} FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN January 1984 AMILY FEATURE: Make your own Chinese Shadow Puppets, Jan. 14 and 15_ E HUMAN FACE OF CHINA—Film Series Coming Feb. 5: Famous YUEH LUNG SHADOW TH Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin Published by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 President: Willard L. Boyd Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Editor : David M. Walsten Production Liaison: Allen Ambrosini Staff Photographer: Ron Testa BOARD OF TRUSTEES James J. O’Connor chairman Mrs. T. Stanton Armour George R. Baker Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Bowen Blair Willard L. Boyd Frank W. Considine Stanton R. Cook O.C. Davis William R. Dickinson, Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley II Marshall Field Richard M. Jones Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F. Mullin Charles F. Murphy, Jr. Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Robert A. Pritzker James H. Ransom John S. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Searle Edward Byron Smith Robert H. Strotz William G. Swartchild, Jr. Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Julian B. Wilkins Blaine J. Yarrington LirE TRUSTEES Harry O. Bercher Joseph N. Field Clifford C Gregg William V. Kahler William H. Mitchell John W. Sullivan J. Howard Wood Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Il. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces- sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His- tory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Il. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. CONTENTS January 1984 Volume 55, Number 1 January Events at Field Museum 3 The 1992 Fair: Catalyst for Chicago’s Future 5 by Willard L. Boyd, president of Field Museum Shadow Theatre in the Land of the Dragon 8 by Jo Humphrey Ceramics of the Song Dynasty 16 by Yutaka Mino Why Are There So Many Kinds of Plants and Animals? 20 by William Burger, chairman, Department of Botany Tours for Members 25 Our Environment 26 Index to Volume 54 (1983) 27 COVER Procession of honor guard figurines. Polychrome pottery, Ming dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.). These and more than 200 other art objects and artifacts are on view through February 14 in the exhibition “Treasures from the Shanghai Museum—6,000 Years of Chinese Art.” Organized by the Shanghai Museum of the People’s Republic of China, and the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco. Principally Foods Corp. Photo by Ron Testa. Cover design by Allen Ambrosini. funded by Control Data Corp., Sargent & Lundy, and Consolidated EVEN WINTER FUN 1984 Drive away the winter doldrums! Treat your children (or grandchildren) to weekend workshops at Field Museum during January and February. Young people ages 4 to 14 can participate in classes that range from “Dinosaurs —the Terrible Lizards” and “Chocolate Chip Geology” to “Gorillas High and Low” and “Fos- sil Coal Forest of Illinois.” Special classes highlighting our current exhibit. “Treasures from the Shanghai Museum: 6,000 Years of Chinese Art,” include “Spirits and Demons in Chinese Opera,” “Chinese Dragon Robes,” and “Crickets: Chinese Music Boxes.” Anthropologists, zoologists, archaeologists, paleontologists, botanists, artists, and writers bring their talent and expertise to create new, informative, and creative experiences. See the Winter Fun brochure for a complete schedule or call 322-8854, Monday-Friday, 9:00am- 4:00pm. WY WAU MY ; a7 FAMILY FEATURE Chinese Shadow Puppets Saturday and Sunday, January 14 and 15, 1:30pm Hall 32, South, Second Floor Shadow puppet figures have been used in pop- ular Chinese theatre for over 2,000 years. Chinese Shadow Theatre was brought to Amer- ica in the 1850s by the Chinese immigrants who helped build the railroads and work the gold fields. Discover this ancient folk art by watching a play designed to enhance children’s understanding of our special exhibit, “Treasures from the Shanghai Museum: 6,000 years of Chinese Art.” Children can make shadow fig- ures from Chinese legends and join together to invent their own shadow play. This program is supported by the National En- dowment for the Humanities, a federal agency. Family Features are free with Museum admis- sion and tickets are not required. Plants of the World photo contest winners are on view in Hall 25, Second Floor. The Human Face of China Film Series These films explore the many faces of China— from acrobats in the Shensi Provincial Acrobatic Troupe to members of the People’s Commune in Guangdong Province. January 14 and 15, 1:30pm One Hundred Entertainments A behind-the-scenes look at the Shensi Pro- vincial Acrobatic Troupe training, performing, and explaining their 2,000-year-old art form. Mind, Body and Spirit East and West, old and new come together in this exciting portrayal of China’s health care system in action. January 21 and 22, 1:30pm It’s Always So in the World An intimate view of urban life in China’s largest city, Shanghai, portrays communal society in China today. Something for Everyone A fascinating mosaic of a People’s Commune in Guangdong Province, pieced together from the daily activities of the people who share in this lifestyle. These films are free with Museum admission and tickets are not required. This program is supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities, a federal agency. January Weekend Programs Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule and program locations. The programs are par- tially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council. January 7 11:30am Ancient Egypt. Investigate the traditions of ancient Egyptian civilization from everyday life to mummification and the promise of an afterlife. 8 12:30pm Museum Safari. Seek out shrunken heads from the Amazon, mummies from ancient Egypt, and big game from Africa. 14 1:00pm Red Land/Black Land. Focus on the geog- raphy of the Nile Valley and its effects upon the Egyp- tian people during 4,000 years of change in religion and culture. Examine the pharaoh’s lifestyle and the religious practices of priests. 21 2:30pm Discoveries from the Bronze Age. Splendid bronzes and recent tomb discoveries illu- minate the making of a great civilization in this slide lecture of Chinese treasures. 22 12:30pm Museum Safari. Seek out shrunken heads from the Amazon, mummies from ancient Egypt, and big game from Africa. 2:30pm China’s Great Wall and the Silk Road. Slide lecture takes you on a journey, west along the Great Wall and the caravan roads. Travel back to Chi- na’s ancient capitals and follow the course of empires, arts, and faiths. 29 12:30pm Journey Through China. Enjoy the sce- nic beauty and romance of today’s China in this slide lecture which carries you from the modern cities of Shanghai and Suzhou to the ancient imperial capital, Xian. 2:30pm Arts and Inventions of China. Explore the cultural and technological achievements of class- ical China in a slide lecture of magnificent art forms and ingenious inventions. These weekend programs are free with Museum admis- sion and tickets are not required. Coming Next Month Yueh Lung Shadow Theatre Sunday, February 5 1:00pm and 2:30pm James Simpson Theatre Shadow, theatre is a performing art more than 2,000 years old. The Yueh Lung Shadow Theatre is the only one of its kind in the United States. The company uses Beijing-type figures constructed by troupe members. These are exact replicas of those collected in China by former Field Museum anthropologist Berthold Laufer in 1902 and 1904. ; The performances feature Chinese shadow puppets ma- nipulated by professionals and illuminated on a screen. The puppets recreate stories of Chinese life and legend. The puppet theatre was originally designed as a com- munication system to convey messages to remote Chinese villages. In many cases this was the only connection vil- lage people had with the outside world. By the mid 1930s this traditional Chinese art form had all but disappeared. During performances, the stories and the use of the pup- pets are explained. Because the number of seats available for each perform- ance is limited, advance purchase of tickets is recom- mended. These performances are partially funded by a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, a federal agency. Members: $3.00 Nonmembers: $5.00 Use coupon below to order tickets. Fees are nonrefundable. Graphics by Allen Ambrosini Registration Program Tile Member Nonmember Total mo Tickets Tickets Tickets sb sano #Requested #Requested #Requested : Please complete coupon for your program selection and any other special events. Com- plete all requested information on the applica- tion and include section number where appro- priate. If your request is received less than one week before program, tickets will be held in your name at West Entrance box office until one-half hour before event. Please make checks payable to Field Museum. Tickets will be mailed on receipt of check. Refunds will be made only if program is sold out. Total For Office Use: Date Received Date Returned Return complete ticket application with a self-addressed stamped envelope to: State Zip Public Programs: Department of Education Daytime Evening Have you enclosed your self-addressed stamped envelope? Field Museum of Natural History Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Chicago, IL 60605-2497 The 1992 Fair: Catalyst for Chicago’s Future by WitLarp L. Boyp President of Field Museum The following text is from an address given by Dr. Boyd before the Chicago Central Area Committee at the 1992 Chicago World’s Fair Seminar on November 3 at the University of Illinois at Chicago. The text of an earlier address by Boyd on the Fair, “1992 and Be- yond,” appeared in the March 1983 Bulletin (pp. 6-7). As Mr. Ayers* has repeatedly pointed out, the 1992 Fair was conceived as a means to a greater end. That end is a more vigorous Chicago and Illinois; more vigorous economically, socially and culturally. Too many people are writing Chicago off as the declining capitol of America’s frostbelt. Like the Columbian Exposition of 1893, the 1992 Fair is a response to a basic problem. The Columbian Exposition was the major stimulus in rebuilding Chicago after the 1871 fire into a city of national and international con- sequence. Nineteen-eighty-three again finds Chicago and Illinois facing a basic challenge. How can we re- tain and increase our role as a major world center? If that cannot be accomplished, the heyday of this city and this state is over. Our vision of this Fair must not be limited only to the exposition itself. Our vision must also be con- cerned with the future of Chicago and Illinois. We must build a more vigorous and humane climate in which people can work and live and serve the entire world. A universal world’s fair can be a crucial factor in developing that vigorous and humane climate. The key to developing that climate is the process itself. As the discussion groups stressed in the April meeting [of the Chicago Central Area Seminar], the process before, during and after the Fair could be the greater end of which Tom Ayers speaks. Equality of opportunity is the foremost goal of our times. American democracy is becoming more and more participatory. We take pride in our plural- ism. As more diverse persons with more diverse points of view become effectively involved in our society, consensus will be more difficult to achieve. We must understand that challenge and argumenta- tion will be the norm. We must accept the fact that there may be more than one right solution to any eco- nomic or social problem. Each of us must have the opportunity to present his or her case in an open and fair forum. Given that opportunity, we must be pre- pared to support a resulting decision even though it does not initially command a cohesive majority. While we must, of necessity, fix Fair responsibil- ity on a managing board of limited size, we must also have a participatory process which is open-minded, open-ended, open to all. In doing so, we must recog- nize that today’s eccentric ideas are tomorrow’s prac- tical solutions. Too often, planning is a straight line projection of the present without regard for unfore- seen and ever-changing circumstances. It is a con- servative process which defends the present. Econo- mic and social vitality require new ways and new ideas which involve risks. We must be venturesome even though we are captives of our own experiences. As we look to the Fair and its residuals, we must be concerned with the development process. The De- partment of Commerce environmental scoping hear- ing and the ultimate impact statement are one means. The Mayor’s Committee hearings have been another. As the city and state governments now move to the forefront of the planning process, the Fair Authority must be designed to encourage participation and at the same time recognize that there must be closure on issues after a reasonable period of time. Much of the process discussion currently focuses on creating and financing the Fair. Of greater impor- tance is the process needed to address the impact of the Fair and the site on nearby neighborhoods and the entire city and state. The Fair offers the opportunity to create an *Thomas G. Ayers is chairman of the Executive Committee of Commonwealth Edison Company and chairman of the Chicago World’s Fair—1992 Authority. 6 urban planning process which reflects the needs of diverse citizens. In planning for diverse uses, new patterns can be developed so that urban planning mis- takes are not repeated. More importantly, a planning and implementation process must be designed to assure that there are no losers. Development must not mean displacement. We have the opportunity to show that Chicago and Illinois can lead in the next century in humane concerns as well as commerce. In recent years, Chicago’s Center City Planning has focused on the north Loop and the near-north side. The Fair will focus attention on the south Loop and the near south and west communities. The resi- dents of these areas reflect the many circumstances and aspirations of all Chicagoans. The apprehension of these neighborhood residents was reflected in the hearings before the Mayor’s Committee. On the one hand, they are supportive of the Fair. On the other hand, they are concerned about what the con- sequences will be for them before, during, and after the Fair. City government, the private sector, both profit and not-for-profit organizations, and neighborhood residents must now formulate a planning process so that the citizens of these neighborhoods will be ben- eficiaries, not victims, of the Fair. Diverse commercial and housing requirements must be met. In doing so, we can imaginatively pursue energy conservation, efficient transportation systems, and other urban needs. A planning process should emerge which could set a pattern for other neighborhoods to use in meeting other needs. There must also be a planning process which looks to the use of the south lakefront site after the Fair. How can the site be designed to achieve the most significant permanent residuals. Only San Francisco and Rio de Janeiro can rival the beauty of our lake- front. But even they cannot rival Chicago in public access and public use of the waterfront. And yet since 1933, we have destroyed Daniel Burnham’s* concept of a great south lakefront: (a) we have built an air- port; (b) we have built an outer drive which chops up the park from Field Museum south to McCormick Place and further isolates the south lakefront from the Loop and the neighborhoods to the west; and (c) we have increased the use of Soldier Field and McCormick Place without regard for the impact on other lakefront uses. *Daniel H. Bumham (1846-1912) was an architect and city plan- ner and chief planner of the World’s Columbian Exposition. The 1992 Fair gives us the opportunity to recre- ate Daniel Burnham’s park. It can become a neighbor- hood park. To make it a neighborhood park, we must physically tie the south lakefront to the south and west neighborhoods. Our south lakefront can also be a park for the entire city, state, and indeed, the nation, in much the same way as Ontario Place on the To- ronto waterfront has become the pride of all Canada. The 1992 World’s Fair affords us the opportun- ity to redesign the south lakefront, to make it into a pedestrian park, and to provide expansion space for existing and future cultural institutions and to give us a central gathering place for all Chicagoans. This area can become Chicago’s front yard and the state- wide gateway for increasing visitors and con- ventioneers. Residents and tourists alike will be able to bring their families for the day to the south lake- front as they now go to Lincoln and other parks. This site can be both a neighborhood and a national park unrivaled in beauty and public access. And yet, there is no process now in place to accomplish these ends. To do so requires the joint planning of the Chicago Park District, the World’s Fair Authority, the affected institutions, the nearby neighborhoods, and include the over-all city and state point of view. Coordinated planning can be under- taken which will assure mutually harmonious de- velopment for park district sports, McCormick Place, and the cultural institutions. We must develop pedestrian campuses for the cultural and sports areas, provide adequate parking, and assure the space for the Park District, McCormick Place, and the cultural institutions to develop in support of each other rather than to the detriment of each other as they are now developing. A redesigned lakefront resulting from the Fair must also be oriented to the west as well as to the north and south. It must be integrated into the city. In addition to good public transportation to the Loop, there must be direct east/west access. Access from the west must encompass automobiles, public trans- portation, and pedestrian needs. Over time we must build community land bridges across the Illinois Cen- tral tracts. An east/west access is vital to the success of the Fair. It is essential to the long-term future of the near south and west communities and the lakefront. Too often we think of the lakefront on a north/ south axis. If we look at it on an east/west axis, we see a major corridor of vital neighborhoods, and of educa- tional, research, and cultural institutions. Starting in Grant Park with what has been described by histo- rian Carl Condit as “the largest, oldest and arch- itecturally most-impressive cultural center in the United States,” we move to the south Loop where within four blocks of the Goldblatt Building there are 27,000 students enrolled in institutions of higher education, further west lies the University of Illinois at Chicago, beyond it the health center of the Univer- sity of Illinois, Rush Presbyterian 5t. Luke’s Medical Center and Cook County, on to Brookfield Zoo, the Naperville research route, and Fermi Laboratory. The areas involved are important and diverse neigh- borhoods with additional educational and cultural institutions. Our vision of the next century must in- clude this east/west strength. Our vision will be lim- ited by today’s experiences and finances, yet our vision must allow for future generations. The physical legacies of the 1992 Fair, while tangible, must be based on intangibles. These under- lying intangibles should be those you espoused as the theme of the Fair: interdependence, the inter- relatedness of people and nature, the recovery and rediscovery of our city and of our neighborhoods. How can these fundamental themes be exemplified in a Fair? What is the “Age of Discovery?” To what ex- tent are we going to celebrate the Columbian Quin- centennial in 1992? Are we tied to Columbus and to the times between 1492 and now? To what extent is the Fair a means to our future? In 1992, the state of Florida will commemorate “the discovery.” Already they are involved in archeological digs at St. Augustine and in the Carib- bean to ascertain the impact of Columbus’s arrival and with it the Spanish influence in the New World. Ironically, the influence of the discovery of the New World commenced in 1492 but not until 1493 for the Old World when it learned of the discovery. We need also to remember that the first people to come to North America came across the Bering land bridge and were here to welcome Columbus. Will we exam- ine how the 1492 discoverers treated the residents of this New World? Indiana University has organized a major center for the Columbian Quincentennial which will serve as a clearing house for observances throughout the country. That center suggests that the Columbian focus might well be on life in the New World between 1492 and 1776, since we have only recently marked the bicentennial of the United States and will soon do the same for the United States Con- stitution. We should join with the Spanish to look for- ward to a new age of discovery. Our Fair must serve as a world marketplace of ideas and ideals for the twenty-first century. It must be more than a