MONTANA
STATE

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MONTANA STATE LIBRARY

3 0864 0009 8250 7

Ferruginous Hawk (Buteo regalis) Inventories
on the Dillon Resource Area
of Southwest Montana; 1992

by
Eric C. Atkinson

Montana Natural Heritage Program
1515 East Sixth Avenue
Helena, Montana 59620

for the

Bureau of Land Management

Dillon Resource Area

Dillon, Montana 59725

Cooperative Challenge Cost Share Program

Montana Natural Heritage Program

Bureau of Land Management

STATE DOCUMENTS COLLECTION

OCT 2u 1997

MONTANA STATE LIBRARY

1515 E- 6th AVE-
HELENA, MONTANA 59S20

Dl

r Lr /■■;.. v

;■ I I lii I

December 1992

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

METHODS 4

RESULTS 7

DISCUSSION 18

CONCLUSIONS AND MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS 2 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 28

LITERATURE CITED 3 0

ABSTRACT

From June to August 1992, 42,890 ha of public and private
land were surveyed in Beaverhead and Madison counties of
southwest Montana for the presence of Ferruginous Hawks.
Fifty nests were located, including 16 active nests (15
previously undocumented territories) . With the addition of
these active nests, the surveyed areas of southwestern
Montana contain at least 132 active territories. Hawks
chose a variety of substrates upon which to nest, primarily
placing nests upon rocky outcrops (51.6%) in this high
elevation population (x = 1888 + 178.5 m) . Nests were
located near the apexes (65.39 + 17.87%) of steep slopes
(62.76 + 40.15%) which predominantly exhibited a southern
exposure (190.84 + 62.45°). Habitat within 100 m of
Ferruginous Hawk nests consisted of approximately equivalent
proportions of grassland and shrubland, whereas grassland
constituted over 50% of the vegetation within a 1.6 km
circle centered at the nest. On average, territories
contained 1.31 + 0.92 alternate nests and active territories
were separated by a mean of 1911 m (SD = 659.2 m) . Density
of breeding Ferruginous Hawks was highly variable throughout
the study area ranging from 0 to 0.10 active territories per
square kilometer (x = 0.04 + 0.04 active territories/km2).
Fifty percent of the active and inactive nests were observed
in the Sagebrush Steppe Association, whereas the Foothill
Prairie Association contained 43.8 and 23.5% of the active

and inactive nests, respectively. Only 6.3 and 2% of the
active and inactive nests, respectively, were located in the
Mountain Mahogany Association. Productivity of Ferruginous
Hawk nests was 1.9 + 1.4 fledglings/territorial pair.
Ground squirrels (Spermoohilus spp.) accounted for 45.5% of
identified prey items, whereas passerines made up nearly 20%
of the diet of this population of Ferruginous Hawks.
Vegetative diversity was measured surrounding 15 active
nests from the Centennial Valley north to the Dillon area.

1

INTRODUCTION
The Ferruginous Hawk (Buteo reqalis) is the largest
buteo in North America and has been shown to be strongly-
associated with grasslands, and to a lesser extent, shrub
steppe communities where open areas are available for
foraging. Ferruginous Hawks historically nested over much
of western North America (Figure 1) . Many researchers have
inferred or demonstrated that Ferruginous Hawk populations
have declined through portions of their range and since
1982, this species has been classified as a Category 2
species by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service
(USFWS) (Woffinden 1975, Oakleaf 1985, Powers and Craig
1976, Murphy 1978, Bechard 1981, Evans 1982, Houston and
Bechard 1984, Schmutz 1984, Schmutz et al. 1984, Woffinden
and Murphy 1989, USFWS 1992). In 1991, the USFWS was
petitioned to list this species as "endangered" under the
Endangered Species Act (Ure et al. 1991) ; a listing that was
subseguently deemed unmerited due to the high variability
within and between populations in terms of productivity and
to the fact that the petition presented insufficient
information to warrant such a listing (USFWS 1992) even
though Ferruginous Hawks are currently considered a
"threatened" species by the Canadian Wildlife Service
(Johnsgard 1990) . Much concern remains regarding the long-
term viability of Ferruginous Hawks over much of their
range.

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The state-wide status and viability of Ferruginous
Hawks in Montana is poorly known with studies to date
centered in extreme southeastern, extreme southwestern, and
north-central Montana (Ensign 1983; Myers 1987; Restani
1989, 1991; Harmata 1991; Wittenhagen 1991). Montana
appears to support a relatively stable population of
breeding Ferruginous Hawks, second in size only to Wyoming
in the United States (Ure et al. 1991, USFWS 1992) . Myers
(1987) documented a very high density of nesting pairs in
Beaverhead and Madison counties, rivalled by few other
populations region-wide. However, similar to other portions
of its breeding range, apparently suitable habitat in
southwestern Montana remains unoccupied by breeding
Ferruginous Hawks (Fitzner et a_l. 1977, E. C. Atkinson pers .
observ.) and the number of active territories has likely
declined historically in Montana as a result of homesteading
and the concurrent conversion of native grasslands to
agriculture (Dennis Flath pers. comm. ) . Just to our north
in Alberta, Ferruginous Hawks presently occupy only 60% of
the area in which they historically nested, a situation that
is strongly tied to increases in land area used for
agriculture and the increases of woody species associated
with fire suppression (Houston and Bechard 1984; Schmutz
1984, 1987a) .

