SALT-flSH INPUSTRIES FISHERY LEAFLET 240 FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR United States Department of the Interior, J. A. Krug, Secretary Fish and Wildlife Service, Albert M. Day, Director Fishery Leaflet 240 Chicago 54, Illinois June 1947 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES By MILTCN J. LOBELL Fishery Engineer, Fish and Wildlife Service and JOSEPH F. PUNCOCHAR Fishery Technologist, Fish and Wildlife Service With a Supplementary Report: STUDIES ON THE CONTROL OF "REDDENING" IN SALT-FISH PRODUCTS By JOSEPH F. PUNCOCHAR AND FRANCISCA ARANA Fishery Technologists, Fish and Wildlife Service CONTENTS Page Introduction I~ Part I Present Condition of the Salt-Fish Industries Production 5 Fishing Craft 10 Gear 11 Fishermen 12 Fishing Grounds 13 Salt 17 Containers 18 Labor 18 TransDortation 19 Ports 20 Warehousing 20 Refrigeration and Ice-Making 20 Processing Methods 21 Merchandising 22 Costs and Prices 23 Local Requirements 24 Quality of Products 25 THE VENEZUKLAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES CONTE^fTS Part II Potential Productive Capacity of the Venezuelan Fisheries and Its Achievanent Section A Using Present Facilities and Methods and Supplying Only Necessities for Maintenance and Organization: Page Production 29 Conversion of Fishing Gear and Craft 29 Development of Unused or Underutilized Species 29 Development of New Areas 35 Salt 35 Studies to Control "Reddening" 3^ Containers 37 Labor o...o 38 Transportation <> 38 Ports 38 Warehousing • •• 38 Refrigeration and Ice-Making 38 Merchandising 38 Methods of Preparation — salted fish 38 Inspection «.. • • UQ Financing hO Materials Requirements ••.• 40 Operating Schemes ..*.« 42 Section B With Over-all Organization, Gradual Modernization of Existing Facilities and Methods^ De- velopnient of New Fishing Areas, and the Addition of New Facilities and Producing Methods Production .••. 42 Conversion of Fishing Gear and Craft 42 Development of Unused or Underutilized Species .o. 43 Development of New Areas 48 Salt o 49 Containers <, ; • ••• 49 Labor o.*' 50 Transportation ....e.> 50 Ports 51 Warehousing 51 Refrigeration and Ice-Making • • • 51 Suggested Improvements in Preparation 51 Quality of Products and Inspection 53 Merchaindising • ••• 53 Financing 55 Materials Requirements » 55 ' Costs and Prices 56 Sunirary ..• «.• 58 Operating Schemes 59 Appendices I. Common Names of Fish as used in Venezuela and their English Equivalents 64 II. Glossary of Terms used in Venezuelan Fishing Industry.... 65 III . Exchange Rates , Weights and Measures 66 ii THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES SUPPLHIENT Studies on the Control of "Reddening" in Salt-Fish Products Page Introduction , 67 Isolation, Culture and Morphology 6? Isolation of Organism ,,,, 6g Cultural and Morphological Characteristics 69 Optimum Salt Concentration for Growth ,. 69 Temperature Relations 70 Relation to Free Oxygen. 70 Liquefaction of Gelatin , . 70 Chromogenesis ^ 7I Action on Nitrates o..... 71 Indole Production. ., 71 Action with Various Organic Compxsunds 71 Chomicad Control of Reddening Organism 72 Trial of Reagents in Laboratory Media 73 Trial of Acidic Magnesium Benzoate on Salted Fish . 73 Practical Considerations for the Industry 76 Processing Methods in Use at Present... 76 Suggested Improvements in Processing Methods to Improve Quality 77 Salt Conditioning ......o 77 Improved Salting Procedures 77 Dry-Salted Fish ..........!....!!.!!!!.!!.! 77 Brine-Salted Fish ' [ . , 73 Pure Food Law Considerations 78 Sumnary .,,., . ,■. .. 79 Literature Cited gg ill THE VENEZUELAN SALT^ISH INDUSTRIES INTRODUCTION Background for the Surrey Early in 1942, difficulties occasioned by the war threatened to cut ofr, or at least to curtail drastically, the normal supplies of imported salt-fish for the Caribbean area. With immediate action necessary to relieve that deficiency, it was soon realized that very little definite information was available concerning the possibility of supplying all or a part of the local needs for salt-fish products by the expansion of local fishery indus- tries .i' To provide such information, afield survey of the Caribbean rim countries was com- pleted in October 1942^/ The reports of the survey party, published by the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, are now available for restricted distribution and may be consulted for supplementary information •2'' As one finding of th« above-mentioned study, it was concluded that the marine fisheries of Venezuela offered very definite possibilities for expansion of several fishery industries and especially for the export production of brine-salted and dry-salted fish. Thus, in a preliminary report to the Government of Venezuela, and also in its final report, the Caribbean Fishery Mission recommended that "improved techniques for the drying and salting of suitable fish be undertaken in order to prepare more acceptable products for export and local consumption. Salted fish ♦ ♦ * « could not be regarded in general as conforming with export standards. Improvements in color and odor should be accomplished easily and would result in a much superior product." ^ On June 7, 1943, the Ambassador of Venezuela transmitted the following note to the Secretary of State: (Translation) No. 2185 Snbassy of Venezuela Washington The Ambassador of Venezuela presents his compliments to His Excellency the Secretary of State and has the honor to request his good offices with the Fish and Wildlife Service of the United States Department of the Interior in order that the services of an expert in the preparation of salted and pickled fish might be secured to go to Venezuela at the expense of the Venezuelan Government . In the report submitted by the United States Mission of Fish Experts which recently visited Venezuela, it was recommended that "a mission of experts from the United States should be contracted for the study of the Venezuelan fisheries to assist the Venezuelan Government to organize the administration and development policy." The Government of Vene- zuela considers that the assistance of the expert is very necessary for the development 1'' The Caribbean area normally imports about 150,000,000 pounds of fish, chiefly dry-salted and brine-salted, from Canada, Newfoundland, the United States, Norway and Iceland. 2/ Financed by funds transferred to the Fish and n'ildlife Service by the Office of the Co- ordinator of Inter-American Affairs. The field survey was conducted by Milton J, Lo- bell, Fishery Engineer, and Clarence R. Lucas, Fishery Economist, of the Fish and Wild- life Service. Reginald H. Fiedler, who was the nominal chief of the Mission, accom- panied the party during its studies in Haiti and in the Dominican Republic. ^/ "The Fisheries and Fishery Resources of the Caribbean Area: With Recommendations for their Expansion and Development." A Report of the Caribbean Fishery Mission, Washington 1943- Mimeographed. THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES of the national fishing industry, and consequently for the food supply of the neighboring Antilles , due to the fact that the process now used by the Venezuelan industry for the prepa- ration of dried fish does not meet the requirements for exportation, according to the United States Mission. Once the proper process is developed and adopted the Venezuelan fishing industry would be in a position to cooperate in supplying the West Indies which have al- ready begun to benefit from the Venezuelan production and to import considerable amounts of preserved fisH products from Venezuela. Granting the possibility of the loan of the services of the desired expert for the duration of the studies, the terms on which he would be oontracted are requested, as well as information concerning the equipment which would be required for the work to be under- taken. The Ambassador of Venezuela expresses his appreciation to His Excellency the Secretary of State for his good offices in thia matter. Washington, June 7, 1943. On July 28 the following note was transmitted in reply to the Ambassador of Venezuela by the Secretary of State: The Secretary of State presents his compliments to His Excellency the Ambassador of Venezuela and has the honor to refer to the Embassy's note No. 2185 of June 7, 1943, con- cerning the desire of the Venezuelan Government to obtain the loan of the services of an expert qualified to provide technical assistance In connection with the salting and pick- ling of fish. The matter has been the subject of correspondence and discussion with the Fish and Wildlife Service of the Department of the Interior, and that organization has indicated that in compliance with His Excellency's request it will be pleased to make available the services of one of its experts » * * to assist His Excellency's Government for a period of approximately two months in the capacity of fishery technologist, under the provisions of the Act of Congress approved May 3. 1939 (Public No. 63, 76th Congress). Consideration has been given to the desire of His Excellency's Governient to bear the expenses incident to the detail of the expert requested, and in that connection it is sug- gested that the Venezuelain authorities may wish to reimburse this Government for all ex- penses incident to (the expert's) salary, quarters and subsistence allowances, and travel from Washington to Caracas and return to Washington. These expenses need not be paid, how- ever, until after the survey shall have been completed, at which time the Secretary of State will render a full accounting to the Venezuelan Government. The Fish and Wildlife Service has suggested that in order to render the investigations requested by His Excellency's Government complete it would be desirable to have an expert quaJ-ified in the field of fishery economics accompany (the expert) to Venezuela and make studies of the capacity of the Venezuelan communities for producing salt- fish, costs of production, and the organization of the production system * * * * it is proposed that these experts study methods for the production, salting, and marketing of various kinds of Vene- zuelan fish, both from the standpoint of local demand and export possibilities. Among other things, it is suggested that they endeavor to obtain accurate information on the following questions: 1. What salting and drying techniques can be utilized to develop products more widely usable in the Venezuelan fish trade and more suitable for export? 2. What quantities of salt- fish can be produced in Venezuela and what proportions thereof can be made available for export? THB: VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES 3. Within what price limits can salt-fish be produced and exported? 4. Within what period can properly processed fish be produced? 5. What fishing gear and supplies not now available should be provided in order to increase production? 6. What modifications of fishing operations should be effected to increase produc- tion? It is further proposed that the Venezuelan authorities appoint a representative in Venezuela who speaks English to act as liaison officer between the experts and His Excel- lency's Government and arrange for contacts vdth fishermen and processors and marketers of salt-fish. The Fish and Wildlife Service would be pleased if the Venezuelan authorities would also provide transportation for the experts within Venezuela to various important fishing centers including transportation by boat if necessary. Facilities for conducting fish-salting experiments will be needed during the course of the survey, and in that connection the Fish and Wildlife Service has requested that His Excellency's Government provide a building with an adjoining open yard, located in a fish- ing community. Such building should contain at least one room not less than thirty feet long and twenty feet wide, with a concrete floor, tap water, electricity, sewer connections, and screened doors and windows. The yard adjoining the building should be suitable for the erection of racks for the drying of fish. Department of estate, Washington, July 28, 1%3. Resume of the Mission's Activities. The work of the mission began on September 15, 1943, with the arrival of Mr. Lobell at Caracas. Due to certain difficulties Mr. Puncochar was not able to reach Venezuela un- til October 8. Pursuant to instructions, both members of the mission reported to Ambassa- dor Corrigan on their arrival (September 16 and October 8, respectively). On September 16, Mr. Lobell called on Dr. Rodolfo Rojas, then Minister of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry (Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria) .1/ At his direction the mission was detailed to work with the Fisheries Service (Servicio de Pesqueria) of the Division of Agricultural Economy (Direccion de Economia Agricola) .£/ Sr. Benjamin Arriens, the Chief of the Fisheries Service, was appointed liaison officer between the mission and the Venezuelan Government. With his help, official calls were made, an investigative program and itinerary of travel planned, and the compilation of important statistical and factual inforiiBtion commenced. In addition laboratory space was arranged for, certain equipment and supplies secured, and samples of salted and dried fish procured and examined. With the arrival of Mr. Puncochar on October 8, immediate steps were taken to initi- ate the field work of the mission. On October 12 the party proceeded to Cumana where the experts were met by Sr. Adolfo Ortega G., Administrator of the Pearl Fisheries. Sr. Ortega was detailed to acconpany the mission and to cooperate in carrying out its objectives. 1' Dr. Rojas was appointed Minister of the Treasury in November 1%3. Dr. Biaggini was appointed to the position formerly held by Dr. Rojas. 2/ Dr. J. A. Gonzalo Patrizi is the Chief of this Division. THE VENEZUEUN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Field headquarters were set up in Caiguire, a suburb of Cunana and experiments in salt- ing and brining fish were begun. These studies were continued until October 27 and included an analysis and appraisal of methods employed by the Venezuelan fishermen, as well as of the procedures in general use in other countries of the Western Hemisphere. Also, an ex- periment was set up to determine if cannery wastes could be nun dried for use as an ingredi- ent in stock feeds. During the period October 8 to 27 intensive surveys and investigations were made of factors influencing the capacity for production, present and potential, in the Cumana area, including the Gulf of Carlaco, the Araya Peninsula, Isla Tortuga, and the entire coast be- tween Cabo Codera and Cumana ( also Unare Lagoon and many of the off-lying islands near Guanta) . Important salt works at Araya were visited and information was obtained as to capacity of the plant and quality of the salt produced. Practically every fishing camp (rancheria) of any consequence was visited and literally hundreds of fishermen were interviewed. Actual fishing operations were »ritnessed on many occasions and the mission was able to follow th« flow of fish from the water through the salting and drying operations to the final sale. Although the mission was concerned primarily with salt-fish products, cannery enterprises were visited and information was obtained relating to quantity and quality of production. Data were secured relative to barrel and box making, marketing, warehousing, shipping, labor, boat building, sanitation, fishing supplies, costs of production, and on other relevant factors. From October 28 until November 3 the mission was based at Porlamar, Isla Margarita, Studies as to actual production were made, comparable to those in the Cumana area, — ranch- erias all around Isla Margarita, on Isla Coche, Isla Cubagua, and at Chacopata were visited. Experimental work in the utilization of several very abundant species for sadting was carried on. These species, namely the thread herring (machuelo) and scad (chicharra) are abundant seasonally, but are not caught because no market for their sale exists at present. Data were secured relating to abundance, migrations, and seasonal occurrence of important species, and on production and costs. At Porlamar a third fish cannery was visited, and information was obtained relating to fish-meal processing and canned-fish production. From November 3 until November 8 the surveyed area was extended from Chacopata east- ward to Rio Caribe. From Rio Caribe the party returned to La Guaira by sea, stopping at Carupano, Porlamar, Cumana, and Puerto de La Cruz. On November 18, after approximately two weeks in Caracas, the field party, accompanied by Sr. Arriens, proceeded westward by sea. Important fish-producing regions, present and potential, were visited — particularly in the Paraguana Peninsula. Information of the type described above was obtained and experiments on fish salting and drying were conducted. The important centers of Puerto Cabello, Las, Piedras, Los Taques, La Mocolla, Punta de Cardon, Zazarida, Amuay, Carirubana and others were visited. The party arrived in Maracaibo on November 28 and worked in the region until December 4, During this period numerous trips were made to various fishing centers on the Lake, including Isla Toas, Punta de Palma, Alta- gracia, Sabaneta de Palma and Maracaibo itself. Some experimental fishing with a small shrimp trawl built by the mission was carried on and catches were made of shrimp and flounders. Inquiries were made regarding lumber, box and barrel-making facilities, salt production, operating and other costs. Many samples of locally produced salt- fish were examined and experimental packs of sadt-fish were prepared. The mission returned to Caracas by automobile on December 5, From this date until December 10 the mission conferred vdth officials of the Venezuelan and United States Govern- ments and made arrangements for departure. On December 10 the party left for La Guaira where samples of dry salt and brine salt-fish were prepared for shipment to the laboratory of the Fish and Wildlife Service at Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, for further study. Certain technological problems (bacterial reddening) affecting the keeping quality of salt-fish products as prepared in Venezuela, made it necessary to undertake additional investigations. Samples of Venezuelan salt were shipped to the Puerto Rican laboratory of the Fish and Wildlife Service and chemical and bacterial studies, together with experi- ments covering control measures are now in progress. Preliminary indications are that ef- flcient methods for the solution of the reddening problem can be developed .^^ 1^ Preliminary results of these investigations are embodied in various sections of this report. Additional studies are reported in Supplement I to this report. THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Mr. Lobell left on the morning of December 11 for Miami and Mr. Puncochar departed in the afternoon of the same day for Puerto Rico, via Trinidad. The majority of the time in Venezuela was spent in the field. Thus, field operations in eastern Venezuela occupied 28 days, and field operations in western Venezuela, 18 days. Every fishing center of consequence from the Goajira Peninsula to Rio Caribe was visited. All of the travel by sea was accomplished on vessels of the Fisheries Service — the Nueva Esparta and the Goajira. In addition, accessory acti'/ities, such as salt works, fish canner- ies, barrel and box-making facilities, ice plants and others were stuaied. Sample packs of various species of fish were prepared to determine methods, keeping qualities, and possi- ble price structures. Acknowledgments It is impossible to over-emphasize the importance of the excellent cooperation and assistance extended by the Government of Venezuela through the Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry. It augurs well for the continued success and growth of the fishing in- dustry that officials and employees of the Fisheries Service were able to arrange the itin- erary and working equipment of the mission so efficiently.!' No less cooperative were the members of the Venezuelan fishing industry and many others. The Ambassador to Venezuela, Dr. Frank P. Corrigan, and his staff assisted the members of the mission in countless ways, PART I THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES PRODUCTION Over-all statistics of the production of fresh and salt fish have been collected by the Government of Venezuela since 1940 and compilations are published annually by the Min- isterio De Agricultura y Cria. They provide an excellent basis for estimating the total catch. The data are secured directly by employees of the Servicio stationed at a number of important fishing localities. Officials of the Servicio de Pesqueria calculate that the published statistics represent from 50 to 60 percent of total production. In order to calculate the production of fish as landed "in the round," the figures for salt-fish have been multiplied by four in order to compensate for losses in weight due to cleaning and salting. To convert kilograms to pounds the weight in kilograms was multiplied — 2,2. The poundages of all fish as landed in the rcund recorded were: 1940 71,826,980 pounds 1942 81,771,449 pounds 1943 61,553,454 pounds (for first 6 months) The published totals, however, are incomplete since data for the following are lacking: 1. Minor fishing localities not covered by Servicio employees. 2. Fresh and salt fish locally consumed by fishermen and others. 3. Fish carried by truck from isolated landing points to interior towns. In the following analyses, an arbitrarily estimated amount of 30 percent, to compensate for the catches probably made or utilized as above and not recorded, has been added to the published totals. Since maximum production is during the first six months of the year^ it is estimated that the 1943 figure given above (61,553,454 pounds) represents about two-thirds of the probable total catch for the entire year. On that basis it may be expected that the total 1' The Fisheries Service of the Venezuelan Government has also agreed to furnish the mission with a detailed compilation of statistical data and this will bt used to prepare a subse- quent report. THE VENEZUEUN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES for 1943 was approximately 82,000,000 pounds. If we add to the above figures the estiinated 30 percent to take into consideration the unreported portions of the commercisLL catches, the estiinated grand total production was as follows: 1940 93,375,920 pounds 1942 106,302,886 pounds 1943 107,000,000 pounds (calculated for whole year) Table 1 - Production and Value of Saltf-Fish Reported to the Venezuelan Fisheries Serv- ice During the fears I940. 1942. and 1943 (first six months) i 9 L .0 19 4 2 19 4 3 Zone Kilo si/ Bolivaresi' Kilos Bolivares Kilos Bolivares Western Central Eastern 1,099,455 755,743 4.386.618 540,225 647,315 2.540.800 781,335 476,195 6.354.625 508,186 280,368 3.671.750 1,940,299 83,397 3.938.164 1,419,399 59,271 2 ^308 J 819 Total 6. 2a. 816 3.728.840 7,612,1?5 4.460.304 5,961.860 ^, 787, 489 The sufimaries in Table 1 give the amount and value of fresh and salt- fish for 1940, 1942 and the first six months of 1943 as published by the Ministerio. The various zones listed in the table are defined as follows : Western Zone: Colombian border eastward to Punta de Chichirivichl. Central Zone: Punta de Chichirivichl to mouth of the Unare River. Eastern Zone: Mouth of the Unare River to Punta Playa (Delta Amacura) . Table 2 - Production and Value of Fresh-Fish Reported to the Venezuelan Fisheries Service Durinjt the Years 1940. 1942. and 1943 (first six months) Zone 1940 19 4 2 1 9 4 3 Kilos Bolivares Kilos Bolivares Kilos Bolivares Western Central Eastern 1.192,049 932,690 5,556,622 713,877 1,000,292 2,387,232 826,200 679,727 5,2U,290 542,761 674,205 1,718,417 422,518 368,141 3,340,744 276,383 /i/in,682 1.369,684 Total 7,681,361 4,101,401 6,720,217 2,935,383 4,131,403 2,086,749 Tables 1 and 2 disclose that the eastern zone produces the bulk of the fish landed. The western zone is second in rank, and the central zone, last. Calculated as percentages, the contributions of the various zones are denoted in Table 3. Table 3 - Contributions of Various Zones to Total Recorded Production During the Years 1940. 1942. and 1943 (first six months) Zone Western Central Eastern 1940 Percent 17.6 12.2 70.2 Western Central Eastern 15.5 12.2 72.3 Salt Fish 1942 Percent 10.2 6.4 83.4 Fresh Fish 12.3 10.2 77.5 1943 (first six mo.) Percent 32.5 1.1 66.4 10.3 8.9 80.8 , SSSdL Biacwi or Tm T»CH M> SALT nsB PI WB BPOBLIC - 1942 OIKTOAL ZX>U RSTBW mn EASTSW ZCKt TOTAL Praab Salt r raati Salt 'T*Ui aalt „... Salt 3¥U:1MS Bollnraa JCllOKTB** BoltTaraa klloarajM BoliTarai ■tllMT-a Boll vara a fcilograM Bolltaraa niocraaa Bollvaraa mioKraM Boltvaraa Dlocraaa BoilTaraa tfOjt 140 se.oo 14U 46.60 . 18,700 11, OS 146. 3U3 62,569 260,719 13tt,bl9.60 146.363 62,559 279.419 150.5;MI.60 mranqui ..434,900 3 144,140 1.434,900 144,140 «n>dlUo 4,061 2.606.85 349 4, OBI 2,666.65 652 349 ■ton 360 380 LE.934 6,499 13,314 6,839 taoklw 92 64.99 92 64. 9y tMgn 4.253 1.886.20 260 199 10.720 2,662.97 90,493 26.567 U,973 4,749.17 50,733 Z6.52S bcrSBDtU 160 40 IfM 40 bUDOO 69. see 59,989 65,988 59,505 bUoqiilUo 6.669 6,360.3S 6,669 6,360.39 boe*al>l«o 44,399.29 23.191.89 93.386.60 63.196.70 44,39«.S9 23.191.65 93.386.50 53,156.70 OODlU . 343.50 229.39 1.630 732 39.868 14,691.90 37,046 16.196.82 36.231.90 14,860.69 36,675 16.930.62 18 U.25 18 U.23 buirlto 21.918 8,779.69 4.726 1,926.40 21,316 6,775.33 4,726 1,926.40 oabu* 14,100 9.7SO a. 234 11.600 219,310 138.064 31,234 11,61X1 e3w.«io 143,614 0«bHll« 10 7 10 7 oaobloato 4.169 9,0*8.60 100 100 4.169 3.046.60 LOO 100 13,996 6,999 U.656 6.238 13, we 6.9V8 11,656 6,238 eaobu 60 40 80 40 oaplou 300 92 60 75.25 7,119 500 2,802.97 29 3,133 1.493.20 7,419 2.862.97 loo. 2a 3,133 1.493.20 eartMrlto to 20 20 M BUkM-tO 6,712 2,035.79 3.B17 1.923.2:1 B,712 2,055.79 3.817 1.923. 29 ou-lt* 90.e»T.90 101. 994 .60 300. 43T 1H4,692 44.560 26.070.94 69,835.90 97,915.40 926,243 462,939.43 93«.344 6S0.354.ia l,061,5aj.K 610.2U4.27 1,306,636.50 092.721.52 •MTpCU 15.769 7.979.95 13,769 ?.979.« oamcbana 3.000 1,628 86,349 23.912 m.s3ij 9e,399 86.349 es.3ie 124,539 60.225 ••t«eo 52,920 24,992.69 169,607 99,344.15 52.920 24. 992.65 165.607 99,344.19 eataUu 13.675 6,641 13,676 6.841 eatAlofa 1.64B 874.79 1,649 874.79 410 410 60 60 351.90 213.76 107.331.23 67,110.69 156.699 62.236.90 482,214 226.979.79 .59.620.90 92.860. 2S 569.605.25 294.146.44 •gjlsaa Z,9».S0 2,664.4S 43, U7 U.635 26,471 16.660 49,642.90 24.299.49 1«.471 16,660 ooroooro 12.7E4.S0 7,130.40 100 79 2S0 79 272,166 U7.605.TT 956,348 464,659.80 e»9, 160.90 124.812.17 956,448 464,754.80 aotl 319 13b. 99 214 17b 318 136.99 214 176 83,607 60,961.73 92,304 37.472.11 83,607 40.961.76 52,304 37,472. U 360 960 92,273.725 29,069.83 6. 597 3,309 344,018 239.967.78 59.190.729 32,730.83 344,016 239,967.79 eorbioa 19,671 12,691.60 309,686 190,779.90 39,978 10.946 M),190 9,028 99,650 23,637.80 329,836 199,807.90 ourbloata 32,788 13,413.60 9,112 £,a«2 92,788 13,413.80 5,112 e,642 ea«nw 1,300 1,160 1,871 1,161 1,500 1,160 1,871 1,161 emehorm 39 17.90 692 259 900 900 20,324 9,679 177,678 93,794 a, 091 9.995.90 178.178 94,294 eUplran 71.90 74 71.90 74 •hue ho 30 15 1,908 772 139 64.37 960 660 163 W.37 2,666 1,432 ttoaoaUa 490 315.30 6,172 4,751 499 315.30 6.172 4.751 aor«ao 269 140 399.90 249.09 9 I. as 629.90 390.34 snaupo 3,149 e, 265. 90 29,394 9.907 28.939 12,192.90 Cuaaa T6 60.80 2,350 1.317.67 2.42* 1.376.47 Junl 1.2T9 966.10 105,990 91,690 90,642.42 28,662.23 U.466 &.207.70 262,133 &4.65B.60 667.166 357, 616. 4C 513.954.42 Ul,280.93 604.544 396.674.10 Ji»r«LBU 14.765 6.783.40 120,633 TO.Ue.M 14,789 6,783.40 120.533 70.U2.64 l*«pu«M 143,998 67,911.60 289,304 171,235.40 143. 9^6 67,511.60 289,304 171.235.40 Ungoata 30,228.50 50,693.70 30,228.90 50,895.70 labraaoha 22,930 14,426 26.114 17,693.12 15.272 34.224.14 26.114 17.693.12 67.602 46.650.14 llaa 234 224 196 120 326,729.67 251,631.79 88,396.90 99,976.49 65.320 27,236 484,290 326,651.25 394,283.87 279.090.75 572.764.50 366,749.70 loao 322 £U 32£ 212 ion J a MGBbl 9,974 4,762 5.974 4,762 1.142 734 1,142 734 586 146.90 1,550 S67.90 966 146.90 1.990 367.50 10,150 1,489 34 19 10.160 1,489 34 19 26,904 7,401 26,833 18.665 26,904 7.401 £6,833 18.663 MLOatl 110 62 56 35 - - 110 62 56 36 ■aragal 800 185 200 189 171,210 136,519.69 4,990 3.920 33,880.90 23,961.71 12,763 10,946.75 177.641 90,080 150.497 96,801 362,731.90 291.961.56 iiie.no 111.267.75 ■ojarra - 30 32 80 32 - - ■ueuAO la. 420 7.969 15,430 7,989 ojo gordo 48 99 3,020 1,460 2,600 1,040 3,066 1.515 2,600 1.040 E79 190 275 150 pxnara palOMU paapaoo pATgO 665 205.50 637 309.29 637 309.25 689 205.90 1.3O0 900 1.467. SO ao4.es 17,422 10.751 - . 1,487.30 804.25 li!,722 11.651 7,6e£.S0 2,992.39 2,961 920 9,169 4.568 6,954 5,514.90 16, 991. SO 7,534.38 11,699 6,474.50 £74,361.79 268,486.90 6.010 4.469 116,276.95 87,216.34 1.326 1,926 280,627 160,664.13 2£4.905 149,971.16 671,269.70 536,367.37 231.041 149.966.16 pargo d« plBdra 390 206.2S r - S30 206.25 60 0.364 - parcuata patota jiai bi*rro 80 00 ■ " 16.636 8,364 2,666 1.424 16.636 2,660 1.424 1,749 1,092.91 67 .41.67 1.749 1,092.51 67 41.87 pa I aapada £30 UO 7,410 9,274.90 . 230 240 7,410 5.r'4.50 pl«u 7.679.25 7.669.09 217 197.31 64,635 27,974.79 £04.734 116,496.30 72.927,25 35,401.11 204.754 116.496.30 plataada 10,650 5,270 10,690 5.270 rabl-rublo 1£0 145 3,940 1.871 1.100 770 4,060 2.0J6 1,100 770 raya 64 29.60 3,li43 1.781.49 32,202 23,062.25 3,243 1.761.49 32,266 2^,107.85 rn 16,029.79 9,802.99 2.090 1.191.30 16.025.79 ^,602.95 2.050 i. 191.90 rob.lo 4,099.90 2,800.20 1,026 727 2,639 1,961.67 39,098 36.699.50 6,690.90 4,362.07 60,061 37.386.90 roneo ISl 7S.80 4,995 202 2,612.37 141 15,900 5.803.09 2,428 1,312.49 21,046 202 8.490.92 141 2,426 1.312.45 niblo S94 833.90 954 633.50 •abalo a 18 29 35 705 441.25 914 128.50 730 499.25 543 163.90 aalwiD 90 90 90 90 3aD Padro 2,466 975.20 2.486 979.20 aardlM 10.579 3,776 494,154 i, 90.946.35 904,729 94,724.39 aarco 767 144 787 144 at«iT> 14,566 13,763 1,U0 990 14.566 13,763 1,110 990 aol 442 419.B0 442 419.90 taiall - . 76.774 25,197.84 131,339 63,493.95 78,774 23,197.64 131.339 63.495 95 tlburoo 130 107 8.924 6,949 131 32.75 i,79e 1.966.90 261 139.75 11,662 8,917.50 toaqulnctu 32. we 13,599.92 13.065 9,946.50 32.502 13.599.92 13,069 3,946.50 tortu«a 70 23 411 254.12 481 277.18 tuBba 130 100 130 100 TWlM 999 935.90 999 335.90 «BjO 9.751.75 4,809.36 _ . . . . 9,731.79 4,809.36 - - upataro 1,300 520 1,300 520 aorra 8S 69 , ■ . 65 69 - Totala 679,727.90 674.209.09 47^.195 £60,366 826,200.215 542,761.03 781,339.79 908,186.65 a,U4.290 1,718,417.16 6,354,623 3,671.790.01 6.720,217.719 2.955.363.24 7,612,155.75 4,460.304.66 y 1 lcllo«r«B - 2.2 pouoda y 1 BollTV - 10.30 (D.S.) y iTaatlcallj all oauMd. 