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ISSN: 0098-4590

Scientist

Volume 48 Winter, 1985 Number 1

CONTENTS

Notes on the Behavior and Ecology of the
Killifish Rivulus marmoratus Poey 1880
(Cyprinodontidae) ....... Martin K. Huehner, Mary E. Schramm
and Mark-D- Hens
Status of Calisto pulchella darlingtoni Clench
(Lepidoptera: Satyridae) Randolph W. Wisor and Albert Schwartz
Synapte Mailitiosa (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) on Hispaniola.......
Albert Schwartz, William W. Sommer and Frank Gali
An X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopic Study of the Dispersion
of Supported Platinum and Palladium Catalysts ................
Yang Jun-Ying and W. E. Swartz, Jr.
Public Opinion in Florida About Science and Technology ..........
Roger Handberg and William S. Maddox
Netesronsbatsior Florida's Lower Keys 2.2.4. ..... 5... 2520.
James D. Lazell, Jr. and Karl F. Koopman
Reproduction in the Florida Softshell Turtle, Trionyx ferox.........
John B. Iverson
Small Mammals of Melaleuca Stands and Adjacent Environments in
Southwestern Florida .......... Allen Sowder and Steve Woodall
A Portable Noncontaminating Sampling System for Iron and
Nanganesein sedimentshore Water ..2- 252.2525 5242. 2206s: sl
John R. Montgomery, Michael Hucks and G. N. Peterson
Sulfate Analysis in Saline Waters Using an Automated
Turbidimetric Method . . . . John Montgomery and Barbara Bricker
Mariculture of the Red Seaweed Euchema Isiforme ...............
G. G. Guist, Jr., C. J. Dawes and J. R. Castle
Chrysophyceae (Mallomonadaceae) from Florida. II.
New Species of Paraphysomonas and the
EigyimmBesiophyte\Chrysochronuling 222. oe ee ee
Daniel E. Wujek and William E. Gardiner
Mekmnowledgment OF REVIEWEIS, ... 5%. va602 00sec de eee

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

FLORIDA SCIENTIST

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Copyright © by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 1985

Editor: Dr. DEAN F. Martin Associate Editor: Mrs. BARBARA B. MARTIN
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QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
DEAN F. Martin, Editor BaRBARA B. MakrTIN, Associate Editor

Volume 48 Winter, 1985 No. 1

Biological Sciences

NOTES ON THE BEHAVIOR AND ECOLOGY OF THE
KILLIFISH RIVULUS MARMORATUS POEY 1880
(CYPRINODONTIDAE)

MartTIN K. HuEHNER, Mary E. SCHRAMM, AND Mark D. HENs

Department of Biology, Hiram College, Hiram, Ohio 44234

AssTrRACt: Fifty-one Rivulus marmoratus were found under partially submerged logs and less
frequently in leaf litter in intertidal areas of Big Mangrove Key, Florida, and 2 were found in
identical habitat on Grand Cayman, British West Indies. Gut contents of 21 R. marmoratus con-
sisted of insects, arachnids, copepods, polychaetes, vegetable debris, and fish scales. Aquarium
maintained fish captured terrestrial prey close to the water’s edge, but ingestion occurred ex-
clusively in the water. At 19-20°C R. marmoratus showed a significant (P<0.001) tendency to
seek terrestrial shelter. Fish also left water to escape antagonists and to move from diminishing to
full pools of water. During terrestrial forays, R. marmoratus burrowed through leaf litter with
slow, serpentine movements and effectively escaped danger with sudden and forceful tail flips,
and became quiescent during extended terrestrial stays. A review of R. marmoratus literature is

provided.

THE cyprinodont fish Rivulus marmoratus Poey 1880 was first reported
from Key West, Florida by Fowler (1928) as R. cylindraceus according to
Garman’s (1895) synonymization of the 2 species. Re-examination of original
specimens of both species led Rivas (1945) to reinstate R. marmoratus. Har-
rington and Rivas (1958) redescribed R. marmoratus and reported its known
range to include southern Florida (Biscayne Bay and Indian River areas),
Cuba, Bimini and Andros Island. These authors found the habitat of R.
marmoratus as shallow, brackish water ditches with bottom accumulation
of red (Rhizophora mangle) and black (Avicennia nitida) mangrove leaves.
Tabb and Manning (1961) reported R. marmoratus from similar habitats,
but also remarked that these fish were very tolerant of “stagnant, foul
water’. Harrington’s initial (1961) report of self-fertilizing, hermaphroditic
reproduction in R. marmoratus was followed by more detailed accounts of
reproductive physiology (Harrington, 1963; 1967; 1968; 1971; 1975; Har-
rington and Kallman, 1968; Kallman and Harrington, 1964; Lindsey and

2 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vou. 48

Harrington, 1972; Massaro et al., 1975). Bech (1968) observed egg-laying
abnormalities of R. marmoratus and McMillan (1979) described embryology.
Rivulus marmoratus bonairensis from the Netherland Antilles was described
by Hoedeman (1958) who later produced a taxonomic key to species and
subspecies of Rivulus (1961), and Kristensen (1970) studied ecological
relationships of R. marmoratus to other fishes on these islands. Thirteen
specimens of R. marmoratus were captured from mosquito control ditches in
Dade County, Florida by Thomerson (1966) and 2 additional specimens
were reported (Hastings, 1969) from tidal channels traversing mangroves on
Florida’s west coast. One R. marmoratus was found (Roessler, 1970) in an
Everglades National Park Canal, and Brockmann (1975) reported a living
but emaciated specimen of R. marmoratus far from water in damp peat on
Marco Island, Florida. Todd (personal communication, 1982) found R. mar-
moratus in Grand Cayman mosquito control ditches to be more common in
Rhizophora dominated forest swamps than in Avicennia back swamp areas.
Ease of aquarium maintenance and propagation has led to investigation of
R. marmoratus as a screening organism for marine bioassays of halogenated
organic compounds (Koenig and McLean, 1980).

Recent discovery of a large R. marmoratus population on uninhabited
Big Mangrove Key, Florida prompted the present field and laboratory in-
vestigation which provides behavioral and ecological knowledge about this
interesting fish.

MetHops—Rivulus marmoratus were collected from Big Mangrove Key (12-16 December,
1980; 26 August to 1 September, 1981; 13 December, 1981), located east of Big Pine Key, and
from the western shore of North Sound on Grand Cayman, British West Indies (10 December,
1981). Fish were captured by hand from under logs and leaf litter during low tide and by dip net
in similar areas during high tide. R. marmoratus for gut content examination were killed, placed
in 10% formalin, and later dissected. Thirteen Florida R. marmoratus ranging in total length
from 28 to 38 mm were initially maintained in a 0.20 x 0.30 m sand—bottomed aquarium with
red mangrove leaves and 3 x 6 cm pieces of black plastic film for cover. One third of the bottom
of this tank was approximately 2 cm above and gently sloped into 5 cm of 2/3 strength sea water.
When increasing the number of fish from 6 to 13 did not alter the tendency of R. marmoratus to
leave water, a second identical tank was established and maintained at 19 to 20°C with 7 fish
while the first was kept at 25°C with 6 fish to determine temperature effects. Both tanks were
maintained in environmental chambers with overhead lighting timed to current day length and
fish position was observed several times per day for 11 consecutive days. To determine reactions
to receding water level a 0.25 x 0.91 m aquarium was divided in half with a 6 cm high water-
tight glass barrier. The bottom of each side was covered with sand which increased in thickness
over the middle barrier to create a 25 cm wide land area separating the water into 2 pools. Pieces
of black plastic film were provided in both land and water for cover. Temperature was maintain-
ed at 25°C and dispersed, unidirectional light was provided by a window parallel to the long axis
of the tank. Under-gravel filters allowed selective removal of water by siphoning via bubbler
tubes and assured minimal fish disturbance. Fish movement was followed for 24 hr after water
level manipulation. After water fluctuation response observations were completed, the 0.25 x
0.91 m tank was used to observe social and feeding behavior.

Resutrs—Big Mangrove Key is 448 x 365 m and contains 4 plant
species that provided partial shade and leaf litter: Red Mangrove (Rhizophora
mangle), Black Mangrove (Avicennia nitida), White Mangrove (Laguncularia

No. 1, 1985] HUEHNER ET AL.— NOTES ON KILLIFISH 3

racemosa), and Salicornia sp., listed in order of decreasing frequency. Water
level fluctuation produced alternating dry and wet conditions but during
December, 1980 strong and sustained northern winds kept water from the
island for at least 5 days, leaving only small, isolated pools. Water tempera-
ture was 31°C in summer and 20°C in winter. Total length of Big Mangrove
Key R. marmoratus was: 9.5—49 mm (average = 24 mm). Fish were most
common under logs, usually with 1 to 2 per log. One large (1.5 x 0.26 m)
log sheltered 8 individuals, however. During low water conditions R. mar-
moratus were very difficult to seize because they flipped forcefully and ac-
curately away (up to about 0.5 m) to subsequently slither down crab holes or
rapidly burrow under leaf litter. Only 1 fish (9.5 mm total length) was
caught freely swimming away from cover. Habitat of 2 R. marmoratus
found on Grand Cayman was nearly identical to that on Big Mangrove Key.

Gut contents of 21 R. marmoratus from Big Mangrove Key (21 to 49 mm
total length; average 28 mm) consisted of mosquito larvae in 4 fish; spring-
tails; polychaetes, copepods, and vegatable debris in 3 specimens each; fish
scales in 2 individuals; ants, mites, adult flies, and an unidentified insect in 1
fish each, respectively. While most food items were small, 1 polychaete was
nearly as long as its captor and 2 R. marmoratus contained parapodia which
came from worms probably 3 to 4 times as large as the fish.

In the laboratory, R. marmoratus habitually remained under cover pro-
vided but occasionally ventured out to feed, chase another fish, or simply
wander a short (about 1 body length) distance. Usually 1 fish occupied 1
refuge, particularly when the fish was larger and more territorial. Often in-
dividuals slithered on top of their floating refuges and remained there until
disturbances triggered rapid retreat underneath. At 25°C, R. marmoratus
preferred an aquatic habitat but showed a strong tendency to move from
water to mangrove leaf litter on land at 19 to 20°C (X? = 293.9 for 1 df; see
Table 1). After 7 days of terrestrial stay, fish began temporary visits to

TaBLeE 1. 2 x 2 chi-square analysis of temperature effects on Rivulus marmoratus behavior.

Individuals Individuals Row

in Water out of Water Totals
19-20°C 121 306 427
25°C QA7 ll 258
Column Totals 368 317 685

x® = 293.9 for 1 df.
Critical value of x? for 1 df at 0.001 significance level = 10.83.

water, possibly in search of food. Draining water from one side of the di-
vided aquarium caused some R. marmoratus to move over the terrestrial
barrier within 20 min to 4hr, while remaining fish often clustered together
under cover until water was returned. Observations revealed this fish to be
quite aggressive, with nipping occurring often. Dominant individuals
showed enhanced coloration and when aggressive behavior grew into a

4 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vou. 48

chase, the pursued fish often flung itself to land. Aggressive behavior ceased
when fish clustered beneath leaves or pieces of plastic during water level
lowering.

R. marmoratus used varied locomotory behaviors. When preparing to
leave water, an S-shaped posture was followed by rapid elongation, result-
ing in a leap taking fish either to land or to the side of the aquarium to which
they adhered. In terrestrial habitat lacking nearby cover, R. marmoratus
could flip themselves to escape approaching objects (i.e., a pencil point) in-
variably nearly 180° from the threat. Flipping was accomplished by rapidly
pressing the tail’s lateral surface to the substratum. When among leaf litter,
R. marmoratus responded to threats by burrowing with lateral body undula-
tions while simultaneously pressing the chin downward. Fish which had
been out of water for 12 hr or more sometimes required a gentle prod before
responding to stimuli. R. marmoratus were capable of surviving without
water for at least 2 wk in moist mangrove leaves, and 1 fish accidentally lost
in moist gravel for over a month survived without apparent harm.

All efforts to induce feeding on living termites by terrestrial R. mar-
moratus were unsuccessful and fish flipped away when termites approached.
Aquatic fish devoured termites aggressively, however. Termites placed well
out of the water were visible to the fish which responded by slithering or
jumping out of the water to grab them. In either case, food was swallowed
in the water. R. marmoratus could repeatedly and accurately seize termites
from the end of a fine paint brush held up to twice the body length of the fish
above the water. Such leaps were preceded by the S-shaped body posture
described previously.

Discussion—Present and past studies indicate R. marmoratus to be
characteristic of littoral and sublittoral mangrove forests in the West Indies
and Florida. Its wide and locally abundant distribution is probably
facilitated by the ability of one hermaphroditic individual or fertilized egg to
successfully colonize such areas. Suitable habitat for colonization has not
been previously identified because of paucity of information, as most exist-
ing reports were concerned with R. marmoratus from man-made ditches or
canals. The habit of this fish to seek refuge under logs and leaf litter among
Rhizophora proproots has undoubtedly made it hard to find and therefore
led to its being considered rare by some previous authors. Many R. mar-
moratus exist on Big Mangrove Key because of its optimal habitat, with fluc-
tuating inundation and many logs associated with heavy leaf litter accumu-
lation.

The ability of R. marmoratus to survive terrestrial exposure for 2 or more
weeks without apparent harm allows it to survive fluctuating water levels
characteristic of its habitat. Not only can this fish survive in situ, but also it is
capable of moving over terrestrial barriers to more optimal areas. Cover-
seeking behavior during low temperatures has clear survival value on Big
Mangrove Key, where sustained northern winds bring cool temperatures

No. 1, 1985] HUEHNER ET AL.— NOTES ON KILLIFISH 5

and push water southward toward open ocean. Complete exposure of the
island occurs for several days under these circumstances and the ability to
survive without water prevents crowding of R. marmoratus in mangrove
fringe areas where predation is probably intense. Upon the return of water,
terrestrial stays also allow immediate resumption of normal activities in op-
timal habitat, and original territories may even be retained. Seghers and
Neilson (1981) studied (Rivulus hartii in ephemeral Trinidad streams and
found it to similarly live successfully in leaf litter for weeks during the dry
season. Like R. marmoratus, R. hartii tended to cluster together under
leaves. Cessation of aggression and initiation of clustering behavior by R.
marmoratus probably provides less surface area for evaporation and thereby
enhances survival.

Our observations indicate that R. marmoratus leaves water frequently
for protection, movement to new habitat, food procurement, and sometimes
for no discernible reason. TeeVan (1922) described similar behavior for
Rivulus stagnatus in the forests of Guiana, where it occupies small fresh-
water streams and pools. R. stagnatus flipped out of the water when dis-
turbed, attaching itself to vegetation or aquarium glass in an inverted posi-
tion. R. marmoratus performed similar flips, but usually landed on
aquarium glass in a vertical position; such flips often occurred for no detec-
table reason and fish remained on the glass for varying periods (5-20 min or
more) before flipping away again. It is likely that R. marmoratus displays
similar behavior in its natural habitat as well. Accuracy of terrestrial flip-
ping by R. marmoratus shows this movement to be deliberate and direc-
tionally selective. The extended nature of terrestrial stays by R. marmoratus
indicates a mode of air breathing, probably by the skin, must be utilized.

Gut contents of R. marmoratus consists primarily of arthropods which
apparently fall on the water’s surface or venture near its edge. TeeVan (1922)
found a smiliar diet for R. stagnatus. The presence of fish scales among R.
marmoratus gut contents shows that other fish were possibly attacked for
food as reported for R. hartii by Seghers (1973). Previously reported food of
R. marmoratus (Harrington and Rivas, 1958) consisted of a snail, a small
crab, and insects (including mosquito larvae, pupae, and adults). The
presence of polychaetes almost as large as R. marmoratus which had eaten
them, as well as parapodia of much larger worms, indicates this fish to be a
pugnacious predator. Feeding on polychaetes, vegetable debris, copepods,
and possibly other fish suggests that R. marmoratus may not be limited to
surface feeding alone, as one would suppose from its upward slanting jaws;
laboratory observations confirm this. The unique adaptations of Rivulus
marmoratus make it a potential mosquito control agent, but it may also
predate other small mosquito eating fishes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We thank Dr. J. W. Atz of the American Museum of Natural History
for his advice and help in obtaining literature, Dr. G. E. Pickford of Hiram College for her con-
structive criticism, assistance in identifying fish, and making her literature collection available,
and Hiram College for providing both faculty and student research awards necessary for comple-
tion of this project.

6 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vou. 48

LITERATURE CITED

Becu, R. 1968. Abnormalities in the egg laying of Rivulus marmoratus. Monatsschr. Ornithol.
Vivarienkunde Ausgb. Aquarien Terrarien. 15:64.

BROCKMANN, F. W. 1975. An unusual habitat for the fish Rivulus marmoratus. Florida Sci.
38:35-36.

Fow er. H. W. 1928. Fishes from Florida and the West Indies. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel-
phia 80:451-473.

GarMan, S. 1985. The cyprinodonts. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 19:1-179.

Harrincton, R. W., Jr. 1961. Oviparous hermaphroditic fish with internal self fertilization.
Science 134:1749-1750.

. 1963. Twenty-four hour rhythms of internal self fertilization and of oviposition by
hermaphrodites of Rivulus marmoratus. Physiol. Zool. 36:325-341.

. 1967. Environmentally controlled induction of primary male gonochorists from
eggs of the self-fertilizing hermaphroditic fish, Rivulus marmoratus Poey. Biol. Bull.
Woods Hole, Massachusetts 132:174-199.

. 1968. Delimitation of the thermolabile phenocritical period of sex determination
and differentiation in the ontogeny of the normally hermaphroditic fish Rivulus marmo-
ratus Poey. Physiol. Zool. 41:447-460.

. 1971. How ecological and genetic factors interact to determine when self fertilizing
hermaphrodites of Rivulus marmoratus change into functional secondary males, with a
reappraisal of the modes of intersexuality among fishes. Copeia. 1971:389-432.

. 1975. Sex determination and differentiation among uniparental homozygotes of the
hermaphroditic fish Rivulus marmoratus (Cyprinodontidae: Atheriniformes). Pp.
249-262. In: Reinboth, R. (ed.). Intersexuality in the Animal Kingdom. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.

, AND K. D. Katiman. 1968. The homozygosity of clones of the self-fertilizing her-
maphroditic fish Rivulus marmoratus Poey (Cyprinodontidae, Atheriniformes). Amer.
Nat. 102:337-343.

. AND L. R. Rivas. 1958. The discovery in Florida of the cyprinodont fish, Rivulus
marmoratus, with a redescription and ecological notes. Copeia. 1958:125-130.

Hastincs, R. W. 1969. Rivulus marmoratus Poey from the west coast of Florida. Quart. J.
Florida Acad. Sci. 32:37-38.

HoEpEMAN, J. J. 1958. Rivulid fishes of the Antilles. Stud. Fauna Curacao Carib. Isl. Uitg.
Natuurw. Studkring Suriname. 8:112-126.

, 1961. Preliminary key to the species and subspecies of the genus Rivulus. Bull.
Aquatic. Biol. 2:65-74.

KaLLMAN, K. D., AND R. W. Harrincton, Jr. 1964. Evidence for the existence of homozygous
clones in the self fertilizing hermaphroditic teleost Rivulus marmoratus Poey. Biol. Bull.
126:101-114.

Koenic, C. C., anp C. McLean. 1980 Rivulus marmoratus: a unique fish useful in chronic
marine bioassays of halogenated organics. Pp. 827-833. In: Jolley, R. L., W. A. Brungs,
and R. B. Cumming. (eds.). Water Chlorination: Environmental Impact and Health
Effects. Vol. 3. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc. Ann Arbor, Michigan.

KrisTENSEN, I. 1970. Competition in three cyprinodont fish species in the Netherlands Antilles.
Stud. Fauna Curacao Carib. Isl. Uitg. Natuurw. Studkring. Suriname. 32:82-101.

Linpsry, C. C., AND R. W. Harrincron, Jr. 1975. Extreme vertebral variation induced by
temperature in a homozygous clone of the self-fertilizing cyprinodontid fish Rivulus mar-
moratus. Can. J. Zool. 50:733-744.

Massaro, E. J., J. C. Massaro, AND R. W. Harrinctron, Jr. 1975. Biochemical comparison of
genetically different homozygous clones (isogenic, uniparental lines) of the self fertilizing
fish Rivulus marmoratus Poey. Pp. 439-453. In: Markert, C. L. (ed.). Isozymes. III. De-
velopmental Biology. Academic Press, New York.

McMitian, C. 1979. Embryological development of Rivulus marmoratus. M.S. thesis. College
of Charleston, South Carolina.

Rivas, L. R. 1945. The discovery and redescription of the types of Rivulus marmoratus Poey, a
cyprinodont fish from Cuba. J. Washington Acad. Sci. 35:95-97.

Roesster, M. A. 1970. Checklist of fishes in Buttonwood Canal, Everglades National Park,
Florida, and observations on the seasonal occurrence and life histories of selected species.
Bull. Mar. Sci. 20:860-893.

No. 1, 1985] WISOR AND SCHWARTZ—STATUS OF CALISTO 7
SecHers, B. H. 1973. An analysis of geographic variation in the antipredator adaptations of the
guppy, Poecilia reticulata. Ph.D. dissert. Univ. of British Columbia, Vancouver.

, AND M. A. Nretson. 1981. Adaptations of the cyprinodontid fish, Rivulus hartii,
to ephemeral streams. International Association of Fish Ethologists Symposium Abstracts:
Behavior and Ecology of Fishes.

Tass, D. C., AnD R. B. Manninc. 1961. A checklist of the flora and fauna of Northern Florida
Bay and adjacent brackish waters of the Florida mainland collected during the period
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American Killifish Assoc. 3:48-51.

Florida Sci. 48(1):1-7. 1985.

Biological Sciences

STATUS OF CALISTO PULCHELLA DARLINGTONI
CLENCH (LEPIDOPTERA: SATYRIDAE)

RANDOLPH W. Wisor (1) AND ALBERT SCHWARTZ (2)

(1) 14700 N.E. 9TH Ave., Miami, FLormpa 33161 AND (2) Mrami-DapE COMMUNITY COLLEGE,
NortH Campus, M1aMi, FLoripa 33167

Asstract: On the basis of 7 characteristics, C. pulchella darlingtoni is found to be a sub-
species distinct from C. p. pulchella.

Ca.isTo Lathy is the most species-diverse genus of butterflies in the West
Indies. It is the only genus of satyrids present there. Its center of diversity is
Hispaniola, where there are 14 species (Schwartz, 1983).

Calisto pulchella Lathy is 1 of these 14 species. It is widespread on the
island but primarily a lowland butterfly. The caterpillar feeds only on sugar-
cane (Riley, 1975).

Clench (1943) described the subspecies C. p. darlingtoni based on 4
males from the Cordillera Central in the Reptblica Dominicana. This sub-
species was defined as differing from C. p. pulchella in having “more exten-
sive and more golden fulvous area beneath (on the secondaries). The discal
and median lines that cross this fulvous area are thinner than in the typical
race. The subanal ocellus of the hind wing is also much smaller, as is the
subapical one on the fore wing.” Munroe (1950), the last reviewer of the
genus, accepted C. p. darlingtoni as a valid subspecies of C. pulchella, but

8 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vou. 48

he suggested that C. p. darlingtoni was the northern island (sensu Williams,
1961) subspecies and C. p. pulchella the southern island subspecies. The
island of Hispaniola, as it exists today, is in fact a fusion of two palaeo-
islands, joined at what is now the Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba plain. These
two portions of Hispaniola have been referred to in the herpetological (and
other biological) literature as the “northern” and “southern” islands. These
faunas are distinctive today, although there has been some interchange be-
tween them, either before or after the closure of the strait. Munroe’s conclu-
sion was doubtless due to his lack of specimens. He examined only 15
specimens of C. p. pulchella and only the type-series of C. p. darlingtoni. It
is strange that he had so few C. p. pulchella for comparison, because it is a
common lowland butterfly. Riley (1975:46), on the other hand, considered
C. p. darlingtoni as only a form of C. pulchella occurring “at higher eleva-
tions in the central Cordillera.” We present data that clarify the status of
C. p. darlingtoni.

Materials and Methods—Between 1978 and 1982, the junior author collected on Hispaniola,
and the senior author joined him during the summer of 1982. Specimens collected by us are in our
respective collections (AS, RWW). We also examined specimens in the collection of Frank Gali
(FG). We have studied 101 specimens of C. pulchella, 25 of which are from the presumptive
range of C. p. darlingtoni, and 1 male is a near-topotype of that taxon.

The following data were taken on each specimen:

1) FW length in mm, taken with a ruler, from body to apex.

2) UHW ocellus length and width, in mm, taken with a calibrated ocular micrometer under
a binocular stereoscope.

3) UHW ocellus longitudinal diameter, in mm, taken with a calibrated micrometer under a
binocular stereoscaoe.

4) UHW white dots (determined by inspection) in Rs-M;, Mi-Ms, and Mz-Msg.

5) UFW ocellar dot. The subapical FW ocellus encompasses Rs-Mi, Mi-Mo, and Mz-Ms, with
a white central pupillary dot on M;. A second white dot is very near or on the pale ocellar margin.

6) UHW ocellar dot. The subanal HW ocellus encompasses Cu;-Cusz, with a white basal dot.
This dot is within the ocellus or on the pale ocellar margin. All the above white markings are
composed of very few scales (for example, 1 UFW subapical ocellus has a pupillary dot composed
of only 4 scales); therefore a binocular stereoscope is sometimes a necessity. Any of these white
dots may be absent, perhaps due to rubbing while collecting specimens, or they may be truly

absent.

7) All color designations are from Maerz and Paul (1950).

8) Sex was determined by optical inspection of the androconial patches.

REesuLts— The specimens were separated into 2 samples: 1) Sample A—
Cordillera Central, 1400 to 1495 m, 20 males, 3 females; 2) Sample B—else-
where on Hispaniola, sea level to 1007 m, 43 males, 33 females.

Two specimens (1 male, 1 female) from Rancho Arriba, 670 m, are not
included in the above samples and will be discussed separately.

1) Sample A FW length in males varies between 22 and 24 (x = 23.3 + .04
-twice standard error of mean). Sample B FW length in males varies be-
tween 19 and 24 (21.9 + .04). Sample A FW length in females varies between
27 and 28 (2 specimens only). Sample B F'W length in females varies between
22 and 28 (25.4 + .4). The difference between Sample A and Sample B males
is statistically significant. The 2 Sample A females fall at the upper extreme
of the female Sample B mean. These data suggest that Sample A specimens

No. 1, 1985] WISOR AND SCHWARTZ—STATUS OF CALISTO 9

have FW lengths that fall near the upper extreme of Sample B; in males, the
difference in means is statistically significant.

2) Sample A UHW ocellus length in males varies between 1.6 and 2.4
(2.0+ .15). Sample B UHW ocellus length in males varies between 2.8 and
3.8 (3.3 + .08). Sample A UHW ocellus length in females varies between 2.0
and 2.8 (3 specimens only). Sample B UHW ocellus length in females varies
between 2.8 and 3.8 (3.4 + .12). The difference in means between Sample A
and Sample B males is statistically significant. The 3 Sample A females fall
below the lower extreme of Sample B females. UHW ocellus length is
regularly smaller in both sexes of Sample A compared with Sample B. The
lower extreme of Sample B does not overlap the upper extreme of Sample A.

Sample A UHW ocellus width in males varies between 0.8 and 1.7
(1.0 + .09). Sample B UHW ocellus width in males varies between 1.8 and
2.4 (2.2 + .06). Sample A UHW ocellus width in females varies between 1.0
and 1.8 (2 specimens only). Sample B UHW ocellus width in females varies
between 1.6 and 2.6 (2.1 +.09) The difference in means between Sample A
and Sample B males is statistically significant. The 2 Sample A females fall
below the lower extreme of Sample B females. UHW ocellus length is
regularly smaller in both sexes of Sample A compared with Sample B. In
males, the lower extreme of Sample B does not overlap the upper extreme of
Sample A.

3) Sample A UFW ocellus in males varies between 2.6 and 3.9 (3.3 + .09).
Sample B UFW ocellus in males varies between 3.2 and 4.3 (3.8 + .09). Sam-
ple A UFW ocellus in females varies between 3.8 and 4.0 (2 specimens only).
Sample B UFW ocellus in females varies between 3.5 and 4.6 (4.2 + .08).
The difference between Sample A and Sample B males is statistically sig-
nificant. The 2 Sample A females fall below the median of Sample B females.
UFW ocellus is regularly smaller in males of Sample A compared with
Sample B.

4) In sample A males white dots are always present in M,-M, and M;-Ms3;
a white dot is also present in Rs-M; in 32% of Sample A males. In Sample B
males white dots are always present in M;-Mz and M2-Ms3; a white dot is also
present in Rs-M, in 9% of Sample B males. In Sample A females white dots
are always present in M,-M2 and M,-Ms; a white dot is also present in Rs-M,
in 33% of Sample A females. In Sample B females white dots are always
present in M,-M2 and M,-Ms; a white dot is also present in Rs-Mi in 13% of
Sample B females. There is a higher frequency of white dots in RsM; in both
sexes of Sample A as compared with Sample B.

5) The subapical UFW ocellus always contains a central pupillary dot on
M;. The second white dot, however, may be marginal, non-marginal
( = within the dark ocellus), or absent. In Sample A males, 26% have the dot
marginal, none has the dot non-marginal, and 74% lack the dot. In Sample
B males, 50% have the dot marginal, 32% non-marginal, and 18% lack the

10 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vou. 48

dot. In Sample A females, all have the dot marginal (1 specimen only). In
Sample B females, 55% have the dot marginal, 42% non-marginal, and 3%
lack the dot.

Frequency of absence of this white dot in Sample A males is much greater
(74% ) compared with Sample B males (18%). Thus, 74% of Sample A males
can be distinguished from 82% of Sample B males by the presence (either
marginal or non-marginal) of this white dot. The situation is less clear in
females.

6) The subanal UHW ocellar dot may be marginal or non-marginal. In
Sample A males, 84% have the dot marginal and 16% non-marginal. In
Sample B males, 20% have the dot marginal and 80% non-marginal. In
Sample A females, all (2 specimens only) have the dot marginal. In Sample B
females, 58 % have the dot marginal and 42% non-marginal. In males, there
is a higher frequency of this marginal dot in Sample A (84%), whereas in
Sample B males, the dot is more frequently non-marginal (80%). Both Sam-
ple A females have the dot marginal and thus agree with the high frequency
in Sample A males. However, Sample B females reverse the trend shown in
Sample B males with a higher frequency (58%) of marginal dots in contrast
to non-marginal dots (42%). The variation in dot placement in Sample B
females is close to 1:1. .

7) The UHW “golden fulvous area” varies in intensity. In Sample A
males, the palest specimen (AS 7824) has the discal area Pl. 5A11 and the
costal area Pl. 5D12, whereas the most deeply pigmented specimen (AS
8820) has the discal area P1. 5B11 and the costal area Pl. 5E10. In Sample B
males the palest specimen (AS 5585) has the discal area P1. 11A11 and the
costal area Pl. 5C11, whereas the most deeply pigmented specimen (FG 131)
has the discal area Pl. 11C12 and the costal area Pl. 5G11.

In Sample A females, the palest specimen (AS 8694) has the discal area
Pl. 5A11 and the costal area P1. 5C12, whereas the most deeply pigmented
specimen (AS 8819) has the discal area Pl. 5D11 and the costal area Pl.
5E11. In Sample B females, the palest specimen (AS 1340) has the discal area
P1. 11112 and the costal area P1. 5H10, whereas the most deeply pigmented
specimen (AS-Haiti, no number) has the discal area Pl. 11C10 and the
costal area Pl. 5J11. The degree of variation is so great that there seems to be
no difference in depth of pigmentation between the 2 samples.

Likewise, the extent of the “golden fulvous area” (upon which Clench,
1943, partially diagnosed C. p. darlingtoni) is too variable to be tax-
onomically meaningful.

From the above, it is obvious that there are 2 separate biological entities
involved. In fact, judging from the data presented, Sample A and Sample B
might even be interpreted as separate species, because there is non-overlap
in measurements (length and width) of the UHW ocellus; in addition, there
are statistically significant differences in UFW ocellus and FW lengths.
However, 1 male (AS 8820) and 1 female (AS 8819), taken in copula, from

No. 1, 1985] WISOR AND SCHWARTZ—STATUS OF CALISTO 11

Republica Dominicana, Prov. de Peravia, 2 km SW Rancho Arriba, 670 m,
are intermediate between Sample A and Sample B in characteristics. These
specimens are not precisely geographical intermediates but are altitudinal
intermediates and also within the Cordillera Central. The male falls close to
the mean of Sample A in FW length, within the range of Sample A (but not
Sample B) in UFW ocellus, and at the lower extreme of Sample B (but not
within the range of Sample A) in UHW ocellus length, and at the upper ex-
treme of Sample A (but not in the range of Sample B) in UHW ocellar width.
The female falls on the lower parameter of Sample A in FW length and also
falls at the upper parameters of UFW length and width of ocellus in Sample
A. The female could be assigned to either sample with equal propriety.

ConcLusions—Clench (1943) stated that C. p. darlingtoni is a
subspecies of C. pulchella. Munroe (1950) suggested that C. p. darlingtoni is
the northern island subspecies and that C. p. pulchella is the southern island
subspecies. Riley (1975) considered C. p. darlingtoni as a high elevation
form of C. pulchella (he used no trinomials in the species). Our data confirm
Clench’s assessment: C. p. darlingtoni (Sample A above) is distinct from C.
p. pulchella (Sample B above). However, Munroe’s contention is incorrect;
C. p. pulchella occurs on both northern and southern islands. It is appro-
priate to rediagnose both C. p. pulchella and C. p. darlingtoni.

Calisto pulchella pulchella Lathy, 1899

Diacnosis. Males: UP dark brown; UFW lighter brown, UHW with ex-
tensive golden fulvous area, discally (palest) Pl. 11A11 to (deepest) Pl.
11C12, costally (palest) Pl. 5C11 to (deepest) Pl. 5H11; FW length
19-24 mm (x=21.9); UHW ocellus large, length 2.8-3.8 mm (3.3 mm),
width 1.8-2.3 mm (2.2 mm); UFW ocellus 3.2-4.3 mm (3.8 mm); UHW
white dots present in M,-M2 and M2-Ms, rarely present in Rs-M,; UFW
ocellar dot usually marginal, less often non-marginal and occasionally ab-
sent; UHW ocellar dot usually non-marginal and less commonly marginal.

Females: UP light brown with orange patches (P1. 11K11) either present
or absent (see beyond); UFW light brown, UHW with extensive golden
fuscous area, discally (palest) Pl. 11112 to deepest) Pl. 11C10, costally
(palest) Pl. 5H10 to (deepest) Pl. 5J10; FW length 22-28 mm (25.4 mm);
UHW ocellus large, length 2.8-3.8 mm (3.4 mm), width 1.6-2.6 mm
(2.1 mm); UFW ocellus 3.5-4.6 mm (4.2 mm); UHW white dots present in
M,-M:2 and M,-Ms, less commonly present in Rs-M,; UFW ocellar dot usually
marginal, less often non-marginal and rarely absent; UHW ocellar dot about
equally divided between marginal and non-marginal.

Calisto pulchella darlingtoni Clench, 1943
Diacnosis. Males: UP dark brown; UFW light brown, UHW with exten-
sive golden fulvous area, discally (palest) Pl. 5A11 to (deepest) Pl. 5B11,
costally (palest) Pl. 5D12 to (deepest) Pl. 5E10; FW length 22-24 mm (23.3

12 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ VoL. 48

mm); UHW ocellus small, length 0.6-2.4 mm (2.0 mm), width 0.8-1.7 mm
(1.0 mm); UFW ocellus 2.6-3.9 mm (3.3 mm); UHW white dots present in
M,-Mz2 and M2-Msz and occasionally present in Rs-Mi; UFW ocellar dot about
equally divided between marginal and non-marginal and less commonly ab-
sent; UHW ocellar dot occasionally marginal, more often non-marginal and
never absent.

Females: UP light brown with orange patches (P1. 12L12) at times pres-
ent; UFW lighter brown; UHW with golden fulvous area, discally (palest)
Pl. 5A11 to (deepest) Pl. 5D11, costally (palest) P1. 5C12 to (deepest) Pl.
5E11; FW length 27-28 mm; UHW ocellus small, length 2.0-2.8 mm, width
1.0-1.8 mm; UFW ocellus 3.9-4.0 mm; UHW white dots present in M,-Msz
and M;-Ms, less commonly present in Rs-M,; UFW ocellar dot about equally
divided between marginal and non-marginal and rarely absent; UHW
ocellar dot usually marginal and less commonly non-marginal.

Munroe’s (1950) suggestion that C. p. pulchella is the southern island
subspecies and C. p. darlingtoni that of the northern island is untenable. Ex-
amination of 3 males and 1 female from the southern island and 40 males
and 32 females from the northern island (exclusive of C. p. darlingtoni)
shows that C. p. pulchella occurs on both the palaeoislands. The populations
of C. p. pulchella on both islands do not differ appreciably in any way.

The 19 northern island females C. p. pulchella from southeastern La
Vega and San Crist6bal provinces differ from all other female C. p.
pulchella in that they are lighter brown above on the UP and 11 lack or have
barely shown the orange patches on the UPHW. The remaining 8 have the
orange patches, although they are duller than those of other females. The
males from the same area show no apparent differences from other males.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We acknowledge with enthusiasm the companionship and ability of
Frank Gali in the field, and to thank him for use of his material in the present study. Our work in
the Repaiblica Dominicana was facilitated by Eugenio de J. Marcano, director of the Museo Na-
cional de Historia Natural de Santo Domingo.

SPECIMENS EXAMINED

C. p. pulchella: Haiti, Nord-Ouest, 1.3 km S Balladé, 31 m (1 female, AS); Carrefour Lamort
(2 males, 1 female, AS) 3.8 km E Limonade (1 male, 1 female, AS); 3.8 km W Plaisance, 305 m
(1 male, 1 female, AS); 3.5 km S Plaisance, 336 m (1 male, AS); 1.8 km S Dondon, 366 m (1
male, 1 female, AS); 5.6 km SE Dondon, 336 m (1 female, AS); 9.9 km S Dondon, 336 m (1 male,
1 female, AS); l’Artibonite, 1.6 km E Carrefour Marmelade, 854 m (2 males, 2 females, AS); 4.0
km N Thomonde (1 female, AS); Quest, 19.7 km SE Mirebalais 183 m (1 male, 1 female, AS);
1.6 km N Saut d’Eau, 183 m (2 males, | female, AS); Boutilliers Rd., 1.8-2.1 km W Kenscoff rd.,
793-885 m (1 male, AS); 1.1 km S Decouzé, 610 m (1 female, AS); Lavaneau, 229 m (2 males,
AS, FG); Reptblica Dominicana, Puerto Plata, 8 km E Puerto Plata, + 15 m (5 males, 1 female,
AS); La Vega, 19 km W Jayaco, La Palma, 1007 m (1 female, AS); 5 km SW Piedra Blanca, 183
m (10 males, 5 females, AS, RWW); 14 km SW Piedra Blanca, 427 m, (1 female, FG); San
Cristébal, 7 km E Yamasé, 31 m (6 males, 6 females, AS); 16 km SW San Cristébal (6 males, 6
females, AS); La Altagracia, 16 km NE La Romana, 61 m (1 male, AS).

No. 1, 1985] SCHWARTZ ET AL.—SYNAPTE MALITIOSA 13

C. p. pulchella X C. p. darlingtoni: Republica Dominicana, Peravia, 2 km SW Rancho Ar-
riba, 671 m (1 male, 1 female, AS).

C. p. darlingtoni: Reptiblica Dominicana, La Vega, 6 km SSE Constanza, 1403 m (1 male,
AS); 10 km NW La Horma, 1495 m (19 males, 3 females, FG, AS; RWW).

LITERATURE CITED

CiencuH, H. K. 1943. Some new Calisto from Hispaniola and Cuba (Lepidoptera: Satyridae).
Psyche. 50:23-29.

Maerz, A., AND M. R. Paut. 1950. A dictionary of color: vii+ 1-23 and 137-208 pp., 56 pls.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.

Munrok, E. G. 1950. The systematics of Calisto (Lepidoptera, Satyrinae), with remarks on the
evolutionary and zoogeographic significance of the genus. J. New York Entomol. Soc.
58:211-240.

Ritey, N.D. 1975. A Field Guide to the Butterflies of the West Indies. New York Times Book Co,
New York.

ScHwartz, A. 1983. A new Hispaniolan Calisto (Satyridae). Bull. Allyn Mus. Entomol., 80:1-10.

Wiuurams, E. E. 1961. Notes on Hispaniolan herpstology. 3. The evolution and relationships of
the Anolis semilineatus group. Breviora. 136:1-8.

Florida Sci. 48(1):7-13. 1985.

SYNAPTE MAILITIOSA (LEPIDOPTERA: HESPERIIDAE) ON HIS-

PANIOLA—(1) Albert Schwartz, (2) William W. Sommer, and (3) Frank Gali, (1)
Miami-Dade Community College, North Campus, Miami, Florida 33167, (2) 215
Riverside Ave., Theresa, New York 13691, and (3) 156 South Melrose Drive, Miami
Springs, Florida 33166

Azsstract: The skipper Synapte malitiosa is reported for the first time from the Antillean
island of Hispaniola. The subspecific status of the Hispaniolan population remains uncertain.
Data are presented on collecting sites, temperature, and times of days of collections, as well as
behavior of the skippers.

SYNAPTE MALITIOSA Herrich-Schaffer is a small, inconspicuous skipper
that occurs on the mainland from Texas to Brasil and Paraguay in South
America; 5 subspecies are presently recognized (Brown and Heineman,
1972). In the West Indies, the species occurs on Cuba (Bates, 1935), the
type-locality, and Jamaica; Riley (1975) unaccountably overlooked the rec-
ords for the latter island. Both Antillean populations are currently regarded

14 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vot. 48

(Brown and Heineman, 1971) as S. m. malitiosa, despite the water gap (200
km) between the 2 islands. Brown and Heineman (1972) noted that:
“Absence of any representative of the species in Florida and the eastern Gulf
gives the species a rather odd range;” they might well have also added that
lack of records for the species on other Greater Antilles also adds to the
peculiarity of the distribution.

Bates (1935) listed only 6 specimens of S. m. malitiosa from the Cuban
provinces of Oriente and Santa Clara (= Las Villas). Brown and Heineman
(1972) did not give the number of specimens examined by them, but they
listed 13 localities, which blanket the island. Their dates extend over most of
the year, with more frequent captures in March, July, and December.

We have examined 7 specimens of S. malitiosa from the Dominican por-
tion of Hispaniola. These are from 3 localities, 2 of which are close to each
other, and the third removed some 250 km to the east. The first specimen
was taken on 27 June 1981 in the Reptblica Dominicana, Prov. de la Alta-
gracia, 16 km NE La Romana, 60 m, and a second individual was taken at
this same locality on 30 July 1981. The locality lies near the eastern extreme
of Hispaniola. The third specimen was taken on 24 July 1982 in the
Reptblica Dominicana, Prov. de Barahona, 12 km SW Barahona, 425 m, on
the eastern slopes of the Sierra de Baoruco, and 4 additional specimens were
secured in the same province but at 8 km NW Paraiso, 155 m, on 28 July
1982.

The series consists of 2 females (FG 705, WWS 683) and 5 males (FG 620,
706, AS 6694, 8403-04). Females are slightly larger (FW length 16 mm) than
males (FW length 14 mm). There is a problem as far as their subspecific
assignment, although one might logically expect that they are identical with
Cuban S. m. malitiosa. Riley (1975) characterized that subspecies as “Upper-
side dull medium brown, the male only with a tapering dull fulvous stripe
[italics his] from middle of inner margin to base of space 3 [ =M3 — Cui].
Underside similar, with a slightly yellowish sandy tint, the forewing stripe
much fainter, hindwing with a short broad but very indefinite dark bar at
the end of the cell.” He did not describe females. Brown and Heineman
(1972) characterized the Jamaican population of S. m. malitiosa as “dark
brown above, with a dull ochreous brown discal band in spaces lb to 3
[ = Ms; — Cu; to Cug — 2A] (produced basad in lb) of the forewing and with a
central narrow streak from the base of the cell to the middle of the outer
margin (rather paler therefrom to the abdominal margin) of the hind wing.
The female may lack these markings on its dull brown upper surface. The
underside of the forewing is uniformly dark brown, usually with a trace of
the discal band; the hind wing is dull, dark brown, with more or less con-
spicuous violet-grey scaling forming a dark oblique band from the lower end
of the cell to the apex. The shaft of the antenna and the fringe are obscurely
checkered.” Both Brown and Heineman and Riley have paintings of S. m.
malitiosa, the former a male from Jamaica, the latter a male from Oriente
Province, Cuba. The Jamaican skipper is much darker than that from Cuba,

No. 1, 1985] SCHWARTZ ET AL.—SYNAPTE MALITIOSA 15

and the FW fulvous or ochreous diagonal band is more extensive in the
Cuban specimen than that from Jamaica. But both paintings clearly show
UN dark margins: a dark line bordering the UPFW fulvous area and a dark
UHW bar more or less horizontally dividing the paler chraceous to orange-
brown UHW color into equal halves.

Our series is not sexually dichromatic. The UPHW cell area is brown,
margined both costally and toward the anal margin with broad areas of dull
tan. The UN of both FW and HW is rather uniform dull brown. The UFW
lacks any sort of pale (ochreous) or dark brown markings, and the UHW
likewise lacks even the faintest indication of any dark markings. In contrast
to both the Brown and Heineman and Riley plates, our skippers are much
darker and have patterns that are much less contrasting. If one had to select a
population closest to the Hispaniolan skippers, he would select the Brown
and Heineman plate over that of Riley; still, the differences are striking. In
fact, the skippers much more closely resemble Howe’s (1975) plate of S. m.
pecta Evans, the northernmost of the continental subspecies. Yet, judging
from MacNeill’s (in Howe, 1975) description of S. m. pecta, our specimens
differ from that taxon in many details. On zoogeographic grounds, it seems
unlikely that the same subspecies (pecta) would occur on the Central
American mainland and Hispaniola, while another subspecies (malitiosa)
occurs on the interposed islands of Cuba and Jamaica. Another possibility is
that the Hispaniolan Synapte have been introduced from elsewhere. But this
seems less likely because the 2 samples are from widely separated areas and
neither is strictly coastal. The accidental transportation of skipper chrysalides
seems a very remote possibility. Finally, we cannot overlook the possibility
that the 2 populations are due to the arrival of vagrants, but this too seems
unrealistic, because we would then require 2 separate and geographically
widely spaced arrivals from the same source.

We suspect that the Hispaniolan Synapte are an undescribed subspecies,
endemic to that island. If this is true, then the questions arise: “Why has this
population only very recently been sampled?” and “Why, after extensive col-
lecting in both Haiti and the Repaiblica Dominicana from 1977-1982, have
we only now (1981) encountered the species?” There are no Haitian records.

In reply to the first question, S. malitiosa not only occurs with 2 other
small drab skippers— Cymaenes tripunctus Herrich-Schaffer and Panoquina
sylvicola Herrich-Schaffer—which are about the same size and have similar
ventral colorations, but are also much more common. All 3 species land on
the upper surfaces of leaves with the wings closed, and the collector shortly
has as many C. tripunctus and P. sylvicola as he wants from a particular
locality. Thus, S. malitiosa may remain undetected and uncollected, most
especially at localities where one or both of the 2 other skippers are common
and obvious. This is certainly true at the La Altagracia locality, which we
visited many times since 1980. There the dominant small drab skipper is C.
tripunctus; it was pure chance that anyone collected the 2 S. malitiosa in
1981. Return visits to this locality in 1982 yielded no further specimens.

16 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vou. 48

In reply to the second question, the same answers as to the first may ap-
ply—inability in the field to distinguish between S. malitiosa and the 2 other
similar species. The apparent absence of S. malitiosa from Haiti is likely an
artifact; much of that country has had massive ecological disturbance, but
we may simply not have collected in the proper habitats or under the right
conditions. Synapte malitiosa is probably not rare; for instance, once we
were aware of its occurrence at the Paraiso locality, we secured 4 specimens.

Because so little is known about S. malitiosa in the Antilles, it is ap-
propriate to give the circumstances and ecology of the 3 localities where this
species is now known.

1) 16 km NE La Romana. This locality is an abandoned dirt road through
lowland xeric woods, with a thick understory of cycads (Zamia sp.). The
dense woods have been minimally disturbed, so that most collecting was
done on the road. On 27 June 1981 we collected between 1100-1300 h;
although no temperature was taken, the weather was hot and sunny. At the
same locality on 30 July 1981, we collected between 1030-1230 h, and the
weather was once again hot and sunny. Butterflies (including skippers) were
very abundant on both occasions.

2) 14 km SW Barahona. This locality lies at 425 m, where a creek crosses
the road from the city of Barahona to coffee fincas and the village of Fa
Beswa in the Sierra de Baoruco. The area has dense mesic woods, and the
single specimen taken there was flying in shrubby growth along the creek
margin. We collected there between 1215-1400 h at a temperature of 34°C;
the weather was bright and sunny.

3) 8 km NW Parafso. This locality is an open stand of cut-over mesic
broad-leaf forest with a high canopy, lying between the road from Paraiso to
La Lanza in the uplands of the Sierra de Baoruco. The woods border the Rio
Nizaito, and the elevation is 155 m. On 28 July 1982 we collected here in the
morning (1000-1100 h) and afternoon (1200-1245 h). Butterflies were not
abundant nor varied. The temperature was 31°C, and the weather was hot
and sunny with high humidity. The Synapte were collected along the edges
of the woods adjacent to the river and in clearings in the woods themselves—
both basically open and well-lighted situations. At this locality, we observed
the behavior of the species. Each individual repeatedly used a leaf on a shrub
or herb (no more than 0.3 m above the ground) as a landing and sunning
site, where they rested with wings closed. If disturbed by the collector, they
flew away (either into the woods or into the open along the river) and tem-
porarily disappeared. If, however, the collector was patient, he had only to
wait at the original landing site and the skipper would return there again
within a very few minutes. In contrast to many other hesperiids, S. malitiosa
is extremely “nervous,” and easily alarmed. On several occasions, the mere
approach of the collector caused the skipper to abandon its post and fly close
to the ground and erratically (almost with a low spiral flight, followed by a
rapid dart) and disappear—only to reappear after a brief absence to sit once
more on the same leaf as it had been previously.

No. 1, 1985] YANG AND SWARTZ— AN X-RAY SPECTROSCOPIC STUDY 1,

In summary, we herein report on the presence of Synapte malitiosa from
the island of Hispaniola. We suggest that the Dominican populations differ
from S. m. malitiosa from Cuba and Jamaica and more closely resemble S.
m. pecta from Central America. On Hispaniola, S. malitiosa occurs in and at
the edges of both xeric and mesic forested situations; adults have been taken
in June and July at three Dominican localities, when they were active be-
tween 1100 and 1400 h at temperatures of 31°C and 34°C.

LITERATURE CITED

Bates, M. 1935. The butterflies of Cuba. Mus. Comp. Zool. 78:65-258.

Brown, F. M., anp B. HEINEMAN. 1972. Jamaica and Its Butterflies. E. W. Classey, Ltd.,
London.

Howe, W. H. 1975. The Butterflies of North America. Doubleday & Co., Inc., Garden City,
New York.

Ritzy, N. D. 1975. A Field Guide to the Butterflies of the West Indies. New York Times Book
Co., New York.

Florida Sci. 48(1):13-17. 1985.

Physical Sciences

AN X-RAY PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPIC
STUDY OF THE DISPERSION OF SUPPORTED
PLATINUM AND PALLADIUM CATALYSTS

{YANG JUN-YING”? AND W. E. Swartz, JR.*

Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620

Asstract: X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS or ESCA) has been employed to determine
the relative dispersion of a series of alumina and carbon supported platinum and palladium
catalysts. The metal/support ratio (R) as determined by measuring the intensities of selected
photoelectron lines (eg. Pt(4ds,2) and Al(2s)) is related to the extent of metal dispersion. If the
relationship between R and the metal loading (weight %) is linear and passes through the origin,
the relative dispersion of the series is equivalent. Evaluation of R for a standard series of catalysts
provides a means for screening the activity of a catalyst.

SUPPORTED platinum group metals have been employed as catalysts in the
chemical and petroleum industries for years. The catalytic activity for a sup-
ported catalyst is known to be a function of the dispersion and crystallite size
of the metal. These properties of the catalysts are often modified by suitable

‘Present address: Peking University, Department of Chemistry, Beijing, People’s Republic of China.
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

18 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vot. 48

chemical or physical treatments to meet the requirements of a specific
chemical reaction. The present study is concerned with a study of the disper-
sion and crystallize size of supported platinum and palladium on alumina

and carbon.

The dispersion of a supported metal is routinely measured via the selec-
tive chemisorption of gases such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen (Miiller,
1969). Metal particle size is often determined via chemisorption and X-ray
line broadening (Whyte, 1973). These techniques are often limited by the
nature and particle size of the catalyst. Recently, X-ray photoelectron spec-
troscopy (XPS or ESCA) has been employed for the determination of the
dispersion and particle size of supported metal catalysts. As the technique is
sensitive to all of the elements except hydrogen present in the near-surface
layers of solids, it seems ideally suited for such measurements (Edmonds,
1980).

The dispersed phase/support intensity ratio is related to the dispersion of
the metal over the surface of the support (Brinen, et al. 1975). The ratio is
also related to metal particle size (Fung, 1979). The dispersed phase/support
intensity area ratio with varying metal loading can also be employed to
evaluate relative dispersion (Scharpen, 1974, Briggs, 1976 and Duch, 1980).
In this paper, the results of an extension of the above studies are reported.
The relationship of the XPS intensity ratio of the dispersed phase/support
ratio, metal loading, and relative dispersion are demonstrated.

MErTHOops — Catalysts containing 1,5 and 10 weight percent (w % ) platinum and palladium on
alumina and carbon were obtained as powders from Alfa Products and/or Research
Organic/Inorganic Chemicals.

XPS MEASUREMENTS: XPS spectra were obtained with a GCA/McPherson ESCA 36
photoelectron spectrometer. Both Mg(Ka)(E, = 1253.6 eV) and Al(Ka)(E, = 1486.6 eV)
X-rays were employed to excite the spectra at 320 W powder. The base pressure in the sample
chamber was routinely 2 x 10°’ torr. Residual gas analysis using a Spectromass 80 RGA indicated
that the pressure was mostly due to H,O and CO/N). Typical spectra were recorded over a 20 eV
binding energy range for the C(ls), O(ls), Pd(3d3,2, 3ds/2), Pt(4fs/2, 4f7/2), Al(2s), Al(2p) and
Pt(4d;,2) electrons. The intensities of the core-electron lines were determined by using a
planimeter to measure peak area. The areas were normalized to a fixed accumulation time.

The Al(2p) and Pt(4f) binding energies are approximately the same. Therefore, their spectra
overlap and complicate the determination of peak areas. For the Pt/Al,O; catalysts, the
Pt(4d;,2)/Al(2s) intensity ratios were monitored. In other systems, the principal metal, (eg. Pt(4f)
and Pd(3d)), and support, (eg. C(1s) and Al(2p)), intensities were employed. The binding
energies were measured relative to a C(1s) energy of 285.0 eV. The specimens were carefully
mounted on double sized cellophane tape for analysis.

X-RAY DIFFRACTOMETRY: X-ray diffraction data were obtained on a Phillips X-ray
gonimeter equipped with a crystal monochromator and proportional detector. The Cu(Ka)
X-rays were obtained at a tube power of 680 W. The diffraction patterns were obtained at a scan
rate of 0.5° 26/min.

To estimate the size of the platinum crystallites, Sherrer’s formula (Eqn. 1) was used for the
(311) direction

Dy: = LSA (1)
(B?-b?)'/? cos 0

Here the constant K is equal to 0.89; B and b are the half widths of the sample and the quartz
standard, respectively, and Ds,, is the average crystallite size.

No. 1, 1985] YANG AND SWARTZ—AN X-RAY SPECTROSCOPIC STUDY 19

RESULTS AND Discuss1on—Catalyst preparations are subject to numerous
subtle and often unknown influences. Therefore, it is not uncommon to find
wide variations in activity between “duplicate” catalysts which were
theoretically prepared via identical procedures. In other words, there is no
guarantee of reproducibility for a given catalyst preparation. For this
reason, catalysts are generally screened prior to use. One meaningful screen-
ing procedure for a supported metal catalyst might involve the measurement
of its dispersion.

“Metal dispersion” is the ratio of the number of metal atoms (N,) in the
surface monolayers of the metal crystallites to the total number (N,) of metal
atoms in the sample. Relative dispersion (d) in percent, is then defined
(Eqn. 2)

d = (NJ/N,) x 100 (2)

The total metal dispersed would then be Wxd where W is the weight % of
the metal on the support. The amount of dispersed metal would be propor-
tional to the ratio of the XPS signals from the metal and the support. This is
expressed as

R = KWd (3)

where R is the XPS metal/support ratio, W is the weight % of the total
metal, d is the dispersion, and K is a constant.

Scharpen (1974) has correlated the Pt(4f)/Si(2p) peak area ratio from
XPS measurements to the metal dispersion as determined by Hz chemisorp-
tion for a series of Pt/SiO, catalysts with various metal loadings. The rela-
tionship was also examined as a function of the method of preparation. It
was shown that when R is plotted versus W % metal for catalysts with 100 %
dispersion, the data fell on a straight line which passed through the origin.
In fact, the relationship between R and W % is linear through the origin for
any given d%.

Duch (1980) also obtained a good linear correlation between the
Pt(4f)/C(ls) XPS ratio and weight percent over the range 1-10%. He em-
phasizes that the metal-carbon support ratio as determined by XPS is a useful
parameter for the determination of relative metal dispersion among various
preparations of a given type of catalyst.

Typical spectra for the Pt/C, Pt/Al,O3, Pd/C, and Pd/Al,O; catalysts
with 5% metal loading are shown in Figs. 1-4. None of the spectra as shown
have been corrected for sample charging. Figure 1 contains the Pd(3d3,2,
3ds,2), Al(2s), and Al(2p) spectra for the 5% Pd/Al,O; catalyst. Only the
Pd(3d;,2) electrons have been used to measure the intensity of the metal
signal. The spectra contain no evidence for more than one chemical state.
Figure 2 is the Pd(3d3,2, 3ds,2) and C (ls) spectra for the 5% Pd/C catalyst.
Once again, the spectra indicate only one chemical state for Pd and C. The

20 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vo.. 48

1.0
A B
1.0
0.8
0.8
> 0.6
g 2 06
2 04 =
z g
= 04
0.2
0.2
0.0 0.0
~ 84 80 76 72 68 64
‘ 340 336 332 328
348 cee Binding Energy (eV)

Binding Energy (eV)

1.0 C
0.8
2
Z 0.6
2
=
oy
AN
= 0.4
0.2
0.0
128 124 120 116 112 108

Binding Energy (eV)
Fic. 1. (A) Pd(3d3/2, 3ds,2), (B) Al(2p) and (C) C(1s) spectra for 5% Pd/Al,O; catalyst.

No. 1, 1985] YANG AND SWARTZ— AN X-RAY SPECTROSCOPIC STUDY

>

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

Pd(3d) Intensity

0.2

0.0
348 344 340 336 332 328
Binding Energy (eV)

oo

iO a

0.8

S
fon)

(=>)
nee

C(le) Intensity

0.2

295 291 287 283 279 275
Binding Energy (eV)
Fic. 2. (A) Pd(3d3,2, 3ds,2) and (B) C(1s) spectra for 5% Pd/C catalyst.

21

22

FLORIDA SCIENTIST

1.0
0.8
= 0.6
S|
2
a
3
x 0.4
0.2
0.0
90 86 82 78 74
Binding Energy (eV)
1.0
0.8
> 0.6
Z
vo
5
oO
= 0.4
O
0.2
0.0
295 291 287 283 279
Binding Energy (eV)
Fic. 3. (A) Pt(4fs/2, 47/2) and (B) C(1s) spectra for 5% Pt/C catalyst.

[ Vou. 48

70

275

No. 1, 1985] YANG AND SWARTZ—AN X-RAY SPECTROSCOPIC STUDY 23

10} (a A 1.0 B
0.5 0.8
Z 0.6 z 0.6 —
5 i eel
— a
= =
= 0.4 Se
0.2 0.2
0.0 ! [eee oe | se ae BS pee | : 0.0
90 86 82 78 74 70 128 124 120 116 112 108
Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV)
1.0 C
0.8
>
= 0.6
n
&
o
Be)
=
=
“S)
= 04
A .
0.2
0.0
325 321 317 313 309 305

Binding Energy (eV)

Fic. 4.- (A) Pt(4fs,2, 4f;,2) and Al (2p), (B) Al(2s) and (C) Pt(4ds,2) spectra for 5% Pt/Al,O,
catalyst.

24 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ VoL. 48

1.0

0.8

S
fon

Pt(4f) Intensity

=
a

0.2

0.0
90 86 82 78 74 70
Binding Energy (eV)

Fic. 5. Pt(4fs,/2, 4f;,2) spectra for pure platinum foil which has been argon sputtered.

difference in binding energy for the palladium spectra in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 is
simply the result of sample charging. Figure 3 contains the C(ls) and Pt(4fs/2,
4f,,2) for the 5% Pt/C catalyst. The broader lines in the platinum spectrum
indicate the presence of an oxidized platinum species in addition to the
metal. Comparison of these data to that from an argon sputtered platinum
foil (Figure 5) clearly demonstrates the presence of the oxide.

The Al(2p) amd Pt(4f) spectra (Figure 4A) overlap. Therefore, secondary
lines must be employed to measure the metal/support ratio. The Al(2s)/
Pt(4d;,2) spectra (Figure 4B,C) were measured to determine the Pt/Al,O; in-
tensity ratio for the Pt/Al,O; catalysts.

The data for all the commercial catalysts are compiled in Table 1. The
metal/support ratios reported are the average values for at least two
replicate measurements. The ratios are plotted as a function of metal loading
(Figs. 6-9). In the figures the spread of metal/support ratio is indicated by
the height of the data bar. Note that for the Pt/C, Pt/Al,O; and Pd/C
catalysts, the relationship between metal loading and metal/support is essen-
tially linear and passes through the origin. The correlation coefficients ob-
tained from linear least squares analysis of the data are compiled in Table 1.
For the Pd/Al,O, catalysts (Fig. 9) the relationship is far from linear. Also
note that there is a significantly larger spread to the Pd/Al,O; intensity data.

No. 1, 1985] YANG AND SWARTZ—AN X-RAY SPECTROSCOPIC STUDY 25

Pt(4£7/2)/C(1s)

Fic. 6.

Pt(4d)/A1(2s)

Fic. 7.

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00

0.00 5.00 10.00
Weight % Platinum

Pt(4f,,2)/C(1s) intensity ratio as a function of metal loading for Pt/C catalysts.
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
0.00 5.00 10.00
Weight % Platinum
Pt(4d)/Al(2s) intensity ratio as a function of metal loading for Pt/Al,O; catalysts.

26 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vou. 48

TasBLe 1. Effect of weight % platinum and palladium on the metal/support ratio.

Platinum/Carbon Platinum/Alumina
W % Pt Pt(4f;,2)/C(1s)* d% D311(A) Pt(4d)/Al(2s) * d% Dsi1(A)
1 0.0176 102 = 0.0562 111 _—
5 0.0967 99 72 0.196 95 49
10 0.199 100 77 0.399 100 54
r** = 0.99995 r = 0.99912
Palladium/Carbon Palladium/Alumina
W% Pd Pd(3d;,2)/C(1s)* d% Ds,;(A) Pd(3ds/2)/Al(2p)* d% Ds11(A)
1 0.0537 120 oa 0.292 — —
5 0.108 90 129 0.621 _— —
10 0.198 100 126 1.40 ace 115
r = 0.99697 r = 0.98621

*All data are reported as the average of at least two replicate determinations.
**r = correlation coefficient from linear least-squares analysis.

0.25

Pd(3d 5/2)/C(1s)

0.10

0.00
0.00 5.00 10.00
Weight % Palladium

Fic. 8. Pd(3ds,2)/C(1s) intensity ratio as a function of metal loading for Pd/C catalysts.

The D,,, data for the 1% Pt and Pd catalysts could not be measured via
X-ray diffraction. The diffraction pattern, if present, was extremely weak.
The D3;,, data indicate that the crystallite sizes are identical within ex-
perimental error for each set of catalysts. This verifies Fung’s (1979) indica-
tion that R will vary linearly with the metal loading when the size of the sup-
ported particles are constant. The palladium/alumina catalyst series does not

No. 1, 1985] YANG AND SWARTZ— AN X-RAY SPECTROSCOPIC STUDY Dail
1.40
1.20

1.00

c)

S
0
—

Pd(3d5/2)/C(1

=
fon)
ros)

0.40

0.00 5.00 10.00
Weight % Palladium

Fic. 9. Pd(8d.,2)Al(2p) intensity ratio as a function of metal loading for Pd/AI,O; catalysts.

show the linear relationship and therefore, one must conclude that the
dispersion and/or crystallite size of the supported palladium particles vary
from one catalyst to another within the series.

The linear relationship between metal/support ratio and w% for a
catalyst with given relative dispersion can be used to screen other lots of
catalysts. The metal/support ration of an “off-quality” catalyst would be ex-
pected to fall below the line while an acceptable one would fall on the line.
The magnitude of the difference between catalyst quality would simply be
evaluated by the deviation from the standard.

Conc.usions—The utility of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy to deter-
mine relative dispersion for supported platinum and palladium catalysts has
been demonstrated. The metal/support intensity ratio provides a rapid, con-
venient means for screening the dispersion and crystallite size of supported
metal catalysts prior to use. Deviation of R from a standard series of catalysts
will provide a means for predicting its activity.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— The authors wish to acknowledge the generous assistance of Dr. R.
Strom and Dr. A. Rosenzweig of the Department of Geology for their assistance with the XRD
measurements.

LITERATURE CITED

Briccs, D. 1976. ESCA and metal crystallite size/dispersion in catalysts. J. Electron. Spectros.
Rela. Phenom., 9, 487, 491.

BRINEN, J. S., J. L. Scumitt, W. R. DoucHMan, P. J. AcHorN, L. A. SIEGEL AND W. W. DEL-
cass. 1975. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy study of the rhodium on charcoal catalyst.
J. Catal., 40, 295-300.

Ducu, M. W. 1980. ESCA studies of powdered hydrogenation catalysts. In: Catalysis in Organic
Chemistry, W. H. Jones (ed.), Academic Press, New York, p. 133-153.

28 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vou. 48

Epmonps, T. 1980. The characterization of industrial catalysts with ESCA. In: Characteriza-
tion of Catalysts, J. H. Thomas and R. M. Lambert (eds.), John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.,
Chichester, p. 30-54. i

Fung, S. C. 1979. Application of XPS to the determination of the size of supported particles in
a catalyst — model development and its application to describe the sintering behavior of
a silica supported Pt film, J. Catal., 58, 454-469.

Mutter, J. 1969. Selective chemisorption methods for the determination of the metal surface
area in multicomponent catalysts. Rev. Pure Appl. Chem., 19, 151-165.

ScHARPEN, L. H. 1974. The dispersion of platinum on silica—correlation of ESCA and gas ad-
sorption data. J. Electron Spectros. Rel. Phenom., 5, 369-376.

Wurte, T. C. 1973. Metal particle size determination of supported metal catalysts. Cat. Rev.,
8, 117-134.

Florida Sci. 48(1):17-28. 1985.

Political Sciences

PUBLIC OPINION IN FLORIDA
ABOUT SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

“)RocER HANDBERG AND ‘?)WILLIAM S. MADDOx

“Graduate Studies and Research and ‘?)Department of Political Science,
University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816

Asstract: A survey of adults in Florida was conducted in 1981 to isolate the sources of sup-
port or nonsupport for science and technology within the general public. We report the distribu-
tion of support, the demographic correlates of support, and the level of support for specific policy
issues. Generally, supporters were of higher socioeconomic status and more informed, but other-
wise indistinguishable from other segments of the population. The most hostile were character-
ized as being “born again” Christians in terms of religious beliefs.

IN RECENT YEARS, science and technology policy issues have become in-
creasingly important and visible to the public. Conceptually, science and
technology are separate enterprises, but that distinction is rarely obvious or
relevant to the general public. We treat the 2 as synonymous despite dif-
ferences that exist. Given the generalized secular decline in diffuse support
for social and governmental institutions, the fear has been expressed that
public support for scientific and technological endeavors is declining and
that public opinion may become actively hostile.

Loss of public support is on one level unimportant because science, as
practiced at the research frontiers, is an elitist institution with little direct
public understanding or comprehension (Price, 1965). Since World War 2,
public support for science and technology has become a concern because the
public treasury has become a major funding source (Katz, 1978). Much of
the technology developed has had in the beginning some governmental in-
centives if not actual funding. Therefore, policy makers are sensitive about
how much the public supports the scientific enterprise. Scientists prefer ac-

No. 1, 1985] HANDBERG AND MADDOX—PUBLIC OPINION IN FLORIDA 29

tive support or nonhostile indifference. Public indifference allows the scien-
tific and technological communities to operate unhindered in their clashes
with the administrations in power (Greenberg, 1967).

Public apathy gave the scientific leadership an advantage until recently.
That situation is changing, however. The Reagan Administration’s cost
reduction efforts are not specifically aimed at science and technology policy
per se but the effects have made public support expressed through Congress
of greater consequence than previously. But public support is a 2-edged
sword because the public view of science may not be the same as that of the
practitioners. Controversies over issues such as creationism and in anticipa-
tion of future ones as the implications of the genetic revolution become clear,
the leadership in organizations such as the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science has begun efforts to improve the level of scientific
literacy within the general population. In effect, one is expanding the atten-
tive public for science and technology issues.

Our efforts are directed toward isolating basic attitudinal groups within
the general public. The public is conceptualized as arrayed along a con-
tinuum of support or nonsupport for science and technology as concepts, —
while attentiveness to science is the second dimension which is not necessar-
ily directly correlated to the first. We report on the distribution of support
for science and technology in the population, the demographic correlates of
support, and the level of support for specific policy issues.

Figure 1 shows the 2 dimensions of attention and support with the third
dimension of knowledge sketched in to illustrate that the 3 dimensions may
be heavily correlated but are conceptually separate. This conceptual distinc-
tion explains why many supporters of creationism fall at the upper right if
only knowledge and attention were considered without regard for support
(Handberg and Maddox, 1981). Those at the forefront of the creationist
organizations have formal scientific training, but retain a fundamental skep-
ticism about science and technology and the scientific method (Nelkin,
1982). In addition, the domains of science and technology must be separated
out by content. An individual may be very supportive of science in physics or

Attentive

III Knowledgeable

Nonsupportive I Supportive

Uninformed

II Inattentive
Fic. 1. Spatial pattern of support for science policy.

30 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vou. 48

chemistry, but retain a skepticism about biology because of his or her
religious preferences. Our focus is upon the support-nonsupport continuum
with some concern with how the other dimensions appear to affect the basic
patterning. The bipolarity inherent in the notion of a continuum should not
blind us to the fact that support for science is widespread in the populace
albeit with some significant reservations.

For the public, science and technology are mysterious endeavors
characterized by technological spectaculars and disasters. Public attitudes
toward scientists as a group are generally positive (Mazar, 1981). Public
opinion tends to be volatile indicating the lack of sustained interest and at-
tention paid by the public. Earlier findings considered technological spec-
taculars such as the space program rather than science as a generalized con-
cept. There have been relatively few attempts to systematically isolate the
various components of the public’s attitudes toward science and technology
(LaPorte and Metlay, 1975).

Analysis by Miller, et al. (1980) indicated that public support for science
continues, but public skepticism about its technological benefits is becoming
widespread. An important conceptual breakthrough in such studies was the
division of the population into science “attentives” and “nonattentives.” At-
tentives here, like foreign policy attentives, were generally more supportive
of science than were nonattentives; they were more educated, more
politically active, and primarily males in comparison to the nonattentive
group.

MeEtuHops — Earlier research (Handberg and Maddox, 1980) led to development of a Science-
Technology Attitude Scale (STAS). STAS distinguishes attitudinal groups within the general
public. The scale measures variations in public support for science and technology as a general-
ized attitudinal structure rather than an immediate reaction to some technological spectacular.
The hypothesis is that an individual who exhibits a high level of support (as measured by STAS)
will also manifest a higher level of support for specific technological and scientific change than
those individuals who score low. The proscience group is expected to differ from the less suppor-
tive group along several demographic dimensions notably education and religion.

Development of STAS was a 2-stage process. An initial sample of 242 undergraduates at the
University of Central Florida completed a 40 item schedule from which 10 items were isolated for
further analysis (Handberg and McCrae, 1980). To refine and finalize the components of the
scale, a small, stratified-random sample (N = 157) of registered voters in Orange County, Florida
were personally interviewed. From this analysis, a 4 item STAS scale was developed.

STAS delineated a distinct and reasonably well-defined set of attitudes toward science and
technology which correlated to differences in policy support. The proscience group was identified
as being part of the “attentive public.” This analysis was parallel to but isolated from the Miller,
et al. (1980) study. Also, it was suggested that proscience attitudes are a subset of the attitudes ac-
quired during the socialization and educational processes (if the 2 can be so distinctly defined)
which emphasize optimism and a sense of historical progress as the result of scientific and
technological endeavors.

The analysis here is based on a telephone survey conducted in January and February 1981, of
the Florida adult population, aged 18 and over. The sample design is based upon the Random
Digit Dialing method (Dalton and Reich, 1979). The respondent interviewed is also chosen ran-
domly using the Troldahl-Carter method which is a simplified speedier version of the Kish selec-
tion table. A final sample of 1019 respondents was successfully interviewed.

RESULTS AND Discussion —In Table 1, the percentage response distribu-
tion for each of the scale items is presented along with the response distribu-
tion from the initial pretest. The responses, while generally similar to the

No. 1, 1985] HANDBERG AND MADDOX—PUBLIC OPINION IN FLORIDA 31

pretest, do reflect some greater variability in the general population at least
as measured by the STAS scale. There are some distinctions worth noting
among the items before we analyze the scale as a whole. Combining the
strongly agree and agree categories and comparing them to the disagree-
strongly disagree responses, we find that scientific findings are generally ac-
cepted regarding smoking cigarettes and cancer, by a 79% to 13% margin.
Proscience attitudes are evident in response to the questions about scientists’
power (61%) and drug experiments (59%). This sample exhibits an anti-
science bent (48% to 39%), however, when asked about the sufficiency of
evidence for many scientific decisions.

TaBLe 1. Response distribution for science-technology attitudes scale items.

Response Distribution (%)'

Strongly Not Strongly
Agree Agree Sure Disagree Disagree

1. Scientists’ power and control

is far out of proportion to 4% 21 14 53 8

what it should be. (1)? (16) (26) (56) (2)
2. Many of our important scientific

decisions are based on 6% 42 14 35 4

insufficient information. (3) (35) (27) (33) (2)
3. Drug experiments with animals

do not tell us anything about 5% 28 9 51 8

what will happen to people. (1) (18) (15) (67) (5)
4. Smoking cigarettes does not 3% 10 8 49 30

cause cancer. (3) (6) (15) (55) (21)

' Responses do not add to 100% due to rounding errors.
Percentages in brackets are from earlier pretest sample (Handberg and Maddox, 1980).

The responses to the 4 items were combined into an index with a range of
4 as low score to a possible high score of 20. Ours is a decidedly proscience
sample; the mean, median, and modal scores were all around 14 and skewed
to the proscience end of the scale. The generally supportive pattern found
here is typically found in the American populace. Such a supportive pattern
appears to be part of American social and political culture which has a
strong sense of historical progressivism embedded in it. American civic
culture and its mythologies emphasize success and progress with science and
especially technology as important components in that success orientation
(World Future Society, 1977: Chapter 2). Therefore, to find our sample
generally proscience in attitude was not unexpected.

In Table 2, we measure the extent to which STAS scores are related to
theoretically relevant external variables. Earlier studies showed that support
for science and technology was not randomly distributed across the popula-
tion but rather tended to be disproportionately concentrated among certain
groups. Table 2 reports the gammas between the STAS and 5 categories of

32 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vou. 48

variables which we believe are relevant to attitudes toward science and
technology.

First, science attitudes do, as expected, have some demographic basis or
structuring. Supporters of science and technology tend to be of higher in-
come and occupation, the young, whites, and to a slight extent males. This
patterning parallels that found in the earlier NSF study. Secondly, a clear
link exists between support for science and technology and the educational
level of the individual. Third, we found a slight link between the use of more
detailed media for obtaining information about science and technology. In-
dividuals who used magazines or newspapers as opposed to television or
radio as their primary source of information were more supportive of
science.

TaBLE 2. Relationships between science-technology attitude scale and theoretically rele-
vant external variables.

Gammas with STAS

Demographics
Income 07
Age —.12
Race —.14
Sex / —.06
Occupation — .09

Educational Experience
Years of Education 2

Information Source

Media Used for Science Information .08

Media Used 07
Religious Attributes and Attitudes

Religious Preference .05

Born Again or Not 15
Political Attitudes

Trust in Federal Government — .02

Political Interest .02

Party Identification — .03

Ideological Classification 01

The fourth category includes formal religious preference and whether
the individual self-reported himself as a born again Christian. Science sup-
porters in this sample were slightly more likely to be Catholic and Jewish
adherents rather than Protestants. In addition, science supporters were
disproportionately drawn from those who reported themselves as not being
born again Christians. If religious fundamentalism indicates an antagonism
toward science generally, then the high percentage of the sample (41 %) who
espouse such views is a major threat to science in the not-too-distant future.
The creationist controversy alluded to earlier may be only the entering
wedge in a continuing battle for control over the scientific direction of
American society.

No. 1, 1985] HANDBERG AND MADDOX— PUBLIC OPINION IN FLORIDA 33

Finally, we compared 4 political variables with STAS to determine to
what extent science attitudes may be considered the expression of attitudes
toward current political divisions. Political trust is only slightly related to
support for science, indicating that what we are measuring here is not a
more general syndrome of support for authorities or elites, whether they be
political or scientific. Furthermore, there is no relationship between science
attitudes and either partisanship or ideological self-classification. In other
words, there is no liberal, conservative, Democratic, or Republican position
on support for science and technology, at least as expressed by this sample.

Po.ticy CorrELATES OF STAS — To test STAS as a device for distinguishing
between pro- and anti-science respondents, we also asked a limited set of
science and technology issue questions. The attempt was to present the
respondents with specific science and technology issues in several configura-
tions within the limitations of survey space. Questions were asked about
science funding, the space program, nuclear power plants, medical research
(including genetic engineering), and the laetrile controversy. The issue ques-
tions were not exhaustive.

Given the general character of the respondents, the issues were selected
for their general visibility, especially in terms of media coverage. Given the
low salience of science policy issues (especially in the absence of
technological spectaculars or disasters), the issues chosen were ones assumed
to have continued, if sporadic, public visibility over time. This selection
process minimized the effect of education upon the respondents’ ability to
identify and accurately answer the survey items. Generally, when a control
for educational level was introduced, no significant difference appeared be-
tween the lower and higher educated segments of the sample in terms of the
STAS scale. The more educated were more positive about science than the
less educated, but the differences did not wash out the ability of STAS to dif-
ferentiate between supporters and nonsupporters of science and technology.
Table 3 provides the simple correlations between STAS and the selected
policy issues.

Space program issues have long been found to have the highest levels of
support among the public but the lowest levels of intensity. That is, the
space program is positively evaluated but not to the exclusion of other more
important social goals. Studies have found general support until com-
parative decisions have to be made relative to other social values such as im-
proved medical care or assistance to the disabled. The pattern in Table 3 is
fairly clear: where the question is clearly a science issue only, the support is
there as measured by STAS. When other values intervene such as religious
values, STAS becomes less efficient as a predictor. Supporters become more
blurred as a group as do opponents, although the latter less so. As a result,
only 3 of the questions show the expected pattern. Where a high score on
STAS does appear to correlate with what might be termed a pro-
science/technology position.

An example of such a confounding variable would be whether or not the

34 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vou. 48

TaBLE 3. Correlations between STAS and selected issue areas.

ISSUES Gammas

1. Some say the space program is worth — .20
the cost because of the other benefits
we get from space-age technology.

2. Science has become so expensive that —.16
government has to increase its support
of scientific research.

3. Nuclear power plants are too dangerous. .08
4. Even if laetrile as a cancer treatment .07
is a hoax, it should be available for

people who want to use it.

5. Limits should be placed on experiments 01
with human fetuses.

6. The government should expand its support — .02
for genetic research.

7. Eventually scientific research may lead —.14
to a cure for cancer.

respondent was a born again Christian. Such a self-identification is impor-
tant as an indicator of intensity of religious views. Being so designated does
not necessarily tell us much about religious views except that the person
seems to be some type of religious fundamentalist. The extremely personal-
ized nature of the commitment has made born again status less useful as a
predictor of political attitudes than one might expect. This lack of political
focus does not mean there is no impact upon substantive policy views.

Table 4 presents the correlations between the STAS and the policy ques-
tions reported in Table 3 controlling for whether or not the respondent is a
born again Christian. The differences between the 2 groups are that STAS
readily distinguishes among those individuals who are not born again. The
exception occurs on the laetrile issue which is a peculiar issue because laetrile
has become an important symbol in the struggle against medical judgments
which exclude harmless therapies that do not cure an illness. STAS separates
out people who are somewhat hospitable to science in this particular area
from those who reject science and its rationality. For example, many of
the attacks on conventional cancer therapies are premised on the drastic
nature of the treatments and the neglect of human factors. Opponents favor
more humanistic or holistic strategies which emphasize personal control of
one’s destiny even in these dramatic circumstances. However, there is a
growing awareness among practitioners of the need for dignity and con-
sideration of psychic factors in treating disease; e.g., research on personality
and proneness to cancer and other diseases—heart attack, ulcer, ulcerative
colitis.

No. 1, 1985] HANDBERG AND MADDOX— PUBLIC OPINION IN FLORIDA 35

TasLe 4. Correlations (Cramer’s V) between STAS and policy items controlling for born
again status.

Items’ Born Again Status

Yes No
1. Space Program 2 B23 oe
2. Government Support of Research 21 28"
3. Danger of Nuclear Power .24 ASS
4. Laetrile .30* “22
5. Limits on Experiments . oot .24*
6. Support for Genetic Research .21 .20
7. Cure for Cancer 23 20%

(n = 361) (n = 515)

mp—<.0l) = p<-05.
‘ Exact questions are in Table 3.

SumMMaARyY—It is clear there is a set of attitudes toward science and.
technology which is distinct from more directly political issues. Having said
this, it is also clear that support or nonsupport for science and technology
issues is not a simple linear relationship. Rather the relationship is confused
and attenuated by the fact that science and technology issues
characteristically impinge upon fundamental social and religious views. The
revolution in genetic engineering challenges fundamental views about
human nature and its uniqueness held by many people. Whatever the
biological principles involved, the ability to shape human biology poses an
issue of human values. Earlier interventions, eugenics, for instance, while
important intellectually had less social impact because the techniques
available were inefficient. Science and technology issues are not singular
technical issues any longer (if they ever were) as evidenced by the con-
sultative mechanisms being devised to handle moral and technical issues.

Our results conform to earlier research findings about public opinion and
science and technology policy issues. The proscience group we describe here
is part of the “attentive public.” These individuals are of higher socio-
economic status, aware of some scientific information, reflect the entire
political spectrum as to partisanship and ideology, and indistinct from the
rest of the population in terms of trust in government.

The relationships between STAS and specific policy attitudes exist
primarily among the not born again category. Future public division over
scientific issues may then take the following form: the born again group will
be generally suspicious of scientific and technological change, while the rest
of the population will support or oppose changes depending upon their
general attitude toward science. These positions are not related to the usual
distinctions, liberal conservative ideology or overt partisanship. How then
will they be expressed? It seems likely that we will have another case of in-
terest group conflict defining public conflict. Well-organized, born again

36 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vou. 48

groups may battle usually less well-organized, proscience groups, a pattern
we have already seen in the creationist and laetrile controversies. The out-
come of the struggle may rest on the ability of the science-supporters to
mobilize that reservoir of general public support for science.

For the general population, our results indicate that exposure to science
is part of a socialization and educational process which teaches the person
respect for and support for science. That the scientific elite is attempting to
foster and maintain such positive evaluations can be seen in The American
Association for Advancement of Sciences’ recent efforts to present scientific
information in a more accessible format by establishing a new popular
magazine, Science 80, currently Science 83. More directly, Boulding (1980)
in his presidential address to the AAAS, said: “Nevertheless, the heritage of
science is a heritage of hope. By greater understanding, not only of the
physical and biological worlds but also of ourselves and the world of human
society, we can push the evolutionary parameters toward human betterment
and build a happier world for the human race even out of the fires of
catastrophe.” This optimism is reflected indirectly in the responses of the at-
tentive public. But one must note that this vision of a brave new world or
constantly expanding frontier is not congenial to all. Many are happy with
the world as it is, not as it might be.

LITERATURE CITED

Bou.pinc, K. E. 1980. Science: our common heritage. Science. 207:831-836.

Da.ton, R., AND A. Reicu. 1979. Florida statewide survey surveying procedures. Policy Sci-
ences Program. Florida State Univ., Tallahassee.

Devine, D. 1972. The Political Culture of the United States. Little and Brown, Boston.

GREENBERG, D. S. 1967. The Politics of Pure Science. New American Library, New York.

Hanpserc, R., AND J. L. McCrae. 1980. Science education and the acquisition of information
about science and technology: the two cultures emergent. J. of Res. in Science Tech.
17:179-183.

, AND W. S. Mappox. 1981. Science and politics: public attitudes about creationism.

Florida Sci. 44:228-232.

Katz, J. E. 1978. Presidential Politics and Science Policy. Praeger & Co., New York.

LaPorte, T., AND D. J. MetLay. 1975. Technology observed: attitudes of a wary public. Science.
188:121-127.

MarSHALL, E.. 1979. Public attitudes toward technological progress. Science. 205:281-288.

Mazur, A. 1981. Commentary: Opinion poll measurement of confidence in science. Science,
Technology & Human Values. 39:16-19.

Miter, J. D., K. Prewitt, AND R. Pearson. 1980. The Attitudes of the U.S. Public Toward
Science and Technology, Univ. of Chicago, National Opinion Research Center, Chicago.

NELKIN, D. 1982. The Creation Controversy. W. W. Norton, New York.

Price, D. K. 1965. The Scientific Estate. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge.

Watsu, J. 1982. Public attitude toward science is yes, but --, Science 215:270-272.

Wor tp Future Society. 1977. An Introduction to the Study of the Future. World Future So-
ciety, Washington, D.C.

Florida Sci. 48(1):28-36. 1985.

Biological Sciences

NOTES ON BATS OF FLORIDA’S LOWER KEYS

James D. LaAzELL, JR.,‘') AND Karu F. KoopMAN ”?

The Conservation Agency, 6 Swinburne Street, Jamestown, Rhode Island 02835;
and Department of Mammalogy, American Museum of Natural History,
New York, New York 10024”?

Asstract: Four species of bats have been recorded in Florida’s Lower Keys. The record of a
Myotis austroriparius may be spurious. Pipistrellus subflavus and Tadarida brasiliensis are
known from single individuals thought to have been waifs or dispersers outside their normal
range. Only the Antillean fruit bat, Artibeus jamaicensis, seems to have a resident population.
The zoogeographic significance of colonization of these continental islands from oceanic islands is
discussed.

THE EARLIEST record of a bat from Florida’s Lower Keys known to us is
that of Maynard (1872) for Artibeus, a genus of tropical, fruit-eating
phyllostomids widespread and often abundant on the oceanic islands of
the Caribbean. Maynard (1872) called his species Artibeus perspiccilalune,
an apparent misspelling for perspicillata, a name which until the early twen-
tieth century was generally used for large Artibeus of the jamaicensis-
lituratus group (Andersen, 1908).

Allen (1911) stated that the Lower Keys record should be disregarded,
but cited no reference; Hall (1981) believed he was referring to Maynard’s
(1883) paper, which is a verbatim reprinting of the earlier (1872) paper. It
seems probable that the record was discounted because Maynard stated that
the Key West bat “closely resembled in flight a species I had seen in northern
Florida two years before, but which flew so high that I was unable to shoot
them.” The notion that Artibeus occurred in northern Florida was so
preposterous that on this basis the Keys record may have been discredited.
No specimen of the Key West bat was preserved, but sketches were made
which were identified by Harrison Allen, the only North American bat ex-
pert at that time, as Arbiteus. It is therefore probable that Maynard was
mistaken in associating his Key West Artibeus with bats he had seen in flight
earlier in northern Florida.

In any case, on 3 February 1983, L. Page Brown photographed an Ar-
tibeus roosting in East Martello Tower, Key West (Fig. 1). Unfortunately,
the specimen was not collected. However, the forearm measurement can be
roughly calculated from subsequent measurements of features in the brick
wall substrate. This individual’s forearm was about 61 mm, slightly outside
the known range of variation of Artibeus jamaicensis parvipes as that form is
presently understood (range 54-60 mm).

Thus, we cannot now say whether there is an endemic Floridian taxon or
whether these bats are referable to the form now known as Artibeus
jamaicensis parvipes. That a resident population exists is highly probable

38 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vou. 48

Fic. 1. The tailless, leaf-nosed Antillean fruit bat, Artibeus jamaicensis, roosting in East
Martello Tower, Key West, Monroe County, Florida, on 3 February 1983. Photo by L. Page
Brown.

No. 1, 1985] LAZELL AND KOOPMAN—BATS OF LOWER KEYS 39

because big, tailless, leaf-nosed bats are regularly brought into the Monroe
County Extension Service offices on Stock Island (Jeffrey Fisher, pers.
comm. to Lazell). In future, specimens will be saved.

The next bat record is that of Hamilton (1943) for Myotis austroriparius.
This record was retained by Hall and Kelson (1959), but questioned by
Layne (1974). Layne (pers. comm. to Lazell) made no effort to determine
the basis of Hamilton’s (1943) record, but Hamilton and Whitaker (1979)
dropped it without reference or hint of explanation, as did Hall (1981).
Hamilton (in litt. to Koopman) states “I had a long correspondence with
Harley Sherman over the years and many visits with him in Gainesville. He
either told me Myotis austroriparius occurred to Key West or wrote me to
that effect. . . . I junked all my correspondence when I retired. I am not at
all sure the Key West record is erroneous.”

The record has never been corroborated. Field evidence (Lazell) fails to
support the notion of a population of any Myotis in the Lower Keys. The
record is hearsay at this time; it might represent a waif or disperser, or
Myotis austroriparius may never have occurred in these islands. .

The record of Pipistrellus subflavus floridanus from Sugarloaf Key has
been well researched (Layne, 1974; Hardin, 1975). One of us (Lazell) has
discussed this individual with all the principals involved: Stanley and Lois
Kitchings, who saw it and who still reside on Sugarloaf, and the late Jack
Watson, who identified it. The specimen, unfortunately, was not preserved.

In view of the facts that no additional individuals have been reported,
and that these bats have a characteristic flight pattern not observed by the
one of us (Lazell) who has done extensive field work in these islands, it seems
unlikely that a population is in residence. Hamilton and Whitaker (1979) do
not mention this record, nor indicate the presence of Pipistrellus subflavus in
southern Florida. Layne (1974) notes that the most proximate locality is Bas-
inger, Okeechobee County. It seems reasonable to conclude that the Lower
Keys record represents a straggling waif or a long-range disperser rather
than a population.

Richter C. Perkey introduced hundreds of Tadarida brasiliensis to
Sugarloaf during World War I (Stevenson, 1970). His purpose was to found
a colony that would control mosquitoes. The bats disappeared almost im-
mediately, and the species was not seen again in the Lower Keys until 31
January 1979, when Pat Rogers, then a State Park Ranger, captured one in a
building at Bahia Honda. Lazell obtained the specimen and turned it over to
Bruce Barbour, then employed at the University of Florida, Gainesville. The
specimen, however, was apparently lost (Charles Woods (in litt.) to Lazell).

While several other southern Florida bat species might be expected in the
Lower Keys (Lasiurus seminolus, L. intermedius, Nycticeius humeralis,
Eumops glaucinus), none has been recorded. On present evidence, the only
known species of bat resident in the Lower Keys is Artibeus jamaicensis. No
matter what the subspecific status of the population is ultimately shown to
be, its antecedents must have colonized across water from Cuba. Robertson

40 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ VoL. 48

and Kushlan (1974) have analyzed the avifauna of this region. They find
that 88% of the forms are North American. All of the Antillean immigrants
seem to be of very recent origin and have not differentiated from their
antecedents. The herpetofauna can be analyzed from Conant (1975). More
than 90% of the forms are derived from North America. Some, at least, of
the Antillean colonizers have differentiated at the subspecies level. Lazell
(1984) considered the land mammals (except bats). All are of North
American origin, and all the native forms are differentiated at least to the
subspecies level. These patterns seem quite reasonable in view of the
historical geology of the islands (Hoffmeister, 1974). The Lower Keys have
been quite recently united with mainland Florida. Even today, the water
gaps are small and the sea very shallow. The Bahamas and Antilles have
never been united with North America. The water gaps are broader and very
deep. Birds fly, soa 12% level of Antillean invaders is not unexpected. Many
reptiles and even some amphibians raft well across the sea, so a 10% level of
Antillean invaders is reasonable, excluding known human introductions.
Land mammals are poor rafters as a general rule.

Against this background, the presence of an Artibeus jamaicensis popula-
tion seems anomalous, at least in the absence of a suite of other bat species of
North American origin. Indeed, classic biogeographic theory predicts that
oceanic island forms should have a very difficult time colonizing the con-
tinental margins (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967). However, Terborgh and
Faaborg (1980) have shown that some Antillean bird species are superb col-
onizers and have successfully immigrated to many continental coastal
islands. Artibeus jamaicensis in the Lower Keys would seem to be a good ex-
ample of this phenomenon, and perhaps the first reported in a mammal.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS — We are indebted to L. Page and Marge Brown for the photograph of
Artibeus jamaicensis and the accompanying data, and to Dr. Charles Woods, Florida State
Museum, for searching for the Tadarida. Many residents of the Lower Keys have assisted in a
variety of ways; we thank especially Stanley and Lois Kitchings and William and Frances Ford.
The late Jack Watson was a frequent contributor of information and an inspiration to Lazell.
This project was financed by The Conservation Agency.

LITERATURE CITED

ANDERSEN, K. 1908. A monograph of the chiropteran genera Uroderma, Enchisthenes, and
Artibeus. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 2:204-319.
ALLEN, G. M. 1911. Mammals of the West Indies. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 54:173-263.
Conant, R. 1975. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central United
States. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.
Hau, E. R. 1981. The Mammals of North America. Second edition, revised, John Wiley &
Sons, New York.
, AND K. R. Ketson. 1959. The Mammals of North America. Ronald Press, New
York.
Hamiton, W. J. 1943. Mammals of Eastern United States. Comstock, Ithaca, New York.
, AND J. O. Wuiraker. 1979. Mammals of the Eastern United States. Second edition,
revised. Comstock, Ithaca, New York.

No. 1, 1985] IVERSON— SOFTSHELL TURTLE REPRODUCTION 4]

Harpin, J. W. 1975. A new record of Pipistrellus subflavus from Florida. Quart. J. Florida
Acad. Sci. 47:70-71.

HoFFMEIsSTER, J. 1974. Land from the sea. Univ. Miami Press, Coral Gables, Florida.

LaynE, J. D. 1974. The land mammals of south Florida. Miami Geol. Soc. Mem. 2:386-413.

LazeE.t, J. D. 1984. A new rabbit (genus Silvilagus) from Florida’s Lower Keys. J. Mamm.
65:26-33.

Macartuur, R., anD E. O. Witson. 1967. The Theory of Island Biogeography. Monogr.
Popul. Biol. 1, Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Maynapp, C. J. 1872. Catalogue of the mammals of Florida. Bull. Essex Inst. 4:135-140.

. 1883. The mammals of Florida. Quart. J. Boston Zool. Soc. 2:17-43.

RosBertson, W. B., AND J. A. KusHLAN. 1974. The southern Florida avifauna. Miami Geol. Soc.
Mem. 2:414-452.

STEVENSON, G. B. 1970. Keyguide to Key West and the Florida Keys. Published by author,
Tavernier, Florida.

TERBORGH, J. W., AND J. Faasorc. 1980. Saturation of bird communities in the West Indies.
Amer. Nat. 116:178-195.

Florida Sci. 48(1):37-41. 1985.

REPRODUCTION IN THE FLORIDA SOFTSHELL TURTLE,
TRIONYX FEROX — John B. Iverson, Department of Biology, Earlham College,
Richmond, Indiana 47374 and Florida State Museum, University of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida 32611.

Asstract: Female Florida softshell turtles mature at 28-30 cm carapace length and lay up to
5 or 6 clutches of eggs per year between late March and mid-July. Clutch size averages 17.6
(range 9-24), and maximum egg diameter averages 28.9 mm. The incubation period is between
64 and 79 da and is inversely correlated with temperature. Clutch mass relative to body mass
may be among the lowest for turtles.

IN A PREVIOUS paper (1977), I speculated that the Florida softshell,
Trionyx ferox, lays multiple annual clutches; this was based entirely on its
extended nesting period (April to July). Data collected since that study
(employing standard methods of reproductive analysis; see Iverson, 1977)
confirm that hypothesis and clarify several other aspects of reproduction in
the species.

Nesting in Florida has been recorded on 9 April, 10 April, 3 May, 5 May,
9 May (2 records), 12 May, 17 May, and 30 May (Iverson, 1977); 5 July (Lar-
die 1973); 30 March, 31 March, 19 May, 22 June, “June and July”, and 10
July (review in Webb, 1962); and 20 April and 20 June (this paper). Thus,
the nesting season extends from at least the last of March to mid-July, and
definitely does not extend into the fall (Iverson, 1977).

Female Trionyx ferox apparently mature sexually between 28 and 30 cm
carapace length (CL), because females 27.9 cm CL and 23.5 cm CL lacked
ovarian follicles over 3 mm dia, whereas females over 30 cm CL were clearly
mature (Table 1).

The presence of 2 sets of corpora lutea (i.e., of different size groups) in
the ovaries of 3 females (Table 1), the large set representing the eggs in the
oviduct and the small set a previously deposited clutch, indicates that at least

[Vou. 48

FLORIDA SCIENTIST

42

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No. 1, 1985] IVERSON — SOFTSHELL TURTLE REPRODUCTION 43

2 clutches can be produced in a year. Further, the presence of 2 size groups
of enlarged follicles in those same females, suggests that at least four clutches
may be laid annually. In addition, Dale Jackson (pers. comm.) found a
female on 28 June 1976 with 5 distinct size groups of corpora lutea and a set
of enlarged follicles, suggesting 6 possible clutches in 1 yr.

Based on excavated clutches, oviducal eggs and/or corpora lutea (review
in Webb, 1962; Iverson, 1977; and this study), clutch size ranged from 9 to
24 (mean = 17.6+4.5 SD; N = 19). There may be a tendency for larger
females to have larger clutches (Table 1), but the low sample size makes that
conclusion tenuous. Assuming 5 clutches of eggs per year, the estimated an-
nual reproductive output of T. ferox would average 78 eggs, with a max-
imum potential output of up to 120 eggs.

Maximum egg diameter ranges from 25.9 to 32.0 mm, and average max-
imum diameter per clutch ranges from 26.4 to 31.0 mm
(mean = 28.81+1.39SD,N = 12 clutches; weighted mean maximum egg
diameter = 28.93 mm, N = 212 eggs) (Wright and Funkhouser, 1915;
Iverson, 1977; this study). Goff and Goff (1935) recorded average mass of 20
eggs to be about 12 gm.

Goff and Goff (1935) hatched 9 eggs after 64 da at 28-32°C, Lardie
(1973) hatched 4 after 56 days at unknown temperatures, Ewert (1979)
hatched 14 after an average of 82.7 da at 26-30°C, and Iverson (1977)
hatched 22 after 79 da at 27-30°C. Three eggs from a nest laid 20 April 1976
hatched between 27 and 30 June (68-71 da) at a 12 hr cycle of 30-31°C and
28°C, 24 from a female found nesting 20 June 1976 hatched after 60 da at
30°C. The inverse relationship between incubation temperature and time is
clear.

Although Trionyx ferox appears to be extremely fecund, in terms of
relative wet clutch mass it may have among the lowest values for reproduc-
tive effort per clutch for turtles. Wet clutch mass as a percentage of body
mass for the female dissected by Goff and Goff (1935) was 1.70%, con-
siderably lower than the 6 to 14% I have recorded for 22 turtle species com-
prising kinosternids, chelydrids, emydids, and testudinids. Perhaps the
specialized external morphology of the softshell (Dalrymple 1979),
presumably an adaptation to a fully aquatic existence, constrains its relative
clutch mass, as Vitt (1981) has shown to be the case for the rock crevice
dwelling lizard, Platynotus. However, the low relative mass per clutch is
partially compensated for by the production of at least 4, and perhaps 5 or 6
clutches per year. Studies of variation in relative clutch mass in turtles (now
in progress) should clarify the apparent uniqueness of the Florida softshell’s
reproductive strategy.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— The Florida State Museum and Earlham College supported this
research. I especially thank Dale Jackson for sharing information, comments, and criticisms for
over 10 yr.

44 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vou. 48

LITERATURE CITED

Da.ryMpLe, G. H. 1979. Packaging problems of head retraction in trionychid turtles. Copeia.
1979:655-660.

Ewert, M. A. 1979. The embryo and its egg: Development and natural history, pp. 333-413.
In Harless, M. and H. Morlock (eds.). Turtles: Perspectives and Research. John Wiley
and Sons, New York.

Gorr, D. S., anp C. C. Gorr. 1935. On the incubation of a clutch of eggs of Amyda ferox
(Schneider). Copeia. 1935:156.

Iverson, J. B. 1977. Reproduction in freshwater and terrestrial turtles of north Florida. Herpe-
tologica. 33:205-212.

Lapp, R. L. 1973. Notes on eggs and young of Trionyx ferox (Schneider). J. Herpetol. 7:377-
378.

Vitt, L. J. 1981. Lizard reproduction: habitat specificity and constraints on relative clutch
mass. Amer. Nat. 117:506-514.

Wess, R. G. 1962. North American Recent soft-shelled turtles (Family Trionychidae). Univ.
Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist. 13:429-611.

Waricut, A. H., anp W. D. Funknouser. 1915. A biological reconnaissance of the Okefenokee
Swamp in Georgia. The reptiles. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 67:107-192.

Florida Sci. 48(1):41-44. 1985.

SMALL MAMMALS OF MELALEUCA STANDS AND ADJACENT
ENVIRONMENTS IN SOUTHWESTERN FLORIDA -— Allen Sowder and
Steve Woodall, 132 Ellett Drive, Christiansburg, Virginia 24073; School of Forest
Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602.

Asstract: Late dry-season removal trapping in several wetland habitats of the southwestern
Florida flatwoods caught only Peromyscus gossypinus and Sigmodon hispidus: 1.7 Peromyscus
per 100 trap nights in a cypress strand and only 0.2 Sigmodon in both the cypress and a melaleuca
swamp. In another melaleuca forest and its adjoining graminoid area, we caught no animals
after 600 trap nights. Results suggest poor utilization of melaleuca habitats but do not indicate
appreciably greater utilization of associated non-melaleuca habitats.

WILDLIFE MANAGERS are concerned that dense evergreen stands of
melaleuca (Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) S. T. Blake), an exotic tree
naturalized in southern Florida, reduce the size and species diversity of
wildlife populations. The only pertinent publications to date are those of
Ostrenko and Mazzotti (1981) and Schortemeyer et al. (1981), both specific
to the Everglades region of southeastern Florida. This note reports on small
mammal trapping in habitats more representative of the pine flatwoods
region of southwestern Florida.

Traps were set in paired habitats at two locations in Lee County: the Six-
Mile Cypress Strand immediately south of Daniels’ Road (Daniels’ site) and
an area immediately north and east of old U.S. 41 and Alico Road (Alico
site). In each case, a melaleuca stand was compared to native vegetation; a
sharp boundary separated the two habitats. At the Daniels’ site, the cypress
strand was several hundred meters wide and had a characteristic Taxodium-

No. 1, 1985] SOWDER AND WOODALL—SMALL MAMMALS 45

Quercus-Acer-Fraxinus-Ulmus-Persea association. Between this native
swamp forest and a 1 km-wide improved pasture was a 50+ m-wide
volunteer melaleuca stand (30-yr-old, 25+ m tall). The understory beneath
its dense canopy consisted only of sparse saw fern (Blechnum serrulatum).
The Alico site had an extensive melaleuca stand, similar in structure to the
one at Daniels, which was bisected by a power line corridor 90 m wide hav-
ing a complete ground cover less than 1 m tall of ruderal graminoids (e.g.,
Cynodon dactylon, Eleusine sp., Dichromena floridensis, Cyperus sp., and
Scirpus sp.) and forbs (e.g., Eupatorium capillifolium, Coreopsis leaven-
worthii, Solidago sp., and Ambrosia artemisiifolia). Typically, all four
habitats are continuously flooded during the wet season (June-October). We
trapped at the end of the dry season (May 1982).

We used a single trapline for each habitat, always orienting it parallel to,
and at least 25 m from, any habitat boundary. A trapline had 20 stations at
8-m intervals. Each station had 3 traps, both Sherman live traps and snap
traps; 30 traps of each type were found on each trapline. Additionally, a
total of 20 Shermans was placed in melaleuca trees to check for arboreal ac-
tivity reported by Ostrenko and Mazzotti (1981). We prebaited for one day.
Bait was a rolled oats/peanut butter mixture. We checked traps each morn-
ing. Trapped animals were not released.

RESULTS AND Discussion—After 7 days of trapping at the Daniels’ site,
only 7 Peromyscus gossypinus and one scrotal Sigmodon hispidus were cap-
tured in the cypress habitat (1.7 and 0.2 per 100 trap nights respectively).
For Peromyscus, the successive daily tally was (1) a juvenile male, (2) a
mature male, (3) a mature male, (4) a perforate female, (5) a perforate
female and a scrotal male, (6) none, and (7) a perforate female. Only a
juvenile male Sigmodon was captured in the Daniels’ melaleuca habitat.
Trapping was discontinued at the Alico site after 5 days without a single cap-
ture in either habitat.

We cannot support strong conclusions with such a small data set. We
report these results because we believe the low number of captures was due
neither to poor trapping technique nor to the selection of unrepresentative
habitats.

Ostrenko and Mazzotti (1981) concluded after year-round mark-
recapture trapping that a mature melaleuca forest, despite flooding, sup-
ported a breeding population of Peromyscus gossypinus greater than that in
surrounding native graminoid habitat. The contrast between trees (wet-
season refugia) and no trees is pertinent here. We contrasted at the Daniels’
site two habitats which differed in neither degree of flooding nor presence of
tree refugia, and speculate that the primary factor leading to Peromyscus
presence in the cypress strand and absence in melaleuca was the lack of
ground cover in the latter. Our Alico site was more similar to Ostrenko and
Mazzotti’s. We expected heavy dry-season utilization of the power line cor-
ridor and use of melaleuca trees as wet-season refugia, the combination thus

46 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ VoL. 48

supporting year-round residents. Our results did not detect such a popula-
tion.

In conclusion, utilization of a particular melaleuca habitat by small
mammals may depend more on the ecosystem within which it is located than
on vegetation characteristics within the habitat.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— Financial support was given by the Florida Division of Forestry to the
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station (U.S. Department of Agriculture—Forest Service),
Lehigh Acres, FL, while the authors were technician and research forester, respectively.

LITERATURE CITED

OstrENKO, W., AND F. Mazzorti. 1981. Small mammal populations in Melaleuca quinquener-
via communities in the eastern Florida Everglades, pp. 91-8. In: Geiger, R. K. (comp.),
Proceedings of melaleuca symposium, Sept. 23-4, 1980. Fort Myers, Florida. Florida
Division of Forestry, Tallahassee.

SCHORTEMEYER, J. L., JOHNSON, R. E., AND J. D. West. 1981. A preliminary report on wild-
life occurrence in melaleuca heads in the Everglades Wildlife Management Area, pp.
81-9. In: Geiger, R. K. (comp.), Proceedings of melaleuca symposium, Sept. 23-4, 1980.
Fort Myers, Florida. Florida Division of Forestry, Tallahassee.

Florida Sci. 48(1)44-46. 1985.

Environmental Chemistry

A PORTABLE NONCONTAMINATING SAMPLING
SYSTEM FOR IRON AND MANGANESE
IN SEDIMENT PORE WATER

JoHN R. MONTGOMERY, MICHAEL Hucks, AND G. N. PETERSON
Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., R.R. 1, Box 196, Fort Pierce, Florida 33450

ApsTRAct: The sampling system consists of a portable peristaltic pump, a sampling line, a
filter holder, a sample jar and a Teflon in situ pore water sampler. Each component can be
rigorously cleaned and sealed prior to use in the field. Laboratory tests showed that the sampling
system contributed no detectable trace metal contamination to the sample. Iron analyses had a
relative standard deviation (RSD) of 4-14% and 5-18% for analysis of manganese in estuarine
field tests.