This study was a continuation of the surveys of public
land in southwest Montana performed in 1985 and 1986 by

4
Lewis Myers [Bureau of Land Management (BLM) , Dillon
Resource Area] . The surveys that I performed in 199 2 led to
the completion of an inventory program for the majority of
BLM holdings in Beaverhead and Madison counties, Montana
(Figure 2) .

METHODS

I initiated field surveys for nesting Ferruginous Hawks
on 24 June 1992 and continued until 1 August 1992. Six
major areas totalling 42,890 ha (105,900 acres) to be
surveyed were delineated by Dillon Resource Area (BLM)
biologist Jim Roscoe (Appendix A) . Area boundaries were
transferred to 7 . 5 minute U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
topographic maps for use in the field.

Surveys were conducted on foot by walking ridges while
intermittently stopping to survey the surrounding areas for
stick nests and hawks with 9X binoculars and/or 20X spotting
scope. Additionally, some areas were surveyed via 4x4
truck, again, coupled with scanning through binoculars,
often from exposed promontories. One aerial survey from a
fixed-wing aircraft was performed on 16 July.

Locations of Ferruginous Hawk and other raptor nests
were plotted on 7 . 5 minute guads and a "Raptor Nest
Inventory" form (BLM) (Appendix B) was filled out for each
Ferruginous Hawk nest observed. I categorized the substrate
supporting the nest into the following: ground = nest

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situated directly (not elevated) upon the ground; outcrop =
nest situated on a rocky outcrop, the size of which ranged
from < lm to several meters in height; rimrock or bluff = a
linear escarpment or fault-line, smaller than a cliff and up
to approximately 12m in height; cliff = less linear than
rimrock and usually > 12m in height; tree = conifer or
deciduous tree, or shrub; and power pole. The activity
status of each nest was determined, number and approximate
age of young were recorded, slope and aspect were measured,
prey items were enumerated, and pellets were collected at
each nest. Additionally, I visually estimated the percent
cover and percent guantity of major vegetative cover types
primarily including grassland, shrubland, and shrub/grass
mosaic areas within a 100 m radius of the nest and within a
1.6 km (1 mile) radius of the nest. I determined the
habitat association within which each nest occurred from
maps located at the Dillon Resource Area office (Kuchler
1964) ..

Ferruginous Hawk pellets were dissected with a 10-30X
dissection scope, prey items were identified, and prey were
enumerated, corrected to the minimum number of individuals
represented for each nest or collection date. Beetles
(Carabidae and Scarabaidae) were treated as though they were
incidentally ingested, hence, were not included in the
analysis. Diet diversity was calculated for the complete
study area (Ludwig and Reynolds 1988) .

7
From 30 July to 1 August, botanical data surrounding 15
nests (active 1992) were recorded with the use of ECODATA
methodology (Appendix C, DeVelice 1991). Shannon's index
and Hill's numbers as measurements of diversity for plant
species present within a 10.9 m radius surrounding each nest
were calculated for each ECODATA plot (Ludwig and Reynolds
1988) .

RESULTS

I found a total of 16 active Ferruginous Hawk nests
while performing surveys. I also discovered 24 inactive
nests over the course of the field season. Nests ranged in
elevation from 1635 to 2286 m (5365 to 7500 feet) (x =
1887.8 m, SD = 178.5 m, n = 50). Legal descriptions of each
nest with habitat associations are presented in Appendix D.
Completed "Raptor Nest Inventory" forms are on file at the
Dillon Resource Area office. Additionally, 11 active nests
located in the Centennial Valley adjacent to our study area
(Marco Restani, pers. comm.) were visited to record
productivity and to describe nesting habitat. Locations of
other raptor nests observed are listed in Appendix E.

Density of active territories was quite variable
between the areas that were surveyed (Table 1) . The two
areas with highest Ferruginous Hawk breeding pair densities
were the Frying Pan Basin and Diamond Butte areas, both of
which contained a significant amount of private lands. The

8

Table 1. Areas surveyed, number of active territories, and
densities of Ferruginous Hawks in southwest
Montana.

AREA

# km2

# ACTIVE
TERRITORIES

km2/ # PAIRS
PAIR /km2

Armstead 77.7

Bannack 59.5

Block Mtn. 4 6.6

Diamond Butte 19.7
Frying Pan Basin 77.7

Henneberry 57.0

Sweetwater 44.1

Vinegar Basin 46.6

0

0.00

1

59.5

0.02

1

46.6

0.02

2

9.9

0.10

8

9.7

0.10

1

57.0

0.02

1

44.1

0.02

1

46.6

0.02

Total

428.9

15

28.6

0.04

9
average distance which separated active nests was 1911 m (SD
= 659.15, n = 8) and I found that each active territory
contained an average of 2.31 nests (including the active
nest and any alternate nests) (SD = 1.92, n = 16). Eight
territories contained the active nest only, whereas one
territory contained seven alternate nests.