showcase for high tech and space exploration, more than a financial success. The Fair must deal with our lives as we live them in the neighborhoods of the world. Theme pavilions can complement national pavilions as they do now at Epcot. Yet, too often Epcot resorts to psychodelic lights to depict the future rather than thoughtfully; Kraft, on the other hand, addresses the future with its land pavilion and its experimental greenhouse. In 1992, we must get beyond the episodic nature of “Future Shock.” The Fair itself can have a lasting impact on all who attend. As in the case of the earlier two fairs, it can educate and entertain for a lifetime. The Fair can be a time for cerebration as well as celebration. During the next century, human initia- tive and human creativity must be fostered. The 1992 World’s Fair needs to tap the talents and aspirations of people everywhere. This can be done sim- ultaneously on the Fair site and in the neighborhoods of the world. It can be done in Fair buildings; it can be done in neighborhood halls; it can be done at home by television and computer and we can be linked across the planet by satellite. Chicago, Illinois, and the Middle West are second to no place in the world of talent. For exam- ple, the greatest concentration of the nation’s research universities is in the Middle West, not on Route 128 or in Silicon Valley. It is up to us to demon- strate that Chicago, Illinois, and the Middle West are an international center of human talent second to none. During 1992, a series of discovery seminars and congresses is being planned which will bring together the talent of the world under the auspices of Chicago and Illinois host institutions. We can rivet the atten- tion of the world on Chicago as a place of creativity, as a place concerned with the future. Only eight and one-half years remain before the Fair. We have much to do within that brief time. We have the opportunity to demonstrate to the world through the Fair, the discovery congresses and through the tangible and intangible residuals that we are still pioneers and that discovery is our never- ending frontier. L] SHapow LHEATRE In the Land of the Dragon by Jo Humphrey Ho Hsien-ku, one of eight immortals; from Sichuan. Collection of Field Museum. Photo by Jo Humphrey. hadow theatre is an exotic performing art that reflects its mysterious Asian heri- tage. Its animated figures have universal appeal as they act out age-old legends on a back-lit screen. The exact origin of this art form is impossible to pinpoint, but it probably began with simple hand 8 shadows cast on a cave wall by the light of a flicker- ing fire. Because of its popularity in many Asian and Mideastern countries, from the Pacific to the Mediterranean, shadow theatre may very well have begun independently and concurrently in a number of regions. Jo Humphrey is director of The Yueh Lung Shadow Theatre, Jack- son Heights, New York. Some scholars believe that shadow theatre had its beginnings in the area where the most intricate style of figures are to be found; the longer history, they propose, would have allowed for greater de- velopment. According to such reasoning, China may well have been the country of origin. The first written reference in China to such use of shadow images was in the second century B.C. The Emperor Wu Ti is said to have been so grief- stricken over the loss of his favorite concubine that he could no longer carry out his imperial duties. To ease the emperor’s sorrow, a court magician created a shadow figure of the deceased, projecting it on the wall of the imperial garden pavilion. The shadow was so lifelike, according to the account, that the emperor's grief was assuaged. Like other Asian shadow traditions, those of China were originally associated with religious rituals. The shadow was thought to be one’s soul and shadow figures were supposedly inhabited by departed spirits. Even today there is an aura of mys- ticism in shadow theatre, and as those experienced in this art form will attest, the figures sometimes seem to have a will of their own. According to Chinese scholars, the first sha- dow figures were an outgrowth of papercutting, paper having been invented in China long before it was known in the West, and decorative papercut- ting having predated the development of shadow theatre. Silhouettes made of paper performed at night on a wall or side of a tent, illuminated by a torch. In time, figures moved behind a screen where their shadows were cast by an oil lamp. Jointed fi- gures were created, making possible more action, though the figures remained black silhouettes. By the twelfth century, the figures were being made of translucent animal skins—from sheep, donkeys, cows, even fish—that seemed to glow against the light. Further color was provided by means of vegetable dyes; modern figures are colored with ink. For the Chinese there was a clear distinction between puppetry and shadow theatre. The two art forms did, in fact, originate independently, the former from three-dimensional sculpture, the latter from two-dimensional graphics. Shadow theatre is a ritualistic event as well as an educational and enter- taining experience. Even in modern-day shadow Figure of deer, possibly from Southwest China, 18th century. Collected by C.F. Bieber in the 1930s and donated to the Field Museum collection. Photo by Diane Alexander White and David Rundell. theatre we can see remnants of ancient ritual, such as greetings from gods and immortals as intro- ductions to performances. The hips, arms, and legs of all figures are jointed, and the limbs moveable. The head is detach- able so that costumes may be changed; but in accordance with ancient supersitition, heads must be joined with bodies only during performances so that a character does not come alive except in the hands of the man or woman who manipulates it. The same superstition prevails in China’s puppet and marionette theatres. This forerunner of modern audiovisual media spread over the length and breadth of China. Some general features of the art form were to be found in all regions. Unlike Western drama, characters in Chinese shadow theatre were, for the most part, types rather than realistic figures endowed with individual personalities. But there are exceptions to this, which include certain supernaturals such as the Monkey King, a common character in traditional dramas. Stylized, idealized facial characteristics were provided only in the carved profile. Comic charac- ters had white circles around their eyes. Characters with complex personalities or supernatural powers had painted faces. Those who dwelt in heaven had Backstage of shadow theatre. Photo by Evelyn Mei-huang. uncarved features. Audiences could readily distin- guish between almond-eyed heroes and round-eyed villains. Costumes and headdresses represented specific periods, the most common being of the Ming and Qing dynasties; these were carved in three-quarters view. Perforations accented design details. Officials wore so-called “jade belts”—large hoops about their waists. Generals had four flags on Left to right: Mo Li-hai, one of the four heavenly kings. Wang Chi-chen, female figure in “The White Snake.” Ts'ing She, the Black Snake in “The White Snake.” Chung-li Ch'uan, one of the eight immortals. All in the collection of Field Museum. Photos by Diane Alexander White and David Rundaell. oO a ee ea Four generals of heaven. East-city type figures (painted face characters). Gest Collection of Princeton University. Photo by Jo Humphrey. their backs. Southern warriors wore pheasant The Western tradition (Yueh Qing) is close- plumes in their helmets. Proper ladies had small, ly allied to operatic forms of the Western regions of bound feet while those of peasant women remained China, and the music is the same as that of local unbound. operas. Shadow theatre of these Western regions, in Performances were invariably accompanied by fact, is known as the “little opera.” The 26-inch-high music. Each region of the country developed its par- figures from the western province of Sichuan ticular style of music as well as its own distinctive (Szechuan) are some of the largest, while those of type of figure and performing tradition. Three basic Shaanxi (Shensi) and Shanxi (Shansi) Provinces, traditions of shadow theatre are still being per- just northeast of Sichuan, include some of the small- formed: Western, Southern, and Eastern. est. Western figures consist of 14 or 15 separate -YUEH LUNG SHADOW THEATRE eS Sunday, February 5 Two Performances: 1:00pm and 2:30pm : : James Simpson Theatre Members: $3.00 _Nonmembers: $5.00 — To order tickets use coupon on page 4 The White Snake. West-city type figure, carved by Yu Dze-an in 1850s. Collection of Field Museum. Photo by Jo Humphrey. parts, including jointed hands, removeable hats, and beards of real hair; the faces have very rounded fea- tures and the outlines remain uncolored. Three rods are used to manipulate these figures. A central control rod is attached across the shoul- ders, with the handle coming off the back. The other two rods are attached to the first joint of each hand. Spotted deer. Collection of Field Museum. Photo by Diane Alexander White and David Rundell. The Field Museum has an extensive collection of Sichuan and other Western-style figures, collected for the most part by former Field Museum curator Berthold Laufer during his 1910-12 expedition to China. Some of these are on permanent view in Hall 32. The Southern, or Chien Chao, tradition was centered mainly in the coastal provinces of Fujian (Fukien) and Guangdong (Kwangtung) and in the inland province of Hubei (Hupeh). In the beginning, Chien Chao was used only for religious rituals, in- cluding funerals and exorcisms. In use until about 1900, Fujian shadow figures were supplanted then by so-called “shadows in the round,” represented by an exquisite form of horizontal rod puppet. Fujian culture came to what is now the island of Taiwan (formerly Formosa) over 400 years ago, and the Fu- jian shadow tradition has continued to survive in the city of Tainan, in the southern part of the island. Southern figures are controlled by two rods, have fewer parts than most others, and only one moveable arm. There are various methods of rod attachment in these figures, the most common being the so-called “Fujian style,” in which the rods are horizontal. One rod is attached through the top of the arm and shoulder, the other through the hand and wrist. The Eastern, or Beijing, shadow theatre tradition was centered in the cities of Luanchou Scene from “Romance of Three Kingdoms.” Photo by Jo Humphrey. Emperor and concubine; West-city type figures carved by and Laoting in Hebei (Hopei) Province. In these cities guilds of craftsmen made shadow figures for many troupes. Possibly the oldest of the three tradi- tions, the Eastern developed out of storytelling. Figures of the so-called east-city type, formerly made in Luanchou but now made primarily in Tang- shan, are 10 to 12 inches high. The black outline of the face emphasizes the long, sloping forehead and oval nostril. The eyebrow sweeps in a large arc that joins the outside corner of the eye with the fore- head. One of the largest collections of the east-city type is at the American Museum of Natural History, in New York City. This set was collected by Bert- Yu Dze-an in 1850s. Collection of Field Museum. Photo by Jo Humphrey. hold Laufer between 1902 and 1904 before taking up his curatorial post at Field Museum, which also has a good representation of this type in its collection. Laoting was the home of the west-city type, which is slightly larger than that from Luanchou— 14 to 16 inches high. The eyebrows arch sharply into the straight forehead. Nostrils are not joined with the uncolored outline of the face. Perforations are more rounded than those of the east-city figures. The Lederschaft Museum in Offenbach, West Ger- many, has one of the largest collections of west-city figures, but in the Field Museum collection are several rare figures of this type made by Yu Dze-an, a craftsman of the mid-1800s. In east-city as well as Lion figure. Collection of Field Museum. Photo by Diane _ Alexander White » and David 8 Rundell. is Left to right: Tu Ti, a local god disguised as a comic old man; East-city type figure made by Liu Chi Lin. Hsu Hsien (White Snake's husband) made by Hsien Yang Arts and Crafts Factory, Shaanxi Province in 1982. Fan Li-hua, female general, with her husband, Shi Ting-shan, East-city type figures made by Liu Chi Lin of Beijing Arts Factory. All figures from the collection of Jo Humphrey. Photos by Jo Humphrey. west-city type figures the control rod is attached ideology. Then, during the Cultural Revolution of to the front of the collar and additional rods are the 1960s and 1970s, shadow theatre was virtually attached to each hand. annihilated. After the Cultural Revolution the Modern techniques in the Eastern shadow theatre flourished anew and a number of shadow tradition were developed in Changsha, Hunan players began rebuilding their troupes. They pat- Province, in the 1940s. New figures with modern terned figures and stages after the Hunan style, clothes were created to represent contemporary which was the only one to survive the turbulent 60s themes. Folk tales were rewritten to express Maoist and 70s. Figures and shadow screens were enlarged Scene from “The Mountain of Fiery Tongues.” Photo by |}4 Jo Humphrey. ——— —E ———— — — er a to accommodate larger audiences. Older traditions were also revived, thanks to surviving shadow mas- ters (those in charge of troupes or who operated their own one-man theatres) and craftsmen. Today there are at least 15 professional troupes that tour China, using newer-size figures illumin- ated by banks of fluorescent lights. Hundreds more semiprofessional and amateur troupes perform in almost every province. Only Xizang (Tibet) and the predominantly Moslem province of Xinjiang (Sin- kiang) in extreme Western China have no shadow theatre. Until recently, shadow theatre was the only Chinese performing art to use realistic scenery. Part of the enjoyment of watching a performance is to see the stories unfold in beautiful settings. Lovers meet in moonlit gardens, battle strategies are planned in elegant war tents, and plots are hatched behind red pillars carved with dragon motifs. Shadow dramas reflect the whole scope of Chinese literature—folk tales, religious epics, and historic sagas. The typical shadow troupe had a rep- ertoire of several hundred plays. Each shadow mas- ter interprets the literature in his or her own unique way, whether operatic or spoken. Audiences could often request their favorite plays. In The Legend of the White Snake a couple meet their fate in a drama illustrating Buddhist and Taoist principles. Dashing knights pit their military skills against invaders from other kingdoms in episodes from the great historical novel A Romance of the Three Kingdoms. During the Scene from “The Fisherman's Revenge.” Photo by Jo Humphrey. The mischievous Monkey King, rendered in modern Changsha style. Collection of Jo Humphrey. Photo by Jo Humphrey. Yuan dynasty (1271-1368) plays such as The Orphan of Chao and Autumn in the Han Palace were adapted for the shadow stage. Authors of other dra- mas of the same period wrote specifically for the sha- dow theatre. These plays often deal with social issues. A Ming dynasty novel, Journey to the West, provided numerous plots involving the mischievous Monkey King. His free spirit is symbolic of the unlimited potential for education and entertainment that Chinese shadow theatre offers. ] CERAMICS OF THE SONG DYNASTY (A.D. 960-1179) by Yutaka Mino Photos courtesy of the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco except where noted Stoneware bowl, jun ware. Jin dynasty (1115-1234 a.0.). Height 8.9cm. Collection of the Shanghai Museum. ong ceramics represent a culmination in the his- tory of China’s ceramic tradition, and in them we see a coming together of technical mastery and artistic sensitivity. The ceramics of this time cannot be re- garded as a discreet body of material which appeared suddenly in full perfection, but rather as a high point in a continuum of development and as an expres- sion of accumulated knowledge in the working of clay and glazes. Song ceramic bodies are generally thinly thrown. Shape and thickness of rim and foot and detail work are carefully finished. The shapes of vessels, while widely varied and reflecting a willingness to experi- ment, are controlled throughout by a highly sophisti- 16 cated aesthetic sense. In contrast to the abruptly turn- ing and vigorously swelling outlines of Tang vessels, those of the Song for the most part seem quieter, more gently curvilinear and more stable. The glazes of this period are of a subtlety never since matched. The serene colors and textures of the glazes and the restrained decorations used together with the simple, elegant forms produce a harmonious and graceful entity. Many different methods of decoration were em- ployed. Carving, engraving, combing (decorating the Yutaka Mino is curator of Oriental Art at the Indianapolis Museum of Art and is serving as Field Museum’s visiting curator for the exhibition ‘Treasures from the Shanghai Museum: 6,000 Years of Chinese Art. Jizhou ware vase. Jin dynasty (1115-1234 A.D.). Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Donald Heller. Photo by Robert Wallace, courtesy Indianapolis Museum of Art. semidry clay with a comb), moulding, painting under and over the glaze and sgraffiato techniques (cutting away surfaces areas to reveal other color) including curving and scraping, were all used. The Song dynasty saw a tremendous expansion in production of ceramics, a phenomenon which can be explained by a number of developments in China during this period. With the reunification of China under the Northern Song (960-1126), government sponsorship of mining and metalwork spurred the growth of industries. Coal was exploited as an impor- tant fuel in the North. The demand for high-quality 17 Vase, porcellaneous guan ware. Southern Song dynasty (1127-1279 ao.). Height 13.9cm. Collection of the Shanghai Museum. ceramics in the imperial court served as an impetus to the production of ever finer wares. Many kilns flourished around the area of the capital at Bianliang (modern Kaifeng). As the country increased in wealth, more people were able to afford fine ceramic vessels for their own use. Patronage spread to the landowners and scholar- officials and also to the growing merchant class. Widely varied tastes can be seen in the numerous types of decorations used. Shape became more fluid and more functional and drew away from the forms of ceremonial wares used for funerary or tributary purposes. The fame of Song wares spread and increasingly large numbers of ceramics were exported. These wares were produced primarily in southern China within reach of the seaports on the southern and southeast- ern coast. Many kilns were established in Fujian, Zhejiang, and Guangdong Provinces to supply the foreign trade. Port cities of Hangzhou, Ningbo, and Wenzhou in Zhejiang; Chuanzhou in Fujian; and 18 Canton in Guangdong were lively ports which provided the government with sizable revenues in the form of customs duties. The porcelaneous stoneware which predomi- nated in the first years of the Song dynasty was Yue ware, produced in the state of Wuyue in southern China. When the King of Wuyue, Qian Shu, surren- dered to the Northern Song dynasty in A.D. 978, Yue ware was at a peak in the history of its manufacture. In that year many objects were made in commemoration of the event, and these were to have a profound influ- ence on the decoration of early Northern Song wares. Made for tribute and for the personal use of the Wuyue ruler, Yue ware waned in importance and deteriorated in quality after his abdication; but it con- tinued to-be produced well into the Song dynasty, as evidenced by a piece in the Percival David collection in London, dated the third year of Yuefeng (A.D. 1081). The rise of Longquan kilns in the South further con- tributed to the decline of Yue ware and can be traced in the decoration of Northern Song ceramics. In the early period of the dynasty, deeply carved relief decoration can be seen on celadons (ceramic ware notable for pale blue to pale greenish color) from Yaozhou, Shaanxi Province, and Cizhou-type ware found at Dengfeng Xian and Jiaozuo, Xiuwu Xian in Henan. Slightly later pieces of Yaozhou ware were not as deeply carved. Another important northern celadon ware, produced at Linru Xian, Henan Province, con- sisted mostly of moulded and stamped pieces. Ding ware, which originated in the late Tang, was essential- ly a plain white ware with bluish-white glaze. In the early Song it, too, was carved, at first quite deeply and later more lightly. Moulded and stamped decorations also appear on later Ding ware. This interesting paral- lel in the development of the different types of ware shows that their development was not altogether dis- tinct one from another, as might easily be inferred from the fact that they came from separate kilns. The development of other ceramic wares pro- duced in the North was not influenced by Yue ware. For instance, Jun ware, first manufactured in the Northern Song period, was produced at a number of kilns, notably that at Yu Xian in Henan Province, and reflects no southern influence. In the South many kilns grew up to feed the for- eign market. After the court moved south to Linan (modern Hangzhou), ceramic production received an added stimulus. Just before the withdrawal from the North, during the reign of Huizong (1101-25), the manufacture of ceramics had flourished along with other areas of artistic and cultural achievement. Under Huizong the highly acclaimed Ru and North- ern Guan wares were perfected. After being driven south by the Jurchens and reestablishing the capital at Hangzhou in 1127, the Emperor Gaozong ordered the construction of new Guan kilns on the outskirts of the capital at Xiuneisi and later at Jiaotanxia. Potters from the North were also imported to the South. The influence of northern styles is apparent at Jizhou kilns in southern Jiangxi.