A COMMON problem associated with collecting dissolved trace metal
samples is contamination from the collection apparatus and subsequent
handling of the sample. The subject of contamination in trace metal analysis
has been discussed (Mitchell, 1973). Methods for cleaning sample containers
and reducing trace metal contamination have been discussed by Patterson
and Settle (1976).

We describe a noncontaminating system for sampling dissolved trace
metals in sediment pore waters. The sampling system and in situ pore water
sampler is self-contained, portable and the sample is in contact only with
components that have been rigorously cleaned and sealed until the sample is
collected. In the field, the sample container is exposed only to the filtered
sample water so that spurious contamination is kept toa minimum. The pore

No. 1, 1985] MONTGOMERY ET AL.—A PORTABLE SAMPLING SYSTEM 47

water sample is also collected in an inert argon atmosphere to prevent
precipitation of redox sensitive metals.

MaTERIALS AND MetHops— The Teflon in situ pore water sampler and sample collection
technique to maintain anoxic conditions was described by Montgomery et al. (1979).

The sampling system consists of 4 components and the Teflon in situ sampler. These are: 1) a
Masterflex® portable peristaltic pump, 2) a Tygon® sampling line, 3) a Savillex® Teflon filter
holder with filter material of Teflon®, and 4) a Teflon® sample jar (Savillex® 300 mf) (Fig. 1).
Each component is designed to be sealed when not in use to eliminate contamination. This is ac-
complished by using Bel-Art® polyethylene connectors located at critical positions in-line. When
the filter holder component, for example, is not in use, the upstream and downstream ports may
be interconnected, thereby keeping the unit closed to the environment until a sample is collected
(Fig. 1).

on gon” | =
sampling line

Ee L Bel -Art®

cor z = connector

Ryall ae

Savillex e
Teflon filter

(IEE) holder

Peristaltic
pump head

> PORTABLE MASTERELEX : ial fw
rs SAMPLING PUMP O @ an
OPERATION -Teflon <0
aes OPERATION Far | union 7 Exit
senaece reat Cap—tPat tee / port
OPERATION (loosen E
| to vent mM rch 200 m|
| i rif Teflon® |
Savillex ®
sample jar
RECHABGE TEST
Sample jar
retainer

Fic. 1. Portable noncontaminating sampling system. The pore water in situ sampler is not
shown (see Montgomery et al., 1979).

To collect a sample, the components are connected together as indicated and the sampling
line is connected to the sample port of the Teflon in situ pore water sampler. The in situ sampler
and all lines are purged with argon prior to sample collection to prevent oxidation of Fe and Mn
(Montgomery et al., 1979). The peristaltic pump draws water up the sampling line, through the
filtering unit and into the sample jar. The initial 50 mf of sample is used to rinse the filter and
Teflon® sample bottle. This rinse is discarded through the exit port. After the rinse approximately
2 mf of 11 N HNO, (Ultrex, triply redistilled in a quartz subboiling still) was added to the sample
bottle through the exit port using a pipette with a disposable polyethylene tip. Sampling of the
sediment pore water is then resumed.

All filter materials used in this laboratory were loaded under laminar air flow hoods equipped
with HEPA filters (Laminaire Corp.®). Each component of the system that contacts the sample
was washed using a modification of a previously described technique (Patterson and Settle, 1976)
and rinsed thoroughly with water. All water used by this laboratory was processed through a 3
cartridge Milli-Q® mixed bed reverse osmosis unit until the resistance reached 18 megohms.

Contamination from the Sampling System: A series of laboratory tests were performed to
determine if the sampling system contributed any trace metal contamination to the sample. The
initial laboratory test utilized a cleaned polyethylene reservoir containing Milli-Q® water. Ten
samples were collected from the reservoir using either the sampling system or were collected

48 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [VoL. 48

directly from the reservoir using an Oxford® 10 mf pipette with disposable polyethylene plastic
tips. Next, the reservoir was filled with a spiked sample of Milli-Q® water and the sampling pro-
cedure repeated. Finally, the reservoir was filled with spiked, filtered (Gelman glass, type A/E)
Gulf stream water and the collection procedure repeated. The spiked solutions in both cases con-
tained an iron concentration of 30.0 wg/?, and a manganese concentration of 25 yg/f. Gulfstream
water was collected approximately 40 km off Fort Pierce Inlet, Florida. All samples were ana-
lyzed for iron and manganese using flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometry. A Perkin-
Elmer Model 306® equipped with deuterium arc background correction and HGA-2100®
graphite furnace with Temperature Ramp Accessory® were used in the analytical procedure
(Hucks et al., 1978).

RESULTS AND Discussion—Contamination from the Sampling System:
The results of the contamination checks for the portable sampling system us-
ing spiked and unspiked Milli-Q® water showed there was no significant
difference between water collected directly from the reservoir and water col-
lected through the sampling system.

When the spiked Gulf stream water was analyzed for manganese, it was
found that the water collected using the pipette contained a mean concen-
tration of 24.0 yg/? dissolved manganese (S.D. = 2.9, RSD = 12%). After
passing through the system, the mean concentration was 21.7 pg/f(S.D. =
2.06, RSD = 19%). A “t” test showed no significant difference (p. <0.05)
between the concentrations. This represents a manganese recovery of 90%
assuming the pipetted sample is 100%.

The spiked Gulf stream water contained a mean concentration of 34.0
ug/f dissolved iron (S.D. = 4.14, RSD = 12%) when the sample was col-
lected directly from the reservoir using the pipette. After passing through the
sampling system the mean concentration was 33.1 yg/f (S.D. = 4.45, RSD
= 13%). A “t” test showed no significant difference (p <0.05) between the
2 concentrations. If the pipetted sample is assumed to be 100%, this is a 97 %
recovery for iron.

The concentrations of trace metals in water samples collected with the
sampling system were consistently, but not significantly lower than the con-
centrations found when the water was collected using the pipette. This was
attributed to the additional filtering of the spiked Gulf stream by the Teflon
filter membrane. The Gulf stream water was initially filtered through
Gelman® glass fiber filters (type A/E) which probably allowed some par-
ticulate material to remain in the seawater. The pipette sample was not
filtered before analysis and therefore may have sampled some particulates
not present in the water filtered through the Teflon (1.0 micrometer pore
size) filter.

SUMMARY AND CoNcLusION—A portable, non-contaminating sampling
system for dissolved trace metals in sediment pore waters is described. Each
of the system components can be cleaned in the laboratory and will be ex-
posed only to the sample during collection. The sampling system does not
contribute any detectable trace metal contamination to the sample.
Although we were only concerned with Mn and Fe, preliminary data in-
dicate this system will work for most trace metals with only slight modifica-
tions in the cleaning technique.

No. 1, 1985] MONTGOMERY AND BRICKER—SULFATE ANALYSIS 49

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—The authors wish to thank Tom Smoyer for photographic aid. This is
Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., contribution number 370.

LITERATURE CITED

Hucxs, M. W., G. N. PETERSON, AND J. R. Montcomery. 1978. The analysis of cadmium, chro-
mium, copper, iron, lead and manganese in estuarine waters. Harbor Branch Founda-
tion Tech. Rep. No. 22.

MircHELL, J. W. 1973. Ultrapurity in trace analysis. Anal. Chem. 45:492-500.

Montcomery, J. R., C. F. ZIMMERMAN, AND M. T. Price. 1979. The collection analysis and
variation of nutrients in estuarine pore water. Estuarine Coastal Marine 9:203-214.

PATTERSON, C. C., AND D. M. Sett.e. 1976. The reduction of orders of magnitude errors in
lead analyses of biological materials and natural waters by evaluating and controlling
the extent and sources of industrial lead contamination introduced during sample collec-
tion and analysis. Pp. 321-351, IN: (P. D. LaFleur, ed.) Accuracy in Trace Analysis:
Sampling, Sample Handling, Analysis— Vol. 1. Proceedings of the 7th Materials Research
Symposium, P. D. LaFleur, ed. U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Natural Bureau of Stan-
dards Special Publication 422.

Florida Sci. 48(1):46-49. 1985.

Environmental Chemistry

SULFATE ANALYSIS IN SALINE WATERS
USING AN AUTOMATED TURBIDIMETRIC METHOD

JoHN MONTGOMERY AND BARBARA BRICKER

Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., RR 1, Box 196, Ft. Pierce, Florida 33450

Asstract: An automated turbidimetric method for analysis of sulfate in saline water samples
was evaluated. Dilution of samples to yield a salinity of 1%o or less was required to eliminate
ionic strength effects. The initial concentration of a saline sample requiring 1:100 dilution cannot
be < 1000 mg? liter* SO.* (10 mM), for a precision of 2-5 % and an accuracy of 2-5 %. The limit
of detection, expressed as initial concentration of sample to be diluted 1:100, was 150 mg? liter“
SO,? (1.6mM). The method requires only 100 ul of saline porewater or seawater. Fifty samples
can be analyzed in an 8-hr day with 2 replicates per sample and 3 standard curves.

SEVERAL methods exist for the determination of sulfate in a variety of
matrices (Beaton et al., 1968). Gravimetric precipitation as BaSO, is a very
accurate method for the analysis of sulfate in seawater (Bather and Riley,
1954). However, this technique is slow and requires at least a 5-ml sample
size unless an electrobalance is available.

50 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ VoL. 48

An inexpensive manual method for use in seawater, estuarine water, and
saline sediment porewaters is presented by Howarth (1978). BaSQ, is
precipitated in acid EDTA solution, the solution is filtered and the
precipitate is dissolved in an excess of EDTA at high pH, and the uncom-
plexed EDTA titrated with MgCl.

Automated methods for sulfate in fresh water which analyze for excess
barium after BaSO, precipitation are known (McSwain, et al., 1974), but
are unsuitable for saline waters because of the step requiring passage of the
sample through an ion exchange column to remove calcium and other cation
interferences. Organic anions also interfere with this method (Cronan,
1979).

Precision and speed are two good reasons for using an automated
method. Santiago developed an automated turbidimetric method for sulfate
in lake waters (Santiago et al., 1975). This method was tested with a variety
of samples of saline porewater in our laboratory and can be used successfully
under the conditions defined in this paper. Minor modifications were made
and the differences noted. This method is easy to use and required only one
manual step: auto pipetting 100 yl of sample into a 10-ml volumetric flask
and diluting to the mark with deionized water.

METHODS AND MarTERIALs: — All chemicals are reagent grade unless otherwise stated and were
prepared the day before sample analysis. Deionized water was used for all solutions. To prepare
the BaCl,-HCl-Gelatin reagent (BHG), 20 g of BaCl,-2H,O (Baker, for Parr Turbidimeter,
99.3%) were dissolved in 500 ml water and 10 ml of 1 N HCl and 0.5 g of gelatin (Fisher
Laboratory Grade, 275 Bloom, granular) were added. This solution was diluted to 975 ml and
stirred while heating (47°C) for 20-30 min. The BHG reagent was cooled, diluted to 1 liter and
allowed to age for 12-48 hrs, and filtered the morning of the analysis using Millipore .45 »m HA
filters. As noted by Santiago et al. (1975), sulfate impurities in the gelatin cause turbidity in this
reagent before filtration. The NH,OH-EDTA rinse was prepared by adding 5ml of concentrated
NH,OH, 3.72 g Na,ZEDTA»2H,0 and 5.00 g of NH.CL to 1800 ml of deionized water and stirred
until dissolved. The pH was adjusted to 8.0 using 6N HCl, and then the final solution was diluted
to 2 liters with water. Anhydrous Na,SO, was dried at 105°C for 1 hr and is used to prepare the
standards. A stock solution of 100 mgeliter"'SO,?> (10mM) was prepared from which dilutions
were made covering the range of 5 to 40 mgeliter'SO,?. This stock solution was stable for at
least 1 wk.

A Technicon AutoAnalyzer II was used with a 5-cm pathlength flowcell (Technicon
#199-B007-001) with a 1.5 mm dia., and color filters of 420 nm. The manifold used (Fig. 1) was
taken directly from Santiago et al. (1975) and only slight differences or clarifications are noted
here. We used 3 glasscoils (100 cm by 1.6 mm) (Technicon #105-1173-01) to achieve approx-
imately 21 min. of reaction time. Two debubblers and | rebubbler had to be added just prior to
the colorimeter to eliminate air bubbles produced when the sampling line draws in air while
traveling between the sample and wash positions. A pulse suppressor (Technicon 416-0480) was
inserted between the water line and the glass tee to help prevent disruption of the bubble pattern
by bubbles being drawn back into the water line. The tubing attached to the 2 debubblers
(Technicon #A2) was 1 mm O.D. hard plastic capillary tubing (Technicon #562-2003-01). The
debubblers were turned so that the small diameter was down stream. The colorimeter standard
calibration setting was 7.5 which corresponds to approximately 0.2 absorbance units full scale
(100 chart lines). The sample cups were batch washed in a 4 liter plastic breaker with water, 1 N
HCI, then 3 rinses of water. They were dried at room temperature before the day of analysis.

While there was little baseline drift at the lower concentrations, there was considerable
baseline drift at the higher concentrations due to BaSO, precipitation on the walls of the glass
mixing coil and associated tubing, despite the NH,-EDTA rinse. Before the day of analysis, the
system was flushed with 6N HCl until the BaSO, was no longer observed on the glass mixing coil.

No. 1, 1985] MONTGOMERY AND BRICKER—SULFATE ANALYSIS a
Rebubbler air (0.030)
Debubbler air (0.035)
Debubbler air (0.045)

Bubbler air Waste
(0.030) D oubl @

M
col Timing Coils [] []
2 a am OOO

(0.065) ar ())0 Cell
BaCl5 Pulse

meacent Supressor

(0.045)

Water (0.110)

Return from Flowcell (0.065)

Fic. 1. Sulfate Manifold. Tubing diameters are in inches.

It was then generously rinsed with water. When rinsing the system with 6N HCl, it was necessary
to remove the rinse line and put it in water or the metal dip tube would dissolve.

The cleaned glass tubing of the system must be conditioned with sulfate standards on the day
of analysis before analyzing actual samples. This was necessary to reach an equilibrium of BaSO,
build-up on the glass walls. We ran 2 sets of 5 standards (5-40 mgeliter"' SO,?-) plus blanks. The
first standard set usually conditioned the glass and the second set was used for calculations. Ac-
tual samples were run next, bracketed by a third and final standard set. Depending on the
amount of drift, either the third standard set or both the second and third standard sets were used
to calculate sample concentrations.

Resutts— The change in slope of a standard curve over a 7-hr. period is shown in Fig. 2.
Here, equation 1 describes the standard curve between 4.84 mgeliter’SO,7 and 29.01
mgeliter'SO,”:

= 2:05X + 7.83 (1)
std. dev. of slope = 0.0313

where Y is chart lines and X is mgeliter-'SO,?-. Equation 2 describes the line between 29.01 and
38.64 mgeliter'SO,”:

Y = 1.58X + 5.80 (2)
std. dev. of slope = 0.1210

The shape of the graphs and their slopes can vary with each batch of reagents, but remain
consistent for a given batch. If all 5 standards are used to calculate a slope, we found, over 1 yr,

52 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vou. 48

100.

Cwlsiae ONES

Q. 10. 20 30. 40.

MG/L SUG Rn

Fic. 2. Standard calibration graphs over a 7-hr. period. A “ +” indicates the first set of stan-
dards. A diamond is the second standard set immediately following the first set. A triangle is the
third standard set after 7 hr. of analysis.

that the mean slope was 1.55 chart lines per mgeliter"'SO),?> with aSD = 0.38. At one time, the
shapes of the standard graphs varied from linear to curvi-linear. We believe this was due to filter-
ing the BHG reagent at varying times after preparation, producing incomplete filtration of
BaSO, impurities. We now filter on the morning of the analysis, and we have had no recurrence
of this problem.

Samples were filtered through Swin-Lok® filter holders with a 0.45 ym Nucleopore mem-
branes, into clean, dry screw-cap test tubes with Teflon-lined caps. If storage was necessary, the
filtered samples were stored in the dark in a refrigerator. If anoxic pore waters with reduced
sulfur were stored, the samples in the test tubes were gently degassed with a N, or Ar until no
more H,S smell was detected. Where sulfide concentrations are low degassing with N, or Ar is
sufficient. With samples containing high concentrations of sulfide, the samples should be de-
gassed with CO, to prevent an increase in pH. As the pH increases, the predominant sulfur ion is
dissolved HS- rather than H,S. An inexpensive PVC pipe manifold was used to degas 10 samples
at a time. A filtered sample volume of 100 ul was pipetted into a volumetric flask using an auto-
pipet with disposable tips and diluted to 10.00 ml.

The effect of storage on sulfate recovery was tested on 2 samples. A saline sediment core was
squeezed and 2 samples (5-10 cm and 40-60 cm depth) analyzed for sulfate. Concentrations of
3564 mgeliter'SO,?> (RSD = .1%) and 1334 mgeliter'SO,?> (RSD =0.3%) were found. After 22
da the samples were analyzed again. Concentrations of 3548 mgeliter'SO,?>" (RSD = 1.6%) and
1379 mgeliter'SO,?> (RSD = 2.6%) were found indicating no significant change in sulfate con-
centration over 22 da (t test, P<0.05).

No. 1, 1985] MONTGOMERY AND BRICKER—SULFATE ANALYSIS 53

TaBLeE 1. Standard additions to 1:100 pore waters and sea water. Units for the slopes are
chart lines per mgeliter“'SO,.”-.

Initial Initial Standard Sectional
Chlorinity Salinity Addition Standard Graph
Sample Joo Joo Slope Slope for day
Wormley Seawater 19.373 -- 1.44 1.44
4 cm Pore Water -- 33 1.47 1.44
PC# 27
Squeezed Core 28.42 -- 1.28 1.29
PC # 15-20 cm
Squeezed Core -- 36 1.72 stark
1:50 Dilution
PC # 8 Squeezed
Core, 1:20 21.64 -- 1.39 1.44
Dilution
30 cm Pore Water -- 32 1.74 1.79

Standard additions of sulfate standards were added to a variety of samples on different days.
The slopes of the standard addition section lines were compared to the slopes of the standard
calibration section lines. No significant differences using analysis of covariance were observed
(Table 1).

Wormley seawater, of 19.373 %o Cl, was used as a standard seawater sample to check the ac-
curacy of the method. Theoretical calculations indicate a sulfate concentration of 2778
mgeliter ‘SO,? for Wormley seawater. We found a value of 2784 mgeliter'SO,” in this seawater
using the automated turbidimetric methods, an error of +0.2%. We also analyzed the same
Wormley seawater sample using a gravimetric method (Rand, 1976) and found 2756
mgeliter'SO,?, an error of —0.8%.

Table 2 lists a wide variety of saline samples analyzed for sulfate by the automated tur-
bidimetric method and by two gravimetric methods. A linear regression of the data in Table 2
yields the equation:

Y = 1.02X — 2.56 (3)
SD of slope = 0.0226

where X is mgeliter‘SO,?, found using the gravimetric method and Y is mgeliter'SO.? found
using the automated method. The precision of NA,SO, standards and samples from squeezed
sediment cores ranged from 0.2 to 6.2%.

Because of the larger coefficient of variation between 5 to 10 mg |" SO.?,, we recommend
using the method at a diluted sulfate concentration of 10 mgeliter"'SO.?" or greater. Limit of
detection (LOD) was set at + 0.5 chart line, because this was the smallest change from baseline
that we could read. This corresponds to 1.5 mgeliter-'SO.?-. If a sample has to be diluted 1:100,
this means that the original concentration in a sample must be 150 mgeliter*SO,?" (2.6 mM) to
be detected. We found 1:50 dilutions of our porewater samples with a salinity of 30 % o caused no
problem, so the LOD in this case could be stated at 75 mgeliter-'SO,? (0.78 mM). This LOD
could easily be decreased by increasing the flow cell path length, increasing the sensitivity of the
colorimeter and diluting the sample to 5-10 mgl'. We chose not to do this as the LOD was suffi-
cient for our purposes.

If a sample has a detectable turbidity or absorbance blank, this has to be subtracted from the
net chart lines. However, we found that 1:100 dilutions of our porewater samples gave no detect-
able turbidity or absorbance blank; hence no corrections were necessary.

The effects of the ionic strength of the analysis aliquot on the response of this turbidimetric
method is demonstrated in Fig. 3. Three standard Na,SO, concentrations were prepared using

54 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ VoL. 48

TaBLe 2. Comparison between automated turbidimetric and gravimetric analysis of saline
waters. The gravimetric analysis on all samples except those with an asterisk were performed by
an independent researcher using 5.00 ml of sample. The automated analysis required only 100 pl
of sample.

Automated Gravimetric A-G
mgeliter-'SO,7” mgeliter"'SO,7” _*100
Sample (A) (G) xX
Wormley Seawater 2784 *2766 +1.0%
4 cm Pore Water 2691 *2688 +0.1%
Core T,
0- 5cm 1809 1720 +5.0%
5-10 cm 1966 1960 +0.3%
10-15 cm 2159 2161 —0.1%
15-20 cm 2384 2325 +2.5%
20-25 cm 2907 2911 —0.1%
Core B,
0- 5cm 2387 2257 +5.6%
5-10 cm 1424 1412 + 0.8%
10-15 cm 1954 2017 —3.2%
15-20 cm 2660 2574 + 3.3%
20-25 cm 2583 2421 +6.5%
Core C,
0- 5cm 2197 2084 +5.3%
5-10 cm 1722 1614 +6.5%
10-15 cm 1729 1623 +6.3%
15-20 cm 1607 1585 +1.4%
20-25 cm 1565 1566 —0.06%
Core O,
0- 5cm 2564 2565 —0.04%
5-10 cm 2220 2219 —0.05 %
10-15 cm 1928 1921 +0.4%
15-20 cm 1787 1854 —3.7 %
20-25 cm 1633 1700 —4.0%
Core AVI,
0- 5cm 3081 3083 —0.06%
5-10 cm 3001 2997 +0.1%
10-15 cm 3151 3237 —2.7%
15-20 cm 3604 3362 + 6.9%
20-25 cm 3571 3372 +5.7%
Core RHI,
0- 5 cm 2927 2925 + 0.07 %
5-10 cm 2911 2911 0.0%
10-15 cm 2965 2949 + 0.05 %
15-20 cm 2990 2911 + 2.7%
20-25 cm 3022 3055 SMe

25-30 cm 3118 3112 +0.2%

No. 1, 1985] MONTGOMERY AND BRICKER—SULFATE ANALYSIS 55

100.
90.
80.
70.
60.
30.
4Q.

30.

Celli yelLNesS

20.

0. ae 10. ND Aes rect She oe oD es a HN

Pies Nae Ee

Fic. 3. Effects of ionic strength on response. A triangle indicates 38.64 mgeliter'SO,?”
(0.4 m.M). A diamond is 19.32 mgeliter"'SO,? (0.2 mM). A “+” is 9.66 mgeliter*SO.?" (0.01
mM).

0-35 % o NaCl. As shown in Fig. 3, the response was lowered as the ionic strength of the matrix in-
creased.

The variation of ionic strength is one reason why saline samples must be diluted. Other in-
terferences encountered when using undiluted sample matrices from anoxic saline porewaters or
seawaters, are sulfide, total alkalinity, and possibly organic matter. We are currently working on
solving these problems and providing a usable automated method for sulfate analysis of undiluted
anoxic porewaters and seawater.

We have been able to use the automated turbidimetric method as presented for anoxic saline
pore water samples where the concentrations of sulfate were > 1000 mgeliter*SO,?. However,
for porewaters in an area such as the Chesapeake Bay (Holdren et al., 1975), the sulfate concen-
trations are too low to use this method at present. We feel the method is very useful in ecosystems
similar to the Indian River.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS — We thank Paul R. Carlson for helping to test this method. This is Har-
bor Branch Contribution Number 359.

LITERATURE CITED

BaTHER, J. M., AND J. P. Ritey. 1954. The chemistry of the Irish Sea. Part 1. The Sulphate-
Chlorinity Ratio. J. Cons. Perm. Int. Explor. Mer. 20:145-152.

Beaton, J. D., G. R. Burns, anp J. Piatov. 1968. Analytical Techniques, pp. 20-27. In:

Beaton, J. D., et al. (eds), Determination of Sulphur in Soils and Plant Material, Technical
Bulletin Number Fourteen: The Sulphur Institute, 1725 K Street, NW, Washington, D.C.
20006.

56 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vou. 48

Cronan, C. S. 1979. Determination of sulfate in organically colored water samples. Anal.
Chem. 51:1333-1335.

Ho.pren, G. R., Jr., O. P. Bricker, AND G. Matisorr. 1975. A model for the control of dis-
solved manganese in the interstitial waters of Chesapeake Bay, pp. 373. In: Church,
Thomas M. (ed.), Marine Chemistry in the Coastal Environment, v. 18, Symp. Ser.
American Chemical Society. Washington, D.C.

Howartu, R. W. 1978. A rapid and precise method for determining sulfate in seawater, es-
tuarine waters and sediment pore waters. Limnol. Oceanogr. 23:1066-1069.

McSwain, M. R., R. J. Watrous, AND J. E. Douctass. 1974. Improved methyl-thymol blue
procedure for automated sulfate determinations. Anal. Chem. 46:1329-1331.

Ranp, M. C., A. E. Greensperc, M. J. Taras, AND M. A. Franson. 1976 (eds.), Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 14th ed., Method 427B, Amer-
ican Public Health Assoc. Washington, D.C.

SanT1aco, M. A., S. Fretex, C. A. SCHELSKE. 1975. Automated method for sulfate determina-
tion in lake water, pp. 35-46. In: Water Quality Parameters, American Society for Test-
ing and Materials Special Publication 573. Philadelphia, PA 19103.

Florida Sci. 48(1)49-56. 1985.

Environmental Sciences

MARICULTURE OF THE RED SEAWEED
EUCHEUMA ISIFORME

(G, G. Guist, Jr.“, C. J. DAwWEs AND ‘J. R. CASTLE?

‘).()Marine Colloids, Inc., Rockland, Maine 04841, ‘??Department of Biology,
University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620

Asstract: The growth rate and iota carrageenan content of an ecotype of Eucheuma isiforme
found near Bahia Honda Key, Florida and cultivated in outdoor tanks were observed for 7
months during 1975. Cultivated plants fertilized with 34 uM nitrogen and 3.2 uM phosphate
daily had an average growth rate of 9.8 g salt-free dry matter/m? of lighted surface area of
culture tank/da. Unfertilized cultivars averaged 2.9 g SFDM/m?/day. The average iota car-
rageenan content, expressed as percent of salt-free dry seaweed weight, of fertilized, unfertilized
and wild plants was 53.9%, 56.2% and 61.0%, respectively. Plants from this Bahia Honda
population demonstrated a life history characterized by rapid growth in the spring, cessation of
growth in the summer, development of tetraspores in the fall, sporulation followed by disintegra-
tion of the mature plants in the winter, and germination of the spores the next spring.

THE commercially valuable phycocolloid iota carrageenan has been
found in several red algae of the genus Eucheuma. Natural populations of
Eucheuma in the Philippines were not dense enough to support intensive
harvesting (Parker, 1974), so farming techniques were successfully applied
to cultivate this seaweed in tropical coastal waters (Doty, 1975; Ricohermosa
and Deveau, 1979, Braud and Perez, 1979).

' Current address: FMC Corporation, Marine Colloids Division, Box 308, Rockland, Maine 04841.
? Current address: Seragen, Inc., 54 Clayton Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02122.

No. 1, 1985] GUIST ET AL.—MARICULTURE OF EUCHEMA ISIFORME 57

Several species of Eucheuma which contain iota carrageenan have been
found in the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. A population of E. isiforme
near Bahia Honda in the Florida Keys was described by Dawes et al. (1977).
These plants were initially identified as E. nudum. A specimen was classified
as E. acanthocladum by W. R. Taylor (pers. comm.). Cheney and Dawes
(1980) showed that the anatomical and morphological characteristics of the
Bahia Honda plants were most like those of E. isiforme.

Analysis of samples of E. isiforme from Bahia Honda showed they con-
tained 40%-70% iota carrageenan on a dry weight basis (Dawes et al.,
1977). The relatively high iota carrageenan content of these plants made this
species a likely candidate for cultivation. Dawes (1974) and Ruzic (1980)
both proposed cultivation of E. isiforme to obtain iota carrageenan.

We describe the propagation and carrageenan production of E. isiforme
in outdoor tanks. The carrageenan content of cultivated and wild plants will
be compared.

METHops — Seed stock was collected from water approximately 1 m deep along the northwest
shore of Bahia Honda Key (24° 39’ N, 81° 17’ W). Seed stock was transported to Summerland
Key (24° 40’N, 81° 27’ W) where it was propagated in outdoor tanks. Each tank had a surface
area of 1.2 m? and was built with a slanted bottom which varied the depth of water from 0.6 m to
1.1 m. The capacity of each tank was 1,200 1. Unfiltered seawater was pumped continuously to
each tank. Compressed air pumped through a sparger along the deep end of each tank circulated
the water and suspended the plants.

Fertilized cultivars were given a single daily dose of nitrogen (as ammonium nitrate or am-
monium sulfate) and phosphate (as trisodium phosphate) so the instantaneous dissolved concen-
tration in each fertilized tank was 34 uM nitrogen and 3.2 uM phosphate. Control plants were
maintained under ambient nutrient conditions.

Growth rates were determined by measuring the fresh weight of seaweed in each tank once
every 7 da. Growth rates represented the change in fresh plant weight compared to the original
inoculum weight (8.2 kg) in each tank and was calculated as the grams of salt-free dry matter/m?
of lighted surface area of tank/day. After each weekly weighing, 8.2 kg of plants were returned to
each tank.

At the end of each month, excess seaweed from the fertilized and unfertilized cultures was
analyzed. Salt-free dry matter (SFDM) was determined by thoroughly washing a sample in fresh
water and drying it at 60° C to constant weight.

Carrageenan content of samples of cultivated and wild plants was measured using the tech-
nique described by Dawes et al. (1977) and was expressed as percent of salt-free dry seaweed
weight.

RESULTS AND Discussion—The biomass of fertilized plants increased an
average of 9.8 g SFDM/m?/da from March to September, 1975. From March
to July, these plants demonstrated their greatest average growth rates (10-14
g SFDM/m7?/da; see Table 1). These rates were equal to increases in fresh
seaweed weight of 4%-7% per day. However, the growth rate of fertilized
plants dropped to 3-5 g SFDM/m?/da during August and September when
these plants developed reproductive structures, predominantly tetraspores.

From March to July, unfertilized cultures averaged 2.8 g SFDM/m7/da.

The average carrageenan content of fertilized plants was lower than that
of unfertilized plants for April and May (53.3% vs. 62.4%). During these
months the growth rate of fertilized plants was greater than that of unfer-
tilized cultivars (13.4 vs 2.1 g SFDM/m/?/da). In general, these results in-

58 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vou. 48

TaBLe 1. A comparison of growth rates and carrageenan content of E. isiforme samples.

Wild
Fertilized Plants Unfertilized Plants Plants

1975 Growth? % Cgn? Growth? % Cgn? % Cgn?
Mar 11.2 NM 1.2 NM Well
Apr 14.4 56.1 0.3 64.5 CPT
May 12.4 50.6 3.7 60.3 68.6
Jun 9.7 51.0 2.8 50.3 54.1
Jul 13.2 56.8 5.8 49.7 56.9
Aug 5.0 54.9 NM NM 55.2
Sep 3.0 NM NM NM 46.9
Mean 9.8 53.9 2.8 56.2 61.0

« Average of weekly measurements expressed as g SFDM/m?/da.

’ Individual monthly determinations of iota carrageenan expressed as grams of salt-free dry sea-
weed weight.

NM = not measured.

dicated that carrageenan content was inversely proportional to growth, a
situation which has been termed the Neish effect (Neish et. al., 1977).

However, data from June to August showed that fertilized plants aver-
aged 54.2% carrageenan and 8.2 g SFDM/m?/da while unfertilized plants
averaged 50.0% carrageenan and 4.1 g SFDM/m/?/da during June and July.

While the carageenan content of the fertilized plants remained relatively
constant from April to August (50.6% -56.8%), the carrageenan content of
the unfertilized plants decreased from 64.5% in April to 49.7% in July. The
carrageenan levels in wild plants also decreased from 72.7% in March to
46.9% in September. Thus, the present data were insufficient to prove a
consistent relationship between carrageenan content and growth.

While the growth rate of wild E. isiforme at Bahia Honda was not
measured, observation showed that plants in the field and those being
cultivated demonstrated the same life history. Young plants developed from
spores and grew rapidly from February to June. Plants then ceased increas-
ing in size and began to develop tetraspores. In November, the mature spores
were released. Subsequently, the old plants disintegrated and disappeared.
Spores germinated in about 2 mo and the cycle was repeated.

The growth rates of fertilized plants described in this study were equal to
those found by Parker (1974) for E. spinosum farmed in the Philippines. The
carrageenan content of the Floridian Eucheuma cultured in tanks averaged
almost 34% more than that found in E. spinosum farmed in African waters
(Braud and Perez, 1979). Despite these results, successful cultivation of E.
isiforme from Bahia Honda was impeded since vegetative cultures could not
be maintained on a year-round basis.

LITERATURE CITED

Braup, J. P., AND R. Perez. 1979. Farming on pilot scale of Eucheuma spinosum (Florideophy-
ceae) in Dijibouti waters. Pp. 553-539. In: Jensen, A., and J. R. Stein (eds.). Proceedings
of the [Xth International Seaweed Symposium. Science Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

No. 1, 1985] WUJEK AND GARDINER— CHRYSOPHYCEAE FROM FLORIDA 59

Cueney, D. P., anp C. J. Dawes. 1980. On the need for revision of the taxonomy of Eucheuma
(Rhodophyta) in Florida and the Caribbean Sea. }. Phycol. 16:622-625.

Dawes, C. J. 1974. On the mariculture of Florida seaweed, Eucheuma isiforme. State Univer-
sity System of Florida, Sea Grant Program, Report 5. 10 pp.

Dawes, C. J., N. F. STANLEY, AND D. J. StaNnciorF. 1977. Seasonal and reproductive aspects
of plant chemistry and i-carrageenan from Floridian Eucheuma (Rhodophyta, Gigar-
tinales). Bot. Mar. 20:137-147.

Dory, M. S. 1975. Status, problems, advances and economics of Eucheuma farms. Mar. Tech.
Soc. J. 9:30-35.

Netsu, A. C., P. F. SHacktock, C. H. Fox, anp F. J. Simpson. 1977. The cultivation of Chon-
drus crispus. Factors affecting growth under greenhouse conditions. Can. J. Bot. 55:
2263-2271.

Parker, H. S. 1974. The culture of the red algal genus Eucheuma in the Philippines. Aquacul-
ture. 3:425-439.

Ricouermosa, M. A., AND L. E. Deveau. 1979. Review of commercial propagation of Eu-
cheuma (Florideophyceae) clones in the Philippines. Pp. 525-531. In: Jensen, A., and
J. R. Stein (eds.). Proceedings of the IXth International Seaweed Symposium. Science
Press. Princeton, New Jersey.

Ruzic, N. P. 1980. Seafarm candidates: seaweed. Industrial Research and Development. 22:
179-183.

Florida Sci. 48(1)56-59. 1985.

Biological Sciences

CHRYSOPHYCEAE (MALLOMONADACEAE) FROM
FLORIDA. II. NEW SPECIES OF PARAPHYSOMONAS
AND THE PRYMNESIOPHYTE CHRYSOCHROMULINA

DANIEL E. WujEK"? AND WILLIAM E. GARDINER?)

Department of Biology, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan 48859";
Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620

Asstract: By means of electron microscopy, new species of the chrysophyte
Paraphysomonas, P. spinapunctata, and the prymnesiophyte Chrysochromulina, C. inorna-
menta are described. The occurrence of Paraphysomonas butcheri in North America is given.

IN A PREVIOUS PAPER (Wujek, 1984), a survey was given of the Chrysophy-
cean flora of 20 ponds, lakes and streams from six central Florida counties.
The report included both scanning and transmission electron micrographs of
19 species and varieties, two of which were new to North America.

The present paper describes two new species from west central Florida.
One is the prymnesiophyte Chrysochromulina inornamenta and the second,
the chrysophyte Paraphysomonas spinapunctata. Also included are new
distribution records of Paraphysomonas butcheri.

MATERIALS — Materials for this investigation originated from freshly collected water samples
which were prepared for electron microscopy according to the procedures described by Wujek
(1983, 1984).

60 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vou. 48

Fics. 1-2. Chrysochromulina inornamenta. Fics. 3-6. Paraphysomonas spinapunctata.
Scale bar = 5 um unless indicated otherwise.

No. 1, 1985 WUJEK AND GARDINER— CHRYSOPHYCEAE FROM FLORIDA 61

OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION

Chrysochromulina inornamenta Wujek et Gardiner sp. nov.

Cellula globosa vel ovata, 6-10 um diam. vel long. Flagella bina aequalia
vel paene, 18-24 ym longa, haptonema 8-14 ym longa. Chromatophori
plerumque duo, paritales et lobati. Pyrenoid non visa, stigmate. Magna
vacuola contractilis prope basin flagellorum. Vacuola cibaria ad
- posteriorem cellulae. Cellula squamis delicatis organicis una specie induta.
_ Squamae ovatae (0.26-0.32 um longae, 0.13-0.20 wm latae), sine ornamenta-
_tionibus, marginibus elevatis.

Planta in lacu Brooker, Hillsborough County, Florida. Typus speciei in
Fig. 2 depictus.

The cell (Fig. 1) is spherical to ovate, 6-10 um diameter or long. Two
equal or subequal flagella, 18-24 um long and a haptonema 8-14 um long is
anteriorly inserted. Chromatophores usually two, parietal and lobed;
pyrenoid not observed; stigma present. A large contractile vacuole is near
the base of the flagella. At posterior end of the cell is a food vacuole.

The cell body is covered with delicate organic scales of only one type:
oval scales (Fig. 2; 0.26-0.32 wm long; 0.15-0.20 um wide) with no sculptur-
ing or fine concentric lines or radiating ridges; upturned rim present.

Collected from Lake Brooker, Hillsborough County, Florida. Type: Fig.

ee

The epithet “inornamenta” was chosen because of the lack of sculpturing
or fine concentric lines or radiating ridges.

Chrysochromulina inornamenta differs greatly from the other three
described freshwater species of the genus in that it possesses scales with no
apparent radiating ridges or concentric lines. It also lacks the spined scales
present in Chrysochromulina breviturrita Nicholls and C. laurentiana
Kling. It is similar to Chrysochromulina parva Lackey in lacking spined
scales; the scales of C. parva, however, possess patterns.

Paraphysomonas spinapunctata Wujek sp. nov.

Cellula sphaerica, siccitate complanata circiter 4.0 ym in diametro.
Squamae numerosae cellulam tegentes, dimorphae. Altera (13-17 wm longa,
2.4-3.3 lata) spina longa, cava, decrescente ad apicem bifurcatum instructa.
Haec squama spinifera (usque ad novem per cellulam) parte basale dilatata,
leviter elevata et incrassata ad marginem composita. Foramen praesens
pauco supra iuncturam (0.4-1.9 wm) spinae et infundibularis vel conicae
laminae basalis. Laminae basales pauco curvatae, marginibus distinctis.
Altera non-spinifera, elliptica, plana vel leviter flexa (1.3-2.3 um longa,
0.8-1.3 um lata), margine elevata et pauco reflexa; aliquot perforatae.

The cell is spherical, ca. 4.0 ym in diameter (measurements based on
whole amounts). The cell body is covered with numerous scales of two types
(Fig. 3). One scale type (13-17 um long x 2.4 x 3.3 um wide) carries centrally
a long tapering hollow spine (12-14 ym long), terminating in a bifurcate tip
(Fig. 4). These spine-scales (up to 9 per cell) possess a flared basal part with a

62 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ VoL. 48

slightly raised and thickened rim (Fig. 5). A hole (Fig. 4,5) is present later-
ally slightly above (0.4-1.9 um) the dilated juncture of the spine with the
funnel- to cone-shaped base plate (2.5-3.3 wm wide). The base plate is
slightly curved with a distinct rim. The plate-scales are elliptical, flat or
slightly bent (1.3-2.3 um long x 0.8-1.3 ym wide), with a raised and slightly
reflexed margin (Fig. 5). Several of the plate-scales possessed perforations
(Fig. 6).

Type material was collected on 17 March 1983 from Lake Brooker,
Hillsborough County, Florida. Type: Fig. 3.

The specific epithet refers to the single pore located near the base of the
spine.

Paraphysomonas spinapunctata has scales reminiscent of those of
Paraphysomonas bourrellyi (Takahashi) Preisig and Hibberd. The presence
of a hole near the spine base of the spine-scales is the most distinguishing
characteristic. While all of the spine-scales possess such a structure, its
distance from the proximal end varies widely (0.4-1.9 um), even for scales
covering the same cell. The spine length does not affect the position of the
hole.

Only one other chrysophyte, the single-celled species Chrysosphaerella
coronacircumspina Wujek and Kristiansen, has been observed to possess a
comparable structure. However, this species has spine-scales, each composed
of a double plate the halves of which are separated from one another by a
“grip”, not a single plate as in P. spinapunctata.

Lastly, at the point of attachment of the spine with the base plate of the
spine-scale, a coalesced juncture is observed (Fig. 5). No other described
species with spine-scales has this characteristic.

Paraphysomonas butcheri Pennick and Clarke Figs. 7-9. In their recent
review of the genus Paraphysomonas, Preisig and Hibberd (1982) have
shown the species butcheri to be common and widely distributed. It has been
reported primarily from marine habitats, but from several freshwater sites as
well (Thomsen, 1975; Wujek and Van der Veer, 1976; Kristiansen, 1980;
Roijackers and Kessels, 1981). The only previous report of this species in
North America (Gretz et al., 1979) has been reassigned to the recently
described species P. stephanolepis Preisig and Hibberd (1982) on the basis of
its crown-scale characteristic. Thus, this report of P. butcheri from Lake
Brooker reestablishes its presence in North America.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We would like to thank Clinton Dawes for making the EM facility at
the University of South Florida available to us, Charles Ebel, Central Michigan University, for

his assistance with the latin diagnoses, and James Zech for the illustration. Financial support was
provided to D.E.W. by a CMU Faculty Research and Creative Endeavors grant.

LITERATURE CITED

Gretz, M. R., M. R. SOMMERFELD, AND D. E. Wuyex. 1979. Scaled Chrysophyceae of Arizona:
A preliminary survey. J. Ariz.-Nev. Acad. Sci. 14:75-80.

No. 1, 1985] WUJEK AND GARDINER— CHRYSOPHYCEAE FROM FLORIDA 63

7 lees

Fics. 7-9. Paraphysomonas butcherii. Scale bar = 0.5 pm.

KRISTIANSEN, J. 1980. Chrysophyceae from some Greek lakes. Nova Hedwigia. 33:167-194.

Preisic, H. R., AND D. J. Hipserp. 1982. Ultrastructure and taxonomy of Paraphysomonas
(Chrysophyceae) and related genera. II. Nord. J. Bot. 2:601-638.

Rorackers, R. M. M., AnD H. Kessets. 1981. Chrysophyceae from freshwater localities near
Nigmegen, The Netherlands. II. Hydrobiologia. 80:231-239.

TuHomsEN, H. 1975. An ultrastructural survey of the Chrysophycean genus Paraphysomonas
under natural conditions. Brit. Phycol. J. 10:113-127.

Wugex, D. E. 1983. A new freshwater species of Paraphysomonas (Chrysophyceae: Mallomona-
daceae). Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc. 102:165-168.

Wugex, D. E. 1984. Chrysophyceae (Mallomonadaceae) from Florida. Florida Sci. 47:in press.

Wugyex, D. E., AND J. VAN DER VEER. 1976. Scaled chrysophytes from The Netherlands includ-
ing a description of a new variety. Acta Bot. Neerl. 25:179-190.

Florida Sci. 48(1):59-63. 1985.

64 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [VoL. 48

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Volume 48 Spring, 1985 Number 2
CONTENTS

Hydrologic and Vegetational Changes Resulting from._
Underground Pumping at the Cypress Creek Well

Field, Pasco County, Florida............. Theodore F. Rochow 65
The Rediscovery of Vanilla mexicana Mill.
(orchidaceae) in Florida ............... Donald R. Richardson,

Bruce F. Hansen, and Ruben P. Sauleda 80
Fishes of the Littoral Zone of McKay Bay, Tampa Bay
System, Florida..... W. Wayne Price and Raymond A. Schlueter 83
Seasonal Cycles of Phytoplankton Populations and
Total Chlorophyll of the Lower St. Johns River
Estuary Hlorida .........4.- Carole DeMort and R. D. Bowman 96
Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations in Florida’s Humic-
Colored Waters and Water Quality Standard
Implications......... Thomas V. Belanger, Forrest E. Dierberg,
and Jerry Roberts 107
Elimination of a Small Feral Swine Population in an

Urbanizing Section of Central Florida ......... LarryN. Brown 120
Evidence for a Carbene Mechanism in the Metal-Chelate
Assisted Dehalogenation of Chloroform ..... Kenneth A. Hewes,
Jefferson C. Davis, Jr., and Dean F. Martin 123
Acknowledgment of Reviewers .............056.00c cect eee eeeees 128

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Volume 48 Spring, 1985 Number 2

Biological Sciences

HYDROLOGIC AND VEGETATIONAL CHANGES
RESULTING FROM UNDERGROUND PUMPING AT THE
CYPRESS CREEK WELL FIELD,

PASCO COUNTY, FLORIDA

THEODORE F. RocHow

Southwest Florida Water Management District, 2379 Broad Street,
Brooksville, Florida 33512-9712

Asstract: From 1975-1982 the hydrologic and vegetation response of selected cypress domes
and marshes in the Cypress Creek Well Field to deep underground pumping was compared to
similar sites far removed from water production activities. After water production began, 5 of the
7 wellfield study sites experienced 1 to 5 consecutive years without standing surface water. Con-
trol sites had some surface water each year despite differences in yearly precipitation. Wellfield
study sites with at least 2 yr without surface water showed a complete loss of typical deep-water
aquatic plant species such as pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata) and rush (Juncus repens). At
various wellfield impacted sites, maidencane (Panicum hemitomon), willow (Salix caroliniana),
blue maidencane (Amphicarpum muhlenbergianum), dog fennel (Eupatorium capillifolium)
and buttonweed (Diodia virginiana) became abundant. Vegetation at the control sites was quite
stable from 1 yr to the next.

THE rapid increase in Florida’s west coast population in recent years has
placed increased demands on the area’s natural resources. For example, as
the population of Hillsborough, Pinellas, and Pasco counties increased 44 %
from 1970-1980 (Fernald, 1981), the number of major municipal and county
wellfields supplying potable water in the area north of Tampa increased
from 3 to 9 and wellfield area increased sevenfold from 13.2 km? to 93.3
km?. Altogether the 9 wellfields in 1980 were permitted by the Southwest
Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD) for a combined average
withdrawal rate of 674 Ml/d (Million liters per day, Hutchinson et al.,
1981).

Within major wellfields, water is withdrawn from wells sunk 24 to 229 m
underground in the Floridan aquifer. Although water is removed from deep
underground, surface waters can be affected (Stewart, 1968; Stewart and
Hughes, 1974). Specifically, Parker (1975) reported that deep underground

66 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

pumping in the upper Tampa Bay area during the 1960s lowered the surface
water table sufficiently to reduce streamflow, lower lake levels, and stress
wetland vegetation. Sinclair (1982) reported sinkholes caused by ground-
water withdrawal by wellfields in the Tampa area. A 1974 investigation of
the 18-yr old Eldridge-Wilde Well Field in Pinellas County noted ecological
effects after nearly two decades of water pumpage extending outward about
0.8 km from the boundaries of the wellfield and thereby implicated the role
of wellfields in lowering nearby water table levels (Black, Crow, and
Eidsness, Inc., 1974). Instances were reported of cypress heads destroyed by
loss of water, muck shrinkage, land subsidence, leaning trees and fire.

The theoretical basis for deep underground pumping’s lowering the
potentiometric surface of the Floridan aquifer and the water table in the sur-
ficial aquifer is provided by several hydrologic models (Ryder, 1978; Hutch-
inson et al., 1981; SWFWMD, 1982; Hutchinson, 1984). It is the drawdown
of the water table rather than the deep potentiometric surface that directly
affects the ecology of wetlands.

Although the effects of deep underground pumping have been described
generally, the specific biological consequences have not been addressed. To
supply this information, the SWFWMD Environmental Section in the early
to mid-1970s began systematic vegetation monitoring of several new
municipal and county wellfields to detect and quantify the effects, if any, of
large-scale underground pumping. Our efforts are documented in several
reports (Bradbury and Courser, 1982; Rochow, 1982, 1983; Lopez, 1983).
Reported herein are the vegetation monitoring results for the Cypress Creek
Well Field.

STupy AREA — Cypress Creek Well Field is in the center of Pasco County
about 37 km north of the City of Tampa and 63 km northeast of the City of
St. Petersburg (Fig. 1). The wellfield is about 18 km? and elevations range
from 17 to 23 m above msl. Cypress Creek, a tributary of the Hillsborough
River, flows southward through the wellfield. Surrounding the Creek is a
mixed-hardwood and cypress floodplain. Much of the remainder of the land
is flatwoods with scattered cypress domes and marshes.

MeEtTHops—In 1975-1976, 4 representative cypress domes and three
marshes were selected in the Cypress Creek Well Field (CCWF) for vegeta-
tion monitoring. Site locations ranged from 0.2 km to 1.1 km from the 10
original wells (Fig. 1).

At all 7 monitoring locations, line transects were established through
representative wetland zones and permanent 1 m? quadrats were placed
along each transect in the deep-water plant community near the center of
the wetland. Permanent staff gauges were positioned at the approximate
lowest topographic point in each wetland and surface water levels were read
at approximately monthly intervals since installation. Once yearly in the
summer of the initial year (1975/1976) and thereafter in the summers of
1976, 1977, 1981 and 1982 the plant species within the quadrats were iden-
tified and the percent cover of species with a cover value >1% was

No. 2, 1985] ROCHOW — HYDROLOGIC AND VEGETATIONAL CHANGES 67

Fic. 1. Cypress Creek Well Field site location map. Dots indicate water production wells;
letters indicate monitoring sites.

estimated. The plant associations intercepted along the transects were
measured in the summers of 1976, 1977, 1981 and 1982. A photographic
record of the transects and quadrats was systematically compiled during
monitoring. At the discretion of wellfield operators, 2 sites (CCWF A and C)
were supplied with water from nearby water production wells in 1978 and
1981, respectively.

For control purposes, 2 cypress domes were chosen for monitoring at the
Jay B. Starkey Wilderness Park (SWP) in 1975-1976 and 1 cypress dome and
a marsh at the Hillsborough River State Park (HRSP) in 1977. The
Wilderness Park is about 16 km west of the Cypress Creek Well Field, while
the State Park is about 23 km to the southeast. These sites were outside the
theoretical zone of significant hydrologic effects from water-producing
wells. At both the Wilderness Park and State Park, a monitoring program
was begun similar to that described for the Cypress Creek Well Field.

PRECIPITATION — The long-term average annual rainfall for the National
Weather Service’s St. Leo Station, about 11 km northeast of the Cypress
Creek Well Field, is 140 cm. About 60% occurs from June through
September (Pride et al., 1966). According to SWFWMD analysis of St. Leo
data, rainfall was below normal in calendar years 1975, 1976, 1977 and

68 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

1980, normal in 1978 and 1981 and above normal in 1979 and 1982. A
monthly record of precipitation at the St. Leo station from 1975 through
1982 is in Figure 2.

WELL FIELD PUMPAGE— Production of potable water from the wellfield
began at a low rate in April 1976 and steadily increased to about 114 Ml/d in
1979. This water withdrawal rate continued through 1982. Initially, 10 pro-
duction wells were installed and later 3 additional wells were added. Most of
the water to the wells comes from 2 zones of the Avon Park Limestone, about
122 m and 152 m below msl (Ryder, 1978).

Hydrologic model simulations of drawdown in the levels of the poten-
tiometric surface and water table at the Cypress Creek Well Field are
available (Seaburn and Robertson, Inc., 1977; Ryder, 1978; SWFWMD,
1982; Hutchinson, 1984). Depending on position within the wellfield,
simulated drawdown of the water table at a wellfield production rate of 114
MI/d may range from about 0.15 m to as much as 2.1 m within the wellfield.

HyprocrapHs — Hydrographs at control sites showed a different pattern
of response to precipitation than most hydrographs from sites within the
wellfield (Figs. 2-4). For example, at control sites (SWP and HRSP), above-
normal yearly precipitation (1979 and 1982) was associated with high stand-
ing surface water levels of long duration. By contrast, at wellfield sites
(CCWF) the above-normal rainfall years of 1979 and 1982 often did not lead
to water levels rising to levels observed in 1975 prior to wellfield production
(i.e., sites A, C, D, E and F). Further, 2 wellfield marshes (D and F) ex-
perienced complete dry-down during the rainy season of the 2 above-normal
rainfall years. Another difference between wellfield and control sites is the
presence of standing surface water in the control sites in normal and below-
normal years, while wellfield sites (C, D, E and F) often were completely
dry in these types of years. The hydrograph at only 1 wellfield site (G)
showed a close resemblance to those of control sites.

VEGETATION — The results of vegetation monitoring are in Tables 1 and 2.
Vegetational changes at wellfield (CCWF) and control sites (SWP and
HRSP) during the period of record reveal a strong correlation with the
degree of yearly change in the maximum levels and duration of standing sur-
face water. Specifically, wetland sites that experienced 1 or more years
without standing surface water show a trend toward the replacement of
aquatic by terrestrial species. The sites are discussed below beginning with
sites experiencing long periods without surface waters to those with surface
water every year.

Sites with three or more consecutive years without standing surface
water: CCWF MARSH D—After 2 yr (1975-1976) with rainy season surface
waters reaching 76 cm near the center of wetland site D, no surface water
was present for 4 consecutive years (Fig. 2). In response, such aquatic plant
species as pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata) and arrowhead (Sagittaria
graminea) were replaced in the central area of the marsh by a dense stand of
maidencane (Panicum hemitomon). In the outer wet meadow fringes of the

No. 2, 1985] ROCHOW — HYDROLOGIC AND VEGETATIONAL CHANGES 69

PRECIPITATION (cm)

SURFACE WATER DEPTH (m)

60

CCWF Dome A

“an
0.4 } !
Os

0.4 CCWF Dome B

0.2
Ament ear

0.6 CCWF Dome C
0.4 ie
0,2

0

CCWF Marsh D

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 bk

CCWE Marsh E

Fic. 2. Stage hydrographs of Cypress Creek Well Field (CCWF) cypress domes and marshes

with record of monthly precipitation at St. Leo station. Beginning of water augmentation at
domes A and C marked by “A” arrow. Double vertical lines indicate beginning and end of period

of record for each hydrograph.

70 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

TaBLE 1. Cover (percent) of plant species in meter-square cypress dome and marsh
sampling plots at Cypress Creek Well Field (CCWF), Jay B. Starkey Wilderness Park (SWP) and
Hillsborough River State Park (HRSP).

Species Date: 1975 1976 1977 1981 1982
CCWF Dome A

Diodia virginiana 1

Hydrolea corymbosum 3

Proserpinaca palustris 3

Panicum rigidulum 10

Rhynchospora corniculata 7 10

other plants 5 1 1 1

bare ground and litter 84 99 99 89 87
CCWF Dome B

Andropogon virginicus 30 5 2

Centella asiatica : 19

Eupatorium recurvans 2 2

Gratiola ramosa 4

Juncus repens 1 2

Paspalum notatum 6

Paspalum laeve 2

Pluchea rosea 1

Rhynchospora fascicularis 1

Sagittaria graminea 3 1

Sphagnum sp. 2 4

Woodwardia virginica 2 8

other plants 5 7 3 1

bare ground and litter 35 81 90 91 87

CCWF Dome C

Bacopa caroliniana 3 1 3

Diodia virginiana 32
Erechtites hieracifolia 5
Hydrolea corymbosum 1

Eupatorium capillifolium 30
Ludwigia repens 3

Panicum hemitomon 9
Polygonum hydropiperoides 3 7
Pontederia cordata 50 40 34

Sagittaria graminea 4
Salix caroliniana 1 4
other plants 1 1 1 1
bare ground and litter 43 58 59 98 8

CCWF Marsh D

Panicum hemitomon 50 60
Pontederia cordata 30 5 13

Sagittaria graminea 5 2

bare ground and litter 65 95 85 50 40

No. 2, 1985]

TABLE 1. (continued)

Species

Eupatorium capillifolium
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiperoides
Pontederia cordata

Salix caroliniana
Utricularia foliosa

other plants

bare ground and litter

Juncus repens

Panicum hemitomon
Phytolacca americana
Polygonum hydropiperoides
Pontederia cordata

other plants

bare ground and litter

Juncus repens
other plants
bare ground and litter

Juncus repens
Pluchea rosea
Gratiola ramosa

other plants

bare ground and litter

Pluchea rosea
Gratiola ramosa
Lindernia anagallidea
Eleocharis microcarpa
other plants

bare ground and litter

Pontederia cordata
Panicum hemitomon
bare ground and litter

ROCHOW — HYDROLOGIC AND VEGETATIONAL CHANGES 71
1975 1976 1977 1981 1982
CCWE Marsh E
1
4 6
15 1 2 8
40 40 12
94 85
20
1
45 39 87 0 0
CCWE Marsh F
40 10
90 90
3
40
2 1
1
18 88 10 7
CCWF Dome G
60 75 50 90
1 1
39 25 50 fe)
SWP Dome C
70 50 28 50 70
1
12
1 1 1 1
29 49 59 49 29
SWP Dome J
5 1
3
12
1 2
1 2 9
95 96 84 89
HRSP Marsh
25 40 25
2 10 25
73 50 50

72 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

TABLE 1. (continued)

Species Date: 1975 1976 1977 1981 1982

HRSP Dome

Lycopus rubellus 60 50 20
Hypericum virginicum 5
Cephalanthus occidentalis 5
Eupatorium sp. 1
Lachnanthes caroliniana 1
other plants 1 1 1
bare ground and litter 32

0.4 CCWF Marsh F

0,2

0 ( t=
CCWF Dome G

0.6

SURFACE WATER DEPTH (m)

Fic. 3. Stage hydrographs of Cypress Creek Well Field (CCWF) marsh and cypress dome.
Double vertical lines indicate beginning and end of period of record for each hydrograph.

marsh, transect measurements and observations (Table 2) indicate that blue
maidencane (Amphicarpum muhlenbergianum) replaced such wetland
species as giant pipewort (Eriocaulon decangulare) and sandweed
(Hypericum fasciculatum).

CCWF MARSH F—Surface water was present during the initial year of
observation, but not for the past 5 consecutive years. Aquatic plant species
such as rush (Juncus repens), smartweed (Polygonum hydropiperoides) and
pickerelweed were replaced by a dense stand of maidencane along with a
scattering of pokeweed (Phytolacca americana) in the central area of the
marsh (Tables | and 2).

Sites with two consecutive years without standing surface water: CCWF
DOME C— During the initial 2 summer rainy seasons, surface water rose to
about 61 cm in the center of this cypress dome. Subsequently, surface waters
were lower and, in 1979 and 1980, no surface water at all occurred in the
cypress dome. Wellfield operators began augmenting water levels in the
dome from a nearby production well in 1981. Vegetation sampling and
transect measurements in 1981 revealed the loss or decrease in abundance
from the interior of the dome of pickerelweed, sawgrass (Cladium

No. 2, 1985] ROCHOW — HYDROLOGIC AND VEGETATIONAL CHANGES 73

jamaicense), and wapato (Sagittaria lancifolia) in apparent response to the
absence of surface water during the 2 preceding years (Tables 1 and 2). A
spring 1979 fire that damaged some cypress trees may also have had some ef-
fect on the species noted. Most recently, water augmentation apparently
facilitated the growth of the shallow-water aquatic species buttonweed
(Diodia virginiana) within the monitoring plot. Additionally, periodic dry
conditions seem to have favored an abundance of dog fennel (Eupatorium
capillifolium).

0.8 SWP Dome C

0.6

0.4

0.2 |
0

SWP Dome J

0
h HRSP Marsh

SURFACE WATER DEPTH (m)

; HRSP Dome

Fic. 4. Stage hydrographs of Starkey Wilderness Park (SWP) cypress domes and
Hillsborough River State Park (HRSP) marsh and cypress dome. Double vertical lines indicate
beginning and end of period of record for each hydrograph.

ee

[Vol. 48

FLORIDA SCIENTIST

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75

ROCHOW — HYDROLOGIC AND VEGETATIONAL CHANGES

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FLORIDA SCIENTIST

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No. 2, 1985] ROCHOW — HYDROLOGIC AND VEGETATIONAL CHANGES 77

CCWF MARSH E— Surface waters were absent from this marsh in both 1980
and 1981. Initially, the central deep-water area of the marsh was dominated
by pickerelweed (Table 1). Apparently in response to low water levels, by
1981 pickerelweed disappeared and in its place was a dense stand of
southern willow (Salix caroliniana).

Sites with one year without standing surface water: CCWF DOME
B— Although this dome regularly experienced about 23 cm of surface water
each summer from 1975-1979, in 1980 no surface water was recorded. The
relatively shallow-water nature of the dome enabled a large number of plant
species to survive from the very beginning of monitoring in the central area
of the dome (Table 1). Vegetational changes during the period of monitoring
were subtle compared to those discussed previously for other sites. By
1981-1982, several predominantly aquatic species, present during the initial
3 yr of monitoring, were absent from the sampling record. These included
rush, arrowhead, coinwort (Centella asiatica) and hedge hyssop (Gratiola
ramosa). Generally, blue maidencane encroached into the outer fringe areas
of the dome and chain fern (Woodwardia virginica) grew toward the center
of the dome (Tables 1 and 2).

Sites with standing surface water every year. CCWF DOME A— Maximum
water levels obtained during the wet summer rainy season dropped
precipitously from 1975 to 1977. In 1978, wellfield operators began
augmenting water levels in the dome from a nearby production well. The
quadrat sampling record and transect measurements of 1982 indicate
vegetational conditions quite similar to those 7 yr earlier. For instance,
horned-rush (Rhynchospora corniculata) is still common in the dome in-
terior and dominant plant species along the transect through the dome re-
main basically unchanged. However, in the last year a minor change did
occur with blue maidencane tending to replace giant pipewort and hedge
hyssop at the outer edge of the dome (Table 2). This change was probably
caused by augmented water levels in the dome attaining lower levels than
had originally occurred under natural conditions.

CCWF DOME G— ‘Surface waters occurred in this dome each year during
the past 7 yr and water levels resembled more closely those of control sites
than did any other wellfield monitoring site. Consistency of vegetational
cover was also greater at this site than at the other wellfield monitoring sites.
For example, rush (J. repens), alone continually dominated the m? monitor-
ing plot in the interior of the dome and dominant understory plant species
remained relatively more stable in their position along the monitoring
transect than at other wellfield wetland sites (Tables 1 and 2).

SWP AND HRSP CONTROL SITES— The 4 control sites at the Jay B. Starkey
Wilderness Park and Hillsborough River State Park had surface water each
year during the period of record; high standing surface waters of long dura-
tion were associated with years of above-normal precipitation (Fig. 4). Cor-
responding to the predominantly aquatic conditions, moderate to deep-
water aquatic plant species such as rush (J. repens), pickerelweed and water

78 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

hoarhound (Lycopus rubellus) maintained their dominant position near the
center of 3 control sites through the duration of monitoring (Table 1). At the
fourth control site, SWP site J, a dense cypress canopy and deep water of
long duration prevented establishment of a long-lasting aquatic plant com-
munity. The only apparent departure from predominantly aquatic condi-
tions at any of the control sites occurred during and following years with
relatively low water levels when blue maidencane occasionally became
abundant in the peripheral shallow-water areas of the control wetland sites
(Table 2).

DiscussIon AND Conc.usions — Evidence indicates that several cypress
and marsh monitoring sites within the Cypress Creek Well Field experienced
lower-than-expected water levels in the years after water production began
in 1976. In fact, only 1 of the 7 wellfield monitoring sites shows a surface
water hydrograph closely resembling those of the control sites.

The recorded decline of the surface water table at Cypress Creek
monitoring sites corroborates the surface water effects reported near other
large wellfields by Stewart (1968), Stewart and Hughes (1974) and Parker
(1975). The water table declines correspond in general magnitude to model-
simulated drawdowns at the Cypress Creek Well Field (Seaburn and Robert-
son, Inc., 1977; SWFWMD, 1982; Hutchinson, 1984).

Wellfield monitoring sites with at least 2 yr without surface water ex-
perienced a complete loss of typical deep-water aquatic plant species such as
pickerelweed and rush (J. repens). In 3 dry marshes, maidencane or willow
expanded through the central marsh area; in 1 marsh, blue maidencane in-
vaded the outer, formerly shallow-water marsh fringe. Only 1 cypress dome
was dry for at least 2 consecutive years. Despite subsequent water augmenta-
tion from a nearby production well, dog fennel and buttonweed replaced
pickerelweed in the central area of the dome.

Control wetland sites, unlike several wellfield sites, experienced surface
water throughout the monitoring period, including the years with below-
normal precipitation. This resulted in surface water appearing at the control
sites each year. The highest maximum water levels were attained at control
sites in above-normal years. Only relatively minor vegetational changes
were evident at these sites from 1 yr to the next. Moderate to deep-water
aquatic plant species, such as pickerelweed, rush and water hoarhound,
maintained initial position and relative abundance at the control wetland
sites during the period of study. However, blue maidencane occasionally
became abundant in peripheral shallow-water areas during and following
years with relatively low wetland water levels.

To supplement knowledge of natural wetland hydroperiods and vegeta-
tional response, in 1979, 6 cypress domes in the remote Green Swamp 64 km
northeast of Tampa, were added to the overall SWFWMD program of
wetland monitoring (Rochow and Lopez, 1984). Surface water hydrographs
at these 6 sites have, to-date, closely resembled those of the control cypress
domes in the current study. As with the control domes, surface water was ex-

No. 2, 1985] ROCHOW — HYDROLOGIC AND VEGETATIONAL CHANGES 79

perienced at the 6 Green Swamp sites in below-normal as well as above-
normal rainfall years; highest maximum water levels were similarly reached
in above-normal rainfall years. Two years of vegetational monitoring
(1981-1982) of Green Swamp sites indicate that moderate to deep-water
aquatic plant species are well represented even in below-normal rainfall
years.

The monitoring program at the Cypress Creek Well Field as well as
similar programs at several other wellfields north of Tampa are part of a
continuing program to describe and quantify the environmental effects of
large-scale underground water withdrawals in the general area. The find-
ings have specific applicability as one of a number of criteria used by
SWFWMD in the permitting process of large-scale underground water
withdrawals in the 26,418 km? area over which the District has water
management responsibility. On a broader scope of applicability, as more
knowledge is acquired of the biological and environmental changes that ac-
company altered wetland hydroperiods, these changes may facilitate
recognition of altered wetland hydroperiods elsewhere in southwest Florida
without requiring confirmation by long-term monitoring programs. For in-
stance, evidence indicates that natural wetlands experience at least short
above-ground hydroperiods even in below-normal rainfall years; failure to
obtain these levels probably indicates impacts due to underground pumping
or other non-climatic issues. Additionally, specific wetland plant species
maintain their presence in natural wetlands even in below-normal rainfall
years; disappearance of these wetland species may similarly implicate
underground pumping or other non-climatic causes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS — I thank various personnel at the Southwest Florida Water Management
District who assisted in field work, data compilation, graphics and manuscript preparation. Aid
in identifying plant specimens was provided by personnel at the University of South Florida Her-

barium and is gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks is expressed to Manuel Lopez and Ronald
Mumme for data on the Hillsborough River State Park.

LITERATURE CITED

Biack, Crow, AND Eipsness, INc. 1974. Hydrologic and ecologic effects of groundwater pro-
duction at Eldridge-Wilde Wellfield, Pinellas County, Florida. Engineering report for
the Pinellas County Water System.

Brappury, K. R., anD W. D. Courser. 1982. Fifth annual report of the St. Petersburg-South
Pasco Well Field study. Southwest Florida Water Management District Environmental
Section Tech. Rept. 1982-6. Brooksville, Florida.

oS oe A. (ed.). 1981. Atlas of Florida. Florida State Univ. Foundation, Inc. Tallahassee,

orida.

Hutcuinson, C. B. 1984. Hydrogeology of well-field areas near Tampa, Florida, Phase 2-
Development and documentation of a quasi-three-dimensional finite-difference model
for simulation of steady-state ground-water flow. U.S. Geological Survey Water-
Resources Investigation Rept. 84-4002.

, D. M. JouHNson, AND J. M. GerHart. 1981. Hydrogeology of well-field areas near
Tampa, Florida, Phase 1— Development and documentation of a two-dimensional finite-
difference model for simulation of steady-state ground-water flow. U.S. Geol. Surv.
Open-File Rept. 81-630.

80 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Lopez, M. 1983. Hydrobiological monitoring of Morris Bridge Well Field, Hillsborough County,
Florida, A Review: 1977-1982. Southwest Florida Water Management District En-
vironmental Section Tech. Rept. 1983-5. Brooksville, Florida.

Parker, G. G. 1975. Water and water problems in the Southwest Florida Water Management
District and some possible solutions. Water Resources Bull. 11:1-20.

Pripe, R. W., F. W. Meyer, AND R. N. Cuerry. 1966. Hydrology of Green Swamp area in cen-
tral Florida. Florida Geol. Surv. Rept. of Investigations No. 42.

Rocuow, T. F. 1982. Biological assessment of the Jay B. Starkey Wilderness Park — 1982 Up-
date. Southwest Florida Water Management District Environmental Section Tech. Rept.
1982-9. Brooksville, Florida.

. 1983. Vegetational monitoring at the Cypress Creek Well Field, Pasco County,
Florida— 1982 Update. Southwest Florida Water Management District Environmental
Section Tech. Rept. 1983-2. Brooksville, Florida.

, AND M. Lopez. 1984. Hydrobiological monitoring of cypress domes in the Green
Swamp area of Lake and Sumter Counties, Florida— 1979-1982. Southwest Florida
Water Management District Environmental Section Tech. Rept. 1984-1. Brooksville,
Florida.

Ryper, P. D. 1978. Model evaluation of the hydrogeology of the Cypress Creek Well Field in
west-central Florida. U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Resources Investigations 78-79.

SEABURN AND ROBERTSON, INc. 1977. Cypress Creek operation and management plan, Phase
II, interim plan development. Southwest Florida Water Management District, Brooks-
ville, Florida. -

SincLair, W. C. 1982. Sinkhole development resulting from ground-water withdrawal in the
Tampa area, Florida. U. S. Geol. Surv. Water-Resources Investigations 81-50.

Stewart, J. W. 1968. Hydrologic effects of pumping from the Floridan aquifer in northwest
Hillsborough, northeast Pinellas, and southwest Pasco counties, Florida. U. S. Geol.
Surv. Open-File Report 68-005.

, AND G. W. Hucues. 1974. Hydrologic consequences of using ground water to
maintain lake levels affected by water wells near Tampa, Florida. Florida Department
of Natural Resources, Bureau of Geol. Rept. of Investigations No. 74.

SWFWMD. 1982. Evidentiary evaluation for consumptive use permit (CUP) no. 203650, De-
cember 1, 1982. Southwest Florida Water Management District, Brooksville, Florida.

Florida Sci. 48(2):65-80. 1985.

THE REDISCOVERY OF VANILLA MEXICANA MILL. (ORCHID-
ACEAE) IN FLORIDA — Donald R. Richardson, Bruce F. Hansen and Ruben P.
Sauleda, Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620.

Asstract: Vanilla mexicana (=V. inodora) is reported from Martin County, Florida, some
100 miles north of its previously known range. A history of the taxon in Florida and an ecological
description of the new locality are provided,

While collecting the vascular flora of a wet, coastal hammock near Port
Salerno, in Martin County, Florida, the first author discovered a viable,
robust colony of Vanilla mexicana Mill. about 100 miles north of the
previously known collections. (Specimen: FLORIDA: Central Martin
County, 29 May 1980 (fl), Richardson, Sauleda & Hansen 830, FTG, NY,
USF). This is the first time living plants of this species have been observed in
Florida since 1960.

No. 2, 1985] RICHARDSON ET AL. — REDISCOVERY OF ORCHIDS 81

Vanilla mexicana Mill. (= Vanilla inodora Schiede) was first discovered
in Florida by Fred Fuchs and his son in 1953 while collecting Osmunda fiber
from hammocks southwest of Homestead, Florida (Luer, 1972). Fuchs found
several small populations in neighboring hammocks where it was subse-
quently ruthlessly collected by orchid enthusiasts. One of the originally col-
lected plants lived long enough to produce seeds in Fuchs’ greenhouse but the
resultant seedlings have consistently died following transplantation.
However, one single seedling, left undisturbed, managed to survive and
finally produced flowers five years later, in October of 1965. This small suc-
cess was short-lived, for a subsequent hard frost in Dade County has since ex-
tirpated all of the known greenhouse-grown V. mexicana from Florida.

In March 1960, a collection of V. mexicana from Dade County,
Cocoplum Hammock, 2 miles south of Prison Road Camp on Fla. 27, was
made by F. C. Craighead (specimen at FTG). This is the only specimen col-
lected in the wild since the original discovery by Fuchs, and the plants have
since disappeared from this area.

In Martin County, V. mexicana (Fig. 1) occurs in a wet low hammock
bordering mangrove forests. The habitat is low in elevation and has
numerous pools, creeks and small rivulets connecting to the adjacent
mangroves. The dominant trees are cabbage palm [Sabal palmetto (Walt.)
Lodd. ex Schult.], swamp bay [Persea palustris (Raf.) Sarg.] and red maple
[Acer rubrum L.], which form a dense canopy at about 8-10 meters. The
ground cover is dominated by mesic understory plants such as royal fern
[Osmunda regalis L.], swamp fern [Blechnum serrulatum L. Rich.] and

=

Fic. 1. Vanilla mexicana on cabbage palm in a low hammock, Martin County, Florida.

82 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

jack-in-the-pulpit [Arisaema triphyllum (L.) Schott]. Vanilla mexicana
originates exclusively on cabbage palm roots and may vine to great lengths in
the protected shade. In order to produce flowers, the vines must receive
direct sunlight, either by windfalls or by reaching sunlit gaps. A distinct
frostline at about 2.5 meters above the ground keeps the orchid from
reaching the canopy.

Vanilla mexicana is a decidedly tropical species, widely distributed in
the Caribbean basin, from Mexico through Central America and northern
South America and throughout the West Indies (Ames & Correll, 1952;
Garay & Sweet, 1974). It is highly unlikely that its unexpected presence as
far north as Martin County, Florida, is due to an escape from cultivation,
both because of the difficulty of propagation mentioned above and the un-
disturbed nature of the hammock. The persistence of this apparently natural
disjunct population may be partly explained by the moderating effects on
the climate by the nearby gulfstream of the Atlantic Ocean.

The rediscovery of this species in Florida is significant in and of itself.
However, it is particularly surprising that it is found so far north of its
previously known range, and in fact this station represents the northernmost
in the world for the genus (Bouriquet, 1954).

LITERATURE CITED

AEs, O. AnD D. S. Corre.u. 1952. Orchids of Guatemala. Fieldiana: Botany 26(1):54-60.

BouriQueT, G. 1954. Encyclopedie Biologique. XLVI: Le Vanillier et la Vanille Dans le Monde.
Additions Paul Lechevalier, Paris.

Garay, L. A., AND H. R. Sweer. 1974. Pp. 40-42. Orchidaceae. In Howard, R. A. (ed.). Flora
of the Lesser Antilles. Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass.

Luer, C. A. 1972. The Native Orchids of Florida. New York Botanical Garden, New York.

Florida Sci. 48(2):80-82. 1985.

Biological Sciences

FISHES OF THE LITTORAL ZONE OF MCKAY BAY,
TAMPA BAY SYSTEM, FLORIDA

W. WaAyNE PRICE AND RAYMOND A. SCHLUETER

Division of Science and Mathematics, University of Tampa, Tampa, Florida 33606

Asstract: Fishes in the littoral zone of McKay Bay, Florida were sampled by seine from May
1977 through August 1978. Weekly collections were made in May and June 1979, following
heavy rains. A total of 23,740 individuals representing 15 families and 31 species was collected.
Ten species (Menidia peninsulae, Mugil cephalis, Fundulus similis, Anchoa mitchilli, Leiostomus
xanthurus, Harengula jaguana, Lagodon rhomboides, Cyprinodon variegatus, Fundulus gran-
dis, and Pogonias cromis) comprised 97.7% of the catch. Individuals were more numerous from
late November to early June than in the remaining months. Species richness was greatest in late .
spring and summer and least in winter. The most abundant species were either permanent bay
residents or juvenile migratory forms that utilized McKay Bay as a nursery area from winter
through mid-summer. Growth rates of young-of-the-year migratory forms are presented. Re-
duced salinities in May-June 1979 apparently caused the exodus of juvenile migratory forms and
allowed an increase in abundance of permanent residents.

StupiEs of the ichthyofauna of the Tampa Bay System have been
restricted to the lower-middle part of the bay (Springer and Woodburn,
1960; Springer, 1961; Lindall et al., 1973; Comp, 1977) or to commercially
important species (Sykes and Finucane, 1966). Little work has been done in
the Hillsborough Bay-McKay Bay complex, which comprises the north-
eastern arm of the Tampa Bay system. Although these areas are considered
to be unproductive as a nursery area for fish due to industrial and domestic
pollution (Sykes and Finucane, 1966), only 2 studies have examined the fish
populations there. Sykes and Finucane (1966), reporting only on commer-
cially important fish, found 13 species from both areas. Lewis and Courser
(1972) presented information on wildlife of McKay Bay, with emphasis on
the significant bird populations. They listed 15 species of fish that they had
collected or observed from the Bay. We made a more detailed study of the
species composition, relative abundance, and seasonality of the fishes of the
littoral zone in a portion of McKay Bay. The utilization of this zone as a
nursery area will also be examined. This study will provide baseline infor-
mation concerning this small bay which may be helpful in making future en-
vironmental impact decisions.

Stupy AREA— McKay Bay is a small embayment in the NE portion of
Hillsborough Bay, Tampa, Florida. It receives effluent from the Palm River
and flood waters from the Hillsborough River through a series of canals
(Tampa Bypass Canal) connecting with the Palm River. The mouth of
McKay Bay opens into East Bay, a section of Hillsborough Bay that harbors
the Port of Tampa (Fig. 1).

84 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

McKay Bay covers 4 km? with a shoreline of 12.1 km. Although dredging
has left areas as deep as 3.7-4.5 m, most of the Bay is shallow, with a greatest
natural depth of 1.5 m (Lewis and Courser, 1972). Sediments consist of fine
sand and silt (Taylor et al. 1970).

Initially 4 shoreline areas were sampled, but due to the semifluid nature
of the bottom, only 1 site was suitable for long term sampling. The chosen
study site is located along the western shoreline, which is lined with stands of
black mangrove, Avicennia germinans, white mangrove, Laguncularia
racemosa, patches of smooth cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora, and open
sand-mud beach (Fig. 1). The area sampled represents the majority of ac-
cessible shallow water microhabitats in McKay Bay.

MATERIALS AND METHOps — Fishes were collected every 2-3 wk. from 23
May, 1977 to 10 August, 1978, with the exception of December, 1977.
Weekly collections were made May-June, 1979. A bag seine measuring 7.6 x
1.2 m with 0.32 cm bar-mesh nylon netting was used for sampling. Five
seine hauls were made parallel to the shoreline in the littoral zone for a total
distance of 200 m. For each collecting trip, the sampled area covered 1520
m?.

Specimens were preserved in a 10% Formalin-seawater solution and
later identified to species, counted, and measured. Standard Length, to the
nearest mm, was recorded for individuals of each species, when the sample
size was less than 100. When the sample size was greater than 100, a random
subsample of 100 individuals was measured. For each collecting period,
specimens of selected species were dissected and examined for gonad
development in the laboratory.

At the study site, surface water temperature was measured with a mer-
cury thermometer and salinity was recorded with a Yellow Springs (YSI)
S-C-T meter during each collecting trip.

Representative samples of fish were deposited in the University of Tampa
Vertebrate Collection.

TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY—In 1977, water temperatures elicited a
typical seasonal pattern, i.e., they were high (above 30°C) in the summer,
declined in autumn, and were low in winter. In the spring of 1978,
temperatures rose gradually, and during the summer were not consistently
as high as in 1977 but were above 30°C (Fig. 2). In May and June of 1979,
water temperatures ranged from 29-30.5°C. Salinities ranged from 24-29.0
ppt in 1977, 17.0-21.5 ppt in 1978 (Fig. 2), and 7-21 ppt in 1979. Spring and
early summer rains in 1978, along with the opening of the Tampa Bypass
Canal in 1979, caused lowered salinities in those 2 yr.

TotaL Catcu—A total of 14,290 fish representing 30 species and 15
families was collected in 1977 and 1978 (Tables 1 and 2). Ten species in 7
families accounted for 97.7% of the catch. The total number, percent of
total, and frequency of collection of the 10 species is given in Table 3.
Representatives of the families Atherinidae, Mugilidae and Cyprinodontidae

No. 2, 1985] PRICE AND SCHLUETER — FISHES OF MCKAY BAY 85

MC KAY BAY

-

OF o
MEXICO

Fic. 1. Location of McKay Bay area and sampling site (blackened rectangle). The Cross
Bayou Canal Station (S) of Springer and Woodburn (1961) and Comp’s (1977) site (C) are includ-
ed in the inset.

1200

800

400

NO. OF INDIVIDUALS NO. OF SPECIES
o
oO
oe)

2
30
28
26
24
De
20
18
16

TEMPERATURE (°C)

28
26]
24
7a Js
20
18

SALINITY (%o)

M J

JAS ON J) FMA eR
1977 1978

Fic. 2, Salinity, temperature, number of individuals, and number of species of fishes for
each collecting date in McKay Bay, Florida.

87

PRICE AND SCHLUETER — FISHES OF MCKAY BAY

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No. 2, 1985] PRICE AND SCHLUETER — FISHES OF MCKAY BAY 9]

TABLE 3. Total number, % of total number, frequency, and % frequency of 10 most abun-
dant species of fish caught in 24 collections (1977-1978), McKay Bay, Florida.

Species Number % Frequency %

Menidia peninsulae 3156 22.0 24 100.0
Mugil cephalus 3064 21.4 18 75.0
Fundulus similis 2223 15.5 23 95.8
Anchoa mitchilli 1898 13.3 22 91.6
Leiostomus xanthurus JUL 8.2 13 54.1
Harengula jaguana 975 6.8 2 8.3
Lagodon rhomboides 673 4.7 16 66.6
Cyprinodon variegatus 425 3.0 22 91.6
Fundulus grandis 259 1.8 17 70.8
Pogonias cromis 150 1.0 10 41.6

were most abundant in the seine catches, while most of the individual species
collected were in the families Sciaenidae and Cyprinodontidae.

Two 15 mo. seine studies of comparable bare substrates in Tampa Bay
revealed similar, although more diverse fish communities. Springer and
Woodburn (1960) collected 51 species at their Cross Bayou Canal Station
north of Boca Ciega Bay (Fig. 1). Comp (1977) collected 56 species from sta-
tions located at the southeastern tip of Hillsborough Bay (Fig. 1). The lower
species richness of McKay Bay fish as compared to the other studies may be
due partly to differences in collecting equipment and sampling effort. For
example, Springer and Woodburn (1960) used a bag seine measuring 15.2 m
x 1.2 m with 0.95 cm bar mesh netting and sampled from 2-3¥ hours at
monthly intervals at Cross Bayou Canal. Comp (1977) sampled monthly at 6
stations using a bag seine measuring 45.7 m x 1.8 m with 1.27-1.91 cm bar
mesh netting. Moreover, distance from the open Gulf and reduced water
quality may also account for this paucity in species.

SEASONALITY — The number of fishes and species varied according to
season (Fig. 2). Catches from late June to early November were lower than
the study average. Catches were usually higher than the study average from
late November to early June. The large fluctuations during January-March
were due to the presence or absence of young-of-the-year Mugil cephalus
and Harengula jaguana.

Seasonal abundance of the 9 most numerous species is given in Fig. 3.
These species may be divided into 2 categories: migratory forms and bay
residents. Catches of migratory species consisted of juveniles that utilized
McKay Bay as a nursery area. Abundance of M. cephalus was greatest in
winter and spring. Juvenile Lagodon rhomboides, Leiostomus xanthurus
and Pogonias cromis were abundant from spring through mid-summer.
These results are similar to those of Comp (1977), except that P. cromis was
not collected in his seine samples. However, this species was in the study area
because substantial numbers were caught by fishermen. As they increased in
size, these 4 species probably moved into deeper bay waters and off shore
areas. Springer and Woodburn (1960) found that juvenile L. xanthurus and

92 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

A. mitchilli

L. xanthurus

L. rhomboides

NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS

Cc. variegatus

F grandis

Venn Gsmon Gamavcnne y DA
1977 1978

Fic. 3. Catches of the 9 most abundant fishes per collection period in McKay Bay, Florida.

No. 2, 1985] PRICE AND SCHLUETER — FISHES OF MCKAY BAY 93

TasBLeE 4. Mean standard lengths (mm) and standard deviations (S.D.) per collection period
for juveniles of abundant migratory fishes in McKay Bay, Florida.

L. xanthurus L. rhomboides M. cephalus P. cromis

Date/Species xd S.D. x S.D. x S.D. x S.D.

1977
May 23 52.1 6.0 46.2 4.7 44.1 7.5
June 6 58.7 Voll 47.9 6.9 58.7 6.9
June 22 64.5 4.6 53.9 4.6 68.0 8.9
July 9 76.0 10.1 56.0 6.6 87.0
July 24 83.7 16.9 68.9 7.1
Aug. 24 67.0
Sept. 7
Sept. 30 72.0 1.4
Oct. 7
Oct. 28 67.0
Nov. 21
Nov. 28

1978
Jan. 17 29.5 2.1
Jan. 30 31.6 0.6
Feb. 16 28.8 3.1
March 8 27.6 5.5 26.2 2.2
March 29 30.8 6.5 22.2 253 27.5 4.6
April 17 39.9 8.1 37.7 4.3 31.4 7.1
May 9 47.0 5.4 42.9 5.0 48.8 2.0 26.7 6.2
May 26 49.5 PATE 49.1 4.5 53.0 12.3 35.5 7.9
June 8 57.9 4.9 51.1 oC 69.6 13.8 46.7 6.3
June 26 65.7 3.5 63.7 11.5 67.6 8.0
July 18 82.0 4.1 66.5 8.7 94.0 lee 83.1 5.9
Aug. 10 73.0 6.0 92.0 tel:

TaBLE 5. Average number per collection and % of total number of dominant fish species
caught in May and June of 1977, 1978, and 1979. Temperature and salinity ranges and averages
(in parentheses) are given.

Species 1977 % 1978 7% 1979 %
Fundulus similis 270 36.0 95 14.8 561 35.6
Menidia peninsulae 169 22.5 204 31.8 697 44.2
Membras martinica --- --- 4 0.6 39 2.5
Lagodon rhomboides 80 10.7 28 4.4 1 <0.1
Leiostomus xanthurus 49 6.5 35 5.5 0 0
Pogonias cromis 9 1.2 24 3.7 1 0.1
Cyprinodon variegatus 56 5 4 0.6 42 WU
Fundulus grandis 42 5.6 18 2.8 32 2.0
Anchoa mitchilli 61 8.1 206 32:2 193 Py
Mugil cephalus 10 1.3 16 2.5 1 0.06
Total Average/collection 750 640 1575
Temperature range (°C) 25.5-33.0 26.0-36.0 29.0-30.5
(30.0) (30.7) (29.8)
Salinity range (ppt) 24.5-28.5 17.0-21.5 7.0-21.0

94 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

M. cephalus moved offshore in late summer and fall. Moe and Martin (1965)
collected large numbers of L. rhomboides in shallow Gulf waters off Tampa
Bay in December, and concluded they were the first year class migrating off-
shore. Hansen (1970) reported the migration of this species offshore from
Pensacola Estuary in late summer and fall.

Growth was demonstrated for juveniles of the 4 abundant migratory
species (Table 4). Leiostomus xanthurus juveniles were first collected in
early March, 1978 (mean (x) SL = 27.6 mm) and increased steadily to 82
mm by July. For comparable time periods average growth rates in McKay
Bay (1977-15.8 mm/month; 1978-13.5 mm/month) were greater than those
of Springer and Woodburn (1960) (9.9 mm/month), but less than those
determined by Comp (1977) (25.9 mm/month). Lagodon rhomboides
young-of-the-year averaging 22.2 mm in late March, 1978 increased to 73
mm in August. Growth rates (1977-11.4 mm/month; 1978-10.2 mm/month)
were faster than those determined by Comp (1976) (7.5 mm/month) or
Springer and Woodburn (1960) (6.8 mm/month). Mugil cephalus juveniles
first appeared in mid-January, 1978 (x = 29.5 mm). Little growth occurred
in early spring, but May-July collections showed faster growth rates (>20
mm per month). This growth pattern was similar to the one found by Spr-
inger and Woodburn (1960), and the overall rate (6.9 mm/month) was
similar to theirs (6.8 mm/month). Comp (1976) provided no growth data on
this species. Pogonias cromis juveniles were first taken in early May, 1978
(x = 26.7 mm) and grew rapidly to an average of 92 mm in August.

Menidia peninsulae, Fundulus similus, Anchoa mitchilli, Cyprinodon
variegatus, and F. grandis appear to be permanent bay residents that are
present year-round in McKay Bay (Fig. 3). These species were taken in over
90% of the collections except F. grandis, which was absent in winter collec-
tions (Table 3). Seasonal abundance of these species was probably related to
reproductive activity, recruitment of young, water temperature, depth, or
food availability. Gravid females of M. peninsulae, F. similis, and C.
variegatus were collected in all seasons. Greatest abundances of all 5 species
generally coincided with the appearance of large numbers of young in-
dividuals in the spring to mid-summer and to a lesser extent in the fall. The
littoral zone of McKay Bay was probably utilized as nursery grounds by
these species for a large portion of the year. Low numbers in winter collec-
tions may have been the result of movement from colder, shallow waters to
more temperature-stable deeper channels. Ogren and Brusher (1977) found
such a movement with resident bay species in St. Andrew Bay, Florida. Low
numbers in late summer collections in McKay Bay may have been caused by
similar movements in response to sustained high temperatures in the seining
area. Species richness appeared to be dependent upon temperature and
spawning activity. The number of species per collection varied from 4 to 16,
with fewest species collected in the months of lowest temperatures, January
and February (Fig. 2). As the temperature increased in the spring, the

No. 2, 1985] PRICE AND SCHLUETER — FISHES OF MCKAY BAY 95

number of species increased steadily to a seasonal high in early-mid summer,
decreased in August-September, and increased slightly in late autumn.

CoMPARISONS BETWEEN YEARS — Because of unseasonably heavy rains that
resulted in the opening of flood gates on the Tampa Bypass Canal in May
1978, weekly collections of fishes were made in May and June and compared
to the May-June 1977 and late May-June 1978 collections. In 1977 and 1978
summer water temperatures and salinities were relatively high (Fig. 2).
Average total catches per collection were comparable for both years (Table
5). The dominant species were permanent bay residents — Fundulus similis,
Menidia peninsulae, and Anchoa mitchilli. However, juvenile Lagodon
thomboides, Leiostomus xanthurus, Pogonias cromis, and Mugil cephalus
comprised 19.7% and 16.1% of collections in 1977 and 1978, respectively.
In 1979, water temperatures were similar to those in 1977 and 1978, but
salinities were lower (7 ppt in May and only 21 ppt by late June). Lucania
parva was the only species taken in 1979 but not in 1977 or 1978. The
average total catch per collection was greater than twice each of the 2°
previous May-June periods. The dominant species were the same as in 1977
and 1978, but comprised a larger proportion (91 %) of the total catch than in
the previous 2 years; however, migratory species comprised less than 0.2%
of the collections. Apparently, the increase in the abundance of estuarine
species and the virtual exclusion of migratory species are related to low
salinities caused by heavy rains and increased discharge of freshwater
through the bypass canal. In St. Andrew Bay, Florida, Naughton and
Saloman (1978) found L. rhomboides and L. xanthurus in greater numbers
in high salinity areas as compared to low salinity areas. In the lower
Ochlockonee River, Florida, Parrish and Yerger (1973) reported that rapid
salinity changes apparently affected the distribution of certain euryhaline
fishes. Specifically, L. rhomboides and L. xanthurus were not collected dur-
ing periods when salinity decreased sharply. Release of large amounts of
water through the Tampa Bypass Canal during the spring of the year could
influence the species composition and abundance of fishes in McKay Bay.
Additional studies are needed to further characterize the effects of this
disturbance on the McKay Bay system.

In conclusion, although McKay Bay is environmentally stressed, it pro-
vides a rearing and developmental area for a number of commercially im-
portant fish species as well as many forage species that serve as food for
marketable ones. These facts should be taken into account if further pertur-
bations of the McKay Bay area are considered.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS — We thank Dr. Terry Snell and William Richardson, University of
Tampa, for assistance in the field and Gary Comp, Southwest Florida Water Management
District, for critically reading the manuscript. This research was supported by a University of
Tampa Faculty Development Grant.

96 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

LITERATURE CITED

Comp, G. S. 1977. An assessment of the impact of thermal discharge on fish and macroinverte-
brate communities at Big Bend, Tampa (Florida). Pp. 1-93. In Garrity, R. D., W. Tif-
fany, and S. Mahadevan (eds.). A 316 Demonstration, Final Report on the Big Bend
Thermal and Ecological Surveys. Prepared by Conservation Consultants Inc.

Hansen, D.J. 1970. Food, growth, migration, reproduction, and abundance of pinfish, Lagodon
thomboides, and Atlantic croaker, Micropogon undulatus, near Pensacola, Florida,
1963-65. Fishery Bull. 68:135-146.

Lewis, R.R., AND W.D. Courser. 1972. McKay Bay: past, present, and future. A joint report
to Save Our Bay, Inc. and the Tampa Audubon Society. Mimeo.

LInDALL, W. N., Jr., J. R. HALL, AND C. H. Satoman. 1973. Fishes, macroinvertebrates, and
hydrological conditions of upland canals in Tampa Bay, Florida. Fish. Bull. 71:155-163.

Mog, M. A., JR., AND G. T. Martin. 1965. Fishes taken in monthly trawl samples offshore of
Pinellas County, Florida, with new additions to the fish fauna of the Tampa Bay area.
Tulane Stud. Zool. 12:129-151.

NaucHTon, S. P., AND C. H. Satoman. 1978. Fishes of the nearshore zone of St. Andrew Bay,
Florida, and adjacent coast. Northeast Gulf. Sci. 2:43-55.

Ocren, L. H., aNp H. A. BrusHer. 1977. The distribution and abundance of fishes caught with
a trawl in the St. Andrew Bay System, Florida. Northeast Gulf. Sci. 1:83-105.

ParrisH, P. R., AND R. W. YercER. 1983. Ochlockonee River fishes: salinity — temperature ef-
fects. Florida Sci. 36:179-186.

SPRINGER, V. G. 1961. Notes on and additions to the fish fauna of the Tampa Bay area in Florida.
Copeia 4:480-482.

SPRINGER, V. G., AND K. D. Woopsurn. 1960. An ecological study of the fishes of the Tampa
Bay area. Florida St. Bd. Conserv. Mar. Lab. Prof. Pap. Ser. 1:104 pp.

Sykes, J. E., AND J. H. Finucane. 1966. Occurrence in Tampa Bay, Florida of immature species
dominant in Gulf of Mexico commercial fisheries. U.S. Fish. Wildl. Serv. Fish Bull.
65:369-379.

Tay_or, J. L., J. R. HALL, anp C. H. Satoman. 1970. Mollusks and benthic environments in
Hillsborough Bay, Florida. Fish. Bull. 68:191-202.

Florida Sci. 48(2):83-96. 1985.

Biological Sciences

SEASONAL CYCLES OF
PHYTOPLANKTON POPULATIONS AND TOTAL
CHLOROPHYLL OF THE LOWER
ST. JOHNS RIVER.ESTUARY, FLORIDA

CarROLE DEMorrT AND R. D. BowMAN

Department of Natural Sciences, University of North Florida, Jacksonville, Florida 32216

Asstract: Monthly plankton collections and water analyses were made at 7 stations along the
lower 42 km of the St. Johns River Estuary for a 2-yr period. Measurements included
temperature, light extinction, salinity, dissolved oxygen, chlorophyll, nutrients, iron, copper,
turbidity and pH. All of the stations exhibited major peaks in cell numbers and chlorophyll in

No. 2, 1985] DEMORT AND BOWMAN — SEASONAL CYCLES 97

June or July and secondary peaks in December or January. The total number of distinct popula-
tion peaks decreased from 4, near the river’s mouth, to 2 at the upper stations. Species diversity
decreased with distance from the river’s mouth, whereas, chlorophyll concentration increased.
The chlorophyll concentration was correlated closely with cell counts at most stations. Popula-
tion density appeared to be most closely correlated with salinity, phosphate, and pH. High N:P
ratios occurred throughout the year, suggesting that phosphorus is more limiting than nitrogen in
the St. Johns River system.

THE St. JoHNs River, in northeast Florida, is the largest river system
wholly within Florida and ranks third among Florida rivers in magnitude of
discharge (Anderson and Goolsby, 1973). From its origin in St. Lucie and In-
dian River counties, it flows north approximately 440 km to Jacksonville
then east 40 km to the Atlantic. The St. Johns River basin drains approx-
imately one-fifth of the land area of Florida. It is unique among American
rivers in that it is a “black water” river with a shallow euphotic zone but
relatively high productivity. It supplies high concentrations of nutrients for
the enrichment of adjacent offshore waters.

The macrophyte flora*of the St. Johns varies from Spartina, Ulva and
Enteromorpha, near the mouth, to Ejichornia, Typhus, Pontederia,
Myriophyllum and Vallisneria in the freshwater regions south of Jackson-
ville. Due to the high turbidity of much of the St. Johns River, benthic
macrophytes are limited to the littoral zone. Imported detritus and
phytoplankton play a major role in the primary productivity of the estuary.

The phytoplankton populations of this river system are relatively
unknown. There has been no comprehensive study of the seasonal and areal
distribution of phytoplankton with respect to physical and chemical factors.
Previous studies have been limited in their approach, primarily involving
freshwater sites and identifying organisms to only genus level (Pierce, 1947;
GFWEC, Dingell-Johnson Project, 1977).

This investigation is part of a 4-yr study of selected biological, chemical
and hydrographic characteristics of the section of the river under tidal in-
fluence, or approximately 170 km upstream to Lake George. We describe
seasonal changes in phytoplankton populations and chlorophyll concentra-
tion in the lower 40 km of the St. Johns River estuary and correlate these
changes with physical and chemical factors.

METHops — Seven stations located along the lower 42 km of the St. Johns River were sampled
monthly from January 1975 through January 1977 (Fig. 1). Net plankton were collected using a
Clark Bumpus plankton sampler. Samples were taken at the surface and 1 meter depths. These
samples were integrated and used for all analyses presented in this paper, except the
phytoplankton data presented in Table 5. The whole water plankton samples were collected at 1
meter depths using a 1 1 Kemmerer Sampler. These samples were preserved immediately with
either Lugol’s solution or the Millipore plankton preservation (Millipore, 1975). Plankton samples
were analysed using the methods described by Staker and Bruno (1978).

An additional 2 1 of water were collected at 1 meter depths with a Kemmerer sampler for
analysis of total and ortho phosphate, nitrate, ammonia, iron, copper, turbidity, pH and total
chlorophyll. Chemical analyses were carried out according to the methods described in Stan-
dard Methods (APHA, 1971). Turbidity was measured using a Hach colorimeter, model DR-EL.
pH values were measured with a Corning model 7 pH meter, equipped with pH electrode model
476022 and Corning reference electrode model 476002. Temperature and salinity were measured
using a YSI Model 33 S-C-T conductivity meter. Dissolved oxygen was measured using a Kahlsico

98 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

81°35’ 81°30’

30°30’ 30°30’

TROUT RIVER
30°25’ ‘ DRUMMOND 30°25’

ATLANTIC

30°20 30°20’

30°15’ 30°15’

30°10’ 30°10’

JULLINGTON cReEeK

30°05’ 30°05"

81°45’ 81°40’ 81°35’ 81°30' 81°25’ 81°20’

Fic. 1. Lower St. Johns River estuary showing locations of the 7 sampling sites.

Model 1010 DO and Temperature Meter. Light penetration was determined using a Lambda
Quantum Radiometer-Photometer, Model LI 185 with a 192 SB sensor. Euphotic zone depth was
calculated by fitting an exponential curve to the light intensity versus depth data and determining
the depth of 1% Io. Total chlorophyll concentrations were calculated using the trichromatic
method and equations in Strickland and Parsons (1968). Ten replicates were run for each station
sampled.

Phytoplankton cell counts were made using a Sedgewick-Rafter counting cell. Cells smaller
than 15y dia were counted using a haemocytometer. Ten slides were counted for the two size
fractions for each station. These counts were then averaged for data presentation. Species that
could not be identified at 400X were mounted in either Hyrax or Pleurax and studied at 1000X
using standard oil immersion or phase contrast objectives.

Species diversity was calculated using the modified Shannon-Wiener equations described by
Patten (1962). Stepwise regression analyses were run on chlorophyll concentration and cell counts
versus physical and chemical data by month.

No. 2, 1985] DEMORT AND BOWMAN — SEASONAL CYCLES 99

Resu.ts — Four of the 7 stations have been chosen as representative of the
trends within the lower river basin. Table 1 presents the annual means of
selected physical and chemical parameters by station.

Temperature: The lowest surface temperatures for the year were recorded in
January and the highest in July. Ranges of temperature in order of stations
C-F were 9.0-30.0, 10.0-30.0, 11.0-29.1, and 10.2-29.5°C. The vertical
temperature gradients were usually small, <1°C from surface to bottom.
Salinity: Average salinity for the 4 stations is in Table 1. The annual ranges
from stations C-F were 0.0-15.5, 0.20-24.5, 5.8-29.0, and 15.3-21.5%o.
Average salinity for the lower river was 16.46%.. During 1976-77 lowest
salinities occurred in September, December and January; highest salinities
occurred in March and April. The vertical salinity gradient was usually
<0.5%. from surface to bottom.

Nutrients: Nitrate concentrations peaked at all stations in October during
maximum river discharge then fell during the winter months, with lowest
values in January and February (C,D,E) and April (F). Annual ranges in
NOs concentrations from,C-F were 1.00-9.00, 0.80-10.60, and 0.90-9.80
mg/1. Phosphate concentrations were highest in March (all stations) and
again in June or July, with lowest concentrations in fall or early winter
(Table 1). The annual ranges in POs concentrations from C-F were .08-.46,
.08-.73, .06-.22, and .01-5.80 mg/1. Nitrogen to phosphorus atomic ratios
were high at all stations (Table 1). The lowest ratios occurred during the
summer months and coincided with peaks in phytoplankton cell counts and
total chlorophyll. Annual ranges for iron concentrations from C-F were
0.03-0.54, 0.04-0.58, 0.05-0.38, and 0.05-0.37 mg/1. Iron concentrations
were highest in May (C), December (D,E) and August (F). Annual ranges
for copper concentrations from C-F were 0.00-0.71, 0.05-0.85, 0.00-0.54,
and 0.00-0.56 mg/1. Copper concentrations were highest in April (C,D,F)
and March (E).

Chlorophyll: Total chlorophyll concentration increased with distance from
the ocean. This increase was least during the winter months and greatest
during the summer. Annual means in order of stations C-F were 10.05, 8.65,
6.47, and 5.82 mg/m%.

Phytoplankton: A list of the phytoplankton species comprising 10% or more
of the total count by season is in Table 2. Seasons were divided as follows:
Fall =S,0O,N; Winter =D,J,F; Spring =M,A,M; and Summer =J,J,A. The
ten most abundant species in descending order were Skeletonema costatum,
Chaetoceros decipiens, Rhizosolenia alata, Nitzschia seriata, Melosira
italica, Chaetoceros debile, Coscinodiscus lineatus, Thalassionema nitz-
schiodes, Thalassiothrix fraunfeldii and Gyrosigma sp.

The percentage of total count by major taxa is in Table 3. There is a
decrease in number of diatoms with decreasing salinity and an increase in
numbers of Chlorophyta and Cyanophyta. Seasonal Trends of
Phytoplankton and Chlorophyll: Station C showed a bimodal peak during
the summer months in both chlorophyll concentration and total count (Fig.

FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

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101

DEMORT AND BOWMAN — SEASONAL CYCLES

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102 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

6
Station C
et mg/m? =——a 5
25.0
cells/| @——®
22.5
20.0 4 3
@
— 175 o
& 2
£ 15.0 a 8
12.5
10.0
7.5 2
5.0
25

MONTH
Fic. 2. Seasonal cycle of phytoplankton populations and total chlorophyll at Station C.

(6.08) ‘5
Station D
33
mg/m? =——a 5
30
cells/| @——e®
27
24 4 3
oO
tf 21 oO
E 18 D
Sa
15
12
9 2
6
3

MONTH
Fic. 3. Seasonal cycle of phytoplankton populations and total chlorophyll at Station D.

No. 2, 1985] DEMORT AND BOWMAN — SEASONAL CYCLES 103

Station E
19.2
mg/m? =——s
17.6
cells/| @——®
16.0
14.4 =
= 12.8 3
= 2
= 11.2 sy
—_

MONTH
Fic. 4. Seasonal cycle of phytoplankton populations and total chlorophyll at Station E.

Station F

12.0
mg/m? =—
11.2

cells/| e——e
10.4

9.6
8.8

mg/m?

8.0

Log,, cells/l

7.2
6.4
5.6
4.8
4.0

3.2

MONTH
Fic. 5. Seasonal cycle of phytoplankton populations and total chlorophyll at Station F.

104 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

TABLE 3. Percentage of total count by major taxonomic groups.

Station’ Bacillariophyta Pyrrophyta Chlorophyta Cyanophyta
F (6) 81.6 9.6 4.2 4.7
E (12) 82.6 8.8 3.7 4.9
D (21) 80.5 6.0 5.3 8.2
C (35) 72.9 5.0 10.4 US 7

1 number in parenthesis is distance from ocean in KM.

TABLE 4. Comparisons of annual means of chemical, physical and phytoplankton data in the
St. Johns River with other east coast estuaries.

Phytoplankton
NO;-N PO.-P Chl a + Temp _ Salinity (cells/1)

Estuary (ug-At/l) (ug-At/| Phaeopigments (°C) (%o) (whole water)
Lower St. Johns River 65.56 2.79 7.74 21.8 16.46 1.56 x 10°
Present Study :
Block Island Sound 3.25 SUG 3.10 --- 292i 1.99 x 10°
(Long Island)
Staker & Bruno, 1978
Chesapeake Bay 17 0.27 6.15 --- --- 9.38 x 10°
Patten et al., 1963
St. Andrew Bay, Florida --- --- 23 22.9 23.76 8.46 x 10°
Hopkins, 1966
Tampa Bay 2.31 29.16 16.43 23.2 28.2 1.454 x 10°

Turner & Hopkins, 1974

2). The July dip was accompanied by an increase in salinity from 1.3 to
4.0%. and an increase in ammonia concentration and turbidity. A second-
ary peak in phytoplankton count occurred in January. Station D showed
major peaks in chlorophyll concentration and cell count in June with second-
ary peaks in December (Fig. 3). Station E exhibited major peaks in both
chlorophyll and cell counts in July with secondary peaks in December (Fig.
4). Station F exhibited 4 peaks in phytoplankton populations, with the major
peak in June and July coinciding with the major peak in total chlorophyll
(Fig. 5). Linear regression analyses were run using chlorophyll a as the
dependent variable and total cell count as the independent variable with
significance levels set at 0.01. Station C had a correlation coefficient (r) of
0.40, D had an r value of 0.91, E was 0.51 (with June data removed,
r = 0.78).

Discussion — The most abundant diatom species in the lower St. Johns
River was Skeletonema costatum. This is consistent with the findings in
other east-coast estuaries (Narragansett Bay, Smadyda, 1957; Long Island
Sound, Conover, 1956; Block Island Sound, Riley, 1952; and Tampa Bay,
Turner and Hopkins, 1974). However, this species did not dominate
throughout the year as reported for Tampa Bay and most of the other

No. 2, 1985] DEMORT AND BOWMAN — SEASONAL CYCLES 105

eastcoast estuaries. During the spring, Skeletonema was replaced by
Rhizosolenia alata at Station F and was not among the top 5% of the total
count. It was replaced during the winter at Station C by Melosira italica and
at D & F by Chaetoceros decipiens. Melosira italica is essentially a
freshwater species that is frequently dominant in the upper estuarine sta-
tions. Station C apparently represents the seaward limits of an abundant M.
italica population in the St. Johns estuary. It peaks at the time of year when
salinities at Station C are <0.5%. and disappears during the higher
salinities of March and April. Chaetoceros decipiens was present in most of
the lower river plankton samples throughout the year, but became dominant
only during the cooler months. This neritic species appears to have a wide
temperature tolerance in St. Johns waters (9-29°C), but optimal growth oc-
curs during the winter months at temperatures between 10 and 13°C. Con-
over (1956) and Patten et al. (1963) have reported winter peaks of C. decip-
iens at considerably lower temperatures.