4/ rrtm Report of tba tllDlat< I A«rloulttlra jr Crta, Table 5 - General Resune of Produotlon and Talua of .Fresh an d Salt-nsh in the Bepabllo. D"rlg<- the Urat Six Mentha of 1943. V (Total for All Zonae Coablned) Tarlety rreah Salt Ellograaa BoliTares Ellograaa BoliTarea Agttja 84 63 - - AMboa 64,09£ 28,912 114,906 69,238 Arenqua 879,000 95,750 - - Anadllle 1,964 1,238 - - Atun 3,148 1,594 370 259 Blanco 3,605 3,411 - - Blaniiallla 3,S91 S,110 300 230 Booaohloo 9,370 3,876 16,047 U,393 Bonlta 407 164 1,100 780 Burro 102 62 - - Burrito 16,930 6,948 - - Cabana 23,119 8,578 237,920 152,217 Caohleato 7,596 8,162 860 929 Caeborreta 2,044 1,027 19,964 10,521 Cegalona 8,768 4,123 3,661 1,298 Caaaron 4,017 2.118 8 6 Canarlo 3,082 807 - - Carlte 306,686 267,179 421,981 330,114 Carpeta 13,086 6,799 - - Carraebana 5,173 2,083 13,323 9,295 Cataoo 60,700 27,810 249,619 150,927 Catalana 7,175 4,164 - - Catalufa 1,549 792 - - Cazon 133,477 62,262 371,544 246,415 Cojlnua 15,398 8,339 40,542 25,124 Coroooro 165,421 75,313 483,835 246,214 Ootl 3,679 1,866 - - Cuna 34,896 25,278 18,437 12,765 Cunaro 19,648 14,308 169,121 117,613 Curbina 173,175 88,957 1,111,987 778,926 Curblnata 2,962 1,043 - - Ctaloharro 21,321 11,263 76,991 40,342 Cbucbo 615 748 380 247 Done alia 849 513 276 126 Dorado 2,351 1,805 - - Guanapo 2,908 3,019 - - Quasa 1,481 929 - - Jurol 270,750 123,506 580,527 239,551 JTuralete 8,077 3,249 40,411 25,373 Laaparoaa 144,149 69,283 187,405 107,240 Langoata 43,299 62,567 - - Labranobe 169,693 138,366 83,983 58,177 Llaa 207,474 133,040 663,395 492,090 llaoabl 244 122 - - liaoulra 3,938 1,494 936 234 llaobuelo 780 735 - - Hanaaana 26,878 16,065 U8.041 76,750 Meregal 661 815 6,290 4,679 Hero 240,561 180,258 118,148 80,010 Itojarra 4,067 2,352 3,450 2,495 Ojo gordo 1,604 821 1,418 730 OJon ' 195 262 - - Faguara 23 23 - - Paloaeta 4,369 2,941 - - Panpano 5,545 3,136 792 316 Pargo 294,406 253,142 131,493 91,870 Pargo pledra 5,017 2,707 - - Petota 7.155 3.641 6,861 3,616 Fez burro 1,566 903 300 182 Paz aspada 814 570 1,556 992 Ploua • 42,966 28,127 74,374 44,260 Plateada 419 190 . - Rabl -ruble 8,396 7,672 - - Baya 8,061 4,192 23,681 15,093 Bey 1,163 611 - - Robalo 49,393 31.623 203,136 146,297 Roncador 68,985 36.080 31,648 17,245 Ronoo 76 39 2,200 1,100 Sardlna 166,594 21,325 - - Sargo 45 27 . • Sierra 2,647 2.174 1,530 1,225 Sol 793 545 - - TahaM 79,070 42,147 117,697 63,538 Tlburon - . 646 213 Tonqulnebe 88,868 41,745 97,731 57,795 Mlse. 173, 198 94,347 111,037 51.469 Total 4,131,403 2,086,749 5,961,860 3.787,489 2/?roa data furnished by the Mlnisterlo de Agrieoltura y Crla. THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Further analysis of Tables U and 5 follows, in order to determine the most important species in the production of fresh and salt fish for each area. Since 1942 is the latest year for which complete statistics are available it is used throughout the following sections. Thus, of 98 varieties listed for the entire country, 9U are sold fresh and 59 are used to prepare salt-fish. Varieties sold only as fresh-fish number 39. Four varieties are used exclusively as salt- fish and 55 are used for both salt and fresh-fish. Table 6 - Utilization of Varieties of Fish for Salting and For Fresh-Fish (Number of varieties) 1942 Use Z 0 N Central Western E Eastern All Zones Combined Fresh Salt Fresh only Salt only Salt and Fresh 36 13 28 5 ' 8 40 29 15 4 25 60 45 17 2 43 94 59 39 4 55 Number of varieties 41 44 62 98 To determine the most important varieties in each Zone for fresh-fish and for salt fish, the five varieties showing the greatest landings are selected. Table 7 - Five ifosi . Important Varieties of Tresh sac Salt-Fish bj Zones. 1942 (in Kilos: 2.2 Dounds) Central Zone Western Zone lasterr Zone All Zones Combined Variety Tresh Salt Tresh Salt Tresh Sali S'resk 1 Salt Par go 274,361.75 5,010.00 116,276.95 * - 200,627.00 . 671,265.70 _ Uero 171,210.00 - - - 177,641.00 _ 382,731.50 ^ Carite Blanco 90,897.50 65,988.00 300,457.00 - 69.835.50 926,243.00 938,344.00 1,061,520.50 1,308,636.50 Corocoro 12,721.50 - - - 272,186.00 956,348.00 6&7, 128.00 « 956,448.00 Jurel - 105,950.00 50.542.42 - 262,133.00 313,954.42 804,544.00 Lebrancie - 22,330.00 . . . _ Anchoa - 18,700.00 - . . ^ ^ _ Lisa - - 328,729.87 88,356.50 - 484,290.00 394,283.87 572,784.50 CUnaro - - 52,273.72 - . • Bocaohico - 44.399. ::5 93.386.50 • . ^ _ Curbina - - 309,686.00 - _ _ . Cazon • - - - 107,331.00 - 482,214.00 - 589,605.25 Total 615.181.75 452,447.00 592,222.21 666,595.50 1,918,830.00 3,548,324.00 2,823,75^.99 4,232,018.25 Having calculated the totals of the five most important salt and fresh fish varieties for each Zone and for all Zones combined it is now possible to calculate the contribution made by each selected group of varieties to the total production (Table 8). Table 8 - Contribution of Five Most Important Varieties of Fresh and Salt Production. 1942. (in kilos: 2.2 pounds) Fish to Total Item Fresh Fish 0 N Central Western Eastern All Zones Combined Total of 5 most important varieties Total of all varieties Percent Total of 5 most important veirietiesi'' Total of all varieties Percent 615,181.75 679,727.00 20_ 592,222.21 826,200.00 72 1,918,830.00 5,214,290.00 37 2,823,755.99 6,720,217.715 42 Salt Fish 452,447.00 476,195.00 95 668,595.60 781,335.75 85 3,548,324.00 6,354,625.00 56 4,232,018.25 7,612,155.75 56 lA)ry, cleaned, salt-fish weight. THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES As a final step^ all figures have been converted to weight as landed fresh in the round state. To accomplish this, salt-fish totals are multiplied by four and added to fresh- fish totals. Table 9 shows the contributions, in percentages, made by each selected group of salt and fresh fish to the total production as landed. Table 9 - Contribution of the Five Most Important Salt and Fresh Varieties to Total Land- ings of All Fish, As Landed in the Round, By Zones, 19U2, (in kilos: 2.2 pounds) Item Z 0 N E All Zones Central Western Eastern Combined Total Weight of all fishl^ 2,584,507.50 3,951,543.00 30,632,790.00 37, 168, 8a .00 Total of 5 most important fresh varieties 615,181.75 592,222.21 1,918,830.00 2,823,755.99 Percent 24 15 6 8 Total of 5 inost important salt varieties!/ 1,809.788.00 2,674,382.00 14,193,296.00 16,928,073.00 Percent 70 68 46 45 For canning2/ - - 1,928,654.00 1,939,229.00 Percent - - 6 5 lAJeight as round, fresh-fish as landed. Salt-fish wei^t multiplied by 4. 2/Arenque and sardina. FISHING CRAFT Practically every craft used for fishing in Venezuela is constructed locally. Vessels of foreign origin have been introduced from time to time but "are not in general use in actual fishing operations since they are of specialized types designed to operate rather complicated gear generally unsuited to Venezuelan conditions. When their use has proven uneconomic for fishing they are sold to be used for conmercial freighting or as cannery~tenders. With the recent inmigration of Old World fishermen to Venezuela, a number of motorized vessels of southern European types have been constructed in Venezuelan yards, Hull designs and construction details represent an absolutely novel development in Venezuelan boat build- ing. None of these craft have remained in operation »dth the exception of the Nueva Esparta which is used by the Venezuelan Government as a patrol vessel for the pearling industry. Such vessels have been found to be practically unusable for Venezuelan fishing conditions and their design and construction not as good as that of craft built along traditional lines by Venezuelan builders. During the past few years, with the development of canneries, interest has developed in the construction of fishing vessels patterned after North American types — principally small purse-seiner or shrimpdragger designs. As a result of this trend, several boats have been built or are being built and much interest has been expressed in this activity with a view toward replacing present fishing craft with more modern and more efficient types. The traditional types of fishing boats now used in Venezuela are well built and suita- bly adapted for the particular type of activity in which they are engaged. Since the abun- dance of coastal species of fish is great there has been no need or desire to construct large boats for fishing. Large schooners, however, can be built and have been built for years for coastwise and Caribbean commerce. If larger and more modern types of fishing craft are needed they can be built in Venezuela. Ail Venezuelan fishing boats are of wooden construction. Formerly, native woods were used for the ribs and keel, and the lumber for the planking was imported. Now, native woods of Excellent type are being used for the planking also. Natural bend woods are used ex- clusively rather than steam-bent woods for ribs, stems and sterns. Fittings, bolts, nails, and other metal parts are imported. Labor is almost all hand work and many boat builders show a high degree of skill. Costs of construction are not high. A 50-foot wooden hull built in Porlamar, Isla Margarita, along the lines of a purse-seiner was reported to cost 10 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES about Bs 10,000 (3,000.00 U.S.) without the engine and certain fittings. By far the majority of fishing craft are oropelled by oars, paddles, or sails, depend- ing on their use in the fisheries. Piraguas, used in beach-seining, are paddled. Tenders for nasas and some boats used for handlining are rowed or sailed, and trolling craft are sailed. Piraguas are the largest of the fishing craft — some may be as long as kO feet. Few, if any of the boats used for fishing are decked and none have "acconmodations." Almost all are hauled up on the beach more or less regularly and therefore do not require bottom sheathing. Larger vessels which cannot be hauled up must have the bottom sheathed with copper or bronze. All craft are usually well kept and painted at frequent intervals. Considerable numbers of outboard motors are used in some areas — especially from Chacopata eastward. Many are used around Rio Caribe and Carupano. Lacking more recent information, the following data on the number and distribution of fishing craft are taken from the Report of the Ministerio de Hacienda for 1936. These repre- sent craft of from 1 to 5 gross tons registered in the Customs Houses and licensed for fish- ing. The figures do not include unregistered craft, or those of less than 1 gross ton: Custom House Number of Boats Pampatar UOU Carupano 130 Puerto Sucre 147 Quanta 64 La Guaira '. . 42 La Vela 42 Puerto Cabello 93 Las Piedras 143 Maracaibo 220 Total 1,285 Since the total number is doubtless much too small to represent current conditions, the United States Fishery Mission of 1942 revised it upwards and estimated that at least 3,000 craft of all types were in regular use for fishing during 1942. It is quite possible that this estimate, also, is low. Recent studies, made by the Servicio de Pesqueria will permit a much more accurate estimate when the data become available. GEAR The coastal nature of the present Venezuelan fishing industry is reflected by the types of gear used. Even though attempts have been made to introduce purse seines, lamparas, otter trawls, and line trawls, they have not been adopted^ The traditional forms of Vene- zuelan fishing gear — haul seines (chinchorros and mandingas) , fish pots (nasas), gill nets (filetes), cast nets (atarrayas) and hook-and-line (cordel y anzuelo) — have, until now, been able to supply all of the tocal demands for fishery products. The chinchorro fishery reaches its highest development in the regions of the Gulf of Cariaco, Isla Coche, Isla Margarita, and Chacopata, but it is engaged in elsewhere to a limited extent. Many of the nets are very long and deep, and hundreds of men, women, and children are employed, in operating them and caring for the catches made. The gill net fishery is most prominent in and around Lake Maracaibo and around the shores of the Gulf of Venezuela, but that type of gear is also used in the Eastern Zone, particu- larly east of Chacopata. Handlining and trolling are very important around Isla Margarita, Isla Coche, at Rio Caribe and to a lesser extent in the Gulf of Cariaco. These activities, however, are carried on to a greater or lesser degree along the entire coast. In the Tacarigua and Unare Lagoons the only gear used is the atarraya. Such nets are U THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES to be encountered, however, nnherever fishermen are found, for they are extensively used to catch bait and to take fish for personal use. Nasas are used rather widely from Puerto Cabello eastward, but they are not of primary importance in fish production. Miscellaneous types of geair, such as shark line-trawls (palangres) and harpoons are used to a limited extent and chiefly in the eastern zone. All netting used in the fisheries is hand-knit by the fishermen. Cotton twine and much smaller amounts of linen and hemp are imported to supply the demand. The hand-made nets are very well constructed and compare favorably with those made by modern machines. Almost all rope and cordage employed in fishing is made locally — often by the fishermen themselves from agave (coquiza), sisal, or from the bark of certain trees. Rope and cordage of excellent types also are made in considerable quantities and at reasonable prices by a rope factory at Barquisimeto. Very little, if any imported cork is used for net floats. The fishermen employ several species of light woods (madera de corcha, etc.) to float their nets. Weights are made of stones, sheet lead, and in the Paraguana, of a special type of hard-baked clay. Nets receive no preservative treatment except in the Maracaibo-Paraguana region where mangrove extract is used at regular intervals for tanning or barking, Handlines are also sometimes treated by rubbing them with mangrove bark. All nets, however, are dried in the sun and the average life of netting is not as long as if more care were taken to conserve it through the use of various preservatives or other measures. No mechanized gear is used for handling nets, although many fishermen recognize that such devices would constitute a great advantage. Imported twines, wire, hooks and other necessities can be procured in Venezuela but prices are very high. The Government of Venezuela is attempting to alleviate this situation and has succeeded in obtaining some of these items at reasonable prices for the fishermen. Large shark hooks of an excellent type are now being made on a small scale in Venezuela. They are considered superior to imported hooks since they do not straighten out when large sharks are caught. It has been impossible, up to this time, t6 obtain concrete information on the total quantities of gear used in the three zones of the Republic. When data, now being compiled, by the Servicio de Pesqueria, are made available, they will be valuable in determining the catches per unit of gear, and other Indexes and measures of abundance and availability of the various species that support the commercial fisheries of Venezuela. FISHERMEN Venezuela is most fortunate in having a large coastal population of fishermen. This population and its forebears have fished for more than 400 years; and, as a result, men with excellent ability and experience are found. The fishermen of the Eastern Zone are perhaps the best — particularly those of Isla Margarita, Isla Coche, and the Gulf of Cariaco. Many skilled fishermen also are to be found in and around Lake Maracaibo and at other places. Most Venezuelan fishermen are industrious, intelligent, and cooperative, and many are, or would be, progressive if they had the opportunity. In terms of fishermen, almost any type of fishery development would be possible j particularly if labor-saving methods were intro- duced gradually. There is abundant evidence to indicate that if aid were extended to cer- tain fishing techniques, particularly in the Gulf of Cariaco where fishermen have observed fishing demonstrations with modern purse-seines. Lacking recent information on the number of fishermen employed in Venezuela, the sta- tistics for 1936 are used. In that year the Ministerio de Hacienda reported that about 6,425 full-time fishermen were engaged in fishing on boats of over 1 ton gross measure. This total was regarded as very low by the United States Fishery Mission of 1942, which 12 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES estimated that there were at least 20,000 commercial fishermen engaged In the Venezuelan fisheries in 1942. This figure is also too low since it has been stated that 20 percent of Venezuela's population, about 750,000 persons, obtains its livelihood from fishing in the sea, in the rivers, and in the lakes. FISHING GROUNDS At present it may be said that the Venezuelan fisheries are coastal. Only at times do the fishermen go more than 10 to 15 miles offshore and then usually to visit one of the off -lying islands such as Tortuga, Los Testigos, or La Orchila. During the known runs of fish (tiempo de cosecha) migrant fishermen camp on these otherwise deserted islands and utilize them as bases of fishing operations and for salting and drying their catches. From time to time, under special conditions, as at present at Los Roques, more or less perma- nent colonies of fishermen are established. Occasionally, fishing vessels go offshore to handline for red-snapper and grouper, but this is by no me«is a regular occurrence. Proba- bly the basic reason for the coastal nature of the fisheries is that this extent of ac- tivity has always been sufficient to supply all the fishery products needed for the avail- able markets. With increased demands, the fisheries doubtless will expand to offshore re- gions and the fishermen will gradually develop customary offshore fishing techniques. The accompanying map (Figure 1) shows the present fishing grounds in Venezuela, which are indicated by the stippled areas. There is no attempt made to denote quantitative fish- ing intensity, but the dots merely indicate sites of fishing activity. (The shaded areas are non-Venezuelan territory.) Fish, in general, are fairly abundant throughout the year on the coast of Venezuela. However, the nature of the present fishing operations is such that very little is known of the seasonal occurrence of fish offshore. From a study of monthly production records and from interviews, as well as from field observations, it is quite apparent that fish are more available during certain months of the year than in others. The fishermen are well aware of this fact and they call the time of abundance "el tiempo de cosecha" (the harvest time). During these months their biggest catches are made and salt-fish production reaches its height . During the remaining months of the year fish are taken for local and home use and surpluses are salted for the market. During the period of abundance, catches are composed, to a large extent, of migratory fish such as carite, anchoa, jurel, lebranche, lamparosa, cachorreta, cabana, curbina, sierra and chicharra. Outside of this period some of the above named species are taken but the bulk of catches consist of pargo, mero, corocoro, arenque, tahali, lisa, pez espada (saw- fish), cazon, and other fish which are more or less resident in certain areas during the entire year. With the recent great increase in the demand for fresh-fish many non-migratory species such as pargo, mero, and tahali are also fished for during the time of abundance of ,the migratory species . Perhaps the best separation can be based on the fact that during the "harvest time" fish appear more frequently in large schools — at other times they are more or less scattered. The observations of the two fishery missions to Venezuela — one in June 1942 and the other in September, October, and November, 1943— are interesting in this connection. Dur- ing the 1942 study the survey party visited the Gulf of Cariaco during the height of the season of abundance. Numerous schools of fish were observed, myriads of birds were present, and fish-drying facilities were crowded to the utmost. Every available net, man and boat was occupied. During the second study in the Gulf of Cariaco, in October and November, 1943, most of the producing units were tied up; very few, if any, schools of large fish were seen; and, in general, there was a scarcity of fish in the markets. In November when the mission proceeded eastward, however, more and more schools of fish were observed, and fishermen reported that the expected runs were arriving from the eastward and passing further west day by day. By synthesizing the various data available concerning seasonal occurrence, the follow- ing statements may be made : Eastern Zone. — The big and compact schools of migratory fish are present from January 13 _,- ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 '5> r o « •- I CO "T 1 1 — ^. J 1 J ' ' ' i s < / "' 3 J < 1 ^ ^( < ^5 *- - ^ ^M o u K ^^ ■A / < 111 / \J o o X »- 2 o 0 »o a. >fi ■■.■i£i-\ 2? bJ CD DC — ■s < < / u < 1 u 5V^< v» cc S S 1 f5. 1 D < 3 rsi III "s 2 i/ tf z 3 ^ ^'J "T bJ s 5 5 S,\ > g ii,,<^" ly'r^A - p -■■'!N\*-^^<« ./ .,....,.,-^ < < f- t O) ^^^\ Jh.j'^rK ■' rs^J^ » 0 •rH ^^^^\;-J\r ; V^j^tyV^ - r- u. H THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES to August. They first appear at Cape Malapasqua far to the eastward. Gradually they reach points to the westward along the coast. In succession, the schools are reported off Rio Caribe, Carup&no, Esmer&ldas, Chacopata, Isla Coche, Pampatar and then off Araya where they swing into the Gulf of Cariaco. These fish remain in the Gulf for soae months feeding on arenque; and they are, in turn fished heavily by the fishermen in the Gulf. Toward the end of August, the schools disperse and move out. Ther* is evidence to indicate that the various species do not all appear at one time — some species come into the Gulf before others. Also, resident populations of tahali, arenque, lisa, pargo, mero and other species may be found throughout the year. Another run of migratory fish is reported to come in from the westward. This run swings in from offshore — possibly from the region of the offshore islands — and arrives at Morro Barcelona about January. It progresses on through the bays and straits from Guanta to the Gulf of Cariaco. A portion of this run seems to continue on to the south coast of Isla Margarita without entering the Gulf of Cariaco, Lebranche leave the lagoons of Unare and Tacarigua during the rainy season when com- municating channels are opened between these lagoons and tha sea. The schools are reported to travel eastward along the coast arid they also possibly enter the Gulf of Cariaco. Pargo are reported to assemble in dense concentrations prior to spawning but little definite information as to the time or place of these occurrences is available. Central Zone. — There is little information concerning the seasonal abundance of fish in this zone. Pargo are reported to concentrate during Noveiriser and December close to shore. Scattered runs of carite and other species sometimes occur. Offshore, from La Orchila to Los Testigos, schools of sardines, tuna, bonlta, and other migratory fish are reported dur- ing November to April. Western Zone. — Information concerning seasonal occurrence in this zone is limited to observations of the shore fishermen on the west coast of the Paraguana peninsula and to the observations of fishermen in the Lago de Maracaibo on the west coast of Paraguana, Car- ite appear from August to October. Lebranche are caught from January to May. In late No- vember, offshore in the Gulf of Venezuela, the members of the mission observed tremendous schools of carite and Jurel moving eastward. Evidently the runs come in from off the Goajira peninsula, proceed to the entrance of Lake Maracaibo, then move eastward along the coast to the Golfito de Coro where they mill around for some time. From the Golfito they proceed northward along the Paraguana coast. In the Lago de Maracaibo big runs of curbina are usu- ally present from January to April. In 1943, however, curbina were present during the en- tire year. Other species seem to remain in the lake the year around or enter only with the tides or at certain seasons. While big runs of fish appear on the coast, in general, from January to August, there is reason to believe that resident populations and offshore concentrations would be suf- ficient to supply large quantities of fish during the remaining months of the year. The following list outlines the seasonal occurrence of fish concentrations in different localities, and the known and suspected migration routes of fishes in Venezuela are indi- cated in Figure 2, Location Months of Abundance Cape Malapasqua December-January-February Rio Caribe January to July Puerto Santo May-July Carupano January to July Guaca June to August Chacopata January to August Isla Coche June-July-August Porlamar May to September Pampatar May to September 15 5* xof >- * I ' '^ t bJ CD DC < u < a) CD ir7 ■S THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Location Months of Abundance Gulf of Cariaco January to August La Lecheria January to June Unare Lagoon April to July (Isbranche) Boca del Rio January to August Paraguana (west coast) August to October (carite) Paraguana (west. coast) January to May (lebranche) Lake Maracaibo January to April ( curbine) SALT All salt usBd in the Venezuelan fisheries is manufactured by solar evaporation. The "Salinas" range from the modern installation at Araya to other very rudimentary establish- ments at Piritu and at other places. In common with many other countries, salt is a Govern- ment monopoly in Venezuela and its collection and sale is controlled. All salt require- ments for Venezuela for the year 1943 amounted to 23,000 tons. It is estimated that the production at Araya alone could be increased to 80,000 tons if need arises. With the Vene- zuelan Government's interest in furthering the development of local T.ndustry, special prices for salt are made to industrial users. Fishermen are able to buy, at Araya, a 50-kilo sack of salt for Bs 3.50. At other points, the prices are higher due to freight charges, profit by middlemen, and handling. The Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria is establishing Salt de- pots throughout the fish-producing areas in order that salt may be supplied to the fisher- men at reasonable prices. The chemical analysis obtained from Venezuelan sources, of salt from Salina Araya, is as follows: Item Washed (purified) Unwashed (not purified) (percent) (percent) Insoluble matter 0,15 0.40 Water 0,74 "L«42 Calcium sulnhate (Ca SO/^) 0.53 0,80 Magnesium sulphate (Mg SO4) 0,08 0,20 Magnesium chloride (Mg CI2) 0.10 0.43 Sodium chloride (Na CI) 98.37 96.69 99,97 99,94 Salt as now produced at the Araya works is only partially purified by washing. This is a temporary condition caused by mechanical failures In the purifying machinery. Steps are being taken to repair the machinery. A sample of Araya salt was recently referred to the Technological Laboratory of the Fish and Wildlife Service at College Park, Maryland, for chemical analysis. The results of the analysis are as follows: Item Percent by Weight Moisture , 2,07 H2O insoluble matter (mostly sand) 0,74 Calcium 0.62 Magnesium 0.27 Sulfate 1 . 57 Calciiim sulfate (Ca SO4) 2,10 Magnesium sulfate (Mg SO4) . . . 0.10 Magnesium chloride (Mg CI2) . . 0.98 Salt (Na CI) 96.10 Results of this analysis indicate that the salt now being manufactured at Araya, as compared to that previously manufactured, is not as pure. As will be noted by comparison 17 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES of the analyses, the salt now contains a greater percentage of insoluble matter (sand), and more chemical impurities such as calcium sulphate and magnesium chloride. CONTAINERS Containers for packaging salt-fish products are an outstanding problem in Venezuela. At the present time, dry salt-fish is handled either in bulk or is sold in burlap sacks. Only the very best and most expensive grades are packed in wooden boxes. While lumber is available for manufacturing boxes for salt-fish, prices are high. A namber of sawmills, particularly those at Maracaibo, can manufacture suitable packing boxes. Some of these mills already are producing boxes for Venezuelan products. The boxes are sold as shooks, and the purchaser nails and stays them. The most suitable wood for box-making at present prices is "jabillo." Lumber is available but present prices are high (Bs 200.00 per cubic meter for jabillo) due to transportation dif ''iculties . 'Quotations of Bs 3.75 and Bs 6.90 for shooks for boxes holding 45.4 kilos and 98.8 kilos respectively, were obtained December 1943. To these quotations must be added nailing and freight charges. Capacity of the mills would be sufficient if the high prices could be paid. The only manufacturing center at this time is Maracaibo, Water-tight barrels, suitable for packing brine salt-fish, are not made in Venezuela. Barrels are now manufactured by hand for holding water but these cannot be taken apart for fish packing since they are not constructed carefully enough to be waterproof when headed. Barrels of this type are, at present, made on a small scale at Cumana and at Maracaibo. Suitable wood for barrels to pack brine salt -fish is available at high prices (Bs 300-400 per cubic meter), the best type probably being "roble." It is possible that jabillo, which is slightly less expensive, could be used. However, no cooperage machinery is available in Venezuela and lumber costs are so high at present that it is probable that the staves, hoops, heads, and cooperage assembly machinery would have to be imported, at least for the time being. LABOR There is an ample supply of labor in Venezuela for fishery operations that do not re- quire great skill or experience. The women employed by the canneries at Cumana and Porlamar for cleaning and packing arenque constitute a good example of the type of labor available. While their individual output is not great, the relatively low wage (about Bs 2.00 per day), is favorable. They appear capable of learning new techniques; and, if closely supervised, are quite satisfactory for the type of duties they perform. Workers at the isolated ranch- erias are adways available since there are few activities other than fishing or processing fish. It often has been saiid that there is a shortage of fishermen. This may be true with the present methods of fishing. A very little modernization would release ample labor for increased fishing and processing, since the present methods do not utilize manpower ef- ficiently and in the interest of maximum quantity and quality of production. The chief need in Venezuela is for machinists and foremen. While some good workmen may be secured, their experience does not usually encompass the more modern types of ma- chinery. Supervisory and business management personnel can be engaged locally, but there must be a strong guiding administration as to policy and production standards. Following are the latest available data on wages paid to various types of fishery labor: Fishing Captain (Patron de Pesca) Bs. 8.00 per day Sailors and workers in the fisheries... 