The single aerial survey proved to be guite efficient.
During a period of two hours I located two Ferruginous Hawk
nests in the approximately 7800 ha (19200 acres) surveyed.
However, both nests were inactive. I subseguently surveyed
the area on foot and by vehicle, discovering one additional
inactive Ferruginous Hawk nest and an active Red-tailed Hawk
nest from which young had recently fledged.

Ferruginous Hawks chose a variety of substrates for
nesting, most commonly upon rocky outcrops (Figure 3).
Other than those nests on cliffs or in trees, most were
guite accessible from the ground, potentially accessible to
ground predators. Nests were oriented nonrandomly with
hawks preferring to orient their nests with a southern
exposure [x = 190.84° , circular standard deviation =
76.94°, n = 48; Rayleigh's test, z = 7.91, p < 0.0001 (Zar
1974) ] (Figure 4) .

The slope upon which Ferruginous Hawks placed their
nests was guite variable and the mean slope was guite high
(x = 62.8%, SD = 40.2%, n = 50) (Figure 5). Most nests were

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placed on the upper 35% of these relatively steep slopes
(Figure 6) .

Habitat surrounding 4 3 Ferruginous Hawk nests was
largely composed of a mixture of grassland and shrubland.
Within 100 m (300 ft) of the nest, the guantity of grassland
and shrubland was approximately eguivalent, whereas the
majority of the area within 1.6 km (1 mile) was composed of
grassland (Figure 7) . However, most of the nests were found
within the Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) Steppe
Association (Kuchler 1964) (Figure 8) .

Productivity of Ferruginous Hawks throughout the study
area and the Centennial Valley was variable with 81.5% of
nests fledging at least one young [x = 1.93 fledglings, SD =
1.38 fledglings, n = 27 (all active nests); x = 2.36
fledglings, SD = 1.14 fledglings, n = 22 (successful nests)]
(Figure 9) . The most common number of young fledged per
nest was two. Five nests failed to fledge young, apparently
due to a number of factors including removal of the nest
from a power pole by utility workers (Scott Jackson, U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, pers. comm.), predation by a
corvid, possible shooting of a nestling, chilling of eggs in
a nest near a salt lick, and failure to lay eggs by one
pair.

Through identification of 87 prey items I determined
that Ferruginous Hawks in the southwest Montana study area
preyed primarily upon small rodents, especially ground

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18
squirrels (Spermophilus armatus and/or S. elegans) which
accounted for nearly 46% of the total number of individual
prey items identified (Table 2) . In this population of
Ferruginous Hawks, birds contributed substantially to
nesting season diet accounting for nearly 20% of the
identified prey items.

Vegetation diversity in a 375 m2 plot centered at each
of 15 nests from the Centennial Valley to the Frying Pan
Basin west of Dillon are presented in Table 3 .

DISCUSSION
This study concluded an inventory of the majority of
public lands in southwest Montana for nesting Ferruginous
Hawks. Even though the surveys were initiated too late to
observe hawks early in the nesting season, coupled with the
fact that breeding phenology was apparently advanced in 1992
(Jim Roscoe, pers. coram.), I documented a considerable
number of successfully breeding Ferruginous Hawks during the
study. The proportion of successfully reproducing hawks was
high (81.5%) with only 5 nests failing during the breeding
attempt. This value is slightly higher than the 57.9 and
70.6% for 1985 and 1986, respectively, reported by Myers
(1987) and substantially higher than that reported for
southeastern Montana (25-27.3%) (Ensign 1983). However,
caution should be exercised when comparing these nesting
success data to those of other studies since I may have

19

Table 2. Prey items identified in pellets and prey remains
at Ferruginous Hawk nests.

Taxon

Number

Insects

Red-legged Grasshopper
Acrididae

12

13.79

Mammals

Lagomorpha

Cottontail Rabbit

Sylvalagus sp. 4

White-tailed Jackrabbit

Lepus townsendii 1

unident. lagomorph 1

total lagomorphs (6)

Rodentia

Northern Pocket Gopher

Thomomys talpoides 6

Ground Sguirrel

Spermophilus sp.* 37

Vole

Microtus sp.** 4

Sagebrush Vole

Lagurus curtatus 1

Deermouse

Peromyscus maniculatus 1
unident. rodent 3

total rodents (49)

total mammals (55)

Birds

Sage Thrasher 7

Oreoscoptes montanus
Horned Lark 4

Eremophila alpestris
Black-billed Magpie 1

Pica pica
Vesper Sparrow 1

Pooecetes qramineus
unident. bird 4

total birds (17)

4.60

1.15
1.15

(6.90)

6.