* Feng Xianming, of the Palace Museum of Beijing, has pointed out the possibility that potters from the kilns producing Cizhou type ware went to Jizhou potteries. The latter, in turn, influenced the decoration of early blue and white ware of nearby Jingdezhen later in the Yuan period. Ceramic production of both white wares and celadon at Jingdezhen is known to have begun in the late ‘Tang period. In the Song dynasty Jing- dezhen was the center of production of Qingbai, or Yingqing, ware. Celadons were produced in large quantities in the Longquan area in southern Zhejiang Province and also around Chuanzhou and Dongan in Fujian Prov- ince. Countless thousands of pieces were exported to Japan, Southeast Asia, and the Near East during the Song dynasty and through the Ming period (1368-1644). So-called black Jian ware was made in Fujian Province, and developed especially in connection with the growing emphasis on tea bowls. It is dis- tinctive for its purplish brown, nearly black, body and the uncanny glaze effects, known as “oil spot” and “Hare’s fur,” induced during firing. Large numbers of Jian tea bowls were sent to Japan. After 1127, as the center shifted to the South, the North saw a decline in the previously high standards of ceramic craftsmanship. Kilns continued to operate but their products were cruder, appealing more to pop- ular tastes and needs. This trend continued into the Yuan dynasty (1171-1378), when ornament of a more forceful and naturalistic character appeared. In many areas of artistic and cultural activity, the Song dynasty was a highly productive period with ele- “The finest assemblage of Jizhou ware outside of China is to be found in the collection of Field Museum. Porcelain plate with molded design of dragon and clouds; ding ware. Northern Song dynasty (960-1127 ao.). Diameter 23.3cm. Collection of the Shanghai Museum. vated artistic standards and sophisticated tastes. The ceramics of this period embody those qualities in their simple, elegant shapes and luminous monochrome glazes. Technique, though highly developed, was sub- ordinated and controlled by a restrained sense of beauty. Virtuousity was never displayed for its own sake, as is often the case in later Chinese ceramics. 0 Porcellaneous vase with pierced ears; ge ware. Southern Song dynasty (1127-1279 a.o.) Height 10.1cm. Collection of the Shanghai Museum. Why Are there So Many King by William Burger Chairman, Department of Botany Photos by the author I n 1959 G. Evelyn Hutchinson, noted authority on freshwater life, published a scientific paper titled “Homage to Santa Rosalia, or why are there so many kinds of animals?” Hutchinson had visited Sicily, where he had come upon the shrine of Santa Rosalia. Below the shrine in a small pool he found and collected two species of water beetles, one somewhat smaller than the other. The discovery of these beetles coexisting in the same small body of water set him to thinking and even- tually led to his writing the article. Few scientific papers ask the really big questions (fewer still are dedicated to saints), but Hutchinson's article proved to be especially stimulating and has been followed by a great number of studies and articles devoted to aspects of the question he raised. No matter where one looks, whether in a midwest- ern prairie, a deciduous forest, or a tropical rain forest, the world seems incredibly rich with different kinds of plants and animals. How can we approach such a broad subject as spe- cies diversity or, to be a bit more precise, species richness? Perhaps the simplest way is to divide the broad question into two that are more narrowly phrased: (1) how do a great many species manage to live together in the same biological community, and (2) what factors caused such diverse communities to come into being? The following discussion concentrates on the first question; we can leave the second question for another time. Among the many points made by Hutchinson in his article was that life on land far outnumbers the species of plants and animals living in the oceans. Despite the fact that our planet's surface is only about 30 percent land, perhaps 80 percent of all species are terrestrial. Beetles alone number over a quarter-million named kinds, and since the vast majority of these and other insects are terrestrial, it is easy to account for the relatively large size is Beach State Park. Many prairie Ss over the May-to-September JS reducing competition for pollinating fe 0) A & = ; Ss a ® g oe k. - “ W7— of the land biota. A more fundamental reason for this dis- parity is that the land surface has a far greater variety of habitats than does the ocean. Within the medium of ocean water, there is nothing equivalent to the seasonally dry habitats or the great variety of temperature and rain- fall patterns that prevail on land. The ocean, further- more, is continuous; there are no totally separate parts. The land, on the other hand, is fragmented and dis- continuous. There is no marine biota as distinctive as the land biota of Australia. In any event, we do no injustice to the topic of diversity by confining ourselves to life on land; that is where the greatest numbers occur. Even confining the discussion to land communities 22 gives us a multifaceted problem. The late plant ecologist Robert Whittaker suggested that we keep separate the di- versity we find in a particular woods or prairie or moun- taintop from the diversity we encounter as we move from one kind of habitat into another. It seems easy to under- stand that different species will inhabit only swamp, or woodland, or open field. It is the local diversity of a single habitat, which he called ‘alpha diversity,’ that merits our attention. How is it that a great many species seem able to live together in the same habitat at the same time? Careful studies by numerous biologists have given us a partial answer to this question: many species may be living together, but they are not utilizing the same re- sources in the same way. The disparity in size of the two water beetles found by Hutchinson in the little pool indi- cated that they were utilizing the resources of that pool in different ways. Similarly, lions, leopards, cheetahs, and the smaller cats of the African plains tend to hunt differ- ent classes of prey and hunt in different ways. Also, many species are specialists. The chemical defenses of the monarch butterfly’s caterpillar can detoxify the chemical defenses of its food plant, the milkweed; one rarely finds the monarch caterpillar feeding elsewhere and one rarely finds other kinds of caterpillars chewing on milkweeds. Though it is often difficult to see, many plants are best adapted to a particular soil type, type of exposure or climatic zone. In addition to utilizing different resources or differ- ent microhabitats, plants and animals can also divide the Open grasslands in East Africa support a great variety of large mammals. Different ways of utilizing the vegetation and different ways of hunting allow diverse herbivores and carnivores to share the same habitat. year amongst themselves. Plants of our prairies avoid competition for pollinators by dividing the flowering sea- son. One cannot appreciate the flowers of the prairie in a single visit; every few weeks new species come into bloom as others finish their period of flowering. In the evergreen tropics such flowering periodicity can occur throughout the year or take place in very irregular inter- vals over a number of years. But the message is the same: it is the division of resources, in time as in space, that allows many plants and animals to share the same environment. Little animals provide many fine examples of divid- ing the habitat. We ourselves are sometimes inhabited by two species of lice; their names tell us where to look for them: the head louse and the body louse. Many insects feed exclusively on certain plant parts with the same selectivity as animal parasites. It has been estimated that two common species of oak trees in England are essential to the completion of the life histories of 128 different species of insects, each of which utilizes a particular part or parts of the oak plant in its individual way. But can we explain local diversity entirely on the basis of each coexisting species having slightly different requirements? Probably not, especially in plants which are passively dispersed and cannot move once they are rooted. As one walks through a forest rich in species of trees, one has the impression that most trees are not site- specific and that a given site, if cleared, might support any number of species. This is especially true in some tropical rain forests where as many as 300 different kinds of trees coexist within a few acres on similar soil and slope. One explanation offered to explain this richness of trees is that insect predators, specializing on the seeds of particular species of trees, destroy the seeds that have fallen near the parent tree, resulting in a widely scattered pattern of species occurrence. A few researchers have found support for this view; most analyses, however, report clumped patterns of tree species occurrence, contradicting the seed-predation hypothesis. In fact many studies have found irregular, almost random patterns of species distributions within these tropical forests. These nearly random patterns suggest that chance events may play an important role in the success of these tropical 23 trees. Why should chance play an important role in the life of a giant tropical tree? It appears that in many instances the success of a small seedling or sapling on the floor of the rain forest will be determined by whether or not a nearby forest giant comes crashing to the ground. These canopy trees create light gaps when they fall, and being near the source of bright light may be the most important factor in the further growth of rain forest seedlings and saplings. The tree falls, which are largely unpredictable, may be a major reason why so many large trees can coexist; you don’t have to be a specialist or a superior competitor when success is largely a matter of chance. A similar argument has been made for the diversity of some fishes on coral reefs. Unpredictable tropical storms can break up parts of the reef, and being the first to recolonize may be largely a matter of chance. On land, larger scale disruption, such as that caused by landslides or major floods, also promotes diversity by ripping apart mature vegetation and beginning the process of revegetation all over again. Chance disruption and unpredictable variations in temperature and rainfall may help explain why “superior competitors” haven’t taken over more of the landscape. Without disruptive fires, many of our midwestern prairies would revert to woodland. Without storm and flood, fewer open sites would be available for pioneer species. We may grumble about our weather and how it varies, but such variation is essential to maintaining the diversity of life around us. If it were not for the year that was unusually cold, unusually wet, unusually dry, or unusually changeable, we might not have so many species 24 of plants and animals living in the same environments. Milkweed plants are protected by chemical toxins in their milky sap. The caterpillar of the Monarch butterfly is able to sequester these toxins; few other insects have this ability. Too much disruption, however, can cause drastic declines in the number of species. Africa is relatively poor in the number of plant species, a condition that may be the result of a severe dry period in the past. Areas in Southeast Asia subject to recurrent seasonal typhoons (which are very similar to our hurricanes) have forests poorer in species than areas outside the typhoon zone. Likewise, excessive predation or overgrazing can cause severe reduction in species numbers. But smaller amounts of predation and light grazing activity seem to enhance species richness. Careful observations in England showed that fields decreased in plant diversity when rabbits were removed or reduced by disease. The rabbits apparently browsed some of the more vigorous and dominant plant species, thus allowing other plants to maintain themselves. The conclusion from these and many other similar observations is that too little disruption reduces diversity (the top competitors take over) and too much disruption also reduces diversity (a majority of species cannot survive). To sum up, the answer to our question seems to be a multifaceted one. Different specializations and different requirements allow many species to live together. In addi- tion, predation, disease, and minor disturbance keep the superior competitors in check, providing openings for others. All this takes place in an environment in which rainfall and temperature also vary, often unpredictably. Taken together, these many factors result in a highly dynamic biota, and it is these dynamic, often unpredictable, components that support the great richness of plants and animals we find in many environments. L_] TOURS FOR MEMBERS EcGyPt Wonders of the Nile January 31-February 16 $3,375 An unforgettable in-depth visit to the Land of the Pharaohs, including an 8-day Nile cruise aboard the luxurious Sheraton Nile Steamer. The tour leader is Dr. Bruce Wil- liams, a distinguished U.S. Egyptologist. Dr. Williams is an expert in archaeology and ancient history. He will travel with the tour throughout, including the Nile cruise, and personally conduct all lectures and sight- seeing. Highlights of our tour will be the pyramids and Sphinx of Giza, little-visited monuments of Middle Egypt, King Tut’s tomb, the holiday resort of Aswan, and a visit to Abu Simbel. ALASKA NATURAL HIsTory TOUR June 1984 $4,185 Experience the Great Land. Descriptions of Alaska are filled with superlatives—a state more than twice the size of Texas with a population less than that of Denver, 33,000 miles of coastline, 119 million acres of forest, 14 of the highest peaks in the United States culminating in Mt. Denali (formerly Mt. McKinley), at 20,320 feet. Alaska is equally a land of wildlife superlatives, from her great herds of caribou to swarming seabird rookeries to surging salmon in migration. When one thinks of Alaska one thinks of wilderness, of nature still fresh and un- domesticated, of experiences dreamed of but mostly unavailable to us of the lower 48. Join us in June 1984 for an Alaskan odyssey through a wide range of habitats from the rockbound fur seal and sea bird colonies of the Pribilofs, to the dripping for- est and calving glaciers of the southeast, to the grandeur of the Alaskan Range, to the Fjordlike quiet and beauty of the inland passage. Our travels will be by plane, train, bus, boat, horseback, and foot—whatever best enhances our experience. Emphasis will be on the land, its history, its wildlife. Inter- pretation combined with direct observation will provide an enjoyment and quality of experience unavailable to the casual visitor. Whatever your interest in natural history— marine mammals, birding, mountains, photography, flowers, forests, glaciers, rivers —this tour will show you Alaska in all its di- versity and splendor. The tour will be led by Dr. Robert Karl Johnson, Chairman of the Department of Zoology of Field Museum. TROPICAL MARINE BIOLOGY Exploration of Isla Roatan February 15-24 $1,450 Crystal clear water, magnificent coral reefs, and a fantastic diversity of marine life are characteristics of the coast of Roatan, the largest of the Bay Islands in the Gulf of Honduras and some 30 miles off the Central American coast. Field Museum will conduct a 10-day tour to Roatan especially for divers that will combine superlative diving, expert instruction in marine natural history, and an opportunity to observe or actively partici- pate in the scientific collecting of fishes. An outstanding attraction for divers is spectacular “drop-offs” whose tops ex- tend into depths as shallow as 25 feet. For additional information on any tour, please call Tours Manager Dorothy Roder at 322-8862 or write Field Museum Tours, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605. Leading the tour will be two ichthyolo- gists with more than 10 years experience in the Caribbean as teachers, divers, and researchers: Dr. Robert Karl Johnson, curator of fishes and chairman of Field Museum’s Department of Zoology; and Dr. David W. Greenfield, professor of biological sciences and associate dean of the Graduate School at Northern Illinois University. Illus- trated talks about marine ecosystems will be combined with field trips to observe habitat types. Accommodations will be at the Reef House diving resort on Roatan. The price of $1,450 covers all travel, lodging, and meals at the Reef House, and two or three tank dives per day. GRAND CANYON ADVENTURE May 25 - June 3 An exciting 280-mile cruise down the Col- orado River by motorized rubber raft, camping outdoors under the stars. Dr. Ber- tram G. Woodland, curator of petrology, will lead the tour. Group limited to 25. For additional information call (322-8862) or write the Tours Office. ADDITIONAL TOUR GEMS SLATED FOR 1984 @ China and Tibet @ Kenya @ Peru @ England’s Old Inns, Old Homes, Old Castles, and Old Gardens. Please ask to be on our mailing list if any of these tours 1s of interest you. 25 OUR ENVIRONMENT Study of Children’s Attitudes Toward Animals If you think kids and wild creatures natur- ally go together, think again. A recent study among school children in Con- necticut suggests that, like many a love affair, the one between children and ani- mals is bittersweet, at best. The pioneer- ing study, sponsored by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Yale University, did not attempt to analyze the attitudes of children nationally, but provides a pro- vocative glimpse into how our per- ceptions of wildlife may evolve through the childhood years. The study of “Children’s Attitudes, Knowledge, and Behaviors Toward Ani- mals” was conducted by Stephen R. Kellert of Yale’s School of Forestry and Environmental Studies and Miriam O. Wes- tervelt of the Fish and Wildlife Service. It included nearly 300 second, fifth, eighth, and eleventh grade students who repre- sented all major demographic and geo- graphic divisions within Connecticut. The survey was the final phase of a large, five- part study of Americans’ knowledge and attitudes toward wildlife commissioned by the Interior Department agency. The survey found: @ Like adults, the most common attitude among children was a “humanistic” one— that is, a strong affection for individual animals, mainly pets; @ The “naturalistic” appreciation for wild- life and the outdoors was much more com- mon in children, especially eleventh grad- ers, than in adults. For example, 59 percent of eleventh graders indicated a preference for being near wild animals while camp- ing, against only 36 percent of adults sur- veyed by Kellert in an earlier study; @ Children were just as likely to express a general dislike or fear of animals as that “naturalistic” appreciation, however. Younger children feared wild animals to a much greater degree than did older class- mates. @ Children, particularly those in the up- per grade levels, disapproved of sport hunting. Like adults, they approved of hunting for meat, however. Fully 81 per- cent of eleventh graders (and 62 percent of adults) opposed sport hunting, while 60 percent of all children (and 85 percent of adults) approved of hunting for meat; e@ Although children’s knowledge of animals was relatively limited, in certain specialized areas, like insects, children knew more than adults. Seventy-eight percent of children knew that spiders are not 10-legged creatures, as against 50 per- cent of adults, for example. 