THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

International Fisheries Exhibition

LONDON, 1883

THE

FISHERIES EXHIBITION
LITERATURE.

VOLUME

PRIZE ESSAYS— PART I.

THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF GREAT BRITAIN.

THE EFFECT OF THE EXISTING NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL

LAWS FOR THE REGULATION AND PROTECTION OF

DEEP SEA FISHERIES.

SALMON LEGISLATION IN SCOTLAND.

LONDON
WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED

13, CHARING CROSS, S.W.
1884

International Fisheries Exhibition

LONDON, 1883

THE

FISHERIES EXHIBITION

TTTI7PATTTRR

ERRATUM.
33?' l>'"e 4'f°r "boats **" ri* "boats dandy."

THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF GREAT BRITAIN.

THE EFFECT OF THE EXISTING NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL

LAWS FOR THE REGULATION AND PROTECTION OF

DEEP SEA FISHERIES.

SALMON LEGISLATION IN SCOTLAND.

LONDON
WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED

13, CHARING CROSS, S.W.
1884

LONDON :
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,

STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.

K-SH3V/

Y.

PRIZE ESSAYS— PART I.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF GREAT BRITAIN.

By FRANCIS DAY, F.L.S., F.Z.S " i

THE EFFECT OF THE EXISTING NATIONAL AND
INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE REGULATION
AND PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. With
Suggestions for Improvements of Said Laws. By C. W. MORRIS 329

SALMON LEGISLATION IN SCOTLAND. The Legislation
at present Applicable to the Salmon Fisheries in Scotland and
the Best Means of Improving it. By J. M. LEITH . . . 487

THE

COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES

OF

GREAT BRITAIN.

NATURE DISC ERE MORES— FRANCIS DAY, F.L.S.

VOL I.— E. I.

THE

COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES

OF

GREAT BRITAIN.

THE natural history of the commercial sea fishes of Great
Britain forms a subject which is not only of the greatest
importance to the fishermen who capture them, the salesman
who disposes of them, the consumers who purchase them,
but also to those whose trades are intimately bound up in
the prosperity of shipping and fish-curing. Irrespective of
the foregoing classes, sea fish are interesting to the general
public, for their capture in ages long gone by may be
asserted to have been the basis from which commerce has
sprung.

Man in his savage condition must have possessed the
natural wish of desiring food when he was hungry, and,
nauseated with a vegetarian diet, he would seek change by
the addition of animal substances. Those residing near
the sea coast would first resort to such molluscs, Crustacea,
and fish as could be readily taken in the shallows or were
left in pools by a receding tide. But as man's wants
increased, and his sources of supply began to diminish, he
would have to add to his devices. He would wade afte
his prey, pursue them with spears, shoot them with bows
and arrows, or obtain them by setting up dams or weirs.

B 2

4 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

But, unless under peculiar circumstances, the time would
arrive when augmented captures would again be necessary,
and he would have to venture still further out, to dive after
his prey, construct nets, to float on logs or rafts in order
to use them in the most advantageous localities, and this
would in time lead to the construction of boats, and finally
that of a ship. This last would become a necessity as soon
as he wished to extend his range to better fishing grounds,
or export his spoils to distant markets. Thus the basis of
navigation and commerce may reasonably be supposed to
have been laid by man pursuing the finny tribes for the
purpose of obtaining them as food or conveying them
dried or cured as an article of merchandise to transmarine
countries.

When we commence our investigation into the com-
mercial sea fishes, the difficulty at once arises as to what
plan to pursue. For there exist several distinct paths, each
in their way leading to this end, while but few authors have
attempted to embrace both the practical and scientific
aspects of the enquiry.

The museum naturalist, wrapt up in the contemplation
of his alcoholic and stuffed specimens, his skeletons and,
perhaps, fossil remains, unless practically acquainted with
field work, generally restricts himself to reviewing, and too
often condemning, his predecessors' labours, oblivious that
at the time they wrote access to information was not so
readily attainable as in the present age. His account rarely
passes beyond the anatomy and external appearances of
fishes, how they breed, grow, and vary, entering perhaps
into a short history of the successive appearance of families in
different geological eras, and their geographical distribution
in the present time, the latter being culled from the works
of travellers, assisted possibly by personal research among
the ticketed specimens on the shelves of his museum.

GREAT BRITAIN. 5

The comparative anatomist and embryologist takes
another standpoint ; considering morphology as the basis of
all classification, the fish is examined from its earliest ap-
preciable stage, its changes and its life history come under
review. Histology is called into assistance, the microscope
and the dissecting knife are the constant accessories of
those who have selected this laborious path, one which,
perhaps, leads to the most solid results.

The pisciculturist and field-naturalist are often more con-
cerned as to how fishes live and breed, how hybrids occur,
and whether such are or are not sterile, the reasons why
some forms thrive or the reverse, the causes of migrations,
their geographical distribution, the effects of temperature,
light or darkness, depths and physical conditions of the
water, electrical disturbances and storms, ocean circulation,
and also the best modes of transporting the living and
conveying the dead ; the voracity of fishes, their favourite
food, how to capture them with the least injury to the
fisheries ; and to these have to be conjoined investigations
into their faculties of taste, smell, respiration, hearing, the
production of sounds, as well as if they emit odour when
in the water ; their emotion and instincts, whether they
sleep, and their amount of sensibility to pain ; diseases to
which they are subject, or causes of their destruction ; the
effects on them of injuries ; their friends and their enemies ;
how some seek refuge inside other animals, or use such as
affording them means for moving from place to place ; how
the eyes of some living in dark caverns are deficient, and
small in such as usually reside in muddy situations ; how
their colours vary, and the cause of such ; how some living
at considerable depths in the sea emit light, and others
after life has ceased, but prior to putrefaction having com-
menced. Lastly, the effects of a fish diet ; how injuries

6 THE COMMERCIAL SEA PISHES OF

are caused by fish ; how to form piscina ; the result of
transporting marine fish to fresh waters, or fresh-water
forms to the sea.

In studying fishes in a practical manner, more especially
respecting such as are commercially useful to man, it must
be evident that the investigations of the pisciculturist
must be pushed into subjects which the casual observer
would hardly expect. The substances, whether animal or
vegetable, upon which fish subsist ; the reasons why certain
forms restrict themselves to distinct localities ; the causes
of their abundance, or the reason of their diminution ; and
this again leads to how inferior organisms are nourished,
and what extraneous causes have any effect upon them.
Not only, then, have we to investigate the food of fishes,
but the nature of their friends, and likewise of their
enemies.

If we divide the animal kingdom into the vertebrate and
invertebrate forms, we are all aware that fishes, possessing
as they do a backbone or vertebral column, belong to the
highest of these subdivisions. This includes all animals
having a longitudinal axis or spine situated in a superior
or dorsal cavity, and one which contains the brain and
spinal chord, but is entirely separated from a lower cavity
or visceral tube, which represents the condition existing in
invertebrata.

The classification of vertebrata now most usually adopted
is as follows : —

I. MAMMALIA. Young, born alive (viviparous), and
nourished by their mother's milk.

II. SAUROPSIDA. As birds and reptilian forms, that are
oviparous or oviviparous ; are not mammals, and never
possess gills.

III. ICHTHYOPSIDA. Such as batrachians and fish, also

GREA T BRITAIN. 7

oviparous or oviviparous, but in all of which gills exist
during some period of their existence.

Speaking generally, fishes are vertebrate animals, adapted
for an aquatic life, having their extremities modified into fins.
TJiey breathe (except in some few and mostly tropical forms)
through the medium of water, solely by means of their gills.
They are cold blooded, tJteir heart having merely two cavities.
Some possess scales, others are destitute of them, or else they
may be modified into bony plates.

The fishes which exist in our seas may be divided into
the following sub-classes, omitting the Cyclostomata (Lam-
preys) :—

I. TELEOSTEAN or bony forms, likewise termed "true
fishes," and in which the skeleton is bony and the vertebrae
separated one from another, the posterior ones being bony
or covered with osseous plates. The branchiae are free,
the bulb'of the aorta having simply two valves at its origin.

II. CHONDROPTERYGIAN or cartilaginous forms, with no
cranial sutures, the gills attached by their outer edges to
the skin (see note, p. 314).

There are two orders among the cartilaginous fishes —
(i.) Ganoidei, having merely one external gill-opening, and
a rudimentary gill cover, as sturgeons. (2.) Plagiosto-
mata, having from five to seven external gill-openings and
no gill cover ; this latter order being subdivisible into
(a} sharks, wherein the trunk gradually passes into the
tail, and (b) skates and rays with a ventral gill-opening.

If we look at the external appearance of a bony or
teleostean fish, as a carp or gurnard, we see a compara-
tively large head, attached to the trunk without the inter-
vention of a neck ; the body tapers off towards the posterior
extremity, and the sides are somewhat flattened. As irre-
gularities would impede progress through the water, a fish's

8 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

sides are generally smooth, and often covered with scales,
which will be considered further on.

A fish, such as a carp, is provided with fins for locomo-
tion, and has the vertical ones in three principal situations,
and unpaired : the back or dorsal fin, which may be sub-
divided into two or three ; one at the end of the tail or the
caudal ; and one, which may be subdivided into two or
more, behind the vent, termed the anal. There also exist
paired fins, one pair in the region of the breast or pectoral,
corresponding with the anterior extremities of the higher
vertebrates ; while a second or ventral pair represent the
legs or hind limbs. The dorsal and anal fins increase the
extent of the lateral surface of the fish, by which means
they act as a check against lateral oscillations, or a tendency
to turn belly up. If these fins are removed, the fish reels
about first to one side and then to the other. The caudal
assist the velocity with which a fish is proceeding, and this
is most apparent in such as have this fin forked. The
pectoral is extended from the body, will act like a rudder,
and turn the body in a curve towards that side. The
ventrals being horizontal, serve to balance the body, and
when only one fin acts to incline it to one side, while the
two being in motion together can elevate or depress the
fish.

If we examine the composition of these fins, we find in
the bony fishes two distinct forms of rays — the one being
spinate, consisting of spines destitute of any transverse
articulations, and with a hard and sharp extremity ; the
other being softer, and composed of numerous pieces
articulated together and possessing a similar soft ex-
tremity.

But though we can assert that as a rule fins are composed
of spines, rays, and an inter-spinous or inter-radial mem-

GREA T BRITAIN. 9

brane, we observe many modifications, some taking on a
distinctly osseous character, as in the sheat or scaleless
fishes, in which the first ray of the dorsal fin and the upper
one of the pectoral are frequently seen as bony spines.

The component parts of a fin may also become strangely
altered, so that it becomes widely different from what is
seen in a typical carp or perch. Thus the flying fish,
Exoc&tus, has its pectorals modified into an organ or para-
chute for assisting it to pass through the air ; our little
stickle-backs, Gasterostens, have each ventral fin in the
form of a single spine, useful for offensive or defensive
purposes, as we perceive in the more developed unicorn
fish, Triacanthus, of the Eastern seas. The gurnards,
Trigla, have some of their pectoral rays developed into a
locomotive and tactile apparatus. In the angler, Lophius,
the whole of the fin can be employed as an organ for loco-
motion. In a few fresh-water loaches the upper pectoral
ray becomes osseous, its extremity becomes flattened and
spatulate, enabling it to be employed as a species of spade,
so that on the approach of danger it can dig down into the
sand and conceal itself with great rapidity.

Curiously as we see the many modifications of the fins,
no less extraordinary are the forms of some of their bodies ;
examples exist in the globe-fish, Tetrodon, the flattened sole
or flounder, the elongated pipe-fish, or the sword-fish,
Xiphias, with its snout modified into a powerful weapon of
offence.

The value of the skin or tegumentary covering of animals
as a means of resistance against external injuries, becomes
increased should hard substances enter into its composition,
and for this purpose many fish are furnished with scales.
Scales are developed on papillae on the deep layer of the
skin or corium, which, increasing by successive accretions,

io THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

passes somewhat obliquely between it and the' upper layer
or epidermis. The basal portion of the scale consists of
mostly somewhat gristly laminae, while calcification is
developed from the upper layer of the dermis ; conse-
quently both the upper and lower layers of the skin assist
in the formation of scales. We find that scales may take
on many characters, as denticles in the sharks, osseous
plates in sturgeons ; while in bony fishes they may either
degenerate or give rise to structures which are very dis-
similar to typical scales, as seen in the plates and spines of
the plectognaths and pipe-fishes or Lophobranchii.

Scales may either overlap, when they are said to be
imbricate, or they may be at a greater or less distance apart.
The most common forms of scales have received distinctive
names ; those which are more or less flexible and have
a spinate outer margin, as seen in the perch, are termed
ctenoid, or comb-like ; those in which the edges are smooth,
are known as cycloid, or circle-edged, as found in carps.
The second division of scales are as hard as teeth, due to
the predominance of bone earth, and consist of the ganoid,
which somewhat resemble the eve-tiles of a house, and the
placoid, or such as are provided with a spine. Although it
is frequently highly desirable to ascertain whether a fish
has cycloid or ctenoid scales, still there are many instances
in which they do not appear to be correlated to any impor-
tant functions. Thus among the gobies some have ctenoid,
others cycloid scales ; or both forms may exist on the same
fish, or even scales may be entirely absent, and all these
variations occur within the limits of a single genus.

External colours in fish are often due to the influence of
light, while the tints even in the same species are found to
vary considerably in different localities, or when under
peculiar forms of diet. In some the colours may be due to

GREAT BRITAIN. H

the character of the water they inhabit, for if the latter is
opaque and muddy, its finny inhabitants are found to be
darker than are those obtained from localities where it is
clear ; in running streams they are generally lighter and
brighter than when from stagnant pools, and the same
difference may be observed between such as are taken in
the open sea or along a muddy coast.

Age and season likewise exercise an influence in this
respect, as well as the health of the fish and temporary
emotions. In the very young, one sees but few markings
or colours, but these rapidly develop themselves, and by
the time, or even before, the first breeding season has been
reached, the brilliancy of the individual has often attained
to its maximum. Many see in these markings grounds for
assuming the probability of the descent of many forms
from some common ancestor ; thus vertical bands are almost
invariably among the young of all the salmonidse, as well as
in most of the marine scombresocidae, in which they are
generally diagnostic of the immaturity of the individual.
Large spots or blotches, especially when surrounded by a
light ring, are likewise good reasons for supposing that the
individual has not attained its full size. In some forms
longitudinal bands become modified, two narrow ones
taking the place of a single wide one, or they may be
broken up into blotches. Some fish, which are of a simple
silvery colour in one place, are spotted in another, and
others which have no marks on their bodies throughout
their lives frequently have the colour of their fins varying
with age.

There appear to be at least two modes in which variations
in colour occur — the first due to the interference of light
produced by the presence of thin plates ; and secondly,
those due to anatomical elements frequently highly

12 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

coloured and endowed with sarcodic movements, capable of
marked changes of form under special influences, so as to
present the shape of extended dendritic surfaces, or minute
spherical masses, through which the pigment is distributed.
The changes of colour due to thin plates are of course
exceedingly variable, the tints following each other with
great rapidity according to the angle at which we view
them. Such is seen among insects, Crustacea, and some
families of fishes, as those of the dolphin, Coryphczna ; while
the second class of colours, those due to the movements of
the anatomical elements, are directly connected with the
impression of colour received by the eye, and brought about
by the reflex action of the nervous system (Agassiz).

Due to certain causes, fish may assume colours which
are not natural to the species, as black, when it is termed
melanism, red, known as erythrism, yellow or leuccethiopism,
these varieties being most common in fresh-water forms.
There is also a piebald or white form, albinoism, very com-
mon in flat fishes, which is probably more or less hereditary,
and may have been originally due among pleuronectoids to
a right and a left variety breeding together.

Another external phenomenon sometimes observed
among marine fishes is a luminous appearance, perceived
either when the creature was alive or soon after death. The
shark is one of the former which has the reputation of being
luminous, the light being reputed to proceed from its
abdominal surface. Shoals of fish frequently emit flashes
of light, visible at great distances, and often due to the
collision of the fish with minute light-producing animals.
We also find a general luminosity which exists for some
time in a dead fish, commencing a short time subsequent
to death and continuing until decomposition sets in. In
such forms as decompose more rapidly, luminosity is most

GREA T BRIT A IN. 1 3

quickly developed, especially in summer, and when placed
in a warm and damp place ; this is well seen in members
of the cod family.

There are certain marine fishes, as Argyropelecus, Man-
rolicus, &c., which possess luminous organs of a circular
form, some resembling impressions and other slight pro-
minences of the skin. A form not uncommon on the east
coast of Scotland is the " pearl-sides " of Yarrell, Maurolicus
Pennantii, having those brilliant spots along the entire
length of the abdomen, and even seen on the head. A few
years since it was advanced that among these fishes were
two kinds of metameric organs, the lenticular and the
glandular. Professor Reinhardt was so fortunate as to
obtain in the mid-Atlantic two examples of fishes thus
provided, and although they merely lived a few minutes
after removal from the net, he ascertained with certainty
that a light radiated from a spot in the head, flashing, as it
were, from thence along the back as far as the first dorsal fin.

As our knowledge of the forms of animal life which exist
at great depths in the ocean has been much increased of
late years, a theory has sprang up that the only light
existing at these abyssal depths must be derived from the
evolution of light from animals, for at these depths fishes
are found which are furnished with very large eyes, as if to
collect every ray of light which might be present in their
vicinity.

If the exterior of fishes excites our wonder and stimu-
lates investigation, no less a field is there in which to
extend our inquiries than their internal structure, which,
however, I must very briefly, and in a cursory manner, enter
upon.

If we examine the intestinal tract of fishes, we must
commence at the anterior end of this canal or mouth, the

14 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

common receptacle of water passing to the gills for respira-
tion, and food transmitted to the stomach for nutrition ;
while, as might be anticipated, its capacity is large and
variously formed. But the several purposes to which the
mouth is employed, and the means by which such are
effected, it is not my purpose to enter upon, except to
remark on the absence of the salivary glands, which in
some forms appear to be represented by some mucous
follicles that open into the mouth below the side of the
tongue, much saliva doubtless being unnecessary, owing to
the moist condition of the food. Teeth are of various
forms and differently disposed in the different families and
genera, in fact, more especially in the osseous forms, there
is a tendency for the mucous membrane in almost any part
of the mouth, throat, or gills, to develop teeth. The gastric
portion of the intestinal canal consists of an oesophagus
and a stomach, between which a cardiac constriction is not
so frequently observable as a more or less abrupt change
in the structure of the lining mucous membrane. In some
forms at the lower end of the stomach and the com-
mencement of the small intestines, a constriction occurs
termed the pylorus. It must be observed that the
orifices of the two ends of the stomach are usually in
bony fishes more or less approximating, in order that
the food may be retained as in a caecum. Occasionally
the stomach is situated not in the direct course, but to one
side, as it were, of the intestinal canal. Another constric-
tion, marked internally by a more or less well-defined
internal valve, shows where the small intestines terminate
and the large ones begin.

Should the intestinal canal be slit up, and its inner
surface examined, the commencement of the stomach is
generally observed to be defined by increased vascularity,

GREA T BRITAIN. 1 5

and a more delicate lining membrane than that existing in
the oesophagus. Its upper or cardiac orifice is usually
larger than its lower or pyloric one, while the form of the
entire organ is subject to considerable modifications, being
usually found in one of the two following divisions : the
sip/ionalt which somewhat resembles a bent tube, as seen in
the lumpsucker, flounder, &c., and most of the plagiostomes ;
and kthe c&cal, in which it ends in a blind sac, and the
pyloric portion is continued from the right side, as seen in
the perch, gurnard, weever, &c. An intermediate or tran-
sitional form sometimes is present, as in the sea-scorpion
and in the turbot. Irrespective of the foregoing, certain
other deviations occur which it is not my purpose entering
upon, as in the mullet, wherein the muscular walls are
thickened, causing it somewhat to resemble the gizzard of
a bird, &c.

Through the pyloric orifice partly digested food reaches
the commencement of the small intestines, and we usually
find that the distance from the pylorus to the vent is com-
paratively shorter in fishes than in most of the higher
vertebrata. The length of the intestines differs in different
classes of fish, and the intestinal lining membrane may be
raised into transverse folds as in the salmon, thus increasing
the extent of its secreting or absorbing surface, and which
is still further augmented by the secretions of numerous
caecal appendages. In other forms we find the intestines
themselves convoluted, thus increasing their length as in
the carp. The large intestine may be straight, as seen in
the sturgeon or chimaera, in which the transverse folds (as
observed existing in the salmon) become continuous, and
an uninterrupted spiral valve is formed, while the same
structure is likewise present in sharks, rays, and their
allies, but which may be modified into transverse coils.

16 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

It is thus that in fishes economy of space is effected by
an increase of the secreting and absorbing surface of
the vasculo-mucous membrane lining the intestinal tract,
whether such be merely raised into puckers, or those
puckers be continued into transverse folds, or even form-
'ing a circular, uninterrupted spiral valve or coil to the
large intestines.

In many fishes we find what are termed csecal or pyloric
appendages, situated at the commencement of the small
intestines. Some have held these appendages to be lateral
prolongations of the intestine, which pour out a secretion
similar to that of the intestinal mucous membrane. Others
consider them as a modified form of pancreas, notwith-
standing that a rudimentary pancreatic gland has been
detected in the form of a minute glandular body, ter-
minating in a duct, which opens by from one to three
orifices into the intestines close to the bile duct. It is seen
both in fishes which possess pyloric appendages, as the
perch, cod, salmon, and sturgeon, as well as in such as are
deficient in them, as the brama, gar-pike, and pike, while
the sharks and rays are furnished with a reddish-yellow
and lobulated gland, which is more similar to what is per-
ceived in the higher forms of vertebrate animals.

In osseous fishes these pancreatic ducts are seen as one
or more small tubes, each ending externally in a blind
extremity. They either surround the commencement of
the small intestine, or spring from one of its sides in the
first portion of its course, and each opening internally into
it. A single fish may possess from one to a hundred or
more of these appendages. In the sword-fish (Xiphias)
all the various tubes conjoin. In the sturgeon (Acipenser)
a mass of areolar tissue binds the various caeca together,
forming it into a pa enchymatous conglomerate gland.

GREA T BRITAIN. 17

Taking a general survey of fishes, we find that caecal
appendages are far more common among marine than
fresh-water fishes, and that in the sharks and rays instead
of these appendages a spiral valve, already described, exists
in their intestines.

We find members of the cod family, which are more or
less ground-feeders, have large numbers of caecal appen-
.dages ; so have also the surface-swimming herrings, while
the slow-moving flat-fishes (Pleuronectidcz) possess very
few. But the sluggish dory (Zeus) and the slow-swimming
lumpsucker (Cyclopterus) have many, and such variations
in forms which have somewhat similar habits is by no
means uncommon. Thus in some species of sea-perches
(Serrani) living in the same localities, the number of these
appendages may vary from eight to fifty. That a rich or
augmented diet may increase the number of these appen-
dages has been proved by sending out trout to Tasmania,
where they have, due to good living, grown to a size not
attained in this country by their ancestors, while the
number of caecal appendages has increased, showing that
these appendages are inconstant as to their numbers.

The air- or swim-bladder, likewise termed the air-sac or
air-vessel, is a single or variously sub-divided sac, or it may
be two sacs partially or completely separated one from the
other. Situated above the centre of gravity, it lies beneath
the vertebral column or backbone, from which it is more or
less divided by the kidneys, while inferiorly the peritoneum
is between it and the intestines. As this organ is entirely
absent, or ceases to be developed, in many fishes, and may
be present or wanting in species belonging to the same
genus, it would appear that it is not indispensable to the
existence of these animals, its functions being accessory or
. VOL. I.— E. I. C

i8 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

supplemental, under certain conditions, to those of other
organs of the body, while it is generally observed that the
urinary bladder is largest in those forms in which the air-
bladder is absent.

In the embryo it originates as a bud or offshoot from the
upper portion of the alimentary canal, or even from the
stomach ; this offshoot next elongates into a blind tube,
which enlarges at its terminal extremity into what will
eventually form the air-bladder. Consequently at some
period of a fish's existence there must of necessity be a
tube connecting the air-bladder (where one exists) with the
alimentary canal, into which latter it opens usually on its
superior or dorsal, rarely on its lateral, and occasionally on
its inferior or ventral wall.

Among the bony fishes the air-bladder is present, either
as a closed sac (Physoclisti), in which communication
between that organ and the alimentary canal has been cut
off, the majority of which are marine ; whereas in such as
the communicating duct remains patent (Physostomi), the
largest proportion live in fresh water. Also, as a general
rule, the air-bladder is more usually present in fresh-water
than in marine genera.

It has long been known that the gas contained in the
air-bladder is a mixture of oxygen, azote, and carbonic
acid, in variable proportions, in accordance with species, or
even with individuals ; while after death this organ is
generally found distended with gas, consisting chiefly of
nitrogen in the fresh-water forms and oxygen in the
marine. It has formed a subject of considerable discussion
as to how this gas is generated, but as in those forms in
which the air-bladder is a closed sac (Physoclisti\ it is as
well seen as in others possessing a pneumatic tube (Physo-
stomi\ one cannot resist believing that the gas must be

GREA T BRITAIN. 19

eliminated from the blood-vessels lining the interior of the
organ.

The air-bladder has usually two coats — an external
fibrous, tough, and glistening, and an internal vascular and
mucous one. Between these two coats is often seen
(especially in the Physoclisti) a red glandular body, most
frequently in its inferior region, and compared by some
anatomists to the thymus. This gland appears to have
the character of a rete mirabile, consisting of a double
plexus of arteries and veins. Perhaps it may serve the
purpose of removing superfluous gas or any deleterious
substance, while the pneumatic tube may possibly not be
employed to admit air, but acts as a safety-valve when the
organ is too tightly distended.

The air-bladder must be refused the title of " lung " in
most fishes, because it is usually supplied with blood from
the adjacent arteries of the body, not direct from the heart,
and returns venous blood into the general circulation. It
is, however, homologous with the lung in its position and
function in some of the higher orders ; and as a gradation
can be traced, it becomes no less clear that this homology
(leaving its functions out of consideration) exists through-
out every variety and condition of air-bladder in the
piscine tribes.

The air-bladder is not only absent in many families of
fishes, but may be present or deficient among species of
the same genus. The common form of British mackerel
{Scomber scomber] does not possess it, but it is present in
the rarer Spanish mackerel (S. colias\ also found in our
seas. In such forms as swim near the surface, it is generally
of comparatively a small size, while in some of those which
live near the bottom, as flat fishes, it is absent. In species
possessing this organ, should it become ruptured from any

C 2

20 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

cause, permitting the contained gas to escape, the fish
sinks to the bottom. On the other hand, some forms
which have been hooked or netted at great depths, and
suddenly brought to the surface without having had time
to compress or partially empty their air-bladders, the con-
tained gas being no longer weighted down by a mass of
super-imposed water, expands rapidly, causing the organ
to burst, or else forces the stomach and upper portion of
the alimentary canal out of the fish's mouth.

The chief uses of this organ in teleostean or bony fishes
are two : (i) a hydrostatic, or for flotation, which serves,
by contracting or distending its capacity, to condense or
rarify the contained gases, giving it the mechanical function
of enabling its possessor to maintain a desired level in the
water, and which is accompanied with the power of renew-
ing, expelling, compressing, or dilating its gaseous con-
tents, so that it can rise or fall as necessity occurs. (2) The
second use is acoustic, it being partially or entirely em-
ployed in hearing, by means of various modes of connection
with the internal ear, mostly by tubular prolongations of
the air-bladder to the internal ear, or by a connecting
chain of auditory ossicles.

If we examine the Physostomi we find that, as regards
the air-bladder, they hold a place between the Physoclisti
on one hand, and the Dipnoids and Ganoids on the other.
If we examine the carps, Cyprinidce, the Characinidce, and
likewise the sheat-fishes, Siluridce, we find that a chain of
auditory ossicles connects the air-bladder with the internal
ear (instead of a tube filled with gas and a prolongation of
the air-bladder as found in Physoclisti). Among the carps
we find in the ground-feeding loach a curious modification
of this organ ; its posterior two-thirds, or its hydrostatic
portion, are deficient, the air-bladder being in the form of

GREA T BRITAIN. 2 1

two rounded lobes, placed side by side, beneath the bodies
of some of the anterior vertebrae, and where they are
almost entirely enclosed in bone. The pneumatic tube,
however, is still found to exist. Passing on to the sheat-
fishes, Siluridce, we find the air-bladder remarkably modi-
fied, in the majority of instances being apparently more
useful for acoustic than for hydrostatic purposes. They
lead the life of ground-feeders, and the power of employing
their air-bladder as a float appears to be subservient to
that of hearing. In the marine forms it has thickened
walls and the parapophyses of the first vertebrae (ex. Arius
snbrostratus] form expanded plates, to the under surface of
which this organ is attached. But in the more inland
forms the air-bladder is more or less enveloped in bone,
until it becomes as I have described it as existing in the
loaches (Nemackeilus). The chain of auditory ossicles con-
necting the air-bladder with the internal ear is confined, so
far as I am aware, to the fresh-water Cyprinidae, Chara-
cinidae, and to the Siluridae.

Among the marine physostomous forms, the communi-
cation between the internal ear and the air-bladder exists
by means of caecal prolongations from the air-bladder, and
not by auditory ossicles. Due possibly to the absence of
ears, many of our fishermen have denied the sense of hear-
ing to fishes, which they would probably not do were they
aware of the existence of an internal auditory apparatus in
this class of animals. We find a membranous labyrinth,
consisting of a vestibule which dilates into one or more
sacculi, separated by a narrow canal from the "alvens
communis," and containing two or more auditory ossicles
or otoliths, which consist of carbonate of lime, besides
which it has a fluid or " endolymph." There are likewise
present the three semicircular canals. A true tympanum

22 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

and membrane, as well as a cochlea, are absent. Now it is
hardly to be supposed that this intricate auditory appa-
ratus exists without a purpose. As vibrations in the atmo-
sphere occasion sound, so likewise do they in the water, their
force being communicated to the sides of the body of the
fish, and on to the internal ear, either assisted or not by
the air-bladder. Lacepede relates how some fish which
had been kept in trie basin of the Tuileries for upwards of
a century would come when they were called by their
names ; while in many parts of Germany, trout, carp, and
tench were summoned to their food by the ringing of a
bell. Ellis, in his ' Polynesian Researches/ speaks of a
native chief of the island of Hawaii, who had brought eels
to that degree of tameness that he was able to call them
from their retreat with the shrill sound of a whistle. At
many temples in India fishes are summoned to receive
food by ringing bells or musical sounds. Carew, in Corn-
wall, called his grey mullet together by making a noise
like chopping with a cleaver, and Sir Joseph Banks col-
lected his fish by means of sounding a bell.

The respiration of fishes is essentially the same as in the
higher vertebrata ; the blood is decarbonised at the gills by
absorbing the oxygen contained in the air which is in solu-
tion in the water. It may be carried on in more than one
manner in a fish at the same time ; thus in some tropical
countries this function in certain amphibious forms is more
completely effected by means of taking in atmospheric air
direct, the gills being insufficient to depurate the blood,
which is consequently affected by accessory breathing
organs (as in the climbing perch, the snake-headed or the
scorpion-fishes of India) ; while M. Jobert has ascertained
that in the Callichthys this accessory respiratory action is
performed by air passing through the intestines. And all

GREA T BRIT A IN. 23

who keep fish in an aquarium are aware how, when the
water becomes foul or over a certain temperature, the con-
tained fishes rise to the surface and gulp down air direct.

The respiratory current enters the mouth and is normally
discharged through the gill-openings, or by orifices situated
on either side of the head. But in embryonic and very
young forms a different plan may be pursued. In sharks
and their allies, wherein the gills are inside and attached to
the skin, a difficulty might arise — sufficient oxygenation
might not be possible. To obviate this, there are tem-
porary external gills which are constantly bathed in the
surrounding fluid. To a certain extent the same plan is
likewise adopted in the bony fishes, as in the very young
the gill-covers do not cover the gills, which are conse-
quently immersed in the surrounding water and are thus
essentially external.

The wider the gill-opening in a fish, the sooner, as a
general rule, does it expire after removal from its native
element ; examples of which may be seen in the herring,
pilchard, shad and mackerel. On the other hand, those
with narrow gill-openings usually live some time after their
removal from the water, as seen in the common eel. For
as the delicate fringes of the gills dry, they adhere one to
another, and this prevents their acting ; consequently, blood
cannot be decarbonised. Similarly fish may be suffocated
in very muddy water, their gills becoming choked.

Fishes possess two eyes, placed symmetrically one on
either side of the head, and which are undoubtedly large if
compared with what obtains in other vertebrates, or even
in comparison with the extent of surface in their own
bodies. Their size, however, is modified in accordance
with local surroundings and their habits. Some frequent
muddy waters, where vision would be of less service than

24 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OP

tactile organs ; in such instances, appendages for feeling,
as barbels, are more developed than eyes. Others, again,
are restricted to living in waters in dark caves, where rays
of light hardly enter. Irrespective of the foregoing in-
stances where atrophy occurs, there are many forms re*
siding in the dismal abysses of the ocean where solar light
is unable to penetrate. Another modifying influence is,
whether the habits of the fish are diurnal or nocturnal, the
latter, unless residing in dark places, requiring the largest
organs of vision.

The eyes of fishes are mostly situated in orbital cavities,
where they rest upon a cushion of adipose or gelatinous
substance. Their direction is subject to considerable varia-
tion, for, although usually placed laterally, as in the perch,
they are not invariably so. The angler (Lophius) has them
on almost the upper surface of the head ; the hammer-
headed shark (Zygcena) has the sides of the head laterally
prolonged, at the extreme edges of which the eyes are
placed. The blennies appear to observe objects as well
with their heads out of the water as when submerged in
the sea, and they move their eyes independently one of the
other. In the sun-fishes (Orthagoriscus) there exists a
circular palpebral fold provided with a sphincter ; while
some sharks have a nictitating membrane. Among the flat
fishes are remarkable modifications, which I have alluded
to when treating of the species.

I do not propose giving a description of the globe of the
eye and its various membranes, but simply to note a few
deviations from what commonly occurs. The sclerotic is
even found bony in some well-ossified forms ; the cornea is
nearly flat. The iris is a thin contractile curtain situated
behind the transparent cornea and suspended in the
aquecus humour ; its dilating and contractile powers are

GREA T BRIT A IN. 25

not very extensive. Its centre is perforated by the pupil,
for the transmission of light to the interior of the eye.
The pupil is mostly circular, but in some forms is vertically
or horizontally elliptical, as in the majority of sharks, or it
may even be almost quadrangular, as in Galeus. Occasion-
ally a veil or flap descends from the edge of the iris at the
upper portion of the pupil, as may be seen in some pleuro-
nectoids, as in the turbot, or in a few of the rays of our
seas, as the Homelyn, wherein this process is somewhat
similar to the shape of a vine-leaf, surrounded by twelve
short projections. These forms live more or less at the
bottom of the sea, and to them a large amount of light is
evidently unsuited ; they are consequently provided with
an extensible and retractile veil, capable of regulating, or
even entirely preventing rays entering from above.

The aqueous humour in the anterior chamber is very
small in amount, while the vitreous body which fills up the
greater portion of the ball of the eye is of firmer consistence
than in other vertebrate animals. The crystalline lens is
nearly or quite spherical.

Fishes' eyes present a great variety as well as extent of
outer coverings, some portions of which are opaque and
others transparent. The skin which covers the eye is
commonly thin in substance • and transparent in character,
being modified in order to suit altered conditions. In some
forms, as in the mackerel, what are usually termed " adipose
lids " are present on either side of the eye, and covering a
portion of its ball. These lids are formed by a single layer
of skin having been continued from contiguous parts of the
head, over the front of the eye, but bulging anteriorly and
posteriorly ; these bulging on loose portions become a
double fold, between the layers of which fat may be found.
Or a double layer of skin may pass entirely across the eye,

26 THE COMMERCIAL SE4 FISHES OF

as in the blind or bib. In the snipe-fish (Centriscus), one
example of which has been captured in this country, some
minute scales are present upon the outer fourth of the skin
covering the globe of the eye, except in its anterior portion,
probably for its protection against direct injuries. Some
forms have a sort of almost fixed eyelid along the upper
portion of the eye, consisting of thickened and coloured
skin, in which scales are often present, as in the sting-fish
(Trachinus). This opaque upper lid, evidently used as a
protection, is found in some flat fishes. In the turbot, not
only does this thick skin cover its upper and lateral por-
tions, but, being insufficient to protect the eye from the
irritation of the sand in which it hides itself, it is able
to elevate a thick lower eyelid or else to depress the trans-
parent portion of the globe of the eye below this fold of
skin.

Doubtless the foregoing modifications of fishes' eyes
might be largely increased, and many more illustrations
given, but I think they are sufficient for the purpose of
pointing out that the skin which passes across this organ
may be employed as a protection when it is scaled, coloured,
thickened, or even transparent.

Fishes are provided with organs of smell, which enable
them to receive impressions from the surrounding medium,
direct them to their food, or warn them against impurities.
These organs are placed much as in the higher animals, but
(except in the Cyclostomatd) with this difference, that they
never communicate with the mouth, or are related to the
function of breathing, for were their delicate lining mem-
brane subject to incessant contact with currents of water,
such would doubtless occasion deleterious results. The
nostrils are depressions or cavities, lined with a large and
highly vascular pituitary membrane, packed into as small a

GREAT BRITAIN. 27

compass as possible, while there are generally one or two
external openings situated on the snout. The capsule
which lines those depressions is formed of a fibrous mem-
brane, and which lies upon a cartilaginous or osseous base
termed the turbinal bones.

The appearance of these openings or nostrils in bony
fishes is various ; generally two, and the anterior one often
tubular, the posterior more frequently oval, while a bridge
of integument occasionally provided with a valve, or a wide
interspace may exist between the two nostrils, which in-
ternally communicate with each other. In some eels, and
a few other bony fishes, one of the nasal orifices is on the
side of the upper lip.

Among the plagiostomes the nasal depressions are very
large, and a membranous opercle is present by which they
may be closed ; the opening is on the under surface of the
face. The membrane lining them is very vascular, and
provided with crypts which secrete mucus. As the nasal
cartilage is provided with certain muscles, it has been
concluded that these fishes scent as well as smell, that is,
that they actively search for odoriferous impressions by
rapidly changing the current of water through the olfactory
sac.

In the Cyclostomata there is a single nasal aperture
situated at the upper surface of the head ; in one form, the
myxine, or " hag," a communication with the palate exists
in the form of a naso-palatine canal, which opens backwards
on the palate, where it is provided with a valve. In the
stonesucker or lamprey (Petromyzon), the nasal duct
terminates in a blind pouch, and does not perforate the
palate. The organs of smell are supplied by the olfactory
nerve and a sensitive branch of the fifth pair.

That fishes smell has long been known, and in olden

28 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

times anglers employed certain essential oils to add zest to
their baits. At Borton Cliff, near Shrewsbury, a gentleman
was in the habit of feeding a trout, which lived in a stream
at the bottom of his garden, with caterpillars. If he took
them up in his fingers the fish invariably refused to swallow
them ; at first it seized its prey, next rejected it, and then
dashed away. If the caterpillars were knocked off the
bushes into a leaf and shaken into the stream, the fish at
once swallowed them. Possibly the reason why we find
blind fish so constantly in good condition is due to their
obtaining their prey by means of their sense of smell,
conjoined, perhaps, with that of touch. Trout will ascend
up stream hundreds of yards to paste made of salmon roe,
which would seem to be due either to smell, taste, or a
combination of the two.

The sense of taste in fishes is generally considered to be
but little developed, no tongue or organisation of soft parts
being present Still, it cannot be supposed that this class
of animals are insensible to preferring some kinds of food
in preference to others, for such an idea almost every
angler would refuse to entertain. In the sturgeon, the
glosso-pharyngeal nerve sends branches to the branchial
arches and palate, where probably the sense of taste resides ;
while it has been advanced that peculiar organs well sup-
plied with nerves are developed in similar localities in carps.

As special organs of touch, we find barbels more or less
developed around the mouths of some fishes, especially the
sheat-fishes or siluroids, which mostly live in muddy waters,
and must mainly obtain their food through the faculties of
smell or touch. These organs are likewise more or less
seen in carp. Irrespective of barbels, the fin rays may be
employed for tactile purposes, as is especially observable in
the free pectoral rays of the gurnard.

GREAT BRITAIN. 29

Various causes may be in existence hastening or retard-
ing the growth of marine fishes, as the purity or the reverse
of the water in which they reside, its temperature, saltness,
the strength of the prevailing currents, the force of the
waves, the character of the neighbouring coast, if it is bold
and rocky, fertile or barren, and whether the shore is sandy
or stony, while some of the most suitable places for growth
are found in marine banks well stocked with invertebrate
forms of animal life. Confinement, as in aquarium, in many
species seems to decrease the rapidity of growth, but in
some forms, as turbot and conger, such does not appear to
be invariably the case. In the Southport Aquarium, some
small turbot, measuring about 3 inches across, attained to
10 Ibs. weight in two and a half years, and 20 Ibs. after
another two years, or a yearly increment of about 4^ Ibs. a
fish.

The voracity of some forms is well known. Thus the
skeleton of an angler-fish (Lophius) was exhibited before
the Dublin Zoological Society in 1847. It was 2\ feet
long. Inside its stomach was found a cod 2 feet long;
inside the cod were two whiting of the ordinary size, and
within each whiting were the half-digested remains of
numerous minute fishes.

The angler-fish crouches in the sand, stirring up the
mud by the action of its ventral and pectoral fins. Hidden
by this obscurity, it elevates an appendage situated on the
upper surface of its head, and waves it in various directions
by way of attraction as a bait, and small fishes which
approach are at once seized as a prey. The weever
(Trachinus) strikes with its opercular spine. The torpedo,
commonly known as the cramp-fish, evidently employs its
electric organ for the purpose of securing fast-swimming
fish, which would otherwise readily outswim it. Some

30 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

valuable forms of fish are found to depend on food liable
to injury or destruction, while other and equally suitable
forms subsist on food which is inexhaustible in amount.
Some feed on insects which fall into the water, some are
herbivorous, some carnivorous, and many omnivorous.
Many forms of fish cease, or almost cease, feeding during
the breeding season, but this is not invariable. Also
during the cold season of the year the desire for food
appears generally to be little developed.

Some forms survive after very considerable injuries.
Thus in the Weston-super-Mare Museum is the cast of a
sword-fish which had evidently been impaled by one of
its own species, but recovered. A few years since, some
fishermen obtained a sturgeon off Margate, and, having
attached a rope round it a little above the tail fin, they
towed it up the Thames, intending to dispose of it to an
aquarium. On arrival the rope was found to have cut
• down to the backbone, and the fish was refused under the
belief it could not live. The fishermen pleaded for its
being tried in the aquarium, and it entirely recovered.
Many instances might be adduced tending to show that
this class of animals is not very sensitive to pain ; but I
will merely allude to the numerous instances in which fish,
having been hooked and escaped, have in a very short
period again taken a bait. While we are informed of an
angler who, having hooked a small perch, foul, occasioning
its eye to be torn out, threw the fish again into the pond,
but left its eye on his hook as a bait, when, curiously
enough, the injured fish was very shortly again secured in
attempting to seize its own eye.

It seems very probable that fish have some means of
intercommunication, and instances have been adduced when
fresh-water forms have evidently warned their friends against

GREA T BRITAIN. 3 1

certain kinds of baits, but how they did so is difficult to
determine.

Voluntary and involuntary sounds, due to emotions, are
emitted in different manners by many fishes, and in some
rare instances solely at certain seasons. Very dissimilar
organs may originate somewhat similar sounds, while
apparently identical ones may not always be expressive
of the same feeling. Some sounds are perceived on fish
being removed from hooks and thrown into a basket.
These may be temporary, mostly involuntary, and often
convulsive : or their production may be due to unusual
movements of the jaws, opercles, or other bony elements ;
or else induced in thick-lipped forms when compelled to
suddenly open their mouths. There are likewise voluntary
sounds, such as constant ones, always produced by the
same organ, and which are evidently intentional, some-
times even being characteristic of a species ; as a harsh
grating sound as of stridulation, caused by the friction of
the dental organs, or some bones, as the pharyngeals, which
guard the entrance into the gullet. Then there are blowing
sounds, as noticed in the carp tribe and among the siluroids,
which have been attributed to the expulsion of gas from
the air-bladder ; musical sounds caused by the contraction
of muscles, which are contiguous to the air-bladder, so that
the latter acts as a kind of sounding-board ; and purring
sounds as made by the maigre.

Many instances are on record of fishes showing affection
one to another, and pining away when separated, but
recovering on being again brought together. So also they
show unmistakeable proofs of anger, as may be seen in
sticklebacks (G aster ostens), which fight for the possession
of some denied corner of an aquarium, when one being
defeated the conqueror becomes more gorgeous in his hues.

32 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Spiny-rayed fish under the influence of anger or fear at
once erect their spiny rays, or even if unable to escape in
any other way have been known to attack their would-be
captor with their teeth. Fear is very apparent among
some marine forms of fishes. Porpoises and whales have
been observed to drive large schools of herrings and pil-
chards up estuaries, inside coves, or even direct upon the
sea-beach.

Wounds inflicted by fish may be poisonous, or so in-
tensely irritating, that it becomes difficult to decide whether
such is or is not due to the presence of venom. Wounds
may be inflicted and severe, due to the presence of a highly
irritating substance existing on the surface of the spine by
which the injury has been inflicted, or else by a distinct
venom secreted by the fish, and ejected into the wound.
Or a jagged wound may be caused into which irritating
substance has been drawn by a toothed spine. Among
bony fishes it is not unusual for transient poisonous effects
to be produced from the puncture of a smooth-spined fin
ray, perhaps due to the property of the mucus which is
usually present. Some fish evidently secrete a venom, and
discharge it into a wound. This is effected by spinous fin
rays or spines situated on the head. (See weever fish, p. 79.)
i Fishes are dioecious, the sexes being normally found in
different individuals ; in exceptional instances hermaphro-
dites have been detected. Some forms are monogamous,
but the majority are polygamous, while the females are
usually more numerous than the males. In the sharks and
rays a congress occurs between the two sexes, and the
arrangement of the sexual organs is somewhat similar to
what obtains among the higher vertebrata. The ova, which
are few, are fertilised while still contained within the .ovi-
duct, and the development of the young is almost com-

GREAT BRITAIN. 33

pleted before it emerges from its parent. In a few forms
the young are produced alive. In the hags and lampreys
the arrangement is still more simple, the ova when set free
descending into the abdominal cavity, and finding its exit
at the abdominal pore situated behind the vent.

In the teleostean or bony fishes we find considerable
differences in the form of the male organs, but all have one
phenomenon in common, which is a great seasonal aug-
mentation in size in such as are not sterile. This, when
arrived at maturity, is commonly known as " soft roe " or
" milt." Some fishes, although they have not attained any-
thing like adult size, are capable of the reproductive process,
the milt being fully developed in the male parr, while the
female of the same age is usually incapable of propagating
its kind, as less nourishment appears to suffice for the pro-
duction of milt than is necessary to form ova. Without
entering upon the different forms in which these organs
exist, it will suffice to remark that when " vasa deferentia "
are absent in the males, oviducts are similarly wanting in
the females. When the testis is single so is the ovary.
In most osseous fishes the ovaries form two elongated sacs,
closed anteriorly, but posteriorly continued into a short
and wide oviduct, that terminates behind the vent, and
mostly before the urethra. The inside of these sacs is more
or less lined with the " stroma," or a peculiar tissue within
which the ova are developed. In forms in which the ova
are hatched before extrusion, the stroma does not extend
to the hind portion of these sacs, for this locality serves as
a sort of uterus, and is provided, while internal incubation
is going on, with an albuminous secretion.

The various modifications of the generative organs in
these fishes are a testis or ovary, without an excretory

VOL. I. — E. I. D

34 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

canal, or with a simple duct ; a partial oviduct united to
the ureter, but not continuous with the ovary ; or a testis
and ovary having a complex duct distinct from the ureter.
In short, the products of the reproductive organs may be
set free in the peritoneal cavity, becoming discharged ex-
ternally by the abdominal pore or pores ; or the products
may be taken up by the open mouths of the fallopian
tubes, or proper ducts may conduct them to their outlet
The claspers, as seen in the male sharks, rays, and their
allies, are really intromittent organs. In the pipe-fishes
other accessory organs exist, as the sub-caudal skinny
pouch in the males of some forms, or the sub-abdominal
pouch in the male horse fishes.

Among bony fishes breeding occurs in one of the fol-
lowing plans ; (i) the eggs are hatched within the female
organs, as seen in the viviparous blenny ; or (2) as in the
majority of these fishes, having been extruded as hard
roe, they are subsequently fertilised by the milt of the
male, which comes into contact with them when in the
water.

There is much which still remains to be ascertained
respecting the breeding of fishes in the sea. Some forms,
as the herring, deposit eggs which sink to the bottom, and
attach themselves to contiguous substances. Others, like
the mackerel, pilchard, and cod, float ; or others, like some
of the flat fishes, have their specific gravity so nearly
similar to that of the sea, that it requires the agitation of
the waves to prevent them from subsiding. Most of the
sea forms which are of commercial importance migrate at
breeding time towards localities most suitable for the
reception of their eggs, generally seeking banks, or being
found nearer in shore, or in shallower waters, than those
they generally inhabit ; while in the gar-fish (Belone) and

GREA T BRITAIN. 35

its allies filaments pass from all sides of the eggs, and thus
attach them to any passing or stationary object.

But there are other marine forms termed anadromous,
which leave the ocean, migrating into rivers, up which they
ascend, often for long distances, and where they deposit
their eggs, as the shad, salmon, or lampreys. Although
the freshwater forms are not included in this Paper, I may
remark that there are certain families of them in the tropics
in which they are strictly monogamous, building nests, as
a rule, for the reception of their eggs, and guarding their
young until able to shift for themselves.

Our sticklebacks, both marine and fresh-water, construct
nests for the reception of their eggs, the fifteen-spined one
usually selecting a sheltered spot which pure sea-water
reaches. Here it collects some of the softer kinds of green
or red seaweed, which it joins with coralline tufts and
threads, forming a pear-shaped structure, about as stout as
a man's fist. Some tropical siluroids which do not form
nests have a peculiar mode of protecting their eggs, the
male carrying them about in his mouth.

Considering how the eggs of fish are deposited in the
sea, it does not seem wonderful should many escape fecun-
dation, and this would be probably still more common in
such as are deposited in rivers. It is well known that eggs
are a tempting bait for this class of animals, while they
likewise are generally partial to fry, even of their own
kind. In fact, we perceive some forms, as the sticklebacks,
in which the male will guard the nest and protect the eggs
and young, but after they attain to certain size, should
they not depart and shift for themselves, the probabilities
are that they will be devoured by their progenitors. Next
we have forms, such as the salmons, that make a red or
nest in the gravel at the bottom of a river, and subse-

D 2

36 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

quently care no more for the results, consuming either the
eggs or fry should they come in their way. Lastly, we
have forms which deposit their eggs in large numbers, as
the herring, and then appear to take no further account of
them.

The time of year at which spawning is effected varies in
accordance with the locality and family of the fish. This,
again, appears to be further susceptible of modifications, in
accordance with the temperature of the water and many
other local causes, while there are some fishes which breed
once a year, and others are supposed to do so oftener.
There does not appear a month in the year that the
herring is not breeding off some portion of the British
coasts.

The effect of spawning may render a fish, in an economic
point of view, almost valueless, being positively unwhole-
some, while in other forms it does not cause its suitableness
as food to be altered, and this is mostly in such species as
deposit the least number of eggs.

The following figures give the number of eggs which
have been observed in certain of our marine commercial
fishes : — Cod, from 3,000,000 to at least 7,500,000 ; mackerel
(at I lb.), 86,120; at 18 oz., 546,681 ; herring (at 8 oz.),
19,840; at 5 oz., 36,960; turbot (128 oz.), 385,200; brill
(64 oz.), 239,775 ; flounder (24 oz.), i,357,4OO ; sole (14 oz.),
100,362 ; 16 oz., 134,466.

Respecting hybridism among marine fishes, it has not
been so much observed as in fresh-water forms. A hybrid
between a brill and a turbot is not very rare, but what
becomes of these hybrids, as to the continuation of their
kind, absolutely nothing is known.

The eggs of fishes kept in an aquarium appear to give
fewer young, and those more sickly, than when taken from

GREAT BRITAIN. 37

such as are kept in more natural conditions. Some breed-
ing fish, as the conger, seem to be unable to extrude their
eggs when in an aquarium, and, so far as I have observed,
die in the vain attempt to discharge them, possibly owing
to want of some particular form of pressure which they
obtain when in a wild state. That pressure may be neces-
sary, I would advert to M. Carbonnier's observations how
the male of the curiously grotesque telescope-fish, a variety
of the gold carp, acts as accoucheur. Three males pursued
one female, which was heavy with spawn, and rolled her
like a ball upon the ground for the distance of several
metres, and continued this process, without rest and
relaxation, for two days, until the exhausted female, who
had been unable to recover her equilibrium for a moment,
had at last evacuated all her ova.

Respecting the artificial propagation of the eggs of
marine fishes, except in America, but little has been at-
tempted. It was found that a certain amount of motion
was necessary in order to cause the eggs of the shad to
develop, so a box was invented, having a wire gauze
bottom, in which they were placed. These boxes were
secured at an angle to floats, so that a current passing
through kept the eggs in constant motion. The success
was found to be great. Since then the hatching of cod
and other marine fish eggs has been extensively carried
out.

There are certain conditions of the water more or less
suitable for the residence of fish, and among these tem-
perature plays an important part, more especially in the
sea, where it everywhere determines the distribution of
animal life. It may act directly upon the fish through the
water, or else upon the food upon which it subsists. It
may delay or accelerate breeding, or even injure the eggs,

38 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

if deposited, and thus affect the next year's supply. Irre-
spective of the horizontal circulation in the ocean, due to
the action of winds and storms, there is likewise a vertical
one, due to the polar cold. Chiefly from the Antarctic
area there is an underflow of polar water, which passes
towards the equatorial zone ; while a complimentary over-
flow proceeds from the equator towards the pole.

Fish will recover, after having been apparently frozen,
as observed by Sir J. Franklin in his ' Voyage to the Polar
Seas/ when they appeared to be a solid mass of ice, and
lived after having been thawed. The same phenomenon
has been repeatedly observed in this country during the
winter ; but M. Pouchet has demonstrated that no animal
really frozen is susceptible of revivication, as freezing dis-
organizes the blood. Animals may be surrounded by
ice without being frozen, unless the temperature is very
low.

Fish can exist below the ice for lengthened periods, and
Arctic travellers have remarked that if a hole is broken
they congregate to that place ; but this may be due to an
increased amount of light, not for the purpose of breathing,
although when they thus congregate at one spot they
would probably foul the water.

In an experiment made by M. Faure, he did not find
that fish in an aquarium took the slightest notice of the
electric light. It is well known that salmon and other fish
in fresh water are attracted by a light. The effects, how-
ever, of electrical disturbance in the atmosphere are fre-
quently perceived among the finny tribes, but more
commonly in fresh than in salt water.

During the last few centuries, and the first decade of
the present, the theory was almost universally held that
gregarious sea fishes, as the mackerel and herring, had

GREAT BRITAIN. 39

their home in the colder north, from whence, at certain
seasons, they migrated southwards in specified lines. Of
late years it has been generally held that, instead of their
making these long annual migrations, they merely pass
from the shallower into the deeper waters, from whence
they return as spring sets in, and impelled either in their
search for food, or else seeking for a favourable locality in
which to continue their species. It is often evident that
temperature exercises a considerable influence on these
migrations, while local circumstances may occasion certain
forms to intermit visiting coasts which they have been
accustomed to yearly resort to. This is more especially
seen in the herrings and flat fishes, and, as a consequence,
in those predaceous forms which prey upon them. Various
conjectures have been hazarded as reasons for fishes for-
saking certain localities, as the firing of guns in a sea-
battle, burning of kelp on sea-shores, the regular running
of steamboats which were not previously in existence,
fouling of the water from various causes, and other reasons
which will be shortly alluded to further on.

It is well known that strictly fresh- water fish, as rarp,
cannot, as a rule, live in sea-water ; thus in Norfolk it has
been observed that if the salt water pass up the rivers, the
first fish that suffer are the pike, bream, and roach. Perch,
however, will bear a strong admixture of salt, while eels
seem to resist its influence altogether.

Marine fishes have been known to either become tem-
porary or permanent residents of fresh waters. This has
been sometimes due to their having ascended rivers or
entered bays, when, with an ebbing tide, they were unable
to return. In the Baltic, at its northern portion, certain
marine fishes are found, where the water is scarcely saline,
whereas they are absent from southern portions of that

40 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

sea, where their presence would be naturally expected, had
they obtained entrance from the German Ocean. The exist-
ence of these fishes, in a comparatively leaner and smaller
condition in the Baltic than is perceived in their Arctic
relatives, renders it in the highest degree probable that
they are a remnant from the fauna of the Glacial Ocean.
During the later portion of the glacial period most of
Finland and the middle of Sweden were submerged, the
Baltic, which was a gulf of the Glacial Ocean, being closed to
the south. As the Scandinavian continent became elevated,
the Baltic became cut off by land from the Arctic, whereas
it has obtained an opening into the German Ocean, leaving
it containing representatives of its former glacial fauna,
but not the products of immigration through the Sound.
In 1825 Mr. Meynell, of Yarm, in Yorkshire, recorded how
he had succeeded in retaining smelts or sparling in a fresh-
water pond which did not communicate with the sea, and
how they not only bred, but throve there for successive
seasons. Mr. Arnold, of Guernsey, in 1831, observed upon
some experiments which he had personally undertaken in
a three-acre lake, having a muddy, gravelly, or rocky
bottom, and was principally filled with fresh water. Here
for nine months in the year, cattle came to drink, but in
summer the water was too salt, due to a supply from the
sea being received through a tunnel. Bass, grey mullet,
turbot, brill, plaice, soles, and smelt were introduced and
throve, while the mullet, it was remarked, bred as freely as
if they resided in the sea. After having been naturalised
in this lake, the fish were transferred to ponds of spring
water, where they not only lived, but did well.

Salt-water piscinae have likewise been occasionally tried
with success along our coasts. In Kenmare Bay, Mr.
Bland, in an inlet guarded by reefs of rocks in Sneem

GREA T BRITAIN. 41

Harbour, had a strong barrier of stones placed across the
entrance, but through which every tide flowed and ebbed,
leaving a sufficiency of water inside. Here mullet, whiting,
bream, soles, and plaice, succeeded best ; haddock also did
well, but gurnards became pale in colour. Whiting were
so tame as to feed out of the hand, and all assembled at the
feeding time when the tray appeared.

Fish likewise occasionally seek refuge in other animals
either temporarily or permanently. Mr. Peach at Peterhead
observed some very small fishes playing around a medusa
when an enemy came near. At once they rushed beneath
the umbrella o"f one of these Cyaneae and amongst its
tentacles, and there remained in shelter until the danger
had passed. Mr. Hardy mentions seeing a boatman cut a
medusa across with a knife, when a number of small fish
about two inches long were liberated.

Dr. Andrews observed upon the Holothuria, or trepang
of the seas of China, that fish live inside it ; in fact, that he
witnessed instances of living fish entering the trepang. The
same phenomenon has been observed by Professor Emery
at Naples, where a Fierasfer chose for its abode the inside
of a Holothuria, invariably entering tail foremost. It
evidently obtains a subsistence here.

Then we occasionally find in our sea examples of the
sucking-fish (Echeneis), which attaches itself to sharks or
other large animals, in order to profit by the greater powers
of locomotion possessed by their host. However, they
draw no sustenance, but merely partake of such food as
comes within their reach. These fish may be either free or
attached to their host, and are termed commensals.

The importance of our sea fisheries may probably be
ranked in point of value in the following order : — I. Cod
fisheries, including cod, haddock, whiting, ling, coal-fish, and

42 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

their allies ; 2. Herring, which would include the herring,
pilchard, anchovy, and shad, the first of these fisheries being
the most valuable along the coast of Scotland ; 3. Flat
fishes, as turbot, brill, halibut, flounder, sole, plaice, &c. ;
4. Mackerel ; 5. Rays and skates ; 6. Gurnards, sea breams,
dories, &c.

These fisheries not only afford food to a great extent for
the ever-increasing people of these islands, but employ-
ment for the fishermen, and likewise to a large number of
individuals on shore engaged in the various trades with
which fisheries are intimately bound up. Uninfluenced by
droughts, they would, if economically worked, be capable of
affording an almost inexhaustible harvest of food, and it is
remarkable in what different lights fishing has been viewed
in different times.

It is not my purpose to enter upon the laws which were
in existence up to within the last fifteen years, when all
were abolished. Our fish salesmen and our fishermen
assert that some of our sea fish are visibly decreasing, for
although the gross weight of fish brought to our larger
markets is increasing, such is due both to inferior forms
being withdrawn from the local fish markets, and larger
boats, more men and nets, aided by steam power, being
employed in order to supply the markets ; irrespective of
which the fisheries are gradually receding from our coasts,
while the general size of the captured trawl and line fish is
visibly diminishing, and the price augmenting.

Were a weekly return published of the various sorts of
fish, their weight and their cost, the public would soon be
in a position to judge for themselves whether the augmented
price of fish is due to a combination of fish salesmen as
some suppose, or rather to increased cost in capturing the
finny tribes and conveying them to market.

GREA T BRIT A IN. 43

In America the artificial propagation of sea fish is carried
on in order to keep the stock in the ocean sufficient for the
requirements of the people. Here everything is allowed to
drift as it can, the size of the mesh of the nets is decreasing,
and young fish as well as others, useless as food, are being
captured for bait, while, as I shall subsequently show,
our flat fishes are rapidly diminishing, enormous numbers
of the fry being destroyed. The question must be some
day considered whether a close time for sea fishes will not
have to be instituted. By this I do not mean a general
close season, extending to all fishes, but a prohibition
against trawling within three miles of the shore during such
times as the young of the more valuable fishes are about.
The nurseries of the flat fishes, one would suppose, ought
certainly to be protected during certain seasons. Also the
possession of some species below a certain size ought to be
prohibited. No regulations affecting fisheries upwards of
three miles from the shore could be carried out unless
under the sanction of an international agreement.

Before passing on from this subject, it will be as well to
point out why it is that proposals for regulating fisheries
may hardly be expected from fishermen. We may be
considered to have two classes of fisheries, one such as
lobsters and crabs, where a supply from foreign ports keeps
down the price, and, therefore, the fisherman finds it
necessary to have a fair stock in order that he may be able
to send his captures to market at the restricted price.* The

* In February, 1880, a prohibition was issued that no berried lobsters,
crabs under 4.2 inches across the shell, and no soft crabs were to be
taken for three years along certain portions of the Norfolk coast ;
while a close time was to exist from June 25th to July 25th inclusive.
This regulation was issued at the request of the fishermen ; for since
about 1870 crabs and lobsters had been captured, irrespective of their

44 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

second, and by far the largest class, consists of fresh fish,
which cannot be supplied from abroad. Here the price in
the market will depend on the amount received ; if large, it
is low ; if small, it rises ; consequently the loser is the
purchaser, not the fisherman or salesman. Should, how-
ever, an increased quantity be desirable, and which is not
obtainable from the better kinds, quantity is made up by
hake, rays, skates, and other forms, which formerly were
mostly consumed at the localities where they were captured,
by the lower classes.

The various methods in use by the fishermen in order to
obtain our most important commercial sea fisheries, may be
divided into (i) net and (2) line fishing. The main forms
of net-fishing are the drift-net, the seine-net, the bag-net,
the kettle-net or weir, the trammel or set- net, the beam
trawl, and the stow-net. Each of these will require a short
and general description.

The drift-net is mainly employed for the capture of gre-
garious fishes, or such as swim in shoals, as the mackerel,
herring, pilchard, and in some localities sprats, and is
serviceable for securing such when residing some distance
from land, and over deep water where they occasionally
come to the surface. It may be likened to a wall of net,

size and condition, until the fishery had become almost ruined. The
captures during the years from 1879 to 1882 were as follows : —

In 1879 there were sent to the rail 668 pads.
„ 1880 „ „ „ 656 „

„ 1 88 1 „ „ „ 2066 „

» 1882 „ „ „ 3463 „

It is now petitioned that these restrictive measures be continued. The
figures speak for themselves, both as demonstrating the effects of
unrestricted license in fishing as well as the results of wholesome
restrictions.

GREA T BRITAIN. 45

suspended by floats, so that its upper edge can be kept at or
a little below the surface, and allowed to drift with the tide
in any direction, and over any depth of water. It hangs
down like a barrier directly in the course a shoal of fish is
pursuing. The size of the mesh is in accordance with that
of the species of fish it is desired to capture, being
sufficiently large to permit it to push its head through but
not its body, and it thus becomes meshed behind the gill-
covers, which it opens to breathe. The drift-net is, as a
rule, shot or payed out at night, and is generally more
successful in dark weather, although it has frequently been
observed that a rise of the moon, the time just following
sunset, or at the commencement of dawn, are the periods
when shoals are frequently observed to be on the move and
strike the net. These nets are manufactured of cotton or
hemp (twine), the former generally being preferred, as it is
the most giving material and finest texture, consequently
less likely to scare the fish. Twine-nets are stiffer, heavier,
and occupy more space, but last the longer.

These nets are worked on a single line many hundred
yards in length, those for mackerel even up to two and a
half miles, and when thus employed are termed a fleet,
drift or train of nets. The upper edge of the net is termed
the " back," the ends the " heads," and the lower edge the
" foot " or " sole." A rope runs along the back and heads,
but generally not along the foot, as it is then less likely to
be entangled in anything at the bottom. The net is set
slack on the back rope in order to allow of a little play or
giving when struck by the fish. Short lines are fastened
every few inches, by which the back of the net is connected
to a double rope, on which the corks or floats are placed
for the purpose of keeping this edge or back of the net
uppermost. From this again are ropes fastened to kegs or

46 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

buoys which support it at any desired depth, or the cork
line may have sufficient floats on it to keep the upper edge
of the net at the surface of the water. The fleet of nets is
connected to the fishing vessel by a warp of strong rope, to
which each piece of net composing the fleet is fastened, and
thus by seizings of sufficient length to allow the warp to
sink nearly, if not quite, as low as the foot of the net. The
warp not only assists when hauling in the net by lessening
the strain, but should any accident have occurred it often
serves to secure the various pieces of the net. The fishing
boat to which the warp is attached has to maintain suffi-
cient strain on the nets to keep them taut or extended,
for which reason they are shot in the direction the wind is
blowing. Every vessel while its fleet of drift-nets is in the
sea ought by law to have two lights hoisted one above
another at not less than three feet asunder.

The seine-nets employed in our fisheries are of three
principal descriptions, the common or stop-seine, also termed
a trawl in Scotland, the tuck-seine and the ground-seine.
All are used for the purpose of encircling or surrounding
fishes, and the middle or deepest portion is termed the
bunt, and the lateral portion the sides or wings. Its
upper edge or back is furnished with corks or floats, while
• its foot or lower edge is leaded. If worked entirely from
boats it is shot in a complete circle ; if from the shore in a
semicircle. More than one net may be employed, as seen
in the fishery for pilchards off St. Ives in Cornwall, when to
the end of the large seine-net a smaller or stop-net may be
attached. The boats commence shooting their nets from
the point of junction, the larger seine being taken some-
what parallel to the shore, and the stop-net being carried
towards the shore. The seine having been taken round the
shoal, completes the circle by joining the stop-seine. By

GREA T BRITAIN. 47

degrees the size of the circle is diminished by hauling in the
stop-seine until the whole of the fish are enclosed solely in
the large seine-net. This, with its contents, is hauled
nearer the shore until it touches the ground, when it is
moored in a suitable place, and the contained fish removed
as may be desired by the fishermen.

The tuck-seine is a much shorter net, but very deep in
the middle or bunt ; this is shot inside the circle of the
large seine which contains the fish, and as it is hauled in
the foot of the bunt is raised so as to get the net underneath
the fish and raise them to the surface. They are now
removed by means of large baskets.

The ground- or foot-seine is a very widely employed form
of net, and used for taking a variety of forms of fishes. The
middle or bunt of the net usually has smaller meshes than
the wings. A back and a foot rope are attached to a pole
at either end, and to each pole is fixed the drag-rope for
the purpose of hauling. One end of the drag-rope is left
on shore, the net is then shot in a semicircle, and then
returns to the beach with the other rope. Hauling is
carried on from both ropes, and by degrees the parties
approach, and meet before the bunt comes on shore, which
is then drawn up with the enclosed fish.

The bag-net, also known as the kettle-net, is a species of
fishing weir that is employed along the south coast from
Folkestone to Beachy Head. By an arrangement of stakes,
nets, and a pound, it turns the fish into a particular direc-
tion from whence there is no escape. It is constructed in
two parts ; the external or circular pound, which is not
quite completed on the land side, from which it is distant
from two hundred to six hundred yards, consists of stakes
from ten to twelve feet high, enclosing as much as two
hundred yards, and with the outer edge of the circle just

48 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

below low-water mark at neap tides, the interstices between
the stakes are filled in with old nets. A similar line of
stakes and nets, from two hundred to six hundred yards
in length, passes from inside the mouth or entrance of
the pound in a direct line towards the shore. At high
water the whole is covered by the sea, and any fish, as
mackerel, passing along the shore, are stopped by the
long barrier, following which they are diverted in their
course into the pound. As the tide ebbs the fish are
readily removed.

The trammel- or set-net, also termed tumbling-net in
Cornwall, likewise includes such nets as are fixed or
stationary when at work, and wherein fish are entangled in
the meshes. There are two descriptions of these nets in
use, which differ considerably one from the other. The
simple set-net, employed in Ireland and many portions of
the sea coast of the United Kingdom, is similar to a short
drift-net, which is shot in the direction of the tide, and
anchored and buoyed at each end at the desired spot, while
a few corks are fixed along the back rope, and the foot rope
is weighted. The mesh of the net is in accordance with
the species of fish it is desirous of taking, while it is set very
slack so as to enable the fish to be easily meshed. The
proper trammel-net is composed of three distinct pieces or
walls placed parallel one to the other, and fastened together
along the back rope above, the foot rope below, and the
head ropes at either end. The mesh in the two outer of
these nets are large, and correspond in size and position,
but the middle net has a much smaller mesh, and hangs
very loosely. The whole of these three walls are now set
or fixed by anchors in the direction of the tide, the back of
the net having corks attached to it, and a buoy at each
end, while the foot rope is weighted. A fish trying to push

GREA T BRITAIN. 49

its way through this net carries a portion of the slack, small-
meshed middle wall with it through the large mesh of the
outer net or wall on the opposite side, and thus becomes
trammelled.

The trawl, or beam-trawl, is that mode of fishing which
is most important in supplying varied kinds of fish to our
markets, and which, as at present carried on, is most injuri-
ous to our fisheries. The trawl fishermen, being permitted
at all times and seasons to capture whatever they please,
destroy and throw overboard large quantities of the young
of some of the best of our sea fishes, and are occasioning a
rapid diminution of our flat fishes. Some authors have
pointed out that, as the eggs of the majority of marine fishes
float,* they could not be deleteriously affected by trawling.
But they overlook the fact that fishermen have two mean-
ings for spawn, either the eggs of fish or the small fry, and
it is these last that trawlers and shrimpers, and the numer-
ous other forms of small meshed nets employed along the
coast are accused of destroying in enormous numbers, a fact
any unprejudiced person may readily satisfy himself upon.
It may be difficult to obtain impartial evidence from fisher-
men on this score, the drifters and line fishermen being so
strongly at variance with the trawlers, by whom they con-

* Mr. Holdsworth observes that the eggs of the cod and haddock
float, and continues, " if such be the case with these two species of the
same genus, there is hardly room to doubt that the very closely allied
species, such as the whiting, coalfish, pollack, hake and tush, have
precisely the same habit of spawning at the surface." Although such
guess-work may prove correct, I would point out, that proper investiga-
tions ought to be made, as the eggs of the herring sink, while those of
the closely allied pilchard float. And some forms in which eggs float,
as the Belone, or gar-fish, have tendrils given off from the ova which
attach them to any contiguous object, whether such object floats or
whether it sinks.

VOL. I.— E. I. E

50 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

sider they are deleteriously affected. This consideration
ought to render it imperative that inspectors of sea
fisheries should not only annually visit every large fishing
station, but likewise observe the fisheries where they are
being carried on. Unfortunately, owing to the report of the
Royal Commissioners for Sea Fisheries (1865), wherein it
was suggested that all regulations should be abolished, and
every one permitted to fish in the sea in any manner he
pleased, it has not been deemed necessary to have any
inspector of sea fisheries. Any investigations are carried
on by the inspectors of salmon fisheries, and it is nobody's
business to watch the state of the sea fisheries, collect
statistics respecting the fish trade, or ascertain the habits
of the fishes.

A trawl or beam-trawl is a net constructed for capturing
such species of fish as are usually found at the bottom of
the sea, and more or less conceal themselves in the mud
within the limits of the littoral zone, and rarely. as deep as
fifty fathoms, such as flat fishes, rays, skates, as well as
other forms, as haddock in the North Sea, which occa-
sionally resort there. The trawl is a somewhat triangular
bag-shaped net, the mouth of which is at its base, and is
kept open by a beam of wood which is horizontally attached
to its upper edge, this beam being supported at a short
distance, about three feet, off the ground at each end of its
outer extremity by an irregularly stirrup-shaped iron head,
termed a trawl-head. Superiorly a socket in the trawl-
head receives the end of the trawl-beam, while the lower
edge of the trawl-head is flat, straight, and termed the
" shoe," and this is on the ground while the trawl is
working. The net when at work has been well likened to
an old-fashioned bed watch-pocket laid on its face, when
its upper portion would be its back, the front edge of

GREA T BRITAIN. 5 1

which, being attached to the beam, is raised by means of
the trawl-head about three feet off the ground. The lower
edge of the bag forms a very deep curve, continuous from
the foot or shoe of the trawl-head on one side to that of
the other, and this is protected by a foot rope made of old
but rather heavy material, but which is intended to give
way if caught in any obstruction, but by its weight disturbs
any fish, which, darting forward, are almost sure to become
captured in the net. The various portions of the net have
received distinctive names. The bag or bosom gradually
decreases in width from a little distance beyond its base or
mouth to about eight or ten feet before it reaches its hind
end, this last portion, termed the cod, being of about
the same diameter throughout, and which is secured at its
outer end by a cord. As this portion of the net, which
generally contains the captures, is subject to considerable
friction, its under surface is protected by what are termed
rubbing-pieces, consisting of pieces of leather or else por-
tions of old netting. The body of the net as it commences
to decrease in size is subdivided into three portions, the
purse on either side, and the bosom in the middle. The
purse, which has smaller meshes than the body of the net,
is constructed by fastening together the upper and lower
parts of the body of the trawl-net, from where it com-
mences to taper to so far as the cod, and dividing it into
three portions or breadths, which posteriorly become of
nearly equal widths. Prior to where the tapering of the
trawl commences, a flap or valve passes across to prevent
any fish re-ascending and thus escaping. The strong trawl-
warp is attached in front to the vessel, and posteriorly to
the bridle or span-ropes, one of which passes to the trawl-
head on either side.

A trawler, in case of accidents, generally has two sets of

E 2

52 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

gear on board, and although the net is said to last from
two to four months, considerable repairs are needed, while
the cod and under side have to be renewed two or three
times. In such trawlers as continue out at sea for several
days, ice is usually taken on board in order to preserve the
captures. Trawling is more or less carried on throughout
the year, but mostly during the winter months, as a suffi-
ciency of wind is necessary. A tide of moderate strength
is preferred. The net is towed in the direction of the tide,
but a little faster. When shooting the net, the vessel must
be moving through the water, and care be taken that in its
descent the proper side is uppermost, while the trawling
should be carried on where the surface of the ground is
smooth. The gear is usually down a tide, or from five to
six hours, owing to which and the pressure which bears
upon the fish which are in its toils, very few of the smaller
ones are alive when brought to the surface ; or if they are,
they are so injured that returning them to the sea is useless,
unless as food for other fishes. Trawlers are likewise very
destructive to the line fishermen, sweeping away their lines,
also passing through the drift-net fishermen's fleets, while
in shallow water they occasion considerable injury should
they work over the beds of the shell fish. One can well
understand the desire of the non-trawling fishermen, as
expressed to Mr. Buckland, tthat they ought not to work
nearer the shore than ten miles in the summer and fifteen
in the winter.

The stow-net or bag-net is an enormous funnel-shaped
net, as much as sixty yards in length, and having small
meshes. Its mouth is square, while it gradually decreases
in size as far as its end. It is used at the mouth of the
Thames, also in the Solent and the Wash, for the purpose
of catching sprats, while occasionally a shoal of young

GREAT BRITAIN. 53

herrings enters its capacious maw. The vessel is anchored
in a tideway, while from the same anchor four ropes pass,
one to each corner of the mouth of the net. A wooden
balk or beam is fixed across the upper edge of the mouth
of the net, and another across its lower edge, while the
bridles from the anchor are attached one to each end of
these balks. Superiorly from the vessel two ropes pass
down, one to each end of the upper balk, so that it may be
raised from the vessel to the desired height, while the lower
balk is weighted in order to cause it to sink, and thus keep
the mouth open. This net is put overboard as the tide
makes, and continues overboard in the tideway until nearly
slack water. When it is desired to raise it, the mouth of
the net is first closed by means of a chain, which passes
from the centre of the lower balk through a ring in the
centre of the upper balk, and is continued on to the vessel.
These stow-nets are of various forms and patterns, while
small ones are employed for the purpose of capturing
whitebait.

Line fishing for taking commercial sea fish is divisible
into two kinds, hand lining and long lining, the first being
employed by an individual who holds the line in his hand,
whereas the second is left in the sea a longer or shorter
period before it is examined. I shall allude to these forms
of fishing when remarking upon the cod-fish. Here I will
only express my regret that the disastrous repeal of the
fishery laws has led to partial ruin in many places, the total
ruin in others, of our mussel beds, so much required as bait
for fishing.*

* Oysters being now almost exhausted, mussels are employed to
take their place. The upholders of the repeal of the fishery laws must
see how the destruction of the mussel beds is destroying the fisher-
men's bait, but they perversely reply, " Then use something else, as

54 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

It may not be amiss in this place to observe what great
benefit would accrue to the fishermen who seek the
mackerel, herring, or cod fishes, were a weekly notice
circulated at our various fishery ports as to where shoals of
fish are to be found ; not only so, but the localities should
be given by distances from known headlands and bearings
by the compass. Thus in 1881, fishing-boats left the south-
west coast for Ireland, anticipating falling in with the
herrings, but on their arrival found the season to be an
almost entire failure. They then migrated, and with success,
to the north-east coast of England and Scotland.

The diseases, or causes of destruction, of sea fishes have
not been much investigated, but it is reasonable to suppose
that if impure and poisonous states of the water will prove
injurious to fresh-water forms, it will prove no less injurious
to marine species. Fish may forsake certain localities due
to the presence of unwholesome substances. Thus at
Mevagissey, in Cornwall, eels used to be frequently taken
in the harbour, but now that the number of vessels there
has augmented and trade increased — especially boat-
building— a considerable quantity of tar is in the water, and
they have not been observed for several years. If in any
locality there is a steady decrease of certain tribes of fishes,
while those which are being taken are deteriorating in size
and condition, either the fishery is being over-worked, the
water is less wholesome to the fish, or its food is absent.
The polluted state of the waters at the mouths of most of
our large rivers or many of our estuaries at once demonstrates
the reason why they are forsaken by the finny tribes. It

small or soft crabs, or young herrings." Pride appears to prevent
them proposing to retrace their disastrous steps. When will they
think more of the good of the fisheries and fishermen of which we
hear so much, but towards which we see so little attempted ?

GREA T BRIT A IN. 5 5

seems likewise very probable that the screws or paddles of
steamers may prove destructive to a considerable amount
of the eggs and fry of surface fishes. As to the predaceous
fishes and other animals which are detrimental to fisheries,
they will be alluded to when describing the different
species.

Fish are likewise much affected by parasites ; some of
these are external and attack the surface, as fish lice ; they
can move from place to place and select some suitable spot
where they fix themselves by means of their hooked and
prehensile antennae. Others are more sedentary, frequently
having their heads deeply buried in the body or tissues of
its victim. Having no powers of locomotion, the whole of
their external organs are often merely rudimentary. They
are seen in the eyes, gills, roof of the mouth, nostrils, vent,
skin, and on the fins. Some forms, again, are internal and
attack any of the internal organs of the host which they
afflict with their presence.

Fish may be employed as food either fresh or cured ;
while the latter embraces such as are dried either in part
or wholly, or pounded, and then dried in the sun, shade, or
by artificial means ; or smoked partially or wholly, salting
or drying being used or abstained from ; or salted either
dry or in pickle in various ways, while sugar may be em-
ployed in the place of salt ; or preserved by the exclusion
of air or with the assistance of acids ; or by keeping the
fish by means of natural or artificial cold at a temperature
below that at which fermentation or decay sets in.

The geographical distribution of our fishes has been more
or less examined by various naturalists whose views have
not invariably been in accord one with- another. Certain
terms have been instituted partly to convey to the worker
an insight into the habits and distribution of this class of

56 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

animals. Fresh-water forms have been divided into the
river or fluviatile, and the lake or lacustrine classes. Cata-
dromous has been proposed for such species as eels, which
appear to pass a large portion of their lives in fresh waters,
but descend to the sea or littoral zone for the purpose of
breeding. Sea fishes have been subdivided into the pelagic,
or strictly marine forms ; the littoral, or coast species, and
the anadromous, which leave the sea for rivers, up which
they ascend in order to deposit their eggs in fresh waters,
where the young of some, as the salmon, are reared ; but
not so of others, as the shad.

Pelagic fish, or the strictly marine forms, may be classed as
those which are commonly found at the surface ; mid-water
or median ; and such as reside in the depths of the ocean,
or the abyssal. The littoral zone is that portion of the sea
which extends from the shore to about 100 or 150 fathoms,
a depth at which the direct rays of the sun are limited — a
region of light. Through this space almost any of the
littoral forms of fish may wander, and into this zone pelagic
forms may range in order to prey upon their neighbours,
deposit their ova, or having been driven in due to sickness.
In the littoral zone there are constant migrations, and fishes
from deeper localities press in after their prey. Professor
Agassiz considers, and with considerable grounds, that a
continental zone may be traced in the ocean, extending from
the littoral belt to 450 or 500 fathoms, which in some
localities is represented by a deep slope and where the
diminution of temperature is very rapid. The abyssal,
which I here consider commences at about 100 to 150
fathoms (thus excluding the continental zone), extends from
the littoral zone to the sea bottom to the greatest depths.
Here the temperature is low, darkness more or less com-
plete, while the forms of animal life appear to have remained

GREA T BRIT A IN. 5 7

undisturbed, geologically considered, for a long period.
Almost everywhere at 500 fathoms, everywhere at 1000
fathoms, there is almost an entire absence of currents in
the water ; any movement must be of a molecular nature
only, excessively slow and quite imperceptible to animals ;
while the conditions of life, at least from 500 fathoms
downwards, do not show any zones of distribution in its
fauna. Deep sea, or abyssal forms as already remarked,
have large eyes, or may be entirely blind.

Irrespective of the fish which more or less continue in
our seas throughout the year, wanderers or occasional
visitors are likewise captured ; some of these are cosmo-
politan in their habits, others are residents in the colder
north, from whence they may have wandered at first perhaps
in the under-flow from the Arctic Ocean ; or we may have
species along our south or east coast mostly during the
summer months from the Mediterranean, or ascending
along our western shores with the Gulf Stream from the
more sunny south. The distribution of the various genera

and species will be detailed further on.

i

BRITISH FISHES.

SUB-CLASS I.— BONY FISHES OR TELEOSTEI.
ORDER I. — SPINY-RAYED FISHES OR ACANTHOPTERYGII.

FAMILY I. — PERCHES (Percidce}.
GENUS I. — Sea Perches (Labrax, Cuvier).

Geographical distribution. — This marine, and in some
localities river, form of perch extends from the Arctic
regions in Europe to the Mediterranean and Egypt ; also
along the coasts of North America ; while one species has
been taken at the Celebes.

58 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

m

I. The Bass (Labrax lupus).

Names. — This was the "sea wolf" of the Greeks, the
"wolf" of the Romans. Sea dace, Kent. White Salmon.
King of the Mullets. Gapemouth in Scotland.

B. vii., D. 8-9 | ^ V. i, A. ^, L.I. 72, L. tr. i£, Caec.
pyl. v., Vertebrae, -ff .

Length of head, 3^- to 4 ; height of body, 4j to 4f in the
total length. Eye. — Diameter 4-i- to 5 (or even propor-
tionately larger in small examples) in the length of the
head, i^ to i-J- diameters from the end of the snout, and
\\ apart. Hind edge of the preopercle strongly toothed,
with three strong ones forwardly-directed along its lower
limb. Jaws of the same length in front : the maxilla
reaches to below the middle or first third of the eye.
Teeth. — Villiform in the jaws : in a crescentic spot on the
vomer, in a band on the palatines ; also on the base of the
tongue. Fins. — Third anal spine slightly longer than the
second, caudal forked. Colours. — Grey along the back,
becoming lighter on the sides and beneath. A darkish
blotch on the upper two-thirds of the gill-covers. Back,
tail, and anal fins externally stained with grey ; ventral
and breast fin yellowish-white. Habits. — A strong, active
fish, generally living in shoals, and, though a marine form,
ascending rivers above tidal influence. It mostly arrives
from the deep sea about May, returning there in October
or November, while large ones are not generally seen
throughout the winter months. It consumes almost every
form of animal substance, preferring such when living,
preying principally upon small fishes and Crustacea, and
has likewise been recorded as consuming sea-weeds.
Partial to sea lice, Onisci, it has been observed, in order to
obtain them, to venture among rocks during tempests,

GREA T BRITAIN. 59

when its prey becomes washed out of its abode ; and it is
during such stormy weather that it hunts along the shore,
even in shallow water, although at other times it selects its
station under some sheltering rock, from which it darts out
on passing prey. It is very fond of young sprats and
herrings, while it prefers the vicinity of wooden piers to
those constructed of stone, evidently owing to the greater
abundance of food at the former to what obtains in the
latter locality. The fry of sand-launces, Ammodytes, father-
lashers, Cottus bubalis, young whiting, and mullet have
been found in their stomachs.

They have been kept with success in fresh-water vivaria
by Mr. Arnold in Guernsey, Mr. McAllum in a lake near
Plymouth, and by other persons elsewhere. Dr. McCulloch
asserted that their flavour was much improved by the
change from salt to fresh water.

Means of capture. — Beam-trawl, small seine-nets, also by
deep sea lines and hand lining. In Cornwall the fishermen
state that they are unable to take them in seine-nets
unless such can be dragged on to a sandy beach, for other-
wise, so soon as the foot-rope is raised, so surely do they
swim away below it. They have even been credited with
forming a depression in the sand by means of their tails,
and here they are said to ensconce themselves while the
net passes over them. Anglers use a long and strong rod,
with suitable lines, and try their luck from pier-heads or
projecting rocks, or else from a boat, which is slowly and
quietly propelled along. The flood tide is usually more
likely to prove successful than the ebb, while the water
should not be too clear. This fish takes a bait very freely
at times ; occasionally nothing will tempt it ; while, if
hooked, it shows great ingenuity in escaping, often succeed-
ing in severing the line. For baits the lug-worm, trolling

60 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

with a live sand-eel, or an artificial indiarubber bait, are
found very killing ; also a soft crab, slice from a mackerel's
tail, or slip of a cuttle-fish.

Breeding. — During the autumn months, near the mouths
of large rivers, or along sandy beaches.

As food. — Its flesh is considered excellent if eaten on
the same day that the fish is captured, but it rapidly
deteriorates, and then possesses a strong and oily taste.

Habitat. — It is most common in Britain during the
summer months, and more especially along the south
coast, decreasing in numbers towards the north, but is
present off the Isle of Man. In Scotland it is rare to the
north of the Firth of Forth, and has not been recorded
from the Orkneys and Shetland Isles. In Ireland it is
known, but not abundant, along the south coast, but
decreases towards the north.

Yarrell records one of 28 Ib. weight ; Buckland one of
22 Ib., from Herne Bay ; and Pennant one of 1 5 Ib.

FAMILY II. — RED MULLETS (Mullidcf).

Geographical distribution. — From Scandinavia through
the seas of temperate Europe, as far south in the Atlantic
as Madeira and the Canary Isles ; also found in the Medi-
terranean, Adriatic, and Black Seas.

This fish was termed Trigle by the ancient Greeks under
the supposition of its breeding three times every year, or
else, according to Athenseus, that it only bred three times
throughout its entire existence, due to its internal organs
becoming destroyed by parasitic worms. The Romans are
said to have changed its name to Mullus, it has been
conjectured owing to its colour, which resembled that of
the sandals worn by the Alban kings, and subsequently by

GREA T BRIT A IN. 6 1

the Roman Consuls, and which were afterwards adopted
by their Emperors under the designation of Mullens.

Mullets in the time of the Caesars seem almost to have
divided with them the allegiance of the Roman people,
all of whom were desirous that it should adorn their tables
and give eclat to their entertainments, perhaps because this
fish realised high prices in Rome, where the purchaser who
paid the most extortionate sum obtained notoriety. As
much as £240 was realised for a red mullet of unusual
size procured upon the day of a grand feast. But as time
went on the abnormal value decreased, until in the fourth
century we are told by Macrobius that it was not excessive.
When, however, this fish was at the summit of its glory,
Rome was no longer able to supply sufficient, consequently
it was imported from Corsica, Sicily, and elsewhere. Salt-
water vivaria were constructed at an enormous expense,
but Columnella observed that hardly one red mullet out of
a thousand survived its transfer to such localities, which he
ascribed to their nobility spurning confinement. Seneca
tells us that at their feasts those were most valued which
expired in the presence of the guests. Introduced in glass
globes, the red mullet was drowned in piquant sauces, or
slowly boiled on the banqueting table before the company,
who were thus enabled to view the varied and beautiful
changing hues of the dying fish.

i. Red Mullet, or Surmullet (Mttllus barbatus and
M. surmuletus).

Names. — Known as the red mullet, surmullet, plain red
mullet, striped red mullet.

B. iv., D. 7-8 | i, V. ± A. £, L. 1. 38-40, L. tr. ^», C^c.
pyl. 1 8 -22, Vert. -f£.

Length of head 4 to 4.1 height of body 34 to 41 in the

62 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

total length. Eye. — High up, i£ to 2 diameters from the
end of the snout ; i£ diameters in the postorbital portion of
the head, and I to li diameters apart. Profile of forehead
more or less steep, in some examples descending almost
vertically. Preorbital much higher than broad, sometimes
nearly twice as much. The posterior extremity of the
maxilla reaches to beneath the anterior edge of the eye.
Barbels. — Reach to below the hind margin of the preopercle.
Teeth. — In two rows of obtuse ones in the lower jaw, but
none in the upper ; rounded ones on the vomer and palatine
bones. Fins. — Spines of the first dorsal having weak
extremities, the second to the fourth about the same
height, and equal to two-thirds of the length of the head ;
subsequently they decrease in length. Second anal spine
much longer than the first. Scales. — The majority of
examples have 2\ rows between the lateral-line and the
back, but some have 3^-. Colours. — Vary considerably : in
the red mullet, Mullus barbattts, the colours being plain red ;
but in the surmullet, M. surmuletus, there are longitudinal
stripes along the body, which may be concealed, while the
rich satin-red colour becomes vivid after the removal of the
scales. Professor Steindachner examined no less than
seventy-five examples, and found so many variations in the
form of the profiles of their snouts, that he came to the
conclusion that they were both merely varieties of one
species. Whether two species exist or not, it is very
evident that all the British examples are within the limits
of variation in one species.

Habits. — In normal seasons these fish are found along
the southern coast, in Cornwall at about twenty miles out
to sea in March, and from nine to ten in May, when they
come in with the mackerel, but are said to be of a roving
disposition. They are evidently off our coast all the year

GREA T BRIT A IN. 63

round, being taken during the winter in the English
Channel ; and in one winter a Plymouth trawler took so
many that they realised £20. Opinions vary as to the
food they eat. The ancients considered them very foul
feeders, even supposing that they devoured corpses. They
live on small Crustacea and molluscs, and in an aquarium
appear partial to pieces of mussel. It is interesting to
observe how they employ their barbels as feelers along the
bottom while in search of food.

Means of capture. — Ground-seines, trammels, beam-
trawls, and mullet-nets. It has been remarked at Penzance
that on their first appearance they are mostly taken in
beam-trawls ; at the succeeding spring-tides they augment
in numbers, and are captured in ground-seines, sometimes
as many as 50 or 60 in a night. The reason they are
occasionally taken in drift-nets has been assumed to be
that, when changing their locality, they swim near the
surface, even should the water be very deep. Occasionally
they take a bait. On being captured, or as soon as landed,
if intended for the London market, the scales are generally
stripped off by the thumb-nail, which occasions a contrac-
tion of the pigment cells, for were this not done, the
brilliant red colour observed in those exposed for sale at
fishmongers' would be less apparent, and the fish of dimi-
nished value for the table. Irrespective of this, were the
scales not removed, and the fish to dry while in transit to
the market, they (the scales) would become very adherent,
and it would be difficult to remove them without tearing
the skin. In some localities, as Penzance, were the scales
removed the fish would be unsaleable. Those taken in
a trammel are of more value than such as are captured
with the beam-trawl, because, being less bruised, they keep
longer.

64 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Breeding. — From July until September, during which
period they become very fat.

As food. — This fish is held in great esteem, the finest
examples coming from the English Channel. Its flesh is
of good flavour — white, firm, flaky, destitute of any super-
abundance of fat, and easy of digestion. Its liver is
deemed its most savoury morsel, to which its head was
in olden times ranked next in delicacy.

Habitat. — Most numerous along the south and west coasts,
rapidly decreasing in numbers towards the north ; still in
some seasons it is abundant off Norfolk, and during 'one
week in May, 1831, 10,000 were sent to London. It has
been taken in the Isle of Man. It has been .recorded
from the Moray Firth and east coast of Scotland as far as
Berwickshire ; also in Ireland, more especially along its
south coast.

Its usual size runs up to I Ib. to 2 lb., and about 14
inches in length, but it has been taken at Penzance up
to i6f inches long, and 2 lb. 6^- oz. weight. Yarrell records
one of 3 lb. 6 oz. from Weymouth.

FAMILY III. — SEA-BREAMS (Sparid&\
Geographical distribution. — Seas of temperate and tropical
regions ; some forms enter fresh waters.

I. Old Wife (Cantharus lineatus).

Names. — Black sea-bream.

B. vi., D. H, V. i, A. T\, L. 1. 72, L. tr. -ft, Caec. pyl. 4,
Vert. -f£.

Length of head 4^ to 4-^ ; height of body 2.\ to 3 in
the total length. Eye. — 3 to 3^- diameters in the length
of the head, f to I diameter from the end of the snout,
and i apart. The maxilla reaches to beneath the front

GREA T BRITAIN. 65

edge of the eye. Posterior edge of preopercle finely
roughened. Teeth. — Cardiform in both jaws, with the
outer row somewhat the largest, and slightly compressed ;
none on the vomer, palatines, or tongues. Fins. — Dorsal
spines of moderate strength, increasing in length to the
fourth or fifth. Anal spines shorter than the rays. Air-
bladder. — Ending posteriorly in two horns, which are sepa-
rated one from the other by the interhsemal spines.
Colours. — Gray, glossed with gold, becoming lighter on the
sides and beneath ; cheeks and forehead glossed with
purple. Below the lateral line are three or four parallel,
or occasionally irregular, horizontal bands along the body,
which have a golden tint. Dorsal, dark coloured ; the other
fins, with dark edges. The colours are subject to great
variation.

Habits. — A gregarious fish, which prefers rocky localities,
feeding upon the finer kinds of seaweeds. It frequents bays
and harbours, and is frequently taken by anglers fishing
from the shore. It is more abundant about July and
August, after which period it retires to deeper water. An
example has been captured as late as Christmas after a
cold season, and a second in February, having the roe well
developed. In aquaria it is found to be fond of shrimps.

Means of capture. — Generally during summer and early
autumn by angling, the baits being lobworms or bits of
mussels ; also by nets.

As food. — It is little esteemed, its flesh be,ing soft ; those
taken late in the season are said to have the flesh pretty
firm, should they be captured on the French side of the
Channel.

Habitat. — Rare in Northern Europe, becoming more
common along the west and south coast of England, and in
the Atlantic, so far as Madeira and the Canary Isles. It

VOL. I. — E. I. F

66 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

abounds throughout the Mediterranean. It is rare in
Ireland.

It has been taken up to 20 inches in length.

II.— SEA-BREAMS (Genus, Pagellus).

Geographical distribution. — From the seas of Scandinavia
along the shores of Britain, to the Canaries and Cape of
Good Hope ; also throughout the Mediterranean and Black
Sea.

These fishes are commonly known as " sea-breams." Off
Cornwall they have been observed to come in shoals at
night-time to feed upon the pilchards entangled in the fisher-
men's nets, and which they are accused of rapidly clearing :
this appears to be more especially the case during moon-
light nights, at other times they seem to be ground-feeders.
In Cornwall when two-thirds grown they are known as
grobman, if younger as chads.

i. Common Sea-bream (Pagellus centrodontus).

Names. — Sharp-toothed sea-bream ; red gilt-head; chad
along the south-west coast if young ; Boger, Cornwall, if
half-grown, and grobman if two-thirds. In Ireland as mur-
ranroe and barwin (co. of Antrim) ; gunner on the north-
west coast ; carf, carp, and sea-bream on the north-east,
and 'brazier on the north.

B. vi., D. if,^V. 1, A. &, L. 1. 75, L. tr. -ft, Caec. pyl. 4,
Vert. -J4.

Length of head, 3-f- to 4 ; height of body, 3^- to 34. in
the total, length. Eye. — 34. to 31 diameters in the length
of the head, I diameter from the end of the snout, and also
apart. Preorbital widest anteriorly, its greatest depth
being scarcely equal to half its length. The maxilla

GREA T BRITAIN. 67

reaches to beneath the front edge or even first third of the
eye. Teeth. — Three or four irregularly placed rows, with
rounded crowns and of different sizes, are present laterally
and posteriorly in either jaw ; none on the vomer, palatine
bones, or tongue. Fins. — Dorsal spines strong, the fourth
and fifth the largest ; rays shorter than the spines, the last
two somewhat thickened, but not scaled nor adherent to-
gether. Pectoral as long as the head, third anal spine some-
what longer than the second. Scales. — Seven rows between
the eye and the angle of the preopercle. Colours. — Scarlet
tinged with orange, becoming lighter beneath. A large
black spot on the shoulder, intersected by the lateral-line,
but absent in the young.

Habits. — Appears to be very sensitive to cold, and in
the winter retires to the deep sea, not re-appearing until
the weather is warm. It frequents the vicinity of rocks and
seaweeds, and sometimes congregates in enormous numbers,
especially near the end of the summer, when schools of
them have been mistaken for pilchards. Couch records
how, on one occasion, 20,000, and on another 60,000, were
taken at one time. Those of the same size appear to keep
together. They feed upon small fish, Crustacea, and sea-
weed. In 1874 a vessel laden with wheat was wrecked in
Cornwall, and soon afterwards sea-breams were taken which
were found to have been feeding upon the wheat ; they were
in good condition.

Means of capture. — Either by nets or using a bait as the
lugworm, shell fish, herring fry, or a slice from a mackerel.

Breeding. — Towards the end of the year or in the winter
months.

As food. — Not much esteemed, as they soon become
stale and tainted, but large numbers are disposed of
throughout the Midland counties. They salt badly. In

F 2

68 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Ireland they are prized in some localities, as co. Down, but
hardly esteemed in Belfast.

Habitat. — In Great Britain it ranges from one extremity
to the other, abounding along the southern and western
coast, but diminishing in numbers towards the north. It
has, however, been taken in very large quantities in the
Moray Firth, where it is known as the siller-fish. In Ire-
land it is common all round the coast. It is captured up to
5 Ib. weight.

2. Spanish Bream (Pagellus bogaraved).

B. vi., D. -IS V. i, A. ^2, L. 1. 71, L. tr. -fr, Caec. pyl. 5,
Vert. 22.

Length of head, 3|- to 4 ; height of body, 3 £ to 3^ in the
total length. Eye. — Diameter 3 to 3^ in the length of the
head, ^ of a diameter from the end of the snout, and about
I diameter apart. Preorbital much narrowest posteriorly,
its greatest height somewhat less than half its length. The
maxilla extends to beneath the first fourth of the eye.
Teeth. — Rather fine, the anterior ones in the outer row in
the upper jaw rather larger than the others ; posteriorly
two or three rows of molars, having rounded crowns in the
upper and two in the lower jaw. Fins. — Dorsal spines of
moderate strength, the fifth the longest, pectoral reaches
to opposite the first third of the anal fin. Scales. — Six or
seven rows between the eye and the angle of the preopercle.
Colours. — Pinkish or silvery, the pectoral fin having a dark
base and a dark spot in the axilla. During life numerous
small blue spots are seen on the body. Fins pinkish.

Habitat. — This is one of the best .known forms along our
southern coast, and is taken during the summer and
autumn. It attains to scarcely more than two-thirds of the
size of the common sea-bream.

GREAT BRITAIN. 69

3. Erythrinus Sea-bream (Pagellus erythrinus).

Names. — The snapper, Devonshire ; King of the breams ;
pandora.

B. vi., D. H, V. -i A. si,, L. 1. 56-60, L. tr. 6^, Oc. pyl.
4, Vert. 44.

Length of head, 3f to 4 ; height of body, 3^- to 3^ in
the total length. Eye. — Diameter 3f to 44. in the length
of the head, from 14 to 2 diameters from the end of the
snout, and the same distance apart. Preorbital high, its
height equalling from \ to f of its length. The maxilla
reaches to nearly beneath the front edge of the eye.
Teeth. — Anteriorly cardiform, with two rows of molars
posteriorly in either jaw, occasionally three rows in the
upper in large examples ; none on the vomer, palatine
bones, or tongue. Fins. — Dorsal spines of moderate
strength, the third the longest ; the last two rays not
enlarged nor scaled. Pectoral as long as, or even longer,
than the head. Second and third anal spines of about the
same length and strength. Scales. — Six rows between the
eye and the angle of the preopercle. Colours. — Of an
orange scarlet, becoming lighter beneath ; in some
examples the body is silvery, only just tinged with red or
rose colour. Fins coloured externally with orange. In
some large ones there are often blue spots over the body,
and which may even be seen in the " chads."

Habits. — It is a migratory species, not uncommon, but
most usually found during the summer and autumn,
retiring to deep water as the winter sets in. Its habits
appear to be somewhat solitary, while it is generally taken
at a depth of several fathoms.

Bait. — Mussels are mostly employed, but small fishes,
crabs, and even vegetables, are consumed by it.

70 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

As food it is not much esteemed.

Habitat. — Common on the south and west coasts of
England, but more rare towards the north and in Scotland.
It has been taken on the south-west coast of Ireland.

There are also two other but rare British forms of sea-
breams, but which cannot be deemed commercial as they
are but seldom found in the fish markets. They are
Owen's sea-bream, Pagellus Owenii, and another smaller
form, P. acarna.

FAMILY IV.— BULL-HEADS (Cottida).

Geographical distribution. — Arctic regions of Europe,
Asia, and America, also the North Atlantic Ocean of both
hemispheres, descending into temperate zones. Found
both in the fresh and salt water.

There are two marine species of Coitus, the C. scorpius
and C. bubalis^ofa exceedingly useful as food for larger
forms, but otherwise of no commercial importance.

The second genus of this family are the gurnards or
Triglas. Their common English name is derived from an
ancient British word signifying a firm or rugged structure,
and as such considered applicable to their heads. Many
species are able to produce sounds beneath the water, or
on their being removed from their native element. From
this has originated their Italian name organo, and their
French designation grondin. The Romans termed them
lyres, either due to the sounds they made, or because they
bore a fanciful resemblance to the ancient " lyre."

Habits. — Gurnards are rather voracious, and mostly swim
near the bottom of the sea, where they feed upon Crustacea,
small fishes, and other prey. The free filaments belong-
ing to their breast-fins have a certain similarity to elon-

GREAT BRITAIN. 1\

gated fingers, and are employed as feelers, used as a means
of aiding progression, or even for the purpose of drawing
food towards the mouth. They live for some time after
their removal from the sea, and on being touched erect
their dorsal spines and at the same time emit sounds from
which many local names have had their origin. They
have also been reputed to emit light from their heads when
springing out of the water, and which Lacepede likened to
a shooting star ; but it has been surmised that such may
be due to their conveying after them certain invertebrate
animals that have luminous properties.

Means of capture. — As gurnards generally swim near
the bottom they are commonly taken by the beam-trawl
or by hooks and lines ; a silvery slip from a sand-launce,
or young sprats or herrings, three or four being threaded on
to each hook, forming an attractive bait. Long lines, with
baited hooks, are used in some localities for gurnard fishing.

Breeding. — Sars has found their ova floating at sea, so
it appears almost certain that they may be included among
those forms which do not deposit it at the bottom.

As food they have always been held in fair estimation,
but owing to the firmness of their flesh they are not so
digestible as many other forms of fishes, which are as
readily obtainable ; while some species, due to their small
size, are deemed unsuited for the table, and others are so
inferior as to be considered worthless in certain districts.
In some places the term " souced gurnard " is employed as
a term of contempt, as when Shakespere, in King Henry
IV., act 4, scene 2, makes Falstaff say, " If I be not
ashamed of my soldiers I am a souced gurnet."

Geographical distribution. — Coasts of Europe, being very
abundant in the Mediterranean. One form which extends
across the North Atlantic is found on the western shores of
North America. To the south this genus passes round the

72 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

west coast of Africa and from the Atlantic to the Indian
Ocean, but seems to be absent from the east coast of
Africa, the shores of India, and contiguous islands.

i. Streaked Gurnard (Trigla lineata).

Names. — Lineated gurnard ; French gurnard ; rock gur-
nard ; rabbit-fish.

B. vii. D. 9- 1 1 | 16-17, V.4-, A. 16, L. 1. 66, Csec. pyl. 10,
Vert. 44.

Length of head 4^ to 4f ; height of body 5 to 5^ in
the total length. Eye. — High up, almost touching the
dorsal profile, \\ to if diameters in the postorbital portion
of the head, 2 diameters from the end of the snout, and
f to I diameter apart. Interorbital space deeply concave ;
profile of snout descends abruptly, is almost vertical in the
adult. Two or three spines at the anterior-superior angle
of the orbit. Bones of the head with stellated ridges.
Angle of preopercle usually with blunt but sometimes with
sharp projections : supra scapular roughened along its
upper edge and terminating posteriorly in a sharp spine :
scapular strongly ridged, likewise terminating in a strong
spine. The maxilla does not reach to beneath the eye.
Teeth. — Fine in the jaws, present or absent from the vomer :
none on the palatines or tongue. Fins. — Second dorsal
spine the longest, roughened anteriorly. Pectoral reaching
to above the third to the seventh anal ray. Lateral line. —
With about 66 denticulated and serrated spines, equal to
half the number of the rows of scales above the lateral line :
the keeled row along the bases of the dorsal fins well
developed, and consisting of about 25 scales. Passing from
the back down the sides are numerous raised lines or ridges
which give the fish its characteristic appearance. Air-
bladder. — Oval, rounded at either end. Colours — lake su-

GREA T BRITAIN. 73

periorly and on the sides, becoming white beneath. Narrow
vertical red bands pass from the back down the sides.
Dorsal and caudal fins reddish brown, edged externally
with red and covered with numerous irregular spots and
blotches. Pectoral of similar but darker colours, the spots
almost forming transverse bands. Ventrals reddish-brown
internally, having lighter red edges. Anal yellowish grey,
with a pink outer edge.