Station D showed the highest correlation between cell counts and
chlorophyll concentrations. Chlorophyll concentrations were still low in
June during the highest cell counts at both E and F. However, at both sta-
tions, the June peaks in cell counts were dominated by Skeletonema
tropicum and by other large-celled diatoms. Large-celled diatoms tend to
have lower amounts of chlorophyll per cell than smaller-celled species (Con-
over, 1956). In July, both station cell counts were dominated by a small-
celled form of S. costatum. If June data were removed from calculations,
both stations have much higher correlation coefficients.

Comparisons with other estuaries (Table 4) indicate a much greater con-
centration of nitrate than found elsewhere. This high concentration is ap-
parently due to a combination of factors involving prolonged retention time
in the lower river (Anderson & Goolsby, 1973). This allows a more complete
bacterial degradation of organic nitrogen than would typically occur in
other systems with high organic nutrient loading. This nitrogen degradation
appears to be quite rapid as evidenced by the low concentrations of am-
monia, with low or zero amounts typically detected during this study. Some
of this nutrient loading is due to municipal and industrial input. However,
much of the nitrogen comes from “black water” drainage from the numerous
swamps that feed into the St. Johns River system. This swamp drainage is
high in organic nitrogen but relatively low in phosphorus, resulting in the
high nitrogen to phosphorus ratios present in this estuary. Phosphate and
chlorophyll concentrations were higher than in Block Island Sound or
Chesapeake Bay but much lower than in Tampa Bay.

The winter population peaks are correlated with an increase in total
phosphorus (r - 0.62). The summer peaks appear to be positively correlated
with phosphorus concentrations and temperature, with correlation coeffi-
cients of 0.67 and 0.65, respectively, and negatively correlated with
zooplankton cell counts (0.36). Significance levels were set at .01.

The winter peaks in phytoplankton numbers and chlorophyll coincided

106 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

with periods of increased turbulence due to winter storms. Such a relation-
ship has been described for Narragansett Bay by Smayda (1957). It appears
that increased turbulence is not detrimental to the populations in the St.
Johns due to the shallowness of most of the lower river system. This results in
the cells being kept out of the euphotic zone for only brief periods of time
before being returned to the upper waters.

Phosphorus appears to be the limiting nutrient in the St. Johns River
estuary. Although most east-coast estuaries studied have been nitrate limited
(Turner and Hopkins, 1974; Ryther and Dunstan, 1971), Livingston and
coworkers (1976) reported phosphate to be the primary limiting nutrient in
Apalachicola Bay. The nitrogen-phosphorus ratios in the St. Johns River are
considerably above those reported from other east-coast estuaries (Turner
and Hopkins, 1974). Turner and Hopkins have discussed N:P atomic ratios
and suggest that above 10:1 phosphorus becomes limiting. The average N:P
ratio for the lower St. Johns is 19.5:1.

Chlorophyll concentrations increased with distance from the ocean. Pat-
ten and coworkers (1963) and Turner and Hopkins (1974) reported similar
trends in the lower Chesapeake Bay and Tampa Bay, respectively. Both
studies suggest that this trend is correlated with increasing nutrient levels.
This explanation does not appear to fit conditions in the St. Johns (Table 1).
The increase in chlorophyll concentration appears to be correlated with a
decrease in salinity and in pH. This may bring about a change in membrane
permeability or in the rate of active transport across the membrane, perhaps
involving minor nutrients such as iron rather than the major nutrients
(Kuhl, 1962; Bougis, 1976). It may also be due to decreased salinity alone, to
decreased pH or to a combination of the two. Within the lower St. Johns
system, these 2 conditions are coincidental, because the fresh-water input is
from swamp drainage high in organic acids. Bougis (1976) has discussed
briefly the effects of pH on growth rates of cultured organisms. From his
discussion it appears the pH range for optimum growth of oceanic species
may be from 7.5 to 8.5. The optimum pH range for natural populations
within the St. Johns appears to be lower than 7.5.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS — This research was supported by a National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Association Sea Grant through the Florida State University System Sea Grant program under
grant number 04-8-MO1.

LITERATURE CITED

AMERICAN Pusiic HEALTH AssociATION. 1971. Standard methods for the examination of water
and wastewater. 13th Ed. Washington, D.C.

ANDERSON, W., AND D. A. Gooussy. 1973. Flow and chemical characteristics of the St. Johns
River at Jacksonville, Florida. Information circular No. 82. U.S. Geological Survey,
Tallahassee.

Bovueis, P. 1976. Marine plankton ecology. American Elsevier Publ. Co., New York.

Conover, S. A. 1956. Oceanography of Long Island Sound. 1952-1954. IV. Phytoplankton.
Bull. Bingham Oceanog. Coll., 15:62-112.

No. 2, 1985] BELANGER ET AL — DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS 107

GAME AND FRESHWATER FisH ComMIssION. State of Florida. 1977. Dingell-Johnson project F-
33-1, annual progress report.

Hopkins, T. L. 1966. The plankton of the St. Andrew Bay system, Florida. Publs. Inst. Mar.
Sci. Univ. Texas 11:12-64.

Kuut, A. 1962. Inorganic phosphorus uptake and metabolism. Pp. 211-229. In: Levin, R. A.
(ed.). Physiology and Biochemistry of Algae. Academic Press, New York.

Livincston, R. T., R. L. Iverson, anp D. C. Wuire. 1976. Energy relationships and the
productivity of Appalachicola Bay. Florida Sea Grant Technical Paper.

MILuiporE CorporaTION. 1975. Phytoplankton analysis. LAB 310.

Patten, B. C. 1962. Species diversity in net phytoplankton in Raritan Bay. J. Mar. Res.
20:57-75.

, R. A. MuLForp, AND J. E. WarinNeER. 1963. An annual phytoplankton cycle in

lower Chesapeake Bay. Chesapeake Sci. 4:1-20.

Pierce, E. L. 1947. An annual study of the plankton and chemistry of our aquatic habitats in
northern Florida. Univ. of Florida Press, Gainesville.

Ritey, G. A. 1952. Phytoplankton of Block Island Sound, 1949. Bull. Bingham Oceanog. Coll.
13:40-64.

RyTHER, J. M., AND W. M. Dunstan. 1971. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and eutrophication in the
coastal marine environment. Science 171:1008-1013.

SMaypaA, T. J. 1957. Phytoplankton studies in lower Narragansett Bay. Limnol. Oceanog.
4:342-359.

STAKER, R. D., AND S. F. Bruno. 1978. An annual phytoplankton study in coastal waters off
Eastern Long Island (Block Island Sound). Bot. Mar. 21:439-449.

STRICKLAND, J. D. H., AND T. R. Parson. 1968. A practical handbook of seawater analysis.
Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. No. 167.

Turner, J. T., AND T. L. Hopkins. 1974. Phytoplankton of the Tampa Bay system, Florida.
Bull. Mar. Sci. 24:100-120.

Florida Sci. 48(2):96-107. 1985.

Environmental Chemistry

DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS
IN FLORIDA’S HUMIC-COLORED WATERS
AND WATER QUALITY STANDARD IMPLICATIONS

“THOMAS V. BELANGER, ‘')FORREST E. DIERBERG AND ‘?) JERRY ROBERTS

“ Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology,
Melbourne, Florida 32901, and ‘*)Greiner Engineering Sciences, Inc.,
5601 Mariner Street, P.O. Box 23646, Tampa, Florida 33630

Asstract: The Florida Department of Environmental Regulation has established detailed
dissolved oxygen standards for the various classes of surface water in the state. The results of this
study and a review of the literature reveal that many natural humic-colored aquatic systems
(usually Class III waters) rarely meet the established 5 mg/L criteria. We believe, based on our
studies, that these conditions are natural and do not result from organic pollution. In view of this,
we believe a review of the current DER Standard, for humic-colored waters only, is in order.

DIssOLVED OXYGEN is probably the most important and frequently used
indicator of water quality, since it is easily understood and relatively simple

108 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

to measure. Dissolved oxygen is essential to the metabolism of organisms for
aerobic respiration and when it is depleted the system becomes anaerobic,
organic matter accumulates and most organisms die. When this happens, the
apparent effects to the public are fish kills and loss of recreational amenities.

In an attempt to avert problems such as these, the State of Florida has
established standards for the dissolved oxygen content for surface waters,
based on the primary use of that water (Florida Department of Environmen-
tal Regulation, 1970). In summary, these standards state that Class I Waters
(potable water supplies) and Class III Waters (recreation) should maintain
dissolved oxygen levels above 5 mg/L, while Class II Waters (shellfish prop-
agation and harvesting) and Class IV Waters (agricultural supplies) should
maintain average 24-hour concentrations of not less than 5 mg/L and 4
mg/L, respectively. Also, the concentrations for Class II and Class IV
Waters should never be less than 4 mg/L and 3 mg/L, respectively. Class V
Waters (navigation, utility and industrial use) shall not have concentrations
below 2 mg/L. _

It can be seen from the above regulations that the standard is very de-
tailed, sometimes requiring 24-hour diurnal measurements. Unfortunately,
many aquatic systems in Florida do not meet these standards. Lakes,
swamps, and streams that are highly colored with humic compounds often
never reach oxygen saturation. In view of this fact, the purpose of this paper
is to show that low dissolved oxygen conditions are typical of many humic-
colored aquatic systems in Florida and to suggest that the dissolved oxygen
standard should be revised.

S1TE Descriptions — Four sites in east and central Florida having differing degrees of humic
color were investigated (Fig. 1).

Three sites were located in south Florida and are under the jurisdiction of the South Florida
Water Management District (SFWMD). They are Armstrong Slough in Osceola County, Belcher
Canal (C-25) in St. Lucie County and Chandler Slough in Okeechobee County. Armstrong
Slough is located about six miles south of State Road 60 east of the Kissimmee River and drains
approximately 22,000 acres of mixed use agricultural land, pasture and native vegetation. Major
land uses are light to moderate density cattle grazing and citrus. The tributary channels drain a
marsh area, which was expanded in 1980 by the SFWMD, and is now some 453 acres in size
(Goldstein, 1981). The sampling locations were located at a gaging station 50 meters downstream
of the marsh in the major drainage channel.

Chandler Slough is the largest tributary of the Kissimmee River (Federico et al., 1978) and is
a natural flood plain marsh which is somewhat channeled near U.S. 98, approximately four miles
east of the Kissimmee River. Land in the basin is primarily occupied by cattle ranches and open
wetlands. Approximately 80 percent of the land is unimproved, improved and ditched pasture
and 20 percent is marsh and swamp. The sampling location was at the north bridge of U.S. 98
which crosses the partially channeled area of the slough.

Belcher Canal, in St. Lucie County, is relatively deep with steep banks and drains approx-
imately 83,500 acres, with 52 percent being improved pasture, 23 percent citrus and the rest
mainly forest uplands and wetlands. The canal generally flows east through a spillway into the
Indian River near Ft. Pierce. The location for sampling was from the Taylor River bridge cross-
ing the canal approximately two miles west of the spillway.

The fourth study site was located in central Florida in the Upper St. Johns River Basin near
the entrance to Lake Washington. Drainage in this area is by sheet flow through marsh and
wetlands and through drainage canals used for improving pasture and agricultural lands. The
river was sampled near the U.S. 192 bridge, at the Camp Holly Fish Camp. This site was chosen
as a sampling location because of the large number of previous dissolved oxygen studies com-

No. 2, 1985] BELANGER ET AL — DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS 109

ORLANDO a

520

MERRITT ISLAND
COCOA BEACH

—- 2

192

e@ MELBOURNE
vy)

CAMP HOLLY ©
¥,
b
Zz
441 Q
1 m
<
%
ALA
1-95 VERO BEACH
ARMSTRONG SLOUGH
FT. PIERCE

BELCHER CANAL

(C-25)
\

Fig. 1. Site locations, major highways and cities in the east central Florida study area.

CHANDLER SLOUGH
I

98 441

OKEECHOBEE

pleted there. At this location the river has formed a proper channel and flows north into Lake
Washington, the major source of drinking water for south Brevard County.

The selection of sites described above represents, in part, the variation in fresh water systems
found in central and southeast Florida. They are Chandler Slough as a natural marsh, Belcher
Canal as a man-made drainage system, Armstrong Slough as part natural and part man-made
marsh, and Camp Holly as a natural riverine-marsh system.

MEtTHops — Chandler Slough, Belcher Canal, and Armstrong Slough are Class III waters; the
St. Johns River at Camp Holly is Class I. Each of the sites were sampled three times during 1983,
with the exception of Camp Holly, which was sampled four times. The first set of samples were
taken during the winter period, the second during early summer, and the last during late summer
in order to obtain a seasonal variation.

All of the source and sink terms in the oxygen balance were measured according to procedures
outlined by Roberts (1983), but only the most relevant data are presented as it is not the objective
of this paper to present the budgets in detail. Community metabolism, as presented in this report,
was measured by the free-water diurnal oxygen method described by Odum and Hoskin (1958).
This method measures the diurnal changes in the concentration of oxygen in an aquatic system,
relates these changes to saturation based on temperature, and corrects for atmospheric diffusion.
Dissolved oxygen concentration and temperature were determined at various depths every two to
three hours over a 24-hour period. In order to eliminate the problems of graphical estimation and
the assumption of constant night respiration inherent in the Odum technique, a United States

110 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Geological Survey computer program (Stephens and Jennings, 1976) was used to calculate net
daytime productivity, night respiration and total community metabolism. Normally, the user in-
puts a diffusion constant to correct the community productivity values. An equation for the
reaeration coefficient (K,) based on the Velz rational method (Velz, 1970) was derived by Mc-
Cutcheon and Jennings (1982) and used in this study.

It should be noted that the Odum methodology allows for both single station and
upstream/downstream station techniques. In this study, it was assumed that each site either had
similar characteristics upstream or there was insufficient flow to affect the site. Because of this,
the single station technique was used.

In order to insure that readings of dissolved oxygen taken by the Leeds and Northrup portable
dissolved oxygen meter were accurate, comparisons between oxygen concentrations determined
by the Modified Winkler, Full Bottle Titration Technique (EPA, 1976) and readings obtained by
the meter were frequently made during the study. The values obtained from both methods were
always within 0.2 mg/L. Dissolved organic color was measured by absorption of filtered sample
water on a Perkin-Elmer double beam spectrophotometer-Coleman Model 124. Incoming solar
radiation (insolation) was continuously recorded during field sampling at each site with a
Weather Measure Model R401 mechanical pyranograph. An accurate and relatively easy method
for determining total and ferrous iron concentrations has been perfected (ASTM, 1977). The pro-
cedure uses an ammonium acetate solution to buffer the reactants to pH 3.5-4.0; hydroxylamine
hydrochloride reduces ferric iron to ferrous iron for total iron determination with bathophenan-
throline as a colored complexing ligand for ferrous ions. The sample is preserved with concen-
trated HCl (2 ml/100 ml sample) and stored in dark plastic bottles at 4°C and then filtered
through a 0.45 ym membrane in the lab prior to analysis. Therefore, the values obtained by this
procedure may be considered as “filtrable, acid-hydrolyzed” ferrous and total iron.

TaBLE 1. Average dissolved oxygen and related parameters at the study sites.’

Average

Dissolved

Oxygen Temperature Saturation Color

Site (mg/L) (C°) (%) (CPU)

Armstrong Slough
3/3/83 4.8 21.0 55.3 335
6/29/83 1.6 29.1 21.0 380
8/17/83 2.2 27.1 27.5 290
Belcher Canal
2/3/83 6.0 17.9 63.6 105
6/12/83 2.9 28.7 38.2 170
8/5/83 1.8 29.2 23.9 220
Chandler Slough
2/24/83 3.9 19.4 42.7 420
6/20/83 1.6 27.3 20.6 190
8/14/83 1.2 25.1 15.3 445
Camp Holly
2/17/83 4.9 15.4 49.2 245
3/21/83 3.8 21.0 43.5 305
5/26/83 5.0 28.9 66.2 300
8/1/83 4.4 29.1 58.5 335
Average (all sites) 3.4 24.6 40.4 280
ST. DEV. (all sites) +1.6 + 4.9 +17.5 +99.5

‘Averages for each date are from one meter depth increments over a 24-hr period.

No. 2, 1985] BELANGER ET AL — DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS 111

@ 3/3/83

A 6/29/83
S 8/17/83

(mg/L)
YN ©O hp YW O@ N oO

DISSOLVED OXYGEN

100

40
ze Se

fe] 25.4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

% SATURATION

HOUR

Fic. 2. Armstrong Slough diurnal oxygen curves.

RESULTS AND Discussion — As can be seen in Table 1, the 24-hour average
oxygen levels at sites in this study varied from a summer low of 1.2 mg/L in
Chandler Slough, a natural drainage marsh, to 6.0 mg/L in Belcher Canal, a
man-made drainage structure. The extremely flat nature of the diurnal
curves, except for Armstrong Slough (3/3/83), is shown in Figs. 2 through 5.
These figures show that the systems are generally very undersaturated with
respect to oxygen.

Oxygen budgets were completed on each system by Roberts (1983) and
the parameters investigated (primary production, respiration, sediment de-
mand, chemical consumption and diffusion) point to the dominance of oxy-
gen depleting processes over oxygen producing processes. Sediment uptake
was found to be a significant oxygen sink in these systems, while diffusion

112 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

was an important source. Pollutional sources at these sites are not high, as
revealed by the variable but generally low BOD levels shown in Table 2, and
indicate that the low oxygen levels must be considered as normal ambient
levels reflecting the natural oxygen budgets operating in these systems. The
low light penetration through the colored waters severely limits production
from plankton and submerged macrophytes, and the most significant supply
of oxygen was from diffusion from the atmosphere as a result of the under-
saturated conditions of the waters. Apparently, it is diffusion that nearly
balances the metabolism of these systems and allows them to function
aerobically. The low to negative 24-hour community metabolism values
calculated for these areas are shown in Table 3. These values reflect the com-
plete biological and physical sources and sinks of oxygen in the system, in-
cluding diffusion, and give an estimate of net gains or losses of oxygen in the
system.

Other investigations in humic-colored waters of the state have shown
undersaturated and low dissolved oxygen (<5.0 mg/L) conditions. Diurnal
oxygen measurements have been made since 1980 on the Upper St. Johns
River at Camp Holly, the same site used in this study (Belanger et al., 1983).
The curves, presented in Fig. 6, show very little oxygen fluctuation, and

TABLE 2. Measured carbonaceous and total biochemical oxygen demand levels and rate
constants at the study sites.

Carbonaceous BOD Total BOD Total
L k (1) L k Uptake
Site (mg/L) (1/day) (mg/L) (1/day) (gm/m? —d)

Armstrong S
3/3/83 3.8 0.15 3.6 0.15 0.91
6/29/83 8.2 0.05 11.5 0.04 0.71
8/17/83 4.3 0.08 4.7 0.13 0.74
Belcher C
2/3/83 5.6 0.06 29) 0.04 1.06
6/12/83 9.2 0.03 Aie2 0.02 1.07
8/5/83 4.5 0.12 8.9 0.06 Leal
Chandler S
2/24/83 4.7 0.04 4.3 0.05 0.67
6/20/83 1.2 0.15 19.1 0.10 6.00
8/14/83 5.8 0.08 6.3 0.07 1.44
Camp Holly
2/17/83 2.5 0.20 2.4 0.17 0.99
3/21/83 8.5 0.05 9.2 0.05 0.87
5/26/83 5.6 0.14 5.8 0.20 2.22
8/1/83 3e2 0.11 4.6 0.11 1.04
Average 5.9 0.10 1 0.09 1.49

(all sites)
Sia DEV; e206 + 0.05

H

HN
—
H+

=
S
[op]
+

a
_
_

No. 2, 1985] BELANGER ET AL — DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS 113
@ 2/3/83

SB 6/12/83
A 8/5/83

(mg/L)
Y OO hr WwW OQ NX OO

DISSOLVED OXYGEN

100

40

% SATURATION

20

0 2578 216 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

HOUR

Fic. 3. Belcher Canal diurnal oxygen curves.

undersaturated conditions occur most of the time. Table 4 presents the
chemical data associated with the diurnal curves. Generally, a low color cor-
responds to a high dissolved oxygen saturation, while high color is related to
low oxygen saturation values (r = .82; p<.01). Also, total iron increases
with color as stable iron-humic complexes are formed (r = .91; p<.01).
In their study of oxygen consumption by a photochemical Fe(II)-Fe(III)
catalytic cycle in humic colored waters, Miles and Brezonik (1981) also
found low oxygen levels coupled with high color and iron levels. Data from
five of their sites are shown in Table 5. The cycle consists of the photoreduc-
tion of Fe(III) to Fe(II) by humic matter and subsequent oxidation of Fe(II)
back to Fe(III) by dissolved oxygen. Since humic material forms very stable
complexes with iron, which results in a strong correlation of soluble iron

114 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

@ 2/24/83
@ 6/20/83
A 8/14/83

(mg/L)
YN © A WW OO N O

DISSOLVED OXYGEN

100

80

60

40

% SATURATION

20

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

HOUR
Fic. 4. Chandler Slough diurnal oxygen curves.

concentration and humic color, it is possible that this chemical oxygen con-
sumption mechanism may be more important than biological respiration in
highly colored swamps and canal waters. This uptake mechanism should be
investigated further. Experiments by Roberts (1983), in which the uptake
rates of poisoned and unpoisoned light and dark bottles were recorded, did
not prove this mechanism was occurring at our sites and results were very
erratic. We feel, however, that the occurrence of this catalytic cycle should
be further investigated to prove conclusively its occurrence or absence.
Dierberg and Brezonik (1984) have done extensive chemical studies on
the humic-colored natural swamp waters of a cypress dome in the Austin
Cary Memorial Forest in Alachua County. They reported dissolved oxygen
values consistently lower than saturation levels and never exceeding 6.8

No. 2, 1985] BELANGER ET AL — DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS 115

mg/L with a mean of 2.0 mg/L. Soluble iron levels were found to be high
with a range of 150 to 600 ng/L and a mean of 370 ug/L.

In a survey of the water quality of the Kissimmee-Okeechobee water-
shed, Federico and Brezonik (1975) found highly colored water with low
dissolved oxygen concentrations in all areas of their study. Table 6 shows the
chemical characteristics of several of the studied sloughs that drain into the
lower basin of the Kissimmee River. High color was attributed mainly to
leaching of humic and tannic substances within the marshes. These
substances can chelate metals, lower pH, and decrease light transmittance.
The low dissolved oxygen levels may be due to BOD of cattle droppings, but
the values are typical of those found in natural marsh areas. Seasonal effects
were generally found to be such that higher flows in the summer produced
higher color readings and lower dissolved oxygen, which was attributed to
increased runoff.

2/17/83
3/21/83
5/26/83
8/1/83

@
a
A
x

DISSOLVED OXYGEN
(mg/L)

40

% SATURATION

20

O 2 4 6 8-10, 12). 14 16 18 20-22 24

HOUR
Fic. 5. Camp Holly diurnal oxygen curves.

116 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

100} 12/4/80

90 48/22/81

0, (% saturation)

Dissolved

M 3 6 9 N 3 6 9 M
Time (hours)

Fic. 6. Diurnal oxygen curves (% saturation) at Camp Holly in the upper St. Johns River
(from Belanger et al., 1983).

TABLE 3. Total System 24-hr community metabolism values for the study sites.

Community metabolism (gm O,/m?-day)

Site (plus diffusion)

Armstrong Slough

3/3/83 —0.4

6/29/83 0.7

8/17/83 —0.6
Belcher Canal

2/3/83 —1.5

6/12/83 —1.2

8/5/83 —1.8
Chandler Slough

2/24/83 0.1

6/20/83 —3.0

8/14/83 0.3

Camp Holly-St. Johns River
2/17/83 0
3/21/83 —0
5/26/83 0
8/1/83 0

No. 2, 1985] BELANGER ET AL — DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS 117

TaBLE4. Water chemistry and solar radiation data for diurnal curves presented in Figure 6.

Color Total Fe Fell Solar Radiation
Date (CPU) (mg/L) (mg/L) (Keal/m?/hr)
12/4/80 60 0.10 -- on
7/21/80 35 0.03 -- --
9/25/80 38 0.04 -- --
8/22/81 65 0.08 -- 32:5
9/23/81 232 0.18 -- --
11/1/81 265 0.20 -- --
4/2/82 _ 270 0.21 0.09
5/20/82 394 0.24 0.15
7/15/82 440 0.27 0.25 22.8
8/17/82 438 0.42 0.32 19.8
10/5/82 401 0.37 0.28 23.4
11/30/82 332 0.27 0.18 13.8
1/25/83 243 0.21 0.14 15.6
2/15/83 243 0.26 0.08 1.4
3/21/83 304 0.30 0.13 25.3
5/24/83 269 0.17 0.14 31-5
Average 252 0.21 0.18 20.7
STD. DEV. + 134 +0.11 + 0.08 + 9.6

A final example familiar to the authors is that of Goat Creek, an
undeveloped naturally colored drainage creek discharging into the Indian
River, south of Palm Bay, Florida. This creek was chosen for background
data by the DER in 1981 for comparison with Turkey Creek water quality
data during a review of NPDES permit applications submitted by the Harris
Corporation, a discharger to Turkey Creek. The dissolved oxygen levels
recorded in Goat Creek, however, were similar or lower than Turkey Creek,
a much less colored creek located several miles to the north in a highly
developed and urbanized watershed. Diurnal dissolved data indicated that
the colored Goat Creek did not meet the 5 mg/L standard at most sites (Post,
Buckley, Schuh and Jernigan, 1981).

Conc.usions — In view of data acquired in this study, and a brief review
of the literature, it seems the 5.0 mg/L dissolved oxygen standard for these
and similar aquatic systems is unrealistic. A better approach would be to set
standards based on the continued determination of the uniqueness of each
system, as this study has begun. Then, individually, the application of the
water quality standard for dissolved oxygen could be assessed and modified
on a case-by-case basis. This approach would be expensive and time consum-
ing, however, and our study indicates that if a uniform water quality stan-
dard for humic colored water is to be established and maintained, it should
be lower than the present 5 mg/L standard existing for Class III water.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS — Data used in this paper were largely obtained from a project funded by
the South Florida Water Management District. The assistance of the District staff was greatly ap-
preciated.

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No. 2, 1985] BELANGER ET AL — DISSOLVED OXYGEN CONCENTRATIONS 119

LITERATURE CITED

AMERICAN SocteTy OF TESTING MaTeRIALs. 1977. Standard test methods for iron in water.
D 1068-77, Philadelphia, PA.

BELANGER, T. V., S. D. VANVONDEREN AND T. J. CARBERRY. 1983. Analysis of selected water
quality factors in the Upper St. Johns River Basin. Report to the St. Johns River Water
Management District. Dept. of Environmental Science and Engineering, Florida Insti-
tute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida.

Direserc, F. E., AND P. L. Brezonik. 1984. Chemical characteristics of Cypress Dome Water.
In: Cypress Swamps. K. C. Ewel and H. T. Odum, eds. Univ. Presses of Florida, Gaines-
ville, Florida.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. 1976. Manual of methods for chemical analysis of water
and wastes. USEPA Office of Technology Transfer, Washington, D.C.

Feperico, A. C., AND P. L. Brezonik. 1975. Survey of the water quality in the Kissimmee-
Okeechobee Watershed. Florida Dept. of Env. Reg. Technical Series Vol. 8, Talla-
hassee, FL.

Feperico, A, C., J. F. MILLeson, P. S. MILLaR AND M. Rosen. 1978. Environmental Studies
in the Chandler Slough watershed. South Florida Water Management District. Tech-
nical Publication #78-2, West Palm Beach, Florida.

FLoRIDA DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION. 1970. Florida water quality standards.
Chapter 17-3, as amended.

Go.pstTEIn, A. L. 1981. Upland detention/retention demonstration project-Third Annual Re-
port to the Coordinating Council on the Restoration of the Kissimmee River Valley and
Taylor Creek/Nubbin Slough Basin. South Florida Water Management District Tech-
nical Memorandum, West Palm Beach, Florida.

McCutcHeEon, S. C., AND M. G. JENNINGs. 1982. Discussion of “stream reaeration by the Velz
method” by R. J. Hengen. J. Env. Eng. Div., Proc. Am. Soc. Civ. Engrs. 108:218-220.

Mites, C. J., AND P. L. Brezonix. 1981. Oxygen consumption in humic-colored water by a
photochemical ferrous-ferric catalytic cycle. Environ. Sci. Technol. 15:1089-1095.

Opum, H. T., anp C. M. Hoskin. 1958. Comparative studies on the metabolism of marine
waters. Texas Univ. Inst. Marine Sci. Pub. 5:16-46.

Post, BuCKLEY, SCHUH AND JERNIGAN. 1981. Unpublished data. Orlando, Florida.

Roserts, J. E., Jr. 1983. Dissolved oxygen budgets of humic-colored aquatic systems. M. G.
Thesis. Dept. of Environmental Science and Engineering, Florida Institute of Tech-
nology, Melbourne, Florida.

STEPHENS, D. W., AND M. E. JENNiNGs. 1976. Determination of primary productivity and com-
munity metabolism in streams and lakes using diel oxygen measurements. Computer
program documentation user’s manual—program No. J330. USGS Water Resources
Div., Gulf Coast Hydroscience Center, Bay St. Louis, Mississippi.

Veuz, C. J. 1970. Applied Stream Sanitation. Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

Florida Sci. 48(2):107-119. 1985.

Biological Sciences

ELIMINATION OF A SMALL FERAL SWINE POPULATION
IN AN URBANIZING SECTION OF CENTRAL FLORIDA

Larry N. BROWN

Department of Biology, University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida 33620

Asstract: A population of feral hogs increased to the point of causing noticeable ecological
damage and was a general nuisance in the rapidly urbanizing area northeast of the University of
South Florida campus in Hillsborough County. A technique was employed which effectively
eliminated the wild hog population (25 adults, plus juveniles) within three months. The composi-
tion and characteristics of this semiurban population are discussed.

PoputaTions of feral swine (Sus scrofa, Linnaeus) have existed
throughout much of Florida for the past several hundred years (Hansen &
Karstad, 1959; Wood & Barrett, 1979; Wood & Lynn, 1977; Frankenberger
& Belden, 1976). One such population occurred and thrived on the 500 acre
Ecological Preserve of the University of South Florida adjacent to a rapidly
urbanizing area of North Tampa. The natural area consists of intermixed
cypress swamps, oak hammocks, pine flatwoods, and pine-oak forest located
in the Cypress Creek drainage plain at its confluence with the Hillsborough
River, located just 1 kilometer northeast of the Tampa city limits in west-
central Florida. The Ecological Preserve is bordered on two sides by chain
link fencing and has been closed to public hunting since its creation in 1967.
A third side is bordered by urban development which was an effective bar-
rier to hog movements in that direction. The fourth side continues with the
swampy flood plains of the Hillsborough River and mouth of Cypress Creek.

The population of feral hogs living on the tract gradually increased dur-
ing the 1970's, to the point where the pigs’ extensive rooting and foraging ac-
tivities caused considerable ecological damage to the natural understory
vegetation, especially in the oak hammocks and pine-oak woodlands of the
preserve. In addition, the University of South Florida Golf Course, which
borders the west boundary of the Ecological Preserve, reported increasing,
nocturnal hog depredations on the greens and fairways bordering a cypress
swamp where the wild hogs spent some time foraging.

MerHops—A decision was made by university personnel to greatly reduce or possibly
eliminate the pig population during the first months of 1980. This was accomplished by two
methods: 1) live trapping; and 2) shooting the hogs at corn bait stations. Two corral type live
traps with heavy drop-type swinging doors were utilized to capture hogs with fermented corn as
bait. Live trapping met with only limited success, so the second attempt at removal employed the
use of corn bait stations visited periodically at night with a high-powered rifle and spotlight.

Over a period of three months (January-March, 1980), wild hogs present on the USF
Ecological Preserve were removed, weighed and measured, and reproductive status determined.
The skulls of all individuals were cleaned, preserved, and examined for evidence of mor-
phological variation. Standard deviations from the mean were calculated for the various
measurements.

No. 2, 1985] BROWN — ELIMINATION OF A SWINE POPULATION 121

RESULTS AND Discussion—The entire swine population was eliminated
by the end of March, 1980. This was verified by the fact that no new pig
tracks, rootings, or other sign of foraging activity appeared on the tract in
the 4 years (1980-1984) following completion of the project.

Using sexual development of the reproductive tracts as an aging
criterion, the hog population at the time of removal consisted of 25 mature
animals plus an estimated 12-15 small juveniles observed or taken. Thirteen
(13) boars were collected (range in weight = 29.5-124.7kg.; ave. =
78.0 + 25.5kg.) and 12 sows were removed (range in weight = 23.6-103.4kg;
ave. = 58.1+31.6kg). Testes biopsy revealed that all the boars contained
mature spermatazoa in the seminiferous tubules and epididymes.

Ten females were pregnant or lactating at the time of examination. The
mean litter size based on six embryo counts was 8.4 + 2.6 (range 6-12). The
smallest pregnant sow weighed only 23.6 kg. and contained 5 embryos in the
uterus. Tooth eruption suggests she was about 6 months old according to the
criteria of Matschke (1967). The ovaries of this young female contained
seven corpora lutea (one in the right ovary and six in the left ovary), but the
5 embryos were implanted with 2 in the right uterine horn and 3 in the left
uterine horn. Asdell (1964) stated that transuterine horn migration of ova is
a common phenomenon in domestic sows, and there is a tendency for em-
bryos on each side to equalize in number.

One sow taken in early February, 1980, was lactating heavily and had
recently farrowed young, but she apparently lost all of them prior to capture
because none were encountered during careful and repeated searching of the
surrounding areas. Since the weather was unseasonally cold and wet
throughout the previous week, this might have contributed to the loss of the
litter in question.

The coat color of this population of feral hogs was somewhat variable,
but the predominant hair color was a uniform black covering the entire body
(60% of those taken). Some spotting (white, red, gray, or rust) occurred on
32% of the individuals, especially in the belly and flank areas. Surprisingly,
there was also a great deal of variation in the skull morphology of these feral
swine. Most of the skulls were relatively long and narrow, representing the
wild-type “piney-rooter” or “razorback” type morph. However, 28% ex-
hibited a broader skull with a short snout, which is more typical of domestic
breeds of hogs. It is assumed that these individuals carried more of the
domestic hog genes compared with the “narrow-skull” long-nosed types. For
example, a representative “narrow-skull” boar had an inter-orbital width of
7.0 cm. and parietal bone width (at its narrowest point) of only 2.0 cm. A
representative “broad-skull” boar of the same size and weight, had an inter-
orbital skull width of 8.5 cm. and parietal bone width of 4.5 cm. at its nar-
rowest point.

There was also a correlation between coat color and skull type. All the
individuals of uniform black color possessed the longer-narrow skull morph,
while about 50% of the spotted swine had long-narrow skulls and 50% were

122 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

shorter and broad. Therefore, spotting appears to be definitely more closely
correlated with domestic skull morphology in these feral swine.

It was learned from local residents that about 10 years prior to this hog
population removal, a rancher located about a mile to the north of the study
area did release some domestic hogs into the woods in an attempt to improve
hunting, so perhaps this contributed to the large variation in skull mor-
phology seen in this feral hog population. No recent domestic escapes seem
likely, because this ranch was subsequently sold for residential development,
and no other hog farms occur in the area.

Live-trapping, as attempted in this population, proved to be a very inef-
ficient means of eliminating the wild hog population. Only five individuals
were taken in this manner during three months of trapping, and just one of
these was a sizeable boar (weight = 110 kg.). Females were certainly more
susceptible to entering the baited corral traps than the boars. Similar obser-
vations were made by Jones (1959), Stegeman (1938), and Wood (1977) in
other wild pig populations.

A comparison of the success rate for live trapping versus shooting the
wild pigs is very revealing. The baited live traps averaged only one pig per
each 18 trap nights over the sample period. The night shooting at baited sta-
tions, by contrast, yielded one pig per each 4 hours of hunting effort.

Therefore, night hunting at bait stations, when pursued intensively, can
be used to quickly reduce or eliminate a swine population. A total of 20 hogs
was removed in this manner in two months. Good success was experienced in
stalking the hogs on moonlit nights, even without the aid of a light. Use of a
spotlight was necessary, however, on moonless nights. Placing small spots of
fluorescent paint on the rifle sights greatly aided aiming in the dark at wild
hogs feeding at the bait station. Therefore, in situations where control of
nuisance wild pig populations is desired and other solutions are not feasible,
this method is very effective.

In general, feral swine populations do not appear to be compatible with
human activities in a rapidly urbanizing region. Also, the extensive rooting,
wallowing, and nocturnal foraging activities of wild swine are ecologically
destructive to many natural habitats as well as most cover types created and
maintained by man.

LITERATURE CITED

ASDELL, S. A. 1964. Patterns of mammalian reproduction, 2nd ed. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca,
NY. 670 pp.

FRANKENBERGER, W. B. AND R. C. BELDEN. 1976. Distribution, relative abundance and manage-
ment needs of feral hogs in Florida. SE Assoc., Game and Fish Comm., Conf.
13:641-644.

Hanson, R. P. anp L. Karstap. 1959. Feral swine in the southeastern United States. J. Wildl.
Mgmt., 23:64-74.

Jones, P. 1959. The European wild boar in North Carolina. Game Div., North Carolina Wildl.
Res. Comm., Raleigh, 29 pp.

No. 2, 1985] HEWES ET AL — CHLOROFORM DEHALOGENATION 123

MartscukeE, G. H. 1967. Aging European wild hogs by dentition. J. Wildl. Mgmt., 31: 109-113.

STEGEMAN, L. C. 1938. The European wild boar in the Cherokee National Forest, Tennessee.
J. Mann., 19:279-290.

Woop, G. W., ed. 1977. Research and management of wild hog populations. Belle W. Baruch
Forest Science Inst. Publ., Georgetown, South Carolina, 113 pp.

Woop, G. W., AND R. H. Barrett. 1979. Status of wild pigs in the United States. Wildl. Soc.
Bull., 7:246-273.

Woop, G. W., AND T. E. Lynn, Jr. 1977. Wild hogs in southern forests. Southern J. Appl. For.,
1(2):12-17.

Florida Sci. 48(2):120-123. 1985.

Chemistry

EVIDENCE FOR A CARBENE MECHANISM IN THE
METAL—CHELATE ASSISTED
DEHALOGENATION OF CHLOROFORM

KENNETH A. HEWES, JEFFERSON C. Davis, JR., AND DEAN F. MARTIN

Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center
Department of Chemistry
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida 33620 U.S.A.

Asstract: Dehalogenation of chloroform in 50% chloroform-methanol (v/v) at 63°C is assisted
by _ bis(N-n-butylsalicylaldiminato)nickel(II). The reaction was studied in the presence of
cyclohexene, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra were evaluated at varying times for
the appearance of 7,7-dichloronorcarane, the logical product of dichlorocarbene and cyclohex-
ene. The NMR spectra indicate the formation of 7;7-dichloronorcarane,
7,7-dichlorobicyclo[4.1.0]heptane.

Previous research (Olszewski and Martin, 1965; Martin, 1975) indicated
bis(N-n-butylsalicylaldiminato)nickel(II) in the presence of a diamine
caused dehalogenation of chloroform rather than undergoing the antici-
pated amine-exchange product. The kinetics of the reaction were investi-
gated using a mixed solvent system of methanol-chloroform (to eliminate the
possibility of precipitation as a driving force) and tetramethylethylene-
diamine (to preclude amine-exchange). The rate law at 63°C is consistent
with a two-pathway mechanism (1),

124 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Rate = (k, + k,[Complex]) (diamine) (1)
i.e., amine assisted (k,) and metal-chelate assisted, (k.)[Complex].
Additional studies (Nahar and Mukhedar, 1980,1981) have not altered this
view.

For either pathway, a carbene mechanism may be visualized following
proton abstraction (2,3),

B + CHCl; ——————> CCl," + BH* (2)
where B is either an amine or metal-chelate compound,
Ch Cl Eek (3)

In this study we describe our efforts to trap the dichlorocarbene through
reaction with cyclohexene to form 7,7-dichloronorcarane and to identify the
substance through NMR spectra.

MeEtHops—Bis (N-n-butylsalcylidiminato)nickel (II) was prepared as described previously
(cf. Martin, 1975; Hewes and Martin, 1984). Authentic 7,7 dichloronorcarane was prepared as
follows: to a refluxing mixture of cyclohexene (16.4 g, 0.02 mole), 50 mL of chloroform, and 0.6
g triethylbenzylammonium chloride in a 500 mL round-bottom flask was added an aqueous solu-
tion of 50% sodium hydroxide at the rate of 1 mL/min. The mixture was refluxed for 1 hr. Upon
cooling to room temperature, the organic layer was separated, and washed with one 50-mL and
two 25-mL volumes of water. The organic layer was dried over anhydrous Na,SO, and then
purified by distillation. The product boiled at 200°C (ca. 760 torr); reported 200°C, ca. 760 torr
(Jurch, 1981). Yield was about 20%.

The NMR spectra were taken for pure, redistilled liquids using a Varian E.M. 360 A NMR
spectrometer (Figs. 1-2). Equimolar amounts of cyclohexene (0.5915 g, 0.0072 mole) and
N,N,N'N'-tetramethyl-1-1,2-diaminoethane (tetramethylethylenediamine) were mixed with a
solution of the nickel complex (0.4938 g, 0.0012 mole) in 125 mL of chloroform. The resulting
solution was refluxed for 24 hrs. (Ethanol had been removed from the chloroform by extracting
with five 60-mL volumes of water, drying, and redistilling). Aliquots were removed as the mix-
ture refluxed at 0, 2, and 24 hrs. A spectrum of each aliquot was obtained to determine the ap-
pearance of 7,7-dichloronorcarane (Fig. 3).

RESULTS AND Discussion—We attempted to isolate dichlorocarbene
(formed in the metal-assisted dehalogenation of chloroform) by trapping it
with cyclohexene. The NMR spectra obtained were consistent with the
generation of dichloronorcarane. Specifically, the spectra obtained for the
reaction mixture, and compared with spectra of authentic samples of the
reaction components, indicate the development of high-field shifted lines
consistent with 7,7-dichloronorcarane. To appreciate this, it is necessary to
review the spectra of the components.

The proton spectrum of cyclohexene consists (Fig. 1) of 3 peaks: a
multiplet at 1.60 ppm (methylene protons), a multiplet at 1.95 ppm (allylic
protons), and a sharp singlet at 5.58 ppm (vinylic protons). The proton spec-
trum of 7,7-dichloronorcarane (Fig. 2) consists of multiplets at 1.38 and 1.70
ppm, which are ascribed to a-methylene protons and 6-methylene protons,
respectively. The proton spectrum of the diamine consists of 2 singlets at
2.13 and 2.29 ppm, which are associated with the terminal methyl and the
methylene protons, respectively.

The proton spectrum of the nickel complex was obtained for
deuterochloroform solution and is complicated with 6 distinct peaks (cf.

No. 2, 1985] HEWES ET AL— CHLOROFORM DEHALOGENATION 125

5.58 1.60 i

Fic. 1. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (PMR) spectrum of pure redistilled cyclohexene,
tetramethylsilane (TMS) used as an internal standard.

Q
Q

1.7 1.3

Fic. 2. PMR spectra (original and amplified) of redistilled 7,7-dichlorobicyclo[4.1.0]heptane.

126 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

= ————}

ss

ce

Fic. 3. PMR spectrum of reaction mixture [cyclohexene, chloroform, diamine, nickel(II)-
chelate compound] at various times.

Holm et al., 1966). Because salicylaldimine compounds are involved in
planartetrahedral equilibra, their proton NMR spectra exhibit large isotopic
proton contact shifts (Holm et al., 1966). The signs of the contact shifts can
be interpreted by means of a simple valence-bond model. Using this ap-
proach, low-energy structures can be written in which the unpaired spin is
placed at specific locations. Here the 3-C and 5-C position on the aromatic
ring are sites of positive spin density and thus 3-C and 5-C protons will be
shifted upfield relative to resonance frequencies for the free ligands. In con-
trast, the 4-C and 6-C positions are sites of negative spin density, and the
4-H and 6-H protons will be shifted downfield (Holm et al., 1966).

Thus, the NMR spectrum of the nickel complex has the following
features. The 3-H and 5-H protons are shifted upfield and appear as a
doublet (0.94 ppm) and as a singlet (3.9 ppm), respectively. A broad
multiplet at 2.5 ppm may be ascribed to the butyl protons. The 6-C and 4-C

No. 2, 1985] HEWES ET AL — CHLOROFORM DEHALOGENATION 127

protons on the salicyl ring are shifted downfield and appear as doublets at
6.35 and 7.00 ppm, respectively. The methine proton is also shifted
downfield and appears as a singlet at 9.50 ppm.

For the initial reaction mixture (Fig. 3), the NMR spectrum of cyclohex-
ene appeared with peaks at 5.6 ppm (vinylic), 1.95 ppm (allylic and 1.60
ppm (methylene) together with a large singlet at 7.24 from the methine pro-
ton of chloroform.

As time passed, the spectrum became more complicated. After refluxing
1 hr., the NMR spectrum contained an unknown singlet at 2.72 ppm, and
high-field lines developed between 1.3 and 1.6 ppm. After 2 hrs., the high-
field shifted lines grew in size, relative to cyclohexene, and the vinylic proton
of cyclohexene (5.6 ppm) diminished; the sharp singlet at 2.72 also in-
creased. After 24 hrs., high-field shifted lines between 1.3 and 1.6 ppm
became more distinct, the relative sizes of the vinylic protons of cyclohexene
(5.6 ppm) and unknown singlet (2.72 ppm) were unchanged from the 2-hr
spectrum.

The singlet at 2.72 ppm does not appear to be associated with the
diamine hydrochloride. Hydrogen chloride gas was bubbled into the initial
reaction mixture, and the spectrum did not exhibit a singlet at 2.72 ppm.
This peak may be associated with other products (along with the group of
peaks around 3-3.5 ppm).

Beyond the appearance of this unascribed peak, the spectra are consis-
tent with the development of 7,7-dichloronorcarane during the reaction
period of 0-2 hr. We believe that there is evidence for a dichlorocarbene
mechanism for a metal-chelate assisted pathway for dehalogenation of
chloroform. Previous data have indicated a notable difference between the
rate constants for a diamine-assisted pathway and a metal-chelate assisted
one (Martin, 1975). While we cannot overlook the possibility that
dichlorocarbene is generated by diamine-assisted pathway, the observed
rate constants (Martin, 1975) indicate the amount would be negligible dur-
ing a 0-2 hr run under the conditions used.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—We are grateful to Walter K. Taylor for his services as consulting editor.

LITERATURE CITED

Hewes, K. A., anp D. F. Martin. 1984. Dehalogenation of three chlorinated hydrocarbons:
amine-assisted versus metal-chelate assisted. Environ. Sci. Health, in press.

Hoo, R. H., G. W. Everett, Jr., AND A. CHAKRAVARTY. 1966. Metal complexes of Schiff bases
and 8-keto Amines. Prog. Inorg. Chem., 7:83-214.

Jurcu, Jr., G. R. 1981. Organic Chemistry Laboratory Manual (Third Edition), Burgess, Min-
neapolis, pp. 311-315.

Martin, D. F. 1975. Kinetics of dehalogenation of chloroform by a metal-chelate system. J.
Inorg. Nucl. Chem., 37:1941-1944.

Nanak, C. T., anv A. J. MuKHEDKaR. 1980. The effect of ‘R’ group in bis(N-R-salim) nickel (II)
on the dehalogenation of chloroform. J. Indian Chem. Soc., 57:961-964.

128 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Nauar, C. T., AND A. J. MukHEDKAR. 1981. The effect of metal ion in bis(N-n-butyl, salim)
metal(II) on the dehalogenation of chloroform. J. Indian Chem. Soc., 58:343-346.

Otszewskl, E. J., AND D. F. Martin. 1965. Interactions of amines and some nickel(II) Schiff
base compounds—I. Amine exchange. J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem., 27:1043-1048.

Florida Sci. 48(2):123-128. 1985.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF REVIEWERS

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the service of the following persons who gave generously of
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T. R. Abbott Leslie Sue Lieberman
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clentist

Volume 48 Summer, 1985 Number 3

CONTENTS

Zooplankton Abundance and Diversity in Spring

Make, Plorida...:......: Barry D. Billets and John A. Osborne 129
Dental Pathology of a Prehistoric Human Population

iP lOrida. 3.0.5: . Robert Isler, Jed Schoen and M. Yasar Iscan 139
Nurse Sharks of Big Pine Key: A Comparative Success

of Three Types of External Tags............ Jeffrey C. Carrier 146

Hydrogeology of the Biscayne Aquifer .........................
Ian Watson and Jeffrey W. Herr 154
Excavation of the Briarwoods Site (8-PA-66), Pasco
(COOTETAY S754) Cc) aa FW eg ee Jeffrey M. Mitchem 161
Biological Effects of Dredging in an Offshore Borrow Area........
Robert O. Johnson and Walter G. Nelson 166

BRE VAC WA ree once ive bra alle hve tdava, s Daniel F. Austin 188
ENTE 65 6 oy SRO Oe nnn Robert D. Whitaker 189
SWIG, J ofg ati AO tone Ge eae eee ee ee John A. Osborne 191
Acknowledgement of Reviewers ..............0000 cece eeeeees 192
Ee OMMAE EVE CICORS Nene eho 5 coo dU ees moss Sistas oe she 192

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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Volume 48 Summer, 1985 Number 3

Biologoical Sciences

ZOOPLANKTON ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY IN
SPRING LAKE, FLORIDA

‘Barry D. BILLETS AND ‘JOHN A. OSBORNE

‘) Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, Southwest District,
7601 Highway 301 North, Tampa, Florida 33610 and
‘Department of Biological Sciences, University of Central Florida,
P.O. Box 25000, Orlando, Florida 32816

Asstract: Seasonal variation in zooplankton abundance and diversity in Spring Lake,
Florida was studied between 1973 and 1976. This clear, sand bottom lake is among Florida’s
lakes that have the highest water quality. The zooplankton community in Spring Lake was
characterized by low abundance (monthly means < 100 individuals/1) and high Shannon diver-
sity (monthly means were 3.0-4.0). A rich rotifer fauna was mainly responsible for variation in
monthly mean values for the Shannon and Simpson indices. Eighty-three zooplankton species
were collected: 60 were rotifers, 16 were cladocerans, and 7 were copepods. Forty-one
zooplankton species (27 rotifers, 7 cladocerans, and 7 copepods) were common between years.
The pattern of low abundance and high diversity for the zooplankton in Spring Lake is con-
sidered an indication of oligotrophic-like conditions.

STUDIES OF ZOOPLANKTON communities in freshwater environments are
usually short term (i.e., 1 year or less) and generally result in a discussion of
seasonal trends based upon a set of data per season. Because annual climatic
conditions can be drastically different for consecutive years, such studies
may be inadequate to fully explain changes for the zooplankton community
with respect to the environment. While freshwater zooplankton com-
munities have been investigated in Florida and elsewhere from a variety of
environments, diversity indices for dominance and community structure
have not been widely used in studies describing the zooplankton. The
association of zooplankton species diversity with water quality needs more
attention since zooplankton tend to be opportunistic and therefore may be a
rapid gauge for detecting environmental change. In studies where the Shan-
non diversity index for the zooplankton community has been calculated, an-
nual mean values were generally near 3.0; for example, in Oklahoma lakes

130 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

(Kochsiek et al., 1971; McClintock and Wilhm, 1977), in a Texas pond
(Smith et al., 1979) and in a Florida pond and lake (Fry and Osborne, 1980;
Schmitz and Osborne, 1984). Prather and Prophet (1969) reported that
species diversity of zooplankton was related to the physicochemical environ-
ment in Kansas reservoirs. New reservoirs generally had higher values for the
Shannon diversity index than older, more mature reservoirs. Kochsiek et al.
(1971) found significant correlations in Keystone reservoir, Oklahoma, be-
tween the Shannon diversity index for zooplankton and specific conduc-
tivity, turbidity, water temperature, dissolved oxygen and bicarbonate alka-
linity. They reported that seasonal changes of those environmental factors
influenced the diversity of the zooplankton.

The objective of our study was to describe the zooplankton community in
a clear, central Florida lake with respect to the physiochemical environment
over a 3-year period.

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA—Spring lake is a 53.8 ha lake located near Orlando, Orange
County, Florida (28° 27’ N lat., 81° 29’ W long.). The lake is in the zone of transition between
humid subtropical and wet tropical climates (Strahler and Strahler, 1976). It is representative of
the clear, acidic lakes found in the sandhill region of the central highlands. In this region of low,
rolling hills, the sand-bottomed lakes are characteristically clear and have a slightly acidic pH.
Spring Lake, formed by the dissolution process, has a sand bottom which is covered by a layer of
sapropel in the profundal zone. It has a mean water depth of 4 m and a maximum depth of 9 m.
The annual water level fluctuation is generally less than 15 cm. Its drainage consists of an orange
grove on the eastern side and a berm surrounding the north, west and south sides. Because runoff
into the lake is minimal, its water level is maintained by springs, hence its name. Acidic soils of
varying porosity characterize the drainage (Leighty, 1960). These soils are St. Lucie, Blanton,
Rutledge, and Pomello sands. St. Lucie and Blanton sands are well drained deposits of loose,
undifferentiated material, while the Rutledge type is poorly drained organic sand. Pomello sand
contains an organic layer that does not permit percolation and consequently promotes lateral
flow (Lichtler et al., 1968).

Littoral vegetation was present in Spring Lake at depths less than 2 m; it was represented by
Panicum repens (torpedograss), Hydrocotyle umbellata (water pennywort), Nuphar lutem (spat-
terdock), Pontedaria lanceolata (pickerelweed), Nymphaea odorata (fragrant waterlily), Sagit-
taria spp (arrowweed) and Eleocharis acicularus (spikerush). Mayaca aubletti (bogmoss), a
native submersed plant which can be found in clear, acidic lakes in the central highlands, was
abundant in the infralittoral zone.

ZOOPLANKTON COLLECTION, ENUMERATION AND Diversity Inpices—Monthly samples were
collected from June 1973 through May 1976. Six random sampling stations were chosen each
month from a grid map of the lake. One vertical net haul was made at each station using a #20
nylon bolting cloth zooplankton net (pore size = 80y) having a diameter of 30.5 cm. Zooplankton
were collected from the net using an attached Wisconsin bucket. They were preserved in 3% for-
malin. A 0.04% Rose Bengal solution was added to aid in visual examination. Samples were con-
centrated to 100 ml and 3, 1-ml subsamples were obtained from a round bottom flask with a
Hensen-Stempel pipette. Each 1-ml subsample was placed in a Sedgwick-Rafter counting
chamber and strip counts of the entire chamber were made at 100x magnification. Rotifers were
identified to species using the keys of Ahlstrom (1934), Edmonson (1959), Harring and Myers
(1922, 1924, 1926, 1928), Myers (1930) and Voight (1956). Contracted rotifers were identified
with trophi. Trophi were extracted by dissolving the lorica in 10% Clorox in a depression slide.
Bdelloid rotifers were not keyed to species due to the difficulty of identification of this group.
Microcrustaceans were identified to species, except for immature individuals, using Deevey and
Deevey (1971), Edmondson (1959), and Pennak (1953, 1978). The Shannon diversity index
(Shannon and Weaver, 1949) and the Simpson dominance index (Simpson, 1949) were calculated
using species enumeration data. Immature crustaceans were not included in those calculations.

PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS—Physicochemical measurements were taken concurrently
with the collection of zooplankton. Visible light penetration (transparency) was determined

No. 3, 1985] BILLETS AND OSBORNE — ZOOPLANKTON IN SPRING LAKE 131

using a 20 cm black and white Secchi disc. Vertical light extinction coefficients were calculated
from light readings taken at 1-m intervals using a Kahl Instrument Co. submarine photometer.
Water temperature and specific conductivity were measured below the surface and near the bot-
tom using a YSI S-C-T meter.

Dissolved oxygen concentrations were determined with the modified Winkler method
(APHA, 1971). Turbidity was measured spectrophotometrically (EPA, 1971), while alkalinity,
orthophosphate, nitrite and nitrate nitrogen concentrations were determined with APHA (1971)
procedures. The concentration of inorganic carbon was calculated using alkalinity and pH values
with the equation presented in Saunders et al. (1962). Water samples for these chemical deter-
minations were obtained at 1 m below the surface and near the bottom using a 1.2-1 Kemmerer
water sampler.

Phytoplankton biomass at the surface and bottom was estimated by chlorophyll. Algae from
700 ml of water were concentrated by filtration through glass fiber filters (pore size = 0.45y),
ground in 10 ml of acetone and stored in the dark for 24 hr at 4 C. The equation of Richards with
Thompson (1952) was used to calculate the chlorophyll concentration at 665 nm.

PHYSICOCHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT—Spring Lake is considered a warm
monomictic lake due to its moderate water temperature, its thermal
stratification only in summer and its homothermal condition throughout
autumn, winter and spring. The annual mean surface temperatures for.
Spring Lake during this study were near 24 C. These mean temperatures
were not significantly different (p < 0.05) between years. Monthly means
varied between 15.6 and 31.1 C. The high water clarity of Spring Lake
probably facilitated its homothermal condition. Annual means for Secchi
disc transparency approximated 3 m; these values were not significantly dif-
ferent (p < 0.05) between years. Annual mean vertical extinction coeffi-
cients, generally less than 0.5, were also not significantly different (p <
0.05) between years. Turbidity, which appeared to decrease throughout the
study, was not significantly different (p < 0.05) between years (Table 1).

The differences between the surface and bottom values for the chemical
parameters were minimal (Table 1). Dissolved oxygen concentrations in
Spring Lake tended to be highest during winter when water temperatures
were low. Monthly mean dissolved oxygen concentrations at the surface
ranged from 6.9 to 12.2 ppm. Winter values were approximately twice those
for summer. Annual mean dissolved oxygen concentrations were not signifi-
cantly different (p < 0.05) between study years (Table 1).

Since Spring Lake received water from acidic, well drained soils, this ac-
counts for its low alkalinity and its slightly acidic pH. Surface and bottom
pH remained relatively constant throughout the study, ranging from 6.0 to
7.0. Monthly mean total alkalinity values were below 14.0 ppm CaCQs3.
Specific conductivity, which increased in Spring Lake throughout the study,
had annual mean values that ranged from 129 to 141 wmhos/cm @ 25 C;
they were significantly different (p < 0.05) between the first and third years
(Table 1). Values for inorganic carbon were low in Spring Lake and were
mainly a reflection of the low total alkalinity. Monthly means for inorganic
carbon were less than 6.0 ppm over the 3-years. The low inorganic carbon
concentration may have been a limiting factor for algal biomass; annual
mean chlorophyll concentrations were less than 5.0 mg/m* and were not
significantly different between study years (Table 1). The annual mean

132 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

orthophosphate concentration for the third year was significantly lower (p
< 0.5) than that for the first 2 years when values approached those common
to mesotrophic lakes. The third year annual mean value for orthophosphate
at the surface was 0.01 ppm. The annual mean values for nitrite nitrogen
were significantly different (p < 0.05) between years, with the opposite be-
ing true for nitrate nitrogen (Table 1). Annual mean nitrate nitrogen did not
exceed 0.17 ppm.

TaBLe 1. Annual means for physicochemical measurements in Spring Lake, Florida, June,
1973 - May, 1976. The standard errors of the means are in parantheses.

Parameter 1973-74 1974-75 1975-76
Water temperature (C) Sa 24.2 (1.4) 24.8 (1.3) 24.0 (1.5)

bz 23.4 (1.2) 23.4 (1.2) 23.0 (1.5)
Vertical light extinction 0.61 (0.08) 0.76 (0.04) 0.72 (0.02)
coefficient
Secchi disc transparency (cm) 307.2 (22.9) 316.1 (20.7) 307.1 (15.1)
Turbidity (FTU) s 6.0 (0.6) 5.2 (0.7) 4.1 (0.6)

b 6.9 (0.7) 5.8 (0.8) 4.3 (0.7)
Dissolved oxygen (ppm) s 9.9 (0.5) 9.5 (0.4) 8.0 (0.2)

b 8.9 (0.7) 8.3 (0.4) 6.8 (0.4)
pH S 6.6 (0.1) 6.2 (0.1) 6.5 (0.1)

b 6.4 (0.1) 6.1 (0.1) 6.4 (0.1)
Total alkalinity S 6.8 (0.6) 9.2 (0.6) 11.3 (0.5)
(ppm CaCO;) b 6.3 (0.4) 9.0 (0.7) 11.4 (0.5)
Specific conductivity s 129.3 (1.7) 136.6 (6.3) 140.6 (5.4)
pzmhos/em at 25 C) b 129.6 (1.1) 137.0 (5.9) 141.0 (5.6)
Orthophosphate (ppm) S 0.200 (0.08) 0.300 (0.04) 0.010 (0.004)

b 0.100 (0.06) 0.210 (0.05) 0.020 (0.003)
Nitrite nitrogen (ppm) S 0.004 (0.002 0.008 (0.001) 0.015 (0.003)

b 0.005 (0.002 0.008 (0.001) 0.010 (0.002)
Nitrate nitrogen (ppm) S 0.100 (0.05) 0.150 (0.06) 0.080 (0.04)

b 0.100 (0.05) 0.160 (0.06) 0.170 (0.06)
Inorganic carbon (ppm) s 3.1 (0.4) 7.1 (1-3) 5.1 (0.2)

b 3.6 (0.4) 8.6 (1.4) 6.2 (0.4)
Chlorophyll (mg/m‘) s 4.08 (0.48) 3.69 (0.78) 3.39 (0.20)

b 5.27 (0.83) 4.00 (0.73) 3.90 (0.29)
Water depth (m) 5.65 (0.14) 5.60 (0.21) 5.79 (0.20)

‘samples collected at 1 m below the water surface

*samples collected at 1 m from the bottom

FAUNAL CHARACTERISTICS AND SPECIES Diversiry—Eighty-three
zooplankton species (60 rotifers, 16 cladocerans and 7 copepods) were iden-
tified. Forty-one zooplankton species (27 rotifers, 7 cladocerans and 7
copepods) were common between years. (Table 2). Rotifers comprised 72 %
of the zooplankton species collected over the 3-year study. Even though
peaks for rotifers exceeded 40 individuals/1, rotifer abundance was generally

No. 3, 1985] BILLETS AND OSBORNE — ZOOPLANKTON IN SPRING LAKE 133

TaBLE 2. Annual means for zooplankton species abundance in Spring Lake, Florida, June,
1973 - May, 1976.

Individuals/1
Taxa 1973-74 1974-75 1975-76

ROTIFERA

Monogonota
Ploima
Asplanchnidae

Asplanchna priodonta 1 2 1
Brachionidae

Anuraeopsis fissa
Brachionus angularis
Brachionus havanaensis
Brachionus quadridentatus
Brachionus zahneseri
Dipleuchlanis propatula
Euchlanis sp

Kellicottia bostoniensis
Keratella americana
Keratella cochlearis
Keratella taurocephala
Macrochaetus subquadratus
Manfredium sp

Notholca limnetica
Playtias patulus

Lepadella cristata
Lophocharis sp

CORR FP OFRRFPNRFWOCCOCCrFS

[eel ell eee ll oe) OOO ey
DOF ORK ONE D BH BH Hee

Gastropidae

Ascomorpha saltans 1 1 1
Chromagaster ovalis
Gastropus minor 1 1 1

—
—
_—

Lecanidae

Lecane achronycha
Lecane curvicornis
Lecane leontina
Lecane nana
Lecane phloensis
Lecane ungulata
Monostyla sp
Monostyla bulla
Monostyla cornuta
Monostyla crenata
Monostyla lunaris
Monostyla quadridentata
Monostyla tethis

DO Fea i
le ee a)
OF OF RR OR HE OF ee

Notommatidae

Cephalodella forficula
Notommata cerberus
Notommata sp
Sphyrias lofuana

SS =i:
HH OO
o°o0COrF

134 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

TABLE 2. Continued.

Individuals/1
Taxa 1973-74 1974-75 1975-76
Synchaetidae
Polyarthra sp 1 1 1
Synchaeta sp 1 1 1

Trichocercidae

Trichocerca cylindrica 0 1 1
Trichocerca multicrinis 1 1 1
Trichocerca pusilla 1 1 1
Trichocerca similis 0 0 1
Flosculariaceae
Concochilidae
Conochiloides dossuarius 1 1 1
Conochilus unicornis 3 5 1
Flosculariidae
Flocularia sp 0 0 1
Limnias sp 0 0 1
Octotrocha sp 0 0 1
Ptygura sp 1 0 1 0
Ptygura sp 2 0 1 0
Hexarthridae
Hexarthra sp 10 10 6
Testudinellidae
Filinia longiseta 1 1 1
Testudinella patina 1 1 1
Bdelloidae
Bdelloid spp 1 1 1
CRUSTACEA
Cladocera
Bosminidae
Bosmina longirostris 1 1 2
Bosminopsis deitersi 1 1 1
Eubosmina tubicen 1 1 1
Chydoridae
Alona sp 0 1 1
Camptocercus rectirostris 1 1 0
Chydorus sphaericus 1 1 1
Daphnidae
Ceriodaphnia sp 1 1 1
Daphnia ambigua 1 2 1
Simocephalus sp 1 1 0

No. 3, 1985] BILLETS AND OSBORNE — ZOOPLANKTON IN SPRING LAKE 135

TABLE 2. Continued.

Individuals/1
Taxa 1973-74 1974-75 1975-76
Macrothricidae
Tleocryptus sp — 1 1 0
Macrothrix sp 1 0 0
Sididae
Diaphanosoma leuchtenbergianum 1 i 1
Latanopsis occidentalis 0 1 0
Copepoda
Calonoida
Diaptomidae
Diaptomus floridanus 2 2 2
Diaptomus mississippiensis 1 1 1
Cyclopoida
Cyclopidae
Eucyclops agilis 1 1 1
Macrocyclops albidus 1 1 1
Mesocyclops edax 1 1 1
Tropocyclops prasinus 2 1 1
Branchiura
Ergasilidae
Ergasilis sp 1 1 1

between 19 and 28 individuals/1 (Table 3). Hexarthra sp was the most abun-
dant rotifer (Table 2). Rotifers were the dominant group in Lake
Thonotosassa (Cowell, et al., 1975), Lake Mize (Nordlie, 1976), freshwater
ponds (Fry and Osborne, 1980), and Little Lake Barton (Schmitz and
Osborne, 1984). Ninety zooplankton species were reported in a hydrilla in-
fested central Florida lake by Schmitz and Osborne (1984), while less than
20 species were reported in Lake Mize (tannic-stained, acidic), Biven’s Arm
(clear, alkaline), and Newnan’s Lake (tannic-stained, circumneutral)
(Nordlie, 1976) and in hydrilla-infested Lake Wales (Shireman and Martin,
1978). There was no significant difference (p < 0.05) between years for the
annual mean number of species in Spring Lake.

Cladocerans and adult copepods accounted for < 25% of the annual
mean zooplankton number in Spring Lake (Table 3). Cladocerans were
reported to be most abundant in Biven’s Arm and Newnan’s Lake (Nordlie,
1976), and in Lake Wales (Shireman and Martin, 1978). The monthly mean
abundance of cladocerans did not vary greatly throughout the study; their
density was generally < 5 individuals/1. For the most part, Daphnia am-

136 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

TasLe 3. Annual mean zooplankton abundance by group and species diversity in Spring
Lake, Florida, June, 1973 - May, 1976. The standard errors of the means are in parantheses.

Parameter 1973-74 1974-75 1975-76
Zooplankton/ 1 78 (6) 73 (9) 76 (6)
Rotifera/1 27 (5) 28 (6) 19 (4)
Cladocera/1 3 (0.3) 5 (0.8) a ((lh)
Copepoda/1 4 (0.7) 4 (0.5) 4 (0.4)
Immature crustacean/ 1 44 (3) 36 (4) 46 (3)
Zooplankton species/1 18 (0.5) 18 (1) 18 (0.6)
Simpson Dominance Index 0.13 (0.02) 0.12 (0.02) 0.09 (0.01)
Shannon Diversity Index 3.41 (0.1) 3.30 (0.2) 3.68 (0.1)

bigua, Diaphanosoma leuchtenbergianum, Bosmina_ longirostris, and
Eubosmina tubicen accounted for the trends in cladoceran abundance
(Table 2). Monthly mean abundances for copepods were less variable than
those for the cladocerans; their abundance was not significantly different
(p < 0.05) between years. Tropocyclops prasinus, Mesocyclops edax, Diap-
tomus floridanus, and Diaptomus mississippiensis were most common and
therefore were mainly responsible for the trends in copepod abundance
(Table 2). Adult calanoid copepods were only slightly more abundant than
adult cyclopoid copepods. Annual means for number of individuals per
species for copepods were < 1 individual/1. In eutrophic Little Lake Barton,
cyclopoids were more abundant than calanoids (Schmitz and Osborne,
1984). This feature of eutrophic lakes has been used to indicate nutrient
enrichment (Gannon and Stemberger, 1978).

Monthly means for zooplankton abundance in Spring Lake were gener-
ally < 100 individuals/1. During the first year, zooplankton were most
abundant in winter and early spring, but during the second and third years,
their highest density occurred during the summer. Annual means for
zooplankton abundance ranged from 70-80 individuals/1 (Table 3). The an-
nual mean number of all zooplankton individuals and species were
significantly different (p < 0.05) between study years.

Seasonal trends for rotifer abundance resembled those for the Shannon
diversity Index. It was evident that the rotifers had the greatest influence on
the Shannon Index. The Shannon diversity Index for zooplankton in Spring
Lake, which ranged from 3.0-4.0; was high compared to other freshwater
environments. The annual mean Shannon Indices for the first and second
study years were significantly different (p < 0.05) from the third year with
the reverse being true for the Simpson Indices (Table 3). The annual means
for the Simpson Index ranged from 0.09-0.13 (Table 3). The low values for

No. 3, 1985] BILLETS AND OSBORNE — ZOOPLANKTON IN SPRING LAKE 137

the Simpson Index indicated a lack of dominance in the zooplankton com-
munity by a given species or group of species. While most zooplankton com-
munities are comprised of dominant individuals within the rotifers,
cladocerans and copepods with each dominant species usually making up
nearly 80% of all the individuals (Pennak, 1957), this was not the case in
Spring Lake. Throughout the 3-year period, the zooplankton community
was comprised of a large number of zooplankton species with a low number
of individuals per species and with no distinct dominance for any given
species. This produced a community structure with a high diversity. Com-
munities structured in this manner are generally characteristic of stable
physicochemical environments (McClintock and Wilhm, 1977).

ZOOPLANKTON AND THE PHYSICOCHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT— Although the
abundance of immature crustacean zooplanctors decreased when surface
temperatures were low (second and third study years), water temperature
was not significantly correlated (p < 0.05) with the abundance of crusta-
cean zooplankton or rotifers in Spring Lake. However, a positive influence
by water temperature on crustacean zooplankton communities has been
documented (Hazelwood and Parker, 1961; 1963; Allan, 1976). Abundance
of rotifers in Spring Lake was correlated with high specific conductivity dur-
ing the second year (r = —0.85, n = 72), but was not evident during the
other 2 years. The number of species was positively correlated with specific
conductivity (r = 0.68, n = 72) during the first year and negatively cor-
related with specific conductivity (r = -0.77, n = 72) during the third year.
This suggests that factors other than temperature and specific conductivity
regulated the zooplankton abundance, although a significant correlation
should not be confused with cause and effect. Abundance of the zooplankton
was not significantly correlated to chlorophyll (P < 0.05). The Shannon In-
dex was highest when dissolved oxygen concentrations were high during the
first year (r = +0.60; n = 72), but this relationship did not occur in later
years. The Shannon diversity Index was not significantly correlated with
water temperature, specific conductivity or chlorophyll. Since few signifi-
cant correlations were found between the zooplankton and the
physicochemical environment of Spring Lake, we suggest that the
zooplankton abundance and diversity were influenced to a greater extent by
life history patterns rather than by environmental conditions. This feature
may be characteristic of clean, freshwater environments in Florida.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— This study was funded by the Dr. Phillips Foundation and the Univer-
sity of Central Florida.

138 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48
LITERATURE CITED

AHLSsTROM, E. H. 1934. Rotatoria of Florida. Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 53:251-256.

ALLAN, J. D. 1976. Life history patterns in zooplankton. Amer. Nat. 100:165-180.

AMERICAN PuBLic HEALTH ASSOCIATION. 1971. Standard methods for the examination of water
and wastewater. 13th ed. APHA-AWWA-WPCF, Washington, D.C.

CowELL, B. C., C. W. Dye, anp R. C. Apams. 1975. A synoptic study of the limnology of Lake
Thonotosassa, Florida. Part I. Effects of primary treated sewage and citrus wastes.
Hydrobiologia. 46:301-345.

Deevey, E. S., Jr. anpD G. B. Derevey. 1971. The American species of Eubosmia Seligo
(Crustacea, Cladocera). Limnol. Oceanogr. 16:201-218.

Epmonpson, W. T., ED. 1959. Freshwater Biology. 2nd ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. 1971. Methods for chemical analysis of water and wastes.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati.

Fry, D. L., anp J. A. OsBorne. 1980. Zooplankton abundance and diversity in central Florida
grass carp ponds. Hydrobiologia. 68:145-155.

Frey, D. G. 1966. Limnology in North America. Univ. of Wisconsin Press. 734 p.

GANNON, J. E., AND R. S. STEMBERGER. 1978. Zooplankton (especially crustaceans and rotifers)
as indicators of water qualtiy. Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 97:16-35.

Harrinc, H. K., anv F. J. Myers. 1922. The rotifer fauna of Wisconsin. Trans. Wisconsin Acad.
Sci. Arts Letters. 20:553-662.

1924. The rotifer fauna of Wisconsin. II. A revision of the notommatid rotifers, ex-
clusive of the Dicranophorinae. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. Arts Letters. 21:415-549.

1926. The rotifer fauna of Wisconsin. III. A revision of the genera Lecane and Mono-
styla. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. Arts Letters. 22:315-423.

1928. The rotifer fauna of Wisconsin. IV. The Dicranophorinae. Trans. Wisconsin
Acad. Sci. Arts Letters. 23:667-808.

HazeLwoop, D. H., anp R. A. Parker. 1961. Population dynamics of some freshwater zooplank-
ton. Ecology. 42:266-274.

1963. Population dynamics of some freshwater zooplankton. II. The effect of lag.
Ecology. 44:207-211.

Kocusigk, K. A., J. L. WitHM, AND R. Morrison. 1971. Species diversity of net zooplankton and
physicochemical conditions in net zooplankton and physicochemical conditions in Key-
stone Reservoir, Oklahoma. Ecology. 52:1119-1125.

Leicuty, R. G. 1960. Soil survey of Orange County, Florida. U.S. Dept. of Agr., Washington,
Dic:

LicHTLER, W. F., W. ANDERSON, AND B. F. Joyner. 1968. Water resources of Orange County,
Florida. Rept. Invest. No. 50. Florida Geol. Surv., Tallahassee, Florida.

McCuinTock, N. L., AND J. L. WitHM. 1977. Effects of artificial destratification on zooplankton
of two Oklahoma reservoirs. Hydrobiologia. 54:233-239.

Myers, F’. J. 1930. The rotifer fauna of Wisconsin. V. The genera Euchlanis and Monommata.
Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. Arts Letters. 25:353-411.

NorpulrE, F. G. 1976. Plankton communities of three central Florida lakes. Hydrobiologia.
48:65-78.

PENNAK, R. W. 1953. Fresh-water invertebrates of the United States. John Wiley and Sons, New
York.

1957. Species composition of limnetic zooplankton communities. Limnol. Oceanogr.
2:222-232.

1978. Fresh-water invertebrates of the United States. 2nd ed. John Wiley and Sons,
New York.

PRATHER, J. E., AND C. W. Propuer. 1969. Zooplankton species diversity in John Redmond,
Marion, and Council Grove Reservoirs, Kansas, Summer, 1968. Emporia St. Res.
Studies. 18:1-16.

Ricuarps, F. A. witH T. G. THompson. 1952. The estimation and characterization of plankton
populations by pigment analysis. II. Spectrophotometric method for the estimation of
plankton pigments. J. Mar. Res. 2:156-172.

SAUNDERS, G. W., F. B. TrRaMa, AND R. W. BACHMANN. 1962. Evaluation of a modified ‘*C
technique for shipboard estimation of photosynthesis in large lakes. Publ. Great Lakes
Res. Div., Uni. Mich.

No. 3, 1985] ISLER ET AL. — DENTAL PATHOLOGY 139

Scumitz, D. C., anp J. A. OssBorne. 1984. Zooplankton densities in a Hydrilla infested lake.
Hydrobiologia. 111:127-132.

SHANNON, C. E. anpD W. Weaver. 1949. The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana
Univ. Press.

SHIREMAN, J. V., AND R. G. Martin. 1978. Seasonal and diurnal zooplankton investigations of
a south-central Florida lake. Florida Sci. 41:193-201.

Simpson, E. H. 1949. Measurement of diversity. Nature (Lond.). 163-688.

SmitH, G. A., L. C. Firzpatrick, AND W. D. Pearson. 1979. Structure and dynamics of a zoo-
plankton community in a small north-central Texas ecosystem. Southwest. Nat. 24:1-16.

STRAHLER, A. N., AND A. H. StRAHLER. 1976. Elements of physical geography. John Wiley and
Sons, New York.

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Florida Sci. 48(3):129-139. 1985.

Anthropology

DENTAL PATHOLOGY OF A PREHISTORIC
HUMAN POPULATION IN FLORIDA

RoserT IsLeR, JED SCHOEN AND M. Yasar Iscan

Department of Anthropology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida

Asstract: The present paper analyzes the dental health of a prehistoric population excavated
at Highland Beach on the southeast coast of Florida. The main subsistence activity of this group
was thought to be hunting of small game animals, exploitation of marine resources and gathering
of plants. Archaeological evidence suggested that it was a pre-contact Indian society dating from
600 to 1200 A.D. Seven dental lesions were analyzed from a sample of 46 males and 62 females. A
relatively low frequency of both caries and hypoplasia was detected in both sexes (about 1%).
Sexual differences were observed in antemortem tooth loss, periodontal abscess, alveolar resorp-
tion, and attrition, all of which were more common in males than females. These findings are in
general agreement with other studies of similar pre-contact coastal American Indian populations
practicing foraging subsistence strategy.

THE StTupy of human dentition is significant to physical anthropology
because it has been responsive to evolution, physiological changes, growth
irregularities, personal hygiene and cultural effects. Along with the genetic
influences on the embryology and morphology of human teeth, micro-
environmental factors such as cultural variation and practices make teeth
one of the most plastic characteristics of our species. Cultural factors affec-

140 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

ting the quality of teeth include changes in dietary patterns from a hunting
and gathering to an agricultural subsistence, and from the use of teeth as
tools to the utilization of improved artifacts (Turner and Machado, 1983).
The present study has two purposes, first, to assess microenvironmental
effects on the dental health of a prehistoric Florida Indian population, and
second, to contribute to our knowledge of the dental health of North
American Indians. A survey of the literature indicated that this aspect of the
prehistoric people of the Florida peninsula has not been adequately in-
vestigated (e.g., Levine, 1971; Iscan, 1983a; Iscan and Miller-Shaivitz,
1983). Studies on Florida Indians provided limited information on dental
health (Snow, 1962; Saunders 1972; Iscan 1983b; Carr et al., 1984).

MATERIALS AND MeTHops—The skeletal collection for this study was obtained from a salvage
archaelogy site excavated under the supervision of one of the authors (MYI). A burial mound
(8Pb11) was found approximately 200 meters from the Atlantic Ocean in the town of Highland
Beach, Florida. The excavation of the skeletal remains suggested that this was a secondary burial
site. It was impossible to ascertain the presence of a village or midden because of construction in
the immediate area. However, excavation of a site about 4 km south along the coast provided
evidence of a settlement (Fuerey, 1972).

Owing to the disturbed nature of the site, most skeletons were in a fragmentary and/or com-
mingled condition. Some were incomplete. Many of the jaws had postmortem tooth loss. While
the archaeology of the site has not been clearly established, the cultural artifacts, indluding pot-
tery, bone needles, ornamental shark teeth and shell tools suggested an age of 600 to 1200 A.D.
(Levy, 1981; Carr, 1983). Previous archaeological studies by Bullen (1965) and Milanich and
Fairbanks (1980) indicated that the coastal environment was relatively stable over the past
several thousand years. Because the aquatic conditions of this area made it unsuitable for
agricultural purposes, it was thought that subsistence in this region was based mainly on marine
resources, small game animals and wild plants characterizing a hunting and gathering strategy
(Swanton, 1946; Bullen, 1965).

The sample was composed of 46 males and 62 females all of which were adult specimens, i.e.,
only those individuals with erupted permanent second molars. Determination of sex was made by
one of the authors (MYI) using standard morphological features on the skull and mandible
(Krogman, 1962). Dental health was assessed by evaluating the following characteristics: caries,
periodontal abscess (infection of the tissue surrounding a tooth), alveolar resorption (degenera-
tion and disappearance of the bony tissue surrounding the roots), hypercementosis (excessive
deposition of cementum), hypoplasia (disturbance in enamel matrix), attrition and antemortem
tooth loss. Before the analysis, all specimens were brush cleaned in the Biological Anthropology
Laboratory at Florida Atlantic University and studied under strong light with hand held
magnifiers. In order to reduce statistical error because of individual variation only the total
number of teeth (N = 1598) rather than the total number of individual specimens were analyzed
in the study.

REsuLTs—Statistical results including X test and probability are
presented in Table 1 and several of the dental lesions are illustrated in Fig. 1.
The examination of the table indicates that the Highland Beach group had a
very low frequency of caries. Of 1568 teeth examined, only 21 (1.3%) had
caries, with females exceeding males by about 1.2%. The difference was
significant at a probability level less than 0.05 (Fig. la). Also shown in the
table is the frequency of antemortem tooth loss. Antemortem tooth loss was
recorded when a tooth was absent and there was sufficient alveolar bone
regeneration at the site to indicate that healing had occurred. The frequency
of loss was significantly greater in males (Figs. 1b and lc).

The degree of dental attrition, using the categories defined by Leigh
(1925a), was more pronounced in males (Fig. lc). Examples of attrition in

No. 3, 1985] ISLER ET AL. — DENTAL PATHOLOGY 141

Fic. 1 (la)—Advanced caries on mesial maxillary M1, enamel wear visible on all teeth. (1b)
Edentulous mandibular area indicating antemortem loss of M1, M2. (1c) PM1, PM2 and M1
with occlusal attrition into dentin, incisors show wear to neck on labial. (ld) Mandibular M1 and
M2 with over 6 mm. alveolar resorption. (le) Left posterior teeth with attrition to neck (cervico-
enamel junction). (1f) M1 attrition into pulp chamber and PM1 distal caries. (lg) PM1 with
periodontal abscess, advanced alveolar resorption around PM2. (1h) Periapical abscess on PM2,
cuspid has hypercementosis of apical third of root, I1 with hypoplasia on labial surface.

142 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

this population are shown in Figs. le and lf. Total antemortem tooth loss
was about 2% greater in males and about 7% for the sample. The X statistic
formed by combining “none” with “enamel only”, and “dentin visible only”
with “worn to neck” indicated differences between the sexes were significant
(ps 0.0).

Table 1 also shows statistics on hypercementosis and enamel hypoplasia.
Hypercementosis was analyzed only for those teeth unattached to alveoli,
and those with sufficient alveolar resorption to reveal the roots. Heavy
cementum formation was observed in about 5% of males and less in females.
Hypoplasia was found to be less frequent than the other conditions analyzed
and there was significant difference in frequency between the sexes (Fig 1h).
Chi square analysis combining “moderate” and “heavy” degrees indicated
that males had a higher frequency of advanced hypoplasia.

The degree of alveolar resorption was assessed by a measurement taken
from the cemento-enamel junction to the crest of the alveolus as described by
Goldberg and associates (1976). Based on this measurement, each tooth was
assigned to one of the four categories shown in Table 1. Over 92% of the
maxillary and mandibular alveoli exhibited some degree of resorption (Fig.
1g). Some interesting differences between the sexes were noted. Resorption
“up to 3mm” was observed in 71% of females compared with 46% of males.
In the “3mm to 6mm” category, resorption was 44% in males and 19% in
females. In the “over 6mm” group sexual differences were negligible because
of inevitable tooth loss. When the “none” and less than 3mm categories were
combined, the X test suggested that males were probably more vulnerable to
the loss of bone tissue than females.

The final observation was made on the frequency of periodontal
abscesses. This condition was recorded in about 7% of the males and in 5%
of the female sample (Table 1). The difference between the sexes was not
statistically significant.

ConcLusions—The dental profile of this population indicated that attri-
tion and resorption were very common, and that caries, abscesses,
hypoplasia and hypercementosis occurred infrequently. These
characteristics were consistent with a hunting, gathering, fishing subsistence
(Leigh 1925b, Krogman, 1940; Webb, 1944; Neigburger, 1975; Turner
1979). However, there are some further considerations associated with a
coastal environment like Highland Beach. The low frequency of caries could
reflect the large amounts of molybdenum, aluminum and titanium known to
exist in marine plants (Ludwig, 1968; Neiburger, 1976). Secondly, salt water
fish and shellfish, rich in flouride (Walker, 1983), probably comprised a
large part of their diet. These elements may have contributed to the develop-
ment of a more caries resistant enamel (Kirschmann, 1975; St. Hoyme and
Koritzer, 1976). In addition, the very abrasive nature of their diet would
have a detergent effect, inhibiting tooth decay. The figure of 1.3% dental
caries was the same as that reported by Turner (1979) in an extensive survey
of hunter-gatherers from 64 different populations.

No. 3, 1985] ISLER ET AL. — DENTAL PATHOLOGY 143

TABLE 1. Descriptive statistics of various dental lesions and abnormalities.

MALES FEMALES COMBINED
VARIABLES N Jo N % N % X(d.f)
CARIES
Absent 638 99.4 930 98.2 1568 98.7 4.05(1)*
Minor 2 0.3 3 0.3 5 0.3
Advanced 2 0.3 14 1.5 16 1.0
ATTRITION
None 32 5.0 NG L222, 148 9.3 36:69 (2)e
Enamel Only WAY 2720 331 34.8 505 31.6
Dentin Visible
and Enamel 397 ~=«61.7 466 49.0 863 54.1
Dentin Visible
Only 8 12, 11 1.2 19 1.2
Worn to Neck 33 5a 28 2.8 61 3.8
TOOTH PRESENCE
Present 651 62.2 947 66.5 1598 64.6 5.36(1)*
Antemortem
loss 95 9.1 97 6.8 192 7.8
Postmortem
loss 298 28.5 363 25.5 661 26.7
HYPERCEMENTOSIS
Absent DM ASD 392 78.7 669 77.5 0.90(2)
Slight 31 8.5 39 7.8 70 8.1
Moderate 40 11.0 54 +=10.8 94 10.9
Heavy 17 4.7 13 2.6 30 3.5
ALVEOLAR RESORPTION
None 11 oe 14 1.6 25 ile WIEST O(2)e*
Up to 3mm. 292 46.0 625) (le: 917 60.7
3mm. to 6mm. 280 844.1 1/2) eel Oi 452 29.9
Over 6mm. 52 8.2 64 7.3 116 eel
HYPOPLASIA
None 515 91.3 821 93.2 1336 92.5 15.50(2) **
Slight 22 3.9 42 4.8 64 4.6
Moderate 24 4.3 17 1.9 4] 2.8
Heavy 3 0.5 1 0.1 4 0.3
PERIODONTAL
ABSCESS
Absent 652 93.5 876 95.2 1528 94.5 2.11(1)
Present 45 6.5 44 4.8 89 5.5

*significant at p<0.05
**significant at p<0.01

Habits, customs and cultural practices can very often induce specific at-
tritions (Turner, 1979; Davies, 1963). In this group, however, major factors
contributing to attrition were probably a combination of the proximity of

144 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

marine surroundings and accompanying life style, the age of the individual
and especially, abrasive nature of their diet. The last factor was also ob-
served by others (Smith, 1972; Kreshover and McClure, 1966). In addition,
the ingestion of sandy particles due to cooking and storage methods might
also have contributed to the rapid wearing down processes (Larson, 1980).

Severe attrition, along with heavy deposits of salivary calculus, were
probable precursors to alveolar resorption and the formation of periodontal
abscesses (Goldberg et al., 1976). In comparison, the presence of periodontal
disease is higher than that reported by Costa (1980) in his Eskimo study, but
similar to Neiburger’s (1975, 1976) findings in American Indians of the
Midwest. Considering the severity of the attrition and its related periodon-
titis, the degree and frequency of predominately apical hypercementosis
were not as great as anticipated and could be explained by a diet that was
more abrasive than traumatic. In a study by Steen and Savara (1982) on a
prehistoric Oregon population, the heaviest deposits were also at the apex,
and attributed to accelerated occlusal wear.

Using accepted correlations between hypoplasia and systemic disease the
small percentage of enamel defects found would indicate a healthy environ-
ment and diet. There was no hypocalcification or severe enamel defects like
those observed in Middle and Late Woodland populations (Cook and
Buikstra, 1979). The low frequency of hypoplasia was similar to that found
in prehistoric California coastal Indians (Walker, 1983). Archaeological
findings and preliminary osteological investigations in the area indicated a
nutritionally satisfactory food supply, including berries, tubers, fruits,
turkey, raccoon, manatee, turtle, shellfish and fish and infrequent sallec=
pathological conditions (Feurey, 1972; Shaivitz and Iscan, 1981; Iscan and
Miller-Shaivitz, 1985).

The cause of antemortem tooth loss in the Highland Beach people was
most likely periodontal disease and attrition leading to pulp exposure, infec-
tion and periapical abscess. Heavy masticatory stress has also been im-
plicated in the development of this condition (Lukacs, 1981). In Brothwell’s
(1963) compilation of studies from ten prehistoric populations, antemortem
tooth loss ranged from 4.7% to 19.9%, placing this group in the low range.

Sex differences observed in conditions like caries, attrition, antemortem
tooth loss, alveolar bone loss, and hypoplasia suggested that males appeared
to have been more susceptible to adverse environmental stresses than
females. In general, it is expected that sex differences in an egalitarian so-
ciety like that of the Highland Beach hunting and gathering band would be
minimal. It is possible that there may have been defferential treatment of
women in the society. Archaeological data would be necessary to substan-
tiate this hypothesis.

In summary, the dental analysis of this prehistoric American Indian
population is valuable because it dealt with a group not previously studied in
this geographic region. Further investigation into the dental and osteological

No. 3, 1985] ISLER ET AL. — DENTAL PATHOLOGY 145

health of the Highland Beach group and its comparison with a prehistoric in-
land Indian population in Florida should support our results. The authors
are in the process of analyzing such a population (Fort Center) from the
Lake Okeechobee region.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—The authors wish to thank E. Dumas, R. Thomas and M. Levy of the
Palm Beach Archaeological Society and Norman Rosenberg for their assistance during the ex-
cavation of the site. We are also grateful to T. Morton for her continuous help during and after
the excavation, and to S. R. Loth for graciously proofreading and editing this manuscript, and T.
S. Cotton for his help in the computation of the data. Our thanks also go to W. Watkins and A.
Ashley for the photographs.

LITERATURE CITED

BrRoTHWELL, D. R. 1963. Macroscopic dental pathology of some earlier human population. Pp.
271-287. In: BRoTHWELL, D. R. (ed.). Dental Anthropology. Pergamon, Oxford.
Butien, A. K. 1965. Florida Indians of Past and Present. Pp. 317-350. In: TEBEau, C. W.,

Carson, R. L., Cuauvin, R. S., BULLEN, R. P., AND BULLEN, A. K. (eds.). Florida from
Indian Trail to Space Age: A History. Southern Pub. Co., Delray Beach.
Carr, R. S. 1983. Personal Communication.
Carr, R. S., Iscan, M. Y., AND JOHNSON, R. A. 1984. A late Archaic cemetery in South Florida.
Florida Anthropol. 37(3), in press.
Cook, D. C., anp J. E. Burxstra. 1979. Health and differential survival in prehistoric popula-
tions: Prenatal dental defects, Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 51:649-664.
Costa, R. L. 1980. Incidence of caries and abscesses in archaeological Eskimo skeletal samples
from Point Hope and Kodiak Island, Alaska. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 52:649-665.
Davies, G. N. 1963. Social customs and habits and their effect on oral disease. J. Dental Res.
42:209-232.
Ferurey, J. F. 1972. The Spanish River Complex. Masters thesis, Florida Atlantic Univ., Boca
Raton.
Go.pserc, H. J. V., J. A. WEINTRAUB, K. J. ROGHMANN, AND W. S. CoRNWELL. 1976. Measur-
ing periodontal disease in ancient populations: Root and wear indices in study of Ameri-
: can Indian skulls. J. of Periodontal. 47:348-351.
Iscan, M. Y. 1983a. A Topical Guide to the American Journal of Physical Anthropology:
Volumes 22-53 (1964-1980). Alan R. Liss, New York.
. 1983b. Skeletal biology of the Margate-Blount population. Florida Anthropol.
36: 154-166.
., AND P. Mitier-Suarvitz. 1983. A review of physical anthropology in the Florida
Anthropologist. Florida Anthropol. 36:114-123.
., AND P. MiLter-Suatvitz. 1985. Prehistoric syphilis in Florida. J. of Florida Medical
Assn., in press.
KiRSCHMANN, J. D. 1975. Nutrition Almanac. McGraw-Hill, New York.
KRESHOVER, S. J., AND F. J. McCiure. 1966. Environmental variables in oral disease. Am. Assn.
Advancement Sci. Publication. 81., Washington, D.C.
Krocman, W. M. 1940. The pathologies of pre- and protohistoric Man. Ciba Symposia 2:442.
____. +1962. The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine. C. C. Thomas, Springfield.
Larson, L. H. 1980. Aboriginal Subsistence Technology on the Southeastern Coastal Plain
During the Late Prehistoric Period. Univ. Presses of Florida, Gainesville.
Leicu, R. W. 1925a. Dental pathology of Indian tribes of varied environmental and food Condi-
tions. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 8:179-199.
________. 1925b. Dental pathology of the Eskimo. Dental Cosmos 67:884.
Levine, M. H. 1971. A Topical Guide to Volume 1-21 (New Series) of American Journal of
Physical Anthropology. Wistar Inst. Press, Philadelphia.
Levy, M. G. 1981. Highland Beach Mound. Florida Scientist, 44 (Supplement 1):6.
Lupwic, T. A. 1968. Recent marine soils and resistance to dental caries. Pp. 45-51. In: J. B.
Bresler, (ed.). Environments of Man. Addison-Wesley, Reading.

146 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Luxacs, J. R. 1981. Dental pathology and nutritional patterns of south Asian Megalith-Builders.
The evidence from Iron Age Mahurjhari. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. 125(3):221-237.

Mianicu, J. T., AND C. H. Farrsanxs. 1980. Florida Archaeology. Academic Press, New York.

Nerpurcer, E. J. 1975. Dental disease in Chicagoland Indians. J. Acad. Dentistry 23(1):30-31.

. 1976. Dental disease in ancient midwest American Indians. Quintessence Interna-

tional 7(9):99-104.

SauNpers, L. P. 1972. Osteology of the Republic Grove Site. Master Thesis, Florida Atlantic
Univ., Boca Raton. ,

SHarvitz, P. M. AnD M. Y. Iscan. 1981. Preliminary analysis of Highland Beach, FL. skeletal
remains. Florida Scientist 44 (Suppl. 1):6 (abstract).

SmitH, P. 1972. Diet and attrition in the Natufians. Am J. Phys. Anthropol. 37:231-238.

Snow, C. E. 1962. Indian Burials from St. Petersburg, Florida. Contributions of the Florida
State Museum, 8. Univ. of Florida, Gainesville.

St. Hoyme, L. E. AnD R. T. Korirzer. 1976. Ecology of dental disease. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol.
45:673-686.

STEEN, J. C. AND B. S. Savara. 1982. Hypercementosis in a prehistoric Oregon population. Am.
J. Phys. Anthropol. 57:232.

Swanton, J. P. 1946. The Indians of the Southeastern United States. Bureau Am. Ethnol., Bull.
137, Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D. C.

Turner II, C. G. 1979. Dental anthropological indications of agriculture among the Jomon
people of central Japan. X. Peopling of the Pacific. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 51:619-636.

Turner, II, C. G. anp L. C. Macuapo. 1983. A new dental wear pattern and evidence for high
carbohydrate consumption in a Brazilian archaic skeletal population. Am. J. Phys.
Anthropol. 61:125-130.

Wa tker, P. L. 1983. Prehistoric California Indians. Paleopathology Assn. Papers on Paleo-
pathol. Pp. 4-5 (abstract).

Wess, L. G. 1944. Dental abnormalities as found in the American Indian. Am. J. Orthodontia
30:474-486.

Florida Sci. 48(3):139-146. 1985.

Biological Sciences

NURSE SHARKS OF BIG PINE KEY: COMPARATIVE
SUCCESS OF THREE TYPES OF EXTERNAL TAGS

JEFFREY C. CARRIER

Department of Biology, Albion College, Albion, MI 49224

ApsTRACT: Seventy nurse sharks (Ginglymostoma cirratum) were tagged and released from
Big Pine Key, Florida with combinations of stainless steel barbed tags, plastic barbed tags, and
modified Carlin disc tags. Twenty percent of the tagged sharks were recovered; 35% of the
animals tagged with only stainless steel barbed tags were recovered; 21% of those tagged with
both plastic barbed tags and Carlin disc tags were recovered. Disc tags remained in place more
frequently than plastic barbed tags, but showed significant damage to tagged animals over time
when applied to juvenile animals.

No. 3, 1985] CARRIER — NURSE SHARK TAGS 147

Many INVESTIGATORS in the last 20 years have examined short term (diur-
nal) and long term (migratory) shark movements. The detailed studies of
Casey and coworkers (1978) have shown evidence of long range (greater
than 900 km) north-south and transatlantic movements of several species.
Additionally, sharks in this study have been recaptured as long as 12 years
after tagging. The vast percentage of the remaining studies have been
somewhat shorter in duration and without either the large variety of species
or large numbers of animals tagged in Casey’s studies.

The types of tags employed in the investigations to date have varied.
Casey’s studies have recently used a stainless steel barbed, heavy-gauged
monofilament type dart tag. Other investigators have used similar ‘streamer’
or spaghetti tags with plastic barbs, or have used several types at once
(Beckett, 1970). Beamish, et al (1981) used a pair of plastic, modified
Petersen disc tags (Carlin disc tags) pinned with titanium wires through the
dorsal fins of Squalus acanthias. Similar disc tags were used in the earlier
studies of Holden (1965) and Templeman (1976). McLaughlin and O’Gower
(1970) used rubber or metal collars slipped around the caudal peduncle of
Port Jackson sharks (Heterodontus portusjacksoni) to facilitate underwater
observations of this species.

More recent work undertaken by Gruber (1982) utilized a variety of tags
or marking methods on every animal. A dart (spaghetti) tag, dorsal fin tag,
internal plastic tag, and freeze-branding were used with the belief that a
multiple tagging protocol would provide increased probability of tag reten-
tion and return.

The present study has been in progress in the Coupon Bight region of Big
Pine Key in the Florida Keys for the past 7 years. In excess of 100 animals
have been tagged so far during the course of this study, including nurse
sharks (Ginglymostoma cirratum) and lemon sharks (Negaprion breviros-
tris). In recent years, the work has concentrated on G. cirratum.

Several tags have been employed over the years, and, based upon 16
recaptures (of 14 different animals), some patterns have emerged suggesting
greater retention of certain tags and indicating problems associated with the
use of other tags. The work described herein summarizes these preliminary

findings.

MetHops—Sharks were captured by hook and line and were transferred and immobilized on
deck by means of a wet canvas sling. Animals were weighed, sexed, and length measurements
were taken for total length, fork length, and girth at the posterior margin of the pectoral fins.

Plastic barbed spaghetti tags (Floy FT-1, Floy Tag and Manufacturing, Inc., Seattle, WA.)
and stainless steel barbed spaghetti tags (Floy FH-69A) were applied lateral to the first dorsal fin
in the following manner. A small (0.5 cm) incision was made through the skin, and the barb of
the tag was then forced through the skin and into the body wall musculature. Wounds with ex-
cessive bleeding were closed with an application of Krazy Glue®.

Modified Carlin disc tags from Floy were pinned through the first dorsal fin and were bent,
first at a 90 degree angle, and then crimped to form a circle, to prevent loss of the tag (see Figs 1
and 2 for tag type and placement).

148 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

RECORD 106 RO.
ete eT at

ocarion ¢

Fic. 1. Tags used in the present study: Carlin disc tags (““C”; upper), plastic barbed spaghetti
tags (“Y”; middle), and stainless steel barbed spaghetti tags (“SS”; lower).

Fic. 2. Carlin disc tag pinned through dorsal fin, and plastic barbed spaghetti tag in place.

No. 3, 1985] CARRIER — NURSE SHARK TAGS 149

Animals were released within approximately 5 min of capture. Water was continuously ap-
plied to the sling in the head region in an attempt to prevent drying. Several animals were ini-
tially retained in a large observation pool to evaluate tagging trauma and stress. No obvious signs
were observed except in cases where tags were inserted with a “pole dart” without first providing
a small incision. In such cases, precise control over tag insertion is impossible and frequently the
spinal column may be damaged as evidenced by paralysis of the tail, or a permanent bending of
the tail and inability to swim in a straight line.

RESULTS AND DiscussIoN—Seventy nurse sharks, 34 females and 36
males, were tagged and released during the study interval. The average
length was 124.7 + 20.3 cm (N =55) and the average weight was 10.3 + 4.2
kg (N =55).

Fourteen different animals have been recaptured, and 3 animals have
been recaptured twice. The recapture percentage (calculated on the basis of
14 different animals) is 20% with an average time between capture and
recapture of 267 da. Details of this portion of the study may be found
elsewhere (Carrier, 1983 and in preparation).

Table 1 summarizes the tagging protocol and the relevant information
regarding each individual recapture.

Table 2 presents a summary of the recovery by tag type.

Of the 38 animals tagged with both plastic barbed tags and disc tags, 8
have been recaptured (21%). Of those 8, 3 (37.5%) retained both tags.
Seven of the 8 retained the disc tag (87.5%), and 4 of the 8 (50%) retained
the plastic barbed spaghetti tag.

TABLE I. Tags in place at release and recovery, and at large times for G. cirratum*.

Tag No. Tags at time Tags at time Time between
of release of recapture captures

(da)
15 YEE YC 10
20 Y,C C 373
25 SS SS 369
25 SS SS 387
24 WC Ya 49
33 SS SS 347
48 YG Y,C 11
48 YEE C 29
49 SS SS 364
51 SS SS 378
125 TEC Y 365
63 Y,C C 30
65 YA C 88
16264 SS SS 792
78041 SS SS 657
77011 SS SS 31

*"Y = plastic barbed spaghetti tags; ‘C’ = modified Carlin disc tags; ‘SS’ = stainless steel barbed spaghetti
tags.

150 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

TABLE 2. Recovery data by tag type*. The number shown under “No. used’ includes 7 animals
for whom the tagging arrangement was changed upon recapture.

Tag type No. used. No. Recapture
used recovered percentage
SS only 23 8 35
Y&C 38 8 21
Y, G7 &SS 16 1 6

**Y’ = plastic barbed spaghetti tags; ‘C’ = modified Carlin disc tags; ‘SS’ = stainless steel barbed spaghetti tags.

Recaptured animals retaining the stainless steel tag averaged 415 da at
large. Five of the 8 animals carrying these tags were recaptured after inter-
vals exceeding 347 da, and 2 of the animals were recaptured after intervals
of nearly 2 years. Animals retaining only the Carlin tags averaged 84 da at
large with 6 of the 7 recaptures occurring at intervals of less than 90 da.
Finally, the recaptured animals retaining only the plasitic barbed spaghetti
tags averaged 108 da at large, although 3 of the 4 animals in this group were
recaptured after intervals of only 10, 11, and 49 da.

It is important to note that the various tagging protocols were initiated at
different times during the investigation. The study initially employed only
stainless steel barbed tags, and later expanded to permit evaluation of a
variety of tag types. Thus direct comparisons of the success of the various
tags based upon times between initial capture and recapture are somewhat
premature until the tags are evaluated over comparable intervals of use.

It would appear from these data that the most successful tag in this study
is the stainless steel barbed tag followed closely by the disc tag. Gruber (per-
sonal communication) reports similar findings for a large investigation with
N. brevirostris. Thus one would predict that animals tagged with all 3 types
of tags are probably more likely to retain the stainless steel tag and less likely
to retain the plastic barbed tag. In fact, one animal just recaptured (whose
data are not reflected in recapture percentages) was initially tagged with all
3 types of tags and retained only the stainless steel and Carlin tags after an at
large interval of 328 da.

While it appears that the disc tag is reasonably successful, several prob-
lems have been encountered which suggest that, despite the disc tag’s pos-
sible value in tagging studies, some other limitations may show it to be inap-
propriate for studies of immature sharks. For example, Fig 3 illustrates the
beginning of a splitting of the dorsal fin around the disc tag 373 da post-
tagging. The pinning of the tag to the fin of a still-growing shark presents a
problem in that the lateral expansion of the fin expected during growth is in-
hibited to some extent by the presence of the tag. The fin eventually splits,
and then grows around one side of the tag. The result is the formation of an
abscess, illustrated by Fig 4. In this case, the animal was a juvenile lemon

No. 3, 1985] CARRIER — NURSE SHARK TAGS 151

:.

acent to the disc tag in G. cirratum 373 da

Fic. 3. Beginning of a splitting of the dorsal fin adj
post-tagging.

Fic. 4. Abscess formed as a result of fin growth of a juvenile lemon shark (N. brevirostris)
around a disc tag. The abscess was opened and the embedded tag removed. The abscess formed
in less than 30 da following tagging.

152 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

*

Seat

Fic. 6. Fouling of plastic barbed spaghetti tag 365 da following implantation.

No. 3, 1985] CARRIER — NURSE SHARK TAGS 153

shark weighing 2.6 kg, and the abscess appeared in less than 30 da. Similar
problems were encountered in Squalus acanthias (Beamish et al., 1981) and
in juvenile G. cirratum in the present study.

In some cases, an abscess does not form, but some loss of dermal denticles
occurs, and tissue necrosis is obvious as shown in Fig 5. The swellings seen in
this photograph occurred at the site of pin penetration of the fin and were
present in an animal recaptured after 373 da at large.

An additional problem is encountered with nurse sharks. These animals
are generally benthic, and are frequently encountered under coral ledges,
coral heads, and a wide variety of other points of topographical relief. As a
result, tags are probably frequently scraped off. Additionally, it appears that
tags in this species are subject to more “fouling” than has been observed in
this study with other species. Fig 6 shows a plastic barbed tag from a nurse
shark at large for 365 da. The fouling of the tag was sufficiently severe to all
but eliminate the written information on the tag regarding recapture pro-
cedures. The capsule tags of Casey show similar fouling, at least externally,
but the message within the capsule seems to retain its legibility (personal
observation).

ConcLusions—It appears that the largest measure of success is
guaranteed by multiple tagging protocols similar to those of Gruber.
Stainless steel barbed tags are suggested by these preliminary data as the
most successful, and a disc tag may be of some value if used with animals
near their maximum size.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTs—Support for the research described herein was provided by an Andrew F.
Mellon Foundation Faculty Development Grant. Logistical support and facilities were provided
by the Newfound Harbor Marine Institute at Seacamp, Big Pine Key, FL. The author especially
wishes to thank Bill Schwicker and Bob Beech for their continued support and assistance in
locating and capturing experimental animals.

LITERATURE CITED

Beckett, J. S. 1970. Swordfish, shark and tuna tagging 1961-69. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. Tech. Rept.
No. 193.

BEAMISH, R. J., M. S. Smitu, V. Ecan, D. Brown, AND G. McFarane. 1981. Results of spiny
dogfish (Squalus acanthias) tagging in the Strait of Georgia in 1979. Can. Data. Rept. of
Fish. Aquatic Sci. No. 262.

Carrier, J. C. 1983. Nurse sharks of Big Pine Key: population dynamics and growth rates.
Florida Sci. 46 (supp. 1): 19.

Casey, J. G., F. J. MATHER III, J. M. Mason Jr., AND J. Hoenic 1978. Offshore fisheries of the
middle Atlantic Bight. IN Clepper, H. (ed.) Marine Recreational Fisheries 3. Sportfish-
ing Institute, Washington, D. C.