26 @ There are distinct stages through which children’s attitudes toward animals evolve, the authors suggest. Between second and fifth grades, children showed a dramatic increase in their concern, sym- pathy, and affection for animals. Interests in animals became less narrow and early childhood fears began to disappear. Be- tween fifth and eighth grades, factual knowledge about animals showed its greatest increase. From eighth to eleventh grades, children gained a deepening con- cern for wildlife protection, a greater understanding of ecological concepts, and a relatively high moral concern for animal rights and cruelty issues. @ Girls expressed a greater emotional affection for animals than did boys, and whites had a greater general interest in animals, particularly wildlife, than did nonwhites. Boys, whites, and rural resi- dents possessed far greater factual know- ledge about animals than did groups of other children. ®@ Most children said they go to the zoo (93 percent), own a pet (87 percent), go fish- ing (87 percent), learn about animals in school (83 percent), feed birds (82 per- cent), and read about animals (76 per- cent). Whites were more likely than non- whites to participate in activities involving animals, in general. Rural children en- gaged in more domestic animal activities, as well a hunting, fishing, and trapping. Girls exceeded boys in their participation in only one activity—birdwatching. Sampson’s Pearly Mussel The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Fws) has proposed that the Sampson’s pearly mussel be removed from the endangered species list in the face of overwhelming evidence that the creature no longer exists. Originally identified and described in 1861, the mussel inhabited the lower reaches of the Wabash River in Illinois and Indiana, and possibly parts of the Ohio River in the general vicinity of the Wabash and Ohio confluence. It was placed on the U.S. list of Endangered and Threatened species on June 14, 1976. Extensive searches have failed to turn up a living specimen during the past 50 years, leading to the conclusion that it is extinct. The mussel apparently occupied only gravel and sand bars, which were destroyed over the years by siltation that resulted from dredging and the con- struction of dams. A decline in water qual- ity as a result of an inflow of chemicals from industry and agriculture is also be- lieved to have contributed to the mussel’s extinction. Stephen didn’t think he needed a will. He was only 51.... Stephen intended to have his will drawn up someday; first, there were things to get done. He had no idea he would need a will anytime soon—before he got those “things” done. A will is like life insurance: when you need it, it’s too late to do anything about it. Now, Stephen’s family is facing unnecessary delays, confusion, and extra expenses in settling his estate. Don’t make the same mistake. Send for our complimentary booklet giving all the reasons why a will is important and how you can plan an effective will. To: Planned Giving Office Field Museum of Natural History E. Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Dr. Chicago, Illinois 60605 (__) Please send me my free copy of “Seven Reasons Why Your Will is Still Important.” NAME ADDRESS. CITY. STATE. ZIP. I can be reached at: Phone: Bus. (_) Res.(_) Index to Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin, Volume 54 (1983) Articles Archaeological Reconnaisance in Southern Peru, by Charles Stanish and Irene Pritzker: Je 6 Archaeology around the Shores, by Kevin McGowan and Thomas J. Riley: My 20 Athapaskan Indian Clothing in the Collections of Field Museum, by James VanStone: A 22 Biennial Report for 1981-82: J/A 5 Botanical World in Replica, The, by Michael O. Dillon and Beverly Serrell: S5 Bryophyte Collecting in the Bolivian Andes, by Marko Lewis: S 11 Clean-up for the Mediterranean, by Norman Myers: F 34 Collecting in the Upper Amazon, by Timothy Plowman: Mr 8 Earliest Plants on Land, The, by Peter R. Crane: O 20 Eastern and Western Traditions in Hand Papermaking, by Timothy Barrett: My 10 Ecological Studies of Tropical Cicadas, by Allen M. Young: Je 20 El Nino: Recent Effects in Peru, by Robert Feldman: S 16 Fuertes in Abyssinia, by R. M. Peck: A 6 Geology and Creationism, by David M. Raup: Mr 16 Industrial Miracle in a Golden Age, An: the 17th Century Cloth Exports of India, by Bennett Bronson: Ja 12 Inside Story on Fossil Plants, The, by Peter R. Crane: N 10 Journal of Wilfred Osgood, The; intro. by Bruce Patterson: F 8 Layman’'s Guide to Resources, Reserves, and Recovery, by Edward Olsen: Ja8 Patronage of Tz’u Chou Type Wares, by Yutaka Mino: My 16 Plants of the World Photography Competition: O 11 Plants that Lie and Cheat (Well Almost), by William Burger: F 23 Precolumbian Murals in a Mexican Church, by Terry Stocker and Barbara Jackson: F 14 Remarkable Maguey, The: Myth and Reality, by Terry Stocker and Barbara Jackson: S 19 Sea Snakes: Mark, Release, Recapture, by Harold Voris, Helen Voris, and William B. Jeffries: O5 Sixth Annual Anthropology Film Festival: N 13 Thinsections: A Natural Art Form, by Edward Olsen: A 19 Tradition of Chado—The Way of Tea: My 8 Treasures from the Shanghai Museum—6,000 Years of Chinese Art, by Yutaka Mino and Katherine R. Tsiang: N5 Authors Barrett, T.: Eastern and Western Traditions in Hand Papermaking, My 10 Bronson, B.: An Industrial Miracle in a Golden Age: the 17th Century Cloth Exports of India, Ja 12 Burger, W.: Plants that Lie and Cheat (Well Almost), F 23 Crane, P.R.: The Earliest Plants on Land, O 20 —: The Inside Story on Fossil Plants, N 10 Dillon, M.O.: The Botanical World in Replica, S5 Feldman, R.: El Nirio: Recent Effects in Peru, S 16 Jackson, B.: Precolumbian Murals in a Mexican Church, F 14 — The Remarkable Maguey: Myth and Reality, S 19 Jeffries, W.B.: Sea Snakes: Mark, Release, Recapture,O5 Lewis, M.: Bryophyte Collecting in the Bolivian Andes, S 11 McGowan, K.: Archaeology around the Shores, My 20 Mino, Y.: Patronage of Tz‘u Chou Type Wares, My 16 —— Treasures from the Shanghai Museum—6,000 Years of Chinese Art, N5 Myers, N.: Clean-up for the Mediterranean, F 34 Olsen, E.: A Layman’s Guide to Resources, Reserves, and Recovery, Ja8 — Thinsections: A Natural Art Form, A 19 Patterson, B.: The Journal of Wilfred Osgood (intro.), F 8 Peck, R.M.: Fuertes in Abyssinia, A 6 Plowman, T.: Collecting in the Upper Amazon, Mr 8 Pritzker, I.: Archaeological Reconnaisance in Southern Peru, Je 6 Raup, D.M.: Geology and Creationism, Mr 16 Riley, T.J.: Archaeology around the Shores, My 20 Serrell, B.: The Botanical World in Replica, S5 Stanish, C.: Archaeological Reconnaisance in Southern Peru, Je 6 Stocker, T.: Precolumbian Murals in a Mexican Church, F 14 ———: The Remarkable Maguey: Myth and Reality, S 19 Tsiang, K.R.: Treasures from the Shanghai Museum—6,000 Years of Chinese Art, N5 VanStone, J.: Athapaskan Indian Clothing in the Collections of Field Museum, A 22 Voris, Harold: Sea Snakes: Mark, Release, Recapture, O5 Voris, Helen: Sea Snakes: Mark, Release, Recapture,O5 Young, A.M.: Ecological Studies of Tropical Cicadas, Je 20 27 FreLp Museum Stores AMONG B. offer a selection of 6,000 ‘ ‘ quality reproductions YEARS ft 3 ; ' and other items related to OF ( ‘A the outstanding exhibit CHINESE | ‘ a “"TREASURES FROM THE ART | 4 j SHANGHAI Museu.” Magnificent registered reproductions created in China by the workshop of the Shanghai Museum Official exhibit : catalogs and posters A wide selection of other fine items, including jewelry, antique pieces, and wall hangings Field Museum (312) 922-9410 Celephone orders accepted VISA, MasterCard er _@ ©&.% 2 Oe 7,*.9.% 9° F © 2.9.97.% 77? "W.*.Ft.%7*" * "WaltetaO * ” ” " Va'’a"ad” ~~" "Ya oa? . .. . "8 Oe? «ec a. *F™* & & oe.” " 7% Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin Published by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 President: Willard L. Boyd Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Editor: David M. Walsten Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns Staff Photographer: Ron Testa BOARD OF TRUSTEES James J. O'Connor chairman Mrs. T. Stanton Armour George R. Baker Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Bowen Blair Willard L. Boyd Frank W. Considine Stanton R. Cook O.C. Davis William R. Dickinson, Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley II Marshall Field Richard M. Jones Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F. Mullin Charles F. Murphy, Jr. Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Robert A. Pritzker James H. Ransom John S. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Searle Edward Byron Smith Robert H. Strotz William G. Swartchild, Jr. Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Julian B. Wilkins Blaine J. Yarrington LiFE TRUSTEES Harry O. Bercher Joseph N. Field Clifford C Gregg William V. Kahler William H. Mitchell John W. Sullivan J. Howard Wood Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July/August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces- sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His- tory, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. Second class postage paid at Chicago, II. CONTENTS February 1984 Volume 55, Number 2 February Events at Field Museum 3 Eskimo Art and Culture 5 Coming March 10: Inua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo and Grasp Tight the Old Ways: The Klamer Family Collection of Inuit Art Images of Yap 20 by Robert B. Pickering Program Developer, Department of Education Sealskin Bags of Unusual Construction from the Bering Strait Region 23 by James W. VanStone Curator of North American archaeology and ethnology Field Museum Tours 27 Cover Spirit with Young, green stone and ivory sculpture by Shorty Killiktee. 24.5 xv 14.3 x 14.4cm. This sculpture is among 175 contemporary prints, drawings, wall hangings, and other sculpture that will be on view at Field Museum March 10 through May 27. Entitled “Grasp Tight the Old Ways: The Klamer Collection of Inuit Art,” the exhibit comes from the Art Gallery of Ontario and will be shown concurrently with “Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo,” organized by SITES, Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service. See pages 5-19. Photo courtesy Art Gallery of Ontario, gift of the Klamer Family, 1978. Reproduction restricted. Copyright held by sculptor and protected by Canadian Eskimo Arts Council, Ottawa, Canada. VOLUNTEER OPPORTUNITIES: If you have a good mind for detail and can give one day a week, there may be a volunteer job for you in our Zoolo- gy or Geology department. Other volunteer oppor- tunities include jobs in Membership, Building Operations and departmental libraries. Clerical skills are needed in almost every area of the Museum. Events Yueh Lung Shadow Theatre Sunday, February 5 1:00pm and 2:30pm James Simpson Theatre Shadow theatre is a performing art more than 2,000 years old. The Yueh Lung Shadow Theatre is the only one of its kind in the United States. The company uses Peking-type figures which are constructed by members of the troupe. The performances feature Chinese shad- ow puppets maneuvered by professionals and illumin- ated ona screen. The puppets recreate stories of Chinese life and legend. During the performance, the stories and the use of the puppets are explained. Because the number of seats for each performance is limited, advance purchase of tickets is recommended. These performances are partially funded by a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, a federal agency. Members: $3.00 Nonmembers: $5.00 Use coupon to order tickets. Fees are nonrefundable. “African Lifestyles’—Film Series Africa is a land whose population has more distinct cultures than any other continent. These free films focus upon the diversity of African lifestyles. February 11, 1:00pm Masai: Warrior Between Two Worlds (30m) Traditional culture clashes with the modern world in this documentary of life among the Masai of East Africa. Nawi (22m) During the dry season, the Jie of Uganda leave their homesteads and take their cattle to temporary camps, the nawi. February 18, 1:00pm Talking Drums (17m) An intimate view of a master drum-carver examines the significance drums hold for the Ashanti of West Africa. Dance of West Africa Najwa Dance Corps Sunday, February 19, 2:00pm James Simpson Theatre In an exciting mixture of dance, music, drama, and his- tory, Najwa Dance Corps brings to you a performance which preserves the styles and techniques of different eras in African history. Najwa I is an internationally acclaimed dancer who has continued a tradition of Gelede: A Yoruba Masquerade (24m) An impressive, colorful Nigerian mask dance-drama is enacted to combat the forces of witches and to reinforce definitions of men’s and women’s roles. February 25, 1:00pm The Nuer (60m) Life among these East African herders revolves largely around their cattle, supplying their basic material and spiritual needs. Portrayed are a bride price dispute, a ghost marriage, a revivalistic ceremony to combat smallpox, and a young man’s initiation. These films are free with Museum admission and tickets are not required. Use West Entrance. teaching, performing, and artistic endeavors through the Najwa Dance Corps. The Corps performs the fol- lowing suite of dances: “Diolli” and “Saba” from Sene- gal; “Liendien” from Gambia; “Manjaani,’ a social dance of West Africa; and “Wolofsodun,” a slave dance from Mali. Members: $3.00 Nonmembers: $5.00 For further information call (312) 322-8854. CONTINUED CONTINUED FROM PAGE 3 February Weekend Programs Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits at the Museum are designed for families and adults. Listed below are only a few of the numerous activities available each weekend. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for the complete schedule and pro- gram locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council. February 5 12:00noon Traditional China. Examine the timeless imagery and superb craftsmanship represented by Chinese masterworks in our permanent collection. 11 1:00pm ‘Tibet Today. Slide lecture shows Lhasa and other towns now open to tourists, as well as Tibetan refugees who have carried their religion into the mountainous areas surrounding this ancient religious center. 12. 12:00pm Museum Safari. Seek out shrunken heads from the Amazon, mummies from ancient Egypt, and big game from Africa. 18 11:30am = Ancient Egypt. Investigate the tradi- tions of ancient Egyptian civilization from everyday life to mummification and the pro- mise of an afterlife. 25 1:30pm Himalayan Journey: A Faith in Exile. Slide lecture focuses upon the strong- holds of Tibetan refugees in India: Dharamasla (home of the Dalai Lama), Darjeeling, and Sikkim. 26 = 12:30pm Museum Safari. Seek out shrunken heads from the Amazon, mummies from ancient Egypt, and big game from Africa. These weekend programs are free with Museum admission and tickets are not required. Events Family Feature African Rhythms: A Living History Babu Atiba, Musician Saturday and Sunday, February 4 and 5 12:00 noon, Hall E, Cultures of Africa The voices of African instruments sing history as well as music. The drum is considered essential throughout Africa and its sounds are often said to “talk.” Babu Atiba is a well-known Chicago drummer who specializes in the music of West Africa. Join us as he shares his music and demonstrates such drums as the djimbe and the djun djun. Examine the variety of horns, harps, flutes, lutes, and drums in our collection and learn some of the rhythms that are the heartbeat of West Africa’s music. Family features are free with Museum admission and tickets are not required. . . Member Nonmember Total Amount Program Title Tickets Tickets Tickets Reg istration 2 #Requested #Requested #Requested Enclosed Please complete coupon for your program selection and any other special events. Com- plete all requested information on the applica- tion and include section number where appro- priate. If your request is received less than one week before program, tickets will be held in your name at West Entrance box office until one-half hour before event. Please make checks payable to Field Museum. Tickets will be mailed on receipt of check. Refunds will be made only if program is sold out. Total: For Office Use: Date Received Date Returned Name ; Ps : Return complete ticket application with a self-addressed Street stamped envelope to: City State Zip Public Programs: Department of Education eae : Field Museum of Natural History Telephone Daytime Evening Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Have you enclosed your self-addressed stamped envelope? Chicago, IL 60605-2497 Eskimo Art and Culture Bear-man transformation Ivory 3.81cm x 8.83cm Smithsonian Institution Two major exhibits On view March 10 through May 27 INUA: SPIRIT WORLD OF THE BERING SEA ESKIMO from The Smithsonian Institution and GRASP TIGHT THE OLD WAYS: THE KLAMER FAMILY COLLECTION OF INUIT ART from the Art Gallery of Ontario PHOTOBYJOELBREGER 3 '"S/iis#a x < sac - = era. a PHOTO BY JOEL BREGER VISITORS TO FIELD MUSEUM THIS SPRING will have an oppor- tunity to view two interesting exhibitions of Eskimo art and culture which open on March 10 and close on May 27. They encompass a wide area of the North American arctic and a period extending from the late nineteenth century to the present. The first of these exhibits, curated by William Fitz- hugh and Susan Kaplan, originated at the Smithsonian Institution. It is devoted to a collection of ethnographic material from the coast of western Alaska made for the National Museum of Natural History between 1877 and 1881 by Edward William Nelson. Nelson went to Alaska as a weather observer and was assigned to the village of St. Michael on the coast north of the mouth of the Yukon River. During his tour of duty he traveled extensively and made a superb collection of ethnographic specimens numbering more than 10,000 items. These he described and illustrated in an important publication entitled The Eskimo About Bering Strait, pub- lished by the Bureau of American Ethnology of the Smithsonian in 1899. Most of the artifacts collected by Nelson have never before been exhibited to the public. They include exam- ples of the elaborate sea mammal hunting equipment characteristic of Eskimo culture, carefully constructed bentwood boxes painted with intricate designs having ceremonial significance, beautifully woven grass bags and baskets, carved ivory ornaments worn as personal adornment, and, most spectacular of all, the elaborate face masks of infinite variety which were an important part of the enactment of myths and stories and ceremo- nial presentations held in the qasig, or ceremonial house. The Nelson collection is the largest and most com- plete assemblage of nineteenth century ethnographic material ever made in Alaska. The exhibit includes a repre- sentative sample of more than 250 specimens, many of which are among the finest examples of nineteenth- century Alaskan Eskimo art. The second exhibit, entitled “Grasp Tight the Old Ways,” was curated by Jean Blodgett and originated at the Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto. It consists of selections from the Klamer family collection of contemporary Cana- Wedge for slitting feather quills Ivory 19cm Inua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo Float plugs from the Edward W. Nelson Collection of 6 mee The National Museum of Natural History/National Museum of Man Smithsonian Institution Photos courtesy Smithsonian Institution dian Eskimo (Inuit) art. Mr and Mrs. Harry Klamer were first attracted to Eskimo art more than twenty years ago and became enthusiastic patrons. They not only acquired pieces of contemporary sculpture and graphics at exhibi- tions, but traveled to the north to meet native artists. Their desire to document the accomplishments of Eskimo artists and to make their works known to a wider audience led them to donate a portion of their collection to the Art Gallery of Ontario in 1978. Most of the 175 pieces in the Klamer collection are contemporary prints, drawings, wall hangings, and sculp- tures made for sale by artists from some twenty Canadian Eskimo communities. Since the late 1940s and early 1950s, when Canadian Eskimos were first encouraged to produce sculpture and graphic art for a commercial market, there has been a tremendous increase in the interest in this unique art on the part of collectors, galleries, and museums all over the world. The Klamer collection is an excellent introduction to exciting art forms in which the artist's interpretation, although intensely personal, is rooted in the cultural traditions of the past. The Inua and Klamer exhibits can be viewed in Hall 26 on the second floor. Authoritative and beautifully pro- duced catalogs are available for both exhibits. The visitor may wish to compare the fine examples of Eskimo art and material culture exhibited in Hall 26 with those in the museum's new permanent exhibit “Maritime Peoples of the Arctic and Northwest Coast” in Hall 10. Fim —ewweaeeEe@w me EB eB Ae et 7h. * Food tray and ladle — Wood with stone inlay 35.5cm (tray), 26.5cm (ladle) Mask Wood, feathers, root lashing 50cm Flying bird effigy Male and female dolls Wood and feathers Bone, skin, and fur 53cm 17cm, 15cm Snuff box Wood, ivory inlay 10cm Mask Wood, feathers, and quills 48cm Seal inua (spirit) mask Wood, reindeer skin, fur 29cm Bear inua (spirit) mask Wood 30cm eS eee eee —= =wTs.. . «x . S*A"AY OVS Le a Caribou Head Green stone and antler by Osuitok Ipeelee 54.7 x 31.5x 45.6cm Sea Goddess (7 ras ~p Tig ht the Old Ways y Dark green stone, ivory, and baleen lhe Klamer Family Collection of Inuit Art 22.5 % 26.0.» 