions required to mitigate those threats. It is a resource, giving all relevant information needed to guide the decision-making process leading to meaningful conservation actions. It can be used as an aid to raise funds for the recommended actions. It is a means of communicating the current threats affecting a species, how they are being addressed, action needs, and their order of priority. Action Plans are currently regarded as an important communication tool. They are intended to stimulate communications within Specialist Groups leading to increased partnerships between scientists and conservation managers worldwide. Their recommendations can be used to influence a wide range of players and stakeholders in the conservation sphere from local to global levels. Because it is not sufficient to just make information about particular taxa available to external audiences, Action Plans need to make recommendations specifically designed for key players. One of the very useful attributes of the Action Plan process is the exposure of gaps in knowledge and definition of tasks to be done. One such gap for pteridophytes is knowing with reasonable certainty the conservation status of most taxa. This needs to be a major action for the SSC Pteridophyte Specialist Group over the next two years — to identify those taxa which are critically threatened or endangered and to enter these species in the Global Red List. Action plans must be more than pieces of paper, nicely bound and set out on a library shelf. They must be living documents, capable of transformation into action on the ground. One of the scenarios I suggest to university students is to go into an office of a conservation manager and ask what is happening. Their attention may be drawn to rows of reports on a bookshelf. Alternatively they might be asked to come back that afternoon and take a trip out from the office to see what restoration, translocation and recovery programmes are being done. I know (at least for me) which is the more satisfying response. NEEDS, METHODS AND MEANS Can the hopes of the Gran Canaria Declaration be achieved? As futurists point out, those things that give people immediate comfort are political stability, employment, health and welfare institutions, community safety, reliable banking systems and quality universal education. Politicians know that these are vote-catchers. In times of chaos or uncertainty, biodiversity is likely to suffer because in the short-term most people probably see it as dispensable, little realizing that even the most advanced of biotechnologies cannot yet create life and species de novo. Those who are passionate about the biological diversity of planet Earth and want to see it retained in its entirely, face a future that will require all the ingenuity, educative effort, and tenacity they can muster. A tragedy for many people today is dislocation from nature. The majority of the world’s population lives in urban centres, often far removed from relatively undisturbed forests, grasslands and waterways. The food chain starts at the supermarket shelf rather than the wild ecosystem. This highlights the increasingly FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 276 important role of educators in bringing people closer to nature through botanic gardens, school nature programs, and participation in habitat restoration schemes. It means informing city people of a world of nature beyond the supermarket that provides the basics of life. It means bringing nature to people. Ferns and their relatives have a special role that has yet to be fully realised. They are icons that can speak to people. They are plants that many people can relate to. We smile with wry amusement at the antics associated with the ‘Victorian fern craze’ period. Yet, that there was a fern craze period speaks much for the relationship between people and pteridophytes. In conserving the world’s biota no one can stand on the sidelines. There are no spectators. If we claim neutrality, argue that we are ignorant and hence have no opinion, or regard the status of plant life as an issue that does not concern us, then we are part of the problem. We are tolerating depletion and extinction, with the inevitable and irreversible loss of part of our common global heritage. Consider one of the most shameful acts of terrorism against nature. It concerned a bird thought to be the most abundant ever occurring in North America. In 1810, a single flock in Indiana consisted of at least two billion individuals and diarists noted that flocks of the bird turned the daytime sky dark. This bird was the passenger pigeon. Being a pigeon and in such large numbers it represented the ultimate pigeon pie for settlers of the American mid-West who killed it by the hundreds of thousands for food. In the 1850s an Ohio county commissioner said: The passenger pigeon needs no protection. Wonderfully prolific, having the vast forests of the North as its breeding grounds, traveling hundreds of miles in search of food, it is here today and elsewhere tomorrow, and no ordinary destruction can lessen them or be missed from the myriads that are yearly produced (see Mattiessen, 1989). Yet, by the 1870s the bird had disappeared from Ohio, and although over 130 million birds still existed in the state of Michigan, this was the last of the big flocks. Within 25 years the bird had disappeared from the wild, and in 1914 the last individual of the species, a captive female named ‘Martha’, died in Cincinnati Zoo. The unbelievable had happened, and the story provides a sober warning: if one of the most prolific birds can become extinct through human actions then what security does any species of animal or plant on earth have? We still have specimens, preserved in museums, but the pioneer ecologist Aldo Leopold reportedly commented on the lesson of the passenger pigeon: We grieve because no living man will see again the onrushing phalanx of victorious birds, sweeping a path for spring across the March skies, chasing the defeated winter from the woods and prairies ... There will always be pigeons in books and museums, but these are effigies and images, dead to all hardships and to all delights. Book-pigeons cannot dive out of a cloud to make the deer run for cover, or clap their wings in thunderous applause of mast-laden woods. Book-pigeons cannot breakfast on new-mown wheat in Minnesota and dine on blueberries in Canada. They know no urge of seasons, they feel no kiss of sun, no lash of wind and weather ... the gadgets of industry bring us more comforts than the pigeons did, but do they add as much to the glory of the spring? (see Leopold, in Kellert, 1997). A question for the present is whether today’s generation of fern enthusiasts and researchers, through inaction, might take the risk that for future generations a significant number of ferns will be ‘book-ferns’ — maybe even ‘video-ferns’ or ‘hologram-ferns’? That may well occur, unless this generation take forest, island and FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 Ae river destruction more seriously along with the consequent effects of this destruction on biodiversity. It was Abraham Lincoln who pointed out at the time when the United States faced reconstruction following the Civil War, not only that, “the dogmas of the quiet past are incapable for the stormy future” but also that, “we cannot escape history ... we will be remembered in spite of ourselves ... we hold the power and we bear the responsibility”. REFERENCES BGCI 2000 (Botanic Gardens Conservation International 2000). The Gran Canaria Declaration. GIVEN, D.R. 1998. All flesh is grass. World Conservation 2/98: 2-3. GIVEN, D.R. 1994. Changing aspects of endemism and endangerment in Pteridophyta. Journal of Biogeography 20: 293-302. KELLERT, S.R. 1997. Kinship to Mastery. Washington, DC: Island Press, p 181- 182. MATTIESSEN, P. 1989. Wildlife in America. New York: Viking, p 187. MYERS, N., R.A. MITTERMEIER, C.G. MITTERMEIER, G.A.B. da FONSECA & J. KENT 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403. 853- 858. PIMM, S.L. & P.R. RAVEN 2000. Extinction by numbers. Nature 403: 843-845. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 278 PROTECTED AREAS, AND IUCN's WORLD COMMISSION ON PROTECTED AREAS (WCPA) - HOW CAN THEY HELP IN THE CONSERVATION OF FERNS? A. PHILLIPS Former Chair WCPA 1994-2000 2 The Old Rectory, Dumbleton, Evesham, WR11 6TG, UK Key words: IUCN, protected areas, WCPA, World Commission ABSTRACT There are more than 44,000 protected areas around the world, representing a global investment in in-situ conservation of biodiversity. The World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) is a part of IUCN, which leads IUCN's work in this field. This report reviews the history and current situation of WCPA, including protected area categories, identification of problems facing protected areas, and future trends and prospects. The role of protected areas in conservation, the key role of the area manager, research, education for biodiversity, and for fern conservation are discussed. There is much scope for both local co- operation, sharing information, and research, and for institutional co- operation (e.g. between SSC and WCPA). INTRODUCTION The World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) is a part of IUCN and leads IUCN's work in this field. The Commission itself is a network of 1300 expert volunteers spread over 130 countries (similar to the membership of the somewhat larger Species Survival Commission which contains experts for all groups of plants and animals). Just as the experts in SSC are biologists specialising in such fields as ecology, taxonomy and genetics of particular groups (e.g. pteridophytes), those in WCPA are a source of protected area expertise: managers, planners, NGO lobbyists etc., working within or relating to 16 regions and marine, mountain, World Heritage and biosphere reserves themes. From time to time, special Task Forces are set up to tackle such topics as Management Effectiveness, Tourism and Protected Areas and Protected Areas Information. Major publications are the UN List of protected areas (IUCN and WCMC, 1998) and Best Practice Guidelines [see www.wcpa.iucn.org]. A newsletter from the WCPA Secretariat at IUCN HQ and a regular journal PARKS are other publications. The Commission gives regular advice to the World Heritage Convention on the management of accredited sites and content and value of proposed sites. Every 10 years, WCPA organises a World Parks Congress (next in September 2003 in Durban, South Africa). AN OVERVIEW OF PROTECTED AREAS Protected areas have been set up for many purposes:- e To protect biodiversity (in-situ conservation). e To safeguard water supplies, and prevent soil erosion. e _ For scenic protection. : FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 ©PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 For indigenous peoples’ needs. To maximise sustainable use of natural resources. For tourism and recreation. For economic benefit. For national and community pride. For research and/or education. There are six management categories of protected areas: I: Strict Nature Reserve/Wilderness Area. Protected area managed mainly for science of wilderness protection. Ia: Strict Nature Reserve. Protected area managed mainly for science. 1b: Wilderness Area. Protected area managed mainly for wilderness protection. II: National Park. Protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation. III: National Monument. Protected area managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features. IV: Habitat/Species Management Area. Protected area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention. V: Protected Landscape/Seascape. Protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation. ‘VI: Managed Resource Protected Area. Protected area managed mainly for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems. 27D. The present quantitative situation with protected areas on a world basis is shown in Table 1 and can be summarised as follows: e 10% of terrestrial areas are ‘protected’ but e Less than 1% of marine areas are similarly ‘protected’. e Many biomes are poorly represented often due to the lateness of the designation (see Table 2). e Many countries still have incomplete protected areas systems. e Few countries use all protected area categories TABLE 1. Global coverage of protected areas by category (area as in 2000, in thousand km?.) Category VI FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 280 TABLE 2. Global coverage of protected areas by biome (% area protected as in 2000) aera eae Lake systems. A DY iene | Mixedislandsystems | 14 | Mixed mountain systems | 9 Eee | Tropical grassland/savanna | |Tundracommunities | 20 i esheets pies: eas pavea/l eas eA Ne fied iain ldo ane ORE eee ee eee 5 4 3 7 5 [Siltineoteal fiona I While the present system and number of protected areas are a great gift to the 21st. century, the statements above are facts relating to the quantity. However, some comments can also be made about the quality: e According to UNEP-WCMC (Cambridge, UK), developing countries get <10% of the per ha investment of developed countries (James et al., 1999). e The Nature Conservancy (USA) report ‘Parks for Peril’? comments that all nine parks studied in detail exhibit evidence that they are facing at least 4 serious threats (Brandon et al., 1998). e The ecological integrity of 22 of Canada’s 37 national parks is in danger. e 75% Brazil’s federal protected areas are at risk. e 18 of the 138 natural World Heritage sites are on the Danger List. This list could be extended. Protected areas face many threats, with underlying causes affecting management effectiveness. So we need a new paradigm for protected areas. The earlier philosophy for protected areas was that they were planned and managed against people (i.e. people were not considered part of the ecosystem or integral to the biome). They were usually run by central government, and were thus seen by those living in and around the park as intruders i.e. people lacking any understanding of local conditions or needs. Most protected areas were to be set aside for conservation and therefore kept free of human interference. But very often this policy has led to a loss of public support, leading to incursions, illegal settlement, poaching, forest clearance, etc. As a result, the very natural values that led to designation are put at risk. Today it is increasingly realised that protected areas should be managed with, and for, those living in them and not mainly for visitors and tourists. They may be also managed by many partners (NGOs, private sector, community, indigenous peoples). Early parks were often developed separately, managed as ‘islands’, and frequently established mainly for scenic preservation. The emphasis used to be on FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 281 protection, but is now also about restoration. Such areas are now often set up for scientific, economic and cultural reasons and planned as part of a national/international system managed as networks (core/buffer/corridor) and frequently viewed as an international concern (e.g. under the Convention of Biological Diversity). HOW CAN PROTECTED AREAS HELP SAVE FERNS? Protected areas are often the best means of in situ conservation - and vital for research, education and for spreading the doctrine of conservation. Ferns in existing protected areas should be safeguarded, but inventories rarely exist. Where local fern botanists are present, they will be welcomed by park managers and others responsible for the area’s protection. Proposed protected areas may include good fern habitats but those setting up the area may not know that. This calls for more information about where ferns grow, and their ecological needs. Protected area managers need to know which species are threatened including any that may be included in CITES regulations (at present tree ferns), and for each, as resources are rarely enough, the prioritisation for conservation action. An instructive case study is the island State of Hawaii (see Table 3). It has 33 pteridophytes which are ‘rare’ or ‘endangered’. Sites for only 4 are well protected; 11 have partial protection; 14 have no protection. At least there, the SSC Action Plan can propose a recovery programme on sound data and with professional management teams on site. But how many countries have such vital data and well-informed staff? UNEP-WCMC, which maintains the WCPA database on protected areas, has linked 115 fern species to protected areas in Indonesia but here the data are more patchy. TABLE 3. Threatened endemic species of pteridophytes in Hawaii showing degree of protection in National Parks or other Protected Areas. (Source: K.R. Wood, 2001, Hawaii Park Service; pers.com). E = known sites endangered; EX = possibly extinct; R = ‘rare’, few populations known; V = vulnerable. Protected: MP most sites, FP few sites, NP no sites. Pteridophytes Asplenium schizophyllum C.Chr. (R Diellia erecta Brack. forma alexanderi (Hillebr.) W.H. Wagner (E Diellia erecta Brack. forma pumila (Hook.) W.H. Wagener (E Diellia falcata Brack. (E Diellia leucostegioides (Baker) W.H. Wagner Diellia mannii (D.C. Eaton) W.J. Rob. (EX Cystopteris douglasii Hook. (R FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 282 Cystopteris kauaiensis W.H. Wagner & K.R. Wood ined.) (R | Blechnaceae 0 eee WesdialivoniDescne WV) a ee | Dennstaedtiacene ea oe Microlepia strigosa (Thunb.) C. Presl var. mauiensis meet W.H. Wagner) D.D. Palmer (R | Dryopteridaceae ee eee | Ctenitis squamigera (Hook. & Amott)Copel. (E) | | | * Dryopteris crinalis (Hook. & Arnott) C. Chr. er) D.D. Palmer (R Dryopteris glabra (Brack.) Kuntze var. pusilla (Hillebr.) D.D. Palmer comb. nov. ined. (R Dryopteris tetrapinnata W.H. Wagner & Hobd RTs Grammitidaceae COC, oui. Huperzia mannii (Hillebr.) W.H. Wagner (E ie-vorehvry (ue Jul RC Huperzia nutans (Brack.) W.H. Wagner _(E) | oe Huperzia stemmermanniae Medeiros & W.H. Wagner t= E RC ae nae Marsilea villosa Kaulf. (E Voit. ii | Ophioglossaceae iy lb el oo Sceptridium subbifoliatum (Brack.) W.H. Wagner & Extinct? F.S. Wagner (E, EX (Polypodiaceae, ee Polypodium helleri Underw. (R) Socre so ly eu es Se Doryopteris angelica K.R. Wood & W.H. Wagner (R . ae ee are eae R ae ihelypieridacesean ya ae | Christella boydiae (D.C. Eaton) Holttum(R) | TT | Christella wailele Flynn & W.H. Wagner (R)_ | | TT Strengths and opportunities e There are about 12,000 species of pteridophytes, a manageable number (cf. 250,000 higher plants) and a substantial literature base exists (Jermy, pers. comm.). FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 ©PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 283 e Fers occur most in moist tropics, often in biodiversity hotspots, so they can benefit from global priorities (though they also occur globally). ® BirdLife International, Planta Europa, UNEP-WCMC, WCPA, etc. are looking for partners. e Theory behind bio-geography is now well established and ferns it appears are an ancient group, the distribution of which is linked to palaeogeography, continental drift, etc. Some ideas for getting the best from protected areas This situation with regard to Indonesia, above, is typical of the general state of knowledge of protected areas and the pteridophytes they hold. Ferns are of little food or medicinal value (although some are of horticultural value), so economic rationale is weak. Pteridophytes may be a difficult group when it comes to habitat restoration but spore banks have been shown to exist (Dyer, 1994). Perhaps as a beginning: e Fern specialists — those on the SSC Specialist Group and others working in universities and major herbaria, can work with members of the WCPA to map the centres of pteridophyte diversity and endemism (fern “hot spots”) basing it on the work of Conservation International (Mittermeier ef a/., 1999). This could identify and inform P.A managers of conservation priorities. Conservation demands partnership working and this would represent a beginning. e Expand research on fern conservation (in situ and ex situ) in relation to re- introductions of endangered species into protected areas. e Establish whether ferns would be good indicator species of other ecological conditions. e Develop a project with UNEP-WCMC on protected area inventories for pteridophytes, starting, perhaps, with a regional pilot. e Develop alliances with protected areas people (globally [WCPA], nationally and at site level), to argue the case for fern conservation, advise on fern conservation, and generally work with managers. e Develop alliances with other conservation interests (e.g. other plants, mammals, birds, invertebrates). Ferns alone will be difficult to sell. Successful protected areas are supported by a consortium of interests. e Consider giving priority to World Heritage sites. They are (1) limited in number, (2) ecologically representative, and (3) relatively well protected with international support e _ Reflect these ideas in a Fern Action Plan. REFERENCES MITTERMEIER, R.A., MYERS, N & GOETTSCH MITTERMEIER, C. 1999. Hotspots: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions, 430 pp. CEMEX: Conservation International. Sierra Madre, Mexico City. DYER, A.F. 1994. Natural soil spore banks — can they be used to retrieve lost ferns? Biodiversity and Conservation 3, 160-175. IUCN & WCMC 1998. The United Nations List of Protected Areas. IUCN, Cambridge, UK and Gland, Switzerland. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 284 THE ROLE OF NATURAL DISTURBANCE REGIMES IN PTERIDOPHYTE CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT C.N. PAGE Hon. Associate, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, UK, & Cornwall Geological Museum, Penzance TR18 2QR, UK* * address for correspondence Key words: conservation, Pteridophyta, disturbance regimes, habitat dynamics ABSTRACT A general principle in pteridophyte ecology is proposed: that disturbance regimes at a variety of scales provide overlooked but often vital opportunities for pteridophyte regeneration processes. This promotes the long-term well-being of pteridophyte populations and their diversity. It is paramount in pteridophyte conservation management to appreciate the significance of such fundamental ecological processes, and to allow those which create disturbance regimes, and which help either initially to establish or to maintain the pteridophyte communities, to continue to operate fully. EXISTING CONCEPTS OF DISTURBANCE REGIMES Disturbance regimes are known to play an initial role in the promotion of establishment opportunity for several important taxa perceived to be conservation- sensitive. In Britain, examples include Pilularia and Lycopodiella and several ferns (e.g. Dryopteris cristata, Thelypteris palustris and possibly also Osmunda regalis). Although more general observations go back to those of Tansley (1953), specifically- focused pteridological literature is scarce. Edwards (1982) recorded an example of the appearance of a colony of Dryopteris carthusiana following a flooding-disturbance event, and Cousens ef al. (1988) observed establishment of Lorinseria ferns in Florida wetlands in disturbance sites of crayfish mounds. Pteridophyte taxa which have been linked to disturbance regimes have thus been ones mainly associated with temperate wetland sites (where links between cause and effect can often be well demonstrated), and to disturbance activities at generally macro - e.g. major flood deposition surfaces, pond excavations - to meso-scale levels - e.g. cart-track wear surfaces and mud disturbance by hoofed or burrowing animals (Fig 1). Importantly for conservation, realisation has grown from these observations that such disturbance events, if carefully promoted, can provide an important management tool for these taxa. However, reports of successful application of these approaches seem remarkably few, and may reflect more lip-service to the necessity of such disturbance regimes, rather than established and quantified field experiment. NEW CONCEPTS OF DISTURBANCE REGIMES IN PTERIDOPHYTA The disturbance regimes reported here for Pteridophyta expand those noted above to a far wider array of habitats and species, and focus on disturbances which are more numerous but occur especially at smaller scales. Sites suitable for pteridophyte prothallial establishment occur within and around many habitats. They appear FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 285 Figure 1. The role of disturbance regimes in providing pteridophyte establishment opportunities is most easily demonstrated within temperate wetland habitats. In these, mosaics of sites bared by both erosional and depositional processes create site opportunities in which ferns as well as horsetails respond rapidly as primary prothallial colonists, some thence persisting more permanently as perennial sporophytes as the vegetation closes around them. Slapton Lea, Devon, England. July. g especially as direct consequences of multiple fine-scale disturbance events amongst occasional more meso-scale ones. These form a mosaic of briefly low-competition sites with a relatively infrequent level of repetition at any one location, but which are repeated widely and frequently through most communities in which Pteridophyta can establish, perhaps through all. Indeed, in sites as different as mountains, temperate woodlands and tropical forests, a considerable diversity of disturbance regimes typically occurs, each creating mosaics of patches temporarily freed from competition, in which a multiplicity of ecological microseres are initiated in space and time (Fig. 1). Within each of these, pteridophyte prothalli sometimes numerously establish, with typically a smaller number of sporophytes subsequently arising. Depending on patch size, subsequent within-site competition over the course of 1-2 years (less in the tropics) usually reduces surviving sporophytes to a few and often one. Pteridophytes respond profoundly to such disturbance processes. The spore pool available dictates resultant diversity. Ultimately, the dynamism of the processes driving these disturbance events underpins the long-term well-being of the pteridophyte communities themselves, in terms of ecological turnover rates, species recurrence, individual locations and species diversity within the community. Remove FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 286 the dynamism, and typically the whole community ages, loses diversity and deteriorates extensively with time. These observations link to those of Watt (1947) and Grime (1979, 1985) on plant communities as a whole, and to those of Elton (1966) and Southwood (1977) on animal communities more generally. Important related demographic observations on whole pteridophyte populations have been independently made in Russia since the 1980's (Gureyeva, 2001). Elsewhere, Cousens (1981) and Lloyd (1974) also began to touch upon this topic, and were latterly coming to similar conclusions to those developed here, as was Herb Wagner in his very last years. The colonisation niches created by disturbance regimes correspond exactly with the sites recognised rightly by both Cousens and Gureyeva as 'safe-sites' for prothallial establishment in individual fern communities. The following account is based on my own pteridophyte field studies over the course of half a century in Britain and in many parts of the tropics. DISTURBANCE REGIMES AND PTERIDOPHYTE COMMUNITY STRUCTURE CONSERVATION Under appropriate environmental conditions, pteridophyte communities today still reach extraordinary climaxes of diversity and complexity of internal structure [see, for example, Copeland, 1907, Holttum, 1938, Page, 1977 and Given, Gureyeva and Johns (this volume)], under conditions which can appear to the casual observer to be constant. Such pteridophyte communities are especially apparent in complex tropical and temperate rainforest, and in the mid-altitude cloud-forests of tropical mountains (Page, 1979), but are by no means confined to these. In all such apparently stable pteridophyte communities, great disturbance (at least by human timescales) would at first appear to be inimical to persistence of that complexity. But all observations point to the conclusion that natural disturbance processes of many types, and with an enormous diversity of causes, scales and results, are likely to be constantly recurring. These disturbance regimes help to promote the regular recurrence of existing species as multi-aged populations. They create site opportunities for likely spore success both from nearby sporophyte populations and potentially also from more distant sources. They establish niches in which enhanced opportunities for outbreeding can be also promoted through contemporaneous development of multiple prothalli, and, through their natural variation in structure, they establish sites in which different pteridophyte Species can succeed. All of these aspects are intimately inter-related, and are, to a large extent, synergistic. High natural-selection pressures are doubtless involved in_ all, contributing to pteridophyte fitness and, especially, closeness of adaptation of resulting morphotypes and genetic races to specific sites. Additionally, those of the third kind also include opportunities for potential inter-specific hybrids to arise (see Fig. 2); Recognition of the dynamism of Pteridophyta in the field highlights (a) important processes of which to be aware in general issues of pteridophyte conservation, and (b) field experimental approaches which might be valuable to incorporate into practical conservation measures. Extensive attention should now be given to accumulating further on-the-ground experience-bases of the dynamic components of each of these aspects of life-cycle turnover throughout a range of global fern and fern-ally habitats. For the opening of new habitats this critically includes the need for identification of micro-habitats suitable for individual species colonisation success from spores (e.g. Gardette, 1996, Poulsen & Tuomisto, 1996, FERN GAZ. 16(6; 7: & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 25) Sheffield, 1996) at a full range of scales. A good cross-section of research habitats would include ones from high-rainfall insular areas to dry pteridophyte marginal sites, and from alpine rocks and screes to the many pteridophyte-rich habitats of wet tropical forests. Within each of these, close links need to be established between causes, processes, effects and species consequences. Figure 2. Disturbance regimes also offer Pteridophyta enhanced outbreeding opportunity. Hedgebank habitats can be used to demonstrate this clearly, since frequency of proven fern hybrids (here Asplenophyllitis x microdon, with parents) can be especially high amongst the mosaic of eroding surfaces between stones. Guernsey, Channel Islands. April. Applied field programmes should be structured from such observations, striving always to enhance the natural processes operating. Experimentation must be involved, with methodologies and scales, and promotion of appropriate micro-climatic and micro-edaphic circumstances. Habitats created must be particularly those low in nutrients, for in high-nutrient habitats, pteridophytes tend to become out-competed. Careful and sensitive strategies modifying the habitat, rather than the plant, need to be developed on a local scale from a local experience base, and techniques should be refined and recorded for application elsewhere. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 288 Direct application of simple, low-tech, low-cost experimentation is clearly possible, requiring close observation but little elaborate equipment or analytical facilities, or more than modest laboratory back-up. Recapture of rare and even locally ‘lost’ species is possible, while conservation gains achieved through application of such an accumulating knowledge-base can be directly to local benefit, providing clear visible achievement as well as local experience for developing further approaches and experiments. The focus of such an accumulating knowledge base should be between diverse regions (e.g. remote mountains, tropical cloud-forests, islands), with experience from one region applied by analogy to another, and especially to those areas in which fern diversity is high and conservation issues most acute. Presentations and discussions of such experimental experience should form the cornerstone of an Action Plan. CONCLUSIONS What are we trying to achieve in pteridophyte conservation? I suggest there should be three objectives running concurrently. These are management for: persistence of existing taxa; maximisation of diversity; and allowing opportunities for the natural processes of evolution to continue (Page, 1997b, 2000). To achieve these multiple purposes, the fundamental processes which help to either create or to maintain the pteridophyte communities in the first place need to be understood. The ways in which these dynamics operate to promote continued pteridophyte persistence, diversity and natural processes of evolution should be studied, and the natural forces driving these processes should be allowed the freedom to continue through a full range of scales. Thus approached, conservational gains are potentially profound, with self-sustainability of all of these dynamic elements of populations the ultimate goal. This approach also emphasises the significance of the virtual reciprocity between managing for pteridophyte conservation and angiosperm conservation - if the dynamism disappears, there is an inevitable tendency for habitats to swing towards angiosperm success (Page, 2000). Ferns are plants which grow where angiosperms most fear to tread! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper is dedicated to the memory of the late Michael Cousens, Bob Lloyd, Warren Wagner, Jan Kornas and Rolla Tryon, with all of whom I have been honoured to have spent time in the field. In presenting these concepts, I hope I am accurately reflecting elements of many indelible stimuli contributed by each. The author also gratefully acknowledges the stimulus of the receipt of the Indian Fern Society Gold Medal and a UK Government Darwin Award for pteridophyte conservation biology. REFERENCES COPELAND, E.B. 1907. Comparative ecology of the San Ramon Polypodiaceae. Philippine J. Sci. 2c: 1-76. COUSENS, M.I. 1981. Blechnum spicant: habitat and vigour of optimal, marginal and disjunct populations and field observation of gametophytes. Bot. Gaz. 142: 251-258. COUSENS, M.I., LACEY, D.G. & SCHELLER, J.M. 1988. Safe-sites and the ecological life history of Lorinseria areolata. Am. J. Bot. 75: 797-807. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 289 EDWARDS, P. 1982. The appearance and disappearance of a Dryopteris carthusiana colony. Fern Gaz. 12: 224. ELTON, C.S. 1966. The Pattern of Animal Communities. Chapman & Hall, London. GARDETTE, E. 1996. Microhabitats of epiphytic fern communities in large lowland rain forest plots in Sumatra. In: CAMUS, J.M., GIBBY, M. & JOHNS, R.J. (Eds): Pteridology in Perspective, pp 655-658. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. GIVEN, D. 2002. Needs, methods and means. Fern Gaz. (this volume, pp. 269-277). GRIME, J.P. 1979. Plant Strategies and Vegetation Processes. Wiley, Chichester. GRIME, J.P. 1985. Factors limiting the contribution of pteridophytes to a local flora. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb. 86B: 403-421. GUREYEVA, I.I. 2001. Homosporous ferns of South Siberia: Taxonomy, Origin, Biomorphology, Population Biology. Tomsk State University Publishers, Tomsk [in Russian]. GUREYEVA, II. 2002. Rare fern species of Russia and the reasons for their rarity. Fern Gaz. (this volume, pp. 319-323). HOLTTUM, R.E. 1938. The ecology of tropical pteridophytes. In: VERDOORN, F. (Ed.) Manual of Pteridology. pp. 420-450, Nijhoff, The Hague. JOHNS, R 2002. Biodiversity and conservation of the ferns and fern allies of New Guinea. Fern Gaz. (this volume, p. 463). LLOYD, R.M. 1974. Mating system and genetic load in pioneer and non-pioneer Hawaiian pteridophytes. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 69: 23-35. PAGE, C.N. 1977. An ecological survey of the ferns of the Canary Islands. Fern Gaz. 297-312. PAGE, C.N. 1979a. The diversity of ferns: an ecological perspective. In DYER, A.F. (Ed.) The Experimental Biology of Pteridophytes, pp. 9-56. Academic Press, London. PAGE, C.N. 1979b. Experimental aspects of fern ecology. In: DYER, A.F. (Ed.) The Experimental Biology of Pteridophytes, pp. 581-559. Academic Press, London. PAGE, C.N. 2000. Ferns and allied plants. In: HAWKSWORTH, D.L. (Ed.) The Changing Wildlife of Great Britain and Ireland, pp. 50-77. Systematics Association, London. POULSEN, A.D. & TUOMISTO, H. 1996. Small-scale to continental distribution patterns of neotropical pteridophytes: the role of edaphic preferences. In: CAMUS, J.M., GIBBY, M. & JOHNS, R.J. (Eds): Pteridology in Perspective, pp. 551-561. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. SHEFFIELD, E. 1996. From pteridophyte spore to sporophyte in the natural environment. In: CAMUS, J.M., GIBBY, M. & JOHNS, R.J. (Eds) Pteridology in Perspective, pp. 541-549. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. SOUTHWOOD, T.R.E. 1977. Habitat, the template for ecological strategies. J. Animal Ecol. 46: 337-365. TANSLEY, A.G. 1953. The British Islands and their Vegetation. 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. WATT, A.S. 1947. Pattern and process in the plant community. J. Ecol. 43: 490-506. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 290 CONSERVATION STATUS OF PTERIDOPHYTES IN THE 49 CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES: A PRELIMINARY REPORT S.P. GRUND & J.C. PARKS Western Pennsylvania Conservancy, 209 Fourth Ave, Pittsburgh, PA, 15222, USA & Biology Department, Millersville University, Millersville PA, 17551, USA Key words: pteridophytes, conservation, U.S., rankings, global, state ABSTRACT The United States flora has about 556 pteridophyte species, 425 on the continent and 131 in Hawaii. Of these, 160 species (29%) are at-risk including 59 ranked critically imperiled. Of the 425 pteridophyte species of the continental U.S., 71 (16.7%) are endemic. At-risk continental US pteridophytes are noted; and political, land use, and scientific issues affecting their conservation are summarized. INTRODUCTION This report summarizes conservation efforts for pteridophytes of the United States (U.S.), exclusive of Hawaii. This diverse region of 9,550,000 km* extends from the arctic to the sub-tropics. The flora of the U.S. contains 15,424 species of seed plants and 556 pteridophyte species (Table 1). TABLE 1. Pteridophyte species in the U.S. and the world. Pteridophytes Species in Speciesin U.S. Speciesin % world by group continental incl. Hawaii the world species in US. the U.S. Psilotophytes ] 2 10 20 Lycopods 90 100 1000 10 Arthrophytes 10 10 15 66 Ferns 324 +44 11000 4 Total pteridophytes 425 556 12025 4.6 Seed plants 11545 15534 235761 6.5 Vascular plants 11970 16090 247786 6.4 % pteridophytes 3.6 3.50 4.90 Ratio of seed plants to DT 27.9/1 19.6/1 pteridophytes Sources: worldwide data and U.S. pteridophytes — Stein et al., (2000); U.S. seed plants, Kartesz (1999). FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 291 The fourth largest nation in the world, the U.S., contains 6.5% of the world's spermatophyte species but only 4.6% of its pteridophytes (Table 1). Tropical regions are favoured even more by pteridophytes than by seed plants. Of the 425 pteridophyte species of the continental U.S., 71 (16.7%) are endemic (Stein et al., 2000). Many are in the heterosporous microphyllophyte genera Selaginella and Isoetes or in the Pteridaceae, where apogamy is widespread. This discussion is based upon data received from NatureServe (formerly the Association for Biodiversity Information) and information from 17 of the 49 states surveyed directly. A more detailed version of this paper can be accessed at www.paconserve.org. The purpose of this work is to summarize briefly the U.S. pteridophyte conservation effort. A comparative state-by-state taxonomic study is planned. REQUIREMENTS FOR CONSERVATION Conservation of at-risk plant species requires a detailed knowledge of the flora and sophisticated training in conservation biology. Evaluators steeped in conservation practices tend to emphasize numbers of populations, population size, dynamics, threats, and habitat condition. In addition to these factors, one must weigh carefully the biology of the species. For ferns, assessment of the need for conservation must include evaluation of available habitat for both the sporophytes and the independent ‘gametophytes and evidence that the breeding population exhibits all life stages. As floras are dynamic, adequate monitoring must occur. In the U.S., there are inadequate numbers of appropriately trained botanists. This gap is often breached locally by use of knowledgeable amateurs. Environmentalists wisely say, “Think globally, act locally”. For the U.S., Canada, and many Latin American countries, a global conservation status rank system has been generated to facilitate evaluation of at-risk taxa from a worldwide perspective. Global conservation status ranks, or G-ranks, are assessed based upon the estimated global imperilment to a given taxon (see www.natureserve.org). The system uses a scale of one to five, where a GI species is critically imperilled, and a G5 species is secure throughout its range. Species in the range of G1 through G3 are regarded as being at-risk (Stein et al., 2000). Most U.S. states use subnational (in this case, state) conservation status ranks, or S-ranks, to supplement G-ranks when allocating resources to conservation of at-risk taxa. Ranking criteria are standardized among the states, and the criteria for G-ranks are used for S-ranks, but applied to the portion of the range in the particular state (see www.natureserve.org). For example, a species with 12 known populations throughout its range would typically be ranked G2. If all 12 populations were in the same state, the species would have a rank of S2 for that state. If, however, the populations were split evenly between three states, the rank would likely be S1 for each state. Generally, high conservation status ranks (low numbers equal high ranks) indicate a high need for protection and a low rank (4 or 5) indicates a secure species. Both G- and S-ranks should be continually refined to allow meaningful comparisons between states, and to facilitate the evaluation of range-wide status. An intermediate rank level of national, or N, is useful for smaller countries (e.g. Costa Rica). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, empowered by the Endangered Species Act, has generated a list of species at-risk across the country. These federally listed species have an appropriately higher level of legal protection than species that are rare in a particular state, but not nationally or globally at-risk. However, only about a third of FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 292 the pteridophytes in the U.S. ranked G1-G2 are federally listed (Stein et al., 2000). The situation is better for a few groups of vertebrates, but worse for most taxonomic groups, including the angiosperms. No bryophytes and only 44 insect species currently receive protection under the Endangered Species Act (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2002). Political considerations have hindered additions to the federal list. Into this vacuum, a coalition of state Natural Heritage Programs, under the umbrella of NatureServe, has advanced an effective programme to apply consistent scientific criteria to assess the regional and global rarity of each species in the biota. With this information increasingly accessible, conservation organizations like The Nature Conservancy, and regional land trusts like the Western Pennsylvania Conservancy, are able to use S- and G-ranks to effectively allocate scarce resources. A critical need remains for improved global ranks and conservation action plans based on shared information for taxa whose ranges are international. Concerned and knowledgeable persons outside governments will have to take a leadership role in this effort. Conservation of at-risk species in the U.S. usually involves the combined efforts of several national and state governmental entities, non-governmental organizations, and citizen volunteers-activists. Responsibility falls on each state to determine and apply categories for species at-risk in that state, establish mechanisms to inventory and monitor those species, enforce laws (if any) protecting them, and provide the financial resources to carry out these tasks. The degree to which the states fulfill these roles varies widely. Every state currently has a Natural Heritage Program that tracks occurrences of at-risk species, even in cases where there is no legislation to protect those species. Private, non-governmental land trusts facilitate purchase of land determined to be critical habitat for at-risk species and provide technical expertise to the various states. In the U.S., the actual work of monitoring and protecting at-risk species on non-federal lands falls primarily to the various states. Credible G-ranks, supplemented by N- and S-ranks, provide a sound evaluative tool for each state or country engaged in protection, and these ranks demonstrate to governmental officials and other benefactors the need for resources. Clearly, the nations of the world must first work individually to assess the taxa in their respective biotas, and then work cooperatively to assign rational global ranks, designating which taxa are at-risk. It is here that the International Conservation Union (IUCN) plays a vital role by developing lucid, practical ranking criteria and facilitating their use by nations around the world. The U.S. should do more to participate in this effort. U.S. pteridophytes with global ranks of 1-3 are summarized numerically in Table 2, and those six continental genera with the largest numbers of at-risk species are seen in Table 3. These data are consistent with a recent assessment by NatureServe (Master ef al., 2000), which indicates that 122 of 556 U.S. pteridophyte species (20%) are at risk. These data include Hawaii, where all four of the United States’ extirpated pteridophytes existed, indicating that pteridophyte conservation in Hawaii is more urgent than on the U.S. mainland. Table 2 also indicates that 13 continental states each contain one or more different at-risk, endemic pteridophyte species. California, Florida, and Georgia contain 9, 8, and 4 different at-risk endemic taxa respectively. Biogeographically, these three states should receive the resources needed to evaluate more fully the status of their several globally at-risk pteridophyte species. er ee FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 pie ke TABLE 2. Continental U.S. pteridophytes by G-rank. = botal “IUCN “Hawaii States with States with 1 Genera with rank Red >1 globally globally rare globally rare List rare endemic species shared endemic by 2 or > states Gl 36 3 22 GA-3 AK, AZ, FL, Jsoetes, ([soetes) ME, MI, Botrychium MN, NC, SC G2 23 10 4 FL-2, CA-2, AK, AZ, Botrychium TX-2 GA, VT Lycopodiella G3 60 1] 15 CA-7, FL-5 AZ,OR,SC — 15 genera Total 119 24 41 TABLE 3. Number of globally rare species in selected U.S. pteridophyte genera. Genus Gl G2 G3 Total Total spp. Percent globally globally rare rare Asplenium l 0 4 5 Bl D2 -Botrychium 3 5 9 Ig 30 56 Cheilanthes 0 0 + 4 28 14 Tsoetes 8 - - 16 24 66 Polystichum l Z 1 ot 15 26 Selaginella 0 3 6 9 ae) 23 The genera containing the most at-risk pteridophytes in the continental U.S. are Botrychium, Isoetes and Selaginella (Table 3). In these difficult genera, most of the at-risk species have only recently been described. It is noteworthy that two of these genera are heterosporous. A mature knowledge of the pteridophyte flora and a detailed assessment of its conservation status are two essential tools requisite for action to protect at-risk taxa. The recent publication of the pteridophyte volume of the Flora of North America (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 1993), a collective work by most of the specialists in the U.S., is likely to generate a broad consensus on the taxonomy of most groups. Evaluation of the conservation status of plant species in the various state floras, generation of S-ranks for each, and consolidation and standardization of these data by NatureServe, has yielded rich databases easily accessed via the internet (NatureServe, 2001). These essential tools must be used for action. In most states, S1 and S2 species are designated as Endangered or Threatened in that state. These designations help determine priority for fieldwork. State Endangered and Threatened species usually have some (often minimal) legal protection. Typically, significant development plans must take into account potential impacts to these species, if queries of Natural Heritage Program databases suggest potential conflict between the proposed activity and species of conservation concern. The degree to which plans must be modified if such a conflict is found to exist varies significantly from state to state, although federally listed species are given uniform protection. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 294 Land acquisition by state and federal agencies, and by conservation organizations, is often influenced by the presence of at-risk species. Landholders sometimes sell or donate conservation easements, limiting land use to protect at-risk species on the site. When at-risk plant species are found to occur on public lands, land management practices are commonly altered to facilitate protection. The presence of at-risk species, including pteridophytes, in public parks facilitates more than habitat protection; it enhances the powerful potential of environmental education. Trained park rangers, teachers and other educators can use the parks to teach the people the value of species protection and proper environmental stewardship. An environmentally aware public wishes to see the "wildlife" and is willing to spend money, through taxes and private donations, to do so. In conclusion, efforts to conserve at-risk pteridophytes in the U.S. are extensive. The taxonomic and floristic knowledge base supporting these efforts is mature. The internet greatly facilitates ready communication among workers, sharing of their respective databases, and fosters standardization of data management and ranking criteria. The conservation effort itself depends heavily on each of the 50 states. Inadequate resources from government units and insufficient numbers of trained biologists continue to hinder progress. Private conservancies work with those producing and maintaining biodiversity information to purchase and protect land with habitats containing at-risk species. Communication with the general public is generating vital public support. We must remain eternally vigilant! ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Gwen Davis of the Association For Biodiversity Information, and representatives from 17 state Natural Heritage Programs for the data they provided. We thank Drs Adrian Dyer, Elizabeth Sheffield and an anonymous referee for comments that greatly improved this paper. REFERENCES NATURESERVE. 2001. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 1.4. Arlington, Virginia, USA. http://www.natureserve.org/explorer. FLORA of NORTH AMERICA EDITORIAL COMMITTEE (FNA). 1993. Flora of North America North of Mexico. vol 2: Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Oxford University Press, New York. KARTESZ, J.T. 1999. A Synonymized Checklist and Atlas with Biological Attributes for the Vascular Flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Ist ed. In: KARTESZ, J.T. & MEACHAM, C.A. (Eds). Synthesis of the North American Flora, version 1.0. North Carolina Botanical Gardens. Chapel Hill, NC. MASTER, L., STEIN, B., KUTNER, L., & HAMMERSON, G. 2000. Vanishing assets: Conservation status of U. S. species. In: STEIN, B., KUTNER, L., & ADAMS, J. (Eds). Precious Heritage: The Status of Biodiversity in the United States, pp. 93-118. Oxford University Press, New York. STEIN, B., ADAMS, J., MASTER, L., MORSE, L., & HAMMERSON, G. 2000. A remarkable array: Species diversity in the United States. In: STEIN, B., KUTNER, L., & ADAMS, J. (Eds). Precious Heritage: The Status of Biodiversity in the United States, pp 55-92. Oxford University Press, New York. U.S. FISH and WILDLIFE SERVICE. U.S. listed invertebrate animal species by taxonomic group as of 3/27/2002 [web application]. Washington D.C. http://endangered.fws.gov/wildlife.html FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 §©PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 295 FERN CONSERVATION IN BRAZIL P.G. WINDISCH Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos - UNISINOS, 93022-000 Sao Leopoldo - RS Brazil ’ Key words: biodiversity, pteridophytes, conservation, extinction, Brazil ABSTRACT Information on past and current uses of ferns is presented, together with data on extraction activities for Dicksonia sellowiana (C.Presl) Hook. Governmental action towards species conservation is discussed. A brief survey of the conservation problems in each of the Brazilian regions is presented with examples of endangered or probably extinct species, in addition to a review of those species already listed as threatened or endangered. INTRODUCTION Ferns and allied plants constitute an important group in the megadiverse flora of Brazil, with ca. 1150 species in its 8,547,403 km?. Some of the problems in assaying the biodiversity in Brazilian pteridophytes and the species diversity in each region were discussed by Windisch (1996). Local use of ferns by amerindian groups range from bedding for child delivery to the exchange of the fronds of certain species as peace symbol after tribal wars, including medicinal plants and tree-ferns for the construction of housing. These usages do not represent a threat to the survival of any species. The largest problems for the conservation of pteridophyte species are the disappearance of their habitats or changes in the microhabitats and the extraction of some species on an industrial scale. Very few forest clearing operations respect the legally established minimum distance from water bodies, so that not only pesticides and fertilizers rapidly reach the water, but also mineral particles, changing the water flow patterns and affecting the wetlands. The floristic composition of high altitude grasslands of South and Southeastern Brazil, as well as the “campos rupestres” of Southeastern and Central Brazil, is being altered, especially by grazing and frequent burning. Most of the Atlantic Forest has disappeared, and in some States only very small tracts (generally disturbed) can still be found. As to the protection of endangered habitats, those in the highest elevations are usually within State or Federal Parks which frequently lack the personnel and resources to fulfill their mission effectively. Touristic appeal of the highest mountains and the utilization of these points for the installation of electronic transmission or radar stations promote the disappearance of local species and disjunction of populations. The Brazilian Conservation Units System includes representative tracts of the diverse ecosystems. However, major changes have already occurred in many of those areas. In most cases it is not even possible to evaluate the loss that has already occurred, due to the lack of previous studies or difficulties in working in these sites. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 296 In the case of disjunct populations, even if a species is not threatened in the core area of its distribution, the disappearance of genetically differentiated, isolated populations represents a loss of biodiversity, and should be addressed by the local authorities. EXTRACTION Several million fronds of Rumohra adiantiformis (G.Forst.) Ching are extracted yearly in South and Southeastern Brazil. This mostly concerns abandoned fields undergoing succession, as the size and consistency of the laminar tissue of fronds that grow within primary forests makes them unsuitable for floral arrangements. As regrowth of the fronds tends to be quite rapid, this activity does not represent a major conservation problem. Low wages and unemployment presently make extraction more profitable than cultivation. In some case this activity is the single source of income for some amerindian groups and landless peasants. A different situation is that of Dicksonia sellowiana (C.Presl) Hook., where the fibrous adventitious root layer is used for the production of vases, stakes and potting material for orchids and other plants. The upper part of the caudex, even after the removal of the fibrous layer, can be used for decoration. Once replanted, soon a new whorl of fronds is formed and rooting proceeds. This industry had its beginning with the wide use of Araucaria forests for lumber production. Extraction and industrialization persist in several regions in the states of Parana and Santa Catarina, despite restrictions imposed by law. In order to obtain legal extraction permits, some merchants present simple and empirical management plans. The apical part of the caudex should be replanted, and the basal part left in the ground sprouting, so that the number of plants within the forest would increase. However, due to slow growth rates, this extraction method rapidly leads to the depletion of trunks with the fibrous material, and so the forest loses its economic value, increasing the risk of its elimination and use of the area for agriculture, grazing or forestry with exotic species. Furthermore, some epiphytic pteridophytes (pers. obs.) and Orchidaceae (Waechter, pers. comm.) grow exclusively or preferentially on certain tree ferns. Between 1990 and 1995 Brazil was the largest worldwide exporter of Dicksonia sellowiana, with shipments continuing up to 1997. In this period, aside from industrialised products, more than 4000 live plants were exported to Italy, USA and France. In 1997 a total of 104 companies were registered as extractors, producers, merchants and/or exporters of tree-fern fibre products in Brazil, with the largest number in the State of Parana (IBAMA, 1997). The national market is also extremely large. It is difficult to quantify the total amount extracted legally, much less the illegal exploitation. Sphaeropteris gardneri (Hook.) R.M.Tryon, Cyathea atrovirens (Langsd. & Fisch.) Domin, and a few other species, are sometimes also explored for their fibrous layer. There is also extraction of fronds or plants of Adiantum, Asplenium, Blechnum and tree fern species for gardening projects. Fronds of Marsilea species are used as fake “four-leaved clovers” for the production of small objects (keyholders, etc.). Dry plants of Equisetum, Adiantopsis, Adiantum and Lycopodium species are sold for medicinal purposes. In southern Brazil large Alsophila setosa Kaulf. plants taken from the wild are locally used as decoration in weddings. NATIONWIDE ACTIONS In the 80’s, in an attempt to establish a first listing of threatened species in Brazil, the Brazilian Botanical Society included Dicksonia sellowiana (Mello-Filho et al., 1992). FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 297 This listing served as a basis for a legal document, placing this single fern species under official protection. With the increasing attention of the public services regarding the obedience to existing legislation, the industries of tree-fern fibre products started to have problems. This led to the organization of the extractors, industrialists, and merchants to place pressure on their federal and state congressmen, in order to have Dicksonia removed from the listing. In this scenario, the Brazilian Institute for the Environment (IBAMA) constituted a permanent commission to analyse the question of pteridophyte conservation. One of its priorities is the study of proposals for the conservation of Dicksonia. A programme called “Prdé-Xaxim” has been launched within the Fern Conservation Project sponsored by IBAMA. This commission, active since 1997 is the only nationwide official action in relation to fern conservation. Unfortunately, little is known about the biology of Dicksonia sellowiana. Some of the largest plants found in forests with Araucaria may have the same age as the larger trees (250-300 years). Data on the growth rates and longevity are currently being gathered in situ for a Ph.D. thesis project (Senna, pers. comm.). The germination of spores and the genetic variability of this species are also being studied (A. Reis, pers. comm.). In another project the establishment and development of young sporophytes is being followed in nature. REGIONAL ASPECTS South The state of Rio Grande do Sul has a preliminary general check-list of endangered species, edited by Baptista & Longhi-Wagner (1998), with four species’ listed as endangered or threatened and Pilularia americana A.Br. as probably extinct. Several species from the highest points (northeastern part) as well as in the meridional limit of the Atlantic forest represent isolated populations, which should be considered for protection. The states of Parana and Santa Catarina have partial listings for angiosperms, but none for the pteridophytes. Extreme altitude habitats in such localities such as the “Morro da Igreja” and “(Campo dos Padres” and the upper ridges of the mountains of the Serra do Mar, such as “Pico Parana” need better protection. Some species are known only from their original type locations, such as Huperzia catharinae (Christ) Holub. Southeast No endangered pteridophyte listing is available for the states of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Espirito Santo. In the upper ridges of the Serra da Mantiqueira mountain range, where the highest elevations occur (up to 2780m alt), several species can be considered as threatened. High elevations also occur in the coastal mountain ranges. From this particular flora one could cite as endangered: Culcita coniifolia (Hook.) Maxon, Eriosorus cheilanthoides (Sw.) A.F.Tryon, E. rufescens (Fée) A.F.Tryon, Huperzia nuda (Nessel) B.Qlllg. & P.G.Windisch, Jamesonia brasiliensis Christ, Lycopodiella bradei (Herter) B.Ollg., Lycopodium assurgens Fée, L. jussiaei Poir. The flora of the upper ridges of the Serra do Caparad (border with the states of ' Dicksonia sellowiana, Hymenophyllum peltatum (Poir.) Desv., Plagiogyria fialhoi (Glaz. & Fée) Copel., Regnellidium diphyllum Lindm. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 298 Espirito Santo and Minas Gerais) includes some of these endangered species and several endemics. An analysis of the Lycopodiaceae of the “campos rupestres” of the Serra do Cip6o (state of Minas Gerais), reveals that a series of species are known only through old collections, even if intensive collections were made in recent floristic projects (Oligaard & Windisch, in prep.). The same must certainly apply to other pteridophytes. In the Aspleniaceae, Asplenium bradeanum Handro, A. cariocanum Brade are considered in risk of extinction; A. schwakei Christ, the insular A. beckeri Brade and an yet undescribed species as probably extinct (see abstract by Sylvestre & Windisch, this volume, p. 455). Taxonomists should be urged to include conservation status evaluations in their revisions, such as done by Sylvestre (2001) for Aspleniaceae in Brazil. The state of Minas Gerais has an endangered plants listing, enforced by a State Agency, including Blechnum heringeri Brade, Huperzia rubra (Cham. & Schltdl.) Trevis. (probably extinct) and Dicksonia sellowiana (vulnerable), as cited in the “Red Book” for that State published by Mendonca & Lins (2000). In the chapter dedicated to the pteridophytes (Salino, 2000) general information is presented. This book includes an additional list with 31 pteridophyte species” as probably threatened. Northeast There is no survey of endangered pteridophyte species for the northeastern states of Brazil. A detailed study of the distribution and ecology of the pteridophytes in the state of Pernambuco was presented by Barros (1997). Barros & Windisch (this volume, p. 430) indicate that of 302 species, 97 occur at single 00° 07’ 15” quadrant localities on a grid map of that State. This sparse representation is highly related to the almost complete destruction of the Atlantic forest in Northeastern Brazil; the rare remains are hardly protected. A listing of endangered species for that region probably would be quite extensive. In the State of Bahia diverse habitats ranging from semi- arid locations and “campos rupestres” to tropical lowland forests, include populations of species which should be protected, as for example Huperzia mooreana (Baker) Holub. Central-West No survey of rare or endangered species is available, while extensive burning and deforestation is changing the vegetation at a dramatic pace. Extensive fieldwork done from 1974 to 1997 by the author allowed observation of the changes in the recent past. Some extremely interesting habitats, with peripheral populations of several species, were found in the Serra Ricardo Franco, which represents the geologic ? Alsophila capensis (L.f.) J.Sm., Anemia cipoensis Sehnem, A. glareosa Gardner, Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw., Cnemidaria uleana (A.Samp.) Tryon, Doryopteris rufa Brade, Dryopteris patula (Sw.) Underw., Eriosorus sellowianum (Kuhn) Copel., Huperzia badiniana B.Ollg. & P.G.Windisch, H. erythrocaulon (Fée) Holub, H. friburgensis (Nessel) B.Ollg. & P.G.Windisch, H. martii (Wawra) Holub, H. regnellii (Maxon) B. Ollg. & P.G.Windisch, H. rostrifolia (Silveira) Holub, H. treitubensis (Silveira) B.Ollg., Isoetes kriegeri H.P.Fuchs, Lycopodiella bradei, Lycopodium assurgens Fée, L. jussiaei Poir., Notholaena nivea (Poir.) Desv., N. pohliana Kunze, Paesia glandulosa (Sw.) Kuhn, Pellaea crenata R.M.Tryon, P. cymbiformis Prado, P. gleichenioides (Gardner) C. Chr., P. riedelii Baker, Plagiogyria fialhoi, Polystichum bradei Ros., Trachypteris pinnata (Hook.f.) C.Chr. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 ©PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 299 formation of the “Guaporé Residual Highlands”. In the state of Mato Grosso, some first records for Brazil, such as Bolbitis nicotianifolia (Sw.) Alston, Asplenium poloense Hieron., Huperzia wilsonii (Underw. & F.E.Lloyd) B.Ollg., Lycopodiella benjaminiana P.G.Windisch represent populations which should be preserved. North The Amazonian Lowlands are relatively poor in pteridophyte species and most of the species are widely distributed. However, towards the extreme north, some of the Guayana Highland species occur, including endemics from this particular geologic formation. To the west, in the state of Acre, several records of species rare in Brazil (“low-Andean” species) already exist, although the fern flora from that region is poorly known. These localities deserve closer attention in relation to the conservation of disjunct populations, and several species should be included among the rare species within Brazil, for example: Bolbitis lindigii (Mett.) Ching, B. semipinnatifida (Fée) Alston, Huperzia capillaris (Sodiro) Holub, Hymenophyllopsis ctenitoides Lellinger, H. dejecta (Baker) Goebel, Lycopodiella iuliformis (Undew. & F.E.Lloyd) B. Ollg., Pteris grandifolia L., P. haenkeana C.Presl, P. pearcei Baker, Pterozonium scopulinum Lellinger, P. maguirei Lellinger, Terpsichore bradeana_ Labiak, Trichomanes guidoi P.G.Windisch. _ Atlantic Islands The Brazilian territory includes some Atlantic islands, of which Fernando de Noronha Archipelago and Trindade Island are the most important. For Fernando de Noronha, off the northeastern coast and once used as penal colony, there is a single original fern record (Cheilanthes concolor (Langsd. & Fisch.) R.M.Tryon & A.F.Tryon, cited as Pellaea geraniaefolia Fée — “the only fern seen’’). Americo Vespucci in 1503 cited making provisions of water and timber from the innumerable trees in one of the islands (Ridley, 1891). In 1887 most of the trees had disappeared, due to an order of the government, providing that all trees of a size sufficient for making into rafts should be destroyed. A constant need for firewood caused great destruction amongst the smaller shrubs (Ridley, 1891). In 1986 “Vittaria sp” was additionally cited in a restricted-circulation Navy report, based on a record from 1959. It is presently impossible to evaluate the loss of biodiversity in these Islands. Trindade Island is situated about ca. 1140km from the coast of Espirito Santo, raising up to 620m alt. The habit of having wild goats and pigs on oceanic islands in past times already had taken its toll of the original diversity when the first botanical collections took place. Alves (1999) discussed in detail the flora of Trindade, based on his visits in 1994, 1995, 1997 and 1998. The endemic species Asplenium beckeri Brade and Elaphoglossum beckeri Brade were not found, probably being extinct. CONCLUSION Fern conservation in a vast developing country such as Brazil is a challenge to be faced. There is a lack of detailed, large scale, floristic inventories, while devastation and environmental changes progress rapidly. There are very few cases for which surveys of the current species conservation status are available. An intensive effort should be made in order to overcome these problems. Introduction into cultivation of endangered or rare species and the establishment of spore and preserved tissue banks ex situ (cryopreservation) should be short-term FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 300 goals to be urgently pursued. Studies of the biology of the species already identified as threatened, the localization and preservation of new populations (including if possible some of the presumably extinct species) as well as a more effective action as to Conservation Units are needed in order to establish realistic policies to preserve pteridophyte diversity in Brazil. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Brazilian National Research Council (CNPq, Proc. 30.1339-77), the Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos (UNISINOS) and the Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis — IBAMA made this study possible. The author also thanks reviewers for valuable suggestions. REFERENCES | ALVES, R. J. V. 1999. Ilha da Trindade & Arquipelago Martin Vaz: um ensaio Geobotanico. Servic¢o de Documentag4o da Marinha. Rio de Janeiro. BARROS, I. C. L. 1997. Pteridofitas ocorrentes em Pernambuco: ensaio biogeografico e analise numérica. Tese de Doutorado. Recife, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Recife. BAPTISTA, L. R. M. & LONGHI-WAGNER, H. M. 1998. Lista preliminar de espécies amaeagadas da Flora do Rio Grande do Sul. Sociedade Botanica do Brasil. Porto Alegre. IBAMA. 1997. Relatorio. Workshop sobre Conservagéo e Manejo de Dicksonia sellowiana (Xaxim). Urubici. MENDONCA, M. P. & LINS, L. V. 2000. Lista Vermelha das Espécies Ameagadas de Extingao da Flora de Minas Gerais. Belo Horizonte. Funda¢ao Biodiversitas, Funda¢ao Zoo-Botanica. Belo Horizonte. MELLO-FILHO, L. E. et al. (coord.). 1992. Centuria Plantarum Brasiliensium Extintionis Minitata. Brasilia. Sociedade Botanica do Brasil. Brasilia. RIDLEY, H. N. 1891. Notes on the Botany of Fernando de Noronha. Bot. J. Linn. Soc., 27:1- 86. SALINO, A. 2000. Pteridofitas. in MENDONCA, M. P. & LINS, L. V. Lista Vermelha das Espécies Ameagadas de Extingao da Flora de Minas Gerais. Belo Horizonte. Funda¢ao Biodiversitas, Fundacao Zoo-Botanica. Belo Horizonte. 7-103. SYLVESTRE, L. S. 2001. Revisdéo taxondmica das espécies da familia Aspleniaceae A. B. Frank ocorrentes no Brasil. Tese de Doutorado. Instituto de Biociéncias - Universidade de Sao Paulo. Sao Paulo. WINDISCH, P. G. 1996. Towards assaying biodiversity in Brazilian Pteridophytes. In: BICUDO, C. E. M. & MENEZES, N. A. (Eds) Biodiversity in Brazil - a first approach, pp. 109-117. CNPq, Sao Paulo. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 ©=PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 301 BIOGEOGRAPHY, HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AND FERNS IN THE EASTERN CARIBBEAN L.E. CHINNERY Department of Biological and Chemical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, POB 64, Bridgetown, Barbados Key words: Barbados, Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, island altitude, island area, collectors, hurricanes ABSTRACT Distribution data for 485 pteridophyte species in the Eastern Caribbean were extracted from Proctor's 1977 (Lesser Antilles and Barbados) and 1989 (Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands) floras. Regression analysis showed that the log-log species-area relationship is not the best fit to the data and has a much higher slope than expected. Altitude explains more variation in species number than area and together logo area and logyo altitude explain 90% of the variation in log,) species number. Log human population density and logi 9 species number are correlated. It is proposed that disturbance by human activity and hurricanes have contributed to the recorded distribution. It is argued that inconsistent collection effort may account for some of the differences in species numbers on islands and contribute to the high slope of the species-area relationship. Further collection in the region is necessary. INTRODUCTION Ferns, with small, wind-dispersed spores and gametophytes which are potentially hermaphrodite, are an ideal group for biogeographic studies (Tryon, 1970). Further, because of their high dispersal ability, the distribution of a species should closely follow that of its ecological requirements and the species assemblage on any island should reflect the environment/habitat diversity. The possession of dispersal properties better than those of flowering plants has resulted in a higher proportion of pteridophytes in island floras than in continental areas (Given, 1993). Wolf et al. (2001) and others, however, have pointed out that these generalisations about dispersal may not apply to all taxa, e.g. the spores from ferns growing within a forest are unlikely to reach the air currents necessary for long distance dispersal. In addition, gametophytes are not capable of self-fertilisation in many taxa. The Eastern Caribbean consists of a series of islands running to the east and south along the edge of the Caribbean plate from Puerto Rico to Grenada and Barbados. Puerto Rico, the largest island (8768 km?) in this study, is the smallest of the Greater Antilles. There are over a thousand smaller islands between Puerto Rico and Grenada consisting of the Virgin Islands, also on the Puerto Rican bank, and the Lesser Antilles. Most of the islands are volcanic. Some have recently active volcanoes, e.g. Montserrat. Others are older and have become coral capped as a result of oceanic submergence/re-emergence, e.g. Antigua. Some, e.g. St. Thomas, have volcanic and limestone terrain. Barbados, part of an accretionary prism, has coral FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 302 limestone and exposed sedimentary rocks. The islands of Trinidad and Tobago and others off the North coast of Venezuela have strong phytogeographical affinity with South America (e.g. Crosby, 1969) and are not included in this study. Threats to the vegetation on the islands come from natural factors (earthquakes, hurricanes and volcanoes) and human activity. The latter consists of infrastructural development to support the resident populations and, increasingly, tourism, and the introduction of pests, diseases, feral animals and exotic plants. This study aimed to determine which of the factors that may affect the number of species on an island, e.g. size, distance from the propagule source, and human activity, are important in determining the pattern of pteridophyte diversity seen. In his study of the Antilles (Greater and Lesser), Tryon (1979) used some of the same data for the Lesser Antilles (Proctor, 1977) but, unlike the current study, he excluded islands with fewer than 50 species, did not use data for the Virgin Islands and took data from Maxon (1926) for Puerto Rico. METHODS Data on the distribution of 485 species from 25 pteridophyte families were extracted from Proctor's (1977, 1989) floras. Taxonomic and distribution data from the earlier volume were corrected on the basis of Proctor (1980 & 1989). Islands with at least one pteridophyte species were included in the analyses. Data on island size, maximum altitude, and human population were compiled from various sources. For comparability, human population figures were for the census closest to 1990. Coastline lengths and distances from South America, for those islands for which they were available, were obtained from the UNEP island directory (UNEP, 1998). Other distances from South America were estimated using an atlas. For single and multiple regression, the variables were used a) without transformation, b) log;o and c) square root (sqrt) transformed. All regression analyses were conducted using SigmaStat 2.03 (SPSS Inc.). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION For the 33 islands, the relationship between logio species and logio area (Fig 1A) has a slope of 0.756 (1° = 0.60). Studies of many taxonomic groups around the world have produced gradients in the range 0.24 to 0.34 for island systems and between 0.12 and 0.17 on single land masses where dispersal and migration are not restricted by barriers. One might have expected that with the excellent dispersal ability of pteridophytes and Tryon’s (1979) conclusion of the essentially continental nature of the fern floras of the Caribbean that the slope would have been closer to those obtained for mainlands. The log-log relationship was not the best fit. Species vs sqrt area (r = 09752 Fis 1B), sqrt species vs log area (0.66) and species vs log area (0.63) all fitted the data better. This is not unusual, Moody (2000) found that a linear regression of native species against area for the California Channel Islands (1° = 0.90) fitted better than the standard log-log relationship. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 303 Area (km*) Sqrt Area (km ) { 10 1000 5 » 40D A} » 300 100 | Basu iy eealy & 4 : 200 : ed a 100 1s » 2 1O9O 4~ 20 100 - 1% a 2 2 g 2 : %o ow tek & ” 4 1: ro 300 Ho $0 1200 31500 Altitude an} Altitude (m) Figure 1. Regression lines with 95% confidence limits for relationships between the number of pteridophyte species and area and altitude for 33 islands in the eastern Caribbean. A. Logo species vs. logj9 area (r” = 0.602). B. Species vs sqrt area fe 0.750). C. Logio species vs. logo altitude (r’ = 0.715). D. Sart species vs. altitude (1 = (0.893). The area of an island is probably a surrogate for substrate and habitat diversity. Larger islands also provide a larger target and intercept more seaborne propagules (Buckley & Knedlhans, 1986) and, presumably, wind-dispersed fern spores. However, in the case of wind dispersal, increasing island altitude will increase target SIZe. Species-altitude relationships were better fits to the data than the species-area ones. The log-log model (Fig 1C) had a slope of 1.419 (r° = 0.72) and the best fit was for sqrt species vs altitude (r° = 0.89, Fig 1D). That altitude has a greater predictive value than area is not surprising. High islands have a series of climatic zones, with plant communities ranging from xerophytic coastal to elfin or cloud forest. Topographic diversity also increases with maximum altitude, and taller islands have larger leeward shadows. Both of these, like increased area, lead to greater habitat diversity. Wind damage by hurricanes will be mitigated by topography, especially on the taller islands, maintaining increased diversity through a mosaic of successional stages. The uprooting of trees during wind-storms allows for regeneration with light gaps, root plates and subsequent rotted wood providing important “safe-sites” for gametophyte development. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 304 The length of coastline of an island is an integrative measure of island size and topographic diversity. For the 20 islands for which UNEP (1998) provides these lengths, regressions between species and coast length had an r value below 0.5. Although an expected negative relationship was found between species number and distance from South America, it was very weak and non-significant (1° = 0.06, linear model). For the inhabited islands, there was a significant correlation between log number of species and log human population density (r = 0.61, Fig 2A). Using the five variables in a series of stepwise regressions, the best model was log species vs log area and log altitude (r* = 0.90). If dispersal is not a limiting factor in the distribution of the pteridophytes, one would expect that environmental variation, which increases with island size and altitude, is the cause of the differences observed between islands. The relationship between fern species number and human population density is not unprecedented (e.g. Chown ef al., 1998). It is unlikely that the introduction of exotics 1s an important function of humans in the Eastern Caribbean where only 3.3% of the pteridophyte flora can be considered alien. However, it is possible that movement between islands and into the area from the Greater Antilles or South America may have been human-mediated. A better explanation is that with increased human population there is more likely to be at least one individual interested in ferns and thus involved in activities to increase our knowledge of an island’s flora. If true and if the number of such individuals increases with population size, this would induce a positive correlation. 3D © Species Species 10 190 10GE Human population density (km-2) Collectors Figure 2. Humans and the number of pteridophyte species. A. The relationship between log;9 pteridophyte species and log) human population density on 30 islands in the eastern Caribbean (r° = 0.376). B. The number of species collected vs. the number of recorded collectors on 20 islands of the Lesser Antilles and Barbados (1° = 0.781). Proctor (1977) provided a list of collectors of pteridophytes (both visiting scientists and island residents) in the Lesser Antilles who were active before the publication of his flora. When species number was plotted against the number of people who collected on a particular island (Fig 2B), as expected, a good linear relationship was found (r° = 0.78). Collectors are attracted to areas of higher diversity which, based on the analysis reported here, are the larger and taller islands. This is a ‘chicken and egg’ type problem with the flora of the larger islands being better known than that of the FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 305 smaller, making the larger ones even more attractive to collectors. The higher than ‘normal’ slope for the log-log species-area relationship reported here, in part, would be explained by this. The problem is not unique; biogeographers and ecologists have a tendency to under-sample small islands and over-sample the ecologically more interesting, larger islands in their surveys (Lomolino & Weiser, 2001). And, in quite small areas such as oceanic islands, a remarkably high number of species go undetected even with repeated searches. Given (1993) cited the example of Rarotonga in the Cook Islands where, between the late 1960s and 1990, the number of pteridophyte taxa collected increased 25% to 91. Together with the analysis presented here, this suggests that sampling intensity needs to be increased in the Eastern Caribbean, especially, but not only in the smaller islands. St.Lucia lies between Martinique and St.Vincent both in location and size but only 125 species are recorded from St.Lucia whereas Martinique has 231 and St.Vincent 174. Proctor (1977) lists six collectors for St.Lucia, 11 for Martinique and eight for St.Vincent. In the neotropics, the greatest effects of human development/disturbance are in the lowland areas. Fortunately, the few lowland fern species found in the Eastern Caribbean tend to be more widespread. In the last third of the 20" century, agricultural activity decreased on a number of the islands, including Puerto Rico, Antigua and Barbados. This has led to an increasing area of forest and other fern- friendly environments. By contrast, in lowland areas, land use has changed to human _ habitation and facilities for tourism. Recent collections in Barbados have added nine species to the Proctor list. However, six species attributed by Proctor (1977, 1980) probably need to be removed. Amongst these are Acrostichum aureum L., a victim of habitat destruction and Cyclopeltis semicordata (Sw.) J.Sm., known from a single collection from a location now dominated by the pantropical Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott, one of the nine additions. Species lists for the other islands also require revision. Breckon ef al. (1998) collected Cyclopeltis phyllitidis from Mona Island increasing the known pteridophyte flora of that island by 33%! The Proctor list includes 121 species for Montserrat, many of which may no longer be present as a result of the current volcanic activity at Soufriere Hills. It should be noted that records in Floras give no information about abundance and threat. For example, Pityrogramma calomelanos (L.) Link, although a widespread taxon, is becoming rare in Barbados where Government activities to minimise landslides are eliminating suitable habitats. Infrastructural developments due to increasing affluence of island populations and natural disasters continue to be the main threats to the ferns on these islands. A series of educational programmes, aimed at creating greater interest in native flora (and fauna), is needed to mitigate the former. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The contributions of George Rogers, Marlyn Rawlins and Linda Delilah and the award of a Study and Travel Grant by the University of the West Indies are gratefully acknowledged. REFERENCES BRECKON, G.J., SANTIAGO-VELEZ, V. & KOLTERMAN, D.A. 1998. New plant records for Mona Island, Puerto Rico. Carib. J. Sci. 34: 136-137. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 306 BUCKLEY, R.C. & KNEDLHANS, S.B. 1986. Beachcomber biogeography: interception of dispersing propagules by islands. J. Biogeogr. 13: 69-70. CHOWN, S.L., GREMMEN, NJ.M. & GASTON, K.J. 1998. Ecological biogeography of southern ocean islands: species-area relationships, human impacts, and conservation. Amer. Nat. 152: 562-575. CROSBY, M.R. 1969. Distribution patterns of West Indian mosses. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 56: 409-416. GIVEN, D.R. 1993. Changing aspects of endemism and endangerment in Pteridophyta. J. Biogeogr. 20: 293-302. LOMOLINO, M.V. & WEISER, M.D. 2001. Towards a more general species-area relationship: diversity on all islands, great and small. J. Biogeogr. 28: 431-445. MAXON, W.R. 1926. Pteridophyta of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Sci. Survey P.R. and V.I. 6: 373-521. MOODY, A. 2000 Analysis of plant species diversity with respect to island characteristics on the Channel Islands, California. J. Biogeogr. 27: 711-723. PROCTOR, G.R. 1977. Pteridophyta. Vol. 2. In: R.A. HOWARD (Ed.) Flora of the Lesser Antilles. Harvard University Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. PROCTOR, G.R. 1980. Supplemental notes on Lesser Antillean pteridophytes. Amer. Fern J. 70: 88-90. PROCTOR, G.R. 1989. Ferns of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 53. TRYON, R. 1970. Development and evolution of fern floras of oceanic islands. Biotropica 2: 76-84. TRYON, R. 1979. Biogeography of the antillean fern flora. In: BRAMWELL, D. (Ed.). Plants and Islands, pp. 55-68. Academic Press, London. UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) 1998. Island directory. http://www.unep. ch/islands/isldir.htm (9 June 2001). WOLF, P.G., SCHNEIDER, H. & RANKER, T.A. 2001. Geographic distributions of homosporous ferns: does dispersal obscure evidence of vicariance? J. Biogeogr. 28: 263-270. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 307 PHILIPPINE PTERIDOPHYTE COLLECTIONS AS A RESOURCE FOR CONSERVATION PLANNING J.F. BARCELONA Philippine National Herbarium (PNH), Botany Division, National Museum of the Philippines, P. Burgos St., P.O. Box 2659 C.P.O., Manila 1000, Philippines Key words: collection intensity, conservation status, database, endemics, extinct, herbarium, Philippines, pteridophytes, species-richness, threatened ABSTRACT A database of 19,295 collection numbers of Philippine pteridophytes deposited in major U.S., European, and Philippine herbaria was analyzed. The highest collection activities occurred between 1900 and 1910 and drastically decreased from the 1920s until the present. Collections after World War II are not well represented in U.S. and European herbaria. This, however, may not reflect the true collection activities in the country, but rather the slow pace of incorporation into and distribution of specimens to other herbaria. In addition, databasing of the more recent collections in major Philippine herbaria is midway. Analyses of the relative collection activities, the number of country endemics, and the land areas of selected islands or regions (Bohol, Leyte, Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Samar, and Sibuyan) show that Luzon and Mindanao share the highest values for all parameters. However, when these are compared per unit area, Sibuyan has the highest values. The most species-poor islands, with the least endemics, are Mindanao and Luzon. Bohol, Samar, and Panay are the least collected regions. A more intensive study in the field is needed in most areas in the Philippines to determine the real conservation status of the country’s pteridoflora especially the endemic taxa. In addition, processing of recent collections currently inaccessible to researchers needs to be the utmost priority of Philippine herbaria. INTRODUCTION Having been one of the major centres of taxonomic and floristic studies in SE Asia in the early 1900s, the herbarium of the Bureau of Science (now the Philippine National Herbarium) in Manila once had the largest botanical collection in the region. It also boasted the “finest scientific library in the Far East.....superior to that of most educational institutions in the United States” (Gleeck, 1976). However, the institution’s fame lasted for less than half a century until it was bombed during World War II. The richness of botanical collections in the Philippines early in the 20"" century was reflective not only of the intense collection activities during those years but of the rich forest resources then extant. Now, with less than 10% of its original forests left, the country’s biodiversity is seriously threatened. Awareness of the rapid depletion of our forests has been realized at a magnitude that has only stirred national interest in FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 308 the last two decades (Department of Environment & Natural Resource-UNEP, 1997; Heaney & Regalado, 1998; Mallari et al., 2001; Tan, 2000; Wildlife Conservation Society of the Philippines, 1997; Zamora & Co, 1986). Most of these studies, however, are animal-based. The lack of a written flora of the Philippines has hampered sound conservation-related studies in plants. There could be no other plant group more convenient to study for conservation planning in the Philippines than the pteridophytes because the number of species is manageable, and although outdated, Copeland’s 3-volume flora (1958-1961) can serve as basis for comparing species-richness and their conservation statuses in major islands/regions then and now. Generally, since fewer species of pteridophytes than of flowering plants are economically important, their diversity is not so much affected by unsustainable forest resource extraction (except for some ornamental taxa such as Cyathea and Asplenium) but rather by habitat destruction. A database of Philippine pteridophytes was originally started for the purpose of determining how much of the Philippines’ pteridoflora is represented in herbaria outside the country. At present, the database stands at ca. 19,295 entries, believed to represent nearly 90% of the total pteridophyte collections made in the country during the last two centuries. MATERIALS AND METHODS A database of 19,295 entries representing unique collection numbers of pteridophytes collected from the Philippines from 1825 to 1996 and presently deposited in major U.S., European, and Philippine herbaria was started in 1994. More than 90% of the databasing activities were undertaken on personal time during 2000. Information contained in the database was based on herbarium specimens, photos of the types, and those that were mentioned in literature. The bulk of the entries was taken from a paper database of specimens personally annotated by Mr. Michael G. Price. Herbarium specimens at A, B, BM, BO, BRI, CAS, CAIP, CM, CAHUP, DC, DS, E, F, FI, G, GC, GH, K, L, MC, MICH, MO, MT, MU, NY, P, PNH, PUH, SING, SYD, UC, and US were studied. Digital images of approximately 450 Philippine fern types at US have also been obtained for the reference collection of the PNH. In addition to detailed collection data, annotation history, as well as taxonomic and nomenclatural histories of the types are also part of the database. Comparison of species-richness per major island/region, distribution of specific taxa, collection intensity, and conservation status of each individual taxon are examples of the kinds of information that can be extracted from the database. RESULTS The intensity of pteridophyte collection activities in the Philippines, as well as specimen distribution to other herbaria in the world, peaked from 1900 to 1910 (Fig. 1). This era corresponds to the arrival and subsequent establishment of the Bureau of Science Herbarium by the Americans. However, collection activities drastically decreased in the 1920s, subsequent to the departure of E.D. Merrill from the country in 1924. Preliminary data show that a total of about 1,100 species of pteridophytes in 144 genera and 39 families are found in the Philippines, representing about 10% of the world’s pteridoflora. Of these, 4 genera, Nannothelypteris, Podosorus, Psomiocarpa and Tectaridium, are Philippine endemics and two other genera have recently been FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 309 reduced to other genera, Diblemma to Microsorum, and Haplodictyum to either Pronephrium or Sphaerostephanos. 4) 7000 5 6000 $ 5000 2 4000 § 3000 “= 2000 ¢ 1000 = 0 ” w” ep) wn i?) wn ” wn WY i?) w” i?) i?) i/2) ie) ?2) i?) © (o) 2) oO (2) oO S oO S) (jo) 2) (e) (oe) (=) (2) © (=) N © ike) ico) Nw oe) (o>) oO - N (99) Tt Ke) ido) ~ ee) [o) SS Ser eS Se Oe SF Ooh ST, Saee io) wn 2) + (oe) Year Figure 1: Intensity of collection activities of pteridophytes in the Philippines in the - last two centuries. A total of 285 (26%) species, 9 varieties and 2 subspecies are endemic, of which 66 (23%) are known only from single collections, i.e. from the types (Table 1). Only three of these are recent discoveries (having been collected and described in the 1970s). Sixty-three (22%) species are here presumed extinct. An additional 25 species (9%) are only known from a few collections in the type localities, two of which are recent discoveries. TABLE 1: Current conservation status of Philippine endemic pteridophytes extracted from a database of herbarium specimens, photographs and literature citations. . . Known only from types (3 are recent discoveries) Known only from few (2-4) collections in the type DS pais sa localities (2 are recent discoveries) Known only from few (2-4) collections in adjacent 37 ee weet Known only from few (2-4) collections in disjunct BV localities | coe: Locally widespread Regionally widespread Widespread in one locality and disjunct in another fal AUG AON mar NG) vated | Widespread in the country but rare (known from few 4 5 collections in each site) Widespread in the country and not rare FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 310 When total collections, incidence of collection of endemics, and species-richness are compared between regions, Luzon and Mindanao have the highest values for all parameters. When combined, both regions almost equally share the greatest bulk (i.e., 203,764.4 km* or 68%) of the country’s land. However, when these parameters are compared per unit area, a different picture is apparent (Figure 2). Sibuyan has the highest values for all parameters (in every 100 km’, ca. 15 collection numbers, 11 species, and 3 endemics, have been collected). Palawan follows Sibuyan in being the most species-rich region (ca. 4 spp. per 100 km’) whereas Panay and Mindoro have 3 each. The most species-poor and have the least endemics per unit area are Mindanao and Luzon with less than 1 species, and 0.14 and 0.2 endemics per 100 km’, respectively. In terms of collection intensity per unit area, Luzon follows Sibuyan in the most intensively collected island with 10 collection numbers per 100 km’, whereas islands where collection activities have been meagre are Bohol, Panay and Samar. Relative Values (%) is) je) 10 : 0 oe 6 o@ Za Zz oc Za O g < FS = re NG “S Figure 1. Distribution of Cibotium barometz in China: hatched areas have the highest density, diagonal slashed areas, medium, and dotted areas, the lowest density of plants. In China, Cibotium barometz grows in warm and humid environments, often in valleys, forest edges and open places in forest, at elevations ranging from (50-) 200- 600 (-1300-1600) m. It usually grows with Alsophila spinulosa, Diplopterygium chinense and Dicranopteris pedata. It is an acid soil indicator species in tropical and FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 385 subtropical areas, and is rare in the limestone areas in Guangxi, Yunnan and Guizhou Province. We find this tree fern always forms large populations in valleys. The populations are often very large and dense. The plants produce large quantities of spores. Old large rhizomes can produce lateral buds, and the buds grow into a large rhizome. By this asexual propagation, the populations quickly increase in size. It takes up to 10 years for an individual plant to grow into a specimen with a large rhizome of a few kilograms weight. The rhizome of C. barometz can be dug up throughout the year, but it is best to collect it in late autumn and winter. After the fibrous roots and silky hairs have been removed, the rhizomes are washed clean and dried in the sun. Because the rhizomes become too hard when they are dried, more often now they are cut into slices when raw, to give “raw Gouji slices”. The rhizomes can also been boiled or steamed in water, dried, and then cut into slices which are called “cooked Gouji slices”. The rhizome of C. baromeiz is irregular in outline, 8-30 cm long (some can reach 50 cm), 3-8 cm in diameter, densely covered with golden soft hairs which are 1- 1.5 cm long. There are several brown-red petiole remnants at the apex of the rhizomes, and ventral meristeles form two scrolls in the cross section of the petioles. At the middle and end of rhizomes, there are numerous brown fibrous roots. The rhizomes are hard and tasteless. The slices are solid and difficult to break. Raw slices are yellowish white or light brown, but cooked slices are deep brown or yellowish brown. The quality of “Gouji” is determined by the size of the rhizome. Large, yellowish and solid rhizomes are better; as for the slices, the best are uniform, solid and hairless. In some areas “Black Gouji” is used. This is the rhizomes of some species of the genera Dryopteris and Athyrium. The medicinal efficacy is lower than Cibotium “Gouji’”, and the rhizomes have no golden hairs, so it is easy to make a distinction between them. Biomass of Cibotium barometz stands in China The highest density of C. baromeiz is in Western Guangdong, Northern Guangxi and Southern Yunnan. There are some other areas where C. barometz is found, e.g. Xinning and Jianghua county in Hunan Province, Taishun and Pingyang county in Zhejiang Province, but the populations are rather small. Deposits of “Gouji” in Medog of Xizang, and Taiwan Province are not included because of lack of information. Figure 1 shows that C. barometz is not evenly distributed in China. By a field plot method, combined with experience of local people, we estimated the biomass of the rhizome of C. baromezz in the provinces and districts. The preliminary results are as follows: Guangdong: 9,820 tons; Guangxi: 9,120 tons; Yunnan: 7,520 tons; Guizhou: 6,000 tons; Sichuan: 3,240 tons; Hainan: 1,800 tons; Fujian: 1,100 tons; Jiangxi: 500 tons; Chongqing: 40 tons. These are rather conservative estimates of the quantity of dry rhizome “Gouji” deposits in the major distribution provinces and districts. Therefore, there are about 391,400 tons of deposits of “Gouji” in China, mainly distributed in Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 386 Investigation and analysis of internal trade market While investigating the distribution of C. barometz, we noted the major medicinal trade market. At present, the transaction of “Gouji” is mainly concentrated at two medicinal material markets at Yulin in Guangxi and Anguo in Hebei. The annual transaction was maintained at 2,000 tons from 1991 to 1999 at Yulin medicinal material market; Anguo has a much smaller market, ca. 60 tons. The goods mainly come from Guangxi, Yunnan, Guizhou and other neighbouring regions. The price is from 2 to 2.9 RMB per kilogram (1RMB = 0.12 US $). The major consumers are the pharmaceutical factories of Guangzhou, Beijing Dongsheng and Changsha Jiuzhitang. The Guangzhou Chenliji pharmaceutical factory consumes 400 tons of “Gouji” per year to produce pills of “Zhuangyao Bushen Wan”, a medicine which aids kidney function. It is estimated that each year about 3,000 tons of “Gouji” enter the market for trade, and the largest consumers are factories for producing pills of “Zhuangyao Bushen Wan”. Apart from the above markets, some “Gouji” is used in private or for export. Investigation of international trade China has the most abundant deposits of “Gouji” in the world, and it is also the country that has the most export trade. Table 1 & 2 are data supplied by CITES. TABLE 1: The export trade of C. barometz from 1993 to 1997 (in kilograms Hong Kong of China a aa aaa eee Le Se A CANA INR *Export trade prevented by Chinese CITES office TABLE 2: The main importing countries and the corresponding quantities imported from mainland China (kg) Import America Canada Germany Hong Kong | South countries of China Korea and regions Quanti Table 1 shows that the export quantity was highest in 1995, with 439,000 kg. The total export quantity was 524,850 kg over five years. The average is over 90,000 kg per annum between 1993 and 1997. The main importing countries and regions are: South Korea, the United States, Hong Kong of China and Canada. Evaluation of the present resource of Cibotium barometz in China In recent years, because control of collection has not been implemented strictly, and the demand at internal and foreign markets has been increasing, the wild resources of FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 387 C. barometz have been destroyed seriously in some areas. Relevant laws and regulations should be issued as soon as possible and practical effective methods should be adopted to preserve the wild resources and their habitats. In general, the resource deposits of C. barometz in China are still abundant, in the order of 38,400 tons but to ensure that the wild resources will be sustainably utilized, we must control collection. Since 1997 the export of C. barometz has been restricted, so the medicinal materials collected have circulated mainly through internal markets. Considering all kinds of circulation channels, since 1997 the whole collection quantity is likely to have been less or equal to the annual collection quantity we consider sustainable. For most rhizome-harvested plants, the annual sustainable yield is estimated at about 10% of the standing stocks. Based on the estimated 39,140 tons of “Gouji” resource deposited in mainland China, the total annual harvest of rhizomes which could be sustained would be about 3,914 tons. The export quantity must therefore be confined strictly, taking into consideration many factors. A quantity of no more than 130 tons per year for export is suggested at present. In future, export of final products rather than raw materials should be encouraged. It is hoped that international and national agencies will help with investigation of artificial cultivation, artificially promoting natural regeneration, and new medicinal products in order to lessen the pressure on wild resources of this much exploited species. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project was supported by FFI and the Chinese CITES office. We would like to thank Clive Jermy for his guidance and support throughout the project. Thanks to the provincial CITES officials and county forestry officials in Guizhou, Guangxi, Guangdong, and Yunnan for their cooperation. REFERENCES HOLTTUM, R.E., 1963. Cyatheaceae (treefern). Flora Malesiana Series II. 1(2): 65- 176. N.V. Erven P. Noordhoff, Grongingen. OU, M. (Chief Editor), 1992. Chinese-English Manual of Commonly-used Traditional Chinese Medicine. Guangdong Science and Technology Press, Guangzhou. YAO, D. (Chief Editor), 1996. Pharmacopoeia Commission of the Ministry of Public Health, P.R. China, A Coloured Atlas of the Chinese Materia Medica Specified in Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China (1995 Edition), Guangdong Sciences and Technology Press, Guangzhou. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 388 SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF TREE FERNS IN SOUTHEAST AUSTRALIA R. VULCZ!, L. VULCZ!, L.D. GREER’ & G. LAWRENCE” 'L & R Vulcz, 260 Amiets Road, Wyelangta, Victoria, Australia 3237 “Institute of Sustainable Regional Development, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia Key words: Australia, Dicksonia antarctica, horticulture, Otway Ranges, sustainable development, tree fern, Victoria ABSTRACT A case study was made of the evolution of a tree-fern supply business in Southeast Australia over a period of 20 years. Initially Dicksonia antarctica was obtained by salvage from forestry operations. Later, however, and motivated by the concept of sustainability, the business was changed to a horticultural system in which the tree ferns were successfully grown to commercial size in plantations on former agricultural land. Difficulties were experienced with Australian Federal and State regulations, which were not primarily formulated to promote the sustainability of a native plant species through commercial horticulture. INTRODUCTION In the State of Victoria in Southeast Australia, the supply of mature tree ferns for the horticultural trade has been largely dependent on wild-harvested plants. Mostly these were salvaged from clear-cut forestry operations and, if not saved, would have gone to waste. Meanwhile the Parliament of Victoria (2000) introduced a programme for ‘the consumptive use of native flora and fauna’. This covered all native plant and animal species, not just tree ferns. It envisaged four phases of development: 1) wild harvest; 2) ranching/transitional; 3) basic cultivation or farming; and 4) 'high tech’ or genetic-engineering based. Parallel to these developments is the theme of ‘sustainability’, as applied to the use of natural resources. Ikerd (1999) suggested that 'sustainable production requires a balance and harmony between the economic, ecological and social dimensions of the production system'. This finds favour in present-day Australia where there is an increasing consensus that growth and development within the country must take account of the three focal points of economy, society and environment. The present report is a case study of the development, over 20 years, of a tree- fern horticultural business, Mr Fern Pty Ltd, in Southeast Australia. The report describes its development from a tree-fern salvage operation to a self-sustaining tree- fern plantation. The overarching theme is the often-controversial process of turning the rhetoric of sustainable production into the practice of sustainability. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 389 A CASE STUDY OF MR FERN PTY LTD Location Mr. Fern Pty. Ltd. is a small, export-orientated tree-fern nursery, situated on a 33ha property in the Otway Ranges of Victoria, Southeast Australia. This is a temperate rainforest region where Dicksonia antarctica L’Hér. and Cyathea australis (R. Br.) Domin occur widely and in abundance, and other species of tree fern (C. cunninghamii Hook. and C. x marcescens N.A. Wakef.) are found much more locally. However, only D. antarctica is of commercial importance. The Otway Ranges region is predominately publicly-owned land, with 72% of the area set aside as national parks and conservation areas, and 28% classified as 'General Management Zones' where timber harvesting is permitted. However, Mr Fern Pty Ltd has not harvested tree ferns from public land in the Otway Ranges. Initial stages In the early 1980s, supplying wild-harvested tree ferns took precedence over traditional agricultural and cattle-raising activities on the property due, in part, to fluctuating commodity prices. However, some tree ferns were harvested from the Mr Fern property and replanted during this period, thus initiating the plantation concept, albeit on a very small scale. In 1985, the focus of the business shifted towards horticulture, with the establishment of a fern-production nursery. By this time the general public regarded the wild harvesting of tree ferns as ‘exploitation’, and mass opinion favoured the so-called ‘eco-friendly’ products. The decision to offer only propagated ferns from 1990 onwards thus appeared to be economically and ecologically feasible, and coincided with an industry-led 'go green' campaign. However, although many Australians rhetorically stated that they preferred 'green products', demand remained strong for wild-harvested tree ferns. The nursery resumed wild-harvesting four years later, but coupled it with plans for a ‘sustainable tree fem plantation’. A long-term, strategic business plan, incorporating sustainability, was therefore prepared. The Otway Agroforestry Network assisted with drawing up a site plan for the proposed tree-fern plantation in December 1996. This was implemented soon afterwards and construction was self- funded mainly by the cash returns from exported tree ferns. From traditional practices to sustainable production In 1997, the remaining beef cattle were removed permanently from the property and the first 4ha paddock was prepared for tree fern planting. Significant constraints were the lack of published information on the horticulture of tree ferns, and the business risks inherent in this new venture. However, the main change was from the past presumption of an unlimited supply of tree ferns from the wild to the new approach based on the notion of a finite stock of resources that had to be managed wisely. Such management had to include long-term plans and solutions, adoption of appropriate technology and the mimicking of nature to increase resilience and diversity. In short, it had to focus on sustainability. The tree-fern plantation was designed primarily to simulate the natural environment. Therefore natural tree-fern groves and germination sites, as well as selected areas devoid of ferns, were carefully scrutinised for their characteristics. The goal at the new planting site was to create an environment suitable for growing a variety of tree ferns, but principally D. antarctica, and to encourage the regeneration from naturally-shed spores. Trackways giving permanent access to the site were FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 390 constructed so as to reduce later disturbance of the soil. The design incorporated south-facing banks, which in the Otway Ranges were known to be suitable for tree- fern spore germination and the subsequent development of gametophytes and sporophytes. The plan called for mature plants to be selectively harvested from the growing beds and then replaced with young sporophytes obtained from the banks. To protect the tree ferns from excessive sunlight and to raise atmospheric humidity, the former pasture land was planted with Myrtle beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii) trees at three metres apart. These will eventually create an overstory, to give a natural 'shadecloth effect’. Each year after 1997, other areas of the property were selected and planted with specific adjustments to make best use of each site. Variations included different methods of site preparation, and the spacing and combination of tree ferns, from small-propagated plants to large, mature specimens. With a 2000mm annual rainfall, the watering of newly-planted tree ferns was only needed during the height of the dry period in summer. This was done particularly to maintain humidity on days of drying winds. The water was delivered with moveable, gravity-fed sprinklers that sprayed over a radius of about 15m and were supplied with water from an adjacent river on the property. RESULTS There were successes and failures. In the winter of 2000/01, approximately 40,000 small-propagated D. antarctica were planted on the property. The driest and hottest summer for fifty-two years then followed and the losses were high in some plots. Since then, winter rains allowed the surviving tree ferns to flourish. Losses were made good by replanting in 2001. Threats to the sustainable production of tree ferns The sustainable production of D. antarctica was not settled by choosing between wild harvesting and cultivation. There were pros and cons to both systems, as both may contravene the ‘trilogy of sustainability’. A local survey in the Otway Ranges concluded that the main threats to a sustainable supply of D. antarctica were 1) the problems of changing land use; 2) the governmental classification of tree ferns and 3) the prescriptive government regulations. By contrast, the wild-harvesting by professional horticultural workers, in salvaging plants that otherwise would go to waste, had less impact. Changing land-use Pressure due to changing land-use came from two sources: industrial forestry and urbanisation. The Victorian State Government accepted the 1997 advice of the Plantations 2020 Vision Implementation Committee (1997). This established the goal of tripling the quantity of plantation trees in the state of Victoria by the year 2020 (DNRE, 1998). A key feature was the proposed replacement of the 30-year cycles of Monterey Pine Pinus radiata with 10-year cycles of Blue Gum Eucalyptus globulus, the latter not facilitating the full maturation of tree-ferns in the understory. Urbanisation was also deemed to be a threat to the sustainable production of tree ferns, as the district shifted from traditional family-based farming to a recreational and leisure-based location for the expanding metropolis of Melbourne. This occurred FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 391 in conjunction with a rapidly expanding tourism industry requiring access to the ‘natural wilderness’ (Urry, 1990). We argue here that properly planned tree-fern horticulture is an appropriate response because of its potential to produce large quantities of commercially acceptable plants from a small area of land, and in a sustainable fashion. Bureaucratic classification Despite their distinctive appearance, tree ferns do not fit neatly into a single category of organism within Australian Government regulations. At the Federal level of government, wild-harvested tree ferns are regarded as a secondary product from agricultural and forestry commercial operations. However, their marketing by the domestic nursery industry is regulated at the State level by the government department responsible for conservation and recreation. Under the State Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, tree ferns are classified as 'wildflowers and other native flora (grass-trees and seeds)’; see KPMG (2000). The local Government thus classifies tree ferns, as ‘native vegetation’, but export permits have to be obtained from the Biodiversity Unit of the Federal Government, which operates independently. A tree-fern plantation then further complicates this categorisation because it introduces the concept of a ‘tree-fern agro-eco-system’. This, on the one hand, helps to conserve a wild species, while at the same time commercialises it. Thus the desired objective of sustainability crosses a number of institutional and disciplinary boundaries. Prescriptive governmental regulations From a sociological standpoint, administrative organisations (such as the Australian Government) frequently depend on schematic over-generalisations that assist regulators (and others) to manage the complexity of systems - whether they be social, economic or biological. The current approach to managing natural resources in the State of Victoria tends to be by prescriptive regulations, which are administered with little flexibility by a large bureaucracy. Jenkins and Edwards (2000) used the term 'the blueprint approach’ to describe this means of governance, whereby the broad plan is prescriptively laid out, and those affected are required to conform. By contrast, the tree fern farm of Mr Fern Pty Ltd is modelled on an ‘adaptive management approach’, with the prescription by Campbell ef a/. (1999) that includes the key words: design, act, monitor, reflect and revise. Even though it is recognised that diversity increases resilience, this principle is generally not applied to natural resource management prescriptions, where only one management regime is selected and then enforced. Operating outside the perimeters of the blueprint can therefore become a confrontational exercise between government department and tree fern producer. Flora et al. (1998) stressed that 'changes are taking place on the farm within a system, but without a system-wide change, innovation cannot be supported’. Fortunately steps are now being taken, by each of the three levels of regulators within Australia, to accommodate a ‘sustainable’ tree-fern production system in the 'blueprint'’. However, this has occurred only after persistent lobbying. CONCLUSIONS This short report has outlined only a few of the difficulties involved in moving from a rhetorical desire for ‘sustainability’ to its actual practice in the development of a tree- fern production and supply business. Our decision to grow tree ferns - an FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 392 unconventional crop - precipitated a variety of difficulties in dealing with government officials. The production, through horticulture, of a native wild plant was novel and at cross-purposes with regulations designed to protect the native flora from commercial exploitation. Similarly, the regulators had little helpful advice or experience to offer for the management of a crop that hitherto had been a waste product of the forestry industry. Despite these obstacles, ‘sustainability’ remains a viable objective, but its implementation requires more flexibility and imagination by regulators. This paper highlights the need for government agencies to work closely with those tree-fern growers who are trying to fulfil the three focal points of economy, society and environment. Both growers and agencies have much to learn from each other. REFERENCES CAMPBELL, B., SAYER, J., FROST, P., VERMEULEN, S., RUIZ-PEREZe CUNNINGHAM, A., PRABHU, R., and CHUMA, E., 1999. Evaluating the Impacts of Integrated Natural Resource Management (INRM) Research, Centre for International Forestry Research, University of Zimbabwe. http://www.cifor.org/inrm/Workshop2000/abstract/Bcampbell/Full_ BCampbell. htm DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT, FLORA AND FAUNA GUARANTEE - SCIENTIFIC ADVISORY COMMITTEE, 1997. Preliminary Recommendation on a Nomination for Listing, Nomination No 453, File No: FF/06/0030. FLORA, F., GASTEYER, S., McISAAC, C., and KROMA, M. 1998. Farm and Community Entrepreneurial Partnership (FACEP): Beyond Crop Insurance to Risky Shifts. Paper presented at Rural Sociological Society Meeting, Portland, USA. IKERD, J., 1999. Hallmarks of Sustainable Farming Systems, University of Missouri, presented at Scientific Conference on Organic Agriculture - Building the Bridges, Canada. JENKINS, R.W.G., and EDWARDS, S. R., 2000. Sustainable Use of Wild Species - a draft Guide for Decision Makers, IUCN Information Paper, Fifth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity. KPMG CONSULTING PTY LTD, 2000. NCP Review of The Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 Final Report, Department of Natural Resources, p. 44. Government Publication. PARLIAMENT OF VICTORIA, Environment and Natural Resources Committee, 2000. Utilisation of Victorian Native Flora and Fauna - Inquiry Report, Victorian Government Printer, p. 362. PLANTATIONS 2020 VISION IMPLEMENTATION COMMITTEE, 1997. "Plantations for Australia: 2020 Vision’, Canberra. URRY, J., 1990. The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies. Sage, London. we. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 ©PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 398 CONSERVATION OF TREE FERNS EX SITU A.C. WARDLAW 92 Drymen Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G61 2SY, UK Key words: Blechnum gibbum, Cyathea, Cyathea cooperi, Dicksonia, Dicksonia antarctica, Eden Project, ex situ, Todea barbara, tree fern ABSTRACT Tree ferns (Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae) present special problems for ex situ conservation: the individuals are large, there are over 200 threatened species, and cultivation requires a long period of expert care from spore germination to mature plants. It is argued here that ex situ conservation should primarily be done in botanical gardens in the countries of natural occurrence. Additionally, spores of the threatened species should be collected, cryo-preserved and also made available to the worldwide community of fern growers. There should be co-ordination in the growing of threatened tree-fern species in the large glasshouses of botanic gardens and similar controlled environments (e.g. Eden Project). INTRODUCTION The term ‘tree fern’ is used in this paper only for species in the families Cyatheaceae Kaulfuss and Dicksoniaceae Bower. This is mainly for convenience, since other families, such as Blechnaceae (C.Presl) Copeland and Osmundaceae Bercht. & J.C. Presl, contain ferns with appreciable trunks, e.g. Blechnum gibbum (Labillardiére) Mettenius and Todea barbara (L.) Moore. The objects of this report are to consider the present conservation status of tree ferns, to discuss the special problems of their ex situ conservation, and to suggest possible solutions. SPECIES OF TREE FERNS AND THEIR CONSERVATION STATUS According to Kramer and Green (1990), the family Cyatheaceae contains a single genus Cyathea J.E. Smith, with 600-650 species. These authors argue for not assigning the species to several genera, as has been done by some other authorities (e.g. Lellinger, 1987). The family Dicksoniaceae, on the other hand, with about 40-45 species, is divided into 6 genera as follows (number of species in brackets): Dicksonia L’Heériter (20-25), Cibotium Kaulfuss (11), Caloclaena (Maxon) White & Turner (5), Culcita C. Presl (2), Cystodium J. Smith (1) and Thyrsopteris Kunze (1). Table 1 summarises the conservation status of tree ferns within the Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae, as tabulated in the 1997 Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter & Gillett, 1998). Nearly one-third of the 623 species of Cyathea and 10% of the 41 species of the Dicksoniaceae are considered to be ‘threatened’. None of the cyatheas is in category Ex (presumed extinct), but there is one species in Ex/E (historical occurrence - still hope of recovery), 10 in E (critically imperilled), 36 in V (imperilled), 100 in R (rare) and 55 in I (indeterminate). With the dicksonias, there are 3 in category V and one in category I. A list of the Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae species (with the genera as in the Red List), in categories Ex/E, E and V is given in FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 394 Table 2. Most of the listed species are on islands in the Old World Tropics, but with a’ sprinkling of New World species and in continental locations, particularly China. TABLE 1 Summary of the conservation status of Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae, from the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett, 1998). Red List Category Cyatheaceae Dicksoniaceae Ex (Presumed extinct) 0 0 Ex/E (Historical occurrence - still hope of recovery) l 0 E (Critically imperilled)' 10 0 V (Imperilled) ; 36 3 R (Rare)? 100 0 I (Indeterminate) 55 l Total number threatened 202 + Total number of species 623 4] % threatened 32.4 9.8 '. 5 or fewer occurrences, or 1000 or fewer individuals in total *- 6-20 occurrences, or 1000-3000 individuals in total >: 3000-10,000 individuals in total TABLE 2. Cyatheaceae and Dicksoniaceae in Red List categories Ex/E, E and V. Red List Category ies x/E GE Gt Gy Glee GS Se SES, POE Babee ash lesplexr les eg 109 Species Cyathea leprieurii (Kunze) Domin Alsophila amintae Conant Cyathea exilis Holttum C. hainanensis Ching C. kermadecensis Oliver C. nilgirensis Holttum C. pectinata Ching & S.H. Wu C. petiolulata Ching & S.H. Wu C. pseudogigantea Ching & S.H. Wu C. tinganensis Ching & S.H. Wu C. tsangii Ching & S.H. Wu Alsophila polystichoides Christ. Cnemidaria stolzeana L.D. Gomez Cyathea acuminata Copel. C. albocetaceae (Beddome) Copel. C. alleniae Holttum C. annae (Alderw.) Domin. C. arthropoda Copel. C. australis (R.Br.) Domin. ssp. norfolkensis Holttum Occurrence French Guiana Puerto Rico Australia, Queensland China New Zealand, Kermadec Is India China China China China China Costa Rica, Panama Panama Philippines India, Nicobar Is. Malaysia Indonesia, Moluccas Malaysia, Sarawak Australia, Norfolk Is. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 TABLE 2 (cont) Red List Category we a ae eae Nae ne ae ee a, ee ee es oe ee ee ee ee Species C. brevipinna Baker C. brownii Domin. C. bunnemeijerii Alderw. C. carasana (Klotzch) Domin. var maxonii (Maxon) R. Tryon C. coactilis Holttum C. cocleana Stolze’ C doctersii Alderw. C. excavata Holttum C. gregaria (Brause) Domin. C. howeana Domin. C. impar R.Tryon C. incisoserrata Copel. C insulana Holttum C. insularum Holttum C. lateovagans (Baker) Domin. C. magnifolia Alderw. C. moseleyi Baker C. obliqua Copel. C. ogurae (Hayata) Domin. C. pallidipaleata Holttum C. parvipinna Holttum C. pseudonanna (L.D. Gomez) Lellinger C. sechellarum (Mett.) C. sibuyanensis Copel. C. strigillosa (Maxon) Domin. C. ternatea Alderw. C. tripinnatifida Roxb. Dicksonia berteriana (Colla) Hook. D. externa Skottsb. Thyrsopteris elegans Kunze PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 395 Occurrence Australia, Lord Howe Is Australia, Norfolk Is Malaysia, Sarawak Costa Rica, Panama Papua New Guinea Panama Indonesia, Sumatra Malaysia Papua New Guinea Australia, Lord Howe Is Panama Malaysia, Sarawak Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea Colombia Indonesia, Sumatra Papua New Guinea Philippines Japan Indonesia, Sulawesi Papua New Guinea Panama Seychelles Philippines (not stated) Indonesia, Moluccas Indonesia, Moluccas Chile Chile, Juan Fernandez Is Chile, Juan Fernandez Is TREE-FERN CONSERVATION EX SITU Although not necessarily so regarded, the cultivation of tree ferns in private and public gardens and glasshouses is a form of ex situ conservation. That is, the plants are being maintained independently of their natural sites of occurrence. The Australian Cyathea cooperi and Dicksonia antarctica are widely planted for ornamental purposes in several countries. D. antarctica is established in numerous locations in the UK and Ireland (Rickard, 1987). But these are not threatened species. By contrast, so far as the author has been able to ascertain, very few of the threatened species are well represented in botanic gardens or offered commercially. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 396 To organize the ex situ conservation of the more than 200 threatened species of tree fern would be a substantial horticultural and administrative undertaking. Arguably, the best locations would be in botanic gardens or nature reserves in the countries of their natural occurrence. However, there could also be merit in having a few gardens in other tropical or subtropical locations that would be specially organized as Tree-Fern Arboreta for the ex situ conservation of the rarities. Such enterprises would have to confront certain problems: e The large number of threatened tree-fern species; e The potentially large size of individual plants, and the need for replicated specimens, which would have significant implications for the space required; e If the tree ferns had to be grown from spores, there could be a period of many years for raising mature plants with the fertile fronds needed for confirmation of identity; e The large number of countries with which permission to collect or export live plants or spores would have to be negotiated; there could be particular problems with CITES (Control of International Trade in Endangered Species) regulations; e Possible cultivation difficulties; e Reluctance of the wildlife-preservation authorities in the receiving countries to allow importation of alien species of tree fern. This might be not primarily for phytosanitary reasons but for fear of repeating the experience in Hawaii where the Australian C. cooperi has become an invasive weed in the forests (Medeiros Girl. NWOS2)). DISCUSSION AND PROPOSALS It is generally accepted that biodiversity has intrinsic value, and that our planet becomes a poorer place when human activity or negligence leads to the permanent extinction of a species. With tree ferns, there is the possibility of more than 200 species disappearing through the changes in land use where they typically occur. Ideally, conservation should be in situ and involve maintaining the ecosystem that contains the species. Ex situ conservation, however, may have merit as ‘insurance’ or backup. It is probably best done in the countries where the tree ferns occur naturally, as with the respective native species that are maintained in botanic gardens in Australia and New Zealand (for example). Another possibility is in the large glasshouses in temperate zones, where the tree ferns would not survive out of doors. This has the drawback of space limitation, but the advantage that escaped material would not threaten the native vegetation. The Eden Project (www.eden- project.co.uk) in South-West England has large plastic enclosures that are suitable for this purpose, as are the glasshouses in major botanic gardens. Moreover it would be useful if these enclosed spaces were used in a deliberately coordinated fashion for the conservation of threatened species, rather than simply to display the common and readily-available tree ferns. Another worthwhile initiative would be the collection, distribution and cryo- preservation (Pence, 2001) of tree-fern spores. Spore collection does not damage the parent plant nor diminish a natural resource, since the spores would be discharged anyway and mostly go to waste in their native surroundings. Such spores, if made available through a spore-exchange scheme, such as that of the British Pteridological Society, would allow the worldwide community of fern growers to undertake their cultivation. A broadly dispersed effort of this kind would be highly desirable since FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 oy with many species, horticultural success is unpredictable. The main obstacles would be in the collection and export of spores with proper identification and documentation, and the relatively short viability of some Cyathea spores (Hoshizaki & Moran, 2001). Among the successes in ex sifu conservation of large plants are the ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba L.) and the dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides Miki). Both species are ‘critically imperilled’ in the wild yet are unlikely to become extinct because of their widespread planting in parks and gardens outside their original countries. The monkey puzzle (Araucaria araucana L.), although less threatened (Category V in Argentina and R in Chile) is likewise so widely cultivated ex situ that its survival as a species seems to be assured. With each of these, the threat of extinction has been lifted, not by deliberate conservation planning, but simply by absence (in the past) of obstacles to their export and cultivation. Today in Britain, all three of the above gymnosperms have more than 30 commercial suppliers (Lord, 2000). By contrast, the threatened species of tree ferns are in a highly unsatisfactory position. Of the 49 threatened species in Table 2, only C. brownii is listed by Lord, while Thyrsopteris elegans is the only species described in The European Garden Flora, which aims to ‘cover all those species that are likely to be found in general collections.....in Europe’ (Walters et al., 1986). REFERENCES HOSHIZAKI, B.J. & MORAN, R.C. 2001. Fern Grower’s Manual. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. KRAMER, K.U. & GREEN, P.S. (Eds) 1990. Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. In: Kubitski, K. (Ed.) The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants, Vol. 1 Springer- Verlag, Berlin. LELLINGER, D.B. 1987. The disposition of Trichopteris (Cyatheaceae). Amer. Fern J. 77: 90-94. LORD, T. (Ed.). 2000. RHS Plantfinder 2000-2001. Dorling Kindersley, London. MEDEIROS, A.C., LOOPE, L.L., FLYNN, T., ANDERSON, S.J., CUDDIHY, L. W. & WILSON, K.A. 1992. Notes on the status of an invasive Australian tree fern (Cyathea cooperi) in Hawaiian rain forests. Amer. Fern J. 82: 27-32. PENCE, V.C. 2001. Survival of chlorophyllous and non-chlorophyllous fern spores through exposure to liquid nitrogen. Amer. Fern J. 90: 119-126. RICKARD, M. 1987. Tree-ferns out-of-doors in the British Isles. Pteridol. 1: 182- 186. WALTER, K.S. & GILLETT, H.J. 1998. 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants. IUCN Publication Services Ltd, Gland, Switzerland & Cambridge, UK. WALTERS, S.M. et al. (Eds.). 1986. The European Garden Flora, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 398 THE FLORA PTERIDOLOGICA LATINOAMERICANA DATABASE | AND ITS USE FOR ASSESSING PTERIDOPHYTE DIVERSITY AND BIOGEOGRAPHY K. MEHLTRETER'! & M. PALACIOS-RIOS? 'Departamento Ecologia Vegetal, "Departamento Sistematica Vegetal Instituto de Ecologia, A. C., km 2.5 antigua carretera a Coatepec No. 351, Congregacion El Haya, Xalapa 91070, Veracruz, México Key words: conservation, database, diversity, Latin America, pteridophytes ABSTRACT The Flora Pteridologica Latinoamericana (FPL) is an enormous data accumulation project, including mainly herbarium specimens, and 12,500 bibliographic references. Since 1994 the continuous data input and verification of data and the development of the application itself made it dynamic. It runs in MS® Access 2000 and currently occupies 12MB of disk space. Although there ts still a lack of data, especially for regions like Bolivia, Brazil, and Colombia, the preliminary results consider more than 4,000 taxa (3,600 accepted species, 3,400 synonyms, and over 450 infraspecies), 193 genera, and 34 families of pteridophytes for Latin America. Interactive data analysis is possible using parametric queries, which can be valuable for ecological and conservational purposes. It can list species, endemisms and collections (numbers, sites, dates) for any Latin American region, and also compare the species composition between regions and report diversity hot spots for families, e.g. Hymenophyllaceae (Venezuela), and genera e.g. Cheilanthes (Mexico). It also indicates species to be looked for, if they were not collected in a region for several decades. Also it can reveal historical details, e.g. 579 names have been published within the genus Polypodium, only 153 of which are currently accepted within this genus. INTRODUCTION Databases are more and more replacing printed floras and monographs. They not only store and administer data, they also help to organize and analyse the information, especially in combination with Geographical Information Systems. Some of their advantages are the data validation during the input, the storage of the complete and up-to-date information “all-in-one” (not in several volumes, supplements and addenda like in printed versions) and the quick and diverse data access with multiple queries. They have capacity for comparative data analysis (although they are forced to use one uniform classification system) and have multiple output, for example herbarium labels or “working lists” to target new collections for species to be looked for (Prance, 2001). Additionally they can serve on the Internet as public information systems (Wilson, 2001; url 1), which can offer additional features, from distribution maps and pictures of the type material to descriptions in DELTA (url 2) and ecological or FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 a9 conservation information. New accessible and user-friendly software packages allow users to develop their own database. The objective of this paper is to present the advantages and analytical capacities of an easy to use, stand-alone database of the species’ diversity and biogeography of Latin American pteridophytes and its contribution to conservation. DATABASE HISTORY AND FEATURES The present database “Flora Pteridologica Latinoamericana“ (FPL) was first designed in 1994, when the first author prepared his doctorate thesis in Costa Rican ferns. Developed as relational database in MS® Access 2.0, FPL has been continually improved with new features and adapted to new software versions. Now running under MS® Access 2000, its objective is the complete coverage of the species diversity and biogeography of all Latin American pteridophytes. It is implemented on a stand-alone PC (Pentium III, 128 MBRAM, 20 GB hard disk) where it occupies only 12 MB hard disk space. Recently we transferred it as a client-server application to the local area network of our institution. In the future we plan to put it on our own homepage and to offer read-only access via the Internet. Some of the features of the database are its relational design with four taxonomic levels (families, genera, species, infraspecies), including also synonymy and vernacular names. We use the classification system of Kramer & Green (1990) and follow the abbreviations of plant authors of Brummitt & Powell (1992). Other features include the recording of data from herbarium specimens and bibliographic references. The biogeographical data are administered at three levels: collection sites (which can be geo-referenced), provinces and countries. Altitudinal ranges are registered in steps of 100 m. Recently we installed a new module that can store ethnobotanical uses and ecological data, e.g. soil and rock types. DATABASE CONTENT The database information comes from four different origins: herbarium collections, bibliographic references e.g. floras, checklists, handbooks and special publications of journals, comments of other specialists and colleagues and our own observations. It holds the data on 34 families, 193 genera, 3,600 accepted species names, 3,400 species synonyms, 450 infraspecies, 30,000 biogeographic references, 17,000 herbarium specimens (mainly from Mexico) and 12,500 bibliographic references. Each biogeographic reference, e.g. the record of the presence of a species in a geographical area, e.g. locality, province or country is cross-referenced to the related bibliography. ANALYSIS OF THE LATIN AMERICAN PTERIDOPHYTE FLORA Databases are designed to analyse data in a variety of ways. Anyone interested could reconstruct travel routes of collectors, using the collection numbers and dates, or list the past nomenclature of a group. For example, FPL contains 579 species names of the genus Polypodium, but now only 153 are considered as valid taxa within this genus. For biogeographical purposes we can calculate the similarity index for any comparison between two regions. For conservational purposes two different approaches make sense: species- oriented and area-oriented. While species-oriented conservation concerns frequency data, from number of collections and collection sites or the last date of collection to FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 400 elaborate lists for threatened species, for area-oriented conservation, the diversity hot- spots and rates of endemism are of main interest to protect whole areas. Both approaches are discussed below with some of the results of the analysis. There is still a considerable lack of data, especially for countries like Colombia, Brazil and Bolivia, where floras are incomplete and Groombridge (1992) does not give total estimates. For Bolivia alone, Smith ef al. (1999) recently cited 145 species for the first time! If we assume about 1000 species each for these three countries (like the neighbouring countries of Venezuela or Ecuador) and endemism rates of 15-25%, as reported for Peru (13%, Tryon & Stolze, 1994) or Costa Rica (26%, Mehltreter, 1995), the total number of pteridophyte species for Latin America will be between 4,000 and 4,500, which would comprise 30-35% of the total world estimate of 13,000 species (Prance, 2001). Within this survey we considered 3,600 species and Table 1 presents the results of the analysis. TABLE 1: Largest families and genera of pteridophytes within Latin America, considering 3,600 species, and using the classification system of Kramer & Green (1990). Family No of species Genus No of species Pteridaceae 463 Thelypteris 316 Dryopteridaceae 458 Elaphoglossum BN Lomariopsidaceae 351 Selaginella 213 Thelypteridaceae 320 Asplenium 196 Polypodiaceae 274 Polypodium 136 Hymenophyllaceae 214 Diplazium 2 Selaginellaceae 213 Cyathea 114 Aspleniaceae 208 Hymenophyllum 111 Grammitidaceae 205 Huperzia 108 Diversity hot spots, expressed as countries with highest species numbers, are Mexico, Costa Rica, Venezuela and Peru (Figure 1). Nearly all pteridophyte families have their highest species number within one of these four countries. Mexico, for example, is the biodiversity centre for Aspleniaceae and Pteridaceae, Costa Rica for Dryopteridaceae, Lycopodiaceae and Vittariaceae, Venezuela for Dennstaedtiaceae and Hymenophyllaceae, and Peru has the highest species numbers in the Lomariopsidaceae and Thelypteridaceae (Figure 1). One interesting exception is the highest diversity of Cyatheaceae in Panama. 401 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 Costa Rica, Figure 1: Species numbers per family for the four countries (Mexico, which we identified as diversity hot spots for pteridophytes. Countries with very incomplete data like Colombia, Brazil and Bolivia were not > Venezuela and Peru) considered in this analysis. Asterisks indicate the families with the highest Latin American species diversity for each country. aeeonuenif = aeaoRpua}dAjoy 4c * araneyjoulbejas c * SeaoRseZINIS E = _SESOEIUINES | aBBOEPUald aBaomONS seaoeipodéAjog t= — Pcecauisone aeaoRpuNnwisSC avooesso/boiudo @ROdBIPURAIO ( aeeorpidajoiydey cI BeSOPAXEOW aeaoraisiey, O S aeooenEey oO om aesoeipodooAy t= AN IESOB}ELWIOSXO} = seobeueeontey sea0epiSdOUeWO7T c 38308}908| a apaoepisdoyjAydouswA} | eeaoeAydouawA} seoVepNIMWeIS Coo araoeUayse|5 o _ Seeameninhs 8 aeoorpuajdosug Cc geeoniiosyott] ; aeaoenper}suueg Goo aesoeoyjeAy = aeeoRUyos|g Cao] aeaogyozy a * eeooriuaidsy C sd eggs mati oooofd & ° o 2 eg ogee 240 220 1 saioeds jo "ON *& f PBsOBUEPIA — x SPO0BPUSGAYg) aeooerjoubejas ema aeaoRaeZIYOS Ca seacelulAjeS @B20EPU2}q seenHoled, aeaoeipodAjod ea BEBORPUNWISO f avaorssojboiydg CI avaoespueaio a aeaoepidajoiydan a aeaORAXejOy | aeaorayisuey O * eeaceneey CI aeeaoejpodooAy LI DBIOEJLWOSXO] aeaoRuosoydo7 % eeacepisdouewo> BPQ0R}Q0S| aeaoepisdoyjAydouawAyy i aeaoe||AydouawAY * sesOepRIWWEIS BeDORIUSYOII[H C= sesaoRjesinby Costa Rica % aesoepua}doAiq BBVIBIUOSYIIG O Seeoenper}suusg eesorayeAg aPaDeUYyoeg oo, aeaoeyozy t Seaoe|ualdsy | Lo eae omens wang So oo 8 92 Do TN CO DOD O H+ N ~ 402 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 aesoeuEyi/A C= stat te ame 1c RA x aesoe|jauibejas C LS eRpaovaRZziyoS Ci Be ceeds é eeooRpualY C peer iolad eesoripodAjod & 2 aposeuibObet aeaoEPUNUISO apeoessojboiudo DEISEIPULIO 1 aeavepidajouydey G SRBOBAXKE}IWy aeooRosuEy O eaters il C3 eesoeipodooAy & @BODEIBUIOSXO} aesoRuosoUudo 7} | apooepisdovewo} BPae}a08| 0 aeaoepisdoyAudouswAY © % RaoRAysoUsWwAY aeaoepaiwwesg Coo geaoRiUuayo|s Co gesoerjesinb» f apaoppuedoAig oo) QRVSEIUOSYIIQ ¢ aRaZ0eNnperjsuusq aeooveupeAg Coo geaoeuyoajg Com avaceyjozy o _ seaoRiualdsy = * Venezuela 80 0 0: 0- 0 1 1 1 1 1 saideds jo ‘ON SesOeLIENIA Cy * s3es0epuadAjYy) tooo avaoejauibejas Coo) aeaoReeziIpsS Co SEOOBIINES i aesoepLie}d C QESOR}OIISY ( araovipodhjog enemas aeaoeuAboibelg t aeeoepunwso t avacessojboiydo SESOLIPUBTIO sesoupidojoiudey q aeaoeAxejayy ( avaoeayigey d seaoeneiew o sesoRIpodooAy came BESOEJEWOSKO} { | sesoeu0soydo 7 ( epooepisdouewi0c 7 eee eeaoRjeos} =| sesoepisdojAydouswAy ; avsorjAydouawAy ee | sesoepHWwWwelig Cc SBSOBIUSYDII|5 ql eeaoejesinbyg i sesorpuaydoAig anaseraaaeecrro SesoRIUOSYIIG OF % BesDeHpsR}suueg Ci aeaorayyeAD Como Peru aesoeuyseg Co evsoeRozy Go aeeoriueidsy : ee oe — or So oc. oC OF 2) OC 2 20-2. oS 3 +A ODC GD FTN BDH ETtN CGE CG (AS SS saiseds jo ‘ON CONSERVATION CONCERNS The data analysis above reveals diversity hot spots for families or genera for which each country could adopt the special responsibility for conservation, independently of the protection of their threatened and endemic species. For example, the conservation of all Hymenophyllaceae of Venezuela or all Pteridaceae of Mexico would encompass nearly 50 % of the total species numbers for Latin America within each of these families. This should not mean that all species of these families should be protected in FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 403 the regional diversity centre, but it could enable us to share responsibility internationally between countries for the observation and study of these groups. For a species-oriented conservation strategy, databases can deliver statistical support, e.g the changes in the numbers of collections and collection sites per species during the last decade, or the last collection date and site. The main problem for many species is data deficiency. Rare species are often insufficiently documented, so it is difficult to decide if they are really rare or only poorly recorded. An example from 462 Costa Rican species (data from Lellinger, 1989) reveals that 1.5% are known only from the type collection, 8.7% from one small area and 4.5% from two small areas within the floristic region (without being necessarily endemic to Costa Rica!), totalling 14.7% of the species. These species were earlier considered in the IUCN Red List category K (insufficiently known) and are now placed into the category DD (data deficient)(url 3). The list of these species could be taken as a working list” to target future studies and to avoid re-collection of well-documented species, as proposed by Prance (2001). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to thank an anonymous reviewer for helpful comments on this manuscript. The Instituto de Ecologia, A. C. supported this project (902-16). REFERENCES BRUMMITT, R.K. & POWELL, C.E. (Eds.) 1992. Authors of Plant Names. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. GROOMBRIDGE, B. (Ed.) 1992. Global Biodiversity. Status of the Earth’s Living Resources. A report compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. Chapman & Hall, London. KRAMER, K.U. & GREEN, P.S. (Eds.) 1990. Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms, Vol. I. In: KUBITZKI, K. (Ed.) The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants. Springer, Berlin. LELLINGER, D.B. 1989. The ferns and fern-allies of Costa Rica, Panama and the Choco. Part 1: Psilotaceae through Dicksoniaceae. American Fern Society Inc., USA. MEHLTRETER, K. 1995. Species richness and geographical distribution of montane pteridophytes of Costa Rica, Central America. Fedd. Rep. 106(5-8): 563-584. PRANCE, G.T. 2001. Discovering the plant world. Taxon 50(2): 345-359. SMITH, A.R., KESSLER, M. & GONZALES, J. 1999. New records of pteridophytes from Bolivia. Amer. Fern J. 89(4): 244-266. TRYON, R.M. & STOLZE, R.G. 1994. Pteridophyta of Peru. Part VI. 22. Marsileaceae — 28. Isoétaceae. Fieldiana, Bot., n.s. 34: 1-23. WILSON, H.D. 2001. Informatics: new media and paths of data flow. Taxon 50(2): 381-387. WEBSITES url 1: USDA, NRCS. The PLANTS database, Version 3.1 [http://plants.usda.gov/plants/] url 2: WATSON, L. & DALLWITZ, M. J. The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification and information retrieval. [http://biodiversity.uno.edu/delta/angio/index.htm] url 3: IUCN, The World Conservation Union. Red-list categories. [http://www.redlist.org/info/categories_criteria.html] FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 404 A CONSERVATION ASSESSMENT OF THE PTERIDOPHYTE FLORA OF THE PITCAIRN ISLANDS N. KINGSTON & S. WALDREN Trinity College Botanic Gardens, Palmerston Park, Dartry, Dublin 6, Ireland Key words: conservation, islands, IUCN categories, Pitcairn, Polynesia, pteridophytes, threat score ABSTRACT The pteridophyte flora of the Pitcairn Islands consists of 32 species, of which two are endemic. Extensive field surveys of the four islands in the group carried out in 1991, 1992 and 1997 have allowed informed conservation assessments to be made of the flora. IUCN red data categories have been applied to the pteridophytes, and show that 15 taxa are threatened (including the two endemic species), 16 are low risk, and for one taxon data are insufficient to allow assessment. Threat scores were also assigned to all taxa using information relating to their habitat threat within the island group. The main threats affecting the pteridophytes are posed by the spread of invasive species, habitat clearance, erosion, small population sizes and exploitation. Addressing these threats will combat these problems, but any conservation activities must be implemented in conjunction with the interests of the local community. INTRODUCTION The remote Pitcairn Group, which lies just south of the Tropic of Capricorn, about half way between New Zealand and South America, comprises four islands; Pitcairn, a relatively young, high volcanic island; Henderson, an uplifted atoll; and two atolls, Ducie and Oeno. The atolls of Oeno and Ducie have a limited range of available habitats for plant colonisation. Henderson, largest in the group, contains not only strand habitats, but also cliff and inland forest communities on the uplifted makatea, and has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site, to acknowledge and protect the island’s pristine ecosystem. A more diverse array of habitats occurs on Pitcairn, but as it is inhabited, human-induced habitat change has reduced the amount of native forest and led to reduction in the populations of many of the 81 native plant species. In addition, over 250 plant species have been introduced to the island, several of which have become invasive and dominate large tracts of land. The vegetation of these islands is reported in Waldren e¢ al. (1995) and Kingston (2001). The pteridophyte flora of the Pitcairn group consists of 32 species, representing 16 families and 23 genera. Of these 2 species are endemic to Pitcairn Island. Pteridophytes comprise 28.1% of the island group native flora, but only comprise a substantial component on Pitcairn Island where they make up 38.3% of the total native flora. The flora is derived from that of South-eastern Polynesia, with its depauperate nature due to the geographical remoteness of the group, the young geological age of Pitcairn (<1 myr) and the small sizes of the islands. No pteridophytes are found on remote Ducie which is probably completely washed over during storms (P. Jones pers. comm.). The two species found on Oeno are the widely FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 405 distributed Asplenium nidus (sensu lato) and Phymatosorus scolopendria. The nine species found on Henderson are all widespread species, with only one, Pyrrosia serpens, limited to the Pacific. However, the increased number of available habitats on Henderson allows them to show some niche specialisation; Asplenium polyodon is a typical makatea species and Pyrrosia serpens an epiphyte in the plateau forest. The 31 species found on Pitcairn show a varied range of habitat specificities, with some being widespread weedy species (eg Phymatosorus scolopendria, Christella parasitica), while others are limited to particular ecological niches (eg Cyathea medullaris in cloud forest, Ophioglossum spp. in wet gravel flushes). Many species are important components of the ground flora of native woodland, and as such have important roles in soils stabilisation on the steep slopes of Pitcairn. The aims of the present study were to document the threats and conservation status of the pteridophyte flora of the Pitcairn group. These baseline data provide priorities for conservation action to ensure the continued survival of the pteridophyte flora of these islands. Pteridophytes, especially those with a narrow ecological tolerance, are sensitive to anthropogenic habitat changes such as have occurred on Pitcairn, and the population size of some species appears to have been reduced in the recent past (pers. comm. islanders). CONSERVATION ASSESSMENT Methods IUCN Red Data categories were assigned to all indigenous and endemic pteridophytes using the modifications of Keith (1998). To provide a more objective regional assessment that could more accurately prioritise conservation needs, a system of threat scores were assigned based largely on modifications of the approaches of Rabinowitz et al. (1986) and Curtis & McGough (1987), and used for the Pitcairn flora by Waldren et al. (1999). This method uses categories based on population size, geographic distribution, habitat vulnerability as well as attractiveness, usefulness and accessibility. Results Of the indigenous flora, 50% received an IUCN threat category (Table 1). There was overall agreement between the threat score and the IUCN category in the Pitcairn group. Anomalies included Lycopodiella cernua and Arachnoides aristata which were low risk in terms of the IUCN categories, but received threat scores higher than some vulnerable species (eg Trichomanes enderlichianum and T. tahitense). This was because the threat score considered the threat status of the species’ habitat, and threats due to their potential for exploitation, factors which are ignored by the IUCN approach. Threat scores could not be calculated for Macrothelypteris torresiana, as it was not seen by the authors and data on its ecology and distribution are lacking. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 406 TABLE 1. Pteridophytes found in the Pitcairn group, with information about their — conservation status, habitat preference and their threats (numbered as in text). Species are ranked by decreasing threat score, starting with the most threatened. N (S| || 5) oO i= c = SE lz o 4/8 5 nS Oy Zn) &2 n Se Fs Se) zz 23 S = = as & oO nH & 3 2|L Os oh iS == astreopsis pacifica Tindale CR [D; F] oy MF (L,T) = Diplazium harpeodes T. Moore lm dreiroey MF (T) = CR = ngiopteris chauliodonta Copel.* | B1, 2,5; 13:35) Ye MEG) ©2535 hymatosorus powellii (Baker) VU [D1] 11.05] MF, FD(T) | 1,2 Pic.Serm. eee eo Ophioglossum reticulatumL. | EN(D] |__| _|10.54| FD, OS (T) | 1,3 | as medullaris (G. Forst.) bias a fa aki 0.411 ME(T) 1 Ctenitis cumingii Holttum* | EN(D) |_| __([10.37|_ MF (T)_| 1,2 ycopodiella cernua (L.) LR [Ic] he 10.04 FD(T) Pic.Serm. Adiantum hispidulum Sw. | VU[DI]|___ |__| 9.61 MF, CC (TL) 1 {rachnoides aristata (G. Forst.) LR [Ic] 9.17| FD, MF (T) Lag indale Phymatosorus commutatus eae ven] | i908] mre cel endlicherianum VU [D1] naar eg ceo MF (L) Trichomanes tahitense Nadeaud | VU[D1)| |_| 8.48] MF(L)_ | 1,2 Vittaria elongataSw. | VU[DIJ| || 8.26| MF (EL) | Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.) LR [lc] 7.41 | ME, FD (T) Underw. Psilotum nudum (L.) P. Beauv. LR [nt] | EN [D] | [6.69 Crea a ; MF, FD, OS, Davallia solida (G. Forst.) Sw. Rate) eae] tess 6.62 LF (TLE 4splenium polyodon G. Forst. ai a Kes OS, LF (L) oxoscaphe gibberosum T. LF, MF, OS LR 626 Christella parasitica (L.) H. Lév.| LR [lc] ena: aay aes Pneumatopteris costata vat. Hs . . . ° — a ON Nw) — FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 407 ephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C. LR [Ic] > weed neat 5.44 5.44 MF, FD Om) Pres] pear e ea LR [nt] | LR [Ic J | CC, LF (ESE Asplenium obtusatum G. Forst. LR int} {LR Ing] — [5.08 CS, ons CC pera peel ——[emI| | Tasso ephrolepis biserrata (Sw) LF, MF, FD, . LF, MF, FD, kee scolopendria LR [Ic] | LR [Ic] 6 OS. CSuCc. urm.) Pic.Serm. CEAIEE eh Be airtime... Be airtime... shuttleworthianum LR [Ic] ca 3.55 |CS, OS (L, + unze Pyrrosia serpens (G. Forst.) fos a 11 |LF, MF (E, Cal hing ephrolepis hirsutula (G. Forst.) LR [Ic] | LR [Ic] AEN ete ce SL *Presl COG facrothelypteris torresiana tit tit Gaudich.) Ching *- endemic. Habitat — CS = coastal scrub; CF = coastal aoe LF = lowland i MF = montane forest; OS = open scrub; FD = fernlands; CC = cliff communities; (E = epiphytic; L = epilithic; T = terrestrial). Threats Threats to the pteridophyte flora were classified into 6 main categories: I. Spread of invasive species. The main invasive species affecting pteridophytes are Syzygium jambos and Lantana camara on Pitcairn. There are currently no invasive species on Henderson or Oeno. 2. Clearance of native forest. This has occurred in the past on Pitcairn (and to a limited extent on Henderson) through clearance for agriculture. There is also an immediate threat of damage to remaining forest through the various development projects discussed later. 3. Erosion. Forest clearance leads to soil erosion, particularly if the pteridophyte ground flora is removed or damaged. Inappropriate use of a bulldozer to grade roadways, and lack of surface drainage, result in severe erosion. Goat grazing and exposure lead to erosion on exposed ridges and slopes. 4. Highly restricted distribution. Several taxa have highly restricted distributions even within these small islands; for example the population of Lastreopsis pacifica occurs in an area of only 20x60 m. 5. Very small population size. Several taxa have critically low population sizes on Pitcairn itself, which are likely to be prone to pronounced stochastic events, loss of reproductive vigour or inbreeding. 