3s. 3-00 per day Female cannery help 3s. 0.25 per hour 6 a.m. 6 p.m. Female cannery help Bs. 0.37 per hour 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. Usually the fishermen prefer to work on shares and not at a daily wage. 18 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES TRANSPORTATION One of the chief difficulties in Venezuela facing extractive industries in general is transportation. At present the usual transport difficulties are aggravated due to war conditions. Fish and fishery products are moved entirely by boat or by truck. Usually catches are transported to the primary processing place in the boats of the fishermen, which are usually sail or row boats. Fish may be brought into the canneries by motor vessel — either by towing piraguas or by carrying the fish in the hold. Most often, fish destined for the fresh-fish market, are acquired by middlemen who operate launches or trucks. The launches are often equipped with iced hold space and the trucks carry insulated ice boxes. Salt-fish usually is taken to the first buyer either in the boats of the fishermen, by boats of local head men (armadores), or in the boats of the buyer. These vessels are almost always sailing craft. To meet the demand for salt-fish in the interior, when it occurs, the salt-fish are loaded into and transported by trucks. Occasionally, as at El Hatillo, trucks obtain salt-fish direct from the fishermen, A local steamship line operates along the coast of Venezuela and calls at all ports. In addition, many small, medium, and large goletas and tres punos are occupied in coast- wise freighting. There follows a tabulation of transportation tariffs for canned and salt-fish which was furnished to the mission by the Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria; From Maracaibo to: Ba per 100 kilos Puerto Cabello 4 .00 La Guaira 4,50 Quanta 5.50 Cumana 6.00 Porlamar or Carupano 6,50 Caripito 7 . 50 Tucupita 9.00 Ciudad Bolivar or San Felix 10 .00 From Ciudad Bolivar to; Bs per 100 kilos Tucupita 2 ,00 Caripito 4,00 Carupano 5 'OO Porlamar or Cumana ,... 5.50 Guanta 6, 00 La Guaira 9.00 Puerto Cabello 8 . 50 Maracaibo 9 .00 It should be noted that the foregoing rates are for merchandise including salted or canned fish. Iced or fresh fish is transported in the private vessels of dealers. Coastal vessels of the country are not equipped to transport refrigerated fish. Transportation by motor truck, on which much of the interior depends at present, is very expensive due to the scarcity of tires. "Camiones" (trucks) are able to reach many points under favorable conditions. Roads are very good in some places, but in other lo- calities they can be used only during the dry season. Between some points the ocean beaches are used as roads. Railroads are not used at present for fish transportation and it is doubtful that the present lines could be used to any great advantage. As far as can be determined no regular shipping service is maintained between Vene- zuela and the remainder of the Caribbean area. Vessels now usually arrive on irregular 19 7 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES schedules and most often by direct routes to and from distant points without making in- termediate stops. Fish shipments to other Caribbean countries must rely on local schooners or on fortuitous connections with other types of vessels. An air freight service which reaches many interior points in Venezuela recently has been established and possibly may be extended to nearby foreign countries. No tariffs are available for fish shipments by this means, but it is possible that certain classes of fish- ery products could be carried. PORTS While Venezuela has many excellent harbors , comparatively few have been developed as ports equipped with docks, warehouses, and other facilities. At most points cargo must be lightered — sometimes to a small wharf and sometimes through the surf to the beach. This procedure adds markedly to the costs of handling and transportation. First-class ports may be listed as Caripito, Puerto de la Cruz, La Guaira, Puerto Ca- bello. Las Piedras, and Maracaibo. Of these, Caripito, Puerto de la Cruz, and Las Piedras are used silmost exclusively as oil ports. They are equipped with wharves, warehouses, and other facilities and might be used for shipping fish. Second-class ports which would be usable for fish handling are Ciudad Bolivar, Cumana, Araya (salt port), Guanta, Turiamo, and Tucacas. Ports which could possibly be utilized in this connection, but which have few if any facilities would be Cristobal Colon, Guiria, Carupano, Pampatar, Porlamar, Juan Orlego, Piritu, Carlnero, and La Vela. Many other places exist where small wharves could be installed or where fish could be lightered to larger vessels anchored in the roadstead. Some of these are Rio Caribe, Chacopata, Guaca, Puerto Santo, Coche (San Pedro), Boca del Rio, Chichirivichl, Punta Car- don, and Los Taques. Ports of a suitable type are available in the large fish-producing centers. Thus, Cumana is regarded as the best port for the Eastern Zone, Puerto Cabello or La Guaira for the Central Zone, and Maracaibo for the Western Zone. WAREHOUSING Few facilities are to be found in Venezuela for warehousing fishery products. Salt- fish usually is stored in small buildings o*med by the dealers or at the rancherias. Canned fish is stored in the canneries. No warehouses are designed or utilized exclusively for fishery products. Few cold-storage plants of consequence are available for fish handling on the coast aiid little if any fish is stored in those that are available, REFRIGERATION AND ICE-MAKING Small quantities of ice are manufactured at many points along the coast, but the local demand for domestic purposes utilizes almost all of the production. Prices for ice are high, ranging from Bs 50 to 70 per ton (2,200 pounds) and the ice is not of first-class quality. Most of the ice plants are operated in conjunction with other activities such as local power plants, brevreries, fish-canning plants, or ice-cream factories. There are now no plants operated exclusively for the fishing industry. Most of the plants are small; few, if any exceeding a capacity of 10 to 15 tons per day and the majority have a lower out- put , While cold-storage facilities are available for fish storage at so-ne points such as at Maracaibo, Porlamar and Caracas, they are not utilized to any great extent, since the local demand usually absorbs most of the daily supplies of fishery products. There is, however, considerable refrigeration machinery now unused in the country which 20 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES could be installed at strategic points to serve the fisheries. The Ministerio de Agri- cultura y Cria is now engaged in surveying this machinery and making plans for its use in the fishing industry. PROCESSING METHODS About 60 varieties of fish are utilized regularly for salting. Although only 3 (carite, mero, and pargo) are preferred by consumers of fresh fish, 30 or more different varieties are to be found on the salt-fish market throughout all seasons of the year. Of the many species that are dry-salted, carite, corocoro, jurel, cazon, lisa, and curbina constitute the bulk of the poundage. Salteries, as such, do not exist in Venezuela. Every fishing camp (rancheria) is a small, unit saltery. Some are equipped with concrete tanks for "butting" fish — others are not. Very few are equipped for shade drying. Many have enclosed areas of rocks or poles on which fish are dried in the sun. The lack of fresh water is a serious handicap in salt- fish production. In spite of these drawbacks, however, the fishing camp operators produce large quantities of salt -fish. The salting procedure is similar for all species, with the exception of ojo-gordo, lamparosa, cazon, and pez-espada — the principal difference being in the manner in which the fish are dressed. The heads of fish usually are not removed as in other salt-fish producing countries since the heads are used in soups, chowders, and in other esteemed native dishes. Shortly after the fish are landed they are dressed. The procedure consists of laying the fish on a log, rock, or other convenient object and splitting the head. The split is continued along the backbone from the head to the tail so that the fish will lay out flat. The gills, viscera, and abdominal membrane are then removed. A horizontal gash is made under the backbone on the thick side in order to insure good brine penetration. The fish is scored longitudinally at one-half inch intervals, care being taken not to cut through the skin. The eyes of the fish are punctured to release the fluids contained and a cross- cut is made in the head just behind the eyes. The dressed fish are washed in sea water to remove blood, slime, and particles of viscera. Scales are not removed. Fish are salted individually. Salt is rubbed first into the cut along the backbone, then into the eyes, head, and other cuts. An additional amount is rubbed over the surface. Approximately one kilo of salt for each three kilos of fish is used in salting. The salted fish are piled, flesh side up, in old boxes, barrels, on rock platforms or on boards with salt sprinkled over each layer. After the fish are salt struck (about 2k hours) they are placed to dry in the sun. Average drying time is 3 to 4 days. The fish are often left out at night with- out cover. However, some rancheria operators, particularly in the Maracaibo area, stack the fish into piles which are then covered with burlap bags or canvas. Flat-sided fish, such as ojo-gordo, chicharra, and lamparosa are dressed by removing the viscera and gills and scoring both sides diagonally at 1-inch intervals. Eyes are punctur- ed to release the fluid. After washing in sea water, salt is rubbed into the belly cavity, eyes, and cuts, and the fish are then handled in the manner described above. Large sharks, skates, rays, and sawfish are eviscerated, skinned, and the flesh cut into longitudinal pieces of about 1-inch in thickness. The dark flesh is not separated from the white. The flesh is scored and then washed to remove the blood and other extrane- ous matter. Salt is applied in the same manner and proportion as for other species of fish. The smaller sharks, skates, rays, and sawfish ordinarily are not skinned. The heads are removed and the remainder of the salting procedure is carried out as for other species of fish. A special procedure for the dry-salting of sawfish was in use by a recently established enterprise at Maracaibo. Although interested primarily in liver oils, this company prepared a high-quality, salt-fish product which was finding a considerable local demand. The gener- al procedure employed consisted of: 1. Cutting the carcass into longitudinal sections about one-half inch thick. 2. Scoring and salting. 21 THK VENEZUEUN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES 3 Partial drying in the sun for one day. h» Partial removal of moisture by pressing. 5. Further drying in the sun for 2 to 3 days. 6. Cutting the "hard-dried" flesh into rectangles of 3 by i. inches. 7. Wrapping in heavily-waxed paper. A "light-salted" fish product is also prepared. It is a regular practice among fresh- fish dealers, particularly at the municipsil fish markets, to utilize unsold fish for this purpose. Considerable quantities of this type of wet-salted fish also are processed at the rancherias around Maracaibo and elsewhere. The fish are dressed and a light sprin- kling of salt is distributed in the cuts and over the surfaces. Fish prepared in this way may be sold wet or may be partially dried in the sun. In any case, fish prepared by these methods will keep only for 3 or 4 days at the most. The product is considerably more moist than the dry-salted type and contains a much lower percentage of salt. The preparation and sale of fish of this type is gradually developing into a vicious circle; which, if continued will only act to the detriment of the quality of Venezuelan-produced salt-fish. This condi- tion is particularly marked in the Maracaibo region. Here producers of salt-fish believe that they obtain a greater return if their fish is sold wet, for it is evident that wet fish weighs more than dry fish. One hundred kilos of fish as landed would result in about UO kilos of wet salt-fish but only in about 25 kilos of dry salt-fish. Also, less salt and less labor is required in preparing wet salt-fish. On the other hand, however, the keeping quality of the wet salt-fish is so poor that it must be sold as soon as possible. The need for rapid disposal of the product places the producers under the control of the buyers who take advantage of them by cutting the prices. As the prices paid to the producers drop, the care taken in preparation of the salt-fish slackens and consequently the quality also declines. Since there is a large, steady demand for salt-fish in the Venezuelan Andean coiununities and since these markets do not demand fish of good quality, the type of fish prepared is becoming more inferior. It is quite probable that little can be done toward bettering the quality of fish sold in the interior markets since the consumers seem well Satisfied with the present quality of the fish sold to them. For more discerning markets, however, and for consumers who can and will pay a greater price for well-prepared, dry salt- fish, the producers in the Maracaibo region can and should prepare better-conditioned salt- fish. Very little, if any brine-salted fish now is prepared and consumed in Venezuela. Other Caribbeaui countries, however, do consume appreciable quantities of this type of product. Several species of fish such as herring (arenque), thread herring (machuelo), and chlcharra (scad) are not utilized for salting in Venezuela. These species and others may be later utilized for brine salting. Also, species such as Spanish mackerel (carite) and bluefish (anchoa) now utilized only for dry salting could be brine-salted. The Caribbean markets normally import brine-salted fish such as-alewives, salmon, herring and other species and these meet with excellent consumer acceptance. The Venezuelan species listed above, being quite similar, should also be well received. MERCHANDISING The salt-fish now produced in Venezuela is processed at many points in the Individual rancherias along the coast . This fish is sold to buyers who often pick it up at the rancheria with their own boats or trucks. In other cases the fish is delivered to the buyer's place of business. Sometimes the head-man (armador) of an area, for example at Coche, supplies or owns most of the, nets and gear. He also advances salt, food, and other essentials to the fishermen in the area against their future production. By these means, most of the salt-fish produced in his particular region is controlled and sold by him. He may carry it direct to wholesalers or he may sell to a middleman who performs this service or who sells it outright to retailers. Some individuals own outright boats, gear, and rancherias and supply slLI necessities to the fishermen and workmen who receive a daily wage instead of a share of the proceeds of the production. Very little, if any, of the production is sold on long-range contracts and prices fluctuate greatly with the supply and the demand. Since the salt-fish produced in the majority of the rancherias does not keep for extended periods little warehousing or storage is engaged in. Even the largest buyers purchase suf- ficient stocks only for a week or so in advance. Thus, during periods of fish scarcity, 22 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES prices soar. During the harvest time when production is high, prices drop. This fluctuat- ing price condition also tends to limit production, for producers will not process fish in excess of their probable sale. / There is a considerable spread between the prices paid to the fishermen or primary producer euid the prices paid by the consumer. In one instance, carlte bringing the fisher- men about Bs 0.87 per kilo was sold at La Guaira retkil at Bs 1.75 p«r kilo. This spread is taken up by the middleman's charges, transportation, merchandising costs, and profits. Much salt-fish from the Maracaibo is transported into the Andes. It is landed at Mar- acaibo by boat , then transported by truck to such centers as Mototan , Muchuchies , and Tnijillo. At these interior points weekly markets are held and people come from miles around to buy salt-fish and to sell agricultural and other products. Locally produced salt-fisfi is now being sold in increasing quantities to the large haciendas in the eastern part of Venezuela. Previously the staple was canned California sardines and other inexpensive items of that type. Since the war such commodities have become practically unobtainable and are being replaced by salt-fish. Small quantities of salt-fish have been exported to Curacao, Aruba and Trinidad, which are usually delivei'ed to the wholesaler in the boats of the seller. From January to September 1943, inclusive, 506,850 kilograms of salt-fish were exported to Trinidad, Curacao-Aruba , and Surina-s. These exports were valued at a reported Ba 354,937 or about $0.10 per pound (U.S. currency). Kxports of salt-fish to other American Republics were not recorded by the Customs . As a matter of interest, exports of fresh-fish to the above-named destinations amounted to 470,500 kilograms valued at Bs 426,350 and 365,692 kilograms of canned fish valued at Bs 661,630. COSTS AND PRICES The calculation of costs and prices for raw and processed fish is difficult because the numerous factors which influence them are not constant for locality or time period. Little definite data can be secured. Producing and processing costs normally vary but lit- tle— in wartime, however, increased costs for fishing gear and other essentials make them rise. During periods of relative scarcity, prices for fish are high and during periods of abundance prices are much lower. Effects of the war have cut off much of Venezuela's for- merly considerable imports of cheap canned fish, and the deficit is now being made up to some extent by Venezuelan canned and salt-fish. The increased demand for fresh-fish in Curacao and Aruba has led to the development of a considerable trade. Owners of motor launch- es and sailboats now call at many of the formerly isolated fish-producing communities and buy the fish as they are brought in by the fishermen. These fish are iced and taken to Curacao and Aruba for aale. Such activities have caused considerable increases in the price of fish — so much so that some Venezuelan communities often leek supplies of reasonably priced fish. Price data on Venezuelan fish are shown in Tables 10 and 11. In October 1943 the following quotations for well-prepared, dry salt-fish were made at Isla Coche. Most dry salt-fish in Venezuela is sold by the arroba (11.5 kilos) or by the quintal (46 kilos) : Variety Bs per arroba Dollars per pound Bagre, Quinche 5.00 0.059 Machuelo 5.00 0.059 Cazon 5.00 to 6.00 0.059 to 0.071 Raya 8.00 0.095 Lebranche 10.00 0.119 Lisa 10.00 10.00 0.119 Carite 0.119 Jurelete 10.00 0.119 Jurel Grande 7.00 0.083 Corocoro 6.00 0.071 23 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES It was the experience of the mission that the prices listed above represent rather true averages. It must, however, be pointed out that these prices fluctuate considerably from place to place, from season to season, and because of the factors of market supply and demand. Thus it was brought to the attention of the mission repeatedly, that during the periods of abundance salt-fish could be purchased at prices considerably lower than those prevailing at other times. Also, it was stated that firm long-term contracts would lower prices. As listed above, the prices include raw material, labor, salt, and processing. It is almost impossible to derive a true figure of cost of fish as landed since practically no fisherman keeps cost records. Prices of fresh-fish listed in Tables 10 and 11 do not represent true conditions either, for it can be seen that almost all varieties of salt-fish sell for less, pound for pound, than fresh-fish of the same kind. Another factor that causes difficulty in computing costs and prices is that the average fisherman does not include the cost or value of his own labor or that of his family in cleaning and processing the fish. Fishermen in Venezuela usually take several factors into consideration in fixing their prices, but the personal equation often enters business dealings and may cause great varia- tion in fined, quotations. These factors may b« listed as: costs of upkeep of fishing gear and boat; cost of salt, food for his family, and clothing for his family; condition of the market; keeping quality of his fish; his Indebtedness to middlemen or others; the distance from consuming markets ; and on many other factors as well . With the present facilities and methods used for production and procMslng at theranch- erias it is very doubtful that any species of fish salted and dried could be obtained for less than Bs 4 per arroba (about $0.0474 per pound). This seems to be about the lowest price to which fishermen will agree under pveCMt prices for salt and replacenents for fish- ing gear. Table 10 - Approximate Average Prices Paid to the Primary Producer for Certain Varieties of Fish - 1942 Variety Fargo Mero Carite Blanco Corocoro Jurel Lebranche Anchoa Lisa Cunaro Bocachico Curbina Cazon lA kilogram 2 A Bolivar: 1! Z.2 pounds Id. 30 U.S. Fresh Ba per kilo 0.80 0.66 0.57 0.90 0.44 0.35 0.68 0.43 0.71 0.55 0.52 0.40 0»33 Dollars per pound (U.S.) 0.109 0.090 0.078 0.X24 0.060 0.048 0.093 0.059 0.097 0.075 0.071 0.054 0.045 Salt Bs2/ per kilo 1/ 0.65 0.66 0.68 0.49 0.49 0.72 0.54 0.68 0.69 0.57 0.61 0»^? Dollars pep pound (U.S.) o.oe9 0.090 0.093 0^7 0.067 0.098 0.074 0.093 0.094 0.078 0.083 0.067 LOCAL RKJUIRSMENTS Fish requirements for Venezuela can be set at approximately 100 million pounds annu- ally. This figure is based on raw weight of fish as landed. This total, however, by no means represents a saturation of the market since the people of Venezuela could consume considerably more fishery products than at present. The local consumption of fish has increased markedly during the past 2 years which THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES may be attributed almost entirely to war conditions. Imports of fishery products (normally about 8,000,000 pounds per year) have practically ceased. In addition, imports of inex- pensive grades of canned meats and other protein foods have dwindled. The demands for local meats and fish for export to nearby countries also has caused a considerable increase in fish production for local sale. Table 11 - Approxiaate Average Prices Paid to Primary Producers for Salt- Pish Entering Cumana DurinK April, May. and June 1943 April May June Dollars Dollars Dollars Variety Bs per kilo per pound Bs per kilo per pound Bs per kilo per pound Corocoro 0.52 0.071 0.52 0.071 0.52 0.071 Cunaro 0.70 0.095 0.70 0.095 0.70 0.095 Lisa 0.70 0.095 0.70 0.095 0.70 0.095 Cabana 0.61 0.083 0.61 0.083 0.61 0.083 Picua 0.61 0.083 0.61 0.083 0.61 0.083 Lamparosa 0.61 0-.083 0.61 0.083 0.61 0.083 Jurel 0.50 0.068 0.50 0.068 0.50 0.068 Cazon 0.61 0.083 0.61 0.083 0.61 0.083 Cataco 0.61 0.083 0.61 0.083 0.61 0.083 Anchoa 0.61 0.083 0.61 0.083 0.61 0.083 Carit* 0.70 0.095 0.70 0.095 0.70 0.095 Jurelete 0.70 0.095 _ . _ Tahari 0.52 0.071 0.52 0.071 0.52 0.071 Chleharra 0.52 0.071 0.52 0.071 Cuna 0.70 0.095 0.70 0.095 0.70 0.095 Pstota 0.52 0.071 - — 0.52 0.071 Bagr« 0.52 0.071 0.52 0.071 0.52 0.071 Robalo 0.61 0.083 0.61 0.083 0.61 0.083 Curblnata 0.52 0.071 . * ., » Lebrancha 0.70 0.095 0.70 . 0.095 0.70 0.095 Raya - - 0.70 0.095 0.70 0.095 Cojinoa - - - - 0.61 q.08? Assuming that the population of Venezuela is about 4,000,000 persons, 100,000,000 pounds of fish as landed would result in a per capita availability of 25 pounds per year. It should be stated, however, that the per capita consumption is much in excess of this quantity on the coast and much less inland. Taking all of the foregoing factors into consideration, it is the opinion of the mission that only the production in excess of 100 million pounds annually can be regarded as a true exportable surplus. QUALITY OF PRODUCTS Salt-fish products have been a mainstay in the diet of Caribbean peoples for centuries. The Caribbean Fishery Mission (1943) stated that normal imports prior to the war totaled 152,000,000 pounds. At the present average retail price of $0.15 per pound, this poundage is valued at $22,800,000 to the consumer. Converted to equivalents in whole fresh-fish and adding the normal catch of 161,100,000 pounds of the Caribbean countries, a total of 771,100,000 pounds of fish is consumed annually. The high consumption of salt-fish is due in part to its cheapness when compared to other animal protein foods. Pound for pound, dry salted fish furnishes from two to three times the amount of protein as do other types of food such as beef and poultry. Therefore, peoples of the low-income groups will continue to buy large quantities of salt-fish if it can be procured at reasonable prices. War-caused demands for salted fish and other dislocations have complicated conditions to such an extent that there are indications that the traditional producers will not be able to supply even their normal markets. New fish-producing areas must therefore be found 25 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES and developed and better salting methods devised. As pointed out elsewhere in this report, Venezuela potentially can produce 75,000,000 pounds of salt-fish in excess of local re- quirements. This is approximately one-half of the total salt-fish requirements of adl of the other Caribbean countries. The kind of salt-fish products generally consumed in the Caribbean area can best be illustrated by citing a portion of the import figures for Puerto Rico, the largest Carib- bean salt-fish importer. By species, the imports of salted, pickled or cured fish by Puerto Rico during 1943, aa reported by the General Supplies Administration were as follows: Species Pounds Codfish 17,142,227 Herring 363,500 Salmon 1,677,436 PoUock 192,550 Haddock 17, UO Hake 52,316 Mackerel 1.112.749 Total 20,558,188 Dry-salted codfish (bacalao) constitutes the bulk of the imports, Canada, Newfound- land, and the United Kingdom supply most of the salt-fish consumed in the Caribbean coun- tries. It is usually shipped in 224-, 400-, 448-, or 560-pound casks, net weight. Fish with a moisture content of 43 percent or less is generally preferred, since it keeps better than wetter fish. Cod, pollock, hake, and haddock are neither boned nor skinned. The color varies from light yellow through deep orange. Although fish heads ai'e highly esteemed by Caribbean consumers, dry-salted fiah are almost always received without the head. The mois- ture content and color are the chief criteria in Judging quality. Previous mention was made of "reddening" of fish. Customs officials look for this condition when Judging quality and will not allow the entry of fish displaying a pronounced red color. Reddening some- times does occur, however, after the fish are on the market and fish displaying the color are often sold, but consumer* usually consider this condition to be a first indication of decomposition. Although the varieties of fish produced in Venezuela are not the same as those now imported into Caribbean markets, it is believed that there would be no consumer prejudice to Venezuelan dry-salted fish. If prices for the different species were maintained at the same level consumers would probably enjoy the wider choice of food products. The mission examined many samples of fish for quality (Table 12) from the standpoint of possible increased consumption in Venezuela and for export markets. The samples were from 3 to 10 weeks old at the time of examination. Many of the samples exhibited red dis- coloration but there was some indication that fish of certain species do not discolor as quickly as others. Several factors, among which are differences in composition of the fish flesh, purity (bacterial) of the salt, and differences in moisture content between samples would influence this condition. It was also noted that the curbina and bagre samples were discolored more than others. The flesh of both fishes is soft and "gelatinous" and this tends to support the theory that the composition of the flesh influences the degree of red- dening. Fish prepared experimentally were included in the samples examined. These were ronca- dor, robalo, pargo, and barbudo which were shade-dried for 1 week. After a 10-week storage period the robalo and barbudo displayed a red discoloration, whereas the roncador and pargo did not. The discoloration in the experimental saunples was not as pronounced as in the commercial product and the flesh was considerably lighter in color. The only major dif- ferences in the preparation of the experimental samples were that: (1) more salt was used (30 percent by weight), (2) the fish were "butted" instead of "kenched", and (3) they were shade-dried for a period of 1 week. The experimental samples were more thoroughly dried 26 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES than the others. It is possible that the organisms responsible for reddening may require direct sunlight for maximum pigment production thus causing a more rapid discoloration of fish dried in the sun. Although "red" fish are not dangerous to the health, their appearance is not pleasing to the eye. Also the "off" odors produced by fish in this condition are unpleasant and un- appetizing. Officials regulating food supplies in countries that import large quantities of salt-fish prohibit fish from entering if a pronounced red color is evident. This fact alone should encourage salt-fish producers to prepare a product free of discoloration, or next best, to prepare a product in which the appearance of such discoloration is markedly delayed. Saaplas Gurit* Letraneb* fo. of Saaplss Xzaaload ■Mile 12 - K»«ttlti of Salt ~ I PUo» 0««d PrssaSSL Zgajlnatloa* of ▼«n«tn«lan Dry Jalt-Tlih DdIcbo* Aragra m Hatllla Prepared atter part Oe tjiB»in»d 10-23-4: f 1-U44 anoa 01 1-3-44 + : 0 1-1.44 Basarks Veil llkad in Taaaxocla 'baeaiiaa of "rich" flavor. fculd ^ accaptabl* If not rad. EH tkkaoi Onkno* letter part Oct. Viuld b* aceaptabla If not rad. Ibnoador Oirbii Ifebalo Aragra Onaa* lO-lb.43 1-1-44 Cbcha UaJte ealbo lAttar part Oot l^i-A3 + ♦ Shad^drlad for oaa naak; pr«pa>«d igparlaen tally. Aragra 'V^ann lO-lb.43 1-1.44 Xzoninsd at Miraoal'bo Pubxlo Vmrkeif dried for 3 daysl aolsturo content Shada-drled one vaek; prepared ■peri aan tally. Coroooro tlnla^vn VaknowD.' Latter lart Dot 1-3-44 H Oima Tahali Unlcnoen Tbkaown Doknoen Chknon tter part Oct, 1-3-44 Latter art Oct. 1-3-44 fcxild be aooaptable if not red. m 1-3-44 Pa^pano tjnloiovn CfnknowBT tter part Oct Vrold be aooep table if not red. Laqparoea tUcnoKB l^sknoi Latter part Oct, 1-3-44 1-3-44 Barbudo Araya Caaana 10-14-43 Ksold be acceptable if not red; ehad^dried one iwelt. Pargo Araya Cbaaaa 10-14^43 1-1-44 Shade-dried one week; prepared ei periaen tally. Oil oharra Ojo-Gordo Cocbe flwaanB 10-1M3 1-1.44 Tiik not apliti scored diagonally on scale eidet aooaptable if not red. lb Araja 10-14-4: 1-1-44 noador Ifejarra Cocbe Co die Cbobe 10.1 1-1-44 lO-lB-43 Ifeldyi «oxild be acceptable if not red. Definitely deooaposed; not edible. Unknot Cocbe CTakaoM' 1-1-44 1-1-44 ■*• 1 0 Baddenlng T«ry pronounced; accept. able if not red. Bagre Unknown (Tnkno' I«tter t Oct, + + pairt l*tt Fie TTnknonn Rhdcoovn .tter part OeV 1-1-44 Ibuld be acceptable if not red. Vjiild be aooeptakle if not red. Ancfaoa Parguito" Latter part Oct, 1-1-44 Coohe Coche CsAe (Socbe lO-ia.43 1-1-44 ^ ; 0 Definitely doooapoaed; not edible. Beya X E lO-Ib-4 11-25-43 1-1-44 Pes Xspada Araya ta Cardon 1-1-44 Could be (old as a bij^grade boi less product. 1/ All salts are solar-eraporatedi naoe indicates salt norks froa irtilch salt was proeurcd. 2/ ■*■; red discoloration; - i lo discoloration, fish acceptable for eonsui^tion in other Caribbean countries; 0 t too highly oxidised or of ^>pearanoe that noold not be acceptable in Qv ibbean ooontiies. 