Habits. — This fish usually keeps near the bottom, but is
sometimes captured in nets which do not descend nearly
so low, while it has been occasionally observed springing
out of the water. It appears to restrict itself to certain
localities, probably due to the food which may be present.
One was obtained in a net which was floated over 30
fathoms of water. It eats Crustacea and small fish, while
pebbles and vegetable substances have been found in its
stomach.

Means of capture. — Often taken in trammels set for sur-
mullet or with the trawl, but rarely on baited lines. In
an aquarium it feeds upon mussels and shrimps.

As food equal to the el leek, Trigla pini.

Habitat. — In Britain it is most numerous along the south
coast ; merely stragglers have been observed in Scotland.
In Ireland it is not common.

2. Elleck or pine-leaved Gurnard (Trigla cuculus).

Names. — Red or cuckoo-gurnard ; soldier ; pine-leaved
gurnard.

B. vii., D. 8-9 | 1 8, V. i A. 16-17, L. 1. 73-76, Csec.
pyl. viii. Vert. ^

Length of head 4 to 44- ; height of body 6 in the
total length. Eye. — i-L diameters in the postorbital portion

74 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

of the head, ii diameters from the end of the snout,
and -I- diameter apart. Interorbital space concave. Pro-
file from eye to snout descends abruptly. Two or three
small spines at the anterior superior angle of the orbit.
Bones of the head with stellated ridges. Opercle with a
well-developed spine. Angle of preopercle armed with a
spine. The maxilla reaches to beneath the front of the eye.
Teeth. — Fine in the jaws and vomer, none on the palatines
or tongue. Fins. — Second dorsal spine longest, being two-
thirds that of the head. Pectoral reaching to above the
third or fourth anal ray. Scales. — Those along the lateral-
line unarmed, but forming lineated plates, very much
deeper than wide, occasioning the lateral-line to appear as
if crossed by about 72 vertical folds of skin. Ridge along
the bases of the dorsal fins having about 27 spines. Air-
bladder. — Anteriorly with two short and rounded prolong-
ations. Colours. — Rosy, dashed with orange, which is
most developed on the head, abdomen whitish. Pectoral
fins yellowish, with irregular greenish bars.

Habits. — Keeps near the bottom in moderately deep
water. Feeds on small fishes, molluscs, and Crustacea.

Means of capture. — Largely captured by the beam-trawl,
but also readily takes a bait.

Breeding. — Spring months up to about June.

As food. — Large quantities are consumed in England,
but it is not held in so much estimation in Scotland.

Habitat. — From Northern Europe to the Mediterranean,
also the American shores of the North Atlantic. It is
common around the British coasts, especially on the south
and west ; it is also found, but not so abundantly, along the
Scottish coasts. Common in Ireland, especially along the
south and east coasts. It attains to at least 18 inches in
length.

GREA T BRIT A IN. 7 5

3. Tub-fish (Trigla hirundo).

Names. — Sapphirine gurnard; tub- fish or tubbot ; sea-
crow ; red tubs ; smooth sides.

B. vii., D. 9 | 16-17, V. -i, A. 15-16, Caec. pyl. x. Vert. ^-s.

Length of head 3^ to 4 ; height of body 6 to 6-i- in the
total length. Eye. — i^- to li diameters in the postorbital
portion of the head, 2 diameters from the end of the snout,
and I apart. Interorbital space deeply concave. Profile
of snout oblique. Angle of preopercle acute and with two
sharp spines in the young. The maxilla scarcely reaches
to beneath the front edge of the eye. Teeth. — Fine ones
in the jaws and on the vomer, none on the palatines or
tongue. Fins. — Second spine of first dorsal fin as long as
the snout. Pectoral usually longer than the head and
reaching to above the seventh anal ray. Scales. — Nearly
200 irregular rows descend to the lateral-line which is
smooth. From 25 to 27 spinate plates along the bases of
the dorsal fins. Air-bladder. — -Large, trilobed, and ante-
riorly produced into two short horns. Colours. — Brownish-
red. Pectoral fin red externally, with blue edges or
emerald green internally, with numerous blotches forming
bands. In the young the back is reddish-brown, abdomen
silvery, sides golden. Dorsal fins reddish, the first being
black tipped, the second violet having a dark basal band,
and also dark along its upper half. Caudal purplish.
Pectoral violet externally, having irregular dark and nar-
row transverse bands ; on the posterior half or two-thirds
of its inner side exists a large oval black or very dark blue
blotch, on which are scattered small milk-white or light
blue spots : these marks gradually disappear in the larger
examples. Habits. — Usually remains at the bottom in
father deep water, but occasionally rises to the surface.

76 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

It lives on Crustacea, molluscs, and such small fish as it
can capture. It appears to be very partial to shrimps, and
has been observed in an aquarium to use the free rays of
its pectoral fins in order to disturb them by feeling and
poking about. A sordid dragonet, Callionymus lyra, has
been found inside one, also shells of considerable size.

Means of capture. — The beam-trawl along with other
fish ; or in salmon nets during the autumn, while they will
take a bait.

Breeding. — Couch found their roe enlarged both at
Christmas, also during May and July. In January, 1883,
I obtained a spent one very much out of condition.

As food. — Is certainly one of the best of the gurnards,
while it is often preferred, due to its attaining to a large
size. It is rather dry, and is improved by sauce. It is
salted in the north of Europe.

Habitat. — From Northern Europe round the British Isles
to the Mediterranean and the Adriatic. Most abundant
along the south coast, decreasing in numbers towards the
north. It is found round Ireland. It attains to at least
14 Ib. weight.

4. Grey Gurnard (Trigla gurnardus).

Names. — Hardhead ; Bloc/is gurnard. In Scotland
crooner or croonach (croon " to croak "). Knoud or nowd,
Ireland.

B. vii., D. 8-9 | 19, V. -f, A. 18-19, L- 1- 73~76, Caec. pyl.
vii.-ix., Vert. -14.

Length of head 3f to 3 f- ; height of body 6 in the total
length. Eye. — High up, situated nearer the posterior than to
the anterior end of the head. Mouth. — Elongated, its upper
profile riearly straight, but most obtuse in the young. Two

GREA T BRITAIN. 77

or three small supraorbital spines. Teeth. — Villiform on the
jaws and vomer, none on the palatines or tongue. Fins.
—The second dorsal spine the longest. Pectoral does not
quite reach the anal, and is rather shorter than the ventral.
Scales. — Small. Lateral-line. — Armed with about 74 spinous
points, most distinct in the young. A ir-bladder. — Notched
at its front-end, causing it to terminate in two obtuse
points. Colours. — Vary widely, in some no white spots, the
upper half of the body being of a slatey-grey, and a black
blotch often is present on the first dorsal fin. The white
spots on the sides may run into narrow and sinuous lines,
or else there may be a dark net-work surrounding light
places. Habits. — Gregarious, and are said to be the least
sensible to variations of the whole of the genus. They are
fond of sporting on the surface of the sea, rising and sinking,
and uttering short grunts as if of satisfaction. At other
times they appear to be asleep on the water.

Means of capture. — They readily take a bait, and are
even secured while whiffing at the surface. It is a quiet
swimmer.

Breeds. — Probably twice a year, in mid-winter and mid-
summer. Their eggs float and are found at some distance
from the shore.

As food. — It is good, but very inferior to the red gurnard,
partly from its lesser size. It is a good bait for lobster,
cray-fish, and even members of the cod family.

Habitat.— Northern Europe, the Baltic, round the British
Isles to the Mediterranean and Adriatic. It is the most
abundant of our local forms, extending northwards to the
Orkneys and Shetland Isles. It is very common along the
west coast of Scotland, also round Ireland. It has been
obtained up to 2~ ft. in length.

78 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

5. The Piper (Trigla lyra).

Names. — In Scotland, crowner and sea-hen.

B. vii., D. 9-10 | 16-17, V. £, A. 16, Caec. pyl. vi., Vert. £f.

Length of head 3^ to 3f ; height of body 4^- to 54. in
the total length. Eye. — Diameter I to li in the postorbital
portion of the head, 2 diameters from the end of the snout
in adults, and \ to I diameter apart. Profile of snout
abrupt and concave. Preorbital elongated anteriorly, end-
ing in a broad triangular plate armed in front with several
denticulations. Opercle with a strong spine. Coracoid
terminates in a long spine almost equal to half the length of
the head. The maxilla does not reach to below the eye.
Teeth. — Fine ones in the jaws and vomer, none on the
palatines or tongue. Fins. — Dorsal spines strong, the third,
which is the longest, equalling half the length of the head.
Pectoral reaching to above the seventh or eighth anal ray.
Scales. — Distinct in large examples. Lateral line — unarmed ;
25 to 27 spinate elevations along the base of the dorsal fins.
Air-bladder — oval. Colours. — Bright red, becoming lighter
on the sides and beneath. Fins red.

Habits. — A wandering fish, sometimes common, at other
times rare. When captured it emits a hissing sound by
expelling air through its gills. On one being opened it was
full of Ophiuroidea.

Means of capture. — Usually taken with the beam-trawl.

As food. — It is generally considered excellent.

Habitat. — Common along the south and west coasts of
Great Britain, except during the winter months, but owing
to its wandering propensities it is often rare at one season
and common at another. It is little known in the north,
but is said not to be rare about Glasgow. In Ireland it is

GREA T BRITAIN. 79

found on the south and south-west coasts, becoming rare to
the north.

It has been observed to attain to about 7 Ib. weight.

FAMILY V. — STING FISHES (TracfUnukz.).

Geographical distribution. — Cosmopolitan, and but rarely
attaining to a large size.

GENUS I. — Weevers (Trachinus).

Two species of this fish are found in our seas ; the larger
or greater weever, and the smaller or viper weever. Wounds
inflicted by the spines of the gill-covers, or those in the
first dorsal fin, set up intense agony, which lasts for twelve
hours, or even more. No specific poison-gland has been
detected, but it has been thought that the virus is a secretion
or excretion from the mucous surface of the loose skin which
covers the spines, or of its pulpy sheath ; such a substance
would collect in the grooves, and when these spines penetrated
sufficiently deeply into a foreign body, this poisonous excre-
tion would be introduced into the inflicted wound. Even
the death of the fish does not at once arrest the virulence of
its poisonous properties, as pricks from the spines of dead
weevers have been observed to occasion poisonous symp-
toms. When sea-bathing on sandy coasts or gravelly shores,
there is a possibility of the foot of the bather being wounded
by one of these fishes if it lives in the vicinity, as such places
are its favourite resort, burying itself and leaving merely
its head uncovered. Should an unprotected foot be set
down near the place inhabited by one of these fishes, it is
alarmed and at once strikes against any foreign body with
the spines with which its gill-cover is armed, directing its
blows with as much judgment as a fighting cock. Many are
the instances recorded of injuries inflicted by these fishes,

8o THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

and the intense suffering which they occasion. As a rule
the pain appears to subside in about twelve hours, or, as
some fishermen imagine, the effects of the poison will
continue until the tide returns to the same height at which
it stood when the injury was inflicted. Wherever shrimps
abound these fish are said to be present, and shrimpers in
dark nights have been known to be afraid of picking their
captures out of their nets, fearing lest one of these fishes
might be among them. Olive oil and opium, locally applied,
have been found the best applications.

Geographical distribution. — From the coasts of Scandi-
navia, through the Atlantic as far south as the Cape of
Good Hope ; also the Mediterranean. One species has
been recorded from Peru.

I. Greater Weever (Trachinus draco).

Names. — Weever is asserted to be a corruption of the
French term La vive, which this fish was called, owing to its
surviving for a long period after removal from the water. It
has likewise been derived from the Anglo-Saxon wivere,
"a serpent," the wivern being the dragon of heraldry.
Rondelet believed it to represent the true dragon of the
older naturalists. In Sussex it is locally known as the sea-
cat, also as cat-fish and sting-bull. Sand-eel-bill, Ayrshire.
Muckle-stanger, Aberdeen.

B. vi., D. 5-6 | 29-31, V. i A. 31, L. 1. 78, Caec. pyl. vi.,
Vert. -H-.

Length of head 4^ ; height of body Si to 6\ in the total
length. Eye. — 5 to $\ diameters in the length of the
head ; f of a diameter from the end of the snout, and
the same apart. Dorsal profile nearly horizontal, that of
the abdomen more convex. Cleft of mouth very oblique,
reaching to slightly behind the posterior edge of the eye ;

GREA T BRIT A IN. 8 1

lower jaw somewhat the longer. Two small spines at the
anterior-superior angle of the orbit; four flat and badly
marked ones on the preopercle (sometimes absent), two
being on its lower limb, and the anterior of which points
forwards. Opercular spine long and strong, enveloped in a
loose skin nearly to its termination. Teeth. — Villiform in the
jaws, vomer, palatine, and pterygoid bones ; none on the
tongue. Fins. — Second and third dorsal spines the longest,
six lower pectoral rays unbranched or with the divisions
very indistinct. Scales. — Cycloid, and passing in oblique
rows down the sides of the body. Vent beneath the last
dorsal spine. Colours. — Grey or yellow, being darkest along
the back ; brown or bright yellow lines pass down the body
in the direction of the rows of scales, decreasing in vividness
as they descend ; upper surface and sides of the head spotted
and reticulated with brown and grey, while blue lines are
occasionally intermixed ; some yellow stripes along the gill-
covers. First dorsal fin black in its upper three-fourths ;
other fins yellowish, with dark outer edges ; posterior margin
of the caudal nearly black.

Habits. — Swims near the ground, and sometimes, not
invariably, burrows in the sand, leaving only its head un-
covered ; occasionally it is left in this position by an ebb-
ing tide. It lives upon the fry of fish and small marine
animals.

Means of capture. — Beam-trawl, seine-nets, sprat and
shrimp nets, or by a baited hook on a deep-sea line. They
have been taken in a net floating over thirty -five fathoms of
water, but always of a morning, as if they only came near
the surface during the darkness of the night.
Breeding. — About June.

As food. — Sold in Whitechapel as food, and known as
Spitalfield weavers.

VOL. I.— E. I. G

82 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Habitat. — From Scandinavia and Western Europe,
through the Mediterranean. Also as far south in the
Atlantic as the Cape of Good Hope. In Britain it is by no
means uncommon along the coasts, more especially the
west, but decreasing in numbers towards the north ; it is
occasionally found on the shores of Scotland. In Ireland
it has been taken in Ventry Bay, but not in the north. 1 1
attains to at least 17 inches in length.

2. Viper Weever (Trachinus vipera).

Names. — Little, or lesser weever, sting- fish. Locally
known as adder-pike, black-fin, otter-pike. Bishoped, or
stung by a Bishop, one of these fish in Cornwall. Stony
cobbler, Youghal.

B. vi., D. 6/21-24, V. \, A. 25-26, L. 1. 65, Caec. pyl. vi.,
Vert. -|f.

Length of head $± to 34 ; height of body 4^ to 5
in the total length. Eye. — Diameter 4f in the length of
the head, J to f of a diameter from the end of the snout,
and i of a diameter apart. No spines above the orbit ; two
sharp and forwardly directed ones below the angle of the
preopercle. Opercular spine strong. Teeth. — As in the
last species. Fins. — Lower five or six pectoral rays un-
branched, or with their divisions very indistinct. Colours. —
Back grey, paler towards the abdomen, where it is tinged
with yellow. Reticulated grey lines along the back and
top of the head. First dorsal black, with some white lines
posteriorly. Caudal with a wide black band along its hind
edge.

Habits. — This species is more active and venomous than
the preceding one, is similarly captured and used as food.

Habitat. — North Sea, British coasts to the Mediterranean.

GREA T BRIT A IN. 8 3

Common along the shores of Great Britain, being in some
places more abundant than the greater weever ; not so
common in Scotland, but has been found as far north as
the Orkneys. In Ireland most common along the eastern
and southern shores, but present from the north to the
south. It has been captured up to 6J inches in length.

FAMILY VI. — MACKEREL (Scombridce).

Fishes of this family are pelagic forms, readily distin-
guished by their elegant appearance and brilliant colours,
while they are mostly highly prized for the table. Car-
nivorous and exceedingly active, their shapes are well
adapted to enable them to glide rapidly through the water ;
while, to obviate the least impediment, we find in some
species depressions existing into which the pectoral fins
may be received.

GENUS i. — The Mackerel (Scomber).

Geographical distribution. — These fishes have a very ex-
tensive range, being found in most temperate and tropical
seas of both hemispheres, but they do not appear to have
been recorded from the American shores of the South
Atlantic Ocean.

I. Mackerel (Scomber scomber).

Names. — Mackerel, formerly spelt Macquerelle ; shiners
(young) off the north coast.

B. viL, D. ii-i4/~ + V., V. i, A. i/A, Vert. 44.

Length of head 4^- to 44- ; of pectoral fin 91. ; height of
body 5| to 6\ in the total length. Eye. — With broad adipose
lids, the posterior extending to over the hind third of the
pupil, and inferiorly being covered by the anterior, which

G 2

84 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

does not reach to the iris, and is attached by its lower edge
to the suborbitals ; diameter of the eye i to \ in the length
of the head, i-^- diameters apart. The length of the snout is
equal to about \ of that of the entire head. The maxilla
reaches to beneath the middle of the orbit. Teeth. — In a
single row in the jaws, in a deciduous patch on either side
of the vomer, and in a single or double row on the palatines ;
a row likewise at the centre of the base of the tongue.
Fins. — Dorsal spines weak, the second and third the
longest. Scales. — Minute, about twenty-one rows between
the base of the first dorsal fin and the lateral-line ; along
the sides and lower surface of the abdomen they become
almost indistinguishable. A keel along either side of the
root of each lobe of the caudal fin. Air-bladder. — Absent.
Ccecal appendages. — Numerous. Colours. — Upper third of
the body green, shot with blue ; while the sides and
abdomen are glossed with gold, silver, and purple shades.
About thirty-five V-shaped bands pass downwards from the
back terminating on or below the lateral-line ; a dark
stripe, sometimes interrupted, passes from the base of the
pectoral-fin along the side, a short distance below the
lateral-line. Fins dark.

Varieties. — The British forms of mackerel have been
divided into the commercial species which possesses no air-
bladder, and a rare form known as the Spanish mackerel
(Scomber colias\ which is furnished with one ; it has likewise
large scales over the region of the breast, and a larger eye.
Our commercial form shows great varieties in colour, more
especially among those captured along our south and
south-west coasts. There is one form in which there are
no markings visible along the upper half of the body, or the
unmarked mackerel ; there is another in which the upper
two-thirds of the body appears as if scribbled over with

GREA T BRITAIN. 85

short tortuous lines, the scribbled mackerel ; while a third is
marked over with spots and dots, and known as the dotted
mackerel ; all intermediate forms of colour between these
several varieties have been found. Mr. Dunn has likewise
mentioned that some red-finned varieties exist which the
fishermen carefully look for, because on their appearance a
plentiful supply is usually off the coast. Disease may like-
wise change the shape of the bodies of these fish ; thus in
some forms the vertebral column is twisted into various
shapes due to disease ; or there may be disease of the
oviducts, occasioning an occlusion, and so preventing the
eggs being extruded ; round these a cyst forms, and when
the next season's eggs begin to grow, the shape of the
fish becomes entirely altered, being much deeper than
natural.

Habits. — Mackerel are a gregarious, wandering, pelagic
form of fish, which remains off our coasts throughout the
year, and at certain seasons approaches the shores in count-
less multitudes, prior to, during, or subsequent to breeding ;
this may, and evidently sometimes is, due to the food they
are in pursuit of, or the temperature of the water. Oc-
casionally they forsake their usual haunts ; thus from May
to July they were formerly abundant off Yarmouth and at
Lowestoft, whereas now numbers arrive with the herrings,
having deferred their advent to a rather later period of the
year, or they may antedate their arrival, as has been
observed in some localities. Formerly they were supposed
to undertake annually long migrations from the north
towards the south at one season, and subsequently the
reverse. Lacepede, on the authority of Admiral Pleyville-
Lepley, actually asserted that in some small and almost
land-locked bays off Greenland, where the water is always
clear, and the bottom consists of soft mud, myriads of

86 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

mackerel might be seen at the commencement of the spring,
having their heads inserted several inches into the mud and
their tails vertically elevated. He continued that in this
manner, and in a state of torpor, they passed the winter,
while during the first fifteen or twenty days after their re-
appearance they were affected by a species of blindness, and
could be easily netted, but that subsequently they had to
be captured by means of hooks and baits.

During the winter months, or at the commencement of
the year, as January or February, these fish begin to move
from the deeper portions of the Atlantic towards the
British coasts, and in May or June, sometimes earlier, large
shoals of spawning fish appear to the south-west of the
Scilly Isles, some of which would seem to pass towards
the Bristol or St. George's Channel, or Ireland in a north
or north-easterly direction ; while the largest division
appear to go up the English Channel along the south
coast of Britain. In mild seasons they are generally taken
off Portsmouth in January or February ; off Plymouth in
1882 they appeared in January, some being taken in the
nets set for pilchards and herrings, but generally a month
later they are looked for from twenty to thirty miles from
land. A few appeared at St. Ives, in Cornwall, early in
January, 1882, and about the middle of that month some
fine catches were made in the Bristol Channel. In the
middle of February at St. Ives the fishing was being very
successfully prosecuted. In March the shoals appeared off
the south-west coast of Ireland, where French vessels
obtain good cargoes, but which locality is not so much
fished by British vessels. At first the ova and milt in these
Irish fish was not fully developed, but the supply of fish
was continuous throughout April, and near Louphead at
the mouth of the Shannon upwards of 20,000 a night were

GREA T BRITAIN. 87

secured by 69 boats. By the end of April the milt and
roe were matured. The average weight of these fish was
about 2 Ib. each. By April the Cornish mackerel began to
improve very much in taste, and large quantities were taken
on the south coast at Mevagissey. In May the Dover
boats brought into Ventnor 'the first of the season ; in
July, 1882, they appeared off Poole.

As a general rule, the first mackerel off the Hampshire
and Sussex coast are taken in March, or even in February ;
while off Norfolk their greatest fisheries are in May and
June, at which period they also arrive off the Isle of Man.
In the Orkneys they are generally present during the last
week in July, and in the Moray Firth they 'come in immense
shoals in August.

But in mentioning these fish I must remark that we
have two distinct sizes, each of which seems to a great
extent to keep by itself ; the larger ones, as from I Ib. to
2-1- Ib., keeping further out to sea, while the smaller ones
come more inshore. The first are absent, as a rule, during
the winter, while some at least of the smaller or yearling
ones remain during the winter months.

As already observed, mackerel may arrive long prior to
their usual period. At Mevagissey, in 1818, 15,000 were
taken between February 1st and I2th ; in the same month,
in 1842, two boats brought into Plymouth 18,000 ; and in
1843, in the first week in February, from 20,000 to 30,000
were captured each night.

The period at which the arrival of these fish may be
anticipated at any particular locality may be somewhat
accurately computed by ascertaining at what date they
normally appear off certain points, and how long an inter-
val generally occurs between their arrival at one place and
their subsequent appearance at a more distant locality.

88 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

The number of days these intervals take are generally the
same in different years.

In the spring the average size of the mackerel captured
off the English coasts is smaller than it becomes during
the autumn, owing to some of the shoals being entirely or
partly composed of young fish. Their course appears to
be very erratic, rising to the surface and approaching the
shore, or remaining at the bottom in deep water. But as
the summer advances and their food enters sandy bays,
these fish follow and are exceedingly active. By the end of
September or October, having spawned, the old ones retire
to deep water, in which migration they seem to be fre-
quently accompanied by those which were hatched early
in the season. Sometimes the half-grown fish, when
retiring into deep water at the end of the year, seem to be
interrupted in their course, which causes them to remain
off the coast during the winter months.

The character of the season or of the weather does not
appear to be the sole agent by which the migrations of
these fishes are ruled. But it has been remarked that a
particular temperature or the direction of the wind has
more connection with their swimming nearer to the surface
or deeper in the water, probably such influencing the
migrations of the animals of which their food is composed.

The food upon which these fish subsist is still a subject
requiring investigation. In the month of March, 1882,
about 8 miles to sea off Mevagissey, and over 40 fathoms
of water, they were found to have been feeding upon a
shrimp-like crustacean, Thysanopoda Couehii, with which all
examined were found to be gorged. When the mackerel
midge, the young of the rock-ling, Motella, becomes abun-
dant, about the middle of May, these fishes congregate in
order to feed upon them, They prey upon members of

GREA T BRITAIN. 89

the herring family, more especially the fry, and during the
latter end of summer and the commencement of autumn,
" britt," which is the young of the herring or of the sprat,
forms a large portion of their daily subsistence along the
south and south-west coasts of England. Mr. Dunn at
Mevagissey has remarked that some small jelly-fishes
(? Medusa) about the size of split peas, and of a dark green
colour, appear subsequent to heavy rains, that they are
luminous at night and that mackerel prey upon them.
Occasionally quantities of the young of the dwarf swim-
ming crabs, Portttnus ptisilhis^ are taken among these fish
along the coasts of Devonshire and Cornwall, and upon
which they are supposed to have been feeding ; it is well
known that they are partial to Crustacea, and consume
large quantities of the sessile-eyed shrimp-like forms
which abound from about February. In May, 1880, a
number of these fishes from the south coast were found to
be gorged with ova.

They are difficult to keep in an aquarium, due to their
impatience at confinement as well as their susceptibility
to atmospheric changes. Those selected should be taken by
seine-nets, as such as have been meshed are difficult to retain
alive, due to the injuries they have sustained. The presence
of fellow captives which have been some time previously in
confinement has been found to exercise a great controlling
power on new comers, which for some time should be kept
in the dark.

Modes of capture. — As the January fish obtain a very
high price, the fishermen seek the shoals in the earliest
time of the year. In the spring the Cornish boats proceed
eastward for mackerel fishing, but they net towards the
west, thus meeting the shoals. The distance the boats
proceed up the English Channel varies in different seasons,
while the earliest fish may be expected furthest out to sea.

9o THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

The quantities captured are liable to great variations in
different years ; several good harvests may follow one after
another, or the reverse may occur ; likewise one set of
boats may be making large catches while neighbouring
ones are scarcely securing a fish. I have already alluded
to there being two classes of mackerel, viz., the enormous
May and June shoals that come for spawning and consist
of large fish, and the more erratic or in-shore and smaller
ones that do not appear to keep so well to stated times :
the modes of capture of these two classes vary. The nets
employed in the English Channel are for the in-shore or
smaller forms, the mesh of which before being tanned
averages from 27 to 28 half-meshes to a yard ; but those
employed at the entrance of the channel for the spawning
shoals average (untanned) from 21 to 22 half-meshes to a
yard.

Early in the spring numerous fishing boats, manned with
from five to eight men each, assemble in Plymouth pre-
paratory to the mackerel season, and for the purpose of
trying their fortune in the English Channel with drift-nets,
which are shot of an evening and usually lifted after two
or three hours, but shot again in the very early morning,
the best time for carrying on this occupation having been
found to be when daylight passes into darkness, or the
night into the morning. The fishermen believe that at the
commencement of the season the vision of these fishes is
not so good as it becomes later on, when, however, it may
be materially assisted by lighter days and moonlight nights,
while it has been observed that the fat which is found in
the early months of the year between the two layers
forming the adipose lid to the eye, becomes absorbed as
the season advances. It has been remarked that drift-nets
are less productive during bright moonlight than when the
nights are darker, as the fish are believed to perceive and

ORE A T BRIT A IN. g i

avoid the net suspended for their capture. In darker
weather, however, the mackerel force their heads through
the meshes beyond their gill-openings, which precludes
their being again retracted. The modes of capture must
vary with local circumstances, but generally during the
spring and autumn drift-nets only are employed, whereas
in the summer, as towards the end of May in Cornwall,
these fishes come nearer inland and seines are likewise
used. The two may be also in operation at the same time ;
thus in the first week of July, 1880, both drift and seine
fishermen were making large captures off the Cornish
coast. At this period a man termed a huer is appointed to
keep a look-out for the appearance of the shoals of these
fishes, on perceiving which he signals to the fishermen,
who at once depart in the direction of the anticipated
captures. Mr. R. Couch remarked in the ' Zoologist ' that
some of the fishermen believe " that if from any cause the
eastward migrations pass up mid-channel, the spring fish
first appear on the eastern fishing grounds about Brighton,
and spawn before they get so far west as the Cornish or
Devonshire coasts ; hence the eastern fishery is profitable,
while the western is a failure. If, on the contrary, they
pass up at short distances from the shore, the eastern
fishery is a failure and their boats come westwards to take
the fish " (p. 1410). The failure of the fishery, therefore,
frequently depends upon the fishermen looking for the fish
in a wrong direction, and thus they pass unnoticed. They
do not rise to the surface during spring and autumn as
they do in summer, so their presence has to be detected
by nets and fishing ; sometimes there are few near shore
while they are abundant in the deep water. In September
and October mackerel mostly retire to deeper waters, or
separate into small shoals, rendering this mode of fishing

92 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

useless. This, however, is very liable to vary ; thus, during
the last week in November, 1880, drift-nets were still being
employed at Penzance, and took large, fat and well-
flavoured mackerel by thousands at night, although usually
catches of this sort do not occur after the beginning of
June or before the end of February.*

At Rye there is a large mackerel fishery, where fixed
nets termed " kettle-nets " are employed, each of which is
a little over half a mile in kngth ; the poles to which they
are attached being twelve feet high, while each contains
three chambers or bights. They commence being used
on April I4th, and are continued until the end of
November.

, Droves of sea-fowl flying above, and every now and then
swooping down upon the fish, often give a good indication
of where they are, the circling, screaming birds acting as
detectives.

When mackerel are in small and divided companies,
hand-lining becomes more remunerative than netting, and
it has been observed that a greater proportionate success
generally attends the employment of several lines used
together, while several hooks are best on one line. Those
captured by hooks and lines, due to their being less
knocked about, generally command a better price in the
market than such as have been netted. Although these
fish may be taken from a boat at anchor, the favourite time
for fishing for mackerel with a bait is when there is a little
ripple on the sea, and a light gale is blowing, termed a
"mackerel breeze" by fishermen, which takes the boat
along at a fair speed under sail, while should the sky be

* The pilchard season of 1879 ran into January, 1880; while the
mackerel season of 1880 commenced in the latter part of January,
1880.— T. CORNISH.

GREA T BRIT A IN. 93

gloomy, so much the better. The plan adopted is termed
whiffing, railing, trailing, or plummeting. Hand-lining
may be carried on at any time during the day, as they
appear to feed at all hours, but best in the morning and
evening. The line is short but heavily weighted to a cone-
shaped leaden plummet ; a small line, termed the snood
or snoozing, is attached to near the end of the leaded line
on one side and terminates in the hook at the other ; the
bait or lask is wedge-shaped, the thick end being on the
hook, while it should take on an undulating motion to
resemble a fish.

Baits. — When whiffing or hand-lining for these fishes,
natural baits may be employed, as a slip from the side of
another mackerel's tail, termed a lask, a cuttle-fish, a thin
rind of pork, or mud-worms. But besides the foregoing,
any glistening substance will attract them, as a pearl
button, or Hearder's silver spinner, which is an imitation
fish fastened on to a silvered plate of copper, and mounted
so as to spin freely on a piece of wire. A slip of white
kid or a piece of red cloth have likewise been used with
good effect ; or, stranger still, Ball found about two inches
of the stem of a tobacco pipe, put on the line down to the
hook, a novel and most successful bait. Fishermen also
believe they can entice mackerel from the bottom by
various Beatable substances, used when the boat is at anchor,
as salted pilchards which, having become rancid, are beaten
to a pulp and hung over the side of the boat in a basket
from which little bits drop.

French mackerel vessels are of a larger capacity than
those employed by British fishermen, carry a greater
number of hands, and are frequently aided by steam power.
The French seek the large shoals of spawning fish, and it
is said not to be uncommon for one vessel to obtain

94 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

upwards of £1000 worth of fish in a single season (while
but few English boats are upwards of forty tons burden, and
^"250 would probably be a very good return for the best
of them). They take fish for salting, and consequently do
not require to repair so rapidly to port. The captures are
preserved on board and packed in the hold, and when the
latter is full they return to France.

Having described the modes employed for capturing
these fish, a few details are desirable to show their value
when brought to market. Yarrell furnishes some interest-
ing figures respecting what obtained during the first quarter
of the present century. In May, 1807, the first Brighton
boat-load sold at Billingsgate at forty guineas a hundred,
or seven shillings each, computing six score to a hundred :
this was the highest price ever reached in that market. The
next boat-load produced but thirteen guineas a hundred.
In 1808 mackerel became so plentiful in Dover that they
were disposed of at sixty for a shilling ; while in June the
same year, at Brighton, a net was so completely filled by
them, that it was impossible to drag it ashore ; the fish
and net in the end sank together. In 1821 the value of
the catches of sixteen Lowestoft boats on the 3Oth of June,
amounted to £5252. In 1823, 1,420,000 of these fishes
were taken at Yarmouth. In 1844, during October, the
Mount's Bay fishermen took 1,400,000, which sold for about
£4000. In May, 1868, 300,000 were netted one morning
near the Scilly Isles. June, 1869, 10,000 a fortnight were
secured at Weymouth, an event which had not occurred
for thirty years. Couch gives the average price of mackerel
for seven years as from £6 to £9 per thousand ; and the
numbers taken in a boat of rather less than the average
size, with drift-nets, from 15,000 to 24,000. But it some-
times occurs that more than these may be taken in a single

GREA T BRIT A IN. 95

night ; in fact, at Penzance, drift-nets have frequently
brought 100 tons in a single night in May.

Breeding. — In the spring of the year the roe of the
mackerel may be observed to be growing very fast, and
in Britain it is mostly shed about May, June, or July, at
some leagues from the shore and at the very surface of the
waves, where a great quantity of these fishes may often be
met with engaged in spawning. The ova of these fishes
shed in the Brighton Aquarium has been observed to float.

low temperature exercises great influence in postponing
>reeding, and fish in roe are occasionally seen even in
anter. Harmer found 546,681 ova in a female 18 oz.
weight, 430,800 in a second of 20 oz. weight, and 454,961
in a third of similar size, all having been captured in the
tonth of June ; while Bloch counted 540,000 in one he
examined. Mackerel quickly recover from the effects of
spawning.

Although this fish is generally a very rapid grower, such
must greatly depend on whether suitable food abounds, or
the reverse. In Cornwall, where spawning occurs in May
or June, young about 3 to 5 inches long are plentiful
in the bays about August and September, leaving for the
leep sea in November, when they are from 6 to 7 inches
in length, and re-appearing the following June about 8 or 9
inches in length. In fact, the young at the commencement
of winter are small, and their growth is slow up to the
following spring.

Hermaphrodites. — Couch observed upon having noticed
these in the form of a lobe of roe lying between the usual
pair of lobes of milt ; while A. Malm likewise describes and
figures such.

Diseases. — The nipper crab, Polybius Henslowii, which
swims near the surface, has been known to kill mackerel.

96 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

The Myxine, a form of sea lamprey, likewise bores into its
flesh ; and a fish-louse, Rocinela dannoniensis, has been taken
off a mackerel at Mevagissey. Some hundreds were ob-
served on these fish, and all were found clinging near the
pectoral fin, except one which was imbedded near the vent.
When half a mackerel is used as a bait, the lice will some-
times in a few minutes scoop out all the fish, leaving
nothing but the skeleton and the skin. This year (1882)
these fish have been unusually infested with entozoa.

As food. — Mackerel are much esteemed, generally, but
not invariably, the moderately sized more than the very
large ones ; but they taint very rapidly, as well as lose
flavour when kept. Some prefer those captured during the
autumn and winter months, while others like such as are in
roe, taken in May and June, or even July. Those marked
with a dark interrupted line along the side are said to be of
inferior quality. Owing to the rapidity with which these
fish decompose in hot weather, and the consequent dele-
terious results to consumers, vendors were permitted as
early as 1698 to cry them through the streets of London
on Sundays, an enactment which does not seem to have
ever been repealed. The employment of steam carriers in
the place of sailing vessels, and which take the captures
from the various boats and convey them rapidly to market,
has proved a great gain to all parties, and a boon to the
general public. They are usually packed in boxes contain-
ing about fifty each for sending to market, ice being added.
In June, 1 88 1, Norway mackerel commenced appearing in
the markets for the season. They are rather large, and
continue arriving for from three to four weeks. This fish
was much relished by the Romans, because its internals
furnished the precious garum, a sort of pickle which gave
a high relish to their sauces, besides being medicinally

ORE A T BRITAIN. 97

employed, and was said at one time to sell for a sum which
would be equivalent to £48 of our present money for two
gallons of it.

Habitat. — Extensively distributed in the northern and
temperate seas of both hemispheres, and as far south as the
Canary Isles. In the Mediterranean the fishery com-
mences at the same time as in the north of Europe, or in
the English Channel, or even earlier. They are taken
in the Gulf of Lyons from April until August, and in
Provence even in May, continuing sometimes until October.
At Nice they are said to abound during the spring, and at
Genoa are known as April fish. They extend their range
into the Black Sea, and during the summer numbers are
present, while those of all various sizes appear to breed.
They are said not to be found in the Sea of Azof. These
fish differ in size and taste not only with the seasons, but
also the localities they inhabit. We find that they are
finest in the English Channel. They are always rare in
the Baltic, although they occasionally occur off the coast of
Sweden, as in 1851 ; but they were small, it taking about
three to average one pound weight. Neither do they seem
to be always esteemed, at least in Amsterdam ; and in the
Mediterranean, as a rule, they are dry and inferior in
flavour. In the western hemisphere they extend from
Greenland to at least as far south as Cape Cod in
Massachusetts.

In the British Isles they are most abundant along the
south coast, up the eastern shores to Norfolk and Suffolk,
and also along the western counties. They appear off the
Scottish coast late in the summer, as has been already

«°Muded to under the head of Habits.
In Ireland they are common round the coast, from
Donegal and Antrim, down the east and along the south
VOL. I.— E. i. H

98 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

to Kerry, but are not so abundant along the west as along
the east side of the island. Thompson observed in 1836
that in Newcastle, county Down, they were only taken at
the latter end of August, while ten miles to the south they
had appeared a month previously, this difference being of
annual occurrence. The best fishing on the north-east
coast commences about July. Rutty remarked that these
fish arrive off Dublin in May, and continue for three
months.

The ordinary size of mackerel for the table is from
14 to 1 6 inches in length. Buckland remarked that in the
spring of 1879 he received one 18 inches long, and which
weighed 2 Ib. n oz. Mr. Cornish recorded one from
Penzance 18^ inches long, and 2 Ib. 8 oz. in weight ('Zoo-
logist/ 1876, p. 4931). Yarrell mentions one of 2% Ib. taken
at Poulton, in November, 1849, and an example 2 oz. more
caught off Hastings in 1856.

\ . '

FAMILY VII.— HORSE MACKERELS (Carangida).

The young of many genera of fishes of this family have
the head variously armed, but this armature is absorbed
before they reach the adult age.

Geographical distribution. — From as far north as Den-
mark and Sweden, also through most of the temperate and
tropical seas of both hemispheres.

GENUS i.— Horse Mackerel (Caranx\

Considering the numerous species and varieties of form
which are found in the genus, it is not surprising that
many subdivisions of it have been proposed. The cha-
racters employed for this purpose have been the dentition,
the form of the fins, the serrations or the reverse of the

ORE A T BRITAIN. 99

prcopercle, and the armature of the scales on the lateral-
line, the scales on the body, and the adipose eyelids. But
the single British species is well characterised by its entire
lateral-line being armed with large keeled plates.

Geographical distribution. — The fishes composing the
genus Caranx, or " Horse-mackerels," are spread from
Norway and Sweden throughout most of the temperate
and tropical seas, more especially abounding in the latter,
where they attain to a large size, and are not considered
unsuitable for the table, though some have been reported
as poisonous at certain times in particular localities in the
tropics, probably due to the food on which they have been
living.

Scad (Caranx trachurus).

. Names. — Scad, which term is said to denote the inferior
I quality of its flesh ; rock herring (Aberdeen) ; buck-mackerel
\ (Banff).

B. vii, D. 8 | ^ V. -L, A. 2 | ^ L.l. 73, CJEC. pyl. xii.,
Vert, -j^

Length of head 4 to 4^ ; height of body 5 to 5^ in the
total length. Eye. — Situated above the middle of the
height of the head ; it has a wide posterior adipose lid
extending nearly or quite to the edge of the pupil, and also
a much narrower anterior adipose lid. Diameter of eye
from 3^ to 3f in the length of the head, from I in the
young to li diameters in the adult from the end of the
snout, and nearly I diameter apart. The lower jaw the
longer ; the maxilla reaches to beneath the first third of
the eye. Free portion of tail wider than deep. Teeth. —
Minute in the jaws, also on the vomer, palatines, and in
a band along the middle of the tongue. Fins. — Dorsal
spines weak, increasing in length to the fourth and fifth.

H 2

ioo THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Pectoral sickle-shaped, nearly or quite as long as the head.
Second pre-anal spine the strongest. Scales. — Very small.
Lateral-line. — Makes a curve to beneath the first third of
the second dorsal fin ; in the curved portion of its course
it is crossed by large scale-like plates, deeper than wide,
which become more indistinct in the adult. In its straight
portion these plates, 34 to 40, are keeled, becoming most
strongly so posteriorly. The number of these plates is
subject to great variation. Colours. — Of a dark bluish along
the back and so low as the lateral-line, beneath which it
becomes silvery, glossed with purple and gold. A diffused
black spot on the opercle.

Varieties. — Edward remarks that he once found a rather
strange variety of this species in Banffshire. It was about
the usual size, but of a most beautiful golden colour, finely
striped and variegated with numerous lines of the brightest
blue, except the fins, which were of the finest carmine.

Habits. — Adults are more solitary in their habits than
are the young, and they swim low in the water. In the
colder months they retire to the deep, reappearing on our
coasts about April, when they become one of our com-
monest fish. They are very uncertain in their migrations,
perhaps owing to their possessing a great sensibility to
cold and vicissitudes of temperature. On February 3rd,
1882 (after a very mild winter), some were present in the
Exeter market. Thus Parnell observes that in 1833 and
1834 scarcely an example was observed in the Firth of
Forth, while they were in prodigious . numbers on the
English and Welsh coasts. Off Glamorganshire, on the
evening of July 24th, 1834, the whole sea as far as could be
seen appeared to be in a fermentation from their numbers.
These immense shoals continued passing up channel for
a week. Devoured themselves in large numbers by sea-

GREA T BRITAIN. 101

birds, they are great enemies to pilchards, the herring-fry,
and the sand-launce, &c. Thompson found young ClupeicUz
in one he opened in August. Ball states that he has seen
the " scad " run upon shore in considerable numbers, but
whether in pursuit of young sprats termed scad-bait, or to
avoid porpoises, Delphinns phoccena, which were conspicuous
in their rear, he was unable to say. In Norfolk, Mr. Upcher
observed that he had frequently seen large numbers of the
scad in chase of small fry along the coast at Sherringham,
and so intent in the pursuit as to be easily taken with
a landing net. The beach was quite covered with small
fish which were stranded on the shingle after leaping from
the water to escape their pursuers. R. Couch has observed
that the " mackerel " and " scad " do not intermingle much,
except near the Scilly Isles, where they are frequently
caught together in large quantities. North of this the
mackerel predominate ; to the south the scad ; and it is
surmised that in the winter months the shoals of scad are
to the south of those of the mackerel, the borders of the
two intermingling. They pass up the channel during the
spring in the deep water, feeding at the bottom ; but as
summer advances they approach the shore, swimming high,
and these are frequently taken by mackerel nets, as well as
by hooks and lines.

Means of capture. — As many as 20,000 have been taken
off Cornwall in a net at one time. In September and
October they are captured in numbers in the Cornish
pilchard nets. Some are taken in the salmon nets in the
Firth of Forth.

Baits. — Large ones readily take a bait.

Breeding. — June, July, and August (but in the Medi-
terranean during the spring, according to Risso). In
September the bays in Cornwall swarm with the young of

102 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

about i inch in length ; by October numbers scarcely
exceeding 2 inches in length are captured, while others.
are 7 or 8 inches in length. Scad about I inch in length
are commonly taken from the stomachs of large fish from
the end of December to the middle of February. Couch,
from these facts, suggested whether they do not breed
twice a year ; or perhaps all do not breed at the same time.
He also observes that the young have sometimes an
unfortunate fate ; coming to the surface to obtain heat,
they are huddled together, when guillemots dive down to
beneath them, and gulls dart down from above.

Uses. — In West Cornwall and the Scilly Isles they are
split and dry-salted ; also in the north of Ireland, where
they are known as crake-herrings.

As food. — Pennant says the one 16 inches long, which he
had taken in October, was firm and well-tasted, having the
flavour of mackerel. It is in best season when it first
comes off the coast in April. Generally it is but little
esteemed, and is held in no higher estimation in Ireland,
according to Thompson ; but Ball states that on the south
shore it is much valued by the poor.

Habitat. — This fish has been taken off the coast of
Denmark and the west coast of Norway, but is not
common in the Baltic ; as we pass further south their
numbers increase, while they are very common in the
Mediterranean. Found at Madeira, they range to the
Cape of Good Hope, and have been brought from the
Chinese and Australian seas ; also from Western America,
Steindachner having received them from Valparaiso, while
others have been obtained on the same coast.

Very common on all parts of the Cornish coast, dis-
appearing in October ; but numbers of the young are taken
until spring. It is found all round the coasts of Great

GREA T BRIT A IN. 1 03

Britain ; frequent off Lowestoft, rare off Yarmouth, while it
has been recorded from Berwickshire. In Scotland it has
been taken in the Moray Firth ; a few every year at
Lossiemouth, while it has been met with at Nairn. In the
Firth of Forth seldom more than I or i£ dozens are taken
during the year. In Banffshire it is not very numerous,
and is seldom eaten. It is not uncommon at St. Andrews,
and is tolerably common in the Orkneys and Zetland.
In Ireland it is taken around the coast, but in larger

Eibers on the southern and western shores than on the
hern or north-eastern.
^ attains to about 20 inches in length. Dr. Lowe
mentions one he saw taken in the Norfolk estuary which
weighed 2 Ib.

FAMILY VIII.— (Q/tf/dte.)

Geographical distribution. — These fishes are found in the
temperate and semi-tropical seas of both hemispheres.

GENUS i. — Doree (Zeus).

These fishes have been considered by some ichthyologists
as constituting a distinct family — Zeidce.

Geographical distribution. — From Scandinavia to the
British Isles and through the Mediterranean ; also along
the eastern portion of the Atlantic Ocean to the Cape of
Good Hope, as well as the Japanese and Australian seas.

I. Doree (Zeus faber).

Names. — The Greek name Zeus which has been given to
this fish appertained also to Jupiter, while the Latin term
faber was accorded it due to the fancied resemblance many

104 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

of its bones had to tools used by mechanics. The common
term dory or doree, or John Dory, is probably merely a
corruption of jaune doree, or " golden-yellow/' which has
reference to its colour. Superstition, regardless of its
absence from the Lake of Gennesaret, has attributed the
marks upon its sides to the effects, of St. Peter's finger and
thumb when he captured one of the finny tribe in order to
obtain the tribute-money. This fish was formerly suspended
in churches, and the legend of the mark duly detailed and
implicitly believed. Some even averred that the spots were
elegant representations of the coin which was found.
Others, however, thought that, as this fish does not exist in
the waters where this miracle was performed, it is unlikely
that to it belongs the honour attributed. Another derivation
for " John doree " is the name jamtore, by which it is said
to have been known in Venice — a name likewise applied to
St. Peter, the keeper of the keys ; in short, the door-keeper
of a better world. Again, the haddock has been pointed
out as possessing two black spots of a similar character,
irrespective of which, as in the East numerous fresh-water
and a few marine species are thus marked, it seems a rather
bold assumption to advocate that this form must be a
descendant of the identical species referred to. St.
Christopher is also credited with having captured this fish,
and left a record on its sides, as shown by the marks on
the dory. Another, but more far-fetched, derivation of the
origin of the term " John Dory " has been advanced, and
is that it is a corruption of the Gascon term Jan, or a
" cock," and that consequently it means " gilt cock," and, as
a further evidence, the circumstance that this fish in Southern
Europe is termed gallo, or " cock," from the crest on its
nape. Alston (Zool., 1866, p. 435) observed that in Arran
one was called golden haddock.

th<

GREA T BRITAIN. 105

B. vii., D. 10/22-23, V. £, A. ^ Vert. 44.

Length of head 2| to 3 ; height of body 2j in the total
length. Eye. — High up, I diameter in the post-orbital
length of the head. Mouth very protractile, its cleft oblique,
the maxilla being nearly perpendicular when it is closed,
and not reaching backwards to beneath the eye ; lower jaw
the longer, and terminating posteriorly in two spines. Teeth.
—Finely cardiform, present on the jaws and vomer, but not
the tongue or palatine bones. Fins. — First dorsal spines

ther strong, gradually increasing in length to the fourth,

e interspinous membrane is externally prolonged into
filaments of varying lengths ; while at the base of each

ine is an outwardly projecting spinous process. A double

ge extends from the ventral fin to the vent, armed with
eight lateral spines on either side. Second anal spine the
longest and somewhat the strongest. Scales. — Not imbri-
cate. Air-bladder. — Elongated, with the appearance of a
slight constriction in its posterior fourth, while a rounded
muscular body exists in its anterior fourth, from which
passes a tendon. Colours. — Olive gray with a yellowish
tinge, and usually yellow wavy horizontal bands. In the
middle of either side, just posterior to the pectoral fin, a
circular or oval black spot surrounded by a narrow yellow
ring. Fins gray, in some examples the ventrals are nearly
black ; in others, two rather dark horizontal bands pass along
both the dorsal and anal fins.

Habits. — This fish is somewhat sluggish, and said to be
frequently carried along by currents, while in swimming it
is usually seen somewhat on one side, which enables it to
rest against a rock as well as to see both above and below
it. Although its movements are generally slow they become
accelerated when it desires food, which it pursues by a sort
of succession of jerks. It is a great wanderer, and in the

106 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

winter months appears to retire to deep water, returning in
the spring in excellent condition. It seems to prefer during
the warm months rough ground to deep water, as well as
sandy bays where weeds and small fishes abound. It has
been said to grunt or groan when being removed from the
water. It has a very voracious appetite. One which
weighed I Ib. I oz. was found to contain eighteen sprats,
two sand-smelts, and one cuttle-fish, besides a number of
small fish in a decomposed state. From another, 12 J in.
in length, Couch took twenty-five "flounders," some of
which were 2 J inches in length, three half-grown " father-
lashers," and five stones from the beach. It, however, was
so gorged that it permitted itself to be taken by the hand.

Mr. Saville-Kent has drawn particular attention to the
manner in which this fish uses its fins, the movements of
which he, with great justice, likens to that of the dorsal fin
in the pipe-fish. This rapid motion affects the soft rays and
inter-radial membrane of the dorsal, anal, and pectoral fins,
all, or merely some of which, may be in motion at the same
time. This may be perceived both when they are ascending
in the water, descending, or even when reclining over on
one side ; but they are likewise able to move their fins more
slowly, as generally seen in fishes.

Many cases of whitlow, involving the loss of joints of
fingers, are occasioned from injuries inflicted by the spines
placed at the base of the dorsal and anal fins in these
fishes.

Means of capture and baits. — It is obtained most
abundantly during summer and autumn, but some are
captured throughout the year. It will take a spinning bait ;
a baby-spinner tagged with a small strip of prepared ray's
skin, and a rod with fine tackle has been recorded as killing.
One of the best baits is a small fish, especially a young sea-

GREA T BRITAIN. 107

bream, Pagellus, hooked by the tail or back. This is
swallowed head first, by which means the spines of the
bream are said to act like a hook. It will also take pieces
of mackerel, pilchard, or cuttle.

Breeding. — Very prolific, and minute young ones are
common. I found one full of matured ova in May, 1881 ;
they were very minute and numerous ; the young are 2 or
3 inches in length in August.

In the middle of last century a sudden advance in the
price of these fish took place. Couch quoted a MS. note as
follows : — " Dorys yt used to be sold for three to four pence
piece are now two shillings or half-a-crown a good one."
The same author remarks on upwards of sixty, one autumn,

>eing hauled on shore in one ground-seine, the entire lot of

rhich realized nine shillings.

As food. — It is considered by some to be in the best
condition for the table during the last four months of the
-, but others recommend it as being of superior excellence
from January to March, while fishmongers prefer such as
are taken from the Devonshire coast. It was much prized
by the Romans, who deemed it to be sacred to Neptune.

[ohn Quin, the actor, who died at Bath in 1766, when 73

rears of age, is commonly reported to have added this
delicacy to our tables, and some have even asserted that so

>leased was he with it that it was commonly known as
JoJmsdory. Borlase, in Cornwall, 1755, remarked, "This
fish is of firm substance and much coveted, but rather dry
in comparison of the sole and turbot." Sir J. Banks placed
it among " the most valuable of fishes, as it required no

luce." Some good judges of eating rank it next after the

irbot.
Mode of cooking. — They are somewhat improved by not

>eing cooked for two or three days after their capture ; they

io8 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

are boiled very slowly, and Quin recommended that this
should be done in sea-water.

Habitat. — Has been taken as far north as Norway ; seems
to be absent from the Baltic, but extending southwards
towards the British shores, where it increases in numbers ;
it is also found along the Atlantic coasts of Europe, as well
as throughout the Mediterranean.

In Great Britain it is common along the south and west
coasts, becoming rarer proceeding towards the north. At
Hartlepool, Hogg recorded its occurrence in February, 1860,
observing that it had not been taken there previously.
Paget mentions its capture at Yarmouth, and Johnston off
Berwickshire, and Southwell off Sherringham.

Parnell informs us that in the Firth of Forth seldom
more than one or two are captured during the course of a
year ; it is rather rare at St. Andrew's, but not uncommon
as a summer visitor in Banffshire, where it is mostly taken
in the salmon nets.

In Ireland it is found all round the coast, but sparingly
in some localities. Thompson says that their numbers
increase northwards, and he was credibly informed that
about twenty are taken in the vicinity of Portrush for one
in Belfast Bay.

In August, 1879, one at Norwich, which weighed 14 lb.,
was recorded in Land and Water. Couch mentions
another, 22 J inches in length, which scaled 18 lb.

FAMILY IX.— SAND SMELTS (Atherinidce\

Geographical distribution. — These pretty little fishes,
furnished with a burnished silvery lateral band, are dis-
tributed throughout nearly all the seas of temperate and
tropical regions. They are not only taken in the littoral

GREA T BRITAIN. 109

zones, but even in estuaries and tidal rivers when not far
removed from the sea, while some have been acclimatised
in fresh waters.

GENUS i. — Sand Smelt (AtJterina).

These are gregarious fishes mostly residing in the littoral
regions.

AtJierina presbyter was reported by Meynell in 1844 as
iken in Bridlington Bay, Yorkshire. Montagu and Yarrell
msidered it absent from the east coast of England, where
its place is filled by the true smelt, Osmerus eperlanus,
in its turn is asserted to be absent from the south
ist. The foregoing, it would appear, cannot be accepted
literally correct if Gurney, who has reported it from
)westoft, and Lowe, from the Norfolk estuary, have not
likewise been in error. It is evidently rare on the east
;oast, which may be due to the nature of the ground or
ibsence of appropriate food. In the Field, May 2 1st,
:88i, it is observed, "Sand-smelts run larger in Cornish
deep-water harbours than further east, as a rule."

I. Sand-smelt (A therina presbyter).

Names. — Smelt, or sand-smelt ', where the true Osmerus
eperlanus is unknown. A local name is silver-sides ; from
its colour. In Cornwall it was formerly termed Quid, a
word signifying " white " ; PincJier at Portrush (Ogilby) ;
Portaferry chicken, north of Ireland (Thompson).

B. vi., D. 7-9/s— V. ±, A. ^ L. 1. 57-62, L. tr. 10-11,
Vert. 51.

Length of head 5-^- to 6 ; height of body $$ to 6f
in the total length. Eye. — Diameter 2f to 3 in the length

i io THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

of the head, f to i diameter from the end of the snout, and
I diameter apart. Cleft of the mouth oblique, the posterior
extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the first third
of the orbit ; the lower jaw somewhat projects in front of
the upper. Teeth. — Present in the jaws, vomer, palatines,
and in a median patch along the tongue. Fins. — The first
dorsal commences over the middle of the ventral fins, its
second and third spines longest, equalling the highest rays
of the second dorsal, and f of the height of the body below
it. The second dorsal commences above the sixth anal
ray. Ccecal appendages absent. Colours. — Semi-diapha-
nous, of an olive-brown along the back, becoming silvery
tinted with purple on the sides and beneath. Numerous
fine black dots along the edges of the scales in the upper
half of the body. A burnished silvery band, darkest
superiorly, extends from the eye to the centre of the base
of the caudal fin ; it occupies the lower half of the fourth,
the whole of the fifth and the upper half of the sixth row of
scales in the anterior region of the body.

Varieties. — In form : Jenyns found the eye in some
examples having fifty-one vertebrae, 2\ diameters in the
length of the head. A s to colour: Thompson observes that
the atherine of the north of Ireland differs from the English
specimens in being of a darker, and consequently a less
sandy colour.

Habits. — This appears to be rather a local species,
generally living in small communities along the shores, or
in harbours or bays where the ground is rough and sandy,
and the water smooth, retiring in winter to deeper water.
Couch remarks that he had been informed of instances in
the shallow waters of a harbour where numbers which had
been surprised by a sudden frost had been left dead on the
shore. It eats small Crustacea and vegetable matter.

GREA T BRIT A JN. 1 1 1

Means of capture. — Nets of about 30 yards long and 1 8
feet deep, made of fine twine and having a small mesh.
One end is held by a person on shore, while another in a
boat has the other end. The net is thus dragged at the
surface of the water parallel with the shore, or encircling a
portion of a bay or of the shore. At Portsmouth Yarrell
describes another mode of capture. A concave circular net
is suspended from an iron ring of 4 feet in diameter, kept
orizontal by a three-slip bridle. The net is lowered
:eadily in 8 feet of water among the timber floating on
e side of the harbour nearest the dockyard. Pounded
bs sprinkled over the net is the attraction ; and the net
occasionally raised to the surface. A nearly similar plan
employed, according to Buckland, at Lymington in
ampshire, where a man dips a circular net suspended from
pole into the water ; he then baits it, and finally raises it
using the side of the boat as the lever for the pole.
They readily take a bait when assembled at the end of
piers.

Bait. — Ogilby states that at Portrush it is only caught by
fishing with a small hook, baited with a piece of the flesh
of the Galeus canis, that of every other dog-fish being
refused. In Cornwall it is found to take a bait readily ; in
fact, along the south coast it is captured by anglers from
projecting points in several localities, and observed to be so
taken even when heaviest with roe.
Breeding. — July.

Uses. — A good bait, especially for haddocks.
As food. — Some have deemed it a well-flavoured fish,
but rather dry and inferior to the true smelt, and best when
in full roe. Others consider it worthless as food, and full
of bones.

ii2 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Habitat. — This species extends from the north-east coast
of Scotland ; very sparingly along the east shores of Great
Britain, but abundant on the south. It is also found on the
Atlantic coasts of France and the Iberian Peninsula, and
has been reported from the Mediterranean.

This fish has been recorded at Aberdeen, St. Andrew's,
where it is rare, but one local specimen exists in the
museum ; in the Firth of Forth it is sometimes washed
ashore after easterly winds, but is usually rare. It is
recorded from Bridlington Bay, Yorkshire. In the Norfolk
estuary it is said to be frequent during the summer months,
and found at Lowestoft. In Kent the atherine appears
to be unknown, but is extremely plentiful in Hampshire,
especially about Southampton. On the south coast of
Devonshire it is caught in great abundance in the creeks
and estuaries, but never in rivers above the flow of the
tide. It appears to continue near the shore through the
months of autumn to spring. It is found in Kent, along
the coast of Sussex ; throughout the year, except during
frosts, at Southampton ; is as plentiful on some parts of
the southern coast of England as the smelt is on the
eastern coast, and each seems to have its limits.

Ireland. — Found in certain localities from the coast of
Down, where it is plentiful, southwards to that of Cork,
being not uncommon at Wexford and Youghal. It is
mostly brought to market at Belfast from December to
April, both months inclusive, but has been observed as early
as September. In autumn it is very common in the harbour
at Portrush, county of Antrim. Dingle Harbour abundant.
Said to attain a larger size in Ireland than in England. In
Strangford Lough its average length is recorded at 6-j-, a
few 7, and one 7^ inches long.

GREA T BRITAIN. 1 1 3

FAMILY X.— GREY MULLET (Mugilidce).

Geographical distribution. — These cosmopolitan fishes are
found in most temperate and tropical seas, where they
frequent the shores, and ascend the larger rivers even into
fresh water. Some forms appear to be entirely restricted
to fresh water.

GENUS I.— Grey Mullet (Mugil).

Respecting the mullets which live in the British seas,
some differences of opinion exist. Irrespective of M.
curtus, Yarrell, Thompson and Couch merely recognised
two, Mttgil capito, a " thin-lipped " species, and M. chelo, a
" thick-lipped."

Mullets have frequently been kept in large salt and even
fresh-water aquaria. In 1831, Mr. Arnold, of Guernsey,
communicated to the Zoological Society of London some
experiments which he had personally carried out on this
subject, in a five-acre lake of varying depths, having a
muddy, gravelly or rocky bottom, and which was princi-
pally filled with fresh water. Here for nine months in the
year cattle came to drink, but in summer the water was too
salt, due to a supply from the sea being received through a
tunnel. Among the introduced fish were grey mullets,
which, it was remarked, bred as freely as if they had
remained in the sea. At Devonport exists a most beautiful
piece of water, on the three sides of which trees come down
to its edge ; a small stream flows in from the high lands
above, while at its lower end a tunnel communicates with
the backwater, and through which saline water obtains an
entrance. A long weir prevents the entrance of fish into,
or exit from, this lake. Here are many mullet, which the

VOL. I.— E. I. I

ii4 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

owner has had netted and introduced during the last few
years, and where they appear to flourish.

These fish are very active, and as soon as a shoal is
enclosed by a net, they at first lose all order, but this soon
becomes re-established, and a leader seeks for a hole or
way beneath the obstruction, or, failing this, they essay to
spring over. At Mevagissey a shoal entered the harbour,
and having been perceived, the entrance was at once barred
by nets. The mullet first tried to jump over, but a net was
raised to bar that route. The water was very clear, and the
fish were seen to swim round and round, to try to find an
exit. Next they attempted to get under the foot-rope ; at
last one made a push, but became meshed. When this
was done, another came and laid beside it, and nothing
could drive it away. In short, all escaped but these two.
Carew had a pond of salt water in Cornwall, in which
mullets were l^ept, and having been accustomed to feed
them at a certain place every evening, they became so
tame that a knocking like that of chopping caused them to
assemble.

There are two points of great interest in the internal
anatomy of these fishes which must not be passed over in
silence ; the first being how they feed, and the second the
conformation of their stomachs. In an aquarium it is most
interesting to observe them suck in the sand, the coarser
portion of which they almost immediately afterwards expel
from their mouths. A sifting or filtering apparatus exists
in the pharynx, which precludes large and hard substances
from passing into the stomach, or sand from obtaining
access to the gills.

The oesophagus passes into the cardiac portion of the
stomach, which forms a blind sac ; while the pyloric portion
is conical externally, somewhat resembling a bird's gizzard,

•

GREAT BRITAIN. 115

but which, when cut into, is found to consist of dense
muscular walls, formed of circular fibres, leaving a small
cavity internally, lined with a thick and horny epithelium.
The pyloric opening is protected by a valve, and here are
seen the orifices of the caecal appendages, which usually
encircle the commencement of the small intestines.

Mullets are much esteemed as food, but perhaps more so
on the continent than they are in tGreat Britain ; while such
have been taken in clear streams are much better

voured than those captured in the ocean ; any that have
resident in stagnant pools where reeds abound, or

here the bottom is foul and oozy, are generally to be

oided. They ought to be cooked the same day they are

ptured. Large numbers are exported to France from

reat Britain.

Before cooking they must first be very carefully eviscerated
and cleansed, as they are not always very particular as to
the food they swallow.

In Italy the hard roe of mullets is converted into cakes
termed botarge or botargo, which are prepared by washing,
sprinkling with salt, and pressing between two boards.
This may be smoke or sun-dried, and is considered a good
appetiser to promote thirst. But in India the same article
is somewhat similarly treated, and considered excellent for
curries.

The modes of capture adopted for taking mullets are
numerous. Thus, at Naples, when these fishes are sur-
rounded by a net, the fishermen first set to work to terrify
them, which is accomplished by making a great disturbance
on the surface of the water ; or else they place a raft com-
posed of reeds round the outside of the nets, so that the
mullets which spring over are captured by persons stationed
utside for that purpose. In a nearly similar manner some

I 2

ii6 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

of the fishermen on our own coast scatter straw on the
water on the inner side of the net ; on to this the fish throw
themselves, but only to fall again into the inclosure, while
it is believed that, having once failed, they give up further
efforts at escape.

I. Grey Mullet (Mugil capito}.

Names. — Thin-lipped millet. Mowel (Halliwell).

B. vi., D. 4/~, V. J-, A. g, L. 1. 42-46, L. tr. 14, Caec. pyl.
vi-viii.

Length of head 5 to $± ; height of body 4^ to 5£ in the
total length. Eye. — Without adipose lids ; the diameter
4^. to 4f in the length of the head, I to i^ diameters from
the end of the snout, and 2 to 2\ apart. Upper lip not
thickened. Angles made by the anterior edges of the
mandibles a little obtuse ; width of the gape of the mouth
nearly equal to three times the* extent of the cleft ; man-
dibles broad ; the end of the maxilla visible behind and
below the angle of the mouth. Preorbital very finely
serrated at its external edge. The free space on the chin
narrow, and reaches to nearly opposite the hind edge of
the preopercle. Teeth. — Fine labial ones in upper jaw.
Fins. — First dorsal commences either nearer to the snout
or midway between it and the base of the caudal fin ; its
spines are of moderate strength, the two first being of
about equal height, and not quite equalling half the length
of the head, the interspace between the two fins being
equal to if or twice the length of the base of the first
dorsal. Pectoral inserted some little distance above the
centre of the depth of the body, and its length equalling
that of the head, excluding the snout. Anal commences
somewhat in advance of the second dorsal. Scales. — 24 or

25 between the snout and the spinous dorsal ; about 6 in

Ian

GREA T BRITAIN. 1 17

the interspace between the dorsal fins. No large pointed
axillary scale. The pectoral fin reaches to about the nth
or 1 2th scale of the lateral-line. The first dorsal com-
mences above the I3th or I4th scale of the lateral-line, and
the second above the 26th. No scales on the second dorsal
or anal fins ; a long angular one at the base of the ventral.
Colours. — Silvery, becoming lighter below ; six to eight
dark bluish bands along the rows of scales of the back and
sides ; head shot with golden ; fins grayish.

Habits. — Couch observed that it never goes far from
d, but delights in shallow water during the warm
weather, snatching at any oily substance that may chance
be floating about. It ventures some distance up rivers,
returning with the tide, and frequently enters by the flood-
gates into a salt-water mill-pool at Looe, which contains
about twenty acres. It selects soft and fat food, or such as
has commenced to decompose, and is especially partial to
shrimps.

In autumn and winter these fish are very plentiful and
gregarious. They are more active than Mugil ckelo, and
when enclosed in a seine they jump much higher. During
October and November, 1880, I examined many obtained
from Brixham and the coasts of Cornwall, and all belonged
to M. capita, as described.

Means of capture. — Netting, and rarely by hooks ; but it
is as active at escape as the M. chelo. It sucks at its food,
and will occasionally take a rag- worm or artificial fly. In
the Stour it is observed that slimy stuff, which after a
drought rises most freely from the bed of the river, will stick
to the hook, and no other bait equals it. Couch says that
it is most readily taken with bait formed of the fat entrails
of a fish, or cabbage boiled in broth. It is angled for as
the tide is coming in, for on the ebb it returns to salt water.

ii8 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Breeding. — Said to be in the winter months, but on
opening some on January 2/th, 1882, I found the ova not
nearly ripe, while the winter had been very mild.

Habitat. — This species would seem to be very rare on
the coast of Norway, but was possibly the form captured
off Denmark in the Cattegat, October 8th, 1852. Occa-
sionally taken on the shores of the German Ocean, becomes
more numerous along the south and south-west coasts of
Great Britain, and the Cape of Good Hope. It extends
through the Mediterranean to the fresh-water lakes of
Tunis, and in the Nile certainly as far as Cairo.

In the British Isles some confusion respecting its distri-
bution exists. Many of the recorded Scotch examples
may belong to M. chelo, but the British Museum has
received specimens from the Firth of Forth. It would
seem to be occasionally taken off the Yorkshire coast,
where it is said to be resident and local. I have obtained
many examples, but all from the south and south-west
coast, captured between the months of September and
March inclusive. It occurs constantly on the Kentish and
Essex shores.

In Ireland this species was not found by Thompson,
who, however, only had the opportunity of examining
mullets from the east coast. In the Cork Fauna (1845),
Dr. Harvey gives M. capita as certainly present, and
M. chelo with doubt.

This fish exceeds 3 feet in length.

2. Lesser Grey Mullet (Mugil chelo).

Names. — Thick-lipped mullet.

B. vi, D. 4/i V. J, A. ^0, L.I. 43-45, L. tr. 15-16, Caec.
pyl. v-vii., Vert. ±±.

GREA T BRIT A IN. 119

Length of head 4f to 5 ; height of body 44 to 5 times
in the total length. £j/£r.— Without adipose lids ; the
diameter of each 4^ in the length of the head *y from I to
i^ diameters from the end of the snout, and 2\ apart.
Snout obtuse ; upper lip rather thick, with two or three
rows of papillae on its lowest portion ; while in others there
are several but much smaller rows, perhaps due to season.
Angles made by the anterior edges of mandibles obtuse,
the extent of the gape of the mouth being about three
times as wide as the depth of its cleft ; mandibles very
broad ; the end of the maxilla visible behind and below
the angle of the mouth. Preorbital obtusely truncated,
posteriorly coming to a point ; its lower edge, which is
somewhat rounded, being finely serrated. A narrow strip
of the chin is uncovered. Teeth. — Fine labial ones in the
upper lip. Fins. — The dorsal commences somewhat nearer
the caudal fin, or midway between it and the end of the
snout ; spines stout, the two first of the same height, and
equalling that of the postorbital length of the head. The
interspace between the two dorsal fins equal to or slightly
exceeding that of the base of the first dorsal. Pectoral
inserted somewhat above the centre of the depth of the
body, and its length equalling that of the head, excluding
the snout. Anal below the second dorsal, and rather
higher than it. Scales. — About 26 between the snout and
the base of the first dorsal fin. The second dorsal com-
mences above the twenty-ninth scale of the lateral-line ;
the pectoral reaches the tenth or twelfth, and has no
elongated angular scale at the axilla ; while such is present
at the base of the ventral and first dorsal. A few scales on
upper part of the preorbital and the anterior edge and base
of soft dorsal and anal fins. Colours. — Grey shot with
bronze about the head, cheeks golden, sides silvery dashed

120 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

with gold ; a dark line along each row of scales on the back
and sides.

Habits. — Gregarious, frequenting harbours, mouths of
rivers so far as the tide extends, inlets of the sea, and but
rarely enters deep waters. Is a summer visitant to the
Humber estuary, is rather uncertain in its movements, but
generally appears in May, and leaves in August. It seems
to delight in the most oozy parts of bays, and where the
grass-wrack, Zostera marina^ abounds.

Breeding. — Young mullets are first seen off Cornwall late
in July, and generally near the surface. About August
schools of young mullets (each of which measures about
three-quarters of an inch in length) are present along the
south coast. I received one i^ inches long taken March
2Oth, 1882, in Cornwall, and several up to 3^- inches in length
captured the same week near Exeter. While swimming
each appears to have a white spot on the back of its head,
which disappears on its being removed from the water.
Thompson, in Ireland, did not obtain any in spawn from
March until September.

As food. — Esteemed for table. The county of Sussex is
celebrated in a gastronomical point of view for six things —
a Chichester lobster, a Selsey cockle, an Arundel mullet,
a Pulborough eel, an Amberley trout, and a Rye herring—
the mullet referred to being this species, according to
Yarrell.

Habitat. — Coasts of Scandinavia, the German Ocean and
Atlantic coast of Europe to Madeira, and also the Medi-
terranean.

In the Orkneys and Zetland the thick-lipped grey mullet
is tolerably frequent from June to September, and is the
common species on the eastern shores of Scotland, where
M. capita is not known, or is at least far from numerous.

GREA T BRITAIN. 1 2 1

It is common on the west coast of Scotland, and in some
seasons numbers are taken off Dunbar. It is found at
Aberdeen, and has been noticed off Berwick. Occasionally
taken on the Yorkshire coast. Plentiful at Portsmouth,
and during July and August until October in Devonshire,
Plymouth and Penzance.

In Ireland it frequents the east coast from north to
south ; it also frequents the south coast.

It attains to upwards of 3 feet, and one is recorded from
Ireland weighing I4f Ib.

ORDER II.— SPINELESS FISHES (Anacanthint).

All the fin rays of the vertical and ventral fins articu-
lated : ventral fins, when present, jugular and thoracic.
Air-bladder, if existing, not having a pervious pneumatic
duct.

The order of spineless fishes has been divided into two
groups, in one both sides of the head are symmetrical, in
the other not so.

First group. — Anacanthini Gadoidei. The two sides of
the head symmetrical.

FAMILY I. — COD-FISHES (Gadida).

Geographical distribution.— r-The cod family is composed
of surface and littoral forms, those residing off our coasts
having been found at a depth rarely exceeding 120 or
150 fathoms. These fishes are extended through the
Arctic and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere,
becoming almost unknown in the tropics, and very rare to
the south of the line. Although, as a rule, it is composed
)f marine genera, still fresh-water representatives are not
mknown, as the burbot, Lota vulgaris, which would seem

122 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

to be descended from a marine ancestry, for, like its ocean
relatives, its air-bladder is destitute of ossicles connecting
it with the internal ear. Reliable evidence confirmatory
or the reverse of this view, or whether marine residents
among the Gadidae may be detected living in fresh waters,
thus becomes desirable. For should a migration from
the sea to fresh waters be undertaken without occasioning
deleterious results, it would tend towards confirming the
possibility of the correctness of the foregoing deduction.

In Midgulen Lake, 61° 43' N. Lat, and 5° 15' E.
Long, from Greenwich, pollack have been found living
in the fresh water. This lake is about 500 yards from
the sea, with which it is connected by a river averaging
about 20 yards in width by 3 feet in depth. There are
no falls, but three or four rapids, which at high water
are (as regards those nearest the sea) submerged, the upper
ones being but slightly affected. A small boat could
perhaps row from the sea into the lake under favourable
circumstances, while the strength of the current could not
prevent a fish of the weakest sort from entering the lake ; at
the same time no sea-water can get in — the more so that the
head of the Fjord itself is fresh on the surface. This lake
is about one and a half miles in length, its depth unknown ;
it is fed by the snow melting on the hills far and near,
while its water is perfectly and entirely fresh. Here reside
the usually marine pollack. On the south side of the Sogne
Fjord, about thirty or forty miles from the sea, is a Fjord
called Fuglescet, a small branch of which is the Sorejde
Fjord. Here a small river, about one hundred yards long,
flows from the lake to the sea, which, though rapid at low
water, is nearly checked at high water. Still the fresh
water always pushes out. This lake is two miles long, and
fed by two snow streams. Here cod, coal-fish, and pollack

GREA T BRIT A IN. 123

may be taken at the inland extremity of the lake, the
pollack being actually in the snow-water stream. There is
no sign whatever of fresh-water fish. In short, the sea-
fish have complete possession of this lake, which is entirely
fresh.

Marine fishes in the Baltic have become acclimatised to
a residence, where the character of the water has gradually
changed from saline to fresh, so that the herring and some
other sea forms, unable to obtain access to the Arctic
Ocean, deposit their eggs in potable water, and the four-
horned Coitus quadricornis even migrates to the rivers.
Both the foregoing instances show how marine Gadidae may
voluntarily enter and reside in fresh waters, while we have
no reason to suppose that, were their return to the sea
cut off, they could not live and continue their species in
this new locality.

These fish, especially the cod, occasionally shift their
ground, some cause, probably absence or presence of some
peculiar food, inducing them to leave localities they had
previously frequented ; thus the London market used to be
supplied from the Orkneys and the Dogger Bank, but
during the present century these fish have extended their
range to off Lincolnshire and Norfolk in sufficient numbers
to render their capture remunerative.

Fisheries for cod have existed in the north many
centuries, for we know that one in the German Ocean was
recognised before A.D. 1 368, because in that year the city
of Amsterdam obtained permission from the King of
Sweden to form an establishment in the island of Schonen
for the purpose of carrying it on. But prior to John
Cabot's re-discovery of Newfoundland in A.D. 1496 the
fisheries of the greatest importance in Europe were off our
western isles and the coast of Ireland. English fishermen

124 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

must have resorted to these latter localities prior to A.D.
1415, because we read that Henry V. was disposed at this
period to accord satisfaction to the King of Denmark for
certain irregularities committed in those seas by his
subjects. But since the commencement of the sixteenth
century the Newfoundland fisheries have become the most
important in the northern hemisphere. Cod fisheries,
frequented by British fishermen, exist to a greater or less
extent from Iceland to the south coast of England, and as far
west as Newfoundland. They are largely carried on in these
islands, especially to the north and west of Scotland, and
likewise off the maritime counties of Ireland.

Means of capture. — The cod, or white fishery, in which is
here included the common cod, haddock, whiting, bib,
pollack, coal-fish, ling, hake, torsk, and their family allies,
is one of great national importance in several ways, more
especially as the means of obtaining a large amount of
good and wholesome food, as well as giving employment to
fishermen and many traders. The members of the cod
family are generally gregarious, and collect in large shoals
at particular spots, and although in the following observa-
tions the common cod will be more especially mentioned,
their fisheries are representative ones of what is likewise
being carried on to secure other members of the family.
The three forms which are, perhaps, the most valuable in an
economic point of view are the common cod (Gadus
morrhua\ haddock (G. czglefinus), and whiting (G. merlan-
gus). The common cod as a rule is in the best condition
from the end of October to the beginning of February, the
cold season being that in which members of this family
attain the greatest perfection for the table, although some
are employed for this purpose throughout the year. Living
as the cod does, it is found feeding mostly near the ground

GREA T BRITAIN. 1 25

on submerged banks, where it can obtain appropriate food.
Being a voracious feeder, the experienced fisherman takes
advantage of its appetite, and with long or hand-lines, as
well as nets, seeks his game in suitable localities. Long-
lines or butters are employed up to at least seven miles in
length, while the Norwegians also use trawl-lines and even
nets. The baits employed are various : — small fish, as
lamperns (Petromyzon fluviatilis\ sand-launce (A mmodytes),
herrings (Clupea harengus}, pilchards (C.pilchardus)> sprats
(C. sprattus}, whelks, or buckies as they are termed in
Scotland, where they are much approved of, due both to
their toughness and likewise attractiveness to the cod and
ling, limpets, mussels, various Crustacea, and testacea, as
well as lug-worms, and even the roe of the cod itself.
These lines, if slightly raised off the ground by floats, or
buoyed at both ends, so that merely the middle portion
rests on the ground, cause the bait to be less hidden by
weeds, are better seen by the fish, and less consumed by
crabs and star-fishes. The long-lines off our coasts are shot
about slack water, and heaved up in about six hours, when
the tide has nearly finished. Sharks, dog-fishes, and por-
poises are great enemies to this occupation, carrying away
the hooked fish. Hand-lining is used very similarly to
long-lining, only employed by men fishing from boats,
while it is most efficacious when cod are not at the bottom,
but rising more towards the surface, as when in pursuit of
the herring or other fishes. Whiffing^ or surface line-
fishing, and beam-trawling^ are likewise employed for taking
some members of the cod family.

The fish having been captured, the question for the
fishermen is, if they shall be killed at once and prepared
in a suitable manner by means of ice or salt for a near or
distant market ; or whether they shall be retained alive by

126 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

being placed in appropriate places. Smacks with wells in
them were first used in England at Harwich, about A.D.
1712, said to have been • copied from some Dutch fishing
boats. This well, as now made, is not simply a tank fitted
into the smack, but a constituent portion of the vessel
itself. Two strong and water-tight bulkheads are con-
structed across the width of the smack, enclosing a large
portion of the centre of the vessel, while they reach in
height from the deck to the keelson. Large holes are
bored through the sides of the smack below the water-line,
permitting a constant stream being kept up. Here cx)d
captured at a moderate depth will live for a considerable
time, but should they or ling have been hooked at a great
depth, they will not usually thrive. Rough weather is very
detrimental to fishes in welled smacks, occasioning many
deaths. A plan is likewise adopted for keeping cod alive
after arriving in port, by transferring them to cod-chests,
which are kept floating in docks or other suitable places.
Those at Grimsby and Harwich are about 7 feet long
and 2 deep, the bottom and sides being made of stout
battens, placed a short distance asunder in order to admit
a constant penetration of water from outside. The top is
planked, but possesses an oblong opening and movable
cover for introducing or removing the fish. To the ends of
each cod-chest ropes or chains are attached in order to
easily move it about. About forty good-sized cod will live
about a fortnight in one of these chests, and about four
hundred are constantly in use at Grimsby. For sending to
market, the cod are removed, killed by blows on the head
with a mallet or short club, and then sent to London, where
they are known as " live cod," and attain the highest price.
Owing to the method employed in killing them, they can
be crimped some hours subsequently.

GREAT BRITAIN. 127

Diseases. — The members of the cod family appear to
be very susceptible to disease, especially of the vertebral
column, which may become shortened, and has been com-
pared by Dr. Dyce to a form of rickets, occasioning angular
or lateral curvature. This may cause a diminution in the
extent of surface covered by the dorsal or anal fins, which
from this, or other causes, vary greatly in the number of
their rays. Sometimes it gives the fish a hunch-backed

ippearance, or the proportionate length of the head to that

>f the body becomes far greater than is normally the case.

Uindness is not rare among these fishes, especially when in
ifinement. The presence of parasites may not only alter
le colours of the fish as shown by its being of an un-

laturally light tint, but also by the infected spots turning

»lack, as seen in the speckled cod.

GENUS i.— The Cod (Gadus).

The reason why these fishes were termed A sinus by the
ancients has by some been considered to have reference to
their colour; while others believe it to be due to their
having been carried to market on the backs of asses.
Yarrell, however, advanced another suggestion, that the
term was originally intended for the haddock, in which (he
says) the shoulder blotch frequently extends over the back,
uniting with that on the opposite side, and thus reminding
the observer of the dark stripe over the withers of an ass.
A slight objection might be raised as to whether it can be
considered probable that the Greeks and Latins conferred
this term on a species which does not exist in their seas.
The name has also been supposed to refer to the hake.

This genus was subdivided by Cuvier into (i) those in
which three dorsal fins and a submandibular barbel were

i

128 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

present, Gadus ; and (2) those in which the barbel was
absent, Merlangus.

A. Upper jaw the longer ; its outer row of teeth enlarged

(Gadus].

a. Barbel present.
i. Cod (Gadus morrhud}.

Names. — Poullach, Moray Firth, or if half grown, duncan
(Gordon) ; kleg and keeling, a large kind of cod ; also
chelynge (Halliwell). Dole-fish is that form in which the
fishermen of the North Sea had their pay or " dole." Blens,
while the young are generally known as codlings. In the
Channel, those the size of a whiting are termed codlings
and skinners ; when larger, tumbling or tamlin-cod (Yarrell).
Haberdine or salted cod in Westmoreland.

B. vii., D. 13-15 | 16-19 I 17-19 (21), V. 6, A. 17-19 |
1 6- 1 8, Vert f|.

Length of head 3| to 44- ; height of body 4 to 5, or even
more in the young, in the total length. Eye. — Diameter,
4| in the young to 7 in the adult in the length of the head ;
\\ diameters in the young to 2 in the adult from the end
of the snout, and 14- in the young to 2 in the adult apart.
Body much thickest anteriorly. Mouth wide, with a deep
cleft. Upper jaw the longer ; the posterior extremity of the
maxilla reaches to beneath the first third, or middle of the
eye. A barbel, generally as long as the eye, but sometimes
shorter, is situated below the chin. Teeth. — Cardiform,
with an outer and much enlarged row in the upper jaw, in
a V-shaped patch on the vomer, absent from the palatines
and tongue. Fins. — The first dorsal somewhat triangular,
it commences over or slightly posterior to the base of the
pectoral. There exists a very short interspace between the

GREA T BRIT A IN. \ 29

bases of the two first dorsal fins. A very short interspace
exists between the second and third dorsal fins, and a
longer or shorter interspace occurs between its termination
and the base of the outermost caudal rays. The anterior
anal fin commences on a vertical line below the fourth or
fifth ray of the second dorsal, and a short interspace exists
between it and the origin of the second anal, which is
similar to the third dorsal. Vent situated on a vertical

e beneath the first rays of the second dorsal fin. Ccscal
appendages. — Numerous and short. Colours. — Greenish or
grayish, or olive, and occasionally covered with yellow or
brown spots along the back and upper two-thirds of the
body, its lower portion pure white. Lateral-line white,
especially in its lower half. Fins gray, becoming darkest
towards their outer edges.

Varieties of form. — Fishermen distinguish two races : (i)
the southern or Dogger-bank cod, having a pointed and
somewhat elongated snout, the body being of a dark
colour ; and (2) the north or Scotch cod, having a blunter
snout, and being of a light ash-gray. The two forms are
said to mix off Northumberland. Yarrell, having observed
a " lord-fish " (G. macrocephalus), Tiles, at the mouth of
the Thames, considered the appearance due to disease.
Gurney (Zool., May 1 6th, 1851) remarks upon having seen
one of these fish caught at Lowestoft, and called by the
local fishermen " a lord," resembling Yarrell's figure. Cob-
bold found this shortening of the body, which occasions the
comparatively large head, to be due to the coalescence of
a great number of the vertebrae immediately succeeding
the bones of the head. Gill alludes to a Labrador specimen
which possessed two barbels below the chin, placed one
behind the other. Of colour.— Turton's " speckled cod "
ay have been so coloured due to disease — as the presence
VOL. I.— E. I. K

130 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

of parasites — as some examples are of a light colour, but
speckled, especially over the upper half of the body and
fins, with small black dots, which under a magnifying glass
are seen to be round elevations, some of which have small
orifices in their centres. The fins are edged with black.
Codlings are frequently yellow, or even of a red colour,
while living among rocks ; they do not assume their adult
livery until they change their residence. Edward, at Banff,
alludes to occasionally meeting with red codlings, which
most frequently had yellow fins ; none exceeded the size
of the common haddock. In the Isle of Man, where they
are known as Boddagh ruy, they are not found in very deep
water, but generally in rocky localities near the shore.
Thompson saw one in Ireland of a pale lilac-gray colour,
closely studded over with large reddish-gray spots, which
were as close together as in any species of trout. Parnell
found the red cod the firmest for eating, and remarked
that they resided in very deep water, feeding almost
entirely on young lobsters and star-fish.

Habits. — A voracious fish, which, as a rule, feeds near
the ground. It is indiscriminate in its choice, consuming
whatever inhabitants of the deep it is able to master. The
most elaborate investigations into the life history of this fish
have been made by Sars off the coast of Norway. Large
cod fisheries begin along the north-west coast of Norway,
generally in the winter ; consequently, the fish would seem
to commence arriving all about the same time, and though
each school does not follow the identical course of the one
preceding it, they may be imagined as coming in numerous
parallel lines, and in a north-easterly direction from the
great deep towards the shore. The chief fisheries are in
the middle of the winter, or first four months of the year,
and about the same time as the great spring herring

GREA T BRIT A IN. 131

fisheries. It was observed that near Christmas unusual
numbers of small fishes appear on the banks off the north-
west of Norway, and before long the cod-fish make their
appearance ; soon the other and smaller forms decrease in
number, until at last it appears as if only cod were present.
The first comers (species doubtful) are termed the " an-
nouncing fish " by the fishermen, as they are the advanced
guard of the large army which begins to appear about the
middle of January, and continues arriving in schools, con-
sisting of milters and spawners, until the middle of March.
In other years they may even commence arriving as late as
March, the period varying with the weather, as they come
in earlier when it is mild, with a south-westerly wind, than
when it is cold, with north-easterly gales. During a good
season they are described as forming " mountains of fish,"
but frequently none can be captured at this period, either
with seines or lines ; the fishermen say they keep quiet
until a new school arrives and drives them forward, their
quiescence being probably due to the coldness of the water
as compared with that at the depths from which they have
left. They are found to keep nearest the bottom in coldest
weather, while the fishermen (at least in certain localities
where the current is not too strong) use floats to keep their
nets or lines some distance from the ground ; consequently,
such lines as are suspended at both ends only have the
central portion reaching the bottom, while the remainder
gradually approaches the surface, and thus cod are taken
at often twenty or thirty fathoms from the ground. On
leaving the coast of Norway they seem either to go direct
out to sea, or along the western shores, their course appear-
ing to depend considerably upon the temperature of the
water. They consume small fish, as the young of their
own kind or any they can obtain, but are especially partial

K 2

132 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

to sand-eels, herrings, sprats, and the spawn of herrings,
also crustaceous and testaceous animals, and, as is well
known to fishermen, evidently preferring one sort of animal
food to another, being very partial to crabs and whelks,
while their digestion is so powerful that the greater portion
of the shells they swallow are dissolved. They often dis-
gorge their food when hooked and being drawn on board.
In the North Sea they frequently feed at night-time on the
herrings meshed in the drift-nets, doing much damage to
the light cotton nets ; while off Devonshire and Cornwall
they feast extensively upon pilchards during the autumnal
migration. The contents of their stomachs are almost
infinite : from one captured in Lynn Deeps on Midsummer-
eve, 1626, and brought to the Vice- Chancellor of Cam-
bridge, was taken a book in three treatises ; from another,
Captain Hill recovered his keys several days after he had
dropped them overboard from a North Sea trawler very
many miles distant from where they had been lost. An
entire partridge was taken from the stomach of one.
Johnston observed that a fisherman caught a cod having
a hare in its stomach ; while another had a white turnip.
Mr. Reid, of Wick, saw a black guillemot in perfect feather
•removed from the stomach of one of these fishes in March,
1879 ; while Mr. Grove took a piece of tallow candle seven
inches long from the inside of a cod. Stones and similar
indigestible substances are frequently found in their di-
gestive cavities, and which have probably been swallowed
in order to obtain the corallines which were attached to
them ; it subsequently rejects the stones, &c. Couch ob-
served six picked dog-fishes, each nine inches long, removed
from inside another ; while he records numerous species of
stalk-eyed Crustacea taken from examples captured in the
west portion of the British Channel. A Norway lobster

GREAT BRITAIN. 133

(Nephrops Norvegicus) has been found in one from the
Scotch coast. Examining a considerable number of
stomachs removed from cod-fishes taken on the east coast
of England during the winter of 1 880-8 1, whelks and crabs,
especially Hyas coarctatus, appeared to have formed their
principal food. Sharks, dog-fishes, seals, &c., are found
preying on them, and sea-birds and larger fishes on their
young. Thompson (' Depths of the Sea ') observes upon
having dredged over the Faroe Bank at a depth of from
200 to 50 fathoms, the bottom gravel and nullipore, and
the temperature from 8° to 10° Centigrade. The banks
swarmed with the common brittle star (Opliathaix fragilis),
with the Norway lobster (Nephrops Norvegicus], large
spider-crabs, several species of Galathea, and many of the
genus Crangon. So ample a supply of their favourite food
readily accounted for the abundance and excellence of the
cod and ling on these banks.

They may be kept in salt-water vivaria, as I have already
alluded to. Near North Queensferry a number of fish are
kept in a salt-water pond about 200 feet long and 5 fathoms
deep, in which the tide ebbs and flows twice daily. Here
the fish, especially the cod, appear to thrive well, and are
found to be firmer in the flesh and thicker across the
shoulders than those obtained from the Firth of Forth
(Parnell). Yarrell likewise alludes to similarly formed
vivaria as existent in the Orkneys and in Fife.

Means of capture. — Along our coasts most of the fishing
for cod is carried on by means of long or hand-lines,
although a few of the fishes may occasionally be netted, as
is extensively done off Norway.* The principal English
fishery is off the Dogger Bank, between England and

K This plan is now being extensively tried off the coasts of the
United States, and with great success.

134 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Denmark, and on Cromer Knoll on the Norfolk coast
where long-lining is engaged in throughout the winter until
about April in the former locality, and February in the
latter. Many vessels early in the year proceed to New-
foundland, where the season extends from February until
April. Off Wick this fishing, which is largely carried on
during February, is considered to terminate upon March 15.
It would fill up too much space to follow out our cod-
fisheries here, but it may be remarked that some are taken
throughout the year around our coasts, and during the
summer it is not unusual for wanderers to come close in
shore, and be captured in the bag-nets set for salmon.

As showing the productiveness of these fisheries, those
of Norway closed in May, 1881. The total yield of this
season's fishery has been estimated as amounting to twenty-
five millions and three-quarters of cod-fish (of which num-
ber twenty-one and a half millions have been salted),
48,000 tons or barrels of liver, 2500 barrels of medicinal train
oil, and 31,000 barrels of roe. Outside the island stations
the fishing yielded five millions of cod-fish (600,000 of
which have been salted), 11,700 barrels of liver, 70 tons of
medicinal train oil, and 6000 tons of roe. Of the smaller
fisheries, which have also closed, the two principal fishing
stations have produced — the one near Sondmore, 160,000
vog. (18 kilogrammes each) of cod-fish, 5000 tons of roe,
2200 barrels of medicinal, and 1800 tons of other kinds of
train oil ; the other station, near Romsdal, 600,000 cod-
fish, 450 barrels of medicinal, and 200 tons of common
train oil, and 600 tons of roe. In June it was observed
that the Arctic cod-fishing this year has proved a failure.
Five of the fishing vessels from North Faroe have returned
to Shetland with takes ranging from only 2000 to 4000
cod. One vessel, the Walrus, is reported to have 7000,

GREA T BRITAIN. 135

the highest take of the fleet ; a second trip will probably
be made later in the season.

Bait. — It is very voracious, devouring everything eatable.
Mussel are most used in Moray Firth, or the limpet
(Patella] ; also " Badgers," a common shell-fish, Lutraria
vulgaris, and the " spout-fish," Solen siliqua, are very
killing, but more especially the " sand-launce " and " her-
ring."

The " cod murderer," in use at Peterhead, consists of a
>ng piece of lead, either round or flat, with snoods passed
irough holes at intervals, bearing a hook at either end,
without bait. The cod strikes against the lead, and one or
icr of the hooks generally secures it (' Angler's Note
>k,' p. 48).

Breeding. — The cod arrives from the deep sea, and com-
lences spawning in our seas, usually in January, and
continues this operation until about April. In the Firth
of Forth, however, Parnell observed that they begin to
deposit their spawn in the months of May or June, and it
must be remarked that they are much later in cold and
boisterous seasons than in calm and mild ones. They are
very prolific. Leuwenhoeck counted 9,384,000 eggs in one
of medium size ; Harmer, 3,686,760 in one taken at the
end of December ; Buckland, 1,800,000 in a ij Ib. fish in
March, while he found in 7f Ib. of cod roe 6,867,000, and
such a quantity sometimes exists, that from fish of 21 Ib.
weight 12 Ib. of roe have been removed. Off Norway,
Sars observed that at the spawning period the cod became
restless, the males and females swimming about very
rapidly, while spawning was continued some months,
during which period the fish get out of condition. The
females, as a rule, were nearer to the surface than the
males, as proved by netting, for the drag-nets almost

136 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

exclusively took males, whereas the floating-nets secured
females. The ova was found to float on the sea, unless the
specific gravity of the latter was altered by the admixture
of rain or river water, as well as on the death of the
embryo, when they sank. The egg floats, due to contain-
ing a fine globule of oil, while its heaviest part is where the
micropyle exists, and which is consequently turned down-
wards or towards the ascending milt. Hatching occurred
on the eighteenth day, while in America it was found to
take place between the thirteenth and fiftieth days, accord-
ing to the heat of the water. The floating eggs and fry
are liable to be blown in shore, or destroyed by the action
of wind and waves. Several millions of the eggs of this
fish have been deposited and hatched in the outer harbour
of Gloucester, U.S., in the hopes of raising a local supply,
for the water there is too warm for them to naturally seek
that locality.

Life History. — The young fish, according to Sar's inves-
tigations, at first, or before the umbilical bag has become
absorbed, are most helpless beings, floating on the surface,
and tossed about by winds and waves. As soon as this
sac is absorbed they seek deeper water, where the sea is
more quiescent, feeding upon small transparent crustaceans,
as " herring food," Calamus finmarchicus and Temora longi-
cornis. By the end of the summer, and when about an
inch in length, they go more inshore, first finding shelter
each under a medusa, Cyanea capillata, where they appear
to feed upon the minute animals which constitute the food
of this Discophora, and which are stupefied by its numerous
poisonous threads, stretching out in all directions. As a
return, the young cod-fish consumes a small parasitic crus-
tacean, Hyperia, which clings to the medusa by aid of its
.sharp claws, and even eats deeply into its jelly-like body.

GREA T BRITAIN,. 1 37

These young fish have also been observed floating about
beneath the harmless disc-shaped Medusa aurita, or secret-
ing themselves beneath sea-weeds or other floating sub-
stances. Having left the medusae, they roam about for
some time, but being pursued by sea-birds and other
fishes, they seek a more stationary mode of life near the
coast, where, however, young pollack have generally pre-
viously established themselves. As they grow in size, they
igrate into deeper waters, and at the age of one year they
re known as Algae fish by the fishermen, because they
esort to sandy localities among the algae near the outer
oast, at a depth of twenty or thirty fathoms. These very
oung are of all different shades of colour, from bright red
r yellow, if residing among the Laminaria, to a bright
reen or gray if in more open or sandy places. The very
young cod-fish are genuine ground-feeders. Respecting
the rapidity with which these fish increase in size, opinions
are divided, but at the Southport Aquarium, some of f Ib.
in weight increased, in about sixteen months, to 6 or 7 Ib.
each (Jackson).

Hermaphrodites have been recorded by Yarrell (Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1845, p. 91) and Dr. J. Smith (Proc. Roy. Phy.
Soc. Edin. 1864-65, p. 300, and vol. iv., 1870, p. 256).

Diseases. — I have already alluded to affections of the
spinal column, blindness, and parasites in the cod. When
out of season they are tormented with sea-lice, while the
Lernea branchialis is usually found attached to the gills.
When hooked, the borer or myxine, having obtained
entrance through its mouth or gill openings, will almost
devour its interior, leaving little but the skin remaining.
Off the Shetland sandbanks a sessile-eyed crustacean,
locally termed " bees," ALga tridens, has been observed to
behave in the same manner among fish hooked on the

•138 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

long-lines, so that when the fish is hauled up it looks as
plump and round as a live fish, only when opened it is
found to be full of " bees," and nothing else (J. Anderson).
I may here mention, as one of the causes of prevention of
the due increase of these fishes, that large quantities of the
roe is collected and sold, being employed in France and
Northern Spain as bait for the sardine fisheries.

Uses. — From the air-bladder or sounds isinglass may be
manufactured. The tongue, whether fresh or salted, is a
great delicacy, while from its liver is prepared an oil, first
employed as medicine in this country by Dr. Percival, in
1782. Irrespective of the foregoing, we are told that the
Norwegians give the head, along with marine plants, to
their cows, for the purpose of increasing the yield of milk.
Icelanders feed their cattle with its bones, as the inhabit-
ants of Kamtchatka do their dogs, while, after being well
dried, they are employed as fuel along the shores of the
Arctic Ocean.

As food. — The cod of our seas is in the best season from
October to the beginning of February, in the Firth of
Forth till the end of April, and in its greatest perfection
about Christmas, while those of a medium size are most
preferred for the table. It has been observed that such as
possess the deepest groove along the back of the head, the
largest belly, roundest form, especially near the tail and
sides, and appearing as if they were ribbed, are the most
superior for the table. In Cornwall those out of season,
and recognisable by their lanky form, are sure to be woolly
and watery ; they are locally known as " Churchyard
Cod," and may be seen exposed for sale as early as the
month of March. In Norfolk it was formerly considered
that the finest supplied to the market were those sent from
Sherringham, which were usually found to have been

:

GREA T BRIT A IN. 1 39

feeding on crabs. " Lhen Cod," in the Isle of Man, is a
local variety much prized by epicures, supposed to come
from a superior feeding locality near the point of Ayre.

Modes of cooking. — Rutty observed that in his time
(1772) the Fitzgallian fishermen made a broth at sea from
the cod and haddock, which they thickened with the liver
of the cod, bruised to a paste, and incorporated with the
broth. When fresh, the head and shoulders are boiled and

rved with oyster sauce and melted butter ; or the body
may be similarly treated, or it may be stewed. Slices of
the fish may be fried, and are improved by some curried
gravy being added. Salt fish may likewise be boiled ;
Iso salted cod's sound, while the last are sometimes fried
in butter.

Cod can be preserved in salt, and remain good for eating
a much longer period than any other form of the family.
For curing, as observed by Bertram, the fish should be
used as soon as possible after capture ; they are split
along their entire length, and well washed until all the
blood is removed. A part of the backbone having been
cut away, they are drained, and then laid in long vats
covered with salt, and weighted down, in order to keep
them well under the pickle. After a time they are re-
moved, drained, washed, and brushed, to prevent the col-
lection of impurities. Then they are bleached, by being
individually spread out in the open air. This accom-
plished, they are collected into heaps, termed steeples.
When the bloom, or whitish appearance, shows itself, the
process is complete, and they are ready for market. In
the trade the salted cod-fish, brought from Norway and
elsewhere, are roughly divided mtojlat or klip, and rund or
stock-fish, the first form being salted and subsequently dried,
and the second simply dried without the use of salt.

HO THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Habitat. — In the northern seas of Europe and Americ
from about the 67° to the 50° of latitudes, for such as ai
found north or south of these limits are either few
quantity or inferior in quality, except perhaps along the
coast of Norway, where, due to the ^presence of a warm
gulf stream, it may be taken a little further to the north,
while those present in Greenland are small, emaciated, and
voracious. It extends principally from the south and west
coasts of Iceland and the shores of the Scandinavian
Peninsula, through the North Sea and coasts of the British
Isles to those of France ; while it is most abundant off
Newfoundland, where a mud-bank, more than 100 leagues
long, and 60 broad, exists, buried in the ocean at from
60 to 100 feet or more below the surface.

In the Orkneys it is said to swarm around the coast, but
Low remarked that in his time the fishery had become
abandoned, and they were little sought after ; they are
very abundant in Zetland, and are taken all round our
coasts, but in decreasing numbers as we proceed south-
wards. It is abundant in the sea around the islands to the
north and west of Scotland ; has been locally remarked
upon as present at Wick ; along the coast of Banff; Aber-
deen. In the Moray Firth in all seasons, but most plen-
tiful in March. St. Andrews, common. Firth of Forth,
all the year round. Yorkshire, abundant ; codlings are
taken plentifully inshore, and ascend the estuary of the
Humber as far as Goole. From Lincolnshire and Norfolk
to the mouth of the Thames ; Devonshire coast not so com-
mon or good as those from the north or north-east coast.
In Cornwall, common all round on sandy banks, and rough
ground in sheltered bays, but rarely in good condition for
the table. In Ireland common around the coast.

The largest Pennant heard of from our coasts weighed

GREAT BRITAIN. 141

78 lb., it was 5 feet 8 inches long, and captured at Scar-
borough in 1755, and sold for one shilling; their usual
weight in Yorkshire he gave at from 14 to 40 lb. Thomp-
son records two taken on the same day in Belfast Bay,
which weighed 56 and 60 lb. respectively. Yarrell, one of
60 lb., taken in the Bristol Channel, and produced five
shillings.

2. The Haddock (Gadus czglefinus).

Names. — Haddock, formerly spelt hadock, which in Scot-
ind is pronounced hathock or haddie, and which after
spawning are termed gamrels or camrels ; when about five
inches long, nockies (Sim, Aberdeen). This fish has like-
'ise other local names as buckthorn, which is mostly applied
dried haddock ; mop, and whiting mop, also mulvel
'Halliwell). In the Moray Firth it is termed adag or attic
(Gordon) ; in the Firth of Forth they are finnan haddocks,
when smoked in a peculiar manner ; if simply dried speld-
rings, and are eaten raw (Parnell). Belonius states that
Egrefin or Eagle-fin was formerly its English name.

B. vii., D. 14-16 | 20-24 I 19-21, V. 6, A. 24-25 | 20-
2 2, Vert. 1^.

Length of head 4^ to 4! ; height of body 4^ to even 6 in
the total length. Eye. — -Diameters $± to 4 in the length
of the head, i-i- diameters from the end of the snout, and
f of a diameter apart. Snout somewhat projecting over
the mouth ; the upper jaw rather longer than the lower ;
the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to nearly
or quite beneath the anterior edge of the eye. A short
barbel situated beneath the chin. Teeth. — Cardiform
in the jaws, the outer row in the upper jaw somewhat en-
larged. Fins. — The first dorsal, somewhat triangular in
shape, commences over the base of the pectoral ; a short

I42 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

but distinct interspace between the first and second dorsal
fins ; the third dorsal fin is not continuous at its base with
the second, and not connected with the caudal. The first
anal fin commences below or slightly behind the origin of the
second dorsal. Ventral inserted on a line anterior to the
base of the pectoral. Vent situated beneath the origin of
the second dorsal fin, or in some few instances a little in
advance of this spot. Colours. — Grayish in the upper half
of the body, light on the sides, and white beneath. A large
oval black blotch exists on the side between the pectoral
fin and lateral-line, being sometimes continued above it.
Lateral-line of a deep black. Fins, bluish-black, being
darkest externally.

Superstition has handed down the tradition that the
black blotch on either shoulder of this fish is consequent
upon the action of St. Peter's finger and thumb when he
drew out one of the haddock's ancestors from the Lake of
Genneserat to obtain from its mouth the piece of tribute-
money. Unfortunately, neither this fish nor the John Doree,
which has been equally honoured, are to be found in the
waters where the miracle occurred.

Varieties in form. — Shortened forms occasionally exist,
due to disease of the vertebral column. In colour, several
varieties have been recorded. Thompson saw one about
1 8 inches long, from Belfast market, of a beautiful rich
salmon colour in its upper half, becoming lighter on the
sides and abdomen ; this tint was also observable on all
the fins with the exception of the extremity of the caudal,
which was dusky. The finger spot was faint. Another
example, captured off the entrance to Strangford Lough,
was of a pale golden yellow superiorly, and white below the
lateral-line, which, instead of being black, was white ; no
finger spot was visible. Dr. Ball obtained a large canary-

GREAT BRITAIN. 143

coloured example in Dublin, and another small specimen of
a light rose red. In the month of February, at Belfast,
Thompson's attention was called to a large haddock in fine
condition, which was clouded over the sides with an ex-
tremely pale stone colour, apparently as if the skin had
been taken off; but this was the natural colour, as all the
scales were on.

Habits. —Haddocks congregate in enormous numbers, feed
ear the ground, and for their size are as voracious as the
:od, but the two forms do not seem to be usually found
gether. They are abundant off our shores, especially
ong those of the eastern counties, the finest and greatest
umbers being taken during the winter months, for after
wning the largest retire, leaving the smaller ones behind,
ennant observed that off Yorkshire large schools usually
rive near the shores in December, and instances the coin-
idence that in 1766 and 1777 they came both years on the
loth, the shoals being nearly three miles in breadth, while
they extended in length from Flamborough to Tynemouth
Castle, and perhaps much further to the north. They will
frequent some rocky ground for many seasons, and from
some cause suddenly leave it for a new situation, perhaps
due to exhaustion of the food. " Fishermen assert that in
rough weather haddocks sink down into the sand and ooze
at the bottom of the sea, and shelter themselves there till
the storm is over ; because in stormy weather they take
none, and those that are taken immediately after a storm
are covered with mud on their backs " (Pen.). Their food
varies with locality. Thompson in Belfast observed they
mostly contained the remains of ophiurcz, especially the
spines of 0. rosulo, the presence of which is considered by
Dr. Drummond as one reason why these fishes are found so
ee from intestinal worms. During summer they live on

144 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

young herrings and other small fish ; in the winter on the
stone-coated worms (serpula), which fishermen call haddock
meat. They consume great quantities of herring ova and
fry, while the sprat is likewise favourite food.