90

45.

53

4.

60

1.

15

1.

,15

3.

,45

(56,

.32)

(63.

,22)

8,

.05

4,

.60

1,

.15

1,

.15

4

.60

(19

.54)

Total

Diversity indices:
H1 = 2.01
Nl = 7.50
N2 = 4.71

87

* S. armatus or S. eleqans

** M. lonqicaudus or M. montanus

20

Table 3 . Vegetative diversity surrounding Ferruginous Hawk
nests as measured through ECODATA methodology
(DeVelice 1991) .

NEST LOCATION # H' Nl N2 E5
(TRS) SPP.

06S09W32NWSWNE 11 1.59 4.89 3.81 0.72
06S09W20SENESW 16 2.39 10.93 10.38 0.94

06S09W17SWSENE

15

2.

,11

8,

,23

06S09W18SWSESE

11

1.

,92

6.

,81

06S09W08NESENE

19

2.

,05

7,

,79

14S04W29NWSWSW

26

2.

,58

13,

.26

14S04W28NESESE

36

2,

,56

12,

,87

14S05W35NENENE

18

2.

.23

9,

.29

14S05W35SWNENW

12

1.

,89

6.

.63

14S06W33SESENE

12

1,

.87

6,

.52

15S06W08NESENE

13

2,

,07

7,

.93

15S06W07SWSWNE

19

2,

.34

10,

.34

12S07W28SESESE

24

2,

.27

9,

.70

09S10W19NESWNE

14

1,

.81

6

.13

07S11W35SENENW

11

1,

.96

7

.08

6.99

0.83

6.01

0.86

5.78

0.71

8.51

0.61

8.53

0.63

7.50

0.78

4.81

0.68

5.61

0.84

6.96

0.86

8.99

0.86

6.65

0.65

3.40

0.47

6.01

0.82

H1 = Shannon Index

Nl = Hill's Number One (number of abundant species)

N2 = Hill's Number Two (number of very abundant species)

E5 = Evenness (Modified Hill's Ratio)

21
missed nesting attempts that were aborted early in the
season. The densities of active Ferruginous Hawk
territories were lower than those determined by Myers
(1987), however, the study-wide value was still greater than
the nesting density found in southeastern Montana (Ensign
1983, Wittenhagen 1991). Myers (1987) observed that the
highest nesting density was in the Mountain Mahogany
(Cercocarpus ledifolius) Association, whereas the lowest
density occurred in the Sagebrush Steppe Association
(Kuchler 1964) . I surveyed very little of the Mountain
Mahogany Association, finding one occupied nest, and the
highest densities that I recorded were in the Sagebrush
Steppe Association (Diamond Butte Area) and the Foothill
Prairie Association (Frying Pan Basin Area) . The nesting
densities in these latter two areas were comparable to, yet
still lower than, the densities reported by Myers (1987) for
those two associations. Interestingly, both of the above
survey areas contained a considerable portion of private
lands; more so than any of the other six areas inventoried.
The number of alternate nests contained within each of
the sixteen active territories was very similar to the
number/territory described by Myers (1987) , with the
majority of territories in each study containing no
alternate nests.

Productivity per occupied territory was high and
similar to the values reported for 1985 and 1986 by Myers
(1987). The value of 1.97 fledglings per nest is adequate
to maintain a stable population of Ferruginous Hawks based
upon minimum requirement of 1.5 fledglings per nest assuming

22
mortality of 66% and 25% for juveniles and adults,
respectively (Schmutz and Fyfe 1987, Woffinden and Murphy
1989) .

Selection of nesting sites was variable and, hence,
quite similar to that described by Myers (1987) for portions
of southwest Montana surveyed during 1985 and 1986. While
Myers (1987) found that Ferruginous Hawks most commonly
nested on the ground, I observed only 3 ground nests,
whereas, nests on rocky outcrops were by far the most common
nest type accounting for 53% of the nests observed. If only
the nests discovered in the actual surveys are included
(deleting the nests in the Centennial Valley) , only 2 nests
were located on the ground and outcrop-nests comprised
nearly 66% of the total. Additionally, I determined that
average slope upon which Ferruginous Hawks nested was
significantly greater than the slope described by Myers
(1987) (t = 3.232, 0.002 > p <0.001, n = 366). This
difference was likely due to the more broken landscape
surveyed during this study than during previous surveys in
southwest Montana. Additionally, the slope gradient nested
upon in southwest Montana was greater than nest slopes in
southeast Montana (Ensign 1983) . However, like Myers (1987)
I determined that the majority of nests were located on the
upper portion of slopes which may allow hawks an
unobstructed vantage point and an efficient departure route
from the nest.