27 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Salt-fish products prepared according to the methods described, with the exception of the "light-salted" product and savrfish prepared by the special method at Maracaibo, have a normal keeping period of from 3 to 6 weeks . The fish "redden" after that period of time and cannot readily be sold. Dry-salted fish now are usually consumed before reddening oc- curs and consequently little of the red discoloration normally is seen in Venezuelan cured fish. It is the opinion of the mission that if this condition could be remedied, more fish would be caught and prepared by the fishermen during seasons of abundance and consequently larger quantities would be available for local consumption and for export. Salt-fish deal- ers will handle only quantities that can be marketed rapidly and fishermen are therefore often idle when fish are most abundant. An approach to the problem of prolonging the keep- ing quality by controlling reddening has already been made and is discussed more fully in later sections of this report. Attempts have been made by local producers to brine-salt herring (arenque) but this product has not found a ready market ,because of its poor keeping quality. Evidence was obtained that in some instances the fish were stale before packing and that watertight con- tainers were not used. Experimental packs revealed (Table 13) that the principal reason for spoilage was the reddening of the brine and fish with subsequent "souring". Tests in- dicated that fish prepared experimentally kept well for a storage period of one month. Apart from the above-mentioned difficulties there are no outstanding problems in regard to quality. The condition of salt-fish as prepared in Venezuela, before reddening occurs, is good enough to enable the product to enter practically all Caribbean markets; and, in some cases, markets outside of the Caribbean area as well, A very little more care in clean- ing, salting, and drying and closer attention to packaging, grading, and marketing will in- sure steady market demands provided reddening can be overcome. Spaol«a leita Preparad (i24iL ^ Bible 13 Plaoa Prgpajad Data Exaalnei - Qaallty ofBrlnB 3al»-flih Pranared by th« Mlgtion 12/22/43 ippaarano* of Brin» Odor of Brlns Ferorat Saturation of Brine Appaarano* of 1*1 sh rieah I^aaaiks Ifecfaaalo 10731 Isla Cocha light r«l ■usty; Bl. aoor 100 •l.pink "WW 10/26 m — Hatlllo T7W kga of fish bafora ■altiiut not knom (est. 8 hrs.) off odor near back bone. Tish frash (2 hrs. old)t heads reaoved laae- diataly after catching. Labranoha orange 1/3/44 si. sonr 100 orange- rad iranqaa Cuaan* orange si. sour 100 si. pink "n73o" VW Hsh In top layer of barrel red; under sur- face pink; fish about 12-18 hrs. old; heads and entrails reaoved. Corblna Uar*. calbo niht orange ■vary sll^t odor of da coup. T5o" li^t orange rish approziaataly 4 hi)sra old. PART II POTENTIAL PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY OF THE YENEZUELAN FISHERIES AND ITS ACHIEVEMENT There is no doubt that the fishery resources of Venezuela will support an increased production without incurring immediate danger of depletion. Just how much added fishing intensity can be supported is, of course, unknown at this time. The following sections of this report deal with the various factors that influence increases in the production of salt-fish. 28 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES SECTION A USING PRESENT FACILITIES AND METHODS AND SUPPLYING ONLY NECESSITIES FOR MAINTENANCE AND ORGANIZATION PRODUCTION Assuming that the present requirements for fishery products in Venezuela, expressed in round fish as landed, is 100 million pounds, it is calculated that, vrith increased fish- ing activity the catch can be doubled to yield a total of 200 million pounds. The estijnate of 100 million pounds additional production has been derived from consideration and analysis of information from all possible sources. The primary basis, of course, was interviews with fishermen which provided data on the comparative abundance of the various species, the extent of use of each, and the possible output of the individual rancherias given in- creased firm markets. Catch statistics, furnished by Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria pro- vided a valuable supplement to field interviews and they have been used extensively in the following sections of the report. Finally, knowledge of the productivity of the various types of gear in use, the characteristics of the species available for capture, and the methods of processing served to intensify the accuracy of the estimate. The increase of 100 million pounds of round fish as landed would be equivalent to about 25 million pounds of salt-fish. Of this quantity about 15 million pounds could be procured in the Eastern Zone, chiefly at the Unare and Tacarigua Lagoons, Gulf of Cariaco, Isla Margarita, Isla Coche, and Chaco- pata. Considerable quantities could also be expected from other fishing centers in the same zona- At least 10 million pounds could be secured from the Maracalbo- Goa J ira-Paraguana re- gion, chiefly from around Maracaibo and Isla Toas, These estimates are all based on a 12-month production after the necessary organiza- tion for purchasing and collection has been established, CONVERSION OF FISHING GEAR AND CRAFT The production operations described in this section do not include the conversion of fishing gear or craft. It is anticipated that fishing would continue along traditional lines with some additions in manpower, boats, and gear. The increased demand for fish- ery products would stimulate interest and actual development. To take full advantage of the potentialities, fishing supplies and the necessary materials must be made available to the fishermen at reasonable prices. The acquisition and distribution of these supplies can best be handled by companies who intend to purchase salt-fish for export, DEVELOPMENT OF UNUSED OR UNDERUTILIZED SPECIES The calculated increases in production will result, to a large extent, from the ex- ploitation of species now not fished for, or from those species which are now caught in only small quantities due to the limitations imposed by present markets. Besides the yield obtainable from unutilized fishes, an enlarged production of species which are now caught in quantity for local markets could contribute to the development of an exportable surplus of fishery products. Eastern Zone Species which could contribute considerably greater quantities with present fishing methods are listed in Table lU. The 21 varieties listed made up /t,981,357 kilos out of a total production of 6,354,625 kilos of salt-fish in 191*2. It is estimated that the catch of these varieties can be increased to about 11.700,000 kilos, a gain of 6,718,643 kilos (about 14,781,000 pounds). 29 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Table 1 if - Estiisated Potential Production of Salt-fish in the Eastern Zone of Venezuela Estijnated Potential Variety 19/*2 Production Production mo» Kilos Anehoa (blueflsh) 260,715 500,000 Arenque (herring) . 2,000,000 1/ Bagre (catfish) 50,453 500,000 ~ Cabana (false albacore) 225,310 500,000 Cachorreta (mackerel) 11,856 100,000 Carite (kingfish) 2/ 938,344 1,000,000 Carrachana (bonito?) 121,335 200,000 Cazon (small shark) 482,214 150,000 Corocoro (grunt) 956,348 1,500,000 Chicharro (scad) 177,678 500,000 Jurel (jack) 687,128 750,000 Lamparosa (moonfish) 289,304 500,000 Lebranche (mullet) 45,272 100,000 Lisa (mullet) 484,290 750,000 Machuelo (thread herring) 34 1,000,000 Pampano (pompano) 8,934 50,000 Picua ( barracuda) 204,754 250,000 Rajra (ray) 32,202 50,000 Roncador ( grunt y 2,428 50,000 Zapatero (leather Jack) - 150,000 Tiburon ( shark) Total 2.758 500.000 ^.?81,3?7 11.700.000 1/All or majority salted in brine 2^ost "carite" in this son* seon to be klngflsh rather than Spanish mackerel. Anchoa (bluefish) taken in Venezuela are probably of the same genus, Pomotomus, as those bluefish taken off the Atlantic Ooast of North America, and they may possibly be the same species, saltatrix. Anchoa are well-liked by Venezuelans, particularly as dry salt- fish. The flesh is quite dark and very oily. When salted the flesh quickly turns dark brown and assumes an oxidized fish-oil odor. Salted anchoa does not store well since it turns rusty and rancid within a relatively short time. In the opinion of the mission, anchoa as now prepared would not be suitable for export. Most anchoa is now caught by trolling, by live-bait fishing methods, "guapeando", and by chinchorros and filetes. Those seen in the fishing camps in Venezuela were magnificent fish of large size. The small individuals are called "anchobetas." At Guaca, on the mainland Just southeast of Isla Coche the months of greatest abundance are June, July, and August, At Puerto Santo, further to the east- ward on the mainland the best season is May, June, and July. Evidently the schools travel in a westerly direction from the region of Trinidad and Tobago. Their appearance is charac- teristic of a pelagic species which is influenced by various oceanographic conditions. Arenque are now taken only for canning and to a much lesser extent for bait. This species, averaging about 7 inches in length, belongs to the herring family and it is similar in shape to the North Atlantic herring. The flesh is quite similar to the northern herring, being quite oily. It assumes an off-white color when processed. The bones are quite numer- ous but small and soft. The center of distribution is in the Gulf of Cariaco and schools also are reported to occur along the coast to the eastward during certain seasons. Several schools were seen at Puerto Santo in November, Arenque are reported to be abundant in the Gulf of Cariaco throughout the year, but present fishing methods are not always successful in catching them. The best season seems to extend from January to August or September, The catch reported in 1942 was 1,434,500 kilos and practically all of the yield was canned. Considerable increases in the catch can be made with present gear and methods. Arenque are best canned but should make a good brine-salted product. It is doubt- ful if dry-salting would produce a good product but it should be tried — particularly as a hara-dried, hard-salted, low-cost item handled in bulk. Arenque are now caught almost exclusively by chinchorros and mandingas but they could be taken with ease In ring nets, lamparas, and purse-seines. 30 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES I Bagre or quinche are now taken only in very small quantities because the present markets will not absorb a laa"ge yield. It is probable that more than one species is included under this cofflfflon name, but all seem to belong to a family of marine catfishes. Some individuals seem to be identical, or at least similar, to the gafftopsail catfish of North American waters. The size averages about 8 inches and the flesh is dark, rich, and oily. Quinche are very numerous at points around Isla Margarita, in the Gulf of Cariaco, and elsewhere, where they seem to be abundant during the entire year. Very large quantities could be secur- ed with present gear if a demand existed. These fish would be suitable only as a low- priced, bulk dry-salted item. Cabana are caught in fair quantities in the Gulf of Cariaco. Although no fresh speci- mens were observed, it is the opinion of the mission that this fish is the false albacore (Qynmosarda alleterata) . It is a freely migratory species of the mackerel-like family of fishes which seems to enter the Gulf of Cariaco regularly in January, February, and March. It is understood that a considerable quantity is canned and marketed as "tuna". Dry-salt cabana, while well-liked in Venezuela for its high content of oil, would not be a suitable product for export since the color of the flesh is too dark and the odor, caused by oxi- dized oil, is usually too strong. Chinchorros and mandingas now catch practically all of the cabana taken in Venezuela. Probably nets of the purse-seine type would also be successt- ful in capturing these fish. There is no doubt that catches can be increased considerably with present methods and gear. Cachorreta are not taken in gi^at numbers since the only market is to supply the can- neries and the demand from that source is small. No fresh specimens were observed, but evi- dence indicates that the Venezuelan cachorreta is a close relative of the common mackerel of the Atlantic Coast. The average size seems to be about 12 to lU inches. Large schools of cachorreta are found in the Gulf of Cariaco from January to June or July, and it is also found to a lesser extent in other areas during this same period. The fish are definitely migratory and do not occur throughout the year. While the flesh is delicate, oily, and well -flavored, cachorreta are not esteemed by the fishermen because they do not keep well. Some are caught for canning and a small quantity for salting, but catches could be increased greatly by present methods. Cachorreta probably are best as a canned fish, salmon style, but they should be excellent brine-salted. The quality of the flesh in dry-salted form is questionable. The bulk of the catches are now made incidentally in making hauls for arenque, Jurel and other species. Carite, in 19A2, headed the list of varieties both for salt-fish and fresh-fish. While the common name, carite, is usually taken to denote the Spanish mackerel, it is without doubt often used as the name for kingfish as well. Carite, either salted or fresh, are esteemed by Venezuelans. The flesh is white when cooked, it is flaky,, and it has a good flavor. While carite does not contain as much oil as other species such as anchoa, Jurel, and cabana, it turns yellow through oxidation after only a fairly short storage time. Its appearance and flavor, however, are such that it would be favorably received on Caribbean markets. Carite are caught quite universally in the Eastern Zone with particularly large takes around Isla Margarita, Isla Coche and in the Gulf of Cariaco. The chief method of capture is by trolling, but live-bait fishing, "guapeando", and haul-seining also contrib- utes considerably to the catch. The period's of abundance are irregular as might be exf- pected of this type of fish, but, in general, the greatest catches are made in the months from January to August or September. The catch of carite doubtless can be increased con- siderably with present gear and methods. Some carite is canned but it is usually considered best as a fresh-fish. Brine-salting would probably result in an excellent product and ex- periments conducted elsewhere have shown that smoked carite is very good. Comparatively little is known of the carrachana, but from samples of dried specimens observed by members of the mission it is evident that it is a member of the mackerel family — possibly a bonito. The flesh is very dark, almost black, very bloody when fresh, and oily. As a salted product it is doubtful if it could be sold outside of Venezuela, The greatest catches seem to be made around Pampatar, and Isla Margarita, but this species is also taken at other places as well. The times of abundance are simllsir to and methods of capture are almost identical with those of the carite although it is by no means as abundant. Possibly brine-salting of this fish would produce an item which could be assured of an export market. 31 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Cazcn is the generic name applied to many kinds of small sharks and dogfish which occur rather widely in the entire zone and are taken more or less throughout the year. The flesh of cazon, either fresh or salted, is well-liked . by coastal Venezuelans and a great quantity is consumed, 'ir/hen dried the flesh is Inclined to be a little tough and fibrous, but that characteristic is more than compensated by the light color and lack of oxidized oil odor and flavor. The salted and dried meat is more resistant to reddening and decomposition by molds than most Venezuelan salt-fish products. When carefully prepared, its appearance is much like that of imported salt cod, and it usually carries no suggestion of "shark" odor or flavor. While shark meat cannot be sold as such in some West Indian communities, it is highly esteemed in others and sufficient demand exists to afford a market for all Venezuela surpluses. Cazones are caught by hook and line, in gillnets, by haulseines, and by special line trawls or palangres. A considerable increase in catch could be effected with present gear, particularly if shark fishing for livers were carried on simultaneously. Flesh of the cazon is best as a dry-salted product. Corocoro are now taken in large nuabers, usually in conjunction with other species. This species belongs to the grunt family and some individuals attain a length of 15 inches or more. Corocoro are not highly esteemed and are not usually fished for if better-regarded fish are available. The meat is white and flaky and contains some oil. Salted corocoro usually assume a light yellow hue after storage and would be vary suitable as fish for ex- port to the Caribbean markets. Examination of several samples of salted corocoro indicated that reddening and molding is retarded considerably. Corocoro are numerous around Isla Coche, Isla Margarita, and from Carupano to Chacopata as well as at other localities. There is no greatly marked seasonal abundance although it is reported that vast schools are some- times observed. This might be expected since this species is more or less sedentary — concen- trations being for spawning purposes, Corocoro would be most suitable for dry salting al- though they would provide excellent fresh or frozen fillets. Small corocoro, in common with several other little-esteemed species are known as "peces de bulto." Chicharro is the common name usually applied to a type of sardine, while chicharra is applied to~the scad. In this case it is assumed that chicharro refers to the scad a member of the jack family. Chicharro are not highly regarded either as salt or fresh-fish because they are rather small and do not have a great deal of flesh. The meat, however, is white and tasty and makes a good salted product. The fish occur in large schools at irregular intervals during most of the year, but in greatest abundance from about April to September or October. These schools are very seldom, if ever fished, for there is not an extensive market. Dry-salted chicharroc should be a very acceptable product for export to Caribbean markets and large quantities could be caught with present methods. The Jurel of Venezuelan waters seems to be the common Jack ( Caranx hippos) , While these fish are caught and used extensively in Venezuela for dry salt-fish, it is doubtful if many Caribbean markets would import them. This is because of the dark, almost black color of the flesh, and the presence of a great deal of oil which quickly oxidizes. In past years, several hundred tons have been exported to Trinidad. The season of greatest abundance coincides with that of the other pelagic species in this zone — from February un- til July or August, Considerable numbers are taken during other months as well, however. The mainland coast from Carupano west to Puerto de la Cruz seems to offer the best fishing areas. Jurel are caught chiefly in chinchorros, but a few may be taken with handlines. Also, it is reported that Jureles rdll enter a fish pot, even at some depth. Considerably larger catches can be made with present gear and methods. The variety of fish called lamparosa in Venezuela is without doubt the moonfish (Vomer setapinnis) which has a very compressed body and does not reach an average size of much more than 12 to Ik inches. A considerable catch is taken in this zone and practically all is salted and dried. The flesh is delicate, flaky,, light-colored, and not excessively oily. Dry-salted lamparosa should enjoy a ready market outside of Venezuela. The season and locality of abundance and the migration routes are much the same as have been described previously for the other pelagic species. The largest quantities seem to be taken at Isla Coche and in the Gulf of Cariaco. Practically the entire catch is made in chinchorros— most often mixed with other pelagic species of fishes. The lamparosa is really at its best as a fresh-fish for the flesh is very delicately flavored, white, and flaky. Some in- crease in production can bo attained with present nets and fishing 'methods. 32 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES The names lisa and lebranche are both applied to several species of mullet (family: Mugilidae) . Lisa is usually the term for fish of the smaller sizes. Large mullet are called lebranche all along the coast except in Lake Maracaibo where they are called lisa. These mullet are of the same general type as the mullet found in the southern United States except that in Venezuela the lebranche attain a much greater length. Lisa average 12 to 15 inches in length and lebranche 24 inches or more. The larger sizes are preferred in Venezuela and little use is made of the small and mediujii-sized fishes except as bait. The flesh is off- white in color, sometimes it tends to be somewhat soft but still is flaky and usually quite attractive. Oftentimes large fat deposits are found in the belly. Bones are not numerous. Mullet are found almost universally along the coasts of Eastern Venezuela and are particu- larly abundant in the Gulf of Cariaco, in the Unare and Tacarigua Lagoons and at places around Isla Margarita and Isla Coche. Usually fish observed jumping in the harbors are mullet . During most of the time mullet are found close inshore and they are taken in large numbers in the Unare and Tacarigua Lagoons. Lisa and lebranche are now dry-salted extensive- ly and the resultant product finds a ready sale in Venezuela but becomes quite dark and oxidized after a short storage period. It is not a particularly good dry-salt product al- though it could probably be sold in export markets. Probably brine-salting would result in a much better product in Venezuela as it has elsewhere. Mullet are now caught chiefly in atarrayas and chinchorros. The enormous runs of mullet during the periods of "ribazon" at Unare and Tacarigua are well known and attract fishermen from distant points year after year. The only type of gear permitted is the atarraya. If other nets, such as chinchorros or filetes were licensed to fish during certain controlled periods, total production could be increased greatly. Machuelo are now usually thrown away when caught and are, as far as known, never fished for even though large quantities could be and are caught incidental to the capture of other more-favored varieties . The machuelo of Venezuela is a thread herring (Opisthonema oglinum) , It averages 10 to 11 inches in length and .is similar in form to the shad (Alosa sapidissima) . The flesh is similar to that of herring and shad, being off-white in color and somewhat soft but flaky. Bones are not as numerous as in shad or herring, however. Machuelo seem to appear more or less regularly throughout the year with the largest schools in the period from July to August. The best areas are around Isla Coche smd Isla Margarita with indica- tions that the mainland from Carupano westward might adso be good. Machuelo should be suit- able both for dry salting and for brine salting. The present fishing gear and methods, if a demand is established, could take large catches. Pampano are not importamt fishes in Venezuela. Several species come under this name, but they all belong to the Jack family. The period of abundance and location of capture are more or less the same as for lamparosa. Most pampano are now taken incidentally with other species. Dry-salted pampano would be salable on the Caribbean market. Practically the entire catch is taken in haul seines, Pampano, of course, are much esteemed as fresh- fish, particularly in the United States. Their use as a dry salt-fish during normal times would be inefficient. It would be much better to quick freeze this species for export. The picua of Venezuela is a member of the barracuda family — probably Sphyraena barra- cuda. Although there is widespread prejudice in the Caribbean area in regard to eating this fish, this feeling seems to be lacking in Venezuela. The picua has rather attractive flaky white flesh with only a small oil content. It makes one of the best dry salt-fish products. It probably could be sold on the Caribbean market as it is now sold in Venezuela. Most picua are now taken by hook and line but occasionally they are also caught in haul seines. Since they are more or les§ solitary animals it is probable that the catch cannot be increased greatly, Raya are taken in rather small amounts. The same seems to be applied to several species of skates or rays. The flesh is attractive and when dry-salted it is a good substitute for imported cod. The appearance of reddening seems to be delayed. Dry-salted rays would be salable on Caribbean markets but it is doubted that the catch can be greatly increased because of the more or less scattered occurrence of these animals. Raya are now taken in chinchorros, by harpoon or by handline. 33 THE VENEZUELJ^N SALT-FI3H INDUSTRIES The roncador of Venezuela is a variety of grunt. Relatively few are caught in Vene- zuelan waters since it is not a particularly esteemed fish; c?)tches thiit are made are i-^ci- dental. The flesh makes a good dry-salt product that would be salable on the export market. The bulk of the production now comes from haul seines. Little is known of the seasons cr areas of abundance. Zapatero are little cared for in Venezuela. This fish is the leather Jack (Clignplitiss saurus) and it occurs rather extensively in this zone. It averages slightly over 12 inches in length. Large schools are often observed around Isla Coche and Isla Margarita. This fish is taken along with other species in haul seines but is seldom used. Experiments should be made to determine if this fish would be suitable as a dry-salted product. If so, fairly large quantities can be obtained. Tiburon is the name applied to a number of species of large sharks. In general what has been written previously in regard to cazones also refers to tiburones. If properly prepared the flesh is excellent as a dry-salted product and it should be readily salable on most Caribbean markets. Western Zone Under-utilized varieties in the Western Zone are many and include curbina, lisa, pal- ometa, pez-espada, bagre, cazones, tiburones, and other species. It is estimated that seven varieties of /ish most abundant in the Karacaibo region could give an annual production of about 5 million kilos. This would be an increase of 4,460,591 kilos or about 9,813,300 pounds. Other less important varieties would add suf- ficient to total 10 million pounds of surplus for export. The curbina is now perhaps the most important fish in the Maracaibo region and con- siderable quantities are taken. In spite of this fact, however, it is certain that in- creased catches could be made if additional or greater markets were available. The esti- mated increase cou] d best be obtained with the present type of gear, i,e,, gill nets. The curbina, which belongs to the drum family, averages about 24 inches in length. It is somewhat similar to the channel bass of North America's east coast. The flesh is white, quite rich, gelatinous, and flaky in texture. Tremendous runs of curbina enter Lake Maracaibo usually in March or Anril, but the species may be taken the year around, sometimes in considerable quantities. Four to five million pounds are now dry-salted and sold annually in the Andes, The keeping quality, however, is not good due to poor prepara- tion. This fish makes a good dry-salted product but might be better brine-salted or canned. The bulk of the yield is now caught with filetes (gill nets) and increased catches would be possible with this same type of gear. Lisa are abundant in Lake Maracaibo and are taken in quantities for dry salting. The catch, however, could be increased utilizing present gear, Lisa could be utilized best as brine-salted fish and they may be taken during practically the entire year. There are two types of fish called palometa in Lake Maracaibo, Relatively few are now captured but many more could be produced if markets for them existed. One type of pal- ometa is a carangid or jack, similar to the leather Jack. The other type is a characin. The former is taken in waters of higher salt concentration than the latter. The average length of both varieties is 10 to 12 inches. The flesh is attractive and both types would probably make good salted products — eitheT dry-salted or brine-salted. They may be taken practically throughout the Lake Maracaibo area, and are reported to school at certain seasons. There is no doubt that large catches can be made with gill nets or haul seines, Pez-espada are to be found in relatively large quantities from Paraguana to Goajira, including Lake Maracaibo. They are now taken to some extent, but larger catches could be made with existing gear, chiefly gill nets and harpoons. This fish is a sawfish (Pristis) and attains a very large size — sometimes as much as 12 to 15 feet in length. The flesh is very white, flaky, and not oily and has no taste or odor reminiscent of shark. The 34 THE VKNSZUEXAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES flesh has a relatively high water content, and red flesh is found along the lateral line. Experiments conducted by the nission disclosed that sawfish f] esh, properly salted and dried, .-nakes a first-class product e-^uivalent at least to high-grade white codfish. Bacterial reddening, as far as can be learned, is absent or very negligible. One company is now en- gaged in salting this meat. Hydraulic presses are used to expel some of the moisture after preliminary salting nnd the pressed fish is then sun dried. The product, however, is re- latively high-priced and production is not great. Many types of bagre are to be found in Lake Maracaibo but they are seldom produced except for the very lowest-priced markets. Enormous quantities could be taken with present gear. All the bagre in the lake are catfish — some marine =nd some brackish-water species, and sizes range from 7 to 8 inches up to 2 or 3 feet. The flesh is white, rich, and flaky. Bagre may be taken in quantities during the entire year. They would probably be best pre- pared as a low-priced dry salt-fish. Table 15 - Actual 1942 and Estimated Poiiential Production of Salt-Fish in the Western Zone of Venezuela — ^ ig-is Estimated Potential Variety Production Production Curbina (drum) 309,686 kilos 1,500,000 kilos Lisa (mullet) 88,356 n 1,000,000 Paloraeta (characin or carangid) 17,^2 250,000 Fez-espada (sawfish) 7,U0 II 750,000 Bagre (catfish) 280 500,000 Cazcn (shark) 107,331 500,000 Tiburon (shark) Total 8.92ii II 500.000 539.