In the Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. 1792, pp. 367-373, is an
account of a remarkable failure of these fishes in Northum-
berland.

Means of capture. — Line or beam-trawl fishing, as it
generally feeds near the ground. Off Norfolk long lines
for haddock fishing, the length of each of which is about
370 fathoms, are locally termed schulls. In the Moray
Firth it is taken throughout the year, except during the six
or eight weeks of the herring fishery, when the fishermen
are otherwise engaged ; but in stormy weather it refuses all
baits. Pennant (1776) observed that three fishermen within
one mile of Scarborough Harbour frequently loaded their
coble or boat with them twice a day, taking each time
about a ton of fish ; when they shot their lines upwards of
three miles from the shore they took nothing but dog-
fishes, which showed the limits to which they resorted for
feeding. The best sold at is. to is. 6d. the score, and the
smaller ones at a penny and sometimes a halfpenny a score.

Baits. — Cuttle, mussels of both the horse and edible
species, sprats, and cod bait.

Breeding. — In America, a haddock of 2-f- Ib. gave 169,050
eggs, the number increasing in quantity until from one
9_2__ Ib. 1,839,581 were taken ; the shortest time required for
hatching was eight, and the average nine days. Pennant
observed that they spawn in January. Some are certainly
in full roe during February and March, during which latter
month R. Couch observed that they spawned in Cornwall ;
and, Parnell, that they likewise did so in the Firth of Forth.
Sars remarked that the spawning process of this fish is very

GREA T BRIT A IN. 145

similar to that of the cod, and in the Loffoden Islands takes
place about the same time. Off Cape Ann in America the
number of males are observed to be more abundant than
the females, but the latter averaged a larger size.

Life History. — Sars found the young in the sea off Lof-
foden Islands concealing themselves under medusae similarly
to the cod.

Uses. — Haddocks taken by lines are far superior, their
esh being much firmer, than those captured by the beam-
awl, in which they are bruised, and generally have their
ales rubbed off. But the trawl-haddocks are by no means
asted as food, the head being cut off and with the intes-
ines used for manure. They are then split and smoked
nd sold as smoked haddocks. Haddocks will not take
salt so well as cod. In the neighbourhood of Wai worth and
Kennington there are several curing houses. The fish are
bought by the costermongers in Billingsgate market in the
morning, pickled, skewered, hung up in the smoke of saw-
dust by the evening, and when sufficiently tinged a yellow
colour they are fit for sale. A skilled curer can clean, salt,
and smoke a load of haddock in from six to eight hours.
Those from Finnan, near Aberdeen, have obtained a great
reputation. All at first were smoked over a peat-reek, but
the demand becoming very great they were cured in special
buildings erected for the purpose, and smoked in large
numbers over burning fir branches or burning sawdust.

As food. — The small ones, not sufficiently old to breed,
are extremely good from May until February, and some
few even so late as April ; but the flesh of the larger ones is
often dry and hard ; still, up to 2 or 3 Ibs. in weight it
is a good table fish for midwinter. It is in the best season
from November until February, while in the Irish markets
the larger the haddock the more it is generally prized.
VOL. i.— E. i. L

146 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

The quality of its flesh differs in accordance with the waters
it inhabits. Among the East Frieslanders, where the sea
is very muddy and shallow, it is thought to be so unwhole-
some as to excite fever ; but with us it may vie with the
cod, the best being taken off the Irish coast.

Diseases. — In the record into the state of the salmon
fisheries in 1825, it appears from the Parliamentary report
that about thirty years previously so great was the havoc
among these fish that ships had sailed through many
leagues of the North Sea where the surface was covered
with dead haddocks, and for several subsequent years it
was a rare fish .in those localities. Mr. Hood (Land and
Water, March 22nd, 1869) remarked having some years
previously paid a visit to Dagenham Reach, in Essex, and
having noticed not very far from where he was standing
some rooks that appeared to be feeding at the edge of the
water. On reaching the spot he saw a large haddock of
about 4 Ibs. weight nearly dead, without eyes, which the
rooks had pecked out. Further on were other haddocks
without their eyes, some were quite dead and others nearly
so. On making enquiries of the keeper, he stated that those
haddocks came out of the Thames into that brackish water
to spawn at that time of the year, and that after they had
spawned they were so weak and feeble that they lay on the
surface, and the wind gradually wafted them to the shore.
The rooks took advantage of this, and attacked them.

Habitat.-r-From the Arctic portion of Europe, having a
range very similar to the cod. In February and March it
appears to be most abundant off the shores of Northern
Europe, while in the autumn it is usually plentiful off Hol-
land, East Friesland and Heligoland. It is found in
varying numbers round the British Isles, and along the
Atlantic shores of France. In the western hemisphere it

Porti

7th j
been
quite

GREA T BRITAIN. 147

extends from Newfoundland to Cape Hatteras. Although
the haddock is common in Orkney and Zetland it is not so
numerous as the cod, nor are they caught in any quantities ;
their visit would seem to be short. Taken at Wick, in
Banffshire, extensively cured, and they are more numerous
along the eastern coasts of Scotland and England (es-
pecially from the Tyne to Yarmouth) than along their
western ; common along the south coast of England.

In Ireland it is generally common around the coast, but
varies in different localities. Dublin Bay is famous for its
haddock, while those of Belfast are highly esteemed. At
Portrush, co. Antrim, Ogilby observes that on November
a haddock was captured, a great prize, as none had
n obtained for the previous ten years, the fish having
deserted the ground where they were formerly very
numerous. However, on opening it it was found to be
diseased and black.

Respecting the size to which this fish attains, one weigh-
ing I of Ib. was landed in February, 1878, at Wick ; another
was taken in Dublin Bay which weighed 24^- Ib., and was
37 inches in length. The largest haddock mentioned by
Yarrell was 16 Ib., from Dublin Bay ; by Couch, 25 Ib. ; and
Thompson one of the same size from Groomsport

3. The Bib (Gadus luscus}.

Names. — Bib, pout, whiting-pout, blens or blinds in Corn-
wall ; these last names are doubtless due to a sort of loose
bag capable of inflation existing in front of the eye, and
formed by an outer layer of fine and transparent skin
passing from the cheeks over the eye, and a second layer
over the eye-ball, thus forming a sac-like cavity, well desig-
nated by the local words bleb or blain, terms for a bubble

L 2

148 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

in the water, or a blister. After death this loose membrane,
which fishermen assert it can blow up at pleasure, becomes
opaque. For the same cause it is perhaps termed lug, or
" a leaf," at Penzance and St. Ives ; bothock, or " large
eyes." Said to be known as kleg at Scarborough ; siller-
fish and jacfcte-downies, Moray Firth ; smeltie, Zetland ; also
brassie in Scotland ; deillion at Carnarvon, also bragay and
stink-alive.

B. vii., D. 12 | 20-23 | 19-20, V. 6, A. 27-32 | 17-20,
Vert. 48.

Length of head 4\ to 4f ; height of body 3^ to 4 in the
total length. Eye. — Diameter 3 to 3^- in the length of the
head, I diameter from the end of the snout, and I to \\
diameters apart. Snout obtuse, scarcely overhanging the
jaw, the upper of which is slightly the longer. The pos-
terior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the
middle of the eye. A barbel as long as the eye is present
below the chin. Teeth. — Cardiform in the jaws with an
outer enlarged row in the upper. Fins. — First dorsal arises
over the base of the pectoral ; its second or third ray
longest, and no interspace between its last rays and the
second dorsal fin, which is connected at its base with the
third dorsal, but does not extend to the base of the caudal
fin. The first anal fin commences beneath the middle or
posterior third of the first dorsal ; the second anal fin
similar to the third dorsal. The ventral is inserted some
little distance anterior to the base of the pectoral. Vent
situated beneath the anterior portion of the first dorsal fin.
Lateral-line. — Curves very gently to below the last half of
the second dorsal, from whence it proceeds straight to the
centre of the base of the caudal fin. Colours. — Of a beau-
tiful bronze during life, with five or six broad vertical bands
of rather darker colour descending from the back to the

GREA T BRIT A IN. 1 49

lower surface, meeting those from the opposite side. A
black spot at the base of the pectoral fin. Fins bluish-
black, darkest at their outer edges.

Habits. — It adheres pertinaciously to one locality, espe-
cially the vicinity of precipitous rocks, as off the coast of
Cornwall. Here it seeks a secluded crevice or gully, where
it conceals itself during the daytime, sometimes thousands
seeking the same spot. It usually feeds at night-time, ex-
tending its excursions over the high grounds and on to the
low rocks and sands in the vicinity. Assemblages of these
ish are known as " chains of bibs," two or more of which
lay be found so close together as to be merely divided by

ledge of rock of a few feet in width ; one chain of bibs
may be light coloured, and the contiguous one banded
with dark. In cold and stormy winters it retires to the
deep sea, returning again in spring. The knowledge of the
exact localities where these fish reside has been kept in
some fishermen's families for generations. It thrives pretty
well in an aquarium, but after a time becomes of a
lighter colour. Thompson mentions finding small crabs
(Brachyuri) and a Trochus tumidus in the stomach of one
which he opened, while another contained fish remains ; it
also eats worms.

Means of capture. — Line-fishing ; they are very voracious,
and the exact spot they reside in has to be chosen, and the
line must be near the bottom, while on it three or four
hooks may be used.

Breeding. — Spawns towards the end of the winter in
Cornwall.

As food. — Good eating when 2 Ibs. in weight and up-
wards, but its numerous bones deteriorate from its use.
It rapidly decomposes after death, which likewise detracts
from its value.

ISO THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Habitat. — From Scandinavia along the Atlantic coasts
of Great Britain and Europe, but is only a wanderer into
the Mediterranean. Occurs in Zetland ; Banffshire, common,
but is mostly used for bait ; not uncommon at St. Andrews,
and found in Berwickshire ; also reported as not uncommon
in Yorkshire ; occurs off Norfolk, the Sussex coast, and
becomes very common along the Devonshire coast, and
numerous in Cornwall, especially during the autumn and
winter. Yarrell alludes to its presence in Carnarvonshire,
as well as in Loch Foyle.

In Ireland, according to Thompson, it is of occasional
occurrence on all quarters of the coast ; and examples
occur at all seasons of the year in the Belfast market,
where he observes the females are termed hen-fish, and
crow-fish in Galway Bay.

It seldom exceeds a foot in length, but Yarrell mentions
having seen one 16 inches.

b. No barbel below chin.
4. Whiting (Gadus merlangus).

Names. — Whiting, pronounced fittin, in Scotland. Cuideag,
pronounced cuitschach, in the Moray Firth. Whiting-mop,
"a young whiting." At Aberdeen, those found in June
and July are termed dargs, Power, or poor-cod.

B. vii., 0.13-16 | 18-23 | 19-21, V. 6, A. .30-35 | 20-24,
Vert. 34.

Length of head 4 to 4^ ; height of body 5^ to 6 in the
total length. Eye. — Diameters 4 to 44- in the length of the
head ; i^ diameters from the end of the snout, and | to
i diameter apart. Snout conical, slightly projecting over
the upper jaw, which latter is a little longer than the
mandible ; the maxilla reaches posteriorly to beneath the

GREAT BRITAIN. 151

middle of the eye. No barbel beneath the chin. Teeth. —
Cardiform, with some larger ones intermixed in the lower
jaw, the outer row enlarged in the upper jaw, in a semi-
lunar patch upon the vomer ; none on the palatines or
tongue. Fins. — First dorsal commences opposite the first
third of the pectoral ; its second and third rays the longest,
the last ray very short. A short interspace between the
bases of the first and second dorsal fins, also between the
second and third dorsal fins, which latter does not quite
reach the base of the caudal. First anal fin commences
beneath the middle of the first Dorsal fin, and terminates

meath the end of the second dorsal ; the second anal and
third dorsal fins similar. Ventrals some little distance

;fore the base of the pectoral. Lateral-line. — Commences
>pposite the upper edge of the opercle, and curves gently
downwards ; from opposite the anterior half of the second
lorsal it goes direct to the centre of the base of the caudal.

ic vent is situated beneath the middle of the first dorsal
in. Colours. — Back, greenish gray or yellowish, becoming
;ilvery on the sides and beneath ; in the fresh state several
Bellow lines pass along the sides. A bluish-black blotch
exists in the axil of the pectoral fin. Vertical fins dark in
their outer two-thirds.

Varieties — in colour. — The axillary spot is occasionally
little marked, or even entirely absent.

Habits. — It appears in the spring in large shoals, delight-
ing in sandy bays where young fish abound ; it seems to
be shy, and mostly keeps from half a mile to three miles
from the shore, in spring-time hanging about the more
distant rocks. In Cornwall it swarms into the bays in
autumn to feed on young pilchards* It appears to be very
susceptible to the influence of cold. In the Moray Firth it
is said to be most abundant in May and June, but in the

152 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

best condition during November and December. It is a
voracious feeder, subsisting on small fish, Crustacea, and
any animal substances it can obtain. Yarrell took several
sprats from inside one, and Couch some pilchards.

Means of capture. — Whiffing, when they give good sport,
especially during rough weather ; they are likewise taken
by the trawl. They bite best early in the morning or in
the evening. They will rise by moonlight into mid-water
after their prey.

Baits. — Common mussels, or slice of the herring or
cuttle, but they generally prefer living prey.

Breeding. — It spawns in March not far from the shore.
As food. — They are much esteemed, being very easy of
digestion. They are in the best condition from November,
not being so deleteriously affected by breeding as the other
gadoids, therefore eaten throughout the year ; but, being
somewhat out of condition during April, May and June,
invalids should avoid them, as they are apt to occasion
nausea and even vomiting. They have to be disem-
bowelled prior to being transmitted to inland markets, or
they rapidly decompose, and are best when eaten imme-
diately after being captured. A considerable portion of
these fish are salted or dried when the takes are in excess
of the demand. Small ones salted and dried are termed
buckorn from Dartmouth to Cornwall.

Habitat. — Off Scandinavia and in the northern seas, the
German Ocean, and along the Atlantic coasts of Europe to
the Mediterranean.

It is distributed around the British shores, but the
largest quantities are obtained off the south coast, espe-
cially in the vicinity of Plymouth, while very fine ones
from 2 Ibs. to 3 Ibs. each are got from Dartmouth. In the
Orkneys, Low observed upon having seen this species

GREAT BRITAIN. 153

caught once or twice, but he concluded that it could
scarcely bear the rough gusts of the winter seas, being a
delicate fish. When haddock are caught in any quantities,
whiting are taken in numbers. Orkney and Zetland not
common ; at Banff often captured, but not so good as the
haddock ; frequent at St. Andrew's ; Firth of Forth, plenti-
ful ; resident and very abundant off Yorkshire ; plentiful
in the Norfolk estuary, especially in the autumn, but those
the Norfolk coast only attain to about two-thirds the
ize of those off Devonshire ; common along the south
>ast of England, and very abundant off Devonshire and
Cornwall, especially in the latter county, from September
itil March, the largest and best coming from Polperro.
In Ireland it is common around the coast, but not held
much estimation in the north. It is considered in its
inest season in the spring.

This fish has been recorded off the British coasts up to
inches in length, and from 3 to 4 Ibs. in weight, but
Couch mentions his having heard of one weighing 7 Ibs.,
while Pennant records a fish from 4 Ibs. to 8 Ibs. weight,
taken from the edge of the Dogger Bank.

Lower jaw the longer ; teeth in upper jaw of equal size.

b. A barbel below chin.
5. Coal-fish (Gadus virens).

Names. — Coal-fish, so termed from its occasional black
colour, it being called cole-fish by Ray, col signifying char-
coal, not due to its producing isinglass or ichthyocolla, as
believed by Belonius, from its English name of colfisch.
Another derivation of the term cole-fish has been found in
the corruption of the French name "colin." Sillocks,

154 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Scotland, and blue-backs, Yorkshire ; rauning (ravenous)
pollack, Cornwall ; also locally as baddock, bil, billet, billard,
black pollack, black-jack, bleck, coalsay, coalsey, coal-whiting,
colemie, colmey, cooth, cudden, cuddy, dargie, gilpin, glassock,
glashan, glossan, glossin, green-cod, green-pollack, gray-lord,
gull-fish, harbine, kuth, lob, lob-keeling, moulrush, piltock,
podlie, podling, prinkle, rock-salmon, saithe, sethe, sey-pollack,
sillock, skrae-fish, stenloch, tibrie. The fry are called parrs
at Scarborough as well as in Northumberland, and soil,
poodler, billets or billiards up to one year of age ; cuddies,
saithes, coalman, also saidhean, or suyeen (Moray Firth) ;
and gerrocks at Banff; herring-hake at Aberdeen.

In Ireland its names are legion. In county Down it
possesses four : the fry are gilpins, next size blockan, then
gray-lord, while the adults are termed glashan. The young
in some localities are also called cudden or pickey. In some
parts of the south and west these fish are termed black-
pollack or glassin. At Roundstone the young are called
glossan and moubrush, while adults are termed coal-fish ; at
Portrush the fry are about early in the spring, and by the
time they are from 4 to 7 inches in length they are
known as cadan (pronounced cudden} ; next spring they
are termed ceithnach (pronounced catenacti), perhaps an
expansion of the last name, since the termination ack
signifies " like." In the following autumn, when weighing
about 2 Ibs., they are known as glasan (pronounced glashin),
in allusion to their green colour, and a year later two-year-
old glasan. Subsequently they are entitled to the full term
gray -lord, as when they are from 8 Ibs. to 25 Ibs. weight.

B. vii., D. 12-14 I 19-22 | 20-22, V. 6, A. 24-27 | 20-23,
Vert. 34.

Length of head 4| to 4f ; height of body 4^ to 4f in the
total length. Eye.-^- Diameters 3^ in the length of the

GREA T BRITAIN. 155

head, I diameter from the end of the snout, and f to
I diameter apart. Lower jaw prominent. The maxilla
reaches to below the first third of the eye. A rudimentary
barbel beneath the chin. Teeth. — Cardiform in the jaws,
present on the vomer, absent from the palatines and
tongue. Fins. — The first dorsal triangular ; a distinct
interspace between it and the second dorsal fin ; an inter-
space between the second and third dorsal fins, the latter
lot extending on to the caudal. Anal commences below
ic last rays of the first dorsal, and terminates below the
id of the second dorsal ; second anal similar to the
:ond dorsal. Ventral inserted anterior to the base of
ic pectoral. Vent situated on a vertical line beneath the
ist rays of the first dorsal fin. Colours. — Superiorly gray,
>ecoming silvery on the sides and beneath. Fins gray, the
dorsal and caudal dark-edged. Usually a black spot at
the axis of the pectoral fins, by which it is mostly con-
cealed. As they get older the dark colour deepens.
Lateral-line white, which at once distinguishes it from the
haddock, wherein it is black.

Varieties. — Thompson mentions obtaining a specimen
7 inches long, in May, 1836, at Ballywalter, which seemed
intermediate between the G. pollachius and G. virens, both
of which he obtained at the same time £.nd place. Couch
remarks on one which had the upper jaw shortened and the
body depressed out of the regular straight shape. The
vent was much behind its usual position. The fish was
thin and ill-fed.

Habits. — Generally gregarious, especially when pursuing
herring, to which form of "food they appear very partial.
In the Orkneys the fry are first seen in May, when they are
taken in large numbers by angling ; but it is in the winter,
when the sea begins to get stormy, that the large shoals

156 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

appear. At this period they are from 6 to 10 inches in
length, and much esteemed as sillucks ; about March they
retire to the deep and grow rapidly, so that by May they
are 15 inches long and termed kuthsy which are tolerable
for eating either fresh or roasted with the liver, or even dry.
A few are taken in the second year, when they are called
two-year-old kuths or harbines, and are now very coarse and
not sought after. Subsequently they attain to a vast bulk,
and are then termed setks, but are rare (Low). Dr. Drum-
mond gives an account of once finding his boat in the midst
of a shoal of these fishes when at play. The whole sea was
alive, while they were disporting themselves in all attitudes.
They were regardless of the boat, and so intent on their
gambols that numbers were captured with an instrument
like a boat-hook. Mr. Dunn has remarked the same
phenomenon, but he ascertained that it was due to their
chasing small fishes. During the smooth season of the year
the coal-fish approaches the shore and moves quietly about,
but when it descries any prey it pounces on its victim with
great violence. Thompson mentions finding principally
small crustaceans, as Idotea, &c., in the stomachs of these
fish ; Dr. Drummond usually observed that they were
gorged with Onisci, and very fond of Entomostraca. Mr.
Ffennell saw twenty-six salmon fry taken from the stomach
of one of these fishes.

Means of capture. — Angling, which is often done from
shore, and line-fishing, the lug-worm being found a good
bait. They are very voracious, and have great strength.
In Belfast Bay a few large examples are occasionally taken
in the mullet nets during the spring of the year.

Breeding. — A coal-fish 39^ inches long had 4,029,200 eggs,
and one 7 inches shorter 2,569,753, and they seem to spawn
while swimming about, when their eggs, being buoyant, are

GREA T BRITAIN. 157

found on the surface. They would appear to hatch in four
or five days in water of moderate temperature. In Corn-
wall they spawn in the spring ; in the Orkneys small fry
are seen in June (and in July, off Yorkshire) in vast shoals,
wherein each fish is about ij inches in length ; by August
they have attained to from 3 to 5 inches, when they are
angled for.

Uses. — Low remarked " as things are at present with
, this species is the treasure of the Orkneys ; while these
to be found, none else are regarded." In Land and
'ater a correspondent observed that an oil is prepared
m their livers, but towards winter in the Shetlands they
e swept ashore in enormous quantities, and are often
purchased for manure. They now fall off very much in
condition, and are bought in order to obtain oil, which is
used for lamps. In June or July those 9 or 10 inches long
are in the perfection for eating, if cooked within an hour or
so of being caught. The oil is in good demand by
tanners.

As food. — Unless when small it is little esteemed when
fresh, but salts well ; its flesh is coarser than that of the
pollack. Fishermen in Cornwall salt it for home con-
sumption.

Habitat. — It is taken off the coasts of Scandinavia, and
abounds in the North Sea and northern coasts of Europe,
and extends around Great Britain to the shores of France,
and into the Mediterranean. This fish has also been
reported as existing in Nova Scotia (Gilpin).

It is common off most of our deep and rocky coasts,
especially in the north ; and in the Orkneys and Zetland
is extremely abundant ; in Banffshire, where it is numerous,
more especially the young, it is termed gerrocks ; abundant
at St. Andrews ; also in the Moray Firth during the time

!

158 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

the herrings are present. A few are taken near Newcastle-
on-Tyne, but it is not much sought after, being held in
little esteem ; in Yorkshire it is resident and very abundant.
In the Norfolk estuary a large one was captured in 1845,
and is now in the Wisbeach Museum ; it is frequently taken
in Blakeney Harbour. In Devonshire abundant in the bays
and sometimes in the harbours. In Cornwall it is common
during the winter and spring, when it appears to be gre-
garious, and resides in strong currents, sheltering itself
by keeping behind large rocks, from which it darts out on
passing prey.

In Ireland it is one of the commonest fish around the
coast, although rare in Dublin Bay. Buckland records one
43 inches long, and 25 Ibs., captured in December, 1866 ; and
Thompson an example of 32 Ibs. weight, which was taken
in Belfast Bay.

b. No barbel below chin.
Pollack (Gadus pollachius).

Names. — Pollack, "whiting-pollack, leets (Scarborough), laits
(Whitby), and in Scotland and some parts of the north of
England lythe, perhaps signifying its pliancy and rapidity
of movement, laithe, leeat, leet, skeet. Sometimes termed
greenling or green-fish. Also termed lythe at Portrush,
county of Antrim. The lob alluded to in the Statute of
Herrings (3 1st Ed. III., A.D. 1537) as lob, ling, and cod,
evidently meant this fish, not the Gadus virens as suggested
by Couch. The term is from the Danish word lubbe, which
signifies the pollack.

B. vii., D. 11-13 I 16-20 | 15-19, V. 6, A. 24-31 | 16-21.

Length of head 3f to 4^ ; height of body 4i tp 5 in the
total length. Eye. — Diameters, 4 to 5 in the length of the
head, i-^ diameters from the end of the snout, and i-J- apart.

GREA T BRITAIN. \ 59

Lower jaw prominent, the maxilla extending posteriorly to
beneath the anterior edge of the orbit. Barbel absent.
Teeth. — Villiform, and of equal size in the jaws ; in two
small patches on the vomer, none on the palatines. Fins. —
The first dorsal commences over the middle of the pectoral,
a short interspace between it and the base of the second
dorsal, and a similar interspace present between the bases
of the second and third dorsal fins. The first anal fin com-
mences under the posterior rays of the first dorsal, and
terminates beneath the end of the second dorsal ; second
anal similar to the third dorsal. Ventral inserted a short
distance before the pectoral. Lateral-line. — Curves to
beneath the commencement of the second dorsal fin, from
whence it proceeds straight to the centre of the base of the
caudal fin. Vent beneath, the anterior half of the first
dorsal. Colours. — The back of the fish when captured is of
a dark rifle green superiorly, becoming lighter on the sides,
where it usually has some golden stripes or spots, and
nearly white beneath. Fins dark green, the first dorsal
with three oblique bronze-coloured bands, and two longi-
tudinal ones on the second and third, all the fins edged
with dark colours, sometimes even black.

Varieties. — Ball observed an example, taken in the spring
of 1838, in which the rays of the first dorsal fin had grown
to more than three times their normal length. Couch
remarks on the young occasionally having its sides and
abdomen yellow or bright orange, due, it is believed, to
their residing in the shelter of rocks which are covered with
ore-weed.

Habits. — This species is common on many of our rocky
coasts all round the country, and usually prefers not being
far from land, waiting to dash upon any unwary prey that
comes within reach. Low observed that in the Orkneys it

160 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

is frequently close in shore among the sea-ware and in deep
holes among the rocks. Mr. Dunn has remarked that off
Cornwall it frequently sticks to one spot, from which it
extends its range, but is not so sure of returning as is the
bib, being a strong fish of a more roving disposition. Mr.
Peach observed a small whiting which had taken refuge
within the hollow of a medusa, Cyanea aurita, but was seen
by a young pollack about 5 inches in length, which at
once gave chase. The whiting dodged round its friendly
medusa, but a second pollack joined the pursuit. An
unlucky movement drove the pursued one from its shelter,
and an exciting chase immediately commenced. Some
more pollacks joined in, and, like a pack of hounds, ran
their victim down, which they killed for sport, as they did
not attempt to feed upon it. So eager were the pursuers
that when stones were thrown at them they showed no
alarm, although at other times a single stone would instil
terror.

Sars observed off the coast of Norway that the pollack
systematically chased the young codfish. Schools of the
former appeared to surround the little codfishes on all sides,
making the circle narrower and narrower, till all the cod-
fish were gathered into one lump, which they then, by a
quick movement, chased up to the surface of the water.
They were now attacked on two sides, below by the pollack,
above by the sea-gulls. The pollack were also observed to
treat sand-eels in the same manner, surrounding a school of
them, and forcing them towards the surface of the water,
where gulls assisted in their destruction. This fish is like-
wise partial to herrings.

Means of capture. — It sometimes bites keenly, gorging the
bait at once, and also takes a fly, but this sport is best
pursued from sunset for about two hours, especially if a

GREAT BRITAIN. 161

fresh breeze is blowing, and then it rises freely at a gaudy
artificial fly, roughly made of red and white feathers, but is
more choice in its selection of food than is the coal-fish.
The boat should be rowed along very gently at about four
or five hundred yards from the shore, or in a suitable
locality, and the fly be allowed to float from twenty to
thirty yards from the stern of the boat. Although the
young flood or slack water is generally best for this fishing
in some places, the best sport is to be had at high water.
Off Plymouth it has been observed that, as a rule, falling
rater gives the best sport in the open sea, but at the points
>f bays special configurations of the shore and outlying
;ks may alter this general rule. Pollack of small or
loderate size will also come close in shore where ridges of
)ck jut out under a few fathoms of water. A little rain is
ften conducive to the success of this fishing. At different
>laces and likewise different fishermen will praise various
>rts of bait for whining, but live sand-eels would appear
be as good as any, when procurable. A fisherman in
le Field observes that failing these he finds as the two
>t baits a peculiar red india-rubber eel on one line, and
the other a spinner with the back of the hook dressed
dth prepared fish skin and a piece of the same skin on
the point of the hook, for which is substituted, when pro-
curable, a slice from the tail of a longnose or mackerel.
But it is not always easy to tempt a pollack with bait while
pilchards are about.

Baits. — Sand-eels (Ammodytes) are their favourite bait,
or an imitation insect known as " the Belgian grub," which
is modelled in plaster on to the shank of a hook, and
painted red and white ; it is fitted with gut and a swivel.
The end grub should be larger than the rest, with a piece
of red india-rubber, resembling a brown elastic band,
VOL. I— E. I. M

162 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

attached to the hook, and which, when drawn through the
water, represents a wriggling sand-eel. Higher up, on two
yards of salmon-gut, two or three smaller grubs may be
placed without the eel, and attached like bob-flies on a
casting-line. At the head of the gut should be a small
swivel, then four or five yards of snooding attached to a
coarser hand-line, which is wound round the usual square
frame as a reel. At the end of the hand-line, or at its
junction with the snooding, is strung a small leaden weight
of two or three ounces, so that, while being dragged through
the water, the lead may be near but not on the bottom,
while the snooding and gut cast with the bait, being lighter,
follow at a few feet distance above the rocks and weeds
where the pollack like to frequent. The large summer
pollack often refuse the " Belgian grub," and have to be
tempted by live sand-eels or artificial white-flies. Cockles
have been praised as a bait for ground fishing. On the
Galway coast small fresh-water eels are said to be ingeni-
ously fastened on to the hooks and used as a bait for this
fish.

Breeding. — It spawns about the end or early part of the
year, and the young are first seen at Mevagissey in April,
about one inch long.

As food. — In the highest perfection in the autumn,
especially those from about the end of Cornwall or off the
Scilly Isles ; it is superior to the coal-fish.

It is not seen much in the London market, but appears
to be eaten on the coast where taken.

Mr. Dunn observes that porpoises will pursue both the
young and full-grown pollack, and not long since the crew
of a Mevagissey fishing-boat saw a school of the former
attack one of the latter. After a short time full thirty
large pollack were left for dead floating on the sea ; they
tacked their boat and picked up many of them.

GREA T BRITAIN. 163

Uses. — Oil is obtained from the liver off Scandinavia,
where the " sey," or young pollack, gives about 26^ gallons
each 200 fish. Fishermen in Cornwall frequently salt and
dry this fish for home consumption.

Habitat. — From the northern seas, extending along the
coasts of Norway to the German Ocean and European
shores of the Atlantic, becoming rare in the Mediterranean.
Although frequently met with in the Orkneys and Zet-
ind, it is not so common as most of the cod family. At
Janff frequent ; St. Andrews, occasionally from the deep
iter ; Firth of Forth, rare ; in Yorkshire it is resident and
>mmon. At Lossiemouth examples are often taken
luring the summer and autumn months, especially among
le coal-fish and in rocky localities. In fact, it is found on
lost of our rocky coasts, but most abundant along the
south or south-west shores and bays, being numerous off
Devonshire and Cornwall.

In Ireland it is common around the coast.
It is generally seen up to 6 or 7 Ibs. weight ; one has
been recorded by Thompson of 12 Ibs. from Belfast, while
Couch asserts that his specimen weighed 24 Ibs.

GENUS II. — Merluccius, Cuvier.

Geographical distribution. — Northern hemispheres on
both sides of the Atlantic ; also on the southern portion
of the west coast of South America to New Zealand.

I. Hake {Merluccius vulgar is).

Names. — The hake, said to be sold in London as Cornish
salmon, Cegddu, Welsh. It has also been termed herring-
hake; merluce, or sea-luce, or sea-pike.

Hakes-teeth have been recorded as present in various

M 2

164 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

soundings in charts of the sea ; they consist mostly of a
species of Dentalium^ a shell having the popular name of
" dog's teeth," and do not pertain to any fish.

B. vii., D. 10 | 36-40, V. 7, A. 36-38, Csec. pyl. i, Vert.

2 5

W

Length of head 3| to 44- ; height of body 6| to 8 in the
total length. ^.—Diameter 54. to 7 in the length of
the head, 2. to 2\ diameters from the end of the snout, and
li to 2 apart. The lower jaw slightly the longer ; the
posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the
middle or hind edge of the orbit. No barbel below the
chin. Teeth. — Large, acicular, in two rows, the inner of
which is the larger, while the anterior ones are more
movable than the posterior ones. In a V-shaped band on
the vomer ; none on the palatines or tongue. Fins. — The
first dorsal, commencing above the base of the pectoral ; a
slight interspace between it and the base of the second
dorsal, which reaches almost to the base of the caudal.
Ventral, inserted a short distance in front of the pectoral :
anal commences on a vertical line beneath the third or
fourth ray of the second dorsal, and terminates below the
end of the base of that fin. The vent is situated on a
vertical line beneath the anterior rays of the second dorsal
fin. Lateral-line. — Nearly straight. Colours. — Grayish
along the back, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath,
a purplish tint over the head and along the back. Fins
dusky; base of pectoral, inner ventral rays, and anal,
straw-coloured. A small black spot often present at the
upper part of the base of the pectoral. Inner surface of
mouth and gill cavities, black.

Varieties. — Merluccius argentatus, from Iceland, is said to
have the inside of its mouth white, instead of black, and
the second dorsal and anal fins notched about their
centres.

GREA T BRITAIN. 165

Habits. — The hake is a bold and ravenous fish, a great
wanderer, and rather uncertain in its movements, which
seem to be sometimes due to being chased by sharks,
porpoises, and other voracious inhabitants of the deep.
Seasons, and the presence or absence of food, likewise
affect the localities wherein it lives ; thus during the
summer it is often taken in bays, but in the winter more
commonly in deep waters. It accompanies shoals of
herrings and pilchards, on which it feeds, and Couch
alludes to seventeen of the latter having been taken from
the stomach of one of these fishes. Although present all
the year round, it is in the autumn and winter months that
the largest takes are made. At the end of January, or in
February, they begin to go off their feed, due to spawning.
In Donegal Bay hake-fishing commences in the month of
September. In Devonshire, and along the south-west coast,
this fish takes the place of the cod of the more northern
counties.

Means of capture. — Line-fishing by night-time in mid-
water, or beam-trawling during the day at the bottom, by
which latter method some are also captured throughout
the year. So common are they in certain seasons, that
Couch mentions 4000 having been landed in one day in
Mount's Bay; and on another occasion noo were taken
by one boat in two nights.

Baits. — In some localities a slice from one of its own
kind is found to be a good bait, but any that are suitable
for the cod may be employed.

Breeding. — In the spring months, but may be delayed in
cold seasons. Thus Couch remarks that in 1837 spawning
in Cornwall was not accomplished until August. One,
12 Ibs. weight, containing 15^-07. of roe, was landed at
Mevagissey the last week in February, 1882, the number

iviev;

166 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

of ova being upwards of a million and a half (Dunn). In
the report of the sea fisheries of England and Wales for
1879, it is observed that at Mevagissey these fish have been
falling off in numbers for the last fifteen years, due, it was
surmised, to Plymouth trawlers catching hundreds of
thousands of baby hakes, a foot or so long.

Uses. — Formerly they used to be salted in large quanti-
ties and exported, especially to Bilboa, in Spain. In this
country salted hake used to be known as "Poor John."
Even now they are extensively salted by fishermen, es-
pecially for their own consumption. They are more
appreciated at present than formerly, as, due to the great
price of fish, they are being forced into the market. Cor-
nish observed, in 1878, that twenty years since a burn or
"burden for one person" of twenty-one fish, obtained
$s. 6d.j a high wholesale price in West Cornwall. Now
the price is 15^. to 2Os. a burn, and the retail is. to is. 6d.
each fish.

As food. — It is coarse, but at Plymouth all these slimy
fishes, according to Yarrell, have the mucus first removed
with hot water and a little alkali, otherwise they are
spoiled. It may be cut into steaks and fried, or cooked in
pies.

Habitat. — From the northern seas along the coast of
Scandinavia, the German Ocean, and European shores of
the Atlantic to Madeira, while it is also distributed through
the Mediterranean, especially along its northern shores,
and into the Adriatic. It is common in Greenland, but
whether it is the same species which extends to Cape
Hatteras appears doubtful, as in the American Fishery
Reports it is recorded as M. bilinearis (Gill).

It is found around the British coasts, being much more
numerous in some localities than in others. It is generally

in

»

GREA T BRITAIN. 167

rare round Scotland, but recorded as present in the Ork-
neys and in Zetland ; Banff; Aberdeen ; in the Moray
Firth during July and August, when it is found following
the herrings. At Musselburgh one was taken in 1836, and
sent to the Edinburgh market, where it appeared to be
unknown. In Yorkshire it is resident, but seldom caught.
It is occasionally seen on the Dogger Bank, but becomes
more plentiful towards the coast of Holland. In February,
847, one about 30 inches long was caught off Sherring-
ham. It is, however, along the south and south-west coasts
of England that this fish most abounds, becoming numerous
in Devonshire and common in Cornwall, especially during
e autumn and winter months.

In Ireland it is found all round the coast, but most
common on the south. Off the coast of Waterford, on the
Nymph Bank, there was formerly a large fishery for hake,
which arrived in shoals twice yearly — June or the mackerel
season, and September or the commencement of the
herring season. In 1746, Smith, who wrote the history of
the county of Waterford, complained that the fishery was
declining. Thompson observed that he had been informed
by Mr. Nimmo that upon the Galway coast, commonly in
November, four or five men in one boat will take, with
hand-lines, from 600 to 700 ; sometimes, but very rarely,
1000 are captured, but only when herrings are in the bay.
The Bay of Galway, in old maps, is termed the Bay of
Hakes.

The fish frequently attains to 4 feet. Mr. Dunn observes
that the largest he has seen was 24 Ib. weight.

168 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

GENUS III. — Molva, Nilsson.

Geographical distribution. — Marine fishes inhabiting the
temperate waters of the northern hemisphere.

i. Ling (Molva vulgaris).

Names. — Ling is stated by most authors to be a corrup-
tion from " long," because this fish is similar in appearance
to the cod, but more elongated. Kellin, Aberdeen ; lahan,
Moray Firth ; drizzle, if small ; it has also been known,
according to T. Satchell, as ling drizzle, olic, spotted ling,
white-ling and stake.

B. vii., D. 13-16 | 63-70, V. 6, A. 57-66, Caec. pyl. 32,
Vert, ff .

Length of head 5 ; height of body 7 to 8 in the total
length. Eye. — Diameter 5 to 7 times in the length of the
head, ii to 2 diameters from the end of the snout, and i to
i£ apart. The maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of
the eye ; upper jaw the longer. The mandibular barbel
extends to beneath the centre of the orbit. Anterior nasal
valve is prolonged into a short barbel. Teeth. — Cardiform
in the jaws, with an inner row of rather widely separated
and pointed ones in the mandibles ; in a semicircular band
on the vomer, among which a few pointed ones are inter-
spersed ; none on the palatines or tongue. Fins. — The
first dorsal commences above the last half of the pectoral,
while scarcely any interspace exists between its base and
that of the second dorsal, which terminates close to the
root of the caudal fin. Ventral jugular. Anal commences
beneath the seventh or eighth ray of the second dorsal,
and ends close below the base of the caudal fin. Lateral-

GREAT BRITAIN. 169

m — At first descends slightly, becoming straight beneath
the commencement of the second dorsal. Colours. — Back
gray, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath ; dorsal,
anal, and caudal fins edged with white ; a darkish blotch
at the posterior end of the first dorsal fin, and a more
distinct one at the end of the second dorsal. In the young
the back and sides are yellowish-olive, broken up and
divided into patterns by pale lilac lines.

Varieties. — Ogilby observes that a variety is common at
ortrush, co. Antrim ; " it is of a pale violet colour, irregu-
rly mottled with dark purple, almost black spots, and
•ows to the same size as the usual kind ; it is caught only
a particular part of the bank, and is called by the
hermen ' spotted-ling.' Similarly spotted ones are taken
ff the Cornish coast, and termed 'shipwrights,' due to
their supposed resemblance to the spilt pitch on the clothes
of these mechanics."

Habits. — A ground fish, preferring deep water and rocky
places and caverns. It is very tenacious of life, and sur-
vives severe injuries. Mr. Reed took a salmon, 27 inches
long, out of a ling 6 feet in length, captured off Wick.
Couch found skulpins, Callionymus lyra, and even a " rough-
hound " of considerable size, inside a ling. Like the pike
of our fresh waters, this fish has the credit, which it appa-
rently well deserves, of greedily bolting any sort of foreign
substance it comes across. One was captured, some years
since, off Brandon Head, county Kerry, inside which was
a pewter flask, containing two glasses of ardent spirit.
Another was taken on November I7th, 1881, which weighed
25 Ibs. ; in the stomach of this fish Mr. Boul, of Consett,
found a three-gill bottle, some herrings, and a codling.
There were also several pieces of parchment, and bits of
sealing-wax, which induce the supposition that the fish had

i ;o

THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

swallowed one of those mournful messages of shipwreck
which have recently been so numerous.

Means of capture. — Hand-lines, also long-lines. The
ling fishermen in Galway generally remain out a week, but
every night seek shelter in a harbour in Boffin Island. In
the north of Ireland ling and conger are generally fished
for at the same time. In the Orkneys the long-lines con-
tain several hundred hooks, placed at a certain distance
apart, baited at night, examined and re-baited the next
morning. It is by no means uncommon to find that dog-
fish and sharks have cleared the lines prior to the fisher-
men's visit.

Baits. — A slice of plaice, flounder, herring, conger, or
cuttle. Usually it refuses bait unless living or very fresh,
while it does not appear to be partial to Crustacea.

Breeding. — Spawns in spring up to June, Pennant ob-
serving that they "deposit their eggs in the soft oozy
ground at the mouth of the Tees ; and at that time the
males separate from the females, and resort to some rocky
ground near Flamborough Head, where the fishermen take
great numbers, without ever finding any of the females or
roed fish among them." After spawning, they remain out
of condition till about August.

Uses. — When salted, ling is a considerable article of
commerce, especially with Spain and Italy. When in
season the liver is of a white colour, and affords a large
amount of oil, which is used for lamps, medicinal, or other
purposes. Their roe is consumed as food, or preserved in
brine, and is often employed for attracting other marine
fishes to localities where their capture would be facilitated.
From the sounds or air-bladders of this fish a considerable
amount of coarse isinglass is manufactured, similar to that
obtained from the cod. Ling split for curing should not

GREA T BRITAIN. 171

be less than 26 inches from the shoulder to the tail, smaller
ones being termed drizzles.

As food. — Is mostly preferred salted, and the periods for
its capture are, in Zetland, from May 2Oth to August I2th ;
Yorkshire, from February to May, or even to the end of
that month ; January and February in the south-west of
England, and March until May in the north of Ireland.
Scilly has long been celebrated for its dry ling, and it may,
perhaps, derive its name from zilli, being the Cornish term
for this fish, though it is sometimes made to include the
also. Rowell observes that when boiled it is much

:e cod, but firmer and whiter, and has a finer flavour ;

it to make a dinner of it, it should be baked, well seasoned
rith nutmeg, salt, and pepper, and a lump of the liver

>oked with it. When thus prepared it makes a dinner
one can eat with great relish, and feel very satisfied after it.

Habitat. — This species has been recorded from Spitz-
bergen to the extreme western portion of the Mediterra-
nean, but is most abundant along the coasts of Northern
Europe to Iceland, more especially in the German Ocean
and off Norway. To the north of Iceland it becomes rare,
neither is it abundant off Greenland and the Faroe Islands,
while it is absent from the Baltic. It is found off New-
foundland.

This species of the Gadidae, next to the cod and coal-
fish, is the most common fish of the Orkneys. Large
quantities are likewise taken off the western isles. It has
been mentioned as being present at Wick, Banff, Aber-
deen ; common at St. Andrews. In the Firth of Forth it
is taken with lines, principally about the Isle of May,
where it is found more plentiful than further up the
estuary. Occasionally small ones are met with near Inch-
keith, but scarcely ever above Queensferry. Off Yorkshire

172 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

it is resident and abundant ; common in the Norfolk
estuary, but not of large size ; while along the south coast
it is much more common in Cornwall than off Devon,
becoming abundant off Scilly. It is found nearly all round
the Irish coast.

Thompson records one of 59 Ibs. weight from Ireland ;
Reed of an example 6 feet long, and weighing about 60 Ibs.
taken at Wick in March, 1872 ; Parnell heard of one
which measured 7 feet in length, and Couch also was told
of a Scilly example of 124 Ibs. weight.

FAMILY II. — OPHIDIID^E, Mailer.
GENUS I.— Ammodytes, Artedi.

The term Ammodytes refers to its power of digging in
the sand.

Geographical distribution. — Littoral and gregarious forms,
mostly of a small size, which frequent the sandy shores of
Europe and North America, as far south as Cape Hatteras,
while the late Dr. Jerdon discovered a species off Madras.

Of the three British species only a solitary example of
A . siculus is said to have been dredged off the Shetland
Isles, and is now in the British Museum, whereas A. lanceo-
latus and A. tobianus are common in suitable localities ;
but, being very similar in appearance, it often becomes
difficult to decide to which of the two forms authors are
alluding. I therefore propose bringing together in this
place published accounts of the habits of the sand-eel or
sand-launce generally. In May, 1870, Sars, when investi-
gating the cod-fisheries off the coast of Norway, had his
attention directed to the large number of schools of sand-
eels, which during the winter months appear to reside in
deep waters, as during those months they are occasionally

GREA T BRITAIN. 173

taken from the stomachs of deep-sea fishes. As summer
sets in they arrive in dense schools in the sandy bays and
sounds, the places they frequent having been known from
time immemorial, and being often very limited in extent.
Exceedingly voracious, they devour any fish or other
animal which they are able to overcome, while they like-
wise bury themselves in the sand, provided the weather is
not too bright and sunny ; consequently, when the tide is
out, they may be dug up at even some considerable
distance from the receding sea, although within the limits
of tide-marks. Mr. Lloyd mentions that two kept in an
aquarium at Hamburg always buried themselves in the
sand at a particular spot, and, on being stirred up, they
swam about with an uneasy and rapid wriggling motion
for a few moments, generally with their heads towards the
light, and then dashed down into the sand, into which they
disappeared, prior to the subsidence of the little cloud of
sand which they raised in the act of vanishing.

They appear to live in large schools, which have been
observed to rise to the surface simultaneously, or when
driven there by predaceous fishes. Thus Sars records seeing
a flock of sea-gulls sitting listlessly on the edge of a rock
overhanging the sea ; suddenly, and as if with one impulse,
all rose at the same moment and, screaming in concert,
winged their way to a distant point where the sea looked
like a miniature whirlpool. This was occasioned by the
pollack, which had surrounded a school of sand-eels, and
forced them towards the surface, when they became an easy
prey, not only to these fish but to the gulls which swooped
down from above. Porpoises have been recorded to act
much in the same way, swimming round the schools and
devouring immense numbers.

174 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

A. Vomer armed anteriorly with a pair of tooth-like
projections.

I. Larger Sand-launce (Ammodytes lanceolatus}.

Names. — Coast of Down in Ireland, termed snedden.
Homers, or horn-eels, Edinburgh ; greater sand-eel, York-
shire ; great lant, Cornwall. At St. Ives the fishermen term
the adult snake-bait, and the young naked-bait ; used to be
termed smoulds in Norfolk. Yarrell suggested that the
larger sand-eel only should be termed sand-eel, and the
lesser one sand-launce. Le lancon, French.

B. vii., D. 53-58, A. 28-31, L. i, 190-203, Caec. pyl. i,
Vert. 67.

Length of head 4^ to 5^ ; height of body 10 to 12 in
the total length. Eye. — Situated a little before the middle of
the entire length of the head, 2 to 2^ diameters from the
end of the snout, and i to 2 apart ; lower jaw the longer,
and having a soft prolongation in front ; premaxillaries not
protrusible ; the posterior extremity of the upper jaw does
not reach to beneath the eye. Teeth. — Absent from the jaws,
tongue, and palate ; the head of the vomer bifurcates into
two tooth-like processes which project downwards and
slightly outwards. Fins. — Dorsal low, and with an even
upper edge ; it commences on a line a little posterior to the
hind edge of the pectoral fin, which latter is short, being
only equal to about 3^ or 4 in the length of the head.
Lateral-line. — Commences a little behind the head, is con-
tinued a short distance below, but parallel with the dorsal
profile, and from it 190 to 203 folds of skin pass obliquely
downwards. A second lateral-line runs from the lower
part of the base of the pectoral fin along the body a short
distance above the base of the anal fin. A straight line,
due to muscular insertions, passes from the head to the

GREA T BRITAIN. 175

centre of the base of the caudal fin. Colours. — Olive green,
divided a little above the middle of the depth of the body,
by a broad bright band, from a silvery abdomen. Dorsal
and anal fins colourless ; caudal with a dark base, and the
central rays nearly white. A black blotch on the side of
the upper jaw extending on to the cheek.

Habits. — This form keeps in deeper water than A. tobia-
nus, while it is much more voracious ; from the stomach of
one, which was 12 inches in length, I took seven sprats
from i to 2^ inches long, and a lesser sand-eel 3 inches
long. This fish does not object to devour its own kind. It
pears to have derived its name, " horn-eel," from the sort
horny tip at the end of its lower jaw, which assists it
en diving down into the sand, where it conceals itself
during the ebb of the tide. Thompson remarks how he
observed a number of pigs at Newcastle, county of Down,
daily frequenting the sand at the extreme edge of the re-
tiring waves, and ascertained that they were in search of
these fishes. It has, however, been recorded as captured at
the entrance of the British Channel, thirty miles from land
and in forty-five fathoms of water. Frequently taken from
the stomachs of larger fish, while its young is much relished
by mackerel and herring.

Modes of capture. — The fishery at St. Ives, in Cornwall,
commences in May and lasts until September. Thompson
remarked as follows : — At Dundrum, on the coast of Down,
from the loose sand covered with water, to about the depth
of 9 inches, the persons engaged in this occupation with
great dexterity drew these fishes from their hiding-places,
using for this purpose old reaping-hooks. These are run
through the sand with the right hand drawn towards the
, by which the fish is seized and transferred to a basket,
strapped round the waist and carried in front. It is in shape

LIU I

«

176 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

like the angler's, but much larger and open at , the top.
Fishing here is daily carried on throughout the year except
in winter, when, being full of spawn, they are rejected as
food. In some places they are sought for by moonlight,
and it has been said that their silvery brilliancy is more
striking by night than by day. A rake is used in some
parts, or a strong piece of iron wire bent into a sickle
shape.

A writer ("Old Log") in the Field (June i8th, 1881) men-
tions that " When going fast through the water to get over
some very unpromising ground, and our baits were nearly at
the top of the water, I felt a very light bite, and, drawing in
my line, found that I had got hold of a large sand-eel, whose
mouth was little bigger than the baited hook. Now, ac-
cording to all ordinary rules, the sand-eel should have been
in or about the sand at the bottom, and yet he was foraging
at the surface, and took a Belgian grub, which must have
been a novelty to him."

Baits. — It appears to like live bait best, and objects to
any if in the least tainted.

Breeding. — This may vary in accordance with the seasons
in different localities. In August, at St. Ives, I found the
roe similarly advanced to what I observed in A. tobiamis,
and conclude they both spawn in the autumn and winter
months.

As food. — A very delicate dish, especially when in roe,
but not good during the winter months, when it is thin and
out of condition.

Uses. — As bait, for which its silvery appearance well
adapts it.

Habitat. — From the Atlantic shores of Northern Europe
and coasts of the German Ocean, and very rarely found in
the Mediterranean.

:

GREAT BRITAIN. 177

This form, although extended round the British Isles, is
not so common as the smaller sand-eel, and seems to
prefer deeper water. It is rare in the Orkneys and Zetland ;
common off Banff, Aberdeen. One example is recorded
from the Moray Firth taken from the stomach of a cod. At
St. Andrews it is frequent in the debris of storms on the
sands, as well as in the latter near low water-mark. Bands
of young occur in the tidal pools in May ; not unfrequent

the Firth of Forth, Berwickshire, and in many situations
ng the east and west coasts of Scotland. In Yorkshire,
common, but somewhat local ; common in the Norfolk

tuary ; Suffolk ; also along the south coast, as Sussex,

ampshire, Dorsetshire, becoming rarer off South Devon-
shire, and more or less common along Cornwall. Abun-
dant in Guernsey, likewise taken in Somersetshire.

In Ireland it has been recorded from the north-east and
west coasts, also probably in the south, but is rarer than the
smaller species A. tobianus.

Thompson took one in Ireland 1 1 inches in length ;
another 1 3 inches long has been recorded ; while Ray's
example was 1 54- inches.

B. Vomer unarmed.

2. Lesser sand-launce (A mmodytes tobianus).

Names. — Lesser sand-eel, Yorkshire ; lizard-bait, by the
fishermen at St. Ives. Ornals at Aberdeen ; the wriggle,
Sussex ; lant, Cornwall ; saneels, Moray Firth ; L'ammodyte
tquille, French.

B. vii., D. 53-59, A. 26-30, L. i, 125-145, Vert. 62-63,

(ec. pyl. i.
Length of head 5^ to 54. ; height of body 74- to 91 in
VOL. i.— E. I. N

178 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

the total length. Eye. — Diameters 6 to 7 in the length of the
head, i£ to 2-i- diameters from the end of the snout, and I
to 14- apart. Lower jaw projecting some distance beyond
the upper, but not so much as in A . lanceolatus. The max-
illa reaches posteriorly to beneath the hind nostril ; pre-
maxillaries protractile. Teeth. — None in the jaws ; head of
vomer forming a somewhat elevated transverse prominence,
having a few deciduous teeth posteriorly, also a single
similar row along the body of that bone ; none on the pala-
tines ; a median row along the base of the tongue. Fins.
— Dorsal commences above the origin of the last third of
the pectoral. Scales. — Small, from 125 to 145 transverse
and oblique folds of skin. Lateral-line. — The superior
along the side of the back ; the inferior along the side of
the lower edge of the abdomen. Colours. — Upper third of
the body olive-green ; a silvery band, which widens and
becomes more distinct posteriorly, passes along the side of
the body, one-half below, the other half above the median
line : below this band the abdomen is white. Fins unstained,
except the base of the caudal, which is brownish. This fish
is more silvery than the last species, and not so dark along
the back, its colours having been well likened to those of
the atherine or sand-smelt with its broad silvery lateral
band.

Habits. — Appears to congregate in greater assemblages
than the larger sand-eel, and to be seen more commonly
nearer in shore, but it is not rare to find the two forms
together.

Its head being small and muzzle sharp, it easily pierces
the sand ; while the body is square and slender, and so
causes no obstruction to its progress ; but, due to its many
enemies, it always appears to be desirous of retreating
rapidly into the sand. Porpoises, codfish, mackerel, &c.,

GREA T BRITAIN. 179

are constantly on the look out for it when the tide is high,
and sea-birds when it is low.

This form takes to softer ground than the larger species.
At the ebb of the tide it buries itself about a foot deep in
the sand, remaining concealed there until the succeeding
tide ; occasionally at low water its snout may be perceived
above the sand, or its hiding-place discovered by a little
bubbling. Lightning is said to have a great effect in
causing it to bury itself.

Means of capture. — Most sought for during spring tides
(except in winter). They are obtainable for bait all along
the south coast as far as the Scilly Isles, by those who have
seines made for their capture, especially those of the
Channel Island pattern, which have calico bunts or bags,
by which the launce is kept swimming until they are dipped
up and placed in the floating cases provided for keeping
them alive.

"I was surprised to see the Ammodytes shovelled out
from shelly and gravelly sand to a depth of 2 feet, on the
surface of which my weight hardly left a footmark "
(Thompson). They are most readily captured during
frosts.

Breeding. — Various accounts have been given at what
period of the year this takes place. Personally, at St.
Ives, I have found examples of the small sand-eel with
milt and roe very forward in the months of August and
September. In Ireland Thompson found some ready to
deposit their spawn at the end of July, but he remarks
that in places they do so during the winter. Couch con-
sidered the end of December the most common period ; so
probably they continue spawning through the last few
months of the year, dependent on the temperature, be-

N 2

i8o THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

coming very poor in winter after breeding. Their eggs are
deposited in the loose sand.

Diseases, &c. — In July, 1881, the sea-shore between Burnt-
island and the East Neuk of Fife, on the Fife side, was
literally strewn with dead sand-eels for several days. The
cause was attributed to chemical agencies that flow directly
into the Forth from the works along its margin.

Uses. — A capital bait, and much prized by sea-fowls.
Couch remarks that he had been informed that if mackerel
are found to be after this species of launce a more suc-
cessful fishing is anticipated than if they are pursuing the
larger sand-eels. It is said by Lloyd to be most difficult to
keep alive in an aquarium. One summer at Hamburg he
received twenty brought alive during a ten hours' voyage
in a lo-gallon vessel of water. The creatures took an im-
petuous rush and a wriggle through the tank and turned up
dead, some almost instantly and some a little later, with
the exception of one which lived thirty-six hours. Subse-
quently he saw two living examples kept in a tank about
4 feet long and 18 inches deep, containing about 4 inches
of sand at the bottom, but no other occupants, and the
whole kept in a cellar.

As food. — Excellent eating, especially while in roe, but
in winter, after spawning, it becomes thin.

Habitat. — Northern shores of Europe, and occasionally a
few may stray into the Mediterranean.

Orkneys, in vast quantities. Edward recorded taking
his first six examples, from 4 to 5 inches in length,
at Banff in March, 1863 ; since then he has captured several,
but always during the winter months, save one in the
summer ; abundant, and used as bait in the Moray Firth.
St. Andrews, occasional. Firth of Forth, plentiful during
the summer months, especially on the sands above Queens-

GREAT BRITAIN. 181

ferry, where the large sand-eel is never found. At Mussel-
burgh and Portobello the two species inhabit the same loca-
lity. Yorkshire, resident and abundant ; Norfolk estuary ; in
short, very common along the shores of Scotland and the
east, west, and south coasts of England. On the south coast
of Devon it is common, and used as food from May until
October ; abundant off some sandy bays in Cornwall,
especially St. Ives, Guernsey, Somersetshire.

In Ireland common round the coast.

It attains to at least 7 inches in length.

B. Anacanthini Pleuronectoidei.

e structure of the head apparently unsymmetrical on the
two sides.

FAMILY III. — THE FLAT FISHES (Pleuronectidce).

The members composing this family are commonly
known as flatfishes, but it must be observed there are two
groups of " flat fishes," the one being, as it were, flattened
from above, as we see in rays and skates, wherein the upper
surface is the back. It is not so, however, among the Pleuro-
nectidae, or " side swimmers," which are compressed from
side to side, except the head, which appears distorted and
likewise flattened. When referring to the Pleuronectoids,
the terms right (dextral} or left (sinistral) are employed
with reference to the position of the upper or coloured side.
To ascertain this, the fish is placed with its tail towards
the observer, the dorsal or back fin above, and the anal
beneath. Reversed examples are such as have the eyes
situated on the side of the body, opposite to the one in
which they are generally seen. Double examples are those
in which both sides of the body are coloured.

182 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

The flat fishes are among the most remarkable of verte-
brate animals, as for about a week or more after birth they
swim on edge in a manner similar to other fishes, having their
back fin above, their anal fin below them, and possessing
an eye on either side of the head. But as they grow older
this erect position becomes lost, their sides become their
upper and lower surfaces, while both eyes are on the
superior or coloured side of the body. The adult, when
at rest or swimming, usually keeps near the bottom of the
water, and progresses by means of a sort of undulating
motion of the whole body, and of the unpaired fins. These
fish are of a broad, flat shape, and margined in almost their
entire extent by the dorsal, caudal, and anal fins ; while
not only the muscles, but the skin, the gills, gill-covers, and
even the pectoral fin-rays, are less developed on the blind
(or normally under surface) than on the coloured side, the
mouth also being, as it were, bent round to this eyeless
side, towards which the anterior part of the face seems to
be twisted. From a very early age it had been known that
these fishes when first emerging from the ova, and while in
a pellucid condition, have an eye on either side of the
head ; that by degrees the eye, on what eventually will be
the eyeless side, becomes depressed, while at the same time
a dark spot appears on the opposite side of the head, so
that the fish almost seems to possess three eyes. By
degrees this dark spot becomes a distinct eye, while that
on the other side gradually disappears ; in short, the eye
apparently migrates from what is henceforth known as the
blind side of the fish. Professor Alexander Agassiz re-
marked that the first change and the process is identical,
whether we take a right or a left flounder. First there is
a slight advance towards the snout of the eye about to be
transferred, so that the transverse axis, passing through the

GREAT BRITAIN. 183

pupil of the eyes, no longer makes a right angle with the
longitudinal axis. This movement of translation is soon
followed by a slight movement of rotation, so that when
the young fish is seen in profile, the eyes of the two sides
no longer appear in the same plane, that on the blind side
being now slightly above and in advance of that on the
coloured side. With increasing age the eye on the blind
side rises higher and higher towards the median longi-
tudinal line of the head. The back fin gradually extends
>wards the nostrils, and finds its way behind the eye
h has come from the blind side. The eye is trans-
ferred at such an early period that the bones of the skull
ire cartilaginous, and the transfer is carried out by a com-
)ined process of translation and rotation. In some cases
was observed to be transferred, as described by Malm,
>und the head by the snout, and in others to actually pass
irough the soft tissues of the head, and this divergence
appeared to be due solely to the generic differences in the
position of the dorsal fin.

Some flat fishes have the eyes normally on the right side
of the body, others on the left, but reversed instances,, or
those in which the coloured side is on that which is, as a
rule, uncoloured, are not uncommon among most genera of
flat fishes. Such is very frequently observed in flounders,
these fishes, living close in shore, being more exposed to
the actions of currents than those genera which live in the
deep sea. In this way they become, in their very early
life, forced on to the side which is not the normal one.
Such variations are more commonly perceived in some
localities than in others, and will generally be found due
to local disturbing causes. Professor Agassiz kept young
flounders in glass vases raised high above the table, and
found that, notwithstanding the fact that here no dis-

184 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

turbance could occur, seven out of fifteen were noticed
endeavouring to force the eye round the wrong way by
lying down on the opposite side. But all the seven soon
died, and this may account for the comparative scarcity of
reversed flat fishes. He also observed that the presence of
light on all sides failed to arrest, or even to delay, the
transfer of the eye, and the consequent change in the colour
of the under side, which invariably became white with
advancing age, when that organ passed over to the upper
surface. Thus it would appear that the absence of light is
not the primary or sole cause of the want of colour on the
under side of the flat fishes.

While the eye is progressing from the one side of the
head to the opposite, where it is to find its final resting-
place, its course is occasionally arrested, and it may remain
permanently stationary on the upper surface of the head,
and this is commonly but not invariably seen in what are
known as " double flat fishes," or those coloured on both
sides. Double fishes have been observed in flounders,
turbot, plaice, soles, &c., and they are seen to swim ver-
tically, and to be more frequently found near the surface of
the water than those which progress in a normal manner. All
who have eaten these double flat fishes know how they are
most deservedly held in greater estimation for the table
than others which have an uncoloured as well as a coloured
side. There are likewise albinos, or those which are un-
coloured or nearly white on both sides (being almost or
quite double albinos), and still retaining their normal form ;
but in some that have been carefully examined no sexual
organs could be detected.

In the majority of albino examples only patches or
portions of the body are thus affected, and it has been
suggested whether such may not, at least occasionally, be

GREAT BRITAIN. 185

due to a cross having occurred between a normal and a
reversed example of the same species, giving rise to a sort
of piebald colour.

Among these fishes it appears as if the female sex largely
preponderated over that of the male. It also seems pro-
bable that their eggs float when deposited in the sea. In
the earlier stages of their existence, during the spring
months, flat fishes pass their lives close to the coast ; they
swim on the surface, and appear more active if the wind
is setting in shore, perhaps taking advantage of it to return
towards home.

Many legends doubtless are in existence throughout the
universe regarding how these fishes became coloured on
one side only. Klunzinger tells us that in Upper Egypt a
tradition is prevalent that Moses was once cooking a fish,
but by the time it had been broiled until it was brown on
one side, the fire or the oil gave out. Moses, in a temper
the reverse of amiable, threw the fish into the sea, where,
although half broiled, it came to life again, and its de-
scendants have up to the present day preserved the same
peculiar appearance, being white or colourless on one side,
and coloured on the other. In Constantinople a similar
story is told of these fishes, but Moses retires in favour of
the Sultan, Mohammed II., the conqueror of Stamboul.
In the Isle of Man, Patterson states that there is a legend
accounting for how the mouths of flat fishes became twisted.
The finny tribes bethought themselves that it was time to
select a king to decide disputes, and for which purpose they
all assembled, putting on their best appearance. The
plaice, however, remained so long at home adorning him-
self with red spots, in order to be selected their chief, that
he did not arrive until all was over, and the shad had been
elected "king of the sea." On hearing the result, the

1 86 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

indignation of the plaice was aroused, and, curling his
mouth to one side, he remarked with disdain, " Fancy a
simple fish like a herring being king of the sea." And his
mouth has continued awry ever since.

In some of the genera forming this family it is very
interesting to observe the different plans on which the eyes
are modified and protected. Thus the plaice or the flounder
are able to move these organs horizontally, or even ver-
tically, and it appears as if the two eyes, to a certain
extent, act independently one of the other. In the turbot
this organ can be covered, for not only does a thick skin
invest the upper and lateral portions of the globe, as in
most of the flat fishes, but being insufficient to protect the
eye from the irritation of the sand wherewith it covers
itself, it is able to elevate a thick lower eyelid, or else to
depress the transparent portion of the globe of the eye
beneath this fold of skin.

Respecting the means of capturing these fishes, it is
found that they mostly reside in localities where the beam-
trawl can be employed, while due to their great commercial
value as food they are sought for throughout the year.
It was observed at Great Grimsby during the cold winter
of 1 88 1, that the catch of soles had increased, as then they
retired into deep water. By an old law of the Cinque
Ports, no one might capture soles between the ist of
November and the i$th of March, neither was any one
permitted to fish from sun-setting to sun-rising, that the
fish might enjoy their night's food (Pennant, 1776). Con-
stant complaints are heard respecting the diminution in
the quantity of flat fishes, and the undersized ones that
are sent to market. Off Great Grimsby these fish have
decreased, so that the captures by each fishing smack are
much less than formerly, but the supply has been kept up

ic

•

GREA T BRIT A IN. 1 87

by increasing the number of vessels. It has been suggested
that beam-trawlers ought not to fish in water of less depth
than twelve fathoms, or they would be injuring the brood-
grounds. Once captured in a trawl, there would be but
little use in returning the small fish to the sea, as they are
usually too much injured.

Geographical distribution. — These littoral forms are mostly
found where the sea possesses a sandy or muddy bottom,
r else in muddy or sandy rivers, rarely existing at great
epths, and but seldom frequenting rocky or precipitous
coasts, while due to the deficiency of an air-bladder they
ve at the bottom. Flat fishes are numerous towards the
pics, where, however, they do not attain to so large a
ize as those which reside in temperate or cold regions ;
ey are absent from very high latitudes. Some, as the
ommon flounder, are anadromous forms, but the majority
•e strictly marine, while a few of the marine species have
aturally, or consequent upon experiments made by man,
en acclimatised in fresh water.

GENUS i. — Hippoglossus, Cuvier.
i. Halibut {Hippoglossus vulgaris.}

Names. — Said by Ray (1713) to have been termed but,
ilso turbut or turbot ; lady fluke. Turbot, Moray Firth,
tlso bradan leathen, or " flat salmon " ; while at Aberdeen
le large ones are called turbot, very old and black ones
blacksmiths, and young ones birdies. Also known as work-
use turbot.
B. vii., D. 99-107, V. 6, A. 73-82, Caec. pyl. 4, Vert.

Length of head 4^- ; of caudal fin 6\ ; height of body 3 to
3-} in the total length. Eye. — Diameter 5^ to 6 in the length

i88 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

of the head, and nearly or quite equal to the extent of the
snout, and from f to I diameter apart ; anteriorly the two
eyes reach to the same level. Lower jaw prominent, the
posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the
middle or hind edge of the orbit. Teeth. — Conical in the
jaws. Fins. — The dorsal commences above the first third,
or middle of the upper orbit, and terminates before it
reaches the caudal fin. Pectoral on the coloured side half
as long as the head, slightly shorter on the blind side ;
ventral short, being scarcely half the length of the pectoral.
Scales. — Minute, and cycloid over the body and head. No
spine in front of the anal fin. Lateral-line. — Anteriorly
curved above the pectoral fin, the height of the curve being
about equal to one-fourth of its length. Colours. — Right or
coloured side of an olive marbled all over with darker ; fins
similarly coloured except in the young, when the basal
halves of the dorsal and anal are light coloured.

Habits. — This is the largest form of the family taken off
the British shores. It feeds close to the ground, but often
inhabits deep and rocky situations, while Lacepede observed
that in Greenland it appeared to prefer localities also fre-
quented by the cod, as they probably seek the same food.
Pennant remarked (1776) that during the preceding year
there had been two instances of halibuts swallowing the
lead weight at the end of lines with which seamen were
sounding, one occurring off Flamborough Head, the other
when going into Tinmouth Haven. Thompson took from
the stomach of one weighing about 120 Ibs. the remains of
a ray ; from another ten full-grown sprats, and a fragment
of Millepora polymorpha ; another was crammed with crabs,
and a valve of Venus cassina. On the Dogger Bank it is
said to consume large quantities of shell-fish, also flat fish
and Crustacea.

GREA T BRIT A IN. 1 89

Means of capture. — Baits employed on very strong hooks
and lines, as it sometimes offers a determined resistance,
and which may be very formidable in large examples.
This, however, according to Thompson, is not in accordance
with the experience of Irish fishermen, who assert that it is
a simple fish, easily killed, and they never lose one in con-
sequence of its weight. Off Ireland it is generally taken
on cod lines, the whelk, Buccinum undatum, being mostly
employed as a bait. In the Orkneys it is most commonly
captured in the slack water and eddies occasioned by the
various islands in the race of the tides.

Baits. — Generally those employed for the cod and turbot
In the Moray Forth a piece of plaice is mostly used.

Breeding. — April in Cornwall ; off Scotland in the spring.
The roe is of a pale red colour, and the ova very numerous.

Diseases. — Thompson states that upon all he has examined
were specimens of the parasite Hirudo hippoglossus, Miiller;
and Mclntosh remarks that Epibdella hippoglossi is often
seen on the caligus of this fish, in fact Udonella caligorum
is common.

Uses. — Said to be more famed for its size than for its
quality, and is sold throughout the year, except during
May and June.

As food. — It is little esteemed in England, and does not
obtain a ready sale among the general public, unless other
fish is scarce. Mr. Rowell, however, observes that at
Newcastle they are termed " turbot," and greatly esteemed,
and as a test observes cod is retailed at ^d. a pound, ling at
$d. or 6d., and halibut at lod. or is., these three prices
showing their respective local estimation.

Jews are frequent purchasers of halibut, but they must
have an entire fish with its head and gills intact. Thomp-
son considered it very good for the table. Lowe asserted

190 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

that it is a large, coarse, and dry fish, except the head and
fins, which are reckoned excellent, while a small one is far
from bad. The skin is thick and oily, as are also the bones,
from which latter a quantity of pure oil may be obtained.
The Greenlanders are said to cut them into large strips,
which are dried in the sun.

Habitat. — From the coasts of Spitzbergen to Iceland,
Finland and Scandinavia to the British and French shores,
but it is rare in the Channel. It is abundant off the
Orkneys, especially in eddies or where two tides meet.
One captured in such a locality was 7^ feet long, and thick
in proportion. It is also common in Zetland. Frequently
met with along the east coast of Scotland, and thrives on
the immense sandy plain between there and Norway.
Reid has obtained it up to 231 Ibs. weight at Wick ; also
found in the Moray Firth, more particularly during the
month of March ; at Banff in deep water ; while it is not
rare at St. Andrews. Resident off the Yorkshire coast,
and in moderate numbers, but seldom caught now, at
Flamborough, where thirty or forty years ago it was very
numerous. In the Norwich papers of February I5th, 1873,
one is mentioned as having been taken off Yarmouth
measuring 5^ feet long, 2£ broad, and weighing 74. stone ;
and Buckland instances another, 6 feet long, weighing
161 Ibs., obtained from the same locality in 1867. In the
Norfolk Chronicle of April 2Qth, 1876, it is recorded that
Messrs. Parker exhibited a halibut from the deep sea
off the eastern counties, weighing over 300 Ibs., and above
7 feet in length. It has been captured off Sussex ; is
occasionally taken off Devonshire, but not sought after.
On April I4th, 1870, one weighing 102 Ibs. was secured at
Mevagissey. It is not common off Cornwall, but has been
taken up to 122 Ibs. off Land's End, and one weighing

GREA T BRIT A IN. 191

about I cwt. is recorded by Mr. Cornish in the ' Zoologist,1
as captured on a spiller in Mount's Bay, on May I5th, 1882.
Pennant mentions it from the Menai Straits, and in April,
1829, an example 7% feet long and 320 Ibs. weight was
recorded from off the Isle of Man, and is perhaps the
example stated by Parnell to have been sent to the Edin-
burgh market.

In Ireland. — It is taken occasionally on all parts of the
coast from December until March. In Portrush, county of
Antrim, it is occasionally captured in winter on the cod
lines, baited either with the whelk or the flesh of various
fishes, chiefly wrasses.

It attains to at least 500 Ibs. weight in Europe. Olfsson
mentioned one exceeding this from Iceland, and which was
said to have been little short of 20 feet in length, while
Couch was informed of a still larger example captured on
the banks of Newfoundland.

GENUS 2. — Hippoglossoides, Gottche.
i. Long-rough dab (Hippoglossoides limandoides).

Names. — Rough dab or long-rough dab ; bastard-sattie,
Aberdeen ; also yellow dab, Banff ; long fleuk and sand-
sucker, Edinburgh, the last name being due to the erroneous
idea that it feeds on nothing but sand.

B. viii., D. 76-87, V. 6, A. 60-69, L- 1- 85-95, Caec.
pyl. 4, Vert. 45.

Length of head 4f to 5 ; height of body 3 to 3^ in the
total length. Eyes. — Divided by a narrow but scaled ridge,
diameter about one-fourth of the length of the head and
nearly i diameter from the end of the snout. The
anterior margin of each eye is on the same vertical line.
Cleft of mouth deep, the maxilla reaches posteriorly to

IQ2 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OP

beneath the middle of the orbit, the lower jaw the longer.
Teeth. — Pointed, the anterior being the longest, the front
ones are placed somewhat distantly apart, and in one row
in each jaw. Fins. — The dorsal commences above the first
third of the upper eye, but is not continued so far as the
base of the caudal fin, its rays are simple, and the longest
are situated about midway between the hind edge of the
head and the base of the caudal fin. The anal has a short
spine directed forwards at its base, just where it commences
on a vertical line beneath the middle of the pectoral ; it
ends similarly to the dorsal ; its highest rays are slightly
below the centre of its length, and are similar to those of
the dorsal fin. Caudal wedge-shaped, its central rays being
slightly the longest. Free portion of the tail two-thirds as
long as high. Scales. — Ctenoid, covering head, including
jaws and body, as well as a row on each fin ray. Lateral-
line. — Nearly straight anteriorly, becoming quite so opposite
the hind end of the pectoral fin. Ccecal appendages. — Four.
Colours. — On upper surface of a pale brownish grey or
sandy ; under surface white. Occasionally it is said to be
slightly spotted.

Habits. — It frequents sandy shores, is captured along
with plaice and other Pleuronectoids, and, according to
Parnell, several may be daily found in the Edinburgh
markets from May to July. Parnell obtained what appeared
to be fragments of some species of Asterias in the stomach
of one he examined. Cock's specimen had its stomach
filled with the shells of Turritella terebra, two-thirds of
which contained hermit crabs (Pagurus).

Means of capture. — It appears to be usually taken with
the beam-trawl.

Breeding. — rln May and June.

As food. — Its flesh is sweet and good, but rather dry.

GREA T BRITAIN. 193

Habitat. — Atlantic coasts of North Europe and shores of
the German Ocean.

It is rare off Banff; captured at Aberdeen ; frequent
during May, June, and July in the Firth of Forth ; not
rare off Berwick ; Sunderland ; inhabits deep waters in the
North Sea, and is occasionally taken at Whitby and
Hastings ; common in Devonshire.

In Ireland Mr. Todhunter obtained a specimen off Cape
Clear in the winter of 1848, and which is now in the
Dublin University Museum.

The largest British specimen recorded measured 15
inches in length.

GENUS 3. — Rhombus, Cuvier.
I. Turbot (Rhombus maximus}.

Names. — .Turbot, formerly spelt turbolt. Rod, Orkneys.
Roddan or roan fleuk, barnock (from its round shape) and
gunner-fleuk, m fleuk, east coast of Scotland. Neill observes
that it is termed rawn fleuk or " fleuk in roe," because it is
deemed best for the table when in " roan " or " roe." Brat,
turbrat, or roddams, Northumberland. In Cornwall, accord-
ing to Borlase, it used to be termed brett ; in an old
Cornish journal it is called luggatee. Birt or byrte-fish, or
breat.

B. vii., D. 61-72, V. 6, A. 45~56, Vert. -j-J, Caec. pyl. 2.

Length of head 3^ ; height of body if to 2 in the total
length. Eyes. — Diameter, one-sixth to one-tenth of the
length of the head ; one transverse diameter apart ; lower
eye half a diameter in advance of the upper eye, and i^ to
\ diameters from the end of the snout. Not only does
opaque and thick skin cover the upper and lateral portions
of the eye, but it can raise over it a thick lower eyelid, or

VOL. I.— E. I. O

194 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OP

else depress the transparent portion of the globe below this
fold of skin, irrespective of which a portion of the iris forms
a semilunar veil at the upper part of the pupil. Cleft of
mouth deep, oblique, lower jaw the longer. Teeth. — Small,
numerous, and in several rows in both jaws. Fins. — Dorsal
commences on the snout in advance of the eyes ; at first
low, its rays increase in length to just beyond the centre of
the fin ; from thence they gradually decrease, ending a very
short distance from the base of the caudal fin. Ventral
commences under the throat, its longest rays equal two-
thirds the length of the pectoral. Anal commences slightly
before the base of the pectoral. Caudal rounded. The
skin on the coloured side is studded with numerous bony
tubercles, the blunt points of which are directed forwards,
those on the head are smaller than those on the body.
Lateral-line. — With a curve anteriorly, and becoming straight
opposite the posterior end of the pectoral fin. Colours. —
Superiorly sandy-brown, covered with more or less distinct
dark spots and blotches, these being likewise continued on
to the fins, giving them a mottled appearance. Under
surface of the body white.

Varieties inform. — Examples are occasionally met with
having a notch or depression at the summit of the head.
Mclntosh figures an abnormal form, and in his account of the
fish of North Uist, observes upon one with an eye on either
side of its head, as shown in Pleuronectes cyclops of Donovan.
Couch instances a turbot coloured on both sides, in which a
process three inches in length, thin in substance, and nearly
as broad as a finger, projected from before its eyes, and was
not connected with the fin rays.

In colour, varieties are numerous ; there are such
as are partially albinos ; also reversed and double ones.
On 2nd August, 1874, a double one weighing^ i Ibs. was
taken at Montrose, where, remarks Mr. Johnson, " we see

GREA T BRIT A IN. 195

sometimes in the course of the year two or three of them,
and then for years won't see any." It has been observed
that these fish from our northern coasts and brought by
the Dutch, are darker than those from the south-west coast
of England.

Habits. — Frequents sandy bays and likewise muddy
localities ; it appears to constantly change its residence,
migrating into deep water during cold weather similarly to
the soles. It is very retentive of life when captured. Its
principal food is small fish, crustaceans and molluscs. In
an example captured in Torbay, which Mr. Gosden, of
Exeter, examined when quite fresh, he found Montagu's
crab (Xantho floridd), the angled crab (jGonoplax angulata],
velvet fidler crab (Portunus puber\ the long-haired porcelain
crab (Porcelanus longicornus), the olive squat lobster (Gala-
thea squamiferd], the spider crab (Stenorynchus phalangiuni),
brittle starfish (Ophiostrix fragilis), and the Eurynome
aspera. Pontoppidan remarks that it feeds on young crabs
and small fishes, sea eggs or sea urchins, of which it is very
fond.

The turbot was formerly preserved by the Romans in
salt-water ponds, so as to be readily available for the market.
The largest appear to have been preferred, and it has been
asserted that the Emperor Domitian convened the senate
respecting how a mighty fish of this kind should be cooked.
Respecting the food of the turbot and flat fishes generally,
it is often difficult to institute investigations, as they are
generally at once disembowelled by fishermen when cap-
tured, because after death decomposition rapidly attacks
their intestines, and injures the fish in a very few hours.
By Act i., c. 28, of George I., a turbot under 16 inches

ig, brill under 14, codling 12, whiting 6, bass and

o 2

196

THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

mullet 12, sole 8, plaice or dab 6, and flounder 7 inches
long, were forbidden to be sold.

Means of capture. — At the commencement of the season
it is taken by trammel and beam-trawl nets, but as the fish
retires to deeper water and rougher ground, long lines or
boulters are employed ; off the Dutch coast in warm
weather they are taken in very shallow water. In calm
weather, when the sun is bright, it may be speared. In
county Down fishermen employ a spear thirty-two
thirty-three feet long, armed at its extremity with an iron
barb ; the fishermen even drive it down on them when
beyond their reach. In many places fishing for turbot with
long lines has had to be discontinued owing to their being
destroyed by steam-trawlers, while in several localities these
fish, which used to be abundant, have almost disappeared.
It is to be regretted that numbers of the young of these
fish are destroyed by trawlers, or inshore nets having
small mesh as used by shrimpers.

Baits. — These must be very fresh, alive if practicable, and
shining if possible ; the lampern is deemed one of the best,
and largely used by the Dutch. In the Moray Firth, during
July and August, it is often captured with herrings or sand-
eels used as a bait. It will take a slice of fresh fish as th(
named, also Coitus^ haddock, mackerel, pilchard, sand
smelt, garfish, and likewise worms, mussels, limpets, or eve
bullock's-liver.

Breeding. — Breeds in summer ; in February it has been
found with nearly mature ova ; a male had milt only
thirds ripe, April I2th, 1883. This fish has a large number
of very small ova, and in a 23 Ib. fish, which had a n
weighing 5 Ibs. 9 oz., were 14,311,200 eggs.

Hermaphrodites. — Quelch published a description of
supposed hybrid between this fish and the brill, Rhombic

GREAT BRITAIN. 197

/avis. Messrs. Pile reported to Land and Water from
Dublin having obtained a similar hybrid weighing 17^ Ibs.
" It had the ordinary large turbot head, fins, and unusually
large ' wings/ but the belly, though quite white like the
turbot, had large scales on it not unlike brills, the back was
of a very dark colour, and covered with small lumps. The
fish was fully matured, and in splendid condition."

Life history. — The young turbot swim for a longer period
on edge than the generality of our flat fishes. For the first
month they are quite black, and swim on edge like a John
Doree. Then their skin commences to mottle with white
and brown, and their right eye begins to pass over to the
left side of the head. Next they become white underneath,
and of a light leaden colour on the upper surface, and
during the time they remain of this shade on the back,
which is until they have passed two months of age, they
i swim on the surface of the sea. If they descend to the
bottom during this period it can only be occasionally.
What the rate of growth of these fish is, very different
opinions may be given. Some young, measuring 3 inches
across, were obtained from shrimpers and placed in the
Southport Aquarium. In two and a half years they had
attained to 10 Ibs. each in weight ; after two years more they
further augmented to 20 Ibs.,. or an annual average incre-
ment of about 4^ Ibs. each.

Uses. — A large proportion of our turbot are taken along
our east coast, on or near the various sandbanks. But the
Dutch are more successful at capturing this fish than our
native fishermen, and are estimated to supply one-fourth
of the quantity which is consumed. Their fishing com-
mences about the end of March, a few leagues to the south
i of Schevelingen. As the warm weather approaches the
'fishery is gradually advanced to the northwards ; and the

!

I98 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

fishing terminates about the middle of August. The Dutch
were computed to have realized .£80,000 yearly by the sale
of turbot to the London markets, and the Danes £12,000
to £15,000 per annum for lobsters wherewith to form the
sauce.

As food. — The most highly valued among flat fishes.
In L'Estrange's ' Household Book/ sixteenth century, the
merits of the turbot appear to have been recognised ; one
is mentioned as purchased for two shillings and fourpence,
while ten plaice cost but tenpence. Rutty, in 1772, says
it used to be termed in Dublin " the pheasant of the water."
Low, in the Orkneys, that it is a much better fish than the
halibut. If at all tainted, it is liable to occasion nausea and
sometimes severe symptoms.

Habitat. — The coasts of the northern seas of Europe,
plentiful in the German Ocean, and extending to the seas
of Britain and round the coast of France, and through the
Mediterranean to the Adriatic.

Not rare in Orkney and Zetland ; found at Banff and
Aberdeen ; common at St. Andrews ; but large ones are
rare until the English coast is approached. A considerable
fishery exists along Berwickshire, Northumberland, and
Yorkshire.

Resident off the coast in moderate abundance in York-
shire ; rare in the Norfolk estuary ; very fine ones are taken
at the back of the " Falls " near Margate ; in the vicinity of
Dover, the Varnae, and the Ridge sandbanks, the first about
seven miles distant and the latter about twelve on the
French coast, also afford good fishing ground at certain
seasons for these fish. A considerable amount is likewise
captured off the Devonshire coast, where, however, it is not
so common as off Yorkshire ; in Cornwall not uncommon ;
also captured in the Bristol Channel.

GREA T BRIT A IN. 1 99

In Ireland it is taken round the coast, and is plentiful to
the north.

As to the size it attains in this country, accounts vary, as
in some places the halibut is termed a turbot. Thompson
mentions one 44^- Ibs. weight, captured in a trammel in four
fathoms of water at Springvale, county Down. Buckland
took a cast of one which weighed 32 Ibs. Parnell records
on hearsay one weighing 190 Ibs., and Couch possessed a
note of one 70 Ibs. in weight.

2. Brill (Rhombus Icsvis).

Names. — Pearl, kite, brett, "brit" in Cornish means
spotted." Upon the coasts of Devonshire and Cornwall
it is known by the name of "kite" (Pennant, ed. 1812) ;
Bastard turbot, Moray Firth ; siller fluke, Aberdeen ; bonnet
fluck, Aberlady Bay ; used to be termed lug-a-leafm Corn-
wall (Willughby).

B. vii., D. 76-85, V. 6, A. 53-63, L. i, 150, Caec. pyl. 2,
Vert. if.

Length of head 3-f- to 4^ ; height of body 2 to 2\ in
the total length. Eyes. — On the left side, the lower half
(quarter in the young) in advance of the upper ; I diameter
apart. Its eye externally is similar to that of the turbot.
Lower jaw projecting and the longer ; the maxilla two-fifths
the length of the head, and reaches to below the posterior
third or hind edge of the lower orbit. Teeth. — Small ones
in jaws and on vomer, none on the palatine bones. Fins. —
Dorsal commences on the snout, its first few rays having
broad fringes which divide so as to give them a brush-like
appearance ; its rays are branched, and the longest behind
the middle of the fin. Caudal rounded. Scales. — Small,
cycloid, continued on to the head and vertical fin rays ; no

200 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

tubercles on the body. No spine before the anal fin.
Lateral-line. — With a strong curve anteriorly reaching to
some little distance beyond the extremity of the pectoral
fin, when it becomes straight. Colours. — Of a sandy brown
on the left side, usually speckled with white or light dots
or spots ; fins slightly marbled. Under surface white, with
sometimes a few black or gray spots along the bases of the
vertical fins.

Varieties. — Apparent hybrids between the turbot and
brill have been alluded to. Yarrell figures the deformed
head of one of these fish. Double brill are not rare ; also
reversed and albino ones are occasionally observed.
Thompson mentions an example which was covered over
with large stellate, white markings on a very rich-coloured
dark " ground," looking precisely as if a shower of snow
had fallen on it. Couch remarked upon having seen an
example intensely black, with a few white specks on the
anal fin.

Habits. — Found in sandy bays, also in deep water, and
occasionally enters the estuaries formed by large rivers.
It feeds on Crustacea, small fish, and food similar to that
consumed by the turbot.

Means of capture. — Similar to what are adopted for the
turbot. In the Firth of Forth it is mostly taken by the
hook, but not so along the Cornish coast.

Breeding. — In spring.

As food. — Abundant in our markets, but not held in so
much esteem as the turbot, yet is superior to the plaice.
In Ireland it is most valued in spring.

Habitat. — Coasts of Europe, becoming rarer towards the
north. It is found round the British Isles, and through the
Mediterranean. It is rare in the Orkneys and Zetland ; off
Banff; it is taken at Aberdeen ; is found occasionally in

GREA T BRITAIN. 201

the Moray Firth, while it is abundant at St. Andrews.
Neill records it at Aberlady Bay, Parnell in the Firth of
Forth, while off Yorkshire it is resident and not uncom-
mon ; it is found generally along the east coast, becoming,
however, abundant along the south coast.

In Ireland it is common round the coast, being taken
with, but much more abundantly on sandbanks than the
turbot, on the north-east coast in the proportion of at least
four to one.

As to the size it attains on our shores, Yarrell states that
it rarely exceeds 8 Ibs. in weight, Parnell 10 Ibs., while
Thompson's finest example was 2 feet in length.

GENUS 4. — Zeugopterus, Gottsche.
Muller's and Bloch's Topknot {Zeugopterus punctatus).

Names. — Browny in Cornwall ; little black hairy JZuke,
Edinburgh market.

B. vii., D. 87-101, V. 6, A. 69-80, Vert, if, Caec. pyl. o.

Length of head 3^- to 3f- ; height of body about 2 to 2\
in the total length. Eyes. — On the left side, upper margin
covered by a thick skin, the lower slightly in advance of the
upper, i diameter from the end of the snout, and one-fourth
to one-fifth of the length of the head. Cleft of mouth
very oblique, the lower jaw rather projecting anteriorly.
Teeth. — In a villiform band in the jaws, present also on
the vomer. Fins. — Dorsal commences on the snout, its
anterior rays not so long as the diameter of the eye ; they
gradually increase in length, becoming longest in the
commencement of the last third of the body, where they
equal half the length of the head ; the posterior ones short,
and the fin passing beneath the base of the caudal becomes
almost conjoined with the anal, which is similarly turned

202 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF '

under the tail. Ventral, commencing under the throat, is
joined posteriorly to the anal ; the skin from this fin passes
to the posterior surface of the base of the anal rays, a
groove being formed for the vent. Caudal rounded.
Scales. — Spinate on the coloured side, present on rays of
vertical and caudal fins. Smooth on the blind side.
Lateral-line. — Forms a curve over the base of the pectoral
fin, after which it becomes straight. Colours. — Of a rich
dark brown, having a wide black, light-edged band passing
backwards and outwards from each eye. Three or four
round black marks on the back, and some irregular dark
blotches, and occasionally numerous light spots. Jaws
blackish. Fins dark brown, with some irregular bands and
blotches, more especially on the dorsal or anal. Under
surface white.

Varieties. — According to Mr. R. Couch, this fish is very
subject to malformation of the anterior end of the dorsal
fin, causing it to form an arch over the eyes. J. Couch
observed upon having seen this fish with almost the whole
of its upper surface, except the head and a small patch
near the tail, without colours or scales, like the lower
surface ; the border of the dorsal and anal fins yellowish
red, and with only two or three rays having scales ; on the
tail the rays extended beyond the border of the membrane.
In another instance there was no caudal portion, so that
where the dorsal and anal fins were brought closely to-
gether the body terminated.

Habits. — Frequents sandy bays having low shelving
rocks covered with seaweed, and here it conceals itself. In
an aquarium it conceals itself very effectually.

Means of capture. — Trammels. In the Firth of Forth
occasionally taken in crab-pots.

Breeding. — Summer and autumn and in winter the young

ORE A T BRIT A IN. 203

are of about I or 2 inches in length, and may occasionally
be found under stones at low water-mark.

As food. — Mr. Cornish found its flesh to be excellent.

Habitat. — From the coasts of Northern Europe, round
Great Britain to France, where, however, it is very rare.

Round the British coast it is by no means rare, and even
common off Cornwall. Several examples have been ob-
tained in the Orkneys ; it occurs at intervals off Banffshire
and along the whole line of coast ; Aberdeen ; not common
at St. Andrews ; Firth of Forth, where Parnell observes
that it is rarely seen except during stormy weather ; off
Berwickshire rare. Mr. Anderson Smith obtained three
examples in 1882 from Loch Creram in Argyllshire. Two
examples taken in February, 1852, at Redcar (Rudd,
4 Zoologist,' p. 3504), and a third recorded by Ferguson ;
also, in 1836, several found there on the beach, but none
for the succeeding eight years ; in fact, it is of rare occur-
rence in Yorkshire ; one at Bridlington on May 27th, 1881 ;
the Medway. Along the south coast it has been very
frequently taken ; at St. Leonards, in 1872 ; August 23rd,
1865, one at Boirsand, Devon, another March I2th, 1873 ;
while off that county it is frequent during the spring
months ; at Weymouth, in August, 1854, a fine example
was taken by a trawler ; off Teignmouth, in January, 1843,
one 6^- inches long was captured in a drift-net. Mr.
Cornish, recording one taken in May at Penzance, re-
marked that he had obtained forty-eight examples since
1858. Bristol Channel ; Swansea and Anglesea.

In Ireland, one 6\ inches in length was taken March 25th,
1835, at Ardglass, co. Down ; September 3Oth, 1842, Dr.
Ball obtained one 7-f inches long off Kingstown Pier ; two
more were purchased in the Dublin market and sent to the
University Museum ; in 1865 one was captured in the

204 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

winter (Blake-Knox, Zool., 1866, p. 508) ; in 1853 another,
5-i- inches long, at Dalkey Sound, in eight or ten fathoms
of water, and presented to the Dublin Natural History
Society (Kinahan, Zool., 1853, p. 3990).

In British waters this fish attains to 7 or 8 inches in
length.

GENUS 5. — Pleuronectes, Artedi.

As bait for these fishes on foul ground, lug-worms and
pieces of the flesh of the conger or herring are much used.
But the majority along the British coasts are obtained by
means of the beam-trawl. I shall defer the consideration
of this mode of fishing until arriving at the more valuable
genus of Solea.

I. Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa}.

Names. — Plaice, diamond plaice, Sussex, from its lozenge-
shaped spots. Plash fleuk, Moray Firth. Page or facq,
Anglo-Saxon. De sckol, Dutch. La Plie Franche ou
Carrelet, French.

B. vii., D. 66-77, V. 6, A. 50-57, Vert. £J, Caec. pyl. 2

(3-4).

Length of head 4^; height of body 2f in the total
length. Eyes. — On the right side, the lower one-fourth to
one-half in advance of the upper, nearly I diameter from the
end of the snout, while the two are divided by a narrow
smooth ridge. Lower jaw in advance of the upper, with a
knob at the symphysis ; the length of the maxilla equals
that of the orbit, while it reaches posteriorly to beneath the
first third of the eye. Teeth. — Compressed and truncated
at their summits, 20 to 24 in the upper on the blind side,
those on the other side being few and smaller; those in
lower jaw similar to those in the upper. Fins. — The

GREA T BRIT A IN. 205

dorsal commences above the middle of the eye, and ceases
a little before the base of the caudal fin, the distance being
less than the depth of the free portion of the tail below it ;
caudal rounded. A spine, directed forwards, is situated
just before the base of the anal fin. Scales. — From 90 to
100 rows, cycloid ; some on cheeks, none between the eyes.
None along bases of dorsal and anal fins. Lateral-line—
Slightly curved above the pectoral fin, the extent of the
depth of which is less than the width of the base of the
pectoral fin ; the greatest depth between its straight portion
and the anal fin is less than the length of the head.
Colours. — Of a chestnut or rich brown on the right side,
covered with large orange and sometime^ black-edged
spots.

Varieties. — Buckland mentions a variety destitute of
spots. Reversed examples are not rare, piebald ones
common. These fish rapidly assume the colour of the
ground on which they are residing.

Habits. — In the Orkneys it keeps much to sand-banks
and muddy ground. During the summer months on the
east coast of Scotland it appears to frequent rocky locali-
ties, but in February and March seeks sandy places where
it can deposit its spawn. In Cornwall it has been observed
to select water of a moderate depth, and in May to arrive
inshore ; also in the autumn it is found in shoals in the
quiet bays, but when the frost sets in it retires to the deep.
When disturbed it will shoot away suddenly for a short
distance, and can work itself rapidly into the sand, where
it lies concealed with only its eyes being apparent. Has
great tenacity of life ; one 10 inches long taken in January
lived thirty hours after removal from the water ; it was
kept ten hours in a very warm room, where it lay all the
time on a dry plate.

206 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Thompson found in the intestinal canal of some taken in
Belfast Bay, Tellina tennis, fragments of Mactria solida and
common mussel (Mytilus edulis). In June, large ones con-
tained some sea mice (Aphrodita aculeata), portions of
whelk (Buccinum undatum), with the remains of Decapod
Crustacea, and in April, Lucina radula, &c.

In East Friesland it has been transferred to fresh-water
ponds, where it thrives.

Means of capture. — In the Orkneys "a few are caught on
small lines made on purpose ; but they are not much
sought after." Around the British coast they are taken by
lines or beam-trawls. Spillers, also, are shot in sheltered
sandy bays, the bait employed being the lug-worm or a
mollusc removed from its shell.

They are speared in the seas of Northern Europe, where
the water is very clear, heavily-leaded, doubly-barbed spears
being employed, according to Pontoppidan.

Breeding. — The plaice appears usually to breed about
February and March, but sometimes in autumn and early
winter. On February 4th, 1882, I obtained a male, which
weighed i^ Ibs., full of milt. Mr. Jackson, in sending some
ova of this fish to Mr. Buckland, remarked that they were
obtained from a ripe and enormously distended female in
one of the tanks in the Southport Aquarium. The ova
ran freely, and at first floated on the surface, but when the
vessel was perfectly still they slowly settled to the bottom.
The slightest motion of the water occasioned them to
float. The young are first seen in April, close to land,
swimming on the surface of the sea, on their edge, with
an eye on each side. In about a week after being first
seen they may be found in pools near the shore, about the
size of a baby's finger-nail. A plaice which weighed 4 Ibs.
15 ozs. contained I Ib. 9 ozs. of roe, or 144,600 eggs, which

GREA T BRIT A IN. 207

were of a large size as compared with those of the turbot.
Thompson observed obtaining examples 3 inches long in
January, 1835.

Life history. — The opinion was formerly entertained that
the plaice is descended from a shrimp, and Dr. Deslandes
investigated the subject. He first placed some of the
shrimps in a vessel of salt water, and after twelve or
thirteen days he discovered eight or nine young plaice. The
next year he placed some plaice in two different salt-water
receptacles, and to one lot he added a few of the shrimps,
not so to the other. Both lots spawned, but it was only
where the shrimps were that any young were produced.
On examining the shrimps, he discovered the ova attached
to the under surface of these crustaceans, and he felt
persuaded that their maternal care is a necessity for
bringing forth the fry. But Lacepede suggested that the
shrimps eat the ova of flat fishes, and some may become
glued to their under surface when they are unable to
devour them. Comparatively rare as the male is, as
already observed, I obtained one full of milt in February,
1882. Respecting how it is that in some localities the
number of plaice appears to have decreased, see page 223.

As food. — This fish is in the best condition about May, and
Mr. Mayhew computed that upwards of three millions are
annually consumed in London. Off Devonshire, its quality
depends upon the nature of the ground on which it is
captured, for, if muddy or sandy, the taste partakes more
or less of either. When from sand, it is firm and sweet ; if
from mud, the reverse. In Banffshire it is held in little
estimation ; it is usually deemed poor as food, but bears
carriage well. In Ireland, however, Thompson states that
it is held in general esteem.

Habitat. — From Iceland, along the coasts of Northern

208 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Europe, to the British and French shores, extending in
diminished numbers into the Mediterranean.

Found all round our coasts. In the Orkneys and Zet-
land abundant ; Moray Firth, common, especially during
April ; has been recorded from Banff ; Aberdeen ; St.
Andrews ; Firth of Forth ; Berwickshire ; Yorkshire, resi-
dent, very common, but Mr. Mudd informs us that it is
becoming more scarce, and that it is found in greatest
numbers in or near the Dogger Bank ; at Great Grimsby
its diminution is causing alarm to some of the fishermen ;
Norfolk, common ; found all along the south coast, the
largest said to come from Sussex ; off Mevagissey, in
Cornwall, they swarm in shoals during the autumn, and
Mr. Cornish observes that those from a hard, close killas
sand are usually good edible fish. Those from a loose
gravelly sand are valueless.

In Ireland it is abundant round the coast ; to the north
it is the most common species of flat fish.

Although one of these fish weighing 6 or 7 Ibs. is a fine
example, Donovan and others have recorded it up to
1 5 Ibs. weight.

2. Smear-dab (Pleuronectes microcephalus).

Names. — Smear-dab, due to its being frequently covered
with slime ; lemon-dab or lemon-sole (Belfast), owing to its
colours ; Mary-sole, Scotland, Devonshire and Cornwall, in
which last county it has likewise been known as kit ;
smooth-dab or bastard-sole ; town-dab, Hastings ; French
sole, Youghal ; sole-fleuk, Moray Firth ; sand-fleuk, Edin-
burgh.

B. vii., D. 85-93, V. 5-6, A. 70-76, L. i, 130, Caec.
pyl. 4, Vert. if.

GREA T BRIT A IN. 209

Length of head, 6^ to 6^ ; height of body, 24- to 3 in the
total length. Eyes. — The lower slightly in advance of the
upper, placed close together, and not half a diameter from
the end of the snout. Jaws of equal length in front, the
maxilla not reaching to beneath the front eye. Teeth —
Conical, rather compressed and blunted; from 11 to 13 in
either jaw on the blind side. Fins. — Dorsal commences
above the centre of the upper eye ; its rays are longest in
the posterior half of the body, where they equal about half
the length of the head. Ventrals free. No spine before
the anal fin, which latter is similar to the dorsal. Caudal
rounded. Scales. — Cycloid covering the head (except the
snout), body, and minute ones on the coloured surface of
the vertical fin rays. Lateral-line. — On both sides ; at first
makes a slight curve, more pronounced in some examples
than in others, the convexity of which is above, and is
then continued almost direct to the centre of the base of
the caudal fin. Colours. — Dull yellowish, blotched, and
with dark spots, more especially over the chest and along
the base of the anal fin. Dark blotches and spots likewise
on the anal, caudal, and ventral fins. A dark base to
pectoral, which has also some cloudy markings. On the
under surface Pennant observed that it was sometimes
marked with fine large dusky spots, but that such were not
persistent.

Varieties. — Thompson took an example similar to
Donovan's, March 3rd, 1835, free from spots, obscurely
marked on the upper side and vertical fins with many
shades of brown, gray and dull yellow, the orange stripe
round the base of the operculum being very conspicuous ;
it and another had a lemon mark about an inch behind the
base of the pectoral on the coloured side.

Habits. — In the Firth of Forth it appears during the

VOL. I.— E. I. P

210 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

spring, but two or three seasons pass when not half-a-
dozen of these fish are seen in the Edinburgh market. In
1835 they were unusually plentiful, particularly in February,
but after March they were scarcely ever met with. Having
shed their spawn about April, they retire to rocky ground
for the remainder of the year. They feed on shell-fish and
Crustacea. Thompson found a Nereis in one.

Means of capture. — Beam-trawl, and with small hooks.

Baits. — Soft molluscuous animals.

Breeding. — Spawns in May and June.

As food. — Thompson considered it "a much better fish
than plaice, although not so good as sole nor so sweet as
the dab." R. Couch says, "it is but little esteemed as
food ;" and Cornish, " that it is a very excellent fish."

Its body is rather thicker than the common dab, and
Yarrell considered its flesh equally good, while Parnell
says some people reject it because it possesses a strong,
disagreeable, tarry flavour, while others believe no flat fish
surpasses it in excellence, the flesh being firm and well
tasted. The difference depends upon the period of the
year when captured, it being good during December,
January and February, and unwholesome during April,
May and June.

Habitat.^-Frvm Iceland and the northern coast of
Europe to the British Isles and French coast. It has like-
wise been captured of Kamtchatka (Steindachner).

In the Orkneys and Zetland, Dr. Duguid obtained one
in August, 1848, and Mr. Iverach in July; has been re-
corded from the Moray Firth; Banff; Aberdeen; St.
Andrews ; Seton Sands and Aberlady Bay ; during
February, March and April, off the Fifeshire coast ; Firth
of Forth, not common, but mostly seen in spring months ;
Berwick, not common ; Yorkshire, resident and common ;

GREAT BRITAIN. 211

Norfolk; Sussex coast ; Devonshire ; Weymouth ; Corn-
wall. At Plymouth it is known as " merry sole ;" at Hove
as " the kit ;" at Penzance as " the queen " or " queen fish "
(Pennant) ; and it is taken in South Wales ; Swansea.

Ireland. — " Occasionally taken around the coast, but not
in large numbers in any part of it " (Thompson) and at all
seasons.

Portrush, county Antrim, "not uncommon, as several
specimens may almost always be picked out of a night's
trawling." Ogilby mentions an example 17 inches long.

3. Pole (Plenronectes cynoglossus).

Names. — Pole or craig-fluke, pole-dab. White sole, county
Down. La Plie Cynoglosse, French.

B. v., D. 102-115, V. 5-6, A. 86-100, L. i, 115.

Length of head 6£ to 6£ ; height of body 3J- to 4 in the
total length. Eyes. — On the right side, and separated from
each other by a very narrow ridge, which is scaleless in small,
minutely scaled in large examples ; lower eye one-third in
advance of the upper, and 2 diameters in the postorbital
portion of the head. Lower jaw slightly the longer, and
with a tubercle below the symphysis. Maxilla extending
to beneath the front edge of the lower eye. Body very
thin. Teeth. — In a single row, compressed, with their
crowns somewhat obtuse ; most developed on the blind
side. Fins. — Dorsal commences over the centre of the
upper eye, its rays undivided, the longest being at its
middle ; posteriorly it terminates almost close to the root
of the caudal fin, which latter is wedge-shaped. Anal
similar to the dorsal, but its middle rays not so elongated.
A small spine, directed anteriorly, is situated in front of the
base of the anal fin. Scales. — Cycloid on the blind side,

P 2

212 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

feebly ctenoid on the coloured ; some very fine ones over
the fin-rays in adult examples. Lateral-line. — With a
slightly oblique descent above the pectoral fin, from
whence it proceeds direct to the centre of the base of the
caudal ; it has a dorsal branch on the occiput. Colours. —
Right side brown, with a gray tint, being darkest about
the head. A small blackish mark on the upper half of
the pectoral fin, Vertical fins of a grayish slate colour,
the anterior dorsal rays tipped with white. Left side
white.

Varieties. — Thompson, when examining large numbers
of this species, found in one lot the males, in another the
females, almost exclusively prevailed ; also that the form
of the body, and the height of the dorsal and anal fins,
varied considerably in both sexes.

Habits. — Frequents sandy localities, in some years being
much more common than in others. Parnell found small
crabs and star-fishes in the stomach of one he examined.

Means of capture. — The beam-trawl.

Breeding. — May and June.

As food. — Is considered good by some, especially the
French, who esteem it to be equal to the sole. In Dublin
it is looked upon as very inferior, and Thompson remarks
upon having had it dressed, when he found it a passably
good fish, but not at all flavoured like, nor equal to, the
sole.

Habitat. — It extends from the coasts of the North Sea,
around Great Britain and Ireland, to the shores of France.
It is also found on the North American coast (Goode and
Bean).