6. Exploitation. There is limited exploitation of pteridophytes on Pitcairn; dead stems of Cyathea medullaris are used for carvings; Angiopteris chauliodonta was formerly collected for its fragrant fronds, young plants are collected for gardens. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 408 DISCUSSION An analysis of the threats suggests priorities for conservation action: 1. Control invasives. The priority is to eradicate invasive species which have small populations, and prevent the further spread of Syzygium jambos into remaining native forest. Re-vegetating cleared areas with vigorous native species, and especially weedy terrestrial pteridophytes, may reduce the Syzygium jambos regrowth, however, the soil seedbank of Syzygium jambos may persist for many years. Control of Lantana camara is a more complex problem and may require biological control (P. Bingelli, pers comm. ). 2. Protect forest remnants. In-situ conservation is time consuming and expensive for individual species, but is more feasible if carried out through the preservation of intact ecosystems, ensuring the well-being of the species they contain, and the maintenance of the processes they support (Synge, 1979). Henderson is protected as it is a listed World Heritage Site. Kingston (2001) identified three suitable reserve areas for Pitcairn by employing the technique of complementarity. These areas would protect all of the vegetation communities found in addition to all except four of the known pteridophyte species (Asplenium polyodon, which is only found on Henderson Island; Lastreopsis pacifica, which occurs at one degraded site; and Ophioglossum nudicaule & O. reticulatum which occur on dry ridges), and in most cases protect the larger populations of these species. As these areas are not used by the islanders, no conflict of interest is envisaged if these areas are set aside for conservation. The three areas are: Tautama - a remote valley unused by the islanders. High Point - the area around the main ridge, visited by the islanders but not used for agricultural purposes. Down Rope - a remote cliff and pebble beach, site of occasionally-visited Polynesian petroglyphs. 3. Control erosion. Erosion problems can only be tackled with specialist advice, but have been identified by the islanders as a cause for concern. The recent introduction of Carpobrotus edulis as an erosion control has resulted in its expansion into coastal cliffs occupied by native ferns such as Asplenium obtusatum. More appropriate would be plantings of native species already naturally binding areas and protecting them from erosion; notably Pandanus tectorius, pteridophytes such as Dicranopteris linearis, and bryophytes such as Trematodon latinervis. 4. Species-specific recovery plans. In many cases species require no specific conservation measures except for monitoring to ensure their populations or habitats do not go into decline. Taxa with restricted distributions or critically small populations may be subject to stochastic problems, and require specific recovery programmes. Knowledge of the genetic diversity within two species that were studied in detail (Angiopteris chauliodonta and Lastreopsis pacifica; see Kingston, 2001) allowed a more scientific assessment of the species conservation needs and detailed monitoring of the relative success of such programmes. Ex situ collections will be used to bulk up existing populations and act as an insurance policy for species threatened by stochastic effects. | FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 409 5. Control exploitation. This will require sustainable cultivation and harvesting of the species in suitable localities. Integrating conservation needs with development The Pitcairn group of islands have recently been subject of much publicity regarding proposed developments of hotel complexes and airstrips on three of the islands (Gammell, 2001). Developments on Pitcairn would provide a welcome source of income, and reduce the islanders’ isolation, but may have large environmental impacts. Examples include the development of a quarry in an area of native woodland, and the locating of a borehole in the only site for Lastreopsis pacifica and the main site for Angiopteris chauliodonta. Any building on Henderson is entirely incompatible with the high conservation value and biological interest of the island. Similarly a hotel and airstrip on Oeno would result in massive lagoonal damage and forest clearance, which would seriously threaten many seabird populations. While Henderson Island has a full management plan, none exists for Pitcairn or Oeno. The compilation of a biodiversity and sustainable development plan in line with the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) would be timely, serving to address development, land tenure and conservation issues, as well as setting out guidelines for further developments. Clearly, there will be a need for on-going advice and consultation. The Conservation Officer has already attended a period of training at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and we are hopeful that future scientific visits to Pitcairn can substantially contribute to the operations of the nursery. The provision of this nursery is an example of close co-operation between a small local community and outside scientific advisors, and this co-operative approach is an essential means of forwarding conservation objectives while providing empowerment of local communities. CONCLUSIONS It is important to promote sustainable conservation in conjunction with development, to ensure a future income and standard of living for the islanders. Over one third of the native-born Pitcairners live away from the island, mostly in New Zealand; and the population is now only 38 permanent residents. A major factor in the depopulation of the island is poverty, with most of the islanders reliant on the sale of carvings to make a living as local government positions are few, part-time and poorly paid. Now that the baseline data have been collected, the next step is to continue conservation work on Pitcairn. It is important that this is carried out soon to prevent the further environmental degradation commonly seen on other islands (Bahn & Flenley, 1992; Mauchamp et al/., 1998) when a lack of funding and interest mean follow-up work is not completed. In a country such as Pitcairn with a depauperate but interesting and internationally important flora, the potential loss of any species should be sufficient to warrant an active conservation policy. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank the people of Pitcairn Island for their hospitality, the Island Council & Pitcairn Islands Commission for logistical support, especially Jay Warren & Leon Salt. Thanks to Graham Wragg & Ed Saul for marine transport, & Wildlife Management International for field support. Support was received from UK Foreign & Commonwealth Office, Linnean Society of London, Royal Geographic Society, Trinity College Dublin Association & Trust, Royal Horticultural Society, Systematics FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 410 Association, Merlin Trust, Percy Sladen Memorial Fund, Oleg Polunin Trust, Air | New Zealand, Air Tahiti and Skye Instruments. REFERENCES BAHN, P.G. & FLENLEY, J.R. 1992. Easter Island, Earth Island. Thames, London. CURTIS, T.G.F. & McGOUGH, H.N. 1988. The Irish Red Data Book 1: Vascular Plants. Stationery Office, Dublin. GAMMELL, A. 2001. Pitcairn Development Proposal. UK Overseas Territories Conservation Forum News 20: 2-3. IUCN. 1994. Red list categories. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. KEITH, D.A. 1998. An Evaluation and Modification of World Conservation Union Red List Criteria for Classification of Extinction Risk in Vascular Plants. Conservation Biology 12: 1076-1090. KINGSTON, N. 2001. The Flora and Vegetation of Pitcairn Island — its Phytogeography and Conservation. PhD thesis, University of Dublin, Trinity College. MAUCHAMP, A., ALDAZ, I., ORTIZ, E. & VALDEBENITO, H. 1998. Threatened species, a re-evaluation of the status of eight endemic plants of the Galapagos. Biodiversity and Conservation 7: 97-107. RABINOWITZ, D., CAIRNS, S. & DILLON, T. 1986. Seven Forms of Rarity and their Frequency in the Flora of the British Isles. In: SOULE. M.E. (Ed.) Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity, pp. 182-204. Sinauer, Sunderland, Massachusetts. SYNGE, A.H.M. 1979. Botanic Gardens and Island Plant Conservation. In: BRAMWELL, D. (Ed.) Plants and Islands, pp. 379-390. Academic Press, London. WALDREN, S., FLORENCE, J. & CHEPSTOW-LUSTY, A.J. 1995. A comparison of the vegetation communities from the islands of the Pitcairn Group. Biol. J. Linn Soc. 56: 121-144. WALDREN, S., KINGSTON, N., BINGELLI, P., STARMER, J. & WARREN, J. 1999. Assessing the Status of the Pitcairn Island Flora - An Integrated Approach to Conservation. Fifth International Botanic Gardens Congress. _™ << ——— LS — el FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 411 RELATIONSHIPS AND GENETIC DIVERSITY OF ENDEMIC ELAPHOGLOSSUM SPECIES FROM ST HELENA: IMPLICATIONS FOR CONSERVATION A. EASTWOOD'**, J.C. VOGEL’, M. GIBBY' & Q.C.B. CRONK"® ‘Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 20A Inverleith Row, Edinburgh EH3 SLR, UK *Botany Department, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK “Institute of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH9 3JH, UK EXTENDED ABSTRACT St Helena (15°56’S, 5°42’W), an isolated oceanic island in the South Atlantic Ocean, has a remarkable flora with thirteen endemic fern species. Three of these endemic species belong to the genus Elaphoglossum, and include EF. nervosum (Bory) Christ, E. dimorphum (Hook. & Grev.) Moore and E. bifurcatum (Jacq.) Mickel. All three species are threatened and are listed in the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Gillett, 1998). Both EF. nervosum and E. dimorphum are restricted to the central ridge of mountains in Diana’s Peak National Park (DPNP). Elaphoglossum nervosum (Endangered) is predominantly an epiphyte, found growing on two endemic tree species, Dicksonia arborescens L’ Hér and Melanodendron integrifolium (Roxb.) DC. Elaphoglossum dimorphum (Critically Endangered) is a terrestrial fern and is only found at two localities within DPNP. Elaphoglossum bifurcatum (Vulnerable), also a terrestrial fern, has a wider distribution on St Helena, occurring at a number of localities above 650m including DPNP. The main threat to these endemic ferns is the encroachment of habitat by exotic invasive species such as Phormium tenax Forst., New Zealand flax. This study used allozyme polymorphism to elucidate relationships between E£. nervosum, E. dimorphum and E. bifurcatum and to investigate levels and patterns of genetic diversity in these species. Despite showing morphogical and ecological variation, the three species are closely related with high genetic identities. Evidence from two enzyme loci supports the hypothesis that E. dimorphum 1s of hybrid origin, involving the parental taxa, E. nervosum and E. bifurcatum. The observed fixed heterozygosity at these two enzyme loci suggests that E. dimorphum is a segmental allopolyploid. However, a chromosome count of 2” = 82 (the diploid number for Elaphoglossum) was obtained for both E. dimorphum and E. nervosum. The cytological evidence conflicts with the allopolyploid explanation of fixed heterozygosity, indicating that alternative explanations, such as apomixis, have to be considered. Levels of genetic diversity were low in the three species, but comparable with other insular endemic angiosperms. Although levels of genetic diversity are low, populations of E. nervosum and E. bifurcatum showed significant genetic differentiation. To encompass this diversity, any conservation programme should include active habitat management of selected E. nervosum and E. bifurcatum populations. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 412 The rarity of E. dimorphum could be attributed to the lack of opportunity for the | parental taxa, E. nervosum and E. bifurcatum, to hybridise. Once formed the distribution of E. dimorphum could be restricted by the availability of suitable intermediate habitat and competition from its progenitor species. This study on the endemic Elaphoglossum from St Helena demonstrates that conservation priorities should not be assessed on the threatened status of species alone, but should also incorporate information on species’ relationships and an assessment of genetic diversity. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 §©PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 413 IS FERN CONSERVATION IN THE TROPICS POSSIBLE? A.C. HAMILTON WWE-UK, Panda House, Weyside Park, Catteshall Lane, Godalming, Surrey, GU7 1XR, UK Key words: Centres of Plant Diversity, community involvement, conservation, ethobotany, ferns, tropics ABSTRACT Fern conservation in the tropics must be, for now, overwhelmingly a matter of in situ measures. Efforts should be focused geographically, especially at Centres of Plant Diversity, given the paucity of resources available for conservation. /n situ conservation in the tropics requires inter alia working with local communities to find acceptable balances between conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of natural resources. Fern specialists could often usefully expand their skills to enable them to work more effectively with communities. CENTRES OF PLANT DIVERSITY Conservation needs people of diverse skills. Experts in many botanical specialities have roles to play, including those concerned with ferns. Fern specialists are scarce, especially in the tropics, where the majority of species are found. Many key tropical habitats for ferns and other forms of plant diversity are under threat. Conservation of the diversity of plant species in the tropics must be, for now, overwhelmingly a matter of retaining or restoring habitat. In practice, the ‘integrated in situ/ex situ’ approach, adopted by IUCN, must normally be heavily biased towards the former, given inter alia the poor current state of ex-situ conservation facilities in most of the tropics, where there is a shortage of relevant specialists and facilities, and severe financial constraints. A large-scale species-by- species approach to plant conservation is realistic in only a few wealthy countries, in which, additionally, there is widespread cultural sensitivity towards rare or threatened species. These considerations underlay the concept (later implemented by WWF, IUCN, the Smithsonian Institution and many collaborators) to identify global Centres of Plant Diversity (WWF & IUCN, 1994-1997), so that the scarce resources available for conservation could be targeted at saving the most critical habitats. The effective conservation of Centres of Plant Diversity depends, in part, on recognition of these Centres by those involved in conservation planning, especially at national level, and adoption of appropriate management systems on the ground. Nearly all countries are parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity and most have agencies or working groups responsible for recommending measures to achieve practical results. Taxonomic specialists, such as pteridologists, need to make recommendations for conservation to these policy-makers in appropriate and comprehensible forms. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 414 Strengthened management for conservation is often needed at Centres of Plant — Diversity. Frequent proximate threats include conversion for agriculture and the unsustainable harvesting of plant resources (e.g. timber, fuelwood, craft materials, medicinal plants), often related to commercial pressure. Underlying causes of endangerment can include population growth, poverty (generating greater reliance on wild plant resources), political instability and structural adjustment programmes related to Third World debt. WORKING WITH COMMUNITIES The achievement of strengthened management at site level depends on finding acceptable balances between conservation and use. Very few extensive tracts of land in the tropics, or the natural resources that they hold, are unused by local people. Attempts to exclude people entirely from most protected areas will not only prove impossible but will, most likely, prove eventually counter-productive. Divorcing people from their local natural worlds eliminates their interest in its long-term fate. Protected areas in the tropics tend to be very poorly resourced; park guards will be unable to prevent destructive exploitation without commitment to conservation by local citizens. Achievement of a balance between conservation and the sustainable and equitable use of natural resources entails an understanding of local ecology, societies, cultures and economies, and the involvement of local people at all stages of planning, research, analysis and adoption of new management measures. Botanists should take a central role because of the fundamental importance of plants (both wild and cultivated) to the lives of rural people in the tropics. Botanists can work in partnership with local plant specialists (e.g. farmers, craft experts and herbalists), drawing on their own skills and knowledge (such as knowledge of sampling techniques and access to the literature) as well as those of their local partners. Teams formed for conservation projects consisting of different types of narrow specialist (including perhaps botanists or even fern experts), each working in his/her own restricted field, may be severely limited in effectiveness, given the need for an holistic understanding which conforms to the realities of people’s lives, including the ways that they interact with their environments. Since the people/plant relationship is sO important to rural people in the tropics, it is perhaps especially incumbent on botanists who wish to be involved practically in conservation to widen their skills. Otherwise, their role will likely be restricted to writing technical reports, with the hope that someone else will explore how their recommendations can be translated into action. An understanding of rural societies is clearly important for practically conservation-orientated botanists, and similarly respectful sensitivity towards those of different cultures: hence the central need for ethnobotanists. Further, research by botanists and their local partners should be efficiently directed towards finding answers to real-life questions, which is why applied ethnobotany is so important. Exercises which merely document local uses of plants typically serve no conservation purpose. An action-research mode is recommended, involving a cycle of identifying critical issues (drawing on both wider conservation perspectives and key issues for local users of plant resources), careful research at requisite degrees of detail, joint analysis of results and the formulation of follow-up recommendations for action with FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 415 the full involvement of local stakeholders. Depending on local circumstances, critical questions may include: e Evaluation of the vulnerability of harvesting particular plants in protected areas (perhaps leading to new management systems of harvest and monitoring, designation of zones for different purposes or promotion of alternatives in support zones) (Tuxill & Nabhan, 2001). e Evaluations of trade in plant products (perhaps leading to interventions at different points along trading systems) (Cunningham, 2001). e Affirmation of local botanical cultures (perhaps leading to greater pride in local cultures, thus providing a firmer base for conservation) (Laird, 2002; Martin, 1995). e Identification of new sustainable economic possibilities involving plants (perhaps leading to greater prosperity) (Campbell & Luckert, 2002). e Inventories and assessments of the conservation status of species of both wider conservation interest and of local concern (perhaps leading to improved planning). Much greater capacity in applied ethnobotany is needed in all tropical countries at both national and local levels. Foreign botanists can play roles in building this capacity. Key areas include the training of professional applied ethnobotanists, institutional development (curricula and networks) and identification of more effective approaches and methods for tackling particular classes of problem. People and Plants is an initiative of WWF, UNESCO and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, designed to serve this purpose (see People and Plants website in References). Action- research by trainees, supported by mentors, is carried out at a number of sites, mainly tropical Centres of Plant Diversity. Several networks and curricula have been strengthened or assisted in their formation. A range of publications, videos and a website carry information on case-studies, regional analyses, methods and available materials. WWE is currently developing ideas for a new Programme for Lessons-learning in Community-centred Plant Conservation. This is in support of a proposed Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, to be discussed at the Sixth Conference of the Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (see website reference). We are seeking ideas about ways to identify and disseminate effective practices. Although every ecosystem is biologically and socially unique, there are often commonalties in challenges facing conservationists striving in different places to achieve sustainable use of plant resources and conservation of plant diversity. How can more effective approaches and actions for conservation be determined? Who should be aware of these and how can they be reached? As part of the process of developing the new Programme, and also because of current work under the People and Plants Initiative on developing curricula in Applied Ethnobotany, I would be grateful if specialists in ferns could provide me with information on: e What are the numbers and geographical distribution of fern specialists? e Why do people become interested in ferns? e Are global centres of diversity for ferns similar to those for plants in general (as indicated by the Centres of Plant Diversity recognised by WWF, IUCN and the Smithsonian)? FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 416 e How have fern specialists translated their recommendations for conservation into practical action, whether in the tropics or elsewhere? REFERENCES CAMPBELL, B.M. & LUCKERT, M.K. 2002. Uncovering the Hidden Harvest. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London. CUNNINGHAM, A.B. 2001. Applied Ethnobotany. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London. GLOBAL STRATEGY FOR PLANT CONSERVATION (PROPOSED): www.biodiv.org/meeetings/cop-06.asp. See items 21 and 25. LAIRD, S. (Ed.) 2002. Biological Diversity and Traditional Knowledge. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London. MARTIN, G.J. 1995. Ethnobotany. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London. PEOPLE AND PLANTS WEBSITE: http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/peopleplants TUXILL, J. & NABHAN, G.P. 2001. People, Plants and Protected Areas. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London. WWE & IUCN 1994-1997. Centres of Plant Diversity: A Guide and Strategy for Their Conservation. 3 volumes. IUCN Publications Unit, Cambridge. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 417 EPILOGUE - THE WAY FORWARD A.C. JERMY! & T.A. RANKER? 'Godwins House, Staunton-on-Arrow, Leominster, HR6 9LE, England; “University Museum and Department of Environmental, Population, and Organismic Biology, 218 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309-0218, USA Co-Chairs, SSC Pteridophyte Specialist Group ABSTRACT The origins and structure of the SSC Pteridophyte Specialist Group (PSG) are given and the importance of the information resource available through the International Association of Pteridologists (IAP) stressed. The programme of PSG for the next four years is outlined as networking and advisory function, where a specific role will be to re-assess the Red List of Pteridophyta; conservation overview including the defining of areas of high pteridophyte diversity (‘hotspots’); preparation for implementation and monitoring, in conjunction with other stakeholders, the Action Plans to conserve threatened pteridophytes initially in Europe and North America; promoting public awareness and wider conservation issues. Finally is a list of five aspects to which readers are invited to contribute. INTRODUCTION David Given, in his keynote paper (p. 269), has given an excellent background on the role of IUCN and its Species Survival Commission (SSC). The SSC Plant Program, drawn up by the SSC Plant Conservation Committee (of which David is Chair) fits into the framework of SSC’s Strategy (outlined in David’s paper), and guides the plant Specialist Groups for individual geographic and taxon-based work. These Specialist Groups engage in numerous activities that clearly link with the International Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). At the Conference of the Parties of this Convention (COP6) held in March 2002, a wider Global Plant Conservation Strategy was discussed and accepted, linking the work of SSC with the aims of the CBD. In all its developments the SSC Pteridophyte Specialist Group (PSG) will aim to work within both the SSC and this wider Global Strategy. The Global Strategy not only covers species, but using the ecosystem approach, deals with regional approaches, areas of importance for plant conservation, and in situ protection. It encourages training and similar aspects of exchange of technical information, which, in taxonomic oriented groups like our own, could include identification guides for specific regions or Protected Areas. The Strategy thus dovetails well with the strategic plan of IUCN’s World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) (an aspect discussed by Adrian Philips, this volume p. 278) which are significant partners. The Strategy signals important linkages for IUCN programs such as that for forests. A major output and aim of the Strategy must be to protect a greater proportion of the world’s plant diversity in secure ecosystems where they have evolved. It must also accommodate a wide spectrum of conservation options, from full protection to sustainable harvesting. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 418 SSC PTERIDOPHYTE SPECIALIST GROUP Origins and structure At the International Botanical Congress held in Sydney in 1981, the International Association of Pteridologists (IAP) was formed. One of the Association’s first acts was to set up a conservation committee and in 1985, in an attempt to increase plant groups in an otherwise animal-dominated World, the entire committee was accepted by SSC as the Pteridophyte Specialist Group (PSG). For the next 15 years close links were maintained between the SSC and IAP, the latter providing a pteridophyte ‘network’ (especially from its database of pteridological research) on which the PSG could draw. The PSG is presently being re-structured with the formation of an Executive Board of five members, each responsible for one of the objectives listed in the next section. In these areas we see working in partnership with others as paramount and we will seek to work with botanic gardens (through the Botanic Gardens Conservation International and the International Association of Botanic Gardens), the IUCN Commissions of Protected Areas (WCPA) and Education (CE), Our other links will be with those important Government Agencies, and national and local non-government organisations. Objectives and programme David Given was the first chairman of PSG and until the beginning of the present Triennium (2000-2003). He had, until then, masterminded the writing of the global Pteridophyte Conservation Status Review we are currently reviewing for publication; several papers published in this volume are updated versions, or new contributions, to that Review. Given also initiated and encouraged the selection of the Top 50 (a world list of most highly threatened species: see below), and with members of the Group, began to work on the objectives discussed below. The PSG membership will include 23 Regional Co-ordinators who will maintain contact with Country (or Provincial) Liaison Officers where these can be identified. Our programme is now reviewed in the light of the symposium input and the strategies mentioned above. This Symposium was the first international meeting involving the PSG and reflected its present thrust to work more closely with others to achieve our overall aim to conserve ferns and allied plants. We are grateful to the BPS, who shouldered the entire domestic organisation at the University of Guildford, for offering us the platform to hold this. We have emphasised in this brief summary where some of the papers presented at the symposium have contributed to our programme, and in some instances have influenced our direction now. However all papers and posters have had some bearing on our programme. Many other contributions were made at the personal level outside the lecture theatre. One major boost resulting from the meeting is that new contacts involved in fern conservation were made in the 27 countries which sent delegates. Several of these have joined the PSG and others have offered to help develop action programmes in their own country. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 419 There is a need to study the ecological requirements of pteridophytes and use this knowledge to maintain ferns in cultivation for ex situ (off-site) conservation and when appropriate to re-introduce species back into sites where they were originally recorded. In Britain, successful translocations have been made with Woodsia ilvensis (see Lusby ef al., this volume p. 350); and Lycopodiella inundata and Pilularia globulifera (Stewart, this volume p. 466). Another aspect of ex situ conservation is the establishment and maintenance of storage facilities for spore banks and frozen sporophyte tissue and gametophytes (see Pence, this volume p. 362; and Gibby & Dyer; this volume p. 369). The PSG will promote and support any programme to develop these facilities. PROPOSED SGP PROGRAM FOR 2000-2006 Networking and advisory function Our objective is to form an active working group of scientists fon research and academic institutions, government and non-government organizations, and of private individuals. All will be involved in activities pertaining to plant conservation and with the following aims: e To build, in conjunction with the IAP, a database of active pteridologists and others keen on conserving pteridophyte habitats and ‘hotspots’ (areas of high species diversity; Mittermier et al. 1999). Through the dedicated work of the compiler of the IAP Annual Review of Pteridological Research, Joanne Sharpe (now a member of SGP Board), many new contacts have been made, thus widening our potential for effective networking. e To establish strong links with those SSC Regional or Country Specialist Groups to effect a two-way flow of pteridological information. Similar links will be made when possible with national and local conservation bodies in fern-rich areas, initially working through IUCN, UNEP and WWF Regional or Country Offices where appropriate. e To develop alliances with protected-areas managers globally (through WCPA, giving priority where possible, to World Heritage sites as suggested by Phillips p. 278), nationally and at site level; and to advise on fern conservation. Initially we will explore the possibility of developing pteridophyte expertise in countries with a high component of ferns. e Develop a project with UNEP-WCMC on protected area inventories for pteridophytes, starting with a regional pilot. One such ‘hot-spot’ area to be considered is the Philippines where a substantial data bank exists in the National Herbarium (see Barcelona this volume, p. 307). e Give information on the effect of trade on certain fern species, especially tree ferns, and commented officially to the SSC Wildlife Trade Programme for CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) and the CITES Plants Committee. All Cyathea and some Dicksonia species are presently on CITES App. 2 (protected as whole plants or part thereof — e.g. as ground trunk fibre or sawn trunk portions for orchid growing). Through our horticultural links in the many Fern Societies in all five continents, we monitor the potential need of other pteridophyte species for the Convention’s protection. For example, Selaginella leptophylla, the ‘Resurrection Fern’, at one time collected directly from the wild, decimating populations in Mexico, looked at first as if it might be a problem but did not get established as an attractive commodity. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 420 To provide data and assessments with which we can act as the SSC’s Red List — Authority for Pteridophyta. This is a specific role for the Group as Red Lists are catalogues of species, the future survival of which is uncertain. The PSG will act as the focal point for the SSC Red List Authority for pteridophytes (Hilton-Taylor, this ' volume p. 462) assessing both the taxonomic validity of the taxa proposed and their conservation status. Current listing of the species in Walters and Gillett (1998) and held in the former World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC; now UNEP-WCMC) database will be used as a basic list of endangered species. Each must be re-assessed under the Categories and Criteria prepared for the JUCN Red List. The categories and criteria are published (IUCN/SSC, 2000), and also available on the web at http://www. iucn. org/themes/ssc/red-lists in English, French and Spanish. e In re-assessing species, we shall thus define priorities for their conservation and the areas and habitats in which they live. This information will be fed into the IUCN/SSC Species Information Service (SIS) based at Cambridge, UK. Furthermore, each country will be encouraged to submit a list (or reference to an appropriate published Red List) of highly threatened pteridophytes within their territory. The revised conservation status of such species will be brought to the attention of decision makers in that country e To finalise the Top 50 species list (in our case, of Pteridophytes) for launching on the IUCN web site. The SSC Plant Conservation Committee proposed this concept for those species that are restricted to a unique small area (endemic) and where their habitat, often specialised, is highly threatened. The taxonomic position of the species must be distinct (i.e. ‘good’ species). With molecular techniques now available, enzyme and DNA analysis can help to clarify this and the gene pool present in any population can be assessed. A list of candidate species for the Top 50 (all suggested by former regional Group members), with the criteria, will be sent to appropriate pteridologists for review and the data placed on the PSG web site now being set up as part of the IUCN/SSC web site. Island species are often candidates for this list (e.g. Adenophorus periens on Molokai, Hawaii), as are relictual species in palaeogeographical areas (e.g. Adiantaceae/Sinopteridaceae in Gondwana desert areas (e.g. Australia/ South Africa). Other possible species are those that inhabit fragile, threatened habitats like seasonal pools near coasts that can be easily drained and built over (e.g. Pilularia minuta in the eastern Mediterranean). Preparing a Conservation Overview Pteridophytes make a major but often overlooked contribution to biodiversity, with over 9000 species in 240 or more genera. They are most common in wet and seasonally mild tropical and subtropical regions, especially in closed forest. Secondary centres of diversity occur in temperate moist forest, on some oceanic islands, and in a few xeric regions. Greatest species diversity per unit area is found in south-eastern Asia and Malaysia, with a total fern flora of about 4500 species, and in tropical America (with ca. 3000 species). In both these regions there is a well-developed mosaic of forest habitats. Generally lower species diversity is found in moist temperate deciduous forests, shrubland, grassland, desert and alpine communities but here temperate everwet (‘rain’) forest is an important fern habitat.(e.g. in New Zealand, Chile and NW USA. Within the major regions of species diversity there are centres which are richer. For example, four can be recognised for the pteridophytes of the New World tropics: the FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 421 Greater Antilles with about 900 species, southern Mexico with about 900 species, the Andean region with about 1500 species, and south-eastern Brazil with about 600 species. _ In each of these ‘secondary’ centres, defined by Mittermeier ef al. (1999), the level of endemism stands at about 40%. In south-east Asia, the highest species numbers occur in peninsular Malaya and in New Guinea (Johns, p. 463). High numbers also occur on islands adjacent to continental Asia. The high number of pteridophytes in Japan (ca. 630) is perhaps surprising considering that it lies outside the tropics (Iwatsuki, 1992). Epiphytic pteridophytes are a conspicuous feature of the moist tropics and subtropics, constituting 70% of species in Costa Rica and 62% in the Philippines. Epiphytes provide outstanding examples of habitat fidelity, and are of particular concern for conservation because logging, even when sustainable, tends to take those mature forest trees with large canopies which are frequently rich in epiphytic pteridophytes. Not all areas are equally well worked and taxonomic pteridologists are a dying race. In some regions (e.g. Flora Malesiana area) where floristic studies are on-going though still very incomplete, we know enough to assess the situation. In some others such as tropical South America (Venezuela, Colombia and much of Brazil) the number of workers is much smaller and only vague assessments can be made. Similarly, although southern Africa is well served (see Burrows & Golding, p. 313) most of tropical Africa lacks active pteridologists and existing floristic accounts are out-of-date. Any account distilled from floristic literature can only reflect the taxonomic views of the authors and, in the absence of monographic studies, species synonyms may not be detected and so-called endemic taxa may be wrongly identified. The workshop sponsored by Missouri Botanical Garden in Beijing, China, in May 2001 was a welcome move to eliminate this problem (Zhang, pers.com). Similarly, regular regional symposia can generate collective activity and increased networking; e.g. Flora Malesiana Symposium 2001, (J. Croft, pers.com.). The PSG will: e Endeavour to complete, with its renewed regional experience and with others working in universities and major herbaria, the already extensive MS accounts of regional pteridophyte floras (by Given and other contributors). In so doing we shall define more precisely centres of pteridophyte diversity and endemism, with emphasis on endemic genera/species, monotypic families, and relictual land- masses and ancient gene pools. e Establish closer ties with the botanic garden community (through the Botanic Gardens Conservation International) and, whenever possible, with local gardens in areas where there is the infrastructure and the will to implement a fern action programme (e.g. National Tropical Botanical Garden, Hawaii; see below). Action Plans and programmes These will be prepared for publication, and subsequent implementation and monitoring, Action Plans aim to conserve threatened pteridophytes and/or habitats in selected countries, or regions where there is the necessary infrastructure and potential for carrying them out. In some cases we may contribute a pteridophyte input to Country Action Plans or other regional initiatives (e.g. Planta Europa, see below) where these are being prepared. Where data are available we want to present Action Programmes already in place (usually at country level) and written by invited authors. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 422 All Conservation Reviews and Action Plans are published by IUCN in Cambridge, UK. A good account of a regional Strategy is that for Mediterranean plants (Delanoé et al., 1996). Taxonomic groups for which a Review and Action Plan has been published (www.iucn.org./bookstore) include bryophytes, conifers, orchids, palms and cacti. The main aim must be to identify conservation problems and their solutions, and then support the implementers. As was pointed out at the Symposium, given that habitat degradation is often one of the major causes of species decline, it could be more effective to write regional Action Plans for small areas, or for specific biomes (Alain Mauric, pers. comm.). This is particularly true in tropical areas of high diversity where interest in individual rare species is less common than in temperate areas (as discussed by Alan Hamilton, this volume p. 413). Researchers conversant with ferns in tropical Africa are mostly based in the temperate academic world. Therefore our aims are: e To prepare an Action Plan for Europe, in which the most urgent tasks are selected and the areas for which action is required detailed (aim, background, action needed, estimated cost, timing etc.), including contact names for project leaders. This could be presented at an appropriate session of Planta Europa 2003 and thus contribute to their /mportant Plant Areas project. e To develop Action Plans in Canada and U.S.A. on a similar basis. e To draw up a local action plan for ferns in the Atlantic Islands (St Helena and Ascension islands) in conjunction with the newly formed SSC Specialist Group for that area and in partnership with the Administration’s Conservation Unit. The islands are administered by the UK government and considerable resources have been put into programmes to conserve endemic plants there and many data exist (e.g. Cronk, 1999; see also Eastwood ef al., this volume p. 411). e To draw up an action plan for pteridophytes in Hawaii, where some 33 species of pteridophytes are endemic and endangered (Wood, pers com.; and see Phillips, p. 278); in partnership with the National Tropical Botanical Garden, Hawaii, and other State and Federal bodies. This will involve the holding of workshops (the first being aimed at 2003), and raising the funds to carry out such meetings. For this kind of planning the following information is required: e Distribution (including whether in protected areas); population estimates and trends. e __ Ecology: environment and habitat; the relationship between the species and its ecosystem. e Historical perspective: importance in culture; traditional uses; conservation measures taken in the past. @ Present human use and influence: local, national, or international socio-economic and political factors; international trade demand/marketing (e.g. horticultural use). e Actual and potential threats: habitat degradation, loss, fragmentation; exploitation, direct and indirect; government changes of attitudes, policies, or support; other threats. e Current national legal protection: whether it is effective; whether it is in a protected area; international treaties and conventions that may affect it. tt, in, _ ett a, Ra a NN cl FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 423 e Current conservation measures: traditional; specific projects being undertaken or completed; who is carrying them out; results so far; expected results at termination; costs (rough estimates); constraints to their completion. e Artificial propagation: potential for re-introductions; monitoring methods. e Gaps in knowledge Public awareness and promoting wider conservation issues Pteridophytes will be used as ‘flagship’ species for habitats and areas, and for fund raising accordingly. Playing a significant role here is the fact that one of the main uses of ferns as far as the public is concerned is their horticultural value. Therefore we shall aim to: e Encourage the growing of ferns (including tree ferns where appropriate) in temperate gardens. The many members of Fern Societies around the world can help in this programme. As all Cyathea species are listed in CITES App. 2, export licences are required. A ‘coffee-table’ book aimed at those hobbyists keen on growing ferns, showing the diversity of treeferns and discussing their ecology, habitats and distribution would be a valuable education contribution. A proposal to produce such a book will be investigated by members of the Group who have a deep knowledge of Cyatheaceae. e Encourage the documentation of pteridophytes with known medicinal or other _ ethnobotanical values. In India, some 200 species are listed as such (Chandra & Srivastava, pers. com.) and probably half that number in China (Zhang, pers.com.). e Support regional or local conservation issues by using pteridophytes as flagship species for habitats and areas (thus promoting the Top 50 concept). e Make every effort to raise funds for the programme proposed above and add our support and specialist expertise wherever possible to fund-raising programmes for fern and habitat conservation. CONCLUSIONS The new structure of the Pteridophyte Specialist Group and programme outlined below is aimed to complement both the strategy of IUCN and also the CBD Global Strategy. Following our efforts to find a botanist in each country to become a Liaison Officer, we hope to activate cells of action (Action Programmes) within that country or region. We realise there is a danger of pursuing pteridophyte investigations for their intrinsic and often academic interest. Our guiding principal is then to put pteridophyte information in the hand of others who are tackling conservation at the habitat and regional/country level thus improving pteridophyte conservation through the actions of other stake-holders and partners. The only way forward is with a strong Group — not just on paper but active on the ground. The PSG welcomes (through the authors of this account) views and local information, particularly on the following: e Networking: offers or suggestions of potential Country (or Provincial) Liaison Officers and local groups actively conserving plants and habitats. e Hotspots: local knowledge of pteridophyte ‘hotspots’, and whether they are protected or not. e 2000 IUCN Red List: if we are to be effective in compiling a current list of pteridophyte species under threat using the IUCN Categories and Criteria, any FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 424 information on the distribution or frequency of pteridophytes will be useful. — Details of unpublished lists that countries may be compiling and personal assessments from any pteridologist will be welcomed. e Action planning: we welcome news and contacts for any conservation activity involving pteridophytes or pteridophyte habitats. We would like to hear from anyone who grows ferns as a hobby and who has interesting rare species in cultivation. e Education and public awareness: any information on regional or country conservation/education programmes where an input on pteridophyte importance could be significant, will be useful. REFERENCES CRONK, Q.C.B. & L. NINNES. 1999. The Endemic Flora of St Helena. Shropshire, Anthony Nelson. DELANOE, O., DE MONTMOLLI, B. & OLIVER, L. 1996. Conservation of Mediterranean Island Plants, 1 Strategy for Action. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. IUCN/SSC. 2001. IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria, version 3.1. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. IWATSUKI, K. (Ed.). 1992. Ferns and Fern Allies of Japan. Tokyo, Heibonsha Limited. MITTERMEIER, R.A., MYERS, N. & MITTERMEIER, C.G. 1999. Hotspots: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. Mexico City: CEMEX: Conservation International: Sierra Madre. WALTERS, K. S. & GILLETT, H. J. 1998. 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland & Cambridge, UK. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 ©PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 POSTER ABSTRACTS In alphabetical order of the first author 425 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 426 IDENTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE ENDANGERED FERN BLECHNUM CORRALENSE ESPINOSA S. AGUIAR’, J. AMIGO’, S. PAJARON’, E. PANGUA’, L.G. QUINTANILLA’ & C. RAMIREZ ‘Departamento de Bioloxia Vexetal, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; “Departamento de Biologia Vegetal I, Facultad de Biologia, Universidad Complutense, E-28040 Madrid, Spain; *Instituto de Botanica, Universiad Austral de Chile, Casilla 567, Valdivia, Chile Fourteen species in the genus Blechnum (Blechnaceae) have been reported from the Chilean flora. The south of Chile and Juan Fernandez Islands are particularly rich in endemics. B. corralense, known only from the Los Lagos Region, has been considered as endangered according to IUCN categories. From studies in the field and herbarium we conclude that it also occurs in La Araucania and Aysén regions, and in Argentina. Reports from Mocha Island (Bio-Bio Region) are probably erroneous. It is found usually near streams in forest or in shaded damp areas, from sea level up to 1300m altitude. The variability of the characters traditionally used for separating B. corralense from its relatives is great. Leaf texture and indument, shape of the scales on the petiolar bases and spore size and colour allow reliable identification. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 427 DETAILED STUDY OF THE PROTECTED FERNS OF ESTONIA FOR DEFENCE OF NATURAL POPULATIONS R. AGURAIUJA Tallinn Botanic Garden, Kloostrimetsa tee 52, Tallinn, 11913, Estonia The indigenous flora of Estonia includes 22 species of ferns. Of these, 10 are listed in the Red Data Book of Estonia (1998) and the following 7 species are protected because of their rarity and endangered status: Asplenium ruta-muraria L., A. septentrionale (L.) Hoffm., A. trichomanes L. ssp. quadrivalens D. E. Meyer, Cystopteris sudetica A. Br. et Milde, Gymnocarpium robertianum (Hoffm.) Newm., Polystichum lonchitis (L.) Roth, and Woodsia ilvensis (L.) R. Br.). The protected species and the red-listed Blechnum spicant (L.) Roth were studied by gathering life history data and monitoring the distribution of wild populations in 13 locations. The time for germination and for the different life cycle stages were determined, and data were gathered on population structure and dynamics. W. i/vensis had become extinct in two of its last-known localities. The critically-endangered P. /onchitis was found in 2 locations, with 5 individuals altogether. The single, isolated population of A. septentrionale was stable. The only population of C. sudetica, growing in patchy patterns in cliff forest, had shown a tendency to expand. A. ruta-muraria, A. trichomanes ssp. quadrivalens and G. robertianum have restricted distribution on limestone areas and are endangered mainly by the destruction of natural habitats through human activities. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 428 SOIL SPORE BANK OF PHYLLITIS SAGITTATA (DC.) GUINEA & HEYWOOD D. BALLESTEROS, A.M. IBARS & E. ESTRELLES Jardin Botanico, Universitat de Valencia. Quart, 80. 46008 Valencia. Spain Phyllitis sagittata has not been found in recent visits to localities in Valencia, and the populations there may have disappeared through human pressure and the alteration of their habitats. The viability of the spores present in the soil spore bank was studied to try to recuperate our lost population and so that we might reintroduce individuals from the nearest living sources. We have cultivated different samples from Benidoleig, the only well identified Valencian locality, and some from the Balearic Islands and Malaga, the nearest extant populations. Different soil samples were taken from the localities where this fern survives or has been cited. These samples were cultivated in sealed Petri dishes. Numerous gametophytes developed rapidly and after fertilisation, vigorous sporophytes of characteristic morphology were grown and have been conserved in the Valencia Botanical Garden. This work is the beginning of research on the Spanish populations of Phyllitis sagittata, including their restoration. References DYER, A.F. 1994. Natural soil spore banks - can they be used to retrieve lost ferns? Biodiv. and Cons. 3: 160-175. IBARS, A. M., HERRERO-BORGONON, J. J., ESTRELLES, E. & MARTINEZ, I. 1999. Helechos de la Comunidad Valenciana. Generalitat Valenciana. Conselleria de Medio Ambiente. Valencia. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 429 THE DISTRIBUTION OF THREATENED PTERIDOPHYTES ENDEMIC TO THE PHILIPPINES J.F. BARCELONA! & T. HOLLOWELL’ ‘Philippine National Herbarium, National Museum, P.O. Box 2659, Manila, Philippines; U.S. National Herbarium, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, U.S.A. The Philippines is home to 1,100 species of pteridophytes in 144 genera and 39 families, representing about 10% of the total described pteridophyte species in the World today. They are concentrated in an area of only 0.06 % of the Earth's land area. Four genera and 285 species (26%) are Philippine endemics. Of the latter, 23% (66 species) are known only from single collections, a majority of which are presumably extinct in the wild (or extinction is inevitable), whereas a few are recent discoveries. In the IUCN Very Rare category are 25 species (9%), which are known from only a few collections from the type localities. In the Rare category are 37 species (13%) from adjacent localities, and 32 species (11%) from a few disjunct sites. In a country where the human population is 1.25% of that of the World's, forest cover has been diminishing at an alarming rate and is now estimated to be less than 10% of the original. Large-scale commercial logging, slash and bum agriculture, and indiscriminate urbanization have been the major threats to the integrity of the country's pteridoflora. The current conservation status of threatened taxa can only be confirmed by the on-going database surveys of the more recent collections and by Visits to the previous collection localities to determine the presence of the taxa and to evaluate habitat integrity. The only remaining options to save the threatened species from extinction appear to be 1) rallying for awareness of our environmental problems through outreach education; 2) formulation and implementation of drastic measures by the Philippine Government against illegal logging and urbanization; and 3) in situ and ex situ conservation and possible reintroduction of populations to the wild. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 430 PTERIDOPHYTES OF THE STATE OF PERNAMBUCO, BRAZIL: RARE AND ENDANGERED SPECIES L.C.L. BARROS! & P.G. WINDISCH? Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Depto. de Botanica CCB, 50670-901 Recife - PE, Brazil; Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, Lab. Taxonomia Vegetal, 93022-000 Sao Leopoldo - RS, Brazil The State of Pernambuco in northeastern Brazil, with ca. 98938 km/?, has a highly diversified flora in its 12 phytogeographic zones, where 302 species of pteridophyte are currently known to occur. A considerable number of these species was collected in the remnants of the Atlantic Forest, which extended along the coast from South to Northeast Brazil, sometimes as an extremely narrow belt in the northern portions. Its destruction started with the exploitation of Brazil-wood, and was _ intensified enormously in the first agricultural cycles, with the use of the land for sugarcane plantations. Some very small remnants can be found, indicating that the past pteridoflora of the State was probably much richer than can be evaluated from the existing herbarium collections. Using the 36° 15’ W meridian line as a reference, one can observe that 218 species grow only in the eastern half, 15 species only in the western, while 69 are common to both. The species in common occur only in small humid mountaintop forests (known as “‘matas serranas” or “brejos de altitude”) which can be considered as highly endangered habitats. As to conservation, one important aspect is that 97 of the pteridophyte species are known only from very small areas, representing squares of 0° 7’ 15’’ in a grid map of that State. Many of these localities have been altered or destroyed since the original collections were made. Data on the known pteridophyte richness of the different phytogeographic zones are presented together with information on the threatened and endangered species. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 431 PROTECTED AREAS AND THE FERN FLORA OF SULAWESI, INDONESIA J.M. CAMUS Department of Botany, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK Sulawesi is the fourth largest island of Indonesia and lies across the equator between Borneo and the Moluccas. Six percent of the land area is protected by 18 (plus three proposed) Nature/Wildlife Reserves and six National Parks. Nineteen of these 24 protected areas were established for the conservation of birds or aquatic life. Indeed, in general more attention has been paid to the fauna, e.g. birds, mammals and coral reefs, than to the flora. Sulawesi has c.500 species of pteridophytes whose main habitats are amongst those found in the protected areas although not evenly distributed through them. However, the four main collecting trips by pteridologists during the twentieth century concentrated on montane areas, so more information is needed for the lowland areas which are more vulnerable to human activity. A checklist of the pteridophytes of Sulawesi is in preparation at The Natural History Museum which will increase knowledge of this island’s flora. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 432 IS THE WIDESPREAD ASPLENIUM AETHOPICUM (BURM. F.) BECH. WORTH PRESERVING? P. CHAERLE & R. VIANE Department of Biology, Pteridophyte Section, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium Asplenium aethiopicum (Burm.f.) Bech.s.l. forms a species-complex extending from central and southern America to China and Australia. It is probably most variable within Africa. The genetic diversity of A. aethiopicum s.l. is extensive and is expressed in its ecological adaptation, cytology, micromorphology, anatomy, and general frond morphology which remains constant even after cultivation for several years in greenhouses. It is found from sea level up to c. 4100 m, in dry and wet conditions, terrestrial, epilithic and epiphytic. Within the complex several sexual and agamosporous taxa exist. Next to this very diverse complex, a group of taxa with similar macromorphology shows much smaller ranges, more particular ecologies and altitudinal ranges (A. actiniopteroides Peter, A. decompositum Peter, A. demerkense Hieron., A. goetzei Hieron., A. kassneri Hieron., A. lademannianum Rosenst., A. majus (Hieron.) Pic.Ser., A. mildbraedii Hieron., A. praegracile Rosenst., A. simii A.F.Braithw. & Schelpe, A. stipicellatum Pic.Serm., A. uhligii Hieron. and A. volkensii Hieron.). Some of these taxa, known from a single locality, must be considered “vulnerable” but can, unfortunately, be distinguished from A. aethiopicum s.1. only by specialists using micromorphological and cytological characters. The enormous biodiversity within A. aethiopicum s.l. is important for the understanding of fern evolution, adaptation and genetics and shows that even a widely distributed “taxon” may merit conservation measures. The even more vulnerable endemic taxa might “suffer” from their resemblance to A. aethiopicum, which is a fact that should be taken into consideration to protect them effectively from extinction. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 433 MARSILEA QUADRIFOLIA L. IN THE NATURAL PARK OF THE DELTA DEL EBRO (TARRAGONA, SPAIN): RECOVERY AND CONSERVATION E. ESTRELLES & A.M. IBARS Jardin Botanico, Universitat de Valencia. Quart, 80. 46008 Valencia. Spain Marsilea quadrifolia L. in the Delta del Ebro is restricted to rice fields. Changes in the methods of rice cultivation and the use of weed-killers (herbicides) are the main cause of the extinction of this species. After the disappearance of M. quadrifolia from the Delta of the Ebro at the end of the 1970s, we developed a number of programmes for its recovery. The first step was to obtain material appropriate for reintroduction to this area. We resorted to the soil spore bank. The search for sporocarps in those areas where M. quadrifolia had been seen most recently was successful. Using these sporocarps, we initiated germination and grew the sporophytes in the Botanical Garden of Valencia University. The adult plants were acclimatised in the Visitor Centre of the Natural Park. Plant introduction was made in three recovered parcels of old rice fields, located SW of the lagoon of “La Tancada”. When inspected one year later, the reintroduced plants had clearly survived. Recently some plants of this species have been introduced in some old rice fields, which were restored for use as horse pastures in the Island of Buda. References ESTRELLES, E., A.M. IBARS & J.J. HERRERO-BORGONON. 2001. Situacion de las poblaciones valencianas del género Marsilea: medidas para su conservacion. Bot. Compl. 25: 239-247. ESTRELLES, E., A.M. IBARS, J. IRANZO & F. MORALES. 2001. Recuperacion y reintroduccion de Marsilea quadrifolia L. en los arrozales del delta del Ebro (Tarragona, Espafia). Bot. Compl. 25: 249-257. IBARS, A. M., HERRERO-BORGONON, J. J., ESTRELLES, E. & MARTINEZ, I. 1999. Helechos de la Comunidad Valenciana. Generalitat Valenciana. Conselleria de Medio Ambiente. Valencia. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 434 TRADE AND CONSERVATION OF TREE FERNS D. HARRIS & A. ROSSER IUCN SSC Wildlife Trade Programme, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 ODL, UK Significant trade in tree fern products takes place for horticultural, medicinal and ornamental purposes but is primarily in a limited number of species. All species of Dicksoniaceae and Cyantheaceae were originally listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which provides for regulation of international trade. However, by the year 2000, the practice of well regulated, apparently sustainable harvest, prompted a proposal for the de-listing of the majority of species. Monitoring trade impacts on certain species is still important, but constrained by the difficulties of identifying tree- fern products at the species level. There is therefore a need for research into methods for such identification and for projects to develop and implement sustainable harvest plans for some heavily harvested species. Priorities include species from Indonesia and Guatemala, Dicksonia antarctica in Tasmania and various island endemics. Harvest from the wild continues, often in areas being deforested, but artificial propagation, retention of understorey islands in logging operations, and annual quotas may be very successful. Whilst there are problems of reliance on artificial propagation, such as the possibility of disease introduction and loss of genetic diversity, more emphasis within the industry on cultivated specimens could greatly alleviate the threat to wild populations. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 435 2iP: AN EFFECTIVE CYTOKININ FOR THE TISSUE CULTURE OF FERNS S. HEGDE & L. D'SOUZA Laboratory of Applied Biology, St.Aloysius College, Mangalore 575 003, India Plant tissue culture has made substantial progress from the laboratory to the field. Application of tissue culture should allow shortening of the time needed for the propagation and proliferation of ferns and, as a result, increase their chances of survival. It also offers the possibility of large-scale multiplication of ferns of high ornamental value for horticultural purposes. Cytokinins are essential components of plant tissue-culture media. They stimulate RNA and protein synthesis and induce enzyme activities. Among the cytokinins and auxins conventionally used with angiosperms and gymnosperms, only a few induce in vitro responses in ferns. BAP (Benzyl amino purine) singly or in combination with auxins has most often been reported as the cytokinin for organogenesis in ferns. Adenine as an additive for ferns also promoted in vitro growth and proliferation, provided the concentration was 25- 500 times higher than BAP. A comparative study of the effects of BAP, adenine and 2iP [6-(y, y dimethylallylamino) purine] was made with three ferns: Drynaria quercifolia, Acrostichum aureum and Nephrolepis auriculata. There was no response to adenine, and only minimal organogenesis with BAP. However, 2iP induced somatic embryos and embryo proliferation in D. quercifolia and N. auriculata. It also promoted multiple bud induction in A. aureum. 2iP is one of the two naturally- occurring cytokinins, its chemical structure being closely related to zeatin and adenine. Its property of inducing organogenesis in ferns should help in their large scale micropropagation for conservation or commercial purposes. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 436 AN EFFICIENT PROTOCOL FOR EXTRACTION AND PCR AMPLIFICATION OF TREE-FERN DNA FROM HERBARIUM SAMPLES S. HEGDE, A. L. DTHANRAJ, C. SUNEETHA & L. D'SOUZA Laboratory of Applied Biology, St.Aloysius College, Mangalore 575 003, India India has a rich variety of ferns with a high rate of biodiversity. In comparison to the USA though only one-third in size, India possesses more than double the number of fern species. Tree ferns are among the most fascinating group of ferns, acclaimed worldwide for their gigantic foliage and antiquity. India has only 12 species of tree ferns of which three are endemic. The Western Ghats, which is considered as one of the world's hot spots of biodiversity, has three species: Cyathea crinita, Cyathea gigantea and Cyathea nilgirensis. C. nilgirensis is reported as common, C. gigantea is rare and C. crinata is endangered. Important features of the biodiversity of a region are not only the habitat diversity and species diversity, but also the genetic diversity within each species. The molecular characterization of C. gigantea and C. nilgirensis was done with the RAPD technique as a preliminary to studying their genetic diversity. Plant material from different locations of the Western Ghats was collected, dried and preserved as herbarium samples. DNA _ was extracted with cetyltrimethyammonium bromide. Severe problems of contamination with polysaccharides and polyphenols had to be overcome. The protocol that was developed allowed isolation and PCR amplification of DNA from herbarium specimens of C. nilgirensis and C. gigantea. It did not require preservation of frond samples in liquid nitrogen and thus facilitated transport of specimens from forests to the laboratory. The method may have application to other fern species. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 © PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 437 ECOLOGICAL PROFILES TO SET TARGETS FOR PLANT CONSERVATION R.V. LANSDOWN! & T.J. PANKHURST? 'Floral Cottage, Upper Springfield Road, Stroud, GL5 1TF, UK; *44 The Avenue, Leighton Bromswold, Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire, PE28 SAW, UK The term ‘ecological profiling’ is introduced to describe the process of reviewing data to develop an informed strategy for conservation, and meaningful targets for monitoring. The process is based on synthesis of all available information from the literature, contact with other botanists and ecologists, and field surveys. These procedures are iterative and continue throughout. All available data are compiled to provide a comprehensive review of the ecological requirements and conservation needs of the species. This review then provides a basis for setting monitoring targets against which to assess the viability of populations and to identify appropriate responses. To-date, an ecological profile has been prepared for Luronium natans Raf. and for Ranunculus tripartitus DC. in Wales, and other profiles are being prepared for Senecio paludosus L. and Alisma gramineum Lej. The method has led to revision of the range of R. tripartitus and its search criteria, discovery of new populations, development of practical management guidelines and preparation of a detailed monitoring protocol, both for individual sites and for various scales of population. Ecological profiles prepared to-date have already proven their worth. They should be prepared for threatened European pteridophytes such as Pilularia globulifera, P. minuta, Marsilea badiae, M. quadrifolia, M. strigosa, and Isoetes of the velata complex, as a step toward solving their conservation requirements. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 438 ASPLENIUM MAJORICUM (LITARD) ON THE SPANISH MAINLAND: VANISHING OR EXTENDING? S. PAJARON, C. PRADA, E. PANGUA & A. HERRERO Dpto. Biologia Vegetal I, Facultad de Biologia, UCM, 28040 Madrid, Spain The presence of Asplenium majoricum Litard. in the East of the Iberian Peninsula has long been discussed. Some identification problems were due to the variability of morphological characters, especially in A. petrarchae (Guérin) DC., but cytological studies have also produced some doubtful conclusions. Isozyme electrophoresis was used to assess the presence of this species in the mainland. As Asplenium majoricum is an allotetraploid, the study of some Balearic (Isle of Mallorca) populations of the tetraploid, and populations of its parents (A. fontanum (L.) Bernh. and A. petrarchae subsp. bivalens (D. E. Meyer) Lovis & Reichst.) yielded several species-specific isozymic markers. A survey was conducted along the coastal mountains of Valencia, Castellon and Alicante provinces. Plants for electrophoretic study were collected especially in those places where both parents were growing together, and in the localities where A. majoricum had been recorded by different authors. The cytology of the plants was also studied. The presence of A. majoricum, was confirmed (by cytological and electrophoretic data) in one locality only. The diploid hybrid A. x protomajoricum Pangua & Prada was found in some localities where both diploid parents were growing mixed in the same rock crevices. We conclude from these results that Asplenium majoricum is extremely rare on the Spanish mainland, but we do not know whether it was previously more widespread and is now disappearing, or whether it is sporadically being formed from Asplenium x protomajoricum fertilized gametophytes. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 439 THE TREE FERNS OF MEXICO: THEIR USE AND CONSERVATION STATUS M. PALACIOS-RIOS Instituto de Ecologia, A. C., km 2.5 carretera antigua a Coatepec, Apartado Postal 63, Xalapa 91000, Veracruz, México The terms ‘maquique’, ‘maquiqui’, ‘malque’, ‘malquiqui’, ‘pardasita’, ‘“pesm’, ‘timber’, ‘raiz de helecho’ or ‘xaxim’ refer to the material consisting of adventitious roots that surrounds and protects the trunk of some tree ferns. As a consequence of its use and commerce as a substrate for growing epiphytes (mainly orchids) and as building material, coupled with the destruction of natural habitats, most of the Mexican species of tree fern are endangered. The problem of the commerce and use of ‘maquique’ is not restricted to México. It is even worse in countries of tropical America and the South Pacific, mainly from habitat destruction and from commercial collection for domestic trading and for export to first world countries. Several tree fern species in México have been reported as sources of ‘maquique’: A/sophila firma (Baker) Conant, Cyathea fulva (Martens & Galeotti) Fée, Dicksonia sellowiana Hook., and Sphaeropteris horrida (Liebm.) Tryon. It should be noted that alternative materials are available and should be tested. Examples include (separately or in combination): tree bark, coconut fibre, moss, volcanic rock, roots of the large grass Muhlenbergia macroura, branches and trunks of certain trees in the Veracruz area (Meliosma alba, Liquidambar macrophylla, Quercus spp and fruit trees) and polystyrene resin. Use of these alternatives would greatly contribute to the preservation of the tree ferns in México that are currently under severe threat. I appreciate the support of Conacyt (1360-N9206 / 4102P-N9607 / 35123-V) and Conabio (W041). FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 440 CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE FERNS OF VERACRUZ, MEXICO M. PALACIOS-RIOS Instituto de Ecologia, A. C., km 2.5 carretera antigua a Coatepec, Apartado Postal 63, Xalapa 91000, Veracruz, México Based on the IUCN (1983, modified by the author), the number of pteridophyte species for the state of Veracruz under each conservation category was determined as follows: Category No. of Species EM Endemic to México 51 EM? Endemic to México? 9 EV Endemic to Veracruz 8 EV? Endemic to Veracruz? 5 FV Frequent in Veracruz 36 I Undetermined 307 PE Danger of extinction 47 PEV _ Danger of extinction for Veracruz 5 RV Rare in Veracruz 149 V Vulnerable 2 VV Vulnerable in Veracruz 62 XV? ~~ Extinct in Veracruz? 38 Conservation is mainly affected by the loss of natural habitats to agriculture or cattle raising. But another important factor is the non-regulated collection of specimens in natural habitats by tradesmen and students. However, some endemic fern species in Veracruz are not threatened. Suggestions for fern conservation include evaluation and documentation (data banks), coordination among institutions, emphasis on the preservation of protected natural areas, activities in botanical gardens (education and propagation of threatened species), and research. In addition there should be control of specimen collection by students and of looting by tradesmen and through ecotourism. The main worry, nonetheless, is not whether some species will eventually disappear, but the speed at which these extinctions are actually taking place. I appreciate the support of: Conacyt (1360-N9206/4102P-N9607/35123-V) and Conabio (W041). FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 §©PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 44] THE ENDANGERED PTERIDOPHYTES OF MEXICO M. PALACIOS-RIOS & K. MEHLTRETER Instituto de Ecologia, A. C., km 2.5 carretera antigua a Coatepec, Apartado Postal 63, Xalapa 91000, Veracruz, México Thirty of the 1,050-1,100 Mexican species of pteridophytes are currently protected and listed in the PROY-NOM-059-ECOL-2000 (Mexican norm). These species are distributed in the Aspleniaceae (3), Cyatheaceae (17), Dicksoniaceae (4), Isoétaceae (1), Lycopodiaceae (1), Marattiaceae (2), Nephrolepidaceae (1), Polypodiaceae (2), Psilotaceae (1), Schizaeaceae (1), and Selaginellaceae (1). Sixteen of these species are subject to special protection (Pr), eight are considered threatened (A), and six are considered endangered (P). In order to re-evaluate their conservation status, we made a thorough taxonomic revision, prepared historical and current distribution maps, and an ecological-biogeographical analysis. At least in one of the cases the names were synonymous (A/sophila firma (Baker) D.S. Conant sin. Cyathea mexicana Schltdl. & Cham.). Furthermore, we distinguished two groups of species: those (1) that have been well collected and studied, like the Cyatheaceae, which are also widely distributed and threatened due to use of their parts or habitat destruction; and (11) species that are -badly documented (/soétes bolanderi (Liebm.) R.M. Tryon), or hardly collected (Schizaea elegans (Vahl.) Sm.), or have not been recorded in recent years. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 442 THE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM’S BOTANICAL COLLECTIONS - A CONSERVATION RESOURCE; THE RARE AND ENDANGERED PLANTS DATABASE PROJECT A.M. PAUL Department of Botany, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Rd, London SW7 5BD, UK The NHM Botany Department contains approximately 5% million specimens. Herbarium sheets form a giant card index but it can be time-consuming to extract specific information. To improve access to the data in our collections there is a drive to database our entire holdings. The huge number of specimens involved makes this a very long-term project; thus areas of priority have been established within the framework of the Museum's database programme. One of these priorities is the Rare and Endangered British Plants Database. Why this particular project? In response to the Rio Biodiversity Convention, the government established the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. This stressed the importance of collating "accurate and accessible data on biodiversity", noting the need to develop the collections held in institutions such as the NHM and to make data on them widely available. This project will support that plan. The database can provide information on past and present distributions of endangered plants to support rarity and extinction projects and could help with planning current and future research projects, as well as improving access to some of the Museum’s most important holdings. What are we databasing? Flowering plants, pteridophytes, bryophytes, lichens, charophytes and marine algae will be included. For each group priority has been set according to various published lists: UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) short, medium & long lists, Red Data Books, Schedule 8 of Wildlife & Countryside Act, 1981, and JNCC Nationally Scarce species. The database will include all records from Britain, including the Isle of Man and Channel Islands. All Irish specimens on the above lists plus taxa covered only by Irish law will also be incorporated. How are we approaching the project? As much of the label information as possible is entered for each specimen. Since this project was conceived and set up, the Threatened Plants Database Project (TPDB) has also been developed. The TPDB is a project run by the Botanical Society of the British Isles under contract to JNCC. It aims to build up a greater knowledge of Britain’s rarer vascular plants and thereby contribute to their protection (Lockton & Whild 1999). Copies of our database records have been forwarded to the TPDB; in return we have received additional records and volunteers. Who is involved in the project? The combination of potential problems in interpreting hand-written information and with incorrect names means that ideally data should be entered by those familiar with the relevant taxa and collections. ne — sapere ee FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 443 Curators began the data entry; subsequently volunteers have made a very significant contribution. What will be the end product? The database can be queried to produce reports for a variety of uses, e.g. records for the Threatened Plants Database (TPDB), printed catalogue containing selected information, limited dataset to be made available via the NHM Web site, specific datasets for bona fide researchers, e.g. as a CD or printout. It is hoped that by revealing the wealth of information that exists in our herbarium we will make it available to a wider audience and encourage greater use of the collections themselves. References LOCKTON, A. & WHILD, S. 1999. The Threatened Plants Database. BSBI Record April 1999 p.1-12. GB Department of the Environment 1994. Biodiversity: The UK Action Plan, 188 pp. HMSO, London. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 4t4e FERN DIVERSITY IN THE MBARACAYU FOREST, PARAGUAY M. PENA-CHOCARRO)|, B. JIMENEZ’, G. MARIN? & S. KNAPP! 'Department of Botany, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK; *Fundacion Moisés Bertoni para la Conservacion de la Naturaleza, Casilla 714, Asuncion, Paraguay The Atlantic Forest is one of the most biodiverse yet most threatened ecosystems in the world, being a centre of biological endemism for many taxa. Once covering a wide extent of Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina, today only 5-8% of this forest remains. It has been designated as one of the highest priority habitats for conservation on a global scale (Davis ef al., 1997). Paraguay, with one of the highest rates of deforestation in Latin America, retains just 17% of its original Atlantic forest cover, all in the eastern part of the country, of which only 6% is effectively protected. The Mbaracayu Forest Nature Reserve (Reserva Natural del Bosque Mbaracayu), situated in the department of Canindeyu, holds more than one-half of the country’s protected Atlantic forests. Between 1995 and 1998, with funding from the Darwin Initiative for the Survival of Species (UK Government), and in collaboration with the Paraguayan NGO Fundacion Moisés Bertoni (FMB), a targeted inventory of plants and insects of the Mbaracayu Forest Reserve was made. Our preliminary checklist of the pteridophytes of Mbaracayu recorded 115 taxa in 22 families and 46 genera. Fifteen species in the list were new published records for Paraguay. A Spanish-language field guide to the Reserve’s pteridophytes, Helechos de Mbaracayu, was published and is distributed through the Natural History Museum and the FMB. The high species richness of the Reserve has been attributed to the diversity of vegetation and soil types, creating a wide array of microhabitats. High diversity is also due to the location of the Reserve in an area of transition between the tropics and subtropics. The Reserve harbours several endemic subtropical genera and some tropical and cerrado species at the southern edges of their distributions. References DAVIS, S.D., HEYwoopD, V.H., HERRERA-MACBRYDE, O., VILLA-LOBOS, J., & HAMILTON, A.C. (Eds.). 1997. Centres of Plant Diversity. Volume 3: The _ Americas. WWF and IUCN, IUCN Publishing Unit, Cambridge. PENA-CHOCARRO, M., MARIN, G., JIMENEZ, B. & KNAPP, S. 1999. Helechos de Mbaracayu. The Natural History Museum, London. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 §©PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 445 EFFECT OF STORAGE METHOD ON SPORE GERMINATION IN FIVE THREATENED FERNS L.G. QUINTANILLA"’”, E. PANGUA’, S. PAJARON', & J. AMIGO” 'Dpto. Biologia Vegetal I, Facultad de Biologia, UCM, 28040 Madrid, Spain; * Dpto. Biologia Vegetal Facultad de Farmacia, USC, 15706 Santiago de Compostela, Spain Spore germination of five threatened ferns (Culcita macrocarpa K. Presl, Dryopteris aemula (Aiton) O. Kuntze, D. corleyi Fraser-Jenkins, D. guanchica Gibby & Jermy, and Woodwardia radicans (L.) Sm.) was determined after one and six months storage in glass vials (dry technique) or sown on agar (wet technique) at 20°C, 5°C and -20°C. With all the species, the technique and the temperature affected significantly the germination percentage, especially after six months storage. There was also significant interaction between both factors. In general, the highest germination percentage was found after wet storage at 20°C or 5°C. Wet storage at -20°C killed the spores, with low germination only in D. guanchica. With the dry technique, the highest germination was obtained after storage at 5°C and -20°C, but all the spores of C. macrocarpa died at 20°C. These results support the view that spore storage at high moisture contents is an effective procedure for long-term ex situ conservation. Reference QUINTINALLA, L.G., AMIGO, J., PANGUA, E. & PARAJON, S. 2002. Effect of storage method on spore viability in five globally threatened fern species. Ann. Bot. 90: 461-467. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 446 ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISATION OF CULCITA MACROCARPA C. PRESL AND ENVIRONMENTAL THREATS IN GALICIA, NW SPAIN M.A. RODRIGUEZ’, M.I. ROMERO’, J. AMIGO’, L.G. QUINTANILLA‘ & R. DIAZ’ 'Departamento de Produccion Vexetal, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, E- 27002 Lugo, Spain; Departamento de Bioloxia Vexetal, E.P.S., Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, E-27002 Lugo, Spain; ‘Departamento de Bioloxia Vexetal, E.P.S., Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, E-15706 Santiago, Spain; “Departamento de Biologia Vegetal I, Universidad Complutense, E-28040 Madrid, Spain Culcita macrocarpa C. Pres] is a Macaronesian relict, with populations located on the European continent. These latter are restricted to woody refugia, usually near the coast because of the available moisture and have a discontinuous distribution along the Atlantic coast, from Cadiz (South of Spain) to the Basque Country (Lainz, 1986; Boudrie, 1998). The “endangered” status of these populations (V.V.A.A., 2000) justifies the inclusion of C. macrocarpa in the Annex II (Animal and plant species of community interest whose conservation requires the designation of special areas of conservation) of the Directive 92/43/EEC. Despite C. macrocarpa not being recognized in Galicia until 1968, 10 locations are now known. They are distributed in 5 different river basins and probably represent the northern boundary of the worldwide distribution of this species. Some are probably the largest populations of this species in the Iberian Peninsula. The ecological characterization of the Galician populations of C. macrocarpa has been established from a recent review (Quintanilla, 1997) and also with information from other Macaronesian relicts in Galicia. Usually, the populations occur in woodland environments, associated with deeply-shaded river valleys, in the thermotemperate and lower mesotemperate bioclimatic belt. All the locations are below 500m a.s.l. The characteristic ombrotypes are humid to hyperhumid (Rivas- Martinez, 1995), and the substrate seems unimportant since C. macrocarpa grows on both acidic rocks (granites, slates, schists) as well as on the ultrabasic eclogites. Conservation of the 10 known populations will be difficult, because only two are in a designated “Reserve”. Furthermore, only 4 of the remaining 8, are within a “Site of Community Importance” (S.C.I.) proposed by the regional Government for integration in the Natura 2000 Network. An additional threat is the massive deforestation and substitution of the autochthonous oakwood by fast-growing Eucalyptus globulus and Pinus radiata in the last 35 years. Thus any presently unknown populations could disappear without being studied. An even more serious threat, due to the nature of the steep river slopes where C. macrocarpa tends to occur, is the construction of hydroelectric power schemes. Such projects will affect many other populations of pteridophytes of high importance in Europe, such as Woodwardia radicans (L.) Sm., Trichomanes speciosum Willd., Stegnogramma pozoi FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 447 (Lag.) Iwats., Davallia canariensis (L.) Sm., and Hymenophyllum wilsonii Hook (the only known location in the Iberian Peninsula). References LAINZ, M. 1986: XVII. Culcitaceae. In: Castroviejo et al. (Eds): Flora Iberica. Vol. I: 76-77. C.S.1.C. Madrid. BOUDRIE, M. 1998: Les ptéridophytes du Pays basque et du nord-ouest de l’ Espagne; écologie, répartition, protection. J. Bot. Soc. bot. Fr. 5: 43-52. V.V.A.A. 2000: Lista roja de la Flora Vascular Espafiola (valoracién segun criterios U.LC.N.). Conservacion Vegetal 6 (extra): 11-38. QUINTINILLA, L.G. 1997: Distribucion de los helechos relictos macaronésicos en el Parque Natural Fragas do Eume (A Corufia). Importancia biogeografica en la pteridoflora de Galicia. Memoria de licenciatura, Facultad de Biologia, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela. 104 pp. RIVAS-MARTINEZ, S. 1995: Clasificacion bioclimatica de la Tierra. Folia Botanica Matritensis, 16:1-29. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 448 CONSERVING A TROPICAL FERN IN EUROPE F.J. RUMSEY’, J.C. VOGEL’, S.J. RUSSELL’, J.A. BARRETT? & M. GIBBY? ‘Conservation Biology Laboratory, Department of Botany, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, UK; Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EH, UK; ; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 20A Inverleith Row, Edinburgh, EH3 SLR, UK The Grammitidaceae is a predominantly tropical family of small, usually epiphytic ferns. Two species are known from Macaronesia: Grammitis marginella (Sw.) Sw., (mistakenly reported as G. ebenina (Maxon) Tardieu), known until recently as a single Azorean individual, but perhaps also present early last century in the Canaries. The other, Ceradenia jungermannioides (Klotsch) L.E. Bishop, a rare species of cloud forest in Central America and the Caribbean islands, detected, again as a single plant on the Azores, in 1972 (Rasbach, et al., 1974). A second locality for Ceradenia was discovered in the 1980s by Hansen who suggested it may prove to be “not uncommon’ (Hansen, 1992). Provisionally both had to be considered among the most critically endangered taxa in the Macaronesian flora. A survey of these taxa was therefore made in 1996 to establish their true extent and abundance, to clarify their ecology, and population biology to gain an insight into their conservation status and requirements. Ceradenia has now been found in four localities on Pico Island. The extant populations, comprising just over 100 individuals, are restricted to extremely species rich fragments of tall mixed-evergreen ‘Laurisilva’ where they are almost entirely restricted to massive and often moribund Erica azorica, rarely occurring on Juniperus brevifolia, Vaccineum cylindraceum and Euphorbia stygiana. G. marginella was not refound and may be extinct on Pico. The continued survival of Ceradenia is dependent on the protection of suitable woodland. Areas not already protected as reserves should be notified, thereby giving protection to the exceptional range of threatened species e.g. Euphrasia grandiflora, Lactuca watsoniana, which co-exist. References HANSEN, A. 1992. Contributions to the flora of the Azores, Madeira, P. Santo and the Canary Islands. Bol. Mus. Mun. Funchal 44: 157-179. RASBACH, H., RASBACH, K. & REICHSTEIN, T. 1974. Grammitis Jungermannioides in the Azores. Fern Gaz. 11: 49-52. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 449 CONSERVING THE FEN BUCKLER FERN (DRYOPTERIS CRISTATA L.) IN THE BRITISH ISLES F.J. RUMSEY ', J.C. VOGEL’, A.C. JERMY', A.M. PAUL', S.J. RUSSELL', K.A. SIMPSON’, J.A. BARRETT’, A. LOCKTON’ & M. GIBBY° ‘Conservation Biology Laboratory, Department of Botany, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, UK; *School of Biological Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK; “Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EH, UK; *66 North Street, Shrewsbury, SY1 2JL, UK; 5 Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 20A Inverleith Row, Edinburgh, EH3 5LR, UK Dryopteris cristata (L). A. Gray (Fen or Crested buckler-fern) is widely distributed in base-poor fens throughout the boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Within the British Isles D. cristata has, in historical times, declined in range more markedly than any other of our native ferns. Much of this decline can be traced back to land-use changes in the nineteenth century, but sites have subsequently continued to be lost and the range had essentially contracted to the Broads of Norfolk by the time of the last intensive survey of this species’ distribution and numbers in 1977. Field surveys in 1997-8 of all known sites was combined with an investigation of the species genetic variability. Within the Broads few populations have been lost, population numbers in sites have generally increased and new populations have been found. Elsewhere in the British Isles only three small populations exist, two in Norfolk. Genetically the species supports very low levels of variation within the British Isles but it has an inbreeding mating system and therefore has the potential to colonise new sites by a single spore. Suitable management is essential for the continuing survival of this fern. The situation reported here would indicate that habitat management by the Norfolk Broads Authority and other concerned landowners is proving effective. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 450 INITIAL SURVEY OF THE DRYOPTERIS CARTHUSIANA COMPLEX IN ESTONIA K. RUNK Institute of Botany and Ecology, Tartu University, 40 Lai Street, Tartu, 51005, Estonia The Dryopteris carthusiana complex in Estonia consists of diploid D. expansa (C. Presl) Fr.-Jk.& Jermy, and two tetraploid species- D. carthusiana (Vill.) H.P. Fuchs and D. dilatata (Hoffm.) A. Gray. On the basis of revised herbarium material and studies in the field in the autumn of 2000, an initial survey of the distribution and habitats of D. carthusiana-complex species, especially D. dilatata, in Estonia was made. D. carthusiana is the most widespread species of the complex in Estonia, as it is in most of Europe. It 1s common throughout the territory and succeeds well in the shelter of the forest, although it also grows in more exposed conditions on clear-cut areas in clearings, forest rides and next to water. Most of the herbarium material of D. carthusiana was from wet peatland forest and moderately moist mesotrophic boreal forest; noticeably fewer specimens were from temporary dry oligo-mesotrophic boreal forest and in summer temporarily-dry eutrophic boreo-nemoral forest. D. dilatata is distributed widely in Western and Central Europe, and decreases eastward in its occurrence. Its present distribution in Estonia includes 10 inspected populations and 8 localities that need final verification. Two populations (in Janeda and Varblasesaar) are evidence that its total distribution extends more towards the north north-east than was formerly believed. On the islands of West Estonia - Hiiumaa and Vohilaid - D. dilatata grows in Vaccinium myrtillus boreal pine forest on periodically dry soils, in Oxalis-V. myrtillus boreal spruce forest, and in Oxalis boreal spruce forest on moderately moist, well-drained soils. The Oxalis boreal spruce forest grows in both localities on the Estonian mainland - Janeda and Varblasesaar. D. dilatata is distributed widely in Western and Central Europe but is rare in Estonia, where it probably reaches the limit of its distribution. D. expansa is distributed in scattered localities throughout the territory of Estonia. Most D. expansa specimens were collected from eutrophic boreo-nemoral forest and from mesotrophic boreal forest, only one specimen in the herbarium being from grassland. In contrast to D. dilatata, D. expansa grows in marshy and peatland forest in Estonia. Particularly large plants (fronds frequently more than 100 cm in height) grow abundantly in Lunaria boreo-nemoral forest. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 45] PTERIDOGEOGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF GRAN CANARIA AND ITS CONNECTION WITH THE REST OF THE ARCHIPELAGO AND MADEIRA T. SANCHEZ VELAZQUEZ C/ Cuevas Morenas No. 41. El Palmar.Teror, 35330 Las Palmas, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain The biogeography of 46 taxa from the pteridophyte flora of Gran Canaria has been examined, and its relation to the rest of the Canary archipelago and Madeira analysed. After making a pteridological file, research has been done on the following types of analysis: floristic richness, species number/genera number, m/t (relation between species with monolete and trilete spores), index of similarity with nearby regions, ecological analysis, and corological analysis. Finally, these data are applied to the ordering and hierarchical arrangement of OGUs (islands). For this last process, matrices of Sokal distances have been elaborated, by using binary registers of absence/presence of taxa. On the basis of the analysis applied to the pteridological Macaronesian ordering and hierarchization of OGUs given by Salvo & Garcia-Verdugo (1990) in Numerical Biogeography in Pteridology, we would like to point out our different criteria. Those authors use the Sokal & Sneath algorithm for their calculation of "biogeographical distance", from which they obtain a dendrogram with different clustering levels within the group formed by Canarian and Madeira archipelagos. They obtain five Units for those islands: MADEIRA (V), CANARIO MADEIRENSE (VI), GRAN CANARIO-TINERFENA (VII), HIERRO (VII) and GOMERA- PALMA (IX). We think that HIERRO Unit (VIII) should not be taken into account, but the OGU of Hierro island must be grouped within the Gomera-Palma-Hierro Unit, according to similarity data that have been obtained. We consider that this group of islands is geographically adjoining and its research should not be scattered. We differentiate four perfectly delimited Units in relation to different similarity distances. This may be a useful basis for a conservation strategy. Reference SALVO, A. E. & J. C. GARCIA-VERDUGO. 1990. Biogeografia numérica en Pteridologia. Simposio sobre "Taxonomia, Biogeografia y Conservacion de Pteridofitos". De J. Rita. Palma de Mallorca. 115-150. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 452 CONSERVATION STATUS OF THE RARE AND THREATENED PTERIDOPHYTES OF THE CANARY ISLANDS T. SANCHEZ VELAZQUEZ C/ Cuevas Morenas No. 41. El Palmar.Teror, 35330 Las Palmas, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain This study has examined all the bibliography and annotations of the herbaria in the Canary Islands, of the 52 taxa of ferns and fern-allies, except for those which have escaped from gardens into the wild. Of the total, 37 taxa, or 71.1% are threatened. This report summarises the state of conservation of each taxon taking, with slight modifications, the criteria of Lobin and Ormonde (1996) for the conservation of the ferns and fern-allies in the Cape Verde Islands. Of the 37 threatened species, one, Hymenophyllun wilsonii Hook. is extinct; 5 are critically endangered [Dryopteris aemula (Ait.) Kuntze, Ophioglossum azoricum C. Presl, Selaginella selaginoides (L.) PB. ex Schrank et Mart., Cheilanthes tinaei Todaro and Asplenium aethiopicum (Burm.fil.) Becherer ssp. braithwatii J.Ormonde]; 7 are probably endangered [Asplenium adiantum-nigrum L., Asplenium obovatum Viv. ssp. obovatum, Asplenium terorense Kunk., Dryopteris maderensis Milde ex Alston, Dryopteris aitoniana Pichi-Sermolli, Dryopteris dilatata (Hoffm.) Gray, and Polystichum aculeatum (L.) Roth]; 11 taxa are endangered [Asplenium filare (Forssk.) Alston ssp. canariensis (Willd.) J-Ormonde, Asplenium monanthes L., Asplenium obovatum Viv. ssp. lanceolatum (Fiori) Pinto da Silva, Asplenium marinum (L.), Asplenium septentrionale (L.) Hoffm., Ophioglossum polyphyllum A. Br. In Seub., Culcita macrocarpa C. Presl, Dryopteris affinis (Lowe) Fr.- Jenk. ssp. affinis,, Dryopteris guanchica Gibby et Jermy, Hymenophyllum tunbrigense (L.) Sm., and Vandesbochia speciosa (Willd.) Kunkel]; 4 taxa are vulnerable [Ceterach aureum (Cav.) L von Buch var. parvifolium Benl et Kunkel, Blechnum spicant (L.), Ophioglossum lusitanicum L. ssp. lusitanicum and Pteris incompleta Cav.]; finally, 9 taxa are categorised as rare [Asplenium trichomanes L. ssp. quadrivalens D.E. Meyer, Asplenium anceps Lowe ex Hook. et Grev., Asplenium hemionitis L., Ceterach aureum (Cav.) L. von Buch var. aureum, Diplazium caudatum (Cav.) Jermy, Athyrium filix-femina (L.) Roth, Polystichum setiferum (Forskal) Woynar, Equisetum ramossisimun Desf., and Cheilanthes maderensis Lowe]. The remaining 15 Canary Island pteridophyte taxa are currently not endangered. Reference LOBIN, W. & ORMONDE, J. 1996. Lista Vermelha para los Pteridofitos (Pteridophyta).- In: LEYENS, T. & LOBIN, W. (Eds). Primeira Lista Vermelha de Cabo Verde.- Courier Forsch.- Inst. Senckenberg 193: 37-42; Frankfurt a. M. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 §©PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 453 POPULATION SURVEY AND CONSERVATION OF TUNBRIDGE FILMY-FERN IN THE GRAND DUCHY OF LUXEMBOURG J.-L. SCHWENNINGER! & Y. KRIPPEIL” ‘Department of Geography, Royal Holloway College, University of London, TW20 OEX, UK; *Enneschte Wee 1A, L-7721 Colmar-Berg, Luxembourg A small relict population of Tunbridge filmy-fern (Hymenophyllum tunbrigense (L) Sm.) occurs in the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg where its survival is linked to exceptional conditions of micro-climate. In the late 1980s, fears of a widespread decline of the species as a result of increased tourist pressures and rock climbing activities prompted the introduction of special conservation measures. An initial survey in 1988 revealed 240 patches of filmy-fern, with a total of some 20,800 fronds scattered among 27 sites. Two adjacent sites contained the majority of the population. The survey also identified a series of threats to the survival of the species. In the past, these included the collection of botanical specimens as well as unsuitable silvicultural interventions. More recently, the adverse effects of atmospheric pollution, tourism and rock climbing have been added to the list of detrimental impacts of anthropogenic origin. Following the 1988 report, and after lengthy consultations with local and national authorities, the Ministry of the Environment decided in 1993 to close public access to the main site with gates and by diverting footpaths. These measures were supplemented by new local bylaws prohibiting rock climbing in most parts of the forest. A new survey in 2000 and 2001 showed that the number of filmy-fern patches had increased to 360. The total surface area covered by the fern had slightly increased and was estimated at 12.38 m’. The latest survey recorded 74,700 fronds and in contrast to the previous findings, 74% of them were in good condition. Most sites contained fertile fronds, 212 altogether. For the first time since their discovery in Luxembourg in 1821, filmy-fern gametophytes and young sporophytes were identified at several locations. This provides evidence for sexual reproduction in addition to the more commonly observed vegetative spread which, until now, was considered to be the only means of propagation of H. tunbrigense within its continental refuge. Although the majority of sites generally reflect an overall population increase, this remarkable recovery is due largely to those sites from which the public has been excluded since 1993. But despite the recent increase in the overall filmy-fern population and the apparent success at securing the protection of the most important site, the further loss of smaller sites is regrettable. The disappearance of such isolated population clusters is particularly deplorable for new scientific insights, which could be obtained from the application of modern genetic techniques. From a conservation point of view, the continuous loss of small sites is also unwelcome, since they may safeguard against a catastrophic event affecting the most important sites, which here are restricted to a single large crevasse. Consequently, it seems advisable to extend the access restrictions to a further series of sites, and to collect and store representative samples of tissues and spores for future investigation and in-vitro cultivation. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 454 KEEP THE PLACES WHERE EVOLUTION IS WORKING! E.R. DE LA SOTA Museo de la Plata, Pasco del Bosque, s/n, 1900 La Plata-Argentina The diversity of ferns and allied plants is relatively low on the ‘pampas’, compared with other regions of the Neotropics in Argentina. The pteridophytes there grow only in the gallery forests along some rivers and in a few very old highland areas. These latter occur dispersed in the large plain, examples being Tandilia and Ventania in Buenos Aires, Los Viejos and Mahuidas in La Pampa and the Island of Martin Garcia in the estuary of la Plata. This island arises as a rocky ‘stake’ in the so-called ‘Sweet Sea’, named by the Spanish conquerors of 500 years ago. From an analysis of their pteridophytic flora, these continental (4) and aquatic (1) ‘islands’, are interpreted as intermediate shelters to explain the routes which have connected the three major floristic complexes in the South Cone of America, namely the South-Brazilian, Andine and Southern-Antarctic units. In vulnerable sites in Ventania, an interesting hybridization, presumptively introgressive, of Blechnum australe L. subsp auriculatum Cav. de la Sota x B. leavigatum Cav. was found, showing a weak ecological barrier, the first taxon being more frequent and hardy than the second. So, evolution is working there through the most common and simple type of speciation mechanism in ferns. Following back-crossing, the fertility of the achieved hybrid was very low, being not more than 11% in the Fl. Obviously and as an example in vivo, like an observation in the laboratory, it must be kept carefully in situ, as a valuable teaching tool and as clear evidence that diversification is increasing stepwise. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 ©PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 455 CURRENT CONSERVATION STATUS OF ASPLENIUM SPECIES IN BRAZIL L.S. SYLVESTRE! & P.G. WINDISCH? ‘Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Depto. Botanica, 23851-970 Seropédica - RJ, Brazil; Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos, Lab. Taxonomia Vegetal, 93022-000 Sao Leopoldo - RS, Brazil A recent revision of the species of the genus Asplenium L. in Brazil indicates that of the ca. 150 Neotropical species, 73 taxa (69 species, four varieties) are found in Brazil. The genus is present in all the geographic regions. However, South and South- eastern Brazil, with one of the continental fern speciation and endemism centres, have 58 taxa of which 19 are endemic to continental Brazil. Two species are from the Trindade Island, ca. 1000 km from the coast. Although some regions (especially in the States of Tocantins, Rio Grande do Norte and southern part of Para) are underrepresented (or not at all) in the herbaria, the study was based on an extensive database of ca. 6500 collections (excluding duplicates), ca. 5600 of them from Brazil. Applying the IUCN guidelines for evaluating the conservation status of the species within Brazil, a startling result was obtained. At least one third of the taxa have conservation problems. Two species are at risk of extinction (Asplenium bradeanum Handro, A. cariocanum Brade) and three are probably extinct (A. beckeri Brade, A. schwakei Christ and one species so far unknown to science). The importance of the Atlantic forest and the “campos rupestres” as centres of speciation and endemism is also reflected in the diversity of Asplenium species in South-eastern and Central Brazil. Surveys of areas with concentration of threatened species should be made in order to promote the establishment of conservation units. The conservation ex situ of endangered species should be started without delay. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 456 EXPERIMENTAL TRANSLOCATION OF GYMNOCARPIUM ROBERTIANUM (HOFFM.) NEWMAN IN IRELAND S. WALDREN', J. MARTIN!, T. CURTIS? & D. LYNN! ‘Department of Botany, Trinity College, Dublin 2, Ireland; *National Parks & Wildlife Service, Duchas, 6 Ely Place, Dublin 2, Ireland Despite being relatively widespread in Europe, Gymnocarpium robertianum (Hoffm.) Newman has only ever been recorded from a single site in Ireland (Curtis & McGough, 1988). Here, where it is presumed to be native, it occurs in limestone pavement on a low hill north-west of Headford, County Mayo. This site has recently suffered from bulldozing of the pavement to improve pasture, and of removal of limestone blocks, thus reducing the population of G. robertianum and limiting its potential for spread. We surveyed the site in 1996 and located 13 colonies, but due to the creeping rhizome it was not possible to determine the exact number of genets. However, because the colonies were isolated by pasture we consider that the number observed represents the minimum population size. There were fertile fronds in all the colonies. A further two small individuals, previously unrecorded, were located 200 and 400 m to the north west of the main colony, suggesting some regeneration from spores. Due to the likely small population size and its known recent reduction, a recovery programme was initiated. This involved ex situ propagation and experimental translocation to a suitable area with greater legislative protection. Rhizome cuttings were taken under licence from Duchas for propagation at Trinity College Botanic Garden, and samples of fertile pinnae taken for spore collection. The translocation site was limestone pavement on the eastern side of Mullach Mor, County Clare, some 55 km SSE from the Headford site. Twenty five rhizome cuttings were planted into each of four 10 x 10 m quadrats in October 1996; suitable grykes were chosen in each quadrat, and the rhizomes covered with limestone fragments to minimise desiccation. Spores were also sown into an additional 10 x 10 m quadrat. The quadrats were resurveyed in May, June and August 1997, May 1998, June 2000 and June 2001. There was a rapid initial decline in survivors, thought to be due to desiccation during the spring following the translocation. Numbers continued to decline throughout 1997, but there was a small increase in 1998, continuing up until 2000, with the numbers subsequently stabilising at 14 survivors. The increase was due to rhizomes remaining dormant for extended periods, rather than establishment of new sporophytes in situ. By 2001 eleven of the fourteen survivors were fertile, and some showed obvious rhizome spread and substantial growth since the initial monitoring in 1997. No sporophytes were observed in the quadrat sown with spores. The numbers of survivors are still low, suggesting that large numbers of plants may need to be introduced to ensure a viable population. No studies of genetic variation have yet been done on the native and translocated populations, and this is clearly required to determine the numbers of individuals present. The most effective method of translocation was with mature sporophytes; however the skeletal nature of the limestone pavement habitat presented difficulties in ensuring plants were adequately located in suitable grykes. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 457 Some 32 stock plants have been raised from the spore collection, and these will be used to supply more material for translocation of cuttings, in addition to providing a source of spores to raise sporophytes with maximum genetic variation for further bulking up of the translocated population. Additional monitoring of the translocated population will be necessary, and the experiment can only be deemed a success when young sporophytes arise in situ. Reference CURTIS, T.G.F. & McGOUGH, H.N. 1988. The Irish Red Data Book 1. Vascular Plants. The Stationary Office, Dublin. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 458 IN VITRO TECHNIQUES FOR THE CONSERVATION OF HYMENOPHYLLUM TUNBRIGENSE (L.) SM. T. WILKINSON Micropropagation Unit, Aiton House, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AE, UK The Tunbridge filmy-fern (Hymenophyllum tunbrigense (L.) Smith) occurs on sandstone rocks in the ancient woodland within the Weald of South-east England. High quality habitat has decreased over the last five decades due to a combination of woodland loss, collecting and public pressure. Over this period a decline of 27% in the number of sites and 72% in the number of surviving colonies found in the Southeast has been reported. Ex situ work on this rare filmy fern has been instigated to support the declining populations and to provide material for future reintroduction. To allow ex situ support for local recovery programmes, protocols for the in vitro growth, multiplication and long-term cryogenic storage of H. tunbrigense have been developed. Green spores derived from fronds with mature sporangia were surface sterilised using a 2% sodium hypochlorite solution prior to culture on sucrose- free Knop’s minimal medium supported by filter paper rafts. Germinated spores produced gametophytic thalli, which grew optimally on % strength Murashige and Skoog Medium supplemented with 5 gl'' sucrose and solidified with 2.5 gl’ Gelrite. Techniques for the production and weaning of sporophytes are currently being investigated. This includes the use of native sandstone as a growth substrate on which gametophytic growth and subsequent sporophyte production can occur in vitro prior to weaning. Long-term storage of encapsulated gametophytes was achieved through cryopreservation after sucrose preculture and dehydration prior to cooling in liquid nitrogen. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 459 THREATS TO THE FERN FLORA OF BRAZIL ILLUSTRATED BY THE GENUS DORYOPTERIS J.SM. JC, YESIEYURTE Department of Botany, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK & Plant Science Laboratories, University of Reading, Whiteknights, Reading, Berkshire, RG6 6AS, UK Brazil has one of the richest floras in the world making it one of the highest ranked country for plant biodiversity (GFW, Global Forest Watch). Endemism is very high, particularly in the Atlantic Forest, where most of the Doryopteris species grow. This is due to the size, climatic and edaphic diversity and the geomorphology of the country. There are few protected areas, currently only 6.1% (269399.5 km?) (2001- UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre). Land occupation, with accompanying mineral and wood extraction, agriculture and deforestation have severely affected the environment. Many species have thus become vulnerable and/or face extinction. Brade (1935), Tryon (1962) and herbarium records indicate that Doryopteris species were once more widely distributed. Today, the vast majority occur within protected areas and are very rarely found elsewhere. In developing countries, social problems such as poverty and landlessness are associated with loss and fragmentation of ecosystems. Therefore conservation strategies should cope with such issues. Inventories and a better understanding of the natural history of the plants are necessary to select key and ecologically important species from habitats that are most threatened. Brazil has c. 37 species of Doryopteris. Fifteen are national endemics, ten being endemic to the Atlantic Forest of SE Brazil, one of the most critically threatened ecosystems. At present, there is no assessment or protection status for most of the Brazilian ferns. The only reference in the literature is to the endangered status of Dicksonia sellowiana Hook. Acknowledgement is made to The Royal Society (International Botanical Congress Edinburgh Fund) for supporting this work. Also, thanks to the Trustees of the British Pteridological Society’s Centenary Fund for the grant in 1999, which helped me to cover some of the expenses for the fieldwork in Brazil. References BRADE, A.C. 1935. Contribuicao para a Flora do Itatiaia (Filices novae Brasillianae III). Arq. Inst. Biol. Veg. Rio Jan.: I (3): 223-239. TRYON, R.M. 1962. The fern genus Doryopteris in Santa Catariina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Sellowia 14: 51-59. S S + PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 461 PRESENTED PAPERS, AVAILABLE ONLY AS THE ORIGINAL ABSTRACTS FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 462 THE IUCN/SSC RED LIST PROGRAMME: AN OVERVIEW C. HILTON-TAYLOR IUCN/SSC UK Office, 219c Huntington Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, UK The Species Survival Commission (SSC) of IUCN- the World Conservation Union, is the custodian and producer of the JUCN Red List of Threatened Species, which is widely recognized by both governments and NGOs as the world's most objective and authoritative listing of species that are globally at risk of extinction. For the last few years, the SSC has been developing the JUCN Red List into a global programme to monitor the extent and rate of biodiversity degradation. This has required considerable planning, because, until the mid-1990s, the JUCN Red List was essentially an ad hoc process with little overall purpose or co-ordination. Major changes have occurred or are underway to develop the IUCN Red List into one of the fundamental tools to support biodiversity assessments, and conservation priority setting. These changes provide a platform for major new developments. The SSC proposes to implement the new directions in Red Listing in close partnership with four other institutions: the Association for Biodiversity Information (ABI), BirdLife International, the Centre for Marine Conservation (CMC) and Conservation International (CI), especially its subsidiary the Centre for Applied Biodiversity Science (CABS). FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 §©PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 463 THE BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION OF THE FERNS AND FERN ALLIES OF NEW GUINEA R.J. JOHNS Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AB, UK The island of New Guinea supports one of the richest and most diverse, but the most poorly-known tropical floras. It has in excess of 25,000 species of vascular plants (some estimates are lower), including over 2,000 species of ferns and fern allies. Thus the island supports some 12-15 percent of the total diversity of the pteridophytes, with many more species awaiting collection and description. Conservation of this flora is of major international importance. Detailed studies of the flora and vegetation of both Papua (Irian Jaya) and Papua New Guinea have been made within the last ten years, and a comprehensive conservation strategy proposed. These proposals are reviewed in this paper. Some 30 percent of the total area of both Papua and Papua New Guinea was proposed for conservation in two reviews (Johns 1994; Johns unpubl.). Endemism in the flora of New Guinea is very high with possibly 60 -70 percent of all vascular plants being endemic. Several fern genera are endemic: these are discussed. A general review is made of the patterns of endemism in selected genera of ferns and fern allies. Distribution patterns of species within New Guinea are discussed but a more detailed understanding will require intensive field collections, particularly in Papua, although extensive areas in Papua New Guinea are also poorly known. Conservation of the vegetation and flora of New Guinea is a major challenge for this millenium. Some of the threats to plant conservation are outlined and proposals made for a detailed study of this 'the last unknown tropical flora’. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 464 TAXON RARITY AND ENDEMISM VERSUS GLACIAL REFUGIA AND CENTRES OF GENETIC DIVERSITY - WHERE SHOULD WE PLACE CONSERVATION PRIORITIES FOR EUROPEAN PTERIDOPHYTES? J.C. VOGEL’, J. A. BARRETT’, M. GIBBY’, C. JAMES!, M. MORGANS- RICHARDS’, F.J. RUMSEY’, S.J. RUSSELL! & S. TREWICK! ‘Plant Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Botany, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 SBD, UK; Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EH, UK; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 20A Inverleith Row, Edinburgh, EH3 5LR, UK Distribution patterns of plants are influenced by ecological, genetic and historic factors. The genus Asplenium and other European pteridophytes can supply interesting model studies to infer the processes that during the Pleistocene have shaped current species diversity and distribution patterns. When the distributions of different Asp/enium taxa in Europe are examined, it is clear that the diploid taxa are predominantly around the Mediterranean Basin, but that the polyploid taxa occur mainly in the areas that had been affected by glaciation. By exploring the discontinuities in distribution patterns, substratum specificity, genetic diversity, ploidy levels and breeding systems we can determine centres of genetic diversity and long-term refugia in Europe, pin-point areas where polyploid taxa may have originated, and reconstruct colonisation patterns of plants in relation to Pleistocene glaciation cycles. The results of our studies have implications for the identification and assessment of priority species and priority areas for pteridophyte conservation in Europe. References Pinter, I., Bakker, F., Barrett, J.A., Cox, C., Gibby, M., Henderson, S., Morgan- Richards, M., Rumsey, F.J., Russell, S.J., Trewick, S.A., Schneider, H. & Vogel, J.C. 2002. Phylogenetic and biosystematic relationships in four highly disjunct polyploid complexes in the subgenera Ceferach and Phyllitis in Asplenium (Aspleniaceae). Organisms, Diversity and Evolution 2: 299-311. Trewick, S.A., Morgan-Richards, M., Pinter, I., Henderson, S., Russell, S.J., Rumsey, F.J., Barrett, J.A., Gibby, M. & Vogel, J.C. 2002. Polyploidy, phytogeography and Pleistocene refugia of the rock fern Asplenium ceterach: evidence from cpDNA. Molecular Ecology 11: 2003-2012. Vogel, J.C., Rumsey, F.J., Schneller, J.J., Barrett, J.A. & Gibby, M. 1999. Where are the glacial refugia in Europe? Evidence from pteridophytes. Biol. J. Linnean Soc. 66: 23-37. eS FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 465 THE IMPORTANCE OF RECENT POPULATION HISTORY FOR UNDERSTANDING GENETIC DIVERSITY IN NATURAL POPULATIONS OF ENDANGERED DRYOPTERIS CRISTATA G. KOZLOWSKI’, U. Landergott*, R. Holderegger’ & J.J. Schneller’ ‘Botanical Garden of Fribourg, University of Fribourg, Ch. du Musée 10, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland “Institute of Systematic Botany, University of Zurich, Zollikerstrasse 107, CH-8008 Zurich, Switzerland ’Division of Biodiversity, Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Zurcherstrasse 111, CH-8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland The Crested Buckler-fern (Dryopteris cristata (L.) A. Gray) has become rare and endangered in south-western Central Europe. In Switzerland, at the southern border of the species’ European distribution, 62% of all described populations were extinct due to habitat destruction, and only 14 populations remained in 1999. It was possible to reconstruct recent historical population sizes of most of the remnant Swiss populations for the past 120 years. Present-day genetic diversity of D. cristata was assessed by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPDs). Population genetic theory predicts stochastic losses of genetic diversity in small, fragmented populations, and genetic erosion will increase the risk of local extinction. In D. cristata, however, comparatively high genetic variation was found in some small populations. The lack of correlation between present-day genetic diversity and current population size is best explained by recent population histories. Severe historical bottlenecks resulted in a significant loss of about 40% of genetic variation in populations of this long-lived, allotetraploid fern. In contrast, distinct reductions of formerly large populations to small remnants did not substantially reduce genetic variation in the short-term. But we found evidence for genetic drift acting upon these small populations, which are thus prone to random losses of genetic diversity in the long-term. Although important for conservation biology, empirical research on random evolutionary processes during periods of small population size is scarce, because population history usually remains unknown. Understanding population history can substantially improve predictions on genetic diversity in remnant populations of threatened species and thereby help in choosing priority populations for conservation. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 466 CONSERVATION ACTION ON PILULARIA GLOBULIFERA L. AND LYCOPODIELLA INUNDATA (L.) J. HOLUB IN ENGLAND N. STEWART Cholwell, Posbury, Crediton, Devon EX17 3QE, UK Pilularia globulifera and Lycopodiella inundatum are two endangered pteridophytes on the UK priority list and have had Biodiversity Action Plans prepared for them. This paper describes work carried out in England by a team of surveyors over the past four years to confirm present and check old sites to see if habitat conditions have changed irreversibly or are likely to change in the near future if not arrested. Records of past and present occurrences had been collected under the auspices of the Botanical Society of the British Isles (BSBI) and other voluntary naturalists and databased initially by the government funded Biological Records Centre (BRC) and now by the BSBI under the Threatened Plants Data Base (TPDB) project. Such data are integral to the project. The whole programme has been funded by English Nature, the government agency responsible for nature conservation in England, under their Recovery Programme, and managed by Plantlife, the leading NGO for plant conservation in the UK. With Pilularia, sites for re-establishment have been considered and with Lycopodiella, actual transplants have been made in lowland heaths in southern England. How this was tackled and the problems that arose are described. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 467 DOCUMENTING THE CONSERVATION STATUS OF AUSTRALIAN FERNS AND FERN ALLIES J. CROFT & P. BOSTOCK Australian National Botanic Gardens, Canberra, A.C.T., Australia Responsibility for management of native and introduced Australian flora and fauna lies with eight Australian states and territories; the Commonwealth is responsible for the biota of its parks, reserves and managed land areas. Over-riding Commonwealth legislation is invoked whenever "taxa of national significance" are involved: these are the national consensus of species considered to be endangered or vulnerable. There are over 460 species in 112 genera of Australian ferns and fern allies, representing c. 2.5% of the Australian vascular flora, and of these, 23 species in 11 genera are considered "nationally significant"; Australia is an arid continent and the greatest diversity of pteridophytes is confined to the moist regions of the eastern coast with almost three quarters of the species found in NE Queensland. Although the taxonomy of all Australian pteridophytes has been recently and comprehensively treated in the Flora of Australia (vol 48:1998), work continues on the documentation of their diversity, distribution and biology. Flora treatments are being migrated into an interactive on-line database using flexible XML technology; an _ interactive identification key to the species will be developed as part of this project. The recently funded Australia's Virtual Herbarium will place data from all 6 million specimens in Australian herbaria, including all the pteridophytes, on-line within 5 years using XML and GIS technologies. A three-year project has been funded to model distribution patterns of Australian pteridophytes using predictive spatial analysis tools. The national Species Profiles, Recovery and Threats (SPRAT) database documents known biology, occurrence and conservation status of all "species of national significance" and will be made available on-line to assist with environmental planning and decision-making. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 468 MEASURES OF BIODIVERSITY C. HUMPHRIES Botany Department, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 SBD. Measures of biodiversity are needed to determine the ‘where’of in-situ conservation action rather than the ‘how’, particularly in deciding which combinations of available areas could represent and help sustain the most biodiversity value for the future. This raises many questions, including: What is biodiversity? What is the value basis for measuring it? What practical approaches are available for measuring this biodiversity value? Identifying a fundamental currency of biodiversity value to people. Best estimates of biodiversity value (genes and characters) Popular estimates of biodiversity value (species or higher taxa) Relationship among estimates (surrogacy scale) These questions are discussed with respect to ferns on global and regional scales. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 ©PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 469 THE IUCN/SSC SPECIES INFORMATION SERVICE: A GLOBAL SPECIES INFORMATION RESOURCE C. HILTON-TAYLOR IUCN/SSC UK Office, 219c Huntington Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, UK The world's biodiversity is being lost at an alarming rate as human populations grow and impacts on natural resources become increasingly unsustainable. In response, a growing number of conservation initiatives are being implemented around the world at local, national and regional levels. The role of international treaties targeting conservation issues also continues to grow, along with the number of national governments choosing to implement them. These treaties require specific, current, and accurate information on the status of biodiversity. Lack of access to quality data and information hampers these efforts. With its network of more than 7000 expert volunteers, the SSC represents what is probably the world's most complete source of scientific and management expertise on species. However, this reservoir of knowledge is fragmented, and difficult to access and share across the network. The Species Information Service (SIS) through a centralised database is being developed to increase the sharing of data and information within the network, and to allow the application of existing and emerging analytical tools. This will enable the SSC to contribute significantly to the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. The flagship SSC product - the JUCN Red List of Threatened Species - is a key to understanding the potential for loss of biodiversity worldwide. SIS is the information system to be used for the capture and management of data in the IUCN Red List. In addition, the SIS Red List Module will incorporate an innovative approach to the Red Listing process - the RAMAS® Red List software developed by Applied Biomathematics. This approach takes into consideration the degree of uncertainty that can be present in threatened species data, allows for flexible data entry (empowering specialists to use the most appropriate data available), collects these data in SIS, and automates the listing process. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 470 CONSERVATION OF FERNS ON MAURITIUS: A SMALL ISLAND WITH BIG PROBLEMS S. LINDSAY Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH3 5LR, Scotland, UK Current Address: Harvard University Herbaria, 22 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge MA 02138, USA The small tropical island of Mauritius in the southwest Indian Ocean has a fascinating flora in which almost one-third of the 850 indigenous plant species are endemic. Most of these species are now restricted to tiny remnants of native forest, heath and scrub in areas that are unsuitable for agricultural or urban development. The largest remnant of native forest has recently been designated a National Park. This designation and its associated legislation should help to protect many of the island’s terrestrial habitats from further deliberate destruction by man but the continued survival of many plant species within these protected habitats remains doubtful. There are a number of reasons for this, but one which is applicable to more species than any other is the massive and increasing competition from introduced invasive plant species. More than 450 alien plant species have already become naturalized on Mauritius and two of these in particular, Chinese guava and privet, form thickets so dense that indigenous plants cannot regenerate. Ferns appear to be particularly vulnerable; almost one-fifth of the 250 taxa that have been recorded from Mauritius have not been seen in recent years. Despite this, there are still many interesting taxa among those that survive and at least 17 are endemic. In 1995, the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh (RBGE), in collaboration with the National Parks and Conservation Service in Mauritius, launched a joint project to help improve the chances for survival of these and other endangered fern species. In addition to field surveys and taxonomic investigations, a large fern propagation unit was built near the Botanical Garden in Curepipe and scientific and horticultural staff from RBGE provided advice and training to local biologists on all issues relating to the design and implementation of a long-term pteridophyte conservation programme. The initial phase of this programme was funded by the UK Government through its Darwin Initiative for the Survival of Species Scheme. Darwin Initiative funding and RBGE’s managerial responsibility for this programme ceased in 1998 but, three years on, ferns continue to feature prominently. FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 47] SUBJECT INDEX Acacia mearnsii S15 Archangiopteris somai 333 Achrostichum aureum 305, 435 Argentina 444, 454 Actiniopteris dimorpha 315 Aspidotis schimperi 319 Action Plan 267, 275, 281, 283, 288 Aspleniaceae 281, 296, 363, 400, 441 317, 341, 350, 417, 421, 442, 466 Asplenium 295, 296,321 Adenophorus periens 274, 420 363, 400, 455, 464 Adiantopsis 296 Asplenium actiniopteroides 432 Adiantum capillus-veneris 357 Asplenium adiantum-nigrum 357, 452 Adiantum hispidulum 406 Asplenium aethopicum 432, 452 Adiantum mendoncae 314 Asplenium altajense 319 Adiantum pubescens S77 Asplenium anceps 452 Adiantum reniforme 316 Asplenium beckeri 298 Adiantum tenerum 364 Asplenium billotii 857 Adiantum trapesiforme 364 Asplenium bradeanum 298 Adiantum 296; 363 Asplenium cariocanum 298 Africa 272, 313, 421 Asplenium ceterach B57 Agriculture 269, 271, 274 Asplenium chaseanum 314, 315 Aleuriopteris 321 Asplenium daghestanicum 319, 320 Alien species 269, 302, 411, 450, 470 Asplenium decompositum 432 (see also Invasive) Asplenium demerkense 432 Alisma gramineum 437 Asplenium filare ssp. canariensis 452 Allozyme 411, 420, 438 Asplenium fontanum 438 Alsophila abbottii 274 Asplenium fragile var. insulare 281 Alsophila amintae 394 Asplenium gemmascens 316 Alsophila capensis 298 Asplenium goetzei 442 Alsophila firma 439 Asplenium hemionitis 452 Alsophila polystichoides 394 Asplenium kassneri 432 Alsophila setosa 296 Asplenium lademannianum 432 Alsophila spinulosa 384 Asplenium lobatum var. America 432, 448 pseudoabyssinicum 314 Andean Region 274, 421 Asplenium majoricum 438 Anemia cipoensis 298 Asplenium majus 432 Anemia glareosa 298 Asplenium marinum 357, 452 Angiopteris chauliodonta 406 Asplenium mildbraedii 432 Angiopteris lygodiifolia 336 Asplenium monanthes 452 Angiosperms 288 Asplenium mossambicense 314 Angola 3.197314 Asplenium nidus 405, 407 Anogramma leptophylla ca] Asp. obovatum ssp. lanceolatum 452 Anthropogenic a24 Asp. obovatum ssp. obovatum 452 Antigua 301 Asplenium obtusatum 407 Antrophyum mannianum 316 Asplenium onopteris 357 Appalachian 273 Asplenium parablastophorum 314, 315 Arachniodes aristata 405, 406 Asplenium petrarchae 438 Arachniodes mutica 320 Asplenium poloense 299 Araucaria 296, 297, 397 Asplenium polyodon 405, 406 Archangiopteris itoi x35 Asplenium praegracile 432 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 Asplenium ramlowii 315 Asplenium ruta-muraria 35715427 Asplenium sajanense 320 Asplenium schizophyllum 281 Asplenium schwakei 298 Asplenium scolopendrium, 357 Asplenium sebungweense 314 Asplenium septentrionale BNO SST/ 377, 427, 452 Asplenium shuttleworthianum 407 Asplenium simii 432 Asplenium smedsii 316 Asplenium stipicellatum 432 Asplenium terorense 452 Asplenium trichomanes 357, 427, 452 Asplenium uhligii 316, 432 Asplenium viride 351 Asplenium volkensii 432 Asplenium x protomajoricum 438 Asplenium yunnanense 320 Asplenophyllitis microdon 287 Asteraceae 270 Asulam 0) Athyriaceae 281 Athyriopsis japonica 320 Athyrium 363 Athyrium annae Sa Sills Athyrium distentifolium S51) Athyrium filix-femina SPSS 377, 452 Athyrium flexile 343, 357 A. scandicinum var. rhodesianum 314 Athyrium wardii 320 Atlantic Forest 295, 444, 459 ATPB-RBCL intergenic spacer 335 Australia 388, 394, 420, 432, 434, 467 Azolla 273 Azollaceae 401 Azores 448 Balearic Is. 428, 438 Barbados 301 Bay of Biscay 274 Biodiversity Action Plan, see Action plan Biodiversity 269, 295, 341 436, 463, 464, 465 (see also Hotspots) BirdLife International 283 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 472 Blechnaceae 282, 393, 401 Blechnum 296 Blechnum australe 454 Blechnum corralense 426 Blechnum gibbum 395 Blechnum heringeri 298 Blechnum leavigatum 454 Blechnum nipponicum 320 Blechnum spicant 320, 357) 377, 427, 452 Bolbitis gemmifera 315 Bolbitis lindigii 299 Bolbitis nicotianifolia 299 Bolbitis semipinnatifida 299 Bolivia 400 Botanic garden 216,322,340 370, 374, 396, 409 418, 421, 428, 433, 470 Botrychium lunaria 357 Botrychium strictum 320 Botrychium virginianum 298 Botrychium 293 Brazil 274, 280, 295 400, 421, 430, 444, 455, 459 British Isles 284, 341, 344 350, 356, 442, 449, 466 British Red Data Book 345 California 292 Caloclaena 393 Camptosorus sibiricus 318 Canada 280, 291, 422 Canary Is. 448, 452 Carboniferous Zale Carex divisia 325 Caribbean 301, 448 Carpobrotus edulis 408 Caucasus 320 Centre of plant diversity 271 Ceradenia jungermannioides 448 Ceratopteridaceae 272 Ceterach aureum 452 Ceterach officinarum 319 Cheilanthes 32) Cheilanthes angustifrondosa 315 Cheilanthes concolor 299 Cheilanthes kuhnii 320 Cheilanthes leachii 315 Cheilanthes maderensis ANS) FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 473 Cheianthes persica 320 Cyathea alleniae 394 Cheilanthes pteridioides 319 Cyathea annae 394 Cheilanthes similis SS Cyathea apoensis 311 Cheilanthes tinaei 452 Cyathea arthrupoda 394 Cheilanthes welwitschii 315 Cyathea atrovirens 296 Chile 420, 426 Cyathea australis 389 China 335, 383, 394, 421, 432 C. australis ssp. norfolkensis 394 Chloroplast DNA 335 Cyathea brevipinna 395 Christella boydiae 282 Cyathea brownii 395 Christella parasitica 405, 406 Cyathea bunnemeijerii 395 Christella wailele 282 Cyathea carasana var maxonii 395 Cibotium 363, 393 Cyathea coactilis 395 Cibotium apoensis Sit Cyathea cocleana 395 Cibotium barometz 383 Cyathea cooperi 395 Cibotium cumingii S10 Cyathea crinita 436 Cibotium glaucum 364 Cyathea cunninghamii 389 CITES 281, 383, 396, 419, 434 Cyathea doctersii 395 Climax vegetation D2 Cyathea dregei ely Cloud forest 288, 303, 405, 448 Cyathea excavata 395 Cnemidaria stolzeana 394 Cyathea exilis 394 Cnemidaria uleana 298 Cyathea fulva 439 Collection efficiency 305, 309, 314 Cyathea gigantea 436 Colombia 395, 400, 421 Cyathea gregaria 395 Coniogramme africana 316 Cyathea hainanensis 394 Coniogramme intermedia 319 Cyathea. howeana 395 Conservation, (see In-situ, Ex-situ) Cyathea impar Bo5 Convention on Biol. Diversity 269 Cyathea incisoserrata 395 281, 341, 344, 409, 417 Cyathea insulana 395 Cook Islands 305 Cyathea insularum 395 Cornopteris crenulatoserrulata 322 Cyathea kermadecensis 394 Costa Rica 291, 365, 394, 401, 421 Cyathea lateovagans 395 Countryside Council for Wales = 267 Cyathea magnifolia 395 342, 381 Cyathea medullaris 405, 406 Cryopreservation 299, 364 Cyathea moseleyi 395 362, 369, 458 Cyathea nilgirensis 394, 436 Cryptogramma 3215363 Cyathea obliqua 395 Cryptogramma crispa BO ST. Cyathea ogurae 395 Cryptogramma raddeana Bile Cyathea pallidipaleata 395 Cryptogramma stelleri az Cyathea parvipinna 395 Ctenitis cumingii 406 Cyathea pectinata 394 Ctenitis paleolata 310 Cyathea petiolulata 394 Ctenitis squamigera 282 Cyathea pseudogigantea 394 Culcita 393 Cyathea pseudonanna 395 Culcita macrocarpa 445, 446, 452 Cyathea sechellarum 395 Cultural value (of ferns) 269 Cyathea sibuyanensis 3'11;,395 Cunninghamia 337 Cyathea strigillosa B95 Cyathea 272, 363, 393, 394, 400, 419 Cyathea tinganensis 394 Cyathea acuminata 311, 394 Cyathea ternatea 395 Cyathea albocetaceae 394 Cyathea tripinnatifida 395 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 Cyathea tsangii 394 Cyathea x marcescens 389 Cyathea sp. nov. 3S Cyatheaceae 363, 393, 400, 434, 441 Cyclopeltis 363 Cyclopelis phyllitidis 305 Cyclopeltis semicordata 305 Cyrtomium 363 Cystodium 393 Cystopteris dickieana 343, 357 Cystopteris douglasii 281 Cystopteris fragilis 35d Cystopteris kauaiensis 282 Cystopteris montana Spy, Cystopteris sudetica 427 Database 398, 420, 442, 451, 467 Davallia 363 Davallia canariensis 447 Davallia fejeensis 364 Davallia solida 406 Davalliaceae 363 Deforestation ASE DIS), SUS 388, 421, 434 Democratic Rep of Congo 314 Dennstaedtiaceae 282, 400 Deparia kaolaana 282 Devonian 22 Diblemma 309 Dicksonia 393, 419 Dicksonia antarctica 388, 434 Dicksonia arborescens 411 Dicksonia berteriana 395 Dicksonia externa 395 Dicksonia sellowiana 295, 298 439, 459 Dicksoniaceae 363, 383, 393 401, 434, 441 Dicranopteris 2S Dicranopteris linearis 406 Dicranopteris pedata 384 Diellia x lauii 330 Diellia erecta 281, 330 Diellia falcata 251350 Diellia leucostegioides 281 Diellia mannii 281 Diellia pallida 281, 330 Diellia unisora 281, 330 Diellia x lauii 281 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 474 Diplazium 400 — Diplazium caudatum 452 Diplazium harpeodes 406 Diplazium molokaiense 282 Diplopterigium chinense 384 Disturbance 273, 284 DNA 420, 436, 465 Doodia lyonii 282 Doodia media 407 Doryopteris 459 Doropteris angelica 282 Doryopteris patula 298 Doryopteris rufa 298 Doryopteris takeuchii 282 Drynaria quercifolia 364, 435 Drynaria 363 Dryopteridaceae 282, 363, 400 Dryopteris 363 Dryopteris aemula 342, 357, 445, 452 Dryopteris affinis 357, 452 Dryopteris aitoniana 452 Dryopteris carthusiana 284, 357, 450 Dryopteris caucasica 319 Dryopteris chinensis 319; 320 Dryopteris corleyi 445 D. crinalis var. podosorus 282 Dryopteris cristata 357, 449, 465 Dryopteris dilatata 357, 377, 450, 452 Dryopteris expansa 357, 450 Dryopteris filix-mas 357,008 Dryopteris glabra var. pusilla 282 Dryopteris guanchica 445, 452 Dryopteris maderensis 452 Dryopteris oreades 357 Dryopteris submontana B)5)// Dryopteris tetrapinnata 282 Durban, 2003 278 Ecological profile 437 Ecuador 400 Eden project 396 Education 276, 424, 429 Elaphoglossum 400 Elaphoglossum beckeri 299 Elaphoglossum bifurcatum 411 Elaphoglossum dimorphum 411 Elaphoglossum mildbraedii 316 Elaphoglossum nervosum 411 Elaphoglossum rhodesianum 314, 315 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 Elaphoglossum zambesiacum 314, 315 Grammitis marginella Endangered Species Act 291 Grammitis serrulata Endemic 274, 291, 308, 314 Grammitis vilosissima 315, 398, 400, 404, 411 Gran Canaria Initiative 270, 420, 429, 463, 464, 470 Gran Canaria English Nature 267, 341, 381, 466 G-ranks Environmental health 269, 273 Great Britain, see British Isles Equisetaceae 272, 363, 401 Greater Antilles 274.301; Equisetum 296, 363 Grenada Equisetum ramosissimum 343, 452 Guatemala Erica azorica 448 Guernsey Eriosorus cheilanthoides 297 Gymnocarpium dryopteris 357, Eriosorus rufescens 297 G. robertianum 357; 42%, Eriosorus sellowianum 298 Estonia 352, 427, 450 Habitat dynamics Ethobotany 414 Habitat loss Eucalyptus globulus 390, 446 Haplodictyum Euphorbia stygiana 448 Hawaii no. of species Euphrasia grandiflora 448 Hawaii 274, Europe 448, 450, 464, 465 29255305 396; European Habitats Directive 342 Herbarium SO073195399: Evolution 274, 288, 432, 454, 465 442, 450, 452, 459, Ex-situ conservation 269, 270, 272 Horticulture 356, 388, 434, 299, 315, 362 Hotspots (of diversity) 270, 369, 393, 408, 419, 429 398, 400, Extinct, extinction 269; 273 Huperzia 2812282392953297 310, 321, 393, 452, 459, 462 Ferns as food TAR ZTBN3 21 Flora Pteridologia Latinoamerica 399 Flora Zambesiaca S158 317 Florida 284, 292 Forest 280 France 274 French Guiana 394 Gametophyte 272, 274, 303, 342 Genetic diversity 269, 335, 346, 375 408, 411, 449, 464, 465 Georgia (USA) Z97 Geothermal sites 298 ZTE Z15 Ginkgo 396 Glaciation 320, 335, 337, 356, 464 Gleicheniaceae 401 Global Strategy for Plant Conserv. 270 Gondwana 420 Gonocormus minutes 320 Grammitidaceae 274, 282, 400 Grammitis 272 Huperzia badiniana Huperzia capillaris Huperzia catharinae Huperzia erythrocaulon Huperzia friburgensis Huperzia mannii Huperzia martii Huperzia mooreana Huperzia nuda Huperzia nutans Huperzia regnellii Huperzia rostrifolia Huperzia rubra Huperzia selago Huperzia stemmermanniae Huperzia treitubensis Huperzia wilsonii Hurricanes Hymenophyllaceae Hymenophyllopsidaceae Hymenophyllopsis ctenitoides Hymenophyllopsis dejecta Hymenophyllum 2925310; 475 448 315 316 275 451 291 421 301 434 287 S77. 456 284 269 309 290 281 420 436 467 439 283 417 400 298 299 297 298 298 282 298 298 297 282 298 298 298 S77 282 298 299 301 400 401 299 299 400 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 Hymenophyllum malingii Die Hymenophyllum peltatum ZO H. tunbrigense, 357, 452 453, 458 H. wilsonii 342, 357, 447, 452 Icon (fern as) WIR, EN, 2D India 394, 436 Indonesia 283, 394, 431, 434 In-situ conservation 2695, 210272 278, 281, 286, 356, 429, 454, 468 Int. Assoc. of Pteridologists 267, 417 Internat. Botanical Congr. 270, 418 Invasive (see also Alien) 396, 407 Ireland 442, 456 Irish Red Data Book 457 Island altitude 302 Island area 302 Island flora 301 Isoetaceae 282, 401, 441 Isoetes DIB DINED 93 Isoetes bolanderi 44] Tsoetes boryana 274 Isoetes duriei 324 Isoetes hawaiiensis 282 Isoetes hystrix 324 Isoetes kriegeri 298 Isoetes olympica 324 Isoetes velata 437 Isozyme, see Allozyme IUCN 267, 278, 417, 462, 469 Jamesonia brasiliensis 297 Japan 395, 421 Juan Fernandez Is 895 Juncus inflexus 825 Juniperus brevifolia 448 Jurassic 335 Kermadec Is 394 Lacosteopsis orientalis SOF 320 Lactuca watsoniana 448 Lastreopsis pacifica 406 Latin America 291, 444 Lepiosorus albertii 320 Leptolepidium kuhnii 320 Leptorumohra miqueliana S922 Lifespan of ferns a2 Limestone Liquid nitrogen 273, 302, 427, 456 336, 362, 458 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 476 Liquidambar macrophylla 44] Logging 321, 429, 459 (see also Deforestation) Lomariopsidaceae 400 Lophosoriaceae 401 Lord Howe Is 394 Lorinseria 284 Loxomataceae 272, 401 Loxoscaphe gibberosum 406 Lunathyrium henryi 320 Luronium natans 437 Luxembourg 453 Lychnis viscaria 352 Lycopodiaceae 282, 401, 441 Lycopodiella 284, 293 Lycopodiella benjaminiana 299 Lycopodiella bradei 297, 298 Lycopodiella cernua 405, 406 Lycopodiella inundata 343, 419, 466 Lycopodiella iuliformis 299 Lycopodium 296 Lycopodium assurgens 297, 298 Lycopodium jussiaei 297, 298 Lycopodium phlegmaria 316 Lythrum tribracteatum 325 Macaronesia 448 Macrothelypteris 363, 405 Macrothelypteris torresiana 407 Malawi 313,36 Malaysia 394 Malesia 22 Marattiaceae 401, 441 Marsilea 296 Marsilea badiae 437 Marsilea fenestrata 314 Marsilea quadrifolia 433, 437 Marsilea strigosa 319, 437 Marsilea villosa 282 Marsiliaceae 282, 401 Martinique 305 Matteuccia struthiopteris 321 Mauritius 470 Mecodium wrightii ey) Medicinal (use of ferns) 295, 383, 434 Mediterranean 274, 420, 464 Melanodendron integrifolium 411 Meliosma alba 439 Mesic environments 272 = FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 477 Metasequoia glyptostroboides 396 Metaxyaceae 272, 401 Mexico 274, 400, 419, 439, 440, 441 Microlepia strigosa v. mauiensis 282 Microsorum 309 Mining 274 Moluccas 395 Montserrat 305 Mozambique 313, 316 Muhlenbergia macroura 439 Myosurus minimus 3295 Nannothelypteris 308 National Park 279, 280, 281 295, 315, 431, 470 Natural Heritage Program 292 Nature Conservancy (USA) 280 Nature reserve 279, 444 NatureServe 291 NCCPG 360 Nephrolepidaceae 363, 401, 441 Nephrolepis 363 Nephrolepis auriculata 435 Nephrolepis biserrata 305, 407 Nephrolepis cordifolia 407 Nephrolepis hirsutula 407 New Guinea 395, 421, 463 New Phytologist Trust 253, 268 New Zealand 272, 273, 394, 420 No. of species (of ferns) 266, 270 274, 282, 290, 295, 308 319, 356, 398, 400, 420, 429, 431 440, 441, 452, 455, 463, 467, 470 Norfolk Is 394 Nothofagus cunninghamii 390 Notholaena marantae B'9 Notholaena nivea 298 Notholaena pohliana 298 Nothoperanema hendersonii Sl Nutrients 287 Oleandraceae 401 Oligadenus periens 282 Onoclea 363 Ophioglossaceae 282, 401 Ophioglossum 315, 405 Ophioglossum azoricum 357, 452 O. lusitanicum 343, 357, 452 Ophioglossum nudicaule 406 Ophioglossum polyphyllum 452 Ophioglossum reticulatum 406 Ophioglossum vulgatum 337 Orchidaceae 270, 296 Oreopteris limbosperma S375 S01 Osmunda 363 Osmunda regalis 284, 357, 371 Osmundaceae 363, 393, 401 Osmundastrum asiaticum 319.321 Osmundastrum claytonianum 822 Paesia glandulosa 298 Panama 394, 400 Pandanus tectorius 408 Papua New Guinea, (see New Guinea) Paraguay t44 Passenger pigeon 276 PCR 336, 436 Pellaea angolensis 314 Pellaea angulosa 316 Pellaea crenata 298 Pellaea cymbiformis 298 Pellaea geraniaefolia 299 Pellaea glychenoides 298 Pellaea longipilosa 315 Pellaea riedelii 298 Peru 400 Phalaris tuberosa 325 Phegopteris connectilis 357 Philippines 307, 394, 421, 429 Phormium tenax 411 Phyllitis sagittata 428 Phyllitis scolopendrium 319 Phylogeography 335 Phymatosorus commutatus 406 Phymatosorus powellii 406 Phymatosorus scolopendria 405, 407 Pilularia 284 Pilularia americana 297 Pilularia globulifera 321, 343, 357 419, 437, 466 Pilularia minuta 420, 437 Pinus patula S15 Pinus radiata 390, 446 Pitcairn Is. 404 Pityrogramma aurantiaca 316 Pityrogramma calomelanos 805 Plagiogyra fialhoi 298 Plagiogyra matsumurana 320 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 478 Plagiogyriaceae 401 Planta Europa 283 Plantlife 267, 466 Platycerium alcicorne 316 Platycerium elephantotis 316 Platycerium grande 310 Pleistocene, see Glaciation Pleurosoriopsis makinoi 320 Pneumatopteris costata 406 Poaceae 270 Podosorus 308 Poland 371 Polypodiaceae 282, 363, 400, 441 Polypodium 363, 400 Polypodium aureum 364 Polypodium australe S57) Polypodium fauriei 320 Polypodium helleri 282 Polypodium interjectum 30) Polypodium vulgare 357) Polystichum 3), BIOS) Polystichum aculeatum 357, 377, 452 Polystichum bradei 298 Polystichum lonchitis 357, 427 Polystichum setiferum 319, 357, 452 Population growth 269 Pronephrium 309 Prothalli 285 Psilotaceae 401, 441 Psilotum 266 Psilotum nudum 406 Psiomocarpa 308 Pteridaceae 282, 291, 363, 400 Pteridium 273 Pteridium aquilinum S21S 357s Sa7 Pteridophyte Specialist Group 267 275, 417 Pteridophytes, number of species: (see No. of species) Pteris VIS OS Pteris grandiflora 299 Pteris haenkeana 209 Pteris incompleta 452 Pteris lidgatei 282 Pteris pearcei 299 Pterozonium macguirei 2S) Pterozonium scopulinum Uy) Public awareness 269271 Puerto Rico 301, 394 Pyrrosia serpens 405, 407 Quillwort 324 Ranunculus marginatus 325 Ranunculus tripartitus 437 Rare fern 281, 313, 319; 3225am 357, 393, 403, 430, 441, 448, 452 Red Book of RSFR 3 19N Sez Red List 275, 3105 31gSes 403, 405, 417, 420, 442, 462, 469 Regnellidium diphyllum ED) Regression analysis 302 Reintroduction 283, 346, 350 371, 418, 429, 433, 456, 466 Rumohra adiantiformis 296 Russia 286, 319 SABONET 6) i) Salviniaceae 401 Sarawak 213, 395 Scanning electron microscope 325, 372 Sceptridium subbifoliatum 282 Schizaea elegans 44] Schizaeaceae 401, 441 Scottish Natural Heritage 267, 381 Selaginella 291, 293, 363, 400 Selaginella leptophylla 419 Selaginella selaginoides 452 Selaginella subisophylla 314, 315 Selaginella sylvestris 365 Selaginella uncinata 365 Selaginella volubilis 314 Selaginellaceae 363, 400, 441 Senecio paludosus 437 Seychelles 395 Siberia 39 Site of Special Scientific Interest 341 Sokal distance 451 Spain 428, 433, 438, 446 Species Survival Commission 269 271, 274, 275, 278, 417, 469 Sphaeropteris gardeneri 296 Sphaeropteris horrida 439 Sphaerostephanos 309 Spore bank 283, 362, 428, 433, 445 Spore storage, see Spore bank S-ranks 291 St Helena 411, 422 St Lucia 305 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 479 St Thomas 301 St Vincent 305 Stegnogramma pozoi 446 Sulawesi 395, 431 Sumatra 395 Sustainable 272, 279, 388, 417, 434 Switzerland 465 Syria 324 Syzygium jambos 408 Taiwan 335 Tectaria 363 Tectaridium 308 Terpsichore bradeana Ly) Tertiary Period 320 Thelypteridaceae 282, 363, 400 Thelypteris palustris 284, 357 Thyrsopteris 393 Thyrsopteris elegans 3951397 Tissue culture 363,435 Tobago 302 Todea barbara 393 Top-50 list 274, 418, 420 Tourism 274, 278, 279 280, 302, 391, 440 Trachypteris pinnata 298 Trade (in ferns)’ 296, 383, 389, 407, 419, 434, 439, 440 Translocation, (see Reintroduction) Tree fern 2933 29As 231 296) 511. 314, 317,363 388, 393, 434, 436, 439 Trematodon latinervis 408 Trichomaes guidoi 299 Trichomanes enderlichianum 406 Trichomanes orientale 319 Trichomanes speciosum 343, 344 3573 71;424 Trichomanes tahitense 405, 406 Trigonospora EP Trinidad 302 Turkey 324 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service 291 United Kingdom, (see British Isles) United States 290, 420 Vaccineum cylindraceum 448 Vaccinium myrtillus 450 Vandesbochia speciosa 452 Venezuela 302, 400, 421 Victorian fern craze 276 344, 350, 360 Vietnam 335 Virgin Islands 301 Vittaria elongata 406 Vittaria ensiformis Els) Vittariaceae AO] Volcano 301 West. Pennsylvania Nature Cons. 292 Wildlife & Countryside Act 341, 344 356, 438, 442 Wind dispersal 301 Woodsia 322 Woodsia alpina B43, 35 / Woodsia ilvensis 3439550 357, 419, 427 Woodwardia radicans 445, 446 World Comm. on Protected Areas 278, 417 World Heritage Site 280, 283, 404, 419 World Parks Congress 278 Zambia 313 Zimbabwe 3133145315 FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 Aguiar, S. Aguraiuja, R. Amigo, J. Ballesteros, D. Barcelona, J.F. Barrett, J.A. Barros, I.C.L. Bostock, P. Burrows, J. Camus, J. Chaerle, P. Cheng, Y¢P: Chiang, T.Y. Chiang, Y.C. Chinnery, L.E. Chiou, W.L. Chou, C.H. Cooke, R.J. Croft, J. Cronk, Q. Curtis, T. D’Sousa, L. Diaz, R. Dyer, A. Eastwood, A. Estrelles, E. Gibby, M. Given, D. Golding, J. Greer yD: Grund, S. Gureyeva, I.I. Hamilton, A.C. Harris, D. Hegde, S. Herrero A Hilton-Taylor, C. Holderegger, R. Hollowell, T. 429 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 480 AUTHOR INDEX 426 Humphries, C. 468 330, 427 426, 445, 446 Ibars, A.M. 428, 433 428 James, C. 464 307, 429 Jermy, A.C. 267, 417, 449 448, 449, 464 Jia. J.-S. 383 430 Jiménez, B. 444 467 Johns, R.J. 463 313 Kingston, N. 404 431 Knapp, S. 444 432 Kozlowski, G. 465 339 Krippel, Y. 453 335 335 Landergott, U. 465 301 Landsdown, R.V. 437 335 Lawrence, G. 388 305 Lindsay, S. 350, 470 341 Lockton, A. 449 467 Lusby, P. 350 411 Lynn, D. 456 456 Marin, G. 444 435, 436 Martin, J. 456 446 Mehltreter, K. 398, 441 350, 369 Morgans-Richards, M. 464 Musselman, L.J. 324 411 428, 433 Page, C.N. 284 Pajaron, S. 426, 438, 445 344, 369, 411, 448 Palacios-Rios, M. 398, 439, 440, 441 449, 464 Pangua, E. 426, 438, 445 269 Pankhurst, T.J. 437 313) Parks, J.C. 290 388 Paul, A. 442, 449 290 Pena-Chocarro, M. 444 319 Pencemvee: 362 Phillips, A. 278 413 Prado, C. 438 434 435, 436 Quintanilla, L.G. 426, 445, 446 438 462, 469 Ramirez, C. 426 465 Ranker, T.A. 417 Rodriguez, M.A. 446 aan FERN GAZ. 16(6, 7 & 8): 2002 PROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUM 2001 48] Romero, M.I. 446 Rosser, A. 434 Rumsey, F.J. 344, 448, 449, 464 Riink, K. 450 Russell, S.J. 448, 449 Sanchez Velasquez, T, 451, 452 Schneller, J.J. 465 Schwenninger, J.-L. 453 Sheffield, E. S77. Simpson, K.A. 449 Sota, E.R. de la 454 Stewart, N. 466 Suneetha, C. 436 Sylvestre, L.S. 455 Trewick, S. 464 Viane, R. Vogel, IC. Vulez. LE. Vulcz, R. Waldren, S. Wardlaw, A.C. Wilkinson, T. Windisch, P.G. Wood, K.R. Yesthyurt, J-C. Zenkteler, E Zhang, G.-M. Zhang, X.-C. 432 344, 411, 448, 449, 464 388 388 404, 456 266; 356; 393 458 295, 430, 455 330 459 Sia 383 383 ® oh _ THE BRITISH PTERIDOLOGICAL SOCIETY 4 on Registered Charity No. 1092399 * b | Patron: HRH The Prince of Wales q rs lel Officers and Committee from March 2002 F ; _ President: Prof. A.C. Wardlaw, 92 Drymen Road, Bearsden, Glasgow G61 2SY * ae E-mail: President@eBPS.org.uk _ Vice-Presidents: A.R. Busby, Dr N.J. Hards, M.H. Rickard, Prof. B.A. Thomas, Dr T.G. Walker ta Honorary General Secretary: — Miss J.M. Ide, 42 Crown Woods Way, Eltham, London SE9 2NN Be), ey : Ro Tel./Fax: 020 8850 3218; E-mail: Secretary@eBPS.org.uk By Treasurer: A. Leonard, 11 Victory Road, Portsmouth, Hants. PO] 3DR Bat! . | E-mail: Treasurer@eBPS.org.uk 4 ‘ Menbersip Secretary: M.S. Porter, 5 West Avenue, Wigton, Cumbria CA7 9LG e RPS Fh a: Tel.: 016973 43086; E-mail: Membership@eBPS.org.uk Be ies Secretary: P.J. Acock, 13 Star Lane, St Mary Cray, Kent BR5 3LJ g E-mail: Meetings@eBPS.org.uk Conservation Off cer/Recorder: R.J. Cooke, 15 Conduit Road, Stamford, Lincs. PE9 1QQ a Bn)". | E-mail: Conservation@eBPS.org.uk 1% Editor of the ahem Miss A.M. Paul, Department of Botany, The Natural History Museum, a Were na Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD; E-mail: Bulletin@eBPS.org.uk .s Editor oft the Fern Gazette: Dr. M. Gibby, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, “ ge Oe i 20A Inverleith Row, Edinburgh EH3 5LR; E-mail: m.gibby@rbge.org.uk 4 ‘Editor oft the Prridolois Dr J.W. Merryweather, The Farm, Attadale, Strathcarron, a ‘aaa * Wester Ross IV52 8YX; E-mail: Pteridologist@eBPs.org.uk F Editor of BPS WWW Site - www.eBPS. org.uk: A.C. Pigott, Kersey's Farm, Mendlesham, Mate | te is | Stowmarket, Suffolk IP14 SRB; E-mail: Webmaster@eBPS.org.uk a Committee: R.G. Ackers, S.E. Czeladzinski, Dr A.F. Dyer, M. L. Grant, S.J. Munyard, a ee P.M. Ripley, Ms E. Knox-Thomas, Dr F.J. Rumsey, R.W. Sykes, B. Wright iy _Booksales Organiser: S.J. i alpine 234 Harold Road, Hastings, East Sussex TN35 5NG | E-mail: Booksales@eBPS.org.uk rs Pirticaitural Information Officer & BPS Archivist: A.R. Busby, 16 Kirby Corner Road, Canley, a Rs te Coventry CV4 8GD; E-mail: HorticulturalInformation@eBPS. org.uk | a Merchandise Organisers: Mr & Mrs B.D. Smith, Rookwood, | Prospect Rd, Oulton Broad, Rear. | Lowestoft, Suffolk NR32 3PT; E-mail: Merchandise@eBPS.org.uk a Ee behanee Organiser: R.G. Ackers, Deersbrook, Horsham Road, Walliswood, Surrey RH5 SRL "Spore Exchange Organisers: Mr & Mrs B. Wright, 130 Prince Rupert Drive, Tockwith, : a des York YO26 7PU; E-mail: Spores@eBPS.org.uk 7 rustees of Greenfield & Centenary Funds: Prof. A.C. Wardlaw, Miss J.M. Ide, A. Leonard 3 os “The BRITISH PTERIDOLOGICAL SOCIETY was founded in 1891 and today continues as a focus for fern . enthusiasts. It provides a wide range of information about ferns through the medium of its publications and other ¥ literature. It also organises formal talks, informal discussions, field meetings, garden visits, plant exchanges, a spore exchange scheme and fern book sales. The Society has a wide membership which includes gardeners, . _ nurserymen and botanists, both amateur and professional. The Society's journals, the Fern Gazette, Pteridologist and Bulletin, are published annually. The Fern Gazette publishes matter chiefly of specialist interest on _ international pteridology, the Pteridologist, topics of More general appeal, and the Bulletin, Society business and meetings reports. WWW site: http://www.eBPS.org.uk. Membership is open to all interested in ferns and fern- allies. 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Acock, 13 Star Lane, St Mary Cray, Kent BR5 3LJ; E-mail: BackNumbers@eBPS.org.uk. tn oe ee a THE FERN GAZETTE VOLUME 16 PARTS 6,7 & 8 CONTENTS FERN FLORA WORLDWIDE: THREATS AND RESPO Proceedings of the International Symon 2001, Gu df Proties by HRH The Prince of Wales Dedication to Clive Jermy Symposium Proceedings: Contents Presented papers Poster abstracts 3 a e ( Presented papers, available only as the ‘ Subject index Author index ISSN 0308-0838