-^09 kilos 5.000.000 kilos Tiburones and cazones are now taken in only insignificant numbers, chiefly for liver oils. The catch could be increased with present gear and much more could be caught with the addition of some specialized gear. They occur -.Midely in the area and can be taken dur- ing the entire year. The flesh of all types is white, somewhat fibrous and tough, but not oily. The characteristic "shark" odor can be overcome by a simple technique provided re- frigeration Is available. Shark meat would ~be best dry-salted, and as far as is known redden- ing does not occur. When correctly prepared it can compete with high-grade salt cod, but it is not as good a yroduct as dry-salted pez-espada. In addition to the species listed above there are many other species in both eastern and western Venezuela which could be produced commercially, depending on markets and prices. Practically all Venezuelan species are now under-utilized. The ones listed above are abun- ■dant and are comparatively little used in a commercial sense, DEVELOPMTNT OF NEW AREAS New areas that can be developed with present methods and facilities are few. While unused or underused fish populations are present, their development would require the es- tablishment of new facilities and service. SALT Present salt-producing capacity is ample to care for practically any increase in de- mand. Salt from the Araya works, near Cumana is generally conceded as the best in Vene- zuela for fish-salting purposes. The analyses of this salt indicate that chemical impuri- ties are contained in relatively small quantities but that too much insoluble material, such as dust and grit, is contained. Under a special permit, salt for the fisheries may be purchased at Araya at Bs 3,50 for a sack of 50 kilos (about $21.00 U. S, per ton of 2,200 pounds). Under present condi- tions, however, the average fishermen is not able to travel to Araya to obtain his salt and must secure it from a middle"Tan. Prices then rise and often fishermen have to pay from Bs 6 to 9 per 50 kilos ($36.08 to $53.90 U, S. per ton). 35 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES It is understood that Venezuelan law states that for industrial purposes salt may be sold at Bs 2.00 per 50 kilos (J12.00 per ton). So far this has not been applied to salt for the fisheries; it should be. Equivalent grades of salt in other countries sell for about $10 to -$12 per ton and it is understood that costs of production at Araya are suf- ficiently low to enable the Government to sell at Bs 2.00 per 50 kilos and still make a small profit. Cheap and abundant salt is a prime necessity for a salt-fish industry. The Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria is now initiating a project whereby deposits of salt will be established at all major salt-fish producing centers. Prices will be based on Bs 3.50 per 50 kilos, and freight and handling charges will be added to the price at the deposit. This is a most useful development and it should be pushed to completion. The Venezuelan Government also should endeavor to cut the base price at the salt ivorks to Bs 2,00 per 50 kilos, if possible. Although the chemical purity of the salt is satisfactory for tne preparation of salt-fish products for consumption in Venezuela and nearby Carib- bean countries (Trinidad, Curacao, Aruba) , its bacterial purity is not. Practically all solar-evaporated salts contain "salt tolerant" (haliophilic) microorganisms which, If not controlled, will affect markedly the api earance and ultimate keeping quality of salted fish- ery products through the formation of "reddening". This condition is not restricted to Venezuela alone. Reddening has plagued the salt-fish industry of the world for many years and is still a serious problem. Salt-fish producers have tried various methods for con- trolling reddening — among them: (1) the sterilization of salt, (2) sterilization of saltery equipment, and (3) the addition of chemical inhibitors to salt and salt-fish. The need for controlling reddening, under the present conditions, for fish sold in Venezuela has not been emphasized since most fishery products are sold and consumed locally before serious reddening occurs. However, an increase in salt-fish production for local consumption (necessitating storage) and for export will make it mandatory that some control be instituted, since fish as now prepared have a storage life of only three to six weeks-" not long enough for those export markets into which these products may find their way. Con- trol measures used at present in other salt-fish producing countries may have to be modified or new ones developed, for the Venezuelan industry is operated under entirely unique con- ditions and improper or inadequate control may add to the final cost of the products to make production for export economically unsound. Experiments are now under way at the United States Fishery Research Laboratory at May- aguez, Puerto Rico, to determine the best means for controlling reddening. Depending upon the results obtained in the experiments on reddening, it nay be neces- sary to process and condition the salt obtained at Araya. This may take several forms. It may necessitate the sterilization or baking of salt to destroy the reddening organism; if so, the salt works at Araya has a dryer that could be used in this connection. It may be found necessary to add a chemical inhibitor to the salt. This might also be done at Araya. As a last resort it may be necessary to re-crystalize the salt. With certain new equipment this could also be done at the salt works. Naturally, these conditioning opera- tions would increase the cost of the salt, the benefits derived from these operations, however, would more than offset the slight additional cost of the salt and if the condition- ing were efficiently handled on a large scale the costs need not be high. Even if it were necessary for the Government to subsidize part of the production and conditioning costs of salt the benefits accruing to the fishing industry and to the country would be well worth the expense. STUDIES TO GONTROL "REDDENING" It is evident that control of "reddening" is the most important factor in determin- ing if Venezuela is to become a producer of salt-fish for export. Although producers of salt- fish in other countries take certain precautions to reduce the development of the color- ation, it is found that a-plication of similar measures to Venezuela under existing condi- tions of the industry would be impossible from the standpoint of costs and practicability. A simple, not too costly control is desired, since practically all salting is carried out at fishing camps by fishermen in a multitude of scattered and isolated localities and too 36 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES much divergence from the traditional salting methods, developed over a period of centuries, is considered impractical. Toward this end, the mission initiated studies at the Fish- ery Research Laboratory of the United States Department of the Interior at Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. The general program of research on the control of reddening follows: 1. Isolation of the red organisms from Venezuelan salts. 2o Testing of chemical preservatives against pure cultures of the red organisms for killing or inhibitory powers, 3. Sterilization of salts to destroy the organisms. 4, The use of sterilized salt for salting fish, 4 5o The use of mixtures of sterilized and unsterilized salt with chemical preservatives for salting fish. 6, The use of chemical preservative solutions for dipping fish previous to salting, 7, The development of a procedure for the combination of a chemical dip and 'or mixtures of salt and chemical preservatives if found necessary. Preliminary results of the studies indicated that several preservatives are effec- tive in inhibiting the growth of the red organism and steps are being taken to prepare mix- tures of sterilized and unsterilized salts with the effective chemicals for shipment to Venezuela for use in preparing experimental lots of salt-fish. Like lots of fish will be prepared by the methods now in use and all samples will be returned to Puerto Rico for obser- vations on their keeping quality and development of reddening. Until the studies on the control of reddening are further advanced, large-scale pro- duction for export to distant markets should be held In abeyance. There is opportunity, however, to commence salting operations, namely, with cazones, tiburones, rayas, and pez- espada. These are very resistent to reddening and are salable in Caribbean markets, (A more complete study of the bacterial reddening problem appears as a supplement to this re- port,) CONTAINERS Packaging for Venezuelan salt-fish products falls into two major categories — for dry- salt products and for brine-salt products. Local industries can supply two suitable types of containers for dry salt-fish plus a third which may or may not be suitable. Of these, wooden boxes can be manufactured but at relatively high prices due to the cost of lumber. If container costs can be added to the basic fish prices for export the Venezuelan salt-fish industry can be supplied with a sufficient number of boxes made locally. As an excellent substitute, heavy baskets of wild cane (cana amarga) could be procured in a sufficient quantity to package dry salt-fish. The -raw material is abundant; many women already know how to make baskets, and the prices would be low. Suitable baskets should be more or less cubical in form, to hold about 100 kilos of dry salt-fish. They should be supplied with covers that can be woven on. The spaces between the woven strips should be as small as practicable. Some dry salt-fish is now packed in burlap sacks but this is not regarded as suitable for long-distance transport. Water-tight barrels as now manufactured in Venezuela are not suitable in quality, quanti- ty, or price for packing brine salt-fish. While suitable woods are obtairiable for local cooperage industries, machinery is not available and prices of wood are very high. If a large part of the production of fish for export from Venezuela would be as brined fish, suitable barrels would be necessary. At this time, the only alternative is to L-nport staves, heads, and hoop materials, and the necessary assembling machinery. When interior trans- port again becomes less expensive it is quite possible that a local cooperage industry could be set up. 37 THE VBNEZUEUN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES UBOR Sufficient labor in all categories is available at reasonable costs. It is possible that some managerial and supervicory personnel can be obtained in Venezuela but operations and policy control may have to be handled by persons selected from abroad. These persons must be fully grounded in all phases of production, processing, and marketing of fishery products and must have a full realization of the peculiar conditions in the Venezuelan fish- eries, TRANSPORTATION Adequate local transportation is available for movement of processed fish from the rancherias to shipping centers. This could be improved by the addition of goletas or tres punos, preferably with auxiliary engines, for moving relatively large quantities of fisti. If additional transport vessels are required they may be procured from boata already afloat or built in local yards , PORTS Existing ports are quite suitable for any operations contemplated in this section. Probably Cumana and Karacaibo could be employed as collection centers. Salt-fish could then be exported direct from these ports or shipped by sea to La Guaira or Puerto Cabello for export. WAREHOUSING Present vrarehouses could adequately handle the increase of production envisioned in this section. There is ample storage space both at the rancherias and ports for more salt- fish products. If temporary storage facilities over and above these are required they cam be built of locally made bricks, tiles, and lumber. REFRIGERATION AND ICE-MAKING Since existing facilities are to be used, there is no particular need for increased refrigeration or ice-making plants in connection with the development of salt-fish surpluses on the scale contemplated in this section. MERCHANDISING At the .present time there are no large dealers or handlers of salt-fish. These products are most often handled by small operators who buy the fish from the fishermen and then carry it to consuming centers where it is sold either to wholesalers or retailers. It is probable that, given a steady export market demand for salt-fish surpluses, sever- al long-established houses, experienced in the handling and distribution of foodstuffs, would enter the field, provided the products meet the stauidards for export and that prices* psdd are sufficiently attractive. Such companies could organize local production and col- lection for transport to a shipping point where grading, inspection and packing would be performed, A United States Government agency could then purchase such fish under suitable agreements and arrange for its transportation and distribution to the export market. Definite controls would be required to insure that salt-fish necessary for Venezuela itself, would not be exported. It would be unwise to export any fish which do not truly represent an exportable surplus. Prices of fish for export should not exceed prices paid locally for home consumption. METHODS OF PREPARATION Dry- Salted Fish. — The mission visited fish production centers all along the coast of the Venezuelan mainland and outlying islands to study local methods of salt-fish prepara- tion and to suggest improvements where feasible. 38 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES All types of dry-salted fish as prepared by methods now In use were found to be ac- ceptable for present local consumption. The Venezuelan market, in general, prefers fish with a high oil content and dark color such as Spanish mackerel or kingfish (carite), blue- fish (anchoa), jack (jurel), and false albacore (cabana). Fishes of this type are said to be "rico" (rich) and they add considerable flavor to favorite dishes. On the other hand, consumer preference in other Caribbean markets (notably Puerto Rico) is for those species which are generally known as "non-oily" varieties, such as grunt (corocoro), snapper (pargo), snook (robalo) , drum (roncador) , sawfish (pez-espada) , and shark (cazon). In order to clari- fy a common misconception in regard to consumer preferences for fishery products in the Caribbean area, it should be stated that fish which exhibit a yellowish color and which have a pronounced "codfish" (bacalao) odor are generally preferred. Not only is salt-fish a dominant food in supplying protein needs, but it also serves as a flavoring agent for starchy and rather tasteless foods such as rice, beans, and yams. From experiments and observations made in the field the mission found that the method of dressing fish as practiced by the fishermen was satisfactory. However, more care should be exercised in washing the dressed fish to remove more thoroughly the blood, viscera, and extraneous matter. Experiments also showed that the fishermen should use thirty percent of salt by weight of fish instead of the usual twenty-five percent. A "finer" grade of salt should be used to allow for more rapid and complete penetration. Salt penetration could be further assured if water-tight containers such as barrels or tanks (tanques) were used more generally. The fish, after striking, should be stacked in piles on frames ele- vated from the ground and weighted doTm to press out brine before being placed out to dry (water horsing or kenching) . This practice will assure more complete drying and may also serve to Inhibit reddening to some extent. Experiments also show that shade drying will produce a lighter appearing product and delay the red coloration. Drying time, however, was prolonged by two days in the experi- ments conducted by the mission at Cumana. Shade drying should therefore be practiced only in preparing a higher-quality product where lightness of color is an important considera- tion. For species auch as shark, sawfish, and others that have flesh composed of dark and white meat, it is suggested that the dark meat be separated from the white for the prepa- ration of two grades of products. The flesh should be cut into longitudinal pieces about 1/2 inch thick. The connective tissues of the flesh are less visible and salt will pene- trate more thoroughly when flesh is cut longitudinally. It has been found that if fish are dried to a lesser water content reddening will be delayed. From 30 percent moisture downward, reddening ceases to be a serious problem as long as the moisture content in the stored fish does not rise greatly. Fish as now pro- cessed in Venezuela could be dried more completely for export, and by so doing reddening may be delayed for a long enough period to enable such fish to be sola on export markets . Brine-Salted Fish. — Experimental packs of brine-salted arenque, lisa, machuelo and curbina were prepared by the mission. The procedure used for lisa, curbina, and machuelc follows: The fish were split down the back along the backbone from the head to the tails so that they would lay out flat. Heads, viscera, and stomach membranes were removed. A horizontal gash was made under the backbone on the thick portion of the flesh side and the flesh scored longitudinally. Fish were next immersed in clean sea water and soaked for about half an hour. Blood, slime, and extraneous matter were washed off with sea water and salt was applied under the backbone in all cuts, and over both surfaces of each individual fish. The salted fish were placed flesh side up into clean, water-tight barrels with salt sprinkled over each layer of fish. Thirty-five percent salt by weight of fish was used (35 pounds of salt to each 100 pounds of raw fish) . After three days the fish were repacked into clean, water-tight barrels, flesh-side up, each layer of fish at right angles to the layer below. The barrels were headed and saturated brine was added through the bung hole to completely fill the barrel. Filled barrels were stored in a cool, shady place when possible. 39 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES For arenque the procedure was the same with the exception of the dressing operation, Arenque were dressed by holding the fish in the left hand, belly side down, and cutting behind the head in such a manner that the viscera was removed with the head. The fish were washed in sea water and placed in the barrel with alternate layers of fish and salt. These samples were shipped to Puerto Rico for examination. In each case the brine had assumed an "off" color and odor. Reddening of the flesh occurred to some degree in every sample. Under present conditions brine-salted fish do not seem to keep for longer than one month. Further investigation may develop a means for preparing brine-salted fish which will keep over a longer period. Sterilization of the salt, admixture of chemical inhibitors in the brine, and storage in cool warehouses would all be useful in better preser- vation, INSPECTION A system of inspection must be adopted for products intended for expert. Fish should be graded according to species, size, moisture content and color. The smaller species may be packed together but care should be exercised to segregate the oily species from the lean ones. The fish should be packed carefully to avoid excess physical damage during shipment, and a careful check on the net weight should be made. The moisture content of each lot should be determined before shipment, A small moisture determination laboratory should be provided for this purpose. Adequate inspection invariably leads to satisfied customers and very often increases profits. The world salt-fish trade at the present time is disrupted and favorable for the entrance of new producers. These producers, however, should take ad- vantage of this opportunity to establish good relations with importing markets by supply- ing good products at reasonable prices. By doing so, resumption of normal competitive con- ditions will not seriously affect the chances for Venezuelan producers to remain in business. Attempts to amass unjust profits and to dispose of poor quality products under stress of emergency conditions can only result in a virtual termination of the export trade when normal conditions again apply. FINANCING Under operations contemplated in this section no great amount of money would be re- quired, since present facilities and methods are to be utilized. Necessary financing costs would include office, collection, handling, and packaging. Ample local private capital is available for any purposes contemplated in this section. To cope with the necessary transportation, purchase, and distribution problems from Venezuelan shipping points to the ultimate consumers, interested United States Government agencies might set up a small purchasing and service unit in Venezuela. If this were not feasible, local enterprise could sell direct to agents in other countries with transport by present available means or in some cases by Venezuelan-ovmed carriers. In order to assure interested parties in Venezuela of success it would be advisable to make firm offers or contracts for specified varieties, quantities and delivery times. Quality should also be specified by the purchaser. Under present shipping conditions Vene- zuelain enterprise would doubtless desire to sell their products FAS Venezuelan shipping point. MATERIALS REQUIREMENTS The only materials requirements would be sufficient cotton-twine, hooks, chicken-wire, leader-wire, nails and boat-building supplies, tools, canvas , emd other materials to maintain the present fishing fleet. To this, if brine-salted fish were required, would be added bar- rel staves, heads, and hoops and the necessary barrel-assembling apparatus. To make more efficient collection and transport to and from the warehouses , it may be necessary to arrange priorities for severad diesel engines of about 175 to 250 horsepower. These engines would be installed in schooners already afloat. Shafts and propellers would probably also be required. An itemized statement of requirements is listed below. (Furnished by the Min- isterio de Agricultura y Cria.) kO THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Materials Requireraents for Maintenance of Present Fisheries of Venezuela 1. Chicken wire for fish pots. 300 rolls; galvamized NOo 16 wire; special weave with 2" mesh. Each roll 50 yards long and 72" wide. 2. Wire for assemblinjii pots. 3,000 pounds of plain iron galvanized wire No. 20. Rolls of 1'2 pound each. 3. Hooks. 400 each eyed 3" hooka. 40,000 each No. 6. ' 40,000 each No. 7. 4. Copper wire for trolling 5. 400 rolls No . 20. 400 rolls No . 21. 400 rolls No . 22. Seine twine, hard laid. 50 pkgs. No. 6. 50 pkgs. No. 9, 50 pkgs. No. 12. 50 pkgs. No. 15. 50 pkgs. No. 18. 50 pkgs. No. 21. 50 pkgs. No. 24. 50 pkgs. No. 27. 50 pkgs. No, 30. 50 pkgs. No. 45. 50 pkgs. No. 60. 50 pkgs. No. 72. Seine twine, medium laid 500 pounds No. 4. 1000 pounds No. 12. 1000 pounds No. 16. 1000 pounds No. 20. 500 pounds Noo 24. 500 pounds No. 32. 41 THE VENEZiEUN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIBS OPERATING SCHSffiS As contemplated in this section all local activities such as production, collection, processing, handling, transportation and warehousing would be handled by local companies. Interested United States agencies would aake appropriate arrangements with present or pro- jected companies to buy, at fixed prices, FAS Venezuelan port, exportable surjaLuses of fish- ery products of specified types and quality, packaged according to specifications, over a given period of time. SECTION B WITH OVER-ALL ORGANIZATION, GRADUAL MODERNIZATION OF EXISTING FACILITIES AND METHODS, DEVELOPMENT OF NEW FISHERY AREAS, AND THE ADDITION C? NEW FACILITIES AND PRODUCING METHODS PRODUCTION The present needs of Veneauela for fishery products are calculated to be about 100 million pounds in the round as landed. With the changes aivi development set forth in this section a potential total catch of about 400 million pounds is possible. The increase, approximately 300 million pounds as landed, would be more or less equivalent to 75 million pounds of processed fish, chiefly as dry salt-fish. To reach the upper limit of the above potential in production, however, will require at least several years and possibly longer, depending upon such factors as the continued abundance of fish, producing costs and selling prices, market demands, ability of Vene- zuelan fishermen to assimilate new techniques, management, technical direction, availability of machinery and supplies, and on other factors. It is calculated that the Isla Margarita - Gulf of Cariaco area can contribute about 150 million pounds of this total; the Gulf of Venezuela - Goajira, and Lake Maracaibo areas, approximately 100 inillion pounds, offshore fisheries outside and around Los Roques and other off-lying islands, about 50 million pounds; the Gulf of Paria and Orinoco Delta region, about 50 million pounds, and other now under-developed areas, lagoons and the Central Zone altogether, about 50 million pounds. It is emphasized, however, that while these produc- tion figures may be reached or even surpassed, they represent a very optimistic view in the Judgment of the mission and as stated above, would be dependent, on the favorable out- come of a series of interdependent factors. CONVSISION OF FISHING GEAR AND CRAFT To attain the production contemplated rather sweeping changes wil]. be necessary, both in fishing gear and in boats. It cannot be emphasized too strongly that introduction of new methods and equipownt oust be gradual and that the effect on the over-all economy of the fishing comnunities must always be taken into serious consideration. Fishing Gear. — In the Eastern Zone the way is already prepared for the introduction of the simpler and smaller types of pelagic seines— the lampara, ring-net, and purse-seine. At least three individual attempts have been made to operate such gear; and, in spite of generally inefficient nets, techniques, and- boats, results have been uniformly promising. That they have not been continued in operation has not been due to failures of the method, but rather to extraneous circumstances including lack of a market demand sufficiently large and organized. The traditional method of fishing chinchorros has produced enough fish to supply tht market and there has been no great stimulus to adopt other methods. Also, dif- ficulties in financing and obtaining the necessary engines and other equipment for boats capable of fishing pelagic seines have acted as a deterrent. Finally, lack of knowledge as to the actual construction and operation of such nets and of the boats to fish such nets has been a barrier to their adoption. The present fishery is predominantly a chinchorro fishery and this limits the fishable water in the area to a relatively narrow coastal strip, probably not more than 300 to 500 42 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES meters from the beach. In addition, surf conditions and rocks render many areas unfishable to chinchorros. Thus, the fishermen must now wait until the schools of fish come within range of the seine before a set can be made. While numerous schools may be Just a little further offshore they cannot be taken with the present nets, and often many schools may pass into the Gulf before one comes close enough inshore to be set upon. This is generally true throughout the Eastern Zone and particularly so in the Gulf cf Cariaco and siround Isla Margarita and Isla Coche, All indications are that the introduction of pelagic seines would be a definite step toward increased production of fish since it would immediately make avail- able many more times the water area which can be fished. ■ It is considered that the following steps would be most suitable in introducing pelagic seines: 1. That 3 to 6 ringnets be purchased, built according to specifications ,i and distri- buted in the Gulf of Cariaco and at Isla Margarita, 2. That these nets be operated by local fishermen under expert supervision until the former are thoroughly versed in the technique of fishing with them. 3. That experiments be conducted tg determine if such nets could be constructed by modifying present chinchorros, and if so that as many as may be desired be made in this way. If That necessary twine and other supplies be made available in order that fishermen may eventually make their own ringnets Just as they now make their own chinchorros. Pound nets or traps are used to great advantage in many fisheries where conditions ao'e favorable. There is every reason to believe that such gear could be operated successful- ly in several areas on the coast of Venezuela, The deciding factor, however, is not whether fish can be caught by this gear, but rather how the fishermen of the coast would react to it. It is the opinion of the mission, from a careful consideration of all the evidence available, that the introduction of traps in any locality where extensive fishing is now engaged in would be un'/rise since it would certainly interfere directly and indirectly with present activities and would tend to force out the majority of small fishermen. However, it is quite possible that traps could be installed in areas not now fished, such as the Gulf of Paria, without undue adverse reaction. Such traps might also be installed in cer- tain more or less isolated regions in Lake Maracaibo, the Goajira, Paraguana, the shores of the Gulf of Venezuela, and in certain places in and near the Orinoco Delta, Since traps have never been used in Venezuela, their introduction would require expert assistance from foreign sources and also considerable experimentation as to localities, methods of construction, and materials to be used. Possibly the occurrence of sharks and other large, voracious fish vrill make the upkeep of trap webbing difficult. In this case it may be necessary to utilize heavy, wire-screening in the leads. Wooden poles and locally made rope are available in Venezuela. A great deal has been said for and against the use of otter trawls in tropical waters . In general, bottom fish are sparse on clear bottoms in these regions, V/here fish are to be found the bottom is rocky or otherwise unfishable due to coral structures. On the Vene- zuelan coast, hoviever, there are indications that trawling might be successful in certain favorable areas. This type of fishing has been tried on several occasions. Off La Guaira the nets were lost due to the rough bottom. Some fish, however, were caught but not of the types sought — pargo, mero, and other first-class species. In the Gulf of Venezuela a large European type trawl was used with some degree of success. Again, however, the types of fish taken were not of salable species for the Venezuelan markets of that time. This net, also, was eventually lost. There was no incentive to continue fishing with trawls. During the field studies of the mission in Lake Maracaibo a small trawl was constructed and operated. Good indications for further shrimp and flounder fishing were obtained. 1/ Specifications suggested are: 150 fathoms long and 15 fathoms deep. Bag: 125 fathoms long, 1" stretched mesh No. 6 cotton twine. Landing Bag: 10 fathoms long (centered in bag) 1" stretched mesh No. 9 cotton. V/ings:each 12 fathoms long 6" stretched mesh No. 9 cotton. 