Gruber, S. H. 1982. Role of the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris (Poey) as a predator in the
tropical marine environment: a multidisciplinary study. Florida Sci. 45(1): 46-75.

Ho pen, M. J. 1965. The stocks of spurdogs (Squalus acanthias, L.) in British waters, and their
migrations. H. M. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Fisheries Investigations
Series II, 24(4): 1-19.

154 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

McLaucuHiin, R. H. anp A. K. O’Gower. 1970. Underwater tagging of the Port Jackson Shark
(Heterodontus portjacksoni). Bull. Inst. Oceanog. (Monaco) 69(1410): 3-11.

TEMPLEMAN, W. 1976. Transatlantic migrations of spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias). J. Fish.
Res. Bd. Can. 33: 2605-2609.

Florida Sci. 48(3):146-154. 1985.

Geology and Hydrology

HYDROGEOLOGY OF THE BISCAYNE AQUIFER

IAN WATSON AND JEFFRY W. HERR

Department of Geology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida 33431

ABSTRACT: THE Biscayne aquifer is the sole-source aquifer in south east Florida. Since it is un-
confined and highly permeable, it is readily susceptible to contamination. Furthermore, because
of its heterogeneous nature, any quantitative prediction of water supply, or of the migration and
attenuation of contaminating leachates within the aquifer can be based only on detailed local
studies of the type outlined. The data presented are compiled from rigorous investigations at two
sites near Homestead and present new information on the Biscayne aquifer in south Dade county.
These data were derived from the detailed logging of bore-hole cores, thin-section analyses,
laboratory permeability tests and field-pumping tests.

THE BiscAyNE aquifer yields up to 2.8 billion liters of water per day for
municipal, domestic, industrial and agricultural use. The aquifer is one of
the most permeable in the country (Parker et. al., 1955). Unfortunately, its
high permeability, unconfined nature and low potential for natural attenua-
tion make it susceptible to contamination from a variety of sources.

Because of the heterogeneous nature of the aquifer, only detailed studies
can provide the necessary data for any meaningful quantitative study of
either potential yield, or the spread of leachate contaminants within the
aquifer (e.g. Watson, 1984).

Meruops— The data furnished are based on: 1) detailed logging and analyses (including thin
section examination and laboratory permeability testing) of cores from six wells drilled northeast
of Homestead along the C103 canal (Figure 1, Site A) and 2) Five field pumping tests conducted
immediately south of the Turkey Point power plant (Figure 1, Site B), including one large-scale

test conducted in a test pit measuring 33.5 by 7.6 m and excavated to a depth of approximately 10
m below land surface. The test pit was pumped for 75.5 hours at a rate of 2,500 liters per second.

No. 3, 1985] WATSON AND HERR— BISCAYNE AQUIFER HYDROGEOLOGY 155

SITE A

SS

Es —"
ra 4 3% PRs er eC Ee
see ayes ee kas z
nn Oe Store: REET en a
mE a A SSesesca

tH SS aseseges sesesenesee—

Beare 1 1 dora Ware ERG SS AES DARA aaStes FAST ESN a Aa
5 SSS aoe Soe oe SS 3 SS SES

0 50 100 Meters

Miami Limestone

a Miami Oolite Hane Ys

Fort Thompson Formation “Ss
peo ae
Fa Marine Limestone ;
o BO ?
! i? y
t : a Z
Freshwater Mudstone Re ERR
(eo) 10
| Sandy Marine Limestone miles

Fic. 1 Generalized geological cross section

ResuLts—Within the area of investigation, the Biscayne aquifer was
found to be composed of the Fort Thompson Formation, the Key Largo
Limestone and the Miami Limestone.

Fort Thompson Formation: A bed of sandy limestone (Figure 2B) marks
the contact between the Fort Thompson Formation and the underlying
Tamiami Formation (Schroeder et al., 1958). At Site A the Fort Thompson

D
(eon es

Fic. 2. (A) Miami Limestone, (B) Key Largo Limestone, (C) Fort Thompson Formation,

freshwater mudstone, (D) Fort Thompson Formation, sandy marine limestone.

No. 3, 1985] WATSON AND HERR — BISCAYNE AQUIFER HYDROGEOLOGY 157

Formation consists primarily of alternating marine and fresh-water
limestones and fresh-water mudstones (Figure 2C) marked by the presence
of the fresh-water gastropod Helisoma. The upper portion of the Fort
Thompson Formation contains large numbers of the pelycypod Chione
cancellata and is identifiable as the Coffee Mill Hammock member de-
scribed by Schroeder (Schroeder et al., 1958).

At Site B the formation consists generally of grayish white to white, well-
cemented sandy limestone containing fine to medium grained, cemented
calcareous sand and lenses of uncemented quartzose and calcareous sand a
few centimeters to 0.5 m thick. At both sites percolating ground water has
resulted in a moderately well developed network of solution channels rang-
ing in diameter from about 0.5 to 2.5 cm and with occasional vugs reaching
10 cm in size.

At Site A the top of the Fort Thompson Formation occurs between eleva-
tions — 1.5 m msl and —4.5 m msl. At Site B the top of the Fort Thompson
Formation occurs between elevations of between —7.0 m msl and —13.9 m
msl.

Key Largo Limestone: The Key Largo Limestone was not present at Site
A, but was found at Site B varying in thickness from about 3.0 to 8.0 m.
The Key Largo Limestone (Figure 2B) is a fossil reef deposit, a coralline
limestone comprised primarily of coral skeletons, interstitial skeletal
calcarenite, fine to medium grained cemented calcareous sand and other
reef deritus. Thin sections revealed coral typically of the honeycomb or
brain coral variety, often exhibiting secondary replacement by calcite. Solu-
tioning is somewhat better developed in this formation than in the underly-
ing Fort Thompson Formation and this trend persists into the overlying
Miami Limestone (Figure 2). At Site B, the contact between the Key Largo
Limestone and the Miami Limestone is abrupt, but Parker et al. (1955)
describe an interfingered contact in other areas.

The top of the Key Largo Limestone occurs between elevations of — 2.5
m msl and —8.8 m msl.

Miami Limestone: The Miami Limestone at both sites is a relatively
homogeneous white to yellowish-orange massive oolitic limestone (average
diameter of oolites is about 0.5 mm) showing moderate to extremely well-
developed small-scale solutioning (Figure 2A) and containing varying
amounts of sand (up to approximately 40 percent).

Hydrology: As inferred, the high permeability of the Biscayne aquifer is
controlled largely by a well-developed network of small solution channels,
averaging about 1 cm in diameter. In some areas, however, more strongly
developed secondary permeability accounts for notable variations in mass
permeability. At Site B, for example, well-developed solutioning at the con-
tact of the Key Largo Formation and the Miami Limestone exerts an impor-
tant local control on transmissivity. Figure 3 shows recharge from this con-
tact to the test pit, following a sharp drawdown in the pit when pumping
was initiated. Such features account for large differences in transmissivity

158 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

TABLE 1. Pumping Test Data

Data Method
Reference Pumping Rate(s) of Transmissivity Storage
Point(s) (liters per second) Analysis (m?/day) Coefficient
1 1,600 1,850 TR 19,900 0.97
2 1,600 1,850 TR 99,400 0.17
3 1,600 1,850 TR 58,400 0.07
4 1,850 TR,TD 223,600 0.04
5-8 1,600 DD 93,200 0.026
9-1] 2,500 DD 119,300 0.18
12-13 2,500 DD 53,400 0.19
14-15 2,500 DD 108,000 0.023
16-17 2,500 TSS 63,400
18-19 2,500 TSS 110,600
20-21 2,500 TSS 64,600
22 180 TNE,TR 5,000 0.13
23 180 TR 23,600 0.97
24 180 TNE,TR 22,400 0.08
25 180 TR 22,400 0.15
26 180 TNE,TR 34,200 0.05
ay 65 TR 38,500 0.004
28 65 TR 29,800 0.025
29 65 TR 68,300 0.0003
30-33 65 DD 29,800

NOTE: Data reference points 1 to 21 relate to the pumping test pit, while 22 to 33 relate to well pumping
tests. TR, Time vs. Recovery; TD, Time vs. Drawdown; TSS, Thiem steady State; DD, Distance vs.
Drawdown; TNE, Theis Non-Equilibrium.

over relatively short distances within the aquifer. Table 1 shows the range of
transmissivity values obtained from pumping tests. The average computed
value for all field pumping tests was 64,000 m?/day. Of special interest, was
the fact that the large-scale pit test yielded consistently higher transmissivity
values than well pumping tests (Table 1). Although large tests such as this
are generally considered to be most representative of field conditions, the
high seepage velocities induced by large tests may (in aquifers such as the
Biscayne) flush sand from solution cavities and result in artificially high
values. On the basis of the overall study, it is suggested that a transmissivity
value of 85,000 m?/day should be used for this area. This compares with an
average of 65,000 m?/day along the coastal ridge near Miami (Parker et al.,
1955). Laboratory permeability test results are shown in Figure 4. Although
not representative of field permeabilities these were useful in determining
formational differences in hydraulic properties within the aquifer. For ex-
ample, the Miami Limestone showed both higher and more consistent values
of permeability than the Fort Thompson Formation. The average value of

No. 3, 1985] WATSON AND HERR — BISCAYNE AQUIFER HYDROGEOLOGY 159

‘ a ea
=i ten S23 Pea te: ene ae ae i
Fic. 3 Large-scale ee Test

permeability of the Miami Limestone was 0.187 cm/sec, with the highest
value (0.395 cm/sec) being less than one order of magnitude greater than the
lowest value. In the Fort Thompson Formation, the average permeability
was 0.036 cm/sec and the highest value (0.394 cm/sec) was three orders
magnitude greater than the lower.

Conc.Lusions—New data are presented on the Biscayne Aquifer in South
Dade County. Results confirm the highly transmissive (85,000 m?/day), but
nonhomogeneous nature of the aquifer. In-situ observations are necessary to
obtain a reliable indication of secondary (controlling) solution features in
aquifer rock. Laboratory-determined permeability values should be re-
garded as no more than index tests. Verifiable field pumping tests are needed
to reflect realistic values of mass permeability/transmissivity. It is suggested
that future studies employ geophysical borehole data in conjunction with
detailed lithologic logs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— The authors acknowledge the help of professional colleagues at Florida
Atlantic University, South Florida Water Management District, Dames & Moore, and the
Florida Power and Light Company.

FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

160

O|

loo

(998S/W9 ) ALINEV SWYsd

lOOO Ol

1e)

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loOO Ol

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No. 3, 1985] MITCHEM — EXCAVATION OF BRIARWOODS SITE 161
LITERATURE CITED

Parker, G. G., Fercuson, G. E., Love, S. K. anp OtHeErs. 1955. Water resources of South-
eastern Florida. U.S. Geol. Surv. Water - Supply Paper 1255, 965.

ScHRoEDER, M. C., Krein, H. ann N. D. Hoy. 1958. Biscayne Aquifer of Dade and Broward
Counties, Florida. Florida Geol. Surv. Report of Investigations No. 17.56.

Watson, I. 1984. Contamination Analysis - Flow nets and the chemical mass transport equa-
tion. Ground Water, Jo. Ground-Water Tech. 22(1):31-37.

Florida Sci. 48(3):154-161. 1985.

Anthropology

EXCAVATION OF THE BRIARWOODS SITE (8-PA-66),
PASCO COUNTY, FLORIDA

JEFFREY M. MITCHEM

Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611

Asstract: The Briarwoods site was a small prehistoric burial mound in Pasco County. It was
excavated by archaeologists from the University of South Florida in 1980. Analysis of artifacts re-
covered from the burials indicates the site was used during the Safety Harbor period, with a
possible late Weeden Island-related component (ca. A.D. 1000-1500).

THE BrIARWOODs site was a small prehistoric sand burial mound located
in northern Pasco County about 2 km inland from the Gulf coast (Fig. 1). In
May, 1980, the University of South Florida’s Anthropology Department was
notified that the site (then unrecorded) was being destroyed by the construc-
tion of a housing subdivision.

Initial investigation of the site revealed that there were a number of
human burials which would take some time to excavate properly. Due to
previous commitments, however, only 5 days could be devoted to excavation
of the site with volunteer crews of varying size and expertise. Excavations
were supervised by the author under the general direction of Dr. Stephen J.
Gluckman.

Previous land clearing activities and digging by vandals had caused a
great deal of disturbance. In addition to a road having been cut through the
edge of the mound, the ground surface had been cleared of palmetto and
scraped with a bulldozer. Originally, the mound was a low sand tumulus in
an area of scrub pine and oak. It shows up on the developer’s map as a | foot
contour with a diameter of approximately 10 m.

162 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

10
kilometers

Fic. 1. Map showing location of the Briarwoods site (8-Pa-66).

Human Buriats—Most of the human burials excavated were secondary
(bundle) interments, often containing mixed bones of more than one in-
dividual. Leaching of the sand matrix had destroyed most stratigraphic
evidence and dissolved some of the bone in the mound. All of the skeletal
material recovered was in a poor state of preservation. Attempts to stabilize
bones in the USF Anthropology Laboratory proved unsatisfactory. Two of
the interments in the mound were flexed, 1 lying on the right side facing
south, the other lying on the left side facing east. These appeared to be the
only primary burials, and were at a greater depth than the rest of the
burials. This is consistent with data from other Safety Harbor sites, where

flexed burials have been recovered stratigraphically below secondary burials
(Bullen, 1951; 1952).

Several of the burials exhibited a pink-stained sand matrix caused by the
sprinkling of powdered red ochre over them. At least 8 of the interments ex-
hibited this staining. It was impossible to determine how many actual in-
dividuals were represented in these particular burials, but the majority of
grave goods recovered from the site came from the ochre-stained burials.

After excavations were completed, the human remains were sent to the
Department of Anthropology at Florida Atlantic University for analysis.

No. 3, 1985] MITCHEM — EXCAVATION OF BRIARWOODS SITE 163

Poor preservation of the bones prevented an in-depth osteological analysis,
but it was estimated that at least 82 individuals were represented in the col-
lection. Of these individuals, 73 were adults, 3 were subadults, 3 were in-
fants, and 3 could not be identified in terms of general age. An attempt was
also make to determine the sex of some of the skeletons, which yielded a
rough estimate of 53 males and 16 females (Gomez and Iscan, 1982).

The bones revealed considerable evidence of paleopathological condi-
tions. At least 1 skeleton exhibited possible multiple myeloma, and another
showed evidence of osteomyelitis (Gomez and Iscan, 1982). Histological
analysis demonstrated the presence of Osteitis Deformans (Paget’s disease) in
the skull, femur, and tibia of 1 individual. This is the first evidence for the
prehistoric occurrence of this disease in Florida (Iscan and Gomez, 1982).

Though grave goods were not abundant at the site, they indicate par-
ticipation in the cultural systems operating in the Peninsular Gulf Coast area
after about A.D. 1000. The types of artifacts (especially potsherds) also pro-
vide us with a general range of dates for the site.

NoNCERAMIC ARTIFACTS—A polished greenstone (serpentine?) celt was
found with one burial, apparently placed inside the curve of a mandible.
This type of stone is found in the Georgia Piedmont or Appalachians, and
does not naturally occur in Florida, which probably indicates that the peo-
ple buried at the Briarwoods site were involved in trade networks extending
northward.

Other nonceramic artifacts recovered from the mound include a badly
weathered chert celt, 3 teeth from Galeocerdo cuvieri (a tiger shark), and 4
shell beads. All of these artifacts appeared to be associated with particular
burials, indicating they were indeed grave goods or part of the apparel of the
deceased individuals. Two of the shell beads were found in situ in the neck
region of a skull while cleaning it in the laboratory in USF.

One burial had a shell gorget and a fossil sea urchin (Heart Urchin,
Eupatagus antillarum) associated with it. The gorget had 2 holes drilled for
suspension and appeared to have a single groove incised around the perime-
ter forming a circle on the concave surface. No other details of decoration
could be discerned due to the deteriorated state of the gorget. The fossil sea
urchin was unmodified.

Two worked chert flakes or tool fragments were recovered, along with 53
unworked chert flakes, 8 of which exhibited edge wear indicative of utiliza-
tion. No culturally diagnostic stone tools were recovered from the mound.

Crramics—Most of the 301 potsherds from the site appeared to be asso-
ciated with burials. No whole or complete vessels were found, though unsub-
stantiated reports from a local amateur archaeologist indicated that whole
vessels had been excavated at the site prior to our investigations.

The ceramics were represented mainly by Pasco Plain (136 sherds), a
limestone tempered ware which is very common in the region north of Tampa
Bay. Pinellas Plain was the second most common (74 sherds), with sand

164 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

tempered plain the third most numerous (51 sherds). Also recovered were
Lake Jackson Plain (9 sherds), St. Johns Plain (11 sherds), Safety Harbor
Incised (8 sherds), St. Johns Simple Stamped (6 sherds), St. Johns Check
Stamped (3 sherds), Pinellas Incised (1 sherd), and 2 sherds of unidentified
wares.

One Safety Harbor Incised rim sherd had a human head adorno attached
below the lip of the vessel. The adorno appeared to have been partially
painted black. This is presumed to be part of a specially produced mortuary
vessel.

INTERPRETATIONS—Some of the pottery types recovered in the excava-
tions provide us with data concerning the period of the mound’s construc-
tion. The Lake Jackson Plain and Safety Harbor Incised sherds, along with
the Pinellas Plain and Pinellas Incised sherds, suggest a Safety Harbor oc-
cupation with a possible late Weeden Island-related component. The
Pinellas Plain and Pinellas Incised types are somewhat unclear as far as dat-
ing is concerned, but Willey (1949) and Sears (1967) place both types in the
Safety Harbor period. Luer and Almy (1980), however, state that Pinellas
Plain also occurs during the earlier Weeden Island-related period. But even
if Pinellas types may first appear in late Weeden Island times, there is con-
sensus among archaeologists that they are predominant in Safety Harbor
times on the Central Peninsular Gulf Coast.

In terms of absolute dates, a period of ca. A.D. 1000-1500 is suggested as
a range within which the site was utilized. The actual period of construction
cannot be narrowed down on the basis of present knowledge, but the
presence of flexed burials would imply occupation at the earlier end of the
time range.

The site was located just south of the Pasco-Hernando County border.
This is farther north than the generally accepted northernmost extent of
Safety Harbor sites, which is Tarpon Springs (Bullen, 1978; Milanich and
Fairbanks, 1980). In light of the Briarwoods site data and the results of re-
cent fieldwork and analysis of sites in west Peninsular Florida (Mitchem, et
al., 1983; Mitchem and Weisman, 1984), it appears this boundary is too far
south. Though some slight differences are present in the archaeological
assemblages, sites with predominantly Safety Harbor artifacts occur at least
as far north as the Withlacoochee River, which forms the northern border of
Citrus County. The artifacts and site configurations show affinities with
Safety Harbor rather than Fort Walton polities further north.

Attempts to locate a habitation (village) site associated with the mound
were unsuccessful. There is a large spring about 0.4 km north of the mound
which has been developed into a campground. The owners refused permis-
sion to check for occupation. The presence of such a large spring nearby is
reminiscent of Sigler-Lavelle’s (1980) model of Weeden Island settlement
patterns in north Florida. Further work in the area could turn up evidence
of associated sites.

No. 3, 1985] MITCHEM — EXCAVATION OF BRIARWOODS SITE 165

ConcLusions—The Briarwoods site highlights the need for problem-
oriented archaeological research along the Florida Peninsular Gulf Coast to
allow a better understanding of the cultural processes operating in the late
prehistoric period. Such research should also allow better determination of
the geographical extent of Safety Harbor culture and provide insight into in-
ternal and external sociopolitical relations of the people.

The Briarwoods site (8-Pa-66) has yielded all of its available data. It has
been completely destroyed by development.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— Thanks are due the Babcock Company of Clearwater for allowing us to
conduct excavations at the site even though development of the area was well underway. Their
foreman, Norman, was especially helpful. I would also like to thank the volunteer crews, who
gave up weekends and braved the summer heat to grub around in the dirt. Specifically, these in-
clude Bob Austin, Joe Jones, Ken Hardin, Gayle Russell, John King, Marita King, Laura Kam-
merer, Dana Ste. Claire, Jay Haviser, Bill Burger, Lance Rom, Sam Bennett, Penny Seabury,
Cathy Tortorici, Adrienne Merola, and Jim Kolotka. I also thank Dr. Stephen J. Gluckman for
handling the administrative aspects of the project. A preliminary version of this paper was pre-
sented at the 45th Annual Meeting of the Academy. The author is grateful to Brent R. Weisman
for commenting on an earlier draft of this paper.

LITERATURE CITED

BuLten, R. P. 1951. The Terra Ceia site, Manatee County, Florida. Fla. Anthropological Society
Publications. 3.
________. 1952. Eleven archaeological sites in Hillsborough County, Florida. Fla. Geol. Survey
Report of Investigations. 8.
. 1978. Tocobaga Indians and the Safety Harbor culture. Pp. 50-58. In MILANIcH,
J. T. AND S. Proctor (eds.). Tacachale: Essays on the Indians of Florida and Southeastern
Georgia During the Historic Period. Univ. Presses of Fla., Gainesville.
Gomez, J. AND M. Y. Iscan. 1982. Analysis of human skeletal remains from Pasco County.
: (Abstract). Fla. Sci. 45 (Suppl.):12.
Iscan, M. Y. AND J. Gomez. 1982. Prehistoric Paget’s disease from Florida. (Abstract). Fla. Sci.
45 (Suppl.):13.
Lurr, G. M. AnD M. M. Atmy. 1980. The development of some aboriginal pottery of the central
peninsular Gulf coast of Florida. Fla. Anthropologist. 33:207-225.
Minanicu, J. T. anp C. H. Farrsanxs. 1980. Florida Archaeology. Academic Press, New York.
MitcHeM, J. M., M. T. SMitH, AND R. ALLEN. 1983. Analysis of artifacts from the Weeki Wachee
burial mound, Hernando County, Florida. Unpub. paper presented at the 40th Southeastern
Archaeological Conf., Columbia, S.C.
MitcHeM, J. M. aNDB. R. WEISMAN. 1984. Excavations at the Ruth Smith mound (8CI200). Fla.
Anthropologist. 37:100-111.
Sears, W. H. 1967. The Tierra Verde burial mound. Fla. Anthropologist. 20:25-73.
SIGLER-LAVELLE, B. J. 1980. On the non-random distribution of Weeden Island period sites in
north Florida. Southeastern Archaeological Conf. Bull. 22:22-29.
Wittey, G. R. 1949. Archeology of the Florida Gulf coast. Smithsonian Misc. Collections. 113.

Florida Sci. 48(3):161-165. 1985.

Biological Sciences

BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DREDGING IN AN
OFFSHORE BORROW AREA.

RoBert O. JOHNSON! AND WALTER G. NELSON

Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology,
Melbourne, FL 32901

Asstract: Changes in benthic fauna were monitored following excavation of an offshore bor-
row area in the vicinity of Fort Pierce Inlet, Florida. Sampling stations were established along 2
transects located in the borrow area, 1 control transect north of the borrow area, and 1 control
transect south of the borrow area. Results suggest that relatively larger reductions in abundance,
but not number of species, of the benthic fauna occurred in the borrow area following dredging
as compared with the controls. Therefore the decrease observed appears greater than can be ac-
counted for on the basis of seasonal changes alone. Both parameters returned to pre-dredging
levels in from 9-12 months. Species composition, however, was altered in the borrow area and
had not returned to the pre-dredging composition after 12 months. It is probable that this species
shift is not detrimental in that it resembles the species composition at other undisturbed locations
in this region.

In Orpber to alleviate serious beach erosion in areas where loss of valuable
beach front developments is threatened, the solution of choice in Florida has
been the nourishment of the eroded beach with sand which is either trucked
in or pumped onto the beach. In the latter case, the source of the nourishment
sand is generally an area of the bottom located offshore and in proximity to
the nourishment area. The dredging activities result in a considerable local
disturbance for the sand bottom animal communities in which a sizeable
portion of the extant community is removed and the topography and
sedimentary characteristics of the disturbed area are radically changed. It is
therefore a matter of concern as to whether these alterations of the environ-
ment result in any serious permanent alterations of the biological com-
munities in the affected area.

In August, 1980, the U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers carried out a beach
erosion control project along an eroded section of beach in an area of the
Florida east coast just south of Fort Pierce Inlet, Fort Pierce, Florida. This
project consisted of beach fill and nourishment with approximately 285,000
m* of sand removed from a borrow area located approximately 1.6 km
directly offshore. In conjunction with this project, data were collected and
analyzed concerning the biological impact of the dredging activities in the
borrow area on the benthic fauna present in this region. This report provides
a description of the benthic fauna present in the borrow area and at a control
location at the time of dredging and documents some changes in the fauna
over the one-year period following dredging.

'Present address: 828 Croton Rd., Melbourne, FL 32901

No. 3, 1985] JOHNSON AND NELSON — BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DREDGING 167

MATERIALS AND METHops—The study area is located on the Atlantic coast of Florida in the
vicinity of Fort Pierce Inlet (27° 28’ 15" N, 80° 17’ W, Fig. 1). Nourishment sand was provided
by a dredging operation directly offshore from the beach fill area, which created a trench ap-
proximately 0.8 km long by 130 m wide. The bottom of the trench was approximately 3.5 m
deeper than the surrounding bottom, which had a depth of approximately 7 m.

CAPE CANAVERAL

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

SFT. PIERCE INLET

“VENA st. Lucie INLET

Fic. 1. Map indicating the location of the study area on the Florida east coast.

168 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Three transects, each consisting of 5 stations which were located approximately 61 m apart,
were established in the study area (Fig. 2). Transects I and II were oriented perpendicular to the
long axis of the borrow area and the shore line. Transect III was located to the north of the bor-
row area as specified by contract guidelines and was to serve as a control area. However, this
location is on the north side of the Fort Pierce Inlet and has a substantially different bottom
topography and composition which includes substantial areas of worm reef (Phragmatapoma
lapidosa) as compared with primarily flat sand bottom in the area of Transects I and II. There-
fore, subsequent to the initial sampling, an additional transect consisting of 2 stations was estab-
lished to the south of the borrow area in a sand bottom area more suitable as a comparative
location. Each of the 2 transects in the borrow area, as well as the north control were sampled
once at the time of the dredging (August 15, 1980) and on 4 occasions (November 18, 1980;
February 20, May 21, August 4, 1981) at approximately 3-month intervals following the dredg-
ing. Because the contract for this study was received at the last minute, dredging had begun
before a set of pre-dredging samples could be taken. Therefore, the first set of samples were taken
just south of the operating dredge (designated sample areas A and B). Current direction during
the dredging was south to north and it is reasonable to assume minimal dredge disturbance at
these locations. Subsequent sampling was moved to the borrow pit locations indicated (Fig. 2).
The initial samples from the borrow area can therefore unfortunately serve only as an indication
of general pre-dredging conditions at Transects I and II. On each of the 2 borrow area transects
for the post-dredging sampling, station locations were arranged so that stations 1 and 5 were out-
side the trench created by dredging while sites 2,3 and 4 were inside the trench (Fig. 2).

Benthic grab samples—Three replicate bottom grabs were taken at each station using a
Smith-McIntyre grab operated from the R.V. Tursiops. This device can take a maximum volume
of sediment of approximately 12 liters with a surface area of 1000 cm?. Stations were located ini-
tially with Loran C. Due to the limits of resolution of this method and the close spacing of the sta-
tions, some variability in station locations is to be expected between consecutive sampling dates.
Fathometer readings helped to fix transect locations. Depths of each station are given in Johnson
(1982). On the final sampling, station locations were fixed with radar sites on shore targets that
provided increased accuracy (coordinates in Johnson, 1982). Station locations are given approxi-
mately in Fig. 2.

Processing for all benthic grab samples was the same. The volume of each sample was first
determined by placing it in a calibrated container. Samples. were then washed on a 505 micron
sieve with the retained portion being fixed in a 7% formalin and seawater solution. Preserved
samples were transported in sealed plastic containers to the laboratory where they were re-sieved
through a 600 micron (U.S. Standard No. 30) sieve. Rose-bengal stain was then added to the
material retained to aid in sorting. Samples were then sorted by hand, with all animals present
being transferred to 70% ethanol pending further sorting. Following this process, all animals col-
lected were counted and identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level. In most cases, species
level identifications were possible, although the polychaete worms were only identified to the
level of family because of the limited present taxonomic knowledge for the inshore polychaetes of
this area of Florida.

On the 4 sampling dates following the dredging operation, sediment samples were obtained
for sediment grain size analysis. One sediment sample was obtained from the south control area,
the north control area and from the dredged trench on Transect I. All sediment samples were
analyzed with standard dry sieve techniques (Folk, 1974). Grain size distributions were made
and were plotted by computer.

Sample value for number of individuals and number of species were compared between
Transects I and II for both the trench and non-trench stations using one-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) and where significant differences were not observed (p>0.05), data were pooled
within these 2 categories. The only exception to pooling was the number of species for the No-
vember, 1980 sample. ANOVA was then used to compare values of the 2 community parameters
among trench, non-trench, Transect III, and south control locations. Where significant values of
the F statistic were obtained from ANOVA, the a posteriori Student-Newman-Keuls procedure
(Sokal and Rohlf, 1969) was used to determine which means were significantly (p< .05) different
from one another. In all cases, assumptions of homogeneity of variances were checked using the
F-max test and data adjusted by transformation where necessary.

REsuLTs—Sediment grain sizes, measured in phi units for the south con-
trol, north control and trench areas are given (Figs. 3-5). Although no pre-

No. 3, 1985]

JOHNSON AND NELSON — BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DREDGING

80°17'

Bonet ao
onTROLS
6_¢@

SS

169

Fic. 2. Location of sampling transects and stations in the study area. Depth contours are

given in m.

170 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

dredging sample is available for the trench area, it is likely that the mean
grain size would have been very similar to that for the south control, i.e.
medium sand. The north control resembled the trench area, with mean
sediment size being a very fine sand. The decrease in mean grain size in the
trench is presumably due to the trapping of finer sediments by the trench. By
12 months following dredging, mean sediment size within the trench had
returned to a medium sand, possibly due in part to slumping of the trench
wall and deposition of this coarser material in the trench (Fig. 5.). Some in-
dication of filling of the trench was seen in the change of depth over time at
the trench stations as recorded by the depth sounder on the R.V. Tursiops
(Johnson, 1982).

A total of 83 stations were sampled during the study period with a grand
total of 249 benthic grab samples being collected. Some 20,137 individuals
consisting of a minimum of 188 taxa were collected in these samples. Because

35

TRANSECT I -5
30 11/18/80
2/20/8|
5/21/8|
8/4/8\

P @vbo

25

20

FREQUENCY WEIGHT PERCENT

<5, em ee © ye 30 ee oe = we oe 2 oem ena BO,

So Op geO =e O 1.0 2.0 30 40 5.0
GRAIN SIZE (PHI)

Fic. 3. Comparison of sediment grain size distributions on the 4 sampling dates at Transect
III site 5.

No. 3, 1985] JOHNSON AND NELSON — BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DREDGING 171
60
SOUTH CONTROL -4

50 o 11/18/80

a 2/20/8|
e 5/21/8|
40 a 8/4/8|

FREQUENCY WEIGHT PERCENT

RG) alamo 0 Bn eon meee xs
GRAIN SIZE (PHI)

Fic. 4. Comparison of sediment grain size distributions on the 4 sampling dates at south con-
trol site 4.

of difficulties encountered with polychaete indentification, the actual
number of species sampled is considerably greater. A complete listing of taxa
encountered and their abundances in each sample is given in Johnson (1982).

The effect of dredging on abundance is suggested in Fig. 6. Following
dredging, mean number of individuals/station decreased by 72% on
Transects I and II as compared with the initial samples at sites A and B
(Table 1), while abundance showed a decrease on Transect III of only 20%.
Given the location of Transect III it is unlikely this decrease was a result of
the dredging and thus may provide an estimate of the seasonal component of
the change observed. All stations on Transects I and II appeared to be af-
fected, although the decrease was somewhat greater for the trench stations
(80%) than for the non-trench stations (59%) (Johnson, 1982). The tem-
poral pattern of abundance was relatively similar for all four types of
samples. Abundance remained low through the February sample, began to
increase in the May sample, and continued to increase in the August sample,
by which time densities in the dredged areas had approximately returned to
the levels found at the time of dredging one year earlier. Abundance at the
trench stations was significantly lower than for the north control on the
February and August, 1981 sample dates, but was never significantly dif-
ferent from the undredged south controls.

172 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

30

TRANSECT I-3

25 o 11/18/80
A 2/20/81
@ 5/21/81

20 & 8/4/8!i

FREQUENCY WEIGHT PERCENT

me HO). Eac/246) 50

GRAIN SIZE (PHI)

Fic. 5. Comparison of sediment grain size distributions on the 4 sampling dates in the trench
at Transect I site 3.

Following dredging (November, 1980), a decrease of 42% in number of
taxa was observed for Transects I and II as compared with the average of the
samples taken initially. A decrease of 36% was observed at Transect III, sug-
gesting much of the decrease in taxa was due to seasonal factors. Throughout
the study, ANOVA indicated no significant differences between the mean
number of taxa per station in the dredged trench versus the three groups of
non-dredged stations (Fig. 7). Number of taxa in the dredged area reached
values equal to the initial sampling within 9 months.

Patterns in species composition in relation to dredging are discussed
below. All patterns described were confirmed by numerical classification
analysis (Bray-Curtis Similarity Index and flexible sorting, Johnson, 1982).
We have chosen to omit the cluster dendrograms in favor of tables of domi-
nant taxa because this more clearly shows the types of compositional changes
taking place.

The dominant taxa (the top 10 species in total abundance) at the 3 sam-

ple areas at the time of dredging are broadly similar between sample area A
and B while Transect III, the north control, appears quite different (Table

No. 3, 1985]

TasLe 1. Mean values of abundance and number of taxa per station (+ | std. dev.) for all

transects and sample dates.

JOHNSON AND NELSON — BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DREDGING

173

Date Location

Transect I Transect II Transect III South Control
8/15/80
No. Individuals 408.0(69.9)! 223.6(61.7)} 107.2(18.5) =
No. Taxa 29.0(2.9)} 26.6(3.7)} 19.0(6.2) =
11/18/80
No. Individuals 66.0(38.4) 110.6(79.0) 82.0(50.7) 99.0(33.9)
No. Taxa 12.0(4.8) 19.8(4.1) 12.4(6.4) 20.0(0.0)
2/20/81
No. Individuals 78.8(33.4) 41.8(18.6) 134.8(35.3) 114.0(62.2)
No. Taxa 16.4(4.3) 12.6(5.3) 9.4(1.1) 13.50(0.7)
5/21/81
No. Individuals 161.6(26.9) 160.0(56.4) 258.0(128.4) 127.5(33.2)
No. Taxa 25.6(2.9) 26.0(5.2) 22.4(5.0) 25.0(1.4)
8/4/81
No. Individuals 284.0(116.3) 593.2(441.8) 1033.6(255.5) 288.0(72.1)
No. Sp. 27.4(12.8) 30.0(8.6) 27.0(8.1) 27.5(2.1)

1. Values for samples taken near the borrow area while dredging was underway. Subsequent samples for
Transects I and II were taken at the locations given in Fig. 2.

2). Sample areas A and B (8 of 10 taxa in common) were dominated by bi-
valves and amphipod crustaceans with a lesser abundance of polychaetes.
Transect III was generally dominated by polychaetes, although the second
and third most abundant species were a bivalve and an amphipod.

Following the dredging (November, 1980), species composition of trench
stations (2,3,4) on Transect I showed an absence of 3 of the 10 most abun-
dant species at the non-trench stations (1,5) (Table 3). These were the
bivalve Crassinella martinicensis, the sand dollar Melita sp. (juveniles), and
the amphipod Bathyporeia parkeri. The first two species were dominant
forms at both sample areas A and B in the initial sampling. Other amphipod
species showed reduced abundance and there was an increase in the impor-
tance of polychaetes at the trench stations. At Transect II, C. martinicensis
was again absent from the trench stations and the importance of bivalves
was generally reduced. The high abundance of sabellarid polychaetes at the
non-trench stations was due to the fact one grab encountered worm rock.
With the exclusion of the sabellariid polychaetes from this sample, the trench
stations show a much greater importance of polychaetes and a reduced im-
portance of bivalves. At the north control, Transect III, polychaetes con-
tinued to be an important faunal component. Species composition at the
south control site was similar to that for the non-trench samples on Transects
I and II, and was comparable to the initial sampling. Dominant species were
C. martinicensis and the sand dollar Melita quinquiesperforata.

By 6 months following dredging (February, 1981), composition of the
dominant taxa in the trench had become somewhat more similar to the non-

174 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

TABLE 2. Lists of the 10 most abundant taxa found on each transect on the August 15, 1980
sampling. Taxon codes are: A-Amphipoda, B-Bivalvia, C-Cumacea, D-Decapoda,
E-Echinodermata, G-—Gastropoda, I-Isopoda, M-Mysidacea, N-Nemertinea, P—Polychaeta,
S-Sipuncula.

Sample Area A-8/15/80

Rank Taxon Code Abundance
1 Crassinella martinicensis B 492
2; Acanthohaustorius shoemakeri A 262
3 Protohaustorius wigleyi A 185
4 Melita (juv.) E 174
5 Opheliidae P 104
6 Eudevenopus honduranus A 101
7 Donax sp. B 80
8 Tellina sp. B 63
9 Syllidae P 43

10 Tiron tropakis A 32
Sample Area B-8/15/80
1 A. shoemakeri A 253
2 Opheliidae 2 pall
3 E. honduranus A 113
4 Tellina sp. B 107
5 C. martinicensis B 59
6 T. tropakis A 54
ue P. wigleyi A 47
8 Onuphidae P 31
9 Melita (juv) E 30
10 Spionidae P 24
Transect III-8/15/80
1 Cirratulidae P 115
2 Tellina sp. B 101
3 A. shoemakeri A 63
4 Oweniidae P 46
5 Nemertinea N 27
6 Opheliidae 12 17
a Onuphidae P, 14
8 Nereidae P 12
9 Magelonidae RP 11
10 Sipuncula S 11

trench stations on Transect I, although 2 dominant trench taxa, the mysid
Bowmaniella sp. and a polychaete (Arenicolidae), were only minor consti-
tuents of the non-trench stations (Table 4). At Transect II, dominant taxa in
the trench remained largely different from the non-trench stations. Molluscs
had increased their abundance relative to the preceding sampling date.
Polychaetes of the family Oweniidae continued to be the most abundant
group at Transect III.

Similarity in dominant taxa between trench and non-trench stations on
Transect I was approximately the same in the May (1981) sampling as it had
been in the February (1981) sampling (Table 5). Five taxa of the top 10 were
the same for the 2 sets of stations. Only 4 of 10 taxa were in common between

No. 3, 1985] JOHNSON AND NELSON — BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DREDGING 175

the trench and non-trench stations at Transect II. These 4 were also abundant
at the south control stations at this time, suggesting a tendency towards de-
velopment of a species composition more similar to an undisturbed situation.
Taxonomic composition at the north control remained somewhat different
from the other stations, being dominated by polychaetes of the family
Oweniidae and the brittle star Ophiophragmus wurdemani.

On the final sampling date (August 1980), trench stations at Transect I
were more strongly dominated by polychaetes than the non-trench stations,
although polychaete abundance had increased at these sites as well (Table
6). Both trench and non-trench stations at Transect II were heavily domi-
nated by polychaetes as well. Extremely high densities of organisms were ob-
tained from the north control at this sample period, divided mainly between
polychaetes of the families Oweniidae and Opheliidae, and the bivalves
Barbatia candida and Tellina sp. Taxonomic composition at the south con-
trol remained largely similar to previous sample dates.

Discussion—If it can be assumed that the initial samples from areas A
and B give a reasonable estimate of pre-dredge conditions at Transects I and
II, then it can be suggested that effects of the dredging were observed with
respect to number of individuals per station at the dredged sites. The reduc-
tion in abundance (72%) observed is comparable to values reported from
other studies of dredging impact on benthic communities. Oliver and Slat-
tery (1976) describe an 86% reduction in abundance and a 60% decrease in
number of species in a dredged area in Monterey Bay, California. Kaplan
and coworkers (1974) similarly report a 79% reduction in number of in-
dividuals following dredging in a semi-enclosed embayment on Long Island.
McCauley and coworkers (1977) recorded decreases of 74-88 % in abundance
during maintenance dredging within an Oregon estuary. However, in the
present case, complete evaluation of the effects of dredging is complicated
by the fact that comparisons of the stations in the borrow area with the north
controls (Transect III) indicates that seasonality may play some role in the
decreases in species abundance observed and a possible dominant role in the
decrease in number of taxa observed. Comparison of the magnitude of the
changes at the north control with those in the borrow area suggest a gross
estimate of 50% of the decline in numbers being attributable to dredging as
distinguishable from seasonal decreases. Only 6% of the decreases in num-
ber of taxa could be similarly attributed to dredging, suggesting little effect
of dredging on total taxonomic richness.

Disturbance effects due to the dredging did not appear to be limited to
the dredged trench area alone. On both transects in the dredged area,
decreases in abundance and number of taxa at non-dredged stations were
observed, although these decreases were not as extreme as those observed in
the trench. Such effects may have been due to increased sedimentation
resulting from the dredging. McCauley and coworkers (1977) have also

FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

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184 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

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control groups of stations. A and B are the initial borrow area samples. Brackets indicate groups
not significantly different from one another (p >0.05, ANOVA and Student-Newman-Keuls test,
error bars omitted for clarity).

observed that dredging effects can extend to other nearby areas, and have
noted decreases in abundance that ranged from 34-70% at undredged sta-
tions within 100 m of a dredged area. In an enclosed embayment, the extent
of the peripheral impact of dredging may be even more important and may
affect abundance of benthic organisms throughout an estuarine area
(Kaplan et al., 1974).

With respect to the originally designated control site (Transect III), the
results clearly indicate that this area is almost entirely different from the
dredged area to the south. The marked difference in species composition in-
dicates this area was inappropriate to use as a comparison area for the
dredge treatments, except possibly as an indication of seasonal effects. The
temporal duration of the effects of dredging appears to be relatively limited
in extent at both transects. Abundance and number of taxa had returned to

No. 3, 1985] JOHNSON AND NELSON — BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DREDGING 185

initial levels within 12 months and 9 months, respectively, at Transect I, and
both parameters had returned within 9 months at Transect II. Dredging had
little effect on the distribution of individuals among species as measured by
evenness at either of the 2 dredge transects (Johnson, 1982).

A recent study (Saloman et al., 1982) of faunal recovery in borrow pits
off Panama City Beach, Florida has similarly indicated that recovery of the
bottom community in dredged areas was rapid for both number of in-
dividuals and number of species, with total recovery occurring in from 8 to
12 months. A longer term study of the same dredged areas conducted 3-4
years after dredging detected no long-term adverse effects on the bottom
fauna of the borrow pit dredging (Culter and Mahadevan, 1982).

The period required for readjustment of a dredged habitat will vary
widely dependent on factors ranging from the extent of the dredging activity

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Fic. 7. Mean number of species per station for trench, non-trench, Transect III and south
control groups of stations. Values for trench stations on 11/18/80 were significantly different
(p<0.05) and were therefore not pooled. A and B are the initial borrow area samples. Brackets
indicate groups not significantly different from one another (p>0.05, ANOVA and Student-
Newman-Keuls test, error bars omitted for clarity).

186 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

to the type of species which compose the community. McCauley and co-
workers (1977) have shown recovery of abundance and diversity to occur in
only 14-28 days after a small dredging project which removed only 8000 yds
of material. They also suggested that the animals composing the benthic
community at this site were adapted to continuous disturbance from pro-
peller turbulence and frequent dredging, and thus recovered more quickly
than might otherwise be the case. Recovery times on the order of 11 months
have also been noted (Kaplan et al., 1974). In one instance, although H'
diversity after 1.5 years was lower than for the pre-dredging situations, both
abundance and number of species had attained levels significantly greater
than the pre-dredging level in 8 months (Oliver and Slattery, 1976). This
was due to an increase in dominance by 1 species, a suspension feeding
phoronid worm, Phoronopsis viridis.

Despite a recovery in terms of abundance and number of species, the
disturbed community may not return to its original species composition.
Oliver and Slattery (1976) have documented the transition from a burrowing
deposit feeder assemblage composed mainly of crustaceans and bivalves to a
post-dredging assemblage composed mainly of suspension feeding worms.
The dredging resulted in a 2 step process during which the crustaceans and
bivalves removed by dredging were initially replaced by opportunistic poly-
chaetes which were then replaced by the suspension feeding worm Phoro-
nopsis (Oliver and Slattery, 1976). This condition persisted for at least 1.5
years. In part this transition may be attributed to a transition in sediment
grain size to finer particles. Sykes and Hall (1970) have shown that bivalve
densities in dredged canals which possess fine bottom sediments (85% silt-
clay) are a fraction of that found in undisturbed medium sands. Total den-
sities collected were 5,631 bivalves from sand versus 16 from the silt-clay
dredged channels (Sykes and Hall, 1970). In general, changes in sediment
grain size composition will affect the choice of substrate by benthic orga-
nisms (Chang and Levings, 1976).

Turbeville and Marsh (1982) have recently concluded that five years
after dredging of a borrow area off Hillsboro Beach, Florida, there is no in-
dication of an adverse effect of the dredging. Borrow area communities
showed no reduction in number of species, faunal abundance or species
diversity as compared with adjacent undredged areas. Species composition,
however, was found to be substantially different in the borrow area.

The Fort Pierce dredging project also shows evidence of a transition in
species composition having occurred. Initial species composition in the bor-
row area (medium sand) was dominated by crustaceans, bivalves and the
epifaunal sand dollar Melita. A similar and constant composition was ob-
served for the south control sites (medium sand) throughout the study. The
fine sand north control site showed a dominance of polychaetes throughout
the course of the study. Following dredging, the percentage composition of
crustaceans, bivalves and sand dollars greatly decreased while the percent-

No. 3, 1985] JOHNSON AND NELSON — BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF DREDGING 187

age of polychaetes increased. One year after dredging, both Transects I and
II, and in particular the stations located in the dredged trench, remained
dominated by polychaetes. Community species composition at the dredged
sites has undergone a transition despite return of community parameters to
pre-dredging levels. The persistance of this alternate community will prob-
ably largely depend on the rapidity with which grain size within the trench
returns to that typical of the surrounding bottom in this area. Sediment
grain size data indicate that this process is well underway as of 12 months
following dredging (Johnson, 1982), although the data of Turbeville and
Marsh (1982) indicate such changes may persist as long as 5 years.

Whether the observed change in community composition has any larger
ramifications within the nearshore ecosystem, particularly with respect to
bottom feeding fishes, is not known at this time. Given the fact that the near-
shore environment in the Fort Pierce region appears to be a spatial mosaic of
different bottom types (e.g. Transect III), the transition community in the
dredged trench may not be atypical of this area and may merely constitute
an additional element in the pre-exisiting spatial mosaic of habitat types
which characterize this region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS— The authors thank Dr. T. Roberts and Dr. D. Stauble for assistance in
the organization and execution of the early stages of this project. Captain J. Morton, mate
J. Camuso, and J. Gorzelany provided able assistance in obtaining the samples. K. Cairns, P.
Mikkelsen, M. A. Capone and Dr. R. Turner assisted in many of the species identifications, and
M. A. Nelson prepared the figures. Funding for this study was provided by the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, Jacksonville District under contract No. DACW17-80-C-0058.!

LITERATURE CITED

Cuanc, B. D., anp C. D. Levincs. 1975. Laboratory experiments on the effects of ocean dump-
ing on benthic invertebrates. I. Choice tests with solid wastes. Fisheries Res. Bd. Canada,
Technical Report No. 637, 65 pp.

Cutter, J. S., AND S. MAHADEVAN. 1982. Long term effects of beach nourishment on the benthic
fauna of Panama City Beach, Florida. U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineer-
ing Research Center, Misc. Rpt. 82-2, 94 pp.

Fok, R. L. 1974. Petrology of sedimentary rocks. Hemphill Publ. Co., Austin, 182 pp.

JouNson, R. O. 1982. The effects of dredging on offshore benthic macrofauna south of the inlet
at Fort Pierce, Florida. M. S. thesis, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne. 137 pp.

Kapian, E. H., J. R. WELKER, AND M. G. Kraus. 1974. Some effects of dredging on populations
of macrobenthic organisms. Fish. Bull. 72:445-479.

McCautey, J. E., R. A. Parr, AND D. R. Hancock. 1977. Benthic infauna and maintenance
dredging: a case study. Water Res. 11:233-242.

Otiver, J. S., AND P. N. Statrery. 1976. Effects of dredging and disposal on some benthos at
Montery Bay, California. U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research
Center, Tech. Paper No. 76-15, 81 pp.

1 Contribution No. 64, Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Tech-
nology.

188 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

SALOMAN, C. H., S. P. NAUGHTON, AND J. L. Taytor. 1982. Benthic community response to
dredging borrow pits, Panama City Beach, Florida. U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers,
Coastal Engineering Research Center, Misc. Rpt. 82-3, 138 pp.

SokaL, R. R., AND F. J. RoHutr. 1969. Biometry. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, California.
776 pp.

Sykes, J. E., AND J. R. Hau. 1970. Comparative distribution of mollusks in dredged and un-
dredged portions of an estuary, with a systematic list of species. Fish. Bull. 68:199-306.

TURBEVILLE, D. B., aNp G. A. Marsn. 1982. Benthic fauna of an offshore borrow area in
Broward County. U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center,
Misc. Report No. 82-1, 42 pp.

Florida Sci. 48(3):166-188. 1985.

REVIEW

Wendy B. Zomlefer. Common Florida Angiosperm Families, Part 1.
Published privately at Storter Printing Co., Gainesville, Fla. 1983. Pp.
iii-107, Soft cover. Price: $8.50.

Tuis booklet was first a part of Ms. Zomlefer’s M.S. thesis at the Univer-
sity of Florida, and was specifically written for use as a laboratory manual in
Plant Taxonomy. In essence the text is a revision of the material covered by
G.H.M. Lawrence in his classical Taxonomy of Flowering Plants (Mac-
millan, 1951), but with specific reference to the problems of teaching in
Florida. As Ms. Zomlefer correctly indicates, the great majority of texts
available in the United States are oriented toward some area other than our
state. She has made a contribution toward directing some attention to the
unique problems of our region.

Part I is unfortunately the only compilation yet available, particularly
since Ms. Zomlefer’s intent was to publish seventy-seven plant families. The
first offering has thirty-four families with a variety of illustrations of dif-
ferent genera within each. While useful in its published form, it would have
been more helpful to have had all of the families represented. The selection
of families for inclusion was given considerable thought as perusal will show.
Perhaps the most questionable aspect of the book is the adoption of Robert
Thorne’s classification scheme. Although Ms. Zomlefer admits that “This
manual is experimental in using the family delimitations of Thorne...” many
will question her choice. While there are many good things that may be said
of Thorne’s system, others may argue that he has simply substituted a new
set of problems for the old ones.

No. 3, 1985] WHITAKER — REVIEW 189

Illustrations in Ms. Zomlefer’s book show skilled execution and composi-
tion, and also the strong influence of C.E. Wood’s series of papers on the
genera of the southeastern United States. This is a strong point and the
author was wise in adopting such a sound model.

There is little in the way of original research in the book, but that was
not its intent. The book is a compendium of data from various authorities. It
is clearly written for the most part and should serve its purpose. There is a
glossary in the back that has the basic vocabulary needed for beginning Plant
Taxonomy. Few spelling errors exist. I noted only one illustrated species that
seems to be incorrectly identified, Euphorbia heterophylla (p. 38) would
probably best be called Euphorbia cyathophora or as I prefer Poinsettia
cyathophora. Ms. Zomlefer is not alone in confusing these two species since
they may also be found incorrectly identified in several other recent books.
Keys to families would have been a great addition since most of the similar
books for other regions have limited applicability here.

In summary, the booklet is a useful and welcome contribution to the
knowledge of Florida plants. I found little to criticize about the book except
its lack of inclusion of more families. I have adopted it for use in the
laboratory in my Plant Taxonomy course. Perhaps, as is often the case, the
students will be more exacting critics.— Daniel F. Austin, Department of
Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton.

REVIEW

Charles B. Thaxton, Walter L. Bradley, and Roger L. Olsen, The
Mystery of Lifes Origin: Reassessing Current Theories, Philosophical
Library, New York, 1984, Pp. xii-228. Price $14.95.

Tuis book addresses the question: “How can the mere interaction of sim-
ple chemicals in the primordial ocean have produced life as it is presently
understood?” The answer provided by a chemist, an engineer, and a
geologist is that indeed life could not have originated in this way.

The first several chapters present a review of the theoretical basis for
biochemical evolution as outlined by A.I. Oparin and others as well as ex-
perimental investigations that started with the work of Stanley Miller and
continue to the present. Chapter 4, “The Myth of the Prebiotic Soup,”
begins the critical, point by point refutation of chemical evolution that con-
tinues through the remaining seven chapters.

The authors conclude that the prebiotic soup of essential chemicals
would have been far too dilute for chemical evolution reaction rates to have

190 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

been significant. Another point they stress is that even if polypeptide chains
did begin to form, they would likely have been teriminated by reactions with
aldehydes, ketones, sugars, or acids that would also have been present in the
soup.

Another chapter assesses recent fossil evidence that indicates life may be
much older than originally supposed. Thus instead of several billion years
for chemical evolution to take place, there may have elapsed only several
hundred million years between the cooling of the earth and the appearance
of the first living cells. Early workers always assumed the prebiotic at-
mosphere to be highly reducing. More recent work, including some informa-
tion from space probes, suggests that the prebiotic atmosphere may actually
have been far less reducing and possibly slightly oxidizing. For example,
small amounts of molecular oxygen could have resulted from the photolysis
of water long before photosynthesis produced the high concentration of
today.

A significant part of the book is devoted to thermodynamic analysis. The
probability of complex protein and DNA structures arising from an un-
directed flow of energy through systems of amino acids, sugars, and
phosphate residues is calculated to be vanishingly small. Furthermore, the
gap between the existence of necessary macromolecules and their organiza-
tion into a living cell is tremendous. The conclusion is that experimental
evidence thus far offered to support the spontaneous formation of cell-like
systems or ““protocells” shows merely the formation of “conglomerations of
organic molecules that provide no genuine steps to bridge the gap between
the living and nonliving.”

An alternative theory is suggested in a concluding “Epilogue.” Several
possibilities are mentioned. Among these are: (1) the possible discovery of
new natural laws that would allow prediction of a higher probably for
chemical evolution than is possible using current physical and chemical prin-
ciples; (2) the possibility that life was introduced to earth from outer space;
(3) the possibility of special creation of life by an intelligent creator. The
authors reveal their preference for the third alternative and make clear that
they envision creation of life by a transcendent God. They believe that this
view of the origin of life is more plausible than any naturalistic theory of-
fered thus far.

References to the literature appear at the end of each chapter, and more
than 500 are cited. The book is aimed at a scientific audience. The chemical
and thermodynamic discussions are sufficiently detailed that they require a
background in these areas. In general, the scientific arguments are presented
in a clear and convincing manner. Scientists interested in theories about the
origin of life should certainly read this book. Many who do will no doubt
agree that the current scientific evidence as a whole presents serious prob-
lems for chemical evolution theory. However, it remains to be seen how

No. 3, 1985] OSBORNE — REVIEW 191

many of these scientists will totally reject naturalistic origin theory and opt
for a supernatural theory.—Robert D. Whitaker, Department of Chemistry,
University of South Florida, Tampa

REVIEW

Donald N. Riemer, Introduction to Freshwater Vegetation, AVI Publish-
ing Company, Inc., Westport, Connecticut, 1984. Pp. v + 207. Price: $35.00.

Limnologists, botanists, and others will be delighted to find this intro-
ductory volume on aquatic vascular plants a blend of aquatic botany and
limnology. It is definitely one of a kind, as it provides a brief account of
many basic limnological/botanical concepts under one cover. Concisely
written, the book is a condensed review of the importance, impact and con-
trol of plants found in aquatic ecosystems. The importance of aquatic plants
to the overall limnology of lakes and streams is evident by the inclusion in
Part I of basic limnological processes that affect plant distribution, i.e. flow
(lotic vs lentic systems), thermal stratification, solar and underwater irra-
diance, and nutrients. Lake classification (based upon origin and trophic
state), lake thermal stratification, and the underwater light climate were
reviewed in Part I to show relationships to aquatic plants. This account sets
the stage for discussing the morphological types and identification of aquatic
plants in Part II. Thirty genera of common aquatic plants, many found in
Florida, were included; while scant in number, they do represent a cross-
sectional sample of those found in freshwater systems. Part II also includes a
brief review of the ecology of aquatic plants. The review of the adaption of
aquatic plants to their fluid environment is short, but excellent. Part III is
divided into separate chapters in order to discuss control techniques (biologi-
cal, chemical, mechanical). While the state-of-the-art is not strictly adhered
to, the basics are present. A discussion of the utilization of aquatic plants by
man is the final chapter. I was especially pleased with the number of topics
covered by the book even though an obvious omission was the methodology
of sampling aquatic plants (standing crop, biomass, primary productivity,
cover, etc.). Even so, you should find this volume a useful addition to your
library.—John A. Osborne, Professor, University of Central Florida, Orlando,
Florida.

192 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF REVIEWERS

The following persons have given generously of their time and professional expertise for
Volume 48 of the Florida Scientist. The Editors and the readers are grateful to them for their
help.

William Ackerman
Daniel Austin
Howard D. Baggett
Christopher Batich
John C. Briggs

Dean F. Martin
Frank Maturo, Jr.
Henry R. Mushinsky
William S. Parker
M. Perez-Cruet

Walter R. Courtenay, Jr. Peter Pritchard

Bruce C. Cowell
Joseph S. Davis

P. M. Dooris
Thomas C. Emmel
D. L. Eng-Wilmot
Katherine C. Ewel
Robert A. Gibson
Carter R. Gilbert
Samuel Gruber
Frances C. James
R. E. Jenkins
James N. Layne
Robert J. Livingston
Carl Luer

William D. Reese
Paul L. Shafland
Fred Short

Joseph L. Simon
Diane Smith
Wendell B. Smith
F. F. Snelson

I. Jack Stout
Eileen A. Sullivan
William H. Taft
Barry R. Wharton
J. R. Williams

C. A. Woods
Richard P. Wunderlin

FROM THE EDITORS

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Scientist

Volume 48 Autumn, 1985 Number 4
CONTENTS

A Juvenile Atlantic Hawksbill Turtle, Eretmochelys.imbricata,
iTOMMBLevard County, Florida’: .2...'..2...). 520k. hee
W. E. Redfoot, L. M. Ehrhart, and P. W. Raymond 193
Culinary Value and Composition of Wild and Captive
Common Snook, Centropomus undecimalis ..................
John W. Tucker, Jr., Matthew P. Landau,
and Blake E. Faulkner 196
First Occurrence of the Little Brown Bat, Myotis Lucifugus,
PEON AMEE AOS: o6 ek Nees Ge Bb Larry N. Brown 200
Status of the Catostomid Fish, Erimyzon oblongus, from
Eastern Gulf Slope Drainages in Florida and Alabama .........
Carter R. Gilbert and Benjamin R. Wall, Jr. 202
Numerical Responses of Flatwoods Avifauna to Clearcutting ......
Timothy E. O’Meara, Leslie A. Rowse, Wayne R. Marion,
and Larry D. Harris 208
Benthic Macroinvertebrate Response to Aquatic Vegetation
Removal by Grass Carp in North-Florida Reservoir ............
Andrew J. Leslie, Jr., and Gerard J. Kobylinski 220
ihe Vegetation of Dog Island, Florida. ..........:...0.:-¢.:+..-:

Loran C. Anderson and Laurence L. Alexander 232
Citation for William H. Sears ............... Karen A. Steidinger 252
MIM CKMELLOLUTTIO A CPT ine ae Ok coe ee tee oda ee 253

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

FLORIDA SCIENTIST

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Copyright © by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 1985

Editor: Dr. DEAN F. Martin Co-Editor: Mrs. BARBARA B. MARTIN
Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center
Department of Chemistry
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida 33620

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Florida Scientist

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

DEAN F. Martin, Editor BARBARA B. MartTIN, Co-Editor

Volume 48 Autumn, 1985 Number 4

A JUVENILE ATLANTIC HAWKSBILL TURTLE, ERETMOCHELYS

IMBRICATA, FROM BREVARD COUNTY, FLORIDA—(1) W. E. Redfoot,
(2) L. M. Ehrhart, and (2) P. W. Raymond, (1) Seminole Community College, San-
ford, Florida 32771, and (2) Department of Biological Sciences, University of Central
Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816.

Asstract: A live, juvenile Atlantic hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), entangled in
synthetic line and sargassum, stranded on the ocean beach near Melbourne Beach, Brevard Co.,
Florida on 14 July 1983. After two months in captivity, during which time the left front flipper
was lost, the turtle was tagged and released at Sebastian Inlet, Florida. This is the first record in
the primary literature of a juvenile hawksbill from Florida coastal waters.

SporT divers occasionally report sightings of young Atlantic hawksbill
turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) in waters off the coast of southeast Florida
(R. Witham, pers. comm.) and Ehrhart (1983) has recently reported a car-
cass of a juvenile hawksbill stranded on the shore of Mosquito Lagoon,
Brevard Co., Florida. There are records of single specimens from Massa-
chusetts (Lazell, 1976) and Chesapeake Bay (Musick, 1979) and of four small
hawksbills from North Carolina (Schwartz, 1976). Adult female Eretmochelys
nest very sporadically in Florida. Published records exist for nesting in Dade
County (De Sola, 1935) and Palm Beach County (Carr et al, 1966). F. Lund
(pers. comm.) and J. McMurtray (pers. comm.) are currently preparing ad-
ditional nesting records for Florida, but we can find no published records of
juvenile hawkbills from ocean waters off Florida or as strandings on Florida
ocean beaches.

On 14 July 1983, following three days of strong onshore winds, WER
found a juvenile Eretmochelys imbricata stranded in sargassum wrack on
the ocean beach 4.0 km south of Melbourne Beach, Brevard Co., Florida.
The turtle was alive but weakened, having been entangled in a 1 m length of
braided, synthetic rope, 1.3 cm in diameter. Some strands of the unraveled
end of the line were wrapped around the base of the left front appendage,
held in place by a flat metal clip and imbedded deeply in the flesh. Entangle-
ment appeared to have been accidental. That the attachment and eventual
stranding were somehow the consequence of human involvement cannot,
however, be entirely discounted. The integument was sloughing off in pat-
ches and the tissue beneath was necrotic. A heavy mass of sargassum was also
caught up in the tangled line (Fig. 1).

194 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

2 jane yo

aust aie

Fic. 1. Eretmochelys imbricata, as it appeared at stranding, 14 July 1983, 4.0 km south of
Melbourne Beach, Brevard Co., Florida.

Morphometric data for the specimen are as follows: straight-line
carapace length-19.5 cm; straight-line width-13.9 cm; over-curvature
length-20.7 cm; over-curvature width-17.5 cm; greatest width of head-3.7
cm. The animal weighed 900 g.

The turtle was taken to Sea World of Orlando, where it recuperated for
two months. During that time the necrotic flipper was lost. The stump healed
quickly and was covered by new skin by mid September (Fig. 2). The turtle
showed surprisingly little impairment of swimming ability, so on 15 Septem-
ber 1983 we tagged it on the right front flipper (No. K3725) and released it
on an outgoing tide at Sebastian Inlet, on the Brevard-Indian River Co. line.
It swam straight and vigorously toward the sea for the approximately 30 m
that it remained visible.

The growth exhibited by this hawksbill during 2 mo in captivity is
noteworthy. Straight-line carapace length increased by 4.6 cm; straight-line
width by 3.1 cm; over-curvature length by 5.2 cm; over-curvature width by
3.9 cm and head width by 0.4 cm. It gained 600 g, an increase of 66.7%.

No. 4, 1985] REDFOOT, ET AL. — ATLANTIC HAWKSBILL TURTLE 195

Fic. 2. The same hawksbill after two months in captivity and the loss of the left anterior flip-
per, at release, 15 September 1983.

Eretmochelys imbricata is, perhaps, the most tropical of all sea turtles.
Nevertheless this record, the recent one of Ehrhart (1983) and several un-
published stranding records (R. Witham, pers. comm.), are beginning to
rectify our understanding of the status of this endangered species in Florida
waters.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS— We thank Mr. Frank Murro and his staff at Sea World, Orlando for
their efforts.

LITERATURE CITED

Carr, A. F., H. F. Hirtu, anp L. H. Ocren. 1966. The ecology and migrations of sea turtles, 6.
The hawksbill turtle in the Caribbean Sea. Amer. Mus. Novitates 2248:1-29.

De Sota, C. R. 1935. Herpetological notes from southeast Florida. Copeia 1935:44-45.

Enruart, L. M. 1983. Marine turtles of the Indian River Lagoon system. Florida Sci,
46:337-346.

196 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

LazeELL, J. D. 1976. This Broken Archipelago. Quadrangle, The New York Times Book Co., New
York.

Musick, J. A. 1979. The marine turtles of Virginia, with notes on identification and natural
history. Virginia Inst. Mar. Sci. Sea Grant Educ. Ser. (24):1-16.

ScHwarrtz, F. L. 1976, Status of sea turtles, Cheloniidae and Dermochelyidae, in North Caro-
lina. J. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 92(2):76-77.

Florida Sci. 48(4):193-196. 1985.

Biological Sciences

CULINARY VALUE AND COMPOSITION OF
WILD AND CAPTIVE COMMON SNOOK,
CENTROPOMUS UNDECIMALIS

JoHn W. Tucker, JR., MATTHEW P. LANDAU! AND BLAKE E.. FAULKNER

Division of Applied Biology, Harbor Branch Foundation, RR 1, Box 196,
Fort Pierce, Florida 33450

Asstract: Eighteen common snook juveniles were grown in salt water and eighteen in fresh
water for 105 days. Fillet composition and culinary characteristics were then compared with
those of wild snook. No significant differences were found, except that wild snook had less total
lipids. Composition of raw fillets was 20-21% protein, 0.5-0.8% total lipids, 0.2% car-
bohydrate, 1.1% ash, and 77% water. Fatty acids tended to be more saturated than in other
species, but total lipid content was very low. Baked snook fillets had a fresh or delicate aroma,
bland taste, and a juicy, meaty, firm texture. Fillet yield (skinless, boneless fillet weight/total
weight) of 350-g snook was 57%.

THE CoMMoN SNook, Centropomus undecimalis, is a valuable gamefish
of which populations in Florida and southern Texas have declined drastically
in recent years. It is still harvested commercially in some tropical areas. Be-
cause of its high value, fast growth, hardiness, and wide salinity tolerance
(Shafland and Koehl, 1979; Chapman, 1982; Tucker, unpublished), the
common snook has potential as a pond-cultured food fish in tropical and
subtropical areas, or in heated water systems elsewhere. For example, we
have used snook as a predator and second crop with tilapia under conditions

‘Present address: Oceanic Institute, Makapuu Point, Waimanalo, Hawaii 96795

No. 4, 1985] TUCKER, ET AL. — CULINARY VALUE OF SNOOK 197

unsuitable for other predator species (e.g., largemouth bass, Micropterus
salmoides). In this paper, we document the food quality of common snook
by fillet yield determination, proximate analysis, and culinary evaluation.

MetHops — Juvenile snook (106-347 g, mean 195 g) were seined from the Indian River in east
central Florida. Six fish were reared in each of six 1000-gallon circular fiberglass tanks for 105
days. Three tanks were supplied with Indian River water (25-34°C, mean 31°C; 21-33°/o00
salinity, mean 28°/oo), and three were supplied with well water (24-32°C, mean 28°C; 0°/o0),
at a turnover rate of once in three hours. The juveniles were fed to satiation once a day with fresh
frozen calico scallops, Aequipecten gibbus, discarded from a processing plant (47 % ), live sheeps-
head minnows, Cyprinodon variegatus (42%), and live pink shrimp, Penaeus duoarum (11%).
At the end of the 15-week period, three wild snook (males, 2700 and 4770 g; female, 2000 g) were
collected in the estuary near Fort Pierce Inlet. All specimens were weighed. The wild snook and
three juveniles from each tank were killed, then manually skinned and filleted. Fillets were
frozen immediately and then weighed.

Muscle of one fish from each tank and all three wild fish was weighed, freeze-dried, weighed,
and analyzed for percent protein, percent total lipids, percent carbohydrate, percent ash, percent
water, and fatty acid composition. To estimate percent protein, percent total nitrogen was deter-
mined spectrophotometrically and multiplied by 6.025 (Brett and Groves, 1979). Percent total
lipids was estimated by the sulphophosphovanillin method (Barnes and Blackstock, 1973) with a
cholesterol standard. Carbohydrate values were estimated by extraction in 5% trichloroacetic
acid, and comparison to a glucose standard using the phenol-sulfuric acid method of Dubois et al.
(1956). Ash content was determined by combustion at 500°C for 12 h. Only two of the three fish
from each group were analyzed for fatty acids. Samples were extracted for 12 h in a Soxhlet ap-
paratus with chloroform-methanol (2:1). The solvent was evaporated in vacuo, then under
nitrogen. Boron trifluoride was used to prepare the methyl esters (Paquot, 1979). The esters, in
hexane, were injected into a Varian model 6000 gas chromatograph coupled with a VISTA-401
data system. The column used was a glass capillary type (SE-30, 30 m x 0.25 mm), and the
unidentified compounds were carried to a flame ionization detector by nitrogen. Samples were
introduced by direct splitless injection, and the temperature was programmed from 100°C to
280°C at 5°C per minute. Retention times of unknown esters were compared to those of known
standards. Except for fatty acids, composition results were analyzed with paired Wilcoxon-U
tests.

The culinary evaluation panel was composed of ten volunteers accustomed to eating fish, but
who ate snook only rarely. At 11:00 (about three hours after breakfast), each member received
unidentified portions of wild, captive saltwater, and captive freshwater snook fillets. The por-
tions weighed 35-40 g before cooking, and had been baked in individual plastic basting bags for
15 min at 190°C (375°F). Panel members also received stalks of celery and cups of reverse osmosis
purified water to eat and drink between fish portions. Members rated the portions according to
18 possible characteristics and ranked the portions as best, intermediate, worst, or no difference,
by the categories aroma, taste, texture, and overall. Sensory results were analyzed with the
Friedman x? test.

REsuLts—Captive saltwater fish grew 80% in 15 weeks, to a mean
weight of 362 g. Growth of the captive freshwater fish was 83%, to a mean
weight of 347 g. For each group, growth was 1.5 g/day. Mean fillet yield
(skinless, boneless fillet weight/total weight) of the 18 sampled juveniles was
57% (range 54-59%, s.d. 1.5%).

There were no significant differences in protein, ash, or water contents
(Table 1). However, a small increase in percent protein and carbohydrate
and a decrease in water occurred from wild to captive saltwater to captive
freshwater fish. Wild fish had a significantly lower percentage of lipid than
captive freshwater fish (p = 0.05) and captive saltwater fish (p =0.10). Iden-
tification of fatty acids was 84-95% complete (Table 2).

198 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

There were no significant differences (p =0.10) among culinary charac-
teristics for the three groups (Table 3). The panel’s consensus was that the
snook had a fresh or delicate aroma, bland taste, and a juicy, meaty, firm
texture.

TABLE 1. Proximate analysis of common snook muscle.

Component Wild Captive Saltwater Captive Freshwater
Mean SD: Mean S.D. Mean Se)

% Protein 19.6 0.7 20.6 0.5 21.2 0.5

% Total lipids 0.47 0.07 0.75 0.18 0.83 0.19

% Carbohydrate 0.16 0.04 0.20 0.03 0.22 0.07

% Ash 1.16 0.06 1.14 0.2 ene 0.3

% Water 77.6 0.9 Ge 0.4 75.9 0.2

TABLE 2. Fatty acid composition of common snook muscle, as percent of total fatty acids.

Fatty acid* Wild Captive Saltwater Captive Freshwater
Mean S;D: Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
14:0 0.57 0.76 1.49 0.16 1.72 0.17
15:0 0.76 0.27 1.06 0.20 0.86 0.14
16:0 18.02 2.55 17.08 0.88 23.16 3.75
16:1 6.98 1.60 13.76 1.65 11.82 1.60
17:0 1.36 0.57 1.72 0.78 0.89 0.04
18:0 8.29 1.68 7.66 1.23 7.60 0.43
18:1-18:3 325i 0.02 18.32 0.86 21.83 3.22
19:0 0.80 0.44 1.91 0.24 0.32 0.10
20:0 0.95 0.22 1.48 0.70 2.00 0.99
20:4-20:5 8.48 172 6.25 0.97 9.32 7.26
22:0 1.34 1.48 0.41 0.64 0.35 0.27
22:1 2.34 0.74 1.71 0.14 2.18 0.59
22:5-22:6 20.62 8.39 13.75 0.97 13.12 1.89
Saturated 32.09 32.81 36.90
Unsaturated 51.93 53.79 58.27
Unidentified” 15.98 13.40 4.83

aFirst number indicates number of carbon atoms, second, number of double bonds in molecule.
bMore than 30 smaller peaks represented unidentified fatty acids.

Discuss1on—Snook fillets are an excellent, acceptable source of high
quality protein. A 57% fillet yield is high compared to those of commonly
cultured species such as channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus (35-40 % , James
W. Ayers, Fishery Marketing Specialist, National Marine Fisheries Service,
11215 Hermitage Road, Little Rock, Arkansas 72211, USA, pers. comm., 28
March 1984) and Tilapia mossambica (40%, Miller, 1974). Fillet yield
should be higher in larger snook. A 20-21% protein content (Table 1) is at
the high end of the range 13-24% for food fish given by Exler and
Weihrauch (1976). Snook fillets are very lean, with total lipids less than 1%.
Lipid values for other food fish species range up to 24% or higher (Exler and

No. 4, 1985] TUCKER, ET AL. — CULINARY VALUE OF SNOOK 199

TABLE 3. Summary of panel responses for sensory evaluation of baked snook fillets. Abbre-
viated headings are for: yes, maybe yes, maybe no, and no. Uncertain answers are omitted.

Characteristic Wild Captive Saltwater Captive Freshwater
Y MY MN N Y MY MN N Y MY MN N
AROMA _
Bland 3 2 04 3 1 33 Lot 26
Fishy Suk 24 3 0 23 31 15
Buttery 0 2 06 03 05 3 2 05
Fresh or delicate 373 03 42 02 42 00
Aromatic 4 1 21 3 2 0 2 4 2 01
TASTE
Sweet 2.1 2 4 31 22 12 24
Salty 01 27 01 26 03 06
Oily 0 0 26 ORT 1 Owl 3 6
Bland 5 2 01 42 12 6 0 0 2
Bitter 01 07 10 18 02 Lei
Muddy 0 0 Ig) 00 18 00 O29
Buttery 12 33 0 2 06 3 05
Fishy 2 2 15 nel 33 3 0 15
TEXTURE
Chewy 3 2 13 31 04 13 03
Juicy 73 00 7 3 00 6 2 00
Meaty 6 0 el 6 2 01 As? 02
Rubbery 00 37 01 Lid, 01 Dail,
Firm 1 2 01 70 01 6 2 01
Ranking Responses Best Worst Best Worst Best Worst
Aroma 2 3 3 1 4 1
Taste 3 4 0 1 5 1
Texture 2 2 4 1 1 2
Overall 4 3 2 1 3 1

Weihrauch, 1976). The ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids in snook
is higher than reported for other lean fish such as striped bass (Morone saxa-
tilis), Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), and northern pike (Esox lucius). How-
ever, snook fillets are not a significant source of lipids. Generally, protein,
lipid, ash, and water contents were similar to those of other centropomids
(Sidwell, 1981). Sensory evaluation indicated that the three groups were
equally acceptable to the panel. No muddy or off-flavor, such as that pro-
duced by some blue-green algae, was recognized by panel members. Pos-
sibly, lean fish such as snook are less susceptible to accumulation of off-
flavors; however, flow-through tank systems tend to prevent accumulation
of off-flavor compounds, which is more likely in ponds. Bland taste allows
for flexibility in seasoning and cooking methods. The high food quality of
snook increases the list of qualifications that makes this species a good candi-
date for culture as a food fish.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS— The authors would like to thank Richard Pierce and Rob Brown of Mote
Marine Laboratory for helpful suggestions and use of the gas chromatograph, and John Ryther and

200 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Bob Winfree of Harbor Branch Foundation and Steve Otwell of the University of Florida for
reviewing the manuscript. This paper is Contribution Number 431 from Harbor Branch Foun-
dation.

LITERATURE CITED

Barnes, H., AND J. BLackstock. 1973. Estimation of lipids in marine animals and tissues: detailed
investigation of the sulphophosphovanillin method for total lipids. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol.
12:103-118.

Brett, J. R., AND T. D. D. Groves. 1979. Physiological energetics. Pp 279-352 In: Hoar, W. S.,
D. J. RANDALL, AND J. R. Brerr (eds.), Fish Physiology, Vol. VIII. Academic Press, New
York, NY.

CuapMan, P. 1982. Study I: Artificial culture of snook. Final Report for Sportfish Introductions
Project. Florida Game and Freshwater Fish Comm., 36 pp.

Dusors, M., K. A. Gites, J. K. Hamitron, P. A. Recers, AND I. Smitu. 1956. Colorimetric
method for determination of sugars and related substances. Anal. Chem. 28:350-356.

EX.er, J., AND J. L. WetHraucu. 1976. Comprehensive evaluation of fatty acids in foods. J. Am.
Dietetic Ass. 69:243-248.

Miter, J. W. 1974. Product quality of cultured fish. FAO Aquac. Bull. 6:8.

Paguor, C. 1979. Standard Methods for Analysis of Oils, Fats and Derivatives. Pergamon Press,
New York, NY, 170 pp.

SHAFLAND, P. L., aND D. H. Koeut. 1979. Laboratory rearing of the common snook. Proc. Ann.
Conf. S.E. Assoc. Fish & Wildl. Agencies 33:425-431.

StbweELL, V. D. 1981. Chemical and Nutritional Composition of Finfishes, Whales, Crustaceans,
Mollusks, and Their Products. NOAA Tech. Memo. NMFS F/SEC-11, 435 pp.

Florida Sci. 48(4):196-200. 1985.

FIRST OCCURRENCE OF THE LITTLE BROWN BAT, MYOTIS
LUCIFUGUS, IN FLORIDA — Larry N. Brown, Department of Biology, Univer-
sity of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620.

Asstract: The first specimen of the little brown bat taken in Florida was recorded 5 miles
north of Niceville in Okaloosa County on August 16, 1984. It is an adult male taken in a mist net,
and extends the known geographical range of Myotis lucifugus southward from its previous
known range in Georgia and Alabama.

THE KNOWN geographical range of the little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus
Le Conte (Family Vespertilionidae) covers a broad area of eastern North
America, but excludes Florida. On August 16, 1984, while collecting
specimens with the aid of a mist net, approximately 5 miles north of
Niceville, Okaloosa Co., Florida, an adult male little brown bat was taken.

No. 4, 1985] BROWN — LITTLE BROWN BAT IN FLORIDA 201

The habitat consisted of upland oak-pine forest bordering State Road 285.
The specimen (skin & skull; #K-600) is preserved in the University of South
Florida Zoological Collections. Its standard linear measurements were as
follows:
Total length — 82mn, Tail length — 28mm, Hind foot — 10mm, Ear length —
12mm.

Hall (1981) stated that the southern marginal records of M. lucifugus in
Georgia are in Decatur and Charlton counties. In Alabama, the southern-
most locality for the little brown bat is reported by La Val (1967) to be
Sander’s Cave, 3 mi. W, 1 mi. N of Brooklyn, Conecuh Co. The new Florida
record extends the known range of M. lucifugus southeastward approxi-
mately 55 air miles. Considering the close proximity of the Alabama and
Georgia records to Florida and the relative mobility of chiropterans, it is
probable that little brown bats occur at other locations in the Florida
Panhandle.

Golley (1962) and others have stated that M. lucifugus in Georgia
showed a preference for caves and tended to group in colonies, at least dur-
ing the colder months of the year. During the warmer months, he found they
can also be located in building and hollow trees. There are very few caves
present in the western Florida Panhandle so wintering colonies in Florida
may be rare. The examination of building attics and hollow trees, especially
during the warmer months, however, might turn up summer colonies in
northwest Florida.

Other species of bats collected at the same locality and date were the
southeastern bat (Myotis austroriparius), yellow bat (Lasiurus intermedius),
seminole bat (Lasiurus seminolus), evening bat (Nycticeius humeralis), and
eastern pipistrelle (Pipistrellus subflavus).

LITERATURE CITED

Go.tey, F. B. 1962. Mammals of Georgia. University of Georgia Press, Athens, Ga. 218 pp.

Hat, E. R. 1981. Mammals of North America, 2 vols., John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y.
1181 pp.

La VAL, R. K. 1967. Records of bats from the southeastern United States. J. Mamm., 48:645-
648.

Florida Sci. 48(4):200-201. 1985.

Biological Sciences

STATUS OF THE CATOSTOMID FISH
ERIMYZON OBLONGUS FROM EASTERN GULF SLOPE
DRAINAGES IN FLORIDA AND ALABAMA

(1) Carrer R. GILBERT AND (2) BENJAMIN R. WALL, Jr.

(1) Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611,
(2) Department of Biology, Walker College, Jasper, Alabama 35501

Asstract: The creek chubsucker, Erimyzon oblongus, was recorded from the Escambia
River drainage of Florida in 1954. This still constitutes the only record of the species from the
state. Although the species was subsequently found to occur in a limited portion of the Chatta-
hoochee River system of Alabama, there have been no other records from the Escambia or other
closely adjacent eastern Gulf slope drainages of Alabama or Florida. The two specimens on
which the original Escambia drainage record was based have been found, upon re-examination,
to be the sharpfin chubsucker, Erimyzon tenuis. E. oblongus should thus be deleted from the
Florida and Escambia drainage lists.

THE CaATOsTOMID FisH genus Erimyzon comprises three species found in
sluggish streams or ponds of eastern United States, all of which are con-
sidered to occur in Florida. E. sucetta, the lake chubsucker, ranges through-
out much of the Great Lakes basin, south throughout the middle Mississippi
Valley, and along the Gulf and Atlantic slopes from Texas to extreme south-
eastern Virginia (Wall and Gilbert 1980b). In Florida, it is distributed
throughout the state. E. tenuis, the sharpfin chubsucker, is restricted to the
middle Gulf slope, from just east of the Mississippi River eastward to the
Blackwater Bay drainage (Blackwater and Yellow rivers) of extreme western
Florida (Wall and Gilbert 1980c). E. oblongus, the creek chubsucker, com-
prises two well-defined allopatric subspecies. E. 0. oblongus ranges along
the Atlantic slope from central Georgia north to southern Maine, and has
also entered the Lake Ontario drainage in New York, presumably as a result
of post-glacial dispersal; whereas E. 0. claviformis occurs along the Gulf
slope from eastern Alabama west to eastern Texas and north throughout the
lower and mid-Mississippi Valley into the southern Lake Michigan and west-
ern Lake Erie drainages (Wall and Gilbert 1980a).

Bailey and co-workers (1954) reported Erimyzon oblongus claviformis
from the lower Escambia River drainage in Florida. This report, which was
based on two adult specimens, constituted the first record for this species
from Florida, or from any eastern Gulf slope drainage east of the Mobile Bay
basin. Smith-Vaniz (1968) and Gilbert (1969) subsequently recorded E.
oblongus from the middle Chattahoochee River system, in Russell and Lee
counties, Alabama, which the species was presumed to have reached via
stream capture from the adjacent Tallapoosa River system to the west.

No. 4, 1985] GILBERT AND WALL — STATUS OF CATOSTOMID FISH 203

Although occurrence of this species in the middle Chattahoochee is well
documented by museum material, the two specimens reported by Bailey and
co-workers (1954) still constitute the only record of the species from Florida,
or for that matter anywhere from the Escambia or closely adjacent eastern
Gulf slope drainages.

A number of freshwater fish species enter Florida only in the Escambia
drainage (e.g. Ammocrypta asprella, Etheostoma histrio, Percina ouachitae,
Moxostoma carinatum, Hybognathus hayi, Notropis baileyi, Notropis chryso-
cephalus isolepis). With the possible exception of the last two species, which
have only appeared in collections relatively recently and thus are likely bait-
bucket transfers, the presence of these fishes here is thought to be natural,
and most likely resulted from stream capture involving closely adjacent
tributaries of the Alabama and Escambia river drainages (Smith-Vaniz
1968). Consequently, the record of Erimyzon oblongus from western Florida
occasioned no surprise, and the species has been regarded as part of the
Escambia (and Florida) fauna ever since (Wall and Gilbert 1980a).

Although the continued absence of additional records of Erimyzon
oblongus from this area was puzzling, it was widely believed that the species
had simply been overlooked, and that careful re-examination of museum
collections of Erimyzon would eventually turn up misidentified E. oblongus.
This was considered reasonable, since young Erimyzon specimens have been
considered difficult to distinguish, and misidentifications are not uncom-
mon. Re-examination (by CRG) of the large quantities of Erimyzon material
from the western panhandle of Florida in the Florida State Museum (in-
cluding collections formerly housed at Florida State University) showed only
E. sucetta and E. tenuis to be present, and Royal D. Suttkus (Tulane Uni-
versity) and Herbert T. Boschung (University of Alabama), both of whom
have collected extensively along the eastern Gulf slope, have informed us
(pers. comm.) that they know of no definite records of E. oblongus from the
area in question.

Bailey and co-workers (1954), in their discussion of the Florida specimens
of Erimyzon oblongus, commented upon the unusually large size of the two
individuals, which measure 288 and 254 mm standard length (SL). These
are among the larger specimens recorded for the genus, although they are
still well under the maximum size of 386 mm SL reported for E. sucetta
(Wall and Gilbert 1980b). The Florida specimens are particularly large in
relation to the maximum size attained by E. o. claviformis (usually less than
130 mm SL; maximum recorded size 183 mm SL), which averages sub-
stantially smaller than for the typical subspecies. Although Bailey and co-
workers (1954) attributed the unusually large size of the Florida specimens
to enhanced genetic capacity of the population, the factor of size alone never-
theless raised suspicions that a misidentification was involved.

In an effort to resolve this problem, the two Florida specimens of “E.
oblongus” were borrowed from the University of Michigan Museum of Zo-
ology (UMMZ) and Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (ANSP),

204 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

and compared with material of the three species of Erimyzon housed in the
Florida State Museum collection (UF and UF-FSU). (The last acronym refers
to lots originally housed in the Florida State University collection, which
were subsequently transferred to the Florida State Museum, at the Univer-
sity of Florida).

CHARACTERS USEFUL IN DISTINGUISHING ERIMYZON SPECIMENS—Of those
characters used to separate specimens of Erimyzon, the most useful are (a)
number of scales in the lateral series, (b) dorsal-fin shape, (c) anal-fin shape,
and (d) distribution of pigment on the scales along the sides of the back and
body. The high lateral-scale count in E. tenuis and E. oblongus (usually 40
or more) separates both species from E. sucetta, which usually has 36 or 37 in
the series. E. tenuis has, at all but the largest sizes (i.e. over ca. 200 mm SL),
a distinctly pointed dorsal fin (Figs. lA-D). In E. oblongus and E. sucetta,
however, this fin is pointed only in very small specimens, begins to become
rounded early in life, and becomes increasingly more rounded with increas-
ing body size (Figs. 2A-D and 3). In individuals over about 65 mm SL the
difference between E. oblongus-E. sucetta and E. tenuis is quite evident (in
particular compare Figs. 1D and 2D), and for those workers who have han-
dled large numbers of juvenile Erimyzon the more subtle differences in fin
shape of even smaller individuals are readily apparent.

E. tenuis has a long, slender, sharply pointed anal fin that, when de-
pressed, often extends back beyond the caudal-fin base. E. sucetta and E.
oblongus also have an elongated anal fin that, as a rule, is less pointed than
in specimens of E. tenuis of comparable size, and which barely reaches pos-
teriorly to the caudal-fin base. Some variation has been noted in this charac-

Fic. 1. Changes in dorsal-fin shape with increasing body size in Erimyzon tenuis: A. UF-FSU
22054 (64.5 mm SL), Fla., Blackwater R., Okaloosa Co.; B. UF-FSU 25230 (99 mm SL), Fla.,
Nichols Cr., Santa Rosa Co.; C. UF-FSU 23857 (136 mm SL), Fla., Pond Cr., Santa Rosa Co.;
D. UF-FSU 8054 (173 mm SL), Fla., Clear Cr., Escambia Co.; E. UF-FSU 6403 (271 mm SL),
Fla., Titi Cr., Okaloosa Co.; F. UF-FSU 6420 (351 mm SL), Fla., Shoal R., Okaloosa Co.

No. 4, 1985] GILBERT AND WALL — STATUS OF CATOSTOMID FISH 205

ter, however, and caution should be used in making identifications on this
basis alone.

The scales along the sides of the body in E. tenuis are thinly outlined with
dark pigment, but the melanophores are more sparsely concentrated toward
the centers of the scales, in contrast to the more thickly pigmented margins
and more evenly pigmented scales of the other two species. This results in a
more strongly diamond-shaped appearance to the scales in E. tenuis, which
seems to hold true regardless of size of the specimen. In large E. sucetta,
there may be a concentration of pigment at the anterior base of each scale,
which gives a spotted appearance. This condition has not been observed in
E. tenuis or E. oblongus.

Finally, juveniles and sub-adults of E. tenuis have, on the average, a
more slender and elongated head and a shallower body, but this difference
becomes increasingly more obscure with increasing body size.

STATUS OF THE FLORIDA SPECIMENS IDENTIFIED AS ERIMYZON OBLONGUS —
The two Escambia drainage specimens identified as Erimyzon oblongus
were compared with specimens of various sizes of the four recognized taxa of
Erimyzon (including both subspecies of E. oblongus). These include the fol-
lowing individuals, which were the largest available to us: (a) E. tenuis, 351
mm SL (UF-FSU 6420), Okaloosa County, Florida; (b) E. o. oblongus, 174
mm SL (UF 22286), Sussex County, Delaware; (c) E. 0. claviformis, 145 mm
SL (UF-FSU 10544), Choctaw County, Mississippi; and (d) E. sucetta, 275
mm SL (UF 21555), Marion County, Florida.

Examination of the two specimens in question confirms Bailey and co-
workers’ (1954) observations of a rounded dorsal fin and high lateral-scale
count (43 in both specimens). Under these circumstances, and considering
the presumably relatively small number of Gulf slope Erimyzon specimens
present in museum collections 30 years ago, their diagnosis as E. oblongus is
understandable. Despite this, comparison of the dorsal fin in these two fish
(Figs. 4A-B) with those in large individuals of E. oblongus and E. sucetta
(Figs. 2C-D and 3) shows differences in shape that are too pronounced to be
accounted for simply on the basis of specimen size. The dorsal fin in the two
Escambia specimens is high and angular, with a rounded tip (Figs. 4A-B),
which is quite different from the low, broadly rounded condition seen in the
largest specimens of either E. sucetta or the two subspecies of E. oblongus
(Figs. 3 and 2C-d). The largest available specimen of E. tenuis (351 mm SL)
has a dorsal fin that is even more rounded than in the Escambia specimens
(Fig. 1F). The changes in shape of the fin with increasing body size (Figs.
1A-F) thus form a natural progression that logically would be expected to
reach its culmination in the rounded but angular condition seen in specimens
of E. tenuis over 250 mm SL.

The shape of the anal fin in the two large Escambia specimens also is
what one would anticipate in E. tenuis specimens of this size, as opposed to
the usually shorter, more rounded anal fin seen in the other two species. The

206 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Cc D

Fig. 2. Changes in dorsal-fin shape with increasing body size in Erimyzon oblongus (both
subspecies included): A. E. 0. claviformis, UF 35351 (65 mm SL), Ark., Peedee Cr., Logan Co.;
B. E. o. claviformis, UF-FSU 10544 (94 mm SL), Miss., Poplar Cr., Choctaw Co.; C. E. o.
claviformis, UF-FSU 10544 (145 mm SL), same locality as preceding; D. E. 0. oblongus, UF
22286 (174 mm SL), Del., Thompson Br., Sussex Co.

Fic. 3. Dorsal-fin shape in adult Erimyzon sucetta. UF 21555 (275 mm SL), Fla., St. Johns
R., Marion Co.

Fic. 4. Dorsal-fin shape in two Florida specimens originally identified as “Erimyzon
oblongus,” both from Escambia R., 3.5 mi. E. of Cantonment, at Escambia-Santa Rosa Co. line:
A. ANSP 72986 (254 mm SL); B. UMMZ 165151 (288 mm SL).

scales on the sides of the body are thinly outlined with pigment in both
Escambia specimens, as would be expected in specimens of E. tenuis.

ConcLusions—Evidence presented above clearly indicates that the two
large specimens of Erimyzon, which were called E. oblongus by Bailey and

No. 4, 1985] - GILBERT AND WALL — STATUS OF CATOSTOMID FISH 207

co-workers (1954), have been misidentified, and both are shown to be large
E. tenuis. E. oblongus accordingly should be deleted from the Florida fresh-
water fish list, as well as from the fauna of the Escambia River drainage.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—We wish to acknowledge and thank Ms. Wendy Zomlefer and Ms.
Amy Petty, biological illustrators at the Florida State Museum, for the drawings that appear in
this paper. We also wish to thank Drs. Robert R. Miller, University of Michigan Museum of Zo-
ology, and Barry Chernoff, Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for facilitating the loan
of the two specimens of “Erimyzon oblongus” from the Escambia River drainage that are the
basis for this paper.

LITERATURE CITED

Barney, R. M., H. E. WINN ann C. L. Situ. 1954. Fishes from the Escambia River, Alabama
and Florida, with ecologic and taxonomic notes. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 106: 109-164.

GILBERT, Jr., R. J. 1969. The distribution of fishes in the central Chattahoochee River drainage.
M.Sc. thesis, Auburn Univ., 128 pp.

SmiTH-Vaniz, W. F. 1968. Freshwater Fishes of Alabama. Auburn Univ. Agri. Exp. Sta.,
vii +211 pp.

WALL, Jr., B. J. anp C. R. Gitsert. 1980a. Erimyzon oblongus (Mitchill), Creek chubsucker.
Pp. 397-398. In Lee D. S., et al (eds.). Atlas of North American Freshwater Fishes. N. C.
State Mus. Nat. Hist., Raleigh, i-x + 854 pp.

Wa tt, Jr., B. J. anp C. R. Gitpert. 1980b. Erimyzon sucetta (Lacepede), Lake chubsucker.
p. 399. In Lee D. S., et al (eds.). Atlas of North American Freshwater Fishes. N. C. State
Mus. Nat., Hist., Raleigh, i-x + 854 pp.

Watt, Jr., B. J. AND C. R. Girpert. 1980c. Erimyzon tenuis (Agassiz), Sharpfin chubsucker.
p. 400. In LEED. S., et al (eds.). Atlas of North American Freshwater Fishes. N. C. State
Mus. Nat. Hist., Raleigh, i-x + 854 pp.

Florida Sci. 48(4):202-207. 1985.

Biological Sciences

NUMERICAL RESPONSES OF FLATWOODS AVIFAUNA
TO CLEARCUTTING'

TimotuHy FE. O’Meara, LesLey A. Rowse?, WAYNE R. Marion
AND Larry D. Harris

Department of Wildlife and Range Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611

ABSTRACT: Strip transects were monitored from April 1977 to February 1982 to census birds in
habitats associated with north Florida flatwoods before and after harvest (clearcutting) of slash
pine (Pinus elliottii). Four habitats were designated: pine, harvested pine, cypress (Taxodium
distichum), and edge (areas within 10 m of the interface of 2 other habitat types). Bird densities
generally were greater in edge and cypress habitats than in pine or in harvested habitats during
spring, summer, and fall seasons. Flocking winter visitors used cypress, harvested, and edge
habitats at greater densities than they used pine habitats. Densities of species resident year-round
were low in harvested pine. The avian community in edge habitats was dominated by the same
species that were common in the other 3 habitats. Seasonal fluctuations were evident in edge,
cypress, and harvested habitats with greatest densities occurring in December and January. Den-
sities in pine showed no appreciable changes with time of year. Impacts of clearcutting on flat-
woods avifauna may be partially mitigated by retaining cypress habitats when pines are har-
vested.

Forest covers 60% of the land area in the southeastern United States
(USDA Forest Service, 1978). In 1970, 40% of this forest included naturally
regenerated pine (Pinus spp.) stands and pine plantations with plantations
being planted at a rate of 200,000 ha annually (Knight, 1972). The current
trend is toward increased reforestation of cutover sites with slash (P. elliottii)
and loblolly (P. taeda) pines (Harris, 1980). Intensified management of pine
forests may affect the southeastern avifauna. Impacts can be determined by
monitoring effects of clearcutting and replanting pine-forest habitats, and
by measuring the relative importance of cut and unharvested habitats to
seasonal bird populations.

Seasonal changes in bird communities found in habitats associated with
southeastern flatwoods and community responses to harvest of the longleaf
(Pinus palustris)-slash pine type have not been investigated. Studies have
been limited to the summer season (Harris and McElveen, 1981; O'Meara,
1981; Johnson and Landers, 1982) or have been restricted to pine habitats
(Harris et al., 1974; White et al., 1975; Hirth and Marion, 1979). Rowse and
Marion (1980) described avian communities in flatwoods for 1 year follow-
ing harvest of pines, but did not separate community responses in the pine
habitats and associated cypress habitats.

The purpose of this investigation was to describe seasonal bird com-

‘Contribution No. 3489 of the Journal Series, Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, Gainesville, FL 32611
*Present address: 1 Puritan Rd., Marblehead, MA 01945.

No. 4, 1985] O’MEARA ET AL. — RESPONSES OF AVIFAUNA TO CLEARCUTTING 209

munities associated with 4 common flatwoods habitats and to assess the ef-
fects of clearcutting, site preparation, and planting of pines. To meet this
goal, a long-term study was undertaken in north Florida. This paper sum-
marizes a total of 1,045 censuses conducted on 7 transects in these habitats.
Numerical responses of avian communities for 37 months following harvest
are described.

MeEtTHops—Stupy AREA AND TREATMENTS—Avian populations were censused on 3 areas of
flatwoods in Bradford County, Florida (Fig. 1). These areas were demarcated by perimeter roads
and were characterized by pine forests with scattered wooded ponds. Areas 1, 2, and 3 were 67
ha, 49 ha, and 140 ha in size, respectively. Soils were described by Swindel and coworkers (1983).

Pine stands on the 3 areas had been harvested and regenerated naturally approximately 35
years prior to this study. In 1977, pine coverage averaged between 37 and 54% in pine stands on
the 3 areas as determined by the line-intercept method (Canfield, 1941) (Table 1). Basal areas of
all trees were 16, 17, and 21 m?/ha, and slash pine comprised 88% , 81% and 76% of the total
tree cover on the 3 areas, respectively. Pine tree heights averaged approximately 17 m. Fire had
been excluded from these areas for more than 20 years and shrub cover averaged between 50
and 58%.

Wooded ponds and poorly drained areas (hereafter referred to as cypress habitats) were
characterized by seasonally flooded forest including cypress and wetland hardwoods in addition
to pine (Table 1). This habitat comprised 41% , 25% , and 52% of areas 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
Slash pine, loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus), pond cypress (Taxodium distichum var. nutans),
and blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica) were the predominant tree species in this habitat (Table 1).
Fetter-bush (Lyonia lucida), myrtle-leaved holly (Ilex myrtifolia), and wax myrtle (Myrica
cerifera) were the major shrub species present.

PINE

=] CYPRESS
[J CLEARCUT
+—+ TRANSECT

POWERLINE

|

0 METERS 500

Fic. 1. Map of study areas in Bradford County, Florida.

210 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

TABLE 1. Percent cover of most-prevalent woody plant species, grasses, and forbs on 3 study
areas in north Florida, 1977 (pine and cypress) and 1981 (harvested).

Area
1 2 3
Pine Cyp. Harv. Pine Cyp. Harv. Pine Cyp.

Species

Trees
Gordonia lasianthus <a 7 1 <l 2
Nyssa sylvatica 1 4 2 4-20 all 6s 30
Persea palustris 1 oF a <l I ea <a | <l 1
Pinus elliotti 3650 18 <i 47 23 2 50 19
Pinus palustris 1 1 4 4
Taxodium distichum 6 Dil 4 28
Other trees 2 1 <1 4 2 1
Total trees 41 42 3 58 ~=69 2 66 81

Shrubs
Gaylussacia sp. Deel 3 2) len eal peal
Hypericum brachyphyllum <1 1 1 Ihe 3 1 7
Ilex coriacea OF xe EL 1 fd 2 2
Ilex glabra 18 2 ff 24 5 1 18 2
Ilex myrtifolia <a lees Paci U8} 4 11
Lyonia lucida 6 44 <l 2 9 4 25
Myrica cerifera 2 3 1 140 Cae 3)
Serenoa repens 11 2 1 3 2 6
Vaccinium sp. 8 2 3 3 Deel 3 1
Other shrubs 3 6 8 2 1 1 2 2
Total shrubs 58 72 20 549 43 7 5062

Grasses and forbs 49 90 51 42 76 ~50 54 96

Pine stands in areas 1 and 2 were clearcut in November 1978; area 3 was left intact to serve as
a control. Area 1 was roller-chopped subsequent to harvest and bedded and planted with slash
pine in the fall of 1979. Area 2 was subjected to more intensive silvicultural treatments following
harvest; debris was burned and windrowed, and the ground was harrowed prior to bedding and
planting in fall of 1979. Cypress habitats were left intact within the harvested areas. In 1981, 2
years after replanting, vegetative cover on the harvested portions of areas 1 and 2 included pri-
marily grasses and forbs (Table 1). Shrub cover was greater on area 1 (20%), the less intensively
treated area, than area 2 (7%), the more intensively treated area.

Data CoLLection—Strip transects (20-m wide) were randomly selected from a series of
parallel transects spaced at 200-m intervals on each of the 3 areas. Two transects were selected on
areas 1 and 2, and 3 transects were selected on area 3 with total lengths of 1.8 km, 1.5 km, and
2.0 km on the 3 areas, respectively (Fig. 1). One of the 3 transects on area 3 consisted of 2 dis-
junct segments. These segments were always sampled consecutively and data from these seg-
ments were pooled to avoid small sample sizes.

Counts were conducted on each transect between 6 and 15 times per season prior to imposing
the treatments and between 3 and 9 times per season following treatment. Generally, all
transects were sampled an equal number of times (+1) within each season following harvest.
Sampling was completed within 34 hr after sunrise. The sequence in which transects were
sampled was rotated within each month to standardize variation due to time of day. Five
observers conducted the censuses during the course of the study, 2 during the preharvest period, 1
during both pre- and postharvest periods, and 2 during the postharvest period only. Each of the 3
observers who sampled transects during the postharvest period sampled all transects for 1 full
year. As a result, comparisons of bird data among habitats and seasons were not biased by
observer differences when postharvest data were combined across years.

For each sample, all birds detected within 10 m of the transect were counted and their dis-
tances along the transects were recorded. Transect widths were truncated at a distance of 10 m

No. 4, 1985] O’MEARA ET AL. — RESPONSES OF AVIFAUNA TO CLEARCUTTING 211

from the center line to minimize variation due to observers and variation due to seasonal changes
in detectability. Detections subsequently were assigned to habitat types based on location on the
transects. Densities were estimated as the number of birds divided by the area of the strip transect
in respective habitat types. Four habitat types were designated: pine, cypress, harvested pine,
and edge. Edge was defined as the area within 10 m of the interface of different habitat types or
the interface of any habitat type with a road, powerline right-of-way, or drainage ditch. The
area of each habitat type sampled varied among transects. Total lengths of transects in each
habitat type following harvest were 1.5 km for cypress, 1.5 km for harvested pine, 1.4 km for
pine, and 1.0 km for edge. Seasons were designated as spring (March, April, May), summer
(June, July, August), fall (September, October, November), and winter (December, January,
February).

Data ANALysis—Mean bird densities were calculated for each habitat type on each transect
for each season. These transect densities were used as replicates to estimate within-area variance
for comparison among seasons, habitat types, and areas. Statistical comparisons were accom-
plished using SAS (Helwig and Council, 1979) with weighted least-squares estimates being used
in all analyses of variance and mean separation tests (Draper and Smith, 1966; Freund and
Littell, 1981). Variances were weighted by the product of the number of times a transect was run
during a season and the length of the transect in the respective habitat type. For example, rather
than using the simple sums of squares } (x;, —x..)?, the weighted sums of squares would be Fnl
(x;, — x..)? where n = number of times the transect was sampled and | = length of the transect in
the respective habitat type (Steel and Torrie, 1960). This weighting adjusted for differing num-
bers of replications within seasons and differing lengths of habitat types within transects. In all
analyses, data were combined across years to avoid bias resulting from different observers among
years and to obtain representative estimates for the 3-year postharvest period.

Preharvest data were used solely as baseline data to verify the comparability of the 3 study
areas. Natural yearly variation in bird densities would preclude using preharvest data as a “con-
trol” for comparison with postharvest data. Instead, the unharvested area was used as a “control”
in this context. Fixed-effect 2-way analyses of variance were used to compare preharvest seasonal
densities in each habitat among the study areas. Preharvest data were not compared among
seasons and habitat types due to confounding of observers with season and habitat effects during
this period.

A fixed-effect, 3-way analysis of variance was used to compare postharvest densities among
areas, habitat types, and seasons. Subsequently, 4 2-way analyses of variance were used to com-
pare seasonal densities among habitats and areas. Bonferroni ¢ statistics based on weighted
variance estimates were used to identify differences among habitat types during each season and
among seasons for each habitat type (Miller, 1966). Postharvest density estimates for each habitat
type were combined by month to examine annual trends of densities within habitats.

Resutts—Analyses of preharvest data indicated no differences (P >0.05)
in bird densities among areas for any habitat during any season, suggesting
that the 3 areas were comparable prior to harvest. Postharvest data also
showed no area effect and no interaction of area with either habitat type or
with season (P>0.05). Densities in each habitat did differ by season (P<0.05),
that is, there was a significant interaction of habitat type and season. Densi-
ties differed (P<0.05) among habitats in all seasons except winter.

Total bird densities generally were greater in edge and cypress habitats
than in pine and harvested habitats during spring, summer, and fall (Table
2). Although no statistical differences among habitats were identified during
winter, densities were greater in edge and harvested habitats during this
season than any other combination of habitat and season. Variances
associated with mean densities during this season were high, probably due to
the flocking behavior of many of the species present.

Differences in species composition between the bird communities in pine
and harvested habitats were apparent (Tables 3 and 4). Carolina wrens

212 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

TABLE 2. Mean bird densities (birds/km?) in north Florida flatwoods, 1978-1981.

Spring Summer
Habitat xX SE n X SE n
Edge 385(AB)? 92 of 440(A) 112 7
Cypress 469(A) 64 Ml 360(A) 66 7
Pine 220(B) 60 3 196(AB) 38 3
Harvested pine 103(B) 20 4 60(B) 12 4
Fall Winter

xX SE n X SE n
Edge 940(A) 182 a 1682(A) 44] 7
Cypress 710(AB) 188 7 593(A) 145 7
Pine 211(B) 25 3 347(A) 176 3
Harvested pine 160(B) 4] 4 1125(A) 890 4

aMeans with the same letter within a column are not different (P>0.05).

(scientific names of birds are in Appendix A), pine warblers, common yellow-
throats, and rufous-sided towhees consistently predominated in the pineland
community during all seasons. Flocks of wintering migrants, including
American robins, yellow-rumped warblers, pine warblers, and mixed flocks
of tufted titmice and Carolina chickadees used pine habitats in fall or
winter. With the exception of the titmice and chickadees, however, these
flocking species occurred in greater densities in at least one of the other
habitats during these seasons.

Densities of year-round resident species were low in the harvested pine,
being restricted mainly to eastern meadowlarks and northern bobwhites.
The community in this habitat showed a marked seasonal response as a result
of use by wintering flocks including monospecific flocks of American robins
and red-winged blackbirds and mixed-species flocks of sparrows. Eight
species of sparrows were observed in this habitat in fall and winter including
savannah sparrows, Henslow’s sparrows, vesper sparrows, chipping spar-
rows, field sparrows, white-throated sparrows, swamp sparrows, and song
sparrows. -

Large flocks of American robins and yellow-rumped warblers were ob-
served in cypress habitats during fall and winter. Dominant species in
cypress in spring and summer were primarily the same as those in pine with
the addition of the blue-gray gnatcatcher. All species found in pine habitats
also were observed in cypress habitats with the exception of the orange-
crowned warbler.

The avian community in edge habitats was dominated by the same
species that were important in cypress, pine, and harvested habitats. Densi-
ties of individual species, however, generally were greater in edge habitats.
Great crested flycatchers, blue jays, Carolina wrens, pine warblers, com-
mon yellowthroats, northern cardinals, white-eyed vireos, and rufous-sided
towhees made up the majority of the densities in spring and summer. Flocks
of American robins and sparrows occurred at densities comparable to those

No. 4, 1985] O’MEARA ET AL. — RESPONSES OF AVIFAUNA TO CLEARCUTTING 213

in cypress and harvested habitats. Mixed flocks of yellow-rumped warblers
and pine warblers were found in greater densities in edge habitats than
either cypress or pine habitats.