10.9¢m from the Art Gallery of Ontario Photos (pp. 14-19) courtesy Art Gallery of Ontario, nit ot the Klamer Family, 1978. oproduction restricted. Copyrights held by artists { protected by Canadian Eskimo Arts Council, Ottawa, Canada. 15 i: Mother and Child with Kudlik Dark green stone, ivory, light green stone, black stone, bone, and blacking by Elijassiapik 14.0 x 21.5 x 24.7cm Oiviuq’s Fourney Stonecut and stencil by William Noah and Martha Noah 64.0 x 94.0cm LL LISK Bird with Colow ful Plumage Felt-tip pen by Kenojuak SO.7 « 66.3¢m Six Birds Felt-tip pen and graphite by Kingmeata 50.7 x 66.5cm Images of Yap by Robert B. Pickering Program Developer, Department of Education Photos by the author, courtesy Nawrocki Stock Photo Above: Figrag, high chief of Lamaer, one ot three high-cast villages on the island. Yap is one of the few communities out- side of India where a rigid caste structure remains intact. Left: Gravestone of Japanese soldier is silent reminder of the early 1940s, when the island was occupied by Japanese forces. ap is a 28-square-mile island in the Pacific’s Western Caroline group and located about 800 miles due north of New Guinea. It recently became a member of the Federated States of Micronesia. The population is about 5,000. In 1980, when Yap was still a U.N. Trust Terri- tory, I had the opportunity to visit the island for five months, directing a federally funded mortuary site archaeology project. This was part of an environ- mental impact study prior to the construction of a proposed airstrip. In the course of my research there, I interviewed a large number of older Yap residents about mortuary customs. I also came to learn a great deal about their life in general—ceremonial activi- ties, politics, and social structure, their economy, crafts, and other aspects of daily life that have re- mained little affected by inroads from developed parts of the world. The photos reproduced here offer a glimpse of the beauty and character of this proud island community. The girl above and the boy at left are participants in a gamel, or bamboo dance. A standing dance adapted from the outer islands in the Yap district, it is unusually vigorous and done to the accompaniment of bamboo sticks struck together. Enormous carved “wheels” of ray ningocol, or stone money— Yap's principal claim to world renown. This form of currency is used, for example, to buy a wife or to compensate the family of someone the payer has killed. The stone is quarried in Palau, some 300 miles to the southwest. Left: Man and wife: 70-year-old Falanug and 58-year-old Mangayog before their neatly thatched sleeping house. Lower left: Basket-making can be done almost anytime, any- where. Using palm fronds, these men fashion carrying bas- kets as they wait for a dance to begin. Their nimble fingers can create a large basket in 15 minutes. Below: Everyone comes to the dance—to perform or just to watch. Sealskin Bags of Unusual Construction From the Bering Strait Region by James W. VanStone Curator of North American Archaeology and Ethnology raditional Alaskan Eskimo bags and baskets were fd Beet made from the skins of land and sea mam- mals or of dried grass. North of Norton Sound (see map) oblong, flat bags or satchels made of caribou or sealskin, usually with the hair on, were designed for holding tools and implements of all kinds. They had slightly arched handles of bone, ivory, or antler stretched lengthwise across the open mouth of the container. From Norton Sound to the mouth of the Kuskokwim River, Eskimo women, using a simple twining technique, made mats and bags of dried grass. Large mats served as curtains to partition off part of a room or sleeping area while smaller ones were placed as seats in the manholes of 176° kayaks. Most baskets fashioned by the Eskimos of western and southwestern Alaska were made by the coiling tech- nique and intended to contain small household items. The technique of coiling appears to have developed relatively late since coiled baskets were not offered for sale to early explorers. In the early twentieth century, however, Eskimo women made them by the hundreds in response to a grow- ing demand for souvenirs. Four sealskin bags in the collections of Field Museum are of special interest because of their unusual con- struction. These bags do not resemble any of the forms just mentioned nor are similar containers described or illus- trated in the existing literature on the material culture of 148° 136° 124° L \ x SIBERIA | . sp ALASKA fess of a 62" & ey sys J Br SEWARD _ ae PENINSULA ~\ 3 ST. LAWRENCE cate NORTON SOUND BERING SEA A {++ Lee) OB ce Pak o o a LF , 7 172" Fig. 1 PHOTO BY RON TESTA N108076 Alaskan Eskimos or the Eskimos and Chukchi of adjacent northeastern Siberia. Three of these bags were collected at Nome between 1900 and 1913 and purchased by the Museum in 1917. They are described in the catalog of the Department of Anthropology as “work or trinket boxes of skin.” It is possible that they were containers for sewing equipment or jewelry. Narrow strips of tanned bleached and unbleached seal- skin, with the hair removed, were used in these containers. A detailed description of one of them will serve to make clear the unusual method of construction. This bag (cata- log No. 27727, approx. 18cm high) has a flat bottom made from a single piece of unbleached sealskin (fig. 1). The sides flare evenly and constrict near the neck with an addi- tional outward flare at the rim. The round sealskin lid is flat at the edges, raised and rounded toward the center, and has a vertical round knob at the top. The bag is constructed of 24 narrow, folded strips of bleached and unbleached skin with the two colors alternat- ing. Between each strip is a narrow welt of unbleached skin and the pairs of strips with intervening welts are sewn with sinew as shown in figure 2. The lid is similarly constructed of seven strips of skin separated by welts. A recessed eighth strip extends below the lid and fits into the bag opening. Figure 3 illustrates how the center section of the lid is built 24 up to a round piece at the top. The knob consists of five short strips of skin, the top one being wide and the others narrow and separated by welts. Decoration on this container consists of appliquéd pieces of tanned sealskin (fig. 1). Unbleached pieces are used on the bleached strips and bleached pieces on the unbleached strips. Some of the decorative elements are sewn on with a running stitch, in several places with red thread rather than sinew although the color is hardly visi- ble. Others are woven into strips in an over-under pattern. On some of the very narrow strips, decorative pieces, usually simple rectangles or squares, are simply held in place by the welts on either side. The lid is decorated in the Fig. 2 DRAWING BY ZBIGNIEW JASTRZEBSK! N109057-A same manner except that a very narrow strip of bleached skin around the rim is cut in a zigzag pattern and held in place by the sinew stitching (fig. 3). The other two bags in this group are constructed in much the same manner and are approximately the same size. The first (catalog No. 27726, approx. 18cm high) con- sists of a flat bottom piece of unbleached skin and 28 alter- nating strips of bleached and unbleached skin with inter- vening welts of the same material (fig. 4). The lid is made of nine strips which shorten toward an ivory knob at the top. A recessed strip extending below the lid fits into the bag opening. Most of the decorative pieces are held in place by the welts, but a few are woven into the strips in an over-under pattern. All sewing is with sinew. The third bag (catalog No. 27728, approx. 13.5cm Fig. 3 DRAWING BY ZBIGNIEW JASTRZEBSK! N109056-A high) has a flat bottom and is constructed of 24 narrow strips of skin separated by welts (fig. 5). A slightly flaring rim is a single piece of unbleached skin folded over at the edge and sewn with a running stitch. All sewing is with sinew. There is a broken carrying strap of unbleached skin. The nearly flat lid consists of two pieces separated by a welt, with a narrow loop of unbleached skin in the center. All appliquéd decoration on this container is held in place by the welts. There are also five beaded decorative ele- ments, spot-stitched and sinew-sewn, at intervals on a wide unbleached strip just below the rim of this bag. The bead colors are pink, white, blue, and green. Fig. 4 PHOTO BY RON TESTA N108075 Fig. 5 PHOTO BY RON TESTA N108077 It is interesting to speculate on the provenience of the three bags in this group. The fact that they were collected at Nome does not provide any reliable clues as to where they were made and used. The village of Nome was estab- lished by gold miners in 1898 and quickly became an eco- nomic center for a large area of northwest Alaska, particu- larly following the discovery of gold on the beaches in front of the community in 1902. Native peoples from Alaskan settlements were attracted to Nome by opportunities to trade with gold miners and other visitors. Handicrafts from even more distant areas, including northeastern Siberia, reached Nome through native and nonnative trad- ing patterns and routes. The style of decoration on the bags described sug- gests that they were made either by Eskimos on St. Law- rence Island or the coast of Siberia, or by the Chukchi of coastal Siberia. In all three areas, the use of alternating light and dark tanned sealskin was characteristic, as were appli- quéd designs similar to those on the Field Museum bags. It would not have been difficult for a collector at Nome to obtain examples of St. Lawrence Island or Siberian crafts either directly from native visitors or as a result of trade networks. The fourth bag was collected by the Borden-Field Museum Alaska Arctic Expedition in 1927. It is identified in the catalog as a “woman’s bag” and was obtained at Cape Prince of Wales on Seward Peninsula. Like the other three 25 26 containers, this one was probably also intended to hold sewing equipment, jewelry, or small household items. This bag (catalog No. 177780, approx. 23cm high, excluding strap) has a flat bottom of tanned unbleached sealskin and sides that flare evenly toward a slightly con- stricted neck (fig. 6). It is constructed from 24 narrow strips of bleached skin with welts of the same material be- tween every other strip (fig. 7). Two strips near the opening and the rim are of unbleached skin. Six of the strips and every other welt are dyed red. Additional decoration in- cludes three vertical strands of light blue, dark blue, and translucent yellow beads, spot-stitched and thread-sewn, which are attached at intervals around the bag; and dangles of blue beads toward the center of the bag between the vertical strands. The bag has a loop carrying strap of bleached skin. Sewing throughout, with the exception of the beaded strands and dangles, is with sinew; the bottom piece is attached to the lowest strip by means of a whip stitch. Fig. 6 PHOTO BY RON TESTA N108691 Fig. 7 DRAWING BY ZBIGNIEW JASTRZEBSKI N109056-8 Although all four bags are now stiff and inflexible, the strips of sealskin would have been soft and pliable when the containers were being sewn. After the strips and welts were sewn, the finished bag was turned inside out so that the sewing and untrimmed edges were on the inside. Thus, most of the appliquéd decoration had to be in place before the bag was turned. Since the construction of the bags described here is perhaps unique, or at least extremely rare, it is difficult to draw any specific conclusions concerning the significance of these particular specimens. Although apparently rare as a bag-making technique, welting was used frequently by Eskimo women in the construction of footgear. Regardless of rarity, however, it would not be surprising to find bags of the same design on both sides of Bering Strait since hand- icrafts in the two areas were derived from a common heri- tage and a long period of cultural exchange. FM TOURS FOR MEMBERS GRAND CANYON ADVENTURE May 25 - June 3 Many of us have beheld the Grand Canyon from the rim or while flying overhead, and some of us have hiked partway down to the Colorado River. But there is another Grand Canyon that relatively few have experienced: Field Museum is offering you the opportunity to see and experience the canyon from the river. The 280-mile trip will be by two motorized rubber rafts. We'll sleep on sandy beaches under the stars and our meals will be excellent. Along the way, we'll hike to places of unusual geologic and anthropologic interest, sometimes through the most pleasant and enchant- ing stream beds and valleys, at times along the waterfalls. We'll see and study more geology in this one brief period than can be seen anywhere else in comparable time. Dr. Bertram Wood- land, curator of petrology, will be our tour leader. The trip will begin on Friday, May 25, with a flight to Las Vegas, where we will remain overnight. The evening of our arrival, we’ll have a briefing about the river trip and will receive our river equipment. Saturday morning we'll leave by deluxe bus for Lees Ferry, where we'll board the rafts. The trip will end 9 days later, at Pierce Ferry, near the head of Lake Mead. We'll re- turn to Chicago, via Las Vegas, Sunday, June 3. You needn’t be a “rough rider” to join this expedition—you needn’t even know how to swim. Persons of any age can enjoy the river with equanimity, and come out proud and happy to have experienced this extraordinary adven- ture. The cost (to be announced) per per- son covers all expenses (including air fare, board fees, waterproof bags for gear, sleeping bags, etc.), and all meals. The trip is limited to 25 participants. AALASKA NATURAL HISTORY TOUR June 1984 $4,185 Experience the Great Land. Descrip- tions of Alaska are filled with superla- tives—a state more than twice the size of Texas with a population less than that of Denver, 33,000 miles of coast- line, 119 million acres of forest, 14 of the highest peaks in the United States cul- minating in Mt. Denali (formerly Mt. McKinley), at 20,320 feet. Alaska is equally a land of wildlife superlatives, from her great herds of caribou to swarming seabird rookeries to surging salmon in migration. When one thinks of Alaska one thinks of wilderness, of nature still fresh and undomesticated, of experiences dreamed of but mostly un- available to us of the lower 48. Join us for an Alaskan odyssey through a wide range of habitats from the rockbound fur seal and sea bird col- onies of the Pribilofs, to the dripping forest and calving glaciers of the south- east, to the grandeur of the Alaskan Range, to the Fjordlike quiet and beauty of the inland passage. Our travels will be by plane, train, bus, boat, horseback, and foot—what- ever best enhances our experience. Emphasis will be on the land, its history, its wildlife. Interpretation combined with direct observation will provide an enjoyment and quality of experience un- available to the casual visitor. Whatever your interest in natural history—marine mammals, birding, mountains, photogra- phy, flowers, forests, glaciers, rivers— this tour will show you Alaska in all its diversity and splendor. The tour will be led by Dr. Robert Karl Johnson, Chairman of the Depart- ment of Zoology of Field Museum. For additional information on any tour, please call Tours Manager Dorothy Roder at 322-8862 or write Field Museum Tours, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605. TROPICAL MARINE BIOLOGY Exploration of Isla Roatan February 15-24 $1,450 Crystal clear water, magnificent coral reefs, and a fantastic diversity of marine life are characteristics of the coast of Roatan, the largest of the Bay Islands in the Gulf of Honduras and some 30 miles off the Central American coast. Field Museum will conduct a 10-day tour to Roatan especially for divers that will combine superlative diving, expert instruction in marine natural history, and an opportunity to observe or actively participate in the scientific collecting of fishes. An outstanding attraction for divers is spectacular “drop-offs” whose tops extend into depths as shallow as 25 feet. Leading the tour will be two ichthy- ologists with more than 10 years experience in the Caribbean as teachers, divers, and researchers: Dr. Robert Karl Johnson, curator of fishes and chairman of Field Museum’s Department of Zoology; and Dr. David W. Greenfield, professor of biological sciences and associate dean of the Graduate School at Northern Illinois University. Illustrated talks about marine ecosystems will be combined with field trips to observe habitat types. Accommodations will be at the Reef House diving resort on Roatan. The price of $1,450 covers all travel, lodging, and meals at the Reef House, and two or three tank dives per day. ADDITIONAL TOUR GEMS SLATED FOR 1984 te China and Tibet ce Kenya ce Peru te England’s Old Inns, Old Homes, Old Castles, and Old Gardens. Please ask to be on our mailing list if any of these tours is of interest to you. 27 LISS MARITA MAXEY 411 N GREENVIEW HICAGO IL 60626 YUEH LUNG SHADOW THEATRE Sunday, February 5 Two Performances: 1:00pm and 2:30pm James Simpson Theatre Members: $3.00 Nonmembers: $5.00 FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN March 1984 “SHUTTLE DIPLOMACY: 8 THE CR Lecture by George Archibald, Mat ESKIMO ART & CULTURE LECT “Inua: Spirit World of the Beri ia a by William W. Fitzhugh, Mare 1¢ “The Elegance and Drama of Eskimo Art: N otable Achievements” ie by. Dorothy Jean Ray, March'17_ CONTINUED FROM PAGE 3 Events March Weekend Programs hunters of the arctic fashion beautiful objects to honor spirits and the animals upon which their lives depend. This tour of our per- Each Saturday and Sunday you are invited to explore the world of natural history at Field Museum. Free tours, demonstrations, and films related to ongoing exhibits are designed for families and adults. Check the Weekend Passport upon arrival for complete schedules and program locations. The programs are partially supported by a grant from the Illinois Arts Council. March 10 12:00noon Continents Adrift. (lecture/ manent Eskimo collection serves to heighten demonstration) Why have fossils of similar understanding of our current special exhibit dinosaur species been found on continents “Eskimo Art & Culture.” Dae eee Bice Nigra nee Go ERe of 24 1:30pm. Tibetan Borderlands: Ladakh. Ee OS is illustrated with (slide lecture) Examine the religious ritual, ae tae an) ae folk music, and daily lives of the people of 1:30pm. Tibetan Borderland: Bhutan and Ladakh, “Land of Many Passes.” Prepalisnide caus) Ee perigee aka 3:00pm. China’s Great Wall and the Silk ke uae rte eee fs Road. (slide lecture) Travel west, along the ida Paadke ee ne sis asian Great Wall and caravan roads, to China’s eg er neat ancient capitals. Follow the course of 11 12:30pm Museum Safari. (tour) Seek out Chinese empires, arts, and faiths. Beane Cu needs Ont Eee) aaa 25 12:30pm. Museum Safari. (tour) Seck out mies from ancient Egypt, pad big game shrunken heads from the Amazon, mum- ee aE mies from ancient Egypt, and big game fF 2:30pm. Treasures From the Totem Forest. from Africa. (tour) A walk through Museum exhibits 2-00 aes ; , ‘ 00pm. Life in Ancient Egypt. (tour) In- ae Aoneh a foe : sisters freee . vestigate the objects and practices, including LOTS BOL SUAT OS ROVE PLEVEN eB of 80 mummification, which illustrate ancient life and masks proclaim their pride of rank and sathe Nile Valle mystical ties to animals and spirits. us 18 2:30pm. Eskimo Art and Life. (tout) The 31 1:00pm. Traditional China. (tour) Exam- ine the timeless imagery and superb crafts- manship represented by Chinese master- works in our permanent collection. These weekend programs free with Museum admission; tickets not required. . . Member Nonmember Total Reg 1S tr, ation Program Title Tickets Tickets Tickets dete #Requested #Requested #Requested Please complete coupon for your program selection and any other special events. Com- plete all requested information on the applica- tion and include section number where appro- priate. If your request is received less than one week before program, tickets will be held in your name at West Entrance box office until one-half hour before event. Please make checks payable to Field Museum. Tickets will be mailed on receipt of check. Refunds will be made only if program is sold out. Total: For Office Use: Date Received Date Returned Name Return complete ticket application with a self-addressed Street stamped envelope to: City State Zip Public Programs: Department of Education Field Museum of Natural History 4 Telephone Daytime Evening Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive Have you enclosed your self-addressed