A southern nest exposure such as I observed in this
study, as well as in other studies (Smith and Murphy 1982,
Ensign 1983, Myers 1987), has been interpreted to indicate a

23
preference for areas of high solar radiation and/or a
preference for placing nests in line of the prevailing wind
for lofting from the nest (Smith and Murphy 1982, Ensign
1983, Marco Restani, pers. coram.) . Solar radiation may be
of importance in this high elevation population of
Ferruginous Hawks for when birds return from their wintering
grounds snow cover may still be present in the study area
and periods of inclement weather may occur in the spring
(pers. observ.) . This importance is borne out by the fact
that three of the seven nests with a generally northward
exposure (0-90° and 270-360°) were located in trees.
Ferruginous Hawks, by nesting in trees, may be able to
offset some of the harshness that they would experience when
ground nesting on a north-facing slope.

I found the diet of Ferruginous Hawks in southwestern
Montana to be quite diverse. Hill's measures of diversity,
Nl and N2 , correspond to the number of abundant and the
number of very abundant species, respectively, in the diet
sample (Ludwig and Reynolds 1988) . Therefore, over seven
(Nl =7.5) different species were classified as abundant,
including ground squirrels, red-legged grasshoppers, Sage
Thrashers, northern pocket gophers, cottontail rabbits,
voles, and Horned Larks. Over four species were classified
as very abundant (N2 = 4.7). Much of the dietary diversity
may be attributed to the fact that Ferruginous Hawks in our
study area preyed heavily upon songbirds. Songbirds
accounted for nearly 2 0% of the diet, somewhat higher than
the 12.1% reported by Restani (1991) for the Centennial
Valley. Other researchers have noted that avian prey

24
usually contribute little to Ferruginous Hawk diet and that
a high proportion of avian prey in the diet may be inferred
to be the result of hawks preying upon non-preferred and,
hence, alternate prey during periods of low prey abundance
(Schmutz et al. 1980, Ensign 1983, Gilmer and Stewart 1983).
Without actual measures of prey abundance and diversity in
southwest Montana, it is difficult to postulate whether
avian species are alternate prey to this population of
Ferruginous Hawks.

Vegetative diversity within 375 m2 plots centered at
nests, as measured by Hill's Nl, was guite variable with
five of the six nests exhibiting values > 9.0 located in or
adjacent to the Centennial Valley. Additionally, seven of
the nine nests with Nl < 9.0 were further north in the
Beaverhead Valley. This trend may be due to different
precipitation regimes from the Centennial Valley northward
(and generally downward in elevation) and apparently was
analogous to the prey abundance gradient that I observed.

CONCLUSIONS AND MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
Ferruginous Hawks are successfully reproducing on the
public lands of southwestern Montana. Reproductive success
during 1992 was high and hawks chose a variety of substrates
upon which to nest. With the addition of the 15 previously
unknown active territories discovered during this study to
the 97 active territories described by Myers (1987), the
five or six active territories on the Blacktail Wildlife
Management Area (Dennis Flath, pers. comm.) and the 15
active sites in the Centennial Valley (Restani 1989) , I

25

estimate that the breeding population of Ferruginous Hawks
in Beaverhead and Madison counties comprise a minimum of 132
pairs. This estimate may be conservative for additional
segments of public and private land have yet to be surveyed.
These areas include the area between Sweetwater Creek and
the Blacktail Wildlife Management Area which contains the
Robb Ledford Wildlife Management Area where eight nests have
been located [at least two active territories (E. C.
Atkinson and Dennis Flath, unpub . data)].

Throughout the study area, active nests appeared to be
clumped in their distribution with areas containing decadent
nests situated between these active "complexes". Vegetative
cover appeared to be similar between the areas of high
activity and the unoccupied areas similar to the situation
described by Fitzner et a_l. (1977) in southeastern
Washington and Ann Black (pers. comm.) in Phillips County,
Montana. I believe that the variables leading to these
observations warrant further study. Ultimately, such
factors as high site-fidelity, complexes containing related
individuals, differential prey populations, grazing
practices and the subsequent changes in vegetation
associated with different intensities of grazing, in
addition to human disturbance may all play a role in
determining what areas in southwestern Montana are occupied
by breeding Ferruginous Hawks.

The population of Ferruginous Hawks in southwest
Montana is one of the most productive groups studied to
date. Additionally, these breeding pairs show very high
nesting density. Both of these factors lend make southwest

26
Montana an ideal area for further study, especially long-
term projects.

I suggest the following for further work on the
Ferruginous Hawk population of southwestern Montana.

A. Management of nest sites.

1. Minimize disturbance. Several researchers have

highlighted the vulnerability of Ferruginous Hawks
to human disturbance (Olendorff 1973, Ensign
1983) , an observation reiterated by the fact that
I believe 3 of the 5 recorded nest failures in
this study were directly and indirectly human
caused. Therefore, I propose direct contact or
indirect information for ranchers, seismic crews,
prospectors, and others using occupied Ferruginous
Hawk habitat during the breeding season. Periods
of high susceptibility include, but are not
limited to, the period of egg-laying and
incubation (mid April to early June) and the
period of late nestling stage (early to late
July) (Myers 1987, Lewis Myers, pers. comm.).
Persons should be advised to maintain a distance
of at least 450 m from active hawk nests to avoid
flushing the bird (Ensign 1983) and should keep
their activities in the territory to a minimum.
In areas with active ground nests or easily
accessed nests on outcrops, a delay in cattle
grazing may allow hawks the opportunity to finish

27
incubation. Additionally, every effort should be
made to place salt licks outside of active
Ferruginous Hawk territories and water tanks.