TABLE 3. Densities (birds/km?) of bird species in pine habitat in north Florida flatwoods,
1978-1981.

Species? Spring Summer Fall Winter
Northern Bobwhite 13 0 0 0
Mourning Dove U 1 0 0
Great Crested Flycatcher 10 0 0 0
American Crow 0 0 13 1
Tufted Titmouse 3 1 7 19
Carolina Wren 13 22 16 25
House Wren 9 0 2 1
Ruby Crowned Kinglet 7 0 0 14
American Robin 0 0 0 100
Brown Thrasher 0 9 0 0
White-eyed Vireo 4 12 3 4
Yellow-rumped Warbler 9 0 0 77
Pine Warbler 29 1l 78 24
Common Yellowthroat 33 48 17 17
Northern Cardinal 5 9 0 3
Rufous-sided Towhee 76 72 45 34
Other Species 2 11 30 28

pe are included which comprised at least 3% of the total density in any column. A complete list is avail-
able from the authors. Scientific names are in Appendix A.

Densities of migrating transient species were low in spring and fall rela-
tive to densities of summer and winter residents. American redstart, the
only transient that occurred in appreciable numbers, was found in cypress,
pine and edge habitats.

Densities differed statistically (P<0.05) among seasons only within the
edge habitat. Bird densities in edge habitat were greater (P<0.05) in winter
than any of the other seasons. However, definite trends also were apparent
in harvested and cypress habitats when monthly densities were plotted by
habitat (Fig. 2). Seasonal fluctuations were evident in edge, cypress, and
harvested habitats with numbers increasing in the fall, peaking in December
or January, and declining prior to March. Densities in pine showed no ap-
preciable changes with time of year.

Discussion—Certain habitats in Florida that support low densities and
diversities of breeding birds are of considerable value to wintering birds that
breed in other parts of North America (Robertson and Kushlan, 1974; Har-
ris, 1980). Our data indicated that habitats associated with flatwoods differ
in their seasonal importance to bird communities, and that avian use of these
habitats is affected by clearcutting and replanting of pines.

214 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

2500 eo—- PINE
o=——o CYPRESS
e——« HARVESTED
2000 oo EDGE

WN

E

= 1500

WY)

Fz

= 1000

500
=
J WEB OS5-O2° N D> Ji oes Vie

MONTH

Fic. 2. Postharvest bird densities pooled over 3 years from 4 habitats in Bradford County,
Florida.

Pine habitats were characterized by low bird densities year round
relative to cypress and edge habitats, while harvested habitats showed
evidence of seasonal changes in abundance and species composition. During
the first 3 years following clearcutting, spring and summer densities re-
mained low in harvested habitats and included only a few species adapted to
breed in early-successional vegetation types. Unlike pine habitats, densities
in harvested habitats exhibited an apparent increase in winter as a result of
use by wintering flocks. Densities in the 2 harvested areas studied did not
differ statistically despite the different intensities of silvicultural treatments
applied to these areas, the resultant amounts of woody cover, and the
presence of windrows on 1 of the areas.

Species composition of spring and summer bird communities in cypress
habitats was similar to that in pine stands, although densities were greater in
cypress. In the winter, large flocks of winter residents were more abundant
in cypress habitats than in pine habitats.

Edge habitats, including both the juxtaposition of cypress and pine, and
of cypress and harvested habitats, were important to avian communities
throughout the year. Bird densities in edge were generally greater than in
pine or adjacent harvested habitats. This “edge effect” was not restricted to
“edge species”, but was observed for most species found in the individual
habitats.

IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT—An immediate result of clearcutting
pines in Florida flatwoods is that bird species that breed in pine habitats are

No. 4, 1985] O’MEARA ET AL. — RESPONSES OF AVIFAUNA TO CLEARCUTTING 215

replaced by birds adapted to early successional stages. This loss of pineland
breeding birds (Tables 3 and 4) may be partially mitigated if cypress habitats
are left intact when pine forests are harvested. Wooded ponds and swamps
compose up to 30% of the land area in flatwoods (McCulley, 1950). These
habitats support summer avian communities similar to those in pine woods
and they maintain insular populations of the majority of pineland species
when pine forests are clearcut.

We did not identify a significant difference between bird densities in
edge habitats on the treated and untreated areas, but Harris and McElveen
(1981) found that bird densities were greater along the “abrupt” edge created
by clearcutting around cypress domes than along the edge between cypress
domes and slash pine plantations. They concluded that the increase in den-
sity along the “abrupt” edge was not attributed to an influx of birds dis-
placed from the clearcut areas, but was attributable to inherent character-
istics of the edge. Increases in bird densities in edges of cypress habitats fol-
lowing clearcutting of adjacent pines may partially offset the loss of breeding
birds in the pine forest and may serve as additional incentive for retaining
cypress areas in managed forests.

TABLE 4. Densities (birds/km?2) of bird species in harvested pine habitat in north Florida flat-
woods, 1978-1981.

Species* Spring Summer Fall Winter
Northern Bobwhite 4 9 47 9
Mourning Dove 0 9 0 1
Common Ground-Dove 3 0 0 Ih
Great Horned Owl 3 0 0 0
Common Nighthawk 0 6 0 0
Northern Flicker 0 2 0 0
Red-bellied Woodpecker 4 0 0 3
House Wren 3 0 2 5
Carolina Wren 1 2 1 4
American Robin 8 0 12 176
Loggerhead Shrike 0 1 6 0
Palm Warbler 0 0 12 13
Common Yellowthroat 1 3 11 1
Northern Cardinal 4 5 3 0
Blue Grosbeak 0 6 0 0
Rufous-sided Towhee 11 5 0 7
Vesper Sparrow 0 0 6 38
Savannah Sparrow 1 0 0 36
Henslow’s Sparrow 3 0 0 2
Swamp Sparrow 11 0 0 31
White-throated Sparrow 0 0 7 32
Unidentified Sparrows 6 4 26 68
Red-winged Blackbird 0 0 0 601
Eastern Meadowlark 25 3 11 16
Other Species 15 5 16 81

pe are included which comprised at least 3% of the total density in any column. A complete list is avail-
able from the authors. Scientific names are in Appendix A.

216 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

TABLE 5. Densities (birds/km?) of bird species in cypress habitat in north Florida flatwoods,
1978-1981.

Species* Spring Summer Fall Winter
Black Vulture 5 20 0 1
Mourning Dove 21 6 43 0
Chuck-will’s-widow 23 0 0 0
Red-bellied Woodpecker 20 8 9 5
Great Crested Flycatcher 30 21 0 0
Blue Jay 15 1 5 0
Tufted Titmouse 3 4 27 4
Carolina Wren 43 82 ll ll
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher 48 45 7 0
American Robin 2 0 181 302
Gray Catbird 17 0 19 2
Cedar Waxwing 14 0 0 0
White-eyed Vireo 19 8 12 0
Northern Parula 17 3 0 0
Yellow-rumped Warbler 32 0 203 192
Pine Warbler 2 8 49 5
Common Yellowthroat 30 22 10 3
Summer Tanager 0 12 0 0
Northern Cardinal 35 28 Bl 5
Rufous-sided Towhee 31 39 4 10
Other Species 62 53 119 53

aSpecies are included which comprised at least 3% of the total density in any column. A complete list is avail-
able from the authors. Scientific names are in Appendix A.

TABLE 6. Densities (birds/km?) of bird species in edge habitat in north Florida flatwoods,
1978-1981.

Species* Spring Summer Fall Winter
Northern Bobwhite 6 13 16 34
Common Nighthawk 4 14 0 0
Great Crested Flycatcher 23 18 0 0
Blue Jay 14 21 0 0
Carolina Wren 23 55 29 19
American Robin 0 0 58 304
Northern Mockingbird 3 16 29 10
Brown Thrasher 0 28 1 0
Cedar Waxwing 23 0 0 0
White-eyed Vireo ws 26 16 2
Northern Parula 18 0 0 0
Yellow-rumped Warbler 13 0 200 437
Pine Warbler 2 10 265 10
Palm Warbler 0 0 31 6
Common Yellowthroat 61 37 61 45
Northern Cardinal 22 15 11 5
Rufous-sided Towhee 54 111 14 38
Chipping Sparrow 8 0 3 207
Swamp Sparrow 2 0 1 52
Red-winged Blackbird 18 0 0 315
Other Species 74 76 205 198

aSpecies are included which comprised at least 3% of the total density in any column. A complete list is avail-
able from the authors. Scientific names are in Appendix A.

No. 4, 1985] O’MEARA ET AL. — RESPONSES OF AVIFAUNA TO CLEARCUTTING 217

Clearcutting may enhance winter densities for several years as a result of
increased use of areas by migrants from northern latitudes. Most wintering
species that require forested habitats will continue to use cypress habitats
following clearcutting of adjacent pines, although their regional densities
probably will be reduced. Relatively large flocks of red-winged blackbirds,
American robins, and sparrows will use the clearcut areas.

The overall effects of clearcutting are mixed when numerical responses of
flatwoods avifauna are considered. Qualitative aspects of the avian com-
munity, however, may be of equal or greater importance to the quantitative
aspects discussed here. For example, species restricted to southern pines,
such as the brown-headed nuthatch and red-cockaded woodpecker (John-
ston and Odom, 1956), undoubtedly will be adversely affected by clear-
cutting. Also, local extinction of “area-sensitive” species may result from
fragmentation of the forest (Whitcomb, 1977; Robbins, 1979; Whitcomb et
al., 1981), although this phenomenon has not been studied in the southeast.
Species restricted to pine habitats or extensive tracts of contiguous forest
deserve special consideration when forest management is assessed on a re-
gional scale.

Pine flatwoods have been subjected to extensive alterations, both in vege-
tative structure and plant species composition, since they were first logged
before or around the turn of the century (Schultz, 1983). The flatwoods
avian community undoubtedly has changed from what occurred in the
natural pine forests. For example, we found no red-cockaded woodpeckers
on our study areas. Increased conversion of flatwoods to planted pine plan-
tations and intensified management of these plantations may further impact
the flatwoods avifauna. Our data indicate that cypress habitats are impor-
tant for maintaining the bird species complement of the flatwoods landscape
when pine stands are clearcut. The current trend towards intensified utiliza-
tion of cypress (K. C. Ewel, pers. commun.) may exacerbate the impacts of
pine plantation management on the flatwoods avifauna.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We are indebted to F.. James and J. Landers for reviewing earlier drafts
of this manuscript. D. Hirth contributed to this project in its initial planning stages. Vegetation
data were collected by L. Conde and J. Smith. R. Godefroi, K. Enge, and C. Parenteau assisted
with bird censusing. R. Littell and K. Portier provided advice on statistical analysis. This project
was funded by the Intensive Management Practices Assessment Center (IMPAC), sponsored by
the USDA-Forest Service. The cooperation of Container Corporation of America, Starke,
Florida, in providing study sites and treatments is gratefully acknowledged.

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DeGraar, R. M., AnD K. E. Evans, (eds.). Management of North Central and North-
eastern Forests for Nongame Birds. USDA For. Serv., Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-51.

Rosertson, W. B., Jr., AND J. A. KusHLAN. 1974. The southern Florida avifauna. Pp. 414-452.
In Gueason, P. J., (ed.). Environments of South Florida: Present and Past. Memoir 2.
Miami Geological Society. Miami, Fla.

Rowse, L. A., AND W. R. Marron. 1980. Effects of silvicultural practices on birds in a north
Florida flatwoods. Pp. 349-357. In Barnett, J. P., (ed.). First Biennial Southern Silvicul-
tural Research Conference. U.S.D.A. For. Serv., Gen. Tech. Rep. SO-34.

ScHuLtz, R. P. 1983. The original slash pine forest—an historical view. Pp. 24-47 In Stone,
E. L., (ed.). The Managed Slash Pine Ecosystem. School of Forest Resources and Conser-
vation, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville.

STEEL. R. G. D., anv J. H. Torrie. 1960. Principles and Procedures of Statistics. McGraw-Hill,
New York, P. 252.

SWINDEL, B. F., W. R. Marion, L. D. Harris, L. A. Morris, W. L. Pritcuert, L. F. Conner,
H. RIEKERK, AND E. T. SuLLIVAN. 1983. Multi-resource effects of harvest, site preparation
and planting in pine flatwoods. So. J. Appl. For. 6:74-78.

USDA Forest Service. 1978. Forest statistics of the U.S., 1977, review draft. U.S. Gov. Printing
Off., Washington, D.C.

Wuitcoms, R. F. 1977. Island biogeography and “habitat islands” of eastern forest. Am. Birds.
31:3-5.

Wuitcoms, R. F., C. S. Rossins, J. F. Lyncu, B. L. Wuitcoms, M. K. KLIMKIEWICZ, AND
D. Bystrak. 1981. Effects of forest fragmentation on avifauna of the eastern deciduous
forest. Pp. 125-206. Burcess, R. L., AnD D. M. SHarpe, (eds.). In Forest Island Dy-
namics in Man-dominated Land-scapes. Springer Verlag, New York.

Waite, L. D., L. D. Harris, J. E. JoHNston, AND D. G. Mitcuunas. 1975. Impact of site
preparation on flatwoods wildlife habitat. Proc. Southeastern Assoc. Game Fish Comm.
29:347-353.

Florida Sci. 48(4):208-219. 1985.

No. 4, 1985] O’MEARA ET AL. — RESPONSES OF AVIFAUNA TO CLEARCUTTING

APPENDIX A. SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF Birps IN TEXT AND TABLES.

Black Vulture

Northern Bobwhite
Mourning Dove
Common Ground-Dove
Great Horned Owl
Common Nighthawk
Chuck-will’s-widow
Red-bellied Woodpecker
Red-cockaded Woodpecker
Northern Flicker

Great Crested Flycatcher
Blue Jay

American Crow
Carolina Chickadee
Tufted Titmouse
Brown-headed Nuthatch
Carolina Wren

House Wren
Ruby-crowned Kinglet
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher
American Robin

Gray Catbird

Northern Mockingbird
Brown Thrasher

Cedar Waxwing
Loggerhead Shrike
White-eyed Vireo
Orange-crowned Warbler
Northern Parula
Yellow-rumped Warbler
Pine Warbler

Palm Warbler
American Redstart
Common Yellowthroat
Summer Tanager
Northern Cardinal

Blue Grosbeak
Rufous-sided Towhee
Chipping Sparrow

Field Sparrow

Vesper Sparrow
Savannah Sparrow
Henslow’s Sparrow
Song Sparrow

Swamp Sparrow
White-throated Sparrow
Red-winged Blackbird
Eastern Meadowlark

Coragyps atratus
Colinus virginianus
Zenaida macroura
Columbina passerina
Bubo virginianus
Chordeiles minor
Caprimulgus carolinensis
Melanerpes carolinensis
Picoides borealis
Colaptes auratus
Myjiarchus crinitus
Cyanocitta cristata
Corvus brachyrhynchos
Parus carolinensis

Parus bicolor

Sitta pusilla
Thryothorus ludovicianus
Troglodytes aedon
Regulus calendula
Polioptila caerulea
Turdus migratorius
Dumetella carolinensis
Mimus polyglottos
Toxostoma rufum
Bombycilla cedrorum
Lanius ludovicianus
Vireo griseus
Vermivora celata
Parula americana
Dendroica coronata
Dendroica pinus
Dendroica palmarum
Setophaga ruticilla
Geothlypis trichas
Piranga rubra
Cardinalis cardinalis
Guiraca caerulea

Pipilo erythrophthalmus
Spizella passerina
Spizella pusilla
Pooecetes gramineus
Passerculus sandwichensis
Ammodramus henslowii
Melospiza melodia
Melospiza georgiana
Zonotrichia albicollis
Agelaius phoeniceus
Sturnella magna

Biological Sciences

BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATE RESPONSE TO
AQUATIC VEGETATION REMOVAL BY
GRASS CARP IN NORTH-FLORIDA RESERVOIR

(1) ANDREW J. LESLIE, JR. AND (2) GERARD J. KOBYLINSKI

(1) Florida Department of Natural Resources, 3900 Commonwealth Boulevard,
Tallahassee, Florida 32303 and (2) Florida Department of Environmental Regulation,
2600 Blairstone Road, Tallahassee, Florida 32301.

ABSTRACT:Grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella 61/ha, were introduced into a 1900-ha
North-Florida reservoir with dense populations of Illinois pondweed, Potamogeton illinoensis,
and Eurasian watermilfoil, Myriophyllum spicatum. Aquatic vegetation and benthic macroin-
vertebrates were monitored for forty-one months. Grass carp feeding activities eliminated Illinois
pondweed two years after initial stocking, and the Eurasian watermilfoil was greatly reduced
three years after stocking. In spite of the reduction in the aquatic plant habitat, total benthic
macroinvertebrates increased significantly. Much of the increase occurred among the Chirono-
mini (Diptera), Oligochaeta, and Tanytarsini (Diptera). The progressive increase in total catch
of invertebrates may be related to degree of macrophyte removal by grass carp. Partial control of
vegetation was achieved during the second year and early third year, corresponding with an
average 73% increase in benthos. Near total control of the vegetation occurred in late third and
fourth years, with a corresponding 274% increase in benthic invertebrates over that present in
the first year. We hypothesize that depletion of the macrophytes and deposition of partially di-
gested plant material by grass carp could increase available food by release of nutrients for
periphytic algal production and subsequent utilization by benthos (planktonic chlorophyll a de-
creased). The increase in particulate organic matter (indicated by a significant increase in tur-
bidity and Kjeldahl nitrogen) would also favor an increase in benthic detritivores.

DEER Point Lake, a 1900-ha impoundment, formed in 1961, is the prin-
cipal source of drinking and industrial water for Panama City, Florida, and
surrounding areas. The drainage basin covers 95,871 ha, including Bear
Creek, Econfina Creek, Bayou George and Big Cedar Creek (Fig. 1). The
hydrology of Deer Point Lake was described by Hughes (1970). About one-
half of the lake originally was part of the North Bay-Bayou George estuarine
system. The lake is relatively shallow, with an average depth of 2.5-3.0 m in
the lower part of the reservoir and 1.5-2.0 m in the upper region. The water
usually is clear and moderately colored; a result of low turbidity and highly
colored swamp run-off. The lake bottom is composed primarily of sand with
considerable detrital deposits. By 1974, dense growths of Eurasian watermil-
foil, Myriophyllum spicatum L., and Illinois pondweed, Potamogeton illi-
noensis Morong, had restricted recreational activities and frequently fouled
the water intake manifold.

Because Deer Point Lake is a potable water system, herbicide treatment
of the aquatic vegetation was not a viable alternative. This limitation ini-
tiated a study to determine the feasibility of using grass carp, Ctenopharyn-
godon idella (Val.), to reduce aquatic plant densities, and to assess the en-

No. 4, 1985] LESLIE AND KOBYLINSKI — RESPONSE TO GRASS CARP 221

vironmental impact. This paper describes the effects of aquatic plant man-
agement using grass carp on the benthic macroinvertebrates of Deer Point
Lake.

Fic. 1. Map of Deer Point Lake, Bay County, Florida. Principle sources of water are,
A-Bayou George, B-Big Cedar Creek, C-Econfina Creek, and D-Bear Creek. Benthic macroin-
vertebrate sampling locations are denoted by numbers 1-5.

222 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

MeEtHops—In Deer Point Lake, predators were removed from small, fenced-off coves for use
as grass carp grow-out areas. Grass carp the size of those initially stocked are highly vulnerable to
predation (Shireman et al., 1978). Grow-out areas were stocked with 43 grass carp per ha of total
lake area in fall 1975 (Table 1). The fences were taken down in April 1976 and the grass carp re-
leased into the lake. Grass carp (18/ha) were added to Deer Point Lake between 1976 and 1978.
Total grass carp stocked in this reservoir was 61 per ha by 1978.

Single bottom samples were taken monthly, from January 1976 to May 1979, with a 225 cm?
Ekman dredge at 5 fixed stations (Fig. 1). Care was taken to dislodge as few macroinvertebrates
on the aquatic macrophytes as possible. Samples were sieved in the field (600 um mesh), stained
with rose bengal, and preserved in 10% formalin. Organisms were picked by hand, counted and
identified to family, subfamily or genus. Only a representative sample of dipterans was identified
to genus; enough to allow determination of dominant genera. The data were transformed to
Logio (X + 1) for statistical analyses.

Aquatic vegetation was monitored quarterly using modified line transects (Daubemire, 1968)
from September 1974 to December 1979; 5 transects, 715 points. Permanent markers were estab-
lished and a rope graded at 1.5 m intervals was stretched between markers. The presence and
type of vegetation was recorded at each interval based on visual observations from the surface,
and frequency of occurrence (%) was calculated. The data were transformed to Arcsin (Jy) for
statistical analyses.

TABLE 1. Number, average size, and dates grass carp were stocked into Deer Point Lake, Bay
County, Florida.

Number Avg. size, g Date Stocked
82,436 10 to 500 Fall 1975
13,169 400 Fall, Winter 1976-77
11,829 363 Spring, Summer 1977
10,615 350 Summer, Fall 1978

118,049 Total Stocked

Resutts—Aquatic plant abundance—Aerial photography showed that
more than one-third of Deer Point Lake contained mixed stands of Eurasian
watermilfoil and Illinois pondweed reaching the surface in November 1974.
This relatively undeveloped North-Florida reservoir contained a diverse
emersed and submersed aquatic flora with rather extensive marsh areas
around the embayed creeks. Plant transects yielded 20 species during Sep-
tember and December 1974 (Table 2). The frequency of occurrence of the

TABLE 2. Average percent frequency of occurrence (percent of points vegetated) for selected
species of aquatic plants along line transects in Deer Point Lake, Florida. Data were collected
quarterly, and transformed to Arcsin (Vy) for statistical analyses. Means along a row with the
same letter are not significantly different (Duncan’s new multiple range test; a <0.05).

Species 1974! 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979
Eurasian

watermilfoil 58.6a 32.5a 28.3a 37.2a 32.6a 5.8b
Illinois

pondweed 41.8a 22.8a 15.2b 2.4c <0.1c Oc
All species 78.5a 47.8a 39.6a 44.2a 36.2a 8.0c
Total number

of species 20 17 15 12 12 8

'Transects run September-December only.

No. 4, 1985] LESLIE AND KOBYLINSKI — RESPONSE TO GRASS CARP 223

two dominant plant species, Eurasian watermilfoil and Illinois pondweed
averaged 58.6% and 41.8%, respectively. Frequencies of occurrence are
much larger for 1974 versus 1975 because 1974 values do not include winter
declines.

The frequency of occurrence for all species of aquatic plants present on
transects in September and December 1974 declined by 90% by 1979 (Table
2). Eurasian watermilfoil, the most common plant species on the transects
and the primary target plant, had a frequency of occurrence of 32.5% for
1975. Although essentially unchanged at 32.6% for 1978, it declined to
5.8% in 1979. The secondary target species, Illinois pondweed, decreased
steadily until it was eliminated in 1978. Other species on the transects in
1974 and 1975 were scarce relative to these two dominant macrophytes.
Watershield, Brasenia schreberi Gmelin, the next most common species, oc-
curring on only 4.2% of the transect points in 1974, was eliminated by 1978.
The number of species was reduced from 17 in 1975 to 8 in 1979.

Benthic invertebrates—Few significant differences between stations
could be demonstrated throughout the study. For this reason, the ensuing
analyses will compare annual means. Table 3 shows the taxa of macroinver-
tebrates collected each year in Deer Point Lake. Midges (Diptera), Corbicula
(Pelecypoda), and Oligochaeta predominated all years, comprising 81% of
the total benthos collected (Table 4). Annual mean abundance increased
continually during the study: approximately 31% more organisms were cap-
tured in 1977 than in 1976, while 1978 and 1979 demonstrated increased
catches of 65% and 148% when compared to preceding years. Oligochaeta,
Chironomini, and Tanytarsini accounted for much of the additional catch in
1977 and 1978 comprising 56 % of the total catch. Tanytarsini and Corbicula
were predominant during 1979, comprising 68% of the total catch. All
major taxa displayed significant annual changes over the 41 month study. Of
these, only the Orthocladiinae (Diptera) showed a significant reduction in
all years versus 1976. The Asiatic clam, Corbicula, declined significantly
during 1977 to 1978, but rebounded to a three-fold increase by 1979. Both
cladocerans and the phantom midge (Chaoborus) increased in 1977 and
1978, and then declined in 1979. Turbellaria, Hirudinea, ostracods, isopods
(Asellus), amphipods (Hyalella), trichopterans, Tanypodinae (Diptera), and
Tanytarsini (Diptera) did not show significant increases versus 1976 until
1978. Oligochaetes, mysids, Chironomini (Diptera), and gastropods all in-
creased significantly in 1977 and either increased each subsequent year or re-
mained at elevated levels. Ephemeropterans were variable, but were sig-
nificantly more numerous in 1979 than preceding years. Figure 2 presents
the seasonal abundance of total organisms, Corbicula, Tanytarsini,
Chironomini, and Oligochaeta collected during 1976-1979. Peak abundance
of total organisms occurred twice each year, in the spring or early summer
and in the fall or early winter.

2.0 OLIGOCHAETA N/M2x107>

1.0

eo CHIRONOMINI N/M<x1072

0.8
0.4

. ,

6 TANTARSINI N/M2x 107°

4

2

0 Ns BO fT
4 CORBICULA N/M2xi07°

3

2

LY ———a~ —

0

;, TOTAL MACROINVERTEBRATES

N/M*x 1072

6 |

2

=e i MYRIOPHYLLUM

asta: : ;

%o E ee ‘

20 POTAMOGETON
0

S DMJS DMJ SDMvJSISOMVJSS DM JS OD

1975 1976 lI977 i978 i979
Fic. 2. Numbers of total macroinvertebrates, Oligochaeta, Chironomini, Tanytarsini, and
Corbicula, and percent frequency of occurrence of Myriophyllum spicatum and Potamogeton il-

linoensis based on line transects, versus time in Deer Point Lake. Multiply scale by 10° to get
numbers/m? for macroinvertebrates.

No. 4, 1985] LESLIE AND KOBYLINSKI — RESPONSE TO GRASS CARP 225

TaBLeE 3. Benthic macroinvertebrates collected in Deer Point Lake from January 1976 to May
1979, and macroinvertebrates associated with Eurasian watermilfoil in June 1978. An “X”
denotes presence and “—” denotes absence.

Plants
Taxon 1976 1977 1978 1979 1978

Turbellaria
Nematoda
Oligochaeta
Hirudinea

Cladocera

Ostracoda
Taphromysis (M)!
Asellus (1)

Hyalella (A)
Palaemonetes (D)
Procambarus (D)
Mideopsis (Ac)

Caenis (E)

Callibaetis (E)
Ephemerella (E)
Hexagenia (E)
Cleithemus (O)
Enallagma (O)
Haliplus (C)
Leptocerus (T)
Nectopsyche (T)
Neureclipsis (T)
Oecetis (T)

Oxyethira (T)
Polycentropus (T)
Chaoborus (Cu)
Palpomyjia (Ce)
Ablabesmyia (Tp)
Clinotanypus (Tp)
Coelotanypus (Tp)
Labrundinia (Tp)
Macropelopia (Tp)
Procladius (Tp)
Cladotanytarsus (Tt)
Rheotanytarsus (Tt)
Tanytarsus (Tt)
Chironomus (Ch)
Cryptochironomus (Ch)
Cryptocladopelma (Ch)
Dicrotendipes (Ch)
Einfeldia (Ch)
Endochironomus (Ch)
Glyptotendipes (Ch)
Harnischia (Ch)
Lauterborniella (Ch)
Leptochironomus (Ch)
Parachironomus (Ch)
Paratendipes (Ch)
Polypedilum (Ch)
Pseudochironomus (Ch)
Strictochironomus (Ch)
Brillia (Or)
Cricotopus (Or)

va

| P41 PA PM PM 4 4 Pd 4 Od Pd Od

1 1 Pa PS 1 1 PA PM Pd D4 PM PM 4 OS PM

| Par rs! I PP I LK 4 4 Md Od Od OO OS
eS eal pet p< sail cule apap tpsa pel pencil

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[enlistees aie Sai Seiten
Teel
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Ta a oo a co a a a a a a a

| PPPS | Pd 1 Pd Od Od Md
]

Baines o4 lata
1 PA 1 PA PK | PA PS I OP DK ODM PS DM PS DS OP OE Dd Od Dd DS I
1 1 DA PS 1 OPK DK OD DM DS Pd DK OS

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1.1

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D hee 0 te Seat
rd |

226 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

TABLE 3. Continued.

Plants
Taxon 1976 1977 1978 1979 1978
Epoicocladius (Or) X - X = =
Psectrocladius (Or) X X xX = X
Gyraulus (G) X X X X X
Helisoma (G) xX Xx X x x
Physa (G) X X - - -
Planorbula (G) X - - - =
Corbicula (P) X X Xx X -

Number of groups 48 43 35 35 20

'The following abbreviations are used and appear after each generic listing. A-Amphipoda, Ac-Acari,
C-Coleoptera, Ce-Ceratopogonidae, Ch-Chironomini, Cu-Chaoboridae, D-Decapoda, E-Ephemeroptera,
G-Gastropoda, I-Isopoda, M-Mysidacea, O-Odonata, Or-Orthocladiinae, P-Pelecypoda, T-Trichoptera,
Tp-Tanypodinae, Tt-Tanytarsini.

TaBLe 4. Monthly mean number of benthic macroinvertebrates/m? collected in Deer Point
Lake from January 1976 to May 1979. Percent of total collected is shown parenthetically. Data
were transformed Logo (x + 1) for statistical analyses. Means along a row followed by the same
letter are not significantly different according to Duncan’s new multiple range test (a <0.05).

1976 1977 1978 1979!
Taxon Mean (%) Mean (%) Mean (%) Mean (%)
Turbellaria 18a( 0.9) l4a(__ 0.6) 5lb( 1.2) 43b( 0.4)
Oligochaeta 195a(10.2) 564b( 22.6) 742c (18.1) 592b( 5.8)
Hirudinea 2a( 0.1) la(<0.1) 7b( 0.2) 21c( 0.2)
Cladocera 25a( 1.3) 137b(_ 5.5) 203c( 4.9) 46a( 0.4)
Ostracoda 10a(_ 0.5) 39a( 1.6) 224b( 5.5) 366c( 3.6)
Mysidacea 6a( 0.3) 15b(_0.6) llab( 0.3) 44c( 0.4)
Isopoda 9a( 0.5) la(<0.1) 36b( 0.9) 158c(_ 1.6)
Amphipoda 14la( 7.4) 187a(__7.5) 349b( 8.5) 297b( 2.9)
Ephemeroptera 52a( 2.7) 104b(_ 4.2) 52a( 1.3) 220c( 2.2)
Trichoptera 18a( 0.9) l6a(_ 0.6) 43b( 1.0) 41b( 0.4)
Chaoboridae 3a( 0.2) 3lb(1.2) 68c( 1.6) lla( 0.1)
Tanypodinae 120a(_ 6.3) 113a(_ 4.5) 205b(_ 5.0) 679c( 6.7)
Tanytarsini 272a(14.3) 414a( 16.6) 1167b(28.4) 4252c (41.8)
Chironomini 117a( 6.2) 317b( 12.7) 497c (12.1) 574c( 5.6)
Orthocladiini 12a( 0.6) 1b(<0.1) Ob( 0.0) Ob( 0.0)
Gastropoda 32a( 1.7) 117b(_ 4.7) 83c( 2.0) 98be( 1.0)
Pelecypoda 840a(44.1) 404b( 16.2) 347b( 8.5) 2692c (26.5)
All others? 34a( 1.8) 15b(_0.6) 21b( 0.5) 39a( 0.4)
Total 1906a(100) 2490a (100) 4106b(100) 10173c (100)

‘Data available for January through May only.
See Table 3 for listings of taxa.

Changes in dominant genera within the major taxa in Table 4 were ap-
parent as the study progressed. No shifts were seen for trichopterans; the
predominant genera throughout the study were Oxyethira, Oecetis, and
Leptocerus. In 1976 the predominant Tanypodinae were Ablabesmyia and
Coelotanypus, but from 1977-1979, Coelotanypus and Procladius predomi-
nated. The predominant Tanytarsini throughout the study were Clado-
tanytarsus and Rheotanytarsus. Predominant genera of Chironomini each
year were: 1976—Dicrotendipes, Cryptochironomus, and Parachironomus;

No. 4, 1985] LESLIE AND KOBYLINSKI — RESPONSE TO GRASS CARP 227

1977—Parachironomus and Glyptotendipes; 1978—Chironomus; 1979—
Parachironomus, Chironomus, and Glyptotendipes. The predominant
gastropod genera throughout the study were Helisoma and Gyraulus. The
mayfly Hexagenia was predominant all years with Ephemerella also impor-
tant in 1976-1977; Caenis replaced Ephemerella in 1978-1979.

There was a decline in species richness (as represented by the total
number of taxonomic groups presented in Table 3) in 1978-1979 versus
1976-1977. Macroinvertebrates not collected after 1977 include: decapods;
the ephemeropterans Callibaetis and Ephemerella; Haliplus (Coleoptera);
the trichopterans Neureclipsis, Oecetis, and Polycentropus; Labrundinia
and Macropelopia (Tanypodinae); Harnischia, Leptochironomus, and Stric-
tochironomus (Chironomini); Brillia (Orthocladiinae); and the gastropods
Physa and Planorbula. The dipteran Psectrocladius (Orthocladiinae) was
collected each of the first 3 years but not in 1979. These changes seem to re-
flect the major decline in Illinois pondweed by 1977 and the decline in plant
species richness (Table 2). Four genera were collected for the first time after
1977: Caenis (Ephemeroptera), Clinotanypus (Tanypodinae), Endochirono-
mus (Chironomini), and Paratendipes (Chironomini).

Qualitative sampling showed a diverse and numerically abundant assem-
blage of invertebrates inhabiting Eurasian watermilfoil of Deer Point Lake
in 1978 (Table 3). Some 138 organisms were found per gram of vegetation
(dry weight). Dominant groups included an unidentified species of Oligo-
chaeta, Hyalella (Amphipoda), Brillia, Psectrocladius, Cricotopus (Chiro-
nomidae) and Helisoma (Gastropoda).

Discussion— Total benthic invertebrates increased significantly in Deer
Point Lake, especially during the last 12 months of the study. Much of the in-
crease occurred among the Chironomini (Diptera), Oligochaeta, and
Tanytarsini (Diptera). Beach and coworkers (1976) reported a loss of
benthos diversity and predominance by a few species in four small Florida
lakes stocked with grass carp. Haller and Tenneson (1973-unpublished data,
University of Florida Center for Aquatic Weeds, Gainesville) found in-
creased numbers of Chironomidae with higher stocking rates of grass carp in
small ponds. Shireman (1976) discovered marked increases in Chironomidae,
Chaborus, and Oligochaeta in Lake Wales, Florida after stocking of grass
carp for 2 years (even though little reduction in the aquatic plant community
was noted). Osborne (1978) showed no increase in the macroinvertebrates of
stormwater retention ponds after stocking with grass carp.

The increase in total macroinvertebrates that we found was probably
related to habitat alteration through reduction of submersed macrophytes
(see Kobylinski et al., 1980 and, Van Dyke et al., 1984 for a detailed analysis
of aquatic plants). Depletion of macrophytes could increase available food
by releasing nutrients for utilization by benthos through enrichment of the
water column and deposition of partially digested vegetation by grass carp.

228 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Grass carp only retain approximately 50% of the nutrients they ingest (Van
Dyke and Sutton, 1977). Leslie and coworkers (1983) reported increased tur-
bidity and Kjeldahl nitrogen in Deer Point Lake, but a significant decrease
in planktonic chlorophyll a. The increase in particulate organics (indicated
by both the increase in Kjeldahl nitrogen and turbidity) would benefit
detrital-feeding benthic invertebrates and, combined with grass-carp fecal
deposition, could encourage growth of periphyton (and possibly compensate
for loss of macrophyte associated periphyton) which is also heavily utilized
by benthic invertebrates. The progressive increase in total catch of inverte-
brates during 1976-1979 is correlated with degree of macrophyte removal by
the grass carp (Fig. 2). Partial vegetation control was achieved during 1977
and early 1978, coinciding with an average 73% increase in benthos. Near
total control of the vegetation occurred in late 1978 and 1979, with a corre-
sponding average 274% increase in the benthic invertebrates over that pres-
ent in 1976.

Rooted aquatic plants are important as buffers for exogenous nutrients
and water quality (Carter and Hestand, 1977; Mickle and Wetzel, 1978a,
1978b), as habitat for invertebrates and fishes (Rosine, 1955; Harrod and
Hall, 1962), and in cycling nutrients from the hydrosoil (Hutchinson, 1975;
Landers, 1979). It is obvious that reductions in aquatic plant populations
can influence lake ecology (Boyd, 1971). Many researchers (Leathers, 1922;
McGaha, 1952; Rosine, 1955) have noted the substantial number of inverte-
brates inhabiting submersed macrophytes. Martin and Shireman (1976)
found chironomid larvae accounted for 80% of the invertebrates on
hydrilla, Hydrilla verticillata Royle, from Lake Wales, Florida. Rosine
(1955) noted that Hyalella comprised 75% of the organisms from vegetation
in Muskee Lake, Colorado. Macroinvertebrate density on any particular
species of aquatic plant is related to macrophyte surface area (Rosine, 1955).
The greater the leaf dissection of a submersed plant, the larger and more
diverse the animal populations associated. Eurasian watermilfoil with its
finely dissected leaf structure, supported the largest invertebrate population
of 7 species studied by Krecker (1939). The reduction of macrophytes by
grass carp in Deer Point Lake probably caused a decrease in numbers of
epiphytic macroinvertebrates (the reduction in numbers of taxonomic
groups in Table 3 reflects this trend). Although some of the loss of species
richness of macroinvertebrates is probably due to sampling error or natural
variations involving rare species, the majority of the genera lost between
1977 and 1979 were phytophilous. Examples are: The decapods Procam-
barus and Palaemonetes, Orthocladiinae (Diptera), and the coleopteran
Haliplus. Deer Point Lake is a reservoir, and as such has an abundance of
inundated trees and other structures of terrestrial origin. As pointed out by
Cowell and Hudson (1967), such objects serve as excellent substrate for the
development of periphyton which is colonized by benthic invertebrates. The
presence of this habitat plus the fact that Eurasian watermilfoil was never
completely eliminated (and in fact has increased substantially in 1982 and

No. 4, 1985] LESLIE AND KOBYLINSKI — RESPONSE TO GRASS CARP 229

1983) has allowed the macroinvertebrate community of Deer Point Lake to
remain relatively diverse. Complete elimination of submersed macrophytes
could result in the disappearance of some species of macroinvertebrates from
a lake. The effects on trophic levels (especially Centrarchidae) that utilize
epiphytic macroinvertebrates as a source of food is as yet undetermined.

Many authors have attempted to relate indicator organisms to lake ty-
pology. Within the Diptera, Tanytarsini were associated with oligotrophic
systems, Chironomus with eutrophic conditions, and Chaoborus with a
culturally eutrophic state (Thienemann, 1925; Miyadi, 1933; Deevy, 1941).
In general terms, these indicators can be used to evaluate the status of Deer
Point Lake during the sampling period. Tanytarsini have remained numer-
ous at all locations during 1976-1979. While Chironomini also were abun-
dant, few Chironomus were included (except in 1978), with most genera
classified as either facultative or intolerant to organic wastes (Paine and
Gaufin, 1965). Although numbers of Chaoborus increased in 1977 and 1978,
the phantom midge never comprised more than 1.6% of the total benthic
fauna. Nutrient concentrations and turbidity did increase (Leslie et al.,
1983), but the presence of numerous Tanytarsini attest that the lake has not
been seriously degraded.

These results show that aquatic plant control using grass carp can have a
profound effect on the benthic macroinvertebrate community. A 434% in-
crease in total invertebrates was noted in 1979, but also a moderate decrease
in species richness occurred. Much of the decrease in species richness was in
genera which require aquatic plants. The increase in total numbers is prob-
ably related to the increase in particulate organic matter and deposition of
partially digested grass-carp feces. Because aquatic plants buffer changes in
water quality (see Mickle and Wetzel, 1978a and 1978b), increases in
nutrient variables were expected. Prowse (1971) and Stanley (1974) sug-
gested that the consumption of plants and deposition of fecal matter by grass
carp would enhance phytoplankton blooms; but this has not occurred in
other studies (Hestand and Carter, 1978; Lembi et al., 1978; Rottman and
Anderson, 1978; Mitzner, 1979; Leslie et al., 1983). The foregoing stands in
contrast with the large nutrient fluxes and phytoplankton blooms seen when
using most herbicides for aquatic plant reduction (Daniel, 1972; Buck et al.,
1975; Hestand and Carter, 1978; von Zon, 1979). When aquatic herbicides
are applied, the bottom fauna is at first reduced, and then recovers as the
plants regrow or as the release of plant nutrients allows recovery of those
macroinvertebrates tolerant of plant decay (May et al., 1973; Brown, 1978).
Much of the initial declines have been related to habitat alterations, low
dissolved oxygen (anaerobiosis), and direct toxicity by some herbicides (May
et al., 1973). We noted no decline in total numbers of benthic macroinverte-
brates in Deer Point Lake; however, there was some loss of species richness
(also noted after herbicide applications). The effects of multiple herbicide
treatments during a growing season over a number of years, as is necessary to

230 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

control hydrilla in subtropical Florida, are unknown, and need to be investi-
gated. The effects of aquatic plant removal by grass carp on benthic macro-
invertebrates reported herein, were moderate compared to those reported
for herbicides.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We thank Don Schmitz for drafting the figures, and Dr. Bruce Cowell
for reviewing earlier versions of the manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

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Chinese grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella Val.) on the ecology of four Florida lakes,
and its use for aquatic weed control. Final Report. Florida Dept. Natural Resources,
Tallahassee.

Boyp, C. E. 1971. The limnological role of aquatic macrophytes and their relationship to reser-
voir management. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 8:153-166.

Brown, A. W. A. 1978. Ecology of Pesticides. John Wiley and Sons, New York, New York.

Buck, D. H., R. J. Baur, AND C. R. Ross. 1975. Comparison of the effects of grass carp and the
herbicide Diuron in densely vegetated pools containing golden shiners and bluegills. Prog.
Fish-Cult. 37:185-190.

Carter, C. C., AND R. S. HestTanp. 1977. Relationship of regrowth of aquatic macrophytes after
treatment with herbicides to water quality and phytoplankton populations. J. Aquat.
Plant Manage. 15:65-69.

CoweLL, B. C., anp P. L. Hupson. 1967. Some environmental factors influencing benthic
invertebrates in two Missouri River reservoirs. Pp. 541-555. In: Lang, C. E., Jr. (ed.).
Fishery Resources Symposium. Univ. Georgia, Athens.

DanrEL, E. C. 1972. Evaluation of diquat and endothall for the control of water milfoil (Myrio-
phyllum exalbescens) and the effect of weed kill on the nitrogen and phosphorus status of
a waterbody. Doctoral Dissertation. Univ. Wisc., Madison.

DauBeEmMirE, R. 1968. Plant Communities: A Textbook of Plant Synecology. Harper and Row,
New York, New York.

Derevy, E. S. 1941. Limnological studies in Connecticut VI. The quantity and composition of
the bottom fauna of 36 Connecticut and New York lakes. Ecol. Monogr. 11:413-455.

Harrop, J. J., AND R. E. Hau. 1962. A method for determining the surface areas of various
aquatic plants. Hyproprotocia 20:173-178.

HeEstTAnp, R. S., AND C. C. Carrer. 1978. Comparative effects of grass carp and selected herbi-
cides on macrophyte and phytoplankton communities. J. Aquat. Plant Manage. 16:43-50.

Hucues, G. H. 1970. Hydrologic setting of Deer Point Lake near Panama City, Fla. U.S.
Geological Survey, Map Series No. 38.

Hutcuinson, G. E. 1975. A Treatise on Limnology, III. Limnological Botany. John Wiley and
Sons, New York, New York.

Kosyuinski, G. J., W. W. Mitey, II, J. M. VAN Dyke, AND A. J. LESLIE, Jr. 1980. The effects of
grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella Val.) on vegetation, water quality, zooplankton,
and macroinvertebrates of Deer Point Lake, Bay County, Florida. Final Report. Florida
Dept. Natural Resources, Tallahassee.

Krecker, F. H. 1939. A comparative study of the animal populations of certain submerged
aquatic plants. Ecology 20:553-562.

Lanpers, D. H. 1979. Nutrient release from senescing milfoil and phytoplankton response. Pp.

123-143. In: Breck, J. E., R. T. PRENTKI, AND O. L. Loucks (eds.). Proceedings of a con-
ference on aquatic plants, lake management, and ecosystem consequences of lake har-
vesting. Univ. Wisc., Madison.

Leatuers, A. L. 1922. An ecological study of aquatic midges and some related insects with spe-
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Lemsi, C. A., B. G. Rrrenour, E. M. Iverson, AND E. C. Forss. 1978. The effects of vegetation
removal by grass carp on water chemistry and phytoplankton. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.
107:161-171.

Lesuig, A. J., JR., L. E. Natt, anp J. M. Van Dyke. 1983. Effects of vegetation control by
grass carp on selected water-quality variables in four Florida lakes. Trans. Amer. Fish.
Soc. 112:777-787.

Martin, R. G., AND J. V. SHIREMAN. 1976. A quantitative sampling method for hydrilla inhabit-
ing macroinvertebrates. J. Aquat. Plant Manage. 14:16-19.

May, B. E., R. S. Hestanp, AND J. M. VAN Dyke. 1973. Comparative effects of diquat plus
copper sulfate on aquatic organisms. Weed Sci. 21:249-253.

McGana, Y. J. 1952. The limnological relations of insects to certain aquatic flowering plants.
Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc. 71:355-381.

Mickie, A. M., anp R. G. WerzeExL. 1978a. Effectiveness of submersed angiosperm-epiphyte
complexes on exchange of nutrients and organic carbon in littoral systems. I. Inorganic
nutrients. Aquat. Bot. 4:303-316.

Mickie, A. M., AND R. G. WerzeL. 1978b. Effectiveness of submersed angiosperm-epiphyte
complexes on exchange of nutrients and organic carbon in littoral systems. II. Dissolved
organic carbon. Aquat. Bot. 4:317-329.

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J. V. (ed.). Proc. grass carp conference. Univ. Florida, Gainesville.

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a system of Japanese lakes based on the bottom fauna. Jap. J. Zool. 4:417-437.

Ossorn_E, J. A. 1978. Management of emergent and submergent vegetation in stormwater re-
tention ponds using grass carp. Final Report. Florida Dept. Natural Resources, Talla-
hassee.

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western stream. Ohio J. Sci. 56:291.

Prowse, G. A. 1971. Experimental criteria for studying grass carp feeding in relation to weed
control. Prog. Fish-Cult. 33:128-131.

Rosine, W. M. 1955. The distribution of invertebrates on submerged aquatic plant surfaces in
Muskee Lake, Colorado. Ecology 36:308-314.

RotrMan, R. W., AND R. O. ANpERsoN. 1978. Limnological and ecological effects of grass carp
in ponds. Proc. Annual Conf. Southeastern Assoc. Game and Fish Commissioners 30:24-39.

SHIREMAN, J. V. 1976. Ecological study of Lake Wales, Florida after introduction of grass carp.
Annual Report. Florida Dept. Natural Resources, Tallahassee.

SHIREMAN, J. V., D. E. CoLLe, AND R. W. RotrMan. 1978. Size limits to predation on grass carp
by largemouth bass. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 107:213-215.

STANLEY, J. G. 1974. Nitrogen and phosphorus balance of grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella,
fed elodea, Egeria densa. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 103:587-592.

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Binnengewasser 1:1-255.

Van Dyke, J. M., A. J. Lesuir, Jr., AND L. E. Natu. 1984. The effects of the grass carp on the
aquatic macrophytes of four Florida lakes. J. Aquat. Plant Manage. 22:87-95.

Van Dyke, J. M., AND D. L. Sutton. 1977. Digestion of duckweed (Lemna spp.) by the grass
carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). J. Fish Biol. 11:273-278.

von Zon, J. C. J. 1979. The use of grass carp in comparison with other aquatic weed control
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Gainesville.

Florida Sci. 48(4):220-231. 1985.

Biological Sciences

THE VEGETATION OF DOG ISLAND, FLORIDA

(1) Loran C. ANDERSON AND (2) LAURENCE L. ALEXANDER

(1) Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306;
and (2) P.O. Box 523, Carrabelle, Florida 32322

Asstract: The geology and physiography of the island are described and the natural plant
communities mapped and characterized. The vascular flora of the island consists of 393 taxa
representing 92 plant families. The Poaceae, Asteraceae, and Cyperaceae constitute over 35 % of
the species diversity. Aquatic and wetlands plants predominate. A large number of species com-
mon to the Carrabelle area of mainland Franklin County are not found on the island. Although
its flora is depauperate, the island has notable plants: the Sand Pine, Pinus clausa, is older on the
island than on the adjacent mainland, and the subtropical species Avicennia germinans and
Thelypteris interrupta have their northernmost populations on the island.

Tuis Stupy results from many years’ work. Robert K. Godfrey made
plant collections on Dog Island intermittently for nearly 15 years, whereas
Anderson made intensive field collections and observations for three years.
Alexander, a resident of the island for six years, has amassed considerable
data on its physical and biotic composition.

Dog Island, located in Franklin County, Florida about 7 km offshore
from Carrabelle in the Gulf of Mexico, is the easternmost in a chain of three
islands which form the off-shore barrier system for the Apalachicola River
Estuary and St. George Sound. Livingston (1983) gives some general infor-
mation on Dog Island and basic data on the Apalachicola Estuary.

The island is approximately 11 km long with a maximum width of a little
over 1.6 km in the area just west of Tyson Harbor. Narrows of the island are
100-140 m in width. The island has four major areas (Fig. 1.): Mid-Island,
East End which is separated from the Mid-Island by Tyson Harbor, Can-
nonball Acres which is connected to Mid-Island by a very narrow strip of
land (Cannonball Narrows), and West End which is connected to Cannon-
ball by a narrows.

Dog Island is about 4,000 years old (Spicola, 1984); it has one of the few
well-developed beach ridge plains of late Holocene age in the state (Fernald,
1981). The island was formed from sediments transported by the Apalachi-
cola River system during the Pleistocene (Tanner, 1960); the sediments are
similar in grain size and general mineralogy to those of the southern Apala-
chians and Piedmont (Hsu, 1960). In general, the beaches and barrier
islands of Franklin County were formed after the Silver Bluff terrace (Fer-
nald, 1981).

The geological history of the island has been extremely dynamic with
alternating periods of deposition and erosion. The foundation of the old

No. 4, 1985] ANDERSON AND ALEXANDER — VEGETATION OF DOG ISLAND 233

TYSON
N HARBOR

THE
INTERIOR

THE
MOUNTAINS

CANNONBALL

\ EAST END
NARROWS \

| Oa

WEST END ge UnES

Fic. 1. Map of Dog Island with the major physiographic units.

lighthouse that was in use on the island in the 19th century is now submerged
and approximately 125 m offshore in the Gulf of Mexico. Possible earlier
configurations of the island are illustrated by Spicola (1984). Presently, two
littoral cells are eroding the central gulf shore of Dog Island (Stapor, 1971)
with one cell moving 70 x 10* m° of sediments southwesterly toward the
West End annually and the other cell moving 12 x 10% m? northeasterly
toward the East End. Erosion data from map differencing by Spicola (1984)
are approximately twice as great as those of Stapor. Additional erosion is
directed from the beaches toward the island’s interior. Aeolian (wind) trans-
port has moved sediments inland along the central beach which has resulted
in formation of a long, more or less continuous beach dune ridge approxi-
mately 4 km long; these dunes are thought to be no more than 3,000 years
old (Gorsline, 1963). Overwash zones also occur in the two narrows of the
island as well as on the East End.

Soils on Dog Island are sandy and generally consist of fine quartzip-
samments with admixtures of thin organics. Coastal dunes and recently ac-
creted sediments are almost devoid of organics (Kureb and Rimini fine sands
with 0.2-0.5% organics); woodlands have slightly more organic material
(Osier sand), and the interior marshes and fresh-water basins have the
greatest portions of organics (Rutlege sand with approx. 3-6% organic mat-
ter on the island).

234 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Groundwater of the island is a perched fresh-water lens resting on and
surrounded by saltwater. The fresh water on the island consists entirely of
rainwater which averages about 142 cm a year. Comparisons of precipita-
tion data for the island and those from the U.S. Weather Bureau station in
Apalachicola suggest the island may receive perhaps 2.5 cm more rain an-
nually. Most bodies of water on the island that are not directly connected to
the bay are fresh-water, but some in overwash areas such as the Cannonball
Narrows are somewhat brackish with 2-3 parts per thousand salt. Dog
Island’s map area is 1842 acres, 690 acres of which are fresh water wetlands
and 352 acres are intertidal wetlands.

PHysioGRAPHY—In general, the island consists of alternating dune ridges
and intervening swales, depression marshes, or seasonal wetlands. Eleva-
tions vary somewhat among and within the four distinct physiographic units
of the island (Fig. 1).

The East End features low, broad dune ridges with elevations of 2-4 m
above mean sea level (MSL). The beach is low, typically 5-10 m wide, with
well defined runnels. The accreting portions of the East End beach are
typically 100-500 m broad.

The Mid-Island unit is variable in elevation. The beach dune ridge which
runs the length of the central gulf beach is generally 3-6 m high. Interior
scrub dunes behind that ridge are 1-3 m above MSL. Intervening wetlands
are perennially or seasonally inundated, depending on rainfall. The exten-
sive flatwoods west of Tyson Harbor are locally called “The Interior” (Fig.
1). Some drainage of The Interior passes through a man-made canal known
as Moccasin Creek. The sand pine dunes are somewhat higher in elevation
(4-15 m above MSL); these wooded dunes are locally known as “The Moun-
tains.”

Cannonball Acres is generally low in elevation (1-3 m above MSL) and
has no clearly developed coastal dunes. Here, wetlands reflect the recently
emergent character of this part of the island, and the plant communities are
poorly delimited. The fresh water areas have a shallow profile with a more
brackish underlayment (as much as 20 ppt).

The West End contains some of the largest coastal dunes on the island
(5-10 m above MSL), which are derived from recent deposition of sediments.
These dunes are generally barren and unconsolidated by vegetation. The in-
terior flatwoods are seasonally wet. The low level of floristic richness attests
to the recent build-up of this part of the island.

For the wider parts of the island, transects from gulf to bay have vegeta-
tional development similar to that of a “typical barrier island” as defined by
Livingston (1983).

HuMAN Impact—Some Indian artifacts have been found on the island,
but generally human impact on Dog Island have been substantially less than
on the other islands in the system. St. Vincent Island has experienced human

No. 4, 1985] ANDERSON AND ALEXANDER — VEGETATION OF DOG ISLAND 235

habitation and fairly intensive use for the past 200 years, whereas Dog Island
has experienced human habitation and use for only the past 40 years.

Cannonball Acres is so named because it was used for gunnery practice in
the past. A substantial percentage of the older slash pines on the island are
scarred from turpentine collection. Goats and cattle have also been grazed
on the island, and some ruderal plant species are known only from the corral
area on the East End. Cattle were removed from the island in 1981. An ex-
tensive fresh water marsh of The Interior was formerly an intertidal marsh,
but its narrow passage to the bay was closed about 1965.

Homes have been built along portions of the gulf frontage and to a lesser
extent on the bayside. However, nearly three quarters of the island are now
under Nature Conservancy protection through the Cayahoga Trust as the
Jeff Lewis Wilderness Preserve. The grass airstrip and road network possibly
represent the greatest impact on the original flora. Still, the predominant
character of the island’s flora is natural.

PLANT ComMmMunitTiEs— Three community types as defined by the Florida
Natural Areas Inventory are mapped for Dog Island (Fig. 2): Marine, terres-
trial, and palustrine. Marine communities occur in sublittoral and littoral
zones seaward to the limits of rooted vegetation. Terrestrial communities are
not regularly inundated or saturated, whereas palustrine communities are
non-tidal wetlands characterized by emergent vegetation. Lacustrine com-
munities (pools and lakes) are not sufficiently large or abundant on the
island to map; they are included in the palustrine community type.

Two or more natural communities described below are found in each of
the three major community types.

Intertidal Aquatic Beds consist of close inshore areas of Syringodium,
Halodule, and Thalassia. They are primarily on the bay side of the island
and in Tyson Harbor.

The Intertidal Marsh is composed primarily of Juncus roemerianus and
Spartina alterniflora. Some of the associated species include: Agalinis
maritima, Baccharis halimifolia, Batis maritima, Borrichia frutescens, Dis-
tichlis spicata, Ruppia maritima, and Spartina spartinae. These marshes
occur on the bayside of the island. The more inland portions of the marsh on
Cannonball Acres contain a mixture of salt and fresh-water species which
reflects the relatively recent emergence of the Cannonball unit.

Black Mangrove (Avicennia germinans) is usually listed as part of the In-
tertidal Marsh Community, but it is given special notice here because the
Dog Island populations represent the northernmost occurrence for this
species in the Gulf of Mexico. Winter die-back is occasionally extensive (with
estimated 70% mortality in the winter of 1983-84), but the communities
recover each year and seem to be healthy. Herbaceous associates in the
mangrove-dominated community include Limonium angustatum and
Salicornia virginica.

236 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

MARINE :
INTERTIDAL AQUATIC BED[~ |
INTERTIDAL MARSHY

MANGROVE[_ |

TERRESTRIAL:
BEACH / DUNE RN

OVERWASH PLAIN / SAVANNAH

v Zi
a
—_
aS

PALUSTRINE :
SLOUGH / DEPRESSION MARSH [ii

WET FLATWOODS

O { 2 3
[Se ee ee es ———————
Miles

Fic. 2. The three plant community types on Dog Island and their natural communities.

No. 4, 1985] ANDERSON AND ALEXANDER — VEGETATION OF DOG ISLAND 237

The Beach/Dune Community is characterized by Sea Oats (Uniola
paniculata) and mixed halophytes and herbs such as Cakile constricta,
Chrysoma pauciflosculosa, Ipomoea stolonifera, Oenothera humifusa, Schi-
zachyrium maritimum, and Sesuvium portulacastrum. This terrestrial com-
munity is xeric with marine influences.

The Overwash Plain/Savannah is relatively treeless, coastal flatland. It
includes the grassy airstrip which is a mixture of native and introduced
ruderal species. The overwash community of the Cannonball Narrows (Fig.
1) is unusual. The dominant species is Juncus roemerianus, but hundreds of
juvenile Osmunda regalis and limited numbers of Lorinseria, Lygodium,
and Thelypteris are also present. It will be interesting to note the ultimate
fate of these ferns when they penetrate the canopy of rushes.

The Scrub Community is found on old dunes. Oak scrub (primarily
Quercus geminata and Q. myrtifolia) and Rosemary scrub (Ceratiola
ericoides) are included here. Some of the common shrubs are Chrysoma
pauciflosculosa, Conradina canescens, Ilex vomitoria, Polygonella poly-
gama, and Sabal minor. Herbaceous plants commonly found include
Agalinis filifolia, Andropogon glomeratus, Liatris chapmannii, Paronychia
erecta, Polypremum procumbens, and the lichen Cladonia (reindeer moss).

Sand pine (Pinus clausa) is usually mapped as part of the Scrub Com-
munity. For Dog Island, we mapped the Sand Pine Community separately
because of the unevenly aged characteristics of the community. Several sand
pines in “The Mountains” are 100-125 years old (W. J. Platt, personal
comm.), whereas the older trees on the adjacent mainland near Carrabelle
are mostly around 80 years old. Relatively few species of plants except for
Ceratiola and Cladonia grow under the sand pines.

The Slough/ Depression Marsh Community is a rounded depression in the
sand that is seasonally inundated. On Dog Island, this palustrine community
is generally dominated by sawgrass (Cladium) or cattail (Typha); the latter
tends to dominate in human-disturbed sites. Margins of the communities are
characterized by the woody species Ilex glabra, Lyonia lucida, and some
Persea and Salix. Predominant smaller herbs include Eleocharis cellulosa,
Fuirena scirpoides, and Phyla nodiflora. The extensive sloughs of “The In-
terior” have considerable Eriocaulon compressum, Hypericum fasciculatum,
and Lachnanthes caroliniana; those species are infrequent elsewhere on the
island. Many smaller sloughs, roadside ditches, and depression marshes are
scattered over the island, primarily within the overwash and savannah com-
munities; they are too small to be mapped.

The Wet Flatwoods Community is a seasonally inundated, sandy flat-
land dominated by slash pine (Pinus elliottii) on Dog Island. However, pines
are not limited to the flatwoods community on the island. The principal
areas with this community are “The Interior” of Mid-Island; smaller sites are
on Cannonball Acres and the West End. Magnolia virginiana and Sabal
palmetto are occasionally found in the community; Magnolia grandiflora is

238 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

rare, and Cliftonia and Cyrilla (the titi so common on the mainland) are ab-
sent on Dog Island.

In addition to the 9 natural communities mapped on Fig. 2, there is a
ruderal community on the island. Its elements are too small to map. The air-
strip is mapped as overwash/savannah, but it contains a mixture of native
and weedy introduced species. In addition to the roadsides, other major
ruderal areas are the corral on the East End and an abandoned dump on
Mid-Island.

ANNOTATED CHECKLIST OF VASCULAR PLANT Taxa—The list given in the
Appendix represents 393 taxa (391 species and 2 additional varieties) of
native or naturalized vascular plants known to occur on Dog Island. The
naturalized status is judgmental. Some intentional plantings such as single
specimens of Casuarina cf. equisetifolia and Taxodium distichum will prob-
ably not naturalize on the island and are not included here. Others, such as
Albizia julibrissin are reproducing on the island. Still others, such as
Tritonia and Liriope, have spread vegetatively and are established.

The nomenclature basically follows that compiled by Clewell (in press).
For most taxa, statements on relative occurrence, plant community mem-
bership, phenology, and vouchered collections are given.

Relative occurrence is coded in decreasing order as: A, abundant; C,
common; F, frequent; I, infrequent; and R, rare. A and C are used for taxa
that dominate a community or nearly do so, whereas I is used for taxa with
one or two known populations, and R denotes a species represented by only
one or two plants.

Phenological data indicate months of flower or spore production, but for
many grasses, rushes, and sedges the dates more properly represent fruiting
times. A few species, such as Chrysoma pauciflosculosa and, particularly,
Conradina canescens have sporadic blooming throughout the year in addi-
tion to their main blooming season. Flowering time for some species is more
related to fluctuations in water levels in the marshes than to season of the year.

Spiranthes vernalis was seen in 1981 but not in 1982 or 83. Agalinus
filifolia bloomed with thousands of plants in 1982 but was not observed by
Anderson, Alexander, or Godfrey before that; it bloomed very lightly in 1983.

The winter of 1981-82 had some colder temperatures than the following
winter (14 days with temperatures dropping below freezing vs. 1 day the
following year), but the winter of 1982-83 had a longer period of generally
cold days. Most members of the spring flora of 1983 bloomed 2-3 weeks later
than they did the year earlier. However, Rubus trivialis and Cirsium horri-
dulum both bloomed 3-4 weeks earlier in 1983 than they did in 1982.

Collections by Anderson are those with four digits; those of Godfrey have
five. All vouchers are in the Florida State University Herbarium.

PHyTOGEOGRAPHY—Perhaps the most noteworthy species found on the
island are Black Mangrove, Avicennia germinans, and a marsh fern,

No. 4, 1985] ANDERSON AND ALEXANDER— VEGETATION OF DOG ISLAND 239

Thelypteris interrupta. Dog Island plants represent the northern most popu-
lations of these subtropical species in Florida.

Ninety-two vascular plant families are represented on the island. The
major families are: Poaceae with 68 species and 2 additional varieties,
Asteraceae with 38 species, Cyperaceae with 34, Scrophulariaceae with 15,
Fabaceae with 12, and Apiaceae with 10 species.

About 64% of the flowering plants on the island are aquatic or wetlands
plants—determined by comparisons to listings by Godfrey and Wooten
(1979, 1981). According to Godfrey and Wooten, the aquatic species com-
position is 39.3% monocots and 60.7% dicots; on Dog Island the angiosperm
aquatics are 45.6% monocots and 54.4% dicots. The aquatic ferns and pond
cypress on Dog Island (10 spp.) are not included in those comparisons.

Another sizable floristic element on the island is the ruderal or weedy
group. This designation of at least 60 species includes those plants that prob-
ably would not be on the island if human disturbances were absent. There
are 21 weedy species represented by only a few individuals at the old dump
on Mid-Island or the corral on East End. Both of those areas have been
closed to further perturbation for a year or two, and migration of native
species into those sites is already evident. The total number of species on the
island will probably drop in the next decade as those disturbed areas recover.

The rather depauperate status of the island flora is evident when com-
parisons are made to the Franklin County mainland. Many trees and shrubs
are absent on the island such as: Ash, Birch, Cherry, Elm, Hackberry,
Hawthorn, Hickory, Loblolly bay, Maple, Possum-haw, Purple sesban,
Rhododendron, Sweet gum, Titi, Tupelo, Tulip poplar, and Wild olive.
Species occurrence in selected genera are given in Table 1. It should be noted
that Franklin County mainland flora is not as well-known as the Dog Island
flora so the disparity in species numbers shown in Table 1 could be expected
to increase as survey of the county progresses.

In addition to the noticeable absence of many taxa that are frequent
around Carrabelle, several native species are represented on Dog Island by
only a single specimen, such as Callicarpa americana, Cephalanthus occi-
dentalis, Gelsemium rankinii, Quercus nigra, Pinus palustris, Saururus cer-
nuus, Setaria magna, and Taxodium ascendens. Only two juvenile plants of
Magnolia grandiflora have been found. We realize our survey is not ab-
solute, but the species listed above are prominent and easily spotted, so we
are certain their relative frequency is accurately assessed. We could not find
Alnus serrulata and Phragmites australis, which Godfrey reported; they are
probably now extinct from the island.

The many species absent from the island that seemingly should be pres-
ent and the rarity on the island of other common species all suggest a high
turnover rate for at least part of the island flora. This turnover relates to
limitations on migration from the mainland, successful establishment on the
island, and vulnerability of most habitats on the island. Vulnerability is
easily demonstrated. Six species (the Carex, Cephalanthus, Gelsemium,

240 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

TaBLE 1. Comparative species frequencies for selected genera.

Genus Dog Island Franklin County mainland
Rhyncospora (Beak-rush) 5 18
Hypericum (St. John’s wort) 5 15
Carex (Sedge) 1 11
Aster 1 10
Rhexia (Meadow beauty) 1 9
Vaccinium (Blueberry) 1 7
Helianthus (Sunflower) 0 6
Lobelia 0 6
Liatris (Blazing Star) 1 5
Coreopsis 0 5
Pinguicula (Butterwort) 0 5
Sarracenia (Pitcherplant) 0 4

Lorinseria, Lygodium, and Saururus) are found only in a small overwash
area of Cannonball Narrows. A series of strong storm surges could wipe them
out. It is highly probable that such plants as Alnus and Magnolia have been
introduced to the island several times, and their presence or absence depends
both on successful establishment and on subsequent climatic events in years
preceding a survey.

Floristic comparisons among the barrier islands of the Apalachicola
system must await detailed study of the other islands. Current survey efforts
on St. Vincent Island have nearly doubled the number of taxa listed by
McAtee (1913); the flora of St. George Island is still poorly known.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— Travel funds to Anderson were provided by the Florida Nature Conser-
vancy. Thanks are also due Dan Tonsmeire and the Pelican Inn for important logistical support
and Ken Womble for the illustrations.

LITERATURE CITED

CLEWELL, A. F. (In press) Guide to the Vascular Plants of the Florida Panhandle. Florida State
Univ. Press/Univ. Presses of Florida, Tallahassee.

FERNALD, E. A. 1981. Atlas of Florida. Florida State Univ. Foundation, Tallahassee.

Goprrey, R. K., anp J. W. Wooten. 1979. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Southeastern United
States. Monocotyledons. Univ. Georgia Press, Athens.

. 1981. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Southeastern United States. Dicotyledons.

Univ. Georgia Press, Athens.

Gors.inE, D. S. 1963. Oceanography of Apalachicola Bay, Florida. Univ. Southern Calif. Press,
Los Angeles.

Hsu, K. J. 1960. Texture and minerology of recent sands of the Gulf Coast. J. Sed. Pet.
30:380-403.

Livincston, R. J. 1983. Resource Atlas of the Apalachicola Estuary. Florida Sea Grant Report
no. 55.

McAteE, W. L. 1913. A list of plants collected on St. Vincent Island, Florida. Proc. Biol. Soc.
Wash. 26:39-52.

SPIcOLA, J. J. 1984. Asymmetry of the “a-b-c” model with regard to the evolution of Dog Island,
Florida. M.S. Thesis, Florida State Univ., Tallahassee.

Stapor, F. W. 1971. Sediment budgets on a compartmented low-to-moderate energy coast in
northwest Florida. Marine Geol. 10:ml-m7.

TANNER, W. F. 1960. Expanding shoals in areas of wave refraction. Science 312:1012-1013.

Florida Sci. 48(4):232-251. 1985.

No. 4, 1985] ANDERSON AND ALEXANDER — VEGETATION OF DOG ISLAND 241

APPENDIX

FERNS AND FERN ALLIES

Blechnaceae

Lorinseria areolata (L.) Presl. NETTED CHAIN-FERN. R in Cannonball Narrows; juvenile; 5850.

Woodwardia virginica (L.) J. Smith. vircINia CHAIN-FERN. I in wet flatwoods; Sep-Oct; 5595,
5910, 6218.

Lycopodiaceae

Lycopodium appressum (Chapm.) Lloyd & Underw. souTHERN cLUBMoss. F in overwash/
savannah; Sep-Nov; 5845, 5911, 6219, 6287, 6766.

Osmundaceae

Osmunda cinnamomea L. CINNAMON FERN. R in overwash/savannah of West End; Apr; 5865.

Osmunda regalis L. var. spectabilis (Willd.) A. Gray. ROYAL FERN. F in wet flatwoods and I in
overwash/savannah; Mar-Oct; 5550, 5552, 5685, 5849.

Pteridaceae

Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn var. pseudocaudatum (Clute) Heller. BRACKEN. F in wet flat-
woods; rarely sporulates on Dog Island; 5637.

Schizaeaceae

Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw. CLIMBING FERN. R in Cannonball Narrows; Jul; 6050.

Thelypteridaceae

Thelypteris interrupta (Willd.) Iwatsuki. I in slough/marsh of East End; Sep-Nov; 5551, 5634,
5635, 6172.

Thelypteris palustris Schott. MARSH FERN. F in slough/marsh and I in overwash/savannah; Sep-
Oct; 5623, 5880, 71200.

GYMNOSPERMS

Cupressaceae

Jupiperus communis L. var. depressa Pursh. GROUND JUNIPER. I in sand pine of The Mountains;

Pinaceae

Pinus clausa (Chapm. ex Engelm.) Vasey ex Sarg. sAND PINE. A in The Mountains; Feb-Mar;
5597, 5686, 69323.

Pinus elliottii Engelm. sLasH PINE. A in wet flatwoods, F in scrub and I in overwash/savannah
and on dunes; Feb-Mar; 5298, 69321, 70177.

Pinus palustris Mill. LONGLEAF PINE. R in wet flatwoods; Feb; 5658, 5659.

Taxodiaceae

Taxodium ascendens Brongn. POND cypress. R in airstrip pond; juvenile; 5602

Monocots

Agavaceae

Yucca aloifolia L. spANISH BAYONET. F in scrub, overwash/savannah; Apr-May (Jul); 5843.

Yucca filamentosa L. var. smalliana (Fern.) Ahles. stLKGRAss, BEARGRASS. I in scrub; May; 5842.

Alismataceae

Sagittaria lancifolia L. ARROWHEAD. F in slough/marsh; Mar-Oct; 5207, 71045.

Arecaceae (Palmae)

Sabal minor (Jacq.) Pers. DWARF PALMETTO, BLUESTEM. F in overwash/savannah, scrub; May;
5280.

Sabal palmetto (Walt.) Lodd. CABBAGE PALMETTO. I in wet flatwoods; juvenile; 5639.

Serenoa repens (Bartr.) Small. saw-PALMETTO. I in scrub; May; 5625.

Commelinaceae

Commelina erecta L. var. angustifolia (Michx.) Fern. payFLower. F in overwash/savannah,
scrub; Aug-Nov; 5400, 6769.

Tradescantia hirsutiflora Bush. spiERWoRT. I in wet flatwoods; Mar; 5779, 5798.

Tradescantia ohiensis Raf. F in scrub, wet flatwoods; Mar-Aug; 5309.

Cymodoceaceae

Syringodium filiforme Kutz. MANATEE-GRASS. C in aquatic beds; Apr-May; 5612, 67851.

Halodule beaudettei (den Hartog) den Hartog. F in aquatic beds; reported by Livingston (1983).

Cyperaceae

Bulbostylis ciliatifolia (Ell.) FeRN. F in overwash/savannah, scrub; Jul-Sep; 5591, 6057, 6150.

Carex albolutescens Schw. sepcE. R in Cannonball Narrows; Jun; 6017.

Cladium jamaicense Crantz. sawerass. C in slough/marsh, I in overwash/savannah, flatwoods;
Jun-Aug; 5281, 71384.

242 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Cyperus compressus L. FLAT SEDGE. F in overwash/savannah, scrub; Aug-Sep; 5440.

Cyperus croceus Vahl. F in overwash/savannah; Aug-Sep; 5438.

Cyperus esculentus L. var. macrostachyus Boeckl. YELLOW NUT-GRASS, CHUFA. I on roadsides;
Aug-Sep; 6183, 6209.

Cyperus haspan L. sort-STEM FLAT SEDGE. F in slough/marsh; Sep-Oct; 5549.

Cyperus lecontei Torr. FLAT SEDGE. C in scrub, overwash/savannah, I in wet flatwoods; Jul-
Oct; 5284, 5427, 69548.

Cyperus odoratus L. swEET-RUSH. F in slough/marsh; Jul-Oct; 5468, 6053, 71037.

Cyperus polystachyos Rottb. Nar. texensis (Torr.) FERN. F in overwash/savannah; Jul-Sep; 5440
(mixed with C. compressus), 6051.

Cyperus retrorsus Chapm. F in intertidal marsh, overwash/savannah; Aug-Oct; 5430; 5461,
5618, 5619.

Cyperus surinamensis Rottb. F in overwash/savannah, I on roadsides; Aug-Nov; 5444 (culms
atypically glabrous), 6762 (culms retrorsely scarbrous).

Dichromena colorata (L.) Hitche. sTAR-RUSH, WHITE-TOP SEDGE. F in overwash/savannah,
slough/marsh; May-Aug; 5218, 5445, 71242.

Eleocharis cellulosa Torr. sprkE-RUSH. C in slough/marsh, F in overwash/savannah; Jun-Sep;
5278, 5323, 59746, 70573.

Eleocharis flavescens (Poir.) Urban. PALE SPIKE-RUSH. F in overwash/savannah, slough/ marsh;
May-Aug; 5205, 6004, 59743, 70576.

Eleocharis geniculata (L.) R. & S. F in overwash/savannah; Aug-Oct; 5324, 5432, 5576, 6171.

Eleocharis olivacea Torr. I in slough/marsh on East End; Aug; 6170.

Eleocharis parvula (R. & S.) Link. F in slough/marsh; Jun-Nov; 5288, 5631.

Fimbristylis caroliniana (Lam.) Michx. F in scrub, intertidal marsh; Aug-Nov; 5433, 5562, 6209.

Fimbristylis castanea (Michx.) Vahl. C in intertidal marsh; Jun-Nov; 5283, 5434, 6781.

Fuirena scirpoidea Michx. UMBRELLA-GRASS. C in overwash/savannah, slough/marsh, F in wet
flatwoods; Jun-Oct; 5270, 71064.

Psilocarya nitens (Vahl) Wood. BALD-rUsH. F in slough/marsh; Jun-Oct; 5308, 5553, 6167,
75590.

Rhynchospora divergens Chapm. ex M.A. Curtis. F in overwash/savannah; Jun-Nov; 59744,
71241.

Rhynchospora fascicularis (Michx.) Wahl. BEAK-RUSH. F in overwash/savannah, slough/ marsh;
Jul-Aug; 5415, 5418, 6034, 6162, 6441.

Rhynchospora megalocarpa Gray. F in wet flatwoods, scrub; May-Jun; 5227, 65778, 69547.

Rhynchospora microcarpa Baldw. F in slough/ marsh; Jun-Jul; 5329, 6003, 6033.

Rhynchospora tracyi Britt. HORNED-RUSH. C in slough/marsh; May-Sep; 5304, 5889.

Scirpus americanus Pers. THREE-SQUARE BULRUSH. C in slough/ marsh, overwash/savannah; Jun-
Jul; 5326.

Scirpus robustus Pursh. SALT-MARSH BULRUSH. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; May-
Oct; 5276, 5568.

Scirpus validus Vahl. GREAT or SOFT-STEM BULRUSH. F in slough/marsh; Apr-Oct; 5275, 5567.

Scleria ciliata Michx. NuT-RusH. F in wet flatwoods; Mar-Jul; 5792; 5837, 6036.

Scleria georgiana Core. F in slough/marsh; Aug; 5419, 6159.

Scleria reticularis Michx. var. pubescens Britt. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; Jul-Oct;
5582, 5588, 5606, 6014.

Scleria verticillata Muhl. ex. Willd. F in overwash/savannah; Jun-Sep; 6013, 6221.

Eriocaulaceae

Eriocaulon compressum Lam. HAT-PINS. F in slough/marsh, Apr-May; 5840.

Syngonanthus flavidulus (Michx.) Ruhl. sHoE-Buttons. F in slough/marsh, I in wet flatwoods;
Apr-May; 5886, 5887.

Haemodoraceae

Lachnanthes caroliniana (Lam.) Dandy. repRoot. F in slough/ marsh; Jul-Sep; 5838, 6042.

Hydrocharitaceae
Thalassia testudinum Konig. TURTLE-GRAss. C in aquatic beds; Jun-Sep; 5611, 6207, 68817.

Iridaceae

Sisyrinchium xerophyllum Greene. SCRUB BLUE-EYED-GRASS. I in overwash/savannah; Mar; 69316.
Sisyrinchium atlanticum Bickn. BLUE-EYED-GRASS. F on airstrip; Mar-Apr; 5689, 5784.

Tritonia crocosmaefolia Nichols. MONTBREITIA. I in scrub; Jul; 6446.

No. 4, 1985] ANDERSON AND ALEXANDER— VEGETATION OF DOG ISLAND 243

Juncaceae

Juncus dichotomus Ell. rusH. F in overwash/savannah, slough/marsh; Apr-Aug; 5442, 5853,
5878, 5906, 6297.

Juncus marginatus Rostk. sHORE RUSH. F in overwash/savannah, slough/marsh; May-Nov;
5636, 71240.

Juncus megacephalus M. A. Curtis. F in slough/marsh; May-Jun; 5330, 6007.

Juncus roemerianus Scheele. NEEDLERUSH, BLACK RUSH. C in intertidal marsh, overwash/savannah,
F in slough/marsh; May-Jun; 5211, 5652, 71385.

Juncus scirpoides Lam. F in slough/ marsh; Jul-Aug; 5420, 6035.

Lemnaceae

Spirodela punctata (G. W. Meyer) Thompson. puckMEaT. I in slough/ marsh; 5813, 6010.

Liliaceae

Liriope muscari Bailey. Lity-TurF. I in scrub; Jul; 6770.

Orchidaceae

Platanthera nivea (Nutt.) Leur. snowy orcuHi. I in slough/ marsh; Jun-Jul; 5321.

Spiranthes vernalis Engelm. & Gray. SPRING LADIES’ TRESSES. I in scrub; May; 5231.

Poaceae (Gramineae)

Amphicarpum muhlenbergianum (Schult.) Hitche. F in scrub; Sep-Oct; 5557, 6212, 69116.

Andropogon glomeratus (Walt.) BSP. var. pumilus Vasey. BUSHY BEARDGRASS. F in scrub,
slough/marsh; Oct; 5594, 71056, 71060.

Andropogon virginicus L. var. glaucus Hackel. F in scrub; Oct; 5561, 69119, 71047.

Andropogon virginicus L. var. virginicus. BROOMSEDGE. F in slough/ marsh; Oct-Nov; 5596, 5648;
69121, 69279.

Aristida purpurescens Poir. ARROWFEATHER. C in scrub, wet flatwoods, roadsides; Jul-Oct; 5393,
5471, 6152, 69120, 71044.

Aristida spiciformis Ell. BoTTLEBRUSH THREEAWN. F in wet flatwoods; Jul-Aug; 5884, 6040.

Aristida virgata Trin. Trintus. I in wet flatwoods; Aug-Sep; 6160.

Bromus willdenowii Kunth. BROMEGRASS, RESCUEGRASS. I in corral; May; 5915.

Cenchrus echinatus L. SOUTHERN SANDsPUR. C in beach/dune, scrub, roadsides; Jun-Oct; 5300,
5399.

Cenchrus incertus M. A. Curtis. coast sANDsPuR. C in scrub, roadsides; Jul-Oct: 5392, 70574.

Cenchrus tribuloides L. DUNE SANDsPUR. I in beach/dune, roadsides; Aug-Nov; 6154, 71234.

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. BERMUDAGRASS. F in overwash/savannah, dunes, roadsides; Aug-
Nov; 5450, 5638.

Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Beauv. crowFoorterass. F in corral, roadsides; Jul-Oct; 5467,
5615.

Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler. souTHERN CRABGRASS. F in scrub, overwash/savannah, road-
sides; Aug-Sep; 5408, 6153, 6210.

Digitaria decumbens Stent. PANGOLA GRASs. F in overwash/savannah, scrub, roadsides; Apr-Oct;
5599, 5857, 65775, 69544.

Distichlis spicata (L.) Greene. SALTGRASS, ALKALIGRASS. F in intertidal marsh, overwash/savan-
nah; Sep-Nov; 5571, 71071.

Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv. BARNYARD Grass. I in corral; Jun-Aug; 5995.

Echinochloa walteri (Pursh) Heller. coasTaL COCKSPUR, WATERGRASS. F in slough/marsh, over-
wash/savannah; Jun-Oct; 5277, 70584, 71068.

Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. coosecrass. F in scrub, overwash/savannah, roadsides; Aug-Sep;
5406, 6181.

Elyonuris tripsacoides Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. PAN-AMERICAN BALSAMSCALE. F in overwash/
savannah, intertidal marsh; Jun-Oct: 5574, 6022, 6146.

Eragrostis elliottii S. Wats. Lovecrass. F in scrub, overwash/savannah, roadsides; Oct-Nov;
5630, 71050.

Eragrostis hirsuta (Michx.) Nees. BIGTop Lovecrass. I on roadside in The Mountains; Aug-Sep;
6176.

Eragrostis secundiflora Presl. var. oxylepis (Torr.) Koch. rep Lovecrass. F in scrub, roadsides;
Aug-Oct; 5454, 6155, 6292.

Eragrostis spectabilis (Pursh) Steud. PURPLE LOVEGRASS, TUMBLEGRASS. F on airstrip; Aug-Sep;
5443,

Eremochloa ophiuroides (Munro) Hack. CENTIPEDE Grass. I in overwash/savannah, roadsides;
Jul-Aug; 5425.

244 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Erianthus giganteus (Walt.) Muhl. sucARCANE PLUMEGRASS. F in slough/marsh; Oct-Nov; 5587.

Eustachys petraea (Sw.) Desv. FINGERGRASS. F in scrub, overwash/savannah; Mar-Jun; 5220,
5692

Festuca octoflora Walt. stXwEEKs GRASS. F in overwash/savannah, scrub; Mar; 5776, 69315.

Festuca pratensis Huds. MEADOW FESCUE. I at Pelican Inn; Jun; 5994.

Hordeum pusillum Nutt. LITTLE BARLEY. F in scrub, roadsides, Mar-Apr; 5800.

Leptochloa fascicularis (Lam.) Gray. BEARDED SPANGLETOP. I in overwash/savannah, slough/
marsh; May; 5907.

Lolium perenne L. ryecrass. I in corral; Apr; 5876.

Muhlenbergia capillaris (Lam.) Trin. HAIRGRASS, GULF MUHLY. F in scrub, dunes; Oct-Nov;
6760, 71076.

Panicum aciculare Desv. PANiIccRAsSS. F in overwash/savannah; Apr, Nov; 5854, 71235.

Panicum amarum Ell. var. amarulum (Hitche. & Chase) P. G. Parker. BEacHcrass. F in beach/
dune, edge of intertidal marsh; Aug-Oct; 5388, 69078, 71051, 71059, 71065.

Panicum angustifolium Ell. F in The Mountains, roadsides; Apr; 5896.

Panicum dichotomum L. F in overwash/savannah, slough/marsh; Apr-Jun; 5285, 5835.

Panicum erectifolium Nash. C in overwash/savannah, slough/marsh; May-Sep; 5209, 5320,
6032, 6220.

Panicum longiflolium Torr. F in slough/marsh; Jul-Aug; 6163, 70581.

Panicum miliaceum L. R in slough/marsh, May; 65777.

Panicum neuranthum Griseb. Seen by Godfrey.

Panicum portoricense Desv. C in overwash/savannah, scrub, roadsides; Mar-Oct;. 5422, 5781,
5895, 65774, 71063.

Panicum repens L. TORPEDO GRASS. F in slough/marsh; Jun-Nov; 5405.

Panicum rigidulum Nees. REDTOP PANICUM. F in slough/ marsh, intertidal marsh; Jun-Oct; 5609,
5999.

Panicum tenue Muhl. F in overwash/savannah; Apr; 5852.

Panicum virgatum L. swircuerass. C in intertidal marsh, overwash/savannah; Jul-Oct; 5414,
5416, 5424, 6038, 71073.

Paspalum distichum L. knorerass. F on airstrip; Aug; 5428.

Paspalum floridanum Michx. FLORIDA PASPALUM. F in slough/ marsh, Jul-Aug; 5417, 6058.

Paspalum notatum Flugge. BAHIA GRASS. F in scrub, roadsides; Jul-Aug; 5409.

Paspalum setaceum Michx. var. ciliatifolium (Michx.) Vasey. FRINGE LEAF PASPALUM. F on road-
sides; Jul-Aug; 5439, 6059, 6174.

Paspalum setaceum Michx. var. supinum (Bose) Trin. I in corral; Aug; 6165.

Paspalum urvillei Steud. vaseycrass. F in overwash/savannah, moist roadsides; May-Aug; 5905,
6177.

Phragmites australis (Cav.) Thin. ex Steud. COMMON REED. R on bayside beach; Nov; 71222.

Poa annua L. ANNUAL BLUEGRASS, SIXWEEKSGRASS. I in overwash/savannah, roadsides; Mar-Jul;
5654.

Sacciolepis striata (L.) Nash. AMERICAN CUPSCALE. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah;
Jun-Aug; 5291, 70583.

Schizachyrium maritimum (Chapm.) Nash. BLuEsTEM. C in scrub, dune; Oct-Nov; 5585, 5632.

Setaria geniculata (Lam.) Beuv. KNOTROOT FOXTAIL. F in overwash/savannah, slough/ marsh;
Jun-Oct; 5403, 6005, 71054.

Setaria magna Griseb. GIANT FOXTAIL. R in slough/marsh on East End; Oct; 5605.

Spartina alterniflora Loisel. saLTMARSH CORDGRASS, SMOOTH CORDGRASS. C in intertidal marsh,
F in overwash/savannah; Sep-Nov; 5607, 71055.

Spartina bakeri Merr. SAND CorpcrRass. F at dump; May-June; 6006.

Spartina cynosuroides (L.) Roth. Bic corpcrass. R, edge of intertidal marsh at airstrip; Feb-
Mar; 6309 (one clump seen, blooms off-season).

Spartina patens (Ait.) Muhl. MARSH HAY, SALTMEADOW corDGRASS. C in overwash/savannah,
scrub, inner edge of saltmarsh; May-Jun (Aug); 5223, 59739.

Spartina spartinae (Trin.) Hitchc. GuLF corperass. F in intertidal marsh, overwash/savannah;
Aug-Oct; 5577, 6145.

Sphenopholis obtusata (Michx.) Scribn. pratRIE WEDGEGRASS. I on airstrip; Apr; 5855.

Sporobolus indicus (L.) R. Br. smutorass. F in scrub, roadsides; Aug-Oct; 5395, 5412, 71066.

Sporobolus virginicus (L.) Kunth. COASTAL DROPSEED. F in intertidal marsh, overwash/savannah;
Aug-Nov; 5429, 71221.

No. 4, 1985] ANDERSON AND ALEXANDER — VEGETATION OF DOG ISLAND 245

Stenotaphrum secundatum (Walt.) Kuntze. st. AUGUSTINE crass. R in scrub on East End;
vegetative; 6759.

Triplasis americana Beauv. PERENNIAL SANDGRASS. I in scrub, dunes; Jun, Oct; 6294, 59738.

Triplasis purpurea L. PURPLE SANDGRASS. F in scrub, beach/dune; May-Oct; 5598, 5922, 69075.

Uniola paniculata L. sEA oats. C in beach/dune, F in overwash/savannah, scrub; Jun-Oct;
6012, 69118.

Potamogetonaceae

Potamogeton pectinatus L. sAGO PONDWEED. I in slough/marsh; Jul; 5570.

Ruppiaceae

Ruppia maritima L. wmceon-crass. F in intertidal marsh; Apr-Sep; 5861.

Smilacaceae

Smilax auriculata Walt. GREENBRIER. F in scrub, wet flatwoods, overwash/savannah; May-Jun;
5313, 5617.

Smilax laurifolia L. BAMBOO-VINE. I in slough/marsh of The Interior; Feb-Mar; 5839.

Smilax rotundifolia L. GREENBRIER. R in scrub near old dump; May-Jun; 5844.

Typhaceae

Typha domingensis Pers. SOUTHERN CAT-TAIL. C in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; Jun;
5279, 59746.

Typha latifolia L. comMoN catT-TAIL. F in slough/ marsh; Jun; 5302, 71243.

Xyridaceae

Xyris brevifolia Michx. yYELLOW-EYED GRASS. F in slough/ marsh, wet flatwoods; Mar-May; 5805.

Xyris caroliniana Walt. F in scrub, wet flatwoods; Jul-Aug; 5653, 6044.

Xyris elliottii Chapm. F in slough/ marsh; Jun-Sept; 5322, 6045.

Xyris flabelliformis Chapm. F in slough/marsh; Mar-May; 5793, 5808, 5859.

Xyris jupicai Rich. COMMON YELLOW-EYED GRASS. F in slough/ marsh; Jun-Nov; 5583, 5997, 6001,
6289, 6764.

Dicots

Aizoaceae

Carpobrotus edulis (L.) Bolus. HoTrENToT Fic. I in beach/dune at The Hut; Apr; 5848.

Sesuvium maritimum (Walt.) BSP. sEA PURSLANE. I in intertidal marsh on Cannonball Acres;
Jun; 5282.

Sesuvium portulacastrum L. F in intertidal marsh, overwash/savannah; May-Sep; 5224.

Amaranthaceae

Amaranthus australis (Gray) J. D. Sauer. soUrTHERN WATER HEMP. I, edge of intertidal marsh;
Jul-Sep; 6052.

Amaranthus viridis L. ptcweren. I in corral; Jul-Aug; 5410.

Froelichia floridana (Nutt.) Mog. COTTONWEED. F in scrub; Aug-Sep; 5394.

Anacardiaceae

Rhus copallina L. wincep sumac. I in wet flatwoods; Aug; 5299, 5449.

Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze. poison tvy. F in slough/ marsh, wet flatwoods; Mar-Apr;
71062.

Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

Apium leptophyllum (Pers.) F. Muell. MarsH PARSLEY. I on roadsides; Mar; 5783.

Centella asiatica (L.) Urban. C in slough/ marsh, overwash/savannah, I in wet flatwoods; May-
Sep; 5310, 71038.

Chaerophyllum tainturieri Hook. wiLD CHERvIL. I on roadsides; Mar; 5803.

Daucus pusillus Michx. wiLp carrot. I on roadsides; Apr; 5890.

Hydrocotyle bonariensis L. BEACH UMBRELLAS. F in beach/dune, overwash/savannah, slough/
marsh; Apr-Nov; 5265, 65769.

Hydrocotyle umbellata L. MARSH PENNYwoRT. C in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; May-
Nov; 5230.

Hydrocotyle verticillata Thunb. swamp PENNYworT. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah;
May-Sep; 5296.

Ptilimnium capillaceum (Michx.) Raf. Mock BISHOP’s-WEED. F in slough/marsh, overwash/
savannah; May-Jul; 5226.

Spermolepis divaricata (Walt.) Raf. scALE-SEED. F on roadsides; Mar-Apr; 5809.

Spermolepis echinata (Nutt.) Heller. F on roadsides; Apr; 5847.

Aquifoliaceae

Ilex cassine L. DAHOON HOLLY. I in wet flatwoods; Jun; 5883, 6037.

246 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Ilex glabra (L.) Gray. GALLBERRY, INKBERRY. C in slough/marsh, wet flatwoods; Apr-Sep; 5202,
5649, 5879.

Ilex vomitoria Ait. yaupon. C in scrub, F in wet flatwoods, slough/ marsh; Mar-Apr; 5311, 5795.

Asclepiadaceae

Asclepias pedicillata Walt. MILKWEED. I in wet flatwoods; Apr-Sep; 5883, 6037.

Cynanchum angustifolium Pers. SAND-VINE. F in intertidal marsh, overwash/savannah; May-
Sep; 5219.

Asteraceae (Compositae)

Acanthospermum hispidum DC. I in corral; Jul-Aug; 5411.

Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. RAGWEED. F in scrub, roadsides; Aug-Sep; 5462.

Aster tenuifolius L. SALT MARSH ASTER. F in intertidal marsh, overwash/savannah; (Mar) Oct-
Dec; 5578, 6308, 6310, 71058.

Baccharis angustifolia Michx. FALSE WILLOW. F in intertidal marsh, overwash/savannah; Sep-
Oct; 5579, 71052.

Baccharis glomeruliflora Pers. GROUNDSEL-TREE. I in roadside ditch on East End; Nov; 6763, 6779.

Baccharis halimifolia L. sALTBUSH, SEA MYRTLE. F in intertidal marsh; overwash/savannah;
Sep-Oct; 5564, 69073, 71053.

Bidens alba DC. var. radiata (Sch.-Bip.) Ballard ex Melchert. BEcGaR Ticks. I on roadsides; Mar-
Nov; 6054.

Bidens bipinnata L. sPANISH NEEDLES. I on roadsides; Sep-Nov; 5586, 6283.

Borrichia frutescens (L.) DC. sea ox-EYE. F in intertidal marsh; May-Jul; 5903, 71067.

Chrysoma pauciflosculosa (Michx.) Greene. BUSH GOLDENROD. C in dune, scrub, F in wet flat-
woods; (May) Oct-Dec; 5200, 69280.

Cirsium horridulum Michx. PLUME THISTLE. F in slough/marsh; Mar-Apr; 5687.

Conyza canadensis (L.) Crong. HORSEWEED. F in scrub, roadsides; May-Sep; 6440, 70580.

Erechtites heiracifolia (L.) Raf. FIREWEED. I in overwash/savannah, scrub; Jun-Aug; 5292.

Eupatorium anomalum Nash. BONESET. F in overwash/savannah, slough/marsh; Aug-Oct;
5389, 5556.

Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Small. poc FENNEL. F in slough/marsh, roadsides; Oct-Nov;
5560, 71064a.

Eupatorium compositifolium Walt. Doc FENNEL. I in scrub, roadsides; Oct-Nov; 6211.

Eupatorium leptophyllum DC. voc FENNEL. F in wet flatwoods; Sep-Oct; 5555, 69079, 71048.

Eupatorium mikanioides Chapm. THoROuGHWoRT. F in slough/ marsh; Jul-Sep; 5397.

Euthamia minor (Michx.) Greene. FLAT-TOPPED GOLDENROD. F in slough/marsh, scrub; Oct;
5584, 71049.

Gnaphalium falcatum Lam. RABBIT-TOBACCO. F in overwash/savannah (airstrip); Mar; 6307.

Gnaphalium obtusifolium L. F in scrub, overwash/savannah; Sep-Oct; 5575.

Gnaphalium pensylvanicum Willd. I at corral; Apr; 5881.

Gnaphalium purpureum L. F in overwash/savannah (airstrip); Mar-May; 6306.

Heterotheca subaxillaris (Lam.) Britt. & Rusby. GOLDEN-ASTER. C in beach/dune, overwash/
savannah, scrub; Jun-Dec; 5292, 6768.

Iva frutescens L. MARSH ELDER. F in intertidal marsh, overwash/savannah; Aug-Sep; 5460.

Krigia virginica (L.) Willd. pwarF DANDELION. F on airstrip, roadsides; Mar; 5688, 69318.

Liatris chapmannii T. & G. BLAZING STAR, GAY-FEATHER. C in scrub; Sep-Oct; 5546.

Mikania scandens (L.) Willd. cLimBING HEMPWEED. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah;
Aug-Oct; 5404.

Pityopsis graminifolia (Michx.) Nutt. var. microcephala (Small) Semple. GOLDEN asTER. R in
overwash/savannah on West End; Oct; 5864.

Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass. MARSH FLEABANE. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; Jul-Aug;
5273, 6151.

Pluchea rosea Godfrey. F in overwash/savannah, slough/marsh; Jul-Sep; 5558, 70572.

Pterocaulon pycnostachyum (Michx.) Ell. BLackroor. F in overwash/savannah, scrub, wet flat-
woods; May-Jun; 5912; 71383.

Solidago altissima L. GOLDENROD. I in sand pine in The Mountains; Oct; 6205, 6284.

Solidago fistulosa Mill. swamp GOLDENROD. I in slough/marsh on East End; Oct; 5548.

Solidago sempervirens L. SEASIDE GOLDENROD. F in intertidal marsh, overwash/savannah; Oct-
Nov; 5601, 71036.

Solidago stricta Ait. F in overwash/savannah, intertidal marsh; (Mar) Oct; 5600, 5817, 71069,
71074.

No. 4, 1985] ANDERSON AND ALEXANDER— VEGETATION OF DOG ISLAND 247

Sonchus asper (L.) Hill. spiny sow THISTLE. I on roadsides; Mar; 5812.

Sonchus oleraceus L. COMMON SOW THISTLE. I at dump; Feb; 5651.

Avicenniaceae

Avicennia germinans (L.) L. BLACK MANGROVE. F in intertidal marsh; Jun-Jul (Aug); 5580, 5641,
6023, 71227 (many germinating seedlings in stand, 20 Nov 71). Kurz collected the species on
Dog Island in 1950.

Bataceae

Batis maritima L. sattwort. F in intertidal marsh; Jun-Jul. 5271, 6147, 71228.

Betulaceae

Alnus serrulata (Ait.) Willd. HAZEL ALDER. R in wet flatwoods; seen by Godfrey in 1971.

Boraginaceae

Heliotropium curassavicum L. HELIOTROPE. I on shell spoil, Tyson Harbor; May-Oct; 5614, 5919,
6047.

Brassicaceae (Cruciferae)

Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata L. CABBAGE. R on roadside by The Hut; Mar; 58/1.

Cakile constricta Rodman. sEA ROCKET. F in beach/dune; Aug-Oct; 5455, 68813.

Cardamine pensylvanica Muhl. var. brittoniana Farwell. BrTTeR cress. R at Pelican Inn; Sep;
5610.

Descurania pinnata (Walt.) Britt. TANSY MUSTARD. F on airstrip, roadsides; Feb; 5645.

Lepidium virginicum L. PEPPERGRASS. F in scrub, roadsides; Jul-Aug; 5437.

Cactaceae

Opuntia drummondii Graham. prIcKLy PEaR. I in scrub; seen by Godfrey.

Opuntia humifusa (Raf.) Raf. F in scrub; Apr; 5898.

Campanulaceae

Triodanis perfoliata (L.) Nieuw. VENUS’ LOOKING-GLASS. I in overwash/ savannah (airstrip); Mar-
Apr; 5782.

Wahlenbergia marginata (Thunb.) DC. F on airstrip, roadsides; Mar-Aug; 5797.

Caprifoliaceae

Sambucus canadensis L. ELDERBERRY. R in slough/marsh at dump; Jun; 5303.

Caryophyllaceae

Arenaria serpyllifolia L. THYME-LEAVED SANDWoRT. I on airstrip; Mar-Apr; 5788 (mixed with
Sagina decumbens).

Paronychia baldwinii (T. & G.) Fenzl. ssp. baldwinii. I in scrub at corral; Aug-Nov; 6166, 6776.

Paronychia erecta (Chapm.) Shinners. wHITLOW-woRT, SAND-SQUARES. C in scrub, dunes; May-
Nov; 5212, 5626, 69543.

Sagina decumbens (Ell.) T. & G. PpEARLWort. I on airstrip; Mar-Apr; 5788 (mixed with Arenaria
serpyllifolia).

Silene antirrhina L. sLEEPY CATCHFLY. I on roadsides; Mar-Apr; 5775.

Stellaria media (L.) Cyr. CHICKWEED. I on airstrip; Feb-Mar; 5655, 6311.

Stipulicida setacea Michx. var. setacea. F in scrub; Mar-May; 5204, 5787, 65771.

Chenopodiaceae

Atriplex arenaria Nutt. BEACH ORACH. F in intertidal marsh, beach/dune; Aug; 5456, 5860.

Chenopodium album L. LAMB’s QUARTERS. I at corral; Aug; 5464.

Chenopodium ambrosioides L. MEXICAN-TEA. I at corral; Jul-Aug; 5398.

Salicornia virginica L. GLasswort. F in intertidal marsh; Aug-Sep; 5616, 6180.

Salsola kali L. russIAN THISTLE. R; seen by Godfrey.

Suaeda linearis (Ell.) Mog. SOUTHERN SEA-BLITE. I in intertidal marsh; Jul-Aug; 6148.

Cistaceae

Helianthemum arenicola Chapm. rockroseE. F in wet flatwoods, scrub; Jan-Jun; 5203, 5646,
65780.

Lechea sessiliflora Raf. pINWEED. I in scrub; Jul; 6445.

Lechea torreyi Legg. I in scrub; Jul; 6436.

Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta compacta Juss. DopDER. R; seen by Godfrey.

Cuscuta pentagona Engelm. F in scrub; May-Jun; 5319, 5918.

Dichondra carolinensis Michx. PoNy-FooT. F in wet flatwoods; Apr. 5875.

Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R.Br. RAILROAD-VINE. I in beach/dune; Aug; 6217.

Ipomoea sagittata Poir. MARSH MORNING GLory. F in slough/marsh, I in overwash/savannah,
scrub; Jul-Sep; 5470, 5620, 70587.

248 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Ipomoea stolonifera (Cyr.) J. F. Gmel. BEACH MORNING GLory. F in beach/dune, I on roadsides;
Jul-Sep; 5565, 71232.

Ipomoea trichocarpa Ell. F on airstrip, roadsides; Aug-Oct; 5613.

Cucurbitaceae

Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsumara & Nakai. WATERMELON. R at dump; Oct; 5593.

Cucumis sativus L. cucuMBER. R at dump; Oct; 5592.

Droseraceae

Drosera capillaris Poir. PINK SUNDEW. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; Mar-Jun, Oct-
Nov; 5794, 6288.

Elaeagnaceae

Elaeagnus pungens Thunb. siLverBerry. R in scrub at The Hut; Oct-Nov; 6299.

Empetraceae

Ceratiola ericoides Michx. rosEMary. C in scrub, F in sand pine, flatwoods; Nov-Dec; 5633,
70153.

Ericaceae

Lyonia fruticosa (Michx.) G. S. Torrey. sTAGGERBUSH. R in wet flatwoods near dump; juvenile;
6312.

Lyonia lucida (Lam.) K. Koch. FETTERBUSH. F in slough/marsh, wet flatwoods; Mar-Apr; 5316,
5650.

Vaccinium darrowii Camp. BLUEBERRY. F in wet flatwoods; Feb-Mar; 5318, 5647, 70183.

Euphorbiaceae

Chamaesyce ammannioides (HBK.) Small. saND spuRGE. F in dunes, overwash/savannah; Aug-
Oct; 5457, 69281, 71072.

Chamaesyce hyssopifolia (L.) Small. EYEBANE. I at dump; Aug; 5452.

Chamaesyce maculata (L.) Small. MILK PURSLANE. F in overwash/savannah, dunes; Apr-Aug;
5426, 5458, 5892.

Cnidoscolus stimulosus (Michx.) Engelm. & Gray. TREAD SOFTLY, SPURGE-NETTLE. F in dunes,
scrub; Apr-Sep; 5882.

Croton punctatus Jacq. SILVER-LEAF CROTON, DOVE-WEED. I in dunes, overwash/savannah; Jul-
Sep; 6298, 6439, 71230.

Croton glandulosus L. var. septentrionalis Muell-Arg. F in overwash/savannah (airstrip); Jul;
6046.

Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

Aeschynomene viscidula Michx. JoINT-vETcH. I on roadsides; Aug-Sep; 6201.

Albizia julibrissin Durazz. SILK-TREE, MIMOSA. I in scrub, roadsides; May; 5925.

Centrosema virginianum (L.) Benth. BUTTERFLY PEA. I in scrub of Mid-Island; Aug-Sep; 5453.

Crotalaria spectabilis Roth. RATTLEBOX. I on roadsides of East End; Oct-Nov; 6761

Desmodium ciliare (Muhl. ex Willd.) DC. BEccarR Lice. R in sand pine in The Mountains; Oct;
6204, 6285.

Medicago lupulina L. BLAcK MeEnpIc. F on airstrip, roadsides; Feb-May; 5644.

Senna obtusifolia (L.) Irwin & Barneby. COFFEE WEED. I on roadsides; Sep; 5581.

Strophostyles helvola (L.) Ell. sAND BEAN. F in overwash/savannah, roadsides; May-Oct; 5268,
5459, 5563, 5891, 5901, 6175 (precocious bloomers are short and erect with entire leaflets
rather than vines with lobed leaflets).

Trifolium carolinianum Michx. cuover. I on airstrip; Mar; 5785.

Trifolium dubium Sibth. Hop cLover. R on roadsides; Mar; 5810.

Vicia acutifolia Ell. saND vercH. F in intertidal marsh, overwash/savannah, slough/marsh;
Mar-Sep; 5210, 5683.

Vicia angustifolia Reich. coMMON veTCH. I on roadsides; Mar-Apr; 6862.

Fagaceae

Quercus geminata Small (Q. virginiana var. maritima (Michx.) Sarg.). SAND-LIVE OAK. C in
scrub, wet flatwoods; Mar-Apr; 5801, 6055, 6285.

Quercus minima (Sarg.) Small. pwarF-LivE oak. I in scrub, wet flatwoods; 5314, 71042.

Quercus myrtifolia Willd. MyRTLE OAK. F in scrub, wet flatwoods; Mar-Apr; 5315, 5791, 5804,
6157, 69324.

Quercus nigra L. WATER OAK. R in wet flatwoods of The Interior; 5656, 71043.

Quercus pumila Nutt. RUNNING OAK. F in wet flatwoods; 5836.

Fumariaceae

Fumaria capreolata L. RAMPING FuMIToRY. R on shell spoil at Tyson Harbor; Mar-Jul, Dec;
6048; 6313.

No. 4, 1985] ANDERSON AND ALEXANDER — VEGETATION OF DOG ISLAND 249

Gentianaceae

Bartonia verna (Michx.) Muhl. I in slough/marsh of The Interior; Mar; 6858.

Sabatia grandiflora (Gray) Small. MARSH PINK, ROSE-GENTIAN. F in overwash/savannah, slough/
marsh; Jun-Aug; 5267, 6008, 6009, 6442.

Sabatia stellaris Pursh. I in overwash/savannah; Jun-Sep; 5423, 6019, 71382.

Geranianceae

Geranium carolinianum L. CRANESBILL. F on airstrip, roadsides; Mar-Apr; 5846.

Haloragaceae

Proserpinacea palustris L. MERMAID-WEED. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; May-Sep;
5307.

Hypericaceae

Hypericum cistifolium Lam. st. JOHN’s-wort. F in overwash/ savannah, slough/ marsh; Jun-Oct;
5266, 5268, 70577, 71046.

Hypericum fasciculatum Lam. SAND-WEED. C in slough/marsh of The Interior; Jul-Aug (Nov);

Hypericum gentianoides (L.) BSP. PINEWEED. F in scrub; Jul-Sep (Nov); 6020, 6158, 6778.

Hypericum reductum Adams. C in overwash/savannah, upper edges of marsh, F in scrub; May-
Jun; 5208, 59742, 69546.