stamped envelope? Chicago, IL 60605-2497 FIELD BRIEFS Ray A. Kroc Ray A. Kroc 1902-1984 Ray A. Kroc, a generous donor to Field Mu- seum, died on January 14 in San Diego, CA at the age of 81. Mr. Kroc had distinguished him- self in the business world as founder of McDonald’s Corporation, which he served as senior chairman of the board at the time of his death. He was also owner of the San Diego Padres baseball team. In 1972 Mr. and Mrs. Kroc made a gift to Field Museum—one of several made in Chi- cago in observance of his seventieth birthday. The gift was to provide major funding for “Man in His Environment,” a new hall opened in 1975 calling attention to man’s effect on the biota. Another gift followed in 1975 to establish the Joan and Ray Kroc Environmental Educa- tion Fund. A major thrust of the fund was to fi Ron Testa | Peter R. Crane initiate an adult education program at Field Museum. (See pages 24-26.) It is of interest that from that small beginning has grown a broad-based adult course and field trip pro- gram that served 4,900 registrants in 1983. Further, the program is largely self- supporting. The growth and success of the adult segment of Field Museum’s educational program is in keeping with Mr. Kroc’s own entrepreneurial spirit. Mr. and Mrs. Kroc’s gifts to Field Museum totalled well over $1 million. They are among those generous donors who have helped to shape the Museum’s course in the last quarter century. Ray Kroc’s memory will be per- petuated in the Joan B. and Ray A. Kroc fund at Field Museum, which will ensure continued support of the Museum that he helped to build. British Award for Peter Crane Assistant Curator Peter R. Crane of the Department of Geology was honored in December by the British Palaeontological Association. At its annual meeting, the association awarded Crane the President’s Prize for the best paper given by a research worker under the age of 30. Crane’s presenta- tion concerned his research on fossils of some of the earliest known flowering plants. Crane joined the Field Museum staff in September 1982. His paleobotanical research is directed towards clarifying the evolution of flowering plants (angiosperms), which today dominate the world vegetation with more than a quarter of a million extant species. In particular, his studies have focused on the reproductive structure and biology of the earliest flowering plants, and the enigmas sur- rounding the origin and early diversification of the group. Later phases in angiosperm evolution are being examined through National Science Foundation-supported research on the early fossil history and evolu- tion of selected flowering plant families. President Boyd Honored The Law School Admission Council pre- sented awards in January to five law school graduates who have used their legal educa- tion in a variety of ways; among the five was Willard L. Boyd, president of Field Museum. The award was for “accomplishment and achievements as an inspiration to others at the threshold of a career choice.” Boyd’s outstanding accomplishments have been in higher education, the arts, and cultural institutions. Boyd received his law degree from the Willard L. Boyd University of Minnesota and LL.M. and SJ.D degrees from the University of Michi- gan. Before coming to Field Museum in 1981 he was at the University of Iowa since 1954, serving the university as president for his final twelve years there. Terrell Promoted to Curator John Terrell, who joined Field Museum’s Department of Anthropology in September 1971, has been promoted from the rank of associate curator to that of full curator. A specialist in human biogeography and Pacific Islands archaeology and ethnology, Terrell’s scholarly contributions focus on the study of human diversity and on innovating ways of explaining scientifically the peopling of the Pacific. In announcing this promotion, Lorin I. Nevling, Jr, director, noted also Terrell’s in- strumental role in bringing the first main- frame mini-computer to the Museum, his leadership of the Center for Advanced Stud- ies during one of its most active priods, and his leadership also in the production of Field Museum’s popular traveling exhibition “Pat- terns of Paradise.” John Terrell Ron Testa DANCING for the DEAD by David M. Walsten heir body dynamics and de- lightful expressions catch our attention as we stroll through the Hall of Ancient China. The style of these terra-cotta figurines bears an astonishing similarity to the uninhibited choreographics of our own contemporary youth. Yet, these pieces of inspired mod- elling were fashioned more than 1,000 years ago, during the Tang dynasty. The function of the statu- ettes—averaging about 14 inches in height—was not to decorate the precincts of the living, but to provide perpetual entertainment for the dead, and we see them now much as their real-life coun- terparts must have appeared dur- ing the sumptuous festivals that accompanied the funerals of Tang gentry. Through eternity, the mis- sion of these effigies was to accommodate the spirit of the man or woman in whose tomb they had been placed. In addition to performers of assorted types (actors, mimes, singers, jugglers, tumblers, boxers), figures of sol- diers and servants also were Figurine of mime. Ht. 34.5 cm. Collected by Curator Berthold Laufer 1908-10. #118020. N98626. placed in burial chambers, as well as those serving spiritual needs— exorcists, shamans, and sorcerers. But it is these performers, seemingly modelled from life, who project so effectively from their modern glass case. efore the interring of effigies as attendants for the dead was generally practiced, humans were sacrificed for this purpose. As early as the Shang dynasty (16th-11th centuries B.C.), the fidelity of servants as well as wives was rewarded by permit- ting them to join their masters in eternity. The Duke of Qin, who died in 678 B.C., is reported to have invited 66 of his henchmen to accompany him as servants in the other world; it is improbable that his invitations were declined. In 588 B.C., real horses and real chariots as well as flesh-and-blood servants accompanied the Duke of Song into the tomb. As late as the Han dynasty, which ended (Eastern Han) in A.D. 220, the bodies of male and female ser- vants were said to have been secured with nails to tomb walls —before or after death is not made clear. Much earlier, however, dur- ing the time of Confucius (551- 479 B.C.), crude effigies of straw had sometimes been buried with the dead. Confucius disapproved of more exact replicas, believing that faithful representation made it easy to lapse into the barbarism of human sacrifice. The custom of placing clay figures in tombs be- gan in the Zhou, increased greatly in the Qin and Han, and reached a climax during the Tang (A.D. Figurine of mime. Ht. 36.2 cm. Collected by Curator Berthold Laufer 1908-10. #118021. N98639. 618-907). By then, the sacrificing of humans had long since been discontinued. The rank of the deceased, not unexpectedly, determined the number of human effigies to accompany him in the afterlife. An official above the fourth rank (a relatively high station), for ex- ample, could have a platoon of 90; above the sixth rank, 60 pieces; above the tenth rank, 40. Com- mon folk had to be content with no more than 15, and the height of these could not exceed 8 inches. The higher one’s rank, the taller his clay attendants, the maximum being life-size. Field Museum visi- tors who viewed the 1980 exhibit “The Great Bronze Age of China” will recall the spectacular life-size clay cavalrymen and horses that had been disinterred from the stadium-size excavations in the precincts of the tomb of the Emperor Qin Shihaungdi (221-210 B.C). f small, the clay figures were arranged in a niche made for the purpose in a wall of the tomb, or they were placed on shelves along the walls. If large, they were commonly stood on the tomb floor at the head of the cof- fin. The graves of the wealthy sometimes had a special ante- room entirely filled with clay images of animals as well as men. There were also models of utili- tarian objects such as kitchen utensils, strong boxes, storage bins for grain, and even pig sties. It is not known just when the placing of effigies in tombs was no longer “in,” but the Emperor Dai Zi (A.D. 951-960), Figurine of mime. Ht. 35.8 cm. Collected by Curator Berthold Laufer 1908-10. #118022. N98638. who most certainly was aware of tomb depredations, ordered only his body and coffin occupy his. To make his tomb less attractive to thieves, he gave instructions that all the customary tomb furniture —-statuettes of men, horses, and tigers as well as weapons—be left on the outside of the grave. ut not everyone followed Dai Zi’s suit; graves as recent as the Ming dynasty (1368- 1644) have yielded statuettes. Notable among these are the 66 polychrome glazed pottery figu- rines, representing an honor guard, that were recently on view as part of the exhibit “Treasures from the Shanghai Museum: 6,000 Years of Chinese Art,’ and featured on the cover of the Jan- uary Bulletin. These pieces, it has been determined, were made sometime after 1516. Below: Dwarves, popular with Tang royalty, ‘o represented in tombs. This f a female dwarf. Ht. 10.9cm. 98643. Right: Figurine of mime Ht. 33.6cm. #118023. N98627. These figurines were collected by Curator Berthold Laufer 1908-10. v5: The massive ceiba tree. Widely cultivated in the American tropics, the ceiba was a prime symbol of the erse for the ancient inhabitants of Mexico and Central America. Photo by William Burger. THE TREE, THE KING AND THE COSMOS Aspects of Tree Symbolism in Ancient Mesoamerica by Alan L. Kolata Research Associate, Department of Anthropology Fine line drawings, except where noted, by Sara Scherberg n November 8, 1519, a Spanish expeditionary force led by Hernan Cortés crossed over an ancient lake bed on a magnificent elevated cause- way into Tenochtitlan, the great native capital of the Mex- ica, or Aztec nation. The Spanish were astonished by that splendid city’s vast marketplace burgeoning with exotic commodities from throughout the Mexica realm, by its sumptuous, exuberantly ornamented palaces and temples, and by the broad, regular avenues and waterways that inte- grated the entire metropolitan zone. These adventurers found themselves submerged in an alien world where even the most fundamental natural, social, and religious notions of the structure of man’s universe were radically different from those that the Europeans held certain and sacred. In many respects, the Aztecs inhabited a cosmos with an architecture that, to the European, was inchoate and almost entirely incomprehensible. It is not surprising, then, that the Spanish, upon completing their political con- quest, quickly embarked upon a systematic program of cultural conquest as well, dismantling the temples of the Aztec state religion and destroying the monumental art that visually embodied the “barbaric” cosmological doc- trines which they perceived as subversive and threatening to the Christian world view. Today, those of us who are products of modern in- dustrial culture feel perhaps even more estranged from the ancient Mexica frame of reference than the Spanish. The Aztecs’ philosophical and religious conceptions were born of and firmly rooted in a rich agrarian heritage and in a palpable sensitivity to the agricultural cycle of the seasons Portions of this article are excerpted from Dr. Kolata’ forthcoming mono- graph, Tree Symbolism in Ancient Mesoamerica. Research for this work was conducted while the author was a senior fellow at Dumbarton Oaks Research Library of Harvard University in Washington, D.C. that to us is little more than a fading memory embedded in a nostalgic, rural mystique. We can spontaneously appreci- ate the monumentality and vigor of Aztec art, but in order to truly understand the nature and meaning of that art, together with the social information it conveyed, we must learn to perceive it in its own terms: as the product of an ancient, persevering cultural landscape of which the tech- nology, sociology, and ritual of farming was the pivot. Analyzing the symbolism encoded in the iconogra- phy of Aztec art furnishes us with a touchstone for com- prehending the multiple and even more ancient cultural and artistic streams that together make up a general Pre- Columbian Mesoamerican tradition. For the Aztec period alone are we provided with an abundance of literary and pictorial documents (first-hand descriptions of indigenous cultures by Europeans and native codices, or screenfolds) that elaborate and comment upon the meaning of native Mexican religion, ritual, and custom. In attempting to grasp the fundamental meaning of ancient Mesoamerican art, our point of departure then is this final and most ac- cessible period of Pre-Columbian cultural expression. One of the primary notions concerning the spatial structure of the cosmos held by the Mexica (and, as we shall see, by other Mesoamerican peoples as well) was a heirarchical arrangement in which the earth was seen as a vast, thin disc floating in the primeval ocean. Growing through the center of the earth-disc was a giant tree, the roots of which ran deep into the surrounding sea while its uppermost branches reached the highest layers of the heavens. This cosmic tree was the axis mundi,supporting and defining both the vertical and horizontal framework of the multilayered universe. A particularly graphic representation of this cosmic view appears on a beautiful Mexica ceremonial mosaic 1] 12 shield housed in the collections of the British Museum (fig. 2). The iconography of this shield has been decoded recently in some detail by the art historian Richard Townsend.* In brief, the circular shape of the shield itself would have immediately evoked in the viewer the image of the earth- disc. Portrayed in wonderfully compressed fashion on the surface of the shield are images of the celestial and infernal SUN DISC WITH RAYS AT Fig. 2. The im f g mage O! THE CARDINAL DIRECTIONS the sacred tree as cosmogram rendered in a brilliant turquoise and shell mosaic on the surface of an Aztec ceremonial of the shield). Viewed in this way, the shield becomes a remarkably compact, yet complex rendering of the tree as cosmogram. We know that shields as splendid as this were designed expressly for the most exalted rulers of the Mex- ica nation who used them for display on occasions of state ceremony. Frequently the mosaic designs on these shields were emblematic of both the individual and his office. In FLOWERING BRANCHES OF THE COSMIC TREE shield. Once the property of an impor- tant Aztec dignitary, this shield is now housed in the collec- SKY- tions ofthe BEARERS British Museum. CHTHONIC SERPENT CONNECTING THE COSMIC REALMS realms, connected by a giant flowering tree. The heavens are represented by the disc of the sun with red coral rays pointing to the cardinal directions, by the four ritually attired sky-bearers with arms held aloft and, at the summit of the cosmos, by the flowering branches of the tree. The underworld is represented by an immense chthonic ser- pent rising from the base of the cosmic tree and looping around its trunk to the heavens. Townsend suggests that the four toothlike elements pendant from the lower body of the serpent represent an abbreviated Tlaltecuhtli mouthmask, symbolic both of the earth and of the entrance to the underworld. Finally, at the base of the shield is a downward projecting bifid element that Town- send believes is a serpent's tongue, but that I believe may also represent the roots of the cosmic tree sunk in the underworld abyss. This whole ensemble of images on the surface of the shield was meant to be conceptualized spatially as the vertical component of a three-dimensional array (that is, rotated 90 degrees to form an axis through the center *Townsend, Richard F. 1979. State and Cosmos in the Art of Tenochtitlan. Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology, No. 20. Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. Yr SULOSS, Ssh: (SEE >: Ronnie SKY-BEARERS = ROOTS OF THE COSMIC TREE wearing the shield with the world-tree cosmogram, a Mex- ica lord was making an implicit comparison between him- self as the ruler of his nation and the great tree as the order- ing principle of the cosmos. The political message of the shield is clear: the king is to the state as the great tree 1s to the cosmos. Both provide order, one to the politi- cal chaos of earth, the other to the physical chaos of the universe. This important metaphorical association of kings and trees is confirmed and extended by traditional Nahuatl (the Aztec language) discourses that were delivered on the occasion of important events in the lives of the Mexica royal household. These discourses were preserved and re- corded in the original by the Spanish clerics Duran and, more importantly, Sahagun. One such discourse was made by Nezahualcoytl, king of Texcoco, to the Mexica king Moctezuma the Elder upon the latter's accession to the throne of Tenochtitlan in 1440: I have come here, O Lord, to tell you of the misery, the affliction that reigns in your province of Texcoco. In your greatness deign to lift it and enable it and shelter it from other nations. You well know, great prince, that all your vassals, nobles as well as common people are under your shade and you have been planted here like a great cedar under which men wish to rest.' Another discourse, likewise addressed to a new monarch upon his installation, again compares the ruler metaphorically to a great tree and further charges him with the care of his subjects: May thou perform thy office, may thou do thy work. Be diligent with that which is heavy, the burden, the uncon- frontable, the insupportable. And extend thy wings, thy tail feathers. May thy common folk those whom thou gov- ernest, enter into thee. May they enter into thy shade, into thy shadow, for our lord hath made thee to be the great, the circular shade, the silk cotton tree,* the cypress. May the governed be rich, be prosperous.* This passage stresses that the ruler must be prepared to bear an almost unsupportable burden. The nature of that burden is clarified in a second formal admonition to the new ruler: THOU HAST UNDERTAKEN TO SHOULDER A BUNDLE OF PEOPLE, A CARRYING-FRAME LOAD OF PEOPLE. This saying was said of him who had been installed as ruler or set up as a lord. Thus he was told: “Thou has undertaken to shoulder a bundle of people, a carrying frame load of people. Thou wilt find heavy, thou wilt find tiring the common folk, for great is the burden which thou has shouldered, which thou has undertaken.* Taken together, these passages define the primary duty of the Mexica king: the protection, care and nurturing of the governed. Metaphorically, they describe the king who has successfully discharged this office as a great ceiba tree and as a carrying frame of the common people. These passages state clearly that there is a symbolic identity be- tween the king who supports his subjects and the great tree that supports the unimaginable burden of the cosmos, the central world tree that was most often conceptualized as a ceiba. Just as that great tree, to avoid physical chaos in the universe, must not fail in its task as the carrying frame of the cosmos, so too the king must not fail to support his subjects if he is to avoid political chaos in the state (and, by implication, precipitous loss of his office). Other Nahuatl adages extend the metaphor of the king as world tree in an important direction. Among the Mexica not only was the ruler seen as the framework and core of the state, providing political protection for his sub- jects, but also, quite literally, as the provider of daily suste- nance for the common people: (The silk cotton tree) shades, it gives shadow, it shades one. Hence, for this reason, it is called the “governor,” for he becomes as a silk cotton tree, a cypress. It bears fruit, it produces fruit.* Some passages directly compare the ruler and his family to the plants that sustained the common people: “the maguey, the nopal, the (fruit) trees.”° During the Feast of Tlaloc, the king impersonating the “god” Tlaloc, personification of the life-giving rains, is described as, that which fresheneth, that which is tender, that which sprouteth, that which blossometh; the plants, those which come from thee; thy flesh, thy freshness ... the nourishment whereby the world remaineth alive, ... the sustenance.’ What these proverbs, adages, and discourses are referring to in metaphoric fashion is the role of the Mexica king as the ultimate guarantor of agricultural success. One of the primary cult obligations of the royal household was to perform a continuing, seasonally regulated set of agri- cultural rituals that were, in effect, increase ceremonies for food crops, especially maize. The feast of Tlacaxipe- hualiztli (the “Skinning of Men”) and the aforementioned Feast of Tlaloc, for example, were presided over by rulers of the Mexica nation and were explicitly conducted for the purpose of securing agricultural fertility. The rituals of these feasts express all of the metaphorical associations of kings, trees, and agricultural fertility discussed here: blood sacrifices for agricultural success were made by the “chief dignitaries and sovereigns” to “Tota, ‘Our Father,’” whose image was represented by a huge tree specially erected for the ceremony.