2. Minimize power pole nesting. I observed one

renesting attempt by a Ferruginous Hawk pair after
their nest had been removed from a power pole.
This pair attempted to reuse the same pole which
ultimately resulted in loss of the nest during a
storm. In areas where hawks attempt to nest on
power poles (i.e. the Monida area) deterrents
should be erected upon poles to discourage the use
of this substrate by Ferruginous Hawks for nesting
or suitable alternate structures should be erected
nearby.

B. Research.

1. Assess the impacts of grazing. A long term
monitoring project on a selected subset of
Ferruginous Hawk nests and how the occupancy, nest
success, and productivity relate to current and
historical grazing practices would be very
informative. It has been inferred that grazing
can positively influence the foraging of
Ferruginous Hawks by removing hiding cover for
prey in addition to increasing the densities of
some species of small mammals (Kochert et al.
1978, Wakely 1978, Schmutz 1987b). However, over
the long term, grazing may also increase the

28

amount of woody vegetation in an area, a situation
that is not conducive to Ferruginous Hawk foraging
(Lewis Myers, pers . comm.) . Locations on the
Dillon Resource Area that may be appropriate for
such a project are the Sage Creek area where
Ferruginous Hawks are concentrated and the Matador
Cattle Company grazes cattle on public land (Jim
Roscoe, pers. comm.) and the Frying Pan Basin
area.

2. Prey populations should be assessed. I observed
what appeared to be a gradient of prey abundance,
especially ground squirrels, from the Centennial
Valley (high abundance) north to the apparently
drier areas west of Dillon (low abundance) . Does
this apparent gradient correspond with a gradient
of Ferruginous Hawk nesting density, nest success,
and productivity?

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Geoff FitzGerald for excellent
and tireless assistance in the field, especially on those
days we spent racing lightning storms. Thanks to Jim Roscoe
of the Dillon Resource Area for very worthwhile logistical
support throughout the study and to Dave Genter (Montana
Natural Heritage Program) for giving me the opportunity to
return to Montana in addition to critical reviewing
manuscripts and supporting my endeavors. Marco Restani
introduced me to the Ferruginous Hawks of the Centennial

29

Valley and has shared information with the Montana Natural
Heritage Program and Jim Reichel (MNHP) reviewed a draft of
this report. Sarge Hoem (Montana Dept. of Fish, Wildlife
and Parks and Lighthawk, The Environmental Airforce) donated
his time to fly our aerial survey. Thanks to the folks at
Red Rock Lakes National Wildlife Refuge (USFWS) for
providing a bunkhouse for our use. Pam Harrington (MNHP)
spent several days identifying the plant communities
surrounding nests. Finally, I want to thank the private
landowners of southwest Montana who graciously allowed
access to and through their land; without their cooperation
such a study would suffer greatly.

30

LITERATURE CITED
Bechard, M. J. 1981. Historical nest records for the

ferruginous hawk in Manitoba. Can. Field-Natur.

95:467-469.
DeVelice, R. L. 1991. MTNHP site and community survey

manual. version 91B. Montana Natural Heritage

Program, Helena, MT. 24 pp.
Ensign, J. T. 1983. Nest site selection, productivity, and

food habits of ferruginous hawks in southeastern

Montana. MS. thesis. Montana State University,

Bozeman. 83 pp.
Evans, D. L. 1982. Status reports on twelve raptors.

Special Scientific Report — Wildlife No. 238. U.S. Fish

and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 70 pp.
Fitzner, R. E. , D. Berry, L. L. Boyd, and C. A. Rieck.

1977. Nesting of ferruginous hawks (Buteo reqalis) in

Washington, 1974-1975. Condor 79:245-249.
Gilmer, D. S. and R. E. Stewart. 1983. Ferruginous hawk

populations and habitat use in North Dakota. J.

Wildlife Management 47:146-157.
Harmata, A. R. 1991. Impacts of oil and gas development on

raptors associated with Kevin Rim, Montana. Unpubl .

report. Montana State University, Bozeman. 97 pp.
Houston, C. S. and M. J. Bechard. 1984. Decline of the

ferruginous hawk in Saskatchewan. Amer. Birds 38:166-
170.

31
Johnsgard, P. A. 1990. Hawks, eagles, and falcons of
North America. Smithsonian Institution Press,
Washington, D.C. 4 03 pp.
Kochert, M. N. , B. A. Millsap, and K. Steenhof. 1988.