Hypericum tetrapetalum Lam. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; Apr-Jul; 5289, 5888,
6443

Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

Conradina canescens (T. & G.) Gray. RosEMaRY. A in scrub, F in overwash/savannah; (Feb)
May (Dec); 5206.

Lamium amplexicaule L. HENBIT. R on shell spoil at Tyson Harbor; Feb; 5657.

Trichostema dichotomum L. BLUE cuRLS. R on roadsides of Mid-Island; Sep; 6204.

Lauraceae

Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Nees. & Eberm. CAMPHOR TREE. R at corral; juvenile; 5469.

Persea palustris (Raf.) Sarg. sSWAMP-BAY, RED-BAY. F in slough/ marsh, wet flatwoods; May; 5201,
5447, 6011, 71041.

Lentibulariaceae

Utricularia biflora Lam. BLADDERWORT. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; (Mar) May-
Jul; 5199, 5325, 6039.

Utricularia juncea Vahl. F in slough/ marsh; Jul-Sep; 6043, 6214.

Utricularia radiata Small. R on East End; seen by Alexander.

Linaceae

Linum medium (Planch.) Britt. var. tecanum (Planch.) Fern. yELLow FLAX. F in overwash/
savannah, slough/marsh; Apr-May, Sep; 5213; 5917; 73463.

Longaniaceae

Gelsemium rankinii Small. ODORLESS YELLOW JESSAMINE. R in overwash/savannah of Cannonball
Narrows; Mar; 6861.

Mitreola petiolata (J. F. Gmel.) T. & G. mrreRwort. I in slough/ marsh of Mid-Island; Jul-Aug;
6215, 6447.

Polypremum procumbens L. C in scrub, F in overwash/savannah, wet flatwoods; May-Aug,
Nov; 5629, 6021, 70582.

Lythraceae

Ammannia latifolia L. tootucups. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; Jun-Aug, Oct;
5247, 5547.

Cuphea carthagenensis (Jacg.) Macbr. waxweep. I in slough/marsh on East End; Jul-Aug;
6168.

Lythrum lineare L. LoosestTriFE. F in overwash/savannah, slough/marsh; Jun-Sep; 5272, 5290.

Magnoliaceae

Magnolia grandiflora L. souTHERN MAGNOLIA, BULLBAY. R in wet flatwoods on West End;
juvenile; 5862.

Magnolia virginiana L. swEETBAy. I in wet flatwoods; Apr; 5863, 5885.

Malvaceae

Hibiscus grandiflorus Michx. MARSH-MALLOw. I in slough/marsh of Mid-Island; Jul-Aug; 6056,
6156.

Kosteletzkya virginica (L.) Presl. sEASHORE MALLOW. F in overwash/savannah, slough/ marsh;
Jul-Aug; 5390, 6016, 70568.

Sida rhombifolia L. I at corral; Jun-Sep; 5407, 6173.

250 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

Melastomataceae

Rhexia cubensis Griseb. MEADOW BEAUTY. F in overwash/savannah, slough/marsh; May-Sep;
5908, 6018, 6031, 6437.

Myricaceae

Myrica certifera L. WAX-MYRTLE, SOUTHERN BAYBERRY. F in slough/marsh, wet flatwoods, I in
overwash/savannah; Mar-Apr; 5317.

Nymphaeaceae

Nymphaea odorata Ait. WHITE WATER-LILY. I in airstrip pond; Apr-Sep; 5856.

Onagraceae

Gaura angustifolia Michx. F in overwash/savannah, slough/marsh, roadsides; May-Oct; 5573.

Ludwigia alata Ell. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah, Jul-Oct; 5401, 5998, 6286, 70575.

Ludwigia maritima F. Harper. F in overwash/ savannah, slough/marsh; May-Aug; 5305, 5441,
71035.

Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven. I at edge of marsh at dump; Aug-Oct; 5590.

Ludwigia repens Forst. WATER PRIMROSE. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; Apr-Jul;
5228, 5923.

Oenothera humifusa Walt. SEASIDE EVENING PRIMROSE. F in beach/dune, scrub; Apr-Aug; 5301,
65716, 70241.

Oenothera laciniata Hill. I on roadsides; Mar-Aug; 5799, 5807.

Oxalidaceae

Oxalis dillenii Jacq. souRGRASS, YELLOW WOOD SORREL. F on roadsides; Feb-Dec; 5627.

Oxalis priceae Small ssp. colorea Eiten. R on roadsides of Cannonball Narrows; Mar-Apr; 5816.

Papaveraceae

Argemone albiflora Hornem. prickLy poppy. R on roadside at Tyson Harbor; Apr; 5899.

Phytolaccaceae

Phytolacca americana L. POKEWEED. I at corral and dump; Apr-Aug; 5306.

Plantaginaceae

Plantago lanceolata L. ENGLISH PLANTAIN. I on roadsides at Pelican Inn; Jun-Jul; 5331.

Plantago virginiana L. HOARY PLANTAIN. F in overwash/savannah (airstrip); Feb-Apr; 5796.

Plumbaginaceae

Limonium carolinianum (Walt.) Britt. SEA LAVENDER. F in upper edge intertidal marsh, dunes;
Jul-Sep; 5421, 6149, 71057, 71070, 71224.

Limonium angustatum (Gray) Small. NARROW-LEAVED SEA LAVENDER. I in intertidal marsh;
(Sep) Oct-Nov; 5640, 6206, 71226. Many consider this as part of L. carolinianum, but on
Dog Island they are separated habitally and phenologically, and Anderson’s greenhouse
experiments suggest this would be better treated as a distinct species.

Polygalaceae

Polygala baldwinii Nutt. WHITE BACHELOR'S BUTTON. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah;
May-Nov; 5217, 5287, 65773, 71238.

Polygala incarnata L. PROCESSION FLOWER. F in overwash/savannah; Apr-Sep; 5294, 5858.

Polygala nana (Michx.) DC. sMALL MILKwort. F in overwash/savannah, scrub, wet flatwoods;
Feb-Aug; 5214, 5684, 65770.

Polygonaceae

Polygonella fimbriata (L.) Horton var. robusta (Small) Horton. F in scrub; Aug-Sep; 5448,
70989.

Polygonella polygama (Vent.) Engelm. JoINTWEED. C in scrub, F in wet flatwoods; Jun-Sep;
5327, 5396, 70586.

Polygonum hydropiperoides Michx. w1LD WATER-PEPPER. F in slough/marsh; May-Jun; 5328,

Polygonum punctatum Ell. sMarTWEED. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; May-Nov;
5297, 5446, 5628, 5916, 6002, 70585.

Rumex hastatulus Baldw. ex Ell. sourpock. F on airstrip, I in scrub; Feb-Mar; 5780.

Rumex verticillatus L. swamp pock. I in slough/marsh; Mar-Apr; 5682, 5815.

Portulacaceae

Portulaca pilosa L. HAIRY PURSLANE. F on roadsides in overwash/savannah; May-Aug, Nov;
5904; 5920, 6775.

Primulaceae

Anagallis minima (L.) Krause. CHAFFWEED. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; Mar-Apr;
5801, 5851.

Samolus parviflorus Raf. WATER PIMPERNEL. I in slough/marsh; May-Jun; 5909.

No. 4, 1985] ANDERSON AND ALEXANDER — VEGETATION OF DOG ISLAND 251

Rosaceae

Rubus trivialis Michx. DEWBERRY, BRAMBLE. F in overwash/savannah, scrub, slough/marsh:
Jan-Apr; 5690, 70184..

Rubus cuneifolius Pursh. sAND BLACKBERRY. I at dump; Mar-Apr; 5841.

Rubiaceae

Cephalanthus occidentalis L. Button BusH. R in overwash/savannah of Cannonball Narrows;
Jun-Jul (Sep); 5894, 6015.

Diodia teres Walt. ROUGH BUTTONWEED, Poor JoE. C in slough/marsh, F in overwash/savannah,
roadsides; Jul-Oct; 5463.

Diodia virginiana L. BUTTONWEED. F in slough/marsh; Aug-Oct; 5589.

Galium aparine L. cooseE-crass. I on roadsides; Mar-Apr; 5818.

Galium hispidulum Michx. BEDSTRAW. F in wet flatwoods, scrub; May-Oct; 5215, 5559, 70578,
71223.

Galium tinctorium L. I in slough/ marsh; Apr-May; 5225.

Hedyotis uniflora (L.) Lam. F in overwash/savannah, slough/ marsh, wet flatwoods; Apr-Nov;
5269, 5465, 5877, 71077, 71233.

Richardia scabra L. I at dump, corral; Jun-Sep; 5466, 5996.

Salicaceae

Salix caroliniana Michx. COASTAL PLAIN WILLOW. F in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah; Mar.
5603, 5691, 5790, 6296.

Saururaceae

Saururus cernuus L. LIZARD’s TAIL. R in overwash/savannah of Cannonball Narrows; Apr-May;
5893, 5902.

Scrophulariaceae

Agalinis fasciculata (Ell.) Raf. czrarpia. Seen by Godfrey.

Agalinis filifolia (Nutt.) Raf. C in scrub, one year only; Aug-Sep; 6203, 6213, 6216.

Agalinis maritima (Raf.) Raf. sALTMARSH GERARDIA. F in intertidal marsh; May-Jul; 5221, 6049.

Agalinis pinetorum Pennell. R in slough/marsh of East End; Aug; 6/61.

Agalinis purpurea (L.) Pennell. F in slough/marsh; May-Aug; 5413, 5914.

Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell. water-Hyssop. C in slough/marsh, overwash/savannah, May-
Aug; 5229, 6024, 6169.

Buchnera floridana Gand. BLUEHEARTS. I in overwash/savannah, slough/marsh; May (Aug);
5913.

Gratiola hispida (Benth. in Lindl.) Pollard. HEpcE Hyssop. F in wet flatwoods, scrub; Jun-Nov;
5402, 6767.

Linaria canadensis L. TOADFLAX. I on airstrip; Mar; 5778.

Linaria floridana Chapm. F in scrub, roadsides; Mar-May; 5216; 5777, 59737, 65772.

Scoparia dulcis L. swEET-BROOM, GOAT-WEED. I at corral; Jul-Nov; 6293.

Scoparia montevidensis (Spreng.) R. E. Fries. F on airstrip, roadsides; Mar-Jul (Sep); 5814, 5924.

Seymeria cassioides (Gmel.) Blake. BLACK SENNA. F in scrub, wet flatwoods, Sep-Oct; 5554,
71040.

Veronica arvensis L. CORN-SPEEDWELL. I on roadsides; Feb-Mar; 5681.

Veronica peregrina L. NECKWEED. I on airstrip; Mar; 5789.

Solanaceae

Datura stramonium L. jIMSON-WEED. I at corral; Jul-Aug; 5391.

Physalis angustifolia Nutt. GROUND-CHERRY. F in intertidal marsh, beach/dune, scrub, over-
wash/savannah; Apr-Jul; 5222.

Solanum carolinense L. HORSE-NETTLE. I at corral; Aug-Sep; 5604.

Verbenaceae

Callicarpa americana L. BEAUTY-BERRY. R in scrub on East End; June-Jul; 6164.

Lantana camara L. LANTANA. I on roadsides of Cannonball Acres; May-Jul (Oct); 5567.

Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene. CAPE WEED, FROG-FRUIT. C in slough/marsh, F in overwash/savan-
nah, roadsides; Mar-Sep; 6000, 65779.

Verbena bonariensis L. vervain. I on roadsides; Jul-Aug; 6179.

Verbena brasiliensis Vell. I at dump; Mar-Aug; 5451.

Vitex agnus-castus L. CHASTE-TREE. R in scrub at The Hut; May-Jun; 5921.

Vitaceae

Vitis rotundifolia Michx. MUSCADINE GRAPE, SCUPPERNONG. C in wet flatwoods; May; 5312,
71237.

252 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 48

CITATION FOR WILLIAM H. SEARS

The 1985 Florida Academy of Sciences Medalist of the Year is Dr. William H.
Sears, Professor Emeritus, Department of Anthropology, Florida Atlantic University.
Dr. Sears is a nationally recognized archaeologist — one who has made significant con-
tributions to the advancement of archaeology in the southeastern United States.

In reviews of Dr. Sears’ 1982 monograph on Fort Center, in the Lake Okeechobee
Basin, he was referred to as: “. . . the doyen of southeastern archaeology, so the book is
what you would expect: excellent”. Another review by the Curator of the Peabody

Museum of Natural History at Yale University stated:

Fort Center must be one of North America’s strangest sites: the remains
of a culture that featured gigantic earthen circles, mounds, a charnel plat-
form built over an artificial pond, and carved wooden birds and beasts, all
situated in the unlikely savannah setting of South Florida. Archaeological
and botanical detective work shows that maize agriculture goes back here
at least to the middle of the first millenium B.C. and perhaps was brought
by immigrants from lowland South America. Unlike many site reports, Fort
Center is a pleasure to read, happily free from all jargon and unnecessary
statistics. A landmark publication by one of the great American archaeol-
ogists, it should be read not only by southeastern specialists but by all con-
cerned with agriculture and ceremonial life in the preColumbian New
World.

Dr. Sears was graduated from the University of Chicago in 1947 with an A.M.
degree. His education was interrupted by military service between 1942 and 1945
when he served in the United States Marine Corps in the Guadalcanal campaign.
Then, in 1951, Dr. Sears received his Ph.D. from the University of Michigan.

Between 1948 and 1954, Bill Sears was an instructor and Assistant Professor at the
University of Georgia. Later, he became Assistant Curator and Curator at the Florida
State Museum and Professor of Anthropology at the University of Florida. He left the
University of Florida in 1964 to become Professor of Anthropology and the first Chair-
man of that Department at Florida Atlantic University. In 1974, he assumed respon-
sibility for graduate instruction and research in anthropology.

Dr. Sears is a fellow of the Society for American Archaeology and is a certified pro-
fessional archaeologist. He is a member of several archaeological and anthropological
societies, and has held offices of president, vice president, or executive committee
member in these societies. During his long, productive career, Dr. Sears has had
numerous grants from federal and state agencies. He has also been a consultant to
engineering firms, served on review boards, acted as a visiting archaeologist for the
American Anthropological Association, and assisted in the design of museums. Dr.
Sears has written more than 30 journal articles and 19 books or monographs as well as
popular articles for such magazines as Yachting.

During Bill Sears’ career, he has guided many anthropology praduate students. He
is respected and admired by his students and peers. He is a candid, forthright in-
dividual of strong philosophies—a teacher, a researcher —and, as one reviewer said
“. . , the doyen of southeastern archaeology.” — Karen A. Steidinger, Chairperson,
Awards Committee.

Florida Scientist

QUARTERLY JOURNAL
of the
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 48

DEAN F. MARTIN
Editor

BARBARA B. MARTIN
Co-Editor

Published by the

FLoriIpA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, INC.
Orlando, Florida
1985

The Florida Scientist continues the series formerly issued as the
Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences. The Annual
Program Issue is published independently of the journal and is issued
as a separately paged Supplement.

Copyright © by the FLoripa AcADEMy OF SCIENCES, INc. 1985

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 48

NuMBER 1

Notes on the Behavior and Ecology of the Killifish Rivulus
marmoratus Poey 1880 (Cyprinodontidae) Martin K. Huehner,
Mary E. Schramm and Mark D. Hens
Status of Calisto pulchella darlingtoni Clench (Lepidoptera:
Satyridae) Randolph W. Wisor and Albert Schwartz
Synapte Mailitiosa (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae) on Hispaniola
Albert Schwartz, William W. Sommer and Frank Gali
An X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopic Study of the Dispersion
of Supported Platinum and Palladium Catalysts
Yang Jun-Ying and W. E. Swartz, Jr.
Public Opinion in Florida About Science and Technology
Roger Handberg and William S. Maddox
Notes on Bats of Florida’s Lower Keys
James D. Lazell, Jr. and Karl F. Koopman
Reproduction in the Florida Softshell Turtle, Trionyx ferox
John B. Iverson
Small Mammals of Melaleuca Stands and Adjacent
Environments in Southwestern Florida
Allen Sowder and Steve Woodall
A Portable Noncontaminating Sampling System for Iron
and Manganese in Sediment Pore Water
John R. Montgomery, Michael Hucks and G. N. Peterson
Sulfate Analysis in Saline Waters Using an Automated
Turbidimetric Method John Montgomery and Barbara Bricker
Mariculture of the Red Seaweed Euchema Isiforme
G. G. Guist, Jr., C. J. Dawes and J. R. Castle
Chrysophyceae (Mallomonadaceae) from Florida. II. New
Species of Paraphysomonas and the Prymnesiophyte
Chrysochromulina Daniel E. Wujek and William E. Gardiner
Acknowledgment of Reviewers

NuMBER 2

Hydrologic and Vegetational Changes Resulting from
Underground Pumping at the Cypress Creek Well Field,

Pasco County, Florida Theodore F. Rochow
The Rediscovery of Vanilla mexicana Mill. (orchidaceae)
in Florida Donald R. Richardson, Bruce F. Hansen,

and Ruben P. Sauleda
Fishes of the Littoral Zone of McKay Bay, Tampa Bay System,
Florida W. Wayne Price and Raymond A. Schlueter
Seasonal Cycles of Phytoplankton Populations and Total
Chlorophyll of the Lower St. Johns River Estuary, Florida
Carole DeMort and R. D. Bowman
Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations in Florida’s Humic-
Colored Waters and Water Quality Standard
Implications Thomas V. Belanger, Forrest E. Dierberg,
and Jerry Roberts

37

4]

49

56

65

80

83

96

107

Elimination of a Small Feral Swine Population in an

Urbanizing Section of Central Florida Larry N. Brown
Evidence for a Carbene Mechanism in the Metal-Chelate
Assisted Dehalogenation of Chloroform Kenneth A. Hewes,

Jefferson C. Davis, Jr., and Dean F. Martin
Acknowledgment of Reviewers

NuMBER 3

Zooplankton Abundance and Diversity in Spring Lake,
Florida Barry D. Billets and John A. Osborne
Dental Pathology of a Prehistoric Human Population in
Florida Robert Isler, Jed Schoen and M. Yesar Iscan
Nurse Sharks of Big Pine Key: A Comparative Success of
Three Types of External Tags Jeffrey C. Carrier
Hydrogeology of the Biscayne Aquifer Ian Watson
and Jeffrey W. Herr
Excavation of the Briarwoods Site (8-PA-66), Pasco County,
Florida Jeffrey M. Mitchem
Biological Effects of Dredging in an Offshore Borrow Area
Robert O. Johnson and Walter G. Nelson

Review Daniel F. Austin
Review Robert D. Whitaker
Review John A. Osborne
Acknowledgement of Reviewers
From the Editors

NuMBER 4

A Juvenile Atlantic Hawksbill Turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata,
from Brevard County, Florida W. E. Redfoot,
L. M. Ehrhart, and P. W. Raymond
Culinary Value and Composition of Wild and Captive
Common Snook, Centropomus undecimalis John W. Tucker, Jr.,
Matthew P. Landau, and Blake E. Faulkner
First Occurrence of the Little Brown Bat, Myotis Lucifugus,
in Florida Larry N. Brown
Status of the Catostomid Fish, Erimyzon oblongus, from
Eastern Gulf Slope Drainages in Florida and Alabama
Carter R. Gilbert and Benjamin R. Wall, Jr.
Numerical Responses of Flatwoods Avifauna to Clearcutting
Timothy E. O'Meara, Leslie A. Rowse, Wayne R. Marion,
and Larry D. Harris
Benthic Macroinvertebrate Response to Aquatic Vegetation
Removal by Grass Carp in North-Florida Reservoir
Andrew J. Leslie, Jr., and Gerard J. Kobylinski

The Vegetation of Dog Island, Florida Loran C. Anderson
and Laurence L. Alexander
Citation for William H. Sears Karen A. Steidinger

Index, Volume 48

120

123

193

196

200

202

208

220

232

252
253

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Volume 48 Supple ment 1

1985 PROGRAM ISSUE

THE FORTY NINTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ACADEMY

in conjunction with the

FLORIDA SECTION, AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PHYSICS TEACHERS

Featuring a 1985 Banquet Address:
“WAVES, PARTICLES AND THE FORCES OF NATURE”
By the 1984 Academy Medalist,

YNGVE OHRN

--A PLENARY ADDRESS--

“SOCIAL BEHAVIOR OF FLORIDA SCRUB JAY ALTRUISTS”
by
GLEN E. WOOLFENDEN

And a Science Teaching Symposium:
“WHOSE RESPONSIBILITY IS THE SCIENCE
EDUCATION OF FLORIDA STUDENTS?”

SAINT LEO COLLEGE
May 2-4, 1985
QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
PROGRAM ISSUE PRICE $3.50

FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OFFICERS
1984-1985

President... .. . . James N. Layne, Archbold Biological Station
President-Elect . . . . Richard L. Turner, Florida Institute of Technology
Past-President. . . . . Frank B. Wood, University of Florida

Secretary ...... . Patrick J. Gleason, So. Fla. Water Management District
Treasurer... . . Anthony F. Walsh, Orlando Regional Medical Center
Executive Secretary . . (Acting) Joyce E. Powers, Orlando Science Center
Program Chairman. . . . Ernest D. Estevez, Mote Marine Laboratory

SAINT LEO COLLEGE LOCAL ARRANGEMENTS COMMITTEE:

Dr. George M. Dooris, Chairman

Dr. Setty Adisesh Mr. Carl Miller
Mrs. Pat Cooper Dr. Robert Peterson
Dr. Patricia Dooris Dr. Burt Rosenbaum

Rev. Damian DuQuesnay, 0.S.B. Dr. Jeanne Wright

TABLE OF CONTENTS

General Information

Sant. deo (College: (ar vals) ch vss cic ey eects ctaue a) mcr Be Se c
Registration... 6 6 6 6 6 dhe cet es al a ae
Lodging, = « Bete al ar ai dare ion alla an
Banquet and Food Gervice: er err CMENEMEESEnEIN TT Gc a lO kL
Field Trips {0 6 2.8 6 8 6 2 0 6 we 8 ww) ole oe) eet
ANNOUNCGCEMENES ~. 2. 2. « « «© 5,8 © » © @ eh « 0, ie) (os (oven CnC TC HCO.
Plenary Sessions and Banquet . 3. 5. : « % « © «):%) (3) (NCR neErInt
Symposium on Science Teaching. . 2. 2. « « « «= » = so) =e) cue eCnmEnEU
Guidelines for Speakers), 2 2 2 6 808 eT st Se et a: jlo cet nC eee
IiaorenarclimowuaurlcVeg. ol Ge adeno Ono oa oO Go 6 G A')G 6 5 GO coo 0 6 vii
Program
Florida Academy of Sciences
Agricultural Science . Pare ee er eon oo (ANGIE )) 1
Anthropological Sciences... 2 2 ew) eo GAINIS)) on
Atmospheric and Oceanographic Science. 2 + sa COS) ema
Biological Sciences. . . merereermerenrirs 6 (sO) . Le
Computer Sciences and Mathematics. oe oe ee ESE) 40
Engineering. . . er eer mmm Co WIANG)) 5 23
Environmental Chemistry. er rmrrrenmermnens (INN) o as
Geolliogy and Hydrollogy: 5 3. «4%; 2. = «= « «= « 1) sletemeE@GHINa) 46
Medical Sciences... Ce ECD oe oo (MSID))) 50
Physical and Space Sciences. PCCEECEoNomo 6 (ESS) 4 SS
Rare and Endangered Biota: . . « s s « « « « « « eniis)) memes
Science Teaching . < © «ss i 6) ©) cls) epee COOL) 55
Social Science . . PCM ECMECEECEEE SLO Go (SOLS) 5 AG
Urban and Regional Planning. out « 3 e) SUIRIPD) Seen
American Association of Physics meachersr PL Sect. (APT) 58
1984 Student Paper Certificate Recipients . . . . 2s seueenow
Academy Charter and Byllawsi, 2 2 © 96) 6) cs) isi sem (cl) source nna nme nnIEL

Maps
Saint Leo College and Campus Areas .... . . .Inside Cover

1985 Meeting i Program Issue

FORTY NINTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE FLORIDA
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
AT
SAINT LEO COLLEGE
SAINT LEO

May 2-4, 1985

Registrants for meetings of the Senior Academy or the Florida Section,
American Association of Physics and Teachers are welcome to attend all
sessions of both organizations.

Saint Leo College

Saint Leo College is located in the town of Saint Leo, between Dade City and
San Antonio. The campus borders Lake Jovita, a large spring fed lake,
rolling hills and richly wooded grounds. Saint Leo College is Florida's
oldest 4-year, residential and coeducational Catholic liberal arts college.
The College was begun in 1889 by the Order of Saint Benedict, which in 1969
transferred title and control to a governing Board of Trustees. The
curriculum is organized into 7 divisions, including Natural Science and
Mathematics. The College is on State Road 52, east of Interstate 75, about
30 miles north of Tampa and the nearest commercial airport.

Registration

All participants are required to register. A Registration Desk will be
operated at the Julia Deal Lewis Hall of Science from 7:30 AM to 4:00 PM on
Friday, May 3, and at Crawford Hall from 8:00 to 10:00 AM on Saturday, May 4.

The registration fee is $8.00 for members, $10.00 for nonmembers and $5.00
for students. Members receive the Florida Scientist Program Issue by mail,
as will others registered by April I. A Tate registration fee of $2.00 will
be assessed for members and nonmembers (students excepted) registering after
April 1. Extra programs cost $2.00. Programs will cost $3.50 after April l,
1985.

Lodging

No reservations can be made through the Academy. The following hotels are
closer to Saint Leo than any others but are still 15-20 miles away, so plan
ahead for local transportation. Round trips from campus to these hotels will
take 30 minutes to an hour depending on traffic, road and weather conditions.
All hotels require credit card or one night prepayment for reservation, and
group rates are available for 10 rooms or more.

Best Western. 1304 Gall Boulevard, Zephyrhills, FL 34248 (813:782-5527).
Twelve miles from campus on U.S. 301. No dining room but restaurants
nearby, daily rate for 1 person: $26.00; 2 persons: $28.00. Guarantee
late arrival after 1600 hrs.

Day's Inn. 15010 Highway 54 West, Zephyrhills, FL 34249 (813:973-0155).
Twelve miles from campus on I-75 and S.R. 54. Dining room 0600-2100 hrs.
Daily rate for 1 person: $35.00; 2 persons: $38.00. Guarantee late
arrival after 1800 hrs.

Florida Scientist WH Volume 48

Holiday Inn of Brooksville. 30307 Cortez Boulevard, Brooksville, FL 33512

(904:796-9481) . Seventeen miles from campus on I-75 and S.R. 50.

Dining room 0630-2200 hrs. Daily rate for 1 person: $33.00; two persons:
$36.00. Guarantee late arrival after 1800 hrs with Teresa Sermons.

Holiday Inn, North. 400 East Bearss Avenue, Tampa, FL 33612
(813:961-1000). Twenty three miles from campus. Dining room 0630-1400
and 1700-2200 hrs. Daily rate for 1 or 2 persons: $36.00. Guarantee
late arrival after 1800 hrs with Carolyn Kopachik.

Banquet and Food Service

The Banquet will be held on Friday evening, May 3. The 1984 Medalist Address
by Dr. Yngve Ohrn, University of Florida, will immediately follow and the
1985 Medalist will be announced. A cash bar social will precede the Banquet.
The social will begin at 6:30 PM and dinner will be served at 7:15 PM, in the
McDonald Student Center overlooking Lake Jovita. Dinner includes crabmeat
cocktail, salad, choice of beef tenderloin or filet mignon, asparagus spears
with hollandaise sauce, stuffed baked potato with cheese, cream puffs, and
beverages. Diet, vegetarian and kosher meals will be available but only for
pre-registered participants. Cost will be $12.00 including gratuity
(vegetarian meals cost $10.00). Contact Joyce Powers at the Academy Office
(305:896-7151) to purchase tickets.

The campus cafeteria will be open from 7:00-8:30 AM and from noon until 1:30
PM on Friday and Saturday for breakfast and lunch. The cafeteria will also
serve a Saturday brunch from 8:30-9:45 AM for the Science Teaching Section,
Science Teaching Symposium participants, and Florida Section, American
Association of Physics Teachers. Council members and interested meeting
participants may attend, but all diners will be required to purchase a brunch
ticket ($3.00) at Registration. Information about restaurants in
Brooksville, Zephyrhills, and Dade City will be available at Registration.

Field Trips and Tours

The Green Swamp is a unique hydrological feature covering 850 square miles in
central Florida, near Saint Leo College. The swamp is the headwater of the
Peace, Oklawaha, Withlacoochee and Hillsborough Rivers, and is thought to be
a major groundwater recharge area for the Floridan Aquifer. The Green Swamp
was designated an area of critical state concern by the Florida Legislature
in 1974.

The FAS field trip to the swamp will begin at Saint Leo College, at 1:30 PM
on Saturday, May 4. Participants with trucks or 4-wheel drive vehicles will
be asked to shuttle non-drivers. The group will ride and walk through
portions of the swamp guided by volunteers, and staff of the Southwest
Florida Water Management District. Return time to campus is 5:00 PM. More
information, on this interesting excursion will be available at Registration.

Plenary Session

The Annual Business Meeting and Plenary Address will be held on Friday, May
3, at 1:15 PM in the Selby Auditorium. Dr. James N. Layne, 1984-85 Academy
President, will preside. Section officers should prepare to make their
reports at this time. The Plenary Address, “Social Behavior of Florida Scrub
Jay Altruists", will be given by Dr. Glen Woolfenden, University of South
Florida.

1985 Meeting iii Program Issue

Announcements

FAS Council Meetings

There will be a full meeting of the Academy Council on Thursday evening,
May 2, beginning at 7:00 pm in the McDonald Student Center Lounge. All
1984-85 Section Officers should attend. There will also be a lunch meeting
of the 1985-86 Council, including all new chairs-elect, at 12:30 pm on
Saturday, May 4, in the McDonald Student Center.

History of Science in Florida

The fiftieth anniversary of the Academy in 1986 will be highlighted by a
special program on the history of science in Florida. All Florida scientists
and historians with anniversary ideas should look for a special brochure at
Registration.

Special Symposium

The Science Teaching Section has organized a Symposium, "Whose Responsibility
is the Science Education of Florida Students?", for Saturday, May 4, at 10:00
AM in the Selby Auditorium. All Academy officers and meeting participants
are invited to attend this timely and important issue analysis.

Social Science Business Meeting

The section on Social Sciences will meet to conduct business immediately

after the Geology and Hydrology Session in the same room, Lewis 317, from
11:30 am noon on Friday, May 3.

F.C.R.E.P.A. Business Meeting

The Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals will meet to
conduct business at 4:00 pm in Lewis 140, on Friday, May 3.

The Florida Chapter of the American Littoral Society will have a presentation on
their programs in education, research, and public interest in
coastal ecosystems. The exhibit will be displayed in Lewis Hall on
Friday and at the Academy Social, that night.

Stand Ins and Cancellations

If the author or a coauthor of a scheduled paper cannot present the paper due
to illness, unforseen conflict, or other circumstance, the author should
arrange for a colleague to read the abstracted paper. If a reader cannot be
enlisted, the paper should be cancelled. The Academy should be notified
concerning a reader or an intent to cancel. Early notification will allow
inclusion of the change in a program supplement and will spare the author of
the cancelled paper the embarrassment of an apparent no-show.

Contact (in preferred order): £.D. Estevez, Program Chair (813:388-4441);
Joyce Powers at the Academy Office (305:896-7151); the appropriate Section
Chair; or the presider of the session.

Florida Scientist iv Volume 48

Audio-Visual Aids

Carousel slide projectors will be available in each session. Each Section
Officer is asked to bring at least one carousel projector to the meeting.
Overhead projectors are available on special request to the Local
Arrangements Committee or appropriate section chair.

Parking

On Friday, May 3, meeting participants should use lots designated for visitor
parking. One lot east of the Selby Auditorium is recommended, but others are
available. All lots are open on Saturday, May 4.

Handicap Access

All meeting rooms and areas are accessible by ramps or keyed elevators.
Elevator keys may be checked out at Registration. Every building is provided
with passageways and facilities suitable for wheelchairs. Persons with
special needs should contact Dr. George Dooris, Chairman of Local
Arrangements (904:588-8330).

Smoking Policy

Standard policy of Saint Leo College and the Florida Academy of Sciences
prohibits smoking in all interior spaces.

PLENARY SESSIONS AND BANQUET
PLENARY SESSION I:

Dr. James N. Layne, Archbold Biological Station, presiding

Friday 1:15 PM, Selby Auditorium

1:15 PM - Welcoming remarks and announcements

1:30 PM - Plenary Address, “Social Behavior of Florida Scrub Jay Altruists",
by Glen Woolfenden, University of South Florida

2:15 PM - Business Meeting

2:50 PM - Adjourn

BANQUET AND PLENARY SESSION II:
Friday, 6:30 PM - McDonald Student Center

6:30 PM - Cocktails (cash bar)
7:15 PM - Banquet
8:15 PM - Introduction, Dr. James N. Layne

8:20 PM - "Waves, Particles and Forces of Nature", by Dr. Yngve Ohrn, 1984
FAS Medalist, University of Florida

9:15 PM - Presentation of the 1985 FAS Medal; Dr. Karen A. Steidinger, 1983
FAS Medalist, Florida Department of Natural Resources.

1985 Meeting V

A SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE EDUCATION
Sponsored by the
Science Teaching Section
Mrs. Betty P. Preece, Chair

WHOSE RESPONSIBILITY IS THE SCIENCE EDUCATION
OF FLORIDA STUDENTS?

Saturday, May 4, 1985
Selby Auditorium
Saint Leo College

10:00 AM

Moderated by Dr. B. Frank Brown, Chair
Governor's Commission on Secondary Schools

Participants
Dr. Elizabeth Abbott, University of
Florida and Foundation for Future Scientists

Ms. Carol Collins, Jefferson High School, Tampa
Florida Association of Science Teachers

Mr. Thomas Gagnier, Martin Marietta Aerospace

Dr. James N. Layne, Archbold Biological Station
and Florida Academy of Sciences

Dr. Barbara Spector, Florida International University and
Florida Association of Educators of Teachers of Science

Mr. Ralph D. Turlington, Commissioner
Florida Department of Education

Program Issue

Florida Scientist

Guidelines for Giving
a Truly Terrible Talk

Strict adherence to
the following time-test-
ed guidelines will en-
sure that both you and
your work remain ob-
scure and will guaran-
tee an audience of min-
umur size at your next
talk. Continuity of ef-
fort may result in being
awarded the coveted
5:00 P.M. Friday speaking time at the next
national meeting.

Slides

1. Use lots of slides. A rule of thumb is
one slide for each 10 seconds of time allotted
for your talk. If you don’t have enough, bor-
row the rest from the previous speaker, or
cycle back and forth between slides.

2. Put as much information on each slide
as possible. Graphs with a dozen or so cross-
ing lines, tables with at least 100 entries, and
maps with 20 or 30 units are especially effec-
uve; but equations, particularly if they con-
tain at least 15 terms and 20 variables, are al-
most as good. A high density of detailed and
marginally relevant data usually preempts
penetrating questions from the audience.

3. Use small print. Anyone who has not
had the foresight to either sit in the front row
or bring a set of binoculars is probably not
smart enough to understand your talk any-
way.

4. Use figures and tables directly from
publications. They will help you accomplish
goals 2 and 3 above and minimize the
amount of preparation for the talk. If you
haven't published the work, use illustrations
from an old publication. Only a few people in
the audience will notice anyway.

Presentation

1. Don’t organize your talk in advance. It
is usually best not to even think about it until
your name has been announced by the ses-
sion chair. Above all, don’t write the talk out,
for it may fall into enemy hands.

2. Never, ever, rehearse, even briefly.
Talks are best when they arise spontaneously
and in random order. Leave it as an exercise
for the listener to assemble your thoughts
properly and make some sense out of what
you say.

3. Discuss each slide in complete detail,
especially those parts irrelevant to the main
points of your talk. If you suspect that there
is anyone in the audience who is not asleep,
return to a previous slide and discuss it again.

4. Face the projection screen, mumble,
and talk as fast as possible, especially while
making important points. An alternate strate-
gy is to speak very slowly, leave every other
sentence uncompleted, and punctuate each
thought with “ahhh,” “unhh,” or something
equally informative.

5. Wave the light pointer around the
room, or at least move the beam rapidly
about the slide image in small circles. If this is
done properly, it will make 50% of the peo-

ple in the front three rows (and those with
binoculars) sick.

6. Use up all of your allotted time and at
least half, if not all, of the next speaker's.
This avoids foolish and annoying questions
and forces the chairman to ride herd on the
following speakers. Remember, the rest of
the speakers don’t have anything important
to say anyway. If they had, they would have
been assigned times earlier then yours.

If the above doesn’t suit your style or goals,
then perhaps the following alternate guide-
lines will be more useful.

Make a Better Presentation

Slide Preparation

General Principles

1. Slides must be well designed, simple,
and readable by everyone in the audience. It
is worthwhile to use professional slide prepa-
ration services, if available.

2. Use as few slides as are really needed
and can be discussed in the time allotted. As
a general rule, one slide for each 1 or 2 min-
utes of presentation is all that will be effec-
live.

3. Devote each slide to a single fact, idea,
or finding. Illustrate major points or trends,
not detailed data. Do not show long or com-
plicated formulas or equations. Each slide
should remain on the screen at least 20 sec-
onds.

4. Use the absolute minimum number of
words in titles, subtitles, and captions. Re-
member that standard abbreviations are ac-
ceptable.

5. Use block lettering. Do not use serifs or
italics. A rule of thumb for the minimum
height of readable lettering (size) is 3 millime-
ters on the finished slide. Do not make slides
from illustrations or tables that were pre-
pared for publication. They are rarely satis-
factory. A good way to test your material is to
stand away | foot for every inch of original
copy width. If you can’t read it from that dis-
tance, then your audience will not be able to
read it either when it is projected.

6. Color adds attractiveness, interest, and
clarity to slide illustrations and should be
used whenever possible. If you use color, re-
member that contrasting colors are easier to
see.

7. Use 2" x 2" paper or plastic mounted
slides, designated for a 35 mm slide projec-
tor. Be sure that they are clean and in good
physical condition.

8. Critically examine every slide, and try
out the entire set under adverse light condi-
uons before using them at a meeting. It is
sometimes impossible to provide excellent
light conditions at meetings.

9. Mark a large positioning dot or make a
notch in the lower left hand corner of each
slide when it is laid flat so it may be read; ro-
tate 180° for loading into a carousel. A notch
makes it easy to see that all slides are in cor-
rect position in a tray. Number every slide in
proper sequence, and give them to the pro-

Volume 48

Jectionist exactly as you wish them shown.
This is important, because slides may be
dropped or become disarranged. Come a few
minutes before the start of the session to give
the projectionist time to arrange your slides
for presentation.

Tables

1. Do not use more than three or four
vertical columns; six to eight horizontal lines.
Any more and the information will not be
readable.

2. Do not use ruled vertical or horizontal
lines. They distract the eye and clutter the
slide.

3. Whenever possible, present data by bar
charts or graphs instead of tables. Colored
graphs are very effective.

Graphs

1. Generally, do not use more than one or
two curves on one diagram; three to four as
maximum but only if well separated.

2. Label each curve; do not use symbols
and legend.

3. Do not show data points unless scatter
is important.

Presentation

1. Write the talk out in advance so that
your ideas are logically organized and your
points clear. At the very least, write out a de-
tailed outline. Cover only the few essential
main points, and leave the details for your
publication.

2. Rehearse. If possible, give your talk to
one or more colleagues, and ask them for
suggestions for improvement. If the talk runs
longer than the allotted ume, eliminate the
least essential material and rehearse again.

3. Speak slowly and clearly. Word choice
should be simple: Use active words, short
sentences. Words should reinforce visual ma-
terial.

4. Out of consideration for the other
speakers and the audience stay within your
allotted time. This is essential to ensure ade-
quate ume for questions and discussion and
adherence to schedule.

5. Use the public address system and
speak into the microphone toward the audi-
ence at all times. If you need to see what is
being shown on the screen, have pictures or
copies at the speaker's rostrum.

For more information
on preparing a techni-
cal slide show, the most
detailed and possibly
the best manual yet
written, especially for
technical and scientific
slide users, is 35-mm
Slides: A Manual for
Technical Presentations
by Dan Pratt and Lev
Ropes, published by the American Associa-
tion of Petroleum Geologists, 1978, 32
pages, $5.00 each; order from AAPG, Box
979, Tulsa, OK 74101.

1985 Meeting vii Program Issue

PROGRAM SUMMARY
THURSDAY EVENING, 2 MAY 1985
7:00 pm FAS Council Meeting... . ; eee eee MEDonailid) Cenjter,*
FRIDAY MORNING, 3 MAY 1985

7:30 am Registration (to 4:00 pm) ......... .. Lewis Lobby
Sal SwamwAGmCultuGe SeSSTONWA. 20. 220 2s «2 os = « «LEWIS 136
Anthropology Session A**. . . - . » -Lewis 303
8:30 am Atmospheric and Oceanographic Session Ate - . . .Lewis 205
Medical Sciences Session A**, . 5 68d 0 SSRIS shils}
Urban and Regional Planning Session Axe 6.6 co OLENAIS Sue
SA owaMeBiOlOGYeSESSTON Alea tone) ces sue sel sale eae SKEW RS W217
BiOHOGYASESSTON Biles, cote) coe elaerue) ce) te moe cabo ce aM Hise Alls:
9-30hamaBiollogy Session Dl)... ss 6 co. eet er wee AE OWISIAZL9
Geology and Hydrology Session Nee Ste ae he LOWIS S317
10:30 am Biology Session C** , Severe, Yomee SLEWTIS A218
Environmental Chemistry Session Awe Se chen a) ee EWTS) 316
11:30 am Social Sciences Business Meeting. ...... . .Lewis 317

FRIDAY AFTERNOON, 3 MAY 1985

P25 ea PEENARY SESSION I-35 =. 5G. sO low Ge ye Audi torium
3:00 pm Agricultural Business Meeting 5 OG 0 tc; Be Lewis 136
Anthropology Session B... heed tele MEWS? 303
Atmospheric and Oceanographic Session B Sule pets A LEWSE 205
BiOWMOGYaESESSTONEpwcetey youus ee emeed cert enc «re, ieroe LEWIS, 2Li7
BiOlogyeSeSSiOn) Fars sc. 2 2) scene Sats chee sekewls:, 218
Biology SessionG.. SMe hory a eee io) eal ded sue LOWS! 219
Engineering Session Awe Sioa sualesere Mo od ley, (see LEWIS 3.16

Geology and Hydrology Session B** . . eee LEWIS Sl7)

Physical and Space Science Session Axe. Seer LOWIS SES

3:15 pm Agriculture SessionB. . SUES io a dae sah teeta LOWRS 136

4:00 pm F.C.R.E.P.A. Business Meeting SG ee hye on LOWS? 140
FRIDAY EVENING, 3 MAY 1985

6330 ypmiyAcademy Social 3 3). 2 t-.- - « a eiieu ree ensMicDonalid? Ceniter;
7:15 pm BANQUET and PLENARY SESSION II. .... . -McDonald Center

SATURDAY MORNING, 4 MAY 1985

8:00 am Registration (to 10:00 am). ..... .. . .Crawford Lobby

8:30 am Anthropology Session C. .:..... fe eee a cChawiond:4
BilOMOGYASESSONwel verct ie: eeectene sens Spice GhaWnOndno
Computer Science and Mathematics Session A. . .Crawford 7
Science Teaching Brunch** ...... . » McDonald Center*
INNS TRUSS? G6 oS O40 5-0 0-0 ON . - McDonald Center*

10:00 am Anthropology Student Award Committee. . .. . .Crawford 4
BilONOGVESeSSTONMHin., ecsricmrsmiauerer est esis ee ee Ghawhondes
Science Teaching Symposium. .... . - «Selby Auditorium

10:10 am Computer/Mathematics Section Business Meeting .Crawford 7

SATURDAY AFTERNOON, 4 MAY 1985

22 30ipm RAS Council) Meetinge. « .. 2 - - - = « . McDonald Center*
1:00 pm Science Teaching Session A. .......-. . .Crawford 8
Field Trip Mobilization ..... = 2 achawfond Lobby,

2:45 pm Florida AAPT Session A. ........22+-.-. .Crawford 8

*Meeting Room to be posted in Lobby **Business Meeting follows.

PEENENCE SS
Kees
ia fi aes | oo
et aes

NEE

1985 Meeting Program Issue

AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE

FRIDAY 8:15 am LEWIS 136

SESSION A: Agricultural Pests; Livestock Nutrition; Cowpea Research
J.M. BENNETT, University of Florida, presiding

8:15 am AGR-1 Influence of Leafminer Populations on Seed Yield of Cowpea. R. C.
BULLOCK, P. J. STOFFELLA AND R. L. PAYNE, Univ. of Florida IFAS AREC, P.O. Box 248
™t. Pierce, FL 335. The influence of several vegetable leafminer (Liriomyza
sativae Blanchard) populations on seed yields of cownea (Vigna unguiculata (L.)
Walp.) cv California Blackeye #5 was evaluated during the 198 soring and fall
seasons. Five soray regimes of Trigard (cyromazine), providing a) full season
control, b) protection up to flower bud initiation, c) orotection from flower bud
to pod set, d) protection from vod set to pod fill, e) protection from pod fill to
harvest, and f) a non-spreyed control, were used to establish different leafminer
porulations throughout the season. Pest oressure was heaviest in the fall season
with 2 generations of L. sativae attacking the crov while only one generation was
apparent in the spring. Regardless of leafminer pooulstion vressure and vrotec-
tion provided by the insecticide, yields were not significantly different in either
spring or fall seasons.

8:30 am AGR-2 Greenhouse Nematode Screening Test for Two Trifolium spp. JOSE C.
SACA-KURI, DAVID D. BALTENSPERGER, AND ROBERT A. DUNN, Agronomy and
Nematology Dept., IFAS, University of Florida, Gainesville Florida. 32611. Nematode
resistance and/or tolerance is considered by many growers one of the key factors in crop
and variety selection. This study consisted of two experiments. Experiment "a" consisted
of 68 half-sib lines of arrowleaf clover (Trifolium vesiculosum Savi.) from Texas A&M
Univ. Experiment "b'' consisted of 4 established varieties and 4 advanced lines of crimsom
clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.) from the Univ. of FLorida. There was little variation
among the arrowleaf lines, all had high counts of nematode galls. Crimsom clover also
showed very little variation, with a high count of galls. This study supports the concept
that resistance to Meloidogyne spp. is not present in a high frequency in arrowleaf and
crimson clover germplasm widely grown in the U.S., but that variation does exist in
crimson clover.

8:45 am AGR-3 A Leaf-Spotting ami Yield-Reducing Condition Affecting Seedless
Cucumbers in Florida Greenhouses. R.G. ROHDE AND R.M. SONODA, University of
Florida, IFAS, AREC, P. 0. Box 248, Ft. Pierce, FL 33454. Necrotic ard
water-soaked lesions were observed on seedless European cucumber [Cucumis sativus
(L.) ‘Sandra'] leaves in a south Florida greenhouse. The first foliar symptoms
appeared on young leaves of plants five to six weeks old. Severely affected leaves
eventually deteriorated. Plants affected when young were stunted am
unproductive. Plants with leaf symptoms appearing later in development also showed
a reduction in fruit production. Attempted isolations of Bacillus spp. from young
leaf lesions were found to be nonpathogenic. Doublet analysis indicated a
nonrendam distribution of infected plants. Leaf spot symptoms were transmitted by
rubbing sap fran leaves with lesions onto healthy leaves in the greenhouse. The
results suggest that leaf spotting am yield reductions are caused by @
unidentified infectious agent.

9:00 am AGR-4 A Promising Future for Alternate Grains for Feeding Poultry. D.E.
Bell AND J.E. MARION. Poultry Science. Dept., University of Florida, Gainesville,
FL 32611. The rising cost of freighting corn from the Midwest for use in poultry
diets has forced the southeastern states to become more self-sufficient in the
production of feed-stuffs amd has increased the importance of alternate grain
sources. Studies were conducted to determine the feeding value of new varieties of

Florida Scientist -2- Volume 48

grains for poultry. In the first studies, data imiicated that feeding newer
varieties of wheat and milo resulted in weight gains amd feed conversion values
comparable to those from corn diets when fed to broiler chicks on a isocaloric am
equal amino acid basis. When 3125 kcal/kg (ME) were provided for broilers,
triticale did not always support growth at a level equal to corn but was as good or
better in feed conversion. In a second series of 3 trials it was shown that with
diets containing 3200 kcal/kg (ME), triticale performed as well or better thm
corn. Also the performance of several bird-resistant varieties of grain sorghum was
found equal to corn, while non bird-resistant varieties and FL 301 and FL 302 wheat
outperformed corn in broiler diets.

9:15 am AGR-5 The Role of Methionine, Choline, Betaine and Inorganic Sulfate

in Broiler Diets. N. RUIZ, R.D. MILES AND R.H. HARMS, Poultry Sci. Dept., Univ. of
FL, Gainesville, 32611. Two experiments were conducted to study interrelationships
between methionine, choline, and inorganic sulfate. The corn-soybean meal diet con-
tained no supplemental methionine, choline,or sulfate. A 2 x 2 x 2 factorial ar-
rangement was used involving .24% DL-methionine, 1100 mg choline/kg, and .10% potas-
sium sulfate. Chicks were fed the experimental diets for 3 weeks in each experiment.
Supplementing the basal diet with potassium sulfate in the presence of choline or
methionine resulted in a greater growth response than when either was supplemented
alone. The response obtained by the addition of choline was probably not due to a
deficiency of dietary choline because supplementation of choline in the presence of
methionine did not give a further response. To test this possibility a third ex-
periment was conducted and it was found that when betaine was supplemented to the
diet on equimolar basis as choline, equal growth was obtained. Thus, supplemental
choline in a corn-soybean meal diet functions as a methyl donor.

9:30 am AGR-6 Dietary Fructose in Diets of Broilers. DONNIE R. CAMPBELL,
RICHARD D. MILES, CALVIN E. WHITE, AND JOE A. YATES. Poultry Sci. Dept. Univ. of FL,
Gainesville 32611. Fructose was added to diets of day-old broiler chicks and fed
for 21 days. Dietary levels were 0, 4, 8 and 12%. All diets were isocaloric and iso-
nitrogenous. On day 21 birds were individually weighed and feed consumption calcu-
lated. Fourteen males were randomly selected from each dietary treatment and blood
samples collected. Liver and kidneys were removed and weighed. Birds fed fructose
were significantly heavier than controls. A significant linear increase in weight
gain and feed intake resulted due to dietary fructose level. However, feed/gain
ratio was not different among dietary treatments. A significant linear increase in
plasma uric acid and decrease in plasma glucose were observed as the fructose level
increased. A significant increase in kidney weight and a numerical increase in
liver weight resulted from fructose supplementation.

9:45 am AGR-7 Sodium Hypochlorite Tolerance of Broiler Chicks. LINDA S. KELLY
AND BOBBY L. DAMRON, Poultry Sci. Dept. Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. Two
experiments, 21 days each, were conducted to determine the effects of waterborne
sodium hypochlorite upon broiler performance. In trial 1, sodium hypochlorite was
added to deionized water to yield treatments having 10, 100, 500 amd 1000 ppm
chloride. Sodium bicarbonate was used for 4 additional treatments having sodiun
levels equivalent to the sodium hypochlorite treatments. At the 100 ppm chloride
level, water consumption and manure moisture dropped, amd chloride intake increased
significantly. Body weight and feed consumption dropped and mortality increased
significantly in association with the 500 ppm level. The birds receiving sodium
bicarbonate performed better than, or equivalent to, the control birds. In the
second experiment, sodium hypochlorite treatments giving 150, 100, 250, 300, 350,
400 and 450 ppm chloride were used. At the 150 ppm chloride level water
comsumption and manure moisture were significently lower than the control am at
the 450 ppm level.

10:00 am BREAK

1985 Meeting =3 Program Issue

10:15 am AGR-8 Evaluation of Pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.] Cultivars for
Resistance to Selected Species and Races of Root-knot (Meloidogyne spp.) Nematode.
K.M. MOORE, K.L. BUHR, AND J.R. RICH. Agronomy Dept., University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 32611, and Agricultural Research Center, Live Oak, FL, 32060.
Twenty-eight pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.] genotypes, obtained from
several national and international sources, were evaluated for their resistance to
Meloidogyne javanica, M. incognita race 3, and races 1 and 2 of M. arenaria.
Resistance to nematodes, especially to M. arenaria, race 1, known as the peanut
root-knot nematode and important in southeastern United States, and M. arenaria,
race 2, common elsewhere in the world, is being sought for incorporation into
pigeonpea. "Conetainers", containing germinated pigeonpea seedlings were
inoculated with approximately 1500 Meloidogyne spp. eggs and placed in a controlled
greenhouse environment. The nematodes were allowed to complete two life cycles,
requiring approximately 60 days. Resistance ratings were based on evaluations of
degree of galling and presence of egg masses on the roots of the 28 genotypes.

10:30 am AGR-9 Safety amd Efficacy of Injectable Ivermectin Against Nematodes
Affecting Yotmg Horses. JAN KIVIPELTO AND RICHARD L. ASQUITH, Animal Science
Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611. Twenty-six
four-month-old foals with naturally acquired parasitic nematode infections were
randomized into three groups. Each treatment animal was then treated a total of
five separate times at two month intervals. Twelve foals were treated at two month
intervals with injectable ivermectin at 200 mg/kg of body weight. Ten foals were
treated at two month intervals with the previously available oral mthelmintics
using the mamfacturer's dose recommendation. Four foals served as controls ad
were not dewormed from birth through twelve months of age. Thirty-seven individual
weekly fecal egg counts ard larval identifications were determined on each mimal
during this trial. Monthly hematology and clinical chemistry parameters vere used
to help ascertain the safety of the injectable ivermectin in young horses.

10:45 am AGR-10 Influence of Four Antibiotics on the Utilization of Energy by
Turkey Poults. ROBERT E. BURESH, ROBERT H. HARMS AND RICHARD D. MILES. Poultry Sci
Dept., Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. Two experiments were conducted u-
sing a total of 960 day-old Nicholas Large White turkey poults. A corn-soybean meal
basal diet was formulated to contain 26.5% protein and 2719 kilocalories of metabo-
lizable energy per kilogram of diet. The four antibiotics used were bacitracin MD,
flavomycin, lincomycin and virginiamycin at the recommended levels of 50, 2, 4, and
20 grams per ton, respectively. Each of the four above diets plus a control was fed
either ad libitum or 75% of ad libitum. Results indicate no difference between anti-
biotics when feed intake was ad libitum. However, when the energy intake was re-
stricted to 75% of ad libitum, virginiamycin demonstrated a significant increase in
body weight gains and both lincomycin and virginiamycin improved the utilization of
dietary energy.

11:00 am AGR-11 Progression of Blight on Various Citrus Rootstocks in the India
River Area of Florida. D.O. CHELLEMI, R.R. PELOSI, M. COHEN, AND R.M. SONODA.
University of Florida; IFAS-AREC, P. O. Box 248, Fort Pierce, FL 33454.
Canbinations of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis L. Osb. cvs. Hamlin, Pineapple, and
Valencia) on six different rootstocks [sweet orange, sour orange (C. aurantium),
cleopatra mandarin (C. reticulata Blenco), rough lemon (C. limon Lush), trifoliate
orange (Poncius trifoliate), and Troyer (C. sinensis L. Osb. X P. trifoliata)] were
rated over a minimum of four years for incidence of blight in the Indian River area
of Florida. Visual ratings were based on a scale of "zero" to "three". Trees with
a rating of "one" amd above were considered blighted. Ratings were confirmed by
rendanly injecting trees with water and measuring the uptake. Regression analyses
were performed on the data, and evaluation of the determination coefficients
indicated the increase of blight over time wes linear on all of the rootstocks
sampled.

Florida Scientist -4- Volume 48

11:15 am AGR-12 Cleopatra Mandarin (C. reticulata Blanco), a Long-Surviving Citrus
Rootstock. R.R. PELOSI AND M. COHEN, University of Florida, Agricultural Research
Center, P. O. Box 248, Ft. Pierce, FL, 33454. An evaluation of several citrus
rootstock experiments in the Indian River area indicated that Cleopatra mandarin
survived longer than other commonly used rootstocks for sweet orange [Citrus
sinensis (L.) Osb.] and grapefruit (C. paradisi) scions. However, plantings on
Cleopatra rootstock were usually harder to establish and required more care.
Initial yields on Cleopatra often were low but increased with maturity.
Cleopatra's resistance to rootrot (Phytophthora parasitica Dost.), tolerance to
tristeza virus, low incidence of citrus blight and resistance to water damage are
factors accounting for its longevity.

11:30 am AGR-13 Potential For Cowpea-Citrus Intercropping in South Florida. PETER
J. STOFFELLA AND ROBERT R. PELOSI, University of Florida, IFAS, AREC, Box 248 Fort
Pierce, Florida 33454. In the spring 1984 season, cowpeas (Vigna Culata (L.)
Walp.) cv. California Blackeye #5 were intercropped with grapefruit (Citrus
parodisi Macf.) cv. Ruby Red on Swingle citrumelo rootstock. The experiment was
located on an existing one-year-old grapefruit grove with raised, double—-row beds.
The center 5.8 m of the bed was sprayed with glyphosate for weed control. Each
plot consisted of seven cowpea rows, each spaced 76 cm apart and 4.6 m in length,
placed in the center of the bed. Cowpeas were seeded on March 19, 1984. A
fertilizer of 26.8 kg/ha N, 17.3 kg/ha P, and 54.8 kg/ha K was broadcast after
seeding. Four replications of each plot were used. Fresh pods were harvested in
three weekly intervals from the center 3.7 m section of each row. An average yield
of 1845 kg/ha of fresh cowpea pods were obtained. Our data suggest that cowpeas
may be successfully intercropped in young citrus groves; however, a cost analysis
mist be performed to determine whether this system is econamical.

11:45 am AGR-14 Nodal Distribution of Seed Yield Components among Cowpea

(Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) Cultivars. BONITA J. WILLIAMS AND PETER J. STOFFELLA,
University of Florida, IFAS-AREC, P. 0. Box 248, Ft. Pierce, FL 33454. Nodal
distribution of seed yield components were evaluated on 'California Blackeye #5',
"Knuckle Purplehull', 'Pinkeye Purplehull', and 'Texas Cream 40' cowpea cultivars
under field conditions. Seed weight and seed number per pod differed significantly
among cultivars. However, over 87% of the total seed yield occurred on the middle
and lower plant sections (nodes 2-9) regardless of cultivar. With an average of 12
reproductive nodes per plant, over 47% of the seed weight and number of pods
occurred on the lower nodes (2-5) for each cultivar. The majority of these pods
originated from branches off the main stem. Pods from the middle to upper nodes
(6-12) occurred predominantly from peduncles originating from these nodes. Less
than 14% of the total seed weight and pod number occurred on nodes 10 or above.

Our data suggest that differences in nodal distribution of seed yield among these
cowpea cultivars were minimal.

FRIDAY 1:15 pm SELBY AUDITORIUM
PLENARY SESSION I: Florida Academy of Sciences
J.N. LAYNE, Archbold Biological Station, presiding

FRIDAY 3:00 pm LEWIS 136
BUSINESS MEETING: Agricultural Sciences Section
K.L. BUHR, University of Florida, presiding

1985 Meeting = Program Issue

FRIDAY 3:15 pm LEWIS 136
SESSION B: Crop Growth and Physiology; Properties of Animal Bones
P.J. STOFELLA, IFAS-AREC Fort Pierce, presiding

3:15 pm AGR-15 A Growth Analysis ami Computer Simulation of Elephantgrass
(Pennisetum purpureum). D.S. CALHOUN AND G.M. PRINE. Agronay Department,
University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. Growth aralyses, ami more recently
mathematical models ami computer simulation, have been used to describe amndi/or
explain crop growth. The present paper applies and compares the uses of both
practices for elephantgrass. Growth rate, relative growth rate, leaf area ratio
and net assimilation rate are reported and compared with those of other crops.
"SOYGRO", a model for the growth of soybean, is used as a basis for the structure
of the elephantgrass model. Some parameters required for the model are generated
fran elephantgrass data collected at Gainesville, Florida. Where necessary,
Parameters are estimated fram the literature on other C4 grasses. The results of
the simulation are compared with elephantgrass growth measured in Gainesville.

3:30 pm AGR-16 Photon Absorption as a Technique for Estimating Bone Density in

the Bovine. S.N. WILLIAMS, L.A. LAWRENCE, L.R. McDOWELL, N. WILKINSON AND R. TESAR.
Anim. Sci. Dept., Univ. of FL, Gainesville, FL 32611. Photon absorption (PA) is the
most accurate, sensitive, non-invasive technique for determining bone density (BD)

in humans and thus estimate bone mineral status (BMS). Also, this technique has

wide application in diagnosing osteoporosis. An experiment was conducted to deter-
mine the feasibility of using PA as a diagnostic tool in predicting BMS in the bovine.
Fourteen Angus heifers were randomly allotted to two groups and fed diets containing
0.11 or 0.19% P (of diet dry matter) for approximately 2.5 years. At the end of one
gestation, the animals were slaughtered and the left and right third metacarpal (Mc
III) were excised, cleaned and fresh frozen in physiological saline. Bones were sub-
jected to a total body scan and results indicated that PA did detect differences in
BMS between the two treatment groups. The mean linear density (g/cm2) of the meta-
carpals was 1.49 v. 1.65 for the 0.11 and 0.19% P treatments, respectively. These
data indicate that PA is a sensitive diagnostic tool for determining BMS in the bovine.

3:45 pm AGR-17 = Differential Response of Corn Hybrids to Water Stress. L.B.
LOGGALE AND J.M. BENNETT, Agronomy Dept., University of Florida, Gainesville 32611
The development of water deficits is a complex function of climatic conditions,
morphological and physiological crop characteristics and soil type. The objective
of this study was to examine the morphological and physiological differences among
several corn hybrids in response to water stress. Corn (Zea mays L.) hybrids
(Pioneer 3165, 3040, 3055, and 3192) were subjected to three water management treat-
ments (well-irrig@ted, rainfed, and reproductive water stress) and were found to
differ in their response to severe water stress. Hybrids 3165 and 3192 represented
the two extremes in response to stress. Hybrid 3192 attained lower leaf water po-
tentials than hybrid 3165 during water stress, probably as a result of its shal low-
er root system. As a result of the maintenance of higher leaf water potentials dur-
ing water stress, hybrid 3165 produced a higher grain yield when severe water stress
was imposed. However, grain yields among all hybrids were similar when the plants
were well watered or only moderately stressed.

4:00 pm AGR-18 Estimating Bone Mineral Content and Predicting Bone Strength in
the Horse Using Ultrasound. L.A. LAWRENCE, E.A. OTT AND F.S. PIPERS. Anim. Sci.
Dept., Univ. of FL, Gainesville, FL 32611. High frequency sound waves travel
through bone with velocities that reflect its material amd structural properties.
Ultrasound was used to evaluate bone mineral content (BMC) and bone strength in 25
pairs of equine third metacarpals (McIII). Transducers were placed on the medial
and lateral sides of McIII at the midpoint of the bone. Bone diameter and the
velocity of sound through the bone were measured. Wet McIII were tested in three
point bending at a deformation rate of 50 mm/min. Geametric properties for bending

Florida Scientist =6= Volume 48

strength calculations were obtained by computer program. A 2 cm section of bone
was ashed for BMC values. Breaking load (kg) correlated highly with BMC
(r=0.961). The correlation between BMC am breaking strength was r=0.643.
Ultrasound velocities correlated well with actual BMC, r=0.931. A correlation of
r=0.643 suggests that ultrasound is a better indicator of bone strength than actual
BMC. These findings suggest that ultrasound is a valuable non-invasive technique
for assessing the BMC and strength of McIII.

4:15 pm AGR-19 Water Relations and Nitrogenase Activity of Three Grain Legumes
During Water Stress. J.D. DEVRIES, J.M. BENNETT, K.J. BOOTE, AND S.L. ALBRECHT,
Agronomy Dept. and USDA-ARS, University of Florida, Gainesville 32611. Three grain
legumes, soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.), peamit (Arachis hypogaea L.), and
pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.) were grown in irrigated am rain-fed plots to
evaluate their response to water stress. During periods of moderate drought
stress, peanut maintained higher leaf water potentials and leaf turgor potentials,
and lower stomatal resistance than soybean or pigeonpea. However, at extremely low
soil water potentials (severe water stress), pigeonpea maintained lower stanatal
resistance and higher rates of leaf transpiration than either peanut or soybean.
Pigeonpea responded to water stress by rapidly abscising lower leaves as stress
began. Peanut maintained higher specific nitrogenase activity throughout the
growing season and continued this higher activity longer during a drought period.
Pigeonpea and soybean had similar rates of nitrogenase activity through most of the
season, although pigeonpea contimied its activity later during the growing season.

4:30 pm AGR-20 Perennial Peanut (Arachis glabrata, Benth.): Current Status of
Research and Extension. L.J. KROUSE, E.C. FRENCH, G.M. PRINE, Department of
Agronomy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611. Perennial peanut,
introduced into the U.S. from Brazil, has been grown at the University of Florida
Since 1936 to assess its potential as a forage crop. Important recent develop-
ments with perennial peanut include the discovery of the cultivar, Florigraze,
determination of winter as optimum planting time, and adaptation of existing
machinery for extensive vegetative reproduction. Several studies have been
carried out, such as cutting frequency, nutritional evaluation, planting rate,
interseeding, fertilization, value in dairy and beef production, planting method,
and cultivar comparisons. A research/extension effort initiated in 1982 by the
North Florida Farming Systems Research/Extension Program further examined perennial
peanut on-station and on-farm, concentrating efforts in Suwannee and Columbia
counties. Approximately 125 sites have been planted with perennial peanut since
the introduction of Florigraze.

4:45 pm AGR-21 Identifying Florida's Most Sensitive Mammals amd Reptiles. R.L.
BURKE AND S.L. HUMPHREY, Department of Wildlife and Range Sciences and the Florida
State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. A new approach is
proposed to identify those animal species most prone to extinction based on
predictions derived fran analyses of past extinctions. The technique is applied to
the native mammal and reptile species of Florida. The generated list of the most
extinction-prone species is compared to the Florida Game am Freshwater Fish
Camission's list of endangered, threatened, amd "of special concern" species.
Widespread agreement between the two lists is noted, but some significant
differences exist. The status of extinction-prone species not currently being
protected should be reviewed.

FRIDAY 6:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
SOCIAL, BANQUET AND PLENARY SESSION II
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1985 Meeting =F Program Issue

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

FRIDAY 8:15 am LEWIS 303
SESSION A: Forensic and Medical Anthropology
C.W. WIENKER, University of South Florida, presiding

8:15 am ANS-1 The Effects of Antemortem Pathology and Substance
Abuse on Age Determination from the Skeleton. Mise Yiis ISCAN, AND S.R.
LOTH, Department of Anthropology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca
Raton 33431. Questions have been raised concerning the effects of
antemortem disease or alcohol abuse on age estimation from the
skeleton. The purpose of this study is to determine if these stresses
affect age estimation from the sternal end of the rib. Preliminary
testing has revealed no clear-cut association between these factors
and consistent misjudgment of age at death. However, because of the
small size of the test group (N=15), an in-depth study is being
conducted to include the entire sample (N=22C) of forensic specimens
from which the standards for both males and females were cGerived.

8:30 am ANS-2 Respiratory and Cardiovascular Fluctuations in Normotensive
Human Subjects. M. W. SHARINUS, University of South Florida, SOC 107, Tampa 33620.
Human hypertension has been studied extensively for several decades, but a complete
understanding of hypertension and its etiology has eluded investigators. This
study examines whether there are correlations between blood pressure and respira-
tion rates in normotensive ambulatory humans, and if environmental factors are
involved in the variability of these functions. Eleven male normotensive subjects
wore a device which measured respiration rates, and blood pressures were taken at
intervals while the respiration rate was being measured. The results of this study
indicate that respiration rate appears to vary within and between subjects and that
there appears to be a negative correlation between respiration rate and blood
pressure within and between subjects. There also appears to be a significant
difference between work and home settings.

8:45 am ANS-3 The Analysis of Osteophytic Structures and Their Application to
Forensic Anthropology. DAVID ALLEN FRANTZ, Department of Anthropology, Florida
State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306. Forensic anthropologists are continu-
ously looking for new methods to aid in the positive identification of human
skeletal remains. One such method is the study of osteophytes and osteophytic
formations in the vertebral column and joint surfaces. This paper concentrates on
the physical properties of osteophytes, addressing growth formations and the
problem of reabsorption to determine if it is feasible to match skeletal remains
showing signs of osteophytosis with x-rays of a suspected victim as a means of
establishing positive identification.

9:00 am ANS-4 Age Related Metamorphosis in the Sternal Rib: Males vs. Females.
S.R. LOTH and M.Y. I§CAN, Department of Anthropology, Florida Atlantic University,
Boca Raton, FL 33431. Age can be effectively estimated from the sternal extremity
of the rib using the phase technique in which the total range of age related
metamorphosis is divided into nine phases. However, because the aging process was
found to proceed at different rates and manifest different patterns in males and
females, separate standards were established for each sex. While initial pit
formation was the first sign of change in both sexes, this was observed at 14

years in females, but not until 17 in males. Females remained about three years
younger until Phase 4 when both reach 28. Pattern differences included the forma-
tion, in males, of a much deeper pit and, in many cases, bony projections extending
medially from the superior and inferior borders of the rib. Females over 30

showed greater accretions of bony deposits within the pit.

Florida Scientist EO Volume 48

9:15 am BREAK

9:30 am ANS-5 Abnormal Hemoglobins in Tarpon Springs Blacks and Greeks. C.W.
WIENKER, Univ. of South Florida, Tampa 33620. Tarpon Springs, Florida consists of
three major "enclaves", Blacks, Greeks, and non-Greek Anglo-Americans. Hemoglobin
data for the latter two groups are presented. For 284 Blacks, Hb allele frequen-
cies are: A=.938, S=.051, C=.0ll. For 70 Greeks, the frequency of the thalassemia
allele is .036. Blacks fit well with the genetic patterns displayed by other Black
American groups. For Tarpon Springs Greeks the frequency of the thalassemia allele
is considerably lower than one would expect from a group primarily derived from the
Dodecanese Islands of the southern Aegean Sea. Redirected selection accounts for
some of the difference. The Sewall Wright Effect and/or Founder's Effect may ac-
count for the rest.

Age analysis generally documents redirected selection favoring normal hemoglo-
bin genotypes in both Greeks and Blacks. Genetic data also document a lack of ad-
mixture between these groups in Tarpon Springs, but not in nearby areas.

9:45 am ANS-6 Socio-Cultural Correlates of Alzheimer's Disease. J. NEIL
HENDERSON, Medical Center, Univ. of South Florida, Tampa 33612. Senile Dementia of
the Alzheimer's Type (SDAT) is a devastating disease which affects: 10% of the 65+
population; 30% of the 80+ population; 60% of the nursing home population.
Clinical course and neuronal pathology are well described. However, two elements
of AD remain uncharted: etiology and the sociocultural correlates impinging on
caregiver and social network response. This paper examines the latter from four
perspectives: 1) ageism, 2) extant cosmopolitan medical beliefs and practices, 3)
postnuptial and post retirement residence patterns, and 4) primary caregiver and
social network responses.

10:00 am ANS-7 Anthropological Approaches to Hospital Research Based on Patient
Medical Records. CHRISTINE R. GEISER AND E. LEE HUSTING, University of South
Florida, Department of Comprehensive Medicine, 13301 North 30th Street, Tampa 33612.
What does a medical anthropologist conducting research in Africa have in common with
a medical anthropologist collecting data in his/her own community, in the medical
records departments of local hospitals, for example? What unique methodological
problems might be encountered in conducting research based on patient records? The
authors explore these questions based on their experiences during an epidemiological
study of diabetic patients admitted to local hospitals in 1981 and 1982. Data was
abstracted from approximately 500 patient records. Problems arose in obtaining
access to records, in summarizing the large volumes of data, in evaluating the
results, and in interpreting anecdotal material. Hindsight has shown that some of
the methodological problems encountered could have been avoided. Suggestions for
anticipating and ameliorating these kinds of problems are presented. Research
supported by the Diabetes Center and the Department of Comprehensive Medicine, USF.

10:15 am DISCUSSION

FRIDAY 10:30 am LEWIS 303
BUSINESS MEETING: Anthropological Sciences Section
J.A. PAREDES, Florida State University, presiding

1985 Meeting -9- Program Issue

FRIDAY 3:00 pm LEWIS 303
SESSION B: Ethnohistory and Applied Anthropology
J.N. HENDERSON, University of South Florida, presiding

3:00 pm ANS-8 Costume as a Force for Social Change. C. ARAS, Department of
Anthropology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431. The psychologi-
cal impact of costume, particularly those custom-honored items of clothing invested
by society with multiple levels of symbolic significance, has long been recognized.
This study investigates how a radical change in dress, arbitrarily decreed by law,
can be used as an agent for causing specific social and cultural change. This
paper describes the situation that actually occurred in Turkey, beginning in the
1920's, following Ataturk's revolution, and shows how its impact is still being
felt today.

3:15 pm ANS-9 Cassava and its Role in the Colonial European Diet of the West
Indies. CHARLES EWEN, Department of Anthropology, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville
32611. Cassava bread is a starchy, calorie rich product made from the root of the
manioc plant. Monioc will flourish where little else will grow and has come to be
the main source of calories for over 210 million people. Yet cassava seems to have
been relegated to a position of little use in the colonial European diet of the
West Indies. Four possible explanations for this phenomenon were investigated: 1)
cultural-biological; 2) fear of poisoning; 3) familiarity/taste; 4) status. All of
the explanations for the avoidance of cassava had some merit. Initial rejection
may have been a matter of its unfamiliarity in both taste and appearance. Later, a
fear of its toxicity and its affiliation with low status individuals precluded its
adoption. The underlying reason may rest in its nutritional deficiencies and
cumulative toxic effects.

3:30 pm ANS-10 Ethnography of a Senior Center. SUSAN PAPPAS, Department of
Anthropology, University of South Florida, Tampa 33620. I conducted an ethnographic
study of a center that attempted to offer the older individual something different
from what is readily found. The data were collected through a series of weekly
interviews with a retired social worker. The study indicated that the center had

a theraputic value on the lives of many of its participants. Those that have
benefitted are the older people who are shy, angry, hostile or depressed. Unlike
other centers the focus has been on creating a positive ambience for its partici-
pants. They have maintained that older people would have the opportunity to pursue
any interest that they feel would be beneficial to them.

3:45 pm ANS-11 A Fallacy in Social Science. MARY T. DAILEY. Department of
Anthropology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306. Pluralism,
based on the premises of Cultural Relativism, is advocated as a solution to cul-
tural differences within societies. Since cultural relativism is, in turn, based
on the assumptions of cultural evolution i.e., that any existing "culture" has
evolved as the best adaptation to a specific context/niche (environment) in both
space and time, it is not a logical basis for pluralism. This conclusion results
from the failure to make the definition clear. If certain cultural differences are
based on specific adaptations, they will not be equally as adaptive within one
context, removed from their original application. If cultural background and the
evolutionary process of selection form the basis for cultural relativism, then
cultural relativism cannot justify pluralism within a single society.

4:00 pm BREAK

Florida Scientist -10- Volume 48

4:15 pm ANS-12 The Ethnography of Mental Health Policy. ANGELA E. SCOGGIN AND
MICHAEL V. ANGROSINO, Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida,
Tampa 33620. The development of public policy is analyzed in anthropological per-
spective as a social process involving a complex interplay of peoples' beliefs and
expectations with the growth of legislation. The specific case of the Florida Men-
tal Health Act (Baker Act) will be used to illustrate this dynamic process. The
passage of the Act in 1971 stimulated profound and continuing changes in mental
health policy and in popular perceptions about mental illness. The Act strengthened
the civil rights of the mentally ill, and has provided for community services to
monitor and limit institutionalization. However, changes of such scope have speci-
fically affected law enforcement agencies, mental health professionals, and clients
and their families, as well as the public in general. Their attitudes have led to
ongoing revisions of the legislation. The social context of the evolution of Flo-
rida's mental health policy is illustrated by an analysis of legislative reports and
extensive interviews with key players in the process.

4:30 pm ANS~-13 Statistical Analyses of Hotel Guest Perception. LUH ANN
MCDEVITT, Dept. of Anthropology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton 33431.
Guest perception of a hotel product is examined through the use of guest comment
card analysis, employing SPSS Subprograms Frequencies and Crosstabs. Ninety eight
variables concerning the satisfaction of the guest for all service areas in a
hotel were utilized, and these were recorded for a five month period. These areas
included: (1) reception, (2) guest room, (3) dining, (4) bar and lounge, (5)
entertainment, (6) recreation, and (7) personal service. Subprogram Crosstabs
generated the Chi-Square Test of statistical significance, and the measures of
association including Cramer's V, the contingency coefficient and lambda. Where
there was a high probability, the use of association indicated the strength of
these relationships. The continuation of maintaining standards is reinforced with
these statistical analyses.

4:45 pm ANS-14 Non-Institutional Treatment for Sex Offenders in Florida. GEORGE
C. ROOT AND HARVEY H. MOORE, Dépt. of Anthropology, Univ. of South Florida, Tampa
33620. This paper describes the availability and characteristics of non-institu-
tional treatment for sex offenders as found in a survey of community mental health
providers (N=80) in Florida. Results cover categories of offenses, type of refer-
ral, numbers in treatment, annual case load, and program characteristics. Ina
survey, sixty-three questionnaires were returned for a seventy-nine percent return
rate and forty-eight (76%) programs were found that treated sex offenders. More
sex offenders are treated in the community than in state operated residential
programs.

5:00 pm DISCUSSION

FRIDAY 6:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
SOCIAL, BANQUET AND PLENARY SESSION II
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1985 Meeting -11- Program Issue

SATURDAY 8:30 am CRAWFORD 4
SESSION C: Prehistoric and Historical Anthropology
R.A. MARRINAN, Florida State University, presiding

8:30 am ANS-15 :issed Direction in Archaeology. RICHARD G. HAIDUVEN,
Department of Anthropology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Fl.
32306. A recent survey of archaeological site maps has brought to
light errors in elementary mapping technique, specifically regarding
the accurate recording of directional true north. It is surprising
to see the extent to which site position relative to the earth is ap-
parently disregarded; a sample of site maps is included. A few tech-
niques for locating and recording true north, magnetic north, and grid
north are provided. One of the important goals of archaeological re-
search is to record provenience, not only of artifacts, but of the
site itself. Any future construction, study of, or reference to site
maps would best proceed from an accurate data base.

8:45 am ANS-16 — Some Alternative Interpretations of Safety Harbor Burial Mounds.
JEFFREY M. MITCHEM, Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville 32611.
Previous archaeological research on Safety Harbor (ca. A.D. 1000-1600) burial
mounds has demonstrated that primary burials, when present, are stratigraphically
deeper than secondary interments. This has been traditionally viewed as diachronic
evidence of changing burial patterns. A review of earlier excavations and results
of recent investigations of Safety Harbor burial mounds suggests that some of these
mounds were probably single-episode sites, the result of cleaning out a charnel
house upon the death of an important individual. Another aspect, which has not been
addressed in the literature, is the function of isolated Safety Harbor burial
mounds, which are concentrated north of Tampa Bay. The hypotheses that these mounds
were used either by kin-based groups (such as clans) or were common-use burial
areas for many local groups are examined in light of available evidence.
Deficiencies in our knowledge of ceramic and other artifact chronologies are
identified, which hamper testing of these hypotheses.

9:00 am ANS-17 Apalachee Settlement Patterns. STEPHEN C. BRYNE, Department ot
Anthropology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306. Our knowledge
of the prehistoric Apalachee Indians is limited to a small number of translated
accounts from the Narvaez and De Soto expeditions as well as the later accounts of
the Mission Period. The documentary evidence that exists is scanty and often
conflicting. Florida State University's Department of Anthropology is currently
conducting an archaeological survey of Late prehistoric/protohistoric sites in
Leon County, Florida. Preliminary results of this survey will be discussed and a
model for Apalachee settlement will be proposed.

9:15 am ANS-18 An Analysis of some Non-treasure Cargo Items found on Eighteenth
Century Spanish Shipwrecks. FRANCES L. KEITH, Bureau of Archaeological Research and
Florida State University. 2152 Harriett Drive, Tallahassee, 32303.

Modern historians agree that non-treasure commodities from the New World played
a larger economic role in the trade between Spain and her colonies than did the gold
and silver. However, knowledge of many of these goods and their uses has been lost
in the passage of time. This research reveals information about many of these goods.

9:30 am ANS-19 Experimental Archaeology, a Fundamental Tool for the Delineation
of Early Technology: Some Examples from Fort Center. J. M. LEADER, Department of
Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL. 32611. The Fort Center metal
collection is presently undergoing analysis at the Florida State Museum. A major
question is whether or not it is possible to determine the origin of manufacture
for the artifacts. The differences between European and aboriginal techniques of

Florida Scientist ='2= Volume 48

manufacture is an important variable in answering this question. A number of
experiments have been undertaken to delineate the usefulness of accepted aboriginal
techniques in the manufacture of metal artifacts. These experiments include
drilling, in fire casting, open mold casting, and using shark's teeth as gravers.
The author wishes to thank the Lykes Brothers, Inc., for their loan of the metal
collection for study, and the Florida State Museum for the use of their facilities.

9:45 am DISCUSSION

SATURDAY 10:00 am CRAWFORD 4
MEETING: Anthropological Sciences Student Awards Committee
W.Jd. KENNEDY, Florida Atlantic University, presiding

10:15 am ANS-20 Surface Collection of Human Skeletal Material at Hellsgate
Burial Mound. JOHN BERIAULT, KEITH WATERHOUSE AND MICHAEL HANSINGER, Southwest
Florida Archeological Society and Florida State Museum, 5555 Crayton Rd., Naples
33963. This burial mound has been disturbed by "pot hunters". In order to salvage
the human skeletal material for laboratory study the Southwest Florida Archeologi-
cal Society, assisted by two members of the Archeological Society of Southern
Florida, and the Florida State Museum arranged to clear and surface collect the
site on two successive weekends. The site was surveyed, a botanical identifica-
tion made and the human skeletal material collected. Further work on the bony
material is being performed at the Florida State Museum. Details will be presented.

10:30 am ANS-21 The mission effort in Spanish Florida. ROCHELLE A. MARRINAN,
Department of Anthropology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, 32306-2023.

Between 1565 and 1704, Spain initiated a mission effort as a facet of colonization
and civilization of La Florida and her inhabitants. While various orders were in-
volved in mission work, the Order of Friars minor (Franciscan) dominated the
Florida mission field. The mission program had several explicit and implicit
rationales. These included conversion, Christianization, and civilization.
Through the work of the friars, aboriginal peoples were to become incorporated into
the Spanish colonial population, and good vassals of the reigning monarch. Their
settlements were to become regulated to facilitate agriculture, particularly maize
production and stock raising. Collection of tribute as members of the Empire
could be effected in either labor or produce. Additionally, loyal aboriginal
populations would offer a buffer against French and English encroachment.

10:45 am ANS-22 preservation and Stabilization of Wood, Bone and Soft Tissue
(Brain matter) from the Windover site (8BR246). TAMMY STONE AND GLEN H. DORAN,
Department of Anthropology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306.
An overview of the variables responsible for the preservation of organic materials
is presented. This includes information on peat and water chemistry, and oxygen
content. An overview of the stabilization (preservation) of the materials is
covered. PEG impregnation and freezing techniques are discussed.

11:00 am DISCUSSION

11:15 am ANNOUNCEMENT OF STUDENT AWARDS

SATURDAY 12:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
COUNCIL MEETING: Florida Academy of Sciences
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

1985 Meeting =il3}= Program Issue

ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANOGRAPHIC SCIENCES

FRIDAY 8:30 am LEWIS 205
SESSION A: Sediments; Ocean Science
J.G. WINDSOR, JR., Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

8:30 am AOS-1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Surface Sediments of the
Lagoon Ebrie in the Ivory Coast. TOURE POGBAN and JOHN G. WINDSOR, JR. Dept.

of Oceanography & Ocean Engineering, Fla. Institute of Technology, Melbourne,

FL 32901. Surface sediment samples were collected from lagoons surrounding
Abidjan, the capital city of the Ivory Coast. Seven of the samples were
extracted and analyzed for six specific polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).
Sediments remote from the urban area and in those parts of the lagoonal system
which are well flushed are low in PAH. Several of the bays which are poorly
flushed and in close proximity to Abidjan are high in PAH. The relative distri-
bution of the six PAH indicate a greater pyrogenic than petrogenic contribution.
Abidjan is a major urban and industrial area of West Africa. Extensive wood and
charcoal burning and the unregulated emissions from automobiles contribute to
the PAH burden.

8:45 am AQS-2 Determination of Volatile Organic Halocarbons In Sediments and
Biological Samples by Purge-Closed Loop Gas Chromatography. T.C. WANG AND R.A.
LENAHAN, Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., R.R. 1, Box 196, Ft. Pierce, 33450.
Detection of volatile organic halocarbons in sediment and tissue samples at the
part per billion level is accomplished by purge-closed loop gas chromatography. A
purified stream of air is bubbled through a known amount of sample which is placed
in a 40 ml sample. vial with ten ml of organic free water added. The volatile
organics are rapidly purged from the aqueous slurry to the gaseous phase in a ten
ml sampling loop. After equilibrium is reached, the sample fraction contained in
the loop is injected into the gas chromatograph by a Valco six port switch valve.
Five sediment and oyster samples, fortified with eight volatile organics, were
analyzed. The average percent recovery was 92 + 19 percent. Advantages to this
method include a rapid analysis time, elimination of many background interferences
and an ability to accomodate a wide sampling concentration range.

9:00 am AOS-3 Vertical Distributions of Archaebacterial Lipids in Sediments.
GEORGE G. PAULY AND EDWARD S. VAN VLEET, Department of Marine Science, University
of South Florida, 140 Seventh Avenue South, St. Petersburg, FL 33701. The concen-
tration of phytanyl diether glycerol and related lipids has been determined in
sediments from two cores. These lipids are unequivocal markers of archaebacteria.
The moderate, anaerobic environments studied are inhabited by only one known type
of archaebacteria, methanogens. Preliminary results indicate diether lipid con-
centrations up to 50 ppm on a sediment dry weight basis, corresponding to a calcu-
lated 2% contribution by methanogen cell carbon to total reduced carbon. Methano-
gens produce several moles of methane for each mole of cell carbon, thereby
magnifying their effect on chemical ecology.

9:15 am A0S-4 Early Chemical Diagenesis in Mid-Atlantic Ridge Sediments. KEVIN
M. BULL and JOHN H. TREFRY, Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Flor-
ida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901. Sediment cores were taken along the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge at latitudes 14°-26°N. Interstitial water was recovered by cen-
trifugation at sediment in-situ temperatures and analyzed for nitrate, phosphate,
Silica, chloride, sulfate, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and manganese.
Generally, interstitial water nitrate concentrations are similar to oceanic bottom
water concentrations (20-30 pM) indicating that the sediments are highly oxic to
depths of 100 cm. Interstitial manganese concentrations were < 4 nmole/kg confirm-

Florida Scientist -14- Volume 48

ing the oxic nature of the sediments. Sediment total organic carbon values range
from 0.01 to 0.17 %C. One core from the TAG Hydrothermal Field is composed of two
sediment facies. The top 16 cm average 70% carbonate whereas the 16-25 cm layer is
rich in weathered basalt. The boundary between these layers forms not only a sedi-
ment carbonate discontinuity but also one for sediment porosity and interstitial
water chloride, nitrate and silica.

9:30 am AOS-5 Seasonal Trends of Interstitial Manganese. NENAD IRICANIN
AND JOHN H. TREFRY, Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida
Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901. Interstitial Mn concentrations
have been monitored over a two year period in Mississippi Delta sediments. A
seasonal trend was evident with the highest interstitial Mn concentrations
occuring during the spring months. Spatial variations of interstitial Mn were
also observed. Nearshore sediments had approximately twice the concentration
seen offshore (24 + 15 and 10 + 3 mg/1 respectively). The flux of Mn to
overlying water also showed evidence of seasonal and spatial variability.

9:45 am AOS-6 The Relationship of Fish Consumption and Mercury Contamination in
the St. Johns River. BEASON, L. Le, K. Ie MILLER, W. W. HONOUR, AND A. Q. WHITE.
Department of Biology and Marine Science, Jacksonville University, Jacksonville,
32211. Mercury is a significant contaminant of the aquatic environment. Contamina-
tion of water can occur through natural weathering processes and from industrial
sources of mercury salts that can be transformed into highly toxic methyl mercury by
microorganisms dwelling in sediments. Methyl mercury is readily concentrated within
the aquatic food chain and is a human health hazard at excessive levels. This study
examined the possible problem of mercury contamination in humans who eat a signifi-
cant amount of fish from the St. Johns River. Are these people faced with possible
health hazards? Current mercury levels in the fish from the St. Johns River are not
sufficient to promote mercury poisoning in humans. These results are based ona
survey of local fishermen, estimated average fish consumption per person per week,
and mercury levels in selected species. The results are based on 807 individuals
who responded to the survey.

10:00 am BREAK

10:15 am AOS-7 Benthic Dinoflagellates Associated with Ciguatera in
the Florida Keys: The 0-38 pm Size Fraction. L.E. MITCHELL AND D.R.
NORRIS, Dept. of O & OE. Florida Inst. of Tech., Melbourne, FL 32901.
The epiphytic densities of 6 species of benthic dinoflagellates
common to waters supporting ciguatoxic fishes were assessed for a 12
month period from 16 macroalgal species and one seagrass collected.in
the Florida Keys. Peak densities were detected in Sept. 1984 in all
major macroalgal divisions with >»4,000 cells/g. wet weight in the
Phaeo. & Rhodophytes. Significant differences between months (P<0.05)
were detected by ANOVA for Coolia monotis, Amphydinium spp. and
Prorocentrum lima, in which the latter species always dominated the %
composition. The confirmation of toxins in 3 of the 6 dinoflagellates
studied (Yasumoto et al.,1982), their large densities and wide
distribution suggest the possible implication of the smaller benthic
dinoflagellates in the complexity of the ciguatera phenomenon.

10:30 am AOS-8 Coastal Exposures and Lithology of the Pleistocene Anastasia
Formation, Peninsular Florida. RICARDO NIEVES, G. NELL TYNER and DONALD kK.
STAUBLE, Dept. of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of
Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. Outcrops of the Pleistocene Anastasia Formation
were studied along the east coast of Florida from Anastasia Island, St. Johns
County, to Jupiter Island, Palm Beach County, and on the west coast at Siesta Key,

1985 Meeting -15- Program Issue

Sarasota County, Florida. The formation consists primarily of water-worn whole
and fragmental mollusk shells, quartz sands, and minor amounts of heavy minerals
bonded by various types of carbonate cements. The formation is exposed as beach
rock and in some locations along the southeast coast it forms a cliff coast. From
northern to southern exposures the lithology becomes finer grained with more shell
hash, increased carbonate cementation and decreased volume of pore space. Thick,
dense caliche crust is also more prominent southward indicating a longer time of
subaerial exposure.

10:45 am AQS-9 Responses of Beaches of Varying Morphologies to a Severe Storm.
DON PAUL RANGE and DONALD K. STAUBLE, Dept. of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering,
Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. An analysis of the responses
of beaches with varying morphologies to severe storms is being conducted along 40
km of the Brevard County, Florida coastline. Within this stretch of coast three
distinct beach types have been recognized. The type I beach is fine grained, rela-
tively wide and gently sloping with a well developed natural dune. The type II
beach is coarse grained, has a steep, narrow slope and dune characteristics simi-
lar to type I. The type III beach has a steep slope and is composed of coarse
grained fill sand placed over a naturally occurring flat, fine grained beach with
a poorly vegetated, incipient dune system. The different response of the beachface
and dune of the three beach types to a severe erosional event is shown to be re-
lated to the grain size distribution along the profile, beachface slope, and beach
width. Pre-existing coarse and sand beaches (types II and III) become measurably
coarser while less change is observed on the fine sand beach (type I).

11:00 am AOS-10 Some Aspects of Marine Science in the People's Republic of
China. GU DEYU, Third Institute of Oceanography, National Bureau of Oceanography,
Xiamen, Fujian, China. Mr. Gu, who is a research fellow at the Third Institute
of Oceanography of China and a visiting scientist in Florida, will be describing
some of the current oceanography research activities in the People's Republic

of China. Mr. Gu's studies in Florida are being supported by the People's
Republic of China, the Asia Foundation and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration.

11:15 am AOS-11 Review of Sea Grant Coastal Programs with Identification of
Emerging Priorities for Estuarine Science. WILLIAM SEAMAN, JR., Florida Sea
Grant, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611. Florida Sea Grant College
Program marine research, education, and extension programs statewide include
estuarine subjects. Sea Grant fosters a multi-disciplinary approach led by
academic faculty investigating issues broadly related to the rapid urbaniza-
tion of Florida, where 75% of all mew residents settle in coastal areas.
Since 1972, over 30 research studies have addressed themes including the in-
fluence of upland pollutants on estuarine productivity, restoration of bays,
trophic dynamics, and legal resolution of multiple-use conflicts. Technology
transfer efforts have included symposia on the state of knowledge for five
major estuarine systems and for key generic issues such as freshwater runoff
and contamination, and numerous publications. Education of lay audiences is a
continuing activity. Emerging technical needs and research priorities are
identified as pertinent to the Florida scientific community at-large.

11:30 am AOS-12 Sociological Interaction in Undersea Living. WILLIAM M.
TRANTHAM, Florida Keys Community College. This paper will discuss the psychologi-
cal aspects of Student Faculty Interactions during several 24 hour periods in the
Florida Marine Resources Undersea classroom/lab at John Pennekamp State Park. The
affects of confinement, territoriality and cooperative behavior in undersea en-
vironmental investigations as well as selected sensory deprivation will be detailed
in the report. Funding by D.O.E., State of Florida, Tallahassee.

Florida Scientist S165 Volume 48

FRIDAY 11:45 am LEWIS 205
BUSINESS MEETING: Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences
J.G. WINDSOR, JR., Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

FRIDAY 1:15 pm SELBY AUDITORIUM
PLENARY SESSION I: Florida Academy of Sciences ;
J.N. LAYNE, Archbold Biological Station, presiding

FRIDAY 3:00 pm LEWIS 205
SESSION B: Climate and Hydrography
R.P. REICHARD, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

3:00 pm AOS-13 Winter Minimum Temperature Trends in Florida in the Past Sixty
Years. Ellen Chen, Fruit Crops Department, University of Florida, Gainesville,
32611. Temperature departure from normal calculated from monthly mean minimum
temperatures for December and January were used to show trends of worst conditions
in winter in Florida for the period from 1925 to 1985. December temperature
departures generally show frequent (1 to 4 years) oscillations from above normal to
below normal. In contrast, January temperature departures show that since O55
approximately 75% of the years had below normal temperatures. Every year since
1976 had registered below normal minimum temperature, with 1980 nearest normal.

The study also shows that about 75% of all daily minimum temperature occurrences
which were below -1°C occurred after 1955. The worst sequence of events during this
period were probably the back to back freeze of December 25, 1983 and January 20,
1985,

3:15 pm AOS-14 Climate Of The Indian River Lagoon Region, F. DOEHRING, AND D.
BARILE, Marine Resources Council, 204 W. University Blvd., Melbourne, 32901. The
climatology of the region is documented utilizing recent information. Winter freeze
data, emerging trends in temperature and precipitation are described. Findings are
based on data from six long-term NOAA/AWS weather observing sites (Titusville, Mel-
bourne, Vero Beach, Fort’Pierce, Stuart, and Patrick AFB) for periods of record from
1900-1985. Physical description of the lagoon and general climatic features such as
temperature (air & water), precipitation, wind, evaporation, sunshine, cloudiness and
other climatic elements are included. Hurricanes, tropical storms, extra-tropical
storms, frontal systems and severe weather are discussed. Temperature normals (30-
year averages) reveal a dramatic 20 year winter cooling trend. Winter temperature
extremes are described emphasing the five severe freezes from 1977 to January 1985.
Analysis of annual precipitation totals for each of the six stations reveal an un-
usual overall decrease in the amount of annual precipitation from 1970-1981. An
accumulated rainfall deficit in 1981 of more than 60 inches was calculated.

3:30 pm AOQS-15 Computer Simulation of Estuarine Water-Sediment
Heat Energy Exchanges. NED P. SMITH, Harbor Branch Foundation,

RR 1, Box 196, Fort Pierce 33450. Bi-hourly estuarine water
temperatures are used to drive a computer model of water-sediment
heat energy exchanges in the Indian River lagoon, on South Florida's
Atlantic coast. A 132-day time series from mid December 1981
through April 1982 describes quasi-periodic variations in water
temperature; computer simulations characterize the damped response
in the underlying sediments. Model calculations are verified by
Once- or twice-weekly in situ readings from two levels. The
magnitude of the heat energy flux, even at the water-sediment
interface, is only a few W/m’. This process appears to be of
secondary importance, although it moderates extreme water temnera-
tures and provides a relatively stable thermal environment for
estuarine endofauna.

1985 Meeting =1lf/= Program Issue

3:45 pm AOS-16 Estimating Bed-Material Transport in Tidal Channels. STEVEN L.
COSTA, Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of
Technology, Melbourne 32901. It is often necessary to estimate the transport
capacity of bed material in tidal inlets and channels. Many of the formulae for
such calculations are difficult to use. An empirically derived and easily applied
technique for estimating bed-load transport of fine to medium sand is developed
from existing data. A set of predictive equations has been developed to investi-
gate the behavior of sand transport under tidally driven reversing flows. For un-
stratified flows, the principal description of transport rate involves the mean
channel velocity, depth of flow and median grain size. Each of the variables is
easily measured or calculated. Since the relations have a basis in the physics of
flow-bedform interactions, insight into the fundamental nature of bed-load trans-
port is gained.

4:00 pm BREAK

4:15 pm AOS-17 A Comparison of Microseisms and Ocean Waves on the
East Florida Coast. ANITA L. WOOLDRIDGE, K.K. HATHAWAY AND So
COSTA, Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida
Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901. An investigation of the
1:l1(primary) and 2:1(secondary) frequency relationship between
microseisms and ocean waves is being conducted at the Marine Research
Center in Vero Beach, IP lbe Simultaneous recording of microseisms and
ocean waves are being taken and their frequency spectra analyzed for
coherency. The determination of the dominate microseismic frequency
will be discussed for this area. This work is an extension of work
conducted by Hathaway and Costa in Northern California. The primary
objective is to investigate the relationship between ocean waves and
microseisms at coastlines with different morphologies, wave climate,
and tidal characteristics.

4:30 pm AOS-18 Flushing Of The Southern Indian River Lagoon. RONNAL P. REICHARD AND
SCOTT M. LEWIT, Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of
Technology, Melbourne, Florida, 32901. Abnormally high rainfall during the winter of
1983 forced the South Florida Water Management District to discharge large quantities
of fresh water from Lake Okeechobee into the St. Lucie estuary via the St. Lucie Canal.
The effect of this discharge on the physical dynamics of the St. Lucie estuary and the
adjacent waters was the subject of a study supported by the South Florida Water Manage-
ment District. The results of this study showed a net flow of high salinity ocean
water north into the Indian River from the St. Lucie Inlet, occuring as a direct result
of the fresh water discharge. This flow had a net displacement of about 4 Km per day
over a period of several weeks; thus the southern Indian River, between St. Lucie and
Ft. Pierce (a distance of about 40 Km), was completely flushed by high salinity ocean
water.

4:45 pm AOS-19 Flow patterns in the Indian River lagoon near
an ocean inlet. PATRICK A. PITTS, Harbor Branch Foundation,
RR 1 Box 196, Fort Pierce 33450. A current meter record from
the Indian River lagoon, Florida, encompassing 89 days was
used to characterize flow patterns along the Intercoastal
Waterway near the Sebastian Inlet. Data were analyzed to
determine tidal constituents, and tidal and nontidal variances.
The nontidal component of the currents accounted for approx-
imately 20% of the variance. A plot of net displacement indi-
cates a southerly flow toward the inlet less than three kilo-
meters away. Fresh water input is the most probable cause for
the southerly displacement.

Florida Scientist (B= Volume 48

5:00 pm AQS-20 A Water Budget for a Hydrologic Systems Model of the Indian
River Lagoon, Florida. KAREN A. GLATZEL, Department of Oceanography and Ocean
Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901. An ecological sys-
tems model of the Indian River Lagoon needs to be developed as a planning and man-
agement tool. A water budget of this system is the initial element of the
physical-environmental component of the model. The watershed of the lagoon has
never been uniformly described. Portions of the watershed have been artificially
enlarged. The goal of the hydrologic systems model is to predict the response of
the lagoon to changes in watershed land use patterns and management practices. The
morphologic characteristics of the watershed are summarized and the components of
the water budget are presented. A preliminary estimate of the effects of changes
in watershed land use on the water budget and responses of the lagoon are made.

5:15 pm AOS-21 Response of Longitudinal Salinity Structure to Controlled Fresh
water Discharges, Indian River Lagoon, Florida. ESTUARINE RESEARCH GROUP,
Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology,
Melbourne 32901. The longitudinal salinity structure for various seasonal condi-
tions was obtained for a section of the Indian River Lagoon that can generally be
considered vertically and latererally homogeneous. The spatial variation of sal-
inity was characterized with linear and polynomial regressions. The lapse rate of
salt concentration along the axis of the lagoon was found to remain remarkably
constant. Variations in the absolute levels of salinity and, to a smaller degree,
the relative longitudinal structure was found to respond in a predictable fashion
to fresh water inputs dominated by artificial controlled input events. (This study
is presented by members of the Estuarine Research Group: A. Militello, J. Perea,
K.A. Glatzel, and S.L. Costa)

5:30 pm AOS-22 Longitudinal Advective and Diffusive Transport in the Indian
River Lagoon near Melbourne, Florida. ESTUARINE RESEARCH GROUP, Department of
Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne
32901. The variability of net longitudinal transport in a long, narrow coastal
lagoon is investigated. Salinity vs. distance regression relations are utilized
directly with the longitudinal salt balance equation. For appropriate time scales
it is possible to estimate values for the net advective and diffusive transport in
the study area. Net transport is relatively weak compared to other estuaries. For
time scales that are large compared to the tidal period net longitudinal velocities
are on the order of 1 cm/sec. Longitudinal diffusivities are found to be at the
low end of the range reported for other estuaries. (This study is presented by
members of the Estuarine Research Group: L. Precedo, D.L. Eckart, E.W. Henke, and
Sy Lep COsita’)

FRIDAY 6:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
SOCIAL, BANQUET AND PLENARY SESSION II
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

SATURDAY 10:00 am SELBY AUDITORIUM ;
SYMPOSIUM: Whose Responsibility is the Science Education of Florida Students?
B.F. BROWN, Governor's Commission on Secondary Schools, presiding

SATURDAY 12:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
COUNCIL MEETING: Florida Academy of Sciences
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

1985 Meeting -19- Program Issue

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE

FRIDAY 8:45 am LEWIS 217
SESSION A: Botany
S. BRACK-HANES, Eckerd College, presiding

8:45 am BIO-1 Florida Macrolichens as Bioindicators of Atmospheric Quality.
HARRY V. NEAL JR., Univ. of Central Florida, Orlando, 32816. Lichens have been
used extensively and with considerable success as bioindicators of atmospheric
pollution in North America and Europe for more than 30 years. Little research has
followed in tropical and subtropical regions where population growth is rapid, and
has created unprecedented environmental pressures. Almost nothing is known of the
effectiveness of lichens as bioindicators in these areas. Air pollution, especially
S07 emission, causes a reduction in the abundance and diversity of lichen species in
affected areas. Floristic baseline data for the central Florida area assembled in
anticipation of the Curtis H. Stanton Energy Center, a 460 megawatt coal-fired power
plant scheduled for completion in July 1987, indicates a macrolichen flora of approx-
mately 12 families, 31 genera and 172 species. Electronic data base files allow
rapid access and county-by-county or site-by-site distributional analysis and
evaluation.

9:00 am BI0-2 Conifer Cone from the Miocene of Idaho. R. MENTE
and S.D. BRACK-HANES, Univ. South Florida at St. Petersburg 33701
and Eckerd College, St. Petersburg 33733. Little is known about the
Lower Miocene flora of the Carmen Formation in east-central Idaho.
To date, only a few angiosperms such as Salix, Typha, Alnus and Acer
have been described from it. Conifers are especially scarce and
represented by two genera, Sequoia and Glyptostrobus, a native of
China. Now another conifer has been discovered, a mature medium-size
seed cone impression about 6cm long. It has several scars that
indicate where there were two seeds on each thin ovuliferous scale.
The scale itself is short, broad and rounded distally with smooth
margins. Seeds have a distinctive maple-like wing similar to that of
Picea. These and other features suggest an affinity of the fossil
with the Pinaceae family.

9:15 am BI0-3 Crystals in a Fossil Seagrass. S.D. BRACK-HANES and
T.M GRECO, Eckerd College, St. Petersburg 33733 and Univ. South
Florida at St. Petersburg 33701. A Thalassia-like plant believed to
be a Hydrocharitacean seagrass from the Middle Eocene, Avon Park
Formation (Florida), has small individual and clustered crystals
throughout its rhizomes and leaves. These are observed with the
Scanning Electron Microscope and by Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis.
A comparison is made with similar crystals from the living seagrass,
Thalassia testudinum (Turtle Grass), that is also in the Hydrochar-
itaceae family. Thalassia is the only living seagrass that has
erystals. Its family as a whole, is one of freshwater plants that do
not contain crystals, so the occurrence of them in the fossil and in
Thalassia may tndicate a rather close relationship between the two
genera.

9:30 am BI0-4 Calomnion, a Pacific Island Refugee. H. A. MILLER, Department of
Biological Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando 32816. The moss genus
Calomnion has been reported in the literature only from New Zealand (C.

complanatum), Tahiti (C. schistostegiella) and Samoa (C. denticulatum). The
morphology of Calomnion is unusual because of the anisophyllous leaves on an

acrocarpous moss and the apparent absence of a peristome which would help to
determine its natural relationships. Recently I was sent a specimen from Fiji which

Florida Scientist -20- Volume 48

represents an undescribed species. Another apparently has been found on Lord Howe
Island, but I have not seen a specimen and there is no published report for it.
During my 1984 field work in Vanuatu and New Caledonia I found additional, yet
undescribed species. The usual habitat is on the small rhizomes on trunks of tree
ferns in very humid, undisturbed areas below or at the base of the cloud zone. The
morphology, ecology and distribution of Calomnion are all suggestive of an ancient,
isolated, Gondwanan genus which has survived as a waif in unsaturated niches on
islands of the south Pacific. (Supported by NSF Research Grant BSR 8215056)

9:45 am BIO-5 Bryoflora of Southeastern Polynesia: Field Exploration and
Preliminary Results. HENRY AND BARBARA A. WHITTIER, Univ. of Central Florida,
Orlando, 32816. Southeastern Polynesia includes the Austral Islands, Cooks,
Marquesas, Society Islands and Tuatmotus. These Pacific ocean groups extend from
approximately 6-24 deg. S Lat., and 160-130 deg. E Long. The senior author collected
in the Marquesas Islands (Nukuhiva) and in the Society Islands (Tahiti) in 1960 and
1964. In 1979, we collected on Tahiti, Raiatea, Taha'a, Huahine nui and Huahine
iti, Bora Bora and on Maupiti, Society Islands, French Polynesia. Earlier
collections from Moorea and Tetiaroa, have been reviewed together with materials
from the Cook Islands, provided by Drs. J. L. De Sloover (Univ. Notre Dame de la
Paix, Namur, Belgium and W. R. Sykes (DSIR, Christchurch, N. Z.). The Prodromus
Florae Muscorum Polynesiae (Miller, Whittier & Whittier, 1975) and Prodromus Florae
Hepaticarum Polynesiae, Miller, Whittier & Whittier, 1983) were principle sources of
computerized nomenclatural, literature and biogeographic data.

10:00 am BI0-6 Reinstatement of Borreria terminalis Small (Rubiaceae). ALAN
HERNDON, South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, P.O. Box 279,
Homestead 33030, and Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University,
Miami 33199. Populations of Borreria terminalis Small and Borreria verticillata (L.) G. F. W.
Meyer were studied to determine whether the recent reduction of the former to a synonym of
the latter was justified. The species were found to differ markedly and consistently in several
characters connected with flower size. Seed size and shape were found to be identical for the
species and no consistent vegetative differences were found. The close relationship of the
species is emphasized by the small number of characters separating them. The two, however,
should be maintained as separate species since the distinguishing characters are so closely
related to the reproductive biology of the plants.