® Returning to our mosaic shield for a moment, the carefully depicted flowering branches of the cosmic tree towering above the brilliantly colored disc of the sun evoke this same extended metaphor. In this aspect, the cosmic tree on the shield is seen as the tree of life with its roots drawing water from the primeval ocean to nourish and sustain the cosmos. Therefore, when worn by one of the lords of Tenochtitlan, to the political message of the shield (the king, like the cosmic tree, gives order and stability) can be added the economic message that, like the 1. Duran, Fray Diego. 1971. Book of the Gods and Rites and the Ancient Calendar. Translated by Fernando Horcasitas and Doris Heyden, 88. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. 2. The silk cotton tree is a ceiba (C. pentandra). 3. Sahagun, Fray Bernardino de. 1951-70. Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain. Translated by Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, Book 6:58. Monographs of The School of American Research, The School of American Research and the University of Utah, Santa Fe. 4. Sahagun 1951-70, Book 6:258 5. Sahagun 1951-70, Book 11:109 6. Sahagun 1951-70, Book 6:91 7. Sahagun 1951-70, Book 6:36 8. Duran 1971:161 and plate 14 13 14 tree of life, the king nourishes and sustains the common people: through direct intercession and indentity with the divine forces of nature he will guarantee agricultural suc- cess for the nation. It is clear, even from so brief an overview, that there was among the peoples of the Valley of Mexico in Pre- Hispanic times a metaphorical association of rulers and trees, one most specifically expressed in terms of a sym- bolic identity between the king and the world tree. Two trees in particular, the ceiba (pochotl) and the cypress (aueuetl) were explicitly referred to as “father, mother, lord, capitan, or governor.” Conversely the Mexica kings and great magnates were ritually described and addressed as the ceiba that towers above all else. According to Duran,” the sovereign of the city-state Amecameca even took the name Cuauhteotl, “Divine Tree.” By adopting a symbolic association with trees, and more specifically with the world tree/tree of life, these sovereigns were claiming a ritual identity with the ordering principle of the cosmos, the principle that nourishes and sustains all life. The Mexica kings were consciously using the generally acknowledged image of the tree as cosmo- gram as an emblem of their right to rule. The tangible interplay between religious symbolism and secular politics could not be more clear. Fig. 3. Simplified drawing of the image on page 53 of the Borgia Codex, a native-style Was this particular set of cosmological symbols an invention of the Aztec state, or can we trace its roots even deeper in other Mesoamerican political and cultural tradi- tions? I believe that we can, in fact, discern the same con- ceptual association of rulers, trees, and agricultural rites of intercession in other places, at other times, and among other peoples in Mesoamerica. I would argue that this association was a recurring central metaphor in the ideological structure of Mesoamerican civilization, and therefore a principal leitmotiv of public art commissioned by royal households to commemorate their government. Although in this brief essay it is not practical to document the entire range of occurrence of this symbolic set, or the various political, social, and ideological meanings with which it was imbued, a few well-chosen examples of the same ruler-tree-agricultural ritual association from non- Aztec Mesoamerica will serve to clarify and emphasize the pervasive nature of this concept which, in the native mind, intimately bound the world of nature with the social order. An extraordinary rendering of this symbolic set appears in one of the precious native-style manuscripts, or codices, that remain to us from Pre-Hispanic times (the 9. Duran 1971:97 manuscript from the Mixtec region of western Mexico folded pages of these manuscripts were usually strips of deer hide that were cut to size, sewed together, coated with gesso, and painted in multiple colors). The image in ques- tion was painted on what scholars have designated as page 53 of the Borgia Codex (fig. 3). This manuscript comes to us from the Mexican state of Oaxaca, center of the ancient Mixtec region. Here elaborately dressed rulers, apparently personifying deities of natural forces, are engaged in auto- mutilation, drawing blood from their own bodies with sharp bone awls in order to fertilize the roots of a great tree from which spring enormous, marvelously exaggerated cobs of corn. This tree, emerging from the belly of a skele- tal figure reclining on the plane of the earth’s surface, graphically evokes a sense of agricultural fertility: it is the archetype of vegetal abundance, the Tree of Life. The pro- found role of the ruler in assuring the continuing regenera- tion and vigor of this tree of life, which was emblematic of the agricultural abundance that sustained the common folk, is portrayed with uncommon frankness. The monarch must sacrifice some of his own life-giving blood Be: COR Seg CT) sS Bs ‘| ie Ay to ritually nourish the earth and thereby coax from it a bountiful harvest for his people. The truly intimate symbolic connections between rulers and trees finds its ultimate expression in an ancient tradition from this same Mixtec region which relates that the old Pre-Hispanic kings and their ruling lineages were originally born from trees growing in the Mixtec high- lands. A Mixtec origin myth recorded during early Spanish Colonial times explicitly states that the Mixtec people emerged from the center of the earth, but that the Mixtec kings and gods were born from trees. The anthropologist Jill Furst* has documented many vivid visual representa- tions of this oral myth in Mixtec manuscripts. Frequently in these manuscripts a royal couple, attended by two elab- orately garbed deities, is portrayed emerging from a cleft in the swollen trunk of a tree (fig. 4). In some illustrations of tree birth, the emergent royal figure is still attached to *Furst, Jill Leslie. 1977. The Tree Birth Tradition in the Mixteca, Mexico. Journal of Latin American Lore 3:2, 183-226. ‘ Sl, Ce Sis Ga > A \NYS Sg 1/8 es *. 7 =) yey Sp Fig. 4. The birth of a royal cou- ple from a sacred tree as por- trayed on page 37b of the Vienna Codex, a Pre-Hispanic manuscript from the Mixtec region 15 16 the sacred tree by a kind of umbilical cord (fig. 5). The birth of an entire royal lineage from a lush tree appears in startling detail on the intricately carved surface of a bone discovered in an elite tomb at the ruins of Monte Alban, the ancient paramount city of the Mixtec region (fig. 6). This remarkable carving not only confirms the pre- sumptive antiquity of the tree birth myth, but further gives richer meaning to the term “genealogical tree.” Fig. 5. An elabo- rately masked male, identified by his calendrical name as “2 Grass Skull,” emerges from the crown of a magical tree entwined with serpents. Note the umbilical cord which still connects “2 Grass Skull" to the tree of his birth. Page 2-1 of the Selden Codex. century A.D. The lid of Pacal’s sarcophagus is carved elab- orately with heiroglyphic texts along the border and with the image of the dead Pacal himself, seated on a throne within the jaws of the mythical chthonic serpent, symbol of the earth and the underworld (fig. 9) Rising behind Pacal (or perhaps emerging from his body) is a stunning render- ing of a tree surmounted by a fantastic masked bird, most likely a quetzal or eagle, symbolically associated with the LISS N {4 Ceo aS Ne AS PN) | | NESS N@D A, \ H Ue WS oS Be set AY EKZK_KY“Z¥BS. AN ZG In death, as in birth, the image of the cosmic tree, as axis mundi and as tree of life, remained an emblem of cen- tral importance to the Pre-Hispanic kings of Mesoamerica. At the Classic Maya site of Palenque in Yucatan, there is a tomb hidden deep within an elegant pyramidal structure called the Temple of the Inscriptions. Within that tomb lies a massive stone sarcophagus which holds the remains of a Mayan king named Pacal, who died in the seventh Fig. 6. The birth of a royal lineage from a sacred tree as carved on the surfac n the Mexican state of Oaxaca. The first of seven figures is attached t Alban celestial realm. The entire ensemble of images on the sar- cophagus strongly suggests that the intended message of the sculpture was to exemplify the elevation of the dead king to divine status, and that this apotheosis of Pacal was to be visually expressed and confirmed by identifying the king with the world tree. Although the sarcophagus of Pacal is perhaps the most striking example, other key commemorative monu- io. Saw, Sard aoe ; at ed pad SESS —- - Bf. . = ad ae e of a bone discovered in tomb 7 at the ancient ritual center of Monte o the tree by an umbilical cord. ments at Palenque, placed within temple precincts, ritually associate sacred images of the world tree/tree of life with the secular status, power, authority, and obligations of these regional Maya rulers. Like the Axtec nobility, then, the Maya kings used the image of the cosmic tree as an emblem legitimizing their right to rule. Even in the centuries before Christ, we can identify this seemingly obsessive concern of native Mesoamerican rulers to ritually associate themselves with prominent and visually impressive images of trees as cosmograms and as symbols of agricultural abundance. The corpus of art referred to as the Izapa style, consisting most notably of carved stone sculptures and stelae from the Pacific coastal regions of Guatemala and the Mexican state of Chiapas, contains multiple and repeated images of trees, many of which are clear iconic references to our two primary sym- bolic manifestations: the world tree and the tree of life. One sculpture at the site of Izapa itself, Stela 25, dat- ing between about 300 B.C. to A.D. 250, combines all of the convergent metaphorical associations of kings and trees that we have seen embodied in the Aztec shield. The design on this stela illustrates the two interrelated sym- bolic representations of the sacred tree: in its aspect as the axis mundi or world tree, and in its aspect as the archetype of vegetal abundance or tree of life (fig. 7). At the left is the image of fertility and abundance, an upended cayman whose vertically oriented body becomes the trunk of a tree, while its tail is transformed into the luxuriant branches and leaves of the tree’s crown. A small bird with plumed head perches on this cayman-tree, and a conch shell is placed behind the snout of the cayman. The conch shell associates the cayman-tree with the underworld and the watered earth, while the bird associates it with the heavens—both essential elements in the symbolic representation of the tree of life. On the right side of the design field is an image of the world-tree as a pillar, or more precisely a staff with three crosspieces, probably intended as a symbol of the multilayered universe. A human figure, clearly of elite sta- tus, and, significantly enough, adorned with a headdress of sprouting vegetation, holds the staff which emerges from a globular vessel. Surmounting this tree-as-staff is a spec- tacular masked bird which gazes toward its counterpart on the cayman-tree. To complete and interweave the two im- ages, a snake winds down from the crosspieces of the staff, loops around the body of the cayman-tree and hangs freely with its head at the base of the staff-tree. Viewed in this way, Stela 25 becomes a sculptural statement by the sovereign at Izapa who commissioned it Fig. 7. Stela 25 from the site of Izapa. Drawing by Genaro Barr. that reads: “this place is sacred because it is the center of the universe; my staff is the symbol of the center and I am its ruler. Because I am its ruler, I can provide for the suste- nance of my people.” This is the exact statement made by the kings of Tenochtitlan some 1,500 years later when on state occasions they mounted the great temples of the capital, resplendent in their royal garments and armed with ritual shields displaying the emblem of the world-tree. How can we account for the remarkable continuity and coherence of this conceptual association of rulers— trees—agricultural ritual over wide expanses of space, time, and cultural tradition? The choice of the tree as the central symbol of this association is neither fortuitous nor particu- larly surprising. Trees, by their very nature, are impressive features of the natural landscape. Trees like the ceiba possess towering size, strength, and longevity; they have substantial root systems that reach deep into the earth and magnificent crowns that seem to form a canopy against the sky. What better symbol could there be for the metaphor of the axis mundi, the pillar that sustains the universe? These natural and symbolic qualities of trees were of prime inter- est to the sovereigns of ancient Mesoamerica who wished to ritually appropriate and publicly identify themselves with these same qualities. Ui 18 But, for these native kings and ruling households, there was an even more compelling reason to seize upon the tree as an emblem of legitimate power. The states that these elite classes governed were economically dependent upon systems of intensive agriculture. Often the fate of central government in these preindustrial states was linked to its agricultural success. Accordingly, the ruling house- holds of these states invested heavily in the construction and maintenance of large-scale reclamation projects de- signed to intensify agricultural production. However, building and sustaining these agricultural systems was not simply an economic proposition, requiring merely appro- priate technology and a coordinated labor force. In the Mesoamerican worldview, to ensure agricultural success and thereby economic survival, these food producing sys- tems had to be ritually sanctioned and maintained at key intervals in the agricultural calendar as well. It is precisely here that the metaphor of the king as the cosmic tree reveals its full symbolic force. The yearly transformational cycle of trees, lying dormant in the winter (or dry season), surging to life in the spring (or onset of the rainy season), and gradually returning to dormancy in the fall, shedding their leaves, seeds, and fruits, closely mimics the agricultural cycle of the seasons exploited by man (the fields lie fallow, they are prepared and planted; the plants flourish and mature and finally they are gathered in the autumn harvest). By identifying themselves metaphorically with the natural qualities of trees, these kings of ancient Mesoamer- ica, who were charged with the obligation of ensuring the agricultural success of their nations, were ritually assuring the people they governed that, like the perpetual yearly regeneration of the great trees of nature, the vast fields of the realm would not fail to produce an abundant harvest. In this way, the world tree/tree of life became an emblem of both political authority and economic prosperity: the king was at the center, governing and sustaining the state. But most importantly, through ritual intercession, he con- tinually guaranteed the agricultural health of his nation. To the mind of the ancient Mesoamerican, then, the tree and the cosmos, the king and the nation were metaphorically one. Their qualities were merged and their functions identical: they were simply different reflections of the same order that was expressed in both the natural and social worlds. It is by understanding the fundamental principle of the unity of these worlds that underlies the religious philosophy of ancient Mesoamerica, a principle anchored firmly in the bedrock of agrarian tradition, that we can seek to reconstruct the worldview of peoples now lost to us. FM “Fig. 8. The great trunk and crown of the ceiba tree silhouetted against the evening sky. The ancient rulers of Mesoamerica ritually and symbolically appropriated the impressive natural qualities of this tree, employing it as an emblem of their authority. Photo by William Burger. ne ioe an Fig. 9. The sarcophagus cover of the Maya king “Pacal,” who ruled from the city of Palenque in the seventh century 4.0. Photo by Merle Greene Robertson and Lee Hocker. Courtesy Princeton University Press, which published the photo in The Sculpture of Palenque, Vol. |: The Temple of the Inscriptions (1983). ashy Common cranes over the Himalayas These awesome giants of the bird kingdom are being aided by the International Crane Foundation in their struggle to survive by George Archibald photos courtesy the International Crane Foundation ry to imagine that you are nearing the summit of Mount Everest, oxygen mask intact, layers of insula- tion protecting you from the intense cold. Suddenly you hear trumpetlike noises overhead. Gazing up, you see a V formation of large, dazzling white birds with black necks and flight feathers. Cranes! They must be flying at over 30,000 feet above sea level, over the formidable Himalayas. George Archibald was a cofounder and is a director of the International 20 Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin. At dawn, these common cranes might have been nesting in the shallows of a Tibetan lake. As mid-morning sunshine bathed the plains, columns of rising warm air, or thermals, began to form. Using them to gain altitude, the cranes began the last stage of their long migration from the Siberian tundra to the Gangetic plain of India. With their wings fixed, the cranes spiralled up in loosely organized groups, effortlessly riding the thermals to breathtaking altitudes. High above the Tibetan plateau, they formed broad V's and began a fixed-wing glide to the south. They gradually lost altitude, covering scores of miles in a shallow dive. When they had descended to a few hundred feet above land, they began their first flapping flight. Their great eight-foot wingspans thrust them forward, until they found another thermal to carry them up for yet another gliding advance. Soon the great Himalayan peaks were beneath them. The bright reflection from the snow reflected back off their light-gray body feathers, making them appear blinding white from below. By late afternoon the peaks were behind them, and the flock was over green foothills. Finally, the lakes and rivers of the northern Gangetic plain came into view. Parachuting downward, they alighted in the shallows of a broad wetland, and began a welcomed refueling. The cranes had returned to a landscape visited by some older birds for decades—a home to the ancestors of this flock for millions of years. When cranes pass overhead, people be- low realize a new season has come. From Tibet to India and beyond, cranes are considered auspicious birds. Good fortune rides on the sweeping strength of their wings. Their graceful postures, fidelity to mates, size, and wild- ness have endeared the crane to Cro-Magnon cave painters as well as to modern man. How, then, is it possible that half of the world’s fifteen crane species are now endangered? The wetlands on which the cranes nest and rear their young have been drained — destroyed to produce more farmland. Cranes have been hunted for food and sport. Egg collec- tors took a toll in the early decades of this century. By 1941 the whooping cranes of North America were reduced to 14 individuals. A decade ago a nonprofit organization called the International Crane Foundation (ICF) was established near Baraboo, Wisconsin, with the sole aim of helping the cranes. Two graduate students from Cornell University, George Archibald and Ronald Sauey, were cofounders. Mr. Sauey’s parents, Norman and Claire Sauey, donated the use of their farm as headquarters for ICF’s captive breeding center. Baraboo became ICF’s thermal —a place to gain altitude and fly. ICF has had an eventful 10-year history. Zoos and gov- ernments sent rare cranes to ICF With careful manage- ment, pairs formed and started to breed—several species for the first time in captivity. Today, ICF owns a place of its own, supports a staff of 10 and a collection of 78 cranes of 14 species, and has a membership of several thousand enthusiastic supporters. ICF’s most noteworthy achievements, however, have not been in aviculture or public education programs head- "Shuttle Diplomacy: Aiding the Cranes of Asia” Dr George Archibald, director International Crane Foundation, will deliver this lecture on Saturday, March 24, 2:00 pm, in James Simpson Theatre. Members $3.00; nonmembers $5.00. Tickets may be ordered with coupon on page 4. This lecture is supported in part by the Ray A. Kroc Environmental Fund. Red-crowned crane, adult | 21 quartered in the Midwest, but in promoting crane con- servation