43 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES According to the reports of individuals who were engaged in trawling in the Gulf of Venezuela, large catches were obtained. The species, hov;ever, were grunts, flounders, and other non-esteemed types and there was no market for thejr sale. These previous experiences indicate that trawling should at least be considered, par- ticularly in the Lago de Maracaibo, the Gulf of Venezuela, of^ Tacarigua and Unare Lagoons and in the Gulf of Parla. V/hi]e the species taken might not be salable on Venezuelan fresh- fish markets they would certainly be usable as dry-salted fish and possibly frozen fish for export. For experimental and developmental stages of trawling it would be unnecessary to im- port large vessels or nets. As a matter of fact it might be best to develop smaller nets which could be used by sailboats or small motorboats . In the opinion of the mission, the most suitable method for developing the trawl fish- ery would be as follows : 1. Acquire a 50 to 60 foot shrimp or flounder dragger from the United States east coast. 2, Acquire at least two small trawlsi for its us 3. If experiments are successful, obtain designs for small trawls of above type and construct locally. 4o Nets can be built locally copying above. 5« Develop smaller nets for use by sailboats.^' It is quite possible that an extremely rich shrimp population will be found. If so this would furnish the basis for industrialization by canning, drying, freezing, and salt- ing. Trolling and live-bait fishing is now carried on by fishermen in the Isla Kargarita region. While the techniques are good, the yield is comparatively small because of the small boats used. Larger boats, preferably motorized, can be used for both types of fish- ing and the catches would be much larger. In trolling, outriggers should be used and by this means nine or more lines can be fished. Venezuelan fishermen are well acquainted with rigging and fishing by this means. In live-bait fishing the bait fish can be carried in a well or in a deck tank. In the latter case a small water pump would be necessary, V/ith larger boats more men could fish and the catch would be greater than at present, Handlining is a universal type of fishing in Venezuela, At present it is usually con- ducted not far from shore and usually in water up to 50 fathoms, (Some Coche fishermen get down to 100 fathoms or more.) Since only small sailboats are used at present the grounds must be fairly close to shore. If larger vessels, up to 60 feet, of the tres punos type, equipped with a small diesel auxiliary were used, the fishing radius could be extended and grounds, now practically virgin, exploited. Such vessels could be equipped with an in- sulated hold for carrying ice to preserve the catch. The fishermen could fish directly from the mother ship or from small rowboats or dories, a number of which could be carried aboard. This type of activity would probably produce fish only for the fresh market or for freezing. Such banks as those of Goajira, those between Isla Margarita and Grenada, and others could be fished by these craft. 1' Specifications: 30 to itO foot headrope 10 foot wings Bag to be 1" mesh Wings -2" mesh Trawl-lines either cable or rope — preferably rope 2/ For further information on the use of an otter trawl by sailboat and other small craft, refer to an article entitled: "A small otter trawl" by R. T. V/hiteleather and H, H. Brown, 1%4 (Government Printing Office, Port of Spain, Trinidad. 12 pp.). kk THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Nasas (fish pots) are now in general use, particularly around La Guaira and to the eastward. Because no mechanical power is used in hauling these pots the depths fished are not great. In addition, the small rowboats or sailboats used by pot fishermen do not allow for fishing at any distance from shore. Larger vessels, such as those described under hand- lining could tend pots on offshore banks. Hauling would be by winch. Calculating 15 min- utes as the time required to haul, empty, and set one pot, it should be possible to visit 30 to 40 pots per day. If the pots were hauled on alternate days, two ranges or strings could be fished. Possibly handlining and pot fishing could he engaged in simultaneously by using dories for the handlining. These dories could be set out in the morning and picked up in the evening and would fish handlines in the interval that the mother ship was tend- ing the pots. It is the opinion of the mission that the present abundance of lebranche in Unare I,agoon will allow for increased fishing by other forms of gear than the atarraya (castnet) now in exclusive use. Possibly filetes (gill nets) could be authorized for fishing in such a way that each fisherman could use only one or two nets and during only a specified time. It is ^uite evident that much fish are now being lost because the atarrayas are unable to take them; and avith the seasonal increases of salinity in the lagoons, many fish die, CRAFT Every type of craft now used in fishing in Venezuela could be made more usable by add- ing a motor. This, however, would be a Utopian condition and hardly wise or necessary, since the craft now fishing are quite suitable for meeting the present demand. With the introduction of more productive fishing gear, however, new types of fishing craft will be required. It is the considered opinion of the mission that the introduction of new techniques must be gradual and that the conversion of craft now familiar to the fish- ermen should be the first step. With this In mind, the large piraguas now used in the chin- chorro fishery could easily be converted to powered seine boats. Such craft would then be suitable for sheltered-water fishing, as in the Gulf of Cariaco. Structurally, only the stern part of the present piragua would require change. The stem should be widened, round- ed, and lowered. The bow section might also be built up somewhat to make the boat drier. Forward of amidships a small diesel engine of 20 to 40 horsepower should be installed. Work- ing through a power take-off equipped with a clutch, a doubledrum hoist should be installed in the after third of the boat, preferably near the center line. A demountable purse davit equipped with two snatch blocks should be installed on the port gunwale with a fairlead to the hoist. The boat should be partially decked fore and aft, and a short, stubbv mast and stout boom should be rigged. The net, a ringnet preferably, is piled on the stern, A small skiff is used as a seine skiff and the first end of the net is fastened to it. When it is desired to set the net, the seine skiff is cast off from the motorboat and its inertia in the water helps to pull the net off the stern of the motorboat. Conversion of e)dsting piraguas can be accomplished in any of the boat-building centers. If it is not desired to rebuild the piraguas then this recommended type of boat can be built new. The catch of these boats can be landed in unmotorized piraguas and towed to pert or it can be brought in by a motorized scow or pickup boat. As development proceeds, it will probably be found advisable to build larger and more powerful boats with a greater operating radius. These boats could be used for travding, trolling, livebait fishing, ring-netting, and shark fishing. For handlining and offshore pot fishing goletas or tres punos would be most suitable. As the need and desire arises for larger boats of modern design.it would perhaps be best to secure representative types 45 o ui ■« z jJ < o J u 2 £ J z (T O -1 Z Z < 3 U O b. - 5 ii i2 ^ 22 1^ 2 l^ < o: cc - o < Q U. 3 -I »- O s I J «/» u 9C a '-' L. Z U tJ < -■ "^ I Q _l O X I CM ^ K) <0 1^ B S ozjydss--- "s\ \ bJ C/) CO LU > 'lIlHl . I. :iijl:: CO CO z CO Ll. u CO o CL cc CL Ld _l Q_ I- _J D A6 w UJ z I u a u (/> D » O z < < o < 0) z o h- < cr LJ Cl ^ o O UJ cr UJ Q O C/) 111 Z (/) O 1 1 1 1 i/) < rr o D h n n rr o o > h CO hi < 1 "^ (n o CO < CO q: O Q. CL 47 THE VEMEZLTELAN SALT FISH INDUSTRIES from abroad. It would be possible to have several vessels built according to specifica- tions dictated by Venezuelan conditions.!/ There is adequate reason to believe that a stan- dard type, universal purpose vessel would be best for some time to come. With several such models operating in Venezuela it would be easy for Venezuelan ship builders to copy them and turn out vessels of like type. That this can be done is evidenced by the fact that a fish- ing vessel 50 feet long, of modern design, is now being completed by a boat builder at Porla- mar. This vessel is of excellent design and construction and will be powered by a diesel engine. It is to be used for fishing and for carrying fish to a cannery at Porlamar. Boats of the standard type described in this section would be, able to fish anywhere in Venezuelan waters and would be seaworthy enough to stay out in almost any type of local weather condition. Fishing could be carried on in the Gulf of Venezuela and also off the outlying islands. Since there is a large ice-cooled hold and since the cruising radius is considerable, relatively long trips could be made enabling the vessel to load up before returning to port. Since there are already existent a considerable number of vessels, some of which are motorized, these could be used in an offshore handline fishery and also for pick-up and supply boats. They should be motorized and should have power on deck. The fish holds should be well insulated and equipped with pen boards. The use of these boats, which are seaworthy and able, is economic, particularly if they are also used for transporting fish to nearby countries such as Trinidad, Curacao and Aruba, and Colombia. The need in the more sheltered fishing areas is fast, large-capacity fish carriers. This is particularly true on Lake Maracaibo and in the Gulf of Cariaco. A light icing would be sufficient for trips up to six or eight hours. For the present, goletas, tres punos, or piraguas could be used, but any industrialization located at a central point will re- quire carriers more suited for this task. Eventually it may be desirable to build one or more powered scows for carrying fish. These are easy to build and efficient, and cost of construction is not high. Power scows are extensively used in the fisheries in Alaska and they should be v^ell suited to Venezuelan conditions. DEVELOPMENT OF UNUSED OR UNDER-UTILIZED SPECIES The addition of new techniques and the development of wider-radius fishing will utilize all species to a greater extent. It will certainly develop the greater use of the pelagic species such as carite, anchoa, cabana, cachorresta, arenque, palometa and many others. It will offer an opportunity to exploit bonitos and tunas well offshore. Tiburones , meros, pargos, and roncadores will be taken in greater quantities in offshore areas then at pres- ent. Shrimp fishing should be stimulated tremendously. Lacking definite information on the abundance and availability of fish offshore, it is impossible to assess the contribu- tion that could be made by the now under-utilized species. There is, however, sufficient evidence to indicate that development of offshore fishing would be economically feasible and would probably in time exceed the shore fisheries in importance. DEVELOPMENT OF NEW AREAS The introduction of power-driven fishing vessels of extended cruising range will open up extensive new fishing areas and will enable the utilization to a much greater degree 1/ Over-all Sneoif Icatlona 50 to faO feet cnrer-all: 15 to 20 foot beam. To draw 4 to 6 feet of water. Wood construction, oop- Tjer or bronze gheathing below water line. To be powered by 80 to ISO H.P. full diesel installed well forward, A doubledrum hoist or winch driven through a power take-off from the main engine. All houses and deck structure well forward leaving after two-thirds of deck open. Bow to be hi^ and flared, stern a compromised purse-seine type, wide and flat in water. Fuel and water tanks for 1,000 mile radius. Uast and boom to be stout and well guyed. Hold space amidships insulated with 8 inches of cork or equivalent. Bilge pump, necessary auxiliaries to be included. Controls to be one man, located in pilot house and on flying bridge. Speed 8 to 12 knots. To be equipped with necessary fittings for trolling, trawling, riu^netting, and shark fishing. 48 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES of areas that are now fished. With the exception of a comparatively few pot and handline fishing boats there is now no fishing activity away from the innediate shore except in Lake Maracaibo where filetes are set at almost any spot desired. The introduction, then, of boats and gear which can be operated away from shore will develop many new areas hitherto unfishable ;vith present gear. In addition, almost virgin areas, such as the Gulf of Paria and the Gulf of Venezuela will be available for fishing. Also, it will provide access to new offshore banks now unfished, such as those between Isla Margarita and Grenada. SALT The local production of solar salt is ample to take care of increased demand to the extent visualized in this section. However, as pointed out previously, the price of salt at Araya should be lowered to the equivalent of $10 to $12 per ton. The establishment of salt depots throughout the fishing areas is deemed necessary. If the sterilization and conditioning of salt is found to be advisable, as it probably will be, adequate provision for machinery to do this Job must be made.i It is estimated that about 100 million pounds of salt will be required annually to salt the /^OO million pounds of fish as landed. CONTAINERS One of the most difficult problems to overcome with a great increase in salt-fish pro- duction will be that of containers for packing for shipment. As previously mentioned, wooden boxes in sufficient quantity and suitable quality can be manufactured in Maracaibo. The prices for these boxes, as quoted in December 19i!+3 are too high unless the cost be added to the selling price of the salt-fish. If all the ex- portable salt-fish were to be packed in 90 kilogram capacity boxes, about 375,000 boxes would be required. In order to produce this number of boxes it would be necessary to make special sirrangements with several sawmills in Maracaibo and to furnish assistance in ob- taining the needed supplies , such as truck tires for maintaining transport of the logs from the logging areas. At the quoted cost of box shooks-, Bs 6.90 for each box, plus transport, nails, and making costs, the cost of each completed box would be about Bs 7.50 and 375,000 would cost Bs 2,812,500 or $843,750. These prices presuppose the use of jabillo which is the type of wood now used for boxes and which is about the cheapest wood available. For a low-cost container suitable for packing dry salt-fish, baskets constructed of cana amarga (bitter wild cane) could be used. Since the making of such baskets is now a cottage industry, organization of supply of raw material, weaving, and construction would be necessary in order to obtain the large number needed. Since these baskets can be built to hold 90 kilos, 375,000 of these would be needed. It is estimated off-hand that such baskets could be purchased at about Bs 1.00 each — possibly less. In this case no nails would be necessary but transportation from the manufacturing points would have to be s^up- plied. Such baskets would be much less expensive than wooden boxes, and for all ordinary purposes Just as usable and sturdy. Whether fish packed in brine can form any large part of the potential Venezuelan ex- ports remains to be determined, since experimental packs made 'by the mission in the field indicate that such products do not keep well. If technological difficulties can be over- come in the preparation of brine-salted fish with requisite keeping qualities, water-tight barrels of around 70 kilos (150 pounds) must be obtained, at least for the present, from the United States. Prices quoted in October-November 1943, indicate that suitable barrels were available at a calculated price of about $3.00 (Bs 9.00) each,, laid down in La Guaira in knock-down form. Assembly machinery would have to be secured. Suitable barrels are not 1/ Rotary gtcaa - .jaclceted ovens with agitators to handle 25 tons per hour would be necessary for the sterilization of the salt required for salt-preserved fishery products. Rotary "baffle type" mixers to handle 25 tons par hour would also be required if chemical inhibitors such as boric acid or others are added to the sterilized salt. A valuable adjunct to the sterilizing and mixing machinery would be salt-grinding machinery that would produce a "iizmr" greide of salt. In general, the size of the ■alt crystals is much too coarse for use in salting fish. More rapid and oomplete salt penetration would result if a salt of finer grain were used. 4^ THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES now made in Venezuela and the basic cost of lumber would militate against setting up co- operage machinery at this time, since the finished product would be relatively costly. Even if it were found that brine salt-fish cannot be successfully prepared in Vene- zuela, some barrels would be required. It is proposed in a succeeding part of this section to utilize such containers for a specific purpose. In this case the barrels would not be expendable but would be used again and again. It is estimated that at least 20,000,150- pound capacity barrels will be required for this purpose, LABOR With a gradual modernization of the present industry, manpower to operate more produc- ing units will become available. It is the opinion of the mission that there will be suf- ficient fishermen to produce the increased catches. With a definite assured demand and fair returns to the primary producer, former fishermen now working at other occupations will probably go back to fishing. Since the primary labor for salting the fish is already on hand at the various rancherias it is probable that the proposed increase in production can be handled. Again, as in the case of the fishermen, stimuli accorded by firm market demands and fair returns will bring more labor into the fishing industry. There would be no problem in over-all training of such labor since it is already conversant ydth basic oper- ations. Modifications of the present techniques, however, will necessitate definite under- standings with the owner or head man in each locality in order that the primary prepara- tion may be carried out according to required specifications. Captains and crews for pick-up and supply boats are available and well acquainted with Venezuelan coastal waters. Labor for secondary processing, finishing, and packing centers is believed to be a- vailable to the extent needed. Both male arid female help would be required and almost all of the labor operations contemplated do not require extensive skill or long training. Ade- quate supervision, however, must be supplied, and it is believed that personnel to do this can be recruited. Technical and managerial personnel present a greater difficulty than ordinary labor. Although no complicated machinery is to be used, with the exception perhaps of the arti- ficial driers, motors, and generators, skilled engineers or practical mechanics will be needed. Since the proper processing and finishing of the dry salt-fish will require defi- nite control by a competent technician, such personnel must be acquired — probably from a- broad. Managerial personnel must be fully acquainted with every phase of the salt-fish industry— not only as regards Venezuela but also as regards export markets and other pro- ducing countries, Venezuelan managerial personnel would be very suitable to handle problems under the direction of a general manager with the above-stated qualifications. In summation, then, it can be stated that every type of labor and technical skill is now to be found in Venezuela with the exception of the top, directing positions. These positions necessitate training, experience, and knowledge which cannot now be secured in local personnel. TRANSPORTATION To care for the increase in production, a definite transport system must be orgsmized. With additions to present motorized vessels such operations can be successfully carried out. It is estimated that at least three motorized vessels of 75 to 100 tons would be re- quired in the Eastern Zone, two in the Gulf of Venezuela-Paraguana area, and possibly two others to care for other areas. These transports would carry empty barrels and other sup^- plies to the rancherias and would carry filled barrels and fish to the secondary processing points. They would also be used in carrying finished fish from the processing point to the shipping points. Larger fishing vessels will be able to transport raw fish in their own holds to processing points. 50 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES At a later date it may be found advisable to acquire several powered scows for use in transporting fish from the rancherias to the secondary processing points. Since it is assumed that the salt-fish is to be purchased FAS Venezuelan port no in- ternational transportation will be required of Venezuelan producers. If transportation from Venezuela should become necessary, large schooners of the type previously mentioned could be used for carrying fish to countries in the Eastern and Central part of the Carib- bean . PORTS No new ports would have to be established. However, secondary processing plants will require a location where carrying vessels will be sheltered. A dock and certain facilities, such as fresh water and diesel oil lines, loading and unloading mechanisms, will be neces- sary at the plants. Such plants would preferably be located at Cumana-Caiguire and Mar- acaibo. FAS shipping points could be La Guaira, Puerto Cabello, Maracaibo, and Cumana. Loading and unloading at rancheria points can be best handled by using present means although a small dock at any of these would be a great advantage. WAREHOUSING To adequately store the output as contemplated in this section special warehouses are to be built. In general, possible warehousing up to two months must be expected. This would probably amount to storage space for about 15,000,000 pounds of cured fish. Of this amount, part would be stored at the plant and part at the FAS shipping point. To store this amount of fish packed in containers about 1 million cubic feet will be required, allow- ing for ventilation and working space. Such warehouses should be constructed as open as possible in order to take advantage of prevailing breezes. The floor should be of concrete and such walls as are used may be made of locally produced brick — possibly faced with cement. The roof would preferably be constructed from imported, composition corrugated sheets. The roof supports would be of structural steel or possibly local wood. The fish in baskets or barrels or in piles should be kept off the floor by means of low platforms made of wood under which and through which air can circulate. With spaces between all boxes or baskets, these could be stacked three or four high. Adequate handling and shipping facilities should be provided, as well as the necessary tables, and sorting facilities. If, at a later date, brine salting is engaged in, cooled warehouses may be required (cooled to about 45°F.)- Preferably these would be operated in conjunction with an ice plant and freezer. REFRIGERATION AND ICE MAKING While such equipment is not strictly required for the operations contemplated, it would be an excellent plan to include such a plant since ice in quantity may be needed in some cases. Also it might be advisable to use refrigerated brine in some of the processing stages. Finally, cool storage of brine-salted and some classes of dry salt-fish might prove neces- sary. In addition, an auxiliary business of fresh and frozen fish would be an excellent extension of operations since certain species such as anchoa, pampano , pargo , and shrimp are worth much more in the fresh or frozen state than as salt-fish. For the present requirements and looking forward to increased needs, a 20-ton capacity compressor should be adequate for ice manufacture and for cold storage and brine refriger- ation. These plants should be attached to and operated in conjunction with the salteries. SUGGESTED IMPROVEMENTS IN PREPARATION As contemplated in this section, the methods of salt-fish preparation would be modified to include practices that are in use by producers in other countries to retard reddening. 51 THE VENEZUEUN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Among these practices are: 1. The use of fresh water for washing dressed fish. 2. The use of sterilized salt. 3. The use of mined salt. 4. The use of boric acid. 5. The periodic sterilization of saltery equipment, 6. The more thorough drying of salt-fish. 7. The storage of salt-fish at reduced temperatures. It is known that fresh water will not support the growth of the organism responsible for reddening. Washing in fresh water should produce unfavorable conditions for organisms that may be present on the fish as contaminants from the water in which the fish were caught. Further washing in a light brine (3 to 4 percent) made with sterilized salt to remove blood should be carried out. Various investigators have demonstrated that the organisms responsible for reddening are present in solar-evaporated salts; thus heat treatment of salts previous to use in the salting procedure would eliminate one of the principal sources of the red organisms. Mined salts are free from the red organisms. Their use has been advocated at times for fish salting, but because of the presence of chemical impurities, higher cost, and ad- verse appearance, taste and texture of the finished product, they are not used extensively by salt-fish producers. Their use is not recommended for Venezuela. A mixture of finely ground salt (sterilized) and boric acid is sometimes used by salt- fish producers as a means of retarding reddening. It is generally applied to the fish previ- ous to packaging. Chemical preservatives are permissible in foodstuffs provided they are not toxic per se. Boric acid is recommended to reduce the degree of reddening. Although fish treated with this chemical eventually turn red its use is recommended until such time as better chemical inhibitors are found, or methods of processing so improved that pre- servatives will not be required. Periodic •terillsation of saltery equipment such as barrels, tanks, flakes, scales, tables, etc., with flowing steaB is recommended to keep down contamination of the fish by the red organisms. This measure is practiced by many salteries in the Western Hemisphere. Practical experience indicates that dry-salted fish of a low nolsture content (30 per- cent or less) will not redden as rapidly as fish with a higher moisture content (30-45 per- cent). For this reason more thorough drying should be practiced. Storage of dry-salted fish in cool, well-ventilated warehouses also retards redden- ing. The organisms grow best at temperatures ranging between 37-55 deg. C. and belong to that group known as thermophilic (heat tolerant) organisms. Lower storage temperatures will therefore prolong keeping quality by reducing the growth rate of the organisms. The application of these measures, either wholly or in part would necessitate a change in the system of producing salt-fish as practiced at present. The new system may possibly take the following form: A central processing plant (Fig. 5) could be provided. Water- tight barrels containing fresh water for washing dressed fish would be transported to the fishing camps. Sterilized salt would be furnished to fishermen for salting fish in barrels. No fish drying would be carried out at the fishing camps — instead the fish salted in barrels would be returned to the central plant for further processing where the fish would be re- moved from the barrels, partially dried in the atmosphere and further moisture removed either by presses or hot-air dryers or both. Final moisture content of dry-salted fish should be in the region of 30 percent. Previous to packaging, fish would be sprinkled with a mix- ture of finely ground sterilized salt and boric acid. One part boric acid to 99 parts of salt should be tried. Packaged fish would then be placed in a cool, well-ventilated ware- house. 52 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES A weekly sterilization of saltery equipment would also be desirable. This could best be done by thoroughly washing all equipment with fresh water followed by a treatment with live steam. The adoption of these measures will undoubtedly add to the cost of the final product. How much cost would be involved cannot be stated exactly. Costs and procedure could best be tested by the operation of a pilot plant before going into large-scale production. The feasibility of producing brine-salted fish on a large scale could also be deter- mined by pilot plant operation. Only fresh-fish should be used for salting. All blood and viscera should be carefully removed and sterilized salt used throughout the preparation. Thirty-five percent salt by weight of fish should be used. Storage in refrigerated rooms would aid considerably in prolonging keeping quality. QUALITY OF PRODUCTS AND INSPECTION Quality is an important factor in establishing firm export markets. Food inspection' officials of countries into which fishery products are imported enforce rigid standards for quality. Standards vary for different countries, but in general include the following: 1. Salt-fish products must be free from "reddening" or nearly so. Salt-fish are fre- quently disallowed from entering certain countries because of this condition. 2. Salt-fish products must be wholesome. The presence of foreign matter such as sand, stones, weeds, etc., is not allowed; also improper cleaning and presence of gills, stomach contents and the like are not permitted. 3. Fish products cannot be adulterated by poisonous or deleterious substances. /«. Misbranding is not allowed. Contents must be stated clearly on the containers. 5. Packaging must be adequate and sanitary. Strict adherence to standards should be practiced by producers to protect markets in the postwar period. Laxity in quality standards will only result in loss of markets. The application of the various practices to control reddening should enable the prepa- ration of a product of good quality that would have a ready demand by consumers in the Carib- bean area an'^ elsewnere. Fish should be graded according to species, size, moisture content, and color. Oily species should be segregated from the lean ones. Containers should be of adequate strength to prevent excess physical damage to the contents. Moisture determination on each lot should be carried out before shipment. As mentioned in a previous section, a small moisture deter- mination laboratory should be provided for this purpose. MERCHANDISING Operations within the scope presented in this section will require that one or more local companies be set up or contracted with to expand operations to engage in this busi- ness. These companies would set up salteries, would contract with fishermen for partially prepared products by specification, would supply the fishermen with salt, barrels, and other necessities, would operate transport boats, would construct and operate warehouses, and would guarantee to deliver at designated shipping points, specified quantities and qualities of salt-fish. It is assumed that some agency of the United States would then take over the production FAS Venezuelan shipping point according to previous arrangements. United States Government agencies would assist in obtaining materials and supplies and would furnish techni- cal assistance as required. 