Mr. Pearce records an example 19^ inches long, taken in
Scalpa Bay, near Kirkwall, in May, 1880, and a day or two
after another and smaller one, the only ones ever heard of

GREAT BRITAIN. 213

i that locality ; Banff, rare, but recorded from Aberdeen ;
rirth of Forth, occasionally obtained during April, May,
nd June. Along the south coast at Brixham common,
ut becomes very rare in Cornwall. Higgins obtained two
t Weston-super-Mare, and Mr. Baker two at Stolford, in
iomersetshire.

In Ireland it is found on the north-east, east, and south-
west coasts. On April 26th, 1837, six examples, from 12
o I4f inches long, were obtained by Thompson at Belfast,
nd on March 25th, 1839, about 120 were brought in at
ne time to the market at Newcastle. They had all been
aptured by trawling, and about 70 more were said to have
teen also taken, but this was a quite exceptional take.
)n May 5th one was captured at Ardglass.

It attains to at least 14 inches in length on the British
oast, and Thompson records one 164- inches long, from
reland.

4. Dab (Pleuronectes limanda).

Names. — Common dab. The term " dab " is considered
o be one of contempt, as in Lincolnshire it refers to an
nsignificant fellow ; sattie, Aberdeen (Sim) ; salt-water
luke, Edinburgh ; grey fleuk, Moray Firth ; grey back, Port-
ush, co. Antrim (Ogilby).

B. vii., D. 65-78, V. 6, A. 50-62, L. I, 86-96, Caec. pyl. 4,
/ert. 39-40.

Length of head 44 to 5 ; height of body 2f in the total
ength. Eyes. — The lower slightly anterior to the upper ;
liameter 5^ to 6 in the length of the head, \ to I diameter
rom end of snout, and separated by a narrow osseous
idge. Lower jaw prominent ; the maxilla, which is as
ong as the orbit, extends to beneath the first third of the
Jye. Teeth. — A row of about 22, closely set, lanceolate

214 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

ones on the blind side. Fins. — The dorsal commences
above the middle of the upper eye ; the rays gradually
increase in length to about the centre, when they com-
mence decreasing in height. The fin does not reach the
base of the caudal. Ventral not joined to anal. A small
spine, directed forwards, at the commencement of the anal
fin. Caudal slightly rounded. Scales. — On coloured side
with ctenoid margins, those between the eyes and ,on the
cheeks smaller than those on the body. A row along
each dorsal and anal ray. Lateral-line. — Smooth. At its
commencement it has a semicircular curve above the
pectoral fin, while it sends a branch over the occiput
Colours. — Brownish, with some cloudy markings and spots ;
dorsal and anal fin, with whitish margins. Occasionally
white or yellow spots are seen on the coloured side of the
body, which appear to denote the fish being a female.

Varieties. — Thompson observed, in some examples he
took at Ballyhome Bay (co. Down), in September, that
they had a few black spots and markings over the body
and fins ; also, at the base of the dorsal fin, about six
round white spots, at regular distances, and about four
similar white spots regularly disposed at the base of the
anal fin.

Habits. — Frequents most sandy localities around the
coasts, and Parnell found it in shallow water. It feeds on
marine worms and small Crustacea. Thompson found in
the stomach of one, captured in March at Belfast, " frag-
ments of one of the bivalve shells, solen (neither of the two
smaller species) and of corallines, among which Sertularia
dichotoma was apparent." Johnston remarked that off
Berwickshire its favourite food appeared to be the pretty
Pecten obsoletus.

Means of capture. — Beam-trawl, seine (Montagu), hand-

ORE A T BRIT A IN. 21 5

1 lines, and deep-sea lines, being more easily taken by hooks
than any other flat fish.

Baits. — Marine sandworms and bodies of testaceous
molluscs.

Breeding. — March, April, May, and June. Many as
small as if inches long were received from the mouth of
the Thames, in November, 1880, and some male and
females, with the roe and milt fully developed, in February,
1883, from the south coast.

As food. — A high-flavoured and excellent fish (Thomp-
son), but if waters are muddy, the taste partakes of such ;
it is largely eaten among the poor of London and Paris.
It is in the best condition from February to April in some
places, from August to December in Cornwall.

Habitat. — From the shores of Northern Europe to those
of the British Isles, and extending to the coasts of France,
being abundant off Brittany and Poitou, but less common
in the Gulf of Gascogne.

It is found on most parts of the British coasts, being
tolerably frequent in the Orkneys and Zetland ; abundant
at times in the Moray Firth, also pretty frequent off Banff
and Aberdeen ; not uncommon at St. Andrews ; common
in the Edinburgh market and Berwick ; off Yorkshire it is
resident, very abundant, and known as the sand-dab at
Redcar. It is by no means uncommon along the south
coast, especially Devonshire, and very common off Brix-
ham and Cornwall.

In Ireland it is not rare round the coast, and has been
recorded from Dublin, Waterford, Youghal, Galway coast,
county Down, Belfast and Strangford Loughs, while at
Portrush, county Antrim, it is the most numerous kind
brought up by the trawl, rarely, however, exceeding
12 inches in length (Ogilby).

216 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

It has been recorded off the British Isles, by Parnell, up
to 15 inches in length.

B. Teeth conical.

a. Lateral-line with a slight curve anteriorly.
Flounder {Pleuronectes flesus).

Names. — Flounder and mud-flounder, flounder lantern,
Cornwall ; fresh-water fleuk and bigger fleuk, Moray Frith ;
mayock fleuk, Edinburgh ; fleuk, Northumberland ; also
flewke and fluck ; butt, Yarmouth ; sea bague, Isle of Man
(Crellin) ; black back, Belfast Bay.

B. v., D. 60-62, V. 6, A. 39-45, L. I, 85, Caec. pyl. 2, Vert.

12 | 23-24.

Length of head 4 ; height of body 2\ in the total
length. Eyes. — Less than I diameter apart, and the lower
slightly in advance of the upper. The eyes are so promi-
nent that they are capable of observing objects on both sides
of the head. Lower jaw in advance of the upper. The length
of the maxilla equals about a quarter that of the head,
but does not reach to beneath the eyes. Teeth. — Conical,
blunted ; two rows in the upper and one in the lower jaw.
The outer row on the upper jaw of the blind side consists
of 15 teeth, the corresponding row in the lower jaw of
about 17. Fins. — Dorsal commences opposite the middle
of the upper eye ; its longest rays are in the posterior half
of the body. Ventrals free. A strong spine, pointing
forwards, exists before the base of the anal fin, which latter
is similar to the dorsal. Caudal cut square. Scales.—
Small, cycloid ; rudimentary ones on the cheeks. A
rounded and rough tubercle between the bases of each of
the dorsal and anal rays. Lateral-line. — Commencing
opposite the angle of the mouth, curves round the lower

ORE A T BRIT A IN. 217

eye, and having joined the interorbital ridge, is continued
to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. Caecal pylori,
short. Colours. — Vary very considerably, and depend upon
that of the ground of the locality which they inhabit,
but even then scarcely two will be found to be exactly
similar. The colour of the upper side is generally oliva-
ceous-brown, with or without darker blotches. Occa-
sionally examples are even dark, when they are termed
sea-flounders. The under surface is white.

Young plaice and flounders of equal size may be dis-
tinguished, prior to the appearance of tubercles along the
s of the dorsal and anal rays of the latter, by the
ice having distinct scales, whereas they are rudimentary
the flounder.

Varieties in colour. — Double examples, or such as are
loured on both sides, are not uncommon ; also reversed
es. Some are partially or entirely albinos. Newman
recorded an albino-flounder with red eyes. "In 1862 an
albino variety was brought to me. Both sides were white,
and the fins and eyes pink " (Lowe, Norfolk Fauna). In
some there are orange spots, somewhat similar, but usually
less vivid, than seen in the plaice. On February 22nd,
1882, I obtained a number from Brixham, all having
orange spots similar to the plaice, and was informed that
this is an appearance peculiar to spring-time. Thompson
observes that the examples he examined thus marked were
taken in March. Some are of a rosy hue, termed Pleuro-
nectes roseits (Shaw), or of a flesh-red, with irregularly but
distantly placed dark-coloured spots, Platessa carnaria
(Brown). Higgins remarked on one he termed Platessa
melanogaster, notched above the eyes, of a very dark-brown
colour, almost black, on both sides. Newman continues
that it is a favourite trick of the fisher-boys to cut a notch

218 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

in the place indicated when they catch a flounder too small
to be saleable. As the notch heals the edges recede, so
the dorsal fin appears to commence further back than is
normally the case. Whether this is the explanation of all
such varieties may be questionable, as some are evidently
due to an arrest of development, as observed in the plaice,
turbot, &c. Thompson refers to the malformed head of
one resembling Yarrell's brill.

Habits. — It is found round our coasts, ascending rivers
to far above tidal influence, and is able to live in very
impure water.

There is not much to say of its habits. Its name,
flounder, has been asserted to be derived from the Swedish
word Flundra, denoting its swimming close to the ground.
.Here it buries itself in the sand or soil, by working down
first one side of the body and then the other, and thus its
back becomes covered, while its elevated eyes and mouth
remain clear, for the purpose of seeing and capturing its
prey. In some rivers it is found among stones, or on the
side of sandy banks in mid-stream ; but muddy holes are
reputed not to be the places where it usually resorts. It
will wriggle itself up the sides of posts when under the
water, and it retains its hold by means of its vertical fins.
It is a greedy and voracious feeder, eating worms, slugs,
crabs, young fish, and animal substances. Thompson
found, in one he examined at Belfast, the remains of
Rissoa ulvcB ; and Johnston, off Berwickshire, obtained
from them Pecten obsoletus.

That this fish ascends into fresh water is very certain.
If we turn to Belonius, De Aquitilibus, published in 1553,
we find it described as Passer fluviatilis, vulgo flesus. It is
said by Bloch and others that this name was given owing
to its colour being similar to that of a sparrow, and because

ORE A T BRIT A IN. 219

it inhabited rivers. The flounder is found in the sea and
at the mouths of all the larger rivers round our coasts, and
is common in the North Sea and Baltic. Donovan, ob-
served that it inhabits both salt and fresh waters ; Montagu
that it is taken in the Avon, to within three miles of Bath ;
Yarrell, that it exists in the Thames, as high as Sunbury ;
Parnell, that it ascends rivers to a considerable distance,
particularly when the waters are discoloured and increased
in size by heavy rains. Personally I have a recollection of
taking flounders with a worm, about thirty years since,
from the Severn at Shrewsbury. Mr. Henry Shaw, of
Shrewsbury, observed : " Flounders were caught, thirty-five
>r forty years ago, about Shrewsbury, and a long way
ibove, in considerable numbers ; but since the weirs about
rorcester and Gloucester have been made, their ascent
is been stopped. The Peplows (fishermen) used to lay
they termed sprigtail lines for them, in the early
spring months, on the sandy places they frequented. This
sprigtail consisted of a crooked pin, with a double bend,
lying the form of two knees ; to this was affixed about
four horse-hairs, and baited with part of a worm. The
lounder swallowed it, and, as soon as he began to pull, the
>in became crosswise. They used to employ two to three
tundred at a time on a long line, and lay them at night-
ime." Were the weirs on the Severn destroyed, these
fish would immediately remount that river, at least to as
ligh as Shrewsbury.

Means of capture. — Lowe observes that in the shallower
of the Loch of Stenness he has seen vast numbers
taken with a seine-net. Thompson mentions having
observed a fisherman at the mouth of the Bann using an
implement as follows : it was in the form of two sides of a
garden reel, with a spike, which was stuck into the ground ;

220 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

to this about forty yards of line were attached, having a
very heavy sinker at its extremity, and hooks along its
whole length, which were baited with pieces of crab. By
flinging out the sinker, the line became carried into the
water its entire length.

In November, 1862, flounders at Gothenburg and its
vicinity were so abundant, after a severe storm on the
coast of Denmark, that although 2\ millions were captured,
the sea literally remained full of them ; 500 men were
engaged day and night in this capture, and at last they
were unable to salt such a number. Pontoppidan relates
that when the fishermen row their boats over sandy ground
where the flounders are seen in clear weather lying in
heaps together, they drop a line with a heavy lead to it,
under which a little lance is fixed, which, by the weight of
the lead, sticks into the flounder, and it is pulled up with
the line.

Baits. — The angler finds a well-scoured lobworm much
approved of, but they will also take a piece of fish ; the
novice has to be warned not to strike too soon, as the
worm is sucked in some little time prior to its being
gorged, while, owing to the size of the fish's mouth, a small
hook has to be employed. In some localities it is found to
bite best in the early morning. It lives long after removal
from its native element, being very tenacious of life. This
makes its carriage and transference to distant places easy.

Breeding. — It spawns from February to about April, or
even later. Harmer recorded finding 1,357,400 eggs in one
24^- oz. in weight ; 351,026 in a second of 6f oz. ; 225,568
in a third of 3^ oz. ; and 133,407 in a fourth of 2-|- oz.

Life history. — The development of the eyes of these
fishes, and the changes the young undergo, has been
referred to.

GREA T BRIT A IN. 22 1

Diseases. — Lowe mentions having frequently seen speci-
mens from the Ouse " affected with a peculiar skin disease
resembling epithelioma — large fungous growths cropping
out over the whole body — the granulations large and
roe-like — under the microscope consisting of large nucleated
cells."

Uses. — In Norfolk it is fished for in order to be used as a
bait for the lobster fishery, while it is largely eaten by the
cormorant and other birds.

As food. — It is watery, poor meat, and inferior to the

plaice, both as to flavour and size ; but authors are not

agreed as to whether the marine or river forms are the best

>r the table, while it has been stated to be equally good

>m both localities, the flavour depending on the food it

is been living on. It is considered nutritive and easy of
igestion. Lacepede observes that its flesh is softest in the

ish-water examples, due to their more rapid growth. In
this country such as come from the Thames are generally
deemed firmest, and superior to those from any other river.
Memel, in the Baltic, has long been celebrated for its
flounders. The Frieslanders esteem this fish so much that
they naturalize it in fish-ponds. Thompson observes that
it is not much esteemed at Belfast. Lowe considered that
if fried it is delicate eating.

Habitat. — From the coasts of Northern Europe to those
of the British Isles, while off France it is common in the
Channel and along Brittany, Poitou, the Gulf of Gascogne
and Arachon (Moreau).

It is abundant around the British coast, and is especially
partial to the mouths of large muddy creeks ; when not
impeded by artificial or natural obstructions it ascends
rivers long distances. It inhabits all the bays and creeks
of the Orkneys, especially if the ground is flat and sandy ;

222 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

abundant in the Moray Firth, ascending the Lossie nearly
as high as Elgin (Gordon) ; is pretty frequent off Banff
(Edward) ; Aberdeen (Sim) ; abundant at St. Andrews
(Mclntosh) ; during July and August captured in large
numbers in the Firth of Forth in the salmon nets, particu-
larly above Queensferry, as well as in Leith Harbour with
the hook (Parnell) ; Berwick, common (Yarrell) ; resident
in Yorkshire along the coast and rivers, in which its ascent
is mostly stopped by weirs ; every year in the Ribble from
May to September ; common in the Norfolk estuary ; down
the east and along the south coast and Bristol Channel.

Common round the coasts of Ireland (Thompson).

It attains to about 8 or 9. inches in length, and 4 Ib.
weight. Donovan recorded one 4^ Ib., and Pennant
another of 6 Ib.

GENUS 7. — Soles (Solea (Klein) Cuvier).

Geographical distribution. — All temperate as well as
tropical seas, except the southern portion of the south
temperate zone, and though normally marine and littoral
forms, still some enter fresh waters in which they have been
acclimatised and thriven. On retaining some in fresh and
others of a like weight in saline water, the first at the end
of a year were found to have increased at twice the rapidity
of those which were kept in salt water.

Among the flat fishes annually captured around the
British coast, none exceed the sole in value as food, while
they are esteemed both by rich and poor. Their value is
often enhanced by the locality they come from ; thus
Torbay, Folkestone, and other places are more or less
famed for the quality of the fish which are taken from their
waters.

GREAT BRITAIN. 223

A most important subject, and one which deserves a
more searching investigation than it has yet received, is
whether the fish are decreasing in quantity around our
coasts, and, if so, the reason ? To illustrate one side of this
question, I give an extract from a letter from an east coast
fisherman, which speaks for itself : " It is well known among
fishermen that there is a falling off in the supply of plaice
and soles to an alarming extent, whatever may have been
said to the contrary by smack-owners and fish salesmen.
To explain this, I shall have to carry you back to the time
when we first went to fish off the Sylt, about ten years ago,
at which time very nearly all the ground from Horn Reef

Heligoland was covered, as it were, with shoals of small

lice, and intermixed with these plaice were a good many
>les, both large and small. We have got as many as
iighty baskets of small plaice and ten baskets of soles for one
light when we first went there, and very nearly all the plaice

mid be thrown overboard, and you may be aware that they
always die after they have been hove on board a trawler.
These fish are so small that I have counted two hundred
and fifty in one basket, such as we use at Grimsby. The
small plaice that are brought to London market are the
largest picked out, the others are thrown away. Now, we
have fished there every summer, having big bags of small
plaice on board, and throwing them away for the sake of
the soles, till by destroying the young brood, full-grown
plaice have grown very scarce. At the present time very
small plaice will sell well, so that now the soles have grown
scarce off the Sylt, the small plaice, being saleable, make
up, so they are bound to be caught unless stringent
measures are taken for their preservation. You must
remember that the quantity has decreased during these last
few years, twenty baskets being the most you would get for

224 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

a night now. My opinion of the matter is this, that as the
ground from Horn Reef to Langeroog, within a less depth
than twelve fathoms, is a natural nursery for the young
brood, if the wanton destruction of it continues as it has
done, we shall soon find it extremely difficult to find even
a moderate supply of full-grown plaice, and I have no
doubt that soles would be more plentiful too were some
protection afforded. It is to the interest and benefit of
every one in the fish trade that no English trawler should
be permitted to fish within the above depth."

Mr. Mann, writing from Bournemouth to the Field, in
April, 1882, observed : "I have just weighed a sole of one
ounce, and a turbot of four ounces, which were exposed for
sale here. They were selected from many others of like
size. Sixteen pounds weight were captured on one occasion,
the largest not exceeding eight ounces. The bulk were
taken in long-shore nets, known as ' tucks,' of small mesh,
from which nothing can escape ; but this form of net does
not kill the fish, which ought to be at once returned to its
native element." Small turbots and soles are often placed
in the bottom of the pads and boxes sent to the London
markets, but the bulk of them are sold in the towns and
villages along the sea coast.

It has again and again been brought prominently to
notice, especially about the northern grounds of the North
Sea, that the supply of soles taken in British waters is
yearly decreasing, as evidenced by the trawlers having to
go further out to sea, that an increased number of vessels
capture only an amount similar to what formerly were
obtained by fewer boats manned with less hands, and like-
wise that the fish supplied to the markets consists of such
as are much smaller than used to be the case. Mr. E. Jex,
of Billingsgate, remarked (January /th, 1882), "There have

GREA T BRITAIN. 225

been during the past year some thousands of boxes of soles
in this market from Yarmouth, Lowestoft, and Ramsgate,
while not more than one-fourth of the contents of each box
consisted of fish that ought to have been caught — three-
fourths of each box containing nothing but slips and
tongues."

At Weston-super-Mare in 1879 some new trawling ground
was tried, and the large size and quantity of these fishes
that were taken amply recompensed the trawlers. But such
localities are often over-fished, and soon become exhausted,
and thus quantity has to be made up by those of a smaller
size. This is possibly what is found to occur in most places.
Thus, Mr. Dunn observes that his father was the first fisher-
man who employed a beam-trawl in Mevagissey Bay ; he
captured enormous numbers of fish, so much so that he kept
a record, which has, unfortunately, been lost. When the Ply-
mouth trawlers first commenced their operations in new
localities off the south-west coast (which was about the time
the Californian gold-fields were discovered), they termed
their new grounds " California," as illustrating the amount
and value of their captures.

It has been pointed out by Mr. Epton and others, that a
large fleet of smacks towing over the same ground will in a
short time clear off the fish which are there. But the main
cause of the diminution in the North Sea is generally
asserted to be due to the numbers of undersized fish which
are wantonly destroyed in shallow water, or their natural
brood-grounds, by trawling smacks, steam trawlers, and
shrimp catchers, more especially by smacks along the
German coast during the spring and summer months.

But while it has been proposed to legislate for this state
of affairs by prohibiting the exposure for sale of soles under
6 inches (7 inches, Buckland) in length a difficulty arises

VOL. i.— E. i. Q

226 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

which would first have to be investigated. Thus at certain '
seasons the "thick-backed sole," Solea variegata, which
rarely exceeds 6± inches in length, is common in the Ply-
mouth markets, and perhaps finds its way to London ; while
the " little sole," Solea lutea, abounds along the south-west
coast, and is generally thrown overboard as useless, or sold
as manure. Any prohibition against the capture of soles
under a certain size would cause taking these forms
to be penal. This opens up the question — what, if these
small forms alone are permitted to increase off the south-
west coast will be the effect on the food of the Pleuronectidce
in general ? For should the useless forms be protected, and
if they live on the same diet as the useful table sole, it
appears as if such legislation might cause more injury than
benefit to the fisheries.

i. Common Sole (Solea vulgaris).

Names. — Sole, as the Greeks considered it would form a
fit sandal for an ocean nymph ; slips, or tongues, the market
terms for the young ; also tongue-soles in the Moray Firth,
and lobsters in Suffolk.

B. vii., D. 73-86, V. 5-6, A. 61-73, L. 1, 160, Vert.
9 I 39-40.

Length of [head 5^ to 5f ; height of body 3i to 3i in the
total length. Eyes. — The upper slightly in advance of the
lower ; interorbital space exceeding I diameter of the eye
in width. Jaws of about the same length in front. Cleft
of the mouth extends to beneath the middle of the lower
eye. Some short filaments on the snout and on the blind
side of the head. Nostrils on coloured side just in front of
lower eye, the posterior one patent with a thick lip on the
upper side ; the anterior one tubular. On the blind side

GREA T BRITAIN. 227

the anterior nostril is above the centre of the upper lip, and
scarcely tubular ; the posterior nostril is as .far behind the
anterior as the latter is from the end of the snout, it is
patent with slightly elevated edges. Teeth. — Small, but
distinct on the blind side. Fins. — The dorsal commences
in front of the upper eye. Ventrals free. Caudal rounded.
Scales. — Ctenoid, and continued on to the fin-rays. Lateral-
line. — Straight. Colours. — Brown or gray on the coloured
side, frequently blotched with black. Vertical fins with a
narrow white outer edge. Pectoral usually with a black
blotch in its outer half, which is very distinct in the young.
" The colour of the sole depends upon and varies according
the quality and depth of the feeding ground ; (at Wey-

louth) there are four prevailing varieties : (i) a dark sole ;

5) a shrub sole, from the markings on the back having

le appearance of shrubs ; (3) a lemon sole ; and (4) a
)tted sole. No. I is, I believe, caught in the shallowest

-ater ; No. 2 next ; and Nos. 3 and 4 in the deepest water "
f. Thompson, Zool. 1851, p. 3375).

Varieties.— M. Capello states that examples from the
5ts of Portugal vary in the number of their fin rays from

>• 85-95, A. 74-78 (Journ. Sc. Matt, phys., e. nat. Lisbon, no.
ii., 1867, p. 164). Near the mouth of the Ouse a variety is
taken termed cardine ; its head is large and elongated, but
its flesh is rather coarse. Reversed examples are not rare,
neither are double ones or such as are coloured on both
sides. There are also semi-albino or piebald specimens.

Thompson observes that those from the north of Ireland
vary considerably in form and colour, some being narrower
than others, and tapering more towards the tail. An
example 12 inches long from Brixham has the caudal fin
lost, and a new one formed continuous with the dorsal and
anal.

Q 2

228 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Habits. — Appears to prefer sandy or gravelly shores,
and is retentive of life, but rather uncertain in its migra-
tions, for although mostly appearing at certain spots almost
at a given time, and usually decreasing in numbers by
degrees, in other seasons they disappear at once as sud-
denly as they arrived. " The finest soles have been taken,"
observes Andrews, " in the Arun River, miles above the
tideway, and where they breed and remain throughout the
year." " In the estuary of the Humber," observes Mr.
Eagle Clarke, " they are captured from May until August
inclusive ; all are either in spawn or shotten. The young
are very numerous in the shallow water at the edge of the
tides." Yarrell, on the authority of a correspondent,
remarks that they breed in the River Arun, frequenting it.
from the mouth five miles upwards, which is nearly to the
town of Arundel, and remain in it the whole year, burying
themselves in the sand during the cold months. It is not
unusual for them to ascend rivers to some distance, while
they will live and thrive in fresh water. Along our sea-
coasts they retire to the deep as frosts set in, revisiting the
shallows about May if the weather is warm, their migrations
being influenced by temperature. Although veiy large
examples are occasionally taken in Lynn Deeps, this fish,
similar to the whiting, only attains about two-thirds the
size off Norfolk and Suffolk, that it does off Devonshire.

In Ireland Dr. Farran in October found Cardium elonga-
tum abundantly in their stomachs, a few Bulla aperta, and
a number of Echinocyamus pusillus. (November) Amphi-
desma Boysii, a Dentalium, and a few A mphidesma prismatica.
(December) Amphidesma prismatica, a Lysteri, an Anomia,
and Donax trunculus. The sole has been reputed to eat
the eggs and fry of other fishes and sea-urchins, &c.

Means of capture. — Generally the trawl. The principal

GREA T BRITAIN. 229

English trawling ground lies from Dover to Devonshire.
They may be taken by spillers, but are not commonly cap-
tured with hooks ; it is suggested that one reason may be
that spillers are mostly used by day, whereas the sole is a
night feeder. In-shore trawling, shrimping, and fine-meshed
netting during the spring months occasion great injury to
the young of these fishes, as do also hose-nets set for
shrimps. Mr. Welton, of Bridgewater, purchased all the
fish taken in two of these nets in one day, and thus obtained
1 8 cwt. of the fry of soles, plaice, herrings, whiting, &c.

Baits. — Major Holland advises soft or soldier-crabs, lug-
worm, mussel, shrimp and rag-worm, with long-gut snoods,
but they feed mostly at night, and the most favourable time
is after a blow, when the water is thick, while a land breeze
answers better than a sea breeze.

Breeding. — They spawn late in the year and during the
spring months. I have obtained them in full roe this year
up to April 1 5th. A sole of I Ib. weight carries about
1 34,000 eggs (Buckland).

Hermaphrodites. — Have been recorded by Yarrell.

Life history. — The very young swim on edge, as has been
already referred to, but they do not appear to be commonly
found so far out at sea as some other species. They are
first seen along our south coast about the end of March or
commencement of April.

Diseases. — Buckland mentions having received a sole in
which its entire lower surface was studded with hairs from
i to -i- an inch in length. On a microscopic examination
being made they turned out to be the hairs of the sea
mouse, Aphrodite aculeata.

Uses. — The skin of the sole was much used, according to
Parnell, for fining coffee, being found a good substitute for
isinglass ; also as a material for artificial baits.

230 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

As food. — The flesh of this fish is white, firm, and of
excellent flavour, those from the deepest waters being
generally preferred ; during the time of breeding, and for
a short period subsequently, they are soft and watery.
Those on the west coast and to the south are larger as a
rule than those towards the north of these islands. May-
hew tells us that London requires annually 97,520 soles,
while that market is principally supplied from the Norfolk
coast and the English Channel.

Habitat. — It extends from the seas of Scandinavia and
the Baltic southwards, round all the coasts of France, and
is found in the Mediterranean.

It is taken in the Orkneys and Zetland, but is rare ; it is
not very common off Banff, but found off Aberdeen ; is
common in the Moray Firth, but not much sought after ;
frequent at St. Andrews ; sparingly at the mouth of the
Firth of Forth. Resident and common off Yorkshire. Has
once occurred at Goole, in the estuary of the Humber, near
the mouth of the Ouse ; the Great Grimsby fishermen assert
that they capture most of their small soles off the Dutch
coast. Common in the Norfolk estuary ; abundant off the
south coast from Sussex to Devonshire, and common off
Cornwall. Also found in the British Channel, and generally
around Great Britain.

In Ireland soles occur all round the coast, and Thompson
remarks that those in the north vary considerably in form
and colour from those more to the south. As to the size it
attains, Thompson's largest example was 20 inches in
length. Mr. Grove, of Charing Cross, received one from
Torbay on February ist, 1882, 24 inches long, and which
weighed 6^- Ib. A correspondent of the Field alludes to
one weighing 7- Ib. captured at Bridgewater, on June 4th,
1 88 1 ; and casts of a pair from Ireland, which weighed

GREA T BRIT A IN. 231

together 12 lb., are in the Buckland Museum. Yarrell
mentions one 26 inches long and very thick, the largest he
had ever heard of, which was brought to the Totnes
market, and weighed 9 lb.

B. One of the nostrils on the blind side dilated and fringed.
Lemon Sole (Solea lascaris).

Names. — The lemon sole from its colour ; sand sole from
the localities it frequents ; French sole ; Borhame, Northum-
berland.

B. vii., D. 82-88, V. 5, A. 67-71, L. 1, 130-140, Vert. 46.

Length of head 5^ to 6\ ; height of body 2f to 2f in the
1 length. Eyes. — The superior half in advance of the

"erior; about i^ diameters from the end of the snout, and
ut I diameter apart. This species is rather thicker
than the common sole. Upper jaw slightly longer than the
lower, but not produced into a lobe. The cleft of the mouth
extends to beneath the middle of the lower eye. Some
filaments on the snout, very numerous on the blind side of
the head, and also on the few first dorsal rays. Nostrils on
the coloured side tubular, the anterior one being the longer.
One of the nostrils on the blind side is nearly circular, very
wide, and encircled by short and branched filaments.
Teeth. — Distinct on the blind side. Fins. — The dorsal
commences in front of the upper eye ; most of the fin rays
branched. The two pectoral fins are equally long, and 2\
in the length of the head. Scales. — Ctenoid, continued on
to the fin rays. Colours. — Of an orange or lemon yellow
marbled with darker and covered with numerous small
black blotches and dots, among which are some light or
even white ones. Pectoral fin with a large black blotch,
surmounted by a light ring in its posterior half. Vertical

232 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

fins of the same colour as the body. In some examples
the yellow colour is entirely lost after they have been a
few weeks in alcohol, leaving the fish grey, marbled with
darker.

Habits. — Frequents sandy bottoms, and appears to be
captured throughout the year.

Means of capture. — Usually by the trawl ; it has been
thought by some authors that it prefers deeper water than
the common sole.

As food. — It is not in request for the table, being taste-
less and wanting in firmness, but is occasionally slipped in
amongst such as have been prepared for filleting at the
fishmongers.

Habitat. — From the shores of Great Britain and Ireland,
through the Mediterranean, and is found off Nice and
Naples. Rare in Banffshire ; found in Northumberland ;
resident and not uncommon in Yorkshire ; found off
Sussex. Occasional in Devonshire ; rare in Cornwall ; off
Somersetshire ; occasionally taken in the weirs at Swansea.

In Ireland numerous examples were captured from one
place off Galway in 1 848.

It attains to 14 inches in length (Buckland).

B. Pectoral fins on both sides very small.
The Thickback (Solea variegata).

Names. — Thickback, Devonshire, so termed owing to its

being thicker than the common sole ; bastard sole, Wey-

mouth. It was first observed from our coast by Donovan,

in April, 1807, when it was brought to Billingsgate Market.

B. vii., D. 65-74, V. 5, A. 55-58, L. 1, 85-90, Vert. &

Length of head 5-J- to 5-f; height of body 3^ to 3| in the

GREA T BRITAIN, 233

total length. Eyes. — On the right side, scarcely i
diameter apart, and \\ diameters from the end of the snout.
The upper eye one-half in advance of the lower. Teeth —
Very minute. Fins. — Dorsal commences above the front
edge of the upper eye, and nearly reaches the base of the
caudal fin ; its rays are branched, and the highest are
opposite the middle of the length of the body. Right
pectoral fin very short, not equalling the length of the
orbit ; left pectoral still more minute. Ventral not attached
to anal, which latter fin terminates similarly to the dorsal.
Caudal somewhat rounded at its extremity. Scales. —
Ctenoid extending on to the fin rays. Lateral-line. — Nearly
straight. Free portion of the tail about three times as
high as long. Colours. — Of a rich chestnut brown, with six
or seven vertical dark bands, which are a little more than
one-third the width of the interspace between each. These
bands become broken up with advancing age, but may
even be seen in large specimens mostly as dark marks at
the bases of and passing on to the dorsal and anal fins.
Caudal with a dark band in its last third, having a light
outer edge. Dorsal and anal fins usually edged with white.

Habits. — On the south coast of Great Britain it appears
in the spring and continues through most of the year.

Means of capture. — Trawling, and is often taken in very
great numbers along the south coast.

As food. — Largely consumed in Devonshire and Corn-
wall, where it is held in great estimation.

Habitat. — From the British coasts to France and the
Mediterranean, and common off Italy ; frequent along the
coasts of France, and extends into the Mediterranean. Met
with occasionally off Banff, off Rothsay and the Isle of
Bute in Scotland. During August, 1881, they were being
landed in thousands at Plymouth from the trawlers and

234 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

sold as " thickbacks ; " they had been captured during at
least the three previous months.

In Ireland one was dredged at Belfast, June i6th, 1838,
by Mr. Drummond, and in Ventry Harbour it is not un-
common.

It attains to 9 inches in length according to Buckland.

Solonette (Solea luted].

Names. — Little sole ; red sole.

B. viii., D. 65-72, V. 5, A. 50-56, L. 1, 72.

Length of head 44- to 4f ; height of body 3^ in the total
length. Eyes. — On the right side, rather close together,
the upper being one-third in advance of the lower. Cleft
of mouth extends to beneath the middle of the lower eye.
Teeth. — Pointed and minute. Fins. — Dorsal commences
on the snout before the upper eye and ceases close to the
base of the caudal fin, its rays are branched, and the
highest are opposite the middle of the length of the body.
Right pectoral very short, its upper ray twice as long as
the others, left pectoral still more minute. Caudal some-
what rounded at its extremity. Scales. — Ctenoid, extended
on to the fin rays. Lateral-line. — Nearly straight. Colours.
— Right side of a stone gray covered with numerous small
brown or dark spots, also three or four rows of moderately
sized dark blotches placed very wide asunder, but some-
times entirely wanting. Dorsal and anal fins colourless,
but every here and there a ray (from the fourth to the
seventh) quite black, portions of others also dark, and some
dark spots along the bases of these fins. Caudal spotted.
Pectoral with a black blotch in its centre.

Habits. — Appear to resemble those of the "variegated
sole."

GREAT BRITAIN. 235

Means of capture. — Trawling.

Uses. — Sometimes taken in large numbers in the trawl-
nets ; but as they are of no use for the market they are
thrown again into the sea ; they are likewise taken by
shrimpers.

Habitat. — From the shores of Great Britain and Ireland
to those of France and through the Mediterranean. Off
Banffshire it is more common than the " lemon sole ; " also
common at St. Andrews. Reputed to have been taken at
Whitby ; common at Weymouth, and Mr. Cornish records
capturing a star-fish in August, holding one of these

hes, 3 inches in length, in its feelers. An example was

tured in November, 1880, ten miles at sea off Mevagissey.

In Ireland it is taken on the north-east, east, south, and
t coasts. Ball obtained it in Dublin ; McCoy observed

,t he found it tolerably abundant in the bay between the
lightship and the harbour. McCalla took it in county
Down, and Thompson mentions three dredged off Dun-
drum in the same county.

The largest specimen I have obtained is 4^- inches in
length, but it is said to reach to 5 inches.

ORDER III.— PHYSOSTOMI.
FAMILY I. — Scombresocidce.

Among the fishes belonging to this family some are
oviparous, others viviparous. The eggs of many have
filaments springing from their outer covering, and which
enable numerous ova to adhere together in a mass, or
attach themselves to contiguous objects, preventing their
subsiding into the mud. It has been suggested that they
are thus suspended so that by the ebb and flow of the tide
they may be constantly bathed by different water. Pro-

236 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

fessor Hceckel observed these filaments present in the eggs
of gar-fish, B clone ; saury, Scombresox ; half-beak, Hemi-
ramphusy and flying-fishes, Exoccetus ; while Ryder has
remarked on having found similar filaments in one form of
Atherinidce, the Chirostoma notata, but in such they are
only four in number, and situated close together.

Geographical distribution. — Temperate and tropical seas ;
some species resident in fresh waters.

i. Gar-pike (Belone vulgaris).

Names. — Sword-fish, green-ben or green-bane, Scotland ;
green-bone or green-back, guard- fish, gar-pike, horn-fish,
needle-fish or long-nose, gore-bill, sea-needle, mackerel-guide,
which name it has received due to its coming towards shore
a little prior to the appearance of the mackerel. Gerrick,
Cornwall. Horn-kecke (Palsgrave). Whaup-fish. In Ire-
land, horn-eel (Belfast Bay) ; mackerel-scout (Strangford
Lough) ; spear ling (Portrush) ; Spanish-mackerel, according
to Nimmo, at Roundstone. Its snout is termed gore-bone
in some places.

B. xii., D. 18-20, V. 6, A. 22-23, Vert -|f.

Length of head 3^ to 4 ; of caudal fin 7^ ; height of
body, 15 to 1 6 in the total length. Eyes. — Large, 2^ to 2\
diameters in the postorbital portion of the head, 6± to 7
diameters from the end of the upper jaw, and i£ diameters
apart. Maxillaries concealed by the preorbital. Upper
jaw not so long as the lower, which latter has a soft termi-
nation. Teeth. — Small, in some examples a small oval
patch is present on the vomer, in others it is absent. Fins.
— The anterior dorsal rays are elevated, forming a lobe,
while the posterior ones are of about the same length and
form, terminating opposite the anal ones, which is some

GREA T BRITAIN. 237

distance from the base of the caudal fin. Ventral situated
nearly midway between the opercle and the base of the
caudal fin. Caudal forked, lower lobe the longer. Colours.
—Of a sea-green or bluish-green along the back, becoming
of a changeable blue and purple along the sides, and into
silvery white beneath.

Fleming ('Brit. Anim.' 1828, p. 184) observes upon Esox
Brasilicnsis (Couch) being the young of this species :
while many authors seem to have been doubtful whether
the various European Hemiramphi were not in reality the
young of Belone.

The Young. — Couch's magnified figure of the blunt-
headed half-beak, the specimen having been half an inch
in length, shows the fish in the earlier stage, when the
lower jaw is commencing to increase in length ; while his
European half-beak, at a little over 34- inches in length,
demonstrates the fish with the lower jaw having increased,
but the upper jaw still almost stationary. In Liitken's
' Spolia Atlantica/ p. 567, will be found a complete series
of illustrations, showing the various stages of evolution
of the jaws as they become developed with age.

Steindachner (Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wien, 1868, Ivii., p. 732)
remarked upon the identity of Belone acus, Risso, with B.
vulgaris, the distinction between the two forms resting
principally upon the latter possessing a small ovoid patch of
vomerine teeth, which is said to be absent in the latter It
is remarkable that the finest example in the British
Museum from the British shores is destitute of this patch of
teeth, although it is present in others. Canestrini, I.e.,
observed upon finding vomerine teeth in an Adriatic
example.

Habits. — Gregarious, migratory, and very voracious, fre-
quently approaching the shore in large assemblages, and

238 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

though stragglers may be taken all the year round, it
appears to arrive in shoals about March or April, and retires
to deeper water late in j:he autumn, being absent through-
out the winter and spring. In the Northern Herald
(Inverness, November 22nd, 1844) it was observed that
within the last three weeks this fish had been abundant ;
its visits are not periodical, either as regards seasons or
cycles ; in fact, twenty-two years had passed since they came
in considerable numbers ; about sixty years since there
were large shoals, and they were known as Gobbaiche
ardnasoar, or " snipe-fish." Although as observed, the gar-
fish is usually gregarious, Thompson remarked that in
Belfast Bay it is generally found singly. Mr. Cornish
(Zool. 1865, p. 9814) well describes the appearance of a
shoal of these fishes when chased by the tunny, how they
scudded rapidly over the face of the sea as though they
were actually swimming on the surface, having the larger
portion of their bodies in the air. When in pursuit of
shoals of small fish it appears to be springing over the
waves after them. It jumps over floating substances some-
times in a peculiar way, shooting itself bolt upright and
alighting in the water tail first. Mr. Couch recorded how,
in 1865, he found the upper jaw of a gar-fish transfixed
through the body of a mackerel. Mr. Dunn observed
upon another having similarly gone through the body of a
pilchard ; he also informed us, July 25th, 1881, that he had
obtained that morning a mackerel with the jaw of a gar-fish
transfixing the body just under the pectoral fin, where it had
broken off. The same accurate observer remarked that he
has reason to believe that they used their beaks as a ram
against their prey, sometimes transfixing their eyes. Should
they do this, of course both would be penetrated. S. Clogg
(Zool., June, 1874, p. 4160) observes upon a salmon-peal

QREA T BRITAIN. 239

having been attacked by a gar-fish. It had run its under-
jaw completely through the peal, and it must have been
broken off either by the force of the blow or by the struggles
of each fish to free itself. The peal, which weighed nearly
4 lb., was struck behind and quite above the pectoral fin,
the jaw of the gar-fish thus passing through the thickest
part of the peal. Couch observed that it is an indiscrimi-
nate feeder, eating any animal substances it can seize.
Thompson mentions a 15-spined stickleback having been
found in the stomach of one captured August lOth, 1850.
Its digestion appears to be very rapid.
Means of capture. — It will take a bait, but when hooked
lakes most vigorous efforts at escaping. On the coast of
megal nets are fixed on wooden frames, and allowed to
>at about ; those fish jumping over the sides become
iptured. They are frequently taken in herring nets, and
luring the last half of the year numbers are captured in
Cornwall in the pilchard drift-nets.

Baits. — Pieces of fish, mussels, &c. It never plays round
bait, but seizes it as if it were living. It strikes obliquely
ipwards, hence it happens that when it takes the hook, the
first notice of the capture is the fish starting into the air
with the line, and then beating itself about on the surface to
get rid of the hook, and in doing this it always emits a very
strong and peculiar odour (R. Couch, Zool. 1847, p. 1613).

Breeding. — Along the south coast of England this fish
breeds in May and June, but, according to Andrews, in
July in Dingle and Ventry Bays in Ireland. The ova,
owing to their peculiar appendages, are enabled to attach
themselves to any object in the vicinity. These eggs when
extruded must float in the sea with their long filaments
waving about until they meet with some object to which
they can attach themselves ; or they may serve to bind

240 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

together large numbers of eggs into one mass, and fix
such to some suitable substance.

I have already alluded to the peculiar manner in which
the jaws of this fish are developed. Under i inch the
upper profile of the snout is somewhat obtuse, the upper
jaw very short, the lower a little longer. This stage has
been termed Hemiramphus obtusus (R. Couch), although the
fishermen assured him they were the young of the gar. As
the fish becomes from 2 to 3 inches in length, the lower jaw
has much increased, being many times longer than the
upper jaw, which is almost triangular ; at this stage it has
been termed Hemiramphus Eur opens. On October 28th,
1880, I obtained an example 8'6 inches long, from Devon-
shire ; the entire length of its head was 3*1 inches ; of the
lower jaw from the angle of the mouth 2'i inches ; of the
upper jaw from the angle of the mouth r6 inches. On
November 23rd, 1881, I obtained another from Devon-
shire, 8*5 inches long ; its head being 2*8 inches, lower jaw
1*8, upper jaw I inch. The foregoing would lead one to
conclude that this fish increases rather rapidly in length,
attaining to about 8 inches in length at three months' age.
The very young, Lowe found in Norfolk (July 6th, 1868),
had been living upon Entomostraca.

As food. — Good eating, but, owing to the green colour of
the bones of this fish, both before and after boiling, a pre-
judice against eating it is entertained in some localities.
They are often plentiful in the London market, especially
in the spring. Large numbers used to be sent there from
the coasts of Kent and Sussex. Their smell when first
captured is not always agreeable. Parnell states that many
persons consider them superior to mackerel as food, being
firmer, whiter in the flesh, and possessing much the same
flavour, but it is generally considered more dry.

GREA T BRITAIN. 241

Uses. — Bait for ground fish when other descriptions run
short, for which when cut into strips they are found very
efficient.

Habitat. — Distributed from Iceland and the Scandinavian
coast, the Baltic, North Sea, and Atlantic coasts of Europe
to the Mediterranean.

In the Orkneys and Zetland it is not uncommon, and
extends in more or less abundance during certain seasons
around the British coasts. Banff, not scarce at certain
seasons ; found in the Moray Firth ; at St. Andrews is
occasionally thrown on the sands after storms. It enters
the Firth of -Forth in large shoals about the beginning of
July in company with the mackerel, and remains till the
end of August, but seldom ascends to any distance. Is taken
with net and hook, and sometimes found on the haddock
lines which have been baited with mussel. Berwickshire,
occasional ; Yorkshire, resident off the coast and not un-
common, approaching the shore in summer ; in autumn it
has been cast ashore in considerable numbers during heavy
gales ; Norfolk, off which coast it breeds, one is recorded
by Lubbock as having been taken within five miles of
Norwich. Along the whole of the south coast. Kent and
Sussex, very abundant. Devonshire, not uncommon. Corn-
wall, common. Off Swansea it is not infrequent in the
bay, but never in shoals, and usually of a smaller size than
on the other coasts. In the Firth of Clyde, May 25th,
1877, the capture of an example 28 inches in length was
recorded as a rarity.

In Ireland it is taken all round the coast, generally in
the latter part of the summer and autumn ; a few are also
obtained in the early months of the year (Thompson). In
some seasons it is common from Cork to Londonderry.

The largest British example recorded is one 3 feet long.

VOL. I.— E. I R

242 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

The Saury (Scomfyresox saurus).

Names. — Skipper, saury, saury-pike, skip-jack, skopster,
halion. In Scotland, gowdnook, gosnick, Egyptian herring.

B. xiii., D. 10-12 -f- v.-vi., V. 6, A. 12-13 + vi.-vii.

Length of head 3^ to 34. ; of caudal fin, 9^ ; height of body
lO-i- in the total length. Eyes. — 2-i- to 2-f- diameters in the
postorbital length of the head, 44- diameters from the end
of the upper jaw, and I diameter apart. Jaws in the adult
curved slightly and gradually upwards, the upper being a
little the shorter. Posterior extremity of the maxilla not
covered by the preorbital. Teeth. — Fine ones in the jaws ;
none on the vomer, palatines, or tongue. Fins. — The
dorsal commences slightly behind the beginning of the last
third of the total length, its anterior rays rather higher than
half that of the body below it, the finlets continued almost
to the base of the caudal fin. Ventrals inserted midway
between the angle of the mouth or the front edge of the
eye and the posterior end of the caudal fin, the latter being
deeply forked. Scales. — A somewhat keel-like edge com-
mences on either side of the fish on a level with the lower
edge of the gill-covers, and passes along the entire length
of the body. Scale-like appendages over the middle of
the base of the caudal fin. Colours. — Back of a deep rich
blue, below which is a broad burnished and shining silvery
band, having a dark lower edge, abdomen silvery, upper
fins dark coloured, lower ones and pectoral yellowish.

Much the same evolution of the jaws obtains in this fish
as described in the gar-pike.

Varieties. — Valenciennes separates the Mediterranean
from the oceanic form, under the belief that the former has
no air-bladder. Professor Liitken (Spolia Atlantica) has
shown, however, that this organ may be present in the

ORE A T BRITAIN. 243

Mediterranean forms. Moreau observes that it may be
absent. As no other differences exist except this incon-
stant one, I have not considered such to denote distinct
species.

Habits. — Gregarious, migratory, in the summer being
mostly at or near the surface, but during the autumn
frequenting deeper water. It is usually found further out
to sea than the gar-fish, while it has an extensive range.
Instances are on record in which it has ascended as high as
fresh- water. It first appears off Cornwall about the latter
half of June or commencement of July, and in the autumn
frequently shows itself in enormous schools, while it leaves
the coast prior to the end of November. It is constantly
in motion, moving with great rapidity, frequently springing

it of the water,by scores at a time, and giving much the
iarance of a shoal of flying fishes. It has been fre-

lently known to spring out of the water into the fisher-
men's boats, especially during stormy weather. Mr. Dunn
considers the skippers and pilchards as natural enemies,
and Couch held the same views. In the year 1825 skippers
and pilchards were enclosed in pilchard seines together,
and before they could be taken into the boat, thousands of
the pilchards had their eyes knocked out by the skippers,
and scores of pilchards were transfixed through the body
by the beak of the skipper. The fishermen were first made
aware of these fishes being on the coast by the noise they
were making in the night — the one attacking, the other
running away. This battle continued more or less along
the coast each summer from 1825 to 1834. The fishermen
consider the presence of skippers is an hindrance to the
successful taking of the pilchards. Entomostraca, small
Crustacea, and sea- weed have been found in its stomach.

Means of capture. — In Cornwall they are frequently, in

R 2

244 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

June and July, taken in numbers in drift-nets a few leagues
from the shore. R. Couch observed that he had seen 8000
enclosed in one pilchard seine-net. The largest catch of
these fishes at Mevagissey, where they are annual visitors,
has been 100,000 (Dunn). It has been taken with a bait.

Breeding. — The eggs of the Scombresox saurus are
furnished externally with filaments as in the gar-fish, while
the life-history of the two is also very similar, but the
young of the skipper appear to be found further out to sea,
and the base of the maxilla is more concealed by the pre-
orbital. Lutken (Spolia Atlantica), p. 567, has figured the
heads of this species from a very early age up to that of
the full-grown, showing how the jaws are gradually
evolved, the disproportion between the length of the two
being much less than occurs in Belone.

As food. — Said to be fair eating.

Habitat. — Atlantic coasts of Europe, Africa, and North
America ; also the Mediterranean.

Lowe observed that last year (1775) such a glut of these
fish set into the head of Kerston Bay, that they could be
taken in pailsful ; numbers were caught, and heaps flung
ashore. They were from 9 to 12 inches long, and had not
been observed there previously. Lowe considered they had
been driven out of their course. As a rule in the Orkneys
and Zetland it is rare ; also at Banff and Aberdeen ;
St. Andrews, not uncommon ; while it enters the Firth of
Forth almost every autumn in considerable shoals, and,
being stupid, inactive fishes, are found in hundreds on the
shallows when the tide retires, with their long noses
imbedded in the mud (Pennant). The same author records
great numbers having been thrown ashore on the Leith
sands near Edinburgh, after a great storm in November,
1768. In Yorkshire occasionally taken in harbours and

GREA T BRITAIN. 245

shallow waters. An example about 15 inches long was
taken off Norfolk in October, 1843 ; off Devonshire it
occasionally appears in large numbers, and is not un-
common, but often abundant, off Cornwall. Mr. Cornish
(Zool. p. 1463) observes upon one having been pumped
up on board a fishing-boat in September, 1868. The same
author remarks upon its being well known off Welsh ports.
At Swansea Dillwyn never heard of it except on Turton's
authority.

In Ireland Templeton observed that it is seldom found
on the coast, and that he was never able to procure a speci-
men until one was caught near Long Bridge, Belfast, in
1820. Thompson received one 12\ inches long from Belfast,
nded after a gale on September i/th, 1840; a second
was also taken, and a third on October 7th. Sampson
includes it among the fish of Derry. Ogilby observes that
it is decidedly rare on the north coast. He obtained one
example, cast ashore at Portrush, county of Antrim, during
the last week in September, 1875 ; while but few years
pass without some examples being obtained there in this
manner. Newcastle, co. Down, the specimen obtained
was taken on a handline, when fishing for breams, west-
ward of Crowrock, on a fine night. They not unfrequently
leap into the canoes (Andrews). The same author refers
to one taken at Ballina, in the county of Sligo.

This fish attains to at least 18 inches in length.

II. — FAMILY OF HERRINGS

i. The Anchovy (Engraulis encrasichohis).

B. xii.-xiii., D. 15-18, P. 16-17, V. 7, A. 16-18, C 21,
L. 1. 48-50, Vert. 46-47.

246 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Length of head 44 to 5 ; of caudal fin 7 to 71 ; height
of body 7 to 8 in the total length. Eyes. — Without adipose
lids. Diameter \ of the length of the head, and f of a
diameter apart. Form of body slender, tapering towards
both extremities ; a little thicker along the back than
along the abdomen. Snout very prominent and pointed.
Cleft of mouth very deep, extending to beyond the hind
edge of the eye. Upper jaw much longer than the lower.
Gills cleft as far towards as to beneath the eyes. Teeth. —
Present in both jaws ; very fine in the lower ; also on the
palatines, and sometimes on the vomer. Fins. — The dorsal
commences midway between the end of the snout and the
base of the caudal fin. Anal very low. Caudal forked.
Scales. — Very deciduous. Abdomen rounded, without any
carinated edge. Two large scales on the base of the
caudal fin. Colours. — Greenish along the back when alive ;
silvery on the sides and beneath. Soon after death the
back becomes dark steel blue.

Habits. — Gregarious. At certain seasons of the year

ascending rivers almost as far as the tide flows. It

approaches the shore somewhat earlier than the large

shoals of pilchards, and continues in shallow water until

October or November ; but it remains about the coast

until February ; while Couch obtained an example in

March from the stomach of a mackerel. Dillwyn observed

that off Swansea in some summers there are vast numbers

in the bay. Along the Devonshire coast they appear to be

rare. In November, 1871, Mr. Dunn reported upwards of

150,000 were taken in a pilchard seine-net in Mevagissey

Bay ; they were used for manure. He remarked that it is

seldom they come so close inshore, although quantities

hang about the coast. It is said to eat small Crustacea, fry,

and sea insects.

GREA T BRITAIN. 247

Means of capture. — Off our coasts they are mostly taken
by chance in drift-nets or seines employed for the capture
of sand-eels and other small fishes, their size enabling them
to escape through the meshes of the nets, which are
generally employed in localities which they frequent. In
the Mediterranean they are fished for from May until July.
Dark nights are selected, and each boat carries a torch to
attract the fish, or a light is floated for this purpose. The
shoals are encircled by small meshed nets, while the
fishermen splash the water and endeavour to frighten the
shoals, which rush headlong into the meshes of the net.

Breeding. — I have received them full of -spawn in June,
-om Lancashire. Couch observes that they spawn from
September until December, while in the Mediterranean
teir breeding time is said to be from May until July.
As food it is rarely eaten fresh, being bitter in taste, and
>r. They are, however, prepared, and esteemed an
:cellent relish. Anchovies may be prepared by drawing
the head of the fish and removing the viscera. They
not washed or wiped, but packed into small casks of
Ib. to 20 Ib. weight, in layers alternately with a mixture
)f two ounces of Prunella salts (saltpetre deprived of its
rater of crystallisation by heat). They should be well
pressed down and the air excluded. Anchovy sauce is
made by bruising the fish and simmering it with butter
over a slow fire ; a little vinegar and flour are added, and
the fish dissolves in the process.

Habitat. — From Norway and the Baltic and North Sea
along both coasts of France, but more abundant on the
Mediterranean side ; the Iberian Peninsula, through the
Mediterranean to the Black Sea.

It has been taken at Wick (Peach) ; Yorkshire (York-
shire Vertebrata) ; Yarmouth, rare (Turner) ; frequently

248 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

taken in the stow-nets during the summer months in the
river opposite Lynn (Lowe) ; one 6^ inches long captured
in January, 1867, at Boston, in Lincolnshire (C. Adcock).
Yarrell received an example from the Thames, where,
however, it is little known. Although not generally cap-
tured off Devonshire, large schools have been taken there,
as in 1870. It is quite a common fish from Polperro to
Falmouth (Dunn), Glamorganshire (Dillwyn), Flintshire
(Pennant), and Lancashire.

In Ireland Andrews reports having taken it.

It seldom exceeds 6i inches in length.

•

2. The Herring (Clupea harengus).

Names. — Hczring, Anglo-Saxon (Herr or heer " an
army ") ; cuddy legs, " a large herring ; " corphun, herring
cobs or young herring in Northumberland, where they are
likewise termed silk-shag. Sgadan or scattan, Moray Firth.
Small ones not larger than a sprat are termed sills or site;
fat herrings destitute of roe maties or matties, a corruption
of the term " maiden," or those which have never spawned ;
full herrings are those possessing a well-developed milt or
roe ; shotten-herrings or spent fish which, having just bred,
are nearly worthless ; it is likewise a term sometimes applied
to such as have been gutted and dried for keeping ; green
herrings is a term sometimes employed for " fresh herrings."
Red-finned herrings are known as wine-drinkers in Scot-
land, and as loaders in Norfolk and Lincolnshire, while in
the western counties they are called kings and queens.
Over-day tarts is applied by costermongers to such as have
remained unsalted for twenty-four hours, and consequently
are dark-red about their fins and gills, due to extrava-
sated blood. A " blown herring " is termed, according to

GREA T BRITAIN. 249

Halliwell, a tow-blowen in Suffolk. A gitt-pock-herring in
Scotland is one which has its stomach distended with
small crustaceans or other food. A red herring or a black
herring are trade terms for particular descriptions of cured
fish; while the former is also known as a Norfolk capon,
and sailors usually designate it as a sodger or soldier.
Bloaters used to be applied to herrings which were smoke-
dried but not split open — from " bloat," to dry by smoke ;
kippered herrings, such as are split and salted. White
herring generally implies a fresh herring, but in the North
pickled ones are sometimes thus termed. In Scotland the
highest brand is given to mazy herrings, or those full of
roe ; and what are known as crown-fulls, those which have
yet developed spawn, as matties ; such as have spawned
as shorten, but which find a ready sale in the great conti-
nental markets. At Great Yarmouth 4 herrings make a
warp ; a large basket containing 100 is termed a swill, or
long take, 132; a last contains 13,200 fish. A cran in.
Scotland consists of 374- imperial gallons, and generally
contains from 900 to 1000 herrings ; a barrel contains about
800. A cade or barrel of herrings appears to have con-
tained 600 in the middle of the I5th century.

B. viii., D. 17-20, V. 9, A. 16-18, L. 1. 53-60, Case. pyl.
18-23, Vert 58.

Length of head 5 ; of caudal fin 6£ ; height of body 5 in
the total length. Eye. — Situated half in front of the middle
of the length of the head, and with an adipose lid on either
side. Lower jaw prominent ; the hind edge of the maxilla
reaches to beneath the middle of the eye. Opercles smooth
and destitute of radiating striations.

Teeth. — Small deciduous ones on the jaws, vomer and
tongue, while generally minute ones are present on the
palatines. Fins. — The dorsal commences midway between

250 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

the end of the snout and the base of the caudal fin ; the
ventral is inserted on a line beneath the centre of the base
of the dorsal fin. Scales. — There are thirteen rather soft
scutes posterior to the base of the ventral fin, along the
abdominal edge, and which are partially concealed by their
neighbouring scales. The air-bladder has an opening on
its lower side at about its centre, where a long but narrow
canal forms a communication with the end of the stomach ;
it has also another orifice on the left side near the vent,*
which canal is lined with a silvery pigment to within a
short distance of its termination. The vessels of the air-
bladder being scanty, gas is not secreted, but air believed
to be swallowed. Colours. — Of a rich green along the back,
becoming lighter on the sides and beneath, where it is shot
with purple, blue, and gold hues.

Doubtless much of the following account of this fish has
already been given by others, but were the subject not
fully discussed it might be considered that I had left it
incomplete. Differing from some popular accounts, I do
not propose entering in detail with the development and
anatomy of this fish, as such pertains more to the de-
partments of the embryologist and comparative anato-
mist than to that of the fisherman, economic legislator, or
the ichthyologist.

Habits. — The herring is a gregarious lively fish, a rapid
surface swimmer, but somewhat timorous, whole shoals
being frequently scared and turned from the course they
had intended to pursue. The wake of these fish is often
marked during the daytime by long lines of gulls and sea-
birds hovering above them and occasionally swooping
down upon some as prey ; while at night time, especially

* See figure in Weber " De aure et auditu," &c., pars. i. 1820,
t. vii., 63.

GREA T BRITAIN. 25 1

if very dark, a slight gleam, "brimming" or "flame," is
seen on the surface of the sea where the shoals are. But
the herring is not always to be found at the surface, but
seeks its food at any depth where it obtains the best
supply ; it may even sink down to the bottom, provided
such be not too profound, still it is not uncommon both
for it and the mackerel to be captured by the beam-trawl.
Thus in the autumn of 1859 more than 1000 large and full
herrings were caught off Lowestoft in a trawl-net, and in
the spring of 1870 upwards of 5000 shotten herrings were
similarly taken at the Well Bank off Great Yarmouth ; and
in March, 1881, a large number of both shotten and full
herrings were taken on the Brown Bank (De Caux). It
has been remarked along our south and south-west coasts
t herrings and pilchards do not intermingle.

The noise made by herrings when captured is peculiar,
,nd has been likened to various things : to the cry of a
mouse, to the word " cheese," a sneeze, or a squeak, and
may be occasioned either by the escape of air through the
posterior opening of the air-bladder near the vent, or else
by some movement of the gills and gill-covers.*

The food upon which herrings subsist has been variously
characterized, but generally held to consist of minute
shrimp-like crustaceans, often of forms belonging to the
same division as the common Cyclops of our fresh waters.
It is very evident that they exist on very varied forms of
animal life, and are probably not particular provided they
can obtain sufficient. About the middle of February, 1882,
I found that some from the south-west coast had been
feeding on Annelids ; from the same locality, in the middle
of May, their stomachs were crammed with sand-launces,

* It has been asserted that it is possible to blow air from the
stomach into the air-bladder.

has

;

and

252 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

AmmodyteSy some of which were up to 2\ inches in length,
and as many as 19 were inside one herring, while the sand-
launces in their turn were full of the remains of Crustacea.
A month later, from the same place, and captured at about
8 miles off shore, the food had again changed and con-
sisted almost entirely of the young of a very rare gobioid
fish, Crystallogobius Nilssonii, the largest of which was i£
inches long ; there were likewise a few young herrings and
sand-launces.

Goodsir (Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, July,
1843) gives the result of his examination of the maidre
or food of the herrings in the Firth of Forth, with which
the stomachs of the fish were found to be filled. Cirripeds,
Crustaceans, and Acalepha were detected, of which crus-
taceans were in the largest number, and consisted of masses
of Amphipoda and Entomostraca. Among the Acalepha
the different species of Beroe were seen in the greatest
numbers.

Off the Lofotens Sars found the sea swarming with micro-
scopic animals, especially small crustaceans termed "herring
food," Calanidce, chiefly Calanus finmarchius, and Temora
longicornis.

Carpenter, writing upon what they consume in North
America, remarks that their food sometimes consists of
smaller fishes, but generally of more minute animals,
especially Entomostraca and Radiolaria, of which small
reddish-brown aggregations are often found floating in the
waters which they frequent.

Breeding herrings do not feed to the extent the
others do.

For several reasons these fish are difficult to obtain for
an aquarium. Mr. Stevenson (Mansion House Street)
hatched some ; the spawn was taken from the fish Novem-

GREA T BRITAIN. 253

bcr i oth, 1870; by the i/th the eyes and movements of
the young fish were plainly visible through a hand magni-
fier, and on the evening of the 24th (14 days after they had
been taken from the parent and impregnated) many shells
were found empty, but only one little one could be seen, for
they are so minute and transparent that there is but little
chance of finding them in a large body of water. By en-
closing the ova in a suspended muslin receptacle in the
tank several more were hatched out by the 29th. Dr.
Meyer, respecting the experiments made in the North
Sea, observes that no one has succeeded in rearing herrings
from artificially fecundated eggs owing to the impossibility
arresting the formation of hyphse of some fungus and
the difficulty of obtaining suitable food ; very soon after

yolk was consumed they died.

In an aquarium it was found (Zool. 1876, p. 4856)
at the young or whitebait's diurnal and nocturnal move-
ments were very dissimilar ; in the former period they were
quiet and uniform in going round their tank in one shoal,
but at night the shoal was broken up, each fish taking an
independent course for itself, darting about from side to
side, striking against the rockwork with effects fatal to
themselves, and which was only stopped by placing a dim
light to illuminate the outline of the rockwork. Then
they were most ravenous.

Herrings live in an aquarium provided, while being cap-
tured, their scales are not rubbed off, and Mr. Jackson
suggests that the best plan is to dip them out of the sea
in a bucket or can and subsequently allow them to swim
into the tank they are to occupy. He invariably observed
that they swam round and round their place of confinement
in a circle from left to right. Occasionally one might
turn for a moment, but it speedily resumed its place, and

254 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

he never perceived the shoal to swim in a contrary
direction.

Migrations. — Many theories have been broached to
account for the migrations of the herrings, and it is still a
subject which requires much elucidation.

Some suppose that this fish is not, strictly speaking,
migratory, that is, that it does t not travel comparatively far
from the locality in which it was hatched, reared, and came
to maturity, but simply changes from shallow to deep
water, in accordance with temperature and the supply of
food ; one proof advanced being that certain definite
varieties are present in certain waters. Where they conceal
themselves is certainly remarkable ; thus along the Devon-
shire and south-west coast of England, Mr. Dunn observes
that should a gale spring up numbers are taken in nets
purposely anchored parallel to the shore, and that they are
meshed on the land side, although this locality had been
unsuccessfully swept by seines and nets a very short time
previously.

That herrings, in common with other species of the
herring family, will occasionally disappear from one local-
ity, sometimes re-appearing in another, is well known.
From 1690 to 1709, a very extensive herring fishery
existed at Cromarty ; about the latter year an immense
shoal was driven ashore near the town : they left the
vicinity in a single night, and for upwards of half a century
no shoals re-appeared : still this may have been simply a
coincidence.

In Sweden it has been supposed that certain cycles occur
during which herrings are found on their coasts ; that the
fish at the commencement of one of these cycles arrives late
in December or January ; by degrees they come earlier,
and as soon as their advent is in October, it is considered

GREA T BRIT A IN. 255

that the cycle is about to terminate. The same irregularity
of appearance has been observed in Norway, as regards
their winter herring fishery, and the theory most generally
accepted is that the fish have been at times compelled to go
further out to sea during the summer in search of their
food, and have been unable to return to the coast in time to
spawn, so have deposited it upon some of the large banks
in the middle of the North Sea. When the fish have not
been seen off the coast, large numbers of whales and sea-
birds, which live on herrings, have been observed off these
banks. It has also been remarked that when these fish
have reached the shore later than usual at the end of
January or commencement of February, it is commonly a
sign of their periodical disappearance.

The following figures show, as far as I have been able to
ascertain, the presence or absence of herrings in Norway
and Sweden : —

Years. Norway. Sweden.

1567-1589 • . absent . . present

1590-1643 . . „ . . absent

1644-1650 . . present . . „

1651-1665 . . absent . . „

1666-1680 . „ . present

1681-1691 . . „ . . absent

1692-1746 . . present . . „

1747-1784 . . „ . . present

1785-1808 . . absent . . „

1809-1835 . . present . . absent

In 1835, in Norway, they commenced to go south, and in
1877 they reappeared in Sweden.

The question arises whether, during the whole of these
long periods of absence, the fish remained off the coast, but
in the deep sea, while due to some unascertained influence
they did not rise to near the surface nor approach the shoal

256 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

waters ? Or must we conclude that they were absent fol-
lowing their food, which from some cause was not present
in its usual haunts ? The explanation offered by the Nor-
wegian Board of Fisheries appears to be that whether they
come to spawn off the coast depends upon the distance they
have to go in search of their summer food, while this in its
turn depends upon the variation in the direction of the
prevailing winds.

The two main objects of migration would appear to be
seeking some locality where spawn may be safely de-
posited and the species continued ; or else a search for
food in order to maintain the growth and existence of the
individual. But it would seem that fish may seek new
ground, due to that they usually reside in becoming un-
suited from any cause, as absence of food, or even their
constant capture by incessant netting. If having selected
waters further from the shore than formerly, the spawn
were deposited and bred there, it does not seem unreason-
able to suppose that the progeny would locate themselves
where they were reared. In time, perhaps, this new loca-
tion might be found unsuited, and the shoal might return
to the spot they first inhabited, and where possibly a more
abundant supply of surface food exists.

Respecting the effect of temperature and various meteoro-
logical conditions of the atmosphere as affecting migrations
and captures, so little has yet been ascertained on these
points that I think it better to refrain from speculating
upon them. Fishermen assert that prevalent winds are a
cause of migrations, and if so this is probably effected
through its acting on their food. Seasonal changes, how-
ever, doubtless have an effect in hastening or retarding the
advent of herrings ; while diurnal variations may likewise
be coincident with the bathymetrical depths at which they

GREA T BRITAIN. 257

arc found ; storms may drive them from shallow to deeper
water ; and the herring season commences and also ter-
minates earlier in the north than it does in the south ; but
much more than this facts scarcely warrant us to assume.

The Scotch Meteorological Society observe that the
results of examining the daily register of thermometers
used in twenty fishery districts on the east coast go to
show a close relation between the fluctuations of the
catches and changes of temperature, wind, sunshine,
cloud, thunder and other weather phenomena. Maximum
catches having been recorded when the temperature of the
sea was about 55*5 degrees, while thunderstorms, if wide-
spread, were followed for days with small catches over the
area which had been covered by them.

Mr. Cleghorn concluded an interesting report upon
these fisheries with a comprehensive summary ; some of
which were as follows : That there were fishing stations
some years ago on the Scotch coast which are now
exhausted, a steady increase having taken place in their
produce up to a certain point, then violent fluctuations, and
finally extinction. The races of herring near our large
cities have disappeared first ; and in districts where the tides
are rapid, as among islands and in lochs, where the fishing
grounds are circumscribed, the fishings are precarious and
brief; while, on the other hand, extensive sea-boards
having slack tides, with little accommodation for boats,
are surer and of longer continuance as fishing stations.

I will now refer to the herring fisheries along the north-
east and east coast of Scotland, respecting which we are
told that " at the beginning of the present century herrings
were so abundant along the north-east coast of Scotland,
and came so close inshore that numbers of them were
caught by people standing upon the rocks, having no other

VOL. i.— E. i. s

258 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

instrument of capture than baskets tied on long poles," a
condition of affairs which hardly applies to the present
time.

At Wick the largest race usually arrives with the new
year, remaining until about March, and then disappears.
Mr. Reid found in January, 1882, that some were a foot in
length, and thick in proportion, but all were full of milt or
roe. The next herrings come in May or June, in the shape
of a few small ones of little value as food, although useful
as bait for other fishes, and which appear to be the fore-
runners of the summer fish, as they grow better, larger, and
fatter as the season advances, until they are in perfection
about July and August, spawning about the end of the latter
month or early in September, after which they disappear until
the succeeding January. If we turn to the Herring Fishery
Report of 1878, we are informed that " it is a very remark-
able circumstance that the yield of the fishery at Wick
began to decline at the very period at which the produce of
the Aberdeenshire fisheries began to increase " (Ixiii.).
Here it would be as well to consider whether any change
was during this period instituted in the working of the
Wick fisheries which might account for the migrations of
the fish elsewhere. Mitchell, who wrote in 1864, remarked
on the herring appearing off Wick, the Moray Firth, and
Aberdeenshire in June, but he observed they are at first so
small that the nets cannot catch them, but they begin to
be of sufficient size in July. (At this time the mesh of the
nets was not less than one inch between knot and knot.*)

* Mr. de Caux observes that for the purpose of capturing herrings
the mesh of the nets since 1864 has diminished off the Norfolk coast
to forty or forty-four to the yard, ten to twenty years ago five-sixths of
the catch were full fish, but for the last ten years the proportion has
not been above two-fifths, due to the change in the mesh of the net ;
these immature herrings will take the salt, but they will not keep.

ORE A T BRITAIN. 259

In the fourteen years from 1849 to 1862, 1003 boats were
annually employed in fishing at Wick, with an average
catch per boat of 133 barrels. During this period no
winter fishing was carried on ; it now commenced, and in
the fourteen years from 1863 to 1876, 885 boats were
annually similarly employed, and the average catch per
boat was 108 barrels. The witnesses condemned the de-
crease which had taken place in the size of the mesh of
the nets, and in the change of shooting nets before sunset
having become more common ; whilst it was noticed that
the Wick Chamber of Commerce for some years gave a
premium to the fishermen who landed the first herrings of
the season ; thus fishing has gradually changed from July
to the third week in June, the quality being small and
mostly only fit for bait. This, it is stated, prematurely
disturbs the shoals and injures the future prospect of the
fishing.*

As the Wick herring fisheries from some cause diminished,
those at Fraserburgh began to increase in yield, Here the
same complaints were made as to the reduced size of the
mesh of the nets and the taking of immature fish, but
the fishing was said to commence about the middle or 2Oth
of July, the fish being mostly taken further from shore than
was formerly the case ; while it is continued, " there is now
(1878) no winter fishing except for bait. The small fish do
not fetch good prices, and are often condemned as unfit for
food."

Herrings appear on the north-west coast of Scotland at

* The same opinion seems to have found favour at Peterhead,
Aberdeen, and Montrose, that the early fishing has a bad effect on
the off-shore banks, increased by the repeal of the enactments against
garvie-fishing, which occupation commences in November and occa-
sionally lasts until March.

S 2

260 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

the beginning or middle of May, when, during that and the
subsequent month, they are mostly " matties." The great
fishery there is in the Minch, between Long Island and
the mainland, continuing until the end of July ; while on
the east coast the chief fishery begins about the middle
or end of July until the end of September, the fish being
full of roe ; while the fishery at Loch Fyne and the south-
west coast of Scotland coincides with that on the east, the
fish likewise being in a similar condition. Off the coast of
Ayrshire, on the Ballantrae Bank, the great fishery is during
February and March. A short supply of summer herrings,
observes Holdsworth, has been frequently accounted for by
the preceding fishery having been largely worked. On the
other hand, it has been contended that the summer fish are
often as abundant as they ever were before the spring
fishery ever came into fashion. Recent experience, how-
ever, does not support this statement, as with a more or
less successful series of spring fisheries, the summer herrings
have been exceedingly scarce for the last seven years
(' Deep-Sea Fishing/ 1874, p. 123).

In the Moray Firth (Gordon, Zool., 1852, x. p. 3480)
these fish are generally sought for during six weeks sub-
sequent to the middle of July. They gradually move west-
wards, and congregate on the far-famed " Gwillam " Bank,
about half a square mile in size and opposite the Bay of
Cromarty. A storm sends them away, and they do not
return that year. About the middle of August they swim
lower in the water, and generally disappear in September.
He also mentions " winter herrings," a stronger and larger
variety, with fewer scales. At Aberdeen, July 4th, 1882,
there was a fair catch of full herrings.

The Yarmouth herring fishing in 1 88 1 commenced
June 1 6th, but the fishery there and at Lowestoft generally

GREA T BRITAIN. 261

extends from October to December i6th, during which
period nearly 218 millions of fish were delivered at the
wharves, which, at the wholesale price of £15 a last, shows
a total of £250,000. Along the Devonshire coast, in 1880,
this fishery commenced about November ijth, and a fort-
night earlier than in 1879 (as was likewise the mackerel
fishery).

In Devonshire and Cornwall there are two annual
migrations of herring ; the first, or large herring, with un-
developed roe, matties, approach the coast in May or June,
a few being secured in the mackerel nets, while some con-
inue to be so taken until the mackerel fishery ceases about
uly. About the same time, May or June, quantities pass
St. George's Channel to the Irish Sea, and are supposed
fishermen to remain in deep water. In June or July

ey proceed in a northerly direction, very few remaining off

ornwall, and they do not return there until October or
November, or even as late as December ; their migration
towards the coast occurring especially if the weather is
fine. Should a storm arise, they at once retire to the deep,
and do not reappear off the coast until fine weather has
recommenced. By February or March they become
" shotten," poor and thin. Besides these large herrings,
there is a migration of smaller ones early in November,
which, as Mr. Dunn has observed in Cornwall, migrate to
the west at the extreme northern extremity of the county.
Various schools pass by Port Isaac, New Quay, St. Ives,
around Land's End, and eastwards into Mount's Bay or by
Falmouth and Mevagissey, finally stopping at Bigsbury
Bay, the bottom of which is rocky, uneven, and covered
with flexible corals (Gongona), and here they congregate
until the January spawning season.

Means of capture. — For the purpose of indicating where

262 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

the shoals of herring are, the presence of whales or flocks
of sea-birds are often useful, but, if no such indications are
present, the nets are frequently shot at a venture. For-
merly it was the invariable custom to cast the nets by
night, for fear of scaring the fish, but now this rule is
being broken by some vessels. On very dark nights the
phosphorescence of a shoal, if near, can be readily perceived ;
in fact, off the east coast, the majority of fishermen assert
that they always wait until "the flame" is visible, and
consider that they are able to tell the difference between
" full " and " shotten " fish, a shoal of the former swimming
close together in a compact body, whereas in the latter the
individual fish are constantly dashing about. In some
places the shad is termed the damon herring, and popularly
believed to lead the shoals.

In fishing for herrings a number of drift-nets are joined
together, and these are termed a " fleet," the length of each
being about 20 yards, while from 101 to 181 comprise
a fleet, the length of which, off the east coast, varies from
ij to 2 miles. The Scotch fleet consists of 48 pieces, each
40 yards long ; they are made of cotton, which is found
much more destructive than hemp, which was formerly
employed. The mesh should be of sufficient size to allow
the herring to obtain entrance for its head as far as its gills.
During the autumnal herring season it has been computed
that there are frequently from 8000 to 10,000 miles of nets
in the North Sea at one time. In 1809 it was enacted that
the size of the mesh should be I inch from knot to knot, or
4 inches all round, and in 1839 France signed a convention
with Great Britain, constituting it the law for both
countries; this was abrogated in 1862, and in 1868 the
regulation was repealed. Since then the fishermen have
reduced the size, and off the east coast the mesh has

GREA T BRITAIN. 263

become from 40 to 44 to the yard, catching large ones by
the snout, but allowing them to drop out and be lost.

Shoals of herrings have occasionally been met with of
such considerable size that they have broken the warp-rope
of the nets, and the whole of the gear has been carried to
the bottom.

As herrings are caught at sea they are put into the hold
and mixed with salt ; ice may likewise be employed for
this purpose. The fish first removed from the vessel are
the most valuable, as having been subjected to less pressure
and a purer atmosphere. As a rule, when the sea is calm
and the temperature high, the takes become more or less
iled before they can be landed ; in some places the use
steamers has obviated this, and communications between
e fishing fleet and the shore may be maintained, as at
ontrose, by the employment of carrier pigeons. If the
steamers were furnished with a double set of gear, so
that the tanks containing the captured fish could be re-
moved at once and fresh ones substituted, a tide would
be gained to the manifest advantage of the fisheries, as the
steamers could at once return to the fishing fleets. Mr. De
Caux has given it as his opinion that the alterations in the
fishery laws have been so mischievous that now, although
the killing power of drifters in the same district (Yarmouth)
has increased six-fold, the quantity of herrings captured
has augmented but slightly, even if it has at all. On
November 2ist, 1882, it was observed that " Herring fishing
at Great Yarmouth shows no falling off when compared
with the previous part of the season. Nearly 8000 lasts
have been landed, about 1600 more than at the corresponding
time last year, and there are still two months in which to
draw upon the shoals. '

On the Devonshire coast drift-nets and moored-nets in

264 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

the bays are employed occasionally up to the end of
February. Even so late as the middle of March, 1882,
small boats were still capturing them with drift-nets off
Plymouth, but the moored-nets had been laid up until the
next season.

Along the Cornish coast there is no special fishery for
herrings ; some stragglers are taken in the mackerel-nets,
and subsequently in the drift-nets employed fishing for the
early shoals of pilchards, in July and August, when they
are chiefly found in deep water, sometimes going east,
sometimes west, in small shoals. Boats from Mount's Bay,
Cornwall, and St. Ives leave for the Irish shores about the
first week in June, and rendezvous at Howth, to the north
of Dublin Bay, where the best fishing is about the last week
in June or the first week in July ; subsequently it generally
decreases, and the boats go north.

Herring fishing may frequently have to be suspended or
even entirely given up, due to stormy weather preventing
fishermen from venturing out to sea. In 1880 the Scotch
fishermen had a most successful year, but it was remarkable
that " the greatest amount of success attended the efforts
of the drift-net boats. The trawl-net boats were continually
coming in clean, and, with rare exceptions, were very poorly
fished until the recent cold, frosty weather set in, when
some splendid takes were secured, yielding to each crew for
one night's fishing from ;£ioo to £200. Such a marked
difference between the two modes of fishing has never been
observed before, and as yet no real cause has been assigned
for it."

The "dandy-line" is used for herring fishing at Peter-
head during April, May, and June. A piece of lead about
ii Ib. in weight is attached to a line, which carries at short
intervals transverse pieces of whalebone or cane having

CdU

,,s,

GREAT BRITAIN. 265

unbaited hooks at either end. Herrings are such hungry
fish that they fly at the naked hooks, and are easily caught
in this manner (' Angler's Note Book/ p. 48). The hooks
must be kept moving about, and the water should be
a little discoloured.

Along the coasts of Down and Antrim large quantities
used to be taken by means of handlines, the hooks
being dressed with feathers, and the time of fishing being
evening or sunrise (Thompson).

Off Northumberland and Durham we are told that
herrings used only to be fished when in their prime, or
from July to September ; now from 100 to 150 large boats
come from Scotland every spring, and young herrings are
captured from May right on, but they are poor and taste-
(G. Rowell, Land and Water, July, 1881). Mr.
Southwell, in Norfolk, considers that there can be no two
opinions as to the small size and inferior quality of the
" spring herrings," and thinks that it is a matter of regret
that they should be taken at that season.

Breeding. — The period at which the herring breeds is
subject to great diversity, inasmuch that some persons
have questioned whether it may not do so twice in one
year. At Wick, on the north-east coast of Scotland,
Mr. Reid informed me (January i8th, 1882) that early in
January this year they were in a spawning condition, but
no shotten ones as yet to be found, while they again spawn
there in August and early in September. The same has
been observed in the Moray Firth by Gordon. Herrings
taken on the Ballintrae Bank, off the Ayrshire coast, in
February and March, are either spawning or shotten.
Herrings spawn on the east coast of England and Scotland
(taking the extreme dates), from the latter end of May to
December, that is, measuring from the Shetlands to the

266 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

North Foreland. These Ballintrae herrings never spawn
in August, but, on the contrary, begin about the 1st of
February, and the spawning goes on till the ist of April.
This spawning bank is ten miles long and two miles broad.
The average depth is ten fathoms at low water (Buckland).
On January 5th, 1882, I found that most of the herrings
in the fish-shops, and which had been received from Corn-
wall, were shotten ; others were full of milt or roe. At the
end of August, 1881, many were in full roe; and on
December I3th I first saw some shotten* ones, but was
informed some had been received previously. Mr. Dunn
observed that all the herrings which visit the south coast
of Devonshire late in November, throughout December,
and early in January, are in spawning condition. Six
hundred thousand were landed in Plymouth one day last
week, and the spawn was almost ready for extrusion in the
whole of them (Land and Water, December 24th, 1881).
A month later he found at Mevagissey that the spawn was
running from them. He considers that there are two
herrings which spawn on the Cornish coast, the smaller in
December and January, and which is not so regular and
certain a visitor as the larger one, which spawns in
February and March. The lesser ones seem to migrate
along the coast, the larger ones to come from the deep sea.
Andrews (February I4th, 1882), writing from Swanage in
Dorsetshire, stated that he had two dozen brought to him
five days previously, all full-roed, and many on the I4th ;
while the piermaster informed him that the first signs of
spawning were noticed yesterday ; while the fishermen

* M. Bertrand, in his article on A lose, published in 1776, remarked
that " it appeared certain that in the English Channel many herrings
begin to spawn about November 25th, although in certain years some
are still found full in February."

GREA T BRIT A IN. 267

reckon, as a rule, upon taking full fish more or less up to
March. Mr. Wilcocks Field (February 25th, 1882) re-
marked from Plymouth that the herrings have not yet left
the coast, and many among them have not yet spawned.
It is evident that off Great Britain there are two chief
periods for spawning, but that at various places some
spawning fish may be captured at any month throughout
the year. The autumn breeding time would appear to be
the most extensive.

It now becomes necessary to consider what do we under-
stand by whitebait ? Here we must first seek for the
origin of the term, and at the outset I am inclined to admit
that such appears to be lost in obscurity. If we refer to
Pennant's 'British Zoology/ volume the third, page 371,
published in 1776, we read as follows: — "During the
month of July there appear in the Thames, near Blackwall
and Greenwich, innumerable multitudes of small fish, which
are known to the Londoners by the name of whitebait.
They are esteemed very delicious when fried with fine
flour, and occasion, during the season, a vast resort of the
lower order of epicures to the taverns contiguous to- the
places they are taken at."

Unable to trace the origin of the term whitebait, we have
to investigate what has this fish been considered ? Pennant
states they belong neither to the shad nor the sprat, nor
are they the young of smelts, but bear a great similarity to
the bleak, to which fish he appended them, although with
doubt. Donovan (1808) obtained as whitebait the young
of the shad, and calmly expressed his opinion that Pennant
never saw a whitebait, or, if he did, his examples were bad,
or his investigations hasty and negligent, while his figure
conveyed no just idea of the fish. Next we have Yarrell
(1828), who considered that both Pennant and Donovan

268 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

were in error, as he saw in these fish a new species of
Clupea, which he termed Clupea alba. M. Valenciennes
(1847) went still further, instituting a novel genus (Rogenia)
for their reception, while he remarked that some young
sprats were captured along with the true forms during the
months of April, May, and June. Dr. Giinther, the author
of the ' Catalogue of Fishes in the British Museum (1867),'
did not coincide with any of the four previous writers,
retaining whitebait in the genus Clupea, and considering it
to be the young of the common herring.

It is now universally admitted that the true whitebait
belongs to some species of the herring family ; but what
we wish to ascertain is, are such mature forms, as asserted
by Yarrell and Valenciennes, or immature fish, as believed
in by the majority of inquirers, and, as such, were formerly
protected by legislative enactments ? In this investigation
we must not lose sight of the fact that the herring family,
more especially among the species composing the genus
Clupea, possess many pelagic forms, which live together in
large assemblages or schools, the young of which but rarely
enter brackish, and never as a rule fresh, waters. That
these fishes are very variable in their migrations : abundant
some years, they occasionally forsake their haunts for
several successive seasons, returning again in enormous
quantities. This phenomenon is not peculiar to whitebait
in European seas, but is found to be universal. Another
peculiarity is that, the teeth being small and deciduous,
a considerable diversity may exist in examples of the same
species.

Are whitebait mature fish ? This question has been
answered by most investigators in the negative, by Yarrell
in the affirmative ; while fortunately the specimens of this
last author, being still in the British Museum, are open to

GREA T BRITAIN. 269

re-examination. All are certainly the young of the
common herring. Yarrell remarked that these fish are
taken in the Thames " from the beginning of April to the
end of September . . . and specimens of the young fish of
the year, 4 or 5 inches long, are then not uncommon,
but mixed even at this late period of the season with others
of very small size, as though the roe had continued to be
deposited throughout the summer. Yet the parent fish are
not caught." I have now a fine series of whitebait captured
during the months referred to by Yarrell, and from the
same locality (the Thames), and these I now propose
enumerating, premising that, as the migrations of members
of the herring family are variable, occasionally forsaking
their usual spawning grounds, it does not appear impro-
bable that one species may have left and given place to
another, to be again changed to the original form on the
return of the water to some condition which suited its first
occupants. Thus Yarrell observes : " Formerly great quan-
tities of the Twaite shad were caught with nets in that part
of the Thames opposite Millbank, Westminster."

I examined 138 examples of whitebait taken during the
months of May and June, 1878, the longest of which was
2-1 inches ; out of these about one in ten were sprats, the
remainder the young of the herring. In August I exa-
mined forty-six examples from 2 to 3^ inches in length ;
out of these twenty-four from 2 to 27 inches long were
sprats, and twenty-one, from 2 '8 to 3^ inches long, were
young herrings, these latter now commencing to grow to
a larger size than their smaller relatives, the sprats. In
October, out of forty-one examples from 2± to $± inches in
length, all were herrings. It appears that both sprats and
young herrings find their way into the London market as

270 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

whitebait. Some inquirers may obtain one species, some
the other, while a third may receive both forms, in accord-
ance with the locality the fishermen were working their
nets, and whether schools of one or of both were present at
the time.

Of the thirty-one examples of " winter whitebait "
received from the Medway, twenty-six varied from 2 to 4-4-
inches in length, the larger ones possessing well-developed
roe. All these were sprats. The remaining five were
young herrings, from 5 to *]\ inches long, the largest having
slightly developed roe.

How are these young fish to be distinguished ? may be
asked : and to this question a very simple reply will suffice.
The sprats have sixteen to eighteen rays in the fin of the
back, and seventeen to eighteen in that behind the vent.
The ventral fins are situated beneath the first rays of the
back fin. They have forty-seven or forty-eight vertebrae ;
no teeth in the front part of the palate (the vomer), and in
a single or double row along the tongue, while internally
they only possess seven or eight caecal appendages at the
pyloric end of the stomach, while the edge of the scales of
the abdomen have very sharp points. The young herrings
have seventeen to twenty rays in the fin of the back, and
sixteen to eighteen in that behind the vent. The ventral
fins are situated beneath the middle rays of the back fin.
They have fifty-six vertebrae, teeth in the front part of the
palate (the vomer), and in a long oval patch along the
tongue, while internally they possess seventeen to twenty
or more caecal appendages at the pyloric end of the
stomach. The keeled abdominal edge is not nearly so
sharp as in the sprats, while the scales themselves are not
spinate, and they do not fall off the body quite so readily

GREA T BRITAIN. 27 1

as in the latter species, in which but few are seen on the
sides in captured examples. Due to the position of the
back fin, fishermen can recognise these two forms by
holding them up by the dorsal fin, when the sprat trims
by the head, but the herring by the tail.

That Pennant's was the whitebait of the present time
there can be but little doubt, and likewise that it was the
young herring. It is also certain that Donovan's figure is
that of a young shad, the immature of which, if in sufficient
numbers, would do as well as those of the herring or sprat
served up as whitebait ; while I certainly possess the
young of these last two forms, which I have received as
this fish.

During the summer and autumn of 1872 several hundred
small whitebait were imported to Manchester from Colwyn
Bay, North Wales. During the first eighteen months of
their captivity they grew to at least half the size of a full-
grown herring, with which species there was no gainsaying
their identity (Zool. 1876, p. 4855). Meyer states his
grew only to i^ inches in length in five months. Mr. Sim,
of Aberdeen, observes that he found herring fry in the rock
pools in great numbers in the months of June and July, all
from i-i- to 2\ inches long, and which he concluded were
from the March spawning, or four to five months old.

As these fish augment in size they arrive at maturity,
and very conflicting evidence has been adduced respecting
the age at which they first breed. Some have believed
they do so well within twelve months (De Caux) ; eighteen
months has likewise been suggested (Mitchell) ; also that
they are approaching the expiry of their second year before
they shed their first spawn (Sim). This last supposition
appears to me to be probably nearest the truth, taken in
conjunction with the rate of growth of the species, the

272 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

appearance of the young or sile, and the matties or
maidens, arriving at the spawning period.

Herrings ready for spawning are termed Mazy in the
trade at Yarmouth, and the fish appears to be in this con-
dition all through the year at some part of our coasts.
Some observers believe that they spawn twice a year,
others as positively affirm the contrary, and it is much
more probable to suppose that those which are spawning
at different times are distinct races or schools.

The number of eggs which have been found in a single
herring has varied from ten to thirty thousand ; when shed
it sinks to the bottom of the sea, while along with it is a
glairy fluid which enables the ova to adhere to any object
with which it may come in contact. Ropes or nets drawn
through herring spawn become thickly coated with it, and
large quantities are brought on to the decks of fishing
boats. Nets set in water where spawn exists in a very
short time become treated similarly to what occurs when
heavy catches of fish have been made. The locality se-
lected is often over rough ground, while sea-weed may be
found covered with this adhering spawn. In the Baltic
and localities where the water is brackish, or almost fresh,
they have been observed to select two or three feet of
water for this purpose. It seems highly probable that they
deposit their spawn wherever they happen to be, as herrings
in which this was exuding were taken at least forty miles
out at sea, or in forty to fifty fathoms of water, while it is
very attractive to other fish, especially cod. Spawning fish
are captured in shore and far out to sea at the same time,
while shotten and mazy ones are frequently found together.

The escape of the young from the eggs either in spring
or autumn can be considerably delayed by keeping the water
very cold, while its saltness or the reverse exercises no

GREA T BRITAIN. 273

appreciable difference.* Three to four weeks has been
suggested as the probable time at which hatching normally
occurs after extrusion ; while if these eggs are heaped
together they become mouldy, and no one appears to have
succeeded in rearing these fish from artificially fecundated
eggs. Meyer found that in a few days after being hatched
they commenced preying upon microscopic forms existing
in the water ; after a month on small Crustacea, and at the
end of the third month they were a little over \\ inches in
length. Beyond five months he could not keep them alive.
The young, known as whitebait, swarm along our shores in
certain localities, sometimes to a great extent mixed up
with sprats, at other times in independent assemblages.

Herring fisheries. — It would appear from the Com-
missioners' report that young herrings along the east coast
of Scotland were first permitted to be captured in small-
meshed, sprat, or garvie nets in 1868, the true garvie
being the sprat, Clupea sprattus, and the young herring or
wjiitebait belonging to the C. harengus. Some of the
witnesses averred that when garvies are scarce, many young
herrings are sent away with them, while it is impossible to
take garvies without taking the young herring. One wit-
ness (p. 14) asserted having purchased thirty barrels of
garvies in one day, and found they were all young her-
rings. My only personal experience consists of some
garvies from the north-east coast, most of which were
undoubtedly young herrings. They were about 3 inches
each in length, requiring 288 to weigh a pound, or 645,120

* In the Baltic the German Commissioners ascertained that with
the water at 53° the eggs hatched in a week, whereas at 38° they took
six weeks, while raising the temperature above 53° did not quicken
the hatching process.

VOL. I. — E. I. T

274 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

to the ton. In the report so often referred to, we are told
that 800,000,000 of herrings must be annually taken by
Scotch fishermen alone, or equal to a little over 1240 tons
of garvies, or young herrings, such as I have described ;
whilst from Inverness we are informed that in three years
ending 1876-77, the Highland Railway carried on an
average 267 tons of garvies annually to London.

One argument, adduced in order to disprove that the
destruction of fry inshore can do injury, has been that the
young fish in our sandy bays and inshore grounds are
the offspring from spawn shed at sea, and that it seems
most likely that all the ova produced by those fishes
which actually spawn in these bays are either washed
ashore or drifted away. This would, in fact, amount to
the opinion that inshore fry are naturally destroyed or
drift away to sea, a conclusion opposed to what may be
seen at any time along our shores where these minute
fishes are killed in millions with small-meshed nets. Of
this I will merely adduce one instance out of many, espe-
cially as the fact must be patent to everybody who
examines the small-meshed nets used inshore during our
spring, summer, and autumn months. Mr. Walton, of
Bridgewater, purchased all the fish captured during one
day in two hose nets at Bridgewater, and obtained 18 cwt.
of the fry of soles, plaice, herrings, whiting, &c.

For reasons to be presently alluded to, I cannot resist
expressing my individual regret at the manner in which the
herring fisheries are now carried on, and how little they
seem to be investigated by those whose duties ought to
induce them to give this industry more consideration. For
if inquirers are induced to turn their attention to these
fisheries for a brief space, it is to be regretted how they

GREA T BRITAIN. 275

ignore the warning of practical fishermen, and appear to
consider (as did the Oyster Commissioners of old) that
there are as good things in the sea as ever came out ;
while the idea of diminishing any supply from thence,
they hold, can only be the views of such as know nothing
of the ocean nor of its contents.

I would here venture to suggest as worthy of considera-
tion a minute investigation of how these garvie fisheries arc
carried on from the commencement of October to the end
of January ; the proportion of herrings captured to sprats,
and what becomes of the captures. It would also be very
desirable that such an inquiry should extend into the
question of whether or no the cessation of the inshore
herring fisheries has been coincident with the extension of
the garvie fisheries.

Off the coast of Norway the mode in which herring fish-
ing is pursued is when the fish have entered one of the
large inlets so common along the coast to stretch a net
across the entrance and capture the entire school, fishing
out at sea as off the Scottish and English coast being
either unknown or else but little engaged in. Last year,
1882, the herrings appear to have been abundant off the
coast, but as a rule to have ceased entering the inlets ; as a
consequence the captures have been comparatively few.
The reason given is that of late years the whale fishery has
been most successfully prosecuted, so much so that few
cetaceans are now to be seen, while it is believed that the
chief cause of driving herrings into inlets was to escape
from the whales. The result is that petitions are being for-
warded that no whales be killed within a certain distance
of Norway. The terror of the nets in the inlets thus
appears to have been less than the fear of the whales in
the ocean ; remove the whales, and one of the chief terrors,

T 2

276 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

driving the fish, into the outlets, has ceased to be present,
and fishing will have to be carried on out at sea.

There are, it appears, two chief periods when herrings
appear off the east coast of Scotland, while the winter,
June, and garvie fisheries are partially or wholly new
institutions. Whether they have or have not any bearing
upon the cessation of the inshore herring fisheries I have
not sufficient evidence to adduce. Still it is by no means
impossible that some fishes, especially such as are of
gregarious natures, mostly return to the place where they
were reared. If, therefore, from any cause the inshore race
of herrings were being unduly destroyed, it does not seem
an unwarrantable conclusion to draw, that such may have
something to do with the deep-sea race being now the
most common along the east coast of Scotland.

Respecting the capture of the herrings off the east coast of
Scotland, it is evident that the great bulk of the fishing is
carried on much farther out to sea than it was a few years
since. Still it does not seem at all proved that the inshore
fishing has been neglected, but the probabilities are that
the fish are no longer there in sufficient numbers to repay
the fisherman's labour. It also seems doubtful whether the
boats have really gone out so far as no miles herring
fishing, as asserted by some of the local fishermen, for such
a distance would necessitate the captures being salted at
sea, or conveyed in ice, or by a more rapid mode of transit
than simply sailing.

If we take the average capture of herrings as shown in
the Scotch fishery reports* we find them as follows : —

* These returns were from April to April up to 1843 ; those up to
1849 include those of the north-east of England ; from 1850 to 1868
they include those of the Isle of Man; from 1869 they refer to
Scotland only.

GREA T BRITAIN. 277

8 years ending 1816, annual cure 132,837 barrels

10 „ 1826 „ 336,624 „

10 „ 1836 „ 392,86o „

10 „ 1846 „ 578,669 „

10 „• 1856 „ 640,593 „

10 „ 1866 „ 646,772 „

10 „ 1876 „ 806,563 „

For the year 1877 „ 847,718 „

1878 „ 905,768 „

1879 „ 841,796 „

1880 „ i,473,6oo „

1881 „ i,ni,i55

Thus we are able to observe a steady annual increase in
the Scotch herrings when investigating the figures furnished
us, from almost the commencement of the century. Every-
thing is looked upon as denoting prosperity, and should
every now and then a storm sweep the coast and numbers
of fishermen be engulfed, such we are given to understand
is unavoidable, incidental to all marine fisheries and in-
capable of remedy.

During this period, however, some questions omitted by
the Commissioners appointed to investigate the condition
of the Scotch herring fishery force themselves upon one's
attention. First of all, one is led to ask what proportion of
persons are now engaged in this occupation to the numbers
that were thus employed at the commencement of the
present century ? Is the augmentation of captures due to
increased facilities of capture, larger ventures in fisheries,
or simply because the fish are more abundant ?

The earliest date on which any confidence can be placed
in the returns as to the number of fishermen* employed is

* I do not allude to figures handed down prior to the commence-
ment of this century. As, for instance, we are told that in 1667 the
Scotch had 800 fishing boats, manned by upwards of 5000 men
engaged in the herring fishery.

278 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

from 1825,* and I find that the number of barrels of cured
herrings has gradually increased from about 379,000 in
Scotland and the north-east coast of England until they
have reached to upwards of a million during each of the
last two years ; while the fishermen and boys have increased
by almost 4000. The proportion of the number of fisher-
men to barrels of herrings cured has averaged as follows : —

5 years, 1825 to 1830, i fisherman to 8 barrels of herrings

55 8 „ „

55 9 55 55

55 I0 55 55

55 9 55 55

J5 *4 55 55

17

» 22 „ „

The immense value to the community will be seen when
attention is directed to the value of the fishing-gear in
Scotland having averaged .£1,263,737 for the last five years,
while each barrel of cured herrings is estimated to be
worth about 25^.

But when we enquire into the gear employed, we are
told that cotton nets were coming in about 1856, but
subsequently they rapidly superseded the hempen ones.
A boat which used to carry 24 hemp nets, 40 yards long,
equivalent to 960 yards of netting, now employs 50 to 60
cotton nets, each 60 yards long, equivalent to 3300 yards.
The nets per boat, we are told, " used to present a catching
surface of 3000 square yards, they now present a catching

* This includes the line fishing, but the two are not separated ; the
proportions probably continue much the same.

5 55

1830 „

1835

5 55

1835 ,5

1840

5 ,5

1840 „

1845

4 55

1845 55

1849

5 55

1849 5,

1854

5 5,

1854 „

I859

5 5,

1859 5,

1864

5 5,

1864 „

1869

2 „

1869 „

1871

5 5,

1871 „

1876

5 „

1876 „

1881

GREA T BRITAIN. 279

surface of 33,000 square yards." The Commissioners esti-
mated, when giving the foregoing figures, that " each boat
had increased its power five-fold." But the amount cap-
tured does not appear to have kept pace with the increased
killing powers, for if so the fishermen who from 1825 to
1850, while employing hemp nets, obtained from 8 to 10
barrels per man, should now, were the proportions equal,
be capturing from 40 to 50 barrels instead of about 22.
It has been computed that there are 30,000 fishing vessels
of about 280,000 tons tonnage, manned by 105,000 men
and boys engaged around our islands, and most of which

e at least occasionally engaged in the capture of herrings.

ut numerous other trades are dependent on the success
or the reverse of this fishery.

Lastly, I would remark, that if herrings have, due to

anges in our fishery laws and consequent methods of
fishing, been unduly interfered with, so that the shoals are
now further out to sea than was formerly the case, thus
necessitating the employment of larger boats, has such
occasioned a great loss of life ? That going further out to
sea to obtain these fish is a necessity is now admitted,
while the harbour accommodation remains the same, boats
are thus unable to enter during storms, and a great sacrifice
of life is the result. This is another and most important
factor which ought to be taken into consideration when
deciding upon the necessity or the reverse for investigating
the results which have followed the legislation of the last
1 8 or 20 years.

As food. — Herrings are very largely employed as food
either in a fresh or cured condition. Of course in different
localities these fish may be, and often are, differently
treated ; usually care is taken in selecting and assorting
such fish as have to be cured, and also in obtaining the

i8o THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

services of competent gutters, while the rapidity with
which the varied processes are carried on, the seasoning
of the barrels when such are used, and period at which
they are fastened down, all are important factors in the
condition in which the cured fish will be found.

In the north of Scotland the herrings on arrival are
placed in a heap near the troughs of the curers, next they
are gutted by individuals who at one cut remove the
intestines and gills. They are then " roused " with salt in
a tub, and lastly packed in layers in barrels, a handful of
salt being sprinkled over each layer. As the fish subside
a fresh layer is added, as the barrel has to be kept full.
All broken or inferior fish, or those which have received
too small an amount of salt, should be rejected.

Yarmouth bloaters are variously prepared, but one of
the best solutions in which this can be effected is mixing
29 Ibs. of common salt with 71 Ibs. of water in large vats ;
in this the herring will float, so they are kept down by
wooden battens weighted with bags of salt, which gradu-
ally dissolve and keep the solution at its proper density.
When the fish have become rigid the pickle is run off and
the herrings are suspended in a current of air until they
are removed to a chimney and smoked from 12 to 18
hours, the fuel employed being 2 parts of oak-wood, beech-
wood, and turf. These bloaters will keep 4 or 5 days,
but are best if hanging in a current of air.

Red herrings are bloaters more strongly cured, the
pickle having about -V of its weight of saltpetre added to
the salt. They are dried for 24 to 48 hours and then
smoked to the requisite tinge.

Kippered herrings are such as are pickled, dried, and
split down the back almost to the tail fin, showing the
backbone : the gills and intestines are removed, they are

GREA T BRITAIN. 281

then cleaned with salt and water, and suspended for a
night in a current of air and then smoked until they are
of a light brown. They do not keep long.

The date of 1794 is given as that in which ice was first
employed in Scotland to add to the herrings which were
packed in boxes and sent by fast sailing vessels to London.

The present railway rates are levied in a most incompre-
hensible manner on the carriage of fish, rendering their
being thus carried except, at a loss, often a matter of
certainty : while in Land and Water (August, 1881) we
read : " The charge for the carriage of herrings from
Berwick-on-Tweed to London being the same as that
from the extreme north of Scotland, although the distance
is about 300 miles less, several herring buyers have com-
plained of the unfairness, and have taken steps to obtain
a revisal of the rate. This week they have sent their fish
to London by steamer at a cost of 2s. ^d. per barrel.
The railway rate varies from js. to 9^. per barrel."

Uses. — Largely employed as bait for cod, ling, and long
lines generally, and they have, when very numerous, been
boiled down for the oil which they contain.

Lacepede inquires "what honours are not justly his due
who first taught mankind the art of impregnating the
solids of the herring with sea salt ? " Unhappily the
subject is so interwoven with discrepancies as to date and
nationality that no answer worthy of credit can be given.
At the beginning of the twelfth century there were herring
fisheries in the Baltic to which many foreign vessels
resorted ; these herrings must therefore have been salted —
in fact in 1155 Louis VII. of France prohibited his subjects
purchasing anything but mackerel and salted herrings at
Estampes. In 1290 part of the dried fish shipped at
Yarmouth, in the victualling of a vessel to bring the

282 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

infant Queen of Scotland from her Norwegian sire, were
herrings, and these, of course, were cured. In the time of
Edward III. mention is made of some white herrings
found in vessels captured by the Cinque Ports ; and in
the same reign red herrings are also specified by name,
so that both sorts of curing were practised before the time
of William Berkelszoon, of Biervliet, in Flanders (he died
1 397), who has been credited with the distinction of intro-
ducing them. There is, however, no doubt that he greatly
improved the methods he found in use by curing the fish
in small kegs instead of piling them in heaps, which so
extended the trade in them that Charles V. erected a statue
to his memory, and, with his sister, visited his tomb, and
offered up prayers for his soul ; while Mary of Hungary,
during her visit to the Low Countries, paid a more
characteristic tribute to his memory, namely, that of eating
a salt herring on his sepulchre.

In our own country the herring fishery certainly
flourished in the twelfth century, for in 1195, according to
historians, the town of Dunwich, in Suffolk, was obliged
to furnish the king with twenty-four thousand herrings.
Mention is also made of the herring fishery in a chronicle
of the monastery of Evesham in 709. The herring fair in
Yarmouth was regulated in the reign of Edward III. by
the Statute of Herrings. On the old arms of the town
were figured what are proverbially known as " Yarmouth
capons," az., three herrings, arg.

In 1563 green or fresh herrings were so scarce, that at
Yarmouth, at the great mart, they sold at an unusually
high rate ; a last, or eighty bushels, brought £9.

In France, until the close of the seventeenth century,
fish diet was scrupulously observed on fast days. Thi-
baut VI., Count de Blois, gave annually (by charter, 1215)

GREA T BRIT A IN. 283

five hundred herrings to the hospital of Beaugency.
Among the extensive charities of Saint Louis to monas-
teries and hospitals were sixty-eight thousand herrings.
In olden times the soldiers engaged in warfare observed
their Lent. Thus history informs us that while the
English were besieging Orleans in 1428, one of the convoy
of provisions destined for their camp was attacked by
the Duke de Bourbon. It consisted chiefly of salted
herrings, which gave rise to the conflict being called the
" Battle of the Herrings."