Effects of livestock grazing on raptors with emphasis
on the southwest. pp 325-334 in B. G. Pendleton (ed.),
Proc. of the Southwest Raptor Management Symposium and
Workshop. National Wildlife Federation Scientific and
Technical Series No. 11.
Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Potential Natural Vegetation of the
Conterminous United States. American Geographical
Society, Special Publication 36. 156 pp.
Ludwig, J. A. and J. F. Reynolds. 1988. Statistical

ecology: a primer on methods and computing. Wiley-
Interscience Publication. New York, New York.
Myers, L. H. 1987. Nesting ecology of ferruginous hawks
in S.W. Montana. Paper presented at the Montana
Nongame Symposium, Kalispell, MT. February 11, 1987.
14 pp.
Murphy, J. R. 1978. Management considerations for some

western hawks. Trans. N. Amer. Wildl. Natur. Resour.
Conf. 43:241-251.
Oakleaf, R. J. 1985. Ferruginous hawk: Wyoming. Paper
given at the Raptor research Foundation Meeting,
Sacramento, CA. 7 pp.

32
Olendorff, R. R. 1973. Ecology of the nesting birds of

prey of northeastern Colorado. U. S. Int. Biol. Prog.,

Grassland Biome, Fort Collins, CO. Tech. Rep. No. 211.

2 3 3 pp .
Powers, L. R. and T. H. Craig. 1976. Status of nesting

ferruginous hawks in the Little Lost river Valley and

vicinity, southeastern Idaho. Murrelet 57:46-47.
Restani, M. 1989. Resource partitioning among three

species of hawks in the Centennial Valley, MT. MS.

thesis. Montana State University, Bozeman. 86 pp.
Restani, M. 1991. Resource partitioning among three Buteo

species in the Centennial Valley, Montana. Condor

93:1007-1010.
Schmutz, J. K. 1984. Ferruginous hawk and Swainson's hawk

abundance and distribution in relation to land use in

southeastern Alberta. J. Wildl. Manage. 40:438-440.
Schmutz, J. K. 1987a. Estimate of population size and

probable causes of population stability in ferruginous

hawks in southeastern Alberta. Unpubl . Rep. Univ.

Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. 4 5 pp.
Schmutz, J. K. 1987b. The effect of agriculture on

ferruginous hawks and Swainson's hawks. J. Range

Management 40:438-440.
Schmutz, J. K. and R. W. Fyfe. 1987. Migration and

mortality of Alberta ferruginous hawks. Condor 89:169-

174.

33

Schmutz, J. K. , R. W. Fyfe, D. A. Moore, and A. R. Smith.

1984. Artificial nests for ferruginous and Swainson's
hawks. J. Wildl. Manage. 48:1009-1013.

Smith, D. G. and J. R. Murphy. 1982. Nest site selection
in raptor communities of the eastern Great Basin.
Great Basin Natur. 42:395-404.

Wittenhagen, K. W. 1991. 1991 progress report on the

ferruginous hawk in southeastern Montana. Unpubl. Rep.
U.S. Bur. Land Manage., Miles City, MT. 24 pp.

Woffinden, N. D. 1975. Ecology of the ferruginous hawk

(Buteo regalis) in central Utah: population dynamics
ad nest site selection. MS. thesis. Brigham Young
Univ., Provo, Utah. 102 pp.

Woffinden, N. D. and J. R. Murphy. 1989. Decline of a

ferruginous hawk population: A 20-year summary. J.
Wildl. Manage. 53:1127-1132.

Ure, J., P. Briggs, and S. W. Hoffman. 1991. Petition to
list as endangered the ferruginous hawk (Buteo
regalis) , as provided by the Endangered Species Act of
1973, as amended in 1982. Ferruginous Hawk Project,
Salt Lake City, Utah. 9 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1992. Endangered and

threatened wildlife and plants; notice of finding on
petition to list the ferruginous hawk. Federal
Register 57 (161) : 37507-37513 . August 19, 1992.

34
Zar, J. H. 1974. Biostatistical Analysis. Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

APPENDIX A

Areas surveyed for Ferruginous Hawks on the Dillon Resource
Area in southwest Montana (1992) .

Block Mountain Area (1 inch = 1 mile)

A-03

<9 zm >

Bannack Area (1 inch = 1 mile)

A-02

Diamond Butte Area (1 inch = 1 mile)

A-04

f 663T

4^J^-4V y n

Frying Pan Basin (1 inch = 1 mile)

A-05

T.6S:

Henneberry Ridge Area (1 inch = 1 miie)

A-06

Sweetwater Area (1 inch = 1 mile)

A-07

Vinegar Hill Area (1 inch = 1 mile)

A-08

APPENDIX B

Bureau of Land Management "Raptor Nest Inventory" Form.

L"

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APPENDIX C

Completed ECODATA forms and methodology for vegetation
surrounding 15 Ferruginous Hawk nests in southwest Montana
(1992) .