10:15 am BREAK

10:30 am BIO-7 Pollen Morphology of Malvaviscus arboreus and
Urena lobata. F,P, VanderVegt and S.D. Brack-Hanes, Eckerd College
St. Petersburg 33733. A comparison is made between the very large
pollen of Malyaviscus arboreus (158u) and the much smaller Urena
lobata pollen (107) using light micrography and Scanning Electron
Microscopy. These plants represent two members of the mallow
family, Malvaceae, that are natives of tropical America. They are
now part of Florida's natural flora. Both species have porate,
tectate pollen with spines typically in rows. In addition, the
sexine is much thinner than the nexine. Malvaviscus arboreus has
short, stout, irregularly-branched spines, and very short, blunt
spinules. They are irregularly spaced on the surface and pores
are obscure. Urena lobata has long, stout, pointed spines that
are monomorphic and alternate with pores in the rows. Pores are
numerous and covered,

1985 Meeting fai Program Issue

10:45 am BI0-8 Developmental Study of Pollen from Pachystachys
lutea. M. MUSCATO and S.D. BRACK-HANES, Eckerd College, St. _
Petersburg 33733. Light and electron microscopy are used to

compare the mature and immature pollen of Pachystachys lutea, the
golden shrimp plant. It is a member of the Acanthaceae, a diverse
family that includes the clock vine, Thumbergia, with its rather
unusual spherical, spiraperaturate pollen. Mature pollen of P. lutea
is elongate (about 56 X 46) and is tricolporate. It has a highly
ornamented sexine with a reticulate surface and subsidiary furrows.
The reticulate pattern on the smaller immature pollen develops as the
columellar elements fuse to form muri.

11:00 am BIO-9 Toxicity and Feeding Deterrency of Imino Acids in Leaves of
Calliandra (Mimosoidea). CHRISTOPHER SHEA AND JOHN T. ROMEO, Dept. of Biology,
Univ. of South Florida, Tampa 33620. The nonprotein imino acids, pipecolic acid
(PIP) and its hydroxylated derivatives, of Calliandra leaves previously have been
shown to possess insecticidal activity. This study was designed to determine the
relative toxicities of the various compounds and to investigate their role in feed-
ing deterrency. A series of feeding experiments and injection studies were per-
formed. Incorporation of 2.5% PIP into the artificial diet of Spodoptera frugiper-
da resulted in reduced food intake and eventual 100% mortality. Fifth instar Man-
duca sexta injected with 2 mg PIP/g body weight showed no significant growth re-
sponse. The majority of injected compound was excreted unchanged in the frass be-
tween six hours and five days post-injection. Injection of the same dosage of trans
-5- hydroxypipecolic acid (often the most abundant nonprotein imino acid of Calli-
andra leaves), however, resulted in negative effects on larval growth and survival.
The toxicity of other PIP derivaties will also be discussed.

11:15 am BI0-10 Fungicidal activity of nonprotein imino acids from Calliandra.
SHERYL A. BRENNER AND JOHN T. ROMEO, Dept. of Biology, Univ. of South Florida,
Tampa, FL 33620. Four species of Fungi Imperfecti (Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus
spp., Curvularia spp., Penicillium spp.) were isolated from leaf surfaces of
Calliandra haematocephala and maintained on agar in the laboratory. Extracts of
C. haematocephala leaves were incorporated into liquid slide cultures of the
various fungi. 1-5% extracts inhibited spore germination in Aspergillus spp.

from 88 to 13% and mycelial growth from 87 to 40% of the control. Various imino
acids isolated from Calliandra were incorporated into slide cultures in which
nitrogen was not limiting. The effects of proline were similar to those of control
cultures, but pipecolic acid, the higher homolog of proline, was inhibjtory to
spore germination of Aspergillus spp. at concentrations of 10 Eo OR eM.
Penicillium spp. and Curvularia spp. were unaffected. Cis-5-hydroxypipecolic and
2,4,-trans—4. 5-trans—4,5-dihydroxypipecolic were also tested for biological
activity. Similar inhibition was observed on Aspergillus spp.

11:30 am BIO-11 Metabolism of Nonprotein Amino Acids in Calliandra tapirorum
Seedlings. LEE A. SWAIN AND JOHN T. ROMEO, Dept. of Biology, Univ. of South
Florida, Tampa 33620. S-(8-carboxyethyl)-cystein, djenkolic acid, and other
sulphur containing nonprotein amino acids were isolated from seeds of Calliandra
tapirorum, a tropical legume from the Caribbean. The concentration of these
compounds in young C. tapirorum seedlings was monitored and compared to concentra-—
tion of rare imino compounds normally found in the leaves of mature plants.
S-(§-carboxyethyl)-cystein was the major compound in C. tapirorum seeds as well
as in the early leaves, stems, and roots. Subsequent leaves contained lesser
amounts of the sulphur containing amino acids which were replaced by the imino
compounds as the major secondary leaf metabolites. Sulphur compounds had com-
pletely disappeared from seedlings by eight weeks after germination. The iden-
tities of the compounds were determined by 2-dimensional paper chromatography and
high voltage paper electrophoresis. Amino and imino acids were quantified using
a modified Dionex amino acid analyzer.

Florida Scientist — Dom Volume 48

FRIDAY 8:45 am LEWIS 218
SESSION B: Red Tide
K. STEIDINGER, Florida Department of Natural Resources, presiding

8:45 am BI10-12 The Contribution of Primary Production by Red-Tides on the West
Florida Shelf. G.A. VARGO, E. SHANLEY AND C. HEIL, Dept. of Marine Science, Univ. of
So. Florida, 140 7th Ave. S., St. Petersburg, 33701. Intense blooms of the red-tide
dinoflagellate, Ptychodiscus brevis, that occur on the West Florida Shelf, produce
obvious detrimental effects. Alternately, these blooms which often last for 2 months
may serve as a source of carbon required for maintenance of the shelf ecosystem.
Production estimates for non-bloom periods on the shelf range from 60 to 180
gCm-“yr~-+. Measured production rates ue P. brevis, and rates calculated from a
simple model, range from 57 to 114gCm~* for blooms of 1 to 2 months duration re-
spectively. Thus, P. brevis alone may contribute 40% to 80% of the carbon produced
on the shelf. The significance of these estimates in relation to the role of

P. brevis in the shelf ecosystem will be discussed.

9:00 am BI0-13 Photoadaption of the Red Tide Dinoflagellate,

Ptychodiscus Brevis. E. SHANLEY, Dept. of Marine Science, Univ. of So.

Florida, 140 7th Ave. S., St. Petersburg, 33701. Photosynthesis, growth, and
the time course of photo-adaption were investigated to elucidate possible photo-
adaptive and survival strategics. The observed photo-synthetic characteristics
are consistent with the model that describes the ability to photoadapt as due
to alterations in the size of the photosynthetic unit. Time course experiments
demonstrated that low light adapted populations were not able to adapt quickly
to high light. One generation time was required for a shift to high light
adaptation. However, cellular division rates began to increase on Day 3 in high
light.

9:15 am BI0-14 Do Florida Red Tides Vertically Migrate? C. HEIL, Dept. of Marine
Science, Univ. of So. Florida, 140 7th Ave. S., St. Petersburg, 33701. Dinoflagel-
late migration patterns have been well documented in situ and in culture but have
never been reported for Ptychidiscus brevis, the Florida red-tide dinoflagellate.
Culture observations and experimental work with large column (1.4m) populations
Support the involvement of a phototactic response in vertical distribution of P.
brevis rather than a traditional dinoflagellate migration. A column population

moved toward the surface shortly after the start of the light cycle, reaching a sur-
face maximum at 1500 hr. Surface concentrations declined slightly immediately prior
to the dark cycle and rapidly dispersed thereafter. A column population placed in
continous darkness continued to display a population maximum at the surface during
the theoretical light cycle, supporting the involvement of an endogenous rhythm.
Data from 3 cruises supports the experimental work. Further work is planned to in-
vestigate a geotactic response component and the effect of changing cellular com-
ponents and age on P. brevis vertical distribution.

9:30 am BIO-15 On the Mechanism of Cytolysis of Ptychodiscus brevis by a Natu-
rally Occurring Lysing Agent, DEAN F. MARTIN, CHEMS Center, Department of Chemistry,
University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. A natural product ("aponin") has
been isolated from cultures of Nannochloris sp. by previous workers in the CHEMS
Center and shown to produce lysis of P. brevis cells. The lytic process appears to
involve association of aponin with ergosterol or a related sterol leading to dis-
ruption of membrane integrity and distruction of osmoregulation. The chain of
evidence supporting this mechanism will be presented.

1985 Meeting =23- Program Issue

9:45 am BI0-16 Aerosolization Rates of Red Tide Pseudotoxin as a Function of
Bubble Dynamics. ALBERT L. MYERSON and MARK E. KRZYZANCWS¥1, Mote Marine Labora-
tory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. A study has been completed

that describes the functionality of the mass rate of aerosolization (tipzy) of
dicyclohexyl-18 crown-6 which simulates, in structure and surfactant properties,
the red tide brevetoxin B. The laboratory version of the sea surf's production

of aerosol produces the air bubbles which generate "jet drops" or aerosol. There
are three principal fluid dynamic variables which control m as produced from a
pseudotoxin concentration of 6ppm (typical of P. brevis blopmé) . The variables are
D. the bubbles’ source-to-surface distance; V. the volume flow rate of total car-
rter air (analogous to wind velocity), and V, the flow rate of bubble-forming air
(analogous to rate of air-entrainment by the waves). It is shown that there exists
an optimum distance of D, for maximizing Mcyown. This is the result of the effects
of bubble residence time, momentum, diameter and coalescence. Curves of Mory =
f(Vp) and f(V¢) will also be presented and interpreted.

10:00 am BI0-17 Changes in Isomeric Distribution by Aerosolization of a Red Tide
Pseudotoxin. M.E. KRZYZANOWSKI and A.L. MYERSON, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City
Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. A study of the reactivity of toxins produced by
the Florida red tide organism, Ptychodiscus brevis, during transport from waterborne
to the respiratory-irritant airborne phase has led to the discovery of a unique ef-
fect of this process. A pseudotoxin (PTX) was chosen to simulate the known water-
borne toxin, Brevetoxin-B (BTX-B). The PTX, dicyclohexyl-18 crown-6, consists of
five isomers, and has chemical properties similar to BTX-B. Gas chromatography of
the aerosolized, aqueous PTX showed a remarkably different yet reproducible pattern
of isomeric percentage composition from a standard. The PTX was also aerosolized
from a P. brevis culture, containing a surfactant, and produced an isomeric distri-
bution different from both standard and aerosolized, aqueous PTX. The mechanism
involved is dependent upon the surface tension as given in the Gibbs adsorbtion
equation. With regard to the relative concentration of each chemical specie, air-
borne P. brevis toxins must now be considered different from waterborne toxins.

FRIDAY 10:30 am LEWIS 218
SESSION C: Vertebrate Biology
R. SCHLUETER, University of Tampa, presiding

10:30 am BIO-18 Prey Selection in Larvae of the Mole Salamander, Ambystoma
talpoideum. J.K. SCHOOLEY AND W.A. SZELISTOWSKI, Eckerd College, St. Petersburg,
33733; USC, Los Angeles, CA 90007. The feeding patterns of larval mole sala-
manders, Ambystoma talpoideum, in a central Florida pond were analyzed. Feeding
was nocturnal on a variety of prey, the most abundant being cladocerans and
Chaoborus sp. Less abundant but commonly taken prey were chironomids, corixids,
dytiscids and copepods. Three broad ontogenetic feeding groups whose snout-vent
lengths ranged from 16-40mm were delineated. The average prey size increased with
increasing salamander body size while the number of total prey items consumed
showed no relationship to size. Feeding electivity values varied from zero indi-
cating selective feeding. The lack of importance of copepods and tadpoles in the
diet of the mole salamander appears different from other species of Ambystoma. In
addition to the lack of predation on tadpoles by A. talpoideum, their predation on
observed tadpole predators may markedly influence anuran abundance and overall
community structure.

10:45 am BI0-19 Fire and the Florida Sandhill Herpetofaunal Community. H.R.
MUSHINSKY, Biology Dept., Univ. of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. A system of
drift fences and pit fall traps was used over a two-year period to monitor the
herpetofaunal community on four plots of land (1 ha each) maintained on different
burn schedules. Experimental plots were burned every yr (1E), every 2 yr (2E), or
every 7 yr (7E); the control plot (CE) has not burned for 20 yr. A total of i236

,

Florida Scientist -24- Volume 48

amphibians and reptiles of 27 species were captured during 1983 and 1984. Both
Shannon-Weiner and Simpsons' diversity indexes indicated that plot 2E had the
lowest diversity each yr. The greatest diversity was found on 1E or 7E. The most
abundant reptile was the six-lined racerunner, Cnemidophorous sexlineatus com-
prising about 33% of all captures. The highest density of racerunners was found on
1E and lizards on 7E showed the greatest philopatric tendencies. The results in-
dicated that burning increased diversity and abundance of amphibians and reptiles
over control plots, and some fire periodicities were better than others for main-
taining high diversity.

11:00 am BIO-20 Helminths of the Mediterranean Gecko, Hemidactylus turcicus tur-
cicus, from Tampa, Florida. DEBRA L. JENNINGS AND WAYNE PRICE, Department of
Biology, University of Tampa, Tampa, FL 33606 and HAROLD UNDERWOOD, Depart-
ment of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843. Three species of
internal helminths were recovered from 110 Mediterranean geckos, Hemidactylus tur-
cicus turcicus, collected from the University of Tampa campus, Tampa, FL between
May and October, 1984. An unidentified species of nematode larva (Nematoda: Spi-
rurida) belonging to the family Physalopteridae was recovered from the stomachs and
intestines of 49 (44.5%) hosts with a mean intensity of infection of 5.6 worms. Meso-
coelium monas (Trematoda: Brachycoeliidae), a new host record, was in the small in-
testine of 9 (8.2%) hosts and had a mean intensity of 7.3 worms. The Mediterranean
gecko served as an accidental host for a species of immature digenetic trematode. It
infected the lungs of 9 (8.2%) lizards with a mean intensity of 2.0 worms. No sig-

nificant correlation existed between the prevalence and intensity of the 3 helminths
and host length.

11:15 am B10-21 Manatee redistribution and abundance at Florida power plants during
winter 1984-1985. JOHN E. REYNOLDS, III AND J. ROSS WILCOX. Biology Dept., Eckerd
College, St. Petersburg, FL 33733 and Environmental Affairs, Florida Power and Light
Company, Juno Beach, FL 33408. Since 1977 systematic aerial surveys around selected
Florida power plants have assessed winter abundance and distribution of manatees
seeking refuge from cold weather. Surveys during winter 1984-1985 indicated the
greatest abundance of manatees on record at the Riviera, Port Everglades, and Ft.
Myers Plants. Conversely, the Canaveral Plant and vicinity contained many fewer
animals than in previous winters. The high counts at the Riviera, Port Everglades,
and Ft. Myers Plants in winter 1984-1985 may reflect several things: 1) seasonal
redistribution of manatees on Florida's east coast due, at least in part, to the
Operational schedule of the power plants; 2) colder-than-usual January weather,
which induced large aggregations to form; 3) some surveys occurring during weather
and water conditions that stimulated manatees to bask at the surface. The counts
may suggest a need to revise the population estimate for manatees in Florida.

11:30 am BI0-22 tow-Altitude Remote Sensing in Manatee Population Surveys. G.W.
PATTON, B. WEIGLE and S. MAHADEVAN, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park,
Sarasota, FL 33577. Aerial surveys of manatees consistently under-estimate abun-
dance by an unknown factor where depths are greater than the through-water visibil-
ity. Six aerial photographic methods (5-35 mm and l-large format) were evaluated
for detection of manatees in a power plant effluent. The film/filter combinations
used included: natural-color Ektachrome with polarizing filter, false-color infra-
red (IR) with UV-Haze filter, false-color IR with a #87 filter, black and white
(B/W) IR with a 25(A) red filter, B/W IR with a #87 filter and aerographic (9"x9")
B/W IR with a #22 orange filter. The IR films generally increased the likelihood
of detection. The aerographic B/W IR performed most successfully, permitting
measurement of individual animals. Additional testing is needed to verify that IR
reflectance and not heat is the radiation detected. Calibration of the technique
against actual counts (acoustic or mechanical) and visibility measurements will
provide the first abundance index developed for manatee population assessment,

1985 Meeting -25- Program Issue

FRIDAY 11:45 am LEWIS 218
BUSINESS MEETING: Biological Sciences Section
C.A. LUER, Mote Marine Laboratory, presiding

FRIDAY 9:30 am LEWIS 219
SESSION D: Estuarine Ecology
J.L. SIMON, University of South Florida, presiding

9:30 am BI0-23 vegetation Survey of Selected Florida Gulf Coast Estuaries with
Reference to Salinity Gradients. BETH HUSSEY, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City
Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. In the summer of 1984, shoreline vegetation was
surveyed on the Weeki Wachee, Crystal and Withlacoochee Rivers and Hammock Creek
(Aripeka) as a part of a study of salinity effects in coastal rivers, funded by
S.W. Florida Water Management District. The surveys extended from the mouth of
the rivers to the headwaters or a point at least one mile above tidal penetration.
A total of 325 transects were established and a total of 78 plant species were
identified within the survey transects. Plant species diversity was lowest (16
species) for Hammock Creek, a small spring-fed tidal creek with salt marsh shore-
lines. Species diversity was greatest for the Weeki Wachee River (53 species) and
the Withlacoochee River (50 species) which are bordered by forested wetlands above
the area of tidal penetration. The Withlacoochee River had the least amount of
shoreline altered by development. Vegetation assemblages were correlated to
salinity data collected during an adjunct water quality study of the estuaries.

and E.D. ESTEVEZ, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1690 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577.
Macroalgae were sampled every 2 weeks at 38 stations in 6 hydrographic zones of
Little Sarasota Bay during a 6 month study in 1984. Mean extinction coefficients
ranged from .25-.29/ft. Depth varied from 0.2-3.2 m. Salinities were highest in the
southernmost zone of the bay. Levels of nitroaen and phosnhorus were highest in the
north and decreased moving toward the south. Bottom cover (percent total) of algae
increased with depth and was greatest in areas where water exchange was least.
Species diversity also increased with depth. Mean total percent cover for the zones
paralleled nutrient gradients. Change through time of total percent cover was most
evident in three shallow central zones, identified as areas of high growth. The domi-
nant species was Gracilaria verrucosa with Acanthophora spicifera subdominant.
Species diversity declined through the summer. Mixtures of Spyridia filamentosa,
Hypnea cervicornis, and Cladophora catenifera occurred frequently. Study supported
by Sarasota County.

9:45 am BI0-24 Macroalgae Cover in a Florida West Coast Tidal Lagoon. T.A. STERN

10:00 am BI0-25 A Quantitative Study of the Drift Algal Community of Hillsborough
Bay, Florida. R. A. MATTSON, J. A. DERRENBACKER, JR. AND R. R. LEWIS III, Mangrove
Systems, Inc., P.O. Box 15759, Tampa, FL 33684. Quantitative sampling of drift
algae in Hillsborough Bay, Tampa Bay, Florida was conducted from February 1983 to
April 1984. Monthly sampling was conducted at 8 fixed and 4 variable location
shallow (<6') stations. Simultaneous data from deep-water locations were provided
by the City of Tampa. Seven species of algae were collected (3 Chlorophyta and 4
Rhodophyta); 2 species of Gracilaria, a species of Ulva and Chaetomorpha linum
(Muller) Kutzing were dominant. Gracilaria spp. formed the majority of the biomass
except in February 1983 when Ulva sp. dominated.. Ninety percent or more of the
algal biomass occurred in shallow areas except during the late winter/early spring
months. Algal samples were analyzed for protein and soluble carbohydrate content.
Calculation of monthly protein:carbohydrate ratios for Gracilaria spp. indicated
nutrient limitation during the warmer months (May to October).

10:15 am BREAK

Florida Scientist =20= Volume 48

10:30 am BI0-26 Phytoplankton, Light and Nutrients in Tidal Waters of Manatee

and Sarasota Counties. CLAIRE CANONICO, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park,
Sarasota, FL 33577. Phytoplankton assemblages and water chemistry were characterized
during several sampling episodes from 1981-1984 in Manatee River, Sarasota Bay and
Little Sarasota Bay. Higher means of cell density, chlorophyll a, and light extinc-
tion were typical in late summer and spring. Nutrient and chemistry trends showed
direct relations to phytoplankton abundance in some cases. Low salinities and ele-
vated nutrient levels often coincided with dominance by Skeletonema costatum or a
centric diatom species. Each study area exhibited spatial differences in average

cell densities and nutrients, e.g., increasing upstream in the Manatee River; from
south to north in Little Sarasota Bay and near Midnicht Pass; and near a sewage
treatment plant outfall in Sarasota Bay. Bacillariophyta and/or a group of centric
diatoms comprised the largest percent of phytoplankton overall. In addition, Manatee
River had more Cyanophytes and Euglenoid flagellates, particularly in the winter. One
third or more of all Bacillariophyceans were dominated by one or more of seven species.

10:45 am BI0-27 Phytoplankton and Runoff Effects in the Hillsborough River. C.J.
DAWES, Dept. Biology, Univ. South Florida, Tampa, 33620. Triweekly samplings at
four sites on the Hillsborough River were carried out from May through August, 1982
below the dam. Phytoplankton cell volume was highest at all sites before the dam
was opened, half way in the study and highest in the river center at all sites.
Diatoms accounted for about 1/2 of the biomass. Chlorophyll a levels were highest
before the dam was opened and at the most estuarine site (river mouth). Samples
taken every 2 hours at the river mouth showed a shift in dominance from diatoms at
low tide to green algae at high tide with a concurrent increase in chlorophyll a
levels. The highest concentration of runoff from the Arctic Street substation
(100%) in a growth gradient table experiment supported the highest cell volumes for
all classes of algae suggesting nutrient enrichment of the culture medium.

11:00 am B10-28 geasonal Changes in the Benthic Fauna of the Lower Hillsborough
River, Tampa, FL. J. L. SIMON AND M. EASLEY, Dept. of Biology, Univ. of South
Florida, Tampa 33620. Quantitative benthic samples were taken at four stations
along the Hillsborough River, running from near its connection with Hillsborough
Bay to an upstream dam, during the dry season (May) and the wet season (August).
Results are typical of a system which seasonally oscillates between an estuarine
salinity gradient (22 - 2.5 o/oo) during the dry season and an essentially fresh-
water habitat (1-2 o/oo) during the wet season. During the dry season, all but
the most upstream station were dominated by estuarine species (e.g., Laeonereis
culveri; Grandidierella bonnieroides). Moving upstream, freshwater species,
especially insect larvae, the bivalve Corbicula manilensis, and the amphipods
Gammarus palustris and Hyalella azteca increased in abundance. The number of
species and density of individuals showed marked decreases accompanying the wet

hift. 4 ingtaiee: : ; : d
Se aeeeae a te Bea Lo species were opportunists Supported by a

11:15 am BI0-29 A Preliminary Study of the Influence of Wet and Dry Season
Conditions and Urban Stormwater Runoff Upon Zooplankton Communities of the
Lower Hillsborough River, Florida. B.C. COWELL, Department of Biology, University
of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. Zooplankton were sampled at three week
intervals from 7 May through 16 August, 1982 at 4 stations on the lower
Hillsborough River. During the dry season mean densities were high (166 per
liter) and were comprised principally of marine organisms (68-78%); but during
the wet season, densities were low (24 per liter) and freshwater organisms
predominated at all but the downstream stations. The difference in densities
appeared to be attributable to flushing rates. Numbers of species of rotifers
and cladocerans increased markedly during the wet season; copepod and clam
species remained constant, and barnacle species disappeared. Dry season runoff,
with its higher pollutant loads, may have an influence on the zooplankton.

1985 Meeting -27- Program Issue

11:30 am BI0-30 Migration of Blue Crabs, Callinectes sapidus, along Florida's
West Coast. T. DUANE PHILLIPS and JAY GORZELANY, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600

City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. Tagging studies to determine migratory
patterns of blue crabs, Callinectes sapidus, in the vicinity of the Crystal River,
Florida power plant were conducted from September through December 1983. Commercial
blue crab traps placed at twenty-four stations located on 4 transects were used to
collect the crabs. A total of 6343 blue crabs were collected, tagged and released
during the study. A total of 3422 crabs, 54% of all crabs tagged, were recaptured.
Sixty-eight were recaptured more than once. Of all crabs collected, approximately
74% were females. Female crabs exhibited a northerly migration both within and
outside of the study area. No miaratory pattern of male crabs was discerned. Over
900 crabs were captured in Waccasassa Bay; 33% of total recaptures were from that
area or more northern coastal sites. Parasitized specimens were taken in increasing
numbers each month and represented 3% of total catch.

FRIDAY 11:45 am LEWIS 218
BUSINESS MEETING: Biological Sciences Section
C.A. LUER, Mote Marine Laboratory, presiding

FRIDAY 1:15 pm SELBY AUDITORIUM
PLENARY SESSION I: Florida Academy of Sciences
J.N. LAYNE, Archbold Biological Station, presiding

FRIDAY 3:00 pm LEWIS 217
SESSION E: Salt Marsh Ecology
R.G. GILMORE, Harbor Branch Foundation, presiding

3:00 pm BI0-31 Impounded Sub-Tropical Salt Marsh Fish and Macrocrustacean
Research in East-Central Florida. PETER B. HOOD AND R. GRANT GILMORE,
Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., RR 1 Box 196, Ft. Pierce 33450. Approximately
15,800 hectares of salt marsh has been impounded for mosquito control along the
east-central coast of Florida. The salt marsh mosquitos, Aedes solicitans and A.
taeniorhynchus need moist soils for oviposition. Flooding the impounded marsh
limits available mosquito breeding habitat but has been demonstrated to have
adverse effects on marsh flora and fauna. The population dynamics of the fish and
macrocrustaceans of three impoundments representing different vegetation types and
hydrological patterns were examined. Sampling followed a lunar cycle with 24 hr
collection periods on new and full moons. Biological collections were made with 8
gear types coincident with measurements of various physical parameters. Bird
assemblages were also monitored. The results of these studies demonstrate that
innovative impoundment management programs based on interdisciplinary research
data can help remediate the biological damage associated with impoundment
construction.

3:15 pm BI0-32 Faunal Distribution in a Tidally Influenced Impounded Subtropical
Salt Marsh. DEREK M. TREMAIN, Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., RR 1 Box 196,
Ft. Pierce 33450. The spatial distribution of fish and macrocrustaceans within a
unique red mangrove salt marsh impoundment was analyzed using various trap and
seining techniques. Over 13,600 individuals (72 species) were collected during 14
biweekly sampling periods from June to December 1984. Culvert and perimeter
ditch sites, which exhibit high estuarine tidal exchange and, therefore, relatively
consistent temperature, salinity, and D.O. values, attracted a very diverse fauna
(57 species). These were dominated by atypical transient fish such as the white
mullet, mojarras, sailor's choice, and unidentified portunid crabs. Inner marsh

Florida Scientist -28- Volume 48

ponds and depressions contained over 85% of all individuals (38 species), however,
916 of these were typical marsh residents, sailfin mollies, mosquitofish, and
sheepshead minnows. Major transients occurring at upper marsh sites were the
striped mullet, snook, and tarpon. Less than one percent of all individuals (6
species) were collected from within the mangrove forest habitat, made available only
during the fall tidal inundation.

3:30 pm BI0-33 Trophic Variations in Salt Marsh Fishes. JAMES FYFE, Harbor
Branch Foundation, Inc., RR 1 Box 196, Ft. Pierce 33450. The gut contents of
the sepsis crate minnow Cyprinodon variegatus, mosquitofish Gambusia affinis, sailfin
molly Poecilia latipinna, striped mullet Mugil cephalus, white mullet Mugil curema
and ladyfish Elops saurus were examined ned from specimens collected in a tidally
influenced impounded subtropical marsh and adjacent estuary. Intraspecific
comparisons of fishes collected from upper, lower marsh and estuarine habitats
revealed spatial and temporal variations in diet for these species. Mollies, mullet
and sheepshead minnows consumed principally detrital algal conglomerates and
exhibited no major ontogenetic shift in diet. An ontogenetic shift was seen in E.
saurus and G. affinis, both preying predominantly on copepods as juveniles. At
standard lengths of 20 mm in G. affinis and 35 mm in E,. saurus amphipods and
insects became major food items. Ladyfish larger than 55 mm SL consumed fishes,
crustaceans and _ insects. These data reveal a_ significant qualitative and
quantitative dietary succession for the same species when compared to historical
preimpoundment studies conducted at the same location.

3:45 pm BI0-34 Tidally Triggered Movement of a Sub-Tropical Marsh Fauna.
BENJAMIN MCLAUGHLIN, Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., RR 1, Box 196, Ft. Pierce,
FL 33450. Studies of an impounded red mangrove.marsh in St. Lucie County

reveal that many species of estuarine ichthyofauna display characteristic move-
ment directly influenced by tidal flow. Three 76 cm diameter culverts were
sampled biweekly over an eight month period using traps designed to allow separa-
tion of fauna moving into and out of the impoundment. Rheotaxic, tidal and diel
movements of the top three transients, residents and crustaceans were considered.
The top transient, the white mullet Mugil curema, showed 2 negative rheotaxic
movement during daylight hours. This movement showed an increase in late fall/
early summer. The lined sole, Achirus lineatus, displayed exclusively nocturnal
movement, usually with the tidal flow. All three top crustaceans, Callinectes
spp., Penaeus spp., and Palaemonetes spp. also showed nocturnal movement. Gobioid
residents, Bathygobius soporator and Dormitator maculatus displayed no tidal
influence in their movements.

4:00 pm BREAK

4:15 pm BI10-35 Effects of Water Control Structures on Estuarine and Salt
Marsh Fish and Macrocrustacean Populations. RONALD E. BROCKMEYER, JR. and

R. GRANT GILMORE, Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., RR 1 Box 196, Ft. Pierce, FL
33450. Fishes and macrocrustaceans associated with three different water con-
trol devices were examined in an impounded salt marsh. The impoundment was
divided into two separate cells, with one acting as a tidally open control, the
other a closed cell containing water control devices. The control site produced
more individuals of both marsh resident and transient species, indicating that
all control structures had a negative effect on organism migration into the
impoundment. Differences between the devices were not significant.

1985 Meeting -29- Program Issue

4:30 pm BI0-36 Effects of Flapgates On Faunal Movement in an Impounded
Salt Marsh. DOUGLAS M. SCHEIDT, Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., RR 1 Box
196, Ft. Pierce 33450. Three flapgate designs were studied to determine their
effect upon faunal movements through a 76 cm diameter culvert of an impounded salt
marsh. The flapgates function to regulate and maintain a desired water level in
three of four management cells. The fourth cell had no flapgate and served as a
control. When comparing flapgates to the control, no effect was observed among
the three major resident fishes: sailfin molly, mosquito fish and sheepshead minnow.
Similar results were observed with the resident crustaceans, Palaemonetes spp. and
the two transient crustaceans, Penaeus spp. and Callinectes spp. These organisms
showed a positive rheotaxic response. Two major transient fishes, striped mullet
and white mullet, showed a negative rheotaxic response. The third major transient
fishes, Centropomus spp., showed a seasonal movement pattern in the control cell
but this pattern was not as clearly defined in the cells with flapgates.

4:45 pm BI0-37 Avifaunal Use of Impounded Salt Marsh Habitat in East-Central
Florida. DENNIS PETERS AND R. GRANT GILMORE, Harbor Branch Foundation,
Inc., RR 1 Box 196, Ft. Pierce 33450. Wetland avifauna of southern Florida have
long been recognized as essential components of tropical and subtropical ecosystems.
The mangrove and Batis-Salicornia marshes of selected mosquito impoundments of
Indian River and St. Lucie Counties were chosen as observation sites for land and
wading bird utilization. Preliminary data from six months of biweekly bird counts
indicate that the partially inundated marshes provide a temporary habitat for at
least 30 species of birds, with the White Ibis (Eudocimus albus) being the most
abundant and frequently occurring. Although fluctuations in abundance and
distribution of most wading birds are controlled predominately by seasonal migratory
patterns, the changes in water level height within the impounded marshes seem to
directly control the feeding areas available and thus the intra-regional distribution
of wading birds. Comparisons between impoundments implementing differing
management strategies have demonstrated that even the open unmanaged
impoundment is compatible for both fish and bird utilization.

FRIDAY 6:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
SOCIAL, BANQUET AND PLENARY SESSION II
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

FRIDAY 3:00 pm LEWIS 218
SESSION F: Invertebrate Physiology
J.M. LAWRENCE, University of South Florida, presiding

3:00 pm BI0-38 Tolerance of Eastern Gulf of Mexico Corals to Natural Gulf
Sediments. JOHN R. KUCKLICK, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park,
Sarasota, FL 33577, STANLEY A. RICE, University of Tampa, Tampa, FL 33606.
Effects of burial and suspended sediment loads of natural Gulf of Mexico sedi-
ments were assayed for 8 Eastern Gulf of Mexico coral species and one sponge
species. Survival rates of coral and sponge species were not affected by con-
tinuous 10-day suspended sediment loads of 49, 101, 165 and 199 mg/%. Growth
rates for coral species in suspended sediment loads of 49, 101 and 199 mg/%

for 10 days were not significantly different from controls. Growth rates for
corals in a suspended sediment load of 165 mg/% were significantly lower than
controls. Estimated LTs5g (time necessary to kill half of specimens) for burial
by natural sediments ranged from 7 to 15 days for most species. (This research
was funded, in part, by a grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.)

Florida Scientist -30- Volume 48

3:15 pm BI0-39 Shell Growth in the Small Giant Clam, Tridacna maxima, Revealed by
Stable Isotopes. C.S. ROMANEK AND DR. D.S. JONES, Dept. of Geology, Univ. of Fla.,
Gainesville, 32611. The family Tridacnidae are ubiquitous members of the molluscan
fauna of the Indo-Pacific coral reef community and are among the largest bivalves to
ever have existed. These organisms contain symbiotic algae housed in the hypertro-
phied inner fold of the mantle. Debate exists as to the role that these algae play
in the growth process. Recently, a serial sampling technique was developed for
stable isotopic analysis (oxygen and carbon) of carbonate powders procured from the
outer shell layer of a bivalve; this technique was employed on specimens of T. max-
ima from the Rose Atoll (14 31'S, 168°10'W) to monitor the effect of symbiotic algae
on calcification. A growth curve was developed from annual cycles in the isotopic
profiles, corresponding to microstructural variations in the outer shell layer. The
growth curve indicates a near-linear rate of growth and the 6 13¢ and § 18 records
suggest algal symbionts strongly influence calcification. Also, physiologic and en-
vironmental trends were observed and interpreted in light of measured field data.

3:30 pm BI0-40 The Effects of Thermal Effluent on the Growth, Mortality Rate

and Condition Index of Crassostrea virginica in the vicinity of Florida Power
Corporation's Crystal River Power Plant. J. SPRINKEL, Mote Marine Laboratory,

1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. The height, length, weight and volu-
metric displacement of oysters were measured before and after deployment in control
and thermal areas. Growth in control areas was not signficantly different than
growth in areas of maximum thermal effects. Growth was enhanced, however, in

areas of moderate thermal influence. | Maximum growth rates (up to 3.0 mm/month
height increase) occurred in November and December and almost no growth occurred

in January and February. Two periods of spatfall were observed, one from September
to November and the other in June. Condition Index peaked during the period of
minimum spatfall (February through April). Higher Condition Index values occurred
at high growth stations. Mortality rates were highest in late summer and in the

thermal discharge area where over 75% of the oysters died between July and
September.

3:45 pm BI0-41 The Effect of Temperature upon Feeding, Digestion, and
Absorption of Lytechinus variegatus (Lamarck) (Echinodermata: Echinoidea). T.S.
KLINGER, H.L HSIEH, R.A. PANGALLO, C.P. CHEN, AND J.M.LAWRENCE, Dept. of Biology,
Univ. of South Florida, Tampa 33620. Lytechinus variegatus were collected from
25° C waters and maintained in the laboratory at either 16 or 23° C. Both groups
were fed an artificial agarose food for 18 days. Feeding rates and residence
times of food in the gut acclimated. Feeding rates of 16 C-individuals were low
initially, but subsequently increased to rates near those of 23 C-individuals.
Residence times of food in the gut reflected feeding rates. Levels of digestive
enzymes and absorptitn efficiencies did not acclimate. Levels of digestive
enzymes were similar, activities of both groups were low when measured at 16 C
and correspondingly higher when measured at 23 C. Absorption efficiencies were
consistantly lower for 16 C-individuals than for 23 C-individuals. These

results suggest that L. variegatus is less efficient at processing food at low
temperatures.

4:00 pm BREAK

4:15 pm BI0-42 The Effects of Salinity on the Feeding Rate, Growth, and Activity
of Luidia clathrata (Echinodermata: Asteroidea). D. FORCUCCI and J.M.LAWRENCE. Dept.
Biology, Univ. South Florida, Tampa 33620. Luidia clathrata (17g average wet body
wt.) were collected from Tampa Bay in Sept 1984. Field salinity was 210/00 and tem-
perature was 29°C. Individuals were maintained in the laboratory at 170/00 or 270/00
and 21°C, and were fed the bivalve Donax variabilis ad libitum for 26 days. Indivi-
duals at 270/oo had an average feeding rate (q wet wt/ind/day) of .711, significantly
higher than that of individuals at 170/oo (.321). Individuals at 270/00 had a 218%

1985 Meeting —=siil— Program Issue

increase in the energetic content (joules) of the pyloric caeca, significantly higher
than that of individuals at 170/00 (17%). Individuals at 270/oo0 had an average acti-
vity coefficient (1000/righting time in sec) of 22, significantly higher than that of
individuals at 17o0/oo (5). The feeding rate and activity of individuals at 170/00
did not acclimate over the 26 days. L. clathrata is limited energetically at low
salinities due to a decreased ability to consume and utilize food.

4:30 pm BI0-43 Ultrastructure of Spermatozoa of Four Brackish-water Echinoderms.
W.A. ESTABROOKS AND R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901.
Altered sperm morphology is usually associated with unusual modes of reproduction,
which typically are adaptations to stressful habitats. Possible adaptations of
echinoderm sperm to life in brackish waters were examined. The sperm of ophiuroids
Amphioplus abditus and Ophiophragmus filograneus and holothuroids Synaptula
hydriformis and Thyonella gemmata are primitive, with a spherical head and
apical acrosome in a nuclear fossa. Sperm of §. hydriformis have multiple
mitochondria arranged around the centrioles; the other species have a single
doughnut-shaped mitochondrion. Mitochondrial cristae are parallel in T. gemmata
and non-parallel in the other three; those of T. gemmata and O. filograneus
are densely packed. Proximal and distal centrioles and a single flagellum are
present in sperm of all species. The flagellum of sperm of both ophiuroids has two
wing-like plasmalemmal projections; that of the two holothuroids is wingless.
Sperm of these species do not show special adaptations for life in brackish waters.

4:45 pm B10-44 ~— Fertilization and Male Fertility in the Rotifer Brachionus plicatilis.
SUZANNE SUCCOP AND TERRY W. SNELL, Division of Science, oaoaea
Tampa, Tampa, FL 33606. An examination of the life cycle of the rotifer Brachionus

licatilis has shown that the production of mictic females and males does not necessar-
NY Tead to fertilization and the production of resting eggs. The failure of fertilization
was observed on numerous occasions where both males and females were present at
high densities. This failure was found to be associated with male infertility and the
effects of genotype and maternal algal diet on male fertility were investigated. Ob-
servations of the percentage of males with sperm and the percentage with motile
sperm indicated no apparent differences among clones. Maternal algal diet had a sig-
nificant effect on male fertility, but could not be correlated with the percentage of
males with motile sperm or mean neonate sperm count. Large flucutations in male
fertility, sperm motility, and sperm count were observed on consecutive days in a
single population.

5:00 pm BI0-45 Modulation of substrate-specific glutathione-S transferase
activity in Daphnia magna with concomitant effects on toxicity tolerance GERALD A.
LEBLANC AND BRUCE J. COCHRANE, Biology Dept., University of South Florida, Tampa
FL, 33620. Glutathione S-transferases (GST) are responsible for the detoxication
of xenobiotics containing suitable electrophilic sites through conjugation with
glutathione. GST activity was measured in D. magna using several different conju-
gation substrates. GST activity towards some substrates was elevated from exposure
of the organisms to specific xenobiotics; whereas, activity towards other substrates
could not be modulated. The existance of multiple isozymes was indicated by bio-
chemically separating substrate-specific GST activities into different protein
fractions. Tolerance of daphnids to the toxic effects of certain xenobiotics was
also elevated by preexposure to sublethal levels of xenobiotics. The role of GST
activity in the organism's tolerance to xenobiotic: toxicity is discussed.

FRIDAY 6:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
SOCIAL, BANQUET AND PLENARY SESSION II
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Florida Scientist 32 Volume 48

FRIDAY 3:00 pm LEWIS 219
SESSION G: Biology of Fishes
J.K. SCHOOLEY, Eckerd College, presiding

3:00 pm BI0-46 Assessment of Two Lemon Shark, Negaprion brevirostris
Populations, by Multiple Mark Procedures. ALAN D. HENNINGSEN AND S.H. GRUBER,
RSMAS/Univ. of Miami, Miami, FL 33149. 1923 juvenile lemon sharks were tagged
and released in the Fla. Keys between 1979 and 1984. A further 207 lemon sharks
were tagged in Bimini, Bahamas between 1982 and 1984. As of January 1985, 120
were recaptured in the Keys and 52 in Bimini. Time at liberty for the Keys
recaptures averaged 198 days and growth averaged 0.229 day. Time at liberty
in Bimini averaged 269 days with growth of 0.226 mm day. Estimates of the Bim.
Pop. were 490 and 530 with a density is 5 sharks per Km. Metal dart tags are
retained for at least 2 years at a rate of 93%, while other external tags, such as
nylon dart tags are retained at a rate of only 17%. Net movement of Bimini
recaptures ranged from 0 Km to 6.5 Km, while net movement of Keys recaptures
ranged from 0 Km to approx. 100 Km, averaging 8 Km. Monthly. catches show that
lemon sharks are born from April to July and grow 0.289 mm day | PCL. Parameters
are being estimated by recapture information. NSF Grant OCE 8309831 to S.H.G.

3:15 pm BI0-47 Age Validation of Tetracycline Labeled Vertebral Centra in a
Tropical Marine Predator, the Lemon Shark, Negaprion brevirostris (Poey). CRAIG
A. BROWN AND SAMUEL H. GRUBER, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric
Seience, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami 33149. Vertebral
centra were examined from 57 lemon sharks recaptured after being injected with
tetracycline and released. Vertebral circuli were optimally differentiated by
lapping sections to a thickness of 150 um and staining with alizarin red S. The
tetracycline label was used to ascertain frequency and time of deposition of the
circuli as well as their correlation with age or growth. An annual deposition
pattern was identified, in which a wide translucent interval is followed by a
dark, heavily calcified ring near August, then 4-11 circuli, and another dark ring
in May. Annual growth rates of 8-11 mm (precaudal length) were confirmed, with
maturity being reached in approximately 16 years. Supported by NSF Grant OCE
8309831 to SHG.

3:30 pm BI0-48 Observations on the Occurrence of Thyroid Hyperplasia in Captive
Sharks. PATRICIA BLUM and CARL A. LUER, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island
Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. Hyperplasia of the thyroid gland in sharks maintained
in captivity has been documented on several occasions. A pilot study was performed
on two nurse sharks for 48 weeks to follow the development and regression of hyper-
plastic thyroid tissue, and to correlate the physical changed with serum levels of
thyrotrophin (TSH) and triiodothyronine (T3). Visible swelling in the thyroid area
was apparent after about 10 weeks in artificial seawater. Serum levels of T3
dropped from 46 to 6 ng/d& between weeks 8 and 12, while TSH levels increased from
2.2 to 3.0 wIU/m&% between weeks 12 and 20. Histologically, the tissue was charac-
teristic of a hyperplastic goiter. Placing a goitrous shark in natural seawater
resulted in a gradual reduction in visible swelling of the thyroid area, although
complete regression was not achieved. Serum T3 increased from 8 to 19 ng/d&

during the first 4 weeks while serum TSH decreased from 3.6 to 2.7 HIU/m& during
the first 4 weeks and continued to decrease over the next 20 weeks to 1.9 wIU/mg.

3:45 pm BI0-49 Metabolic Effects of Starvation in a Marine Teleost: Preliminary
Investigation. S.G. TOLLEY AND ERIC T. DOHNER, University of South Florida, Depart-
ment of Marine Science, 140 7th Avenue South, St. Petersburg 33701. During a 14
day starvation period, routine oxygen consumption and ammonia excretion rates were
determined for the fringed filefish, Monacanthus ciliatus. Oxygen consumption
values averaged from 56.05 to 90.06 pg/g wet wt/hr, while ammonia excretion rates
averaged from 4.33 to 13.53 pg/g wet wt/hr. Both rates increased initially, but
then declined as food deprivation continued. Ammonia quotient, the molar ratio of
ammonia excreted to oxygen consumed, increased linearly with increasing period of
starvation, y = 0.149 + 0.014x (r = 0.972; n = 4). Similarly, protein utilization
increased from 44% in fed individuals to 99% in animals that had been starved
approximately two weeks.

1985 Meeting =—33— Program Issue

4:00 pm BREAK

4:15 pm B10-50 Larval Prey Size Selection in the Head and Tail Light Tetra Hem-
igrammus ocellifer. JOSEPH NADOLNY AND TERRY W. SNELL. Division of Science,
University of Tampa, Tampa, FL 33606. The relationship between mouth size and the
size selection of prey was investigated in larvae of the head and tail light tetra, Hem-
igrammus ocellifer. Larval growth in this fish was characterized from egg hatching to
age 16 days when the larvae were free swimming and actively feeding on live zooplank-
ton. Mouth size increased linearly over this period as larval length increased (b =
0.060, r = 0.926). Using the mouth size data, size of ingested prey on each day of
larval development could be predicted on the basis of fish length. The predicted prey
sizes were confirmed through gut analysis after larval feeding in mixtures containing
prey of 3 different sizes.

4:30 pm BI0-51 Seasonal Distribution and Abundance of Sciaenid Larvae off
Crystal River, Florida. KAREN BURNS, DENISE LATULIPPE and VICKI WIESE, Mote Marine
Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. Eight species of larval
Sciaenidae were collected in the vicinity of Crystal River, Florida from June 1983
through August 1984. Of the eight species collected, Cynoscion nebulosus (38%) was
the most abundant. Other sciaenid larvae captured included Bairdiella chrysoura
(23%), Leiostomus xanthurus (15%), Cynoscion arenarius (12%), Menticirrhus sp.

(8%), Pogonias cromis (3%), Sciaenops ocellatus (0.6%) and Micropogonias undulatus
(.05%). Larvae were collected at fifteen stations which were sampled bimonthly
with 1 m mouth conical 505 uy mesh plankton nets. All stations were sampled during
the day and at night. Replicate oblique tows were made to provide information on
seasonal, diel, tidal and spatial patterns of populations. Analyses were performed
to investigate correlations between species densities and temperature, salinity,
tidal and lunar phase; seasonality, station location, day/night sampling and water
depth.

4:45 pm B10-52 Description of Juveniles and Comparative Life History Notes for
Two Common Florida Mojarras (Pisces: Gerreidae). R. E. MATHESON, JR., Harbor
Branch Institution, Inc., RR 1, Box 196-A, Fort Pierce 33450. Despite being quite
distinct as larger juveniles and adults (ca. 50 m SL and greater), Diapterus
auratus and Eugerres plumieri are inseparable (based on currently available keys)
as smaller juveniles. Studies of large series of both species (mostly from Florida
waters) have revealed that a suite of morphometric, meristic, and pigmentation
characters are useful in the separation of smaller specimens. A previously undes-
cribed, but quite reliable, diagnostic character for Eugerres plumieri over a broad
size range is also introduced. Finally, preliminary notes on the life history of
each species in the Indian River Lagoon are presented.

5:00 pm B10-53 Probable establishment of the Mayan cichlid, Cichlasoma urophthalmus
(Gtinther) (Pisces: Cichlidae), in extreme southern Florida. WILLIAM F. LOFTUS, South
Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead 33030. The first United
States collections of the Mayan cichlid (Cichlasoma urophthalmus), a native of Central
America, were made in January 1983 in Everglades National Park, Florida. Subsequent surveys
have shown that its distribution is limited to two areas in the Taylor Slough drainage basin.
Several dozen specimens, both juveniles and adults, ranging from 54.0 mm to 191.0 mm S.L.
were collected from 1983-1985. The larger population inhabited a mangrove-bordered
estuarine creek system where, in May 1984, a group of 20-25 adults were observed on nests at
a salinity of 26%e. A smaller population occurred in a strictly freshwater habitat subject to
seasonally fluctuating water levels. Establishment of the Mayan cichlid is indicated by the
presence of spawning activity, the range of specimen sizes, and its persistence in the park for
several years. The potential for range expansion is enhanced by its exceptional tolerance of
changes in salinity and water level, and its capability of colonizing a variety of habitats.

Florida Scientist -34- Yolume 48

SATURDAY 10:00 am CRAWFORD 5
SESSION H: Benthic Ecology
K. MAHADEVAN, Mote Marine Laboratory, presiding

10:00 am BI0-54 Distribution of Benthic Macroinvertebrates Along Salinity
Gradients of Four Florida West Coast River Systems. JAMES K. CULTER, Mote Marine
Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. Quantitative distribu-
tions and abundances of benthic invertebrates were examined for the Manatee, Weeki
Wachee, Crystal and Withlacoochee River systems, at stations with salinities
ranging from <0.5°/o00 to >259/o00. Both abundance and taxonomic diversity in-
creased from fresh to saltwater systems. Chironomids and oligochaetes were most
abundant at the freshwater stations with a gradation to polychaete, crustacean and
bivalve dominated estuarine and marine zones. Three crustacean species were
identified as possible transitional zone indicators, Hargeria rapax (Amphipod),
Almyracuma sp. (Amphipod) and Xenanthura brevitelson (Isopod). Several polychaete
species Laeonereis culveri, Amphictes gunneri and Chone americana, and the oligo-
chaete Tubificoides nr. wasselli may be useful indicators of occasional intrusion
of salt wedges into areas considered totally "fresh water". Research sponsored by
Southwest Florida Water Management District and Manatee Co. Utilities Dept.

10:15 am BIO-55 Distribution and Densities of Oyster Reef Associated Fauna
Along Four Selected Florida West Coast Rivers. JAY GORZELANY and TRACEY LOWERS,
Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. Clumps of
oysters (Crassostrea virginica) and shell were collected quarterly over a one-
year period. Three oyster bar sites were chosen along a salinity gradient at
each of three rivers (Withlacoochee, Crystal, and Weeki Wachee). An additional
Single site was chosen along Hammock Creek. A total of 188 taxa were identified
and enumerated. Minimal variation in faunal diversity and abundance was observed
between the four rivers. A more marked variation was observed both seasonally
and along a freshwater/saltwater gradient at each river. In addition, a trend
towards decreasing numbers of oyster predators with decreasing salinity was
indicated. Funding was provided by the Southwest Florida Water Management
Districts

10:30 am BI0-56 The Application of Log-Normal Distributions in Detecting Pollu-
tion-Induced Changes in a Benthic Community. D.A. BRUZEK and S. MAHADEVAN, Mote
Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. Benthic infaunal
samples were collected from 40 stations over a period of 15 months in the vicinity
of the Crystal River Power Station. The individuals of each species were identi-
fied and enumerated, and the log-normal distribution of individuals per station was
determined. Curves were drawn for each station and sampling period and mean angles
calculated from these curves. The mean angle of each station was then plotted as

a means of detecting the pollution-induced changes as well as naturally disturbed
areas in the communities. It was found that stations in the area of the thermal
effluent and naturally disturbed areas had lower log-normal angles (30-35°) whereas
the offshore and nearshore undisturbed stations had higher log-normal angles (above
40°). Since a shallower slope reflects a community under environmental stress,
these data suggest that the alteration of basic log-normal distribution of benthic
communities can be used to discern disturbances.

10:45 am BIO-57 Recolonization of the Rocky Intertidal at Kerguelen, South Indian
Ocean. J.M. LAWRENCE and J.B. MC CLINTOCK. Dept. Biology, Univ. South Florida, Tampa
33620 and Center for Marine Studies, Univ. California, Santa Cruz 95064. All algae
and benthic invertebrates were removed from three tide pools and from the shelf ex-
posed at extreme low tide on the Promenade des Amerlocks in Jan 1983. The ratios of
total densities of benthic invertebrates (inds.sq m-1) 23 months later in Dec 1984

to the original densities were 87:183 (48%) for the upper pool, 109:442 (25%) for the
middle pool, 18:434 (4%) for the lower pool, and 0:2016 (0%) for the shelf. Initial

1985 Meeting -35- Program Issue

and final diversities (H') were 1.470 and 1.217 for the upper pool, 1.098 and 1.841
for the middle pool, and 1.022 and 1.652 for the lower pool. Initial diversity for
the shelf was 1.203. Despite the major change in densities and age of individuals
in the pepulations, there was little change in diversities. Recolonization at
Kerguelen is slow and shows an intertidal gradient. Supported by NSF grant DPP-
8108992 and the aGministration of the Terres Australes et Antarctiques Francaises.

11:00 am BREAK

11:15 am BI0-58 Estuarine Oligochaetes from West Central Florida with New Records
for the Gulf of Mexico. M.R. MILLIGAN, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island
Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. Oligochaetes were collected from 5 west central Florida
estuaries in 1984. Samples were taken along the salinity gradient from <0.5°/00 to
>250/00. Forty-five taxa representing 3 families were identified. Enchytraeidae
contained the fewest taxa. Naididae populations were extremely seasonal resulting
from their highly sporadic form of asexual reproduction. Two cosmopolitan species,
Wapsa grandis and Paranais litoralis were most common. Tubificidae contained the
greatest number of taxa. A new species of Haber is being described. Two new spe-
cies of Tubificoides are reviewed. Four species of Phallodrilus and 1 Inanidrilus
are new to the Gulf of Mexico. Southern range extensions are presented for
Psammoryctides convolutus and Monopylephorus helobius. Three additional species

of Phallodrilinae are as yet undetermined. Supplementary specimens for more de-
tailed analysis are required to ascertain the specific status of other questionable
taxa. Funding was provided by the Southwest Florida Water Management District.

11:30 am BI0-59 Spatial Dispersion of Nine Sand-Tube Dwellers in Crystal Bay,
FL. DONNA DEVLIN, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL
33577. Samples were collected quarterly from June 1983 to June 1984 at 40 stations
in Crystal Bay. Nine different sand-tube dwellers were present: 8 polychaetes and
1 phoronid..Dispersion was patchy with tube dweller densities ranging from 0 to
4984 ind./m . High numbers of tube dwellers co-occurred at some stations. Only 2
polychaete species had population fluctuations in which a large portion of the
variance (R >0.50) could be explained by changes in response to physical factors:
Myriochele oculata often showed a decrease in density and Spiophanes bombyx often
showed an increase in density as water temperature, salinity and silt-clay in-
creased. For the other 7 species population fluctuations could not be explained
by the change in these physical factors. Several polychaete species showed
positive correlations with M. oculata. These species may be responding to some
unmeasured physical factor, or M. oculata may change the sediment, making it
either more attractive for settlement or enhancing survival after settlement.

11:45 am BIO-60 Food and Space Utilization by the Infaunal Polychaete
Pseudeurythoe paucibranchiata (Polychaeta: Amphinomidae) in the York Estuary,
Virginia. MICHAEL J. KRAVITZ, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park,
Sarasota, FL 33577. Daytime core sampling of the amphinomid polychaete
Pseudeurythoe paucibranchiata reveals that this species is distributed deep within
the sediment. From 55% to 96% of the population occurred below 10 cm. It is
classified as an omnivore/deposit feeder. The most common food items ingested
were foraminifera and the dinoflagellate Prorocentrum minimum. Prorocentrum
minimum was not found in study site sediment collected during daylight hours.
This observation, coupled with a reported downward migration in the water column
at night for this species, leads to the hypothesis that the dinoflagellates were
ingested at the sediment surface at night, following an upward migration of the
Pseudeurythoe population.

SATURDAY 1:00 pm CRAWFORD LOBBY
GREEN SWAMP FIELD TRIP: Mobilization
P.M. DOORIS, Southwest Florida Water Management District, leading

Florida Scientist -36- Volume 48

SATURDAY 8:30 am CRAWFORD 6
SESSION 1: Freshwater Ecology and Management
T.L. CRISMAN, University of Florida, presiding

8:30 am BI0-61 Experimental nutrient loading in Shark River Slough, Everglades
National Park (EVER), Florida. DAVID R. WALKER, DANIEL J. SCHEIDT, South Florida
Research Center, EVER, Homestead, FL 33030, MARK D. FLORA, National Park Service
Water Quality Lab., Fort Collins, CO, RAMONA G. RICE, DWRC, Florida International
University, Miami, FL. To assess the biological impact of increased nutrient loading in waters
delivered to EVER, a two-year experimental program was conducted by the National Park
Service in the freshwater marsh of Shark Slough. NO, -N and PO, -P were dosed continuously
in three flow-through channels (5 m x 100 m) and monitored regu larly for water quality and
biological changes downstream from the sources of nutrient addition. Phosphorus was
established as the limiting nutrient and rapid phosphorus uptake occurred in both phosphorus
treated channels. An increase of 5 to 20 ug/l PO,-P over background levels caused
evanescence of the periphyton mat after 4 to 6 weeks and shifted the original Eleocharis/
Utricularia marsh community to a Saggitaria community. Phosphorus addition also caused a
dramatic increase in primary productivity as documented by 14-carbon uptake, chlorophyll a
and dry weight measurements.

8:45 am BI0-62 Effects of Nutrient Addition on the Algae Community Structure of
Shark River Slough, Everglades National Park, Florida (EVER). RAMONA G. RICE, DWRC,
Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, MARK D. FLORA, NPS Water Quality
Lab, Ft. Collins, CO 80523, DAVID R. WALKER, AND DANIEL J. SCHEIDT, South Florida
Research Center, EVER, Homestead, FL 33030. Three experimental channels were con-
structed in the Shark River Slough system of EVER with algal response to NO,-N and
PO,-P addition monitored every six weeks. This paper describes the algal community
structure in the control and in three different nutrient dosing conditions from Sept-
ember, 1983 through September, 1984. Initial dosing levels begun in April, 1983
were continued to evaluate long-term impact of increased phosphorus addition on
slough flora. A Cyanophyta-Bacillariophyta assemblage characterized the control
site algal community. Dosing differences produced shifts in algal community struct-
ure that are specific for a particular nutrient dose level. Shifts in the algae
community in the three dosing channels and the effect of 17 months dosing in the
initial experimental channel are the focus of this presentation.

9:00 am BI0-63 Die! Dissolved Oxygen Leveis under Experimental Nutrient Loading
Conditions in Shark Slough, Everglades National Park (EVER), Florida. DANIEL J. SCHEIDT,
AND DAVID R. WALKER, South Florida Research Center, EVER, Homestead, FL 33030,
RAMONA G. RICE, DWRC, Florida International Univ., Miami, FL 33199, MARK D. FLORA,
National Park Service (NPS) Water Quality Lab, Ft. Collins, CO 80523. As part of a two-year
experimental study conducted by the NPS assessing the biological impact of increased PO =
and NO, - -N loading to Shark River Slough, a series of monthly diel dissolved oxygen (DO
studies Were performed, with DO, pH, and water temperature measured every two hours oe
24 hours at 20 locations. In June 1984, DO levels in the control areas ranged from 10% to
157% of saturation, with a greater range observed in the two PO,-P dosed channels (8% to
198%), and a lesser range in the NO, -N dosed channel (20% to 142%). These observed
differences are related to biological productivity measurements (Carbon-14 uptake, chloro-
phyll a, dry weight), dominant vegetation, and algal species composition. Diel DO and pH were
strongly correlated (r=0.89). Nutrient and solar radiation data are also presented.

9:15 am BI0-64 Periphyton and Water Quality Relationships in the Everglades
Water Conservation Areas. D.R. SWIFT, South Fla. Water Mgmt. Dist., P.O. Box V,
West Palm Beach 33402. Periphyton communities grown on glass slides were shown to
be strongly influenced by site differences in marsh water quality (major ions,
nutrients). Seasonal changes in water quality, algal species composition, growth
rates and nutrient content were monitored over four years (1978-1982). Calcareous
blue-greens dominated nutrient poor, alkaline areas of the marsh, while desmids

1985 Meeting =3i/= Program Issue

and filamentous greens were found in acid, soft water habitats. Peripheral areas
of the marsh affected by nutrient enriched canal water supported a "specialized"
community of pollution tolerant algae. Phosphorus was shown to be the major
factor controlling algae growth rates and nutrient content, while major ion
concentration and pH largely governed periphyton species composition at interior
marsh sites. Concentrations of N and P were low in the water column, soils, and
algal cell tissue suggesting nutrient limitation at interior marsh sites.

9:30 am BI0-65 Phytoplankton Dynamics in Upper Kissimmee Chain of Lakes.

D.R. SWIFT and B.L. JONES. So. Fla. Water Momt. Dist., P.O. Box V, West Palm
Beach, FL 33042. Past nutrient studies of Lakes Tohopekaliga, Cypress, Hatchineha,
Kissimmee and East Lake Tohopekaliga have a) lacked information as to which algal
groups predominate during seasonal bloom periods in which nutrient limiting condi-
tions occur; and b) provided little information concerning the abundance of
potential N. fixers which may contribute to interior nutrient loading of the lakes.
Measurements of phytoplankton cell volume, cell density and chlorophyll a were
made in connection with monthly water chemistry monitoring during 1982-83. Peak
phytoplankton abundance occurred in May in association with the depletion of
inorganic nitrogen and "blooms" of the N, fixer, Anabaena circinalis. Populations
of Anabaena were replaced in the following months by the secondary dominants
Anacystis spp., Lyngbya contorta, Scenedesmus spp. and Melosira granulata.

Results suggest that Lakes Tohopekaliga and Cypress represent nitrogen-limited
ecosystems.

9:45 am BREAK

10:00 am BI0-66 Nutrient Release Potential of Water Hyacinth Detritus Tissue.

J. C. TUCKER AND K. R. REDDY, University of Florida, CFREC-Sanford, P.O. Box 909,
Sanford, FL 32771. Nutrient release potential of detritus plant tissue during
decomposition was evaluated in controlled aquaculture systems containing water
hyacinth. Water hyacinth plants were supplied with detritus tissue as the sole
source of nutrients. Detritus used in the study was collected from water hyacinths
grown in varying levels of N and P. Total N content of the detritus ranged from
10.1 - 27.6 mg N/g of plant tissue, and total P from 0.8 - 14.1 mg P/g of plant
tissue. At the end of 60 day decomposition, about 27-77% of the detritus N and
26-68% of the detritus P had been released. Productivity of water hyacinth varied
directly with the availability and concentration of the DUCIIEHES released from one
detritus. The biomass yield averaged 7.1 - 11.2 g (dw)/m¢.day when detritus was tne
sole source of nutrients to water hyacinths.

10:15 am BI0-67 The Effectiveness of Water Hyacinth in Controlling Eutrophication
of Lake Apopka. M. M. FISHER and K. R. REDDY, University of Florida, CFREC-Sanford,
P. 0. Box 909, Sanford, FL 32771. Lake Apopka, located in central Florida, is
currently highly eutrophic. Because of its size and degree of eutrophication, it has
been subjected to extensive controversy and study. The purpose of this experiment
was to evaluate the effectiveness of water hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes (Mart)
Solms] as a biological filter to reduce pollutant levels of Take water. Lake Apopka
water was allowed to flow at a residence time of 1.5 days through the channels

(20 X 200') containing water hyacinths, and water quality was monitored both at the
inflow and outflow of the system. Results indicate that about 50% removal of TKN,
UP: BOD, and chlorophyll] content.

-

10:30 am BI0-68 Heavy Metal Uptake by Water Hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes
(Mort) Solms]. S. Patnaik and K. R. Reddy, University of Florida, CFREC-Sanford,
P. 0. Box 909, Sanford, FL 32771. The aquatic plant water hyacinth is on the top
of the list of noxious weeds in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world.
However, its ability to absorb pollutants make it a desirable plant for use in
controlled biological wastewater systems. The present work relates to quantify the

Florida Scientist -38- Volume 48

uptake of some heavy metals like nikel, cobalt, cadmium, zinc, copper, lead, and
mercury by water hyacinths under greenhouse conditions. The concentrations of 0.1
to 5.0 mg/2 of these metals are well tolerated by the plant. However, the high
concentrations of cobalt and cadmium indicate some adverse effect on plant growth.
The study reveals the tolerance limit of water hyacinths for different heavy metals
and prospects of its use in pollution abatement.

10:45 am BI0-69 Heavy Metal Residues in Water, Sediments and Biota of the Chipola
River. THOMAS SAVAGE, FORREST WARE AND WILLIAM BIGLER. Department of
Environmental Regulation, Tallahassee, FL 32301, Florida Game and Freshwater Fish
Commission, Tallahassee, FL 32301 and Department of Health and Rehabilitative
Services, Tallahassee, FL 32301. Water, sediment, fish and clam samples were
collected from established stations along the Chipola River during 1983 and 1984.
Samples were analyzed for cadmium (Cd); chromium (Cr); copper (Cu); lead (Pb); and
mercury (Hg). Ranges, means and standard deviations were determined for samples
from each station. While residue levels of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb and Hg in water,
sediments, fish and clams varied from station to station along the river, mean
concentrations of all metals tested were below levels which could be determined
hazardous to human health. However, a few clams and fish had concentrations of Pb
which exceeded U.S. Food and Drug Administration action levels. Sources, health
risk, and implications for resource management are discussed. i

11:00 am BREAK

11:15 am BI0-70 Factors Affecting Coliform Recovery from Drinking Water Samples.
FRANCES PARSONS, GLADYS LAGE, AND PEDRO LORENZO, Drinking Water Research Center,
Florida International University, Miami 33199. Samples of drinking water, seeded
with known concentrations of Enterobacter cloacae were held at 4C and 30C and
analyzed by the MF Coliform Standard Method during a storage period of 48 hours.
The effect of sample handling on test results was studied. Parameters measured were
non-coliform bacteria and disinfectant concentration, temperature, turbidity, and
total organic content of the water at sampling time. As few as 60% of the added
coliforms were recovered after 24 hours storage time. Recoveries after 30 and 48
hours storage were often greater than 60%, probably because reproduction occurred.
Thus, sample storage caused two errors in test results: first, from die-off and
then from reproduction of the surviving bacteria. Regression analysis of the data
indicated that the chemical properties of the water were as influential on coliform
recovery as the age of the samples when analyzed and the storage temperature prior
to analysis.

11:30 am BIO-71 Effect of the Water Budget on Ecosystem Function in Lake Annie.
LARRY BATTOE, Archbold Biological Station, P. 0. Box 2057, Lake Placid, Florida
33852. Lake Annie is a soft-water warm monomictic sinkhole lake located on the
Archbold Biological Station in south-central Florida. The results of a presently
on-going study of the hydrological budget will be presented. Rainfall, evaporation
and discharge from the only surface outflow have been continuously measured for

one annual cycle. Groundwater seepage is being estimated by two independent
methods - directly, by measurement with seepage meters, and indirectly, by measure-
ments of the slope of the groundwater table in the vicinity of the lake. Precipi-
tation and groundwater seepage during the stratified period dilute the epilimnion
producing oligotrophic conditions, while stratification prevents exchange with the
hypolimnion resulting in an anoxic hypolimnion and a "schizophrenic" lake in terms
of trophic status.

1985 Meeting 39 Program Issue

11:45 am BI0-72 4Hydrobiological Monitoring of Cypress Domes in the Green Swamp
Area of Lake and Sumter Counties, Florida. T. F. ROCHOW AND M. LOPEZ, Southwest
Florida Water Management District, 2379 Broad St., Brooksville, 33512. Six cypress
domes in a remote area of the Green Swamp in Lake and Sumter Counties have been
studied hydrologically and biologically for the past several years. Yearly surface
water levels, although variable, have been good despite significant variations in
annual rainfall amounts. Vegetation sampling data suggest characteristic wetland
plant species persisted as components of the domes' understory even in years of
depressed surface water depths. Conditions in the Green Swamp domes are compared
to those in domes that appear to have been impacted by man's activities.

12:00 pm BI0-73 A Wildlife Inventory of the Green Swamp Area in Central Florida.
J. M. PGS7, M. LOPEZ, and P. M. DOORIS, S. W. Fla. Water Mgt. Dist., 2379 Broad St.,
Brooksville, FL 33512-9712. The land now held in public ownership within the 870
mi2 Green Swamp Area totals approximately 128 mi2. The large expanse of relatively
intact wetland and upland habitats within this 128 mi@ area creates conditions that
are optimally suited for a wide variety of wildlife. A total of 342 species is
expected to occur within the area, of these, 256 species have been observed (75% of
total). Taxonomically the observed species include: 35 fishes, 18 amphibians, 36
reptiles, 150 birds, and 20 mammals. Populations of 31 vertebrate species listed

as endangered, threatened, rare or of special concern have been observed within the
area. Taxonomically the listed species observed are distributed as follows: 5
reptiles, 24 birds, and 2 mammals. Of the 31 species four federally listed species
are known to inhabit the area. Other important wildlife species include: 7 fishes,
1 reptile, 15 birds, and 8 mammals that are hunted as game. Assistance by Lee
Snyder, in the collection of bird data, is gratefully acknowledged.

SATURDAY 12:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
COUNCIL MEETING: Florida Academy of Sciences
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

SATURDAY 1:00 pm CRAWFORD LOBBY
GREEN SWAMP FIELD TRIP: Mobilization
P.M. DOORIS, Southwest Florida Water Management District, leading

The Green Swamp is a unique hydrological feature covering 850 square miles in
central Florida, near Saint Leo College. The swamp is the headwater of the
Peace, Oklawaha, Withlacoochee and Hillsborough Rivers, and is thought to be
a major groundwater recharge area for the Floridan Aquifer. The Green Swamp
was designated an area of critical state concern by the Florida Legislature
in 1974.

The FAS field trip to the swamp will begin at Saint Leo College, at 1:30 PM
on Saturday, May 4. Participants with trucks or 4-wheel drive vehicles will
be asked to shuttle non-drivers. The group will ride and walk through
portions of the swamp guided by volunteers, and staff of the Southwest
Florida Water Management District. Return time to campus is 5:00 PM. More
information on this interesting excursion will be available at Registration.

Florida Scientist -40- Volume 48

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

SATURDAY 8:30 am CRAWFORD 7
SESSION A: Computer Science and Mathematics
R.L. BURKE, Barry University, presiding

8:30 am CSM-1 Operations Research Applications in the Mining Industry. ASHIS
BHATTACHERJEE and F.B. BUONI, Operations Research Program, Florida Institute of
Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. A review is presented of the various applica-
tions of operations research methods to the mining industry. These applications
emphasize the use of computer based models. Typical applications areas include
mine planning and scheduling, productions system simulation, financial analysis,
and mineral exploration and research assessment. Although the major applications
are in the coal and metals areas, specific attention is given to phosphate mining
applications.

8:45 am CSM-2 Use of Computers in Engineering Education. M.E. VALDEZ M.C. ERTEM
Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, 32901. The large demand for engineers,
especially in Electrical and Computer Engineering, creates a difficult problem for
universities: Many undergraduate students are attracted to these disciplines, and

at the same time faculty members and graduate students migrate to industry, where
they are offered highly competitive salaries. This leads to a shortage of qualified
faculty to educate the large number of students in EE/CP programs. The solution
presented in this paper is the use of high level technology, mainly computers to
develop teaching tools so that one qualified instructor can handle a large class.
The use of computer simulation in computer engineering, circuit theory, electronics,
and digital systems is not only relatively easy to implement, but makes compiex
subjects easy to understand. The use of simulation in teaching computer organization
is used as an example. With the method outlined the instructor does not have to
devote so much time to tasks such as drawing circuits or graphs on the blackboard,
but can spend more time on explanations and answering questions,

9:00 am CSM-3 Inexpensive Techniques for Computer-Assisted 3-Dimensional
Reconstruction and Modeling of Biological and Other Structures. F. B. ESSIG,
Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa 33620. Techniques have
been developed for utilizing inexpensive microcomputers for reconstructing
3-dimensional objects from serial sections. The basic technique involves rotation
and transfer of 2-dimensional diagrams from one screen to another where they are
"stacked" to create a 3-dimensional image. Wire-frame as well as solid models
can be made. Current software is for the Commodore-64 (6502/6510 type of micro-
processor, also used by the Apple 2e), which costs less than $1000 for a complete
system. Using the 3-color separation process, full-color diagrams with a reso-
lution of 320 by 200 pixels can be photographically produced.

9:15 am -CSM-4 Mathematical Modeling of Underground Coal Gasification. L, V.
FAUSETT, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology,
Melbourne, 32901. Modeling of the complex physical and chemical reactions involved
in underground coal gasification leads to many varied mathematical problems.

Models have been developed by researchers at the University of Wyoming, University
of West Virginia, University of Texas, and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
The simplifying assumptions of the models differ, as do the mathematical difficul-
ties encountered in the solution of the models. In one model the system of partial
differential equations is simplified to a system of ordinary differential equations
in a moving reference frame. These equations form a stiff boundary value problem
which may be solved by the technique of multiple shooting. Difficulties in the
matching of forward and reverse shooting solutions can be overcome by replacing

the reverse shooting solution by an approximate analytical solution.

1985 Meeting -41- Program Issue

9:30 am CSM-5 A Linear Approximation Algorithm of the Pythagorean Theorem.
GEORGE K. KOSTOPOULOS, Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Florida
Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431. A critical operation in digital

signal processing is the calculation of the power spectral lines of the examined
signal. This operation requires the computation for each spectral line of the
square root of the sum of the squares of that line's sine and cosine components.
Normally, this operation requires a multiplication and a square root algorithm,

the execution of which takes a significant amount of time. In many cases, this

time comprises most of the total computation time. A linear approximation algorithm
for the computation of the s oot of the sum of the es has been developed
as ioe +b =a if a>8b;Va +b =b if b>8a; eaiisrarficin LEW the SOO
0.789062 is 0.1100101. The software implementation of this algorithm is very
simple and the obtained result has a maximum error of 12%, which for most applica-
tion is acceptable, considering that the average error is only half as much.

9:45 am CSM-6 Computer Assisted and Managed Instructions Using PILOT. TAE WUK
LEE, Science Education Department, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL
32901. PILOT is an authoring language designed to aid the development of Computer
Assisted Learning and tutorials. The purposes of this study are to investigate
the relationship between use of the CAI and student achievement on programming
assignments in undergraduate Introduction to FORTRAN studies; and to develop the
CMI which is grading evaluation system of programming assignments.

10:00 am BREAK

SATURDAY 10:10 am CRAWFORD 7 : :
BUSINESS MEETING: Computer Science and Mathematics Section
R.L. BURKE, Barry University, presiding

10:30 am CSM-7 A Methodology to Establish Software Development Standards. KOUROS
MOHIT, Math. & Computer Science Dept., Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne,
32901-6988. A methodology is proposed to establish software development standards
based on existing programs. The developed software standards will be a closer
approximation to the past practices and therefore, a better metric representing
programs in an installation. The development of standards will be accomplished in
two stages. The first stage is to collect statistics from existing software.

The second stage is to determine the dimensionality of data and to extract and
identify the principal components in the existing software base. These factors

when obtained, will provide a basis for the establishment of software development
standards.

10:45 am CSM-8 Closed Form Solution of Nonlinear Ordinary Differential Equations
with Analytic Coefficients. FREDRICK S. MUNGER, Department of Mathematics, Florida
Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. This paper discusses a program con-
sisting of two major components. The first component is an assembler which trans-
_lates a uSer-input literal representation of an ordinary differential equation into
an internal program (an integer array), and data consisting of coefficient arrays.
The second component tests for the existence of an analytic solution, solving the
differential equation where an analytic solution exists. The program solves the

ordinary differential equation fy(n +g=0 where n-1 initial values have been sup-
plied and both f and g consist of the following: finite polynomials, exponentials,
trigonometric and hyperbolic functions and their inverses, lesser derivatives of y,
solutions to previous differential equations and derivatives of such, radicals and
composites of all such components. The architecture of the program is compatible
with large systems of coupled ordinary differential equations. Utilities are
included for formatting tabular results.

Florida Scientist =425 Volume 48

11:00 am CSM-9 Microcomputers in Physics. PANGRATIOS PAPACOSTA, Physics Depart-
ment, Stetson University, DeLand, FL 32720. In a recently developed course at the
Physics Department of Stetson University, students are taught how to use TI-99/4A
microcomputers in Physics and Engineering situations. They learn how to write pro-
grams in BASIC, with which they can solve problems in areas such as mechanics,
electricity, thermodynamics, nuclear physics, vector analysis, and linear regres-
sion. A strong element of this course is the use of screen graphics to simulate
such phenomena as projectiles, blocks sliding on an inclined plane, satellites and
standing waves. This paper will describe this course using a sample of programs

and simulations.

11:15 am CSM-10 AIMOS - Operating System Level Integration of Applications
Software: An Access-Limited, Menu-Driven User Interface. MARK S. SCHMALZ, Physi-
cal Oceanography Department, Harbor Branch Foundation, RR 1, Box 196, Fort Pierce,
FL 33450. Access to heterogeneous applications software can be facilitated and
controlled by an integrated user interface. An applications management system is
modelled by first establishing logical functional relationships between primary
software subsystems and, second, by organizing these relationships in a database
environment. A FORTRAN-based implementation of this concept is evaluated in terms
of its advantages over non-integrated applications software.

11:30 am CSM-11 The Development and Testing of Artificial Intelligence.

Greg G. Huey, Stanton College Prep #153, 8567 Country Creek Blvd., Jacksonville,
Florida 32221. Today we must program a computer specifically for the task it will
perform; if the task changes in a manner that the computer is not programed to
handle , it can not decide from its instructions and past experience what it
should do as a human would. The computer must then be reprogramed which is a
costly and time consuming task. With the invention of AI (Artificial Intelligence)
computers can now be programed to perform a more general task and handle unantici-
pated problems. To further this end an experiment was designed in which an AI
Program that would complete a maze using a modified Heuristic tree search would be
developed and timed against human subjects on an Apple IIe PC (Personal Computer).
The Experiment was designed not only to demonstrate which processed information
faster, but also which learned most effectively.

11:45 am CSM-12 Blockworld: Artificial Intelligence in Software Robot.

Robert W. Tilley, Titusville High School, 6350 Windover Way, Titusville, Florida
32780. The project investigated artificial intelligence by creating a software
robot which can manipulate and answer questions about objects in a small, well-
defined "world" populated only by blocks, a table, and a robot hand. Communica-
tion with the robot is carried out by English language statements which the robot
interprets as commands in a limited vocabulary. The robot attempts to carry out
the command by creating and following a procedure based on the objective and the
configuration of the blocks.

SATURDAY 12:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
COUNCIL MEETING: Florida Academy of Sciences
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

1985 Meeting -43- Program Issue

ENGINEERING SCIENCE

FRIDAY 3:00 pm LEWIS 316
SESSION A: Engineering
R.S. BARILE, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

3:00 pm ENG-1 Analysis of Sprinkler Distribution Patterns by a Stochastic
Method. S. C. KRANC, College of Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa,
FL, 33620. Distribution of irrigation water over a planting is frequently accom-
plished by sprinklers set in regular arrangements over the area. Because the
deposition rate depends on radial distance from the sprinkler head, overlap from
neighboring heads produces a nonuniform pattern on the area. By suitable spacing
an optimal pattern can be determined. A method of predicting the distribution
pattern by stochastic techniques is reported here. The effect of spacing on uni-
formity is analyzed for several model sprinklers and results obtained are compared
to those produced by other methods.

3:15 pm ENG-2 Engineering Design, Fabrication, and Operation of an Under-

water Habitat for Use in Marine Science and Ocean Engineering Education.

MARK A. WOOD, P.E., Florida Institute of Oceanography, St. Petersburg, Florida 33701,
The design, emplacement, and operation of a No-decompression underwater classroom/
Laboratory is sixteen feet long and eight feet in diameter and capable of sustaining
four divers for missions up to three days in duration. The facility is owned and
operated by the Marine Resources Development Foundation (MRDF) and the laboratory
science program is managed by the Florida Institute of Oceanography (FIO). Located
in John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park, the facility is available for use in
support of marine science and engineering educational programs at the university,
community college and secondary school levels, allowing students to participate in

a variety of scientific, engineering, or ecological projects. Operations are
oriented not only toward the collection of data relevent to the understanding of

the local ecosystem but also toward providing the marine science community with an
educational experience previously unavailable.

3:30 pm ENG-3 Deactivation of a High Silica Type Ultrazet Zeolite by Steam
Treatment, BARBARA CZYZEWSKI AND TADEUSZ CZYZEWSKI, Florida Institute of
Technology, 150 West University Boulevard, Melbourne 32901. Ultrazet zeolites are
used to directly convert methanol into gasoline. Activity and selectivity of
hydrogen forms of the ultrazet zeolite, a counterpart of the ZSM-5 zeolite, was
studied in the process of cracking of the n-hexane + 3-methylpentane. Conversion of
the reactants was a measure of their activity, while ratios of constants of the
cracking rate of the n-hexane to the 3-methylpentane served as a measure of
selectivity. The study was conducted within the range of steam temperatures from
773°K to 1023°K, Acidic properties of the zeolites were examined by infrared
spectroscopy, using a Zeiss UR-20 instrument. A DRON-2.0 diffractometer and Cu-K,,

rays were used to record x-ray diffraction patterns. Experimental results are
discussed and compared to literature data.

3:45 pm ENG-4 Production of Gasoline Extenders Derived from Levulinic Acid.
TIMOTHY RUDOLPH, LARRY GRYZLL AND JOHN THOMAS. FIT, Med. Res. Inst., 3325 W. New
Haven Ave., Melbourne 32901. The production of gasoline extenders derived from
levulinic acid (LA) on a pilot plant scale has been demonstrated with high yields.
uevulinic acid can be used as a chemical feedstock and is produced from the acid
hydrolysis of hexoses found in economical feedstocks like newspaper and forest
wastes. The crude solution of LA produced from the hydrolysis is concentrated by
evaporation. Dehydration distillation of LA produces alpha-angelicalactone (AL)
which may be a suitable fuel extender. A typical 24 hour production run produced
9.8 kg of AL with molar and mass yields of 97.7% and 82.5%, respectively. The AL

Florida Scientist -44- Volume 48

can be converted to alpha-methyletetrahydrofuran (MTHF) by catalytic hydrogenation
at elevated pressures. The air-fuel ratio of MTHF (12.4) is significantly greater
than that of ethanol (9.94). The higher air-fuel ratio of MTHF allows greater con-
centrations of the fuel extender to be burned in unmodified engines without a
significant power or performance loss.

4:00 pm BREAK

4:15 pm ENG-5 Simulation of the Vibration in Rotating Machines. MOHAMED HASHEM
AND FAISSAL A. MOSLEHY, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Aerospace Sci-
ences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FLORIDA 32816. Simulation has prov-
en to be an extremely successful engineering tool used for the design and optimi-
zation of systems and processes. In this case study, the TUTSIM computer program
is used to solve and evaluate the system model of a rotating machine on a micro-
computer. Optimization is carried out by changing the system parameters until the
required objective function is met. This procedure is shown to be effective in
solving complex engineering problems.

4:30 pm ENG-6 A Process Analysis of the Rankine Power Cycle, J. N. LINSLEY,
Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Fl,
32901. The Rankine power cycle converts thermal energy into shaft work and, thence,
into electrical power, The cycle is used to generate power from many energy sources
- fossil fuel, nuclear, solar, geothermal, and others, A rigorous process analysis
of the cycle is performed, From a process flow diagram, a set of process design
equations are formulated, The design variable selection algorithm is applied to
this set of equations. A number of studies are performed to delineate the effect

of various possible design variables upon cycle performance.

4:45 pm ENG-7 Thermal Energy Storage in the Space Station. R,.G.BARILE,

M. LITTLEFIELD, and T. BOWMAN, Depts. of Chemical and Mechanical Engineering,
Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Fl 32901. A wide range of energy
storage devices have been screened for application in space vehicle, especially

in the Space Station. The relative importance of criteria and parameters shifts
from economics for land-based design to considerations of minimum weight and
volume, low toxicity, reliability and ease of repair in outer space. Heat removal
from experiments and living areas will be accomplished by a two-phase system with
a condenser-radiator which rejects heat to deep space operating much like an elon-
gated heat pipe. In order to optimize the radiator and two-phase system, thermal
peakload shaving can be accomplished with temporary thermal storage devices. Prelim-
inary designs for thermal storage will be presented, including metal hydrides,
liquids, solutions, vapor-liquid and reacting (chemical) systems. Results so far
indicate that ammonia-water solutions may be optimal.

FRIDAY 5:00 pm LEWIS 316
BUSINESS MEETING: Engineering Science Section
R.G. BARILE, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

FRIDAY 6:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
SOCIAL, BANQUET AND PLENARY SESSION II
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1985 Meeting -45- Program Issue

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

FRIDAY 10:30 am LEWIS 316
SESSION A: Environmental Chemistry
W.d. COOPER, Florida International University, presiding

10:30 am ENV-1 Hydrolysis and Degradation of Aldicarb Sulfone in Estuarine
Environments. LAWRENCE P. POLLACK and FORREST E. DIERBERG, Dept. of Environmental
Science and Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901.
Salinity gradients from Sebastian River Estuary, Indian River County, and artifi-
cial seawater were investigated to determine if changes in salinity affect the
rate of hydrolysis for aldicarb sulfone. Aldicarb sulfone was spiked at 0.1 mg/l
into sterile artificial seawater, buffered at pH 7 and sterile and unsterile
estuarine water. The degradation rate of aldicarb sulfone in artificial seawater
with a concentration of 25 ppt was decreased by 30% when compared to its degrada-
tion in deionized water. Half-lives of aldicarb sulfone in the estuarine water
ranged from 8 days at 35 ppt salinity to 23 days at 1 ppt salinity. Sterile and
unsterile samples resulted in similar rate constants.

10:45 am ENY-2 Measurements of Biogenic Hydrogen Sulfide Emissions From
Selected Florida Wetlands. MARK S. CASTRO AND FORREST E. DIERBERG, Dept. of
Environmental Science and Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melboume,
FL 32901. An inexpensive sampling apparatus was constructed to accurately assess
the magnitude of biogenic hydrogen sulfide emissions from selected Florida wetlands
Areal emission rates ranged from less than 0.024 to 0.272 g/m2-yr for a mangrove
swamp and from less than 0.001 to 0.006 g/m2-yr for two freshwater wetlands
(cypress swamp and riverine marsh). The total quantity of biogenic hydrogen
sulfide emitted from these ecosystems was estimated to range from 8.2 x 107 to

7.8 x 108 g/yr. These values are 3 to 4 orders of magnitude lower than the
estimated anthropogenic sulfur emissions of 5.0 x 1011 g/yr, indicating that
biogenic hydrogen sulfide sources contribute insignificant quantities of sulfur

to the atmospheric sulfur burden and the acidity of precipitation.

11:00 am ENV-3 Pesticides and Everglades National Park: Present Use and Threat.
DANIEL J. SCHEIDT, Drinking Water Research Center, Florida International University,
Miami, FL 33199. Everglades National Park (ENP) depends upon water which originates
outside its boundaries. An extensive survey indicates the following numbers of
pesticides are presently used in areas of water delivery to ENP: (5) mosquito control,
(8) aquatic plant control, (40) Everglades agricultural area south of Lake Okeechobee
and (72) Dade County agriculture; a total of 100 different compounds. The present
study was initiated to: document past and present pesticide use in areas of water
delivery to ENP; determine which of these compounds presents the qreatest threat to
the biota and water quality of ENP by evaluating their toxicity to various wildlife,
their potential for contaminating ground water or surface, and their persistence in
water and soil; summarize historic data on pesticide levels in Everglades water and
sediment since 1970. A brief overview of this study and its initial findings will

be presented. This study is funded by the National Park Service.

11:15 am ENV-4 Role of Some Coordination Entities in Dehalogenation of Some
Model Organohalogens. DEAN F. MARTIN, KENNETH E. HEWES, BARBARA B. MARTIN, AND
SUSAN G. MAYBURY, Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center,
Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. The
metal-chelate assisted dehalogenation of chloroform was studied using bis(salicyl-
aye Sama of the type (5- -ZCgH3-2-0-1-CH= NR)oNi in the presence

(CH3)2NCHoCHoN(CH3)9. The nickel compounds were screened for activity in terms
= percent ee aaraeuted to chloride ion following a 6-hour reflux period.
Chloride conversion was related to the electronic effects of substituents on sub-
stituted phenyls that affected two competing effects in the transition state.
Environmental and other implications will be considered.

Florida Scientist -46- Volume 48

11:30 am ENV-5 Nutrient fluxes in Shingle Creek. T.H. MILLER, A.C. FEDERICO,
B.L. JONES, F.E. DAVIS, A.L. GOLDSTEIN, AND K.M. O'DELL. South Florida Water
Management District, P.O. Box V, West Palm Beach, FL 33402. Shingle Creek accounts
for 41% of the water and nitrogen and 65% of the phosphorus budget of Lake
Tohopekeliga. The two primary sources of nutrients to the Creek are wastewater
treatment plants located in the headwaters of the Creek and the Browns Farm Canal
into the southern region of the Creek. Elevated phosphorus levels in the Creek
resultant from treatment plant discharges subsequently decrease downstream
primarily as a result of dilution and not by uptake in the Creek's swamp. The
swamp does appear to serve as a nitrogen sink. Nutrient loads entering through

the Browns Farm Canal downstream of the swamp are not reduced prior to entering Lake
Tohopekeliga.

FRIDAY 11:45 am LEWIS 316
BUSINESS MEETING: Environmental Chemistry Section
W.J. COOPER, Florida International University, presiding

FRIDAY 1:15 pm SELBY AUDITORIUM
PLENARY SESSION I: Florida Academy of Sciences
J.N. LAYNE, Archbold Biological Station, presiding

FRIDAY 6:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
SOCIAL, BANQUET AND PLENARY SESSION II
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL SCIENCES

FRIDAY 9:30 am LEWIS 317
SESSION A: Surface Water and Karst
C.J. MOTT, St. Petersburg Junior College, presiding

9:30 am GHY-1 A Rainfall/Runoff Function for Taylor Slough, Everglades National
Park and its Response to L-31W Canal Operations. R.A. JOHNSON, J.I. WAGNER AND D.QJ.
GRIGSBY, South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, PO Box 279, Homestead
33030. Taylor Slough originates in a poorly defined headwater region northeast of Everglades
National Park Headquarters and flows southward, providing fresh water runoff to estuarine
areas of northeast Florida Bay. Recent studies of Taylor Slough suggest that water levels are
largely dependent on local rainfall and evaporation processes, but also respond to surface water
and groundwater fluctuations outside the park. In particular, water levels throughout Taylor
Slough are strongly affected by stage fluctuations in the L-31W canal adjacent to the park. The
current study was undertaken to develope a rainfall/runoff function for the Taylor Slough basin
and to examine the impact of the L-31W canal construction and management on this function.
Preliminary results show that the rainfall/runoff relationship under both surface water and
groundwater conditions has changed over time. The most significant change was an increase in
water levels during the dry season. This greatly reduced the annual range in water level, thus
affecting slough hydroperiods and runoff to downstream estuaries.

1985 Meeting -47- Program Issue

9:45 am GHY-2 Geological Analysis to Determine “Ordinary High Water Lines” on
Selected Florida Lakes. WALTER SCHMIDT, Fla. Geol. Survey, 903 W. Tennessee St.
Tallahassee, FL 32304. In recent years the Florida Division of State Lands has
needed to establish a line (elevation) around the shores of selected fresh water
lakes differentiating the reparian upland ownership from the sovereign lake bottom
owned by the public. Several scientific disciplines, including geology, hydrology,
botany, forestry, soils, surveying and historic records searches are utilized.
Geological analysis is based on historical information from the lake basin, which has
accumulated in response to long term, repetitive lake level fluctuations. Parameters
assessed include: scarps and terraces; physiographic profiles; lithologic sediment
descriptions (such as dominant lithology, color, grain size mode and range with
complete granulometric assessment, roundness, sphericity, matrix type, accessory
mineral concentrations, pH values, total organics and microfossil content);
sedimentary structures; and hydrogeological basin data. A final elevation is
obtained by integrating this information with the other scientific teams results.

10:00 am GHY-3 VLF Resistivity Signature of a Fingered Plume in a Karstic Aquifer.
JOHN W. PARKER AND T. SCOTT McCAIN, Dept. of Geol., Univ. of S. Fla., Tampa, 33620.
A VLF instrument was used to delineate a plume of conductive water migrating from a
drainage ditch to a sinkhole in north-central Hillsborough County, Florida. Varia-
tions in terrane resistivity follow a linear pattern which coincides with the axis
of a north-east trending photolinear. This pattern is attributed to variations in
distribution of conductive pore waters due to surficial aquifer anisotropy devel-
oped along a zone of intense fracturing in the underlying limestone. Skin-depth
calculations indicate that low resistivity responses come from within the uncon-
solidated sediments. Fracture-controlled flow-system anisotropy has been trans-
posed into overlying sediments through karstic processes. Infiltrating conductive
waters move rapidly by advection along more porous and permeable zones resulting

in a fingered plume, particularly distal to the source. Diffusion of solutes into
less permeable zones obscures the fingering proximal to the source. Photolinears
were mapped by Mark A. Culbreth.

10:15 am BREAK

10:30 am GHY-4 Sinkholes Induced by Groundwater Withdrawal in Pierson, Florida,
during the Freezes of December, 1983 & January, 1985. FRANK KUJAWA, BARRY F. BECK,
Fla. Sinkhole Research Inst., UCF, Orlando 32816, AND MARVIN JONES, Volusia County
Sheriff's Dept., Daytona Beach 32014. Fern growers in the Pierson area attempt to
protect their plants during freezes by spraying them continuously with water. The
resulting drop in the water table has been correlated with sinkhole activity by
Byron Ruth and others. In late December 1983, an 80 foot diameter sinkhole devel-
oped on the side of a pond and dropped the pond level 6 feet. Over the next year,
this drop in local base level drained an adjacent pond and a small nearby lake.

At the northeast corner of this former lake, a 60 foot diameter sinkhole developed
in early January 1985. Within a day's time, another 60 foot sinkhole, and a 50 foot
one, developed in separate ferneries a half-mile away. All were steep-walled and at
least 15 feet deep. In addition, two smaller depressions, and an 8 inch subsidence
in a street, developed at sites of previous sinkhole activity in the same square
mile area.

10:45 am GHY-5 Induced Sinkhole Formation due to Groundwater Pumping in the Plant
City - Dover area, January, 1985. DWIGHT T. JENKINS, BARRY F. BECK, SHIOU S. KUO,
Fla. Sinkhole Research Inst., UCF, Orlando 32816, AND JAMES R. LITTLEFIELD, Geology
Dept., USF, Tampa 33620. Twenty-seven sinkholes formed in the Plant City - Dover
area of Hillsborough County, Florida, in January of 1985. The sinkholes formed as a
result of the lowering of the potentiometric surface by heavy groundwater pumping
for freeze protection of strawberry and citrus crops. In the area, the Floridan
Aquifer is overlain by up to 50 feet of Hawthorn Group sediments and up to 20 feet

Florida Scientist -48- Volume 48

of surficial sands. The sinkholes, which ranged in size from 62 feet in diameter
and 17 feet deep down to 3 feet in diameter and 3 feet deep, caused severe damage to
four houses, a school, three roads, two orange groves, and a nursery. Six sinkholes
which formed in an orange grove appeared to be joint controlled, being in a line
oriented N 62° W. Ground penetrating radar profiles indicated no significant struc-
tures or cavities to a depth of 40 feet,

11:00 am GHY-6 Lake Basin Creation and Destruction in the Adirondack Mountains
of Upper New York State. DONALD W. LOVEJOY, Palm Beach Atlantic College, 1101 South
Olive Avenue, West Palm Beach 33401. The Adirondack Mountains, a domal uplift of
Precambrian granites and gneiss, were covered by ice during the Pleistocene Epoch,
burying the highest peak (Mt. Marcy, 1630 m). The ice caused deep scouring of pre-
existing stream valleys, giving them U-shaped cross sections. After the ice melted,
lakes formed in the lowest portions of the valleys due to high annual rainfall and
the relatively impervious nature of the bedrock. Glacial deposits left behind by the
melting ice also contributed to lake basin formation, as did the work of beavers.
Today vegetation is filling these lakes in a succession that includes (1) growth of
submerged water plants gradually raising the lake bottom, (2) appearance of emergent
vegetation (pickerel weed) nearer shore, (3) growth of floating plants (water
lilies) farther from shore, and (4) conversion of the lake margins into a "bog"
consisting of peat topped by trees, shrubs, sphagnum moss, and insectivorous plants.
The final stage in lake destruction is the development of grassy "beaver meadows".

FRIDAY 1:15 pm SELBY AUDITORIUM
PLENARY SESSION I: Florida Academy of Sciences
J.N. LAYNE, Archbold Biological Station, presiding

FRIDAY 3:00 pm LEWIS 317
SESSION B: Structure and Paleontology
M.L. IVEY, St. Petersburg Junior College, presiding

3:00 pm GHY-7 Foraminiferal Fauna of Lemon Bay, Florida. DON C. STEINKER,
Department of Geology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403 and
MERRIANNE HACKATHORN, Ohio Geological Survey, Columbus, OH 43224. Seventy-two
species and varieties of foraminifera were identified from sediment and phytal
samples from Lemon Bay on the west coast of Florida. Ammonia beccarii variants and
Elphidium incertum var. mexicanum were nearly ubiquitous and dominate the fauna.
Miliolids increased in numbers in the vicinity of vegetation. Agglutinated forms
generally occurred in low frequencies but increased to the north in the vicinity
of the Venice sewage outfall. Distinct distributional patterns were not evident,
perhaps because of rather uniform conditions within the bay. The foraminiferal
fauna of Lemon Bay is primarily an Ammonia-Elphidium assemblage representing a
subtropical lagoonal fauna with some open Gulf species and a few marsh species.
Similar assemblages occur in Tampa and Sarasota Bays and in Charlotte Harbor.

3:15 pm GHY-8 Significance of Lineaments in Florida. MARK A. CULBRETH, Univer-
sity of South Florida, Dept. of Geology, Tampa, FL 33620. Lineaments are large
scale linear features observed on satellite imagery and high altitude photographs.
Observations on lower altitude airphotos reveal that most lineaments are compo-
sites of smaller scale features aligned in a rectilinear pattern. An increased
concentration in fracture trace density is generally the observed phenomena.

1985 Meeting -49- Program Issue

Lineaments are most commonly recognized by surface drainage patterns and as
tonal variations in soils. Lineaments have been shown to be sites of increased
sinkhole development and can also be reflected in water quality patterns.
Modelling of gravity data from selected lineaments has revealed structural con-
trol from the igneous and metamorphic basement underlying the Tertiary carbonate
rocks.

3:30 pm GHY-9 The eastern termination of the Pine Mountain belt, central
Georgia. ROBERT J. HOOPER, Dept. of Geology, Univ. of South Florida, Tampa,
33620. The eastern termination of the Pine Mountain belt (PMB) in central
Georgia is a folded pre-thermal peak thrust fault, the Box Ankle fault (BAF),
carrying Piedmont rocks (hanging wall) over PMB basement. The BAF is trun-
cated to the south by a younger pre-thermal peak thrust, the Goat Rock fault
(GRF), that separates PMB from the Uchee belt. The GRF dies out in central
Georgia into a series of ductile shears. To the north the BAF truncates
against a through-going post-thermal peak fault, the Towaliga fault (TF),
which separates the PMB and Piedmont from the Inner Piedmont (IP). The PMB is
thus bounded at its eastern termination by three faults, all of different ages,
and therefore can no longer be regarded as a simple window in the Piedmont
allochthon. Models that require the IP be carried over the top of the PMB on
the GRF and TF are no longer tenable as the GRF and TF are of demonstrably
different ages.

FRIDAY 3:45 pm LEWIS 317
BUSINESS MEETING: Geological and Hydrological Sciences
M.L. IVEY, St. Petersburg Junior College, presiding

FRIDAY 6:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
SOCIAL, BANQUET AND PLENARY SESSION II
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

SATURDAY 10:00 am SELBY AUDITORIUM
SYMPOSIUM: Whose Responsibility is the Science Education of Florida Students?
B.F. BROWN, Governor's Commission on Secondary Schools, presiding

SATURDAY 12:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
COUNCIL MEETING: Florida Academy of Sciences
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

SATURDAY 1:00 pm CRAWFORD LOBBY
GREEN SWAMP FIELD TRIP: Mobilization
P.M. DOORIS, Southwest Florida Water Management District, leading

The Green Swamp is a unique hydrological feature covering 850 square miles in
central Florida, near Saint Leo College. The swamp is the headwater of the
Peace, Oklawaha, Withlacoochee and Hillsborough Rivers, and is thought to be
a major groundwater recharge area for the Floridan Aquifer. The Green Swamp
was designated an area of critical state concern by the Florida Legislature
in 1974.

Florida Scientist -50- Volume 48

MEDICAL SCIENCES

FRIDAY 8:30 am LEWIS 318
SESSION A: Medical Sciences ; ee
A.C. VICKERY, University of South Florida, presiding

8:30 am MED-1 Epidemiology of Leprosy in Wild Armadillos. ELEANOR E. STORRS AND
H.P. BURCHSTELD, Med. Res. Inst., FIT, Melbourne 32901 and Res. Assoc., Indialantic
32903. It is not yet known if leprosy in wild armadillos in the U.S. is a threat to
public health. Leprosy must be transmitted from armadillo to armadillo in the wild
to account for the widespread infection found in Louisiana and Texas. Of 1286 ani-
mals captured between the Mexican border and the Mississippi River, 6.2% harbored
leprosy infections. By contrast, of 1573 armadillos captured east of the Missis-
Sippi, only one was positive. No infected animals, out of 1356 examined, have been
found in Florida, presumably because these are descendants of a few disease-free
animais that were imported into the State and then escaped 50 to 60 years ago.
About 90% of Florida animals develop disease after inoculation. So, resistance is
not a factor. However, armadillos from Louisiana are moving across the Gulf states
into northwest Florida and could carry M. leprae with them. Thus animals from cen-
tral anc south peninsular Florida are the only proven source of leprosy-free ani-
mals that are also known to be susceptible to the disease.

8:45 am MED-2 Development of Leprosy in Litters Born to Armadillos Inoculated
with Mycobacterium Leprae. SHARON WILLIAMS, ARVIND DHOPLE, ANIRUDE MOTIE, AND
CAMILLE COOK. Florida Institute of Technology, Medical Research Institute, 3325

W. New Haven Ave., Melbourne 32901. A small group of armadillos, born to females
previously inoculated with Mycobacterium leprae and housed in the same rooms with
leprosy-infected armadillos, are being monitored for development of leprosy. The
methods used to assess infection are examination of Ziehl-Nelson stained smears of
ear scrapings, nasal mucosa, and buffy coats; as well as measurement of serum anti-
body titers by ELISA technique. No evidence of acid-fast bacilli has been detected

on any of the stained smears, but one of the armadillos has developed a positive
antibody titer.

9:00 am MED-3 Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Glychohydrolase Activity in
Normal and Leprous Armadillos. KARA J. GREEN, ARVIND M. DHOPLE, SHARON L. WIL-
LIAMS, JOSEPH A. ZEIGLER, CAMILLE A. COOK, AND ELEANOR E. STORRS. Medical Research
Institute, Florida Institute of Technology, 3325 W. New Haven Ave., Melbourne
32901. Serum levels of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide glychohydrolase were
measured in normal and leprous armadillos. The levels were significantly higher

in the infected animals compared to the normal ones. This increase in enzyme
levels was accompanied by it's increase in both the particulate and soluble frac-
tions of livers and spleens of these armadillos. The use of this assay to monitor

the progression of leprosy in the armadillo is suggested. Results will be dis-
cussed in detail.

9:15 am MED-4 Comparison of a Mycobacteria Card Test and a Specitic Enzyme-
linked Immunoassay for Detection of Antibodies to M. leprae. ANIRUDE MOTIE AND
E.E. STORRS. Med. Res. Inst., FIT, Melbourne 32901. A mycobacteria card test
(MCAT) developed in our laboratory and microtiter enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA)
used for the detection of anti-phenolic glycolipid I antibodies of M. leprae were
compared. Of 126 armadillos infected for y 10 months, 123 (97.6%) and 124 (98.4%)
were positive by the MCAT and ELISA, respectively. One M. leprae inoculated arma-
dillo that was MCAT positive and ELISA negative showed a cultivable mycobacteria
spp at necropsy. Of 120 uninoculated armadillos used as controls all were negative
by the ELISA and 1 (<1%) by the MCAT. Sera from 15 leprosy patients were tested.
The ELISA showed all 15 (100%) positive while the MCAT detected 14 (93.3%) posi-
tive. All 130 sera from normal human patients tested were negative by both tests.
The MCAT may be useful as a rapid screening test for detection of antibodies to the
mycobacteria spp in both man and animals.

1985 Meeting Alo Program Issue

9:30 am MED-5 Immunomodulation by Mycobacterium lepraemurium-Infected Murine
Macrophages. L. Weakland*, K. Saririan, and D.A. Nickerson. University of South
Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. Peritoneal macrophages from Balb/c mice were parasitized
in vitro with M. lepraemurium and supernatants collected from infected macrophages
after different time intervals. Supernatants harvested from macrophages 48 hrs
after in vitro infection were found to significantly (p < 0.001) depress the anti-
body-forming abilities of normal Balb/c splenocytes to sheep red blood cells.
Supernatants from macrophages cultures alone or in the presence of latex beads did
not alter in vitro humoral responses. Depression of in vitro antibody formation
was also noted with supernatants obtained from macrophages incubated with heat-kill-
ed (60°C, 60 min) M. lepraemurium for 48 hrs. The immunosuppressive capacity of
supernatants obtained from C57B1/6 macrophages following in vitro parasitization
with M. lepraemurium has also been examined. Production of immunosuppressor fac-
tors by C57B1/6 macrophages was only noted 7 days following infection with live

M. lepraemurium.

9:45 am MED-6 ‘Skin Fibroblasts (SF) from Persons with Neurofibromatosis (NF) are
Abnormally Sensitive to Transformation by Kirsten Murine Sarcoma Virus (KiMSV).
J.W.FRANKEL, VA Medical Center, Bay Pines, FL 33504. In vitro sensitivity of human
SF to transformation by oncogenic viruses has been demonstrated in some genetic syn-
dromes associated with cancer predisposition. NF is an autosomal dominant trait with
developmental and neoplastic features. Although NF occurs with high incidence, gene
penetrance in NF kindreds is variable, and the clinical symptoms are phenotypically
complex; a high fraction of new NF mutations occurs. We studied sensitivity of SF
from normal appearing skin and café-au-lait lesions in NF kindreds to transformation
by KiMSV. SF from symptomatic gene-carriers were abnormally sensitive to transforma-
tion by KiMSV in the focus assay and in agar. Further, the occurrence of virus-
induced foci in sensitive SF is greatly enhanced by 500ng/ml of hydrocortisone in
culture media. These results and clinical data are used for NF genotype identity in
established NF kindreds and to evaluate genetic determinants and prophylactic mea-
sures for this cancer form, (Supported by Grants CA34882 & CA31597, Nati. Cancer Inst.).

10:00 am MED-7 The Isolation of Selected Vibrios From Two Florida Estuaries
M.D. Rodrick & G.E. Rodrick. Tampa Preparatory School, Tampa, FL and the Universi-
ty of South Florida, College of Public Health, Tampa, FL? Many Florida estuaries
currently serve as cultivation grounds for edible shellfish. Filter feeding —
marine shellfish are well known for their ability to concentrate pathogenic micro-
organisms from the surrounding seawater. Therfore, both seawater and edible shell-
fish are of public heelth importance. Current sanitation quidelines utilize the
fecal coliform test for preventing the consumption of contaminated shellfish. Ecw-
ever, many potentially pathogenic Vibrios seem to be indigenous to Florida estu- —
aries and do not relate well to the fecal coliform standard. For these reasons, it
was of interest to identify and enumerate both fecal coliforms and selectec Vitrics
ir ceeweter, sedimerts. cvsters, clams and crabs taken from Tarpon Springs anc Ft.
Myers, Ficrice. Hick teve's of Vibrio perahcemolyticus were detected in crabs.
However, low levels of non-ol V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus, V. alginolyticus

and fecal coliforms were detected in seawater, sediments, oysters and clams.

10:15 am BREAK

10:30 am MED-8 Isolation and Characterization of Cross-reactive Allergenic
Components in Callistemon and Melaleuca Pollen by Immunochemical Methods. STANALAND,
BRETT E., ROSEANN S. WHITE, ROBERT N. GENNARO, SOL D. KLOTZ AND MICHAEL J. SWEENEY,
Dept. of Biological Sciences and the College of Health, Univ. of Central Florida,
Orlando. 32816-0990. Aqueous extracts of Bottlebrush (Callistemon citrinis) and
Punktree (Melaleuca uinguinervia) pollen were analyzed by crossed-
immunoelectrophoresis (CIE) employing hyperimmune rabbit antisera to the respective
pollens. CIE analysis detected 12 and 11 antigenic components in Melaleuca and
Callistemon respectively. Results of RAST inhibition analysis using allergic patient

Florida Scientist ye Volume 48

sera demonstrated cross-reactivity between the actual allergenic components of
Melaleuca and Callistemon. Tandem-CIE analysis of Callistemon and Melaleuca antigens
employing Melaleuca and Callistemon antisera respectively in the tandem gel
demonstrated most antigenic components to be cross-reactive. High molecular weight
fractions of these pollen extracts separated by Sephadex G-100 column chromatography
and analyzed by protein blotting contained allergenic components.