A curious notice respecting the connection of herrings
'ith marriages appeared in the Times (November 28,

571). In the return for the third quarter of the year, the

jistrar of Fraserburgh stated that the herring fishery
very successful, and the value of the catch, including

sks and curing, amounted to ;£ 130,000 sterling, and the
marriages were eighty per cent, above the average.
On the other hand, the registrar of Tarbert reported
a steady falling off in the fishing at that creek, and
consequently the quarter passed without an entry in
the parish register. The registrar of Lochgilphead
stated the herring fishery to have been a failure in the
loch, and this accounted for a blank in the marriage
column for the quarter. One registrar, in his return for
the quarter, reported marriages in his district " like angels'
visits, few and far between." At the fishing villages it
might be put more briefly — no herring, no wedding.

Diseases and causes of destruction. — Whales, porpoises,
seals, members of the cod family, dog-fishes, in short all
predaceous fishes feed on herrings from the time of their
birth and throughout their entire existence, and in this
they are assisted by birds of various sorts. In the North

284 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Sea the cod-fishes leave the sea bottom at night-time and
ascend to the herring-nets, from whence they violently
pull out quantities of the meshed fish and at the same time
occasion much damage to the lighter kinds of cotton nets,
in which they tear large holes.

Superstition enters largely into the composition of
fishermen, and in the Banff Journal of 1855 it was
recorded that the herring fishery being very backward,
some of the fishermen of Buckie dressed a cooper in a
flannel shirt with bars stuck all over it, and in this condi-
tion he was carried in procession through the town in a
handbarrow. This was done to bring "better luck" to
the fishing. A century or two ago not merely effigies, but
living men and women were burnt on suspicion of casting
a blight on the herring fishery ; even at the present day
it is common for whale-fishers to burn an effigy in order to
" bring luck." If a ship has fallen in with few whales, the
crew attribute their bad fortune to having some unlucky
individual on board, and by burning his effigy they believe
that his malign influence is got rid of. The most un-
popular man in the ship is generally pitched upon as the
offending party. Sometimes two or three " pictures " are
burnt, one after the other, if luck is very bad. The practice
is a very old one, and is said to have taken its rise from
a similar custom which prevailed among the herring fishers
of Banffshire, by whom it was introduced on board the
Peterhead whalers.

In Norfolk (Notes and Queries, October 7th, 1865)
we are told existed a fancy that fleas and herrings come
together. " Lawk, sir," said an old fellow near Cromer,
" times is as you may look in my flannel shirt and scarce
see a flea, and then there aint but a very few herrings :

GREA T BRITAIN. 285

but times that'll be right alive with 'em, and then there's
certain to be a sight of fish." Lowe, in his tour through
the Orkneys (1774), says that as much as .£50 was paid
for the first barrel of herrings of the season that arrived
from Shetland, this first instalment of the herring market
being regarded there as medicine. Red-finned ones appear
to be considered as omens of success on some parts of our
coasts, and Mr. De Caux tells us that as soon as one is
perceived it is taken from the net, carefully prevented from
touching anything made of wood, and passed round the
scudding-poles as many times as the fishermen desire to
get lasts of herring at their next haul.

Habitat. — White Sea, extending into some parts of the
Arctic Ocean ; the colder to the temperate portions of the

tlantic, the North Sea and the Baltic.

In the Orkneys, Lowe observed that the Shetland
Isles swarm with them in April and later, the east coast
of Caithness in August, the Hebrides at the latter end of
the year. The Sounds at certain seasons are alive with
the fry. I have already alluded to their distribution along
Scotland, the west coast of which country is studded with
lochs from which they, have commenced more or less to
absent themselves, while along the east coast, possessing
but three large bays or firths, they have latterly forsaken
their haunts about 7 miles out to sea and receded to 20,
30, or even 100 miles. I have also alluded to the distribu-
tion of the herring on the British coast, while it is common
around Ireland.

The size to which herrings attain varies. De Caux
observes that the largest he has personally seen was 154-
inches in length, but that Mr. Utting, of Great Yarmouth,
had one which was 17 inches long, but the usual average

286 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

off our east coast is from 10 to II inches, and if full
weighing from 4 to 6 ounces : a full one, I \\ inches long,
will weigh 8 ounces. Buckland stated that the largest
herrings submitted to him were from the Shetlands ; the
milt and roe were but slightly developed, they were very fat
and as long as 9^ inches and 9^ ounces weight. Sims, at
Aberdeen, weighed some full ones, 12\ inches long, and
they were only 8^- ounces ; the largest example he found
in 1880 was \2± inches, and weighed 9f ounces ; it was a
full one.

2. The Pilchard (Clupea pilchardus}.

A dried pilchard in Devonshire is sometimes termed a
fair maid, derived from fumado ; smaller forms go by the
name of sardines when tinned. Halliwell gives sarding as
synonymous with the pilchard. In Cornwall it is known
as hern, hernan and dean. The term pilchard has been
variously derived, some considering it to be from " pillch "
an old English word signifying a piece of cloth to wrap
round a young child, because these fish were formerly
cooked in paper similarly to red mullets of the present
day. It has also been derived from peltzer, a name by
which it was known to some early northern continental
authors. Garvie-herring, Scotland.

B. vi.-vii., D. 17-18, V. 6-8, A. 17, 18, L. 1. 29-30, Caec.
pylori, numerous. Vert. 22 | 31.

Length of head 4f to 5^- ; height of body 4f to 5 ; length
of caudal fin 6 to 6% in the total length. Eyes. — With
adipose lids, diameter of each 3^ to 4 in the length of the
head, \\ diameters from the end of the snout, and i apart.
Lower jaw slightly prominent ; the maxilla reaches to
beneath the first third of the eye. Opercle with distinct

GREA T BRITAIN. 287

and well-developed striae descending towards the sub-
opercle. Teeth. — In jaws excessively fine or absent, none
on the palate nor on the tongue. Fins. — Origin of the
dorsal fin nearer the snout than it is to the base of the
caudal fin. Ventral inserted below the middle of the
dorsal fin. Anal low, its last two rays slightly prolonged.
Caudal deeply forked with two or three large scales at its
base.

Scales. — 17 to 19 scutes before and 14 posterior to the
base of the ventral fin. Co/ours. — Greenish olive, with
a bluish band along the body, and silvery sides.

Varieties. — It is by no means rare to see pilchards, even
many as I in 5 among thousands, sparingly marked
th black spots, and which become still more apparent on
scales being removed. In some the eyes are black
ged, in others white ; the former, according to Mr.
unn's observations, being most numerous in the summer
months, the latter in the autumn.

Habits. — Gregarious fishes, timid, being easily alarmed
by noises. These fish congregate in dense masses by day,
but as evening sets in they spread out along the shore
(I am here alluding to St. Austell's Bay), apparently
feeding from off the land, and so retire to the deeper
waters with the return of the morning's light. At sundown
nets are shot outside these feeding-places, thus arresting
the shoals in their progress towards the deep sea, while,
during the daytime, these fish are taken on the deep-sea
side of the nets.

They have been known to ascend into brackish water
when under the influence of fear ; thus, in 1722, a large
number were taken in the Dart at Totnes weir, having
been chased there by porpoises; and in July, 1880, when
it was nearly low water, one was seen coming down the

288 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

same river by persons standing on Totnes Bridge, which is
twelve miles from the sea, pursued by an otter ; the pil-
chard leaped on the bank and was secured.*

They will eat the roe of the cod or ling voraciously, also
crumbs of bread. Off the French coast, salted fish roe, mostly
of the cod, but also of the mackerel mixed with the pounded
flesh of that fish is employed to attract pilchards. It is
termed resure, rave, or more commonly rogue, and is largely
brought from Norway, more especially from Drontheim.
The fishermen say that they have seen pilchards in multi-
tudes quiescent at the bottom of the sea, as if examining
with their mouths the sand and small stones in the shallow
water, and probably hunting for food, the largest fish,
similar to the mackerel, being furthest out to sea. Mr. Fox,
some years since, observed that a hogshead of pilchards is
376 Ibs. gross and 340 Ibs. net. Summer fish run 3000 to
3600 per hogshead, and winter fish 2400 to 2800. Mr. Dunn
found that at Mevagissey pilchards of late years have
averaged, from August 1st to November 1st, from 3300 to
3800 per hogshead.

Migrations. — These fish are found off the coast of Corn-
wall and Devonshire throughout the year. In January

* In 'Natural History of Ireland' (1755, p. 192) exists an extract
from a letter from the Arch'bishop of Dublin, wherein he observes :
" There was a good fishery of pilchards on the south coast of Ireland
before the year 1688 ; but since the fight in Bantry Bay between some
of the English fleet, under Sir George Rook, and the French in 1689,
the pilchards, I understand, have not been on that coast ; the reason
of their leaving it is supposed to be the shock given by the firing of
guns ; and it was observed that some gentlemen, having provided a
yacht for their pleasure, and firing their guns frequently in the Bay of
Dublin, the herring fishery in the Bay failed entirely that season."
Couch observes, that the firing of a heavy gun at the distance of
twenty miles has been known to cause the fish to sink, and thus
disappoint the labour of the fishermen.*

GREA T BRITAIN. 289

they keep near the bottom, and are frequently taken from
the stomachs of line-caught fish. Considerable assemblages
have been observed in February, becoming more abundant
in March ; but the chief fishery commences with drift-nets
in July and with seines in the succeeding month. During
the summer they may be met with from twenty to fifty
miles from the coast, as outside the Scilly Isles and a con-
siderable distance up St. George's Channel. In or about
August large schools of these fish extend from the Lizard
so far as Bolt Head in Devonshire, further to the eastwards
of which no very extensive fishery is carried on, although
considerable numbers are taken at Torbay, Teignmouth,
and Dawlish. Another large fishery — in fact, a continuation
of that already referred to — stretches from the Lizard to the
Land's End ; while a third is present on the north coast
of Cornwall, having its chief seat at St. Ives, where the
fishermen assert pilchards arrive in October and November,
about three days subsequent to their appearance at Kinsale,
in Ireland. Sometimes one of these districts is full of fish,
none being present in either of the others. Irrespective of
these larger migrations, there are lesser ones, influenced by
currents, tides, and searchings for food. They appear rarely
to go directly against a current.

Many of the fishermen assert that the number of pil-
chards now captured in Cornwall is much less than used
to be the case. They point out numerous small landing-
stages, all of which in remote ages were used for dis-
embarking the fishermen's spoils, but have now fallen into
ruin or crumbled to decay, owing to there being no longer
any need for their services. It has been said that the
pilchards in some seasons swim low, due to diminished
temperature in the upper waters, or from some other cause,
and consequently escape beneath the nets. This reason

VOL. I.— E. I. U

29o THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

might hold good at certain periods, but, as such could only
be temporary, it would not account for any steady yearly
decrease in the takes.

Pilchards taken off the south-west coast of Great Britain
are larger and fatter than such as are captured in the
Mediterranean in the opinion of most foreign fishermen
who have plied their occupation in both localities ; but
along the Devonshire and Cornish coasts they are much
more abundant in certain years than they are in others,
while Mr. Dunn has remarked at Mevagissey that in seasons
of plenty three gallons of oil are obtainable from every
hogshead of fish, whereas in bad seasons, the fish being
few, only about one gallon of oil can be extracted from
the same quantity. In this computation, the summer shoals
alone are alluded to, as during the winter months the
yield is hardly more than half what it is in the warmer
times of the year. This must force the inquiry of, Why is
it that when pilchards are few, or the weather cold, they
yield less oil ? for, if the food were invariably the same, or
present in sufficient quantities, a natural conclusion would
be that a smaller army of fish would find more sustenance
for each individual which formed its component parts, and
consequently they ought to be in a better condition. It
may be put down to disease, debility, or a diminution
in the food supply. If disease were the cause, it is
most probable that the fishermen would observe some, at
least, of its symptoms or effects in their captures, whereas
none has been noted.

The amount taken of the summer fish is not an invariable
index to the quantity present, but more depending upon
the course they select ; for, if they keep in deep water, they
avoid the seines ; and should they swim low, they escape
the drift-nets.

GREA T BRITAIN. 291

Mr. Dunn observes that during May and June these
fish appear to be in the deep waters of the English Channel ;
that, at this period, the mackerel nets used off Penzance
have a large mesh for the purpose of taking the large mac-
kerel, and through this pilchards can easily pass ; whereas,
at Mevagissey, the nets used are for the lesser-sized
mackerel, for which purpose a smaller mesh is necessarily
employed. In this the pilchards mesh or entangle them-
selves when full of roe, being unable to pass through.

The fishermen returning from the east coast towards
Cornwall in the autumn often pass quantities of pilchards
in the English Channel, especially off and beyond Portland.

Couch observed that for several years in the early part of
this century the larger proportion of the shoals consisted
of such small fish that they passed through the meshes of
the seines. Mr. Wilcocks also met with similar sardine-
sized pilchards in Guernsey.

Means of capture. — This is carried on by means of drift-
or driving-nets that can be employed over any depth of
water, and seines or scans, or circle nets, which are used near
the shore. Drift-net fishing for pilchards has much increased
of late years, and the same boats, from 8 to 16 tons, are
employed in it as are used for mackerel and herring.

Seine-nets are differently worked and shot between
sunrise and sunset, the smallest legal ones at St. Ives
being 160 fathoms along the cork rope, with a depth of
8 fathoms at the centre or bunt, and 6 at the end of the
wings. Some are as long as 200 fathoms, the mesh being
| of an inch between knot and knot, or 1 8 to 20 to a foot ;
1 8 feet of netting are attached to each 1 1 feet of back rope,
and the same amount on each 10 feet of foot rope. A line
of corks goes along the upper edge, and the foot-line is
weighted with leads.

U 2

292 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

In consequence of the interference of drift-boats with the
working of seines on the coast of Cornwall, the following
restrictions were inserted in the Sea Fisheries Act, 1868,
31 & 32 Viet. cap. 45, s. 68 : —

" On the coast of Cornwall, except so much of the north
coast as lies east of Trevose Head, no person between the
25th of July and the 25th of November in any year —
" (a) Shall, from sunrise to sunset, within the distance of
two miles from the coast, measured from low water-
mark (whether in bays or not), use a drift-net or
trawl-net ; or (b) shall, within half a mile of any-
sea fishing-boat stationed for seine-fishing, anchor any
sea-fishing or other boat (not being a boat engaged
in seine-fishing), or lay, set, or use any net, boulter, or
implement of sea-fishing (except for the purpose of
seine-fishing).

" Any person who acts in contravention of this section
shall be liable on summary conviction to a penalty not
exceeding twenty pounds."

As there are only six stations, locally termed stems, at
St. Ives, where seining can be carried on, and nearly 250
registered nets, they are arranged in groups, each of which
is worked so many times in accordance with its size.

HuerSy also termed balkers, are employed for the purpose
of keeping a look-out from the cliffs along the shore for the
schools of pilchards, similarly, as already described, for
observing the mackerel. They receive each about £3 a
month, and one-hundredth part in kind of the fish taken
by their respective companies. Fish being seen, the cry is
raised, "Hev ah! hev ah!" And about 1604 it was
enacted that no action for trespass would lie against these
people for going on any lands when in pursuit of their
calling. It was also permitted to fishermen to haul their

GREA T BRITAIN. 293

nets on to the nearest shore. The fishery carried on during
the last six months of the year is the most important,
because pilchards are then in a condition in which they
will cure or " save " best, being fat and with undeveloped
roes. Of late years large quantities have been taken
during the first six months of the year ; these are purchased
by local dealers, and forwarded by rail to provincial and
Welsh markets under the term of " white herrings."

Mr. Dunn observes that off Mevagissey he has known of
three pilchards having been captured by hook and line, the
bait being a small piece cut out of the side of another
pilchard ; while Couch had been informed of two or three
instances in which this fish has been known to swallow the
fisherman's hook baited with a worm.

To a stranger visiting the fishing-quay at Mevagissey an
hour or so after midnight, when the pilchards are being
landed and sold by their captors, the scene is by no means
devoid of interest. The jowters, with their light traps and
fast-trotting hacks, are assembled ready to purchase the
fish they require, and scour the country in order to retail
them to the inhabitants of every village and hamlet. The
pilchards, having been washed, are packed in layers,
between each of which salt is sprinkled ; this assists in
retarding decomposition in these fish, which are so prone
to become putrid. At the Barbican, at Plymouth, much
the same scene may be witnessed, but pilchards are not to
be had in sufficient quantities, and cartloads of the coarser
description of fish are circulated from there by means of
these jowters.

Twelve thousand hogsheads of pilchards are annually
exported from Cornwall, and the autumn fish being more
firm and less oily are generally preferred for the Italian
market.

294 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

A large trade in cured pilchards is carried on between
Cornwall and Spain, the idea having originated at Meva-
gissey as follows: — In 1876, observed Mr. Dunn (Land
and Water, November i8th, 1882), a fish-curer here found
there was a demand in the Mediterranean fish markets for
bright-salted pilchards. He first thought the matter out,
and then proceeded and cured several tons of pilchards by
throwing them with salt into barrels and allowing the brine
to rise over them. After keeping them steeped for some
weeks they were washed, packed, and pressed into clean
barrels, just as was formerly done by the old-fashioned
fumadoes. On their being put on the market it was at
once seen they were the article wanted, for these fish,
instead of having the dirty-yellow hue of the fumade, had
the desired bright and clean silvery colour, hence they have
been in demand ever since. The fish-curer in question took
out no patent rights, but allowed all to use his discovery,
so much so that for some seasons past not less than 1000
hogshead of fish yearly have been shipped for the Medi-
terranean from Mevagissey alone. The barrels first used
have been superseded by large steeping vats, one of which
here will hold over 500,000 fish. Since the business in
question has been progressing, it has been discovered that
the Spaniards cure sardines much after the same manner.

Fumados* are thus prepared : a layer of salt is first placed
on the floor, then a layer of fish, and so on up to from 3 to
5 feet high, the outermost row of fish having their heads
out and slightly turned up, and the inner rows at right
angles to them. French or Spanish salt, being of a coarser
grain than English, is preferred. The bulk remains thus
about a month, and the oil as well as the brine which drains
from them is collected into a receiver. They are now
* The name indicates that these fish were formerly smoked.

GREA T BRITAIN. 295

cleaned, the dry salt is removed by a sieve, they are sub-
sequently washed and packed in regular order in 5O-gallon
casks, the fishes' tails being directed to the centre. Pressure
is now made by means of levers, to which weights are hung,
the casks being refilled and pressed three times during nine
days. A hogshead should weigh 476 lb., while the number
of fish in each cask vary from 2500 to 3000. All fish
under 8 inches in length are excluded. (Fox.)

Sardines are prepared at Mevagissey as follows : Imme-
diately the fish are landed they are taken to the factory
and cleaned ; then the washers arrange them in light trays
head downwards to drain and dry. They are next boiled,
then packed in tin boxes, which are filled up with the best
live oil, and subsequently soldered down. , These tins are

am boiled, and the fish are ready for the market.

An experiment made to smoke them like herrings failed,

the weight of the body caused the fish to give way and

1 into the fire.

Breeding. — Off the coast of Cornwall Mr. Dunn observed
that it appears to breed at two seasons of the year, May and
June, also in December, and the young are first seen in
September 3 or 4 inches in length, and about one-eighth of
an ounce in weight. On January i6th, 1882, these fish
were returning to the bays shotten, and one boat took
6000. Couch placed the winter breeding as commencing
as early as October, but this of course would vary with
the temperature of the season. I opened large numbers
in the month of August, but in only one single instance
did I find developed spawn. The pilchard deposits about
60,000 eggs, and falls off in condition as spawning time is
approached.

Off Mevagissey they have seldom been observed to
spawn within 10 miles of land, usually from 20 to 30

296 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

miles off shore ; the first-named of these localities is gene-
rally chosen in the summer, the latter in the winter or
spring.

Couch observed that the males exceed the females in
number.

Mr. Dunn recorded that he has seen the roe pressed from
the fish when alive into a bucket of water, and each of
the ova rests just below the surface.

Diseases and causes of destruction. — The picked dog-fish,
Acanthias vulgaris, is partial to these fish, pursuing the
shoals, and even tearing them out of the fisherman's nets.
Mr. Dunn, writing from Mevagissey (December 4th, 1882),
observed how these predatory vermin in many instances
rushed in numbers at the netted fish, eating all the captures,
and doing so much mischief that some boats had their nets
entirely destroyed ; other boats left the ground, which is
within a few miles of the Eddystone rocks ; while at one
time it was thought probable that the fishery would have
to be entirely given up. Other forms of predatory fishes,
porpoises, and birds likewise prey extensively upon them.

It is not unusual to see these fish removed from the nets
with one or both eyes gone, not I think due to the gar-fish,
Belone, or the saury, Sambresox, having pierced their heads,
but consequent upon attacks of fish parasites. In several
instances in which both eyes were gone I found the bony
interorbital septum still intact, which it could not be had
the fish been pierced through the two eyes. It is found
with Lernece perforating its eye, as seen in sprats.

As food. — These fish are much esteemed in Cornwall,
eaten fresh. Halliwell mentions a Cornwall dish as starry-
gazy-pie, being one made of pilchards and leeks — the heads
of the fish appearing through the crust as if they were
studying the stars.

GREA T BR1 TA IN. 297

The chief market for cured pilchards is Italy, where
there is a great demand both before and during Lent.

^/^j-^—As bait pilchards are found to be more attractive
than herrings, probably due to the large amount of oil
which exudes from them. Pilchard oil possesses a more
greasy nature than that of other fishes, and is on that
account considered excellent for coarse painting, while it
was formerly consumed in lamps in Cornwall. It is also
employed by curriers in preparing leather. This oil was
one of the chief items calculated upon towards defraying
curing charges. Its value is now reduced, but during the

,t twenty years it has not fallen below £20 a ton.

Habitat. — There exists a large fishery for sprats in the
'uider Zee, the quality of the fish obtained there being gene-
illy excellent. In 1882 the fishing closed about August,
md seventy millions of fish, realizing £70,000, were secured,

against sixty millions in 1881. Pilchards are found off
the French and Spanish coasts extending to Madeira, and
the variety sardine is found through the Mediterranean.

At Aberdeen an example was taken among some herrings
in November, 1881 (Sim), Firth of Forth (Parnell). Occa-
sional visitor off Yorkshire (Yorkshire Vertibrata). A few
have been taken off Dover, and every year off Yarmouth
(Yarrell), Harwich (Dale), also in the Downs and in the
Isle of Wight by herring fishers. In May, 1838, Yarrell
obtained one from the Thames. Under the head of migra-
tion I have alluded to their distribution along the south and
south-west coasts of England.

In Ireland it is chiefly taken along the south coast, where
a few occur every year, while occasionally large numbers
are captured. It has been recorded from Belfast Bay^
Newcastle (county Down), Youghal, and the south-west of
the counties of Cork and Galway.

298 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

The pilchard rarely exceeds 1 1 inches in length ; but
Mr. Cornish (Zool. 1879, p. 62) observed that on December
29th, 1878, he measured the largest he had ever seen, and
that it was 1 1|- inches long, while Couch remarks that it has
been seen of the length of 14 inches.

The Sprat (Clupea sprattus).

Garvie — garvock, Scotland. Sprat, besides being the
name of this fish, is in places erroneously employed for the
young of the herring. Britt, along the Devonshire coast,
which ascends the mouths of rivers, consists either of
young sprats or young herrings. Whitebait likewise may
be wholly or partially composed of small sprats. In Ire-
land the fishermen at Youghal distinguish several varieties
as true, soft, or hard-headed sprats.

B. vi.-vii., D. 17-18, P. 16, V. 7, A. 17-20, C. 19, L. 1. 47,
L. tr. 13, Caec. pyl. 7, Vert. 47~48.

Length of head 4^ to 5^ ; of caudal fin 6 ; height of body
5^ in the total length. Eyes. — With narrow anterior and
posterior adipose lids ; diameter 3j in the length of the
head, I diameter from the end of the snout, and £ of a
diameter apart. Lower jaw prominent. Opercular pieces
smooth, subopercle almost triangular, its posterior and
inferior borders being continuous. The posterior extre-
mity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the first third of
the orbit. Teeth. — Absent from the jaws, tongue and
palate (an elongated, oval patch of very minute teeth on
the tongue has been recorded ; in an example 4^ inches in
length none are visible under a J-inch power of the micro-
scope). Gill-rakers. — Closely set, rather shorter than the
eye. Fins. — The dorsal commences about midway between
the hind edge of the eye and the base of the caudal fin,

GREA T BRITAIN. 299

being rather longer at its base than it is high anteriorly.
Ventrals inserted on a vertical line below the anterior
dorsal rays, the fin reaches about half-way to the vent.
Pectoral shorter than the head. Caudal forked. Scales. —
Deciduous, smooth ; the keeled row along the ventral
surface well developed, and the scutes being a portion of
the scale, causing that edge to resemble a saw, 21 to 23
being before the base of the ventral fin and 1 1 or 12 behind
it. Intestines. — Seven rather long caecal appendages.
Colours. — Bluish along the back, becoming silvery on the
>ides and beneath ; in the young a yellow or bronze band
divides the blue of the back from the silvery abdomen.

Habits. — Gregarious, often in enormous shoals, while it is
very common to find young and old together, although the
irger examples do not generally come off our coast until
autumn and winter months. They ascend rivers as
iigh as the tide flows. Britt, which consist of young
icrrings or young sprats, ascend rivers along the Devon-
shire coast, and are found as high in the Exe as Exeter,
unless a flood occurs, when they are unable to face the
fresh water.

Migrations. — Although during the very cold months
herrings, pilchards, &c., more or less retire to the deep,
sprats on the contrary come towards the shore, but even
when present the shoals are capricious in their movements
as well as in their extent. Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, and
Kent are noted for the large shoals which occasionally
show themselves, while they disappear more completely
from the western side of the kingdom during their season
of absence than they do from the eastern. Even the
season of appearance varies considerably in different years
at the same place. During the summer and autumn
.months young or small inshore sprats are rarely absent

300 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

from our coasts. In the Moray Firth and elsewhere shoals
are frequently discovered by seeing flocks of gulls and other
sea-birds hovering above them.

Means of capture. — These fish are mostly captured during
the winter months, whether in Scotland or in England. In
1880 this fishery commenced in the Beauly Firth on
October I2th; but in the south-west of Ireland it is
earlier, and in Donegal Bay continues from August until
nearly the end of December. When fished for in the sea
they are generally taken from close inshore to about three
miles out.

Sprats are generally taken by means of a large bag-net,
made with small meshes, and termed a stow-net, the use of
which was formerly forbidden between November loth and
February loth, but which is now the principal time it is
carried on ; while ground seines were legal between
November ist and April ist. The stow-net is placed in
a tideway, its mouth towards the tide. In Scotland the
seine-net is used for taking these fishes, while off Ramsgate
drift-nets are also employed for sprat fishing.

In Ireland the sprat fishing is carried on during the
autumn months, and Mr. Sinclair, writing from Donegal
(Field, November 5th, 1881), observes that the sprat
fishing is now over.

One method adverted to by Mr. Yescombe, in Land and
Water (November 26th, 1881), is to choose the vicinity of
an old wooden pier, or some such structure, round the
supports of which small shoals of sprats frequent. Secure
your boat to the end of one of these piles on a fine day.
Use a net attached to a thin iron hoop about 3 yards in
circumference, and which is suspended by three cords fixed
to it at about 3 feet apart. About a foot above the ring of
the net these cords are tied together, and attached to a

GREA T BRIT A IN. 301

single strong one. The net is lowered into the water to
about 2 feet below the surface, and some fine boiled mealy
potatoes thrown in, which attract the sprats above it. Then
allow it to be quietly drawn up with the fish that are
swimming above it, and the shoal does not become
alarmed.

Said not to be taken by a bait, probably due to the small
size of its mouth.

Breeding. — I have obtained sprats with developed roe
from both the north and south coasts of Cornwall during
the months of December and January, but it is not
common to find them in this condition. Neither Pennant,
Turton, Jenyns, or White advert to the breeding of these
fish, but Yarrell states he caught young sprats off Rams-
gate, Hastings, and Weymouth in the months of August
and September. Lowe ('Fauna of Norfolk/ 1873, p. 29)
remarks : " Mr. Dowell says that though he has seen vast
quantities of this fish caught, he never yet saw one with
roe." Couch observes that uncertainty appears to exist in
regard to the season of spawning, which, however, occurs in
summer, and probably late in the autumn also.

Diseases. — Mr. Warren (in Thompson's ' Ireland ') ob-
serves that " about Christmas, 1 846, vast numbers of sprats
died in Cork Harbour, and were carried off in basketsful
dying and dead. The people ate them, and considered
them very good ; it was the year of the famine. They had
mostly a 'pearl/ or white, appearance in the eye while
living ; some had both eyes, and others only one of them,
diseased."

One form of parasitic entomostraca, Lerneonema moni-
laris, or sprat Lernea, is often found attached to the eye of
this fish. The whole head of this parasite is inserted into
the tissues of its host, and retained there, due to the barbs

302 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OP

or horny prolongations with which it is furnished. This
Lernea is luminous at night time, and fishermen assert that
shoals of sprats are often preceded by several of these
fishes infested by parasites, and which have occasioned
them to be termed " lanthorn sprats."

The britt in Devonshire and Cornwall have been con-
sidered by some to be the young of the "herring," but
those which I received from Plymouth were " sprats."
The Town Council of Exeter annually make an official
whitebait repast upon " britt," respecting which discussions
have arisen as to whether they are or are not similar to the
genuine Thames and Medway species. It appears that in
the Exe they ascend with the tide so far as the entrance of
the Exeter canal, where they are found from May until
September. Mr. Ross (MSS.) recorded in 1838 that he
took some of these fish to London to Mr. Yarrell, who
decided they were the fry of the " shad." Mr. Couch sub-
sequently considered them to be " whitebait," but not the
young of the " herring." Mr. D'Urban, the curator of the
Albert Memorial Museum at Exeter, transmitted speci-
mens to me which were the young of the " herring."

Continuing my investigations into the britt along the
south-west coast, I arrived on August 23rd at Dawlish, and
at the beach was in time to see the seine-net hauled />n
shore, and as the bagged portion came to the surface
innumerable little silvery fishes seemed to shoot through
the meshes into the sea, but hundreds were landed with
the refuse, some of which I secured. This gave me another
opportunity of examining the August britt. The fisher-
men considered they were all young sprats, and such I
found them to be, while their size varied from £ of an
inch to 2± inches in length.

It may be that the britt present at the mouth of the Exe

at

GREA T BRITAIN. 303

from May until September vary with the season, for when
investigating the whitebait question in 1878, among
examples from the Thames and Medway, I found the
proportions of herrings to sprats to be about as follows :
May and June, ten to one ; August, sprats rather more
than half ; October, all herrings ; while of the winter
whitebait given me by Mr. Charles from the Medway, all
were sprats. On August I3th, this year (1881), innumer-
able young sprats were being taken at the same place as
bait for gurnards, although they appeared to be entirely
absent from Penzance, which was locally attributed to

e bay being too sandy ; and I saw a solitary example
at Mevagissey, captured among pilchards.

As food. — These fish are very deservedly esteemed, espe-
cially when not too large. As they are nutritious and
cheap, they are a boon to the poorer classes. They are
sold by measure.

In some parts of Scotland they are thus preserved :
selected fish are washed in salt and water, then threaded
on wire skewers, and suspended for two hours in a pick-
ling vat, so that no two fishes touch one another. On
being removed they are hung up in a current of air until
the next day, when they are smoked like bloaters, until they
assume a yellow colour. They will keep four or five days,
and additional pickling and smoking will enable them to
keep longer.

An important trade appears to be springing up at
Lowestoft, where they are being tinned as anchovies.
Three million tins of sprats, similarly cured as anchovies
on the west coast of France, are annually imported into
this country. Those taken off Finisterre are found to
possess a muddy flavour, but they are exported by some
second-rate mercantile houses.

304 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

A so-called anchovy paste may be made as follows,
sufficient for a peck of sprats : 2 Ib. common salt, 3 oz.
bay-salt, I Ib. saltpetre, 2 oz. of prunella, and a few grains
of cochineal, pounded well together in a mortar ; into a
stone jar place first a layer of fish, then of the pounded
ingredients, and so on until the jar is filled, press them
hard down and cover closely ; after six months they will be
ready for use.

Uses. — As bait for ground-fish, for which purpose their
oily nature makes them very acceptable. Large quantities
in some years are disposed of for manure, which may be
due to the markets being glutted, or else that by the time
the fish have been landed those which were first caught
are fit for nothing else. In some localities they are even
fished for solely with the view of being employed as
manure.

Habitat. — From the Finnish coast, through the North
Sea and Baltic, also along the coasts of the British Isles,
France, and the Iberian Peninsula ; also Tasmania.

In the Moray Firth it is abundant on the east side
towards the end of the herring season ; subsequently it
passes westwards towards the more sheltered parts.
Parnell remarks that it is found on the Firth of Forth
throughout the year, but, like many small animals, it
appears to be very susceptible to cold ; while, during the
warm summer months, it may be seen sporting about in
large shoals. They are common along the east coast,
while some of the largest fisheries are in the Solent, the
mouth of the Thames, and off Margate. Off Folkestone,
in January, 1879, the sea appeared alive with them, and
they were sold at \\d. a thousand.

In the British Channel, or rather on the southern shores
of Cornwall, it is rare ; on the northern coast it is more

GREA T BRITAIN. 305

common. On the west coast of England it is occasionally
abundant, but not to so great an extent as on the east
coast. (See Migrations.)

In Ireland it has been recorded round the coast, but
there is no sprat fishery off the counties of Antrim or Down,
still they are taken in large quantities along the south
coast.

Three are mentioned as sent to London from Aldborough
over 6J inches in length. (Field, January 2 1st, 1882.)

4. Allice-shad (Clupea alosd).

The allice-shad, alewife, king of the herrings, darning
herring, rock herring.

B. viii., D. 19-21, P. 15-16, V. 9-10, A. 20-24, C. 20,
L. 1. 70-80.

Length of head 5 J ; height of body 4 to 5 in the total
length. Eyes. — With adipose lids, diameter 5J- in the
length of the head, and from -§- to I diameter apart.
Lower jaw slightly prominent, with a notch at the
centre of the upper jaw ; cleft of mouth oblique ; the
posterior extremity of the upper jaw reaches to beneath
the hind edge of the orbit. Teeth. — Minute in the jaws,
absent from the palate and tongue ; gill-rakers on the
lower branch of the outer branchial arch, long, thin, and
numerous, from 60 to 80 in number ; but Canestrini and
Moreau have pointed out that the numbers increase with
the age of the fish. Fins. — The dorsal commences nearer
to the end of the snout than to the base of the caudal fin ;
ventrals small and inserted slightly behind the origin of
the dorsal. Scales. — 15 to 17 strongly carinated ones
along the abdominal edge, posterior to the insertion of the

Ktral fin ; fine ones extended over much of the caudal
OL. i.— E i. x

306 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

fin. — Colours. — Back, greenish-blue ; sides, silvery, dashed
with purple and gold ; occasionally one, sometimes two,
dark shoulder spots, while a succession of several more
along the side has been recorded, but these are more
commonly seen in the young.

Habits. — A marine form which enters rivers for breeding
purposes, when it ascends in shoals, but in the sea appears
to lead a more solitary existence. It is shy and timid, and
has been reputed to take pleasure in music, but should it
thunder while ascending rivers, an immediate return to the
sea occurs. In the Severn and Wye it is looked for in
April and May, but does not appear to ascend very high.
Mclntosh found in the stomach of a large example captured
in the Tay, Conferva, Desmids and a quantity of vegetable
debris.

Means of capture. — Mostly netting, while Couch records
its having been taken in a trammel. It is occasionally
captured along the south-east coast, when whiffing for
pollack, the bait being a slice from a mackerel or a
sand-eel.

Breeding. — It enters our rivers from May until the middle
of June for breeding purposes, during which period it
appears to cease from feeding.

As food. — It is rich and highly esteemed, were it not for
its numerous bones ; the higher it ascends the rivers the
more its quality improves, whereas those from the sea are
somewhat coarse and inferior. It commences being in
the markets in considerable numbers about April, and
large quantities are imported from Holland.

Habitat. — Coasts of Europe, entering rivers. It has been
recorded from Banff (Edward), where it is said to be rare ;
Aberdeen (Sim) ; not uncommon at St. Andrews (Mclntosh);
rare in the Firth of Forth (Parnell) ; Berwickshire (Johnston) ;

GREA T BRITAIN. 307

Yorkshire (Yorkshire Vertebrata) ; not uncommon along
with the herrings (Paget). Yarrell obtained an example in
1831, captured above Putney Bridge ; and Jesse recorded
another, full of spawn, taken at the end of June, opposite
Hampton Court Palace. It is also taken along the south
coast, and has been recorded from Mount's Bay and
St. Ives in Cornwall. It used to abound in the lower
portions of the Severn and the Wye, but is not so abundant
as it used to be.

In Ireland it is found on the north-east coast, and by no
means uncommon on the west coast ; it is often abundant

Limerick Harbour, and Brandon Creek on the coast of
^erry. In the Ordnance Survey it is said not to be

icommon off Derry.

This is by far the larger of the two British species of

lad. Buckland mentions one of 5^ Ib. weight he received

>m the Tay ; and Couch remarks that it attains to 4 feet

length.

5. T wait-shad (Clupea finta).

Names. — The twaite-shad, maid.

B. viii., D. 18-20, V. 9, A. 20-25, L. 1. 60-75, Vert. 55-56.

Length of head 5 ; height of body 5-|- in the total
ength. Eyes. — With adipose lids ; diameter 4^ to 54- in
the length of the head, and 2 diameters apart. Opercle
with some raised and radiating striae descending towards
the subopercle. Upper jaw, with a median notch to
receive the end of the somewhat prominent under jaw ; the
maxilla reaches to beneath the hind edge of the eye.
Teeth. — Small and deciduous in the jaws, absent from the
palate and the tongue ; gill-rakers thick, osseous, and from
20 to 30 along the horizontal branch of the outer branchial
arch. Fins. — Dorsal commences nearer to the end of the

X 2

308 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

snout than to the base of the caudal fin ; ventrals inserted
on a line slightly behind the origin of the dorsal ; anal fin,
low; caudal, deeply forked. Scales. — 15 to 17 carinated
scales along the abdominal edge posterior to the base of
the ventral fin ; small ones over most of the caudal fin.
Colours. — Steel blue along the back, becoming silvery along
the sides and below ; a large blackish blotch on the shoulder,
generally succeeded by five or six more along the upper
third of the side of the body.

Habits. — This anadromous fish ascends some of our
largest rivers, as the Severn, the Wye, and formerly the
Thames, at the end of May or commencement of June for
the purpose of depositing its ova in fresh water. Formerly
they went up the Severn to far above Shrewsbury, but,
since about 1 846, they have been stopped by a weir. They
usually return to the sea by the end of July.

Means of capture. — Yarrell observes that in the Thames
great numbers used to be taken every season, especially
opposite Millbank Penitentiary, Westminster, also above
Putney Bridge ; but the state of the water has caused
a more or less complete cessation of their visits. Formerly
their captures in the Thames were prohibited after June 3Oth,
in order that the spawners might breed in security.

Baits. — Whiffing with a slice of mackerel has been found
successful at the mouth of the Dart (Holdsworth). They
are eccentric in taking a bait, are sometimes hooked at
almost every cast, while at another time they will play
round the lure, but will not touch it

Breeding. — In June and July. Fishermen on the Severn
believe they spawn on the sands : the young are seen in
great abundance in the shallows and easy waters at or near
the close of the season, should the weather be warm.
Yarrell observed that about the second week in July used

GREA T BRITAIN. 309

to be when they spawned in the Thames. They appeared
to disencumber themselves of their roe by violent muscular
action, and on a calm still evening or night the noise they
make might be heard at some distance. He obtained the
young 2-i- inches long in October, and only 4 inches long
the following spring.

As food. — Owing to their numerous bones it is not held
in much estimation in our markets ; the flesh also is
rather dry.

Habitat. — Scandinavia and the coasts of Europe, enter-
rivers for breeding purposes. It is taken in the
[editerranean, and as far as the Nile.

Banff, rare (Edward) ; Aberdeen (Sim) ; in the Firth of
rorth at the end of July, disappearing in August (Parnell) ;
Cumberland (Heysham) ; off Yorkshire (Yorkshire Verte-
>rata) ; Yarmouth, not uncommon (Paget) ; mouth of the
'names, and along the south coast as far as Cornwall.

In Ireland it annually ascends some of the southern
ivers. Ruttey mentions it as having been found in the
Liffey near Ringsend ; while in Tighes, Kilkenny, the
shad is recorded as ascending the river. Early in May,
Dr. Ball states, they were taken abundantly in the Black-
water at Cappoquin, where the water is brackish. They
are called long horsemen, and, not being esteemed, are sold
for one penny each — even the largest, which reach twenty
inches. Andrews says they are common in the northern
rivers ; they have been recorded from Belfast Bay ; New-
castle, co. Down ; Youghal ; the counties of Cork, Galway
and Dublin ; while Thompson says two or three were
taken in Donegal while he was there.

It attains, according to Yarrell, about 16 inches in
length.

310 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

II. — FAMILY OF EELS (Muranida).
I. Conger (Conger vulgaris).

Names. — Haaf-eel, cungyr or hunger, Mor Lysowen, and
Cyngyren, Welsh.

Eel-shaped. Cleft of mouth deep, reaching to beneath
the eyes ; jaws even in front. Eyes of moderate size.
Anterior nostril tubular ; the posterior opposite the antero-
supero angle of the eye. Teeth. — In the maxilla and
mandible, in several rows, one of which are so placed as to
give a single cutting edge ; canines absent ; vomerine teeth
extend backwards almost to the end of the tongue. Fins.
— The dorsal commences above the end of the* pectoral, is
well developed, and, as well as the anal, is continuous with
the caudal. Pectoral more than half the length of the
head. Colours. — Superiorly pale brown, becoming lighter
on the sides, and white beneath. Dorsal and anal fins
margined with black.

Varieties. — Thompson mentions a dark-coloured form,
which frequents rocky ground, and does not average above
half the weight of those taken on soft ground. Generally
the colour varies with the ground on which it resides. In
1876, one of about 20 Ib. weight, of a lead colour approach-
ing to white, was brought in from the deep sea and placed
in a large wicker basket in the sea close to land. In six
weeks it was as black as it possibly could be. In some
there is a deficiency of the upper jaw or snout ; the dorsal
fin is frequently deformed, the anterior portion being
deficient or malformed, or it may be almost absent as far
as the tail. Occasionally, due to some accident or violence,
the tail is found to terminate abruptly without any fin.

Habits. — The conger prefers deep water, as up to about

GREAT BRITAIN. 311

fifty fathoms, where there is a rocky bottom, or sandy
patches, surrounded by rocks, which are covered with weed.
It is extremely voracious, preying on other fish, or even its
own kind, or Crustacea, especially at the time they have
lost their shells, and are consequently in a soft condition.
It and the common eel are also particularly partial to
carcases of any kind, being frequently found in such as
have been accidentally brought to the surface. Although
it appears to frequent favourite haunts from which it does
not stray any long distance, still it is more common at
some times than it is at others. It appears to be sensitive
atmospheric changes, being inert during the cold
eather, and more than usually active just before a storm.
It seems to be more readily captured at night-time,
especially if dark, while during its migrations it does not
seem to have been taken in fresh waters. If in a boat, it
feels about with its tail, by which it fixes itself to some
object, and then throws itself overboard ; consequently, as
soon as captured it is generally knocked on the head.
Muscular energy still exists in the heads of these fish for
some period after they are apparently dead ; thus a person
placing his foot inside the mouth of a seemingly dead
conger has had his shoe drawn off. Many instances are
also on record of the decapitated heads of these fish closing
upon foreign bodies being inserted between their jaws, as
on attempting to remove a hook from the mouth of one ;
and Patterson relates how a boy, seeing the head of one on
the shore, just left by the fishermen, stuck his toe into its
mouth, and his yells soon brought assistance.

Its digestion is very rapid, and it will not only take fish
off hooks, but likewise tear them out of nets, and find its
way into lobster-pots in order to eat the prey contained

3i2 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

therein. Templeton observes that a vessel loaded with salt
herrings was wrecked off the coast of Rathlin : congers
gorged themselves, and great numbers died and were
washed ashore for several days after this unlucky feast
In the Moray Firth fishermen assert that they are fond
of swimming after newly tarred boats. Off the coast of
Cornwall a number of congers were opened for the purpose
of ascertaining upon what they had been feeding, and the
following contents were observed in their stomachs : —
wrasses, skulpin, pollack, one-spotted gobies, a father-
lasher, lesser forkbeard, sand-launce, pilchards, pipe-fishes,
small congers, rocklings, hake, octopus, many forms of
crabs, shells, especially whelks, and other animal sub-
stances.

Means of capture. — Hooks and lines, either used by the
hand, or long lines, with hooks at regular intervals. They
are very destructive to nets, and can bite through a rope as
thick as a finger. If hooked they twist round and round,
and will wrench the hook from out of their jaws. The
sand-launce is among the best of baits for these fishes,
while it refuses any bait that is not quite or moderately
fresh.

Breeding. — Generally in December and January. It is
remarkable that although many examples have been kept
in aquaria, the females appear almost invariably to die, due
to being unable to extrude their ova. This would seem to
be consequent upon want of facilities for depositing the
eggs, as in some fishes pressure appears to be necessary.
As many as 6,336,512 eggs have been observed in one fish.
At the Southport Aquarium congers have been observed to
increase from 7 Ib. or 8 Ib. weight to 25 Ib. to 30 Ib.

Uses. — The method in which congers used to be cured

GREA T BRITAIN. 313

was by splitting them, then hanging them on a frame
until dry ; and the fat should exude before they are fit
for use.

As food. — Congers have been differently esteemed at
various periods. In England, as early as the fourteenth
century, it was a highly prized article of food, while the
milt and roe were employed in select cookery. Before
these fish decreased off our shores, and the foreign pur-
chasers of salted congers in Spain fell off, a considerable
trade in these fishes was carried on. Now they are largely

ployed as stock for soups, and most of the stock at

tels for public dinner turtle-soup is made from congers.

considerable quantity are likewise tinned and exported.

ried and grated, dried or salted conger is employed as

flavour for soups. In many parts of Scotland these fish
rejected, but at Edinburgh they meet with a ready sale,
some places congers have to be furnished as a heriot.

Sudden cold is often very destructive to these fishes.

hey get what is termed " blown ; " their air-bladder
expands, and they float at the surface of the water. In
this state they are helpless, readily killed, and may be
thrown on shore or left dead by the tides. Otters in the
Orkneys bring them on shore, but eat a very small part,
leaving the rest for the new-comer ; and where its haunts
are known the country people are very careful every
morning to search for the remains, which are often seen
among the deep hollows of the rocks. A conger 35 Ib.
weight, when being pursued by a porpoise, ran ashore for
several yards up the beach at Colwyn Bay, and was
gaffed.

Habitat. — All round our coasts, and especially abundant
along the south coast. On the Irish coast it is most sought
during May and June.

314 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Borlase mentions one taken in Mount's Bay of 100 Ib.
weight ; in 1 879 one 1 28 Ib., and 8 feet 3 inches in length,
was received in the London market ; one of 1 1 2 Ib. was
taken by Mr. Dunn at Mevagissey ; and Yarrell mentions
one of 130 Ib.

SUB-CLASS II.*— CARTILAGINOUS FISHES, OR
CHONDROPTERYGII.

ORDER I.-— PLAGIOSTOMATA.
FAMILY I. — SHARKS, or Carchariidce.

The true sharks can hardly be included among the
commercial fishes of the British Isles, as their products are
but rarely brought into the market. They are more known
and dreaded on account of the injuries they inflict on the
fishing interests, by robbing the fishing lines, tearing fish
out of the nets, becoming entangled themselves in the nets
in which they frequently roll themselves, so as to utterly
destroy their subsequent utility. The only uses to which
they appear to be put is, in the extraction of oil from their
livers when their size is sufficiently large and the appliances
are at hand, and their employment as manure.

FAMILY II. — DOG-FISHES, or Scylliida.
i. Lesser Spotted Dog-fish (Scyllium caniculd].

Names. — Spotted and lesser-spotted dog-fish, row-hound,
morghi, small spotted dog, and Daw-fish in the Orkneys.

* Professor Huxley, on anatomical grounds, has come to the con-
clusion that the separation of Elasmobranchs, Ganoids, and Dipnoids
into groups, apart from and equivalent in rank to Teleostei, is incon-
sistent with facts — a subject unsuited to discussion in this place,
where the generally adopted classification has been adhered to.

GREAT BRITAIN. 315

In this species the nasal valves are confluent, and form
a broad flap across the mouth, which is not interrupted in
the middle, neither is it furnished with a barbel. There
is no labial fold to the upper jaw, but one laterally at the
mandible. Teeth. — With a central projecting triangular
cusp, and a short but similar lateral one on either side.
They are of medium size and in several rows. Fins. — Two
dorsals, the first behind the ventrals, which latter are rather
large. Anal situated beneath the interspace between the
two dorsal fins. Colours. — Reddish-brown, with the back
id upper two-thirds of the body and head covered with

imerous and small reddish-brown, olive, or dark spots,
>me of which, but of a larger size, being extended on to
various fins. Lower surface grey or white.

Habits. — A migratory species, which appears to remain
at the Orkneys later into the cold months than some of
the other forms.

Uses. — Of little value either for food or oil. Is said to
be eaten at Roundstone in Ireland, and also in the Isle
of Man. In the west of Cornwall it is employed in the
preparation of " Morghi soup," which is there valued ;
likewise in Devonshire it is sometimes used as food.
Lacepede states that the use of it is not without danger,
he having known a family almost poisoned who had
partaken of it. At the Island Magee in Ireland it is
employed as bait in the " buckie " creels to capture shell-
fish, Buccinum undatum.

Habitat. — Coasts of Europe. It is taken in great quan-
tities in the Orkneys, and is common all around our shores
and in Ireland.

316 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

I. Picked Dog-fish (Acanthias vulgaris).

Names. — Piked^ or spiked dog-fish ; common dog-fish ; spur
or bone-dog. Hoe (in Orkneys). Skittle-dog (male in Corn-
wall).

Snout produced ; mouth slightly arched, with an oblique
groove on each side. Teeth. — -In both jaws small ; with
their points turned so much on one side that their edges
become their cutting surfaces. Fins. — Each dorsal fin
furnished with a spine in its anterior portion, while the
origin of the first dorsal is placed above the interspace
between the pectoral and ventral fins. Anal fin absent.
Colours. — Superiorly of a slate-grey, while inferiorly it is
yellowish-white. Young examples have white spots along
the back and upper half of the body. Skin rough on the
hand being passed from behind forwards.

Habits. — A gregarious fish, which ranges through our
seas in search of prey ; occurring in the Orkneys in such
shoals that the fishermen have been known to load their
boats to the water-edge with them. So numerous are they
along our south coast that 20,000 have been taken in a
seine at one time. When captured it writhes itself across
the fisherman's hands, and if they are not attentive it
wounds them severely, and often dangerously. Yarrell
alludes to a school of these fish in 1858 which extended
in an unbroken phalanx on the east coast of Scotland for
20 to 30 miles. At the end of 1882 they were so numerous
off the Cornwall coast, as to impede, and in some instances
stop, the pilchard fisheries, owing to the injuries they
occasioned to the nets.

Uses. — Oil is made from the liver of this fish, its refuse
is useful for manure, and its rough skin used to be
employed for polishing wood.

GREA T BRITAIN. 3 1 7

As food. — It is in places dried and also salted, and
though rather strongly tasted, is largely used as food in
the Hebrides, where it is sold as " Darwin salmon." It is
prepared by being cut open and dried, while it is so full
of oil that it does not decompose. In the West of England,
both fresh and salted, it is a very common article of food
with the fishermen.

Habitat. — Coasts of Europe, and much dreaded by fisher-
men for the injury it occasions fisheries, not only by the
amount it consumes, but because of the loss it occasions
in fishing gear. Faxby observes (' Zoologist,' 1871, p. 2553)

lat at Newfoundland during the last few years it was

lought to have been " cursed away."

FAMILY III. — Raiidce.

Rays and skates are largely taken around our coasts, and

e young are destroyed in numbers by trawlers when of a
size too small to be useful as food. It seems possible that
in olden times these fish were not much employed, as the
Anglo-Saxon word skitan, or to reject, is asserted to be the
origin of our term " skate." Other authors derive the name
from sceadda, or gliding. The peasantry of Western Ire-
land refuse to eat it, however plentiful it may be and how-
ever famished they are. It has been suggested that this
superstition arises from the resemblance which this fish
with its depending fins bears to the human face, and
possibly to mediaeval representations of the Virgin Mary.

These fish, from the nature of their skins, which continue
to exude mucus for some days after death, do not take salt
well, and are consequently dried by being hung up in the
air ; this " sour skate " is universally used in the Highlands
and in the Isles, forming a favourite article of diet.

hagreen may be prepared from the skin of some of

318 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OP

these fishes, or from that of a shark, but it is now arti-
ficially manufactured from the skin of an ass or horse
scraped thin, and into which seeds are beaten. It is a
long process, carried on at Astrachan.

I. The Skate (Raia batis).

Names. — Blue, or grey skate, Scotland. Flair, tinker
dinnan, or blunt-nosed dinnan, Aberdeen. Flanie and
skider, Northumberland.

Snout pointed and produced ; interorbital space equals
in width about one-third of the length of the snout. Mouth
transverse, and in nearly a straight line. Teeth. — Pointed ;
over fifty rows in the upper jaw. Fins. — The outer angle
of the pectoral is produced, and more or less pointed.
Body rough in large females, but in the males nearly
smooth. Some spines in the vicinity of the orbits, espe-
cially in the young, and two or three spinate rows along
the tail. Colours, — Greyish-brown along the upper sur-
face, with a reddish tinge along the edges of the fins,
under surface of a dull or dirty white.

Habits. — The skate is a resident at the bottom of the sea,
usually in soft and muddy ground at some distance from
land, while it is very difficult to bring to the surface even
after it has been hooked. It will entangle the line in any
projecting piece of rock, or fix itself to the bottom like a
sucker, and can only be removed by first elevating its head,
and thus permitting water to get beneath its body. Even
when hauling it into the boat care has to be taken to keep
its head well up, for if it can manage to depress it, down it
goes to the bottom, where it again fixes itself as before. It
is very tenacious of life. It is rather choice in its food,
having a special liking for whiting. Couch found in one a
fishing frog {Lophius) weighing 6 Ib. ; in another a large

GREA T BRITAIN. 319

plaice, a lobster, a mackerel, a thornback ray measuring
upwards of 18 inches in length, and half a salmon, which
appeared quite fresh, as if but lately swallowed.

Uses. — They are sold in large quantities in London, and
among the poorer classes. Many are disposed of as bait
for crab and lobster pots, for which they are well adapted.
The liver affords good oil.

As food. — If large they are coarse, but their value de-
pends very much upon the cook and the resources at his or
her command. Small ones, termed " maids," are excellent.
Habitat. — All around our coasts, as well as those of
Europe. Also in Ireland common, but less so to the north.
This fish attains to a very large size. In March, 1849,
was taken in Ireland, 7 feet 3 inches long from the
lose to the tail, and weighing 224 Ib. On December 23rd,
[88 1, another was captured in Donegal Bay something
lore than 7 feet long from the nose to the tip of its tail,
in 1878 two were taken in North Harris, the one weighing
[65 Ib., the other 175 Ib. ; both were upwards of 7 feet in
length.

2. The Thornback (Raia clavatd).

Names. — Thornback ray ; ray maid. Morcath bigog,
Welsh.

Snout somewhat rounded, scarcely produced. Teeth. —
Rather large, the central ones conically pointed in the
males, while they are flat in the females. Fins. — Outer
angle of pectoral fin somewhat pointed. Body with
numerous spiny elevations, which are well pronounced
in the supraorbital region, and a row likewise exists along
the back. Colours. — Brownish, superiorly covered with
numerous light-coloured spots, and occasionally a large
one on each pectoral. Under surface white.

320 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Habits. — The thornback is found in shallower waters
than most of the family, and is taken all through the year.
Lowe observes that off the Orkneys they are frequently met
with in the eddies of the tides, or where two tides meet ;
especially when the tides run strong they are obliged to
withdraw to these calmer spots, their shape hindering them
from sustaining themselves against the force of a strong
current. These fish have been observed to glut themselves
with scad (Caranx trachurus).

Means of capture. — Trawls and baited hooks ; they are
partial to herrings, pilchards, and crabs and other Crustacea.

As food. — It is good eating when not too large, but as in
all members of this family it becomes coarse with age. In
Ireland it is the form least objected to, but only the young
or half-grown are employed as food. In Scotland they are
mostly prepared under heavy pressure, as already alluded to.
In many places the livers are removed for the purpose of
extracting the oil, which is said to be much used by shoe-
makers in the preparation of cobbler's wax ; also fish-liver
oil is exceedingly useful as an adjunct to the paint of
boats. Further remarks on the rays and skates appear
to be scarcely necessary. This species is taken all round
our coasts.

SUB-CLASS III.-CYCLOSTOMATA.
FAMILY I. — LAMPREYS (Petromyzontida).
I. The Sea-lamprey (Petromyzon marinus).

Names. — Lampreda, Anglo - Saxon. Lamprey, from
" lambere," to lick, and " petra," a stone. In some places
termed a " sucking-fish." Nine-eyes and seven-holes. Llys-
owen bendoll and Llamprai, Welsh.

Of an eel-shaped form, with in the adult a circular mouth

GREAT BRITAIN. 321

icncc the name of the sub-class), destitute of true jaws,
id capable of being employed as a sucker. The body is
nig, cylindrical, and somewhat compressed posteriorly.
\eth. — The mouth, which is sub-inferior and surrounded
y- a circular lip, has maxillary, mandibular, suctorial and
ngual teeth, all of which are of a horny consistence, and a
iore or less conical shape. At the centre of the top of the
:ad is the external opening of the nasal canal, which
rminates inferiorly without perforating the palate. The
Ills are in the form of fixed sacs, seven on either side, and
hich are not furnished with branchial arches. They open
ong either side of the neck by seven rounded orifices,
iternally these sacs open into a common tube, which
feriorly is closed, but superiorly communicates with the
outh. Respiration is carried on in these sacs, which can
ther receive water by way of the mouth, or directly should
ic mouth being employed as a sucker, render taking in
ater there impossible. Fins. — Two dorsal fins, the pos-
:rior being continuous with the caudal. Skin, smooth,
id rather tough. No air-bladder. Intestinal canal
raight, and possessing a spiral valve. Skeleton cartila-
inous and notochordal ; no ribs ; skull not separated
om the vertebral column. Colours. — Of a greyish or
.ive-brown, blotched along the back with black mark-
ig, which become irregular ; blotches and spots along
ie upper two-thirds of the sides.

Muller, in 1856, showed that these fishes are subject to a
ictamorphosis, the genus Ammocates being in reality its
•rval form, while it requires at least 3 or 4 years in the
nail pride, Petromyzon branchialis, for its complete de-
-lopment In the larva the mouth is not circular, while
ie lower lip is placed far back and covered by the upper,
hich resembles a hood. No teeth of any kind are present,
VOL. I.—E. i. v

322

THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

but merely moss-like papillae, or barbels, under the

HP.

Habits. — An anadromous fish, which ascends rivers
breed, in the Severn as early as the middle of March. It
circular mouth forms an expanded disc, and by an
haustive action air and water are removed, and thus
vacuum is produced ; the fish can then attach itself to anj
fixed object, and no muscular action is necessary
prevent its being carried down stream by the current. Ii
the same way they adhere to their victims, eat into
substance, and thus manage to tear away and swall
mouthfuls of mashed-up meat. Fish have been captui
which have undergone this torture, but yet have re
covered the injury. About 1878 an individual, whe
bathing at Margate, was alarmed by one of these fish, aboi
1 8 inches in length, fixing itself on him while he We
bathing ; and so tenacious was its hold, that the bat
brought it out of the water attached to his body. The
fish are frequently captured at sea, and often at son
considerable distance from shore, but they are general'
of rather a small size. This is one of the forms of fisl
which has been said to lay hold of ships so firmly as t
with difficulty detached ; it and the remora have
in this country been termed " sucking fishes." Sailors
asserted that they attach themselves to vessels in order
feast on the tar. Lampreys have been known to att
gurnard, mackerel, coal-fish, cod, and haddock.

Means of capture. — The date at which this fishery co.
mences in the Severn is rather uncertain, but is
considered to be from February until May. At the end
March, 1881, although a few had been taken, the fishr
had not regularly began at Tewkesbury. Sometimes t
are taken as late as the end of June or even in July,

GREAT BRITAIN. 323

ey are out of season. They are often netted along with
.Imon and shad, but are usually obtained in weels laid at
.e bottom of the river, while they are mostly fished for

night. Those taken in wicker traps are considered more
duable than such as are captured in nets, as they do not
>11 themselves about so much, and consequently are less
-uised. On warm, sunny days, a person may be punted
;ry quietly to over where these fishes are nesting, when
icy may be easily gaffed or speared.

Breeding. — At each breeding-place they are generally
>en in pairs, commencing about the month of May; and they
>rm a furrow at the bed of the river for the reception of
le ova, for which purpose they remove any stones which
lay be in their way, and this is effected by their attaching
icmselves to it by means of their suctorial mouth.
'ennant says that one fish weighing 3 Ib. was taken in the
)sk adhering to a stone of 12 Ib. weight suspended at its
iouth, and from which it was forced with no small pains.
Breeding over, they rapidly go out of condition and descend
D the sea.

As food. — Lampreys have been held in very different
stimation at various periods of our history. Henry I. is
aid to have died due to having made too plentiful a meal
>n potted lampreys ; Henry IV. granted protection to such
hips as brought over lampreys for the table of his consort,
vhile his successor issued a warrant to William of Nantes
o supply him and his army with lampreys whensoever they
>hould happen to march.

The Earl of Chester sent a single lamprey to King John,
.vho in return sent him a good palfrey. The city of Glou-
cester formerly presented the reigning sovereign with a
dish of lampreys annually, and a lamprey pie to the Prince
Wales.

Y 2

324 THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

Their best season is when they first arrive from the sea,
as March, April and May, as after breeding they rapidly
deteriorate, becoming flabby and emaciated. They are a
great delicacy potted or stewed, but a surfeiting food. In
the Severn they are commonly said to attain their greatest
perfection by "Ascension Day," subsequently to which
they fall off. The vertebral column, or back-bone, should
be entirely removed before these fish are cooked ; some
even consider it to be poisonous.

In the Forth, above Alloa in Scotland, Parnell observes
they are returned to the water by the fishermen, who
have a prejudice against them. In Cornwall, we are told,
they are only used as bait, while in Ireland they are
rejected because they are so ugly.

Habitat. — Found around our coasts, ascending rivers at
their breeding period ; they have been noted from the
north of Scotland down the east coast to England, being
not uncommon in Yorkshire, and abundant in the Yare, in
Norfolk, in April and May. A few yearly pass up the
Thames, while they are comparatively common along the
south coast, but becoming rare in Cornwall. The Severn,
however, is the most noted British river for these fish. In
Ireland it is found all round the coast. In the larger rivers
connected with Lough Neagh, it is of regular occurrence,
ascending the Ballinderry not only as far as Coagh, about
five miles from Lough Neagh, but four or five miles further.

It is usually from 20 to 28 inches in length, but has beei
captured at Gloucester up to 39 inches.

2. Lampern. (Petromyzonfluviatilis^

Names. — Lampern ; lamper - eel ; seven - eyes ; mne*
eyes ; nine - holes ; barling, cunning, and spanker -

GREA T BRITAIN.- 325

Northumberland) ; Say - nay (Lancashire) ; Lleppog
Welsh).

Of a shape similar to the lamprey, but rather more com-
>ressed posteriorly ; mouth circular ; a single transverse
naxillary tooth, having a cusp at either end ; a single
ransverse mandibular tooth, with about seven cusps ; small
ceth on the disc, and which are few in number ; tongue,
vith a broad transverse tooth, having a median cusp ; two
)r three teeth on either side of the gullet, which may have
;wo or three cusps ; gills as in the lamprey. Fins. — Two
lorsals separated by an interspace, the posterior fin con-

ous with the caudal. Colours. — Silvery white, darkest

g the back.

rdbits. — Yarrell considered that this species is entirely
water, as he found no difficulty in obtaining examples
any month of the year from the Thames. Very few ascend
above the navigation weirs in the Thames or on the Severn,
while they deteriorate in value the higher they go. For-
merly they reached Montgomeryshire, and are said to have
:been taken in the Verniew. In the Severn they commence
capturing them near Tewkesbury in September, and the
season generally terminates by the end of March ; they sell
for about is. 6d. a score, and are largely purchased both
for bait and potting. Thompson received one which was
captured adhering to a large trout, and continues : " In
a large, deep pond, made for gold-fish, at the falls near
Belfast, a portion of the surface of which was covered with
the leaves of the white water-lily, I observed, on a warm
day in summer, an extraordinary appearance, caused; as I
believed, by this species. To the under surface of each
floating leaf of the plant several (in some instances as many
as a dozen) lampreys, about a foot in length, the adult size
of this species, attached themselves by the mouth, while

326

THE COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF

the wriggling of their dangling bodies had a strange effect.
They were too far from the edge to be captured by arr
available means, but I have no doubt that they were all
full-grown individuals of this species." It consumes water-
insects and the flesh of dead fish, while itself falls a victim
to a large extent to rats, which prefer the breathing-hole
any other portion of the fish.

Means of capture. — They used to be taken in enormous
numbers in the Thames from Battersea Reach to T
Mills. Now they are detained and caught at the Teddingtc
Weir in a sort of basin, being unable to reach their spawning
beds. In 1882 it Was stated that 120,000 had been take
in the Thames up to the middle of January, and they still
kept coming. As they decrease in numbers, their price
rises for the Dutch market, where they are required for the
turbot and cod fishermen, and as many as 400,000 have
been supplied in one season from the Thames at 40$-.
a thousand, but which have now risen to loos, a thousand.
They are very tenacious of life, and are kept alive for some
weeks at sea. They are generally taken in wicker traps.

Baits. — Dame Juliana Berners observes, when recom-
mending a worm or a minnow for trout, " in Aprill tc
the same baytes ; and also Juneba, otherwise vii eyes."

Breeding. — Yarrell examined some from the Than*
every week from March until the middle of May, and witl
the following results. To April iQth the females exceeded
the males in number ; subsequently the females became
nearly ready to spawn, when he found the proportion to be
two males to one female. By the 26th of April all th<
females were ready to spawn, and the milt from the malt
readily exuded. By May loth all were shotten. A corre-
spondent of Loudon (Mag. Nat. Hist, vol. v.) observed
that when breeding, one twists its tail around another,

GREA T BRITAIN. 327

during which time the sand and gravel were stirred up ;
Lhese two fish, it was remarked, were invariably of the
Dpposite sexes. * Yarrell found that, although when
breeding they may be found in pairs, such is not invariably
the case, as often a number act together, and remove all
:he stones which impede their spawning operations.

As food. — The lampern is milder than the lamprey, and
those taken in the Severn at Tewkesbury are largely pur-
chased for potting, care having been taken to remove the
backbone. At the end of January, 1882, they realised at
Worcester about £4 a thousand. Many are also sold as
bait for the cod fisheries, and in March were being sold at
50J. a 1000. The Dutch for centuries have visited the
Ouse to purchase these fish as bait for their turbot and cod
fisheries. In Norfolk a prejudice prevents their being
eaten, unless by a few of the initiated ; they are conse-
quently thrown away.

Habitat. — Abounds in many rivers in England, par-
ticularly the Thames, Severn, and Dee ; also in the Tweed
and several Scottish rivers. Numbers are taken in York-
shire, and a good many in Norfolk, where it is sold to the
eel-fishers as bait, for which purpose it is excellent, cut
into pieces about an inch in length, while it is so tough
when on the hook as to bafHe any attempt of the eel to
suck or nibble it off. It will last good for two or three
nights' trial, while roach and small fish become sodden. It
is chiefly found in the gravelly shoals towards Trowse

* In Norfolk, in 1882, a gentleman observed some small lampreys
(P. branchialis) during the breeding season. Two fish, each of
different sexes, fixed themselves securely to a stone by their sucking
mouths, and then twisted themselves one round the other. In this
position they rapidly pulled themselves backwards and forwards, a
proceeding which would naturally assist in expelling eggs or milt.

328 COMMERCIAL SEA FISHES OF GREA T BRITAIN.

Bridge, near Norwich, during May and June, and is abundan
in the Yare in April and May. Large quantities are taker
in the Trent for bait, the fishing commencing at the end o
August and continuing until March. They are sent to Greai
Grimsby in wicker baskets, and Buckland observes that it i.'
considered necessary to have a man with them who keep!
constantly stirring them up. I have already alluded to this
fish being taken in the Thames, and may in continuatior
observe that in March, 1867, in that river below Surk
Hall, five or six lampreys were found in eel-pots which
remained in the river all the winter; fishermen asserte(
they had not seen any there for the preceding
years. In the Exe, Plym, and Axe they are sometim<
abundant, and are likewise common -in the eastern part of
Cornwall, especially in the spring.

In Ireland they are found from the north to the south,
sometimes adhering to other fishes and devouring them.

They attain to 10 or 15 inches in length.

THE EFFECT OF THE EXISTING

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LAWS

FOR THE

REGULATION AND PROTECTION

OF

DEEP SEA FISHERIES

WITH

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENTS IN SAID LAWS

EXPERIENTIA DOCET."—E\ C. W. MORRIS

VOL. I.— E. 2.

INTRODUCTION.

THIS essay has been written with the object of showing,
amongst other things,

The great differences which exist in the prosecution of
the Deep Sea Fisheries, arising either from the nature of
the locality or the class of fishing.

The consequent great difficulty of successfully legislating
so as to promote their prosperity under one law for all
localities and classes.

The utter impossibility of such legislation being framed
satisfactorily by a Government department unacquainted
with these various localities and classes and the industry
generally, and not having practical men as its advisers.

To prove the above it has been found necessary to
criticise rather severely in some cases the past and present
legislation which has emanated from the Board of Trade
through its officers, but it must be clearly borne in mind
that such criticism is not intended to be invidious in any
way, as there can be no doubt that the department has
had, and still has, a very difficult task before it, which it
has endeavoured to perform to the best of its power, con-
sidering the means at its disposal.

INTERNATIONAL LAWS

FOR THE

REGULATION AND PROTECTION OF
DEEP SEA FISHERIES.

IN treating of this most important subject the best plan Mode of

procedure
to pursue will be to discuss the whole question seriatim,

dealing first with the former part of the subject given, viz.,
the effect of the present laws, and then concluding with
some suggestions for their improvement.

For the purpose of thoroughly going into the question
and dealing with it in such a manner that those who are
unacquainted with our fisheries may not be drawn into
mysteries, a brief but general sketch of the various deep
sea fishings round our coasts, the craft and nets employed
in carrying them on, and the fish caught on various coasts
at various seasons, will be useful.

The principal fishery prosecuted on the east coast pf Scotland.
Scotland is the herring fishery, by means of drift-nets.
Next comes the long-line fishery, for cod, ling, hake and
haddocks ; and lastly, trawling, which at present is in its
infancy as regards Scotland.

The herring fishery is prosecuted principally by means
of sailing craft, lug-rigged, the size of which varies up to
about fifty feet in length. Steam for this purpose is as yet
in its infancy. As a rule the business is conducted on the

334 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

co-operative principle. One man will probably provide
the boat, and every other man of the crew so many neti
each, according to the size of the boat. Thus each mar
has a direct interest in the prosperity of the voyage in ever}
way, and perseverance and care of gear are encouraged.

The same principle is introduced into the line fishing
The trawling on this coast is principally prosecuted at
present by steam tugs from the north country ports
whose legitimate calling is not now so lucrative as formerly
owing to the decrease of the number of sailing ships anc
the increase of steamers. The herring fishing is followed
up by these Scotch boats at various ports as high as
Yarmouth and Lowestoft, so that it is possible for a Scotch
boat to commence to catch herrings at Ballantrae or the
north of Scotland in January, and continue the various fish-
ings from thence to Yarmouth or Lowestoft in Novembei
or December.

Shields to The next fisheries will be those from what may be

5Ug ' termed the northern coal ports, viz., Shields, Sunderland,;
Hartlepool, Whitby and Scarborough. Here, again, the!
herring fishery is the most important, and is carried on by)
large cobles and boats similar to the Scotch boats. HerCi
appears to commence the breaking up of the Scotch co-
operative system. Some boats sail on this latter principle,
others are owned (including gear) by one man, the crewsj
simply receiving a share for their labour. Long-lining and;
trawling is carried on at present chiefly by sailing vessels,
but steam trawlers are on the increase in this district.

Hull and Then come the important fishing ports of Hull and

rums y. Grimsby, where the principal fishings are lining, trawling:
and whelking.

These are carried on principally on the share system, in
most cases the master being the only one of the crew wh

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 335

has a pecuniary interest in the vessel or gear. The vessels
are cutter and dandy rigged. At these ports the system of
apprenticeships and the mortgaging of vessels may be said
to commence.

At the port of Yarmouth the herring fishery has been of Yarmouth,
immense importance for many years past. Of late years
trawling has made tremendous progress, and may be almost
said to vie with the herring fishery for the supremacy.

This branch of the fisheries is prosecuted the whole
year round by fine smacks specially built for trawling.
These are largely supplemented every year at the close
of the autumn herring voyage by the largest of the
drift-boats, which are then fitted out for, and continue
trawling till the season for commencing the herring fishery
comes round again, which may here be roughly stated
to commence in July. The herring boats then leave
and go down to the North Sea to meet the shoals of
herrings, which appear to travel from north to south and
reach the Norfolk and Suffolk coasts late in September,
What is known as the home-fishing voyage is then com-
menced. The vessels here are principally cutter and
dandy rigged, the old lug-rig being now the exception.
Apprenticeships are very exceptional at this port, which
may be attributed in a great measure to the scarcity of
boys, the demand being greater than the supply. In
the season of the herring voyage, boys have been known
to receive as much as 2$s. per week, which has been paid
by owners rather than have their vessels detained. Men,
therefore, under these circumstances sometimes ship as
boys. The mackerel fishing, which at one time was the
principal voyage of the year, is almost entirely abandoned,
owing to these fish having apparently deserted the coast.

Lowestoft is the next port and is of more recent date, Lowestoft.

336 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

as the harbour is an artificial one. The fishery dates chiefl)
from its construction, and has rapidly grown to large pro,
portions. The herring fishery here may be said to be the
principal fishing, though trawling is carried on to a greal
extent, and is very much on the increase. Owners o]
trawling-smacks from Ramsgate and Brixham are continu-
ally coming to reside here, bringing their vessels with them
as the trawl fish are now followed farther north. These
are the principal trawl owners of this port, and by them
Apprentices, the system of apprenticeships has been introduced, as far
as trawlers are concerned, an apprentice to the drift fishing
being practically unknown, though it can hardly be
accounted for, as many drift-boats are now at sea about
nine months out of every year, and during the remaining
three an apprentice might be usefully employed in ran-
sacking old or setting up new nets, tarring warps, over-
hauling rigging, and many other ways, and thus become
a thorough master of the trade ; but it is estimated that1
two-thirds of the drift fishermen of the present day on this
part of the coast would be unable to prepare their own gear
even if the materials were found them. Some of the drift-
boats here commence to fit out for the Plymouth mackerel
voyage in January ; for the Irish mackerel voyage and
home spring herring voyage in February, March, and April,
some choosing one voyage, some another.

In June the voyage for the midsummer or fat-gut herring
begins. A mackerel voyage is prosecuted at the same
time. As soon as the boats have finished the midsummer
herring voyage, they leave for the northern coal ports,
and there commence the great North Sea herring voyage,
gradually working up with the shoals of herrings to
Yarmouth and Lowestoft about September, when the
home voyage begins, and continues till Christmas. The

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 337

boats sail principally on the share system ; the smacks,
some by the week, some by share, poundage or otherwise.
The rig of smacks is principally the dandy rig, of the

CT. O<*/vx^*^^X^

boats kig, but the lug rig is gradually gaining ground
again, though nearly abolished a few years back. This
port is undoubtedly the principal port for drift fishing on
the east coast of England.

The next port of registry is Woodbridge, but none of Woodbridge.
the fishing vessels registered there sail out of the port, but
out of the Aldborough river, and are long-liners only. There
are a few vessels also of the same description at Harwich.

To the port of Colchester belong a number of small cutters, Colchester,
which proceed in many cases a long way from home, either
oyster-dredging or trawling. Many of these are laid up
in the summer, as a great number of the crews leave the
port to take berths in yachts from Cowes and district
during the season.

The port of London comes next, where Barking Creek London,
may almost be said to be the head-quarters of the long-line
and trawl fishery interest The system of apprenticeships
has been largely carried on for many years. The number
of fishing vessels from this port has rather fallen off of late
years. The rig of the vessels is principally cutter and
dandy.

Ramsgate is a port of considerable magnitude as regards Ramsgate.
the fishing interest, but principally in respect to trawling.
There are a great number of trawlers belonging to this port,
but they fish principally in the North Sea, where they form
a fleet of their own, and work in a similar manner to the
fleets from Yarmouth, Lowestoft and Hull, which will be
more fully explained hereafter. The system of apprentice-
ships is largely carried on at this port. The drift-boats do
more in the mackerel than in the herring fishery.

VOL. I.— E. 2. Z

338

INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

Dover.

Rye.

Hastings.

Shoreham.

Dartmouth.

Plymouth.

Penzance

The rig here is chiefly cutter and dandy for trawlers, lu£
for drifters.

There are about twenty trawlers belonging to the pori
of Dover. They work principally at the Ridge and the!
Varne. They are dandy rigged.

At the port of Rye there are about forty vessels, princi
pally medium-sized drifters. They prosecute the herring
and mackerel fisheries both at home and in the North Sea
and at Plymouth. They are lug-rigged. Rye Bay is c!
good trawling ground, and much worked by vessels frorr
ports on this coast.

At Hastings there are some small drifters which worl
similarly to the Ryemen, but the boats are necessarily
small, as they have to work off the beach when at home
there being no harbour for them. They are lug-rigged.

There is a similar class of boats at Shoreham which als<|
prosecute the North Sea, home, and westward mackerel anc
herring fisheries. These are also lug-rigged.

Dartmouth for Brixham is the next port to be glanced ai
It may be said to be entirely a trawling port. Of late year
these vessels have had to proceed principally to the Nortl
Sea for fishing. This may be accounted for in two ways
Firstly, the better fishing to be got farther away fron
home ; secondly, the great improvement in the vessels them
selves, both in build and tonnage. They are principal!;
cutter and dandy rigged. There are some apprentices here

There is a fair number of vessels from Plymouth, but thei
are principally trawlers. What drifters there are, prosecut
principally the mackerel and pilchard fisheries. Many c.
the trawlers work in the North Sea, though it is a longwa;
from home. The system of apprenticeships is not muc
carried on here. The rig is chiefly cutter and dandy.
Penzance is the next port to be noticed. In contra-distinc

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 339

tiontoRamsgate and Brixham,it may be said to be a port de-
voted to drift and seine fishing, trawling being the exception.
The fishing is principally for mackerel and pilchards, though
for some years past numbers of these boats have made it a
practice to leave home in July, and go as far as the northern
coal ports to prosecute the North Sea herring fishery, and
return home again late in September. This number in-
creases every year, and last year the number must have
been between two and three hundred sail. This increase
may be accounted for by the fact that the boats from this port
in years past were not decked, being thus more handy for
the pilchard voyage at home, which is prosecuted at about
half a mile from the shore, and were consequently not fit for
a long voyage. The boats of recent build are much improved
in size, and many of the largest of the old boats have been
decked. They are lug-rigged, but are peculiarly built,
having a very light draught of water forward, and very
deep aft. They carry in consequence unusually large mizens,
which drive them ahead very fast, and cause them to sail
very near to the wind. Apprentices are uncommon here,
and there are a good many shore owners, though in some
cases masters and mates have an interest The crews
usually sail by the share, the owners finding the boat and
gear, and taking a proportionate share for them.

St. Ives is the next port ; there are a good many boats here, St. Ives.
similar in every respect to the Penzance boats just alluded
to. They usually work on the same grounds as the
Penzance men.

The ports on the West coast as far as the fisheries are con- West coast,
cerned are not of much importance ; they include Padstow,
Bideford, Barnstaple, Bristol, Cardiff, Swansea, Milford,
Cardigan, Carnarvon, Beaumaris. There are a few vessels
at all these ports, but they are principally small trawlers

Z 2

340

INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

Liverpool.

Isle of Man.

West coast of
Scotland*

Ireland.

which do not go very far away, and supply local wants
only.

Next to these is Liverpool, which has only a small fishing
fleet when the size of the port is considered. They consist
principally of trawlers which work in the Irish Sea. Fish-
ing is a very dangerous occupation in this district owing
to the immense traffic caused by the large number of
steamers bound to and from this port.

The Isle of Man boasts of a large number of boats, which
hail from Douglas, Ramsey and Peel. They are principally
engaged in drift fishing, and work from Cape Clear along
the eastern Irish coast up the western coast of Scotland in
the various seasons of mackerel and herrings. The build
of the boats is somewhat similar to that of the Cornish boats
with duck sterns and lug-rig. Some crews work on the
co-operative system, but there are a good many shore owners.
Apprentices are the exception.

Thejports of Western Scotland and those of the Hebrides
come next in order. There is a good number of boats
here, mostly of the same type as the boats of the east
Scotch coast, which are worked on the same co-operative
principle, and it would be merely a matter of repetition to
say more than this. The mode of fishing here is somewhat
different ; in many cases it consists of herring catching by
means of anchored nets reaching from the bottom to the
surface of the water. These are set on the spawning banks
and in the lochs, and are quite stationary.

The principal port in Ireland for fishing vessels is Dublin.
Next come Cork, Belfast, Newry and Skibbereen. The other
ports are represented by only a small number of vessels.
Trawling and drifting are both practised, but it is a well-
known fact that the Irish fisheries are not prosecuted as
they might be. This is owing mainly to the want of

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 341

capital and the conservative views of the fishermen. They
do not like English fishermen to go there and work as they
do on their own Qoasts. This has been tried and aban-
doned in many instances by English vessels and their
crews, owing to the threats of the Irish. The principal
fishings are for mackerel, herrings, cod, and all kinds of
trawl fish. The boats are principally lug-rigged.

This being an international subject, our friends on the Norway,
opposite coasts must not be lost sight of. The herring and
mackerel fisheries are those principally carried on by the
Norwegians. Trawling is almost unknown, the rocky nature
of the bottom round these coasts rendering it prohibitory.
Norwegian mackerel are largely imported to this country,
and also lobsters. The boats employed are small and
inferior to ours, but steps have lately been taken by the
Norwegian Government to improve them by sending in-
spectors over to the various countries which are foremost
in fishing, to watch the modes of fishing, and the classes and
build of vessels employed therein. They have also on the
recommendation of the inspectors purchased specimens of
the craft which appear most suitable for their country, in
order to try them, and afterwards to build their own boats
on similar principles. By having superior craft they will
be enabled to follow the fish farther to sea, and thus reap
better harvests.

One great evil that has to be contended with on this
coast is the freezing of the nets as they are hauled from
the sea ; this has to be counteracted by liberally sprinkling
the nets with salt. The boats and gear are not usually
owned by the crews. The share system is the mode of
payment.

The remarks just made respecting Norway apply in a great Sweden,
measure to Sweden. A remarkable fact must here be noted

342 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

which will show that all the laws that man can make
will not always regulate fisheries. The herring fishery is
recorded from the eleventh century. In the i6th, I7th, and
1 8th centuries mention is made of successive periods
of herring fishing, and also of its disappearance at
intervals of about equal duration, that is to say, from
sixty to seventy years. Thus, from the year 1747 till
1808 there was a great activity in the trade, when
the shoals of herrings disappeared, not to return till the
winter of 1877, when they reappeared on the coast in their
former abundance. The traditions of the country are that
they will now remain about seventy years and then
disappear again. The boats employed are a small class of
vessel, but no doubt the improvements now being made
by the Norwegians will be followed.

Denmark and Denmark and Germany must be passed over, as the fishing
operations of these countries are of very limited proportions.

Holland. The operations of the Dutch in the herring and line

fisheries are of vast importance. The trawling also must
not be omitted. As regards the vessels they are rather
behind us, though in their ideas of catching the fish they
are considerably in advance. The coast of Holland
is very flat, with a fine sandy bottom, and from April
to August the flat or bottom fish draw in very close
to the shore. Our own fleets of trawlers work these
grounds in fine weather and do well. The Dutchmen
having the fish so close at hand trawl in a small class of
vessel known as schuits, some of them being open boats.
In years past a very profitable business was carried on by
some of our vessels, which used to fit out for what was
termed sole-buying, which consisted of visiting the fleets
of schuits and buying their soles, to bring over here.
These often realized a handsome profit on the price

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 343

given, and much money has been earned in this way.
This trade is now nearly extinct, as Closh (as the Dutch-
man is termed by our fishermen) is getting wide
awake to the value of his fish, owing to the increase of
harbours and railways on his coast. The herring fishery,
which they commence in June, is their principal fishery.
They employ in it nets with a larger mesh than is used
by any other country, the consequence being that all the
herrings caught are very fine. These are cured on board
the vessels as soon as caught, in the manner known as
pickling. The gills and gut are removed and the fish being
laid in barrels with salt, make their own brine or pickle.
There are some restrictive laws still retained in this country
as to the landing of herrings before a certain date, with a
view to keeping up good prices at the opening of the season.
Some of their vessels which belong to ports where there
is plenty of water, are somewhat similar in build and rig
to our own dandies, but those which belong to places
where they are obliged to run ashore on the beach are of a
most curious description. They are rather picturesque, being
clench built, perfectly flat-bottomed, beam two-thirds of
their length, in fact like an oblong box with just the angles
and under corners rounded off". It is an impossibility to
capsize them in the same way as our vessels, and the
only way they have ever been known to do so is by
turning stem over stern and going over lengthwise when
lifted by strong seas. The smell on board these vessels
is almost unbearable to any one not used to it, but it
may be accounted for in two ways : one is, that the crews
do not do much scrubbing down of decks, cabin, &c. ; and
the other that, it is impossible to get the bilge water out
of them, as it is spread all over the bottom and does not
n to any particular part. They last only about, eight

344 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

years, owing to the straining caused by going ashore laden
with fish. On the other hand, a curious fact may be noted
here as regards their religious ideas. They usually hold
prayer meetings on board morning and evening, and never
commence a meal without saying or singing their grace,
which by those who have witnessed it is not easily forgot-
ten, such a thing being the exception on board our own
vessels. As regards the liners from this country they
prosecute this class of fishing for cod as far away as Iceland,
salting the fish as soon as they are caught.

Belgium. Belgium has had an unenviable notoriety as regards the

instrument known as the Belgian devil, which has been
the cause of so much damage to English fishermen's nets.
The principal fishery prosecuted by this nation is trawling,
and to this fact may be attributed in a certain measure
their antipathy to our drifters. Trawling is prosecuted
by awkward-looking cutter-rigged vessels usually of about
25 to 35 tons. The crews sometimes speak Dutch, some-
times Flemish, sometimes French. They usually work on
the same ground as the Lowestoft drifters in the season,
sometimes getting more northerly to where the Yarmouth
boats are working ; hence the complaints against them come
from Yarmouth and Lowestoft only. There are some drift-
boats belonging to this nation, but not a very large number.

France. The fishing transactions of France are of large propor-

tions. In many ways the French fishermen are ahead of
us, especially as regards their craft and the working of
their gear. This nation has some of the largest fishing
craft in existence, which are schooners of from 150 to 200
tons, which prosecute the cod fisheries either on the
Icelandic coasts, the Dogger Bank, or the banks of
Newfoundland. These vessels generally salt their fish,
and when actually engaged on the fishing grounds, send

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 345

down their yards and work under fore-and-aft canvas.
The principal class of vessels are those which are dandy
rigged, whose size averages about 50 tons. They sail
principally from the port of Boulogne, but there are also
a fair number from the ports of Fecamp, Dunkerque, and
Calais. They usually fish with lines or mackerel nets on
the Irish coast from January to June, and herring nets
from June to December on the North Sea. The system
of payment was till recently a co-operative one, each man
finding his share of the nets or lines, but this gradually
died out, to give way to the ordinary share system, which
was soon superseded by the standing wages system, and
shipping of crews by the month (each man receiving
about 100 francs per month), the owner providing all
stores and provisions, and taking all losses.

The foregoing may be taken as a very brief description
of the various craft which prosecute the deep sea fishing in
the North Sea and off the west coast of the United Kingdom.

The trawl-net may be briefly described as a long bag General
braided with twine, having a wide mouth, say 40 feet Of nets,
wide, gradually diminishing down to a long bag end about Trawl
3 feet wide. It is kept open at the mouth by the upper
part of it being attached to a beam, which is kept off the
ground by two iron heads, one at either end of the beam.
These are about 3 feet high. A heavy rope is attached
to the lower part of the mouth of the net, which drags
along the ground, and which is shorter than the top
portion, so that in dragging it along the beam and upper
portion cover the fish before the lower part, on which is
the heavy rope, comes up to them and disturbs them.
They then rise and find themselves enclosed, and by the
draught of water through the net are drawn down to the

rrow end. The net is usually made in six pieces.

346 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

The top or upper part, the lower part or ground, the two
side triangle pieces to form the mouth, known in some
parts as the wings or gorings, and the long narrow part
known as the cod end, which is made in two pieces, the
upper and ground. These pieces are afterwards laced
and hitched together, attached to the ground rope and
beam, and the net is then ready for use.

The size of a trawl-net varies according to the size of
the vessel for which it is intended. They are used with
beams from 25 to 50 feet in length by deep sea trawlers,
40 feet being about the average length. Trawl-nets as
used by the Belgians, Dutch and French are all similar in
principle, and no good will be effected by describing all
the minor differences. One may be mentioned, and that is,
that the mesh of their trawl-nets is as a rule considerably
smaller than that of our vessels. There is no law which
regulates the size of the mesh or construction of this net,
consequently many immature fish are destroyed which, if a
means of escape were provided, would increase in size and
benefit both the fishermen and the consumers.

Herring nets. The herring net simply consists of an oblong sheet of lint,
or net made of cotton, attached by twisted pieces of twine
about 6 inches long, and known as norsels, to a double
net-rope. Along the net-rope, at intervals, pieces of cork,
measuring about 6 inches by 4 inches, are inserted, so that
when the net is shot for fishing the lint sinks and depends
from the net-rope, which is buoyed up by the corks inserted
along it. Thus it drifts with the tide in a perpendicular
position. In some cases a rope is put along the bottom of
the net parallel with the net-rope, and sometimes weighted
with lead or stones. This is for the purpose of causing the
net to hang more steadily in the water, and is of more especial
use in cases where the tide is strong and the lint light, as the

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 347

former sometimes causes the latter to assume a partially
horizontal position instead of a perfectly perpendicular
one, which is the position required. The corks play a very
important part in the fishing, either by their absence or
their presence, as in various waters and at various seasons
the net is sunk and worked at various depths, sometimes
with hardly any corks at all on the net-rope. These depths
vary from I to 20 fathoms, and the net, when worked
in this way, is termed a sunk net. This happens more
particularly in the early part of the North Sea voyage, when
the fish are not healthy, and consequently do not rise
much to the surface, or swim actively, but, as the fishermen
term it, " skulk." When this is the case the net is held at the
required distance from the surface of the water by seizings
attached to each end of the net, and from thence to the
bowls or buoys on the surface of the water. At other times
and places the net may be either what is termed " swum "
or " half-swum," as the case may be. In the former case the
corks are numerous enough to keep the net on the surface
of the water of themselves ; then there is no strain on the
bowls till the fish have struck the net, and caused it to
sink by their dying and losing their natural buoyancy. In
the latter case the net is less corked, say with only about
half the number of a " swum net," and in consequence sinks
in the water a few feet, till it is just checked from sinking
further by the seizings from the bowls to the net having,
become tight. The half-swum system is adopted by many,
not because they do not expect the fish to rise to the
surface, but to prevent damage accruing to the net by
vessels and steamers crossing over. They pass harmlessly
over in this case, whereas in the other case the net would
have been spoilt. The sizes of these nets vary according
to locality. The Scotch boat will usually have a net of

348 INTERNATIONAL LAIVS FOR THE

about 45 yards long and 20 score deep. The ordinary
lugger's net will be about 22 yards long and 10 to 12
score deep. Foreign fishermen will usually have a net
very similar to our luggers' nets in size and depth, they
being often of British manufacture. The Dutch, perhaps,
are an exception, their nets being very large and heavy,
resembling more nearly the Scotch nets in size.

Mackerel nets. The foregoing description of a herring net will apply to
a mackerel net, with the exception that mackerel nets are
always swum, and have, of course, a much larger mesh.*

Foreign nets. The nets of the Norwegian and Swedish drifters are now
made similar to the Scotch, owing to their having sent
inspectors to learn the methods employed by the Scotch
people in the herring fishery.

The Dutch herring net is a very large heavy net, the
average size is 36 yards long, and 1 6 yards deep, of stout
cotton, and is always of a large-sized mesh, about 34 or 36
to the yard, otherwise in principle there is no difference
of note. The length of their fleet of nets is shorter than
that of any other craft, owing to the enormous depth and
weight of the nets. A French herring net more nearly
resembles in every way an English east coast net, though
it is generally deeper. There is no law to regulate
the size of the mesh of these nets. Formerly there was one,
but it was repealed as impracticable.

Pilchard nets. Pilchard drift-nets as used on the Cornish coast are similar
to herring nets (English east coast) and are not regulated
in any way by law as to mesh. These fish are also taken
by seine-nets.

Deep sea trawling is prosecuted the whole year round on

* The size of the mesh varies in different localities as the size of the
fish varies. There is no law regulating the mesh of mackerel nets.

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 349

all coasts where the ground is fit for the purpose. The
following are the principal fish caught by this means : soles, Fish caught

on various

turbot, plaice, haddocks, cod, ling, conger-eels, whitings, coasts,
dabs, brill, halibut, red mullet. Trawling is chiefly pro- Trawl,
secuted in the North Sea, in a smaller degree in the
English Channel, also in the Irish Sea and St. George's
Channel, there being about 250 trawlers on these coasts,
very slightly on the east or west coasts of Scotland, and
hardly at all on the north-east coast of England till the
year 1877, when, as before mentioned, steam-tugs were
obliged to take up trawling. It has turned out so well that
at the present time over fifty tugs are constantly engaged in
trawling from Hartlepool as far as the Coquet Island, which
have caused much ill-feeling between themselves and the
line fishermen on this coast by trawling over the lines, and
thus causing a loss of lines which was previously unknown.

Herrings are caught on nearly every part of the east and Herrings,
west Scotch coasts all the year round, for bait at least, but East and West
there are special seasons when the large shoals appear in a Scotland
matured state. Off Ballantrae, on the west coast, the prin-
cipal fishing is from January to March. The great fishery in
the Minch is carried on from about the middle of May to
the beginning of July. The east coast fishing commences
about the middle of July and continues till the middle of
September.

Sprats are caught on these coasts from November to
January, with very little difference.

Cod, ling, hake, haddocks and skate are taken with lines
all the year round on these coasts.

Herrings are taken between Berwick and the Humber Berwick to
from June to September ; the remainder of the year, with
the exception of the steam tug trawlers, is devoted to line
fishing. In September mackerel are caught on this coast.

INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

Humber to
Lowestoft

Lowestoft to
Thames.

Thames to
Brighton.

Teignmouth
to St. Ives.

West coast,
England.

Isle of Man.

On the east coast the spring herring fishing commences in
April and finishes in May, when the boats leave off fishing
for about a fortnight, and then go for midsummer herrings
or fatguts. The old mackerel voyage, which used to be the
great fishing of the year here, is now almost abandoned, as
the mackerel appear to have deserted the coast. This used
to be in May and June. These fish now make their
appearance here about the middle of September and
remain till the commencement of October. In October
the great herring voyage from Yarmouth and Lowestoft
commences and continues up to Christmas. There is very
little line fishing done on this coast.

The fishings between Lowestoft and the Thames are of
no particular account. There are trawlers from Colchester
and also oyster dredgers, but these work all round the
coasts of England as well as near home, especially the
oystermen, who are continually seeking new beds.

Spratting is carried on in the Swin Channel by means of
set-nets from November to January. There are also well
cod vessels from Aldborough and Harwich, but these work
as far north as Iceland for cod, and as far south as
Plymouth for whitings, and are at work nearly all the year
round at the various places they visit.

In the Brighton district the only fishing of note is the
mackerel, which commences in May and lasts till about July.

The Cornish district has herring, mackerel and pilchard
fisheries. The mackerel fishery is prosecuted principally
from Plymouth from April to July, then the pilchard fishery
commences from August till November. In December
herrings come on the coasts and swim with the pilchards.

On the west coast there are no drift fishings, but to the
various ports a few deep sea trawlers belong.

The herring and mackerel fisheries of the Isle of Man are

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 351

principally carried on by local boats which work from Kinsale
to the Minch. The mackerel arrive on this coast about June
and remain till September. Herrings are about here from
October till January. A considerable amount of line
fishing is also done.

On the Irish coasts the trawling, herring and mackerel Ireland,
fisheries are extensively prosecuted, but principally on
the east coast. The mackerel fishing commences in April
and ends in June. In July the summer herring fishery
commences and continues till October, but in May there
are shotten herrings which are sometimes fished for. A
good amount of line fishing is also done.

Enough has now been said on this point to show how varied
the fishings are on the coasts of the United Kingdom, and
how carefully legislative measures must be taken. The
periods named cannot be depended on, for wind, weather
and temperatures make them vary very much ; also the
great difference in the craft, methods of working, and modes
employed for capturing the fish has been shown ; and further,
how difficult it is to legislate for one district alone, as craft
from one port go so far away to others, and work on different
principles to the local boats though they are fishing for the
same kind of fish. Let a few of the present grievances be Grievances,
considered which point to this difficulty. At the present
time the principal grievance on the northern coasts is that the
trawlers come from more southerly ports and damage or
break away the gear of the line fishermen, and also of the crab
and lobster fishermen. This is complained of by the Dutch
also, who say that when our trawlers are working on their
coasts they destroy their lines. At Hull and Grimsby the great
grievances of the present time are the apprentice and deser-
tions questions. At Yarmouth, apprentices being almost un-
known, the principal grievance is the desertions question, and

352 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

next the depredations by the Belgian devil. Lowestoft has
three grievances, viz., the Belgian devil, desertions, and ap-
prentices. It may here be explained why Lowestoft vessels
have suffered more than any others from the Belgian devil.
It is because the Belgian trawlers work principally on the
same ground as the Lowestoft drifters, occasionally getting
as far north as where the Yarmouth drifters are at work.
This instrument, which has been the subject of a special
Government enquiry, takes the form of a grapnel, but instead
of the flukes being round they are flat and as sharp as the
edge of a knife. This is hung over the trawler's bows, and
cuts to pieces any gear with which it may come in contact.
As a drift-boat is frequently two miles from the poll or
outer end of her nets these trawlers can do this on dark
nights with impunity, as they take care not to show any
lights. The instrument appears to have originated at
Barking, which used to be the head centre of the North Sea
fisheries, and was always carried. Sometimes a kind of
saw was fastened to the vessel's stem for the same purpose,
but happily this has been condemned and abolished for many
years past by all English fishermen. These few examples of
present grievances serve to illustrate how one district may
suffer either from want of or from over legislation on a certain
point which makes not the least difference to any other.
Classification For the purpose of continuing this subject seriatim it will

of subject r - , f, ,

be well to give now a practical explanation of the fisheries
and how they are carried on under the present law, in the
following order : —

1. The building, rigging, outfit, and insurance of the
vessel.

2. The shipping of the crew, apprentices, wages or share,
provisioning, and equipment for sea.

3. The mode of life at sea, manner of working single

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 353

boating and fleets, duration of voyage, methods of curing at
sea, and return to harbour.

4. The disposal of fish, and mode of settling up.

5. The capital invested in, and the annual value of the
fisheries, and the number of people employed in or
dependent on them.

Having done this it will be possible to point out how the
present law affects the fisheries ; how the proposed legis-
lation would affect them if carried out, and to conclude
with a few suggestions for the improvement of the said laws.
This will be best done by omitting as far as possible legal
terms and forms, and avoiding many quotations from the
Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, which is well known.

In building a fishing vessel a full official survey for con- Building,
struction is not necessary as in the case of merchant ships,
as they are not classed or lettered for any number of years ;
and as the insurance clubs are as a rule mutual and local,
there is no need of it for the guidance of insurance companies
and underwriters. The plan usually pursued is this : the
order is given to build a fishing vessel of a certain size
and for a certain class of fishing. Upon the completion
of the vessel the builder hands to the owner a certificate
stating that the vessel has been built for him, and the
measurement based on the instructions of the Act for that
purpose.

The certificate just alluded to is then taken by the owner Registration,
of the vessel to the custom house, and the vessel is then
measured by a Board of Trade surveyor. If she is over
fifteen tons a certificate of registry is granted, which gives
the particulars as to where, when, how and by whom she
was built, the measurement, the owner's name, or in the case
rf there being more than one owner the number of shares
.held by each. This register should always be on board
VOL. i.— E. 2. 2 A

354

INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

the vessel for the purposes of identification and various
other minor matters.

Rigging. The rigging and providing of stores and utensils is

then proceeded with according to the idea of the owner.
This may be all new or partly new, or sometimes all old,
having belonged to a vessel which has been condemned,
the new one being built on the same lines and of the same
tonnage ; for though the hull may have been condemned
the spars, rigging, sails, and stores may be in good order,
as this part of fishing vessels is constantly being renewed.
When this is the case the new vessel generally receives the
same fishery number as the old one.

Insurance. To insure the vessel is the next step, and this is entirely

at the owner's option, and is generally done. The insurance
clubs at the various ports are as a rule admirably conducted,
and are usually registered under the Limited Liability Act.
Periodical surveys are made of the vessels on a similar plan
to that introduced by Plimsoll's Act, and in the event of
any defect being found in the hull, rigging, or equipment,
notice is given to the owner to put the same in order at once.
These clubs also supervise the masters of the vessels and
take cognisance of any neglect or bad conduct on their part.
If, after notice has been given by any club to its members
of the negligence, misconduct, or incompetence of any
master, such master is employed on board any vessel
insured in that club, no compensation would be allowed to
the owner in the event of any damage occurring to the
vessel of which such master was in command. Nets or
gear are not insured under any circumstances, as this
would be impossible. There could be no method of ascer-
taining the value of the gear lost, as nets are constantly
being changed. In case of the total loss of vessel and
nets the same would be the case. Thus, every owner of a
fishing vessel which goes to sea must of necessity have a

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 355

large pecuniary interest in her safety. This alone gua-
rantees that everything will be done tending to the sea-
worthiness of the vessel, and consequently to the safety of her
crew. It renders impossible also the offering of a premium
on the loss of the vessel by over-insurance, as has been the
case with merchant ships, which have been wilfully lost,
after being over-insured by unscrupulous persons. Usually
no vessel is allowed to be insured for more than two-thirds
of her value. The mode of payment is a fixed percentage
on the amount insured. In the event of funds being short
in consequence of any unusually heavy losses, a further call
would be made pro ratti, but this is not often necessary.
There is no special legislation as regards the insurance of
fishing vessels, and there certainly is no need of any.

The shipping of the crew and the making of agreements Shipping of

crews,
with them have for many years been a mere farce as

far as the law is concerned. To those who have en-
deavoured to act in a legal manner by shipping their
crews before the shipping master, a formal book of ten pages
has been given. It is intituled " Half-yearly agreement
and account of voyages and crew of a ship engaged in the
home trade only," and was sanctioned by the Board of
Trade in May, 1874, in pursuance of 17 and 18 Victoria,
c. 104. It provides for the insertion of the name,
official number, port of registry, port number, date of
register, registered tonnage, horse-power if a steam-
vessel, name and address of registered owner, master's
name and address, certificate number if any. This is a
very good beginning, but next follows a scale of pro-
visions to be allowed and served out to crew during the
voyage, in pounds and ounces. This is a perfect piece of
absurdity, as will be shown further on when the pro-
visioning question is dealt with, and even in the case of

2 A 2

356 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

coasting vessels, which are more able to carry out such a
system, is nearly always ignored by writing across it,
" Sufficient without waste." Then follows a short general
agreement, which, briefly summed up, is to the effect that
the crew who have signed their names to it shall do
everything that is proper, or be fined from half a day's
to one month's pay, according to a scale which is given
on page 9 of the agreement, which sets forth the fine
to be enforced for various offences, and to which scale
(any portion, or none of it) the crew have, when signing,
to signify their willingness to be subject. The spaces
left for crew to sign in are forty, whereas fifteen would
have been ample, previous to the abolition of imprisonment
for desertion, for any fishing vessel. Then follow spaces
for account of apprentices, births, and deaths on board.
The first and the last are reasonable, but the space for
births is of no use for fishing vessels. Then follows space
for endorsements by superintendents of Mercantile Marine?
and particulars of voyages, which are useless. Then
the agreement finishes with instructions to masters, which
are sections quoted from the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854,
and are applicable to fishing vessels only in a very
small degree ; in fact, as they now stand, with regard to
fishing vessels, are a mass of confusion. At the end of
every half year this agreement should be deposited at the
Mercantile Marine office by the owner or master under a
penalty of no C. C. being granted to enable the vessel
to be cleared at the custom house. Now as fishing
vessels have never required nor would they be able to
clear at the custom house, this said C. C. has not been
required by them, consequently the agreement has been
sometimes returned, sometimes not ; and hundreds of
agreements that have been returned have been very

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 357

incorrectly rilled in, but as they are practically useless,
no notice has been taken of it, and no one has suffered.
This agreement is very reasonable in the case of a coasting
cargo vessel, where, as is frequently the case, the crews
remain the same for several years, the only alterations
being caused by illness or death ; but to endeavour to
apply it to fishing vessels shows what great ignorance
has existed as to the requirements of the fishing trade
It is admitted that this agreement was of some value
previous to the passing of the Payment of Wages Act,
1880, whereby imprisonment for desertion was abolished,
because if a man deserted and was apprehended and
brought before the magistrates, they had the power to
imprison him ; and this alone made it worth while for the
owner and the hard-working part of the crew to go to the
custom house or marine office and pay the fee of four
shillings, which is the authorised fee for signing the crew
of a vessel under eighty tons. But, on the other hand, by
the passing of Plimsoll's Act, and the Crew Spaces Act, a
keen-sighted man had another weapon put into his hands
at various times by threatening the owner or master that
if he had him apprehended he would call in the Board of
Trade surveyor, and point out any small discrepancy
which might exist between the vessel as she was and as
she ought to be in order to strictly conform to the Board
of Trade regulations, which were framed for cargo ships,
and were impracticable as far as fishing vessels were con-
cerned. This was plainly shown, firstly in the Crew Spaces
order which, when applied to fishing vessels, proved that in
some cases if the whole vessel had been converted into ac-
commodation for crew the cubic space for each man would
not have been sufficient to comply with the law ; secondly,
in the case of the sanitary order, which made it compulsory

358 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

for every vessel to have a closet for accommodation of crew
on deck, and also in other minor matters, which, though
perhaps necessary on board a ship, every practical
fisherman knows to be perfectly inapplicable to a fishing
vessel, though accommodation of the kind last mentioned
is desirable.