53 < % '4i 2 8 K a z M Z ^i o - z<5i8 •■ x: o * uj < »- 3 o « < ^ -: ^ ^ o < -I ± u » z ~ « z ■ ' 535 z oc < O z z o z k. a bJ b. IC ^«i^wi«'«-«o>o£N2jt2 5t:1* c u 2 "o C3 a| ~( - • • 9 9 a « \ ,-\ H"^"»^""f ■ n n z < Q. o z > Q Q Z < o z h- _J < CO I CO 54 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES FINANCING From information gathered by the mission it appears that financing of companies to engage in this field could come from private Venezuelan sources. Since the original out- lay in capital would be fairly great, definite assurances in the form of contracts might have to be given provided the quality of the products could be guaranteed. It is estimated that laind, buildings, docks, machinery, floating and other equipment would cost in the neighborhood of $300,000 to $600,000; with salt supplies, barrels and other operating supplies, about $150,000 additional. These costs are only estimates but they include at least two central processing plants with necessary equipment. MATERIALS REQUIREMENTS It would be impossible, at this time, to give exact materials requirements. However, a general list of items which must be imported is given herewith. Building Materials: Vessel Equipment: roof trusses I-beams for roof supports reinforcing bars cement corrugated composition roofing water pipe - for salt and fresh water spigots, tees, elbows, etc, electric cable, sockets, switches, outlets, etc. sash and door frames sanitary equipment diesel engines diesel auxiliaries, clutches, shafting, bearings, gears shackles, thimbles, chain, swivels, turnbuckles, etc. shafting propellers bronze or copper sheeting nails, screws, fastenings, rivets anchors, chains toilets steering quadrants, wheels sail canvas boat builder tools - hand and machine miscellaneous boat fittings and supplies canvas Plant Equipment and Machinery: overhead rail-conveyor systems hand trucks weighing scales drying fans and coils steam or electric water pumps electric motors boilers generators barrel-assembly machinery salt retorts 55 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Plant Equipment and Machinery: (continued) salt grinders salt mixers refrigeration machinery themostatic and humidity controls moisture determination laboratory Fishing supplies: hooks chicken wire twine, cotton leader wire ringnets, assembled small trawls , assembled purse rings, swivels, etc. COST AMD PRICES To Illustrate, a sample project is set up, based on figures obtained during the field work of the mission. A Sample Project Location of plant: Cumana, Venezuela. Capacity: 2,000,000 kilos of dry-salted fish (based on the output of four 2-ton ca- pacity tunnel dryers operating 12 hours per day for' 250 days). Potential capacity: 4i000,000 kilos if plant is operated on a 24-hour day. Production of 2,000,000 kilos of dry-salted fish (30 percent or less moisture content) with four 2-ton tunnel dryers working 12 hours per day for 250 days per year. 1. Cost of fish: In barrels supplied by company with salt furnished by company. Fresh water will also be furnished by company in barrels delivered to the rancherias . Spe- cies of fish to be corocoro, machuelo, lamparosa, cazon, tlburon, lebranche, lisa, chicharra, cuna, burro, cachicato, pampano, plcua, barbuda, roncador, and others. Filled barrels will be collected in vessels of the company and replaced with empty barrels. Fish will be cleaned and wet salted in barrels at the rancherias according to specifications and purchase price will Include this service. Average price Bs 0.20 per Idlo of fish (about 60 percent moisture) (about $0,027 per pound) 4,000,000 kilos Bs 800.000 2. Barrels: To be re-used and sterilized after each use. 1,000 each 70 kilos capacity Bs 10.000 3. Salt: To be purchased at Araya and delivered to plant for steriliting, grinding and conditioning. Will be supplied to fishermen in quantitla« consistent with their sales of salt-fish to compsmy. 1,000,000 kilos at Bs 0.10 per kilo Bs 100.000 ^6 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES lit, Transportation: This includes carriage of empty barrels, salt, and other supplies to rancherias and return of filled barrels to plant. Three "tres punos", each of 50 to 60 tons will be required. Crew's wages: 3 captains Bs 18,000 3 engineers 10,800 6 sailors 4.800 Total Bs 33.600 Upkeep and op«ration of vessels..., Bs 15.000 Total Bs 48,600 5o Plant operations: To include unloading, sorting, washing, finishing, dipping or conditioning, kehching, pressing, and drying in tunnel dryers, packing, warehousing. Labor: (250 days per year) 20 women at Bs 2.00 per day... Be 10,000 6 men at Ba 4.00 per day 6,000 6 men at Bs 5.00 per day 7.500 Total for labor Ba 23.500 Containers : 20,000 baskets at Bs 1.00 ea. Bs 20.000 Salt, chemicals, water, fuel oil, etc Bs 30.000 Management and control: General Manager, foreman, accountant and others Bs 50.000 Miscellaneous: Travel, etc Bs 10.000 Total Bs 133,500 Capital Investment Vessels: 3 "tres punos", 50 to 60 tons each, motorized with diesel engines. Each, about Bs 40,000 Bs 120,000 Trucks: 1 stake body Bs 10,000 57 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Plant: Building and dock 2,000 M^ at Bs 150 per M^ Bs 300,000 Tanks, tables, benches, etc « 15,000 Conveyors, hand trucks 10,000 Tunnel dryers, k at Bs 10,000 40,000 Presses, 2 at Bs 5,000 each 10,000 Boiler, pumps, motors, generators, etc 20,000 Salt kiln , grinders , mixers , etc ...... 15,000 Bs UO.OOO Revolving fund: For purchase of fishing supplies and materials which will be sold to fish- ermen at reasonable prices Bs 30,000 For purchase of food, clothing, etc., for advance to fishermen 10,000 For purchase of salt, barrels, baskets, chemicals, fish, etc 360.000 Bs 400,000 Operating reserve: For emergency , Bs 60.000 Total capital outlay Bs 1,000,000 $300,000 U.S. SUMMART 1, Selling price of products, FAS Puerto Sucre (Cumana) Moisture content 30 percent or lower. 2,000,000 kilos at Bs 0.876 per kilo (about $0.12 per pound) Bs 1,752,000.00 2. Cost of production, FAS Puerto Sucre. Cost of fish Bs 800,000 Barrels 5,000 (amortized over 2 years) Salt , 100,000 Transport 48,600 Plant operations. 132.250 Total Bs 1.085. 850. 00 Gross gains , Bs 666,150.00 Amortiaation of capital outlay for replacement and repair Vessels: 5 years Bs 24,000 per year Truck: 3 years 3,500 " " Plant: 5 years 82,000 " ". Total Bs 109,500 per year Gross gain., Bs 666,150 Amortization Bs 109.500 Net gain....B8 556,650 58 THE VENEZUEUN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES OPERATING SCHEMES Since it is obviously impossible to anticipate every detail liiich might be encountered in establishing and operating a salt-fish industry of this magnitude, the follovd.ng outlines of operations cam only be suggested: A. Organization: 1. Formation, financing, organization of company. 2. Determination of standards for export and submission of offers to interested buyers, 3. Firm agreements as to quantity, quality, and other factors with buyers . 4< Appointment of field representatives in Cumana, Maracaibo and elsewhere if necessary. 5. Designing of plants, docks, warehouses and procurement of land, 6. Procurement of machinery, supplies, materials, vessels, person- nel, labor. 7. Construction of plants, buildings and preparation for operation. 8. Working agreements with armadores, fishermen, and other primary producers. 9- Instruction of armadores, fishermen and other primary producers as to preparation methods and standards, B. Operation:- When the above points have been completed, actual operation may com- mence , 1. Scheduling of transport boats to various points. 2. Furnishing barrels, conditioned salt, and other essentials to fishermen, armadores, and other primary producers. 3. Picking up filled barrels and replacing them with empties. 4* Delivery of filled barrels to plant. 5. Cleaning, washing, processing, and finishing and packing at plant. 6. Tramsporting finished product to shipping point and warehousing, 7. Companj' fishing operations to level production, if necessary and advisable. 59 •^ . In 'o "T 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' ^2 ' / (D Lj_ 3 -I o s s s z \ A"'^ < O S « 3 f ^ ' \ -1 CO 1 « 1- ^ 3* a: ?i ,. ' 3 .r.J "^■\ 1 PO ILLIOt TOTA O Ui 1 ^ (d 2 i* r u _J P^ CD ru2/ ^ -' _.o < X D CO //o _ i.cA / r- ? >" / ^^^r 0=^ r\^-^ ) 1 Z / i 1 ^. ( V/--^^ / ,' 1 ^,^' A O ^ 4 y'"^ 1 ^ \'-" -• < O ^ oX < _ 0 rfi in ^ A C5>cy "^ k X Q rr ( 1 V o o r /-^ N 2 , z / A' /^ y^^ / T /\ ] \r< ^ / x--^ / j ^ VI / '^J^~^ 'h/^ (O < Ia'^ ■ / (Tj krtSN -o /v° 2 TtNy\ °° ' / "^ / ^ -) r-. / /^^ \\9 -. o •< •^ \ \ /v ''. '' * 5 / / o ^1 ' / ') < ' s . ^ -.m h CO ci\ ^ ■'. 5 ^y /^ J 3 '^---, /^ \ V. — • 1 O 1 f / ^^^ ^ C) 7 z rV \ ^ •..'.. \ 0 ,'-\ 1 >-OrT X h I Z'' \ •• E ! \ f - '2 \ \» 1 Vv^ / 5 / u^ L -8 cv> ^-^ - -'7 s^ / t- \ 1 > ' UJ 3 CD i:!"'" : ^ ^. ■ rH o UJ « o y — ■ Ci- (. ■■/ — m » 3 bJ s td lO •i / OJ lO" V iO *. * . J — j^e \ cr r \ < V \ u < -i N UJ 2 kJ CD (- fct. fc3 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-i'ISH INDUSTRIES APPENDIX I COMMON NAMES OF FISH A3 USED IN VENEZUELA AND THEIR ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS Venezuelan Name English Name Venezuelan Name anchoa bluefish .lurelete arenque herring lamparosa armadillo gar langosta atun tuna lebranche. bacallao cobia lisa bagre catfish machuelo blanquilla ocean whitefish macabi bocachico characin manamana bonito bonito mero burrito' grunt ' ojo-gordo burro grunt palometa cabana false albacore cachicato grunt pampano cachorreta mackerel pargo calamar ' squid pargo de piedra camaron shri mp pargo-guacinuco candil squirrolfiah pargo-loro carite klngfish pez-espada (western Venezuela) picua Spanish mackerel rabi-rrubio (eastern Venezuela) raya carpeta raojarra rey cataco sardine robalo catalana big eye roncador cazon dogfish or shark ronco cozoneto dogfish sabalo cojinua Jack salmon corocoro grunt sardina corocoro queche grunt sargo cuna snapper sierra cunaro snapper curblna drum curbinato drum chicharro sardine tahali Chi char ra scad vieja chucho ray zapatero dorado dolphin guanapo snapper guasa grouper • Jurel crevally English Name lack look-down spiny lobster mullet mull et thread herring bonefish characin grouper (herring) jack carangid or characin pompano red snapper snapper snapper snapper sawfish barracuda snapper ray kingfish (Paraguana) snook grunt grunt tarpon goatfish sardine grunt Spanish mackerel (western) kingfish (eastern) cutlass fish sergeant major leather jack 6A THE VENSZUELAN SALT-FISK INDUSTRIES APPENDIX II GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN VENEZUELAN FISHING INDUSTRY alambre de malla alambre de cobre alta mar ancla anzuelo arepa banco barco vivero barricos, barriles bou braza buches buzo cayuco cabulla cadena caladero * calado caLdo de pescado calon campana canoa cardumen casabe chinchorro compadre cordel culo de mono currican deposito filete funche gasoil goleta guaral guapeando guisado harpon hieladero hilo interraedario j ens on lancha lomo malla mandinga maqulnlsta maqulna m'sleu nasa palangre papelon patron peces de bulto peces de fondo peces oceanicoa pies pila chicken wire copper trolling wire high seas anchor hook corn bread fishing bank live-well boat barrels or kegs trawl net' fathom sounds (air bladders of fish)^ diver dugout canoe cable or rope chain ground for hauling beach seine set of beach seine fish soup wing (of net) when fishermen visit temporary fishing grounds a dugout canoe * school of fish cassava bread large haul or beach seine friend (Isla Margarita) line a type of double-ended boat used at Isla Kargarita trolling line deposit or depot gill-net corn-meal cake diesel oil large sailing vessel, schooner rigged cotton twine spinning or using live bait or using a lure stew harpoon freezing boat equipped vfith ice box cotton twine middleman outboard motor motorboat filet of fish mesh small haul or beach seine engineer engine or motor foreigner fish pot shark line trawl gear, chain crude sugar captain fishes of little or no value bottom-living fish pelagic fish feet kench ■ 65 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES APPENDIX II (continued) piragua pi ay a poner Colorado practice pulgadas rancheria recalar red de arrastre red de ahorque remol car ribazon saco or bolsa salazon salado Salinas salmuera salpresa secadero seco tanques tarrafa tendedor tendol tiempo de coaecha timon tren tres punos vela open boats up to 40 foot length, not motorized usually beach to turn red, "reddening" pilot inches fishing camp or village to school drag-net gill-net to tow run of fish bag (of net) fish salting salted salt works brine wet salt-fish fish-drying racks dry butting tanks purse net one who tends drying fish flake for drying fish time of greatest abundance of fish rudder unit of fishing effort consisting of aen, boats and nets medium sailing vessel, sloop rigged sail APPENDIX III EXCHANGE RATES; WEIGHTS; MEASURES 1 Bolivar (Bs 1.00) - $0.30 (U.S. currency) 1 kilogram (1 kg. or kilo) - 2.20462 avoirdupois pounds 1 arroba (11.5 kilos) - 25.3 " " 1 quintal (46 kilos) - 101.2 . " " 1 tonelada (1,000 kilos) -2,204.62 " " 1 meter - 3.28083 feet 1 centimeter - .3937 inches 1 inch - 2.54001 centimeters 1 square meter (M^) - 1.1960 square yards 1 kilometer - 0.62137 U.S. miles 1 U. S. mile - 1.60935 kilometers 1 brazada - 1 fathom - 6 ft. 1 cubic meter (m3) - 35.314 cubic feet 1 cubic meter (m3) - 1.3079 cubic yards 1 liter - 0.26418 U.S. liquid gallons 1 U.S. liquid gallon - 3.78533 liters 1 liter - 1.05671 U.S. liquid quarts 1 U.S. liquid quart - 0.94633 liters 66 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES SUPPLaiENT STUDIES ON THE CONTROL OF "REDDENING" IN SALT-FISH PRODUCTS Joseph F. Puncochar and Francisca Arana Fishery Technologists U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service Mayaguez, Puerto Rico INTRODUCTION The United States Fishery Mission to Venezuela reported that control of the "reddening" of Venezuelan salt-fish products was the most important single prerequiste to their entry into export trade. It was the opinion of the mission that the spoilage of salt-fish by reddening was so serious that large-scale production should be held in abeyance until the control methods used in other countries could be studied and recommendations could be made for the application of preventive measures in the Venezuelan industry. Such reconniendations would naturally have to take into account the variations between the domestic and the foi^ eign industry. These differences occur in the preparative methods and equipment, the spe- cies of fish preserved, the kind of salt available, the climate, and many less apparent factors. For many years, one of the most important components of the diets of the people of the Caribbean countries has been imported salt-fish. The shortage of transportation brought about by the war quickly led to a critical and widely-felt scarcity of this highly necessary food. With a view to relieving this pressing deficiency, the mission recomnended that the suggested studies be immediately undertaken at the Fishery Research Laboratory of the United States Department of the Interior, at Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. ISOLATION, CULTURE AND MORPHOLOGT The spoilage of salted foods, hides, sausage casings, etc., by reddening has been the subject of many microbiological treatises published during the last sixty years. The work- ers in this field have described several different causative agents and have given vari- ous names to the salt-tolerant (halophilic) , red-colored microorganisms that infested the spoiled products. Harrison and Kennedy (1922) isolated such an organism and designated it as Pseudomonas Salinaria. This is only one of many such isolations and appellations, but it is not necessary here to review exhaustively the many articles dealing with the topic, Petrova (1935) » in studying the characteristics of the infections of various Russian salt deposits, came to the conclusion that the majority of the authors had all described the same bacterial species, but had observed it in different stages of its development. This opinion was based on the marked tendency of the species, as noted also by many other in- vestigators, to modify itself in response to internal and external influences. The majority of the samples grown in the laboratory showed alterations of morphological and cultural properties. The individuals took the appearance of cocci or rods, and the colonies varied from translucent deep red to opaque pale pink, sometimes changing shades in cycles. There was also a marked inclination to symbiosis with other bacteria. The growth of the reddening organisms is often strongly inhibited in laboratory cultures by concentra- tions of salt that seem to be easily tolerated under natural ronditions. It has been sug- gested that the symbiotic relationship helps to overcome the repressive effect. From the review of the literature it was felt that the reddening organisms encountered in Venezuela might be a distinct species, or a modified strain of one previously described. Consequently, it was deemed advisable to study the morphology and cultural characteristics as a preliminary to the testing of control methods. &7 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES f « >i V* sir \. v> ^ \ A*^ « » ** ;>.rf5 1- ^> \ (jIGURE 1 .--PH0T0MICRCX5RAPH OF REDDEN- ^^nGURE 2 . --PHOTOMI CROGRAPH OF REDDEN- ING BACTERIA (rods) ISOLATED FROM VENE- I NG BACTERIA (cOCCI AND RODS) ISOLATED ZUELAN SOLAR SEA-SAlTS. GROWN IN 5 PER- FROM FISH CURED WITH VENEZUELAN SALT. GROWN CENT CODFISH AGAR AT 42°C FOR 2 DAYS. IN NUTRIENT AGAR CONTAINING 5 PERCENT SALT (aPPROX. X1140) AT 4-20c FOR 2 DAYS. (aPPROX. XI 140) Isolation of Organlam Attempts to culture the organism in barracuda fish agar containing 20 percent salt were unsuccessful. Codfish agar was finally used satisfactorily for the isolation of the organism. It was prepared by boiling one pound of dry-salted codfish in one liter of dis- tilled water for one hour, filtering, adding 15 grams agar and ad^lusting the pH to 7.0.. The final salt concentration of the media was approximately 5 percent. The salt samples were ground in sterile mortars, suitable dilutions prepared and one milliliter portions transferred to Petri dishes. Dilution blanks were made of distilled water containing 5 percent sterile salt. The codfish agar was then added and the plates incubated at 42°C. for 48 hours. Most of the colonies were of a white or cream color: a few were pinkish. Subcultures of the latter ones were made on codfish agar slants until pure pigmented cultures were ob- tained. Hlscroscoplcal examination of stained cultures revealed rods of varying sizes and admixed with a few coccold cells, (Figure r.) It was subsequently determined that the organism grew well on standard nutrient agar containing 5 percent salt. This medium was therefore used interchangeably with codfish agar in later studies. The organism was isolated from various samples of solar sea-salts from Venezuela, name- ly, "Coche", "Arraya", "Los Roques" and "La Orchilla", The salt samples were generally of a white or cream color except "Los Roques" which was pink. Total bacterial counts (Table 1) were low and varied somewhat. Table 1 - Total Bacterial Count of Venezuelan Salts After Incubation in Codfish-Agar Media for IS Hours at h2°C Bacterial coimt 1 ^ Salt Samples Description of Salt Per Gram "Coche" Large crystals, white, with dirt specks 2,100 "Arraya" Medium-size crystals , cream, vdth dirt specks 7,100 "Los Roques" Large crystals, pink, with dirt specks 13.800 "La Orchilla" Large crystals, white, with dirt specks ■ 8.900 1 /Average of two counts; all colonies were white or cream except those from "Coche" and "Los Roques" in which some pink colonies developed. 68 THE VEWEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Cultural and Morphological Characterlstlce In standard nutrient agar containing 5 percent salt, growth was smooth, raised, en- tire and the color ranged from pale pink to transparent cherry-red. Single colonies in plates occurred as ovoid, aaoeboid, mycelioid, and irregular forms. In standard nutrient broth the characteristics were: no surface growth, moderate clouding, flocculent sediment and slight "musty" odor. The organisms occurred as rods or spheres, were I>am negative and motile, and were with- out spares. Organisms from primary transplantations intp agar frequently had one or two dark spots at the ends, resenU>ling spores, Harrison and Kennedy (1922) attribute this to transitions from cylindrical to round foraui. Optimum Salt Concentration for Growth To ascertain the optimum salinity of the reddening organism. Inoculations were made from a 24-hour old nutrient agar culture containing 5 percent salt to media containing con- centrations of chemically pure sodium chloride varying from 0 to 30 percent. One percent agar was added to the media containing the higher salt concentrations (over 5 percent) to prevent solidification at the temperature at which agar is generally poured (45°C.). It was determined (Table 2) that optimum salt concentration for growth was 5 percent. The organism grew slightly in 15 percent salt but did not grow at concentrations of 20, 25 and 30 percent. Table 2 - Growth of Reddening Organisms at Dif^'erent Salt Concentrations 1 Salt Bacterial Count of Organism From: Bacterial Count of Organism From 5? Salt Agar Culture In: Concentration % Salt Agar Culture 29? Salt Brine Chanically Pure Salt Solar Sea Salt 0 5 10 15 1,510,000 2,580,000 21 1,400,000 19.000 2,400 1,000 2/ 200 ~ 0 60,iX)0 64,000 2/ 1,300 0 500 4,8002/ 1,000 0 1^0 growth observed in concentrations of 20, 25 and 30?. 2 /Pink color more pronounced in media contadning 5? salt. It was thought that the successive transplantings through the 5 percent salt medium might have acclimatized the organism to that concentration. Accordingly a new series of media was prepared in the same manner as the previous series, with the salt concentrations ranging from 0 to 30 percent. However, this series was inoculated with organisms that had not been artificially cultured. These were obtained from a pink brine containing 29 per- cent Venesuelan salt. In spite of having taken the inoculatory material directly from the 29 percent brine, growth occurred only in the media containing 0, 5, and 10 percent salt, respectively. (Table 2) To detenaine whether the organic matter, or other impurities, in the sea-salt might stimulate the growth of the red organism, a series of media of varying concentrations of solar and chemically pure salt was prepared for comparative studies. The impure salt evi- dently had no promotive effect, no growth being observed in the concentrations over 10 per- cent. (Table 2) These trials led to the conclusion that a 3 percent salt concentration produced optimum growth of the reddening organism under the laboratory conditions used. These were 48 hours incubation at 42°C. in nutrient agar containing 5 percent salt. The results of these experiments on salt tolerance confim previous studies by Stuart, Frey and James (1933) who reported that inoculums from young cultures derived from crude solar salts grew well in media containing 0 to 10 percent salt, but were retarded by con- centrations of 12 to 16 percent, and were completely inactivated by concentrations of 24 63 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES to 28 percent. Cultures that had flourished in low salt concentration media, which had then been allowed to stand a long time to dry out, yielded inoculums capable of growing in a wider range of salt concentrations than transfers from young vegetative colonies. The apparent ability of certain strains of the organism to grow profusely in high con- centrations of salt, as shown by other investigators (Harrison and Kennedy, 1922; and Stuart, 1940b) may be due to repeated propagation in media of high salt content. In this connec- " tion, Rubenchick (1936), having found bacteria that changed their habits from halophobic to halophilic, reached the conclusion that the classification of bacteria on the basis of their behavior in various concentrations of sodium chloride is misleading. On the other hand, Stuart (1940a) found that bacteria grown in media having a sodium chloride concentration greater than 3 molar (about 17 percent) are materially affected by protein concentration. The addition of small quantities of cysteine to the media stimu- lated the growth of halophilic bacteria. This effect was especially marked in media in which the salt concentrations were from 3 to 3.8 molar (roughly 17 to 22 percent) and the pH values from 6.6 to 7 02. Other factors, too, may influence the growth of the reddening bacteria in salted fish. The enzymes present in the raw substrata, or more likely, the microflora encountered in the natural environment, may contribute to the ease with which the reddening organism es- tablishes and maintains itself in the salteries even in contact with saturated brine or solid salt. Temperature Relations At the prevailing room temperatures of 25° to 30° C, the organism was found to grow well and to show more pronounced coloration than at 37° or 42° C. However, growth was also good at the latter temperatures. No growth was observed at either 4° or 55° C. Relation to Free Oxygen In infected salteries it is often observed that the red organisms will grow profusely at the surface of a tank containing brine-salted fish, but that at a short distance down there is little evidence of their presence. As a lead to a possible method of control, it was thought advisable to determine whether or not the reddening bacteria could live with- out oxygen. Accordingly, tubes of agar media, containing glucose and 5 percent salt, were inocu- lated heavily while in fluid condition at 45° C. After incubation at 42° C a pink ring or pellicle developed on the surface of the medium. No growth was observed in the interior. Bucher's anaerobic method also indicated that the organism was a strict aerobe. In- oculated dextrose-formate agar tubes were placed inside larger tubes containing at the bot- tom 4 grams of pyrogallol plus 10 cubic centimeters of 10 percent sodium hydroxide solution. The larger tubes were then tightly stoppered. No gromrth was observed after several days incubation. According to a study by Stuart (1940b) the growth of red chromogenic, halophilic bac- teria appears to be stijnulated by a slight reduction of the oxygen tension. It was sug- gested that the tendency of these organisms to be strictly surface growers might be a sur- face tension phenomenon. Liquefaction of Gelatin The reddening organism from both the pink and the cherry-red cultures was inoculated into tubes of 10 percent plain and nutrient gelation containing 5 percent salt. Good growth was noticeable in both types of gelatin after 24 hours incubation. After two days incuba- tion, the tubes were cooled in the refrigerator for two hours. All the cultures gelled, showing that much of the gelatin had not yet been transformed. Inoculated tubes containing the gelatin media of either type would not re-solidify after incubation for 15 days, al- though the cultures were in the refrigerator for twenty hours. Control tubes did solidify 70 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES under the same conditions o This indicated that after the longer growth period little or none of the inoculated gelatin remained unchanged, Chromogeneaia The cultures of the reddening organism varied in color from pale pink to cherry-red. In gelatin media, the coloration was more pronounced when beef extract or peptone had been added. This showed that the protein constituents provided better conditions for the produc- tion of pignent. In nutrient agar, those cultures which were grown at the prevailing room temperature of 25° to 30° C exhibited a much darker coloration than those incubated at i*2°Co Also, the nutrient agar media that contained 5 percent salt produced growth of deeper color than those containing 0, 10, or 15 percent. Action on Nitrates Broth tubes and agar slants containing 0.1 percent potassium nitrate, 5 percent sodium chloride, beef extract, and peptone were inoculated with the reddening organism and then incubated at U20 C for four days. Absence of gas formation was indicated by the lack of foam in the broth tubes and the non-appearaince of cracks in the agar slants. The test for nitrite, through the use of sulphanilic acid and alpha-naphthylamine reagents, was negative. As good growths had been produced in the above-mentioned media, it was felt desirable to determine whether the nitrate had been completely reduced beyond the nitrite stage. The test for the presence of nitrates was carried out by adding a pinch of zinc dust to the tubes to which the nitrite reagents had been added. The characteristic pink color which developed after a few minutes showed that at least some of the nitrate had remained un- reduced. Indole Production The test for indole was jjerformed by the method of Ehrlich and also by the Gore modi- fication of that method. The medium used was a one percent solution of bacto-tryptone to which had been added 5 percent of sodium chloride. The tests were carried out after incu- bation at 42° C for one-day and four-day periods. There was good growth in all the in- oculated tubes, but the tests for indole were negative. Action with Various Organic Compounds To characterize the reddening organism further tests were carried out to determine whether it would produce gas or alter the pH of the substratum when grown in culture media to which certain carbohydrates, alcohols, or glucosides had been added. According to Bergey et al (1939), Paeudomonas sailinaria does not produce acid in media containing carbohydrate. The test compounds were dissolved in approximately four parts of water, and the acidity was adjusted to a pH between 6,8 and 7.0, The various solutions were separately autoclaved for 15 minutes at 15 pounds pressure, and then the containers were plunged into cold water. Sufficient solution was added to the basal media to give a final concentration of the test compound of 0.5 to 0,6 percent, and the pH was, then brought to between 6.8 and 7,0, The basal media used were broth and agar, each containing beef-peptone plus 5 percent salt. Inoculations were made into Durham Termentation tubes and agar shake cultures so that gas production could be detected. These cultures, along with uninoculated Durham-tube con- trols, were then incubated at U2° C. The organism grew well in all the test media, but it developed somewhat more luxuriantly, forming a surface ring or pellicle, in those cultures that contained 1-arabinose, d-xylose , d-galactose, lactose, or dulcitol. After 72 hours of incubation, there were no visible evidences of gas production in either the Durham fer- mentation tubes or the agar shake cultures. After 3 and 8-day periods of incubation, the pH values of the media in both the in- oculated and sterile Durham fermentation tubes were determined with a Beckman pH meter. The results are summarized in Table 3, 71 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES In the cases of seven media, those containing dextrose, fructose, sucrose, maltose, dextrin, mannitol, or d-sorbitol, the pH values of the inoculated tubes fell significantly (0.9 to 1.3 units) below the values of the sterile tubes, during the first 3 days of incuba- tion. During the next 5 days, the pH values of the seeded dextrose, sucrose, dextrin, and mannitol cultures continued to fall slightly faster than the values of the corresponding controls, the differences between the two sets reaching 