overseas. Cranes are found in North America, Eurasia, Africa, and Australia. ICF’s cofounders have been busy in a spectrum of nations on these continents. For example, it is cr which conveys ornithological news be- tween China and the USSR. Despite recent political traumas in Iran, ICF still keeps in close contact with col- leagues there. Cranes are a common interest — a bond across borders. For example, ICF is now involved in a long-term, ambitious attempt to establish a new and more secure flock of Siberian cranes in west Asia. There are fewer than 300 of these snow-white cranes alive. In winter they feed on plant tubers found in shallow wetlands in Iran, India, and China. These wetlands are as endangered as the cranes. If the last habitats are lost to development, the cranes will probably starve. But on the vast uplands of those same countries, com- mon cranes feed on abundant agricultural wastes. Because of their adaptability, they number in the tens of thousands. If Siberian cranes could learn to feed with the common cranes, their wintering range could expand enormously. Foraging behavior is learned in cranes. Crane chicks stay George Archibald with red-crowned crane chick \* ROAR | Red-crowned crane, juvenile with their parents for ten months, and are often offered food by the adults. ICF wants to capitalize on this aspect of crane behavior through a cooperative venture with the USSR. Siberian crane eggs, produced in captivity at ICF and sister centers, are being substituted into the nests of wild common cranes in the boreal forests of the USSR. The com- mon cranes will raise the Siberian chicks, lead them on their migration route, and teach them to feed in agricultu- ral fields on the wintering grounds. Through restocking programs of this kind, a captive-breeding program can restore crane populations in the wild. In an era when war could destroy life on earth as it is known, it is critical that men from divided camps cooper- ate on projects of mutual interest. Cranes have proven to be a vehicle for such cooperation. As we help these mysterious, majestic birds continue their pilgrimages over the mountains, perhaps they may, in turn, help us under- stand and trust each other. FM Red-crowned crane over Korea's demilitarized zone Common cranes in Iran ; \ Participants enjoyed the class on Lake Michigan limnology which took place on board the Research Vessel Rachel Carson. Adult Education Program by Robert B. Pickering Program Developer, Department of Education s an educational institution, Field Au possesses certain special advantages. It has no football team. It gives no course credits or course examinations and awards no degrees.... Formal education, moreover, in schools, colleges and universities is something you finish. It is like the mumps, measles, whooping-cough or chicken-pox. Having had education once, you need not, indeed you cannot, have it again. ... The Museum is free from this regrettable tradition. ... The Museum is seductive. Perhaps be- ca t does not employ compulsion, but voos the learner with artful wiles, it con- ies to deceive him into educating him- f as long as he lives. (From an address photos by the author by Robert Maynard Hutchins, president of the University of Chicago, September 15, 1943.) Field Museum’ Adult Education Pro- gram began in 1975, with 134 partici- pants enrolled in 5 classes. By 1983 four terms were in place and the number of courses had jumped from 5 per term to over 30, with a total of 3,000 persons en- rolled. During seven years the program has grown rapidly, and the participants have learned that Field Museum is a place to find unique opportunities that are both informative and fun. The great- er appeal is the ambience offered for self- directed adult learners. The 1970s saw increasing interest in adult education and in life-long learning opportunities. People began taking courses in subjects as diverse as wine tasting and fly-tying. Previously, adults had favored courses designed for pro- fessional advancement, then interests shifted to courses for enjoyment and self improvement. The communication explosion, rapid transportation, televi- sion, and computers have opened vistas never before explored. People want to know about the Mayas, myths of origin, animal behavior, reproductive strategies —subjects that reveal the mysteries of life and people. Field Museum’s Adult Education pro- gram sets high standards for teaching. Subject mastery is the minimum require- ment; but beyond that, the instructor must be able to communicate with en- thusiasm and quickly assess group ex- perience and interests. Each course fo- cuses on an aspect of natural history or anthropology —the strengths of the col- lections. The courses present topics that base resource for courses. People are amazed at how much more they can ob- serve when they have the chance to dis- cuss specimens or artifacts with a specialist. Each object takes on a new importance. Many instructors are Museum scien- tists or are specialists recommended by Top: An intimate look at fishes includes viewing them in their natural habitat and examining pre- served specimens in research collections. cannot be addressed in programs offered Bottom: Dave Willard, collection manager of birds, discusses fine points of identification with students. tion discussed in class is often more recent than the material found in the popular press or in the latest textbooks. Participants often examine specimens which are not on exhibit and are able to use facilities that the public has limited access to. Where else can one learn about the evolution of various life forms and have such a wealth of specimens to examine? Courses focus on the diversity and beau- ty of the world around us. They provide new ways to view natural and human history. Clusters of related courses are offered to provide a wide range of experi- ence on specific subjects. For example, the subject of textiles — from fiber pro- perties to kinds of dyes—may be covered. Weaving equipment from different re- gions is compared, while courses on tex- tile conservation develop skills for the proper storage and care of one’ own pre- cious fabrics. Why do people take courses at Field Museum? Past participants say that they try to stay current with developments in their field of academic interest. Many are graduates in anthropology, history, or the social sciences, but do not work in these fields. They may instead be brokers, lawyers, or in business. Courses help people stay in touch with interests, new and old. Meeting new people who have similar interests and wish to exchange information is another advantage. Tak- ing a class is often an introduction to a network of involved people. “Field Museum courses are as special as Field Museum itself.” This is the main standard of the Adult Education pro- gram, and one that program participants should expect. In order to continually improve our program, we ask you to complete and send in the questionnaire on the follow- ing page. Your answers will help us to know whether we are providing the kind of program that Museum members want. Your cooperation is important. Please send the completed form to: Adult Education, Department of Education, Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, the MuseumS scientific staff. They are well informed about the latest develop- ments in their respective fields. Informa- Chicago, IL 60605. For more informa- tion, please call 322-8855. The spring courses begin the week of April 9. 25 by other institutions. The Museum’s ex- hibits and research collections are the Adult Education Member Survey 26 Mail to: Adult Education, Dep't of Education, Field Museum, Roosevelt Rd. at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605 Age — Sex _ Occupation Zip Code How long have you been a member of Field Museum? Less than 2 years _ Two to 5 years _ More than 5 years _ Were you aware that Field Museum offers courses for adults? Yes __ No — When you receive the courses for adults brochure in the mail do you: — Look for a subject that is of interest to you _— Flip through the brochure and look at the illustrations _— Discard the brochure _ Pass the brochure on to a friend who might be interested _— Other (explain): Have you ever taken an adult class at Field Museum? Yes _ NO: Which statement best describes how often you take classes? _ Never _— At least twice a year __ When a subject of interest to me is offered __ Once __ Almost every term _— When the weather is good __ When | can persuade a friend or spouse to take a class also | have never taken a class at Field Museum because: _— Inconvenient class times _— Transportation difficulties _— Tuition cost _ Subjects _— Other (explain) Have you taken classes elsewhere in the Chicago area? Yes __ Nes: If yes, where? Why do you take classes here or elsewhere? _— Long-term interest in a particular subject — General enjoyment _— Just for something to do _—_ Occupational advancement — Opportunity to meet others with similar interests What courses would you like to see offered in Field Museum's program? When would it be most convenient for you to attend classes? __ Once a week on a weekday evening __ Once a week on a weekday afternoon __ Once a week on a weekend during the day _ All day Saturday and/or Sunday TOURS FOR MEMBERS ALASKA NATURAL HISTORY TOUR June 1984 $4,185 Experience the Great Land. Descrip- tions of Alaska are filled with superla- tives—a state more than twice the size of Texas with a population less than that of Denver, 33,000 miles of coast- line, 119 million acres of forest, 14 of the highest peaks in the United States cul- minating in Mt. Denali (formerly Mt. McKinley), at 20,320 feet. Alaska is equally a land of wildlife superlatives, from her great herds of caribou to swarming seabird rookeries to surging salmon in migration. When one thinks of Alaska one thinks of wilderness, of nature still fresh and undomesticated, of experiences dreamed of but mostly un- available to us of the lower 48. Join us for an Alaskan odyssey through a wide range of habitats from the rockbound fur seal and sea bird col- onies of the Pribilofs, to the dripping forest and calving glaciers of the south- east, to the grandeur of the Alaskan Range, to the Fjordlike quiet and beauty of the inland passage. Our travels will be by plane, train, bus, boat, horseback, and foot—what- ever best enhances our experience. Ron Testa Emphasis will be on the land, its history, its wildlife. Interpretation combined with direct observation will provide an enjoyment and quality of experience un- available to the casual visitor. Whatever your interest in natural history—marine mammals, birding, mountains, photogra- phy, flowers, forests, glaciers, rivers— this tour will show you Alaska in all its diversity and splendor. The tour will be led by Dr. Robert Karl Johnson, Chairman of the Depart- ment of Zoology of Field Museum. GRAND CANYON ADVENTURE May 25 - June 3 Many of us have beheld the Grand Canyon from the rim or while flying overhead, and some of us have hiked partway down to the Colorado River. But there is another Grand Canyon that relatively few have experienced: Field Museum is offering you the opportunity to see and experience the canyon from the river. The 280-mile trip will be by two motorized rubber rafts. We'll sleep on sandy beaches under the stars and our meals will be excellent. Along the way, we'll hike to places of unusual geologic and anthropologic interest, sometimes through the most pleasant and enchant- ing stream beds and valleys, at times along the waterfalls. We'll see and study more geology in this one brief period than can be seen anywhere else in comparable time. Dr. Bertram Wood- land, curator of petrology, will be our tour leader. The trip will begin on Friday, May 25, with a flight to Las Vegas, where we will remain overnight. Saturday we’ll leave by deluxe bus for Lees Ferry, where we'll board the rafts. The trip will end 9 days later, at Pierce Ferry, near the head of Lake Mead. We'll re- turn to Chicago, via Las Vegas, Sunday, June 3. You needn’t be a “rough rider” to join this expedition—you needn’t even know how to swim. Persons of any age can enjoy the river with equanimity, and come out proud and happy to have experienced this extraordinary adven- ture. The cost (to be announced) per per- son covers all expenses (including air fare, board fees, waterproof bags for gear, sleeping bags, etc.), and all meals. The trip is limited to 25 participants. ADDITIONAL TOUR GEMS SLATED FOR 1984 te China and Tibet ce Kenya ce Peru te England’s Old Inns, Old Homes, Old Castles, and Old Gardens. For additional information on any tour, please call Tours Manager Dorothy Roder at 322-8862 or write Field Museum Tours, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, IL 60605. Seiginne Ales & Culicanre At Field Museum March 10 through May 27 Comprising two superb exhibits: “Grasp Tight the Old Ways: The Klamer Family Collection of Inuit Art,” Featuring 20th-century Eskimo Art and “Inua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo,” Featuring Eskimo art and artifacts collected a century ago Special lectures on Eskimo Art and culture March 10 and 17 (see pages 3 and 4) Members’ Preview Friday March 9, 5:30-8:00 pm With special events for children FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY BULLETIN April 1984 +. iY ms FP Reve Exhibit: “Black Folk Art in America: 1930-1980” April 14-July 15 “What is Folk Art? Symposium” April 14 Black Folk Art Lectures: April 28, May 5, 19 Family Feature: “Flights of Fancy”—Birds, Kites & Kids April 1 Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin Published by Field Museum of Natural History Founded 1893 President: Willard L. Boyd Director: Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Editor: David M. Walsten Production Liaison: Pamela Stearns Staff Photographer: Ron Testa BOARD OF TRUSTEES James J. O'Connor chairman Mrs. T. Stanton Armour George R. Baker Robert O. Bass Gordon Bent Bowen Blair Willard L. Boyd Frank W. Considine Stanton R. Cook O.C. Davis William R. Dickinson, Jr. Thomas E. Donnelley II Marshall Field Richard M. Jones Hugo J. Melvoin Leo F. Mullin Charles F. Murphy, Jr. Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Robert A. Pritzker James H. Ransom John S. Runnells Patrick G. Ryan William L. Searle Edward Byron Smith Robert H. Strotz William G. Swartchild, Jr. Mrs. Theodore D. Tieken E. Leland Webber Julian B. Wilkins Blaine J. Yarrington Lire TRUSTEES Harry O. Bercher Joseph N. Field Clifford C Gregg William V. Kahler William H. Mitchell John W. Sullivan J. Howard Wood Field Museum of Natural History Bulletin (USPS 898-940) is published monthly, except combined July August issue, by Field Museum of Natural History, Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Il. 60605. Subscriptions: $6.00 annually, $3.00 for schools. Museum membership includes Bulletin subscription. Opinions expressed by authors are their own and do not neces- sarily reflect the policy of Field Museum. Unsolicited manuscripts are welcome. Museum phone: (312) 922-9410. Notification of address change should include address label and be sent to Membership Department. Postmaster: Please send form 3579 to Field Museum of Natural His- tory. Roosevelt Road at Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, II. 60605. ISSN:0015-0703. CONTENTS April 1984 Volume 55, Number 4 April Events At Field Museum 3 Fossil Plant Collections at the Field Museum by Martha S. Bryant, collection manager of fossil invertebrates 5 and fossil plants, and Peter R. Crane, assistant curator of paleobotany Black Folk Art in America 1930-1980 by Richard Powell, guest curator and consultant 11 Market Art from Northeastern Asia A 19th-Century Siberian Souvenir 19 by James W. VanStone, curator of North American archaeology and Ethnology Environmental Field Trips by Keith Mason, program developer, Department of Education 22 Field Briefs 26 Field Museum Tours for Members 27 COVER Crucifixion, 1940, by Elijah Pierce. Carved and painted wood on painted wood panel, 47 x 30%." From the Elijah Pierce Art Gallery, Columbus, Ohio. The work of Pierce is among that of 19 other painters, sculptors, and graphic artists in the new exhibition, “Black Folk Art in America 1930-1980,” on view at Field Museum April 14 through July 15. See pages 11-18 and, for schedules of related events, the back cover. This exhibition was organized by the Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.,and sponsored by grants from Atlantic Richfield Foundation and the National Endowment for the Arts, Washington, D.C. The Chicago showing of this exhibit was made possible by a grant from the Atlantic Richfield Foundation. Cover photo courtesy Corcoran Gallery of Art. Eskimo Art and Culture comprising two exhibits: “Inua: Spirit World of the Bering Sea Eskimo” and “Grasp Tight the Old Ways: The Klamer Family Collection of Inuit Art” continues on view through May 27 a Events | Black Folk Art Symposium and Lecture Series This series is designed to complement the special exhibit “Black Folk Artin America: 1930-1980.” The lectures are funded by a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, a federal agency. “What is Folk Art?: Symposium” Saturday, April 14, 2:00-5:00pm, James Simpson Theatre, West Entrance This symposium explores the varied and often contradictory viewpoints of a social historian, a museum curator responsible for an institution’s collections, a contemporary gallery owner, and a private collector. Each member of the panel presents his or her own view of “What is Folk Art?” After a brief question-and-answer period from the audience, the symposium continues with the panel members discussing their opposing viewpoints. Symposium Panel: Sterling Stuckey, professor of history, Northwestern University; Lynda Roscoe Hartigan, assistant cura- tor, 20th century painting and sculpture, National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution; Phyllis Kind, Phyllis Kind Galleries, Chicago and New York; James T. Parker, private collec- tor. Moderator: Richard Powell, guest curator, “Black Folk Artin America: 1930-1980,” Field Museum. “Indelible Icons: The Black Atlantic Visual Tradition” Robert Farris Thompson, professor, history of art, Yale University Saturday, April 28, 2:00pm, James Simpson Theatre, West Entrance Following the slave trade routes from the west coast of Africa to Brazil north to the United States, Robert Thompson describes various cultural phenomena—dance, music, street festivals. Emphasizing religion and performance, he illustrates how these same phenomena reemerge in the Americas. Though a serious scholar, Dr. Thompson's classroom persona is part preacher, part dance-hall leader and performer. His research is concentrated on cultures from the west coast of Africa. “Origins and Development of Black American Folk Art” Regenia A. Perry, professor of art history, Virginia Commonwealth University Saturday, May 5, 2:00pm, James Simpson Theatre, West Entrance The earliest surviving examples of black American folk art include pottery, quilts, wood carving, basketry, iron work, and painting. Dr. Perry traces the development of this art through the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, explaining the remarkable persistence of cer- tain “Africanisms” throughout the course of black American folk art history. Dr. Perry is an avid collector of black folk art and is responsible for the essay “Origins and Development of Black American Folk Art,” in the exhibit catalog Black Folk Art in Amer- ica: 1930-1980. “Memory and Sense of Place in Black Folk Art” William Ferris, director, Center for the Study of Southern Culture Saturday, May 19, 2:00pm, James Simpson Theatre, West Entrance Family, region, and place influenced traditional African artists and continues to influence the black American folk artist today. Wil- liam Ferris looks at the contributions of black culture to the Amer- ican experience, focusing on folk artists of the rural south. The Center for the Study of Southern Culture is located on the campus of the University of Mississippi and is a clearinghouse for informa- tion on regional studies of southern culture. As a folklorist who talks to the folk as well as studying their artifacts, Dr. Ferris has found Mississippi a vital research area. Series Tickets—Symposium and Individual Lectures: $17.00 (Members: $10.00). Individual Tickets for each program: $5.00 (Members: $3.00). Fees are nonrefundable. Please use coupon to order tickets. For further information please call (312) 322-8854. Drinker with Hat and Bottle, 1939-42. Compressed charcoal pencil on paper, 1312x 758” Collection of Mr and Mrs. Joseph H. Wilkinson. On view in “Black Folk Art in America: 1930-1980." April 14-July 15 CONTINUED: > CONTINUED FROM PAGE 3 Edward E. Ayer Film Lectures Travel the world on Thursdays in April, at 1:30pm in James Simpson Theatre. Admission is free. Doors open at 12:45pm. Members please bring membership card for priority seating privilege. “Colorado—Where the West Comes Alive” with Frank Nichols 12 “Superior” with Tom Sterling 19”