These are mainly composed of boys sent from some
union, reformatory, training-ship, industrial school or
boys' home. There are two classes in the trade, the
indoor and the outdoor. Boys are usually sent to sea on
probation, some for as long a term as six months, to enable
them to see whether they wish to become apprentices.
It usually turns out that they do wish to be bound. In the
case of an indoor apprentice the usual plan is for the
master to agree to teach him the business of a fisherman
and seaman, and provide him with sufficient meat, drink,
lodging, washing, medicine, medical attendance and pay
him a nominal sum per annum, and further provide all
clothes, sea bedding, wearing apparel, and necessaries.
This is the legal part of the business, but the custom is
for the master to allow the apprentice say, eighteenpence
per diem (the amount varies at different ports) for each day
that the vessel is in port. This is usually known as " spend-
ing money." This apprentice will usually reside with his
master, and live at the same table when ashore, but
sometimes when an owner has several vessels he will not
have sufficient accommodation at his own house. He will
therefore find them a respectable lodging, most probably
with the man or men whom he employs to do the necessary
part of the work connected with the vessels ashore. These
boys cannot help being happy and comfortable unless by
their own acts. It is a noted fact in most fishing ports,
and is to be seen every day, that boys going to sea for the

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 359

first time, looking pale, and thin, and hungry, come back in
the course of a few weeks, looking fat, strong, and healthy,
in many cases hardly a vestige of their former selves
remaining. The out-door apprentice is bound differently.
The master agrees in this case to teach him the business
of a fisherman and seaman, to provide sufficient meat,
drink, lodging, medicine, medical and surgical assistance
during the time that he is at sea only, and pay him for
each consecutive week of the first year and every year of
his apprenticeship a certain sum of money, which increases
in amount every year as a rule. Out of this the apprentice
has to provide himself with all sea bedding and wearing
apparel when at sea, and when ashore with everything. This
law of apprenticeships worked very well till the unfortunate
passing of the Merchant Seamen Payment of Wages Act,
1880, which completely overrode all apprenticeship inden-
tures which had been or were subsequently made. By this
Act the boys were freed from their masters, and desertion
became the order of the day. It is a well-known fact that
boys of this class need, when commencing life, to be trained
and put under some kind of restraint ; if left to themselves
they are very liable to get into difficulties which they do
not see till it is too late to retrace their steps. As a rule
the best masters of smacks and fishermen are those who
have served a full apprenticeship. Hundreds of instances
could be given where boys, who would have turned out
steady, sober and useful fishermen, and a value and credit
to their calling and country, have become, through being
freed from any restraint, useless, drunken vagabonds,
tramping from port to port, shipping to vessels in
harbour simply for a night's lodging and a good meal
or two, with no intention of ever going to sea to do any
work, but deserting when the vessel was ready for sea and

'

'

360 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

then shipping to another vessel to do the like again. So
they have gone on till they have got too well known in one
port and have tramped to another, to remain there till the
game was once more played out. In this manner the
round of the ports of the kingdom is done. This system
has also been pursued by some men who have taken ad-
vantage of the Act to pursue a course of idleness and vice.
But this has been only a portion of the bad effect of the
passing of this Act on boys. However good the intentions
of the framers of it may have been, it has acted most
unkindly and cruelly on the apprentices and crews of fishing
vessels themselves, besides inflicting the most serious pecu-
niary losses on owners. Since the passing of the Act it has
been practically useless to bind boys as apprentices ; owners
are therefore ceasing to do so, and employing lads and
boys by the week. They are consequently taught nothing,
to their own future detriment and that of the industry itself.
Payment of The modes of payment of crews of fishing vessels are
very varied. They are entirely different under different
circumstances, such as ports, class of vessels, and nature of
fishing to be prosecuted. It will be sufficient for the
purpose here to give them generally. In Scotland the co-
operative system is principally pursued ; the crew provide
the boat and nets between them and share according to
the proportion of gear contributed by each. An evil
which in some cases has been found to accompany the
co-operative system may here be pointed out. It is the
stealing of gear or misappropriation of any that is suit-
able and may happen to be picked up at sea. In many
instances, the crews, through being owners of gear, have
been induced to retain what they have picked up,
whereas, had they been paid only by the share, gear being
of no use to them, they would have delivered it up to the

crews.

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 361

proper authority, and claimed the salvage. This applies
internationally as well as nationally. The northern English
ports work on the same system in drift fishing, but the
steam trawlers sail by the week, and in addition to this
either the whole or part of the crew will receive a per-
centage or poundage of the net earnings. This percentage
decreases from the master downwards according to the
rating of each hand. On the east coast trawlers and
codders work on the same principle, though sometimes the
whole crew may be paid by the week, the owner finding the
provisions, and no poundage ; but this latter is only done
in the case of trawlers sent to a fleet, for there they are
under the supervision of the admiral as to shooting and
hauling their gear ; and if, when the carrying cutter or
steamer comes in, the owner finds that his vessel does not
send in on an average as much fish as other vessels at the
same fleet, he then ascertains the cause. Codders are some-
times entirely on weekly wages. Drifters, on the contrary,
are never on weekly wages on this coast, they either sail by
the share or by the last, that is, the owner agrees to pay
them so much for every last of fish sold irrespective of high
or low prices, which he risks, but this system is not nearly
so common as formerly.

Payment by the share is as follows. After the expenses
of the voyage, such as ice, salt, provisions, lost and spoilt
nets, or any other deductions agreed on, have been de-
ducted from the gross earnings, the net proceeds are divided
between the owner and crew, very often half and half.
Then in this case, as in the former one, the shares for the
crew« vary from a share and a half for the master to a
quarter or half-quarter share for the boy. The trawlers
on the south coast are paid similarly to those on the east
coast, but the plans of the drifters more nearly resemble

362 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

the Scotch. In Ireland the share system is in force. The
west coast trawlers work similarly^ to those on the east
coast. The Manx boats much resemble the Scotch with
their co-operative plan. The Norwegians, Swedes, Belgians
and Dutch all sail by the share, but no hard-and-fast rule
can be laid down, as these systems vary from time to time
according to successive good or bad seasons and other
causes. The French used to sail on the co-operative system,
each man as far as possible providing nets ; but this has
of late years changed to the crews sailing by the month,
the average rate being 100 francs per month, the owner
finding the provisions and taking all losses. In some cases
the crew find their own provisions, but this is the exception.
Cases of dispute sometimes arise where a shareman has
been injured or taken ill for a period during the progress
of the voyage, and a substitute has been shipped by the
master or owner regardless of the cost to the man whose
place is filled, and looking only to his own interests in
losing no time. The voyage is afterwards completed by
the sick man on his recovery. Sometimes the sick man
will find his own substitute. These disputes might be
avoided by power being granted to an independent official
to supervise such cases immediately on notice being given.

The ballasting and means of securing the hatches of
fishing vessels is not altogether satisfactory, though in the
opinion of the writer it would soon be willingly remedied
if attention was called to it from the proper quarter.

The ballast is frequently iron, covered with stones,
shingle, or iron-stone.

In some cases simply loose boards are laid either wholly
or partially over it ; in other cases the boards are fastened
down in various ways, though not always securely. The

best plan fordoing this is to have stanchions properly fixed

)

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 363

over cross-pieces across the bottom boards under the deck
beams. Then the ballast could not possibly shift. After the
terrible January gale a few years back, when many smacks
were lost and others laid on their beam ends for hours,
all that arrived in port had their ballast more or less
shifted ; one vessel, which the writer saw when she was
being dismantled, was a notable instance ; the iron ballast
which was stowed in her bottom had got to the top of
the shingle, and the fish which had been on the top were
found next to her keelson, her boards being mixed up with
the whole. Another instance occurred at another port in
which the vessel's trawl rope was found under the ballast,
and the side lights which were usually kept aft on the
water-casks were found under the ballast forward. The
hatches are frequently without proper means for their
security, though where vessels are in good clubs this is
specially attended to, but when at sea they are fre-
quently stowed away and are either not forthcoming at the
right time, or neglected to be used, owing to the careless-
ness which is caused by constant exposure to danger.
Here again there is a difference between a cargo ship and
a fishing vessel. The former has her hatches well secured
before leaving port, and they remain so till her destination
is reached, while the latter is constantly uncovering and
using the hatchways in all weathers.

The next point is the provisioning of the vessel. In Provisioning,
cases where the crew sail entirely by the share, the pro-
visions are charged to the owner who is responsible, and
are either ordered by him or the master. At the end
of the voyage the amount of these is deducted, with other
expenses, from the gross earnings, and is kept by the
owner to pay the various accounts, the net amount only
being divided. If the vessel happens to be unfortunate

364 INTERNATIONAL LAWS POR THE

enough to earn nothing, as the law now stands the owner
remains responsible, and the crew walk ashore free men
with no responsibility. It is a question whether in this
case the owner and crew ought not to be responsible to
the tradesman in proportion to the share each stood to
receive, and not the owner to be responsible for the
whole.

To compensate the tradesman for running this risk
it might be suggested that, when provisions have been
supplied to a boat sailing by the share, he should be
entitled to be present at the settling up to receive the
amount due to him. This right doubtless would only
be exercised in exceptional cases, and not when the
owner was known by the tradesman to be an honourable
man.

Cases have been known where the owner has received
this money at the settling up, and appropriated it to his
own use for other purposes, afterwards liquidating, and the
tradesman has had to suffer, although the money to pay
for the provisions he supplied was duly earned and paid
by the crew as far as they were liable. It very often happens
that a portion of the crew live a long way from or have
no home, and these immediately commence to live on board,
and even those who live at the port will probably live on
board but go home to sleep. Men have openly admitted in
some cases that they have shipped to what may be termed
the " by voyages," not that they expect to earn anything,
but "just to ease the old woman at home by keeping their
heads out of the cupboard," which means that the owner
will have to pay for the provisions whether the vessel earns
anything or not.

It must here be noticed that in the last ten or fifteen
years a vast change has taken place in the way the crews

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 365

of fishing vessels live. There are men now living who can
remember the time when no meat was allowed on board
at all, or at most only once a week. The fare, from the
commencement of the voyage to the end, consisted as a rule
of biscuits, herring, or other fish, when there were any to be
caught, varied by a piece of cheese, and water to drink, there
being only a small bogey stove just to warm the cabin ;
whereas now fishing vessels are supplied with tea, coffee
or cocoa, bread (biscuits for standby only), butter, cheese,
flour, potatoes, plums, currants, fresh beef, bacon, treacle,
vinegar, mustard, pepper, salt, preserved milk, beer at some
ports, and sundry other comforts, even to a cooking range
with oven, so that a baked meal may be had as well as
boiled or fried. It has been well said that a ship sailor
would often envy the fisherman of the present day could
he see him at his meals, and this without having any
agreement or scale as to what he shall be fed on. It
may be averaged that a fishing vessel's crew at the fleet
will cost from eight and six pence to ten shillings per
head a week — at single boating or drift fishing the latter-
named sum or a little more, as these are more frequently
in port, and can consequently get fresh provisions in the
shape of bread, beef, vegetables, &c.

To equip the vessel with her gear is the next thing. If Equipment

with gear.

she is a trawler there is not much to do. The owner finds
the net (though this varies at different ports and under dif-
ferent circumstances), which is in several pieces, as before
described. The duty of the crew is to reeve it up, and seize
it on to the ground-rope, afterwards fixing it to the heads
and beam. The ice, if required, is then got on board. In a
drifter where the owner finds the gear a portion of the
crew will go to the owner's store and load the carts
which are to convey them to the vessel ; the remainder

366 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

of the crew "lean them up," which means, fasten them
together, and stow them in the net room. In a codder
the crew will have to " thorough-foot " the lines, which is
to take out the kinks which always exist in new lines,
hitch on the hooks, which the apprentices in some cases
have to whip on to the snoods. This class of vessel has
also her bait to get on board, either whelks, herrings, clams,
or sometimes sprats. The lines are then coiled away in
the flaskets or trays, as the case may be, ready for the
apprentices to bait.

At sea. The vessel can now proceed to sea, for there are no

Herring custom house formalities to be gone through as in the
case of a ship. So long as her port letters and fishery
number are painted on properly she is free to go. The
master will then set the watches, or leave it in some cases
to mutual agreement, as there are many more difficulties in
the way of keeping regular watches on board fishing vessels-
than there are in sailing ships, such as attention to the
fishing gear, as well as the navigation of the vessel, the
frequent return to and leaving of port, and, in some cases,
the getting out of cargo. The boy as a rule is cook ; if a
novice then under the superintendence of possibly the mate
or some other of the crew, as it is generally considered
the duty of the master to navigate the vessel to and from
the fishing ground, though when this is a long distance he
is relieved by the mate. When the master has seen the
gear duly shot and the vessel made snug, it is his turn for
turning in, to be called at a certain time to haul the gear,
or under certain special circumstances. The first few nets
nearest the stem of the vessel are termed the " look on "
nets, as whenever it is thought proper, the watch, on a fine
night, will haul the boat up to them and haul them in to
see whether the fish are on the move or not. If there are

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 367

only a few in the nets they are shot away again for another
hour or two, but if there is a good look on the crew are
called to go to work and haul the fleet. Other drift fishings
are similar.

A trawler is not able to do this ; when the hauling is Trawler,
commenced it must be completed. Owing to the gear
having increased a good deal in size and weight of late
years the practice of some trawlers has been to make long
hauls, some even as long as four tides instead of one as
should be. This is done to save the labour of hauling,
which will average a good hour's work. The fish in these
long hauls are much bruised and spoilt, and will not keep
so well as those hauled more quickly, and all the small fry
are killed. But it may be expected that the introduction
of steam capstans will do much to alter this, as by this
means the hauling is done in about half-an-hour, with
very little labour. There is not much variety in the
mode of life aboard fishing vessels. The cabins are of
necessity small, though much improved of late years.
Occasionally some member of the crew will while away the
time with music from a concertina, or in fine weather
draughts may be played on the companion way (there
being no room for tables in most of the cabins), or
they sit and read, but of course there is no chance of this
in bad weather or when large hauls of offal fish are made,
as these take much time in cleaning and icing.

Trawlers work in two ways, either single boating, which Single

boating.

means bringing in the fish they catch themselves, or in
fleets. The duration of a single boating trip is from three
to fourteen days, according to the success met with or the
stock of ice. Several tons of this are usually taken.

A fleet will consist of from about a score of vessels to Fleets.
two or three hundred sail. The smaller fleets will only be

.:

368 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

temporary fleets, possibly for a few months in the summer,
and not working far away from port, where a few owners
co-operate and each vessel takes her turn to bring in the
fish of the others every day. But the large established
fleets, of which there are several in the North Sea, such as
the Hull, Grimsby, Hewitt's, Lowestoft, Ramsgate, and
others, are generally working all the year round, and are
served by regular steam or sailing carrying vessels. Vessels
join or leave as their time expires, and go to whichever
fleet the owner desires. Such a fleet is commanded by an
admiral, usually selected by the principal smack-owners for
his superior qualities or experience. He flies a distinguish-
ing flag and signals his orders to the fleet when to shoot
the gear, and when to haul, tack or otherwise, and in some
fleets, what is most important, decides whether the weather
is fit for the vessels to get out their boats to convey the fish
to the steamer or cutter, which is waiting to convey them
to market. This rule is rigidly adhered to in some fleets
by special orders from the owners. The admiral also
leads the fleets to various grounds wherever he judges best.
In some cases he is paid by weekly wages, a share of his
own catch, and fifteenpence for every hundred packages of
fish caught by the fleet ; in other cases half-a-crown for each
time the fleet shoot their gear by his orders, or other similar
methods. There is generally a second admiral in the fleet
who is appointed to take charge in case of accident, or
when the admiral in command leaves the fleet for home,
his time being expired.

Coopering. It is at these fleets that so much harm is done by the
system known as " coopering," which is usually carried on
by vessels sailing under a foreign flag, which are nothing
more than floating grog and tobacco shops. They dispose
of their goods either for cash, stores, or clothes of any kind,

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 369

thus sometimes inducing crews to part with their spare
nets, sails, anchors, &c., which they get replaced by sending
to their owner by the carrier to send out fresh nets or
other things, as " the others have been lost," and sundry
other excuses. But the evil does not end here, for some-
times three or four masters will order out their boats and
meet on board the cooper, giving orders to their respective
vessels to lay by them, sending back by each boat a quan-
tum of spirits and tobacco to keep the mouths of the
remainder of the crews closed. The result of this has
often been that all have got helplessly intoxicated, thereby
endangering their own lives, the lives of others, and the
property of the owner, besides losing the night's fishing.
Sometimes it has happened that in the night the smacks
have got parted from the company of the cooper, and the
next day has to be devoted to finding the master again, and
possibly the mate too, who are on board the cooper. Some
of these vessels are almost as luxuriously. fitted up as a gin
palace, with mahogany glass-racks, mirrors and couches,
almost incredible to those who have not witnessed it.
Only this year (1882) a trawl-net belonging to a Yarmouth
owner was discovered at a northern English port, which on
investigation turned out to have been brought there by a
vessel belonging to the latter port. This vessel had been
coopering during the summer months, and taken it in pay-
ment for contraband goods. The merchants on the other
side are very accommodating to vessels wishing to go into
this trade; they supply goods on credit, sale or return,
simply causing the cooper to insure them against loss.
Winter does not suit this trade, owing to the bad weather
usually experienced in the North Sea, and the consequent
difficulty of boarding, and the long dark nights. It has
been suggested that if fishing vessels were allowed to have

VOL. I.— E. 2. 2 B

370 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

tobacco out of bond it would stop' this traffic, as this is
the excuse made for boarding these coopers, and then
purchasing spirits ; but if this were done it would practi-
cally fail in its object, as there would still be the excuses
of buying Eau de Cologne, Dutch drops, meerschaum
pipes, concertinas, &c.

The writer may here describe one way in which he has
witnessed this traffic carried on. It can only be done in
very fine weather or calms. The smacks lash them-
selves alongside the cooper and drift about with her. Com-
munication from one vessel to another is thus made easy.
Concertinas and dancing form part of the amusements. On
one occasion a few years ago, no less than twenty-one vessels
were thus lashed together. The old well-known cooper, the
" Long Betsy," as she was called (since lost), was about the
centre of the lot, and at one end another cooper, a Dutch
snib, had taken up her position. These lay becalmed in
this way for four days and nights. During one of these
nights a man of war, bound from the Baltic to the Downs,
hove in sight, and not being able to understand the long
row of lights and the noise, sent her steam launch to
ascertain what it was. There is a regular vernacular
or slang in this business both among sailors and fisher-
men, such as, " Can you dress a hat ? " meaning, Do
you want to buy any contraband goods? and other
phrases of like nature.

Carriers. The carriers are sometimes owned by salesmen, who

convey the fish to market as well as sell it, at a fixed com-
mission for the whole service, including the use of packages,
or simply convey it at a charge to market to the order
of another salesman. At small fleets the vessels frequently
take it in turn to bring in each other's fish.

Mackerel fleets are sometimes formed on this principle,

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 371

but as a rule drift boats and codders work independently.
Oystermen work as a rule in small fleets, but they, of course,
can keep their catch alive for a long time.

This brings us to the various methods which are em- Curing at sea.
ployed in curing or preserving fish at sea. Trawl fish are
invariably iced. Herrings, unless brought in fresh, are
either dry-salted loose, or put into barrels and pickled with
salt, making their own brine; this latter plan is the
exception on board English craft, but the rule with Dutch
and French boats. Codders either keep their fish alive in
a well in the centre of the vessel, or make a salt-fish voyage,
when all are salted. Mackerel are generally brought jn
fresh the second or third day according to the weather,
but an idea is now gaining ground of providing these boats
with refrigerators, so that when the catches are small they
can stay on the grounds longer than they otherwise could.

In connection with the fleets a most important point Ferrying and

boxing or

is the ferrying of the fish from the fishing vessel to the trunking.
carrying vessel. A good deal of attention has been
attracted to this, owing to the loss of life which has occurred
through it. After the fish is caught by vessels of the
fleet and packed in boxes, it is necessary to convey it to
the carrying vessel which is waiting to convey it to market.
For this purpose the small boats must be launched. As
a rule these are very strong, safe boats, about 1 6 to
1 8 ft. long, and of good depth and beam, and as good as
possible for the purpose. The fish is then put into the
boat and two or three hands are sent to board the carrier,
the smack looking out to pick them up again when they
have delivered the fish. It will now be asked, if the boats
are so suitable, what is the cause of the loss of life ? It
may be attributed to the following causes. The attempting
to ferry when the weather is not fit ; the overloading of

2 B 2

372 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

the boats to save making two trips to the carrier, and con-
sequently, not leaving enough freeboard, and further,
preventing those in charge from having sufficient room
to manage the boat properly ; the breaking of tholes ;
the sending of inexperienced hands in charge, which is
caused in some instances by experienced men, who, know-
ing the danger, if no rules are laid down, ship on condi-
tion that they shall not be liable to go in the boat for
ferrying purposes. The principal loss of life from this
cause will be found to have occurred at the fleets which
fish most northerly. And this for two reasons : one that
there is invariably more sea, the other that these fleets
get heavier catches in the shape of offal fish (princi-
pally haddock), and the boats are overloaded to avoid
making two trips. The more southerly fleets, which fish
principally for prime, seldom get more in one night now
than a boat will fairly carry. As before remarked, in some
fleets the admiral is charged with the duty of signalling
whether the weather is fit to board the carrier or not. If
he signals " No," the carrier hoists the same flag, and refuses
to receive any fish, should any one try to disobey the
admiral's order, which is seldom the case.

A few points of importance may here be noticed.
The greatest loss of life will be found to have occurred
where the fleets are tended by steam carriers. Where
sailing cutters are employed the sails are so set as
just to keep the vessel steady and "dodging" ahead,
whereas in steam carriers the propeller would have to be
kept going to do this, and would be dangerous to the
boats hanging on.* It must be borne in mind that
this boarding is not merely two or three boats going

* The steamer's sails are sometimes set, but are only of use to
steady her, and cause her to blow to leeward.

•

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 373

alongside at a proper gangway and methodically dis-
charging their freights one after another, it is more like a
swarm of bees round a hive. The steamers have ropes
hung round them for the boats to hold on to, the boats
race to get their freights delivered quickly and hang to
the steamer to windward as well as to leeward and
astern, and pour their fish on to the steamer's decks,
these being sometimes piled higher than the bulwarks.
Other boats come alongside, and finding all the proper
ropes' already taken up are obliged to make their own
tinters fast where they can. The result of this is
it the fish is poured on to the steamer's deck faster
in it can be stowed below. The steamer all this time
dropping to leeward faster than the boats alongside,
rhich get their heads turned to the steamer's stern. The
master of the steamer then seeing that he is getting over-
done, and that more boats are on the point of coming along-
side, steams ahead to get clear of them by leaving them to
leeward. He will perhaps chop away all the boats' painters
which are made fast to the steamer and not to the proper
ropes. Those boats that are allowed to hang on are then
towed ahead without having time to turn their heads to
the steamer's head, and are consequently towed sharply
round. Sometimes they get thawt-hawse one another, or
the ropes foul and they are thus capsized. Men on board
the steamer, whose boats are cut away have to get back
to them as best they can. Those boats on the point
of reaching the steamer, being left to leeward, have to
make for their vessel again to be towed to windward of
the steamer and make a second trial, which is a double risk.
The boats being well loaded pull heavily, and the tholes
are often broken ; these should be made of metal and
attached to the boat. It is true that the masters some-

374 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

times go in the boats themselves, but this is as a rule in fine
weather, when, as has been well said, "you cannot kick
them out of the boat." They go aboard the cutter or
steamer and meet other masters and spend the time
having a quiet pipe or glass of grog. But in bad weather
the master will go below, make out the " note," bring it up
and hand it to the mate or one of the crew, and no further
order is necessary to board the carrier. If legislation or
rules should be hereafter framed dealing with this point,
it would be well to make one standpoint, and that is, that
no ferrying should be carried on while less than a one-
reefed mainsail is set. Also that the signal to board should
at no time be given unless the cutter has spoken the
admiral and both are agreed on the fitness of the weather.

Trunking is the term applied to fetching empty boxes
from the carrier. In this case boats are frequently so
overloaded as to leave no room for the management of
the boat. Some will pile them up two deep above the
gunwale all over the centre of the boat. One man has just
room in the bows to look out for the rope when the smack
picks them up, the other is aft, perhaps sculling, or allowing
the boat to blow where she will. When the smack heaves
them a rope, it is sometimes missed by the bowman and
got by the sternman, who cannot pass it forward owing
to the boxes, and the boat is in consequence towed stern
first. Some owners, where six or seven hands are carried,
always cause three hands to man the boat, but this is
not the rule.
Duration of The duration of the voyage of a trawler when fishing

voyages.

with the regular fleets will vary, according to ports, from
six to eight weeks, during which time she will not return
to port except in case of severe accident to any of the crew
or to the vessel ; in case of slight accident, or provisions

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 375

*

running short, the master will send a letter to the owner

by the carrier, who will send off to him by the same means
whatever is required ; or in the case of the carriers running
to London, then by the next vessel leaving the port to
join the same fleet. The voyage of a trawler, when single
boating on various parts of the coast, depends on the
catch of fish, the quantity of ice on board, and the weather,
and will vary from three days to a fortnight. The voyages
of drifters on various coasts are from one to six months,
but of course these vessels are frequently in and out of port,
as they, like single-boating trawlers, bring in their own
catches. It would be almost impossible for them to do

therwise, except, as is sometimes done in the mackerel
fishing, when the catches are small ; then one boat will
bring in the catches of the others. A codder, if weather

ermits, will generally remain away till the well wherein
the fish are kept alive is full ; or in the case of making
a salt-fish voyage, when all the fish caught are split
and salted, the vessel will perhaps remain away till it is
full.

Having thus briefly described the principal portion of the Return to

a doings of the vessels, the next thing to glance at will
be the return of the vessels to port to dispose of their fish.
In this, as in other branches of the trade, there is no

meral rule, so a description of the various plans is desir-
ible. In Scotland herrings are sold by the cran measure,
which contains from 800 to 1000 herrings according to the
>ize of the fish ; but the boats here are nearly always hired,
perhaps nine or twelve months beforehand, by the curers,
who give a sum of money as a bounty, reaching in some
cases to nearly £50 for first-class boats. The curer then
agrees to take up to a stated quantity at a fixed price.
If the season is a good one, and the quantity agreed for

376 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

is taken, a fresh price will probably be arranged for a
further stated quantity. Line fish, such as haddocks,
sillocks, cod, &c., would be sold by the cwt. But in
England the usual system in the case of trawl fish is to
sell by the package on the spot, or to send away to
a salesman at an inland market. Herrings are always sold
when landed, by the last of 10,000, which consists of 13,200
fish, or by the 100, which consists of 132 fish, which number
arises from an old custom which had for its intention that
the price per 100 to the public should be the same as the
wholesale price, and the profit of the wholesale buyer or
curer was to be sixteen fish, and that of the retailer sixteen
fish. The sales are sometimes effected privately, but
generally by auction. Discount is allowed in some ports
for prompt payment. Sometimes a salesman sells, and
the owner books the debts, and collects his own money,
thus freeing the salesman from risk of bad debts, in which
case half the usual commission only will be charged. There
has been a good deal of discussion at various times on a
curious anomaly in the law as regards the selling of fish
by auction. For instance, a vessel arrives in port with fish,
these are landed and can be sold by auction by any one
without a licence ; but suppose these same fish were landed
and not then sold, but consigned to an inland town,
or when the wind is light or contrary and the vessel
cannot conveniently reach her port, the fish are landed,
to save market, at the nearest village and sent by cart to
the market, then in either of these cases they must
not be sold by auction by any one who has not an
auctioneer's licence. This certainly is an unnecessary
piece of red-tapeism. Mackerel are sold by the 100 of
1 20 fish because the fish being more valuable ten were
considered sufficient profit for the wholesale buyer and ten

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 377

for the retailer. Line fish, such as cod, haddocks, &c., are
usually sold by the score, except in cases of odd lots. One
great grievance with respect to the sale of fish is, that
foreign vessels are able to catch herrings off our coasts,
bring them into our harbours and dispose of them without
being liable to any duty, whereas an English vessel doing
the same in a French port would have to pay about
thirteen shillings per barrel duty, or in a German port three
shillings. This is obviously unfair, as herrings are not the
produce of any particular country but common to all alike.

Settling up as now practised by the trade is done Settling up.
privately, no official notice being taken, as in the case of
paying off ships' crews. If the fish have been disposed of
at the port where landed, and not sent away for sale
inland, the settlement will very probably take place at the
salesman's office, or in the case of a large owner at his
office, or in the case of a small owner possibly at a public-
house. These settlements are in most cases perfectly
satisfactory, but out of such a large number disputes are
almost sure to occur sometimes. The remedy in this case
has always been the county court, which is not very
satisfactory, being very slow and tortuous.

In England there are no means of ascertaining the exact Value of

fisheries,
number of fishing vessels, and men and boys engaged, but

the following are calculated from the best means at disposal.
ENGLAND, WALES, ISLE OF MAN, 1882. — Registered
and unregistered 1st, 2nd, 3rd class vessels, 15,469, includ-
ing gear valued at £4,698,550 ; 65,795 fishermen employed ;
value of fish caught, £3,682,287. From this amount all
wages, shares and expenses have to be deducted, the balance
only being interest on capital. Besides the above labour,
there would be specially connected with and dependent
on the fisheries about 70,000 more persons, consisting of

378 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

owners, salesmen, buyers, curers (men and women),
ropemakers, twine-spinners, cotton-net operatives, package
makers, sailmakers, shipwrights, caulkers, carters, &c.

SCOTLAND. — The boats here are as a whole much
smaller and less costly than the English, though each year
they are advancing both in size and cost.

The estimate of registered and unregistered boats for
1882 is as follows : 14,809 boats, including gear valued at
£1,398,461; 48,121 fishermen; value of fish caught,
£1,191,871 ; 48,752 other persons in various trades depen-
dent on the fisheries.

IRELAND, 1882. — Registered and unregistered, 9,458
vessels of all classes, including gear valued at £816,640;
34,528 fishermen employed ; value of fish caught, £467,0 14 ;
12,000 other persons in various trades dependent on the
fisheries.

FRANCE, 1881. — 20,617 vessels; tonnage, 153,870;
73,342 fishermen ; value of fish caught (North Sea only),
fr. 96,000,000 (£3,840,000); 30,000 other persons dependent
on fisheries. The shore labour is less in proportion to
England owing to the fish not being prepared and manipu-
lated in so many different ways.

HOLLAND, 1881. — 1021 vessels; 5986 fishermen ; value
of fish caught : —

Herrings . . . 294,500 barrels = Florins 3,534,000 = £294,500
Anchovies . . 15,458 ankers of)

50 kilos] = " "2'8°° = ^

Oysters . . 21,844,672 = „ 1,310,000 = 109,000

NORWAY, 1879. — Value of fish caught on own coast,
£ 1 2,800.

SWEDEN, 1879. — 217 vessels; 1828 men; value of fish
caught, £184,518.

,

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 379

This concludes a brief description of the manner in
which the practical part of the fisheries is carried on under
the present law, which will be of great assistance to the
uninitiated in understanding the next portion of the subject
to be dealt with, which is,

First. The effect of the present law,

Second. The proposed legislation, and what the effect
of it would be, if carried out.

The present law relating to the building of a vessel and Building,
the consequent survey by a Board of Trade officer appears
to work satisfactorily.

Registration is undoubtedly a most desirable thing, but Tonnage.

e effect of the law as it now stands is that, owing to a egls '
want of clearness, a small east coast boat of fifteen tons is
registered, while a Scotch boat of possibly twenty to twenty-
five tons escapes under the pretext of being an open boat.
These craft were formerly open boats, but as the fisheries
have progressed, so the boats have improved both in size
and build, and from being open and half-decked, they
have now got to be practically whole-decked, though
certainly their hatchways are large, on account of the size
and method of working their nets. Besides this, they now
fish farther away from port than they used, and travel to
ports hundreds of miles from home, and yet up to the
present have not come under the law for registration.
At some west country ports, also, hundreds of fishing
vessels are not registered for tonnage, under the same
pretext. An inducement to some owners to keep down
tonnage, and not to register it, is that by being un-
registered they pass for under fifteen tons, and by this means
entirely escape harbour dues at some ports, and at others get
off for a very trifling sum compared with what they would
have to pay if they were registered. Now that the subject

380 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

of registration is under consideration it will be opportune to
consider the iQth section of the Merchant Shipping Act,
1854, which states that, "every British ship must be
registered in manner hereafter mentioned " — " except ships
not exceeding fifteen tons burden employed solely in
navigation on the rivers, or coasts of the United Kingdom."
The question then arises what constitutes the coasts of the
United Kingdom. The Act does not give the information,
and it is a difficult question to answer. The draft of the
proposed addition to the Act of 1854 relating especially to
fishing vessels now (1882) before the public states
(subsection F.) : " That fishing vessels which are exclusively
employed in fishing on the coasts of the United Kingdom
are such fishing vessels as do not proceed to sea for the
purpose of deep sea fishing at a distance of over seven
miles from the coasts of the United Kingdom for a period,
in the case of vessels propelled by steam, exceeding twenty-
four hours, and in the case of sailing vessels, exceeding
forty- eight hours from the time of leaving their last port
of departure for the purpose of fishing." This definition,
emanating from the Government, must be taken as the
correct one, though it may be noticed that it would be very
difficult to carry out, as no allowance is made or rule
stated for bays and headlands. It shows, as may be seen
from the general description of the fisheries before given,
that several thousands of vessels are not registered under
the Merchant Shipping Act as they ought to be. Consider
the number of the Scotch boats alone, which nowadays
proceed nearly 100 miles from land for fishing purposes.
Not these only, which are not registered for tonnage, but
all fishing vessels that are registered, are acting illegally
by proceeding to sea without a clearance or transire,
according to the latter clause of section 19 — a thing which

F

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 381

is totally unknown in the fishing trade. As it has been
ruled by courts of law that no custom can override law it
is evident that either the vessels must be compelled to
clear or the law be altered. As the former is impossible
the latter must be done. Again, it must be noticed that
the words used are "under fifteen tons burden" This
clearly is not tons register, which is the basis on which this
section of the Act is carried out. Article 5 of the Sea
isheries Act of 1868 also distinctly mentions the tonnage
as the burden tonnage, not register.

The effect of the present law as regards the shipping of Shipping of

crews,
crews is practically nil, as crews are not now shipped at

the custom house, as formerly. The agreements are
sometimes verbal, sometimes on a short form, according to
the idea of each owner. The form of agreement for
home trade ships was used for the purposes of agree-
ments by crews of fishing vessels previous to the passing of
the Act of 1880, which practically made these agreements
valueless, and not worth the trouble of going to the
shipping master for. This Act, which came into force on Act of l88a
the 2nd of August, 1880, was intituled "The Merchant
Seamen (Payment of Wages and Rating) Act, 1880." The
very title of this was misleading as to its true contents as a
whole, and it did not appear on the face of it to affect the
fisheries in any way. Notwithstanding this the question
was asked, and a decided answer was given by the Board
of Trade (by whom the Bill was introduced) that it would
not affect the fisheries. The Bill was hurriedly pushed
through at the end of a session and became law before the
fishing trade had been consulted in any way or were aware
of its real contents or objects. As this Act has done
much injury, both morally and pecuniarily, to the fishing
industry, it will be necessary to deal with it at full length, and

382

INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

explain why and how it has so injured the trade which
had previously got along pretty well.

Allotments. The first clause which would affect fishermen, had it
not been entirely set at nought by them, would be section
3, subsection i, which renders it illegal for any seaman
to allot more than half his wages to his wife, or
whoever he may have dependent on him ashore. Now
in the case of fishermen this would be a very great
hardship if it were enforced. For instance, a man goes
to sea for standing wages, say fourteen shillings per week,
and a share, the amount of which can only be determined
at the end of a voyage. He possibly has a wife and three
or four children, maybe more, who require the whole of
this weekly money to maintain themselves. If the law
were enforced, the man could only allot seven shillings
per week, which in many cases would mean starvation.
. There is nothing of particular interest to the fisheries
till section 10 is reached, which relates to desertion
and absence without leave. This, of all sections, is the
most injurious to the fishing trade. The Merchant
Shipping Act, 1854, in section 243, subsection I, ordered
that "For desertion he (a seaman) shall be liable to
imprisonment for any period not exceeding twelve weeks,
with or without hard labour, and also to forfeit all or any
part of the clothes and effects he leaves on board, and all
or any part of the wages or emoluments which he has
-then earned, and also, if such desertion takes place abroad,
at the discretion of the Court, to forfeit all or any part of
the wages or emoluments he may earn in any other ship
in which he may be employed, until his next return to
the United Kingdom, and to satisfy any excess of wages
paid by the master or owner of the ship from which
he deserts to any substitute engaged in his place at a

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 383

higher rate of wages than the rate stipulated to be paid
to him."

In subsection 2 it was ordered that " For neglecting
or refusing without reasonable cause to join his ship, or
to proceed to sea in his ship, or for absence without leave
at any time within twenty-four hours of the ship's sailing
from any port either at the commencement or during the
progress of any voyage, or for absence at any time without
leave and without sufficient reason from his ship or from
his duty, not amounting to desertion, or not treated as
such by the master, he shall be liable to imprisonment
for any period not exceeding ten weeks, with or without
hard labour, and also at the discretion of the Court to
forfeit out of his wages a sum not exceeding the amount
of two days' pay, and in addition for every twenty-four
hours of absence, either a sum not exceeding six days' pay,
or any expenses which have been properly incurred in
hiring a substitute."

So long as this was the law, everything worked satis-
factorily ; but by the Act of 1880 the words in subsection I,
" to imprisonment for any time not exceeding twelve weeks,
with or without hard labour," were ordered to be omitted.
Further, a clause was inserted as follows : " A seaman or
apprentice to the sea service shall not be liable to imprison-
ment for neglecting or refusing without reasonable cause to
join his ship, or to proceed to sea in his ship, or for absence
without leave at any time within twenty-four hours of
his ship's sailing from any port, or for absence at any time
without leave, and without sufficient reason from his ship
or from his duty." Thus imprisonment for desertion by
any seaman or apprentice was distinctly abolished.

Subsection 3 was also inserted, and runs as follows:
" If a seaman or apprentice to the sea service intends to

384 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

absent himself from either his ship or his duty, he may
give notice of his intention either to the owner or to the
master of the ship not less than forty-eight hours before the
time at which he ought to be on board his ship, and in the
event of such notice being given, the Court shall not
exercise any of the powers conferred on it by section
two hundred and forty-seven of the Merchant Shipping
Act, 1854." In subsection 2 of section 243 of the Act of
1854 the words, "to imprisonment for any period not
exceeding ten weeks with or without hard labour, and also
at the discretion of the Court," were ordered to be omitted
by the 1880 Act. Thus imprisonment for neglecting or
refusing to join or to proceed to sea, or for absence within
twenty-four hours before sailing, and for absence without
leave was distinctly abolished. Section 246 of the
Merchant Shipping Act was repealed by this Act, which
gave power to owners or masters and their agents to
apprehend deserters without warrant. In section 247 the
words, "instead of committing the offender to prison,"
were repealed, also section 248, which was a subsidiary
section to 246. By section n the Employers and
Workmen's Act was made to include seamen and ap-
prentices, to whom this Act did not before apply. This
Act permits a man to leave his employment at any time,
but gives the employer the power to sue the employed
for breach of contract and damages.

The foregoing are the principal alterations made by the
Act of 1880, which bear on this question. The Act, as
before mentioned, came into force on the 2nd August,
1880, and soon began to disturb the trade, and raise the
question as to the use of indentures of apprenticeship, as
an apprentice could desert without fear of imprisonment,
and to sue him for damages under the Employers and

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 385

Workmen's Act was absurd, as all he possessed belonged
to his master. The same applies to suing a fisherman for
damages under this Act, as it is impossible for a man with
no home or effects, as is generally the case with deserters,
to pay even £$ damages, which would be a very small
amount, considering that sometimes the average catch of
the boats would be .£50, or even more for one night. The
trade, therefore, found themselves in a fix, and helpless,
e consequence was, that within a month after the Act
came into force, no one being able to understand its real
object, the Board of Trade issued a notice endeavouring to
explain it. The notice ran as follows : —

NOTICE.
Apprentices to Sea Service.

Merchant Seamen (Payment of Wages and Rating) Act,

1880.

" As some misapprehension appears to have arisen with
reference to changes made by the Merchant Seamen's
Act, 1880, in the law regulating the position of apprentices
to the sea service, who may neglect or refuse their duty to
their employers, the Board of Trade think it well to give a
short explanation in the matter.

"I. In first place it is an error to suppose that the juris-
diction in such disputes is remitted to the county court.
A reference to the Employers and Workmen's Act of 1875
(which by the present Act is made to apply to seamen and
apprentices to the sea service) will show that it remains, as
before, with any court of summary jurisdiction, that is, with
the magistrates.

"2. It is true that the imprisonment of apprentices for
' desertion ' or ' neglecting to join,' is now forbidden, but
under the 6th section of the Employers and Workmen's

VOL. I. — E 2. 2 c

386 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

Act, when an order is made directing an apprentice to
perform his duties under the apprenticeship, the Court
may, if satisfied that the apprentice has failed to comply
therewith, order him to be imprisoned for a period not
exceeding fourteen days. It must further be noted that
subsections 4 and 5 of section 243 of the Merchant
Shipping Act, 1854, remain unaffected, and by these two
subsections apprentices are still liable to imprisonment for
wilful disobedience ' to any lawful command ' or for ' con-
tinued wilful neglect of duty.'

" 3. Although an apprentice, by giving 48 hours' notice
under section 10 of the Merchant Seamen's Act, 1880, can
protect himself from liability to be summarily sent on board
by order of a magistrate, it may be contended that the very
fact of his giving such notice constitutes primd facie a viola-
tion of the indenture of apprenticeship, and exposes him-
to be at once taken before a magistrate in order that
his case may be dealt with according to circumstances either
under section 243 of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, or
under the provisions of the Employers and Workmen's
Act, 1875."

This is dated 3rd September, 1880.

Now the Act of 1880 distinctly abolishes imprisonment
for desertion, and that this was fully intended cannot be
gainsaid, and was mainly caused by the pressure of trades
unions, as has since been admitted. Section 2 of the notice
given above cleverly points out the way to evade this by
showing that, notwithstanding the abolition of imprison-
ment for desertion, the apprentice is liable to not exceeding
14 days' imprisonment under the 6th section of the
Employers and Workmen's Act for neglecting to perform
his duties under the apprenticeship. Clearly deserting

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 387

would not be performing his duties, therefore if an appren-
tice deserts and his master can catch him, he cannot im-
prison him for desertion, but by calling it by another
name, viz., " neglecting to perform his duties," he can do
so. This speaks for itself, and is evidently intended to show
how to evade a blundering Act of Parliament. Another
means of evasion is next pointed out by calling attention
to subsections 4 and 5 of section 243 of the Merchant
Shipping Act, 1854, whereby apprentices are liable to
imprisonment for wilful disobedience to any lawful com-
mand, or for continued wilful neglect of duty. Therefore,
again, if an apprentice deserts, it rules that a master may
prosecute his apprentice for desertion by simply calling it
by another name, either " wilful disobedience," or " continued
neglect of duty," and thi* in the face of an Act stating
that an apprentice shall not be liable to imprisonment for
deserting or neglecting to join his ship. Section 3 of this
notice then points out that although the Act of 1880 gives
the apprentice power to give 48 hours' notice to protect
himself from liability to be summarily sent on board by
order of a magistrate, still, should any unlucky apprentice
think proper to avail himself of this thoughtful and kind
privilege enacted by the Act of 1880, he renders himself
liable to be at once taken before a magistrate to be im-
prisoned because he has violated his indenture, by acting
according to the law which empowers him to give this
notice. It must be evident to any one that the effect of this
part of the Act of 1880 has been to put the trade into a
state of great uncertainty. At some ports the magistrates,
acting no doubt under the advice of their clerk, have con-
tinued to imprison for desertion, by looking at it from the
point of view set forth in the Board of Trade notice. At
other ports convictions for desertion have not taken place,

2 C 2

388 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

as masters, solicitors and magistrates' clerks could not see
their way clear to bring forward desertion cases under
another name. One thing is clear, that if it is allowable to
imprison an apprentice, say 20 years of age, for desertion, it
ought to be possible to do the same with his shipmates.

It will now be the proper place to prove the assertion
made at the commencement of this subject, that of all
sections in the Act of 1880 this is the one which has most
injuriously affected the trade. In this trade expedition is
of the utmost importance, owing to the extremely perishable
nature of the fish, and other reasons. Shoals of fish may
be on the coast one day and the next they may be entirely
gone, no one can tell where, therefore, when the fish are on
the coast, there should be nothing to impede the gathering
in of the harvest. It will have been noted that the Act of
1880 applied to seamen as well as apprentices. Let the
case of the drift fishings be taken first. . An owner wants a
crew for his boat, say eight hands, seven men and a boy.
As a rule it is necessary that five of these men should have
been to sea before, so as to be acquainted with their
duties. These are got perhaps with difficulty, the other
two are simply required for their main strength to heave at
the capstan ; therefore most likely the first able-bodied men
who offer themselves will be shipped ; but as this is a
peculiar calling, and only a job of short duration (at all
events on the east coast), perhaps for only six weeks, or it
may be three months, men cannot be found, for the demand
is greater than the supply. Therefore at the various seasons
there is an influx of tramps to these fishing ports, glad to
accept almost any offer, so as to get a meal, and as a rule
almost naked. These men get the berths where no nautical
knowledge is required. But before they can go to sea they
must be provided with suitable clothing, for fishing is not

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 389

like taking a labouring job ashore, it is a calling in which a
man is compelled to be exposed to wind, rain, and weather
night and day, and therefore must be clothed accord-
ingly. Then the question arises, what is to be done ? The
owner wants the man, the man wants the job and clothes,
or at least sea boots and oily clothing. The only way out
of the difficulty is for the owner to provide the necessary
clothing at his own risk, and agree with the men, who as a
le are entire strangers to him, that when they settle
at the end of the voyage the value of the clothing so
upplied shall be deducted from the share which may be
due to them. At some ports the outfitters will supply
clothes to men of this class at their own risk, but on the
understanding that if the man to whom the clothes are
supplied deserts, or does not pay for them, the owner shall
bear half the loss by paying half the amount to the outfitter.
These strangers, being thus provided with sea clothing, do not
always proceed to sea, for it sometimes happens that, if from
bad weather or other cause, the vessel does not leave the port
on the day expected, the men being in possession of this
new clothing, desert, either pawn or sell it for a trifle, and are
possibly not seen or heard of any more. Perhaps the vessel
proceeds to sea as arranged, the owner having fitted out
these men at the last moment with the clothing, and re-
turns to port in one, two or three days ; the men either
don't like the sea, want money, or for some other reason
of their own desert and dispose of the clothes, as before
mentioned. It would be the exception if sufficient money
were due to them after making one trip only, to com-
pensate the owner for the clothes, because where vessels
sail by the share, as these craft usually do, the provisions,
salt, &c., are a first charge on the gross earnings. If it
should so happen that the vessel makes a good commence-

390 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

ment of the voyage, and the men have money due to them,
desertion would be an exceptional thing. Under the
Act of 1854 these desertions did not often take place, for
the would-be deserter had the law against him in the form
of liability to three months' imprisonment with hard labour;
but by the Act of 1880 this was done away with, and the
only remedy an owner now has is to sue the deserter for
damages for breach of contract. If he takes the clothes
which the owner has provided him with, he must be sued
in the county court, as it is not a case of theft theoreti-
cally (though it is practically), but a case of debt. It must
be clear to any one that to sue a man for damages who has
no home and no property but what he stands in, would be
absurd Thus owners have since 1880 been without any
practical remedy against those ofj their crews who, for
their own whims and fancies, desert at any time, no matter
what document they may have signed or agreed to. This
law applies to the crews of all classes of fishing vessels,
and the crews have at present the mastery in this direction.
The losses to owners from this cause having assumed such
large proportions, the President of the Board of Trade con-
sented to receive a deputation of representatives from
various fishing ports to hear their views of the matter ; 156
instances of desertions were brought forward, and these
were only a small portion (as typical cases), and the
estimated amount of loss from these incurred by owners
was £2648. The views of the deputation were expressed,
and the President then put forward as an argument, that if
his gardener left him he should not think of imprisoning
him, he should immediately get another ; or, as another
argument, that when he employed 2000 or 3000 men, if there
were any who did not wish to remain in his employ, he
told them by all means to leave if they wished to do so,

ins

r.

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 391

and he could not understand the idea of compelling a man
to remain in his service. Now this is all very well where a
garden or a factory is concerned, but in these cases the em-
ployer does not find provisions for his men nor yet clothes,
as the owner of a fishing vessel is compelled to do before
they begin work or he knows anything of them, or else to
give up his business for want of hands. Again, the
insinuation by the President as to the insufficiency of the
y of fishermen has no locus standi ; for, as has been
plained previously, the vessels sail on the share system,
and the more money the crews earn the more they receive.
A more equitable arrangement than this could not be made
even in a factory. In a very successful voyage of six
months a boy's share has been known to amount to over
£30, exclusive of his food. It would not do either to pay
these crews by the week, as the calling is totally different to
that of men at work in a factory, where they can be over-
looked. A fisherman when at sea is free from supervision,
and, without some incentive to persevere in the shape of
participation in the profits, would in many cases ruin the
trade. The arguments given above, advanced by the
President of the Board of Trade, will show how difficult it is
for a department to legislate for a trade, of the general work-
ing of which it is ignorant, and much more so of the details,
and shows plainly that it ought to be able to command the
advice oi practical men thoroughly conversant with all
details. The question naturally arises, why was the law
altered, as there were no complaints from the trade nor
any notification that a change was desired in any way ?
The answer is at present a mystery. The trade was in no
way consulted, and to satisfy the whims or fancies of
somebody, a trade that was working comfortably has
been upset, and thousands of pounds have been lost

392 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

to the country, the owners of fishing craft and even the
fishermen themselves as a body, for whole crews do not
desert. It is as a rule some idle or ill-disposed man who
deserts, and by his desertion prevents seven or eight in-
dustrious men who want to go to sea and earn their living
from so doing. If the law were altered because some one
considered that it was hard on the fishermen, he made a great
mistake, for it] has caused many a poor but respectable and
hardworking fisherman to lose many pounds through the
desertion of one idle man, whereas under the old Act an
idly-disposed man would have been compelled to go to sea
and keep his contract. Another fact must here be noted,
that although previous to 1880 a fisherman could be
arrested without warrant, no statistics can be produced
which will show that the power given to owners was
abused ; on the contrary, if statistics were produced, it
would be found that out of the men arrested, or threatened
with arrest by a police-constable for desertion, or refusing
to go to sea, by far the larger proportion have gone to
sea, either on being threatened, or advised to do so
by the magistrates before whom they were taken, a few
only going to prison. In some cases where they have gone
to prison they have frankly admitted that it was for some
purpose of their own, or that they might alter the
commencement, and consequently the termination of their
voyage. No owner ever wished to send any of his
crew to prison when they had done nothing criminal, for
that would be no benefit to him, his great object being to
obtain their services by compelling them to fulfil their
contract ; which is only just, for if a deserter can bring
forward a good cause for his desertion no magistrate will
ever send him to prison. A few alleged reasons for
deserting may here be given. Incompetency of master,

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 393

mate, or of some member or members of crew ; disease
of some member of crew ; state of berths or cabin ; leakiness
of vessel ; hard working of capstan ; gear not in proper
condition, rotten or insufficient ; sails rotten ; master will
stop at sea in bad weather ; drunkenness ; going to sea on
Sunday or not doing so ; mode of sharing ; boat not equal
to others ; made a bad commencement of voyage, and
got into debt for provisions ; lost nets at commencement
of voyage ; want holiday or spree ; don't like the calling,
find it too rough ; are tempted away by a better offer
either of wages or vessel ; don't like being cook ; fear ; object
to salesman ; to extort higher wages ; are used as catspaws
to keep out of the way at sailing time when others of crew
don't want to go to sea. The last two demand some
explanation, as they are frequent causes. The former
occurs at tidal harbours where, if a vessel does not get to
sea at a certain state of the tide, it will be useless for her
to sail till the next day, or when there is a glut of fish
and hands are scarce. For instance, an owner has his
vessel ready for sea, very likely a trawler, where the hands,
or some of them, are receiving weekly wages. A tug is
engaged to tow the vessel to sea at tide time. When almost
the last moment arrives, a man (more frequently two)
steps ashore and says, " Owner, we shan't go unless you
give us (say) two shillings a week more wages." The owner
is thus placed in an awkard predicament, he knows that
if he does not agree to the demand he will not be able to
get hands in their places before the tide is done, therefore,
rather than lose a night's fishing, which would be a much
heavier loss to him, in most cases he concedes to their de-
mand. The latter case is when a portion or perhaps the
whole of the crew, for whims of their own, have made up
their minds that they will not go to sea for a day or two,

394 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

very likely to enable them to stop ashore for a drunken
revel. Two of them will agree to keep out of the way (or
sometimes lots are drawn for this) when the vessel is ready
for sea again. The remainder of the crew agree to stand
by them, so that if the owner or master exerts himself, and
obtains other hands, the other part of the crew will refuse
to go with strange hands, alleging that they are not used
to the vessel, incompetent, &c. ; thus absentees may some-
times be seen watching the vessel from some coign of
vantage, enjoying the mortification of the owner or master,
who may have obtained men to supply their places, and
treating the whole affair as a good joke. A rejoinder to
this complaint may be that under subsection 7 of section 243
of the Merchant Shipping Act, these men are liable for
conspiracy to twelve weeks' hard labour, but practically it
is useless, as it is very difficult to prove the conspiracy
though well known. Under the old Act the men now used
as catspaws would not do this, for fear of being arrested
without warrant or any red-tapeism, and walked off to
prison ; but the abolition of the old Act by that of 1880
has encouraged this practice, and rendered owners practi-
cally powerless. The great difficulty in this question is
that the demand for hands is greater than the supply, and
the nearest industry (though there are wide differences) to
which it may be compared, is the hop-picking in Kent, in
which the hop-growers have a yearly influx of the riffraff of
the East of London, whom they are compelled to employ
for want of better hands. So it is with the fisheries, and
this shows how useless is the argument put forward, that
owners should employ a better class of men. To some sharp-
witted tramps and loafers this Act has opened a means of
living in comparative comfort for months together; for,
having got to know that for desertion they could only be sued

n

,„

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 395

under the Employers Act, some of them have shipped to
vessels without number, living on board till the vessel is
ready for sea, then deserting and shipping to another.
When they begin to get too well known at one port they
tramp to another, and play out their game there, repeating
the same yearly as the voyages come round.

The remedy provided in the Act of 1880 for conveying
a deserter on board was well meant but is practically useless,

r this reason, that when the deserter is found he can claim
to be taken before the court, which he would do on principle,
with a view of defeating the attempt to convey him on
board. This means delay, especially in ports where the
magistrates sit weekly only, and this delay renders the
remedy useless. If the Government will not re-enact the
old law, the only remedy will be to provide means for the
immediate issue of warrants for the arrest of deserters and
the imposition of a fine, or in default imprisonment, though
this will not meet the case as the old law did ; for if a
warrant can be obtained in a quarter of an hour only, it will
give deserters a good chance and encouragement.

The question of Lights is most important and has been the Lights,
subject of special enquiries. The Sea Fisheries Act of 1 868,
which embodied the convention of 1867, ordered that a drift
fishing vessel should carry two white lights, one over the
other, three feet apart, between sunset and sunrise, when the
nets were shot. This was not carried out by France, and
consequently was not generally observed by English vessels.
The Sea Fisheries Act, 1875, supervened to direct that
nothing in the Sea Fisheries Act, 1868, should be considered
to repeal or alter the regulations of the Merchant Shipping
Act, 1862, under which the Order in Council of 1863 was
made. • There were thus three Acts directly bearing on the
question of lights, and in consequence the greatest ignorance

396 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

prevailed as to the proper lights for drift vessels. Trawlers
everywhere were, and have ever since been in the habit of
carrying a white light at the masthead when at work. To
set this right, a joint committee was appointed by the
Admiralty, Board of Trade, and Trinity House, without
consulting the fishing interest in any way, to draw up fresh
regulations for fishing vessels' lights. These were adopted
by Austria, Belgium, Chili, Denmark, France, Germany,
Great Britain, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal,
Russia, Spain, Sweden, United States, and other smaller
states, and were directed by an Order in Council dated 1/j.th
August, 1879, to come into force on the 1st September, 1880.
They were briefly as follows : that a drift-boat at work
should carry on one of her masts two red lights in a vertical
line, one over the other, not less than three feet apart A
trawler at work should carry on one of her masts two
lights in a vertical line, one over the other, not less than
three feet apart, the upper light red, the lower green, and
should also carry the usual side-lights for sailing vessels
under weigh. On this becoming known to the fishing
trade, meetings were held strongly condemning the proposed
system, and memorials addressed to the Board of Trade
from the principal ports asking for -a reconsideration of this
proposed system, whereupon the then President of the
Board of Trade appointed a committee consisting of three
gentlemen, no doubt very able in their own particular way,
but, as was at the time admitted by each, totally unac-
quainted with the practical duties of fishermen or the
working of their vessels.

In reply to questions put to them when being examined
by the select committee afterwards appointed, one gentleman
said he had no experience whatever as regards fishing in
trawlers or drifters. The second said, that not being a sailor

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 397

he could not answer nautical questions. The third admitted
that he had not been in fishing vessels, and that after the
evidence had been received he had taken no further interest,
as he had other occupations, but signed the report as drawn
up by the gentleman from the Board of Trade after he had
" run it over"

And yet it is given in evidence that these three gentle-
men were appointed by the President of the Board of Trade
as a committee of experts. What a delusion ! and what a
careless way for a Government department to deal with a
matter affecting such momentous interests, involving the risk
of thousands of lives and enormous property ! These gentle-
men visited various ports, and informally enquired of persons
interested in the fisheries the grounds on which they had
based their objections to the new rules.

They reported that they saw no reason whatever for
recommending any delay in enforcing the proposed regu-
lations. In one portion of their report they said : "The first
and most important ground of objection they (i.e. the trade)
urged is costs," and yet further on the committee remark :
"We wish to place on record our testimony that the
vessels employed in these fisheries are for the most part
exceedingly well kept up, that the owners and those having
the management apparently desire to make them in every
way efficient for their work." Can it then be supposed, after
thus testifying to such a great desire for efficiency on the
part of owners, that, to complete this efficiency and make
more secure their property (which is never fully insured)
and the lives of their crews, they would cavil at the cost
of even four extra lamps, if they could see it would be an
extra security, of which from their practical knowledge and
experience they certainly ought to be the best judges ? In
consequence of continued opposition, and notwithstanding

393 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR_ THE

the recommendations of this committee (which stated that
they saw no reason for delay), which were made on the iQth
February, 1880, a supplemental Order in Council was passed
on the 24th March, 1880, putting off the coming into force
of the objectionable part of the proposed regulations till
the ist of September, 1881, instead of September, 1880, as
originally proposed. On the 25th May, 1880, it was ordered
" that a select committee be appointed to enquire into the
objection urged by persons connected with the fishing
industries against the new regulations as to lights for fish-
ing vessels." This committee was nominated on the ist of
June, 1880, and consisted of thirteen Members of Parliament,
who held a most exhaustive enquiry at twenty of the
principal ports of the United Kingdom, and who on the
I4th July, 1880, recommended that trawlers should be
allowed to carry one white light, as they always had done,
and that drifters should be distinguished by two white
lights. In consequence of the difference in the reports of
these two committees the original Joint Committee was
reappointed, and on the 5th January, 1881, they agreed
that drifters should carry two white lights, and that
trawlers should carry a red light at the foremast head and
a white light in any position in the after part of the vessel
where it can best be seen. In consequence of continued
opposition, and questions being asked in the House of
Commons, the Joint Committee met again on the 3Oth
March, 1881, and confirmed their immediately previous
recommendation. Thereupon the Board of Trade wrote to
the Foreign Office asking them to ascertain from the
Governments of France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark,
Germany, Norway and United States, what their views
were on the subject generally, and especially upon the
question, whether the distinguishing light of a trawling

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 399

vessel when at work should be a single white light, or a red
light at the masthead, with a subsidiary white light shown
aft anywhere above the gunwale. A similar circular to the
same effect was addressed to shipowners and others. Now
it is hardly to be credited, but it is a fact, that the shipping
department of the largest maritime power in the world
issued these circulars to foreign powers and shipowners,
asking their opinions on two proposals for a system of
trawlers' lights, respecting one of which they had never
ascertained whether it could be adopted. They sent out the
circulars first, and afterwards heard that one system could
not be practically adopted (viz., the white light above the
gunwale aft). To these circulars 1 16 answers were received,
46 were for the white light which has been in use from time
immemorial, and 70 in favour of the masthead red light
and a white light aft above the gunwale, which is im-
practicable. Since this a fourth proposal has been made
to the departmental committee, to the effect that trawlers
at work should carry a red masthead light 6 feet vertically
over a white one. This, again, to any one at all acquainted
with trawling shows an almost incredible amount of igno-
rance. All the time this question has been in course of
discussion the periods for the coming into force of the
proposed legislation have been staved off by Orders in
Council through the Board of Trade, and as matters now
stand, no alteration can be made till 1st September, 1883.
This brief allusion to the lights question will show that,
however willing and anxious a department may be to
legislate for the benefit of this most peculiar trade, it
cannot do so successfully and beneficially without first
consulting and securing advice from persons who have
practical knowledge of it, whether ashore or afloat. One
nautical gentleman who was concerned in one of the

400 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

committees, on being shown a trawling smack, asked
the question, "Where are the yards?" — things entirely
unknown in our English trawlers. Again, when the latter
part of article 7 of the existing Regulations is con-
sidered, which runs as follows : " Fishing vessels and open
boats when at anchor or attached to their nets and
stationary shall exhibit a bright white light," how absurd it
appears ; for what craft are there that are ever stationary
when attached to their nets ? for even in a calm a trawler
will have her gear at her side, and a drifter will be drifting
with the tide ; it would only occur in the exceptional case of
a trawler fast to a wreck or rock or otherwise ; and this
article is the only one referring to fishing vessels, and was
evidently intended originally to apply to them when at
work and practically helpless. It was evidently meant to
convey that all vessels under command must avoid them.
There can be no doubt that many a fishing vessel has been
run down and sunk from either of the following causes :
1st. The frequent practice of ships trying to get close to
fishermen to ascertain the bearings of the nearest headland,
and in doing so running them down. 2nd. The practice
of many steamers not altering their course till the very
last moment, and driving against time in thick or clear
weather ; as it frequently occurs that when masters of
steamers make slow passages, they are politely informed
that their services are no longer required, and so they are
virtually forced to this driving — "It is not compulsory
only they must." When these go-a-head steam vessels
,are required to answer smartly to their helms, they
will not always do so, and the consequence is that
the fishing vessels get sunk and no more heard of. If
these two practices were given up, fishermen would
run considerably less risk of collisions. As regards look

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 401

outs there are both good and bad on board all classes of
vessels, this to a great extent depending on individuals and
circumstances. A point which was overlooked, when the
lights question was under consideration, was the manner
of the working of foreign trawlers. It was shown in
evidence as regards the pointing of an English trawler's
head, how that in a light wind she would hang off the wind
more than in a breeze, but it was not shown, how that
foreign trawlers, as a rule, trawl bodily to leeward for
various reasons, one alleged reason being that they catch
more fish of the skate tribe, by so doing, than of the fish
known in this country as " prime/' the former being highly
prized on the continent. Therefore, in this case, the
pointing of a vessel's head would be at a right angle to the
direction she was moving in, making the use of side lights
(as proposed) more deceptive than in the case of English
trawlers. There can be no doubt but that the system of
one white light for trawlers, and two for drifters, as has been
in use for many years, without any extraordinary number
of collisions, ought to become law. Since these new
regulations have been staved off from year to year, special
notice has been taken of all casualties to fishing vessels,
and no unusual amount of these can be brought forward
to show that these lights are dangerous, or that any change
is required. Pilot cutters, which number only about one to
every hundred fishing vessels, should carry a red and a
white mast-head light, to correspond with the colours of
the flag they fly in the day-time. One white light would
then have for its signification, a vessel with one net, or
trawler ; two lights would signify a vessel with more than
one net, or drifter. It is only too true that in some cases
both pilot cutters and fishing vessels do not trouble
themselves to alter their working lights and carry their
VOL. I.— E. 2 2 D

402 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

proper side lights when not at work. They may some-
times be seen actually running into port under their fishing
or piloting light. These cases ought to demand the special
attention of cruisers and port officials, and should be
followed by heavy penalties. But it has been asked, Why
can pilot cutters carry two mast-head lights when it is
argued that smacks cannot do so ? It is answered in this
way, that pilot cutters are always free agents, can cruise
about or lay to as they like, and are not subject to the quick
and sharp motion of a trawler towing her heavy gear along.
Trawlers Next for consideration is the effect of the laws as regards

versus drifters. ,

trawlers and drifters when at work, but it must be brief, as
a Convention was signed on the 6th of May 1882 at the
Conference at the Hague. This awaits ratification, and will
in some points materially alter the present unsatisfactory
state of things. Suffice it therefore to say that up to the
present time the law has been very onesided, and in favour
of the drifters, and ofttimes the owner of a trawler has
paid to a drifter for damage done to nets a claim which
he did not consider just, rather than go to court with
the matter, knowing that the law would be interpreted
against him. The law as it now stands says, "Trawl
boats shall not commence fishing at a less distance than
three miles from any boat fishing with drift nets, or
having shot their nets shall not come nearer to such boats
than the distance above mentioned." This is immediately
after qualified by the following : " No boat fishing with
drift nets shall shoot its nets so near to any other boat
which has already shot its nets on the fishing ground so as
to interfere with its operations." This being now on the
eve of repeal it is not worth while to discuss it further.
The law which is proposed in place of it will be dealt
with further on.

ci

:,

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 403

The present law regarding the settlement of salvage and Salvage and
damage cases is not satisfactory. At present the County
Court Judges and the Justices of the Peace have concurrent
jurisdiction. These are assisted by nautical assessors,
who are usually wholly unacquainted with fishing from a
practical point of view. It would be much better that
there should be a fishery authority at each port, with power
to call in assessors who are practical fishermen, and who
should be chosen, as far as possible, from all branches of
the industry, viz., trawl, drift, and line, and take these
practical matters quite away from the County and Magis-
trates' Courts, but giving power to appeal to a higher Court.
They could then be dealt with summarily and practically.

The effect of the present law as regards the lettering Letters and
and numbering of boats would be good, if it were carried m
out in its entirety. But it is not. It would be far better
if it were extended to all shipping for purposes of identifica-
tion in cases of damage, disaster, or foundering. At least all
vessels should be compelled to have their names painted on
the luff of the bow, not in their eyes, as is now frequently •
the case, where it cannot be read from a broadside view.
It is also desirable that two-ended or duck-sterned boats
should have their names and ports painted on uniformly,
such as the name of the vessel on the port side, and the
name of her port on the starboard side. It does not
matter much which way it is, provided there is uniformity,
so that it may be always known on which quarter to look
for the respective names.

The method of shipping and making of agreements with Agreements,
crews of fishing vessels having already been fully explained,

is hardly necessary to remark that the effect of the law
on this point is practically nil, and, in fact, that as the
Act of 1880 gives power to a man to break his agreement

2 D 2

404

INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

after he has made it, the making of agreements has been
virtually abolished, and entirely new legislation is required
for this. This will also apply to the indentures and binding
of apprentices.

Under the present law power is given for orders in
Council to be made at any time, which shall alter
and revoke regulations which are law. The effect of this
has been to harass the trade in several instances, through
these Orders in Council having been issued at the instance
of a department totally ignorant of the requirements of the
fishing interest. Take a couple of instances only. The
Order in the Council made on the lights question. As
soon as a Select Committee was appointed to report on it,
it was instantly condemned. The Order in Council direct-
ing that all decked fishing boats should have on board
the same cubical accommodation for their crews as is
directed to be provided for the crews of cargo ships. As
has been pointed out, had this been enforced, there
would be no space left on board a fishing vessel for the
necessary gear and stowage required. This power should
no longer be allowed to exist in face of the absurd and
injurious results it has produced.

Some amendment in the present law of mortgaging
fishing vessels would be desirable, with a view to prevent
the frauds which occur from time to time under the
present law. More publicity is required, so that the real
interest which a reputed owner has in a vessel may be
ascertained more readily than by searching the Custom
House register by fee. It sometimes happens that two
men agree to purchase a vessel, but yet not risk all
the capital invested, so one takes the place of mortgagee
to a large amount, the other the place of registered owner.

Gear and stores are then ordered by the registered

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 405

owner, and it frequently occurs that he becomes insolvent,
either in form or in reality. The mortgagee then seizes
the vessel and obtains the benefit of all the gear and
stores put on board by the reputed owner. In a drifter's
case, more especially where the nets are constantly being
changed, the mortgage may have been made when there
were a lot of old nets on board, and the vessel seized with
a fleet of nearly new nets, which have been obtained by
the reputed owner, though no one can prove it. Thus a
facility is offered to unprincipled men to embark in the
fishing trade without risk of much or even any loss, the
merchants and tradesmen having to suffer. Gear ought,
therefore, to be excluded from mortgages. Another point is
that some more easy method is required of recovering moneys
due to crews, in cases where a salesman is mortgagee. It
sometimes occurs that a master of a boat makes a good
voyage ; he is then offered a vessel to work out at a high
price by the salesman, on his investing the results of his
good voyage. The offer is usually jumped at, even if the
price is high. The next voyage does not prove so success-
ful, and perhaps the owner finds himself unable to meet
his creditors. The salesman, who is also mortgagee, holds
what moneys the fish caught during the voyage have
realised, looks after himself and retains this money on
account of his mortgage, the mortgagor being possibly
under an agreement to that effect. When the crew look
to the owner to settle up, he has no money for them.
The matter then turns to a complicated point of law,
which fishermen, as a rule, are not able to go into, and the
consequence is they lose their earnings. The legal points
are, as to the relation the salesman bears to the crew, who
are generally by the share, and thus partners, but yet have
had nothing to do with the appointing of the salesman,

4o8 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

or numbers commenced from the second cloth from the
leech of the sail and to be painted on at right angles to
the cloths, and the number on one side of the sail to
be immediately below that on the other, the measured dis-
tance of two-thirds of the sail being the centre (Fig. I, red),
as very often when numbers are painted one over the
other, though on opposite sides of the sail, they show
through and cause both sides to be an illegible mass
(Fig. 2). They should also always be put on so as to read
from right to left, as, sometimes, they are simply painted
over on one side, the reverse of the other, to save trouble.
If these suggestions were carried out the number would
always be in one prominent position, and not on all parts
of the sail, depending on the reefs, which vary so much
in different classes of vessels ; and in the case of vessels
in a heavy sea would be discernible, whereas, if it were as
low as the close reef most likely it would not be. A
Dutch bomschuit has only two reefs of three feet each in
her mainsail which is about forty feet on the leech, so that
if the number was only placed immediately above the
close reef it would be only nine feet from the deck instead
of about thirty feet under the above proposal. The same
also applies to a great extent to French chasse-marfe
trawlers ; as well as to many of our own lug-rigged
fishing vessels. The fashion now is to have only one reef HI
the foresail and that would be about six feet from the deck.
If more reefs are required the large mizen is set on the fore-
mast and the second or drift mizen on the mizen-mast. This
class of vessel has no mainsail, and so, strictly speaking, is
not included in the Convention. This is another practical
omission, as it leaves it optional for luggers to have their
letters and numbers on foresail or mizen, which should
not be. There is here also an omission to provide against

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.

/HOD*

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 409

a constant irregularity, which occurs among fishing vessels
in this respect ; it is this : Fishing vessels frequently
damage their mainsails, and out of such a large number of
vessels this must frequently be expected. The rule in this
case is not to lose time by waiting for it to be repaired, but
to borrow a sail either from the sailmaker's, or a fellow-
owner, or, where an owner has two or more boats, to
substitute a sail belonging to any other of his boats
which does not happen to be in use. This sail of course
is numbered, and this number does not agree with the
number of the boat borrowing it, therefore, under present
circumstances, she is acting illegally by going to sea in
this manner. It would be impracticable to alter these
numbers as often as this occurs, therefore, to enable a
vessel of any nation legally to proceed to sea under these
circumstances, the master or owner of such vessel should
be compelled to apply to a proper officer for a permit,
which should be issued with the particulars of the cause
of its issue stated on it, and a copy should be retained
by the officer. It should be granted for a reasonable time,
according to the nature of the cause, and it should be
compulsory for the master or owner to deliver it up at the
expiration of the time, or as soon after as the vessel
returns to port, under a penalty. It should be renew-
able, if required, on reasonable grounds, or, if the cause of
it is removed before expiration, immediate notice of same,
with return of permit, should be given by the owner or
master. Then, in case of damage or offence, the vessel
could be easily identified, or in the case of a cruiser
overhauling her, under Article 27, the master could produce
the permit to show that he was acting legally. This
suggestion should extend to any portion of the gear in a
certain manner, as nets are sometimes borrowed in cases

410 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

of heavy loss, or several boats which are not his own
may be netted by one man, and consequently the nets and
bowls will be marked differently from the boat using them.

Article 1 1 contains an expression which is unknown in
fishing terms, it is the "principal floats." It is presumed
that either the netshead corks, or bowls, are intended, but
it would have been better if it were clearer, as it would
puzzle any practical fisherman.

Article 14 orders that "no fishing boat shall anchor
between sunset and sunrise on grounds were drift-fishing is
actually going on," this prohibition " shall not, however,
apply to anchorings which may take place in consequence
of accident or compulsory circumstances." Now, suppose
a vessel in a calm anchors because there is not wind enough
for her to get where she wants, and no drifters are in sight or
near for miles, but during the night a drifter's lights are seen
a mile or more distant on either bow, and the vessel at anchor
judges that the drifter's nets will go clear of him, but makes
an error in so doing, and the poll end portion of the drifter's
nets foul him, who will be responsible for the damage ?
This is applicable also to a great extent to buoys laid down
by telegraph ships. It is a question for argument as to
whether it was compulsory for the vessel to anchor, or the
telegraph buoy to be laid, and in the event of it being proved
that such anchorage was not compulsory, the plea can then
be put forward that when such anchorage took place no drift-
fishing was actually going on. The words " grounds where
drift-net fishing is actually going on " are very indefinite : if
construed broadly they mean the whole North Sea, at certain
times and places, but if narrowly construed, they are of no
value, for no vessel would anchor or telegraph ship lay a
buoy where the drifters could be seen already fishing and
driving down on them.

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 411

As before mentioned, in the present law there is a
qualification of one article by another in the case of trawlers
damaging the gear of drifters or longliners, so in this
Convention, Article 1 5 on the same point is qualified by
Article 19. The former orders that "Boats arriving on the
fishing shall not either place themselves or shoot their
nets in such a way as to injure each other, or as to inter-
fere with fishermen who have already commenced their
operations." The latter orders that : " When trawl fisher-
men arrive in sight of drift-net or long-line fishermen they
shall take all necessary steps in order to avoid doing injury
to the latter. Where damage is caused the responsibility
shall lie on the trawlers, unless they can prove that they
were under stress of compulsory circumstances, or that the
loss did not result from their fault." Thus, if a trawler has
shot his gear and a drifter afterwards arrives in the same
locality and shoots his nets, so that there is a likelihood of
their becoming foul of the trawler, this latter vessel is bound
by Article 19 to take all necessary steps to avoid doing
injury to the drifter, which, in most cases, means to haul up
her gear, and take herself off and suffer a loss, and yet, by
Article 1 5, the drifter has broken the law by arriving on
the ground and shooting her nets in such a way as to
interfere with a fisherman who has already commenced
his operations. The protection given in Article 15 to a
vessel which has commenced operations holds good in the
case of a drifter, but in the case of a trawler it is
virtually withdrawn by Article 19. This is obviously
unjust, and open to much argument in case an action for
damages is brought by a drifter against a trawler. Or,
suppose a foul occurs in hazy weather, the question of
damages under Article 15 of this Convention resolves
itself into the time at which either vessel shot its

412 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

gear, the one which shot last being the responsible
one.

. The different classes of vessels often want to work
the same ground, as where herrings are there are
generally bottom fish, especially soles, when the herrings
are spawning, as they are greedy fish for herring spawn
as food. It has been suggested that the sea should
be mapped into districts, but the difficulty would be to
prove in cases of claims for damages (which generally
occur at night) as to which vessel was in her right district.
And again, it is well known that during some seasons the
drift fish will lie near the coast, at others many miles have
to be traversed before the shoals of fish are reached, so
that practically it would be necessary to map off the greater
part of the sea for the drifters during the greater part of
the year, which would not be practicable. If trawlers are
to be compelled to give way to drifters, even though they
are fishing before the drifter or longliner arrives, surely
some sort of compensation ought to be recoverable by a
trawler from a drifter or longliner which compels him to
haul his gear and lose his time. Again, in Article 20 it
is ordered that, " when nets belonging to different fishermen
get foul of each other they shall not be cut without the
consent of both parties. All responsibility shall cease, if
the impossibility of disengaging the nets by any other
means is proved." Therefore, if a trawler, who shot first,
gets entangled with a drifter, the trawler will not break the
law any how, if he cuts the drifter's warp, as this is not
mentioned in the article ; and having done this the net rope
would break and the net tear through, and the trawler
would get clear, and could in this case plead that the loss
sustained by the drifter did not result from his fault under
Article 19, and that the nets could not be disengaged by

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 413

any other means than cutting the warp of the drifter under
Article 20, or even that he did not cut the drifter's " nets."
If Article 20 had the words " fishing gear," inserted instead
of the word " nets," it would be much less open to contro-
versy. In moderate weather it is often possible (and has
been done many times), for a trawler, when foul of a drifter's
fleet of nets, to cut the drifter's warp, unbend at the nearest
net's head, pass the ends of the drifter's warp on either side
of his rigging, knot the warp (or even splice a piece in,
in some cases), and thus pass through the drifter's nets with
a minimum of damage. But this has not been done by
trawlers in many instances where it would have been
possible for them to do so, owing to the feeling that the
trawler had as much right there as the drifter, and that he
must take the consequences.

Article 16 appears to be clear in section I and 2, but
section 3 is not quite so clear as it might be ; it runs as
follows. " As a rule if decked boats shoot their nets to
windward of undecked boats which have begun fishing, the
responsibility as regards any damages to nets which may
result, shall rest with the boats which last began fishing,
unless they can prove that they were under stress of
compulsory circumstances, or that the damage was not
caused by their fault." This is a very easy way of getting
over a difficult question. What is implied by the first
three words, " As a rule ? " To say the least of it, they
introduce a doubt into the question at once. Again, what
is the definition of compulsory circumstances ? Who is to
decide it ? Our justices, and county court judges are
ignorant of these matters, and nautical assessors are not, as a
rule, practical fishermen. There are eddies, and sets of tides
in various places, which will set fleets of nets together
under certain circumstances in spite of any efforts to

4H INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

prevent them. These and other peculiarities are only
known to practical fishermen and if it is left open by the
law as to what " compulsory circumstances " are, and non-
practical men are called upon as assessors to decide, it
is impossible for justice to be done in cases of dispute.
Again, suppose a boat either decked or undecked arrives
on the drift grounds where the fish are shoaling, and can-
not find a berth, except by shooting contrary to Article 16,
whichever way it may be, and a foul occurs, would these
be considered " compulsory circumstances," or is the boat
which is unable to find a berth to be condemned for not
having kept its nets in board ? Again, it sometimes
happens that boats, through light winds or other causes,
do not arrive on the grounds before dusk or dark, who is
then to decide as to which boat commenced to shoot first ?
It would have been better if some clause had been inserted
stating which vessel should be the one to go to work
first, in the event of two fleets of nets getting into close
proximity and rendering a foul probable, and specifying
a certain distance, for it sometimes happens that a small
decked lugger which has shot first is compelled to haul for
fear of a larger craft (perhaps with steam capstan) which
shot after her, and is drifting down on her ; as a foul with
the larger craft means the same result for the smaller one
as a collision between a private carriage and a goods
waggon. It will not be out of place here to remark that
the Convention makes no provision for signals to be dis-
played by fishermen to summon a cruiser to their assistance.
These cases of damage nearly always occur at night, when
the cruisers cannot see the vessels, and if authorised signals
could be made by a fisherman for the assistance of a cruiser,
in cases of collision of gear or damage, it would have a
certain deterrent effect on the wrong-doers, as they would

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 415

never feel sure whether, on the signal being shown by the
aggrieved boat, a cruiser might be near, and come to the
rescue. The cruisers should also have 'certain districts
assigned to them, so that they may be spread about the
grounds as much as possible, lying to, or, moving as little
as possible during the night to avoid damaging the drift
nets. Article 21 is as follows : "When a boat fishing with
long lines entangles her lines in those of another boat, the
person who hauls up the lines shall not cut them, except
under stress of compulsory circumstances, in which case
any line cut shall be immediately joined together." There
is here simply a provision as to what is to be done after
long lines have got entangled, and the words, " compulsory
circumstances " are again used without any attempt at
explanation. It would have been better had an article
been introduced, a$ in the case of trawlers and drifters,
regulating as far as possible the shooting of the long lines,
with a view to prevent the entanglement from taking place.
Article 22 provides that " except in cases of salvage and
the cases to which the two preceding articles relate, no
fisherman shall under any pretext whatever cut, hook, or
lift up nets, lines, or other gear not belonging to him."
This is good as far as it goes, but the right to do this
ought to extend to cases where such a proceeding becomes
necessary for the purpose of identifying an offending vessel
whose name or number for sundry reasons cannot be
discovered.

Article 21, section I, provides that : " All fishing boats, all
their small boats, all rigging, gear, or other appurtenances
of fishing boats, all nets, lines, buoys, or other fishing
implements whatsoever, found or picked up at sea, whether
marked or unmarked, shall, as soon as possible, be de-
livered to the competent authority of the first port to which

416 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

the salving boat returns or puts in." Now Article 11
distinctly orders that all gear shall be marked ; and the
very fact of inserting the words "marked or unmarked,"
here seems to be an acknowledgment that the law will not
be obeyed, and is calculated to lead some persons to
consider whether they shall mark all their gear, as
this might be the means of identifying them in case
of their doing damage to another, or whether they shall
not mark their gear, and run the risk of losing it entirely,
through not being able to claim it if picked up, for the
want of such marks. Section 5 of this article says :
"Fishing implements of any kind found unmarked shall
be ' treated as wreck.' " This should have been, 'shall be
liable to forfeiture, so that unless a person could satisfy the
authorities why his gear was not properly marked, he should
lose it, whether salved or in use.

In this section it will be noticed that the term used is
" found unmarked," not as in the first section, " found or
picked up at sea," so that it may be inferred that if the
captain of a cruiser finds nets in use not marked, they
are to be treated by him as wreck. If the idea were
different, the word salved should have been used instead of
"found"

Section 3 of this same article reads as follows: "The
administrative or judicial authorities, according as the laws
of the different countries may provide, shall fix the amount
which the owners shall pay to the salvors." For the sake
of preventing international disagreements it is to be hoped
that our Government, at least, will take steps to insure
that the authorities here named shall be well acquainted
with the value of both English and foreign fishing gear.
At present it would be very difficult to find one of these
said authorities who possesses such knowledge ; many do

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 417

not know the value of English gear in its new state,
much less when it is damaged, as salved gear generally
is to a greater or lesser extent. Difficulties have already
arisen in the case of English nets salved and taken
into foreign ports ; the salvage claimed is frequently
nearly the full value of the gear, thus prohibiting the
owner from reaping any benefit from its having been
picked up.

The latter portion of the 4th section in this article
tends to confirm the above. It says that "the high
contracting parties reserve the right of regulating by
special arrangements between themselves the amount of
salvage at a fixed rate per net salved." This fixed rate
per net from a practical point of view is an absurdity ; for
when drift-nets are salved, it is usually bad weather, and
some nets may be whole, others more or less torn or
destroyed. Then comes the question, what is a net, and
where is the line to be drawn ? In some cases only the
net-rope and corks will be left, and it would not do for an
owner to have to pay for this as a net. If as a net, it will
not answer the owner's purpose ; if not as a net it will not
answer the salvor's purpose. The nets may be new or old,
and it would not be fair to award the same salvage for a
net worth sixty shillings as a net worth five shillings. The
rate of salvage, if fixed at all at a stated rate, would have
to be low to suit the case of old and damaged nets, and if
new nets were salved it would not induce salvors to deliver
them up, knowing that they would only receive salvage
on the value of old nets.

Article 30 provides that " Commanders of cruisers shall
verify the damage from whatever cause arising." This
should be " shall verify that damage has been done, the nature
of same, estimated probable amount, and from what cause it

VOL. I.— E. 2. 2 E

4i8 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

is alleged to have arisen, and give the master of the vessel
whose gear has been damaged a certificate to that effect, which
shall be presented to the proper official at the port to which the
vessel belongs immediately on arrival, that he may have the
opportunity of inspecting the damage done, and certify
accordingly?

From a practical point of view it would be impossible
for any commander of cruiser or even practical man to
judge at sea what damage had been done to nets. It can
only be ascertained properly when the boat arrives in
harbour and gets out her gear. Then a proper examina-
tion and estimate of damage to gear can be ascertained.

Article 37 provides that " the proceedings and trial in
cases of infraction of the provisions of the present conven-
tion shall take place as summarily as the laws and regula-
tions in force will permit." So far so good, but it should
also provide that acknowledged debts under this convention
should be also recoverable in a summary manner in all
ports, as a first charge on the vessel having committed the
damage, and on her stores and gear. This would dis-
tinctly show that the owner is responsible, not the master.
As the convention now stands it does not point out the
party to be sued in international disputes. It simply states
that the offenders shall be tried, and in cases where
pecuniary recompense is required, it would not often be
of any use to sue the master, or even the owner of a mort-
gaged vessel and possibly hired gear. Or suppose damage
has been done by one fisherman to another, and they have
agreed on the amount to be paicl in the presence of the
commander of a cruiser, the debtor would not come under
Article 37, because it would not be a " case of infraction of
the provisions of the present convention," but a compliance
with them under Article 33, which states that "When the

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 419

act alleged is not of a serious character, but has neverthe-
less caused damage to any fisherman, the commanders of
cruisers shall be at liberty, should the parties concerned
agree to it, to arbitrate between them and fix the com-
pensation to be paid. Where one of the parties is not in
a position to settle the matter at once, the commanders
shall cause .the parties concerned to sign in duplicate a
formal document specifying the compensation to be paid.
One copy of this document shall remain on board the
cruiser, and the other shall be handed to the master of the
boat to which the compensation is due, in order that he
may, if necessary, be able to make use of it before the courts
of the county to which the debtor belongs." This word
" debtor " here leaves the question open as to who is to be
considered the debtor in international cases, whether it is
the master who has signed the agreement as to damage
to be paid for, or the owner, mortgagee or vessel. The
remarks made on this convention are sufficient to show
many weak points which it would be better to amend before
the convention is ratified. It is evident that when this was
being framed there was not a sub-committee of practical
men, composing representatives of the various nations
interested, to advise the plenipotentiaries, who cannot be
expected to be practical fishermen, on the practical points.
If this had been the case the convention would have been
the same in spirit, but of much more practical value, and
much more creditable to our Government as the lead-
ing maritime power. If ratified in its present form it is
calculated to lead to international disputes which are not
desirable after such an amount of time has been expended
with a view to avoid them.

The next point for consideration is the draft of clauses Draft clauses
relating to fishing vessels and their crews proposed to be

2 E 2

420 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

inserted in the Merchant Shipping Bill, 1882. This ema-
nated from the Board of Trade in July, 1882, and when it
has been discussed, will show what an immense amount of
ignorance still pervades the official mind regarding the
fisheries. These clauses appear to relate to the three
following distinct matters, viz. : —

Firstly. The granting of certificates of competency to the
masters and mates of fishing vessels.

Secondly. The classing of fishing vessels as foreign-going
ships within the meaning of certain sections of the
Merchant Shipping Act, 1854.

Thirdly. The enactment of regulations in respect of
apprentices and boys under 18 years of age engaged in the
sea fishing service.

Clause C., relating to certificates for masters and mates,
comes first for discussion.

It is difficult to distinguish particular classes of fishing
vessels except so far as they may be engaged in a particular
kind of fishing. A master who is competent to navigate
one class of fishing vessel is competent to navigate any
other class of fishing vessel, as far as surface navigation
is concerned. Drift-vessels often engage in trawling or
lining, and tralwers engage in lining, the same master in
most cases continuing in command. Peculiar knowledge
may be required by the master of a vessel fishing for a
particular kind of fish ; that is to say, the master of a
herring drift-boat should know the habits of and grounds
where to fish for the herring under various circumstances.
The master of a trawler should know the same as regards
trawl fish, and of a liner as regards line fish. But the
examination under the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854,
applies to the knowledge of surface navigation only, and
not to the special knowledge required by fishermen. It

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 421

would therefore be useless to grant a certificate of this sort
in respect of any class of fishing vessels, but if granted at all
should apply to all classes of fishing vessels. The intention
of the framers of this clause is good, but as to the] way
in which it should be carried out, they show a great want
of knowledge of the requirements of the fisheries, or the
way to make this proposal beneficial. To be beneficial
the examination for certificates should include practical
fishing and the duties connected with it. But in this a
distinction of certificates would have to be made in the
knowledge of grounds, for a fisherman brought up in a
Ramsgate trawler would not be acquainted to any extent
with the grounds worked by the Hull trawlers, and vice
versa, and the same may be said generally regarding the
various fishermen and fisheries. It must be borne in mind
that hitherto the Board of Trade have only dealt with
surface navigation ; as soon as they begin to deal with
fishermen, quite a new school is opened, in the form of
bottom navigation among the various rocks, shoals, pits and
holes of the sea, and the various mixtures and colours of
the sand, shingle and mud met with. Certificates will be of
very little use as a stimulus to the fisheries unless these
various subjects are added.

Clause D. — Masters and mates certified under the
Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, are liable to Board of Trade
enquiries, and to suspension of their certificates, in the
event of incompetence being proved. Masters and mates
becoming certified under this draft Bill would therefore
become liable to certain penalties to which they have not
hitherto been subject, and for which there is really no
necessity. For the insurance clubs in which the fishing
vessels are insured partially carry out these penalties at
present, and exercise such a careful and active supervision

422 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

over the masters, that if a master commits any act of
negligence or carelessness, or misconducts himself, and the
owner of the vessel does not discharge him, the club or
clubs in which such vessel is insured will refuse to insure
her, or any other vessel in which the offender may be
employed as master. This course has the effect of making
masters very careful both in their conduct and in matters
of fishing and seamanship. Therefore the portion of the
clause which would impose Board of Trade enquiries is riot
required, unless it were to empower at each port a com-
mittee composed of practical men, elected by the various
insurance societies, to try cases of casualties and suspend
certificates. Each club or society should be allowed to
have one representative on the board for every fifty
members which it represents. This would only be legalis-
ing what is now virtually the system pursued in cases of
casualties.

Clause E. — Many of the masters and mates of fishing
vessels are illiterate, and although quite able to handle and
navigate a fishing vessel, and to feel their way with the lead,
which is the fisherman's practice, would be found quite
unable to pass an examination, unless such examination
were viva voce, or took the form of a practical exhibition of
their knowledge of navigating a fishing vessel at sea. As
it appears desirable that masters and mates of fishing
vessels should have legalised certificates, the period for
making a written examination compulsory should be
extended to seven years. That would give an opportunity
to any who are now boys, and unable to write, to get a
certificate, and those now entering the calling would know
what was before them. During these seven years, after
first having given certificates of servitude to all present
masters and mates, holders of servitude certificates should

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 423

be allowed to undergo voluntarily an examination for a
certificate of competency, in writing if they should so wish,
and the certificate should certify in which manner the
holder passed. The fishing grounds should be, for ex-
amination purposes, divided into districts, and a man
could then pass for navigation generally and for a know-
ledge of one particular kind of fishing, or of all of them,
or of one particular district or of several. If this is done
certificates will be of value to the industry, and if any
of these suggestions are lacking, so will a certain amount of
the utility of the certificates also be lacking. Each year of
the seven years the standard might be raised a little, so that
the innovation should come gradually. The fees for exami-
nation should also be fixed at as low a rate as possible.

Clause F. — This definition of coast vessels is very unsatis-
factory, for all round the coasts may be found undecked,
quarter-decked, and half-decked boats, which would under
this clause become sea-going vessels, which would be an
absurdity, and would from all appearances frustrate the
intentions of the framers of the Act, showing the igno-
rance prevailing on these matters in official quarters. In
some cases open boats of about three tons would become
sea-going vessels.

Clause G. — A voyage of a vessel engaged in the trawl
fishing averages six weeks, being at some ports a month,
at others six weeks or two months. The vessel would be
fitted out with stores and provisions for the full extent of
this time if going to the fleet. If single boating possibly
a few articles would be got fresh from time to time. With
lines for live fish, a voyage generally means the time they
are getting the well full, and is very indefinite, but some-
times the crews ship for a period, which in this case would
be the voyage. With drifters universally the voyage means

424 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

to commence at a certain time, and keep at it, as long
as the fish remain on the grounds, say from one to
three months, so that, in fishing parlance, what is here
termed a voyage is only one trip of the voyage. A
drifter may leave and return to port perhaps four or five
times a week under favourable circumstances if the fish
lie close in. If this were to become law in connection
with the next clause, these vessels would have to clear in
and out at the custom house every time, and at some
ports at certain times fifty clerks, working night and day,
would not be sufficient Vessels frequently arrive in port
at night after the custom house is closed, discharge their
fish and go to sea again in the morning before it is
opened.

Clause H. — There are serious objections to fishing vessels
of any description being classed as foreign-going ships
within the sections of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854,
referred to in this clause. If this were to become law, the
effect would be that fishing vessels within the clause could
not proceed to sea unless the master and mate had certifi-
cates of competency. This would sometimes act very
hardly on fishing vessels, for if the master or mate were
taken ill the vessel would probably be detained ; whereas
it now happens that when the master is taken ill, the mate
usually takes charge, and the next in acting to the mate
takes his place for the time being. If this proposed law
permitted the next in grade to take the master's and mate's
places respectively in cases of emergency for that voyage
only, irrespective of certificates, no injury would be done,
but if this is not done it will often inflict an injury both on
the owner and the rest of the crew. It would also be better
from a practical point of view, because these men would be
accustomed to the working of the vessel and her gear,

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 425

and would really be more competent to complete the
voyage than an entire stranger. Certificated men would
not be likely to be standing about waiting to be shipped,
as inferior hands do, and the time consumed in looking
or waiting for a certificated master would often cause a
vessel and her crew to lose at least one night's fishing,
which would mean sometimes from ;£ioo to £200.

Section 145 of the Merchant Shipping Act, here incor-
porated, provides that apprentices and boys under eighteen,
and their indentures or agreements, should be brought
before the shipping master before each voyage, and taking
this in conjunction with Clause G. of these clauses, this
would be necessary in many cases every other day or so ;
as, whenever the vessel returned to port, the apprentices
and boys with their indentures and agreements would have
to attend before the shipping master. As fishing vessels
frequently proceed to sea immediately they have delivered
their catch of fish, the delay caused by this would be
unendurable. Sections 150 to 154 provide for running
agreements, the need of which is not known under the
present system, as crews ship for the voyage and there the
matter ends ; no alteration in this respect is required, nor
would it benefit anybody.

Section 157 imposes a penalty of £$ for shipping sea-
men without an agreement duly executed, but in practice,
in case of a hand being shipped on an emergency, there is
frequently no time, if the vessel is to save the tide and her
night's fishing, to enter into any written agreement, for the
sailing of a fishing vessel is not of so momentous a nature as
that of a large foreign-going ship ; and it frequently happens,
especially since the passing of the Act of 1880, that a casual
hand has to be shipped at a few moments' notice. In fact,
in large drift-fishing ports there is always a class of men

426 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

standing about the quays looking out for these casual jobs,
their sea-boots on and oily frocks under their arms, ready
to jump on board at once. Further, section 158 provides
for changes in the crew to be reported, under a penalty of
£5, which, if enacted, would cause a further loss of time
to the owners and to the vessel, which means a pecuniary
loss to both owners and crews, and a loss of means of
subsistence to the nation.

Section 161 lays down rules as to production of agree-
ments and certificates of masters and mates to the shipping
master, and would necessitate a clearance inwards and
outwards each trip, and thus redouble the 'delay and loss of
time proposed to be accomplished by the preceding
sections. As despatch is the soul of the fishing industry
the loss which these sections would cause would be
incalculable.

Section 170. — This section provides for the discharge of
seamen and payment of their wages before the shipping
master, under a penalty of £10, and so far as the drift
fishermen are concerned is positively impracticable, inas-
much as two or three days before Christmas at one port
alone about 200 boats, each with a crew of from nine to
twelve hands, are paid off daily, each man receiving his share
of the net proceeds of the voyage according to his rating.
Deductions from the gross earnings on account of provisions
and damages have therefore to be made, and accounts
and vouchers produced. Each of these men will also be
probably found to have had advances made to him on
account of his share, and to have been supplied with
tobacco, clothes, or other necessaries, the value of which
also has to be deducted. At Great Yarmouth a sum of
upwards of £100,000 is annually distributed among owners,
crews, and tradesmen during the fortnight preceding

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 427

Christmas. Were each of these settlements to take place
before the shipping master, it would take two or three
months to discharge the crews, who are mainly composed
in this, as in other cases of men residing within a radius of
twenty miles of the port, and who at the end of their voyage
are anxious to receive their money and to return home.
This proposal is therefore perfectly impracticable, not only
at this, but at all ports, as the rule is similar in a greater or
lesser degree. Besides all this another difficulty would arise
in the following manner. The wages of trawl and line fisher-
men, when they are not wholly or partially by the share,
are either wholly or partially drawn weekly by the person
nominated by the men ; for this purpose a card is given
in most cases to the fisherman when he ships, and on this
card being presented weekly to the owner the money paid
is entered on it. Where this money, in the case of a man
on weekly wages only, is fully drawn every week, a fisherman
at the end of his voyage has frequently nothing to receive,
unless it be a portion of a week. In the case of drifters
and vessels by the share, when a man has money due to
him he generally draws some for the maintenance of
his family or for his own use. If this proposed clause
were to become law, the regular payment of wages to the
families of fishermen would be illegal, and such families
would, in the absence of the breadwinner, be left to starve
or go to the workhouse.

Section 269 appears to be the only one of all the clauses
which is acceptable to the fishing community without con-
siderable alteration. This provides that enquiries should
be made into the cause of death on board foreign-going
ships by the shipping master on the arrival of the ship in
port, and would very properly apply to fishing vessels in
cases of death on board or drowning.

428 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

Section 4 of the Merchant Seamen Payment of Wages and
Rating Act, 1880, also here incorporated, by subsections,
provides as follows: Subsection I. "That the balance of
wages due to a seaman shall be paid him within two days
after he leaves his ship." This, in the case of fishermen
fishing by the share, or of masters or mates of smacks
receiving poundage, would be impracticable, as in the case
of fish being sent away for sale at an inland market,
which is frequently done, the account sales and cash not
being received from the consignee (weekly settlements
being the custom), the balance of such wages would not
be in hand or known, and could not therefore be paid ;
while in the case of drift fishermen the many disbursements
for the voyage might not be known, or the accounts made
up, and therefore the balance due could not always be
ascertained. This subsection, by mentioning the word
"balance," evidently anticipates that advances will have
been made. It therefore qualifies section 170 of the
Merchant Shipping Act, which is previously incorporated,
and which reads in the portions bearing on this point :
"Shall be discharged and receive their wages in the
presence of a shipping master," and any owner who " pays
his wages within the United Kingdom in any other
manner shall incur a penalty not exceeding ten pounds."
Evidently, then, paying a fisherman on account weekly or
otherwise would be illegal under this clause.

Subsection 2, coupled with section 171, of the Act of
1854, provides for the making out by the master of an
account of wages and of all deductions therefrom, being
set out under a penalty not exceeding £$, and no
deduction is to be allowed unless included in the account
so delivered, the master to enter the various deductions as
they occur in books kept for that purpose. Now, as many

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 429

masters are illiterate, it would be impossible for them to
make the entries required, and therefore, until the period
of seven years is passed, all entries required to be made by
the master should be legal if done by some one else at his
dictation ; or in the case of a master not being able to
read, he should be compelled to verify such entries before
a proper officer at stated periods, after the same had been
read to him ; or perhaps, if only one man on board could
write, as is sometimes the case (and sometimes none), and
he were ordered to enter a fine or deduction against him-
self, he might enter it to some one else, or make a different
entry altogether. Further, to enact that no deduction be
made unless it be included in the account delivered to the
seamen, would create hardship, as an error therein could
not then be rectified, and it should be borne in mind that
fishermen sailing by the share are, with the masters and
owners, somewhat in the nature of partners, and errors in
their accounts, as in other partnerships, ought to be open to
rectification. It will not be out of place here to suggest
that all fishing vessels should keep a simple log, of an
approved form, to embrace loss of life, casualties, miscon-
duct of crew, fines, and cash advances, subject, as regards
its being compulsory, to the before-mentioned term of
seven years, after which it might beneficially be made
compulsory.

Subsection 3 provides for the final settlement of the
seaman's wages being left, with his consent, to the Superin-
tendent of the Mercantile Marine Office, and the receipt of
the superintendent to operate as a release under section 175
of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854 ; but it not having been
proposed that fishing vessels should be foreign-going ships
under section 175 of the Merchant Shipping Act, 1854, it
does not appear that the owner would be entitled to the

430 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE\

benefit of the statutory release by the seamen under that
section.

Subsection 4. — Having regard as to what has been
stated in respect to subsection I, this subsection must be
very carefully applied.

Subsection 5 provides that all questions of wages raised
before the superintendent between owners and seamen
shall, if the amount does not exceed £5, be adjudicated upon
by such superintendent, whose decision shall be final. It
is not desirable that summary jurisdiction, 'in which ques-
tions of fact and law are contained, should be left to be
determined by a superintendent of fisheries or marine
without any possibility of appeal from their decision.
These questions of law, therefore, should be left to the deci-
sion of the magistrates, who are assisted by their clerk.

I. — This clause meets a want which has not yet been
discovered in the fishing industry.

K. — The question again arises as to what is meant by a
particular class or classes of fishing vessels ; for, as has been
before stated, a person competent to (surface) navigate one
fishing vessel as master is competent to (surface) navigate
any other fishing vessel ; and if he has the requisite know-
ledge of the fishing grounds, the mode of fishing, and the
habits of the fish, which he would obtain when serving in a
subordinate capacity to that of master, there seems to be
no reason why he should not be qualified to act as master of
any fishing vessel whatsoever. Just for a' moment to call
attention to the difference in the various classes of fishing,
it may be stated that a boy who had served his apprentice-
ship on board a liner would be of very little use to a
trawler or drifter, and vice versa. There would be no more
justification in treating the various classes of fishing as all
one than there would be in classing a saddler as a shoe-

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 431

maker. These both work in leather, but their industries
are vastly different and quite distinct.

L. — This and the following clauses to O. inclusive, apply
not only to apprentices so-called, but to all boys under
eighteen years of age engaged in fishing, whether ap-
prenticed or not, although the term of their engagment
may be for one day only. If the provisions of this and
the three following clauses be enacted, it will become
impracticable to ship boys at all when under the prescribed
age, and this would be a very serious obstacle to the
development of the fisheries, especially at some drift
ports, where frequently half the crew are lads under
eighteen years of age. Now clause 132 of the Merchant
Shipping Act, 1854, provides for the apprenticing of
boys at the age of twelve years to the sea service, which
proves that eighteen years of age is by no means too early
a period for a lad to go to sea, and were the practical
result of these clauses to prevent boys from going to sea
until they had obtained eighteen years, they would mean-
while fall into some other occupation and lose their taste
for the calling of a fisherman. This would be most pre-
judicial not only to owners and fishermen, but to the
interests of the country at large, as it is no doubt a fact
that boys who first go to sea as fishers eventually supply
a great portion of the seamen with which our Royal and
Merchant Navy is manned.

Even if indentures of apprenticeship be made subject to
the stringent regulations comprised in Clauses L. to O.,
there is no reason why a mere agreement with a boy under
eighteen years of age should be so regulated. Apprentices
to the drift-fishing are unknown, and at some large ports
apprentices to the trawling are quite the exception, and the
boys ship for the voyage only. Therefore great injustice

432 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

and inconvenience would be entailed by the enactment of
Clause O., which provides that "every such indenture of
apprenticeship and agreement as therein mentioned shall
contain all the covenants, provisions, stipulations and
certificates set forth in the form of apprenticeship inden-
ture, in the schedule to the draft clauses, and that
indentures and agreements not in accordance therewith
shall be void against the apprentice or boy." At no port
is it the custom to provide meat, drink, lodging, washing,
sea bedding, and wearing apparel, for the boys engaged
not being apprentices. They are provided with board
while afloat, but provide their own sea bedding, wearing
apparel, and other necessaries. On shore they provide their
own board and lodging, generally living with their parents
or relations ; and no master, as is proposed to be required,
would undertake to be saddled with the responsibility of
looking after boys (not apprenticed), while they are on
shore, and most likely under the control of their parents
or relations. If these clauses are to apply to all boys
under eighteen years of age, even if not apprenticed, the
employment of such boys in the fishing industry will at
once be abolished by an impractical law, and consequently
serious injury to the fisheries and the nation will arise.

Sufficient reasons have now been given to indicate that,
with the solitary exception of Clause 269 of the Merchant
Shipping Act, 1854, as regards fishing vessels, the draft
clauses, as they are drawn up, are positively detrimental
to the fishing industry, as well as impracticable. One main
objection is, that the regulations proposed by these clauses
would cause great delay, while expedition is the very
life of this industry.

Fish are here to-day and gone to-morrow, and must be
caught when the opportunity offers, therefore every facility

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 433

ought to be given for the vessels to go out and return, and
their owners and crews to receive their money without
let or hindrance, subject simply to a right of appeal in
cases of dispute. Whatever their aim may have been,
the framers of these draft clauses drew them up without
any (or indeed very little) practical knowledge of the
details of the fishing industry, which must be thoroughly
understood before any regulations can be applied thereto,
having for their object the promotion of its prosperity.
The provisions the Merchant Shipping Act proposed to be
incorporated, were drawn up under the advice of practical
cargo-ship sailors, with the intention that they should be
applied to sea-going cargo-ships, which proceed on voyages
of considerable duration from the time of their leaving and
returning to their port, and are commanded and manned
by a very different class of persons. Local coasting vessels
and vessels in the home trade are exempt from the restric-
tions and hindrances proposed to be imposed by the draft
clauses, how much more therefore ought fishing vessels to
be exempt ?

It will now be well just to consider the forms of inden- Apprentices'

indentures.

ture for apprentices.

In May 1855, the Board of Trade sanctioned a form of
Ordinary Apprentices Indenture marked I. ; this has been
in general use at most ports up to the present time, and
has answered very well, and by slight alteration will suit
for either an indoor or an outdoor apprentice. A change
being deemed necessary, the Board of Trade in May
1880 sanctioned a fresh form of indenture, which is gene-
rally known as the Grimsby indenture.

In Clause I, an improvement is introduced which
compels the apprentice's master to be the holder of not less
than one-eighth share of a fishing vessel ; this is done to

VOL. I. — E. 2. 2 F

434 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

check the practice among a certain class who are not
owners, of taking apprentices and letting them out to
actual owners in order to make a profit out of them.

Clause 2 is the same as in the old indenture, with the
exception of the words " nor play at unlawful games."

Clause 3 is similar to the old indenture, but in
addition compels the apprentice's master to find sea-
bedding, wearing apparel, and necessaries, and makes
provision that the master shall state the amount of the
spending-money to be allowed to the apprentice. The
idea evidently is that the outdoor-apprentice system shall
be abolished, which is very desirable, and that, where the
master cannot keep the apprentice in his own house,
when ashore, he shall provide proper accommodation for
him at a licensed lodging-house, and thus endeavour to
keep the apprentice out of harm's way. This is a great
improvement on the old system of outdoor apprentice-
ship.

Clause 4 causes the clothes of the apprentice to remain
the property of the owner during the term of apprentice-
ship. This is a step in the right direction.

Clause 5 binds the master to provide board and lodging
to the satisfaction of the superintendent of mercantile
marine. This is unnecessary, if it is stipulated that
apprentices shall be lodged either at the master's house
or at a licensed lodging-house.