C-01

COMMUNITY SURVEY FORM mtnhp

5/27/91

GENERAL PLOT DATA

IDENTIFICATION AND LOCATION

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Low Cv Grd Cv

G12 _y

BRYO/LICH Tot Cv2£) /__/d_

<"..V '

^

COMMENTS (EODATA) — >

C-03

COMMUNITY SURVEY FORM mtnhp

5/27/91

GENERAL PLOT DATA

IDENTIFICATION AND LOCATION

__ MANUAL UNITS _^dft m

PLOT NO . 1 ~ 0.3 MO 01 DAY 3{) YEAR gg EOCODE *

EXAMINER(s) lhjzJkXi±J^ihl£i EU£ ^k'i'So/y.

PNC/?/Wa hil^Un.hx /Aar,^ rl^ <^r^h-\^ CT

SITE Tr^<^iU^A/A;>rf ■ STATE mT COUNTY l^F^V

PURP £r PREC_S_ QU^l^KAME ]£oaJ£> QUADCODE ^^/JT.3 L>

6>$ T/ jUJ R/ g?6)S/5£l 4S/ /V£4/4 COMMUNITY SIZE (acres)

PLOT TYPES £_ PLTRL 2£Jl PLOT W SURVEY /) W_

PHOTOS

DIRECTIONS — >

\

CONSERVATION RANKING

COND Com:

VIAB Com:

DEFk Com:

RANK\ Com:

MGMT :
PROT:

ENVIRONMENTAL FEATURES

PL </m-;,K SOIL RPT

SOIL UNIT ■ SOIL TAXON

PM LANDFORM PLOT POS SLP SHAPE ASP

SLOPE % ELEVATION EROS POTENT " EROS TYPE

HORIZON ANGLE (%) : N E S W IFSLP - — IFVAL

SPFE

GROUND COVER: JJ) S+ L/nG+^n P+ ID L+ — W+ - M+ in BV+ - O " = 100%
DISTURBANCE HISTORY (type, intensity, frequency, season) -->

RIPARIAN FEATURES: Channel Width ~ Channel Entrench

Surface Water -~ Ht.Abv.H20 Dist. from H20

GENERAL SITE DESCRIPTION (landscape features and adjacent ct's)

OCULAR PLANT SPECIES DATA

C-04
PltlDL-

-\

t- -

PLOT NO. T---VT: NO. SPEC

TREES Tot Cv — ' MHt
Tal Cv Med Cv
Low Cv Grd Cv

IES /L PNC fMi-rXJ: / (M.C W£

FRBS Tot CVo?£) MHt. a'
Med Cv — Low Cv —
CC Grd Cv_s£0

CC

T 1 _/

F 1 fi^hrrin^h.^Ar/.mn-^r^/ MTM?I(

I

T 2 _J

F 2 A \/r-X */*///<; Snp /

ID

T 3 _J

f.3/>a;^^,/wV/"/- /Pvi.tfsY)

^O

T 4 _y

F l*r>pknrrr't/a Ss>c/,'ifiO/i/^Oii/'?&'

)

T 5 _J

F 5finJs/in/7ri(X /virxn florrJ AAtTfA'A

I

F 6 ' /

SHRBS Tot CV SO MHt ,7> '

CC

f 7 _y

Tal Cv Med Cv ^O

f 8 _y

Low Cv \r> Grd Cv,^~)

F 9 V

fio _/

S l/Ar./<o///)AfW.< fl1/<'rv'i>f/rvP. fWPH

-OO

fii _/

S 2jiWirrtt <<o Jrtif? <^0 / Aftr Fi^x

3fl

F12 /

S 3^!/.-/-i>rr-'7i>i Mt*l^rQr/ /Cirr 'fir.

in

F13 /

S \f\,,r*hn /ihhtckfo^Ma / rf\t Pm

J/)

F14 /

S 5£?ri'rtofl/Wj*M m>rri\H<fiil*/ B^%iOjJC

/

Fis _y

S 6 flrJ£kv<fa XtiA,*Uty / Q-e-rrfcL

;o

/

S 7 __/

_J

/

s 8 _/

s 9 _/

sio _y

/

sn _y

/

S12 _/

/

_j

»"

GRAM Tot CV ?0 MHt | '

CC

/
/

/

Med Cv • Low Cv r2n

Grd Cv jn

G lP'v.ir //v.,9 a r/y .'/I /'{ /^i,-.'<*-ci-

4/0

_/

G'2/fer*sr JhlViol.n / et.ft.es i

r

/

G 3 P/^o r/3/W/vvC/ , /C-c. <■ c * i

io

/
/
/
/
/

G 4 P,/~*pT,C -V/»-TV/ 7^11 / (ifilTV

1

G 5f)cirn iy\fin ? pi rahj/*\ / C&? ~Pz

-Co

G 6 U " ' /

g 7 _y

G 8 _/

G 9 _/

gio _y

FERN Tot Cv- — ' MHt Med Cv

Gil _/

^__^Low Cv Grd Cv
BRYOj^LICH yTot Cv /-f

G12 _/

£-1

COMMENTS (EODATA) — >

MONTANA
STATE

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