1.0 to 1.5 pH units. In the cases of fructose and maltose the additional incubation produced almost equal lowering of the pH values in both the seeded and unseeded tubes. However, with the d-sorbitol medium the trend was reversed. D'oring the 5 additional days the pH increased in the inoculated tube and fell in the control. Where at the end of 3 days of incubatiop the pH of the seeded medium had been 1.08 units below that of the control, at the end of 8 days the difference was only 0.30 units. The six inoculated tubes that contained l-arabinose, d-xylose, d-galactose, lactose, dulcitol, or salicin showed, after 8 days of incubation, pH values that were 0.5 to 1.3 units higher than in similarly treated controls. However , in the cases of d-xylose, lactose, dulcitol, and salicin no significant differences were apparent from the measurements that had been made after the first 3 days of incubation. No significant differences between the pH values of the sterile and inoculated tubes were observed in the case of the raffinose medium. Table 3 - pH Changes Caused by the Reddening Organism 1 n Various Organic Media i^ Carbon Compounds Tested 1-Arabinose, C.P. d-Xylose, C.P. Dextrose, U.S.P, Fructose, C.P, d-Galactose, C.P. Sucrose, C.P. Maltose, C.P. Lactose, Bacto Raffinose, C.P. Dextrin Mannitol, pure Dulcitol, C.P. d-Sorbitol, C.P. Salicin. H. P. 3 Days Incubation pH Determinations After Inoculated Control 8 Days Incubation Inoculated Control 7.50 7.22 6.12 6.22 7.06 6.22 6.15 7.37 7.12 6.04 6.25 7.44 6.20 7.12 7.03 7.01 7.03 7.17 7.12 7.18 7.27 7.27 7.25 7.32 7.25 7.25 7.28 7.36 1 /Media consisted of nutrient broth, 5? sajt, and from 0.5 compound. A loopful from 24-hour agar slant culture was out at 42°C. 8.20 7.60 5.73 5.76 7.55 5.83 5.65 7.46 7.16 5.53 5.85 7.75 6.53 7.33 6.86 6.85 6.96 6.76 7.05 7.03 6.73 6.90 7.20 7.06 7.20 6.96 6.83 6.86 to 0.6^ of the indicated test added, and incubation carried CHEMICAL CONTROL OF REDDENING ORGANISM Most investigators have found that sufficient heat will kill the reddening bacteria. For example, Harrison and Kennedy (1922) recommended that solar sea-salt be sterilized by dry heat at 100° C for 30 minutes in a kiln. Petrova (1935) suggested 120° C for the same time. This method, however, has the great disadvantage that the sterile product may very easily be recontaminated from infected floors, equipment, or storage rooms. For this reason tests were made of various chemical agents to determine whether one could be found that would inhibit the growth from the time the fish was preserved to the time it was desalted by the consamer. Some salteries have found that the addition of sodium benzoate or boric acid to the salt is of limited value in retarding the growth of the red- dening organisms, but in spite of the wide-soread use of these agents, many thousnads of dollars worth of salted fish have been lost each year (Stuart, 1940b). Harvey (1943) found that 0.3 to .0.7 percent of a mixture of benzoic acid with an e4ual weight of sodium or magnesium benzoate would inhibit mold growth in kippered fish without 72 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES irapadring the color or flavor. Potassium nitrate is another agent often used in the pres- ervation of meat products, sometimes in conbination with boric acid, borax, and sodium chloride (Leach and Winton, 1914) t According to Framk and Hess (1941), salt-fish was effectively protected against "brown halophilic mold" by being dipped for 30 seconds in an 0.8 molar solution of sodium propion- ate in salt brine. Macy (1943) reported that sodium or calcium propionate could be safely used to inhibit mold growth in food products for a reasonable period of time. Since some data were already available on the toxicity and flavor effect of the above- mentioned chemicals when used in food preservation, it was decided to test their action in the control of the reddening organism. First, their ability to inhibit the development of reddening in culture media was determined. Then, when it became apparent that acidic magnesium benzoate, a mixture of equal parts of benzoic acid and magnesium benzoate, was the most effective of the agents tried, that mixture was tested further on the salt-fish itself. Trial of Reagents in Laboratory Media A pure culture of the reddening organism was transferred to an agar slant and incu- bated at 42° C until good growth appeared, A loopful of the culture was then transferred into 30 milliliters of codfish and nutrient broths containing approximately 5 percent salt. The codfish broth was prepared by boiling one pound (454 grams) of dry-salted codfish in one liter of distilled water for one hour, filtering and adjusting the pH to 7.0. Bacterial counts were made on the inoculated broths after 24 hours incubation at 42° C. One millili- ter portions of the Inoculated broths were seeded into sterile tubes containing 10 millili- ter aliquots of varying concentrations of the reagents to be tested dissolved in 5 percent sodium chloride. The seeded tubes and blanks were incubated at 42° C. After intervals of 10, 30, and 60 minutes and 24 hours incubation, the tubes were removed, thoroughly shaken, and three streaks were made from each tube on plates of codfish and nutrient agars . The streaked plates were examined after 48 hours incubation for colonies of the reddening organism. Growth in three streaks was classified as "abundant", in two streaks as "moderate", in one streak as "scant", and no growth in any of the streaks as "sterile". The lowest effective con- centrations of the various reagents producing sterile plates are recorded in Table 4, The preservative agents tested were: potassium nitrate, sodium benzoate, acidic mag- nesium benzoate (a proprietary preparation known as "Brlno" composed of equal parts of ben- zoic acid and magnesium benzoate), boric acid, sodium hypochlorite, calcium propionate, and sodium propionate. Table 4 shows what concentrations of the preservatives were tried, whether they made the culture non-viable, and in what length of time this result was ac- complished. The acidic magnesium benzoate was by far the most effective control agent, even when used in low concentrations. It was found that 0,1 to 0.5 percent of this pre- servative destroyed the viability of the cultures of the reddening organism. Boric acid was effective in concentrations of 2 to 3 percent, but its toxicity as reported by Pfeiffer, Hallman and Gerah (1945) would tend to preclude its use in food. Sodium hypochlorite in concentrations of 20 to 100 parts per million also accomplished the extinction of the via- bility, but in actual use this chemical would probably soon lose its active chlorine, and the salted product would then be likely to be contaminated anew. Sodium benzoate controll- ed growth only when concentrations above 10 percent were used. This amount was shown by Harsbarger (1942) to be injurious to health and would, therefore, probably not be allowed by the various governmental authorities. Calcium and sodium propionate were tried in con- centrations up to 3 percent, which was the highest strength tested by Harsbarger (loc. cit. ) that did not prove toxic to rats. Both of these salts were ineffectual in the proportions used. Potassium nitrate, even in concentrations as high as 30 percent, was unable to pre- vent the growth of the reddening organism. Trial of Acidic Magnesium Benzoate on Salted Fish The promising results given by the acidic magnesium benzoate in preventing the growth of the reddening organism in laboratory media suggested that it would be advisable to con- duct supplementary experiments using the same preservative preparation under conditions 73 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES more like those of the fish-salting industry. Accordingly, a quantity of "grunts" (Haemulon parra and Haemulon sciurus) was dressed in a manner similar to that used in Venezuela, The unsealed fish were split along the backbone, while the belly flesh was left intact to keep the body in one piece. The viscera were removed, and the fish' were then washed in a 3 per- cent solution of unsterilized Arraya salt. Tahl« 4 - Action of Chemicals in the Control of the "ReddeainR" Organi sm Ctainical Concentration Tested Percent Bacteria Inoculated in Qiamical Solu- tion: Niimber Lowest ef fective concentration after: u 10 mins. Percent 30 mins. Percent 60 mins. Percent 24 hrs. Percent Potassium Nitrats 1, 5, 10, 20, 30 100,000 2] Ncjne Nona None Sodium Benzoate 1, 5. 10. 20, 30 100,000 2/ 30 10 10 Sodium Benzoate 1. 2. 4. 6, 8. 10 58,000 2/ None None Nona Acidic Magnesium Benzoate .002,. 01, .05.. 20, .50,1.50 58.00Q2/ Hone .5 .5 Acidic Magnesium Benzoate .1, .?, .5, 1.0, 1.5 690.000 2/ .1 .1 .1 Acidic Magnesium Benzoate .1, .2. .5. 1.0, 1.5 i.ooo.ooo*- 2/ .1 .1 .1 .1 Acidic Magnesium Benzoate .1, .2, .5, 1.0, 1.5 745.000 11 .1 .1 .1 .1 Boric Acid • ^ 1.0. 3.0. 5.0 100,000 21 3 1 1 Boric Acid .5. 1.0. 1.5. 2.0, 2.5 sB.oool/ 2.5 2 1.5 Boric Acid 2.0. 3.0. 3.5. 4.0. 45 690.000 2/ 2 2 ; 2 Sodium Hypochlorite 10. 20. 30. 40. 50. iy 100,000 2/ 20 1/ 20 A/ 20 4/ Sodium Hyp ochl or 1 to 50, 60. 70, MO, g-'. 100 4/ 5«.ooo 2/ 1004/ 100 4/ 1004/ (Jaicium Pronionate .0=^, .10. .50, 1.00. 1.50 690,000 2/ 1.0 1.0 None Calcium Propionate .10. .50. 1.00. 2.00. 3.00 1,000,000+2/ None None None None Calcium Propionate .10, .50, 1.00, 2.00, 3.00 745,000 2/ None Hone None None Sodium Propionate .05, .10, .50. 1.00, 1.50 690,000 y Hone None None Sodium Propionate .10, .50, 1.00, 2.00 3.00 i.ooo.ooo+i/ None Ncne None None Sodium Propionate .10, .50. 1.00, 2.00, 3.00 745,000 2/ None None None None \J Concentrations producing completely sterile plates. 2/ Codfish troth aid agar containing approximately 5 percent sodium chloride were used in these tests. J/ Nutrient broth and agar containing 5 percent sodium chloride were used in these tests, 1/ Parts per million. Four-pound (I8I6 grams) samples of the' dressed fish were placed in 4-liter beakers, and each sample was salted down with l.k pounds (636 grams) of Venezuelan "Arraya" salt that had been previously treated in one of the following seven ways: (1) sterilized by dry heat at 160° C for 1 hour; (2) sterilized and inoculated with 13,6 million reddening bacteria; (3) sterilized, mixed with 4.9 grams of the benzoic acidmagnesium benzoate pre- paration (equivalent to 0.2 percent of the total weight of fish plus salt) and inoculated with 13.6 million bacteria; (4) sterilized, mixed with 24.5 grams of the same preservative (equivalent to 1.0 percent of the total weight of fish plus salt) and inoculated in the same manner as (4); (5) not treated, used crude and unsterile; (6) not sterilized, but mixed with 0.2 percent (4.9 grams) of the benzoic acidmagnesium benzoate preservative; and (7) not sterilized, but mixed with 1.0 percent (24,5 grams) of the same preservative. In each case where the acidic magnesium benzoate was used, it was thoroughly mixed with the salt before being applied. The- fish were arranged so that 4 or 5 in each lot would project above the surface of the brine that would naturally form, and then the containers were covered with cheesecloth. After periods of 2, 5, and 14 weeks the samples were examined for visible reddening and the pH values and bacterial counts of the brines determined. The results of these ob- servations are listed in Table $• 74 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES After standing for 14 weeks, the samples containing the acidic magnesium benzoate show- ed no signs of reddening. The same was true for the fish that had been preserved with the heat-sterilized salt. However, the two batches that had been placed in the inoculated ster- ile salt, or in the crude Arraya salt, showed growth of the red organism on the surface of the brines and in the flesh that projected above the surface. Within these two brines, as well as in the other brines where reddening was not visible, the bacterial count de- creased throughout the observation period, until, after 14 weeks, all were nearly sterile. The confinement of growth to the surface, and the gradual decrease of bacterial count in the body of the brine, were further evidence that the organism is an obligate aerobe. Tabla 3 - Action of Acidic Magnesium Benzoate in the Control of Reddenlnj; Duriiif; Brining Total 'bacterial count oer ^_^_-__^— ^^_— — ^— — Brine Treatment \J pH oi brine afterj ml. 0^ brine after: Reddening afterj 2«ks. 5 wtcs. 14 wks. 2 irics. 5 wks. 14 ^«. 2 irics. 5 irics. 14 iri£s. Sterile Salt Sterile Sedt + Inooulu«2/ b.l5 6.50 b.21 5,400 7,650 20 Hone Hone Hone 6.31 6.35 6.21 450 1,600 20 Hone Hone Visible Sterile Salt+ Inoculum + 0.2% Chemical 6.19 6.35 6.00 31,300 50 30 None Hone Hone Sterile Salt + Inoculum + 1.0% Chemical %97 6,13 5-77 1.000 400 0 Hone Hone Hone Dnsterile Salt b.27 i.ao 6.51 545,000 2,950 150 Nona Visible Visible Unsterile Sal't + 0.2* Qiemical 6.13 6.23 5.83 100 950 70 Bona None Hone Unsterile Salt + 1.0% Chemical 5. 83 6.03 5.57 1,250 300 180 None Hona Hone ly "Arraya" salt from Venezuela used in the brine. 2/ Inoculum consisted of 13,600,000 bacteria. As expected, the pH values of the brines to which the acidic magnesium benzpate was added were slightly less than in the brines not containing the preservative. However, the values for the individual brines did not vary significantly during the observation periodo The acidic magnesium benzoate exhibited some additional and highly valuable preserva- tive effects beside preventing reddening. In all the lots, including the one treated with sterile salt, the fish, especially where they had been exposed to the air, became mushy in texture, stale in odor, and dark brown in color. The brines* also assumed the same hue„ However, the fish that had been treated with the preservative kept their natural texture and color and had a desirable odor. The brines formed from salt containing 0.2 percent of the preservative were only slightly brown, while those containing 1.0 percent were whit- ish. These results indicate that the preservative may have additional effectiveness through inhibiting oxidation or inactivating the autolytic enzymes of the fish. To test the preservative more severely, under conditions more favorable to the growth of the organism, 4 or 5 fish were taken from each sample (after it had been salted for 15 days) and were wrapped in wax paper. After 14 weeks of storage in this manner, reddening developed in all the saunples except the one in which the salt had contained 1.0 percent of the acidic magnesium benzoate. The fish which had none of the preservative were again observed to be mushy, blackish-brown, and stale, while the treated ones retained the natural texture and color of fresh- fish and a desirable odor. However, since there was red growth even in those paper-wrapped samples that had been treated with sterile salt or with salt containing 0.2 percent of the preservative, it was evident that although 0.2 percent might be sufficient to control reddeniijg in conmercial brine-salted fish, a higher concentration would probably be needed if the handling were careless o Samples of fish that had been kept for 15 days in the sterile salt and sterile salt plus 1.0 percent of the acidic magnesium benzoate were freshened and fried and then examined organoleptically to determine whether the preservative had imparted any foreign taste. No difference was noted in the flavor of the samples tested. This may have been due to the thoroughness with which the salt and preservative had been mixed. 75 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE INDUSTRY Processing Methods in Use at Present Processing methods for the preparation of salt-fish products in Venezuela at present differ from those of other salt-fish producing countries (see main report preceding this supplement), Salteries, as such, do not exist. Every fishing camp (rancheria) is a small unit saltery. Some are equipped with concrete tanks for "butting" fish, others are not. Very few are equipped for shade drying. The lack of fresh water is a seritfus handicap in salt-fish production. Sea water is used for washing fish .previous to salting and undoubted- ly is to an extent responsible for reddening. The salting procedure is similar for all species, with the exception of ojo-gordo, lamparosa, cazon and pez-espada, the principal difference being in the manner in which the fish are dressed. The heads of fish usually are not removed as in other salt-fish producing countries since the heads are used in soups, chowders , and in other esteemed native dishes . Shortly after the fish are landed, they are dressed. The procedure consists of laying the fish on a log, rock, or other convenient object and splitting the head. The split is continued along the backbone from the head to the tail so that the fish will lie flat. The gills, viscera, and abdominal membranes are then removed. A horizontal gash is made under the backbone on the thick side in order to insure good brine penetration. The flesh is scored longitudinally at one-half inch intervals, care being taken not to cut through the skin. The eyes are punctured to release water, and a cross-cut is made in the head Just behind the eyes. The dressed fish are washed in sea water to remove blood, slime, and psirti- cles of viscera. Scales are not removed. Fish are salted individually. Salt is rubbed first into the cut along the backbone, then into the eyes, head, and other cuts. An ad- ditional amount is rubbed over the surface. Approximately one kilo of salt for each three kilos of fish is used in salting. The salted fish are piled flesh side up, in old boxes, barrels, on rock platforms, or on boards, and salt is sprinkled over each layer. After the fish are salt struck (about 2k hours) they are placed in the sun to dry. Average dry- ing time is 3 to 4 days. The fish are often left out at night without cover. However, some rancheria operators, particularly in the Maracaibo ^rea, stack the fish into piles each night and then cover them with burlap bags or canvas. Flat-sided fish, sucff as oJo-gordo, chicharra, and lamparosa, are dressed by remov- ing the viscera and gills and scoring both sides diagonally at 1-inch intervals. Eyes are punctured to release the fluid. The fish are then washed in sea water, and salt is rubbed into the belly cavity, eyes, and cuts. The rest of the handling is as described above. Large sharks, skates, rays, and sawfish are eviscerated and skinned. Then the flesh is cut into longitudinal pieces about 1-inch in thickness . The dark flesh is not separated from the white. The flesh is scored and then washed to remove the blood and other extrane- ous matter. Salt is applied in the same manner and proportion as for other species. The smaller sharks, skates, rays, and sawfish are not ordinarily skinned. The heads are re- moved, and the remainder of the salting procedure is carried out as for the other species of fish. A "light-salted" fish product is also prepared. It is a regular practice among fresh- fish dealers, particularly at the municipal fish markets, to utilize unsold fish for this purpose. Considerable quantities of this type of wet-salted fish also are processed at the rancherlas around Maracaibo and elsewhere. The fish are dressed, and a light sprin- kling of salt is distributed in the cuts and over the surfaces. Fish prepared in this way may be sold wet or may be partially dried in the sun. In any case, fish prepared by these methods will keep only for 3 or 4 days at the most. The product is considerably more moist than the dry-salted type and contains a much lower percentage of salt. Very little, if any, brine-salted fish now is prepared smd consumed in Venezuela, Other Caribbean countries, however, do consume appreciable quantities of this type of product. Several species of fish such as herring (arenque), thread herring (machuelo), and chicharra (scad) are not now salted in Venezuela, These species and others may be later utilized for brine salting. Species such as Spanish mackerel (carite) and bluefish (anchoa) now 76 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES utilized only for dry-salting could also be brine-salted. The Caribbean markets normally import brine-salted fish such as alewives, salmon, herring, and other species, and these meet vrith excellent consumer acceptance. Suggested Improvements in Processing Methods to Improve Quality In view of the findings on the control of reddening, it is believed that the quality of Venezuelan seilt-fish products could be markedly improved, and hence storage life pro- longed, if certain innovations were introduced in the meJ,hods of preparing salt-fish pro- ducts. First, the solar evaporated salt used in the aalting of fish should be improved, and second, the procedure for curing should be altered. Salt Conditioning As mentioned in the preceding rvsport, Venezuelan salt has a fair degree of chemical purity. Improvement in chemical purity can be attained by more thoroughly washing out the adhering mud after the salt is removed from the crystallization basins. Conditioning of the salt to improve its value from the other standpoints should be carried out according to the following procedures: 1. Salt should be more finely ground, 2. Salt should be sterilized (100° C for 30 minutes). 3. Acidic magnesium benzoate (Brino) should be added to the sterile salt to inhibit infection by the reddening organism during salting procedure. The chemical inhibitor should be added in a concentration of 0.2^ of totaJ. weight of salt plus fish. Example: If the weight of the salt for each 100 pounds iU5>U kilos) of fish to be salted is 30 pounds (13.6 kilos) the amount of inhibitor to be added to each 30 pounds of salt would be calculated as 130 x 0.2 percent a 0.26 pounds (0.118 kilos) . Or for batch mixing, 26 pounds (11.8 kilos) of inhibitor for each 3,000 pounds (1,360 kilos) of salt. 4. Sterilized salt without inhibitor should be used in making up saturated brines for repacking brine-salted fish. 5o Conditioned salt should be packaged in moisture proof containers. Improved Salting Procedures Conditioning the salt in the manner described above would allow the preparation in the present fishing camps (rancherias) of improved salt-fish products by practically the same methods that have prevailed in Venezuela for centuries and to which the fishermen have become accustomed. Adoption of the following few suggestions would improve the products of the current dry-salting procedures and would help to make possible the expansion of brine- salting. Dry-Salted Fish lo The procedure for dressing and washing as described earlier is satisfactory at most fishing camps. A more thorough washing of the dressed fish to remove blood, slime and extraneous matter is recommended for those camps that carelessly wash the dressed fish. Use freshly caught fish only. 2. A fine grade of conditioned salt containing chemical inhibitor (acidic magnesium benzoate) should be used for salting the dressed fish. At least 30 percent salt by weight of fish should be used. 3. The fish after being struck through with salt should be stacked in piles on frames elevated above the ground and weighted down to press out brine before being placed out to dry (water-horsing or kencMng) . 77 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES k. The salted fish should be more thoroughly dried (5-7 days) preferably in the shade, 5o After drying, the fish should be stacked in piles under cover on frames raised above the ground, Brine-Salted Fish Very little brine-salted fish is now prepared in Venezuela, probably because of the short storage life of this type of product. The following procedure is suggested for brine- salting such fish as herring (arenque), thread herring (machuelo), scad (chicharra), Spanish mackerel (carite), bluefish (anchoa), mullet (liza), and drum (corbina). 1, Split fish (except herring) along the backbone from head to tail; lay out flat. Use only freshly caught fish. 2, Remove head, viscera and stomach membranes, 3, Make longitudinal gash under backbone on thick portion of flesh side, h. Score longitudinally at about 1/2 inch intervals, 5, Wash thoroughly, preferably in fresh water. Fresh water could be supplied to fish- ing camps in water-tight containers in which the fish will be packed, 6, Use at least 30 pounds (13.6 kilos) of conditioned salt containing inhibitor for each 100 pounds of fish, 7, Rub salt well into scores and along backbone, 8, Place fiah in layers, flesh side up, in water-^ight containers, each layer at right angles to the layer below. Sprinkle salt between layers. 9, Place weight on fish to keep under surface of brine. Strike for 3-6 days (depend- ing on size of fish) in shaded area, 10, When fish are struck through, repack in saturated brine made from sterile salt and fresh water, 11, Head containers and add saturated brine (sterile salt) through the bunghole until completely full, 12, Store in cool, shady place. For herring (arenque) the procedure is the same with the exception of the dressing operation. Dress by holding the fish in the left hand, belly side down, and cut behind the head -in such a manner that the viscera are removed with the head. Modification of the above procedure can readily be made for large central fish-salt- ing establishments if and when they find a place among the Venezuelan fish industries, PURE FOOD LAW CONSIDERATIONS The Pure Food Laws of some countries require that foods containing chemical preserva- tives be so labeled. Inasmuch as salt-fish products produced in Venezuela for export will undoubtedly find their way into countries that rigidly enforce laws to protect consumers, this requirement must be dealt with. It is believed that the chemical inhibitor recommended is not toxic in the amounts stated. Before using dry-salted fish, for example, consumers soak the fish to remove the salt. This procedure would also remove so much of the chemical that it would cause no deleterious effects.. 7b THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES In the case of brine-salted fish, the chemical would be diluted with the brine used in repacking. However, a statement to the effect that a chemical preservative is used must be made. In the case of dry-salted fish products intended for export the following sample state- ment for placement on shipping containers is submitted: Acidic maf^nesium benzoate added to product as a preservative. Soak in water before using. For brine-salted fish: Product contains acidic magriesium benzoate as an added preserva- tive . SUMMARY Red, halophilic bacteria were isolated from various Venezuelan solar sea-salts. The organism was rod- or round-shaped, pale pink to transparent cherry-red. Gram negative, and motile, and had no spores. Its optimum salt concentration in nutrient agar media was 5 per- cent, and it liquefied both plain and nutrient gelatin after 15 days incubation. It grew well at room temperature, 37°, and 42° C and did not grow at U° or at 55° C. It was a strict aerobe, did not produce nitrite or gas from nitrates and did not produce indole. It grew well in media containing carbohydrates, alcohols and glucosides but did not prtxiuce visible gas from any of them. It produced acid from dextrose, fructose, sucrose, maltose, dextrin, mannitol and d-sorbitol, high alkalinity in 1-arabinose and slight alkalinity from d-xylose, d-galactose, lactose and dulcitol. It did not affect the hydrogen ion concentration of raf- finose and salicin. The action of potassium nitrate, sodium benzoate, acidic magnesium benzoate, boric acid, sodium hypochlorite, calcium propionate, and sodium propionate in the control of the reddening organism in codfish and beef nutrient agar media was tested. Under these condi- tions the growth of the organism was controlled by acjdl'" magnesium benzoate in concentra- tions of 0.1 to 0.5 percent, sodium hypochlorite when ^C to 100 parts per million were used, boric acid in concentrations of 2.5 to 3 percent, and sodium benzoate in concentrations above 10 percent. Calcium and sodium propionate and potassium nitrate were not effective in the concentrations tested, which reached 3 percent in the case of the propionates, and 30 percent in the case of the nitrate. Trials carried out by adding acidic magnesium benzoate to salt during the brining of fish showed that 0.2 percent or 1,0 percent of the preservative checked the growth of the organism without impairing the flavor, odor and color of the fish. The chemical was found to be effective only in the 1 percent concentration when optimum conditions for the gro¥rth of the organism were provided. Acidic magnesium benzoate was noted to have a highly preservative effect in brine- salted fish, and also to exhibit indications of an anti-oxidant effect. Practical considerations of the findings on reddening control are considered. Process- ing methods in use at present, as well as salt conditioning and improvements in processing methods to improve quality, are discussed. Suggested procedures are given for the prepara- tion of dry- and brine-salted fish products. Pure food laws with reference to use of chemical preservatives in fishery products intended for export are discussed, ^ ■ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Appreciation is expressed to Jose San Miguel and Carmen M. Gonzalez, Fellows in Fishery Research, College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, University of Puerto Rico, for their assistance in this work. 75 THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES LITERATURE CITED Bergey, D. H., Breed, R. S., Murray, E. G. D. and Hitchens, A, P, 1939. Bergey' s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology. 5th Ed. 1032 pp. Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Co. Frank, M. and Hess, E. 1941. V. Studies on Sporandonama epizpum from "dun" salt-fish. Chem. Abst. 35: 7050. Harrison, F. C. and Kennedy, M. E, 1922. The Red Discolouration of Cured Codfish. Trans, of Roy. Soc. of Canada, 3rd Series, 16: 101-152, 4 pi. Harsbarger, K. E. 1942. Report of a study on the Toxicity of Several Food Preserving Agents. Jour, of Dairy Science 25: 169-74. Harvey, E. W, 1943. Kippered Fish Preservation, Fishing Gazette (New York) 60, No. 10, 64-65. Leach, A. E. and Winton, A. L. 1914. Food Inspection and Analysis. 1001 pp. illus. New York and London: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Macy, H. 1943. Mold Inhibitors for Food Products. Association of Food & Drug Officials of the U, 3,, Quarterly Bull. pp. 7-12. Petrova, E. K. 1935. Study of the pleomorphism of the agent producing the reddening of salt-fish. AnnaLes de I'Institut Pasteur 2:2 55- 263. Pfeiffar, C. C, Halljnan, L. F., Gersn, I. 1945. Boric acid ointment intoxication. Jour, Am. Med. Assn. 128, No. 4: 266-274. Rubenchick, L. I. 1936. Halophilic Bacteria of Salt Lakes, Microbe Variabilitv Conference, 1936: 171-174, Stuart, L. S. 1940. A. Effect of Protein Concentration and Cysteine on Growth of Halophilic Bacteria. Jour. Agri, Res. 61: 267-275. 1940. B. The Growth of Halophilic Bacteria in Concentrations of Sodium Chloride Above Three Molar. Jour. Agri'c. Res. 61: 259- 265. Bo THE VENEZUELAN SALT-FISH INDUSTRIES Stuart, L. S., Frey, R. W. and James, L. H. 1933. Microbiological Studies of Salt in Relation to the Reddening of Salted Hides. U. S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull. 383, 24 pp. illus. Tressler, D. K. 1940. Marine Products of Commerce. 762 pp. illus. New York and London: Reinhold Publishing .Co. MBL WHOI Library ■ Serials 5 WHSE 00705 8i 21555 ;