Clause 6 provides that the spending-money shall be
paid to the apprentice himself, unless through misconduct
the superintendent orders otherwise. But that all remuner-
ation, payments, and salvage to which the apprentice may
become entitled, shall be paid by the master to the
superintendent to be put into a Savings' Bank, till the
term of the apprenticeship is determined, whether he likes

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 435

it or not. Now, boys (this indenture applies to boys not
apprenticed) and apprentices frequently aid in supporting
their parents, and their earnings, including any salvage
earned, are generally paid to their mothers or nearest
relations, which could not be done were the draft clauses,
and this indenture combined, to become law as proposed,
and would cause great hardship. Moreover it is not clear
how long the superintendent would hold the money of a
boy not apprenticed. It is true that by Order in Council,
proposed in clause 6, of the draft clauses, this would
only apply to certain ports as ordered, but when once in
force at any port no boy not apprenticed could go to sea
without entering into this agreement

Clause 7 simply confirms the addition alluded to, as
made in Clause I of the indenture.

Clause 8 compels the master to attend with the apprentice
at least every half year before the superintendent. It
would be difficult to find masters to undertake to attend
once in every half year during the continuance of the
apprenticeship before the superintendent, as here required.
Exception would have to be made in cases where the
master sailed in one vessel, and the apprentice in another,
as is sometimes the case, the two never being ashore at the
same time. This should be struck out, and the apprentice
given fully to understand that if all did not go on to his
satisfaction, he should appeal to the superintendent for his
interference, if necessary.

Clause 9 fixes the period of probation at six months, and
then, if the superintendent thinks proper, he can refuse to
endorse or confirm the apprenticeship, which then becomes
void. This period of six months is too long ; owners would
be troubled with a lot of boys (who would make a regular
affair of it) whom they would have to keep and clothe for

2 F 2

436 INTERN A TIONAL LA WS FOR THE

six months at a loss, as they would be of very little use,
and just as they were getting useful, the boys could, if
they wished, withdraw on some plea, and get a berth else-
where at weekly wages, having got an insight into the
business at the expense of somebody else. The period of
probation named is too long, and would tend to check the
apprenticeship system very much.

Clause 10 gives power to the superintendent to cancel
the indenture at any time during the probationary period.
This power should not be given to the superintendent, and
is objectionable.

Clause 1 1 bears on the above point, and is objectionable
so far as the superintendent is concerned, for it does not
appear right that the jurisdiction of the magistrates or any
other court, in respect to disputes between master and
apprentice, should be ousted by reference to a superin-
tendent of shipping, who, although possibly a very worthy
person, is not likely to be able to decide these matters of
law as the magistrates are, who are assisted by their clerk.

Clauses 12 and 13 are binding clauses, and having regard
to the class of persons who enter as apprentices or boys in
the fishing industry, the bond or obligation here provided
is an absurdity, and so is the whole indenture, when it is
set forth to be used where boys who are not apprentices
are concerned. It shows that the Board of Trade are
competent to deal with this question in those parts where
the shore life of the apprentices • is concerned ; but the
other portions, which relate to the really practical parts,
again show that the official mind is not so fully in-
formed as it ought to be when legislating for the fishing
trade.

Fishing Another document, sanctioned by the Board of Trade in

Agreement. j^arcj1 jgg^ must fce discussed, as it is an important point

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 437

to the whole trade. The title of it is : " Running Agreement
and Aqcount of Voyages and Crew of a ship engaged in the
Sea Fishing Trade only, with Official Log attached."

This agreement applies to trawlers, codders, drifters, and
all classes of fishing vessels. The first thing which attracts
attention is a notice which commences as follows : " The
Board of Trade have dispensed with the attendance before
the superintendent of a Mercantile Marine Office, of seamen
engaged and discharged under this agreement." Here is
another conspicuous blunder. The document from which
the above extract of notice is taken, was sanctioned by the
Board of Trade in March 1882, and clearly shows that a
fisherman may be discharged anywhere. In July of the
same year, only four months after, the same department
prepared the draft clauses relating to fishing vessels and
their crews, already discussed, and clause II incorporates
section 170 of the Merchant Shipping Act 1854, which
states that " all seamen discharged in the United Kingdom
shall be discharged and receive their wages in the presence
of a shipping master duly appointed under this Act," and
finishes by causing any one who does otherwise to incur a
penalty not exceeding ten pounds. Thus within a few
months of making an order, this department frames a Bill
incorporating a section of an Act of Parliament which dis-
tinctly negatives the order. This needs no comment, but is
only another instance of the way in which the trade has been
harassed of late years. After this notice follow particulars
of ship and employment, apprentices on board, and crew.
Then comes a scale of fines sanctioned by the Board of
Trade for certain offences. No. I is for not being on board
by the time fixed by the agreement, 5*. ; so that, " if a man
who has shipped to a vessel does not join, and causes the
remainder of the crew and owner to lose perhaps £100, or

438 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

more, he can condone the offence by paying the mu-
nificent sum of 5^. to the Mercantile Marine Fund. This
agreement would prevent an owner from shipping another
hand, and charging the cost to the offender, if he has any-
thing due to him, as is sometimes the case. It would make
men more independent of their agreement than ever to
know that the full extent of their liability for causing a
fishing vessel and crew to lose a night's work was only $s.
The same remarks apply to No. 2, for which the same
amount of fine is inflicted, for " not returning on board at the
expiration of leave." This is as bad as the ordering by the
Act of 1880, that for these offences a man, who, as a rule,
has no effects, should be sued for damages. By agreeing to
these fines an owner legally contracts himself out of any
benefit he might be able to derive from any legislation,
which does or may exist purposely to deal with " neglecting
to join," &c., and even if a man had effects, the owner could
not recover damages, as the agreement would be put for-
ward that the offender was to be punished with a fine of
5J-. All the other penalties are for minor offences,
and may be passed over without comment, except Nos. 6
and 9. No. 6 orders a fine of 5^. "for sleeping or gross
negligence while on the look-out." The other the same
fine for " man on watch failing to exhibit lights at
proper time." Let them be weighed. On the one side
there is a careless or reckless man threatened with a five-
shilling fine ; on the other, the lives of from five to twelve
men on one vessel only placed in jeopardy. Surely this
is too great a difference to be tolerated ! Then follow
some instructions to masters, and after that comes a form of
agreement. The first thing that attracts the eye is the old
formal space left for pounds and ounces of provisions to
be supplied every day in the week. As far as the fishing in-

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 439

dustry is concerned this is practically useless, as fishermen
will never be satisfied with an allowance scale. They live
as a rule considerably better than ship sailors. Next comes
the agreement itself, which, if one-sided, will always be a
source of trouble. In the first clause, the interests of the
crew are entirely ignored in the sentence, " that the time
for finishing the said expedition shall be solely at the
discretion of the owner." It is neither justice nor equity for
one man to have power to bind another man for, say three
months, and then after the man so bound has made his
arrangements accordingly, for the other, for some reason of
his own, to break the agreement in a week, without even
being liable to give any reason for so doing. A definite
time should be stated, subject to alteration only by an
equitable arrangement between all concerned. Clause 2 is
the one under which the crew agree to do their duty, and
keep the nets and outfit, except standing rigging, in repair,
supplying all chafing gear where required. The meaning
of these two sentences is a complete puzzle when looked at
as applying to trawlers, codders, drifters, and all classes of
fishing vessels. The framer of this agreement must have
had a very poor idea of the important and varied interests
he was dealing with. It might perhaps apply in the case
of a few solitary trawling vessels, but in their case the rule
would be for the owner to keep at least the sails and spars
in repair (and these are undoubtedly included here, as the
only exception made is standing rigging), and to supply
all chafing gear required for the vessel. At some ports where
owners find the trawl gear as well, they find the rubbers for
the net, and all material, the crew simply finding the labour.
In drifters sometimes the owner finds all gear, and takes the
responsibility of all damage and losses. In other cases of
drifters, the crew bear their share of losses at the rate of

440 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

about twenty shillings for a lost net, and two shillings to
three and sixpence for a spoilt one, but this varies much at
different ports. At ports where crews share the losses a
very perceptible difference may be noticed in the way the
voyage is pursued. At the commencement when there is
no money in hand for the owner to stop in case of lost
gear, the boats as a rule shoot much more boldly than they
will do at the end of the voyage when they have earned
money, and know that, if they lose gear, they will have to
bear a proportion of the loss. If they lose gear when they
have no money in hand, the crews will often desert, and
thus get clear of their liability, both as regards lost gear and
money due to tradesmen for provisions, thus compelling
the owner to bear all the loss, and possibly to lose the rest
of the voyage for want of hands ; whereas it might be
made up if the crew were compelled to finish it according
to their agreement. In liners the owner generally provides
gear and takes all losses. Thus it will be seen that it is
impossible for one form of agreement to meet all these
varied cases, and further proof of this might be given.

In clause 3 the master agrees on behalf of, and with the
consent of, the owner to pay the crew their wages or share,
and to find provisions as per scale. At some ports the custom
is for the owner to find all provisions, at others for the crew
to find them, or for the provisions to be taken out of the
gross earnings ; this applies to all classes of vessels as well
as ports. It is a matter of private contract, each owner
working his vessel on the plan he prefers. Thus all that
the owner is bound to do is to give the crew what they
earn on board his vessel. There ought to be two sides to
every agreement, and if the crew are to be bound to certain
things, so in all fairness ought the owner to be on his part.
The owner should state what his part of the contract is, to

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 441

the effect that he will keep the vessel staunch, tight, and
properly found, and that he will provide a certain quantity
of fishing gear of good quality, small boat, and any other
matters necessary. Respectable owners would not object to
this, and it would sometimes be the means of protecting crews
from shipping to a vessel belonging to a speculative owner,
who has perhaps purchased an old vessel cheap, and some
old gear, and intends to make it a case of sink or swim
from a financial point of view. If things go badly, and
from bad weather or other causes the gear is spoilt or lost,
the crew have to suffer through the bad speculation, in
which they stood to suffer more loss but not to reap
greater benefit than other boats.

In clause 4 it is agreed that " any embezzlement or
wilful or negligent destruction of any part of the ship's
cargo or stores, shall be made good to the owner out of
the wages of the person guilty of same." This is not right.
The embezzlement, &c., should not be made good to the
" owner " only ; it should be owner and crew where the vessel
sails on the share system, for in the majority of cases, and
on the share system the crew have an equal interest in the
cargo and fishing stores with the owner. This calls to mind
a question which has been many times discussed, which
is, how to put a stop to the system, very prevalent at some
ports, of the crew taking away large quantities of fish every
time they arrive in harbour, either on strings or in bags.
Notices have been issued by owners threatening prosecution
in such cases, but without effect. It is not that a man is
grudged a few fish to take home to his family, but it is the
abuse of it which ought to be checked. A man with a
home and family will take home a fair quantity of fish ;
another of the crew (possibly one of the casuals before
alluded to) who has no home, thinks, Well, I don't

442 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

see why I should not have some as well as he, and con-
sequently he takes some, and sells them for what he can
get, generally much below value, to buyers, alias receivers,
who frequent the markets for this purpose. This might be
passed over, but it thus extends to getting as many as
possible away in a clandestine manner in bags, oily frocks,
and otherwise, for the purpose of sale. If some stipulation
as to the quantity each man was entitled on a given catch,
and no more, was inserted in the agreement, a man then
found taking more than the quantity stipulated should be
liable to be fined or prosecuted ; in case of a fine it should
be payable as an addition to the gross earnings of the
vessel. It is an acknowledged evil, or owners would not
have' combined to endeavour to stop it, though thus far
without success.

Clause 5 alludes to the regulations for maintaining
discipline, already referred to in dealing with the first page
of this agreement.

Clause 6 states that the fish caught " should be sold,"
which is very absurd, as no fisherman was ever known to
go to sea in order to give his fish away when caught. This
is another specimen of the happy knack the Board of Trade
has of making approximate laws or regulations open to
question on all sides. If it is meant to be any use it should
state whether, by auction, consignment, or private treaty,
or by or to whom. This should at least be defined by the
signatories for the sake of both owner and crew, as, if fish
are disposed of privately by anybody on board, there is
nothing in the agreement to stop it, and it would not be
illegal in most cases, the men standing in the light of
partners. Sometimes vessels run to strange ports and sell
their fish, sometimes they sell it at sea, as drivers do to
codders for bait. If a formal agreement is to be made, as

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 443

appears to be the desire of the Board of Trade, let it be
done properly, or else let the present system of verbal
agreements continue.

Clause 7 refers to salvage.

Clause 8 fixes the time allowed for settlement at the end
of the voyage, but it does not state by whom. Is the
salesman, who has sold the fish, or the owner responsible ?
Suppose at the end of a three months' voyage the salesman
fails, and the owner loses his share, are the shares or
partnership accounts of the remainder of the crew to be
deemed " wages," and taken from the first charge on the
vessel and gear belonging to the owner, who has already
lost his share ? Surely not. But if formal agreements
are to be made compulsory, these difficulties must be faced
and cleared up. A legal definition of this wages, share and
part-share system is desirable, for it is an exceptional
system. It is not piecework, nor partnership proper, but
payment by very uncertain results.

Clause 9 is left for deductions agreed on to be inserted.

Clause 10 is a space for any stipulations to be inserted to
which the parties agree, which are not contrary to law.
These would be very considerable, if stipulations were
inserted to amend the previous part of this agreement, and
an extra sheet of paper would be necessary.

Clause II provides that "if any member of the crew
considers himself aggrieved by any breach of the agreement,
or otherwise, he shall represent the same to the master or
officer in charge of the ship in a quiet, orderly manner, who
shall thereupon take such steps as the case may require."
But suppose he does not " take such steps," or the grievance
is not set right, what further remedy or appeal is provided
for the aggrieved? None at all. The course for the
aggrieved is then to desert, or rather to " refuse to obey

444 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

lawful commands," and get taken before the magistrates,
and then state his grievance as the reason for his dis-
obedience.

Clause 12 gives an aggrieved member of the crew, in
case of dissatisfaction with his account and settlement,
leave to appeal to the superintendent, from whose decision
there is no appeal. This power of a superintendent to
decide cases of common law without appeal has been
previously objected to.

Clause 13 is as follows : " that any member of the crew
shall be liable to dismissal upon ( ) hours' notice, given to
him by the said master or owner, and upon being paid the
amount, if any, to which he is entitled in respect of his
wages or share to the date of dismissal ; and further that
any member of the crew may claim his discharge at the
time of any of the settlements above referred to upon
giving a similar previous notice to the master or owner."
This is a most curious clause, for in the first portion it
gives an owner or master power to break the agreement
and discharge any one of the crew at any time, subject to a
certain number of hours' notice, and upon paying the
amount due for wages or share to date of dismissal, so that
the ( ) hours' notice without the money to date is not a
legal dismissal, and what would be the use of the ( )
hours' notice, when a man had received all his money ?
Practically it resolves itself into the fact that an owner can
discharge a man at any time by giving him his money to
date. To be properly defined and practical, it should
have been worded to the effect that the owner or master
should give the ( ) hours' notice, and pay the man the full
amount of money due to him at the expiration of such
notice. If this be the correct construction as intended by
the framers, the wording is very careless, and ought not to be

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 445

possible, emanating as it does from a Government Department.
Under the second portion, no member of the crew can
claim his discharge except by giving ( ) hours' notice to the
master or owner previous to the time of settlement. This,
in the generality of cases, means the end of the expedition
or voyage, when the agreement would be terminated, and
the crew their own masters, without needing any ( ) hours'
notice to be given. Moreover the agreement itself proves
that only one final settlement is expected, as, in the space
for wages, a column is reserved which is headed " Amount
of weekly allotment," and space is provided for only one
settling up. To sum up, clause 13 gives an owner or
master power at any time to break the contract and dis-
charge any member of the crew, and purports in the latter
part to give the crew a like privilege, but practically does not
do so. Thus an owner under clause I and clause 13 can
terminate a voyage and break the agreement at any time, and
the crew have no redress. This is neither just nor equitable.

Page 3 of the agreement is too cramped to be practically
properly kept.

Page 4 is devoted to space for particulars of certificates
and their endorsements.

Page 5 is space for report of character, the utility of which
it is very difficult to see, as it would simply, under the
present arrangements, be taken to the office of the Superin-
tendent of Mercantile Marine, and there would be an end of
it. It would not affect the fisherman, and it would be
impossible for a Superintendent of Marine to keep a register
of the characters of fishermen, for many make a practice of
changing their names.

Page 6 gives instructions as to what entries are required
to be made in the log under section 282 of the Act of
1854. Under this there is a note by which the Board of

446 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

Trade directs that, in case of deaths occurring on board,
"On arrival at the port of destination in the United
Kingdom the official log book must be deposited with the
Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, to be forwarded in
due course to the Registrar General of Seamen." In the
first place the Act of 1854 was not framed to meet the
cases of " lost overboard," or " drowned from capsizing of
boat," so common amongst fishermen ; it was evidently
framed to meet the more frequent occurrence on board
foreign-going ships of death from diseases such as scurvy,
smallpox, fevers, &c. Cases of drowning being the excep-
tion in this class of ships. To meet the case of fishermen
this Act should be amended on this point, for at present,
strictly speaking, the law does not order the entry in the
log book of the death of a man which does not occur
on board, as in the case of a man being drowned, or cap-
sized from a small boat. In the second place, if the log
book retains its present form (and this applies in case of the
drowning of a man) the log book and agreement would have
to be given up on the next arrival of the vessel in port, though
her voyage was not finished. This again was intended to
apply to foreign-going ships, which, when they arrive in port,
have terminated their voyage, and done with their crews,
whereas a fishing vessel, as before explained, makes a
number of trips to port before her voyage is completed. It
is useless on the part of the Board of Trade officials to keep
attempting to incorporate all these clauses of the Act of
1854 (which were not intended to apply to fishing vessels,
but principally to large ships), with new legislation, espe-
cially adapted to fishing vessels. It proves either in-
capacity or carelessness. If the former, it is high time
that practical men should be selected to advise on the ques-
tion ; if the latter, then the sooner the fishery legislation is

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 447

removed from this department, the better for the nation at
large. The words " on arrival at port of destination " should
(to apply in the same manner to fishing vessels) be altered to
the words, " at the termination of the voyage," and a pre-
liminary report be made at next port of arrival after any case
of loss of life, otherwise both the agreement with the crew
and the log book would have to be renewed in cases of loss
of life, which would cause unnecessary delay.

Subsection 6 of the 282nd section of the Act of 1854,
here incorporated, is worth remarking as a peculiar one. The
marginal heading is " quitting ship." It orders the entry
in the log book of " the name of every seaman or appren-
tice who ceases to be a member of the crew otherwise than
by death, with the place, time, manner and cause thereof."
This evidently means a "desertion," but called by two
other names, viz. " quitting ship " and " ceasing to be a
member of the crew." This causes the question to arise,
What is a desertion ? It may be construed out of any of
the following terms which are used in the Act of 1854:
Neglecting to join, absence without leave, quitting ship,
neglecting to join after leave of absence is expired. How
is a master or owner to decide between them ? A man may
belong to a drifter, and neglect from some cause or other to
be on board his vessel at the proper time, but has no inten-
tion of remaining away altogether. The master or owner
not knowing that the absence is enforced or unintentional
deals with it as a desertion. When the vessel comes in
again (next day perhaps), he presents himself ; he is then
told he is not wanted, and his clothes and wages are for-
feited. The man has no remedy, and this appears to be
harsh treatment, but it would be legal. The 243rd section
directs that the effects and clothes of a deserter, and all
wages or emoluments due to him, shall be forfeited, but it

448 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

does not clearly state to whom they shall be forfeited ; but
in the case of voyages by the share, it is presumed that the
proceeds of such effects, after being sold by auction, should
be added to the gross earnings of the voyage, as the crew
have to put up with the inconvenience or loss arising from
the desertion, as well as the owner. They are not like
monthly seamen in cargo ships.

Attention is called at the foot of page 3 of the official log
book to the fact that the sale of effects of every seaman
who has died must be entered and witnessed in the log
book. In the case of fishing boats, it does not appear
desirable that the effects of a deceased member of the crew
should be liable to be sold, as the vessel will probably
arrive in port next day, and they might then be handed
over to a proper authority on behalf of the relatives of the
deceased. This is another instance of the absurdity of
trying to adapt to fishing vessels the Merchant Shipping Act
of 1854, which was principally framed to apply to cargo
ships.

This finishes the discussion of this document, which,
though good in intention, miserably fails in carrying out
that intention practically. The great difference in the
various classes of fishing, which has been abundantly
shown, appears to demand a series of agreement forms
adapted to the various classes and modes of carrying on
the fishing industry. To draft these would require from
practical men all the care possible, and unpractical officials,
as far as the fisheries are concerned, could never draft
them satisfactorily without such assistance.

Steam boilers. The next point for discussion is the use of steam on
board fishing vessels for capstans and pumps only. The
Merchant Shipping Act 1854, nowhere provides legislation
for any vessels which use steam, except those propelled

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 449

by steam, this being a modern innovation. As this inno-
vation is yearly increasing, it is desirable that the law should
be made clear as to the measuring for registration, whether
any allowance is to be made for engine-room or not, and
what penalties are applicable for weighting safety valves or
other offences, as fishermen are sometimes in a hurry to get
in their gear. What course of procedure should take place
in cases of boiler explosions, or whether section 326 of the
Act of 1854 shall be altered to meet the case, should also
be clearly laid down.

The next point is whether the Employers Liability Employers'
Act, 1880, extends to fishing vessels and their crews, and
if so, whether a man sailing by the share would be entitled
to recover ; does he stand in the position of a workman, or
is he a partner, and consequently not entitled to damages ?
Again, in the event of this being overruled, how could the
damages be assessed in this uncertain calling ? Or how
would a man stand in law who was partly wageman,
partly shareman ? At Sunderland three caulkers working
on board a vessel recovered ^880 damages and costs for
injuries received. At the same place three shipwrights
recovered £185 and costs. Now it is possible that these
men might have been working on board a fishing
vessel doing some temporary repairs, as is often the case,
and a falling spar or something else might have injured
them, and also some of the crew who were weekly men.
Would the law rule that one man could recover and the
others could not ? both very likely being under the same
employer. It does not appear probable.

The Herring Fishery Board was established in the year Fishery

Board

1808 by Act of Parliament, and the object and summary of Scotland,
the provisions of the Act as given in 48 Geo. III. c. no, are
as follows : " That whereas the improvements of the British
VOL. I.— E. 2. 2 G

450 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

White Herring Fisheries is an object of the most essential
importance to the wealth and commercial prosperity, as
well as to the naval strength of this kingdom, for the
attainment of which it is expedient that more effectual
regulations should be made in order to the insuring a due
and proper attention to the curing, sorting and packing of
white herrings, that the credit of the British Fisheries in
our Colonies and foreign parts may be maintained, be it
therefore enacted," &c. The principal duties of the Board
have been to collect statistics in connection with the herring
fishery, to brand cured herrings according to quality, and col-
lect the fees for so doing,- to gauge the barrels, and inspect
the same during the manufacture, so that they may be
all of one standard size. There are other minor duties
which can all be more efficiently performed, and with very
little extra expense, if any, by the Board of Admiralty, the
Customs and Coastguard authorities. The Lords of the
Treasury in 1855 gave it as their opinion that the functions
of the Board were not to keep order on shore or afloat
among the fishermen, or to enforce the observance of con-
ventions between this country and foreign powers. The
Board has undoubtedly performed good and useful service,
especially as regards the collection of statistics for Scotland,
but these are only partially satisfactory to the nation at
large. They would be of much greater value had the
Board been so established as to carry on its work round
the whole coasts of the kingdom, and it ought to be now a
matter for the consideration of Government, whether it
would not be desirable to extend its duties as regards
statistics and the social condition of fishermen. It would
doubtless form another link in the chain of evidence
respecting the migrations of the herring, as the statistics of
all kinds would follow from place to place round the coasts,

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 451

and many valuable inferences might be drawn. With the
above exception of incompleteness, and the branding
question, the general duties of the Board and its officers
appear to be satisfactory and well carried out.

The Herring Brand appears to be the most important Herring
question affecting the Scotch fisheries at the present Scotland.
moment, but it is in reality more a question of commercial
principle than a bond fide fisheries question.

It will not be desirable here to go minutely into
statistics, as they are already very fully published in the
" Report from the Select Committee on the Herring Brand,
Scotland," 2ist June, 1881, and it would simply be a matter
of copying them out, but to deal with the question in a
general way.

There appears to be a division in the trade of Scotland
on the point, those who desire the abolition of the
branding system appearing to be in a minority of two-
thirds, and consisting principally of large merchants, who
feel that they would be able to withstand any ill effects
which the abolition might temporarily bring on, and who
have confidence that they would by superior cure and other
means eventually secure for their own brands a sounder
footing and better prices than they do at the present time
by the system of Government branding. Those who
advocate the retention of the brand appear to consist
principally of the smaller curers and fishermen who have
not the confidence that is possessed by those who advocate
its abolition, and doubtless such abolition would, through
financial causes, prevent many of the smaller curers from
carrying on the business, as they would not at first so
readily obtain advances from bankers and others. There
can be no doubt but that when the brand was first adopted
it was a highly desirable thing, as the trade was then in its

2 G 2

452 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

infancy, and the guarantee of the Government was of great
assistance ; but now that the trade has gained such a strong
footing it is questionable whether its retention is desirable.

There are six different authorised brands : —

The first is for large full herrings, and the brand is

Crown P Full."

The second is for herrings of rich quality, with minute
roes or milts, and are knowns as matties, or maidens ; the
brand is " Crown P Matties."

The third is for spent or shotten herrings, and the brand
is " Crown P Spent."

The fourth is for mixed herrings ; the brand is " Crown
P Mixed."

The fifth is for repacked, and is known as " Crown PP
Repacked."

The sixth is for herrings previously branded with a bung-
packed brand, and which have been repacked. It is known
as the " Lozenge Brand."

The return of the Board as regards the increased use of
the brand shows that for the five years, ending 1880, the
average increase upon the branding is 59 per cent., and the
increase upon the fishing 41 per cent.

This at first sight tells very favourably for the retention
of the brand, but because the demand for it is great by a
section of the trade, it by no means proves that from a
national and commercial point of view it is desirable to
retain it, even though it be self-supporting from a pecuniary
point of view.

To many individuals the branding system has been the
cause of their success in life, for a cooper now, after working
for a master for a few years, can start buying and curing
on his own account with a very nominal capital, as no
sooner has he cured and got his fish branded than he can

PROTECTION' OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 453

go to the bankers and get an advance on his parcel to
enable him to lay out his money again, whereas without
the brand he would have to wait for returns. Thomas
Davies of Great Yarmouth was the first officer in connection
with the fisheries ; he was appointed in the year 1635. A
patent was granted to him to seal and gauge all red
herrings according to quality, but it was soon cancelled, as
it did not prove to be a step in the right direction, and
since its abolition the red herring export trade ta the
Mediterranean ports has steadily increased to this day,
disputes as to quality and cure being almost unknown,
because each shipper sends his fish at his own risk, and
trusts to his skill in curing to bring him home a good
return ; nor are his packages subject to Government
regulation, and barrels of all sizes are used ; but he con-
signs his fish, knowing that he has no Government arm
to lean on, or brand to guarantee the quality of such con-
signment ; and the very fact of his knowing that his
returns depend solely and entirely on his own skill, keeps
him ever watchful and always trying to raise his standard
of cure, which consequently raises the standard of cure
generally.

On the contrary, the brand or Government arm, on which
so many small curers and fishermen appear to rely, opens
a means of conducting the curing with a less watchful eye,
and to a great extent must be an inducement to many just
to carry on their curing sufficiently well to obtain the
Government brand, and no more, as they are then enabled
to get their advances from the bankers, and so continue
their business.

And it must not be lost sight of that although the
branding officers are undoubtedly men of integrity and
skill, still, as there cannot possibly be a uniform standard

454 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

laid down, the judging of quality is left to individual judg-
ment, from which there is no appeal ; and as all mortals are
liable to err, there can be no reason why fishery officers
should be exempt.

Take, for instance, a parcel of herrings, lay down a certain
standard you require picked out, and set six individuals of
experience to pick them out, and it is highly probable that
no two of them will have the same idea of sorting out the
standard required ; the difference in quality is so small in
some instances that it is hard to know where to draw
the line.

A very strong and common argument made use of by
those who desire the retention of the brand is, that it is not
compulsory. True, it is not compulsory, only one must ;
that is to say, if it is desired to carry on the business at all.
It is a strong coercive measure, and the very fact of the
majority advocating the retention, and a more extensive
use of the brand makes it go harder than ever with
those who would endeavour to raise their standard of
cure ; because the foreign buyer, knowing that there is a
Government brand, naturally supposes that it is given only
to the highest possible cure of the respective qualities or
brands, as he considers the Government would not lend
itself to branding inferior articles, or at least should not
If the brand is to be retained Government ought to raise
the standard by granting to special cures a higher brand
than is now in use ; and the argument used by the
opponents of the abolition, that those who do not approve
of the Government brand as being of too low a standard,
can create a higher standard and private brand of their own,
and thus make their own trade, is an admission that it is
possible to cure to a higher perfection than that which is
now permitted to receive the highest Government brand.

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 455

The very fact of a barrel being unbranded by Govern-
ment tends to make a buyer suspect that possibly it has
been refused the Government brand owing to inferior
quality or some other cause, though in reality it may be of
special cure. There is no doubt that in the case of foreign
markets the brand has been of use, for the trade was,
till recently, a new one, and the capitalists and merchants
on the Continent were but imperfectly acquainted with
the value and qualities of Scotch herrings ; but now, if the
brand were abolished, there are plenty of merchants suf-
ficiently educated and experienced in the Scotch herring
trade to judge the better cures, and the deserving curer
would reap the benefit, and the trade would then prosper
on its own merits, as others do. What was desirable
seventy years ago, under certain circumstances, is not
required under the present aspect of affairs ; and if
branding is such an important and necessary adjunct to a
trade with a foreign country, why is it not necessary to
apply it to the whole kingdom, and especially to the
export trade in red herrings ?

Again, as regards the bankers. They have got into the
groove of Government guarantee, and memorialise against
the abolition of it. Why should not the bankers, who
make advances of ten times the amount on bills of lading,
of floating cargoes in the grain, and other trades, demand
the same Government guarantee ? In the grain trade, for
instance, large quantities of grain are bought for future
shipment without even a sample being seen by the buyer ;
but the contracts are made by specifying the quality, and
disputes are the exception (but in their event an arbitration
clause always settles the point), since if a merchant wishes
to prosper, it will not answer his purpose to have disputes,
which would injure his connection and business ; so he acts

456 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

up to his contracts to the letter, and those who resort to
unfair trading soon meet with their reward in the shape
of failure. The answer to the question is, that these trades
are firmly established, and the banker, rather than lose
business, has adapted himself to the methods and dealings
of the merchant ; and so it should be with the Scotch
bankers, for it cannot be denied that Government has now
firmly established the Scotch fisheries, by means which
reflect great credit on the originators, and having done so,
should leave the general law of commerce to carry on and
increase the prosperity of the trade.

Another argument against the point put forward in

favour of the retention of the brand, viz., that it is not

.
compulsory, and that those desiring it can effect a higher

standard of cure, is, that wherever there are free and open
markets in this and other countries, the opening sales of a
day or season rule, to a great extent, the prices of sales
effected after, and a cargo or two of herrings of inferior
quality, sold at the opening sales of a market, always tend
to damage, to a smaller or greater degree, the prices of
those sold after, notwithstanding that they may be of better
quality ; so it is with branded herrings. A few parcels of
Government-branded will spoil, to a certain extent, the
sale of unbrandeds after, irrespective of a possible higher
cure, as individual skill and judgment in buying have been
so much dispensed with, owing to the Government brand,
which really means the skill, and, it may be, too, the im-
partial judgment of another fallible mortal in the shape of
the branding officer. The number of skilled buyers, how-
ever, is doubtless on the increkse abroad, in consequence
of the discrepancies which have occurred in parcels bearing
the Government brand, which cannot be denied, as quota-
tions from foreign markets show that on the same day, in

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 457

the same market, and at the same minute, one parcel
branded as " Crown fulls " has been worth two, three,
and even more marks, less than another parcel bearing the
same brand.

There are many who advocate the retention of the brand
on account of its rendering personal skill and attention
unnecessary in dealing and speculating in herrings. These
are principally bankers and agents, who would suffer, at
the very most only temporarily by its abolition, for the
small curers would still have to make use of their capital,
and it would not take long to establish a system between
them for making advances as formerly, as necessity would
be, in their case, the mother of invention.

When a Government in the present day interferes with
a trade, and goes so far as to lend itself to guaranteeing
the qualities simply on the judgment of one man, of an
article for which there can be no uniform standard fixed, it
is undoubtedly a drawback and check to private skill and
enterprise. There are men ready to come forward and
effect considerably superior cures, but the obstacle of the
Government brand tells them that, so long as that lasts,
they would not get properly recompensed for their extra
skill and outlay, or at least not without sacrificing a large
amount of money (which few are able to do) to fight
against an old-established custom (which has the Govern-
ment of the largest commercial nation at its back), to
establish their own superiority of cure, and to guarantee a
continuance of that superiority by long repute. Since
the Board was first established, and the regulations made
as to size of barrels, rapid strides have been made in
chemistry and the preservation of food in tins and other
ways, and things which our forefathers would have believed
impossible in this way are now accomplished facts.

458 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

The regulation barrel prevents any attempt at adopting
these modern improvements. It is not desirable here to
prove what might be done, or how, but simply to call
attention to the fact that hundreds of articles of food,
now in great demand in this country, are neither guaranteed
in quantity, weight, or quality, except by the private marks
or names of the manufacturers. These prosper solely by
their own merits, and this very fact is always stimulating
new manufacturers to come forth with improvements ; the
consumers are, after all, the real judges, and the manu-
facturers either sink or swim by their decision, and con-
sequently use all possible means to improve their goods ;
but were they hampered by Government restrictions, as
the Scotch herring fishery now is, there is no doubt that
the age would not be so progressive as it is.

Just for one instance take sardines, which are imported
to this country. There is no regulation size or weight of
package, but we, as consumers, soon find which are the
best brands, and a bad brand is soon exterminated. Had
they been guaranteed by the Government of the country
from which they are exported, and we, as consumers, had
found that the brand was not reliable, would the sale of
them have increased in the ratio that it has? Certainly
not, for the consumer would have had his doubts, and have
avoided purchasing in consequence.

The complaints which have reached this country from
abroad, and which are yearly increasing, from merchants of
standing and experience, men of equal integrity with the
fishery and branding officers, cannot be overlooked, and
evidently prove that on the Continent the Government
brand is not so popular as it used to be, thus showing that
the former confidence in it is shaken, and that the time is
now arrived for a change to be made.

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 459

One great argument against the retention is, that if the
Government choose to enter into commerce, they ought to
do as commerce does, and that is, that if a merchant sends
an article guaranteeing its quality, and when it arrives the
purchaser proves that it is not of the quality guaranteed, he
has a legal claim on the merchant ; if the Government
have confidence in their guarantee, they ought to be pre-
pared to back it up ; but this they refuse to do, or to make
any compensation, thereby showing a great weakness, and
that the system is wrong somewhere. Statistics and
detailed proof might be given on this point, but, as before
remarked, these would only be a repetition of the able
published reports.

As regards the argument put forward by those in favour
of the retention, that weights and measures and standards
are necessary for carrying on commerce, it is granted as
correct to a certain extent, but thousands of articles of
food are sold in this country at a price for the article,
weight and quantity not being stated. Our home herring
and trawl-fish trade, for instance, is largely carried on
without either weight or measure, and each fisherman and
merchant makes his packages of what size he likes, and the
retailer sells his herrings at so much each. Why, then,
should a Government regulation be so essential for a
section in Scotland, whose trade does not date back nearly
so far as the English trade, and whose transactions do
not nearly come up to the English either at home or
abroad in quantity ? For national statistical purposes, by
all means establish a standard, either weight or measure,
to sell or calculate the quantity of each kind of fish when
first landed, but, after that, let it be for the merchant to do
exactly as he deems best for his own business purposes.
Those in Scotland who now object to this free trade, would

460 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

find the benefit of it afterwards, as has been abundantly
proved by the prosperity of the English fisheries. The
fact that it is the only article in this country of which the
Government attempts to guarantee the quality, alone ought
to condemn it.

The abolition of it by second-class commercial nations
like Norway and Holland, ought to make us condemn it.

Though the curing of herrings at sea is the most ex-
pensive method, yet it is by far the best ; and though, as a
rule, prejudice and opposition would at the present moment
ridicule the idea of the Scotch curing ever being carried on
in this manner, still, to those who give their attention
to the matter without prejudice, it appears to be only a
question of time, especially when the rapid development of
the Scotch fisheries is considered. The vast improvements
both in the size and build of the boats, and the great im-
provement which has been effected in the gear which they
carry, point in this direction, and may be taken as an
instance of what private enterprise will do without Govern-
ment aid. But, suppose that the Government granted a
bounty for every boat equipped for the fishing in the
present day, should we have seen this rapid development ?
Everything points to the negative, as the bounty would
have been in many instances the chief aim, not the fish, for
then a fisherman might have been satisfied with an old
small-class boat, which would enable him to catch only a
small quantity of fish, and trust to the bounty -to make up
the deficiency which a better boat would have enabled him
to earn. Similar objections would be raised to the abolition
of this system, were it in force, as there are to the abolition
of the brand. But the abolition of the old bounty system
has greatly increased the prosperity of the fishermen. A
first-class boat now commands a bounty or engagement

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 461

money of £40 to £50 (as a commercial bargain) from
the curer who engages her for the season, whereas an old
boat will have to engage without bounty, though, perhaps,
at a higher rate for the fish she may catch. But the in-
variable result is, that the curer finds he is better off at the
end of the season by having engaged a first-class boat,
even with a high bounty, as he then gets a good supply of
fish, or one as good as the average. Were a Government
bounty still given to the boats, the curers would find fault
(as the buyers of the cured herrings now do) and complain
that the bounty did not stimulate the fishermen to improve
the standard of their boats, to the loss of the curers, by
causing smaller takes of fish, owing to their not being able
to pursue them so far as they might if the boats were
better. It is impossible for the Government to guarantee
or define a fit and proper boat as well as private enterprise
can. The boats descend in age or size step by step, as
well as the nets, so that it would be impossible to draw the
line of discrimination, and a curer engaging a boat which
he had not seen, but simply on the faith of the Govern-
ment bounty having been granted, might find himself
badly served, and would memorialise for the system to be
abolished, as has been done in the case of the brand by
sufferers and others. But, as it now is, it is a free and
open commercial bargain, and is made on its own merits,
each party having only himself to blame in the event of a
bad speculation, and no Government to make the scape-
goat, as now happens with respect to the brand.

Sufficient having been said to show that the abolition of
the brand is desirable, the following may be suggested
as a means of carrying out such abolition so as to cause
the least possible chance of injuring any one. That
three years' notice should be given of the same, so that

462 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

curers might have the opportunity of establishing brands
of their own, and thus not be suddenly affected by its
abolition, either individually or collectively.

That after the fish have once been landed and changed
hands, no Government restrictions should hamper the
curers, but that they may deal with the fish where, when,
and how they like.

That the Fishery Board should be made a truly national
department, by having officers practically acquainted with
the trade at every port for statistical and other purposes,
to make periodical reports to headquarters on lines to be
laid down, and generally to apply themselves for the benefit
of the fisheries, and the social condition of fishermen and
apprentices, in a similar manner to factory inspectors.

But, on the other hand, if the brand is to be retained,
let the present system be altered, and no parcel of fish be
branded without having been inspected by three officers
at the same time, so that the Government may be pre-
pared to back up what it professes to guarantee. Make
it a penal offence for any one who shall " top up " herrings,
or wilfully do anything calculated to mislead the branding
officers.

Irish fisheries. Next to be considered is the present way in which the
fisheries are supervised in Ireland.

In the year 1868 the supervision of the sea and inland
fisheries of Ireland was transferred to the Lord Lieutenant
of Ireland. This supervision is carried out by means of
three inspectors, to each of whom the supervision of a
district is intrusted. There is no organised statistical depart-
ment. Returns for statistical purposes are voluntarily made
by the various collectors of customs and coastguard officers,
and are only approximate. This is not really satisfactory,
but it is all that the inspectors have on which to base the

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 463

statistics which they give in their annual report to the
Lord Lieutenant. The laws, as far as the sea fisheries
are concerned, are not in the most desirable state. With
a view to amend these, a Bill was introduced into Parlia-
ment in February, 1882, which had for its principal
objects : —

To appoint fifteen Commissioners, who should be a body
corporate, and having a common seal.

That they should make reports to the Lord Lieutenant
and to Parliament.

That they should have power to make bye-laws for the
regulation of the fisheries as to the mode, manner, and time
in which they should be prosecuted, to hold inquiries, to
issue licences and to revoke the same, to make advances of
money, to have the supervision of the fishery piers and
harbour works, instead of the Board of Works.

One very absurd clause was inserted, to the effect that
no vessel over five tons should fish in any estuary waters
adjoining the coast of Ireland. At the same time the coast
was not defined — it might mean one or ten miles from the
shore. It was further proposed that the Commissioners
should have power to hold inquiries into the efficiency of
the vessels employed. To a certain extent legislation of
this kind may be desirable for Ireland, but it would not be
suitable or practicable to apply to east coast, foreign, and
other vessels, which resort to the Irish coast for the purposes
of fishing at various seasons. This must soon have been
discovered by the framers of the Bill, who withdrew it, and
in May last, just three months after, introduced into Parlia-
ment another Bill on similar lines, but omitting all the parts
which set out the proposals for the objectionable licences,
bye-laws, &c., before named. This Bill was also withdrawn.
Therefore in three months two Bills for the regulation of

464 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

the Irish fisheries were introduced into Parliament, and as
quickly withdrawn. This all points to the desirability of
legislation to promote the fisheries, but shows a lack of
something which should enable it to be suitably framed.
It is high time that the Government should recognise these
facts, and form a Fisheries Board embracing the whole of
the United Kingdom, which could meet and discuss the
desirability of fresh legislation, instead of having three
Boards at work, each framing legislation to suit its own
wants, totally ignorant as to what effect it may have on
other portions of the fisheries, or those prosecuting them.
The migration of boats nowadays hundreds of miles from
their own ports to others renders it necessary that all should
be consulted, even before local legislation is framed. The
counsels of one or two theoretical gentlemen should -no
longer be allowed to prevail at headquarters, but a depart-
ment or Board should be formed, composed of both
theoretical and practical men, with vessels at their disposal
for scientific and experimental purposes. It is all very well
for the Board of Trade, as the present system is, to hold
inquiries, when it wants information, from fishermen, but
these cannot afford to lose time, or make experimental
trips and hauls for the benefit of the community at large.
This should be the work of the Government, and is one
which has been undertaken by other Governments long
ago, with the result that we are behindhand in our know-
ledge of fish and fisheries.

Packages. Of necessity in this trade packages are much more

exposed to loss than in any other. They are sent
hurriedly from market to market, and are removed by
unscrupulous persons for all sorts of purposes, not theo-
retically illegal, but practically so. The loss in these amounts
to many thousands of pounds in a year, and is an indirect

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 465

tax on the consumer, as neither the catcher, buyer, merchant,
nor salesman can afford to bear the heavy loss. Some
special clauses relating to fish packages might, after due
consideration, be very beneficially introduced into any future
fishery bill to the pecuniary benefit of the consumers.

Having now dealt with the effect of the present and Suggestions,
proposed legislation, it only remains to make some sugges-
tions for the improvement of the laws, beginning with some
general ones.

First, — That the Government should at once organise
for the whole of the United Kingdom a fisheries depart-
ment

This is desirable at once, because if the present authorities
who have power to legislate for the fisheries go on blunder-
ing, especially on international questions, foreign nations as
well as ourselves will lose confidence in future proposals,
and much injury will accrue to the industry, and loss to
the nation.

Special reference is here made to the want of clearness
in the convention of 1868 ; the ordering of cubical space,
and sanitary arrangements for crews of decked fishing
boats, which was immediately abandoned as impracticable ;
and the lights question, which in its various phases has
caused considerable unnecessary expense and annoyance to
owners, and which is now virtually abandoned.

The order in council, which compelled open-coast fishing
boats to be lettered and numbered, in the same way as
large vessels (in size of the letters and numbers as well),
and was abandoned as useless, after causing much trouble
and expense to the poorest of our fishermen for several
years.

The law which compelled fishing vessels' crews to be
shipped under an agreement for a home trade ship, and

VOL T. — E 2. 2 H

466 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

which was to a great extent useless and inapplicable to
fishing vessels.

The way in which the Act of 1880 was drawn up and
passed, under which the industry has suffered so severely,
without including the immense loss to the nation at
large.

The way in which the International Convention of 1882
is drawn up.

The fishing vessel agreement sanctioned by the Board
of Trade in March, 1882.

The draft of clauses proposed to be inserted m the
Merchant Shipping Act, 1882, which have been discussed
and speak for themselves.

All these blunders could have been avoided had we, like
other nations, an organised fisheries department. The
Board of Trade, which legislates for the fisheries, has not
on its staff a single practical fisherman, or even any one
who knows the common rudiments. What would be the
result if a man trained as a fisherman was chosen to
practically advise a department on shipping matters ?
The reply is — Blunders. The same argument then may
be applied vice versd.

Second, — That the laws relating to sea fisheries should
be kept entirely distinct from any others, except so far as
having one general rule of the road at sea, and its conse-
quences, for all classes of ships and boats, at least when
under weigh or under full command.

There is a wide difference between an industry in which
the surface of the sea is simply used as a highway, and
another where the sea is used both as a highway and a
ground for gathering in rich harvests. In the former
a knowledge of surface, navigation only is required ; in the
latter the bottom navigation of the submarine hills, valleys,

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 467

and pits is required in addition, the sea itself being common
to both only as a highway. Ships may be likened to
common carriers using a high road, and fishing vessels to
the harvestmen working in the fields on either side of that
road. Their occupations are totally different, and so are
the laws relating to those occupations, and they are em-
bodied in different acts, but on the highway the law is the
same for both. A similar method of legislation should be
applied with regard to merchant ships and fishing vessels.

Third, — That the department should consist of theoretical,
and practical men, assisted by two or more practical
inspectors. The duties of this department should be the
collection of statistics, the carrying out of experiments, and
the framing of such legislation for the fisheries as may from
time to time become necessary. The inspectors should be
required to watch and take notice of any changes or inno-
vations in the method of prosecuting the fisheries through-
out the kingdom, to make special enquiries and go to sea
when necessary, to carry out experiments, and to report
thereon to the department.

Fourth, — That the whole of the shores of the United
Kingdom should be divided into districts, and an officer or
officers appointed for each district, whose duties should be
the supervision of the fisheries, and that all reports, dis-
putes, permits, and salvage of fishing gear, should be dealt
with by them, subject to appeal where points of law were
involved. They should collect statistics and make a general
report quarterly to the department on all matters of interest
to the fisheries which might come under their notice.

Fifth,— That having secured the assistance of practical
men, the fisheries laws of the United Kingdom should be
at once, and not till then, wholly revised to suit the peculiar
requirements of the industry.

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468

INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

Sixth, — That the International Convention of 1882
not ratified till it has been revised, as far as practical detail
is concerned, by an International Committee of practical
men, and finally approved by the plenipotentiaries.

These general suggestions will cover the whole of the
minor suggestions of detail which have been made through-
out this essay, but it will not be out of place here to give
the heads of them and others briefly 4 —

1. That steps be at once taken to prevent the destruction
of immature fish by trawlers.

2. That the question of damage done by one vessel to
another or their gear should be settled without the delay
now incidental to such cases, especially where foreign
vessels are concerned.

3. That the law of registration as to tonnage should either
be abolished as far as fishing vessels are concerned, or
carried out properly, and a definition given as to what
constitutes a decked fishing boat.

4. That proper forms, of agreement to suit the various
classes of fishing vessels be framed, but that they be as
simple as possible, and that the signatories to such agree-
ments be compelled to carry them out.

5. That the apprenticeship system be fostered with
judicious supervision, and the reputed masters made
masters of the apprentices practically.

6. That the system of licensed lodging-houses be adopted
at all ports.

7. That the payment of crews be not liable to official
interference, except in cases of dispute.

8. That no alteration be made in the present system of
provisioning fishing vessels.

9. That at fleets the admiral for the time being be invested
with powers to decide as to when the boarding of carriers

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 469

shall or shall not take place, and that the master of any
vessel who permits his boat to be got out after the signal
not to board is given, shall be liable to heavy penalties, and
to manslaughter in the case of loss of life occurring from
such conduct. Reports of infraction of the law to be made
either by the admiral, or master of carrier, or both at the
earliest opportunity.

10. That some regulation be made as to the number of
packages or weight a boat shall carry. The master of
vessel to be responsible for any infraction of this.

11. That all admirals should be remunerated on a scale
of fish caught only, not landed or sold, so that no loss will
accrue to admiral by not allowing fish to be boarded in
bad weather.

12. That trawlers and liners be authorised to carry one
white light at masthead when at their gear.

13. That severe penalties be imposed on the masters of
-all vessels not carrying their proper lights at any time,
whether damage is done or not, and that the various
cruisers be specially instructed to look out for such
offenders.

14. That drifters be authorised to carry two white lights,
6 feet apart, perpendicularly, when adrift or at work.

15. That necessary clothes supplied to a man by an
owner, to enable him to proceed to sea, be deemed ship's
stores until such time as such fisherman has earned
sufficient to pay for them.

1 6. That a single trip be not termed a voyage, but only
a portion of such voyage.

17. That the law touching the selling of fish by auction
be revised as far as the first sale of fish only is concerned.

1 8. That the old Act of 1854, as regards desertions, be
at once re-enacted.

470 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

19. That appeal in salvage (fishing) be made to the
magistrates only, assisted by competent assessors..

20. That the law of lettering and numbering of vessels
be carried out properly.

21. That permits be issued in cases of borrowed sails or
gear.

22. That no legislation be enacted by order in council.

23. That in ferrying fish, or other boat work, the mate
of the vessel should always take command of the boat
when the master does not

24. That a closet seat be provided on every vessel, such
as is now provided in a very few vessels, as many lives
have been lost both in harbour and at sea, either through
the vessel lurching or other causes, through sitting on the
rail. This would save many a life by its being inboard.
Two iron loops also might be screwed to deck to put toes
in, to give a hold.

25. That regulations be made as to the buoying of
telegraph cables on fishing grounds, and when it is neces-
sary that they should be put down, to ensure that no
unnecessary delay takes place in removing them, as is
sometimes now the case.

26. That one or more fishing cruisers should be equipped
and devoted to scientific investigation or practical experi-
ments, similar to those carried on by America and other
nations.

27. That a code of signals should be established, so that
at night cruisers could be signalled for when required.

28. That extraordinary punishments be enacted for
offences which oblige a fishing vessel to return to harbour,
such as cutting a trawl-warp, throwing capstan handles
overboard, &c., which are similar to rattening in factories.

29. That the branding system be abolished.

PROTECTION OP DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 471

30. That the present Scotch Fishery Board form a
portion of a general system throughout the United King-
dom on revised lines.

31. That the present Irish Fisheries' Commissioners also
form a portion of the proposed general Board.

ADDENDA (i).

An important point, and one which is daily increasing in Submarine
difficulty, must not be forgotten; it is the question pf
submarine telegraph cables. It is a daily increasing one
for this reason, that the submarine cables which were laid
quite as an innovation a few years back, are now beginning
to get old and worn, and consequently require much more
attention and repairing than they did during the first few
years of their existence. This difficulty will increase rather
than diminish, as new lines of cable are constantly being
laid on various coasts. As matters now stand, there is no
law bearing on the point. A company lays a cable which,
while it lasts good, will cause many a vessel to lose her
anchor, should she be unfortunate enough to hook it, but
as soon as the cable begins to get old, thin, and weak, it
breaks on being hooked by an anchor, and the company
begins to call out about damage to cables. A repairing
steamer is sent which grapples for the ends, and finding
possibly that the cable is in a bad state, takes up a
certain length of it, puts buoys on to the ends left, with-
out any notice of any kind being given to any authority.
She then goes away to obtain a piece of cable to repair it
with, or to a harbour to overhaul it, with a view to splic-
ing and cutting out certain portions before relaying it.
This is necessarily a work of time, as each splice
occupies three hours, not reckoning the getting out

472 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

and re-shipping. A fisherman, not knowing this, shoots
his nets in what he believes to be clear sea-room,
and finds during the night that they are parted and
damaged, or lost, through what he afterwards finds is
the buoy or buoys left by the repairing telegraph steamer.
Thus far individuals have not attempted to recover
damages by a lawsuit against a wealthy company, the law
on the subject being very undefined ; so, by " might against
right," the telegraph companies have at present the best of
it. Latterly, in some instances (this year, 1883), notices
have been issued by them that " buoys have been laid " —
not "are going to be laid" — in certain localities, with a
view, no doubt, to assist in protecting themselves against
actions for damages ; but they carefully avoid dating
them, so that the period for which the buoys are to
remain cannot be ascertained. Water and gas com-
panies have power by Act of Parliament to break open
roads and streets to effect necessary repairs, but, on the
other hand, they are bound to give proper notice of the
time and place ; a similar basis should be taken in framing
legislation for the telegraph companies. In some cases
the buoys remain for weeks together, simply because they
do not choose to carry sufficient new cable with them to
lay in the place of what they take up when the weather
is fine, but come to harbour to overhaul the old piece taken
up, to splice the best of it together, and relay as much of
the old as possible. Therefore, to suit the pockets of the
companies, fishermen are precluded from fishing in the
locality of the buoys during the will and pleasure of
the manager or engineer of a telegraph company. This
is not right. It is granted that there must be telegraph
cables, but, as regards repairs, the companies should be
compelled to use every means in their power to effect

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 473

them rapidly, instead of doing them piecemeal to save their
own pockets, to the detriment of others, especially in cases
where they have duplicate and triplicate cables, and are
consequently in no great hurry. Powers should be given
them to lay buoys, if necessary, for the repairs, but they
should also be bound to execute them in a suitable and
expeditious manner after due notice has been given.
Recently the telegraph companies addressed a letter to the
Board of Trade suggesting the enactment of certain pro-
visions for the protection of their cables. They asked for
penalties to be imposed for wilful damage to cables either
by anchorage or gear ; and, on the other hand, offered to
compensate vessels for loss of anchors or gear in cases
where they were lost to save damage to cables. This
would put the whole affair into the hands of the companies,
for they would be at liberty to dispute any claim they
liked, and the practical result would be victory for them, as
individual owners possessing, 'as a rule, only moderate
means, would rather bear the loss than go to law with a
company. The companies should be compelled to exhibit
in prominent places at fishing ports, charts showing
the route of the various lines of cable belonging to each,
and their bearings. These should be corrected from time to
time, as they may be underrun for the purposes of ex-
amination or repair, as each time this process is gone
through the position of the cable is altered to a certain
degree according to circumstances, such as tides and winds.
They should be also compelled to have a sufficient number
of cables laid, so that if one gets broken the repairing
would not be so urgent as to prevent them from giving
proper notice of their intention to commence repairing, and
of the probable locality, on a certain date, or as soon there-

474 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

after as the weather will permit, or to effect the repairs at
seasons when no drift-fishing is being prosecuted in the
localities where the cables are laid.

ADDENDA (2).

Fisheries Since this essay was drafted, an inquiry into the sea

fishing trade generally has been held by order of the
President of the Board of Trade, on the following grounds :

First. — In consequence of questions and difficulties that
have arisen.

Secondly. — In consequence of cases of cruelty to boys
on fishing vessels which have been brought to light.

The former fully bears out what has been remarked in
this essay, and its introduction shows that the Board of
Trade, as at present constituted, is not conversant to any-
great extent with the fishing trade, or at all events not
sufficiently so, as to be able to legislate for it successfully.
It also shows that the abolition of imprisonment for deser-
tion was effected regardless of the interests of the trade or
its effects upon it, and solely, as the President told the
deputation that waited on him on the question, because
trades unions did not approve of it. He evidently tried to
humour the trades unions, who know nothing of the extra-
ordinary circumstances under which the fishing trade is
carried on, regardless of the damage and loss which would
accrue to the trade and nation. Having taken this hasty
step, he afterwards appointed a committee to inquire into
" the general regulations and customs under which the
fishing trade is worked at the present time." Had this
been done at first, it would have shown a much more sincere
desire to benefit the trade, and is only what any trade has

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 475

a right to expect at the hands of a Government department.
The minute appointing the Committee then goes on to
state that the " draft clauses " (already discussed) have been
drafted with a view to their introduction to Parliament.
The Committee nominated is then instructed to report

1. " Whether the draft clauses referred to are sufficient,
or whether they need any, and, if so, what modification."

2. " Upon the causes of the numerous desertions that
are reported to have taken place among the crews of fishing
vessels, and to suggest any remedies for the inconvenience
alleged to have been suffered in consequence of the aboli-
tion of arrest without warrant, and of imprisonment for
breach of contract"

This latter clause is neatly worded as far as " remedies
for the inconvenience alleged to have been suffered " is
concerned. The President does not mention " the pecuniary
loss," which was amply proved by dates, facts, and figures
in detail to be thousands of pounds, by the deputation
from the fishing trade of all parts which waited upon
him in the month of July previous. The minute closes
with the following advice : —

"The Committee will consider and report on any
practical suggestions for obviating this inconvenience,
which is likely to be most serious at the commencement
of the new system, and before employers and employed
have settled down to new conditions, but they will be good
enough to consider themselves as precluded from enter-
taining any proposals for reverting to the old system which
has been condemned by Parliament, and which Her
Majesty's Government are unwilling, under any circum-
stances, to re-establish."

Here is shown a determination, even to the annihilation
of the industry, not to re-enact the old system, by the head

476 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

of a Government department, who is on the point of having
an inquiry upon "the general regulations and customs"
under which the industry is worked. A department might
be excused for wanting an inquiry into any special cir-
cumstances connected with an industry, but when it wants
information on the "general regulations and customs," it
shows an incredible amount of ignorance. It is a case of
legislating first, and inquiring afterwards as to the effects and
damage done. The Committee consisted of four gentlemen
with whose appointment the trade was well satisfied, but a
general opinion prevailed that the fifth, who was an official
of the Board of Trade, should not have been an actual
member, though he might have watched the evidence on
behalf of his department. The Committee took great pains
to get at the bottom of the whole system, but found a
difficulty in getting boys and crews to come forward and
speak freely, the proportion of this class who gave evidence
being very small. Fishermen, like sailors, do not like public
inquiries, and the department will never get at the bottom
of the whole trade in this manner ; it must have practical
men on its staff who can keep it informed on such
matters as can never be got at by public inquiry. The
Committee received evidence at the following places : —
Hull, Grimsby, North Shields, Scarborough, Yarmouth,
Lowestoft, Ramsgate, Penzance, Brixham, and at the Board
of Trade. The trade, at certain ports, was prepared to
take the draft clauses and show their utter impracticability
on certain points, but in reply to questions put to the
Chairman, he stated that, from evidence previously taken,
the trade might consider the draft clauses in their present
form virtually abandoned. This, again, is an instance of
the ignorance of the department of the working of this
industry, though happily, owing to the indignation of the

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 477

trade at the passing of the Act of 1880, the draft clauses
did not become law in the same way.

The report of this Committee was published in the early
part of the present year 1883. It is a very able one from a
general point of view, and as far as the recommendations
are concerned they agree mainly (on the points gone into)
with those previously given in this essay. There are one
or two points in the report which will bear a little
comment.

Clause 52, referring to certificates and other matters,
and the vessels which shall be liable to or exempt there-
from. It seems rather strange that the recommendation
should be according to tonnage, for this in no way gua-
rantees the safety of the vessel or her crew if smaller than
the regulation tonnage. It appears to the writer that this
should not be according to tonnage at all, for the following
reasons. A certificate is hardly required where a fisherman
is always fishing from the port where his home is and the
vessel belongs, and with which locality he is well acquainted
for many miles round, but it does appear desirable in
cases where a fisherman is going to make a voyage of
several hundred miles, as before shown, such as east coast
Scotch boats sailing to the east coast of England, or west
coast of Scotland ; east coast English boats going to the
northern or western ports of Ireland, or west coast boats
going to the northern ports, and so on. In most cases
these voyages are made only once a year. If the weather
is favourable, all is well ; but suppose it is not, and the
vessel is unable to keep the coast, how is the master to
know where he is unless he is educated to a certain extent ?
In many cases now it is " happy go lucky," as well as with
some of the North Sea trawlers. An instance occurred only
recently of a master cutting away his trawl gear in the open

478 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

sea, thinking that he was driving on the Dutch coast.
When daylight came he found out his error, and then tried
to frighten the boy not to tell the owner how the gear was
lost ; but this is only one case out of many. Boats of under
twenty tons get lost on their passages, with all hands, but
whether from incompetency or not must be left open. If
the masters held certificates, it would then take away all
doubt as to whether it was through incompetency or cir-
cumstances beyond his control. Men who act as pilots of
fishing boats on various coasts should also be compelled to
have certificates for general competency if masters are. But
to return to the point : these stipulations may, if desired,
apply to vessels not exceeding twenty tons net register, but in
addition they should apply to all vessels leaving their own
port for the purpose of prosecuting a fishing from any
other port if beyond, say twenty miles, for there are fre-
quently plenty of fishing vessels smaller than twenty net tons
register which go hundreds of miles from home to prose-
cute various fishings. Surely if vessels over twenty tons
fishing from their home port only are required to have
certificated masters and mates, vessels leaving home as
mentioned should also be required to have the same, if
only as a guarantee for the safety of their crews.

The next point for remark is the recommendations on
the desertions question.

Clause 55, section I, recommends the issue of warrants
for the apprehension of deserters. This is very good if the
warrants can be obtained within a few minutes ; but where a
fishing port has two miles of quay, by the time the warrant
is obtained the deserter may be miles away in the train.
If, on the other hand, they can be obtained instantly, which
they must be to be practically useful, it will simply be the
old system of arresting a man .on the spot, but with the

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES, 479

doubtful satisfaction to him that he is arrested under a
warrant.

Section 2 recommends that the offender should have a
preliminary trial before the Board of Trade officer. The
use of this would practically amount to the old law, for
when the Board of Trade officer ordered the deserter to be
taken to the magistrates there is no doubt but that, as
formerly, in most cases the man would proceed to sea. The
principle appears to be the same with a little more red tape
added to it ; for if the offender were not guilty the Board of
Trade officer would not condemn him, nor would the
magistrates if the case had come before them. It does not
appear to relieve the fishermen from the old ultimatum of
imprisonment for desertion, which is professedly to be
abolished, but simply to put a little extra form in the way
in the shape of a Board of Trade official. Looking at this
in this straightforward manner (which has a parallel in the
professed abolition of imprisonment for debt, where, because
a man does not pay what he has not got, as ordered by the
Court, he can be imprisoned for contempt of Court (?) ), and
then reading the final advice to the Committee in the
minute before commented on, it does not appear likely that
the President of the Board of Trade will see his way to
adopt it. One thing appears strange, and that is, that the
Board of Trade official, who formed one of the Committee,
should have concurred in this portion of the report, and
even suggested it to witnesses who gave evidence, as a way
out of the difficulty. The writer cannot conclude this
essay without adding a little more which has since occurred
to him on reading the report of a speech made by the
President of the Board of Trade in reply to an influential
deputation of shipowners which waited on him early in
this month (March). To a great extent, though not

480 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

altogether, the interests of shipowners are identical with
the fishing owner as regards desertions. The President
said : " With respect to the desertion of seamen, I under-
stand that there is only one change which can be satis-
factory to you, and that is, that the anomalous power which
was once possessed by shipowners alone of all employers of
labour, that of arbitrary arrest without warrant, should be re-
enacted. All I can say is, it will not be re-enacted by me,
and I will have no part in restoring legislation which I
think cannot by any possibility be justified." This being the
President's view of" the anomalous power possessed by ship-
owners alone of all employers of labour," why did he not
carry out his principles thoroughly when framing the Act of
1880 ? What other employer of labour has the power which
the Board of Trade still puts before owners as their remedy,
that of allowing an owner to appropriate a deserter's clothes
or effects, which he may leave on board, and which would
include a fisherman's oily clothes and sea boots, without which
he cannot go to sea, and which are in reality his tools ?
Suppose a workman left his work, or neglected to attend to it
for one day, and a coat, cap, slop or tools left in a factory
were seized by the master, the result would be that the
master would have to pay all damages in a court of law.
Again, in what trade would a man be liable to pay the excess
of wages paid by his master to another man whom the master
might engage in his place when he left his work ? Or in
what calling would a man be liable to four weeks' hard
labour for refusing to do as he was told by his master, and
to forfeit wages as well ? For assaulting his master, to be
liable to twelve weeks' hard labour without the option of a
fine ? For combining with others to neglect duty, twelve
weeks' hard labour ? For embezzlement or damage, to
twelve weeks' hard labour, in addition to paying for the

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 481

damage? Or, as in the Act of 1880, in what trade can a
man who refuses to do his work be lawfully taken to it by '
force, by his master, his foreman, or police ? The reply to
all these is that they are anomalous, and " possessed by
shipowners alone of all employers of labour." Therefore,
according to the President's views, they should be repealed
at once. But in the Act of 1880 he created a fresh anoma-
lous power of " conveying on board," it might be, a drunken
man (unable to appeal to be taken before the magistrates)
compelling him to go to sea in an unseaworthy ship or other-
wise forcing him to his work. This is an anomaly for
the President to explain. Either this trade requires anoma-
lous legislation or it does not. The President seems to say
it shall not have it. As he distinctly refuses to assist in
getting the anomalous power of arrest without warrant
re-enacted, therefore let the whole of the " anomalous
powers possessed by shipowners alone of all employers of
labour " be repealed. But, on the other hand, if he admits
that anomalous legislation is required, as he does by the
sanctioning of it in the Act of 1880 above referred to, let
the trade have such anomalous legislation as has been
amply proved to be the only suitable kind, and which may
possibly help to save some of the lives of which the
President further on in his speech deplores the loss, by
guaranteeing that our ships and fishing vessels shall be
efficiently manned with their full complement of trustworthy
seamen, and not be shorthanded, or manned by loafers, on
account of the efficient hands selected by a master or owner
being allowed, after having been lawfully shipped, to break
their agreements for their own private whims and fancies.

This calls to mind the way in which the question of life- Life-saving,
saving is dealt with by the Board of Trade. It is part of
the duty of this department, and to carry it out it has

VOL. I. — E. 2. 21

482 . INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

power, under subsection 5 of section 418 of the Merchant
Shipping Act, 1854, to devote the moneys of the Mercantile
Marine Fund to "such expenses for establishing and
maintaining on the coasts of the United Kingdom proper
lifeboats, with the necessary crews and equipments, and
for affording assistance towards the preservation of life and
property in cases of shipwreck and distress at sea, and for
rewarding the preservation of life in such cases as the
Board of Trade directs." This duty is very efficiently
carried out as far as coast life-saving by rocket appa-
ratus provided by the Board of Trade is concerned,
and in the event of life being saved, the award to the
coastguard, who receive Government pay, and have no
expenses for apparatus, is £i per life saved. This is
not grudged for one moment, but the Board of Trade
might do a good deal more in this way. Our North
Sea fishing vessels have been well named the " Life-boats
of the North Sea," and no year passes without many crews
being saved by them and taken into some of our east coast
ports. They are generally saved at great risk with only
what they stand in, and it would be interesting to know, if
this department could give it, how many lives have been
saved by this means during the last ten years, and the
amount the salvors have received out of the Mercantile
Marine Fund for such service. It appears that the depart-
ment does not encourage this at all as it ought. If it is
necessary to pay lifeboat crews, surely smacks and ships
saving lives should be entitled to some reward. These men
cannot live on nothing, besides risking their lives, any more
than a lifeboatman. A smack will rescue a crew, some-
times of fifteen hands or more ; all she can then do is to
make for home and land the rescued. The vessel to which
they belonged is most probably entirely lost, so that there

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 483

is no salvage of property, and the smack loses two or three
nights' work. The question is often asked, " Why don't you
apply to the Board of Trade for some recompense for loss
of time ? " The reply always is, " It is of no use." If such is
the case, it is high time that it was of use. How often are
shipwrecked crews brought in who report that one or two
vessels (it may be in the Atlantic or elsewhere) passed
near and took no notice ? It points to the fact that there
is a sort of dread among some masters, that if they rescue
a crew, and have to make the nearest port and get more
provisions, they will not be thanked by their owners, and
in some cases they have to pay for the extra provisions
out of their own pockets. It is the same thing as driving
steamers in a fog. A good owner forbids it, a bad one
finds that his master is careful and stops, and consequently
the master is told he is not wanted any longer. The same
pressure, in certain cases, weighs as to rescuing crews
in distress. The master may wish to do so, but, looking
to his own position, hopes that they will get saved by some
other means, or smothers up his feelings by thinking that
some other ship will be sure to save them. It is painful to
have to write such facts as these, but there are good and
bad all over the world, and the writer is only too sorry to
feel convinced that in some cases masters of ships have to
study their own families and position. This really is a
Government question, and from the interest which the Presi-
dent of the Board of Trade evinces in life-saving, it is to be
hoped that he will notify, that all future cases of rescu-
ing crews in distress will be duly considered, if reported to
him, and rewarded according to their merits. Surely this
would be only fair where private enterprise finds the means,
and often the necessaries, the Board of Trade having no
expense as in the case of maintaining rocket apparatus.

2 I 2

484 INTERNATIONAL LAWS FOR THE

Immature fish. A few words on the immature fish question are desirable.
The writer believes that all practical men are agreed that
the question is to be settled, not, in accordance with the
view put forward by some, by the depopulation of the sea
of, at least, certain kinds of fish — though this can never be,
owing to the large extent of grounds, rough or otherwise,
which nature has given as a protection to the fish, and
which are consequently unworkable— but in accordance
with the view that, while it is impossible altogether to
prevent the destruction of immature fish, steps should be
taken as far as possible to minimise it.

On the Dutch coast, at the period of the year when
large quantities of smacks work there, it is a common
occurrence to have to use a shovel to throw overboard not
only the dross, . shells, and refuse of a trawl-net, but
thousands of small soles and flat fish, in one haul only. It
is a serious international question, but resolves itself at once
into a question of nets. Our Government should lose no
time in getting a net so constructed as to minimise this
wasteful destruction. They should, as before remarked,
give practical men the opportunity of testing the value and
results of various ideas, and a suitable net would soon be
found. Till this is done, the evil will continue, for, as
before remarked, private enterprise cannot afford to pay for
such experiments as these. It is to be hoped that the
present Exhibition will do much in this direction.

Fishermen, like sailors, are proverbially improvident, as
the various relief funds, which have been from time to
time raised, amply prove. The writer, being well acquainted

Insurance. with the distress and want often caused, is firmly of opinion
that this should be a Goverment question, as to whether
some fund could not be raised by a small compulsory
payment by crews to it, from every £100 earned. In

PROTECTION OF DEEP SEA FISHERIES. 485

deducting expenses it would never be missed. Very
often the majority of a crew are in favour of giving a
donation out of the gross earnings to some relief fund
which may then be open, but are prevented from so doing
by the " odd men " before alluded to, who perhaps will
never go to sea again, or have no homes, and therefore feel
no interest in it.

SALMON LEGISLATION IN SCOTLAND.

THE LEGISLATION

AT PRESENT APPLICABLE TO THE ,

SALMON FISHERIES IN SCOTLAND,

AND THE

BEST MEANS OF IMPROVING IT.

TRUSTY AND BYDAND"—]. M. LEITH, EDINBURGH.

VOL. I. — E. 3.

SALMON LEGISLATION IN SCOTLAND.

WHEN a country is endowed by nature with a valuable
product it of course becomes her bounden duty so to watch
over it by wise and prudent regulation from time to time
as to preserve and if possible to increase its importance
both as a national and as an individual source of wealth.
When, in addition to its commercial value, it possesses the
economic and dainty qualities of the salmon as an article
of food, that duty becomes doubly imperative. It accord-
ingly does not surprise us that our ancestors were of the
same opinion, and to find in our statute books protective
enactments dating at variable intervals from the present
time as far back as the reigns of Robert the Bruce and
William the Lion, i.e., for no less than eight hundred years,
or at all events not far short of that extent of time.

It is not necessary to discuss these early statutes, which,
though most of them are still nominally in force, are
practically in desuetude ; but we think it deserves to be
said, particularly of the earlier ones, that, apart from an
occasional looseness of expression which was unavoidable
considering the state of education and civilisation of the
times, they for the most part show clearly the intention of
the framers, and a spirit and determination with regard to
unfair and severe modes of fishing, which are worthy of our
admiration.

490 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

HOME DRUMMOND'S ACT.

Coming down to the iQth century we find that an Act
(9 Geo. IV. c. 39) was passed in 1828, being the first Act
relating to Scotch salmon fishings since 1705, a period of
one hundred and twenty-three years. This Act is generally
known as " Home Drummond's Act," and is still partially
in force. It contains several provisions intended for the
preservation of salmon, the most important of which post-
poned the commencement of the annual close time, and
extended the whole period to one hundred and thirty-nine
days. Previous to this the close time lasted only for about
one hundred and seven days, though it commenced earlier.
It was regulated by an Act of James I., 1424, c. 35, the
provisions of which were merely confirmed or re-enacted
by other Acts passed between that date and 1705. This
Act of 1828 is generally considered to have done much
more harm than good to the fisheries, because, instead of
protecting them by prohibiting netting at the time when
netting was most destructive, viz., at the end of the open
season, it actually withdrew the protection which formerly
existed, and permitted netting to encroach for three weeks
(August 26 to September 15) into what had before been
close time. The nominal extension of the close time to
one hundred and thirty-nine days, therefore, was illusory,
the addition being made at the beginning of the former
open season, when it was unnecessary, or of little conse-
quence. The Act also made no concession to the upper
proprietors, by permitting rod-fishing to go on for a week
or two after the nets were stopped, and thus the upper
proprietors were not encouraged to afford any protection to
the fish while breeding in their waters. Taking into con-
sideration the fact that only three years before a Select

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCO TLAND. 491

Committee of the House of Commons appointed for the
purpose had made an exhaustive inquiry into the subject,
and had presented a Report to the House containing
recommendations superior in every respect to those actually
adopted, it is difficult to understand why the Act was
passed, and it can only be put down to the adverse
influence of the lower proprietors. It was entirely in their
interest, and not in that of the fish or the fisheries.

Of course it was not to be expected that matters could
remain on the footing established by this Act, and accord-
ingly many proposals were made, and several bills brought
forward from time to time during the next thirty years
with a view of amending the law and placing it more or
less nearly on the footing recommended by the Report of
the Select Committee of 1825. The same influence, how-
ever, which secured the passing of the Act of 1828 was
still at work, and defeated every effort which was made.
The way for a new general Act for Scotland was at length
paved by the passing of two Acts for the Tweed in 1857
and 1859, the Tay Act of 1858, and the Ness and Beauly
and Thurso Acts of 1860, the discussion of the Bills for
which, notably those of the Tweed, opened, the eyes of
Parliament to the real state of matters, and to the necessity
of doing something to prevent the extermination of the
" noble denizen of the rivers."

BILL OF 1861.

In 1861 the whole subject of salmon fishing legislation in
Great Britain came before Parliament. Following in the
case of England on the recommendations of a Royal
Commission, and in the case of Scotland on those of a
Committee of the House of Lords, two important and

492 SALMON LEGISLATION IN SCOTLAND.

comprehensive Bills were introduced, proceeding on "almost
the same lines, and proposing inter alia in both cases the
abolition of " fixed engines," and the extension of the close
time. The English Bill was passed with no material
alteration, but the Scotch Bill, after having been subjected
to the tender mercies of another Committee (of the House
of Commons), which unfortunately was not, as it should
have been, entirely disinterested, was so altered and muti-
lated, that its introducer, the Lord Advocate, did not know
it again, and consequently withdrew it. The vexata qticestio
which mainly caused this result was the abolition of fixed
engines, and seeing that the opposition on the point was so
strong against him, the Lord Advocate (Moncreiff) pru-
dently decided to defer its discussion to a more convenient
season, and to secure in the meantime other important
improvements which there was more chance of carrying.
He therefore brought in a Bill with this view in the follow-
ing year (1862), which was finally passed after undergoing
a certain amount of alteration. The question of fixed
engines was left open, with the stipulation that nothing in
the Act should be held to legalise any mode of fishing
which had before been illegal, a proviso which had been
rendered all the more necessary by an attempt of the
Committee on the Bill of 1861, to legislatively acknowledge
fixed engines, under cover of subjecting them to certain
restrictions.

THE ACT OF 1862.

This Act of 1862 now forms the foundation of the present
state of the law of salmon fishing in Scotland, though not
so completely as the corresponding English Act of 1861
for England, which repealed all the existing statutes on the

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 493

subject, a serious omission in the Scotch Act. It will be
useful to give a short resume* of the provisions of the
Act.

Summary of Provisions. — The Act (i) constitutes each
river, with its tributaries, lakes and estuary, and adjoining
sea-coast into a district ; (2) appoints commissioners to fix
boundaries between estuaries and sea, and between upper
and lower proprietors on rivers ; limits of districts and of
annual close time, and to make general regulations regard-
ing cruives and obstructions, meshes of nets, and due
observance of weekly close time; (3) Fixes annual close
time of one hundred and sixty-eight days for every district,
and weekly close time of thirty-six hours, with qualifications
as to rod and line, the annual close time being applicable
to every mode of fishing in river, lake, estuary and sea,
except rod and line, during extension to be fixed by
Commissioners ; (4) Imposes penalties, with forfeiture of
articles used, for fishing during close time, or with illegal
mesh of net ; for obstructing or impeding passage of fish ;
for selling fresh fish taken during annual close time ; for
taking or possessing foul or unseasonable salmon at any
time ; for fishing with lights ; for setting nets or traps to
catch fish leaping at a fall ; for using or selling salmon roe
for purpose of fishing ; and for polluting waters ; (5) En-
joins Commissioners to make bye-laws on matters com-
mitted to them, which (after certain steps) should have all
the force of law ; (6) Provides as to election, constitution,
and powers of District Boards ; (7) Declares illegal fishing
by three or more persons at night to be a criminal offence,
punishable by fine or imprisonment; (8) Provides for
prosecutions, and recovery and application of penalties and
expenses; (9) Extends the English Act of 1861, as to
fixed engines, to the Solway after January I, 1865, a

494 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

provision which, however, has proved abortive. The Act
does not. apply to the Tweed, with the exception of three
sections, relating to illegal modes of fishing (saving clause),
possession of salmon roe, and poaching by three or more
persons at night.

The Commissioners appointed in terms of the Act, after
inspections and inquiries lasting over two years, marked
out one hundred and five districts to be supervised by the
District Boards provided for in the Act, and made bye-laws
regulating the various matters above mentioned (except
obstructions).

FAILURE OF DISTRICT BOARDS.

It is universally admitted that the reforms introduced by
the Act of 1862 were necessary and well-intentioned, and
that they have been generally beneficial to the salmon
fishings ; but however excellent in intention any piece of
legislation may be, it unfortunately too often happens that
its effect falls far short of the same standard of excellence,
and this Act is no exception to the rule. One of the most
important of all the provisions in the Act was the establish-
ment of a responsible and interested supervision and regu-
lation of the fisheries, by means of the constitution of local
boards of proprietors of salmon fishings, and the delegation
to them of apparently ample powers to carry out the
intentions of the legislature. There can be no room for
doubt as to the wisdom of this principle of government of
the fisheries, but nevertheless in the result we have the
most conspicuous failure in the whole of the Act. As
already mentioned, the Commissioners appointed by the
Act, following strictly its instructions, constituted one
hundred and five districts, in each of which the proprietors

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 495

of fishings should have met and formed District Boards.
In some of the most important districts they did meet and
boards were duly elected, but in the other districts the
parties showed themselves so very apathetic that the Act
remained a dead letter on this point. The result was that
instead of one hundred and five district boards having been
constituted in Scotland, only thirty-six, or about one-third
were actually elected ; and small as this proportion was, it
has been still further reduced by the lapse of several boards
who had neglected to observe the triennial election pre-
scribed by the Act, and the number now stands at twenty-
five, including Orkney and Shetland, which have recently
taken steps to constitute themselves into fishery districts.
The Duke of Sutherland is sole proprietor of fifteen rivers
in Sutherlandshire, and as such has all the powers of a
district board. These fifteen rivers are, so far as manage-
ment is concerned, apportioned into three districts (included
in the above twenty-five) under the charge of three factors
of the Duke in the capacity of clerks.

There must be reasons for this unsatisfactory and dis-
couraging state of matters, and we shall proceed to indicate
a few of those apparent. The first thing to which our
attention is directed is the membership of the board, and
particularly the appointment of a chairman by the Act.
It was provided that the Board should consist of three
upper proprietors and three lower proprietors (or if less
than three of either in the district, of an equal number), an
arrangement which seems reasonable and natural so far as
regards proportion. But instead of allowing these pro-
prietors to elect their own chairman, according to estab-
lished usage, the Act went on to declare that the largest
proprietor in the district was to be also a member of the
board without election, and in virtue of his rental, its

496 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

chairman, and should have a deliberative as well as a
casting vote. When we take into consideration the fact
that the whole history of salmon legislation, so far as we
have records of it, is simply a recital of the battles and
disputes between upper and lower proprietors, born of the
deep conviction of the former that their interests - were
entirely overridden by those of the lower proprietors, it
seems strange that the Legislature should not have foreseen
the effect of this stipulation with regard to the chairman.
As the largest proprietor is naturally always a lower
proprietor, the effect was to give the lower proprietors
a majority of votes at every full meeting of the board. If
one of the lower proprietors were absent, they would still
have it all their own way, by means of the casting vote of
the chairman. This was simply aggravating the grievances
under which the upper proprietors had so long groaned,
and it is not at all surprising that their cordial co-operation
in the new system was not secured. Of course it may be
said that the lower proprietors ought to have the majority
in votes as they have the majority in value. This may be
true as a general principle, but it is not applicable to the
circumstances existing between the upper and lower pro-
prietors. If the former had obtained what they believe to
be the justice they seek, and the, as it were, personal
question had been eliminated, it would have been another
matter. It may, however, be asked, "Who is to be the
chairman ? " If not a lower proprietor, is he to be an upper
proprietor? This again would place the power in the
hands of the upper proprietors, a result which would not
be desirable either. There are two ways of answering the
question. 1st. Let the members elect their own chairman
from among themselves. If they were satisfied to entrust
the power voluntarily to one of their own number, whether

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 497

an upper or a lower proprietor, they might safely be left to
do so. Again, the chairman need not necessarily be a
permanent one — he may be elected at every meeting, as in
the case of the Tweed Commissioners. 2nd. Let the
chairman be one who is neither an upper nor a lower
proprietor, and who would therefore be entirely unbiassed
in the decision of questions which might arise between the
two classes. No doubt there are difficulties in the way of
this solution, but we feel convinced that it is the only just
one, and warrants the attempt to surmount the difficulties.
It ought to be as easy to get a chairman as a clerk, or if it
is not considered advisable or practicable to attach even a
small emolument to the office, recourse might be had to an
ex officio appointment from among the county justices or
other responsible officials in the district.

Another consideration which operated to the discourage-
ment of any united or vigorous action on the part particu-
larly of those proprietors whose interests were not very
great, was the provision of § 23 of the Act, that the
necessary funds for the due administration of the Act,
including salaries of clerks, expenses of watching and
prosecutions, &c., were to be raised by an assessment
imposed by the Board on the several fisheries in each
district. The task imposed on the proprietors was thus
neither altogether easy nor always particularly agreeable,
while in addition to their personal trouble, they were to
find all the funds from their own pockets. It is not to be
wondered at if the proprietors in many of the less im-
portant districts considered that the end would not repay
the means.

The next circumstance which militated against the
success of the Act on the subject of District Boards is
the provision contained in § 4, that each river in Scotland

VOL. I. — E. 3. 2 K

498 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

flowing into the sea, with its estuary and tributaries, should
form a district and have a board for itself. It does not
seem too much to say that a very little inquiry or con-
sideration would have enabled the framers of the Act to
avoid this serious error in the detail of the system of local
government. It cannot surely have escaped the promoters,
particularly from the publicity which has been given to the
fact by the Reports of the River Pollution Commissioners
and pollution prosecutions, that many rivers in Scotland
have been entirely depopulated. Nor should it have been
unknown that many rivers in Scotland, chiefly in the
Highlands, are so remote, and run through so thinly-
populated and wild districts, while possibly the fishings
are not of great value, that the expense of watching them,
if efficient watching is not quite impossible, would be so
great as to swallow up all the benefit which might be
derived from it. In these cases also very large tracts of
land are usually in the hands of one or two proprietors,
whose residences, or those of their representatives, are so
far removed from each other that it is virtually impracti-
cable to have any meetings at all. " Le jeu ne vaut pas la
chandelle."

As we shall see further on, the District Boards are too
much the creatures of statute, and have not, in some
instances, even the powers of common law, with the
result that they are of little use, at least in comparison to
what was expected of them.

The system of local government thus inaugurated in
Scotland was not introduced into England till 1865, but
though later it has there been much more successful. The
districts are not so numerous as in Scotland, numbering
only forty-four, and they are easily and quickly accessible
(not more than a twelve hours' journey from London in

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 499

any case) from any part of the kingdom. The same system
exists in Ireland as in England, also with success. The
reasons for this difference are to be found in the fact that
the districts are all easily workable, while the powers of the
Boards of Conservators are sufficiently ample to enable
them to deal effectively with the questions arising, and to
carry out the spirit as well as the letter of the law, among
their powers being the very important one (with regard to
England at least) of making bye-laws themselves for the
better regulation of the fishings within their districts.
Funds, both in England and Ireland, are raised not by
assessment on the fisheries as in Scotland, but by licence
duties, according to graduated scales, ranging from £i or
less to ^"30, and thus one item which contributes to the
apathy of proprietors in Scotland is removed. Another
very important difference in England is that tacksmen of
fishings have a right to one seat on the Board of Con-
servators for every £50 of license duty paid, the effect of
which is to secure the co-operation and assistance in carrying
out the law of the whole body of fishing tenants in the
district.

It must also not be forgotten that both England and
Ireland have for twenty-two and twenty years respectively
possessed paid inspectors of salmon fishings, the importance
of whose office it is impossible to over-rate. They have
acted as a central authority to the Boards of Conservators,
from whom they receive annual reports of the state of the
fishings in the respective districts, and whom they confer
with and support in the numerous questions which must
always arise. In addition to these Reports from the Con-
servators, they themselves are charged with the duty of
annually visiting all the districts in the country, and ascer-
taining in person the state of the fishings and the manner

2 K 2

SOD SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

in which the law was carried out, as well as of collecting
all available statistics which could throw any light on the
working of the law, or suggest any improvement in the
management of the fisheries, the whole results of their
inquiries to be embodied annually in a report to be sup-
plied to the Home Office, and which afterwards, in the
form of a Blue Book, becomes accessible to the public
generally. It is satisfactory to be at length able to record
that Scotland has been placed on the same footing as her
sister countries in this respect by the Fishery Board (Scot-
land) Act of 1882, and the newly-appointed Inspector,
Mr. Archibald Young, Advocate, formerly Commissioner
of Scotch Salmon Fisheries, than whom a more fitting
selection could not have been made, has already given
satisfactory evidence of his existence by the promulgation
of a series of questions relating to the working of the law
of salmon fishing, and who is at this moment engaged on
a tour of inspection of the various districts, to obtain
answers to these questions, and confer with the district
boards on the subject. It is confidently to be hoped that
as soon as the beneficial effects of the existence of this
official have had time to be felt, the salmon fishings of
Scotland will show a rate of progress somewhat more in
accordance with that which the statistics of England and
Ireland are able to set forth. In England, whose salmon
fishings are even now only a third of the value of those in
Scotland, inspectors were appointed by the Act of 1861.
In 1863 the fishings were valued at £15,000, in 1865 at
£30,000, and now (see Report of 1880) they have risen to
£100,000 per annum. In Ireland, whose fisheries are now
rather more valuable than those of Scotland, though at one
time there was good reason to believe that they were much
less so, inspectors were appointed in 1863. It is not easy

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 501

to forgive the government of the day for having been for
so long a time so culpably neglectful of the important
interests at stake in Scotland. Even now the establish-
ment of the office of Inspector is not on so liberal a scale
as in England, notwithstanding the threefold value of the
fishings, though nominally one inspector has been recently
withdrawn. We should like to see one or two additions
made to the powers of the inspector, but remarks as to
these may come in more fitly under suggestions for im-
provement of the law.

ABOLITION OF FIXED ENGINES IN ESTUARIES.

The abolition of " fixed engines " (except cruives) in the
estuaries of rivers is undoubtedly one of the most im-
portant benefits secured by the Act of 1862. It might
have been thought that there was no doubt of the illegality
of such engines in estuaries by virtue of the stringent pro-
hibitions in the old Scottish statutes against fixed engines
in waters " where the sea ebbs and flows," and of the legal
decisions which in several instances have followed on these.
They had also been declared illegal by several modern
statutes, though not general ones, — in the Tweed Act
among others. The stake and bag net fishers, however,
took advantage of the fact that it was nowhere laid down
what were the limits of the estuaries, and consequently in
the absence of any hard and fast definition of what was
estuary and what was sea, they put their own interpretation
upon the law, and gradually advanced as far as they dared
into the estuaries under the pretence that they were still in
the sea. There could be but one result of this, viz., that
scarcely a fish was allowed to pass up the streams to the
spawning grounds, and year by year the evil effect of this

502 SALMON LEG IS LA TION IN SCO TLAND

became more manifest. The Commissioners under the
Act were empowered to fix the limits of all the estuaries
with a view of preventing these encroachments, and the
fixing of them accordingly drove the invaders out to sea
again. Even yet, as we shall see, they are too near. It is
unfortunate, however, that the Act omitted to attach
penalties to the offence if persisted in, or committed either
in the estuaries or the rivers, and consequently the district
boards are left powerless to prevent it. The only means
of getting at the offenders is by prosecution at the instance
of a proprietor, which is obviously inadequate.

Fixed nets are still, however, allowed too near the
mouths of rivers, and it is to be regretted that the Act
did not go a little further and prohibit all fixed nets within
certain distances of the river mouths. This could have
been done without affecting the great question of the
legality or illegality of these nets on the rest of the shore.

EXTENSION OF CLOSE TIME.

As we have seen, the annual close time had been for
four hundred years prior to 1828 fixed at 107 days, while
the 1828 Act extended it to 139 days. The Act of 1862
extended the annual close time still further, to 168 days,
and the weekly close time from 24 to 36 hours, at which
they now remain. Notwithstanding the protests of a few
interested parties, there can be little doubt that these amend-
ments were in the right direction, and that the result has
largely tended to improve the fishings. There is unfortu-
nately good reason to believe that the full benefit is not
obtained which ought to be if the law were conscientiously
observed ; but it seems impossible to secure this in any
single point with regard to salmon fishing. Selfish con-

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 503

siderations, or want of public spirit, seem to have full sway,
and it is unfortunately too easy to avoid detection in many
of the contraventions which are systematically committed.
It is more especially difficult to secure the observance by
fixed net fishers of the close times, owing first to the diffi-
culty of effective supervision, and secondly to the excuses
which they so readily bring forward on the score of stress
of weather, &c.

POACHING AND POLLUTIONS.

We have seen that the 1862 Act entirely omitted the
great question of fixed engines, owing to the pressure
brought to bear by the lower proprietors. It also left
untouched another crying evil, that of poaching, though
apparently for no other reason than that this offence was,
to some extent at least, already regulated partly by Home
Drummond's Act, and by the general Poaching Act of
7 & 8 Viet. c. 95. Even if it had been sufficiently regulated
by these Acts, which we submit it is not, the omission is
part and parcel of the objectionable policy of leaving the
whole law on the subject to be gathered from a large
number of different sources, which has long prevailed
in Scotch salmon fishery legislation, notwithstanding the
better example of our neighbours, and which has resulted
in the accumulation of a mass of Acts and isolated enact-
ments of more or less ancient date, the ultimate effect being
to create a totally unnecessary difficulty in ascertaining
the exact state of the law, and a confusion and uncertainty
in the mind of the investigator as to whether certain Acts
are still in force or not. The provisions made with regard
to pollutions have proved of little or no use to prevent,
or even materially to check, the evil, which has rapidly
assumed such gigantic proportions as to threaten, by its

504 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

own unaided efforts, to remove all need for salmon legis-
lation at all, by dismissing the genus Salmo to the com-
pany of the archaeopteryx, the dodo, and other extinct
animals. It seems strange that the Legislature did not
recognise the fact which district boards very soon found
out, that the powers entrusted to them as a body were
actually less than they already possessed in their individual
capacity as riparian owners. Consequently, although pro-
secutions by district boards would have been a far more
suitable and effectual method of stopping or checking the
offence, they have become quite unknown, and the polluters
have naturally in many instances grown more bold, and
become less and less careful to avoid discharging their
deleterious matters into the rivers, and less solicitous to
adopt means of purifying the water while in their pos-
session.

MISCELLANEOUS.

There are a few unimportant points on which the Act is
deficient, which we may perhaps touch upon afterwards.
The Act as it stands contains also some deficiencies of a
minor degree which have been duly corrected or set right
by the subsequent Act of 1868 — e.g., the use of a leister
for spearing salmon was not prohibited in the daytime ;
the articles and appliances used by night poachers, and the
fish caught by them could not be seized and forfeited ;
repeated offences were not, according to the usual practice,
punished by an increase of penalties, graduated or other-
wise, except with regard to pollutions ; foul or unseason-
able fish could not be seized and forfeited ; and the
cumulative penalty of £2 for each fish taken could only be
imposed if it could be proved that the fish were taken by
the person or persons accused, as well as in his or their
possession.

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 505

SALMON FISHERIES (SCOTLAND) CONTINUANCE
ACT, 1863.

By the Act of 1862, the duration of office of the Com-
missioners under it was limited to three years (a limit
afterwards withdrawn), but the bye-laws which they were
empowered to make were to be framed and reported to the
Secretary of State by the 1st day of January, 1864. As
this time was found to be insufficient, it became necessary
to extend it, which was done for one year by this Act,
which also gave power to the Commissioners by means of
a bye-law to extend the limits of the mouth of the Tweed.

SALMON FISHERIES (SCOTLAND) AMENDMENT
ACT, 1864.

The time for making the bye-laws having proved still too
short, it was extended to 1st January, 1866, by this Act,
which also made certain provisions as to the making or
re-issue of bye-laws in cases where district boards had not
been formed.

SALMON EXPORTATION ACT, 1863.

This Act (which is next in point of time to the Act of
1862) was passed to prohibit the exportation of salmon
caught in the United Kingdom during the close time. The
sale of such salmon had previously been illegal, but it was
found that the law was being evaded by the sale in foreign
countries of fish which could not lawfully be sold at home.

ACT OF 1868.

We now come to the companion Act to that of 1862 in
the regulation of the Scottish salmon fisheries. The length

506 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCO TLAND.

of this Act (forty-three sections) might at first sight lead
us to suppose it of greater importance than it turns out on
examination really to possess. There is nothing actually
new in the Act, and indeed it might very well be described
as a revised edition of the Act of 1 862, though it is perhaps
not quite so comprehensive. Many of the sections in the
latter Act are simply re-enacted with slight alterations in
the wording, &c., so as to remove possible doubts as to the
extent of their application. There are several provisions
as to the constitution and proceedings of district boards,
and they are empowered to petition the Secretary of State
to make alterations as to the close times (excepting as to
their length), and as to cruives. The hands of the district
boards, and of the officials employed by them, are some-
what strengthened with regard to offences. The omissions
already alluded to are supplied. It is also enacted that
all nets and implements used in fishing shall, within thirty-
six hours after the commencement of the annual close time,
be removed and secured, so as to prevent their being used
in fishing till the end of the close time, with the exception
of boats for angling, and that all cruives shall be so dis-
mantled and secured within the same time as to prevent
their being used in fishing till the expiry of the close time.
The reason for this rule is to be found in the fact already
alluded to, that the proprietors or occupiers of these fixed
engines, particularly the nets, had been in the habit of
entirely ignoring the law as long as they could do so
without being found out. For them the close time only
commenced when they were forced by the authorities to
give up catching fish, and if the nets and cruives had been
allowed to remain in situ during close time, in all pro-
bability they would have been used as before on every
occasion, when the back of the officials was turned, which,

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 507

owing to the natural obstacles in the way, must necessarily
have been pretty often. Even now it is difficult to secure
the removal of the nets, &c., at the proper time if there is
not a constable or watcher looking on, while of course the
observance of the weekly close time is a matter of greater
difficulty still. While on this subject we may point out an
inconsistency between sections 15 and 24 of the Act of
1868. The former section imposes a maximum penalty of
£$ for every breach of the annual or weekly close time,
and a further maximum penalty of £2 for every salmon
taken or killed in an illegal manner, together with optional
forfeiture of nets, boats, rods, &c. (section 31). Section 24
again enacts that every omission to do any act required for
the due observance of the weekly close time shall incur the
following penalties, viz. : (i) forfeiture of net or nets used ;
(2) a maximum penalty of £10 for each net in respect of
which such omission occurs, and a further sum not ex-
ceeding £2 for every fish taken or killed by means of such
nets during the weekly close time. Section 15 seems
directed against any positive infraction of the law, while
section 24 seems intended to punish negative infringements
in regard to the arrangement of the nets, &c, but it is
difficult to draw a distinction in effect between the two
sections. We are not aware that the point has ever actually
come up for decision, though it has been commented ori,
but there seems no reason to doubt that the penalties in
both sections could be inflicted for a single contravention
of the weekly close time, by means of nets at least. It is
not probable that this was intended. Again, the principal
penalty under the latter section for breach of weekly close
time is double that imposed by the former section for
breach of the annual close time. There is, however, in the
latter case the penalty provided by the 23rd section of

5o8 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

the Act, of £10 for each day during which any article used
in fishing shall remain unremoved after thirty-six hours
from the commencement of the annual close time, with
forfeiture of nets, &c. There is no supplementary penalty
under this section, of £2 for every fish caught. The
anomaly contained in these sections has already somewhat
interfered with the due administration of the Act, and it
would be very desirable to have the matter put on a clear
and intelligible footing as soon as possible.

SPECIAL COMMISSIONERS' REPORT OF 1871.

The state of the law under these two Acts (1862 and
1868) was not found to be at all satisfactory, and continual
agitation was made for its improvement. In deference to
this agitation, the Government appointed in 1870 a Com-
mission, consisting of Mr. Frank Buckland, one of the
English Inspectors of Salmon Fisheries, and Mr. Archibald
Young, one of the Commissioners of Scotch Salmon
Fishings (now permanent Inspector), to inquire into, and
report upon, the effect of the Acts. These Commissioners
made a most complete and exhaustive inquiry, and col-
lected a large mass of valuable evidence bearing upon the
subject and upon all the questions laid before them by
the Home Office. They issued their Report in 1871,
embodying the results of their inquiry, and making a large
number of suggestions for improvement of the law, sup-
ported in most cases by the weight of opinion of the parties
most concerned and most entitled to speak. The testimony
of the different' witnesses, as given in the appendix, is, how-
ever, often very conflicting, and personal interest is some-
times very apparent ; but doubtless the Commissioners, in
coming to the conclusions which they laid before the

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. • 509

Secretary of State, did not overlook the principle, " Sen-
tentiae ponderantur, non numerantur." The labour and
skill displayed in digesting and arranging the mass of
opinions and dicta of all sorts cannot fail to secure the
admiration of any one who consults the Report.

This Report, even at this distance of time, still remains
the most recent official paper relating to the general ques-
tions connected with the Scotch salmon fisheries, and it
must necessarily form an indispensable and valuable source
of reference and consultation in the framing of any new
measure dealing with the subject.

FISHERY BOARD ACT OF 1882.

It now only remains to notice the Fishery Board (Scot-
land) Act of 1882, which contains a few sections relating
to salmon fishings. Though few, these sections are very
important. Section 2 provides that the Fishery Board
established by the Act shall have the general superin-
tendence of the salmon fisheries of Scotland, and shall
have the powers and duties of Commissioners under the
Salmon Fishery Acts, but without prejudice to, or inter-
ference with, the powers of district boards. The Board is
to render an annual report to the Home Office, containing
all statistics relating to the fisheries, with suggestions for
their regulation and improvement. This Report will be
presented to Parliament, and issued to the public in the
same manner as the English Salmon Fishery Inspector's
Reports.

The most important provision in the Act, however, is
that empowering the Secretary of State to appoint an
Inspector of Scotch Salmon Fisheries, who will have duties
and powers analogous to those of the English and Irish

5 io SALMON LEG IS LA TION IN SCO TLAND.

inspectors, but whose annual report will be presented to
the Fishery Board, instead of direct to the Home Secre-
tary. In terms of this provision, Mr. Archibald Young has
been appointed inspector. Every one who has taken any
notice of the progress of salmon legislation during the last
fifteen or twenty years must feel that Mr. Young is the
right man in the right place. The Government must,
however, support the inspector and the Fishery Board in
any recommendations they may make, if the full benefit is
to be derived from the system. We are far from resting
satisfied with what has been done, though it is a great step
gained ; nor do we forget that the appointment of an
inspector is only a concession to Scotland of a clamant
right, which it is no credit to the different Governments
that she should have been deprived of so long, seeing that
her sister countries, and particularly England, whose
fisheries are so much less valuable, have possessed the boon
for twenty years.

SUPERINTENDENCE OF SALMON FISHERIES BY
FISHERY BOARD.

With regard to the appointment of the Fishery Board to
superintend the salmon fisheries, we will venture to make a
few observations, as we are not convinced that this arrange-
ment is the best that could be made. In the first place the
Fishery Board has quite enough to do with the supervision
of the enormous industry into which the herring and other
sea fisheries have developed. These fisheries, with all
their cognate questions, are a special study of themselves,
and are, besides, at present in a state requiring much and
earnest attention. Then, from the other point of view, we
think that the salmon fisheries would have much more

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCO TLAND. 5 1 1

chance of receiving their full share of attention if they had
a board to themselves. Although the value of the salmon
fisheries is very small compared with the white fisheries,
the subject is a complicated and difficult one to manage,
embracing as it does the conflict of so many interests, both
public and private, and so many burning questions of all
descriptions. Besides, the very fact that the value of the
salmon fishings is so small, in comparison with the herring
fisheries (about £300,000 to £2,250,000 per annum), pre-
disposes one to imagine that the former must occupy a
subordinate position by immediate contrast with the latter.
There would not be the same probability of their being
overshadowed by the larger industry if they were in a
separate department, or sub-department, or simply under
the charge of the inspector, with responsibility direct to the
Home Secretary, as in the case of England. If this plan
were adopted, the supervision of trout fishing might be
added to that of salmon fishing, as it is every day be-
coming more evident that something must be done for the
preservation of trout.

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF LAW.

We shall now proceed more systematically to offer a few
suggestions for the improvement of the law of salmon
fishing in Scotland, though, as the subject has been an
open one for so long, and has been so fully discussed by
various authorities, we cannot claim entire originality in
many of them. As it always is good policy, however,
when agitating for reforms, to keep the views of the re-
formers before the eyes of the "powers that be," we trust
some purpose may be served by the present paper.

512 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

CONSOLIDATION ACT.

The difficulty of administering the law on our subject is
enormously increased by the effect of the slipshod system
which has been recently pursued in the enactment of it.
Instead of repealing all former Acts relating to the subject,
after having collected all the portions of them which it was
desirable to adopt, and inserting them in the new Act, so
as to make an entirely new departure for salmon fishing
legislation, the framers of the Act of 1862 contented them-
selves with simply making it an amendment of the Acts
previously in force, whatever these are. That this was
their deliberate intention is apparent from the preamble of
the Act. The result is that there is still in force a large
number of old Acts, or portions of Acts, which are more or
less inapplicable to the circumstances of the present day,
and a state of confusion and uncertainty is produced in the
minds of all concerned as to what is really the law on
many points. The legal maxim, " Ignorantia juris nemi-
nem excusat," which is usually strictly applied, ought to
be suspended or reversed in this case, until matters are put
upon a more satisfactory footing.

One would have thought that when, in a period of 157
years, there had only been one statute passed on the
subject, and that one 34 years old, the necessity of an
entirely new departure would have been the first thing to
strike the Government. There is the less excuse for the
error when we remember that the English Act, which had
been passed immediately before, repealed all prior statutes.
The first thing, therefore, now to be done is to pass a Con-
solidation Act, complete in itself, and wiping out of the
statute book all previous legislation relating to salmon
fisheries in Scotland, including the Acts of 1862 and 1868.

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 513

POWERS OF INSPECTOR.

It does not appear that the powers granted to the In-
spector of Scotch Salmon Fisheries by the Fishery Board
Act are very ample, or co-extensive with those possessed
by the English and Irish inspectors. The Secretary of
State is to appoint an inspector, who, under the direction
of the Board, shall inspect the salmon fisheries, inquire into
the operation of the Salmon Fishery Acts, and report
thereon from time to time. The inspector is a responsible
and able official, and a great deal more might be entrusted
to his discretion than the Government have thought fit to
do by this Act. He might advantageously be made an
intermediate authority between the Local Boards and the
Fishery Board, with power to advise and direct the former
in any cases of difficulty which might arise, and he should
have power to act as a District Board in all cases where no
District Board has been constituted or now exists. He is
required by the Act to report on the fisheries, and the
operation of the Acts, from time to time, which, it is pre-
sumed, will be yearly ; but it does not appear that he has
any power to require the District Boards to render annual
reports to him with regard to their districts. Possibly he
may be able to attain this result without express powers,
but it would be more satisfactory if he had these. The
English Boards of Conservators send in annual reports,
containing all available statistics with regard to their dis-
tricts, with suggestions and remarks thereon, and the value
of these cannot well be over-estimated. The inspector
should also have power himself to make bye-laws for the
protection of the fisheries, and their regulation and develop-

VOL. i. — E. 3. 2 L

514 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

ment, a power which the Boards of Conservators in England
have possessed since 1873. In important cases, right of
appeal to the Fishery Board or the Home Secretary might
be reserved if it should be thought necessary. The in-
spector should be permitted to exercise his discretion,
within, perhaps, certain limits, as to the duration of the
annual and weekly close times, as well as the dates at
which they are to commence and end. As we have seen,
the Act of 1862 rigidly fixes the annual close time at 168
days and 36 hours respectively. In England the Home
Secretary has power to extend or vary the annual close
time, though it is nominally fixed by statute at 1 54 days.
In Ireland the inspectors are only limited to a minimum of
168 days.

The compulsory removal of obstructions is another
matter which might be handed over to the inspector with
advantage, as he would not have the same difficulty in
strictly enforcing the law as the District Boards may have,
owing to local influences.

We confess we are unable to see the great advantage to
be derived from appealing to the Secretary of State on
matters such as these, with which, even with the assistance
available to him, he is probably not so conversant as those
who have to refer to him, or whose opinions he is required
to review. On the contrary, the system is often the cause
of great delay in instituting important improvements, owing
to the necessity of waiting for his confirmation of any pro-
posal. Appeal to the Home Secretary should not there-
fore be competent, except in cases where important private
interests were involved, and even these, if too important
for the inspector, might with greater advantage be left to
the arbitrament of the sheriff of the county concerned.

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 515

FIXED ENGINES.

Among the causes contributing to the decline or stagna-
tion of the salmon fisheries, the use of " fixed engines "
occupies a prominent place, though of course this is denied
by the proprietors of these engines.

It did not take long to discover that if the use of fixed
nets and traps in rivers were not subjected to some restric-
tion, there would not be a single salmon left to catch, and
once this was realized, our ancient legislators did not dally
with the question, but promptly, and in no uncertain tone,
forbade the practice under severe penalties. -This pro-
hibition extended both to rivers and estuaries, and it has
been confirmed by modern judicial decision, as well as by
statute. There still exists, however, a limited number of
cruives and yairs, erected by virtue of special grant from
the Crown, and which cannot therefore be abolished with-
out compensation.

Though fixed nets were thus driven out of the rivers and
estuaries, they were not to be so easily got rid of. By-
and-bye it was found out that salmon, when going to or
from the rivers, " hugged the shore," and nets which would
stand in the sea were at once devised to intercept them.
The first of these nets was erected rather more than sixty
years ago, and was speedily followed by thousands of them
on every accessible or likely portion of the coast, quite
irrespective, in many cases, of right to fish for salmon.
This selfish policy, however, to some extent overreached
itself, as there was not room for all the nets that had been
erected, and a good many were finally given up, because
they could not be worked with profit. They are still very
numerous, however, and as the preponderance both of

2 L 2

5 16 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

evidence and authority seems to show conclusively that
they are injurious to the real interests of salmon fishery,
they should be either altogether abolished or subjected to
much more severe regulation than is at present applicable
to them. The latter policy has been adopted in Ireland
with regard to those few fixed nets which were allowed to
remain. The following considerations are urged on behalf
of the fixed nets by the proprietors or others interested :
(i) that they are established by prescription, and cannot
therefore be abolished without compensation ; (2) that to
abolish them would seriously affect the food supply of the
country from this source ; (3) that though they may
diminish the number of fish which reach the rivers, they
cause no decline in the total number of fish caught annually,
and further that the fish which they catch are in better
condition than those in the rivers ; and (4) that no other
method of fishing with profit is available in the sea. The
first of these pleas is a very plausible one, and presents no
little difficulty. Prescription, however, cannot run against
statute ; and though fixed nets on the shore are not
specifically mentioned in the old statutes, we ought to
hold them included, because the spirit of the whole legisla-
tion is so clearly and forcibly directed against fishing by
means of fixed nets in the " run of the fish," as being unfair
and destructive, that we cannot for a moment doubt that
the prohibitions would have been extended to the sea, had
fixed nets been in existence there at the time, or their
existence been foreseen. We must not forget the rule that
remedial statutes are to receive a liberal interpretation.
These old Acts prohibit all fixed engines in the " run of
the fish/' The natural history and habits of the salmon
were not then as well known as they are now, and the
legislators were totally ignorant of the fact that the sea-

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 517

shore is as much the " run of fish " as the river. That no
such mode of fishing was ever authorised or contemplated
is clearly shown by the terms of the charters, in no single
one of which is anything to be found to give colour to the
claim, and the proprietors of fixed nets have simply erected
them without any right to do so, and on chance of their
being permitted to remain. It was in the rivers that
salmon fishery was originally recognised as property, long
before even a coast charter was granted (in 1603), and no
persons could have at any .subsequent time a right to
encroach on this private property, directly or indirectly.
That is precisely what the fixed net fishers on the coast
have done, however, with the result that what was once a
valuable possession has in many cases become useless, and
no compensation has been paid to those deprived of a con-
siderable portion of their income, in securing which often a
large amount of capital had been sunk. It is difficult to
see what better claims to compensation those persons
would have for the abolition of a practice which was really
illegal at first, and which has only acquired a semblance of
right because, owing to the uncertainty of the law and the
want of proper opposition, it has been allowed to exist
beyond the prescriptive period. The appropriation of the
waters of rivers and streams by manufacturers without any
title, and totally oblivious of the rights of others, is a case
on all fours with that under discussion. Their so doing
has destroyed in many cases the fishings formerly enjoyed
and paid for by riparian proprietors, and depreciated in
all cases the value of the land through which the streams
passed ; but for want of proper opposition, combined with
a mistaken notion on the part of the authorities that it
would not do to interfere with industry, the illegal en-
croachments were allowed to go on till they have obtained

5i8 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

a hold which it is difficult now to shake off. The dis-
possessed proprietors got no compensation in this instance.
No doubt many of the present proprietors of coast fisheries
have paid large sums for their fishings, in the belief that
they were legal, and it might seem an injustice to visit on
them the sin of their predecessors. We do not, however,
argue that it would be right in all cases to abolish fixed
nets without some compensation. Means could be taken
to ascertain the exact circumstances connected with the
exercise of that right in every instance, and any case
developing exceptional circumstances might be excep-
tionally dealt with. This, however, in no way affects the
public question of the legality or illegality of the fixed
nets, and if that question were decided against the legality,
there can be no doubt that there would be no right to com-
pensation. There is a strong preponderance of evidence
and presumption that these nets were unlawfully erected
at first against the spirit, if not the letter of the statute,
and that therefore prescription should not be held to
legalise them. Besides, prescription properly only applies
to private rights, and has never been, and is not now,
admitted where it is " hurtful to the common weill."

It is a well-known fact that as a rule proprietors and
tacksmen of these coast fisheries are particularly careful to
prevent reliable statistics getting into the hands of the
public. It is only a fair inference to make from this course
of action that they are more or less conscious that the
fixed nets are not established on too sound a footing, and
are destructive to the fisheries. If they were not de-
structive, the surest way to prove it would be by the collec-
tion and publication of the fullest statistics of the different
fisheries, and the giving of every facility to the authorities
in their inquiries. In connection with this view, it is

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 5 19

interesting to notice the reception which the recently-
appointed Government inspector met with at the hands of
some of the lower proprietors and tacksmen on the east
coast, in his endeavour to obtain information from them,
and the two meetings of lower and upper proprietors
shortly thereafter held in Edinburgh. Mr. Young, before
starting on his tour of inspection of the whole salmon
fisheries of Scotland, on which he is at present engaged,
sent a list of queries to the various districts. Certain pro-
prietors or others, in one county at any rate, met and
resolved to afford no information to the inspector, and
when he afterwards met them, they even went so far as to
put questions to him, which he of course declined to
answer. It is thus evident that these parties are afraid of
legislation, and that this fear is general among lower pro-
prietors is amply confirmed by the proceedings at the
meeting of lower proprietors referred to, at which the
language was neither conspicuous for moderation nor fair-
ness, and formed somewhat of a contrast to the tone
prevailing at the subsequent meeting of upper proprietors,
which was called in consequence of the action of the lower
proprietors. The second resolution of the latter meeting
runs as follows : — " It is believed that as salmon are de-
creasing in numbers by over-netting, all proprietors of
fishings would be benefited in many ways by legislation,
and that the interests of the upper, as well as of the lower
proprietors, ought to be fully considered in any future
legislation." ' This is the only reasonable and just view to
take of the matter, and the opposition of the lower pro-
prietors is a very shortsighted policy. It is surely better
to exercise a little forbearance in the present, though at the
risk of slightly diminished profits for a time, than to fish
in such a manner as sooner or later to depopulate the

520 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

waters altogether, so far as salmon are concerned. " You
can't both eat your cake and have it," as the proverb goes.

The argument that the abolition of fixed nets would
seriously reduce the food supply of the country, supported
as it is by the high and unbiassed authority of the Special
Commissioners of 1871,* is of course entitled to greater
consideration. But there is nevertheless a good deal of
evidence on the other side, and it is backed up in many
cases by actual proof. Mr. Alexander Jopp, of Aberdeen,
published in 1860 a pamphlet, giving, with some useful
information as to the fishings generally, a large quantity of
valuable statistics relating to the Aberdeenshire fishings,
bearing upon this point. It is there shown conclusively
that salmon had greatly decreased, both in number and
weight, since the introduction of stake-nets, though his
results referred more particularly to the rivers, and not to
the sea. The number of boxes of salmon annually ex-
ported gives some indication to the same effect ; but
stronger evidence still is obtained in the fact that several
proprietors of fixed nets on the coast very largely increased
the rentals of their whole fisheries by giving up the fixed
nets. The Duke of Richmond, for example, increased his
rental from j£ 6,000 to £13,000 in eight years, by removing
the fixtures at the mouth of the Spey, and the Duke of
Sutherland and the Earl of Fife, and also Lord Lonsdale
in the Solway, all likewise materially increased their fishing
revenues by following the same policy. More evidence,
leading to the same result, could be adduced. The case of
the Tweed is also very conclusive of the same view. Not
only, therefore, do fixed engines diminish the number of
fish which reach the rivers, but they diminish the total
annual number of fish caught. The evidence of many
* See Report, p. xiv.

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 521

proprietors, some of whom are both upper and lower, is
easily obtainable to prove the decrease in their fishings,
both of fish and rental.

It cannot be denied that fish taken in the sea are in
better condition for food than those caught in fresh water,
but is that a sufficient reason for persisting in a mode of
fishing which is slowly but surely leading to extermina-
tion? The mere recollection of the superiority of sea-
caught to river-caught fish will not satisfy us. Besides,
it is not necessary to give up sea-caught fish. There
are other ways of taking them than by fixed nets, though
no doubt there are some places on the coast where no
other mode of fishing is properly available, but this was the
case before the introduction of fixed nets, and is so, besides,
in many rivers. Yet no compensation was given to river
proprietors for the abolition of fixed nets.

The assertion that no other mode of fishing can be
followed with profit is subject to qualification. "With so
much profit " should be substituted, seeing that the capital
is intrenched upon to a greater or less degree.

Besides, from the point of view of the public interest,
these stake and bag nets are objectionable on account of
the expense involved in working them, which considerably
increases the price of the fish to the buyers. Net and
coble fishing costs very much less.

Many exhaustive inquiries have been instituted by Par-
liament on the subject of fixed nets, and the almost invari-
able result has been that Commissioners and Committees,
even those appointed in the interest and on the instigation
of the fixed net proprietors, have recommended the entire
suppression of this mode of fishing, and it has been sup-
pressed accordingly in England, while all fixed nets erected

522 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

after 1862 in Ireland are illegal, and those allowed to
remain are subjected to stringent regulation.

But if it should be deemed inadvisable to put down fixed
engines altogether, at least they can, and ought, to be placed
under the closest restrictions, and adequate measures should
be taken to ensure that those restrictions were scrupulously
observed. If the erection of any more fixed nets after the
present time were prohibited, pending the decision of the
legality or illegality of those now existing, at least a step
would be gained. With a view to the framing of regula-
tions, the suggestions contained in the above-mentioned
Report of 1871 seem very suitable, and should be adopted.*
The distance from the mouths of rivers might, however, be
extended in most cases to from one to three miles, accord-
ing to the configuration of the coast. Stake-nets should in
no case be permitted to extend further than from high to
low-water mark ; bag-nets should be restricted to steep
rocky coasts, and not allowed nearer than three miles from
the mouth of any river. Bag-nets, also, should not be
allowed to be joined to stake-nets. These are the rules in
force in Ireland, and they are believed to work satis-
factorily.

Severe penalties should be attached to contravention of
the close times, as there is reason to believe that the law is
often ignored at present, particularly in remote or thinly
populated districts, and if any complaint is made, excuse is
offered on account of stress of weather, absence of em-
ployers, &c. It has been suggested that in any case where
stress of weather prevents the due observance of the
weekly close time, the proprietor or tacksman of the nets
should be bound under a penalty to report the matter to
* See Report, p. xiv.

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 523

the chief constable of the county, or other official, and
satisfy him that the nets were closed for fishing for an
equal period when the weather allowed it ; also that the
close time should be by tides and not by hours, as is the
case in the Tweed.

With regard to the possibility of reducing the number of
fixed engines now in operation on the coast, the Crown has
in its hands the means of materially contributing to this
effect, and at the same time showing a good example. We
refer to the ownership by the Crown of all the fishings on the
seashore which have not been granted, and these must be
very numerous. If the Crown would abolish fixed nets
in its own waters, means might be found to induce other
proprietors to follow the example, (i.) If the Crown were
to carry to its legitimate issue the inquiry set on foot in
1859, as to the titles of all persons exercising salmon
fishing on the seashore, a large number of persons now
fishing would be turned off. (2.) Every proprietor whose
title had been examined and found satisfactory should be
entered on a register (a copy of which should be supplied
to District Boards), and a certificate to that effect should
be granted him by the Commissioners of Woods and
Forests, which he should be bound to exhibit at all times
when asked by proper authority, care being taken, of
course, to provide that this was only a certificate of title to
salmon fishings, and not of legality of any mode of fishing.
(3.) After a reasonable interval to allow proprietors to send
in their titles for examination, it should be declared that
all persons not in the list and not provided with certificates
of title, should be liable to prosecution, and penalties for
illegal fishing, which should be rigorously enforced. Any
proprietor producing a good title after prosecution had
been instituted against him, to be liable in all expenses.

524 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

(4.) In all the fishings which would thus lapse to the
Crown, and all those presently in its possession, let or
unlet, the Crown might be expected to forego making
profit at the expense of the public good, and prohibit the
use of fixed nets to all its lessees. If these suggestions
were carried out, the number of fixed nets would be greatly
reduced, and it would then become much easier to make
regulations regarding the nets on a certain expanse of
shore, distance from river, &c., while at the same time
taking care to avoid doing anything to legalise them.

POLLUTIONS.

It is surely no longer possible to deny that effectual
legislation is most urgently required to check the great and
crying evil of pollution of rivers, and the Government which
delays taking speedy steps for this end assumes a grave
responsibility.

Acts have been passed with regard to preservation of
fish, removal of nuisances, and river pollution generally,
but they have all proved useless. Statute and common
law alike are well nigh a dead letter, and the evil is in-
creasing day by day. The longer, too, it is allowed to go
on without being effectually checked, the worse it will be
to put down when the attempt is actually and earnestly
made. There is scarcely a river in Scotland which is not
made a common sewer of, to a greater or less extent ; and,
in addition to killing all the fish and making the water
totally unfit for primary purposes, some rivers absolutely
stink, as any one may ascertain for himself in the neigh-
bourhood of any large manufacturing town situated on a
river. The Legislature has been too tender of the feelings
of manufacturers, and too fearful of interfering with the

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 525

industries of the country, or things would never have been
allowed to come to the pass they have. The health of the
community ought to be the first consideration, not to speak
of fish life at all, and we do not see how it will ever be
possible to stamp out those zymotic diseases which are the
scourge of the country, until pollution of rivers is put down
with a strong hand. There are several cases of poisoning
and one of death on record, as caused by these pollutions
in the Tweed, and we are satisfied many more could be
authenticated.

The question is a great one, no doubt, but it is perfectly
possible to handle it. It has been shown over and over
again, both by the River Pollution Commission and other
authorities, that there are plenty of means whereby the
noxious matters may be artificially destroyed or removed
in the manufactories or in sewage works, so that the liquid
which is allowed to flow into the river is rendered entirely
harmless. In some paper mills where esparto is largely
used, evaporators were at one time introduced, which served
the purpose efficiently, but because it was found that they
simply paid the cost of working, and left no profit, they
were given up. This, and many shameful evasions of the
law by making hidden outlets in the river for their abomi-
nations, show how much some (for, fortunately, there are
honourable exceptions) manufacturers care for anything
beyond their own pockets. They will do nothing till they
are forced to do it. It is not expected that profit can be
made out of those methods of purification, but manufac-
turers ought to be very thankful if they can destroy or use
up the noxious matters on their own premises without any
cost to themselves. Let it cost them what it may (and, at
the worst, it is only reducing their large profits to a small
extent), there ought not to be a shadow of doubt that they

526 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

should be compelled to abstain from polluting any stream
so as to deteriorate it even slightly for primary purposes,
or render it injurious to fish life, and transgression of the
law should be visited with penalties so rigorous as to make
it their interest to avoid incurring them.

The cost of purifying sewage must, of course, be borne
as a tax by the inhabitants of the town or district con-
cerned. In connection with this branch of the question,
there is an interesting paper printed in the Appendix to
the First Report of the Scottish Fisheries Improvement
Association, giving an account of the sewage purification
works at Hawick, from which it appears that the sewage both
from the town and the mills is so treated that the liquid
entering the river is perfectly innocuous to fish life when
mixed with nine-tenths of river water to one-tenth of
sewage, and the engineers state that the outflow from the
purification works during the day is about one-twentieth
of the minimum flow of the river, or one-fortieth of the
average summer flow, leaving floods out of account. The
cost to the ratepayers is from %d. to $d. per £. When one
town can attain these results, there is no reason why all
should not do so. The same Report contains a short
account by the late Sir Robert Christison, of a method by
which paper or other manufacturers, instead of using and
polluting the large quantities of water which they do at
present, could effect their purposes quite as well by using
very small quantities, so that evaporation would be rendered
easy, and the residuum could be burnt up with the waste
heat of the works.

The latest scientific testimony to the practicability of
purifying the discharges from mills and manufactories so
as to render them comparatively innocuous, is to be found
in a Report by Professor Crum Brown, of Edinburgh

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 527

University (which was published in the newspapers),
in compliance with a remit to him by the Court of
Session in the action by the riparian proprietors on the
Tweed against the Galashiels manufacturers. A method
of treating the polluted discharges is therein pointed out,
which Professor Crum-Brown states would so purify them
as to render them harmless, and the cost of which would
not be too great if shared by all. But there is no lack of
methods * if the manufacturers will only adopt them, and if
they will not do so spontaneously, then the law must step in.
Of course, this question is of too much importance to the
community at large to be entirely disposed of in a Salmon
Act. There must be an Act solely dealing with the whole
subject of pollution in all its bearings, and that in no half-
hearted manner. But, notwithstanding the urgency of the
situation, it may take a long time to carry such a measure,
because the influence and opposition of a large number of
manufacturers, which smothered the Lord Advocate's Pol-
lution Bill of 1864, and have stood in the way, more or less
effectually, of all legislation on the subject, may be ex-
pected to step in again and at least delay the issue.
Therefore, any new Salmon Act should contain stringent
pollution clauses, and give powers to district boards and
inspector to deal with the matter in a way that will be
effectual. Very heavy penalties should be enacted, and
where there is good ground for suspicion, as shown by
samples of water, dead fish, or absence of life generally, the
onus should be laid on the manufacturers to prove that the
water was not polluted to an extent injurious to fish life,
or rendered unfit for primary purposes, and if the offence is
repeated, in addition to increased penalties, power should
be given to cut off the water supply altogether. For per-
* See Report of Rivers Pollution Commissioners, p. 13.

528 SALMON LEGISLATION IN SCOTLAND.

sistent repetition of offences the penalties might even be
allowed to culminate in a power of imprisonment, if nothing
else would do. The sewage of towns might be dealt with
by ordering every town to construct sufficient purification
works within a certain limited period, under penalties to be
laid on the individual members of the Corporation for
failure to do so.

In a new Salmon Act, of course, it will not be forgotten
to correct the careless error made in the i6th sectiqn of
the Act of 1868, which, while taking out of the ijth section
of the Act of 1862 a re-enacted provision as to pollution
by Sawdust, leaves half of the clause which belonged to it,
with the result of making it necessary to prove that poison-
ous matters are discharged into a river "to an extent
injurious to any salmon fishery," a reading which is
evidently absurd, but which has nevertheless done great
harm.

MILL-DAMS, &c.

Manufacturers are largely responsible for yet another
serious interference with salmon interests, but fortunately
there is reason to hope that this may soon be brought
within satisfactory limits. We refer to obstructions in the
bed of streams for milling and manufacturing purposes,
which prevent the fish from getting up to the spawning
grounds.

Before the Act of 1862, the construction of dam dykes
was regulated by the Act, 1696, c. 33, which provided
that there should be a constant "slop" in the mid-
stream of each mill-dam dyke, as wide as convenient,
without prejudicing the going of the mill, and prohibited
all fishing at those dykes. The i86z Act gave power to
the Commissioners "to make general regulations with

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 529

respect to the construction and alteration of mill-dams or
lades, or water-wheels, so as to afford a reasonable means
for the passage of salmon," which they did accordingly by
Bye-law G. annexed to the Act With regard to this bye-
law, Mr. Stewart, in his ' Treatise on the Laws of Scotland
relating to Rights of Fishing,' says : " It will be observed
that the Commissioners' bye-law leaves existing mill-dams,
&c., as they are, and, however destructive they may be to
the passage of the fish, no alteration in them is required,
until a reconstruction is undertaken by the proprietor ;
then, and then only, must the regulations of the bye-law be
given effect to." This does not seem exactly correct. It
is only the first paragraph of the bye-law, relating to the
making of dams watertight, that refers to new dams or
dams requiring to be renewed or repaired. It does not
appear that there is any authority for applying this restric-
tion to any other paragraph in the bye-law, in which the
expression used is always " every dam," " every mill lade,"
&c., &c. This difference is particularly of consequence
with regard to salmon passes or ladders, which are to be
" on the down-stream face of every dam, weir or cauld."
This distinctly includes every dam, &c., whether new or old.
The district boards have, therefore, full power to insist on
salmon passes being placed in every dam or weir in any
salmon river in the country, but, if there is any doubt on
the point, it should be removed in any new Act. There
are still, however, many dams in existence with no passes
at all, others where the pass made is quite insufficient, and
others, still, where the pass makes a greater obstruction
than existed before, although this is in express contra-
vention of the last paragraph of the bye-law, and in all such
cases the powers of district boards should be put into use,
and would, no doubt, prove sufficient, though they should,
VOL. I. — E. 3. 2 M

530 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

in addition to statutory powers, have the common law
powers of riparian proprietors to put down obstructions.
But there is still room for improvement in the regulations
as to artificial obstructions, and many valuable suggestions
have been made. The Commissioners allow a gradient of
I in 5, which experience has shown is too steep. It
should never be greater than I in 9 or I in 8. It seems
worth consideration whether, in cases where an easy
gradient is difficult or impossible to obtain, it might not
be advisable to make a hole in the weir, to act as a pass.
This plan has been approved by a good many experienced
persons, though some think it would not do. It has been
considered quite feasible, however, with regard to natural
obstructions, as will be seen from the Special Commis-
sioners' Report of 1871. The dimensions, &c., of the hecks
in mill-lades fixed by the Commissioners in their bye-law,
have been proved to be insufficient, especially to prevent
smolts getting into the intake lade, and eye-witnesses have
stated that they have seen the bottom of some lades abso-
lutely whitened by the dead bodies of unfortunate smolts
killed and mutilated in all sorts of ways by the mill wheel.
Smolt proof guards should be placed on every intake lade,
and the tail race should also be protected against ascending
fish. As Mr. Young points out, there is a clause relating
to gaps in fishing weirs (which were not affected by the
Commissioners' bye-laws) in the Irish Act of 1863 (section 9),
which might advantageously be adopted in a Scotch Act.
All dams and weirs, whether old or new, industrial or
fishing, should be made watertight ; and it should be com-
pulsory to shut the sluices of intake lades on Sundays, or
when the mills are not working. At present, much water
is wasted because this precaution is not taken. Cruive
dykes should also be made watertight, as was intended by
the Commissioners, had the bye-law not been altered by the

SALMON LEGISLA TION .IN SCOTLAND. 531

Home Secretary. Any obstruction of fish passes, whether
for the purpose of preventing fish passing or not, should be
added to the offences in section 15 of 1868, as it is not
uncommon for rod-fishers to stand on the steps of ladders
in order to get a convenient spot for a cast, and so prevent
fish getting up.

NATURAL OBSTRUCTIONS.

There are a good many natural obstructions in the
Scotch rivers, which shut up large tracts of spawning
ground, but, situated as these are in most cases on private
property, legislation cannot interfere with them. The
Scotch Commissioners have, however, ascertained that in
the most important cases passes can be managed, and most
of the proprietors are likely to give their consents. While
it might be too extreme a step to give power of compulsory
removal of these obstructions unless there was clearly no
destruction of amenity, compulsory power might certainly
be granted to attach fish passes to all those where it was
practicable. If any questions should arise such as are
indicated in the Commissioners' Report of 1871, they
might be settled by the Crown giving a right of salmon
fishing to the upper proprietor.

What may be accomplished even as a speculation by the
judicious construction of ladders over otherwise insurmount-
able falls, is most instructively shown in the case of the
famous Ballisodare fisheries in Ireland. Before 1856 the
Ballisodare river was salmonless. Mr. Cooper, the pro-
prietor, did not see why it should remain so, and, after
clearing his way by purchasing all rights which might
interfere with him, and obtaining an Act of Parliament
creating a several fishery, he constructed the celebrated

2 M 2

532 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

ladders. The whole cost, including Act of Parliament,
purchase of conflicting rights, litigation, &c., was less than
£7,000, the ladders themselves costing less than £1,000 of
that sum. The result is, that the investment yields from
200 to 300 per cent, on the capital. The Galway fisheries,
belonging to the late Mr. Ashworth, are another striking
instance of the same kind.

As every dam or weir is more or less differently situated
as to circumstances affecting the passage of salmon, and no
hard-and-fast rule can therefore be laid down as to con-
struction of ladders, &c., it should be provided that no
ladder or pass should be constructed until plans had been
laid before and approved by the inspector, and that it
should be constructed at his sight and to his satisfaction, or
that of some person delegated by him for the purpose.
This would avoid the possibility of placing ladders in wrong
places, and other mistakes which have been common. It
should be clearly laid down who is to place, pay for and
maintain these passes, hecks at mill-lades, and other altera-
tions on dams and obstructions. A bye-law should be made
on the subject of obstructions other than mill-dams, &c.,
and compulsory power might be given to purchase, at so
many years' purchase, all non-industrial obstructions pre-
sently existing by charter.

ANNUAL CLOSE TIME.

The hard-and-fast period of one hundred and sixty-eight
days has not given universal satisfaction, though it may
safely be said to work well on the whole. It, however, will
admit of improvement in the way of elasticity. In some
cases, at present, it is not enough, and in others it is more
than enough. There are early rivers and late rivers, and it
has been proved by actual experiment that the natural

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 533

condition of these rivers cannot be altered, as is easily
understood if, as is probable, Mr. Archibald Young's theory
of temperature * be correct. The period ought to be made
" not less than one hundred and sixty-eight days," as in
Ireland, though a discretionary power might safely be left
with the inspector to make it less in exceptional cases,
after careful inquiry.

WEEKLY CLOSE TIME.

The weekly close time is too short ; it should be ex-
tended to forty-eight hours. There is an almost universal
consensus of opinion on this point. The amendment would
act beneficially in more ways than one ; it would allow
more fish to get to the spawning beds, and it would still
further enlist the protection of the upper proprietors by
introducing more fish to their waters. The Irish close
time is forty-eight hours, and the English was made forty-
eight by the House of Commons, though reduced by the
House of Lords to forty- two. It is well worthy of con-
sideration, also, whether the whole period of forty-eight
hours should not be made to commence at different times
in the upper and lower netting portions of rivers. It seems
of little use to let fish pass one series of nets if they are
to be caught in another series higher up, because they
have not had time to get further. This plan, which goes
by the name of a "double slap," has received the approval
of several experienced fishers.

POACHING.

Sufficient poaching clauses should be introduced into
any new Act, with penalties which shall act as deterrents.

* See Scottish Meteorological Journal, 1879, p. 258. " Sea and
Salmon Fisheries " (British Industry Series), p. 218.

534 SALMON LEGlSLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

«

Poaching goes on in many districts at present with im-
punity, notably on the Tweed and on the west coast of
Argyllshire. When committed in close time the penalties
should be cumulative — both for fishing without a title, and
for fishing in close time. Power should be given to
watchers and police to stop and search all suspicious
persons, and everything belonging to them, wherever found,
without a warrant, and, if fish is found in their possession,
they should be held guilty of contravening the Act, unless
they can prove that they came by the fish legally. It is
thought this would be an improvement on the 2 5th section
of the Act of 1868. The impunity with which poachers
are allowed openly to carry on their practices on the
Tweed is equalled, if not surpassed, in the case of the
" scringers " on the west coast of Argyllshire. Seeing that
there is so much difficulty in catching these people in the
act, other methods must be adopted, as, although the law
has made what would appear sufficient provision for deal-
ing with the offence, it seems to have proved of little use.
What is necessary, is some plan to prevent the disposal of
the fish, which at present seems as easy as in the case of
fish legally taken. If every box or package of salmon
entered for transmission at a railway station or harbour
had to have an official permit or brand affixed to it, with-
out which confiscation by the railway or harbour officials
would be compulsory ; and if no unpacked salmon were
allowed to be sold at any quay, or to any person without
the production by the seller of a licence by the chief
constable or district board, showing that he was legally
entitled to fish salmon — the buyer to be punished equally
with the seller for breach of this regulation — a sensible
diminution of the reprehensible practice would soon be
effected, at least in the more serious cases. If a com-

SALMON LEG IS LA TION IN SCOTLAND. 535

pulsory registration of all owners and tacksmen of fishings
were enacted, this plan would simply be an offshoot of that
system, and it would not be found difficult to carry out in
practice. Poachers are almost always well known to the
watchers and police, and special attention could be paid to
their movements. Any legal dealer who might be disposed
to assist the poachers might be subjected to such a heavy
penalty as not to make it worth his while to run the risk.
Adopt what precautions one may, however, the law will
be evaded in some cases, but the risk of detection and the
severity of punishment can at any rate be augmented.
The absence of district boards in so many districts of
course tends to leave poachers in comparative freedom,
but the appointment of an inspector may of itself be
expected to yield some result for the better, while a re-
construction of the system on which boards are constituted,
and the institution of licences instead of assessment as a
means of obtaining funds, would probably secure the
formation of these where now wanting. Under their
government, combined with increased facilities afforded
for the co-operation of the police, the poachers would soon
find it a little more difficult to carry on their nefarious
practices.

It is difficult to see why there should be any difference
in the law relating to poaching salmon and that relating to
poaching game. Yet there is a great difference. The
latter offence is punished by three months' imprisonment
without the option of a fine, which may be increased on
failing to find caution, and, on a third offence, five or seven
years' penal servitude must be given. For salmon poach-
ing, on the contrary, a fine of ten shillings may be imposed,
and can never be increased to more than five pounds,
though increased twenty times. Imprisonment is only

536 SALMON LEG IS LA TION IN SCO TLAND.

competent (for three months) for night poaching by three or
more persons, under the twenty-seventh section of the Act
of 1862. This section provides, also, that failure to pay
the fine shall be punished by imprisonment not exceeding
three months, while the next section gives power to im-
prison for a period not exceeding six months, in default of
payment of all penalties and expenses incurred under the
Act, which, of course, includes the penalty under the
previous section. The two sections are plainly inconsistent
with each other on this point, and if the former rules as to
the penalty for night poaching, it follows that if the fines
for all minor offences be not paid, the offender can be
imprisoned for six months ; but a night poacher can only
be imprisoned for three months in the same circumstances.
A supplementary penalty for each fish caught by night-
poachers should also be added, as in other cases of illegal
fishing.

LICENCES.

The system of licences, which has already worked so
well both in England and Ireland, can only receive a
passing reference. The licences in Ireland vary from £1
to .£30, the minimum licence for rods having been raised
in all districts in 1870 from ios. to £i. In England they
run as low as 2s. or 3^. for rods, and £1 for fifty "putchers,"
to £,20. In the latter country the total amount of licence-
duty raised in the forty four districts in 1879 was £7176 is.\
in 1880, £7934 7s. 6d. ; and in 1881, £741 1 19* sd From
this it may be seen what might be done in Scotland were
this system adopted. The system of assessment is not
satisfactory, and it is hopeless to expect subscriptions or
loans to purchase the remqval of cruives and obstructions.

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 537

MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS.

The proviso appended to section 6 of the 1862 Act,
which has caused great confusion and doubt as to the
powers of the Commissioners to make any effective regula-
tions whatever, should be struck out or made intelligible ; the
sale, as well as the exportation (provided for by 1868 Act,
section 22) of fish caught by rod during the net close time
should be prohibited, and when salmon are sold or ex-
ported after close time has commenced in any district,
though not in others, the onus should be laid on the seller
or exporter of proving that they were caught in an open
district. Persons who may catch diseased fish should be
empowered, or rather ordered to destroy or bury them
instead of returning them to the water, and it should be
permitted to take salmon, as well as smolts and fry, for
propagating purposes, in close time, with leave of the
owner. A minimum penalty should be fixed, as well as a
maximum, and one-fourth of the maximum has been sug-
gested. " Parr " should be included nominatim with smolts
and salmon fry in the 1868 Act, section 19. The Com-
missioners' bye-laws should be revised, and clerical errors
corrected, such as "island" for "sound,"* "south" for
" north," f "river" for " rivers," J &c. ; and the words "of
the net" should be added after "top to bottom," in the
first section of the bye-law as to weekly close time ; the
river Eden, which falls into the sea within the limits of
the Tay district, but which is excluded on the principle

* " Stron Beg " (Spyon Beg ?) " in the Sound of MulL" See under
Loch Sunart in Limits of District.

f " A straight line drawn due north." See Kyle of Sutherland in
Limits of Estuary.

t See under Tay — Limits of District.

538 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

" Expressio unius est exclusio alterius" should be included
in that district. With reference to this, however, it is
worthy of serious consideration whether the prohibition
should not be directed against catching fish under 6 or
7 inches in length, instead of against catching parr or
salmon fry. Many rod-fishers are ignorant of the difference
between parr and trout, and others contend that the parr
is not the young of the salmon, notwithstanding the
apparently ample proof to the contrary.

" Fixed engines " should be defined, as is done both in
the English and Tweed Acts, and the provision of those
Acts which prohibits using draught or wear shot nets
within a certain distance of each other, until the one
adjoining is fully landed, should be adopted. The distance
in the Tweed Act is only thirty yards, but in the English
Act it is one hundred yards, which is preferable. Over
fishing by net and coble has become a serious evil in some
rivers, and there is good ground for believing that, were it
not for the weekly close time, not a single fish would ever
reach the upper waters.

The question of land drainage and storage of water
seems, at present at least, not within the province of
legislation ; nor is the important subject, of artificial pro-
pagation, though power might be given to district boards
to apply certain portions of the income received from
licences, if introduced, towards the establishment of breed-
ing-ponds. It seems also worthy the consideration of
proprietors of fishings, whether arrangements could not be
made to work the fishings jointly, so as to save much of
the expense at present incurred, on a plan on the lines of
that suggested by the late Mr. Alexander Russel in the
Edinburgh Review for 1851, and subsequently enlarged
upon in his book on the salmon. Joint arrangements have

SA LMON LEG IS LA TION IN SCO TLA ND. 5 39

been carried out successfully in some instances already,
e.g. in the Nether Don fishings in Aberdeenshire, and on
the Tweed.

THE TWEED.

The Tweed has a course of 100 miles, and a drainage The Tweed,
area of 1870 square miles, and was at one time the most
productive salmon river in Scotland, though it has long
fallen from this high estate, forming now a bad second to
the Tay. Owing to its exceptional position as being
situated partly in England and partly in Scotland, the
Tweed has always been the subject of special legislation.
Before the time of James I. its position was very unfor-
tunate, as, in common with the Solway, little or no protec-
tion could be secured for it, owing to the jealousy between
the two countries. It is not altogether clear that the old
Scotch statutes applied to the Tweed, but the presumption
is that they did for the most part However, this question
does not require to be considered, as the precaution was
taken in the case of the Tweed, which was omitted in the
general Scotch Act, though passed five years later — viz.
to repeal all prior statutes — and, therefore, we do not require
to go further back than 1857 in our examination of the
law relating to the river. The law is contained in the two
Tweed Acts of 1857 and 1859, together with occasional
sections in the general Scotch Acts, which are declared to
apply to the Tweed also.

The Act of 1857 is in many respects superior as a general
measure to the subsequent Scotch Act of 1862, and might
with advantage have been taken as a closer model.
Curiously enough, it was the outcome chiefly of an agita-
tion about fixed nets promoted by the upper proprietors,
headed by the Duke of Roxburgh, and adopted by the
Tweed Commissioners.

540 SALMON LEG IS LA TION IN SCOTLAND.

The Tweed. The Tweed Fisheries Amendment Act of 1859 is
appointed to be read along with the Act of 1857, several
sections of which it repeals and re-enacts. Its chief object
was to alter the close time fixed by the Act of 1857, which
was found to be too late in commencing, though it makes
some minor improvements which had been shown to be
necessary, and it introduces a tidal close time for stake- and
bag-nets, and makes regulations to be observed in the use
of these.

The two Acts, taken together, provide for the appoint-
ment of Commissioners, with certain qualifications, to
administer the law, and for the appointment of water
bailiffs and others to prevent and detect offences ; make
provision for collection of rates and assessments, fix ex-
tended limits of the mouth of the river ; fix annual and
weekly close times ; prohibit fixed nets and fixed engines
(except . within the extended limits of the entrance), the
use of the leister, and pollutions ; make regulations as to
mill-dams and caulds, hecks in mill-lades, wear shot nets,
stake- and bag-nets, and the management of joint fisheries ;
order the removal of natural obstructions and cairns ; and
contain similar provisions with the general Acts relating to
the observance of the close times ; detection and punish-
ment of offences ; with specification of penalties and general
regulations.

In addition to its situation in two countries, the Tweed
is peculiar in possessing no natural estuary, and therefore,
if netting at the mouth were not restricted, almost every
fish might be intercepted in its passage into the river.
The limits of the mouth have consequently for a long
period been extended by the Legislature to compensate for
the want of an estuary, and not only is the entrance
widened on each side of the river, but the river itself is, as

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCO TLAND. 54 1

it were, extended for five miles straight out into the sea. The Tweed.
This last extension has been productive of some dissatis-
faction among the fishermen, owing to the rule of inter-
national law fixing three miles as the limits of British
waters, the result of course being that the outermost two
miles are open to foreign fishermen, while they are forbidden
to our own. The deprivation, however, is not of great im-
portance, and it is worthy of notice that the regulation in
question has been repeated in every Act passed since the
first, almost a century ago, and also that the Special Com-
missioners appointed in 1875 to enquire into the operation
of the Tweed Acts, after due enquiry, did not think it
necessary to advise any alteration.

CLOSE TIME.

The annual close time in the Tweed extends only to
1 54 days, the same as in England. Although it does not
appear that the majority of proprietors wish for any
alteration of this period, it was recommended by the Com-
missioners of 1875 that it be extended to 167 days, that is,
from Hth September to 15th February, at which it is
now fixed, to from i$th September to 28th February, both
inclusive, for nets, and for rods that it should be altered to
1 5th November to 28th February, both inclusive, the
present period being 3Oth November to 1st February.

No change of the weekly close time (36 hours) is
recommended by the Commissioners, though we do not see
why the benefit which would be derived should not be as
great as it has proved in the case of Scotland generally.
They, however, recommend the " double slap," alluded to at
P- 533- The weekly close time at present extends from six
o'clock on Saturday evening to six o'clock on Monday
morning.

542 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

FIXED NETS.

Previous to 1857 several species of fixed nets were in use
in the Tweed, of which the most deadly was the " stell net,"
chiefly used by the lower proprietors, while the upper pro-
prietors possessed the " cairn-net."

As we have already indicated, the upper proprietors
commenced an agitation for the withdrawal of the fixed
nets in the lower waters, offering at the same time to give
up their own, but as no compromise could be effected, the
upper proprietors took the matter to Parliament in the
shape of the Bill of 1857. After a bitter fight, the object
was gained, andjixed nets in the Tweed, as in the rest of
the rivers and estuaries of Scotland, are now a thing of the
past. In this litigation all the arguments which could
possibly be urged on behalf of fixed nets were forcibly set
forth, including melancholy pictures of the ruin which
would ensue to some of the proprietors, and the robbery of
widows and children. Notwithstanding all this, the Legis-
lature was convinced that the fixed nets were both
injurious to the fisheries and adverse to the spirit of the
law, and abolished them without any compensation. What
has been the result ? Not ruin, certainly, either to the
fisheries or to the proprietors. The rental was in 1857
£4920. In 1858 it had fallen to £4705, but it immediately
recovered itself even at the portions of the river where the
stell net had been used, and since then it has gradually
increased to £11,224 m I874, £I2>I73 m l&7$y an<^
£12,287 in 1876, while it is probably now not less than
£14,000 or £15,000.*

Stake-nets and bag-nets are, however, still allowed in the
portions of the entrance to the river situated between the

£>

* The latest statistics have not come to hand.

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 543

extended limits fixed by the Act of 1857 (five miles south The Tweed.

and four miles north along the coast, and five miles out to

sea), and the limits as further extended, first by the Act of

1859, and again by bye-law of the Scotch Commissioners,

dated loth August, 1863. They are subject to certain

regulations specified in the Act of 1859, principally relating

to the observance of the close times, but there is no limit

on the length of the nets or on the length and height of

the leaders. Restrictions on these points should be applied

as suggested with regard to the coast generally, and the

junction of stake- and bag-nets should be forbidden here

also.

The remarks already made, however, as to the total
abolition of fixed nets apply to those on the Tweed also,
although in this case the matter is less important apart
from principle, seeing that the distance which the nets are
obliged to keep from the river prevent their doing any
serious injury to the fishings. The inconsistency which is
such a difficulty in the Solway still remains, however.
These nets are allowed along the coast of Cumberland,
while a little further on the English law applies which
forbids fixed nets entirely.

MILL-DAMS, &c.

Section 56 of the Act of 1857 contains regulations as to
the construction of mill-dams, weirs, caulds, &c. All
such erected after passing of the Act are to afford a free
run for the fish, and those existing at that time are to be
altered for this purpose. There is a clause, however,
providing that the height of any mill-dam, &c, is not to be
lowered in any part in making these alterations. The
effect of this is in great measure to nullify the benefit of

544 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCO TLAND.

The Tweed, the enactment. The best way to provide a free passage
for the salmon is undoubtedly to lower the dam at some
portion, which can generally be done without any serious
loss of water for mill purposes. The only alternative is to
construct a salmon ladder or pass, and if the dam is too
steep, it may be difficult to get a sufficiently easy gradient
without lowering the height.

The proprietors above any cauld, &c., should have power
to apply to the Commissioners to remove or improve it on
guaranteeing the expense, if that cannot be laid on the
proprietor.

The Special Commissioners of 1875 report that there is
no serious obstruction from Berwick-on-Tweed to the
spawning grounds, except Tweedmill cauld, which should
be bought, and either altogether removed or so improved
as to obviate objection to it. The regulations applicable to
Scotland generally under the bye-law (G) of the Com-
missioners with regard to hecks in mill-lades are preferable
to the regulations contained in section 59 of the Tweed
Act of 1857, and should be substituted for this section.
The whole bye-law might with advantage be applied to
the Tweed. This alteration would also provide against
the undue abstraction of water by mill-lades, upon which
there is no check in the Tweed Acts.

POLLUTIONS.

The remarks and suggestions made on pollutions and
poaching in a former part of this paper, with regard to
Scotland generally, apply with even more force to the
Tweed, which is unquestionably the most persistently and
extensively poached and polluted river in the kingdom.
It is therefore unnecessary to enter fully into the subject

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 545

again. The Pollution Clauses in the Tweed Act are, The Tweed,
however, even less efficacious than those in the general
Acts, as it must be proved that the fish were actually killed
or poisoned by the noxious matter. The words should be
" poisonous or deleterious to salmon." The recently
instituted action by the riparian proprietors against the
Galashiels manufacturers may be expected to result in the
earnest though non-spontaneous efforts of the latter to
overcome the difficulty, and if they will only cordially
co-operate with each other for this purpose instead of for
that of resisting the generally weaker associations (as
regards funds) of the riparian proprietors, we do not
despair of very shortly witnessing a marked improvement
both in the fishings and in the salubrity of the district. At
all events they will have the consolation that the money
was better spent. A conjoint purification work might
easily be erected and kept going at comparatively little
expense to each manufacturer, when divided among the
whole. But the expense is not a necessary consideration.
It seems a little inconsistent that manufacturers should for
so long a time have been compelled to consume their own
smoke or render it harmless by carrying it to great heights
by means of enormous and costly chimneys, while they
should have been permitted to commit at least as great a
nuisance by making sewers of the rivers. It is surely as
much of an offence from any point of view to poison the
water as to poison the air.

POACHING.

With regard to poaching, the Special Commissioners of
1875 seemed to be inclined to recommend a little less
severity, a view with which, however, we are unable to

VOL. I.— E. 3. 2 N

546 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

The Tweed, agree. When the feeling of the people in the district on
the question of the right to salmon is taken into considera-
tion, it must be seen to be hopeless ever to expect any
voluntary assistance from them, and the only remedy is to
be found in force. In proof of this may be mentioned the
fact ascertained by the Special Commissioners, that the
parts of the river which were most poached were precisely
those which the proprietors had been liberal enough to
throw open to the public for fair rod-fishing. The
sympathy of nearly every person seems unfortunately to be
with the poachers, and it is discouraging to believe that
persons in respectable positions are often aware of the
possession by a poacher of a large number of illegally
captured salmon without thinking of giving information to
the police or bailiffs. Every person who can be proved to
have known of the capture or possession of poached fish
by any individual, should himself be made liable in the
same penalties, as guilty " art and part " with the poachers.
If some means of protection were devised by which the
names of persons giving information need not be divulged,
some assistance might perhaps be obtained from this
source. Purchase of salmon taken during close time, as
well as poached during open season, should be punishable
the same as sale or possession. There might be sale and
purchase without possession by the purchaser.

The difference between the Tweed and the Tay with
regard to poaching is very striking. In the latter district
the popular sympathies are rather in favour of the law
than against it, and the result is seen in the small cost of
protection compared with the Tweed, and it no doubt has
its effect on the rental likewise. The cost of protection on
the Tweed is over £2000 per annum, and seems likely to
increase, while on the Tay it is less than £1000, and the

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCO TLAND. 547

rental of the latter is £6000 or £7000 greater than that of the The Tweed.
Tweed. Again, the proprietors on the Tweed have assessed
themselves voluntarily to 7 per cent, more than they are
compelled to by the statutes, or 27 per cent, and they wish
power (which should be granted) to increase the assessment
to 30 per cent, while on the Tay the assessment is under
10 per cent, and the number of prosecutions less than one-
sixth.

In 1875 the Special Commissioners remarked that the
average annual prosecutions on the Tweed were 271,
greater than the whole number for England and Wales
(266). This comparison hardly holds now, however. The
figures 266 were for a low year (1873). In 1880 they were
807 (645 convictions) and in 1881,604(501 convictions).
The Tweed can scarcely have increased to this extent

The general poaching Acts should be made clearly to
apply to the Tweed, as well as to Scotland.

Poaching in close time should be punished with the
cumulative penalties, that for contravening the close time,
and that for poaching alone. The word " cart " contained
in section 10 of the 1859 Act should be included in section
70 of the 1857 Act as to seizing of unseasonable fish and
the receptacles containing them.

MISCELLANEOUS.

The proviso as to wear shot nets should be amended,
making the distance between them greater. Thirty yards
seems too little to be of much effect. In England the
distance must be one hundred yards.

The Commissioners should obtain power to stake the
river so as to prevent illegal netting, which is prevalent in
the upper waters. It should be made unlawful to take

2 N 2

548 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCO TLAND.

The Tweed, smolts and parr at any time by rod and line, and not only
during the period between ist April and 1st June, and, as
before suggested, a limit of length, say six inches, should
be added instead of the word " parr."

The use of the gaff is prohibited to anglers when spent
fish are in the river. To this prohibition should be added
minnow tackle, which is just as likely to cause fatal
injuries as the gaff. Killing of " baggits " should also be
forbidden. It might, perhaps, be better to alter section 82
of the Act of 1857 in conformity with the law applicable
to Scotland generally, which is, that persons cannot be
convicted of offences in absence without proof in the same
manner as if they were present. As a general rule, non-
appearance is held as confession, but the alteration would

\

at least leave no ground of complaint.

Sections 25 and 26 of the Scotch Act of 1868 should be
extended to the Tweed so as to give power to search
baskets and creels or other receptacles of fishers.

Section 39 of the 1857 Act should be amended so as to
afford no room for doubt that the fine is exigible for
resisting a private person acting in execution of the Act.

The penalty of £20 imposed by section 73 for catching
salmon, &c., while fishing for trout, is out of all proportion
to the offence, compared with the penalties for other much
worse offences. The enactment ought also to be altered so
as to provide for the returning to the water or delivering to
the nearest bailiff or constable, any salmon so caught,
instead of binding him to deliver it to the proprietor. It
is hard for any one who may catch a salmon by accident
to know where the proprietor may be, or even who he may
be, and if he did know, to require him to go to such
personal inconvenience as this rule might entail.

It is deserving of consideration whether respectable

SALMON LEG IS LA TION IN SCOTLAND. 549

fishermen should not be granted a license to possess nets The Tweed,
for use in white fishery, so as to exempt them from the
stringent provisions of section 51 of 1857 against the
possession of nets, &c., which might be used in contraven-
tion of the Act.

Section 76 of the 1857 Act declares the Fresh Water
Fisheries Act of 1845 to apply to the whole of the river.
The Fresh Water Fisheries Amendment Act of 1860
should also be made to apply to the whole of the river, as
at present it only applies to the part in Scotland. Licenses
for rods might also be introduced on the Tweed, and the
Special Commissioners suggested £1 for the river below
Walkerburn, and los. above. The licensing system might,
however, be carried still further, and would afford a means
of relieving the proprietors of some portion at least of the
heavy assessment with which they are burdened.

There are several other points of less general importance
which might advantageously be adopted in the Tweed
legislation. For most of these, and for very valuable
information on the whole subject of the fisheries in the
district, reference is made to the Report already alluded to,
by the Special Commissioners of 1875. We do not, how-
ever, altogether agree with some of the recommendations
in the Report, which seem to be of doubtful expediency,
but refrain from discussing them.

In conclusion, it is a matter for great regret that one
result of the opposition which the recent Fishery Board
Act met with in Parliament from certain parties was the
exclusion of the River Tweed from the application of the
Act, so that the river is denied the chance of sharing in the
immense benefit which may confidently be expected to
accrue from the appointment of an Inspector of Salmon
Fisheries for Scotland.

5 50 SALMON LEG IS LA TION IN SCO TLAND.

THE SOLWAY.

The history of the law relating to the Solway Firth is a
very complicated one, and no purpose would be served by
entering into it here.

There are still several old Scotch Acts which must be
referred to in ascertaining the law on some points, but the
Act which now regulates the Scotch portion of the Solway
(except the Annan and the Esk) is the Act of 1804, 45
Geo. III., c. 45. There are also the Annan Acts, the
English Acts of 1861 and 1865, and the Scotch Acts of
1862 and 1868.

Within the limits of the Firth, as at present fixed, are
included the estuaries of about ten English rivers, eight
Scotch rivers, and one partly Scotch and partly English.
These limits are, however, far too wide, and were fixed
under a mistake, as shown in the Report after referred to.

The Solway Act of 1804 legislated for the fisheries on
both sides of the Firth. It fixed the limits to be that
portion of the Firth east of a line drawn from Skinberness,
in Cumberland, to Carsethorn of Arbigland in Kirkcudbright,
and within a line drawn from thence two miles seaward
along the coast to Mull of Galloway on one side, and
Hodbarrow Point in Cumberland on the other.* It fixed a
close season, and made stringent regulations for its observ-
ance, and against illegal modes of fishing, and generally
provided for the regulation of the fisheries. The English
Act of 1 86 1, however, repealed the Solway Act so far as it
related to England, and made certain enactments in place
of it. The Scotch Act of 1862 did not follow this example,
but declared the provisions of the English Act, with regard

* See map attached to Solway Report, by Messrs. Young and
Walpole, November 30, 1880,

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 551

to fixed engines, to be applicable to the Scotch side of the Tim Solway.
Solway. The result of this was that the Act of 1804
applies to the Scotch shore of the Solway and not to the
English, while the English law of fixed engines was
attempted to be introduced into Scotland, without effect,
however. The Commissioners under the Scotch Act were
empowered to fix the limits of the Firth anew, which they
did, in accordance with those first above mentioned. They
also fixed the close seasons for the Scotch rivers.

The English Act of 1865 placed the Esk under English
law, but the Scotch portions of it remained under the
Solway Act.

Thus there were several contradictory and inconsistent
regulations brought into force on the two sides of the
Firth. There was one annual close season, and one weekly
close season on one side, and another annual and weekly
close season on the other. A mesh of net eight inches
round was fixed in England, while seven inches was the
minimum allowed in Scotland.

But perhaps the greatest anomaly occurred in connection
with fixed engines. It was decided that all the fixed engines
on the English side were illegal, and they were therefore
abolished. On the other hand, it was found that the fixed
engines on the Scotch side could not be interfered with,
and the 33rd section of the Scotch Act of 1862, importing
the law of England as to fixed engines into Scotland,
became inoperative.

The Scotch Act of 1563 had exempted the Solway from
the effect of previous Acts declaring the illegality of fixed
engines " where the sea ebbs and flows," and but for this
exemption all such engines would have been illegal, as they
are in every other estuary. It is only natural that the
fishermen on the English side should look upon this as an

552 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

The Solway. unfair distinction, and a state of enmity be produced
between the fishermen on the two sides, very much
analogous to that which existed between their ancestors,
and was the cause of the exemption which has given rise to
the whole difficulty.

To quote the report of the Solway Commissioners, dated
the 3Oth of November, 1880: — "The legislation initiated
in 1 86 1 for the regulation of the fisheries had produced
four anomalies, which were especially perceptible in that
part of the Firth, where it is a narrow channel fordable by
the fishermen at low water, (i.) On the English side of
the Channel the annual close season commenced on the
1st of September, and terminated on the 2nd of February.
On the Scotch side it commenced on the 2/th of August,
and terminated on the loth of February. (2.) On the
English side the weekly close season commenced at noon
on Saturday, and continued till 6 A.M. on Monday ; on the
Scotch side the weekly close season commenced at 6 P.M.
on Saturday, and terminated at 6 A.M. on Monday. (3.) On
the English side every net with a mesh of less than two inches
from knot to knot was illegal ; on the Scotch side every net
with a mesh of less than one and three quarter inches from
knot to knot was illegal. (4.) On the Scotch side fixed engines
were left standing ; on the English side they were removed."

Subsequent inquiries have shown the impossibility of
abolishing the stake-nets on the Scotch side without com-
pensation, and matters now remain in the unsatisfactory
state above indicated.

The limits of the Firth now existing were, as shown in
the appendix to the above-mentioned Report, fixed in error,
and there was no authority whatever for adhibiting Mr.
Leslie's name to the bye-law fixing those limits. A majority
of the Commissioners (Messrs. Ffennell and Leslie) fixed, in

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 553

1864, what seemed to be the natural fauces terra, from Ross The Solway.
Head Lighthouse, in Kirkcudbright Bay, to Great Bees
Head, but the other, Mr. Eden, somehow or other carried
his point. The limits as now existing are simply absurd.

Messrs. Walpole and Young recommend the old line (in
the Act of 1804) from Skinberness to Carsethorn on the
western boundary of the Firth, but they add an eastern
boundary, and do away with the two-mile limit along the
coast. As the fixing of the limits of estuaries, however,
had only reference to the illegality of fixed nets, it is
difficult to see what purpose is served by the fixing of the
limits of the Solway west of the east boundary, at any rate,
seeing that the nets there cannot be touched.

We cannot do better than quote from the Solway report,
the summary of the recommendations of the Commis-
sioners with regard to the most important points : —

I. "The Acts relating to the Solway, i.e., the Solway
Act, 44 Geo. III., c. 45, and the Annan Act, 4 Viet, c. 18,
should be repealed.

II. " The limits of the Solway for salmon fishery purposes
should include all that arm of the sea which is situated
between Scotland and England, and which lies east of a
line drawn from the large house at Carsethorn in Arbigland,
in the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, to the hotel at Skinber-
ness, in the parish of Abbey Holme in the county of
Cumberland, and west of a line drawn from the west bank
of the water of Sark at Sark foot in the county of Dumfries,
to Burgh Head in the county of Cumberland. Within the
aforesaid limits the Solway Firth should include the sea
and the rivers so far as the tide flows and ebbs.

III. "Outside these limits : —

(a.) All the rivers which are entirely Scotch should be
placed under the Scotch laws.

554 SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND.

The Solway. (&) All the rivers which are entirely English should be

placed under the English laws.

(£.) The Esk, which is partly Scotch and partly English,
should continue under the English law, admin-
istered by Scotch Courts as regards the portion of
the Esk in Scotland, and the Scotch Acts so far
as it is concerned should be expressly repealed.
IV. " Inside these limits :—

(#.) The annual close season should commence on the
loth of September, and continue till the i$th of
March, both inclusive.

(£.) The weekly close season should commence at the
low water next after 6 A.M. on Saturday, and
continue for four complete tides.

(£.) The mesh for taking salmon should be not less than
if inches from knot to knot, or 7 inches round."
The Commissioners add certain other recommendations
as to whammel and paiddle nets, with reference to the
former of which they suggest that the exact boundary
between England and Scotland in the estuary should be
marked out by buoys. Those whammel nets are often
600 to 800 yards long, and therefore extend quite to the
Scotch shore, which creates as great a grievance to the
Scotch fishermen as the stake-nets do to the English.
The boundary would keep them in their own ground.*

It is suggested that the 2$th section of the Scotch Act
of 1868, with reference to powers of search for illegally
captured fish to watchers, &c., should be extended to the
Solway ; that the Qth section of the Solway Act, prohibit-
ing unqualified persons from fishing in private waters,
should be amended, and that trustees should be appointed,

* These whammel nets were recently the subject of prosecution,
and it is believed they were decided to be illegal.

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 555

with power to raise funds to purchase the fixed nets on the The Solway.
Scotch shore of the Solway.

Most of the rivers in the Solway have generally been
subject to special legislation. The Esk is now under
English law, but it would seem that the Solway Act still
applies to the Scotch portions of it, as well as the English
Act. The Firth is now under the general Scotch Acts.
The Annan is also under the general Scotch Acts, but it
has also an Act of its own still in force, the Annan Act,
1841. There is nothing, however, which calls for any
special notice.

The Report by Messrs. Walpole and Young is so recent,
and deals so ably and fully with the whole question, that it
cannot be improved upon, and we therefore content our-
selves with referring to it.

If the fixed nets could be got rid of on the Solway, the
fishings must materially improve. The gross annual value
of the fish caught at present is probably not less than £7000
to £8000. Here is what Russell says about the Newbie
fishings : — *

" The Solway also affords the most conclusive evidence not only of
the unfair, but of the ultimately self-destructive operations of these
engines. The first stake-net on the Solway — i.e. the first fixed net with
leaders and chambers — was erected at a place called Newby, a short
distance west of the mouth of the Annan, in 1788. Up to that time
the rent of the Newby fishery had been only ^i 6, whilst the rents of
the fisheries farther up the Firth amounted to several hundreds of
pounds. In a few years the rent of the Newby fishery, formerly £16,
was ^2000 ! whilst its upper neighbours sank to a mere fraction of their
former value. Here was a great transfer of property, and then came a
great destruction of property. The Newby example was copied ; the
Firth was overfished ; the rent of Newby is now (1864) little more than
a tenth of what it was ; and its neighbours, though they did not par-
ticipate in its prosperity, have shared in its decay : for instance, a

* Russell ' On the Salmon,' p. 131.

556

SALMON LEGISLATION IN SCOTLAND.

fishery which used to yield the Corporation of Carlisle a rent of £722
when salmon sold at id. a pound, now yields a rent of only £55 when
salmon sells at as many shillings a pound. In a word, the " improved
engines " have not only reduced the total produce of the Firth and its
rivers, but have reduced the total money value far below the amount
at which it stood, when ten tons of the produce brought no more
money than one ton brings now."

CONCLUSION.

In conclusion we think it may be stated without risk of
challenge, that the number of salmon caught in the rivers
of Scotland has very greatly decreased during the present
century, for causes which are to a great extent remediable.

That, notwithstanding the combination of so many
enemies to its existence, the salmon is still to be found in
anything like numbers, is a fact for which we can claim
little credit, and it behoves us now anxiously to bestir our-
selves to undo the mischief that has been done. When we
have reached that point it will be time to go further.

The following figures may be interesting, as showing the
fluctuations in the number of boxes of salmon sent to
Billingsgate from Scotland during the last twenty years,
since the passing of the Act of 1862.

1863

24,297

1868

28,020

1873

30,181

1878

27,660

1864

22,603

1869

20,474

1874

32,180

1879

15,564

1865

19,009

1870

20,648

1875

20,375

1880

17,408

1866

21,725

1871

23,390

1876

25,645

1881

23,817

1867

23,006

1872

24,404

1877

29,366

1882

22,968

110,640

116,936

137,747

107,417

Average

22,128

Average

23,387

Average

27,549

Average

21,483

(Exclusive of Berwick-on-Tweed from 1874, not distinguished before.)

SALMON LEGISLA TION IN SCOTLAND. 557

The average of the last period is thus less than the first.
Though they serve, to a certain extent, as an indication,
these statistics must not be too implicitly relied on, as they
may lead to fallacious results. It is impossible to ascertain
what quantities of fish were disposed of otherwise.

It is probably unnecessary to direct the attention of those
interested in the Scotch salmon fishings to the reports of
the recently constituted Scotch Fisheries Improvement
Association, of which they have now published three, all
containing valuable information relating to the subject.
The first report (May, 1881) is more especially instructive
to those interested in reform, as containing many important
details collected from various reliable sources, showing the
condition of deterioration and disorganisation into which
salmon fishery matters have fallen in Scotland. It has
been ascertained (i), that there are seven counties in
Scotland with thirty-two rivers which have ceased to be
frequented by salmon, owing first to dams built across the
rivers, which prevent the fish getting up to spawn ; and
secondly, to manifold pollutions from town sewage, bleach-
fields, chemical works, and other manufactures.

(2) That in eight counties with salmon rivers there are
no District Boards.

(3) That in one of these counties (viz., Ross and Cromarty)
there are no less than thirty-two salmon rivers without
official protection.

(4) That in Argyllshire, where there are also about
thirty salmon rivers, there is only one District Board, whose
place of meeting is in the Island of Mull.

We commend these statistics to the anxious study of all
concerned.

INDEX.

ACANTHOPTERYGII, 57~I2I

Adag orattic, a local name for the haddock, 141

Adder-pike, a local name for the lesser or viper weever, 82

Affection, instances of, 31

Agreements on shipping crews, 353, 381 ; present state of the law on the
subject, 403 ; provisions of Merchant Shipping Bill, 1882, 425

Agreement, Fishing, sanctioned by Board of Trade, 436-448

Air-bladder, air-sac, or air-vessel, same as the swim-bladder, 17; its uses, 20

Albinoism, common in flat fishes, 12, 184, 217

Alewife, another name for the allice-shad, 305

Allice-shad, 305-307

Allotments of wages, how affected by Merchant Seamen (Wages) Act 1880, 382

Ammodytes, 172

Anacanthini, 121, 314

Anadromous fishes, 35, 56

Anal fin, its position and uses, 8

Anchovy, 245-248

Anger, manifestations of, in fishes, 31

Apprentices, indoor, 358, and outdoor, 359 ; desertions frequent, 359 ; effect
on apprenticeships of Merchant Seamen Payment of Wages Act, 1880,
359 > present state of law as to desertions, 382-388, and indentures, 404
regulations of Merchant Shipping Bill, 1882, 425, 431 ; form of inden-
tures, sanctioned by Board of Trade, 433-436

Aquaria, not favourable to the fertility of ova, 36

Artificial propagation, 37, 43 ; in America, 43

BADDOCK, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

Bag-net, where and how used, 47 ; another name for the stow-net, 52
Bait, use of mussels as bait, 53 ; bait for bass, 59 ; for " old wife " (sea-bream),
65 ; for common sea-bream, 67 ; for Erythrinus sea-bream, 69 ; for
gurnards, 71 ; grey gurnard food for lobster, &c., 77 ; for mackerel, 93 ;
for John Dory, 106 ; for sand-smelt, in ; for grey mullet, 117 ; for cod-
fishes, 125 ; for cod, 135 ; for haddock, 144 ; for whiting, 152 ; for coal-
fish, 156; for pollack, 161 ; for hake, 165; for ling, 170; for sand-
launce, 176 ; for halibut, 189 ; for turbot, 196 ; for plaice, 204 ; for the

560 INDEX.

smear-dab, 210 ; for dab, 215 ; for flounders, 220; for the common sole,
229 ; for gar-pike, 239 ; use of herrings and pilchards as bait, 281, 297 ;
bait for shad, 306, 308 ; for conger- eel, 312 ; use of dog-fish as bait for
shell-fish, 315 ; of skate, 319 ; bait for thornback, 320

Ballast, proper and improper methods of securing it from shifting, 362

Balkers, 292

Barbels, 26, 28

Barling, another name for the lampern, 324

Barnock, a name given on the east coast of Scotland to the turbot, 193

Barnstaple, fisheries unimportant, 339

Barwin, a name given in co. Antrim (Ireland) to the common sea-bream, 66

Bass, 58-69

Bastard-sattie, a name given in Aberdeen to the long rough dab, 191

Bastard sole, another name for the smear-dab, 208 ; for the thick back, 232

Bastard turbot, a name given in the Moray Firth to the brill, 199

Beaumaris, fisheries unimportant, 339

Belgian "devil," 344, 352

Belgium, principal fisheries, 344 ; boats employed, 344 ; ground worked on,

344

Bib, 147-150

Bideford, fisheries unimportant, 339

Bigger fleuk, a name given in the Moray Firth to the flounder, 216
Bil, billet, billard, billiard, local names for the coal -fish, 154
Birdie, a name given at Aberdeen to young halibut, 187
Bishop, a name given in Cornwall to the lesser or viper weever, 82
Blackback, a name given in Belfast Bay to the flounder, 216
Black-fin, a local name for the lesser or viper weever, 82
Black jack, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

,, pollack, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

,, sea-bream, another name for the fish known as "old wife," 64-66
Blacksmith, a name given at Aberdeen to the halibut, 187
Bleck, a local name for the coal-fish, 154
Blens, another name for the cod, 128 ; and the bib, 147
Blinds, name given in Cornwall to the bib, 148
Blockan, a local name for the coal-fish, 154
Bluebacks, a Yorkshire name for the coal-fish, 154
Boats, probably first used for the pursuit of fish, 4
Boddagh rug, a name given in the Isle of Man to codlings, 130
Boger, a Cornish name for the common sea-bream when half grown, 66
Bone-dog, another name for one of the dog-fishes, 314
Bonnet flenk, a name given to the brill, 199
Borhame, a name given in Northumberland to the lemon-sole, 231
Bothock, a name given to the bib, 148
Boxing fish, 371 ; danger attending it, 371

Braden leathen, a name given in the Moray Firth to the halibut, 187
Bragay, a name given to the bib, 148
Brassie, a name given in Scotland to the bib, 148
Brazier, a name given in the north of Ireland to the common sea-bream, 66

INDEX.

561

Breams, king of the, local name for the Erythrinus sea-bream, 69

Breams, sea. See Sea-breams.

Breeding, 34

Bret, brett, breat, brat, birt, names given to the turbot, 193 ; " brett " also to

the brill, 199
Brill, 199-201

Bristol, fisheries unimportant, 339

Britt, a name given in Devonshire to young sprats or young herrings, 298
Browny, a name given in Cornwall to Miiller's and Bloch's topknot, 201
Buck-mackerel, name given in Scotland (Banff) to the scad, 99
Buckthorn, name given to haddock (generally when dried), 141
Building of fishing vessels, 353 ; working of present law relating thereto, 379
Bull-heads, 70-79

But, a name given to the halibut, 18
Butt, a name given at Yarmouth to the flounder, 216
Byrte-fish, a name given to the turbot, 193

C^ECAL APPENDAGES, l6

Camrels, name given to haddocks after spawning, 141

Cardiff, fisheries unimportant, 339

Cardigan, fisheries unimportant, 339

Carf, or carp, a name given on the north-east coast of Ireland to the common
sea-bream, 66

Carnarvon, fisheries unimportant, 339

Carriers, 370-371

Cartilaginous fishes, 314-320

Catadromous fishes, 56

Cat-fish, a name given in Sussex to the greater weever, 80

Caudal fin, its position, 8 ; how used, 8

Ceithnach, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

Certificates of masters and mates of fishing vessels ; regulations of Merchant
Shipping Bill, 1882, on the subject, 420

Chad, a name given on the south-west coast of England to the common sea-
bream when young, 66

Chondropterygian fishes, their characteristics, 7 ; species found in British
seas, 314-320

Circulation of water in the ocean, 38

Claspers, 34

Cleghorn, Mr., his report on the herring fishery, 257

Close time for salmon, 502, 532-533

Coal-fish, 153-158

Coalman, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

Coalsay or coalsey, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

Coal- whiting, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

Cod-fishes, various kinds : geographical distribution, 12 1 ; capacity to exist
in fresh water, 122 ; antiquity of the cod fishery, 123 ; means of capture,
124; bait, 125; modes of preserving alive for market, 125 126;
diseased, 127

Cod, 128; varieties of form and colour, 129; habits, 130; voracity, 131;
VOL. I.— E. 2 O

562 INDEX.

means of capture, 133, 134 ; productiveness of the cod fishery, 134 ;

bait, 135 ; " cod-murderer," 135 ; breeding, 135 ; life-history, 136 ;

hermaphrodites, 137 ; diseases, 137 ; uses as food, &c., 138 ; modes of

cooking, 139 ; how cured, 139 ; habitat, 140 ; size and weight, 141
"Cod-murderer," 135

Colchester, fisheries carried on there, 337 ; vessels employed, 337
Cold, its effect upon fish, 38

Colemie or colmey, a local name for the coal-fish, 154
Colours in fish, causes which produce modifications in colour, 10
Commensals, 41
Commerce, its origin, 4

Comparative anatomy, its bearing on the story of natural history, 5
Conger-eel, 310-314 ; injuriously affected by extreme cold, 313
" Coopering," 368-370
Cooth, a local name for the coal-fish, 154
Cornish salmon, a name for the hake, 163
Craig-fluke, a name given to the pole, 211

Crake-herring, a name given in the north of Ireland to the scad, 102
Crooner, croonach, and crowner, names given in Scotland to gurnards, 76, 78
Crow-fish, a name given to the female bib in Gal way Bay, 150
Ctenoid scales, 10

Cudden, or cuddy, a local name for the coal-fish, 154
Cuideag, a name given in the Moray Firth to the whiting, 150
Gumming, another name for the lampern, 324
Cungyr, a Welsh name for the conger-eel, 310
Curing fish at sea, 371
Cycloid scales, 10
Cyclostomata, 320-328
Cyngyren, a Welsh name for the conger-eel, 310

DAB, 213-216

„ rough or long rough, 191-193

,, yellow, same as the rough dab, 191-193
Damage, state of the law on the subject, 403
Damon herring, a local name for the shad, 263
Dams, used in capture of fish from an early period, 3
Dancing herring, another name for the allice-shad, 305
Dargs, name given at Aberdeen to whiting in June and July, 150
Dargie, a local name for the coal-fish, 154
Dartmouth, fisheries carried on from thence, 338; vessels employed, 338;

apprentices, 338

Daw-fish, another name for one of the dog-fishes, 314
Deaths on board boats, provisions of Merchant Shipping Bill, 1882,

respecting, 427

Deillion, a name given at Carnarvon to the bib, 148
Denmark, North Sea fisheries unimportant, 342
Desertions, present state of law, 382-395
Diamond plaice, same as the plaice, 204
Diseases of fish, 54
Dog-fishes, 314-318 ; used as bait for shell-fish, 315

INDEX.

563

Dole-fish, 128

Doree, 103-108 ; rapid motion of fins, 106 ; fins capable of inflicting dangerous

wounds, 1 06

Dorsal fin, its position and uses, 8

Dover, fisheries carried on there, 338 ; vessels employed, 338
Drift-net, 44 ; size of mesh, 45 ; of what material constructed, 45 ; how

used, 45 ; its use in herring, mackerel, and pilchard fisheries, 346-348.
Drift-net fishing, laws by which it is regulated, 402 ; provisions of the

International Convention of the Hague, 411

EELS, not injuriously affected by sea water, 39

Egyptian herring, a name given in Scotland to the saury, 242

Electric light, fish not attracted by it, 38
,, disturbances, their effect upon fish, 38

Elleck or pine-leaved gurnard, 73, 74

Embryology, its bearing on the study of natural history, 5

Employers' Liability Act, 1 880, its applicability to crews of fishing vessels,
449

England and Wales, &c., value of fisheries, number of vessels and men
employed, &c., 377

Erythrinus sea-bream, 69

Erythrism, 12

Eyes, their position, 23, 24 ; size modified by habits and habitat, 24 ; atrophy,
24 ; deviations from ordinary type, 24 ; outer coverings, 25 ; " adipose
lids," 25 ; sometimes absent, 57 ; position in flat fishes, 180-184 :
modifications and means of protection in flat fishes, 186.

FAIR MAIDS, a name given in Devonshire to dried pilchards, 286

Fear, manifestations of, 32

Ferrying, 371 ; danger attending it, 372

Fertilisation of ova, 32, 34

Field naturalist, subjects considered by him, 5

Finnan haddocks (smoked haddocks), 141

Fins, their arrangement and uses, 8 ; their composition in " bony" fishes, 8 ;
peculiar modifications, 9 ; sometimes used as organs of touch, 28 ; in
some fish inflict poisonous wounds, 32

Fish, used by man as food from earliest times, 3 ; modes of capture adopted
by savages, 3 ; how defined, 7 ; divided into bony and cartilaginous
forms, 7 ; modifications of forms, 9 ; possess the senses of hearing, 22 ;
and of smell, 27 ; evidences of this, 22, 28 ; sense of taste very slightly
developed, 28 ; growth, how influenced, 29 ; voracity of fish, 29 ; modes
of seizing prey, 29 ; tenacity of life, 30 ; not very sensitive to pain, 30 ;
have means of intercommunication, 30 ; emit voluntary and involuntary
sounds, 31 ; instances of affection, 31 ; of anger, 31 ; of fear, 32 ; some-
times capable of inflicting poisonous wounds, 32 ; secrete venom, 32 ;
relations of the sexes, 32 ; modes of reproduction, 32-34 ; nests for
protection of ova, 35 ; time of spawning, 36 ; its effect on the value of
fish as food, 36 ; number of eggs produced by various species, 36 ;
hybridism, 36 ; eggs of fish kept in an aauarium frequently infertile, 36 ;

2 O 2

564 INDEX.

artificial propagation, 37 ; effect of temperature on distribution, 37 .
recovery of fish apparently frozen, 38 ; ability to exist under ice, 38 ; not
attracted by electric light, 38 ; affected by electrical disturbances in the
atmosphere, 38 ; migrations, 39 ; effect of sea- water on fresh-water fish,
39 ; ability of some sea-fishes to exist in water wholly or partially fresh,
39 ; instances of fish living with, or attaching themselves to others as
hosts, 41 ; diseases and causes of destruction, 54 ; parasites, 55 ; employed
as food in various conditions, 55 ; geographical distribution, 55 ; terms
employed to denote habitat, 57 ; British fishes enumerated and described,

57-328
Fisheries department, formation advocated, 464 ; suggestions as to its

constitution, 467
„ enquiry, 1882, 474

Fishing boats, plan adopted in building, 353 ; registration,' 353 ; rigging,
354 ; insurance, 354 ; shipping of crews, 355 ; payment of crews, 360 ;
ballast and hatches, 362 ; provisioning, 363 ; equipment with gear, 365 ;
management at sea, 366-368; " coopering," 368 ; carriers, 370; curing
fish at sea, 371 : foorying or boxing and trunking, 371-374 ; duration of
voyages, 375 ; sale of fish, 375 ; settling up, 377 ; laws relating to
building, 379 ; provisions of Merchant Shipping Bill, 1882, as to classifi-
cation, 423
' ' Fixed engines " for capture of salmon, state of the law respecting them,

501 ; suggestions for improvement of existing laws, 515
Flair, a name given at Aberdeen to the skate, 318
Flanie, a name given in Northumberland to the skate, 318
Flat fishes, 181 ; changes in the position of the eyes according to age, 182 ;
preponderance of females, 185 ; modifications of the eye, and provision
for its protection, 186 ; mode of capture, 186 ; alleged decrease in their
numbers, 1 86 ; geographical distribution, 187 ; are for the most part
inhabitants of salt water, 187
Fleuk, a name given on the east coast of Scotland to the turbot, 193

,, flewke and fluek, names given to the flounder, 216
Flounder, 216-222

,, lantern, a name given in Cornwall to the flounder, 216
Fluke, little black hairy, a name given at Edinburgh to Muller's and Bloch's

topknot, 201

Fluviatile fish, definition of, 56
Foot-seine, how used, 47

France, fisheries important, 344 ; excellence of French boats, and of mode of
working gear, 344 ; description of boats employed, 344, 345 ; payment of
crews, 345 ; statistics showing value, number of vessels and men
employed, 378
Fresh-water fish generally unable to live in salt water, 39

,, fleuk, a name given in the Moray Firth to the flounder, 216
French (the), boats used by them in mackerel fishery, 93

„ sole, a name given at Youghal to the smear-dab, 208 : another name
£for the lemon-sole, 231

GAMRELS, name given to haddocks after spawning, 147
Ganoid scales, 10

INDEX. 565

Gapemouth, bass so called in Scotland, 58

Gar-pike, 236-241 ; development of the jaws, 237, 240

Gar-pipe, another name for the gar-pike, 236

Garvie and Garvock, names given in Scotland to the sprat, 298

Germany, North Sea fisheries unimportant, 342

Gerrick, a Cornish name for the gar-pike, 362

Gerrocks, a name given at Banff to the coal-fish, 154

Gills, 22

Gilpin, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

Gilt-head-red, a name given to the common sea-bream, 66

Glassock, glashan, glassin, glasan, glosin, glossan, local names for the coal-

fish, 154

Golden haddock, name given in Arran to the "John Dory," 104
Gore-bill, another name for the gar-pike, 236
Gore-bone, a local term for the snout of the gar-pike, 236
Gosnick, a name given in Scotland to the saury, 242
Gowdnook, a name given in Scotland to the saury, 242
Gray-lord, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

Green-ben or green-bane, a name given in Scotland to the gar-pike, 236
Green-bone, or green-back, a name given to the gar-pike, 236
Green-cod, a local name for the coal-fish, 154
Greenling or green-fish, a local name for the pollack, 158
Green-pollack, a local name for the coal-fish, 154
Grey back, a name given at Portrush (co. Antrim) to the dab, 213
Grey-fleuk, a name given in the Moray Firth to the dab 213
Grey mullets. See Mullets.
Grimsby, fisheries carried on there, 334 ; vessels employed and payment of

crews, 334, 335 ; apprenticeship, 335 ; mortgaging of fishing of vessels,

335

Ground-seine, how used, 47

Growth of fish, hastening and retarding influences, 29

Grobman, Cornish name for the common sea-bream when two-thirds grown, 66
Guard-fish, another name for the gar-pike, 236
Gull-fish, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

Gunner, name given on the north-west coast of Ireland to the common sea-
bream, 66

Gunner-fleuk, a name given on the east coast of Scotland to the turbot, 193
Gurnards, 70-79

HAAF-EEL, a Welsh name for the conger-eel, 310

Habitat, classification of fish with regard to, 56

Habordine, a name given in Westmoreland to the cod, 128

Haddock, 141 ; varieties in form and colour, 142 ; habit, 143 ; means of

capture, 144 ; bait, 144 ; breeding, 144 ; life-history, 145 ; uses as food,
' &c., 145 ; how cured, 145 ; diseases, 146 ; habitat, 146 ; size and

weight, 147
Hague (the), International Convention, provisions as to lettering and

numbering of boats, 406 ; use of some " principal floats," 410 ; provisions

566 INDEX.

as to anchoring, 410 j to trawlers and drifters, 411 ; to shooting of nets,
413 ; to entanglement of lines, 415 ; to lifting by fishermen of others'
nets, &c., 415 ; to salvage, 415 ; to securing an observance of the
regulations laid down in the Convention, 418
Hake, 163-167
Halibut, 187-191

Halion, another name for the saury, 242
Harbine, a local name for the coal-fish, 154
Hardhead, a name given to the grey gurnard, 76
Hartlepool, fisheries carried on there, 334 ; vessels employed, 334 ; payment

of crews, 334

Harwich, fisheries carried on there, 337

Hastings, fisheries carried on there, 338 ; vessels employed, 338
Hatches, often not properly secured, 363
Hearing, organs of, 20

Henfish, name given to the female bib at Belfast, 150
Herrick-hake, a name given at Aberdeen to the coal-fish, 154 ; another name

for the hake, 163

Herring, names given under various conditions and modes of cure, 248, 249 ;
terms used in the trade for denoting quantity, 249 ; anatomical details,
250; habits, 250 ; food, 251 ; difficulty of keeping them in an aquarium,
252-254 ; migrations, 254 ; effect of temperature, &c., on migrations, 256 ;
views of Mr. Cleghorn on the herring fishery, 257 ; the Scotch fisheries,
257 ; early fishing deprecated, 259; the Yarmouth and Lowestoft fisheries,
260 ; the Devonshire and Cornwall fisheries, 261 j means of capture,
261-265 > '* fl66*5 " of nets, 262 ; breeding, 265 ; nature of whitebait, 267 ;
how distinguished from sprats, 270 ; age at which breeding commences
in herring, 271 ; spawning, 272 ; hatching, 272 j destruction of fry by
small mesh nets, 273 ; mode of capture in Norway, 275 ; average take
of the Scotch fisheries, 276 ; number of fishermen employed, 277 ; value
of gear, 278 ; use of cotton nets, 278 ; value of herring as food, 279 ;
modes of cure in Scotland and at Yarmouth, 280 ; first use of ice to
preserve herrings during transit to markets, 281 ; railway rates, 281 j
uses, 281 ; influence of the fishery on the marriage rate in certain parts,
283 ; diseases of herring and causes of destruction, 283 ; superstitions
of fishermen, 284 ; habitat, 285 ; size and weight, 286
Herring brand, Scotland, 451-462

,, nets, their construction, 346 ; how used, 346-347 ; size of nets, 347 ;

foreign nets, 348

Histology, its importance in the study of natural history, 5
Hoe, a name given in the Orkneys to one of the dog-fishes, 316
Holland, fisheries very important, 342 ; boats employed in trawling, 342 ;
sole-buying by British fishermen, 342 ; herring fishery, 343 ; large mesh
nets used, 343 ; mode of curing fish at sea, 343 ; boats employed, 343 ;
religious observances of Dutch fishermen, 345 j cod fishery, 344 ;
statistics showing value, number of vessels and men employed, 378
Home Drummond's Act (Salmon Fisheries), 490
Horn-eel, a name given in Belfast Bay to the gar-pike, 236

INDEX. 567

Homers, or horn-eels, a name given in Edinburgh to the larger sand-

launce, 174.

Horn-fish, another name for the gar-pike, 236
Horn-kieke, another name for the gar-pike, 236
Horse mackerel, 98-103
Huers, 91, 292
Hull, fisheries carried on there, 334 ; vessels employed and payment of crews,

334. 335 ; apprenticeship, 335 ; mortgaging of vessels, 335
Hybridism, 36

ICE, ability of fish to live under, 38

Ichthyopsida, definition of the term, 6

Imbricate scales, 10

Immature fish, injury to fisheries by their destruction, 484

Inspectors of Sea Fisheries, appointment desirable, 50

Insurance of fishing boats, 353.

Insurance, necessity of a general system compulsatory on all fishermen, 484

Internal structure of fishes, 13

Intestinal canal, 14

Irish fisheries. Ports from which worked, 340 ; not well prosecuted, 340 ;

local jealousy of English fishermen, 341 ; fish principally sought for, 341 ;

vessels employed, 341; statistics showing value, number of vessels and

men employed, &c., 378 ; how supervised, 462

JACKIE-DOWNIES, a name given in the Moray Firth to the bib, 148
John Dory, 103-108 ; rapid motion of fins, 106 ; fins capable of inflicting
dangerous wounds, 106

KEELING, another name for the cod, 128

Kellin, a name given in Aberdeen to the ling, 168

Kettle-net, how used, 47

King of the herrings, another name for the allice-shad, 305

Kit, a Cornish name for the smear-dab, 208

Kite, a name given in Cornwall and Devonshire to the brill, 199

Kleg, another name for the cod, 128 ; and the bib, 148

Knoud, name given in Ireland to the grey gurnard, 76

Kunger, a Welsh name for the conger eel, 310

Kuth, a local name for the coal -fish, 154

LACUSTRINE FISH, how defined, 56

Lady-fluke, a name given to the halibut, 187

Lahan, a name given in the Moray Firth to the ling, 168

Lai the, laits, local names for the pollack, 158

Lamper-eel, another name for the lampern, 324

Lampern, 324-328 ; used as bait for trout, 326

Lampreys, 320-328 ; their metamorphosis, 321

Lant, a name given in Cornwall to the sand-launce, 174, 177

Laws for regulation and protection of fisheries, 333, 485

568 INDEX.

Laws (international) for protection of sea fisheries, 329-485 ; suggestions for

their improvement, 465-471
Leet, leets, lerat, local names for the pollack, 158
Lemon-dab, a name given at Belfast to the smear-dab, 208
Lemon-sole, a name given at Belfast to the smear-dab, 208 ; a variety of the

sole, 231, 232
Lettering of fishing boats, state of the law on the subject, 403 ; provisions of

the International Convention of the Hague, 406
Leucaethiopism, 12
Licences for salmon fishing, 537
Life saving, 481-483
Light, at great depths in the ocean, whence derived, 13 ; fish attracted by a

light, 38
Lights carried by fishing boats, legislation on the subject, 395 ; suggestions as

to lights which should be carried, 401
„ for vessels using drift-nets, 46
Line fishing, 53
Ling, 168-172

Ling-drizzle, a local name for the ling, 168
Little sole, another name for the solonette, 234
Littoral fishes, how defined, 56
Liverpool, fisheries carried on there, 340
Lleppog, a Welsh name for the lampern, 324
Llysowen bendoll, a Welsh name for the sea-lamprey, 320
Lob, or lob-keeling, a local name for the coal-fish, 154 ; and for the pollack, 158
Lobsters, a name given to soles in Suffolk, 226
Log-book, regulations of fishing agreement respecting, 446
London, fisheries carried on there, 337 ; vessels employed, 337 ; apprentices,

337

Long-fleuk, a name given at Edinburgh to the long-rough dab, 191
Long-nose, another name for the gar-pike, 234
Lowestoft, fisheries carried on there, 335 ; apprentices taken by trawlers,

336 ; vessels employed, 337 j payment of crews, 337
Lug, a Cornish name for the bib, 148

Lug-a-leaf, a name formerly given in Cornwall to the brill, 199
Luggatee, a name formerly given in Cornwall to the turbot, 193
Luminosity of fish, 12
Lythe, a local name for the pollack, 158

MACKEREL, 83, 98 ; names, 83 j anatomical details, 83 ; varieties, 84 j
habits, 85 ; times of arrival on shores of United Kingdom, 86-88 ; food,
88 ; are impatient of confinement, 89 ; modes of capture, 89, 93 ; "huers,"
91 ; presence indicated by sea-fowl, 92 j bait, 93 ; value of catches, 94 ;
breeding, 95 ; hermaphrodites, 95 ; diseases, &c., 95, 96 ; value as food, 96 ;
habitat, 97 ; size and weight, 98

Mackerel-guide, or mackerel-scout, a name given to the gar-pike, 236
,, horse. See Horse-mackerel.
,, nets, their construction, 348 ; foreign nets, 346

INDEX. 569

Maid, another name for the twait-shad, 307

Mammalia, definition of the term, 6

Man, Isle of, fisheries carried on there, 340 ; vessels employed, 340 ; payment

of crews, 340 ; apprenticeship not general, 340
Marine fishes, sometimes resident in fresh water, 39
Mary-sole, or merry-sole, a local name for the smear-dab, 208
Mayock fleuk, a name given at Edinburgh to the flounder, 216
Melanism, 12

Merchant Seamen Payment of Wages Act, 1880, its effect on fishery apprentice-
ships, 359 ; provisions as to allotments of wages, 382 ; as to desertions of

fishermen and apprentices, 382-395 j effect of the provisions as to desertions

on the fishing industry, 388
Merchant Shipping Bill, 1882, 419-433 ; provisions as to grant of certificates to

master and mates of fishing vessels, 420 ; classification of vessels;, 423 ;

regulations affecting apprentices and boys, 425, 431 ; penalty for shipping

crews without an agreement, 425 ; production of agreements and

certificates, 426 ; payment of wages, 426 ; enquiries as to causes of death

on board boats, 427, 428, et seq.
Merluce, another name for the hake, 163
Migration, 39

Milford, fisheries unimportant, 339
Mill-dams, their effect on salmon fisheries, 528 ; state of the law with regard

to them, 528-531
Milt, 33

Moulrush or moubrush, a local name for the coal-fish, 154
Mop, a local name for the haddock, 141
Morcath bigog, a Welsh name for the thornback, 319
Morglie, another name for one of the dog-fishes, 314
Mor Lysowen, a Welsh name for the conger-eel, 310
Morphology, the proper basis of classification, 5
Mortgages of fishing vessels, 335; state of the law on the subject, 404 ;

evasion of liability by owner under cover of a mortgage, 404 ; mortgages

to salesmen, 405

Mowel, another name for grey mullet, 116

Muckle-stanger, a name given in Aberdeen to the greater weever, 80
Mud-flounder, a name given to the flounder, 216

Mullets, grey, 113-121 ; instances of their having been kept in water partially
fresh, 113

„ red, 60-64

,, thick-lipped, same as lesser grey mullet, 118

,, thin-lipped, same as grey mullet, 116
,, king of the, name sometimes given to the bass, 58
Mulvel, a local name for the haddock, 141

Murranroe, a name given in co. Antrim (Ireland) to the common sea-
bream, 66

Museum naturalist, his methods of investigation, 4
Mussels, their use as bait in line fishing, 53 ; effect on beds of repeal of fishery

laws, 53

570 INDEX.

NAKED bait, a name given at St. Ives (Cornwall) to the young of the sand-

launce, 174

Natural history of fishes, a subject of general interest, 3
Navigation, its origin, 4
Needle-fish, a name given to the gar-pike, 236
Nests for protection of ova, 35
Nets, forms now used, 44, 345, 348

" Nine eyes," a name given to the sea lamprey, 320 ; and the lampern, 324
" Nine holes," a name given to the lampern, 324
Norway, principal fisheries, 341 ; boats employed, 341 ; freezing of nets, 341 ;

payment of crews, 341 ; statistics showing number of vessels and men

employed, &c., 378

Noud, name given in Ireland to the grey gurnard, 76
, Numbering of fishing boats, state of the law on the subject, 403 ; provisions of

the International Convention of the Hague, 406

OCEAN ZONES, 56

Old wife, also called "black sea-bream," 64-66

Olic, a local name for the ling, 168

Orders in Council, their effect on fishing industry, 404

Otter-pike, a local name for the lesser or viper weever, 82

Ova, where deposited, 34 ; means adopted by fish for protecting, 35 ; nests,
35 ; number of eggs in fish of various species, 36 ; only partially fertile in
fish kept in an aquarium, 36 ; artificial propagation, 37 ; presence of
filaments, 235, 236

Oviducts, 33

PACKAGES used in transmission of fish, 464

Padstow, fisheries unimportant. 339

Pancreatic ducts, 16

Pandora, a local name for the erythrinus sea-bream, 61

Parasites, 55

Parrs, the fry of the coal-fish, 154

Payment of crews of fishing boats, systems adopted, 360-362

Pearl, a name given to the brill, 199

" Pearl-sides," 13

Pectoral fins, their position and uses, 8

Pelagic fish, how defined, 56

Penzance, fisheries carried on there, 338 ; vessels employed, 338 ; payment of
crews, 339 ; apprenticeship not general, 339

Perches, sea-perches, 57 ; bass, 58

Pilchard, anatomical details, 286 ; varieties, 287 ; habits, 287 ; migrations, 288 ;
alleged falling off in the number captured, 289-291 ; means of capture, 291 ;
restrictions on fishing with drift-nets, 292 ; huers or balkers, 292 ; jowters,
293 ; largely exported to Spain, 294 ; and Italy, 297 ; mode of cure,
295 ; breeding, 295 ; diseases and causes of destruction, 296 ; value as
food, 296 ; other uses, 297 ; pilchard oil, 297 ; habitat, 297 ; size, 298

INDEX.

57i

Pilchard nets, 348

Piltock, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

Pincher, aname given in the north of Ireland (Portrush) to the sand-smelt, 109

Piper, one of the gurnards, 78, 79

Pisciculturist, the, subjects considered by him, 5

Piscinae, salt water, 40

Placoid scales, 10

Plaice, 204-208

Plash fleuk, a name given in the Moray Firth to the plaice, 204

Plymouth, fisheries carried on there, 338 ; vessels employed, 338 ; system of
apprenticeship not general, 338

Poaching of salmon, law respecting, 503, 533

Podile, poodler, or podling, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

Pole, 211-213

Pole-dab, same as the pole, 211

Pollack, 158-163

Pollution of rivers, effect on salmon fisheries, 503 ; suggestions for improve-
ment of law thereon, 524

Polluted water, a cause of the destruction of fisheries, 54

Poor-cod, name given at Aberdeen to whiting, 150

Potaferry chicken, a name given in the north of Ireland to the sand-smelt, 109

Poullach, a name given in the Moray Firth to the cod, 128

Pout, a name given to the bib, 147

Power, a name given at Aberdeen to whiting, 150

Preserved fish, modes of preparation, 55 ; cod, 139 ; haddock, 145

Prinkle, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

Provisioning of fishing boats, 363-365

Pylorus, 14

QUEEN, or queen-fish, a Cornish name for the smear-dab, 211
Quid, Cornish name for the sand-smelt, 109

RABBIT-FISH, a name given to the streaked gurnard, 72

Ramsgate, fisheries carried on there, 337 ; apprentices, 337 ; vessels employed,

338

Running-pollack, a Cornish name for the coal-fish, 154
Ray-maid, another name for the thornback, 319

,, mullets. See Mullets.
Redsole, another name for the solonette, 234

Registration of fishing boats, 353 ; for tonnage, 379 ; effect of present law, 379
Reproduction, organs of, 33
Reproductive processes, 32, 33
Respiratory organs, 22
Revival offish apparently frozen, 38

Roan or rawn fleuk, a name given on the east coast of Scotland to the turbot, 193
Rock-herring, another name for the allice-shad, 305

„ herring, name given in Scotland (Aberdeen) to the scad, 99

,, salmon, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

572 INDEX.

Rod, a name given in the Orkneys to the turbot, 193

Roddan, a name given on the east coast of Scotland to the turbot, 193

Roddams, a name given in Northumberland to the turbot, 193

Row-hound, another name for one of the dog-fishes, 314

Rye, fisheries carried on there, 338 ; vessels employed, 338

SAIDHEAN, the fry of the coal-fish, 154

St. Ives (Cornwall), fisheries carried on there, 339 ; vessels employed, 339

Saitho, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

Sale of fish caught, 375

Salivary glands, absent in fish, 14

Salmon legislation in Scotland, 487-557 ; Home Drummond's Act, 490 ;
Bill of 1 86 1, 491 ; Act of 1862, 492 ; failure of District Boards, 494 ;
abolition of " fixed engines " in estuaries, 501 ; extension of close time,
502; poaching and pollutions, 503; deficiencies of Act of 1862, 504;
Salmon Fisheries (Scotland) Continuance Act, 1863, 505 ; Salmon
Fisheries (Scotland) Amendment Act, 1864, 505 ; Salmon Exportation
Act, 1863, 505 ; Act of 1868, 505 ; Special Commissioner's Report of
1871, 508 ; Fishery Board Act of 1882, 509 ; question of expediency of
superintendence of Salmon Fisheries by Fishery Board, 510 ; suggestions
for improvement of law; necessity for Consolidation Act, 512; powers
of inspector, 513 ; fixed engines, 515 ; pollutions, 524 ; mill-dams,528 ;
natural obstructions, 531 ; annual close time, 532 ; weekly close time,
533 J poaching, 533 ; licences, 537 ; miscellaneous suggestions, 538 ;
legislation affecting the fisheries in the Tweed, 539-549 ; in the Solway
Firth, 550-556.

Salmon, white, name sometimes given to the bass, 58

Salted cod, a name given in Westmoreland to the cod, 128

Salt-water fish, sometimes found in fresh water, 121

Salt-water fluke, a name given at Edinburgh to the dab, 213

Salvage, state of the law on the subject, 402 ; provisions of International
Convention of the Hague, 415

Sand -dab, a name given at Redcar (Yorkshire) to the dab, 215
„ eels, 174, 177

„ eel-bill, a name given in Ayrshire to the greater weever, 80
,, fleuk, a name given in Edinburgh to the smear-dab, 208
„ launce, 174-181
,, smelt, 109-112; called smelt where the true smelt is unknown, 109 ;

good bait for haddock, 1 1 1
„ sole, another name for the lemon-sole, 231
„ sucker, a name given at Edinburgh to the long-rough dab, 191

Saneels, a name given in the Moray Firth to the lesser sand-launce, 177

Sardines, young pilchards so termed when tinned, 286

Sarding, said to be synonymous with pilchard, 286

Sattie, a name given at Aberdeen to the dab, 213

Sauropsida, definition of the term, 6

Saury, 242-245

Saury-pike, same as the saury, 242

INDEX.

573

Say-nay, a name given in Lancashire to the lampern, 324

Scales, 9 ; names given to various forms, 10

Scad, 99-103

Scattan or sgadan, a name given in the Mosay Firth to the herring, 248

Scarborough, fisheries carried on there, 334 ; vessels employed, 334 ; payment

of crews, 334

Scotch fisheries, average take of herrings, 276 ; number of persons employed
in that fishery, 277 ; value of gear used in herring fishery, 278 ; use of
cotton nets, 278 ; various fisheries prosecuted on east coast, 333 ; boats
used, 333 ; fisheries generally worked on the co-operative principle, 334 ;
steam trawling, 334 ; range of fisheries, 334 ; west coast fisheries, 340 ;
boats employed, 340 ; co-operative principle general, 340 ; mode of
fishing adopted, 340 ; statistics showing value, number of vessels and
men employed, &c., 378 ; salmon fisheries, statistics, 556
Scotch Fisheries' Improvement Association, 557

„ Herring Fishery Board, 449

Sea-bague, a name given in the Isle of Man to the flounder, 216
,, bream, sharp-toothed, same as common sea-bream, 66
„ breams, "Old wife," 64; common sea-bream, 66; Spanish bream, 68;

Erythrinus sea-bream, 69 ; Owen's, 70
,, cat, a name given in Sussex to the greater weever, 80
,, crow, a name given to the tub-fish (one of the gurnards), 75
,, dace, bass so-called in Kent, 58

„ hen, a name given in Scotland to the piper (one of the gurnards), 78
,, fishes of Great Britain, 1-328

,, fisheries, their relative importance, 41 ; their value in food production,
42 ; views of fishermen and others as to deterioration, 42, 223-226 ;
should be subject to proper regulations, 43 ; methods adopted to capture
fish, 44-53 ; necessity for appointment of inspectors, 50 ; value of
periodical notices of localities of shoals of fish, 54 ; causes of falling
off in certain localities, 54 ; fishes caught in British seas, enumerated
and described, 57-328 ; antiquity of the cod-fishery, 123 ; its productive-
ness, 134 ; destruction of fry of all kinds of fish by in-shore nets, 274 ;
laws for their regulation and protection, 333-485 ; description of the
fisheries carried on in British seas, 333-345 ; nets used, 345-348 ; fish
caught on various coasts, 348-351 ; grievances of fishermen, 351 ; mode
of conducting the fisheries, 375 ; sale of fish caught, 375 ; settling up,
377 J value of fisheries in the United Kingdom and countries contiguous
to it, 377 ; effects of the present law as to desertions, 388 ; desirability
of formation of one Fisheries' Board for the United Kingdom, 464 ;
suggestions as to its constitution, 467 ; taking of immature fish, 484
,, lamprey, 320-324
„ lice, much liked by bass, 58
,, luce, another name for the hake, 163
„ needle, another name for the gar-pike, 236
,, pike, another name for the hake, 163
,, wolf, name given to the bass by the Greeks, 58

Seine-net, 46 ; descriptions in use, 46 ; mode of using the net, 46 ; its use in
pilchard fishery, 348

574 INDEX.

Sethe, a local name for the coal-fish, 154

Set-net, 48 ; how used, 48

Seven-eyes, a name given to the lampern, 324

,, holes, a name given to the sea-lamprey, 320
Sexes, relations of the, in fish, 32
Sey-pollack, a local name for the coal- fish, 154
Shad, popular belief that it leads the shoals of herring, 262
Sharks, 315
Shields, fisheries carried on there, 334 ; vessels employed, 334 ; payment of

crews, 334

Shiners, name given to the young of mackerel, 83
Ships, probably first used in connection with fishing, 4
Shipping of crews of fishing-boats, agreements, 355 ; effect of present law,

381 j provisions of Merchant Shipping Bill, 1882, 425
Shoreham, fisheries carried on there, 338 ; vessels employed, 338
Sight, organs of, 23
Siller-fish, a name given in the Moray Firth to the common sea-bream, 68 ;

and the bib, 148

,, fluke, a name given at Aberdeen to the brill, 199
Sillock, a local name for the coal-fish, 154
Silver-sides, a local name for the sand-smelt, 109
Skate, 318, 319

Skeet, a local name for the pollack, 158
Skider, a name given in Northumberland to the skate, 318
Skinners, a name given in the British Channel to the young of the cod, 128
Skipper or skipjack, another name for the saury, 242

Skittle-dog, a name given in Cornwall to the male of one of the dog-fishes, 316
Skopster, another name for the saury, 242
Skrae-fish, a local name for the coal-fish, 154
Slips, the market name for young soles, 226
Smear-dab, 208-211
Smell, organs of, 26

Smeltie, a name given in Zetland to the bib, 148
Smooth-dab, a name given to the smear-dab, 208

,, sides, a name given to the tub fish (one of the gurnards), 75
Smoulds, a name formerly given in Norfolk to the larger sand-launce, 174
Snake-bait, a name given at St. Ives (Cornwall) to the larger sand-launce, 174
Snapper, name given in Devonshire to the Erythrinus sea-bream, 69
Snedden, a name given in co. Down (Ireland) to the greater sand-launce, 174
Soft roe, 33

Soil, the fry of the coal-fish, 154

Soldier, a name given to the elleck or pine-leaved gurnard, 73
Sole, common, 226-231

,, fleuk, a name given in the Moray Firth to the smear-dab, 208
Soles, geographical distribution, 222 ; value as food, 222 ; alleged falling off
in quantity, 223 ; causes of this, 223-226 ; varieties : common sole, 226 ;
lemon sole, 231 ; thickback, 232 ; solonette, 234
Solonette, 234, 235
Solway Firth (the), Acts relating to salmon fishery, 550 ; limits of the Firth,

INDEX.

575

550 j law as to close season, 551 ; mesh of nets, 551 ; fixed engines, 551 ;
recommendations in Report of Solway Commissioners, 1880, 552-556
Sound, organs of, 31

Sounds, voluntary and involuntary, produced by fish, 31
Spanish bream, 68, 69

Spanish mackerel, a name said to be given to the gar-pike, 236
Spanker-eel, a name given in Northumberland to the lampern, 324
Spawn, different meanings attached to the term, 49
Spawning, 36

Spearling, a name given at Portrush to the gar-pike, 236
Speldrings (dried haddocks), 141
Spineless fishes (Anacanthini), 121
Spiny-rayed fishes (Acanthopterygii), 57-121
Spitalfields weaver, name given to the greater weever, 81
Spotted ling, a local name for the ling, 168
Sprat, 298-305; value as food, 303; tinned as "anchovies," 303; sprat

"anchovy paste," 304 ; uses as bait and as manure, 304
Spur, another name for one of the dog-fishes, 316
Stake, a local name for the ling, 168

Steam-boilers in fishing vessels, state of the law thereon, 448
Steamships probably destructive to eggs and fry, 55
Steam-trawling, 334-349 ; losses occasioned by it to line fishermen, 349
Stenloch, a local name for the coal-fish, 154
Sting-bull, a name given in Sussex to the greater weever, 80

,, fishes, 79-83 ; wounds inflicted by them very poisonous, 79 ; remedies, 80
Stink-alive, a name given to the bib, 148
Stomach, 14

Stoney cobbler, name given at Youghal to the lesser or viper weever, 82
Stow-net, 52 ; where and how used, 52
Stroma, 33

Sucking-fish, a name given to the sea lamprey, 320
Sunderland, fisheries carried on there, 334 ; vessels employed, 334 ; payment

of crews, 334
Sur-mullet, 61-64

Suyeen, the fry of the coal-fish, 154
Swansea, fisheries unimportant, 339
Sweden, fisheries similar to those of Norway, 341, 342 ; disappearance of

herrings at regular intervals, 342 ; boats employed, 342 ; statistics

showing value, number of vessels and men employed, &c., 378
Swim-bladder, 17 ; not indispensable to existence of fishes, 17 ; nature of

gas contained in it, 18 ; how generated, 18 ; swim-bladder not a lung,

19 ; its uses, 20
Sword-fish, a name given in Scotland to the gar-pike, 236

TAMLIN-COD, a name given to the cod, 128

Taste, organs of, 28

Teeth, how disposed, 14

Teleostean fishes, their characteristics, 7 ; genera described, 57, et scq.

576 INDEX.

Telegraph cables, 471-474

Temperature, its effect upon the distribution of animal life in the ocean, 37 ;

and upon migration, 39
Tenacity of life in fish, 31 ; in the weever, 80 ; in the ling, 169; in the

turbot, 195 ; in^the plaice, 265 ; in the flounder, 220 ; in the skate, 318
Thickback, 232-234
Thornback, or thomback ray, 319, 320
Tibrie, a local name for the coalfish, 154
Tinker, or blunt-nosed dinnan, a name given at Aberdeen to the skate,

3i8
Tongue, not present in fishes, 28

,, soles, a name given to soles in the Moray Firth, 226
Tongues, the market name for young soles, 226
Tonnage, registration for, 379
Topknot, Muller's and Bloch's, 201-204
Touch, organs of, 26, 28

Town-dab, a name given at Hastings to the smear-dab, 208
Trammel-net, 48 ; how used, 48
Trawl or beam trawl, opinions as to effect on the fisheries of its use, 49 ;

its construction, 50, 245 ; how used, 52, 345-346 ; damage occasioned

by it to other nets, 52 ; difference in size of mesh of British and foreign

trawl-nets, 346 ; destruction of fish by small mesh nets, 346
Trawl, name given in Scotland to the stop-seine net, 46
Trawling, laws by which it is regulated, 402 ; provisions of the International

Convention of the Hague, 411
Trunking, 374

Tubbot, a name given to the tub-fish (one of the gurnards), 75
Tub-fish, one of the gurnards, 75, 76
Tuck-seine, how used, 47
Tumbling-cod, a name given to the cod, 128

,, net, local name for the trammel-net, 48
Turbot or Turbut, a name given to the halibut, 187

,, (formerly spelt turbolt), 193-199 ; varieties of form and colour, 194 ;
habits, 195 ; means of capture, 196 ; baits, 196 ; breeding, 196 ;
hybrids, 196 ; life-history, 197 j its value as food, 198 ; habitat, 198 ;
weight, 199

Turbrat, a name given in Northumberland to the turbot, 193
Twait-shad, 307-309
Tweed (the) subject to special legislation as to salmon fishery, 539 ; Act of

1857, 539 j Act of, 540 ; limits of mouth of river extended, 540 ; close

time, 541 ; fixed nets, 542 ; mill-dams, &c., 543 j pollutions, 544 ;

pouching, 545 ; miscellaneous suggestions, 550

URINARY BLADDER, 18

Vasa deferentia, 33

Ventral fins, their position and uses, 8

Vertebrata, definition of term, 6 ; their classification, 6

Viper weever, 82, 83

INDEX. 577

Viviparous reproduction, 33
Voracity of fish, 29
Voyages, their duration, 374

WAGES, payment of, provisions of Merchant Shipping Bill, "1882, thereon,

426, 428, et seq.

Weevers, 79-83 ; wounds inflicted by them very poisonous, 79
Weirs, used for capture of fish from an early period, 3 ; kettle-nets, so called,

44

Whaup-fish, another name for the gar-pike, 236
Whitby, fisheries carried on there, 334 ; vessels employed, 334 ; payment of

crews, 334

Whitebait, what is it ? 267 ; how to be distinguished from sprats, 270
White-ling, a local name for the ling, 168

,, sole, a name given in co. Down (Ireland) to the pole, 211
Whiting, 150-153

,, mop, a local name for the haddock, 141 ; and for the young whiting,
ISO

,, pollack, a local name for the pollack, 158

,, pout, a name given to the bib, 147
"Wolf," name given to the bass by the Romans, 58
Woodbridge, fisheries carried on there, 337
Workhouse turbot, a name given to the halibut, 187
Wounds inflicted by fish, frequently poisonous, 32

YARMOUTH, fisheries carried on there, 335 ; vessels employed, 335 ; system
of apprenticeship not generally followed, 335 ; wages of boys, 335 ;
failure of the mackerel fishery, 335

VOL. L— E. 2 f

LONDON:
PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,

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