10:45 am MED-9 Isolation and Immunochemical Characterization of Callistemon
citrinis, Melaleuca quinquinervia and Paspalum notatum Water Soluble Proteins Using
Affinity Chromatography. VENTURA, MARIA F., ALBERT E. FLISS, ROSEANN S. WHITE,

ROBERT N. GENNARO, SOL D. KLOTZ AND MICHAEL J. SWEENEY, Department of Biological
Sciences and the College of Health, University of Central Florida, Orlando, 32816-
0990. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Pollens of Bottlebrush (Callistemon citrinis,) Punk
Tree (Melaleuca quinquinervia) and Bahia (Paspalum notatum) were collected,
extracted with water, and the phenolics removed with XAD-40 resin. The eluted
proteins were entrapped in a polyacrylamide matrix for affinity chromatography of
hyper immune rabbit antisera to the respective pollens. The bound antibodies were
eluted using 0.1 M glycine buffer, pH 2.3 and these protein peaks were evaluated for
precipitating antibodies by Ouchterlony analysis. The results obtained with these
analyses indicated both crossreactive as well as unique antigenic components.
Current studies are directed towards the determination of which antigenic components
are allergenic.

11:00 am MED-10 Df (3R)OK1: a new deletion for the bithorax complex (BX-C).
THOMAS, P. S., University of Central Florida, Orlando 32816. The bithorax gene
complex in D. melanogaster specifies information essential for development of
thoracic and abdominal segments. The Df(3R)OK1 was induced by ethylmethane
sulfonate (EMS). Cytological analysis of Df(3R)OK1 larval salivary gland
chromosomes showed that at least 89E1 through 89E4 were deleted from the right arm
of the third chromosome. Genetic analysis confirmed that the most proximal
(anteriobithorax) through the most distal (infra abdominal-8) genes in the complex
were deleted. In the homozygous condition the Df(3R)OK1 was lethal late in the
embryonic stage. Embryos showed Keilin's organs, ventral pits and thin setal bands
characteristic of mesothorax (To) from T3 to A8. Additionally, chitinous plate,
which represents a thoracic structure was formed in A8. Further analysis is
presently in progress both on genetic and molecular levels to clarify the exact
extent of this deficiency. (Supported by NSF research grant PCM-8403124)

11:15 am MED-11 Translocation (2;3)Iab-7P: a spontaneous mutation in the bithorax
gene complex (BX-C) of Drosophila melanogaster. PACKERT, G. AND D. T. KUHN,
University of Central Florida, Orlando 32816. 1(2;3)Iab-7P arose spontaneously in
a v tuh-lh/Y; ru E (tuh-1) ca stock culture. The mutation produced a 7th abdominal
tergite in males. In females abdominal segment seven was transformed into six
demonstrated by an increase in size, number of bristles and appearance of trichomes
on tergite seven and sternite seven. In addition the shape and size of sternite
seven was typical of sternite six. Cytological analysis of the salivary chromosomes
revealed a rearrangement with bands 89E1,2 through 89E£10,11 translocated, probably,
from the right arm of the third chromosome to the right arm of the second
chromosome. These BX-C genes were localized to the distal right arm of the second
Chromosome by in situ hybridization. (Supported by NSF research grant PCM-8403124)

11:30 am MED-12 Electrophoretic Screening of Two Laboratory Strains of Brugia.
MICHAEL A. GRAVEN AND ANN C. VICKERY, USF College of Public Health, MHC 6-238,13301
N 30th St., Tampa 33612. Filarial nematode parasites are of major public health
significance, world wide. To define the epidemiology of filarial transmission,
filarial systematics must be understood. Unfortunately, characters used tradition-
ally to identify filarial species are of unknown genetic basis. We report the re-
sults of preliminary electrophoretic screenings of two laboratory stocks nominally
representing Brugia malayi and B. pahangi, the former human-infecting. Using starch
gel electrophoresis and histochemical staining techniques, we examined 18 presump-

1985 Meeting -53- Program Issue

tive gene loci, all phenotypically represented by soluble enzymes. Both stocks
exhibited relatively low within-strain variability. There were several stage-
specific within-strain differences in enzyme mobility and overall activity, partic-
ularly at loci encoding non-specific hydrolytic enzymes. Between-strain differen-
ces were also observed. The recent influx of immigrants infected with filaria into
vector-populated parts of Florida highlights the need for these studies.

FRIDAY 11:45 am LEWIS 318
BUSINESS MEETING: Medical Sciences Section
A.C. VICKERY, University of South Florida, presiding

FRIDAY 1:15 pm SELBY AUDITORIUM
PLENARY SESSION I: Florida Academy of Sciences
J.N. LAYNE, Archbold Biological Station, presiding

FRIDAY 6:30 pm MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
SOCIAL, BANQUET AND PLENARY SESSION II
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

SATURDAY 10:00 am SELBY AUDITORIUM
SYMPOSIUM: Whose Responsibility is the Science Education of Florida Students?

B.F. BROWN, Governor's Commission on Secondary Schools, presiding

PHYSICAL AND SPACE SCIENCES

FRIDAY 3:00 pm LEWIS 318
SESSION A: Physical and Space Sciences
J.A. MYERS, University of Central Florida, presiding

3:00 pm PSS-1 On the Thermal Compatibility of Optical Elements and Mounting
Structures. JAMES STEVE BROWDER, Jacksonville University, Jacksonville, FL
32211, AND STANLEY S. BALLARD, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. We
compare the thermal expansion of numerous optical materials with that of the low-
expansion alloy NILO-42 and other metals, in the temperature range 70-525 K.
Using data from our recent survey’ of the thermal properties of 100 optical
materials, we find many expansion near-matches with NILO-42 or other metals. This
suggests the use of selected metals in mechanical supports for optical elements,
in a co-expanding design. These comparisons should be of importance in the design
of optical systems for use in quasi-static low-temperature environments such as
outer space. J. S. Browder and S. S. Ballard, J. Opt. Soc. Am. 73, 1949A (1983).

Florida Scientist — 5 A= Volume 48

3:15 pm PSS-2 A Computer Model for A.C. Conductivity in an Organic Semi-
conductivity Polymer. N. PENNY and J. MEYERS, Dept. of Physics, University
of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816. A computer simulation of a classical
percolation model was written. It involved a 30 x 30 x 30 matrix array and
counted nearest neighbors and next nearest neighbors. Our efforts predict
the behavior of dielectric constant and tau delta as functions of temperature
and frequency will be detailed.

3:30 pm PSS-3 Mossbauer Linewidth with a Random Vibrating Absorber. L. CHOW,
Dept. of Physics, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816. In Mossbauer
experiments, the transmitted gamma ray count rate was measured as a function of
the relative velocity between the source and the absorber. Most experiments were
carried out with the absorber stationary in the laboratory frame and the source
attached to a transducer with the desired motion. Here we have studied the effect
of small vibrations of the absorber on the resonance profile. We carried out a
computer simulation of this effect. The results indicated that the random vibra-
tions will céuse: 1) a broadening of the resonance line; 2) the resonance line
shape to deviate from the Lorentz lineshape; 3) no shift of the line position.

An actual experiment with an Iron-57 single line source and a stainless steel
absorber was carried out with the absorber glued to a thin lead sheet, as the
source of random vibrations. The result of this experiment agreed with our theo-
retical calculations.

3:45 pm PSS-4 Interference Effects for Reflection of Spin Waves from Domain
Walls. J.D. PATTERSON and KWANG OK PARK, Dept. of Physics and Space Sciences,
Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. We derive an expression
for the transmission coefficient T for spin waves incident on Bloch Walls. We
show results for T versus frequency for a 180 degree wall and T versus degree
of wall for fixed typical microwave frequency. Multiple occurrences of perfect
transmission clearly show the presence of spin wave interference phenomena. We
present these results for values of parameters appropriate for SmCo_ and for
other magnetic materials. Some of the results can be understood on the basis
of simple physical arguments. All calculations are based on the Heisenberg
model of a ferromagnet.

4:00 pm PSS-5 Photoelectric Observation of AR Lacertae. EUN-HEE LEE, Depart-
ment of Astronomy, University of Florida, Gainesville 32611. The RS CVn type
eclipsing binary AR Lac was observed on 33 nights in one observing season from
September 1982 to January 1983 at Yonsei University Observatory, Korea. A total
of 1160 observational points in yellow and blue covered almost all phases of the
binary orbit. The light curves show a quasi-sinusoidal distortion outside eclipses.
The depth of the primary minimum is investigated for light variations during the
total occultation; and it is compared with those of other published light curves.
The Fourier coefficients are obtained to analyze the outside-eclipse light varia-
tions. Our results support that the intrinsic variation arises chiefly from the
larger, cooler, KO component. This work is part of the Florida-Yonsei Cooperative
Program on close binary stars.

4:15 pm PSS-6 Asteroid Occulation Research at the Florida Insitute of Technology:
May 1983-May 1985. EDWIN F. STROTHER, Department of Physics & Space Sciences,
Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. As recently as 1979 the
prediction of the occulation of a star by an asteroid was a rare event. Since that
time, however, such predictions have increased considerably in their accuracy. During
the past two years Florida Institute of Technology observing teams have monitored all
five such regionally predicted occulation events both visually and photoelectrically.
While observation of the 1983 occulation of 14 Piscium by the asteroid 51 Nemausa
required that teams be sent out of state, the 1984 occulation of the 10th magnitude
star BD +8 471 by the asteroid 1 Ceres involved a joint FIT/MIT expedition to the
Caribbean. Details of these expeditions along with their results will be presented.
The general problem of determining the size and figure of an asteroid from a set of
precise occulation timing will also be discussed.

1985 Meeting -55- Program Issue

FRIDAY 4:45 pm LEWIS 318
BUSINESS MEETING: Physical and Space Sciences Section
J.A. MEYERS, University of Central Florida, presiding

RARE AND ENDANGERED BIOTA

FRIDAY 4:00 pm LEWIS 140

BUSINESS MEETING: Rare and Endangered Biota Section

(Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals)
D.B. WARD, University of Florida, presiding

SCIENCE TEACHING

SATURDAY 8:30 am MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
BRUNCH: Science Teaching and AAPT Florida Sections

SATURDAY 9:15 am MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
BUSINESS MEETING: Science Teaching Section
B. PREECE, Melbourne High School, presiding

SATURDAY 10:00 am SELBY AUDITORIUM

SYMPOSIUM: Science Teaching Section

"Whose Responsibility is the Science Education of Florida Students?"
B.F. BROWN, Governor's Commission on Secondary Schools, presiding

SATURDAY 1:00 pm CRAWFORD 8
SESSION A: Science Teaching
B. PREECE, Melbourne High School, presiding

1:00 pm TCH-1 Recommended Practical Weather Stations for Science Programs
(Jr. Highschool through College). DEWEY M. STOWERS AND HARRY SCHALEMAN,
Department of Geography, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue,
Tampa, 33620. During the past few decades, student awareness of the problem of
air pollution has increased significantly. The establishment of practical

weather stations will enhance the classroom discussion by providing student
involvement in the actual measuring of local weather phenomena. This presentation
will make studied recommendations regarding the establishment of appropriate
stations on a graded basis. The discussion will include simple plans for in-
school construction of selected instruments and weather cabinets where applicable.

Florida Scientist =O0z Volume 48

1:15 pm TCH-2 Concept Mapping: A Teaching Technique. DANE TRAVIS SPAULDING,
Science Education Department, Florida Institute of Technology, 150 West University
Boulevard, Melbourne, 32901. A recently developed teaching technique, based on
the learning of David P. Ausubel, has provided insights into the way students
learn. This presentation will teach the skill of "concept mapping" and discuss
several applications for science instructors.

1:30 pm TCH-3 Educational Applications of Concept Mapping. PHILLIP B. HORTON,
Science Education Department, Florida Institute of Technology, 150 West University
Boulevard, Melbourne, 32901. The concept mapping technique has proven to be an
effective tool for enhancing meaningful learning. Applications of this technique
for both individualized learning and group instruction and evaluation will be
described.

1:45 pm TCH-4 Who Selected the Florida State Standards of Excellence in
Science and Why? BARBARA S. SPECTOR, Ph. D., School of Education, Florida
International University, Bay Vista Campus, AC I - 371A, North Miami, 33181.
The process used, the people involved, the rationale for the items which were
included, and the relationship of the Florida State Standards of Excellence to
the Florida Minimum Standards and the State Course Frameworks in Science will
be discussed. Implications for teacher merit pay will be explored.

2:00 pm TCH-5 Trident, A Blueprint for Marine Science Education at Florida
Keys Community College. WILLIAM M. TRANTHAM, Florida Keys Community College,

Key West, 33040. This paper will describe a multifaceted marine pregram featuring
student involvement in at sea oceanographic operations aboard the RV Bellows,
Aquanaut Certification and environmental studies in the Marine Resources Undersea
Laboratory at John Pennekamp State Park and Marine Animal Husbandry at The Marine
Science and Conservation Center at Long Key, Florida.

2:15 pm TCH-6 Shipboard Experiences for Community College Students Majoring in
Biology. ELLEN C. COVER, Florida Keys Community College, Key West, 33040.

Tnis paper will explore the development and implementation of a course designed
for students to receive shipboard experiences early in their college career.

The program gives students 'hands on' experiences in physical, chemical and
biological sampling techniques at sea. The presentation will include color slides
of the equipment and facilities aboard the State Oceanographic Ship RV Bellows.
The cruise around the Key West area to the Dry Tortugas as well as different
sampling strategies will be discussed highlighting the educational benefits,
content and associated assignments involved.

SOCIAL SCIENCES

FRIDAY 11:30 pm LEWIS 317
BUSINESS MEETING: Social Sciences Section
W.D. TROPF, University of Central Florida, presiding

1985 Meeting L/S Program Issue

URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

FRIDAY 8:30 am LEWIS 316
SESSION A: Urban and Regional Planning
W.E. DALTRY, Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council, presiding

8:30 am URP-1 Planning for Wastewater Management in St. Petersburg, Florida.
ROLAND C. HOLMES, Dept. of Geography, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg,
Fl. 33701. This is a case study of the wastewater management program followed in
St. Petersburg, Florida. This report provides an assessment of the city's water
supply and wastewater systems. Here is reviewed the history of a major regional
zero-discharge, total wastewater recycling system. With this wastewater recycling
program in place St. Petersburg hopes that this new system will result in a de-
crease in the demand for new water supplies, a decrease in the cost of water for
many customers, the creation of a fresh water lens underground, and zero wastewater
discharge into open water bodies. The effect this water reuse program has had on
the above mentioned variables are assessed and lessons to be learned from the
accomplishments of this effort are discussed.

8:45 am URP-2 Siting of County and Regional Hazardous Waste Management
Facilities. T. C. VARNEY, P.G. AND A. W. HAYES, PH.D., P.G., Central Florida
Regional Planning Council, Bartow, FL 33830; Gurr and Associates, Inc., Lakeland,
FL 33803. Contained within Chapter 17-31, Florida Administrative Code (County and
Regional Hazardous Waste Management Programs) is the requirement for each county to
designate areas for hazardous waste storage. Additionally, Regional Planning
Councils must designate sites for the storage and possible treatment of hazardous
waste (Chapter 403.723,(2),(3),F.S. 1983). This information in conjunction with the
information gathered under the Small Quantity Generators Notification Program is to
become part of a statewide hazardous waste management program. In view of the
long-term importance and sensitivity of the siting issue, the CFRPC elected to
evaluate the five county area of Polk, Hardee, DeSoto, Highlands, and Okeechobee in
considerable detail. The technical approach and results of this study are discussed
in this presentation.

9:00 am URP-3 Braden River Watershed: Urbanization and comprehensive planning
to perpetuate its existing and emerging character. B.D. FORTUNE, Mote Marine Lab-
oratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. The Braden River, approximate-
ly 23 miles long, is a tributary of the Manatee River in Manatee County, and is
part of the Tampa Bay drainage basin. Due to the very rapid development of the
Braden River watershed for residential, commercial, and industrial uses, the Braden
River area is currently under scrutiny by the Tampa Bay Regional Planning Council,
the Tampa Bay Management Study Commission and Mote Marine Laboratory, which is
conducting an ongoing study of the tidal and freshwater portions of the river.

The river, which is impounded to form Ward Lake, provides the primary potable

water supply for the City of Bradenton. The area adjacent to and upstream from

the reservoir is the focus of major development pressures to accommodate the
expanding population of Manatee County. Major problems are related to protection
of surface potable water, stormwater, septic systems and sanitary sewers, and
provision for minimum flows of freshwater to the tidal segment of the river.

9:15 am URP-4 Planning and Implementation for Reservoir Protection in the

_ Tampa Bay Region. KATHERINE MARSHALL and MICHAEL MCKINLEY. Tampa Bay Regional
Planning Council, 9455 Koger Boulevard, St. Petersburg, FL 33702. Unrestrained
growth in reservoir watershed basins create water quality problems that ulti-
mately affect either the cost of water treatment or the health of the water
users. There are pollution control measures and protection plans that can be
instituted in order to protect the reservoirs. There are two levels of control
which may be instituted. Level I includes measures within the 100 year Flood-
plain and involves regulation of alternative processes. Level II includes
measures with the entire watershed and involves stormwater runoff regulation.

Florida Scientist =n Volume 48

9:30 am URP-5 Preparation and Implementation of a Comprehensive Management
Plan for Tampa Bay. DOUGLAS ROBISON. Tampa Bay Regional Planning Council,

9455 Koger Boulevard, St. Petersburg, FL 33702. Tampa Bay is surrounded by
rapidly growing urban areas, while also being a major water transportation

route. An understanding emerged that a comprehensive view of Tampa Bay must be
taken when undertaking studies or making management decisions. Several agencies
and organizations have been or currently are active in Plan preparation and
implementation. These include: the Tampa Bay Area Scientific Information Symposium
(BASIS), the Tampa Bay Regional Planning Council, the Tampa Bay Study Committee,
the Florida Legislature, the Florida Department of Environmental Peaujation, and
the Tampa Bay Study Commission and Management Steering Committee. The role of each
agency will be discussed, particularly its fermation. Further, the problems of
Tampa Bay and the program to mitigate these problems will be highlighted.

9:45 am URP-6 The Impact of the Proposed State Plan on Urban Planning.
WAYNE DALTRY, Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council, 2121 West First
Street, Ft. Myers, FL 33901. Florida's State Plan, if adopted, will directly
change the planning programs within Florida's urban areas. There will be changes
that are dramatic due to their magnitude and changes less dramatic due to their
subtle nature but no less for reading. The State Plan will ultimately lead to
the requirement that urban growth must be supported by appropriate levels of
investment in infrastructure, notably but not solely in transportation. Urban
areas will also be required to be more heterogeneous in regard to their uses,
particularly land uses supported by social programs. Finally, urban planning
will receive further support due to the expected exclusionary nature of natural
resource planning.

FRIDAY 10:00 am LEWIS 316
BUSINESS MEETING: Urban and Regional Planning Section ee
W.E. DALTRY, Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council, presiding

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PHYSICS TEACHERS
--Florida Section--

SATURDAY 8:30 am MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER
BRUNCH: Florida Section, American Association of Physics Teachers

SATURDAY 9:15 am MCDONALD STUDENT CENTER ;
BUSINESS MEETING: Florida Section, American Association of Physics Teachers
J.A. MYERS, University of Central Florida, presiding

SATURDAY 2:45 pm CRAWFORD 8 :
SESSION A: Florida Section, American Association of Physics Teachers
J.A. MYERS, University of Central Florida, presiding

2:45 pm APT-1 Essential Simple Basic Concepts Which the Textbooks Fail to Con-
vey. JAMES G. POTTER, Florida Institute of Technology. In working with students
from everywhere at all levels the author finds they have usually failed to acquire
convictions on a certain few pivotal concepts which their instructors presume are
evident. The textbooks generally present these concepts, but until they do so
much more effectively it behooves the instructors to give the concepts special
attention or the students never cease to flounder. Effective points of view on
these troublesome concepts are presented in this paper.

1985 Meeting E)= Program Issue

3:00 pm APT-2 Investigating the Refraction of Sound from Lightning Bolts.
ROBERT A. IACOVAZZI, JR., and JAY S. BOLEMON, Department of Physics, University of
Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816. A simple one-step algorithm was used with a
graphics computer to investigate the refraction of the sound from strokes of
lightning. This refraction is due to the variation in the speed of sound as a
function of altitude in the atmosphere. By following "rays" of sound in analogy
with following rays of light, we can find the limiting distance for which thunder
may be heard on the ground for any given lightning bolt. The algorithm we used
can also trace sound "rays" through the ocean or seismic waves in the earth. The
same algorithm can be used to trace light rays through lenses. This project was
completed in an undergradute physics course at UCF.

3:15 pm APT-3 Use of an Apple Computer to Help Grade Homework. SHERRY
MOMMENS, STEVEN SAVDRA, ALEXANDER K. DICKISON, Seminole Community College,
Sanford, FL 32771. With increasing enrollment it was becoming harder to
properly grade the weekly homework. Using a suggestion from Professor Hudson,
University of Houston, weekly homework quizzes were developed that could be
gracea on the Apple computer. For the past year students have been using the
quizzes we developed. In addition, they turn in two or three homework problems
a week which are graded on the procedures they use to solve the problems. Our
experiences will be described.

3:30 pm APT-4 Microcomputer Speech Synthesizers Revisited. ROBERT G. CARSON,
Physics Department, Rollins College, Winter Park, FL, 32789. As more applications
for computer-driven speech appear, more sophisticated speech chips are produced.
Costs are reasonable enough to permit experimenting with speech generation on
microcomputers. I have previously reported on the use of a second-generation
speech chip, the Votrax SC-01A?. In the past year our department has added another
type of second-generation speech chip (the Texas Instruments TMS5220) and a new
third-generation chip (the Silicon Systems Inc. SS1263) which work on our Apple II
microcomputer systems. All of these chips have allowed speech to be incorporated
into student projects in the course I teach on microelectronics and microcomputers.
Here we will present a brief review of speech synthesis techniques, discuss the
advantages (and disadvantages) of each of the three chips, and give a live demon-
stration of the varieties of speech afforded by each chip.

1Florida Scientist, Vol 45, Supplement 1, 1982, p. 10

3:45 pm BREAK

4:00 pm APT-5 Designing Physics Modules for Microcomputers. ROBERT G. CARSON,
Physics Department, Rollins College, Winter Park, FL 32789. With the ubiquity of
microcomputers and their increased graphics capability (such as the Apple
Macintosh), we are challenged to use these tools to help our students understand
and "see" those physics concepts that are difficult to articulate in a lecture or
portray in a textbook. The design of physics modules on microcomputers introduces
a number of questions. How do we capture the user's interest? How passive or
interactive should a module be? What limits must we place on a student's input?
Should there be a mixture of static and animated screens? How much visual impact
should the screens have in terms of aesthetics, color, detail, and the like? We
offer some answers to these questions and provide some examples including the

demonstration of a module on atomic absorption and emission that runs on an Apple
II microcomputer.

4:15 pm APT-6 Video-Enhanced Physics Instruction. WILLIAM McCORD and

LOWELL SEACAT, Valencia Community College, Orlando, FL 32802. This paper
presents a brief outline of our recent experience with use of camera, video-
recorder, computer retrieval system, and TV projector. Unplanned and unexpected
utilizations of the system will be discussed.

Florida Scientist -60- Volume 48

4:30 pm APT-7 Some Comments on Florida's Statewide Course Numberina System
(SCNS). STANLEY S. BALLARD, University of Florida, Dept. of Physics, Gainesville,
FL 32611. This system of course numbering has been in use for over ten years,
by the 9 public universities and 28 community colleges of the State. A primarv
objective is to facilitate assignment of course credit for students transferring
among institutions. Adult postsecondary vocational courses are also included.
This novel course-numbering system will be described briefly. The author's
evaluation of its value and effectiveness will be given, based on his nine

years of experience on the Physics Committee of SCNS.

The Recent Toronto Meeting of AAPT. ALEXANDER K. DICKISON,

Highlights are presented on
The action taken during this
Board will be described.

4:45 pm APT-8
Seminole Community College, Sanford, FL 32771.
the joint AAPT-APS Meeting in Toronto, Canada.
meeting by the National Council and Executive

1984 OUTSTANDING STUDENT PAPERS

DAVID M. BREWER, Florida State University,
"A Defense of the Inductive Approach in Archaeological Theory Building".

VAL J. EYLANDS, University of Florida,
"Growth and Yield Variables of Temperature and Tropical No-Tillage Planted
Corn Cultivars in Florida”
(with R.N. Gallaher).
MICHAEL S. FITZNER, University of Florida,
"Potential for Increasing the Resistance of Cowpeas to Oviposition

by the Cowpea Weevil"

(with D.W. Hagstrum and D.A. Knauft).

@

GALE F. LORENS, University of Florida,
"Developmental Differences Among Three Pioneer Corn Hybrids
Subjected to Drought Stress"

(with J.M. Bennett).

e
RICHARD MALATESTA, University of Tampa,

"Retention of Learning through Metamorphosis in the Holometabolous
Insect, Tenebrio obscurus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae)"

(with F. Punza).
®@

EVANNE SHANLEY, University of South Florida,
"Photoadaptation of the Red Tide Dinoflagellate Ptychodiscus brevis".

1985 Meeting -61- Program Issue

CHARTER AND BYLAWS
Florida Academy of Sciences, Incorporated

In June 1983 President Frank B. Wood reactivated the Charter and Bylaws
Committee, a standing committee of the Academy, appointed the undersigned persons
to the Committee, and charged it with examination of the Corporation Charter and
Bylaws and presentation to the Academy Council of any recommended changes.

The Charter and Bylaws were last examined with thorough care in 1974, and the
changes resulting from that examination were approved by vote of the members 22
March 1974 (see FLORIDA SCIENTIST 37(3):179-184. 1974). Further changes of less
consequence, mostly adjustments in dues, were approved by the members 19 March
1976.

The Committee solicited suggestions from the Council and general membership
and examined each section and line of the present Charter and Bylaws to adapt
these documents to present conditions or to increase clarity. Those proposals
supported by a majority of the Committee were then circulated to all members of
the Council; on 28 January 1984 the Council approved twenty changes for
recommendation to the membership. The recommended changes were distributed by
mail to each member of the Corporation in early February 1984 and were approved by
unanimous vote of the members at the Annual Business Meeting on 30 March 1984.
These changes have been incorporated into the revised Charter and Bylaws
accompanying this report.

The revised Charter has been filed with the Secretary of State, as is
required under Florida law for all registered non-profit corporations.

Although the number of changes made in the Charter and in the Bylaws may
appear large (though only a portion of the fifty-one proposals considered by the
Committee or the Council), it is the belief of the Committee that they do not make
substantial changes in the structure or operation of the Academy and indeed
reflect the sound design incorporated by our predecessors.

Members of the Committee: James N. Layne, Archbold Biological Station;
Leslie S. Lieberman, University of Florida; Pangratios Papacosta, Stetson
University; Richard L. Turner, Florida Institute of Technology; Chairman Daniel B.
Ward, University of Florida.

CHe CHARTER GSO

FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, INC.
(Adopted at the 48th Annual Meeting, 30 March 1984.)

ARTICLE I - Name. The name of this Corporation shall be FLORIDA ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES, INC.

ARTICLE II - Purposes. The purposes of the Corporation shall be to promote
scientific research, to stimulate interest in the sciences, to encourage the
diffusion of scientific knowledge, to sponsor good scientific teaching, to foster
public and governmental understanding and appreciation of the sciences and the
industries that apply them, to assist in the formulation of long-range plans
together with a time sequence of priorities for the disposition of both natural
and technical resources, to promote ethical application of the sciences to the
service of humanity, to bring suitable recognition for scientific achievement, to
arrange meetings for the presentation and exchange of scientific findings and to
publish a journal together with such other scientific works as may further the
purposes of the Corporation.

ARTICLE III - Membership. Any person or organization interested in the
purposes of the Corporation shall be eligible for membership and shall be admitted

Florida Scientist -62- Volume 48

to membership upon written application to the Membership Committee and election by
the Council or Executive Committee.

ARTICLE IV - Term. This Corporation shall have perpetual existence unless
dissolved pursuant to the provisions of F. S. 617.05.

ARTICLE V - Officers. The affairs of the Corporation are to be managed by a
President, a President-Elect, a Secretary, and a Treasurer.

ARTICLE VI - Council. The Council shall exercise general supervision over
all the affairs of the Corporation and shall consist of the elected officers, the
two immediate Past Presidents, the Chairmen of the Standing Committees, The Editor
of Publications, the Section Chairmen, the Chairmen-Elect of the Sections, the
Representative of the Academy to the AAAS, the State Director of the Junior
Academy, the State Director-Elect of the Junior Academy, the State Coordinator of
the Junior Academy, the Director of the Visiting Scientists Program, the State
Science Talent Search Coordinator, and four (4) Councilors-at-Large, two (2)
elected by the membership and two (2) appointed by the Council.

ARTICLE VII - Classes of Membership. Membership in the Corporation shall be
divided into classes of members, which shall be Patron Members, Life Members,
Sustaining Members, Regular Members, Junior Members, Student Members,
Institutional Members, Corporate Members, Honorary Members, and Emeritus
Members. Each member, regardless of class, shall be entitled to one (1) vote and
in case of Institutional Corporate members, such vote shall be cast by the
representative designated by such Institutional or Corporate Member; provided,
however, that voting rights of Junior Members shall be restricted as provided in
the BYLAWS.

ARTICLE VIII - Executive Committee. An Executive Committee, consisting of
the President, President-Elect, Secretary, Treasurer, and two (2) other Council
members designated by the Council shall handle the business of the Corporation in
the intervals between Council meetings.

ARTICLE IX - Meetings. There shall be at least one (1) meeting of the
Academy and one (1) business meeting of the Corporate annually. The time and
place of the meetings shall be determined by the Council, and notice in writing
thereof shall be given to each member by the Secretary or other person designated
by the Council, not less than thirty (30) days prior to the time of each meeting.

ARTICLE X - Emolument. No part of the net earnings of the Corporation shall
enure to the benefit of any officer, member of the Council, private member or
individual within the meaning of the United States Internal Revenue Code Section
501; provided, however, any member officer or member of the Council may be paid
compensation in a reasonable amount for services rendered the Corporation upon
such terms and conditions as may be approved by the Council. In the event of
dissolution or final liquidation of the Corporation, the net assets belonging to
the Corporation shall be assigned to and become the property of the University of
Florida. At the time of dissolution or liquidation, no part of the assets of the
Corporation shall enure to the benefit of any officer, member of the Council,
private member or individual within the meaning of the United States Internal
Revenue Code Section 501; provided that if the Corporation reincorporates, all
assets and liabilities are to be transferred to the new Corporation.

ARTICLE XI - Amendments.

Section 1 - Amendments to the CHARTER may be proposed by the Council and
shall be adopted by a three-fourths (3/4) vote of the members present and voting
at any Annual Business Meeting of the Corporation, provided notice of the proposed
amendments shall have been given to all members of the Corporation at least thirty

(30) days prior to such meeting.

1985 Meeting =63— Program Issue

Section 2 - The BYLAWS may be adopted, altered, amended or rescinded at any
Annual Business Meeting of the Corporation by a two-thirds (2/3) majority of the
members present, provided that notice of such change shall have been given to all
members of the Corporation at least thirty (30) days prior to the meeting.

BYLAWS

FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, INC.
(Adopted at the 48th Annual Meeting, 30 March 1984.)

ARTICLE I - Membership.

Section 1 - Eligibility, Admission and Classes. Eligibility and admission to
membership and class thereof shall be as provided in the CHARTER.

Section 2 - Definition of Classes.

a. Members who contribute, as individuals, $1,000.00 or more to the
Corporation shall be designated Patron Members.

b. Members who are individuals and have contributed to the Corporation
$300.00 during any calendar year shall be designated Life Members.

c. Members which are industrial or commercial organizations and which pay
annual dues of $100.00 or more, as specified by the Council, shall be designated
Corporate Members.

d. Members which are institutions and which make annual contributions of
$100.00 or more, as specified by the Council, shall be designated Institutional
Members.

& Members who pay annual dues of $25.00 or more shall be designated
Sustaining Members.

f. Members who pay annual dues of $15.00 or more shall be designated Regular

Members.

g. Members who are regularly enrolled students in accredited colleges and
universities and who pay annual dues of $10.00 shall be designated Student
Members.

h. Members who are secondary school students of grades seven to twelve
inclusive shall be designated Junior Members. These members shall pay annual dues
of not more than $5.00, all of which sum shall be credited to the Junior Academy.

i. Regular Members who have been in good standing for ten (10) years and who
are active at time of retirement shall be designated Emeritus Members. They shall
pay one-half the current annual dues.

j. Honorary Members may be elected by the Council.

Section 3 - Limitation Upon Certain Members. Junior Members may attend the
sessions of the members of the Corporation and may vote and hold office in the
Junior Academy, but shall not vote or hold office in the Corporation.

Section 4 - Dues. Dues shall be the amounts set forth in Section 2 hereof
and shall be payable for each calendar year; provided, however, Patron Members
shall continue as such after contributing $1,000.00 without regard to calendar

years, and Life Members shall continue as such after contributing $300.00.

Section 5 - Termination of Membership. Any member may be dropped for cause

by action of the Council. Members whose dues become one year in arrears shall be

Florida Scientist -64- Volume 48

dropped from membership and notice thereof shall be sent to each such member by
the Treasurer.

ARTICLE II - Academies and Sections.
Section 1 - The Corporation shall be divided into Sections and Academies.

Section 2 - The Sections of the Corporation shall be open to all members and
shall consist of the following Sections: Anthropological Sciences, Agricultural
Sciences, Biological Sciences, Computer Sciences and Mathematics, Engineering,
Environmental Chemistry, Geology and Hydrology, Medical Sciences, Physical,
Atmospheric, Oceanographic, and Space Sciences, Science Teaching, Social Sciences,
Urban and Regional Planning, and such other Sections as the Council may authorize,

subject to the approval of the members.

Section 3 - The Academies of the Corporation shall be the Senior Academy, the
Junior Academy, and such other Academies as the Council may authorize, subject to
the approval of the members. The officers of the Senior Academy shall be the

officers of the Corporation.

Section 4 - Each Academy and each Section of the Corporation may adopt a

Constitution and Bylaws; provided, however, such Constitution and Bylaws shall not
be effective until approved by the Council.

ARTICLE III - Affiliations. The Corporation may enter into affiliation with
other organizations as may be arranged by the Council, subject to the approval of
the members.

ARTICLE IV - Committees.

Section 1 - The Standing Committees of the Academy are the Executive, Awards
and Grants-in-Aid, Charter and Bylaws, Finance, History and Archives, Honors,
Local Arrangements, Membership, Necrology, Nominating, Program, Science Talent
Search, and Visiting Scientists. Additional ad hoc committees may be appointed by

the President as necessary.

Section 2 - The Executive Committee is defined in Article VIII of the
CHARTER. The Nominating Committee shall be elected by the Council. The Program
and Membership committees are defined herein. All other committees are appointed

by the President.

Section 3 - The Finance Committee shall engage the services of a Certified

Public Accountant, or a recognized Public Accountant, to examine the books of the
Corporation for each calendar year.

Section 4 - The Program Committee is responsible for the preparation of
programs for the annual meetings. The Chairman of this Committee shall be
appointed by the Council for a term of three (3) years with the possibility of
succession. The Committee shall include, but not be restricted to, the President-
Elect, the Secretary, the Chairmen and Chairmen-Elect of the Academy Sections, and

the Chairman of the Committee on Local Arrangements.

Section 5 - The Membership Committee shall consist of, but not be limited to,

the President-Elect, who serves as Chairman, the Treasurer, and the Chairmen of
the Sections of the Academy.

Section 6 - The President of the Academy, after consultation with the

Administration of the Host Institution, shall appoint the Chairman of the
Committee on Local Arrangements.

Section 7 - All committees shall report in writing to the Corporation at the

Annual Business Meeting.

1985 Meeting -65- Program Issue

ARTICLE V - Council.

Section 1 - The Council shall exercise general supervision over all of the

affairs of the Corporation as constituted and provided in the CHARTER.

Section 2 - One Councilor-at-Large shall be elected by the members at each
Annual Business Meeting, and a second Councilor-at-Large shall be appointed by the
Council at the first meeting of the new Council, each councilor-at-large to serve

for a two-year term.

Section 3 - The Council shall have the following specific duties: (a)

handling all publication of the Corporation; (b) filling vacancies occurring in

any of the offices of the Corporation; (c) investing the funds of the Corporation;

(d) making recommendations to the members regarding general policy; (e) electing a
Nominating Committee of at least three (3) members; (f) advising appointments by
the President; (g) appointing Editors of Publications ‘and approving the Editorial
Board; (h) appointing the Chairman of the Program Committee for a period of three
(3) years; a prospective Chairman shall be asked to serve on the Program Committee
for one (1) year prior to taking office as Chairman; (i) arranging affiliations
with other organizations; (j) designating the time and place of meetings of
members; (k) approving the agenda for the Annual Meeting of the members; (1)
authorizing the formation of Sections and Academies, subject to the approval of
the members; (m) approving assistance to the officers of the Corporation; (n)
electing new members; (0) appointing the State Coordinator of the Junior Academy
who shall serve for a period of three (3) years and shall be eligible for
reappointment; (p) confirming the appointment of the State Director of the Junior
Academy; (q) appointing the Director of the Visiting Scientists Program and the
State Science Talent Search Director.

Section 4 - The Council shall require all reports to it, including Committee
Reports, to be in writing.

Section 5 - The Council may appoint, by majority vote, a member of the Senior
Academy to serve as its Executive Secretary. The responsibilities of the
Executive Secretary shall be to facilitate execution of the duties held by the
Council and such other services as shall aid in the advancement of the objectives
of the Corporation. The Executive Secretary shall serve for such time period as

the Council shall determine.

ARTICLE VI - Meetings of Members - Notice. The members of the Corporation
shall meet not less often than annually. The time and place of the meetings shall
be determined by the Couneil and notice thereof shall be given to each member by
the Secretary, or other person designated by the Council, not less than thirty
(30) days prior to the time of each meeting. Such notice shall be in writing and
shall be sent by regular United States mail, postage prepaid, to the last address
of each member as shown upon the record of memberships kept by the Corporation.
The Council shall call a special meeting of the members upon written request by 10
percent of the members, within ninety (90) days from the date of such request.

ARTICLE VII - Officers.
Section 1 - Duties.

a. The President shall discharge the usual duties of a presiding officer at
all meetings of the members of the Corporation, of the Council, and of the
Executive Committee. He shall be an ex-officio member of all Standing Committees,
except the Nominating Committee. He shall seek to obtain Corporate,
Institutional, and Patron members. He shall seek affiliations with other
organizations, subject to the direction of the Council. He may explore new
activities which he deems advantageous to the Academy.

Florida Scientist -66- Volume 48

b. The President-Elect shall assume the duties of the President in the
latter's absence, and at the end of one year in office shall automatically become
President. He shall serve as Chairman of the Membership Committee and as a member
of the Program Committee. He shall serve in such additional capacities as
assigned by the President.

c. The Secretary shall keep a record of all meetings of the Corporation, the
Council, and the Executive Committee. He shall report to the members at the
Annual Business Meeting and at such other times as the Council may direct. He
shall send out official notices of meetings and perform other necessary duties of
his office.

d. The Treasurer shall receive all monies of the Corporation and deposit
them in a bank designated by the Council. He shall pay out budgeted monies and
all bills approved by the Council or Executive Committee. All checks shall bear
his signature or that of the President. He shall keep an accurate account of all
receipts and disbursements for each calendar year and shall post a bond for the
faithful performance of his duties upon such terms and in such amount as the
Council may direct, paying the cost thereof from the funds of the Corporation.
The fiscal year for his report shall be the calendar year.

Ge Each Section Chairman shall solicit papers in his Section, arrange
sessions of papers for his Section at the Annual Meeting in consultation with the
Program Chairman, preside or appoint others to preside at paper sessions, appoint
a Nominating Committee to nominate a new Section Chairman-Elect, and designate the
time and place for an Annual Business Meeting of the Section, at which meeting the
Chairman-Elect will be elected. The Chairman and the Chairman-Elect of each
Section of the Academy, as members of the Program Committee, shall aid and abet
the work of that committee.

f. Each Section Chairman-Elect shall assist the Section Chairman and act in
his absence and shall serve on the Program Committee, and after serving one (1)
year shall succeed to the office of Chairman of the Section.

Section 2 - Election of Officers.

a. The President-Elect shall be elected annually; the Secretary and the
Treasurer shall be elected for three (3) years, their terms to overlap by at least
one year, with the possibility of succession.

ibys One or more candidates for each office other than President, Section
Chairman-Elect, and Section Chairman shall be nominated by the Nominating
Committee elected by the Council. Additional nominations may be made from the
floor during the Annual Business Meeting.

ICs Officers shall be elected by a majority of the votes cast by secret
ballot of the members present at each Annual Business Meeting and shall enter upon
their duties immediately following the adjournment of the Annual Meeting at which
they were elected.

d. Vacancies in any office other than President shall be filled by the
Council, or between meetings of the Council by the Executive Committee. The
Council or the Executive Committee shall promptly appoint a temporary Secretary or
a temporary Treasurer in the event that either of said officers become unavailable
for service for any reason.

ARTICLE VIII - Publications.

Section 1 - There shall be published an annual volume in four numbers, to be

called the Florida Scientist, and to be a continuation of the annual volume
previously known as the Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences.

1985 Meeting -67- Program Issue

Section 2 - The Florida Scientist shall be under the direct control of the
Council through an Editor appointed by the Council.

Section 3 - One copy of the Florida Scientist shall be supplied free to each

paid-up member in good standing except Junior Members.

Section 4 - An issue of the Florida Scientist, published soon after the
Annual Meeting of the Corporation, shall include a roster of the Officers, the
Council, the Committee Chairmen, and the members of the Corporation. Each issue
of the Florida Scientist shall include such other material as the Council may
direct.

Section 5 - There shall be distributed to the members of the Corporation, at
intervals, a Newsletter. It shall contain information about and of interest to
scientists in Florida.

ARTICLE IX - Business Office. The business office of the Corporation shall
be the business office of the Academy and the said office shall be the repository
for the files of the Corporation.

ARTICLE X - Amendments. These BYLAWS may be adopted, altered, amended or
rescinded at any Annual Business Meeting of the Corporation by a two-thirds (2/3)
majority of the members present, provided that notice of such change shall have
been given to all members of the Corporation at least thirty (30) days prior to
the meeting.

BAB

Florida Scientist -68- Volume 48

Excerpts From
THE NATURE OF SCIENTIFIC PAPERS
By
Raymond F. Bellamy
Florida State College for Women
Proceedings of the Florida Academy of Sciences
For 1936 Volume 1 (1937)

Scientific papers generally fall into two classes. It is relatively safe to
predict that the papers which will be presented throughout the coming years at
this newly organized Florida Academy of Sciences will conform to this familiar
pattern. The first class will consist of short specific papers on particular
points or bits of new information. These will be of little or no interest to
any one except those who present them and it often will be difficult to think of
any particular value which they might have.

The second class will be composed of papers which will be longer, more
argumentative in nature, and concerned with more or less fundamental theories.
When a scientist writes such a paper for publication or to be read before some
group, in all probability he will follow a prescribed formula. He will start
with an apology and then proceed to show up some topic in a new light or at
least from a new angle. In the course of the discussion, occasion will arise
for pointing out how other treatments of the subject have been scholarly and
valuable, of course, but after all fragmentary and partial and lacking the clear
insight which the paper under discussion shows. In fact, very much scientific
material consists in showing how very wrong the other fellow is.

The matter is made all the worse by the fact that those who are old at the game
apparently like this very situation. They spend many hours wrangling over some
such minute point as to whether tweedledum is more or less in evidence than
tweedledee. Give a teacher or a scientist an opportunity to speak or write and
he will at once proceed to show how somebody, or perhaps everybody, else is
entirely wrong about some hitherto commonly accepted point. However, if this
seemingly cocksure writer or speaker is asked to prophesy the future of his
theory he is apt to say with great composure that in a few years it will be dead
--entirely dead and buried. The attitude of the average scientist may be summed
up as follows: --"On this point everybody else is terribly wrong; here for the
first time is complete truth; in a few years it also will be wrong."

The controversies in chemistry and physics are ... evident, especially within
the sanctum of their own group. The wave of what might be called scientific
hysteria that has swept over this country since Einstein began making his
utterances show this. The work that is being done on the structure of the
molecule and the atom and the corresponding behavior of the electrons adds much
scientifically inflammable fuel to the hysterical fire. Ask such a scientist a
leading question today and he is sure to begin his answer by saying that all the
old fields of scientific belief and all the old axioms and fundamental
postulates are completely destroyed and the entire foundations of his science
are demolished. Yet all this has not affected the building of bridges and
cathedrals nor the construction of engines and rifles in the least. But it has
provided a splendid field for endless discussion and disputation.

In every field, the situation is the same. There are endless quarrels about the
different ways in which the same thing should be said. It is true, of course,
that we cannot explain away all the differences between the theories and beliefs
of the various writers. There are some differences which are quite real and
very great. But such genuine fundamental differences are not found as often as
is generally supposed.

Shall we say then that these quarrels, discussions, controversies, arguments,
and differences of opinion are destructive and worthless? Shall we conclude
that scientific investigation of such minute points is a waste of time? Not at

1985 Meeting -69- Program Issue

all. In spite of all that we have said, there is no question but that they are
exceedingly and immeasurably valuable. We must remember that the scientist is
not interested in talking about the established facts and principles. His
interest is in the field which is not yet established. We would get nowhere if
we spent our time discussing established facts. We may say that the scientist
who does not reach out and attack those questions about which there is still no
agreement is like Lot's wife --destined inevitably to turn to lifeless,
inanimate matter. In other words, he soon petrifies. There is no other way
beside that of painstaking study and endless experiment by which we may attain
progress. In no other way can the beginning student or the veteran secure
stimulation. To be sure it gives the superficial impression of a great boggy,
miry, unstable field. But in reality we are looking only on the foremost
outposts of the advancing line. The next generation will have passed onto new
positions and we shall have established a bit here and there, be they ever so
small.

We may compare this advance of science to the flow of a river. Standing on the
bank, we may notice twigs and leaves floating upstream, eddying round and round,
moving transversely, or being washed up on the shore and left. But always and
all the time the main current of the stream is flowing steadily in one
direction. Little driblets --little insignificant definitions or infinitesimal
points of discovery or interpretation constitute the scientist's stock in trade.
Over these pitiably little bits do we quarrel and contend and learnedly and
profoundly come to conclusions or disagree with those who do.

But tiny particles of dust eventually buried the cities of Chaldea and Babylon
and minute bits of silt at last built the delta of the Mississippi. Were it not
for our attention to these bits of theory and discovery and if they were not
beaten out in the heat of controversy, stagnation is the only thing which could
happen to us.

Small fear is there of that! Scientists just will be scientists. We may
confidently expect to continue to hear the same old fashioned type of scientific
papers. And thereby the world will advance.

Florida Scientist =10= Volume 48

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Abbreviations: Section codes are given on the inside front cover. Numbers
after section codes identify contributed papers. Single capital letters
identify sessions; BM, business meeting; CM, council meeting or member; LAC,
local arrangements committee; P, plenary session; PS, plenary speaker; SO,
section officer; SP, symposium participant. Lower case "p" signifies that an
individual is presiding over the indicated meeting or session.

ALBRECHT S L AGR-19 FURKE RJ CSM-BMp
ABBOT E FAS-SP BURKE RL AGR-21
ADISESH S FAS-LAC BURNS K BI0-51
ANGROSINO M V ANS-12 CARSON RG APT-4
ARAS C ANS-8 CALHOUN D S AGR-15
ASQUITH RL AGR-9 CAMPBELL D R AGR-6
BALLARD S S APT-7 CANONICO C BI0-26
BALLARD S S PSS-1 CARSON RG APT-5
BATTENSPERGER D D AGR-2 CASTRO MS ENV-2
BARILE D AOS-14 CHELLEMI D 0 AGR-11
BARILE R G ENG-7 CHEN C P BIO-41
BARILE R G ENG-Ap CHEN E AQS-13
BARILE R G ENG-BMp CHOW L PSS-3
BATTOE L BIO-71 COCHRANE B J BI0-45
BEASON LL AOS-6 COHEN M AGR-11
BECK B F GHY-4 COHEN M AGR-12
BECK B F GHY-5 COOK C A MED-2
BELL DE AGR-4 COOK C A MED-3
BENNETT J M AGR-Ap COLLINS C FAS-SP
BENNETT J M AGR-17 COOPER P FAS-LAC
BENNETT J M AGR-19 COOPER W J ENV-Ap
BERIAULT J ANS-20 COOPER W J ENV-BMp
BHATTACHERJEE A CSM-1 COSTARSHE AOS-16
BIGLER W BIO-69 COSTA SL AOS-17
BLUM P C BI0-48 COVER E C TCH-6
BOLEMAN 2 S APT-2 COWELL B C BI0-29
BOOTE K J AG®-19 CRISMAN T L BIO-Ip
BOWMAN T ENG-7 CULBRETH M A GHY-8
BRACK-HANES S D BIO-Ap CULTER J K BIO-54
BRACK-HANES S D BIO-2 CZYZEWSKI B ENG-3
BRACK-HANES S D BIO-3 CZYZEWSKI T ENG-3
BRACK-HANES S D BIO-7 DAILEY MT ANS-11
BRACK-HANES S D BIO-8 DALTRY WE URP-Ap
BRENNER S A BIO-10 DALTRY WE UR’ BMp
BROCKMEYER R E JR BIO-35 DALTRY W URr -6
BROWDER J S PSS-1 DAMRON BL AGR-7
BROWN B F FAS-SPp DAVIS FE ENV-5
BROWN C A BIO-47 DAWES C J BIO-27
BRUZEK D A BIO-56 DERRENBACKER J A UR. BI0-25
BRYNE S C AMS-17 DEVLIN 9 BIO-59
BUHR K L AGR-BMp DEVRIES J D AGR-19
BUHR K L AGR-8 DHOPLE A M MED-2
BULL K M AOS-4 DHOPLE A M MED-3
BULLOCK R C AGR-1 DICKISON A K APT-3
BUONI F B CSM-1 DICKISON A K APT-8
BURCHFIELD H P MED-1 DIERBERG F E ENV-1
BURESH R E AGR-190 DIERBERG F E ENV-2
BURKE RL CSM-Ap DOEHRING F AOS-14

1985 Meeting -71- Program Issue

DOHNER E T BI0-49 HENNINGSON A D BIO-46
DOORIS GM FAS-LAC HERNDON A BIO-6
DOORIS P FAS-LAC HEWES K E ENV-4
DOORIS P BI0-73 HOLMES RC URP-1
DORAN G H ANS-22 HONOUR W W AOS-6
DUNN RA AGR-2 HOOD P B BI0-31
DUQUESNAY D FAS-LAC HOOPER R J GHY-9
EASLEY M BI0-28 HORTON P B TCH-3
ERTEM MC CSM-2 HUEY G G CSM-12
ESSIG F B CSM-3 HUMPHREY S_L AGR-21
ESTABROOKS W A BI0-45 HUSSEY B H BI0-23
ESTEVEZ E D FAS-CH HUSTING E L ANS-7
ESTEVEZ E D BI0-24 HSTEH HL BIO-41
ESTUARINE RESEARCH GROUP AOS-21 IACOVAZZI R A APT-2
ESTUARINE RESEARCH GROUP AOS-22 IRICANIN N AOS-5
EWEN C ANS-9 ISCAN M Y ANS-1
FAUSETT L V CSM-4 ISCAN M Y ANS-4
FEDERICO AC ENV-5 IVEY ML GHY-Bp
FISHER MM BIO0-67 IVEY ML GHY-BMp
FLISS AE 1ED-9 JENKINS D T GHY-5
FLORA M D BI0-61 JENNINGS DL BI0-20
FLORA M D BI0-62 JOHNSON RA GHY-1
FLORA M D BI0-63 JONES BL BI0-65
FORCUCCI D BI0-42 JONES BL ENV-5
FORTUNE B D URP-3 JONES DS BI0-39
FRANKEL J W MED-6 JONES M GHY-4
FRANTZ DA ANS-3 KEITH FL ANS-18
FRENCH E C AGR-20 KELLY L S AGR-7
FYFE J BI0-33 KENNEDY W J ANS-50
GAGNIER T FAS-SP KIVIPELTO J AGR-9
GEISER CR AMS-7 KLINGER T S BIQ-41
GENNARO R N MED-3 KLOTZ S$ D MEN-8
GENNARO RN MED-9 KLOTZ S D MED-9
GILMORE R & BIO-31 KOSTOPOULOS G K CSM-5
GILMORE R G BI0-35 KUCKLICK J R BI0-38
GILMORE RG BI0-37 KUHN D T MED-11
GILMORE R G BIO-Ep KUJAWA F GHY-4
GLATZEL K A AOS-20 KUO S S GHY-5
GLEASON P J FAS-CM KRANC SC ENG-1
GOLDSTEIN AL ENV-5 KRAVITZ M J BI0-60
GORZELANY J BI0-39 KROUSE L J AGR-29
GORZELANY J BIO-55 KRZYZANOWSKI M BIO-16
GRAVEN MA MED-12 KRZYZANOWSKI M BIO-17
GRECO T M BI0-3 LAGE G BI0-70
GREEN K J MED-3 LATULIPPE D BIO-51
GRIGSBY D J GHY-1 LAWRENCE J M BIO-Fp
GRUBER S H BIO-46 LAWRENCE J M BI0-41
GRUBER S H BIO-47 LAWRENCE J M BI0-42
GRYZLL L ENG-4 LAWRENCE J M BI0-57
GU D AQS-10 LAWRENCE L A AGR-16
HACKATHORN M GHY-7 LAWRENCE L A AGR-18
HAIDUVAN R G ANS-15 LAYNE JN FAS-CMp
HANSINGER M ANS-20 LAYNE JN FAS-Pp
HARMS RH AGR-5 LAYNE JN FAS-SP
HARMS RH AGR-10 LEADER J M ANS-19
HASHEM M ENG-5 LE BLANC GA BIO-45
HATHAWAY K K AOS-17 LEE E-H PSS-5
HAYES A W URP-2 LEE T W CSM-6
HEIL C BIO-12 LENAHAN R A AOS-2
HEIL C BIO-14 LEWIS R R III BI0-25
HENDERSON J N ANS-Bp LEWIT SM AQ8-18

HENDERSON J N ANS-6 LINSLEY J N ENG-6

Florida Scientist

LITTLEFIELD J R
LITTLEFIELD M
LOFTUS W F
LOGGALE L B
LOPEZ M

LOPEZ M

LORENZO P

LOTH S R

LOTH S R
LOVEJOY D W
LOWERS T

LUER C A

LUER C A

MCCAIN T S
MCCLINTOCK J B
MCCORD W
MCDOWELL L R
MCDEVITT L A
MCKINLEY M
MCLAUGHLIN B
MAHADEVAN S
MAHADEVAN S
MAHADEVAN S
MARION J EF
MARRINAN R
MARRINAN R
MARSHALL K
MARTIN B B
MARTIN D F
MARTIN D F
MATHESON R
MATTSON R A
MAYBURY S G
MENTE R
MEYERS J
MILES R D
MILES R D
MILES R D
MILLER C
MILLER H A
MILLER K I
MILLER T H
MILLIGAN M R
MITCHELL L E
MITCHEM J M
MOHIT K
MOMMENS S
MOORE H H
MOORE K M
MOSLEHY F A
MOTIE A
MOTIE A

MOTT C J
MONGER F S
MUSCATO M
MUSHINSKY H R
MYERS J A
MYERS J A
MYERS JA
MYERS JA
MYERSON A L
MYERSON A L

E JR.

GHY-5
ENG-7
BIO-53
AGR-17
BIO-72
BIO-73
BIO-70
ANS-1
ANS-4
GHY-6
BIO-55
BIO-BMp
BI0-48
GHY-3
BIO-57
APT-6
AGR-16
ANS-13
URP-4
BI0-34
BIO-Hp
BIO-22
BIO-56
AGR-4
ANS-Cp
ANS-21
URP-4
ENV-4
BIQ-15
ENV-4
BIO-52
BI0-25
ENV-4
BIO0-2
PSS-2
AGR-5
AGR-6
AGR-10
FAS-LAC
BI0-4
AOS-6
FNV-5
BIO-58
AOS-7
ANS-16
CSM-7
APT-3
ANS-14
AGR-8
ENG-5
MED-2
MED-4
GHY-Ap
CSM-8
BI0-8
BIO-19
APT-Ap
APT-BMp
PSS-Ap
PSS-BMp
BIO-16
BIO-17

-72-

NADOLNY J
MEAL N V UR.
NICKERSON D A
NIEVES R
NORRIS DR
O'DELL K M
OHRN Y

Ohi BVA
PACKERT G
PANGALLO R A
PAPACOSTA P
PAPPAS §
PAREDES J A
PARK K (
PARKER J W
PARSONS F
PATNAIK S
PATTERSON J D
PATTON G W
PAULY GG
PAYNE RL
PELOSI RR
PELOSI RR
PELOSI RR
PENNY N
PEVERS: Die
PETERSON R
PHILLIPS D
PIPERS F S
Piss ReA
POGBAN T
POLLACK L P
POST J M
POTTER J G
POWERS J E
PREECE B J
PREECE B
PREECE B
PRICE
PRINE
PRINE
RANCE
REDDY
REDDY
REDDY
REICHARD R P
REICHARD R P
REYNOLDS J E
RICE SA
RICE R G
RICE R G
RICE R G
RICH J R
ROBISON D
ROCHOW T F
RODRICH G E
RODRICH M D
ROHDE R G
ROMANEK C S
ROME J T
ROMEO J T
ROMEO J T

RAARAVNDMD=
DANDVSa=

III

Volume 48

BIO-50
BIO-1
MED-5
AOS-8
AOS-7
ENV-5
FAS-PS
AGR-18
MED-11
BIO-41
CSM-9
ANS-10
ANS-BMp
PSs-4
GHY-3
BIO-70
BI0-68
PSS-4
BIN-22
AOS-3
AGR-1
AGR-11
AGR-12
AGR-13
PSS-2
BIQ-37
FAS-LAC
BI0-30
AGR-18
AOS-19
AOS-1
ENV-1
BIO-73
APT-1
FAS-CM
FAS-CM
TCH-Ap
TCH-BMp
BIO-20
AGR-15
AGR-20
AQS-9
BIO-66
BIO-67
BIO-68
AOS-Bp
AOS-18
BIO-21
BIO-38
BIO-61
BIO-62
BIO-63
AGR-8
URP-5
BIO-72
MED-7
MED-7
AGR-3
BIO-39
BIO-9
BIO-10
BIO-11

1985 Meeting

ROOT GC

ROSENBAUM B
RUDOLPH T
RUIZ N
SACA-KURI J C
SARIRIAN K
SAVAGE T
SAVDRA S
SCOGGIN A
SCHALEMAN
SCHEIDT D
SCHEIDT D
SCHEIDT D
SCHEIDT D
SCHLUETER
SCHMALZ M
SCHMIDT W
SCHOOLEY J K
SCHCALEY J K
SEACAT L
SEAMAN W JR
SHANLEY E
SHANLEY E
SHARINUS M W
SHEA C
SIMON JL
SIMON J L
SMITH N P
TW
TW

aAnzoacncaarm

SNELL

SNELL

SONODA R M
SONODA R M
SPAULDING D T
SPECTOR B S
SPECTOR B S
SPRINKEL J
STAUBLE D K
STAUBLE D K
STANALAND B E
STEIDINGER K A
STEIDINGER K A
STEINKER D C
STERN T
STOFFELLA P
STOFFELLA P
STOFFELLA P
STOFFELLA P
STONE T
STORRS E E
STORRS E E
STORRS E E
STOWERS D M
STROTHER E F
SUCCOP S
SWAIN L A
SWEENEY M
SWEENEY M
SWIFT DR
SWIFT DR

J
J
J
J

J
J

SZELISTOWSKI W A

TESAW R

ANS-14

FAS-LAC
ENG-4
AGR-5
AGR-2
MED-5
BIN-59
APT-3
ANS-12
TCH-1
ENV-3
BIO-.61
BIN-#3
BI0-36
BIO-Cp
CSM-10
GHY-2
BIO-Gp
RIO-18
APT-6
AOS-11
BIO-12
BIO-13
ANS-2
BI0-9
BIO-Dp
BI0-28
AOS-15
BIO-44
BIO-50
AGR-3
AGR-11
TCH-2
FAS-SP
TCH-4
BIO-40
AOS-8
AOS-9
MED-8
FAS-CM
BIO-Bp
GHY-7
BI0-24
AGR-Bp
AGR-1
AGR-13
AGR-14
ANS-22
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MED-3
MED-4
TCH-1
PSS-6
BI0-44
BIO-11
MED-8
MED-9
BI0-64
BIO-65
BIO-18
AGR-16

-73-

THOMAS J
THOMAS P S
TILLEY R W
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TRANTHAM W M
TREFRY J H
TREFRY J H

TREMAIN D M
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TYNER GN
VALDEZ ME
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WINDSOR J G UR.
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Program Issue

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AQNS-3
BIO-7
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URP-2
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GHY-1
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FAS-CM
AOS-2
REB-BMp
BIO-69
ANS-20
MED-5
AOS-6
AGR-6
MED-8
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BIO-5
BIO-5
BIO0-22
ANS-Ap
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BIO-51
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Florida Scientist -74- Volume 48

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wlorida

olu ne 49 Winter, 1986 Number 1

CONTENTS

and William W. Sommer 18
Social Organization and Biased Primary Sex Ratio of

_ the Evening Bat, Nycticeius humeralis

James R. Bain and Stephen R. Humphrey 22
Sevophyics from eee and Adjacent Shoreline Plant

- Communities of Tampa Bay, Florida

. D. TeStrake, R. B. Lassiter, J. A. Lassiter and D. A. Breil 31
Proposed Solution-Hole Breccia Origin for the Carrefour

_ Raymond Marble (Haiti) ...... sae Seas eae Donald W. Lovejoy 40
Citrus Blight Assessment Using a Microcomputer: Quantifying

Damage Using an Apple Computer to Solve Reflectance

Spectra of Entire Trees.. Haven C. Sweet and George J. Edwards 48
a ..... Dean F. Martin 04

David D. Gillette and Phillip M. Whisler 55
SS ete ee eee = Kendall L. Carder

_ QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

DEAN F. Martin, Editor BARBARA B. MartTIn, Co-Editor

Volume 49 Winter, 1986 __ Number 1

Environmental Chemistry

A COMPARISON OF FATTY ACIDS AND STEROLS IN
TWO SIGNIFICANT FLORIDA MARINE ALGAE,
PTYCHODISCUS BREVIS AND NANNOCHLORIS SP.

ABDELHAMID HAMDY AND DEAN F. MARTIN

Chemical and Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center
Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 U.S.A.

Asstract: Packed cells from cultures of Ptychodiscus brevis and Nannochloris sp. were ana-
lyzed for fatty acids and sterol composition by gas chromatography following conversion to the
methyl ester and acetate derivatives, respectively, and comparison with authentic samples. Cho-
lesterol was the major sterol in both algae (ca. 40% of total sterols) but ergosterol (7-dehydro-
cholesterol) was specific for P. brevis. 23-Methylcholesta-5,22-dien-38-ol and 4a-24-dimethyl-
5a-cholestan-38-ol and dinostanol comprised the rest of the sterol mixture in P. brevis. Stigma-
sterol and 28-isofucosterol constituted the remainder of sterols in Nannochloris sp. Nannochloris
sp. was distinguished from P. brevis by having Co, Cis.1, and Cis.4 fatty acids; P. brevis was
unique in having a Cy.2 fatty acid. Both algae have relative high concentrations of Ci. fatty
acids: myristic and oleic for P. brevis and Nannochloris sp., respectively. The other fatty acid
compositions are described. The significance of ergosterol in P. brevis to an understanding of the
mechanism of lysis of P. brevis cells is considered.

ALTHOUGH considerable information is available on the sterol content of
a number of algae (Withers, 1983), and even more information is available
on the fatty acid content of algae (Pohl and Zurheide, 1979), there are spe-
cial reasons for being concerned about the content of these materials in
Ptychodiscus brevis and Nannochloris sp. Specifically, the existence of
ergosterol in P. brevis (Steidinger, 1979), the causative organism of west
coast Florida red tides, is significant for its role in lysis induced by
substance(s) elaborated by Nannochloris sp. (Hamdy et al., 1984). The fatty
acids content of both organisms is of interest for comparative purposes be-
cause of the role of these substances in cell membranes, as storage products,
and as potential allelopathic agents.

We report the analysis of two algae for principal sterol and fatty acid
components.

2 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

MATERIALS AND MerHops—Culturing of the two algae has been described previously (Asai et
al., 1982; Sakamoto et al., 1983; Hamdy et al., 1984). The lipid fraction was extracted as follows:
packed cells were obtained from continuous cell centrifugation using a Szent-Gyorgi and Blum
apparatus and a DuPont Sorvall SS-3 centrifuge (12,000 x g). The cells (ca. 300 mg) were sus-
pended in 20 ml of chloroform-methanol (1:1) solution and refluxed for 3 hr. The solid was fil-
tered off, and the filtrate was evaporated under reduced pressure at room temperature to give
crude lipid fraction. This fraction was purified by desalting using dilute (0.008 % ) NaCl solution.
The purified lipid fraction thus obtained was refluxed for 3 hr. in a saponification mixture (25 ml
of 5% ethanolic KOH, 8 ml of benzene). The liquid was distilled, nearly to dryness, the residue
was suspended in water, and then extracted with 5 x 10-ml portions of ether. Combined etherial
extracts were washed with water (3 x 10-ml portions) and then dried (anhydrous Na2SO,).
Following distillation of the dried ether extracts, the residue was dried to a constant weight (un-
saponifiable matter).

Acylation was effected by dissolving the unsaponifiable matter in pyridine, and treating with
acetic anhydride, working up the acetate derivative as before (Hamdy et al., 1984).

Fatty acids were separated as follows. The saponified fraction was acidified with dilute HCl
(1.7 M), and the liberated fatty acids were extracted into petroleum ether (40-60°; 3 x 50 ml).
The combined extracts were washed with water, dried (anh. Na,SO,), and solvent was evapo-
rated under reduced pressure to yield the fatty acid fraction.

Esterification of the fatty acid fraction was effected by dissolving the fraction in 20 ml of
absolute methanol, adding 1.5 ml conc. sulfuric acid, and refluxing the mixture in a water bath
for 1.5 hr. Upon cooling to room temperature, the mixture was diluted with 25 ml of distilled
water, and extracted with petroleum ether (40-60°, 5 x 20 ml). Combined extracts were washed
with water several times, dried (anh. NagSO,), and then distilled under reduced pressure to pro-
duce a residue (methyl ester fraction).

A Perkin-Elmer Sigma 300 gas chromatograph equipped with a flame-ionization detector
was used in all analyses. Samples were dissolved in chloroform for injection. Two different col-
umns were used for sterol acetates and fatty acid esters: (1) a 10 ft. x 0.125 in. stainless steel col-
umn packed with a 10% OV-101 held at 280°C isothermal, and (2) a4 ft. x 0.125 in. stainless
steel column packed with 10% carbowax held isothermally at 200°C. Helium carrier gas was ad-
justed to 45 and 35 cm’/min, respectively, for the two columns. Retention times for sterol acetates
and for methyl esters of fatty acids were compared with those for authentic samples obtained
from Sigma Chemical, Aldrich, and other sources.

Resutts—The data in Table 1 indicate that the two algae differed sig-
nificantly with respect to lipid content. Nannochloris sp. contained about
four times the amount of crude lipids and unsaponifiable fraction than did
P. brevis; the difference in purified lipids was less, but still notable. The re-
sults of our analyses for sterols and for fatty acids are summarized in Tables 2
and 3, respectively, but three specific comments are pertinent.

First, for the sterols, the results are presented in terms of relative reten-
tion times, RR,, which is defined as the ratio of the retention time for a given
sterol to the retention time for cholesterol under identical conditions. This is
a conventional approach (Withers, 1983), and it permits comparison of re-
sults by different workers. It may also permit identification of sterols that
have been identified previously, but which are not commercially available;
specificially, the last three sterols in Table 2. The values of RR, for ergosterol
and the last three sterols listed in Table 2 had good precision; standard
deviations were 0.01 or less for three analyses.

Secondly, concentrations for sterols were determined by integration, and
again the repeatability was good. For example, the relative standard devia-
tions for concentrations of sterols in P. brevis ranged from 0.5 % (cholesterol)
to 4% (ergosterol).

No. 1, 1986] HAMDY AND MARTIN — FATTY ACIDS AND STEROLS 3

TaBLE |. Distribution of fractions in two algae

Percentage of total dry weight!

Fraction Nannochloris spp. P. brevis
Crude lipids 42.63 13.11
Purified lipids 16.55 6.44
Unsaponifiable matter 12.74 3:33

'Dry weight 300 mg for each; obtained by continuous cell centrifugation, followed by drying in vacuum oven
to constant weight.

TABLE 2. Sterol composition of Nannochloris sp. and P. brevis (percentage to total sterols)

Sterol Nannochloris sp. P. brevis R

Rt
observed reported!

Cholesterol mo) 42.0 1.00 1.00
Ergosterol — 14.0 1.18 nL,
Isofucosterol 31.7 1.85 1.84
Stigmasterol 8 _— 1.42 0.00
23-Methyl cholesta- — 21.8 1.07 1.07

5,22-dien-38-ol
4q-24-dimethyl-5a — 12.2 1.50 1.51

cholestan-36-ol
Dinostanol — 10.0 1.80 1.81

lef. Withers (1983)

Thirdly, the results for fatty acids are described, using a conventional
symbolism, e.g. C,,.-m:o. Here, n refers to the number of carbon atoms in the
fatty acid, and the other integers m and o describe the location of double
bonds using the carboxylic moiety as the first carbon (cf. Pohl and Zurheide,
O79)

Results in Table 2 show qualitative and quantitative differences in the
sterol contents. Both algae have about the same cholesterol content (44.5 and
42.0% for Nannochloris sp. and P. brevis, respectively). On the other hand,
Nannochloris sp. has 28-isofucosterol and stigmasterol (31.7 and 23.8% of
total sterols, respectively) that were not detectable in P. brevis. In addition,
23-methylcholesta-5,22-dien-38-ol, ergosterol, 4-a-24-dimethyl-5a-
cholestan-3G-ol, and dinostanol were found in P. brevis, but not in Nanno-
chloris sp.

Table 3 shows qualitative and quantitative differences in the fatty acid
content of the two algae. For example, Cio.0, Ci4.1, and Cis.4 appeared only
in Nannochloris sp., whereas C2.2 was noted in small concentrations in P.
brevis. Generally palmitic acid (Ci6.0) constituted the major portion of the
fatty acids mixture in the two algae. The Ci2, Cis.2, Ci6-2, Cis:3, Cis.3, and
C20.0 acids are present in moderate concentrations in both algae.

Discussion—The algae considered in this study are interesting because
one is responsible for Florida red tide (P. brevis) and the other may be a red
tide management organism (Martin, 1983). Thus, comparison of their lipid

4 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

TABLE 3. Fatty acid pattern of the two algae

Percentage of Total Fatty Acids

Fatty acid Nannochloris sp. P. brevis
Cio 8.70 0.00
Cu 4.00 2.30
Cis:0 5.30 15.00
Cua 1.70 0.00
Cis.2 3.00 2.40
Ci6:0 24.00 31.20
Ci6:1 9.10 9.70
Ci6.2 2.20 1.20
Cis.3 6.00 5.30
Cis:0 3.00 5.40
Cis:1 11.00 3.70
Cis.2 5.50 1.70
Cis.s 6.50 4.00
Cis.4 3.50 0.00
C20.0 6.50 5.40
Cro:2 0.00 2.70

fractions may have practical significance, just as analysis of pigment content
(Steidinger and Cox, 1980) contributed to an understanding (Barltrop et al.,
1983) of the survival capability of P. brevis (e.g., absence of peridinin, a
photosensitizer quencher). Additional implications for taxonomy are evident
as are the implications for involvement in the food chain.

The sterol distribution in the two algae differs from what we would have
anticipated on the basis of observations reported by others. Though both
have cholesterol, the observation of ergosterol as a major sterol has not been
previously noted. This may be a further reflection of the uniqueness of P.
brevis, which was indicated on analysis of pigments in this and other dino-
flagellates (Steidinger and Cox, 1980).

The presence of ergosterol is particularly significant in view of three per-
tinent observations on the mechanism of cytholysis of aponin: First,
ergosterol inhibited the cytolytic action of aponin, a natural product
elaborated by Nannochloris sp. that causes cytolysis of P. brevis (Moon and
Martin, 1980). Second, aponin and ergosterol (but not cholesterol) form an
associated species (Barltrop and Martin, 1984). Third, the observation of
ergosterol in P. brevis suggests that the mode of action of aponin is the for-
mation of an associated species that disrupts the structural integrity of P.
brevis membrane and affects the osmoregulatory capabilities of the cell
(Hamdy et al., 1984).

Other sterols found in dinoflagellates (e.g. the last three in Table 2) are
also observed in P. brevis. The pattern for Nannochloris sp. is also different
from what might be anticipated for a marine green alga in that 28-isofuco-
sterol would typically be the most prominent sterol (Youngken and Soliman,
1979). In our study, it is second with respect to abundance in the sterol
fraction.

No. 1, 1986] HAMDY AND MARTIN — FATTY ACIDS AND STEROLS 5

Although we have chosen to emphasize the differences in sterol content,
we should also note the similarities with observations of other workers. For
example, the chief sterol in the dinoflagellate was cholesterol (44.5%),
which is similar to the observations of others. Alam and co-workers (1979)
found cholesterol comprised 56 + 9% of the sterol fraction of five species of
Gonyaulax with dinosterol the other major component. For G. diagenesis,
the cholesterol content was lower (38.7%) and dinosterol was not one of the
three major sterols (Alam et al., 1978).

In contrast, most of our data on fatty acids are in agreement with data
published for other algae (Pohl and Zurheide, 1979). The occurrence of im-
portant 18-carbon fatty acids with 2 or 3 double bonds is important because
such fatty acids are not synthesized by animals (Pohl and Zurheide, 1979).

Our findings are in harmony with those of Jamison and Reid (1972) and
Wagner and Pohl (1964) who reported that palmitic acid was the predomi-
nant fatty acid in many Chlorophyta species. In addition to palmitic acid,
the same authors found different amounts of C,2, C,,, and C:s saturated fatty
acids as well as Cis, Cis, and C2. unsaturated ones.

Conc.usions—The distribution of sterols in Florida algal species is sig-
nificant. The observation of ergosterol as a major sterol in P. brevis may
have taxonomic implications as well as aiding an understanding of the
mechanism of cytolysis by aponin. Finally, a caveat should be added; the use
of relative retention times is a good indication of compounds present, par-
ticularly if authentic samples are available. In the absence of such samples,
unequivocal positive identification of such complex molecules as sterols and
fatty acids would require a more detailed study using GC-MS.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS— One of us (Abdelhamid Hamdy) is grateful to AMID-EAST for a Peace
Fellowship, and both are grateful to the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences for
financial assistance through grant number: 5-RO1 ES02810-03. Helpful discussion with Edward
Van Vleet, Department of Marine Science, and the cooperation of William E. Swartz, Jr.,
Department of Chemistry, and the useful comments of Richard H. Pierce, Mote Marine
Laboratory, are gratefully acknowledged. Finally, we appreciate the helpful comments of Dr.
Walter K. Taylor, University of Central Florida, who served as consulting editor.

LITERATURE CITED

AuaM, M., K. H. ScuraM, anv S. M. Ray. 1978. 24-Demethyldinosterol: an unusual sterol from
the dioflagellate, Gonyaulax diagenesis. Tetrahedron Lett. 38:3517-3518.

AuaM, M., T. B. Sansine, E. L. Buspy, D. R. Martiniz, AND S. M. Ray. 1979. Dinoflagellate
Sterols I: Sterol composition of the dinoglagellates of Gonyaulax species. Sterols 33: 197-203.

Asat, S., J. J. KrzaNnowsk1, W. H. ANperson, D. F. Martin, J. B. Porson, R. F. Lockey, S. C.
BUKANTZ, AND A. SZENTIVANYI. 1982. Effects of the toxin of red tide, Ptychodiscus brevis,
on canine tracheal smooth muscle (A possible new asthma-triggering mechanism). J.
Allergy Clin. Immunol. 69:418-428.

Baritrop, J. AND D. F. Martin. 1984. A spectroscopic technique for evaluating sterol-aponin
interactions and implications for management of Ptychodiscus brevis red tides. Microbios
41:23-29.

6 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 49

Barutrop, J., B. B. MARTIN, AND D. F. Martin. 1983. Ptychodiscus brevis as a model system for
photodynamic action. Microbios Letters 37:95-103.

Hampy, A., S. W. JaHopa, AND D. F. Martin. 1984. Evidence for the existence of ergosterol
in the red tide organism Ptychodiscus brevis. Microbios Letters 27:19-23.

Jamieson, G. R. anv E. H. Ret. 1972. Component fatty acids of some marine algal lipids.

Phytochem. 11:1423-1432.

Martin, D. F. 1983. Why don’t we have more red tides in Florida? J. Environ. Sci. Health
A18:685-700.

Moon, R. E. anv D. F. Martin. 1980. A comparative study of the polyene antibiotic Filipin
and a red tide cytolytic agent aponin. Microbios Letters 10:115-119.

Pout, P. AND F. ZuRHEIDE. 1979. Fatty acids and lipids of marine algae and the control of their
biosynthesis by environmental factors. Pp. 473-523. In: Hoppe, H. A., T. LEvRING, AND
Y. Tanaka (eds.) Marine Algae in Pharmaceutical Science, Walter de Gruyter, New York.

SAKAMOTO, Y., J. J. KRzANowsKI, R. F. Lockey, anp D. F. Martin. 1983. Effect of aponin
(from cultures of the green alga Nannochloris sp.) on canine tracheal smooth muscle.
J. Environ. Sci. Health A18:721-728.

STEIDINGER, K. A. 1979. Collection, enumeration, and identification of free-living marine dino-
flagellates. Pp. 435-442. In: Taytor, D. L. anp H. H. SeE.icrr (eds.) Toxic Dinoflagellate
Blooms, Elsevier-North Holland, New York.

STEIDINGER, K. A. AND E. R. Cox. 1980. Free-living dinoflagellates. Pp. 407-423. In: Cox, E. R.
(ed.) Phytoflagellates, Elsevier-North Holland, New York.

Wacner, H. anp P. Pout. 1964. Zur kenntnis der polyenfattsauren meeresalgen. Naturwiss.
51:163-164.

Witue_rs, N. 1983. Dinoflagellate sterols. Pp. 87-130. In: ScHEurR, P. J. (ed.) Marine Natural
Products, vol. 5, Academic Press, New York.

YOUNGKEN, H. W. anv F. M. Soxtiman. 1979. Microbial transformation of marine sterols:
fucosterol, and isofucosterol. Pp. 609-628. In: Hoppe, H. A., T. LEvRING AND Y. TANAKA
(eds.) Marine Algae in Pharmaceutical Science, Walter de Gruyter, New York.

Florida Sci. 49(1):1-6. 1986.

Accepted: January 14, 1985.

Biological Sciences

FOOD OF YOUNG JUVENILE LEMON SHARKS,
NEGAPRION BREVIROSTRIS (POEY), NEAR SANDY KEY,
WESTERN FLORIDA BAY

Tuomas W. SCHMIDT

National Park Service, South Florida Research Center,
Everglades National Park, Homestead, Florida 33030

Asstract: The food habits of the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris, were investigated by
examining the stomach contents of juveniles between 58 and 100 cm in total length from shallow
grass flats near Sandy Key in western Florida Bay, Everglades National Park, Florida. Small
demersal fish, mainly Opsanus beta and Lagodon rhomboides, and the commercially important
pink shrimp, Penaeus duorarum, were the most common dietary items of N. brevirostris in the
coastal marine waters. Small, fast-moving pelagic fishes were also found in the shark’s diet.

KNOWLEDGE of the feeding relations of component species in the food
chain is essential to establish their trophic level in an ecosystem (Odum
1970). Fish food habit studies are useful in determining some of the higher
trophic connections through the marine ecosystem. While the foods of many
south Florida coastal fishes have been examined in detail (as summarized in
Odum 1970), studies concerning the diet of lemon sharks are particularly
lacking.

Except for portions of studies cited below, there is limited qualitative
and no quantitative information on the diet of lemon sharks, which as noted
by Springer (1950), are particularly abundant off south Florida. Previous
qualitative studies dealt primarily with the diet of the adults and are limited
to five reports (Baughman and Springer 1950, Clark and von Schmidt 1965,
Dahlberg and Heard 1969, Snelson and Williams 1981, and Springer 1950)
of which only one, Springer, has provided general observations on their
feeding preferences during the times they utilize the shallow grass flats.
Gruber (1982) is currently addressing the role of the lemon shark as a
tropical marine predator. The present paper examines semiquantitative and
quantitative feeding data of N. brevirostris from inshore locations near
Sandy Key in western Florida Bay, Everglades National Park, Florida. Food
information presented in this paper is based on 18 specimens collected dur-
ing the course of a former investigation (Schmidt 1979).

MEtHops— Lemon sharks were obtained from monthly seine collections of fishes made at
three sites in western Florida Bay, from May 1973 through June 1974. Twenty-eight specimens
were seined from the western side of Sandy Key (25°02'N, 81°01’W) during May, July, August,
September 1973, February, May and June 1974 with the largest number of individuals during
June (3, 4, 4, 1, 1, 3, and 12, respectively, for the seven months). Two specimens were seined
from two nearby localities, Man-O-War and Joe Kemp Keys, about 10 km east of Sandy Key dur-

8 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

ing October. Eighteen of these 30 specimens, all from Sandy Key except for one shark from Man-
O-War Key, were found to contain food within the stomach and were used in this analysis.

Based on eight monthly water quality determinations made when sharks were captured,
means and ranges in physical water parameters were as follows: salinity, 36.8 ppt. (31.5-40.2
ppt); temperature, 27.6°C (20.6-31.4°C); turbidity, 1.3 ftu (0.5-3.3 ftu). Water depths ranged
from 0.4 to 1.2 m with a mean depth of 0.7 m.

A 15.2 x 1.2 m haul seine (6 mm mesh in the wings and 3 mm mesh in the bag) was used in
sampling during the day (1100 to 1500 hrs) upon shallow grass flats adjacent to sandy beaches on
incoming tides. Immediately after capture all specimens were allowed to suffocate, placed in 10
percent formalin (there was no regurgitation of stomach contents), and taken to the laboratory.
Total length (straight-line) was recorded to the nearest mm and stomachs from specimens con-
taining food were removed. Prey items were separated taxonomically and measured
volumetrically by water displacement to the nearest 0.1 ml. Carapace length of pink shrimp prey
were also recorded.

Three methods were used to determine the contribution of different prey items to the shark’s
diet: (1) the percentage of total individuals of all prey categories comprised by the individual prey
category, (2) the percentage volume of a prey category for all individuals sampled to the total
volume of the stomach contents of all sharks, and (3) the percentage of total stomachs containing
food in which a prey category occurred. The stomach contents of all sharks were pooled for these
analyses. The index of relative importance (IRI) was also used because it incorporates all three
methods and yields a better assessment of the dietary importance of a prey category (Pinkas, et
al., 1971). The index was calculated as IRI = (N+V)FO, where N = numerical percentage,
V = volume percentage, and FO = percentage frequency of occurrence.

REsuLts — The diet for the entire sampling period is summarized in Table
1. A total of 10 prey taxa were observed in the stomachs. Pisces were by far
the most important prey group, making up to 77.1% of the diet by number
and 87.7% by volume. Pisces identification was often difficult due to partial
digestion and this obscured the importance of some species. Pinfish,
Lagodon rhomboides and gulf toadfish, Opsanus beta, had the two highest
indicies of relative importance of the food items identified. Pink shrimp,
Penaeus duorarum, constituted a substantial portion of the lemon shark diet,

TaBLE 1. Stomach contents of 18 Negaprion brevirostris, (57.7-99.9 cm TL) from the Sandy
Key area, Florida Bay, Monroe County, Florida, captured during 1973-74. N = percentage of
total number; V = percentage of total volume; FO = frequency of occurrence; IRI = index of
relative importance (see text).

Prey Item N°, % V>, % FO, % IRI

Pisces total 77.1 87.7 94.4 15,557
Opsanus beta 8.3 12.0 16.6 337
Lagodon rhomboides 4.1 19.2 MB teil 258
Eucinostomus gula 4.1] 7.4 11.1 128
Haemulon sp. 2.0 16.6 5.6 104
Floridichthys carpio 4.1 1.4 11.1 61
Anchoa hepsetus 4.1 1.3 Per 60
Membras martinica 2.0 0.6 5.6 15
Unidentified 47.9 29.2 50.0 3,855

Crustacea Penaeus duorarum 22.9 12.0 38.9 1,358

Vascular plant Thalassia 0.0 0.2 11.1 2
Grand Total 100.0 100.0

* Total number of organisms — 48
» Total volume of food items — 270.7 ml.

No. 1, 1986] SCHMIDT — FOOD OF JUVENILE LEMON SHARKS 9

accounting for 38.9% of the diet by frequency and 22.9% by number. Pink
shrimp had the highest IRI of all identifiable prey. The size of pink shrimp
ingested apparently was not related to predator size, as six sharks (58, 62, 65,
69, 70, and 82 cm TL) consumed 10 Penaeus with carapace lengths of 19,
4-5, 5-6, 21-22, 3, and 6 mn, respectively, for these sharks.

Discussion — Small demersal fish and juvenile pink shrimp were the
principal prey of young lemon sharks observed in this study. Because the
literature on the diet of lemon sharks contains mostly random observations it
is difficult to draw conclusions about the relative importance of specific
items as food. Springer (1950) observed juveniles apparently feeding in
schools of mullet. He also noted that crustaceans (mainly amphipods) were
found in the stomachs of young sharks. In Georgia, Dahlberg and Heard
(1969) observed that an adult (239 cm) contained two small stingrays
(Dasyatis). Clark and von Schmidt (1965) working off the west central coast
of Florida noted that mostly fishes, including catfish (Bagre marinus and
Arius felis) and mullet (Mugil sp.), and octopods were consumed, but they
did not give the number or size of sharks examined. In the Indian River,
Florida, region Snelson and Williams (1981) found portunid crabs and fish
(Dasyatis sp., Anguilla rostrata, Mugil sp., and Chilomycterus schoepfi) in
the stomachs of three sharks (158-255 cm TL). Gruber (1982) verified the
presence of fish and crustaceans in the diet of sharks collected in the Florida
Keys.

The diet of the small sharks probably reflects both the availability of the
prey items in the habitat and some selectivity based on the size of prey the
sharks can easily digest. O. beta, L. rhomboides, and P. duorarum their
most important (based on the IRI method of stomach analysis) identifiable
food sources, are numerical dominants in the grass beds from the vicinity of
Sandy Key in western Florida Bay (Schmidt 1979). Negaprion fed on pink
shrimp over a relatively wide size range which approximated the size range
of juvenile Penaeus collected in the above study. The young sharks, from the
results of the present study and prior studies, consumed two principal
categories of fishes: slow-moving demersal species, non-schooling in nature,
and fast-moving fishes of the surface or subsurface which tend to school over
shallow, grass bed habitats. Young juveniles in this study derive their
nourishment mostly from fish and shrimp which, in the context of energy
flow, form the “middle” trophic groupings as classified by Odum
(1970:122-23). Thus, it appears that young Sandy Key specimens are car-
nivorous consumers near the top of the food chain with small fish and shrimp
constituting the bulk of their diet.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS —I thank James Tilmant of the South Florida Research Center for
critically reviewing the manuscript. To those who assisted in the field, particularly, Vivie Thue
and Catherine Spadero, go my sincere appreciation.

10 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

LITERATURE CITED

BAUGHMAN, J. L., AND S. SPRINGER. 1950. Biological and economic notes on the sharks of the
Gulf of Mexico with special reference to those of Texas and with a key for their identifi-
cation. Amer. Mid]. Natur. 44:96-153.

Cuark, E., AND K. von ScumipT. 1965. Sharks of the central gulf coast of Florida. Bull. Mar.
Sci. 15:15-83.

DaHLBERG, N. D., AND R. W. Hearp. 1969. Observations on elasmobranchs from Georgia.
Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 32:21-26.

GruBer, S. H. 1982. Role of the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris (Poey), as a predator in the
tropical marine environment: A multidisciplinary study. Florida Sci. 45:46-75.

Opum, W. E. 1970. Pathways of energy flow in a south Florida estuary. Ph.D. dissert. Univ.
Miami, Coral Gables, Florida.

Pinkas, L., M. S. OLIPHANT, AND I.L.K. Iverson. 1971. Food habits of albacore, bluefin tuna,
and bonito in California water. Calif. Fish. and Game, Fish Bull. 152:1-105.

ScHMIDT, T. W. 1979. Seasonal biomass estimates of marine and estuarine fishes within the
western Florida Bay portion of Everglades National Park, May 1973-July 1974. Pp. 665-
673. In: Linn, R. (ed.). Proceedings of the First Conference on Scientific Research in the
National Parks. Vol. I (Transactions and Proceedings Series-NPS, No. 5).

SPRINGER, S. 1950. Natural history notes on the lemon shark, Negaprion brevirostris. Tex. Jour.
Sci. 3:349-359.

SNELSON, F. F., JR., AND S. E. WituiaMs. 1981. Notes on the occurrence, distribution, and biol-
ogy of elasmobranch fishes in the Indian River lagoon system, Florida. Estuaries 4:110-
120.

Florida Sci. 49(1):7-10. 1986.

Accepted: January 18, 1985.

FROM THE EDITORS

Acceptance dates are now listed at the end of each article. This practice
will allow establishment of priority, should it become desirable. It may also
allow readers to wonder about the difference in time between acceptance
and publication. The delay may be the consequence of a quarterly publica-
tion, or the page limitation (ten free pages per volume per author), delays in
returning galley proof, or fit (shorter articles can sometimes be accom-
modated more easily). We hope you agree with the policy.

DFM, BBM

Biological Sciences

THE STATUS OF CALISTO HYSIUS BATESI
(LEPIDOPTERA, SATYRIDAE) WITH THE DESCRIPTION
OF A NEW SPECIES OF CALISTO FROM HISPANIOLA

‘JUAN CaRLos CorrEA AND ‘*) ALBERT SCHWARTZ

‘05790 W. 17th Ave., Hialeah, FL 33012 and ‘??Miami-Dade Community College,
North Campus, Miami, FL 33167

Asstract: Study of long series of C. hysius hysius and C. hysius batesi from the north and
south islands of Hispaniola demonstrates that the two taxa are more properly regarded as distinct
species, C. hysius and C. batesi. The separation is reinforced by chromatic, morphological, and
genitalic differences. A short series of large C. hysius-like specimens from the north island is
named as a new species.

MICHENER (1943) described the subspecies Calisto hysius batesi based on
11 males and 2 females from the Antillean island of Hispaniola. He stated
that the species appears to be spread into two regions: southwest of the Cul
de Sac plain and the Enriquillo Basin, where there is a larger subspecies (C.
h. hysius), and a smaller subspecies (C. h. batesi) found northeast of that
plain. In addition to size, he gave characteristics of color, UN (underside)
lines and number of UNHW (underside hindwing) preocellar white dots, as
well as other qualitative differences between the two taxa.

Bates (1935) had previously discussed the usage of the name C. hysius
Godart and had examined 6 males and 3 females, all of which are from
localities south of the Cul de Sac plain and the Enriquillo Basin. Munroe
(1950) accepted both subspecies and briefly diagnosed them, but he exam-
ined only five specimens of C. h. hysius. The range given by Munroe for C.
h. hysius (southern Cordillera of Hispaniola, 1800 to 7000 feet) is incorrect;
there are now specimens of C. hysius from throughout the south island, and
at lower elevations on the north island (for this usage, see Schwartz, 1980).
Riley (1975) accepted both subspecies but reversed their characteristics; he
still attributed C. h. batesi only to the central and northwestern Cordillera.

We have examined 84 males and 46 females from the north island and
103 males and 47 females from the south island, a total of 280 specimens, far
more than any previous workers. In general, this suite of specimens agrees
with Michener’s diagnoses of the two subspecies. But of the 46 north island
females, 3 do not have the same characteristics as the north island specimens
(C. h. batesi) and are as large as south island C. h. hysius. Also, from the
south island, 11 of 103 males and 8 of 47 females do not agree with the
characteristics of the south island butterflies (C. h. hysius). This suggests
that the two populations are distinct species, rather than subspecies. There
are no specimens intergradient between the two populations, because the
Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba plain (“Enriquillo Basin”) is lowland desert and

12 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

highly unsuitable for almost all species of Calisto, which are generally
mesophilic. Absence of intergrades reinforces the presumption that the two
populations are distinct species.

METHops — The following data were taken on 120 specimens: 1) FW length, in mm, taken
with a ruler from body to apex; 2) UNFW (underside forewing) ocellus, longitudinal diameter, in
mm, taken with a calibrated micrometer under a binocular stereoscope; 3) UNHW ocellus,
longitudinal diameter, in mm, taken with a calibrated micrometer under a binocular
stereoscope; 4) UNFW ocellar dots (“pupils”), counted on both FW; 5) UNHW ocellar dots
(“pupils”), counted on both HW;; 6) number of preocellar white dots in spaces Rs-M1, M1-M2,
and M2-M3, counted on both HW;; 7) Sex determined by observation of androconial patches,
which are present in males only. All color designations are from Maerz and Paul (1950).

Resutts—1) The FW length of 45 C. h. hysius males varies between 14 and 18
(x = 16.1 + .26[ = twice standard error of mean]), and in 24 C. h. batesi males between 12
and 14 (13.0 + .25). In 14 females, C. h. hysius varies between 15 and 17 (15.6 + .33), and in
15 female C. h. batesi between 11 and 16 (14.1 + .58). The differences are statistically signifi-
cant (non-overlap of twice standard errors of means).

2) UNFW ocellus length of 45 C. h. hysius males varies from 2.3 to 3.8 (2.9 + .11) and in 24
C. h. batesi males between 2.0 and 3.2 (2.5 + .11). In 14 female C. h. hysius, the diameter
varies between 2.4 and 3.8 (3.1 + .15) and in 15 C. h. batesi females between 2.3 and 3.2
(2.8 + .11).

3) UNHW ocellus length in 45 male C. h. hysius varies between 1.2 and 2.8 (2.2 + .12) and
in 24 C. h. batesi males between 1.6 and 2.3 (1.8 + .08). In 14 female C. h. hysius the
longitudinal diameter varies between 1.8 and 2.5 (2.2 + .14), and in 15 female C. h. batesi be-
tween 1.2 and 2.5 (2.2 + .28).

4) UNFW ocellar dots (“pupils”) in both sexes of both taxa are modally strongly 2, with a
variation of 0 to 2. There is no difference in this character between the two populations.

5) UNHW ocellar dots (“pupils”) in C. h. hysius males vary between 1 and 6, with a mode of 5
(50 of 80 HW; 25 additional males have 5 or 6 ocellar dots or a vertical pale line within the
ocellus). In C. h. batesi males, the UNHW ocellar dots vary between 0 and 2, with a mode of 1
(30 of 47 HW;; only 11 specimens have 2 dots and 1 specimen has no dots).

Female C. h. hysius have ocellar dots that vary between 3 and 5 (with a mode of 4; 6 females
have 3 dots, and 6 have 5). In C. h. batesi females, the UNHW ocellar dots vary between | and 3,
with a mode of 1 (6 specimens have 2 dots, and 2 specimens have 3 dots). Thus, combining data
from both sexes, in C. h. hysius only 31% of the HW have 1-3 ocellar dots, and 69% have 4 or
more dots (including lines), whereas in C. h. batesi, all specimens (100%) have 1-3 ocellar dots.
The occurrence of multiple ocellar dots in C. hysius has not been mentioned by previous authors.
Neither Bates (1935), nor Michener (1943) in his description of C. h. batesi, commented on this
condition. Riley’s (1975) plate (Pl. 3, Figs. 7a-b) does not show the condition in both specimens of
C. h. hysius from south island localities. None of the above should be faulted, however, since the
presence of multiple ocellar dots is ascertained primarily by microscopic examination.

6) UNHW preocellar white dots vary from 2 to 4 (mode 4 —76%) in C. h. hysius males. In C.
h. batesi males, preocellar white dots are 2 or 3 (mode 3 —66%). In female C. h. hysius,
preocellar white dots are 3 or 4 (mode 4 — 85%), and in C. h. batesi females, there are 1 or 3
(mode 3 —40%). Thus both sexes of C. h. hysius have modally 4 preocellar white dots (78%),
whereas both sexes of C. h. batesi modally have 3 (72%). These two taxa differ from each other
in FW length, diameter of UNFW ocellus, number of “pupils” in UNHW ocellus, and UNHW
preocellar dot number. Since there are no intermediates, it would seem logical to consider these
two taxa as different species, as C. hysius and C. batesi. Male genitalic differences will be noted
later.

THE PROBLEM—Since C. hysius and C. batesi occur in different
geographic regions, what then is the status of the large specimens from the
north island and of the small specimens from the south island?

Let us turn first to the suite of small specimens from the south island, the

No. 1, 1986] CORREA AND SCHWARTZ — THE STATUS OF CALISTO 13

known distribution of the much larger C. hysius. There is a possibility that
these specimens are identical with C. batesi (north island), or differ from it
in some ways. If the former is the case, this reinforces our contention that C.
hysius and C. batesi are separate species. If the latter is true, the situation
may be the same; our conclusion depends upon how much the small south
island population has changed from its parent on the north island.

The following data were taken on 11 Pedernales males and 8 Pedernales
females.

Fic. 1. Male genitalia of: A, C. hysius —AS 8271; B. C. batesi — AS 3078; C, C. batesi
(south island) — AS 6200.

14 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

11 males: FW length 12-13 (x = 12.6 + .33); diameter UNFW ocellus
2.3-2.8 (2.4 + .10); diameter UNHW ocellus 1.6-2.0 (1.9 + .14); “pupils”
UNFW ocellus 0-2 (mode 2 —78%); number of “pupils” UNHW ocellus 0-1
(mode 1 —89%); UNHW preocellar white dots 1-3 (mode 3 —45%).

8 females: FW length 15-18 (x = 15.9 + .52); diameter UNHW ocellus
2.4-3.2 (2.9 + .20); diameter UNHW ocellus 1.6-2.3 (2.1 + .21); “pupils”
UNFW ocellus 1-2 (mode 2 —83%); “pupils” UNHW ocellus 0-5 (mode 1
— 30%); UNHW preocellar white dots 0-3 (mode 0 —64%).

The Pedernales males do not differ from C. batesi, and the females differ
only in two ways: 15 C. batesi FW length x = 14.1 + .58, Pedernales
x = 15.9 + .52; UNHW preocellar white dots, C. batesi mode = 3, Peder-
nales mode = 0. The males from Pedernales do not differ from C. batesi,
and the females from Pedernales differ in minor ways from C. batesi.

The male genitalia (Fig. 1B and 1C) are very similar. The valvae are long
and narrow, and the unci are short and separated by a deep and broad
pretegumental groove from the tegumina, which are highly arched. These
conditions differ markedly from those in C. hysius (Fig. 1A). In that species,
the valvae are broader posteriorly (less finger-like) and the uncus is more
flat-topped than in C. batesi. Note also that the gnathos in C. hysius is long
and thin, whereas in both C. batesi populations, the gnathoi are short and
inconspicuous.

Accordingly, we regard the Pedernales population as south island,
slightly differentiated C. batesi. Calisto hysius occurs syntopically with C.
batesi at two localities: Las Abejas and Los Arroyos. This likewise reinforces
the status of the two taxa.

It would seem logical, then, that the 3 north island large specimens are
C. hysius. But these differ from the other females in various ways. For them
we propose the name

Calisto aleucosticha, new species.

Diagnosis: Males: unknown.

Females: FW length 15-17 mm (x = 16.3 mm); UPFW brown (PI.
7C11), somewhat darker basally; UPHW concolor with UPFW; UNFW
ocellus from Rs-M1 to barely into or midway across M3-Cul, outlined by a
yellow margin, with 2 white “pupils”, the anterior central on Ml, the
posterior eccentric on M2; FW ocellus diameter 3.2-4.2 (x = 3.6) mm;
UNHW ocellus in M3-Cul, outlined by a yellow margin with 1 central white
“pupil”; preocellar white dots in M1-M2, M2-M38 (1 specimen with a small
complete ocellus in Rs-M1l): HW ocellus diameter 1.2-2.4 mm (x = 1.8
mm); UN light brown (Pl. 13B7); UNFW with a red patch (Pl. 5L10) basally
in cell, extending half way across cell and ending abruptly, not bounded
marginally by a dark brown line; posterior to UNFW, a very small red patch
between M3 and Cul; both FW and HW with a postdiscal and a pair of sub-

No. 1, 1986] CORREA AND SCHWARTZ — THE STATUS OF CALISTO 15

Fic. 2. C. aleucosticha, new species. Photograph of UN (female holotype).

marginal dark lines; from postdiscal line basally, dark brown on FW and
HW; postdiscal lines lack pale light tan marginally; postdiscal and sub-
marginal lines converge at anal angle.

HOLOTYPE FEMALE: REPUBLICA DOMINICANA: PROVINCIA
DE LA VEGA: Buena Vista, 11 km NW Jarabacoa, 640 m, 31.xii.1980 (C. J.
Jimenez), ex colln. A. Schwartz, now in Allyn Museum of Entomology,
Florida State Museum.

PARATYPES: Both from Reptblica Dominicana: Prov. de Santiago
Rodriguez: 19 km SW Moncion, 610 m (AS — Albert Schwartz collection
— 8777, 6833), 2 females, 13.viii.1982, 3.viii.1981, F. Gali.

Comparisons: The FW length of C. batesi is much smaller (11-16; 14.0)
than that of C. aleucosticha (15-17; 16.3). The diameter of the UNFW
ocellus in C. batesi is 2.3-3.2 (2.8), whereas that of C. aleucosticha is
3.2-4.2, much larger than that of C. batesi. In both species, the number of
“pupils” in the HW ocellus is modally 1, and in the FW ocellus modally 2.
The number of preocellar white dots in 0-2 (mode 3) in C. batesi; in the 3 C.

16 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

aleucosticha, there are 1 to 3 dots, each specimen having a different count
(no mode).

Comparison with female C. hysius shows that that species and C.
aleucosticha resemble each other in FW length (15-17 in C. aleucosticha,
14-18 in C. hysius; the means differ slightly (16.3 versus 16.1) but the short
series of C. aleucosticha cannot be validly compared with the very long
series of C. hysius. The diameter of the FW ocellus has a lower mean (2.9) in
C. hysius than in C. aleucosticha (3.6), although the extremes overlap
broadly (2.3-3.8 versus 3.2-4.2). Four characteristics differentiate the two
species with ease: (1) UNHW ocellus with only 1 “pupil” in C. aleucosticha,
with 3-6 (mode 4) in C. hysius; (2) FW cell red patch not truncated by a
brown line across the cell distally in C. aleucosticha; cell red patch truncated
by a brown transverse cell line in C. hysius; (3) submarginal and postdiscal
lines converge at HW angle in C. aleucosticha, but do not converge in C.
hysius; (4) postdiscal lines without pale lines marginally in C. aleucosticha;
postdiscal lines with pale lines marginally in C. hysius.

It is unfortunate that none of the C. aleucosticha is a male. We suspect
that the male genitalia of C. aleucosticha are much like those of C. hysius
rather than like those of syntopic C. batesi.

Etymology: The name aleucosticha is derived from the Greek alpha
privative, meaning “without”, “leukos” meaning “white”, and “stichos”
meaning “line”, in reference to the absence of pale postdiscal white accom-
panying lines in C. aleucosticha.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION — As our knowledge of Hispaniolan Calisto
has increased, the number of species-taxa has increased proportionately. In-
sofar as we now know, there are no Calisto that the north and south islands
have in common except C. pulchella Lathy, and that species appears to be a
very recent arrival on the south island from the north. Certainly C. hysius
and C. batesi are a pair, as are C. chrysaoros Bates and C. galii Schwartz
(Schwartz, 1983). But the amount of differentiation, due to the length of
time of separation of the populations of the two islands, is greater than one
might suppose. The genitalic differences between C. batesi and C. hysius are
more striking than are those between C. chrysaoros and C. galii; in both
cases, however, there are chromatic details and pattern differences that sug-
gest that each member of these species-pairs is a distinct biological entity
(species).

In the case of C. batesi, C. hysius, and C. aleucosticha, a logical scenario
for this trio of species is that C. batesi evolved on the north island and C.
hysius on the south island, the two populations separated by the interisland
marine strait that is now the xeric Cul de Sac-Valle de Neiba plain.
However, C. hysius invaded the north island and differentiated there into C.
aleucosticha. On the other hand, C. batesi has invaded the south island
(probably relatively very recently) and has differentiated only very slightly

No. 1, 1986] CORREA AND SCHWARTZ — THE STATUS OF CALISTO 17

there, not even to a degree that might be recognized nomenclatorially at the
subspecies level.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS — We wish to thank Frank Gali for the loan of material in his collection
and for the photograph of the holotype of C. aleucosticha. The junior author likewise is grateful
for the field assistance of Frank Gali, Kurt M. Iketani, and Joel W. Raburn in the Republica
Dominicana.

Specimens examined: (all in the collection of Albert Schwartz, except those marked FG, in
the collection of Frank Gali. M = male, F = female).

C. batesi: Haiti: Nord: 5.9 km S Dondon, 366 m, M; 3.7 km W Plaisance, 305 m, F; l’Ar-
tibonite: 1.6 km E Carrefour Marmelade, 854 m, 14 M, 5 F; Republica Dominicana: Dajabon:
Los Cerezos, 12 km NW Rio Limpio, 580 m, F; La Estrelleta: 2 km NE Puesto Piramide 204,
1586 m, M; La Laguna, 10 km S Elias Pita, 732 m, M; 15 km S Elias Pifa, 976 m, 2 M, 2 F; 21
km S Elias Pima, 1464 m, F; Santiago Rodriguez: Loma Leonor, 19 km SW Moncion, 610 m, 6
M; Loma Leonor, 18 km SW Moncion, 534 m, 3 M; La Vega; Giiaigiii, S La Vega, 336 m, 2M,
F; La Palma, 19 km W Jayaco, 1007 m, 5 M, 2 F; 10 km W Jayaco, 915 m, F; 1 km E El Rio,
1037 m, F; 11 km SE Constanza, 1586 m, F; 12 km NE Constanza, 1220 m, 10 M, 2 F; 10 km
SSE Constanza, 1647 m, F; 6 km SSE Constanza, 1403 m, 3 M, F; 1 km S Constanza, 1098 m, 4
M, 4 F; Buena Vista, 11 km NE Jarabacoa, 640 m, 5 M, F; 10 km NW La Horma, 1496 m, F;
Duarte: 10 km SE Tenares, 183 m, 5 M, 4 F; Samand: 10.2 km W Samana, 61 m, 2 M; 11.1 km
NE Sanchez, 244 m, 2 M; 4.5 km E Samana, 2 M, F; El Seibo: 11 km NW Hato Mayor, 122 m,
M, F; Distrito Nacional: 30 km NW Santo Domingo, 122 m, 2 M; Monte Plata: 8 kn W
Esperalvillo, 92 m, M; 11 km NW Cambita Garabitas, 672 m, M; 6 km NW Cambita Garabitas,
488 m, 4M, F; Peravia: 6 km W La Horma, 1159 m, 3 F; Azua: 4 km S Peralta, 366 m, F; 5 km
SW Monte Bonito, 702 m, M; Independencia: 14 km N Los Pinos, 1159 m, 4 M, 4 F; 21 km N Los
Pinos, 1708 m, F; Pedernales: 0.6 km SE Los Arroyos, 1098 m, 7 M, F; 23 km NE Cabo Rojo, 488
m, M, F; Las Abejas, 11 1m NW Aceitillar, 1220 m, 3M (1 FG), F (FG); Las Abejas, 12 km NW
Acetillar, 1129 m, 5 F (3 FG).

C. hysius: Haiti: l'Ouest: Boutilliers Rd., 854-915 m, 4 M, 2 F; Peneau, 1.1 km S Furcy, 1464
m, 5M, F; 0.3 km NE Obléon, 1678 m, 7 M, 5 F; 17.0 km S Dufort, new Jacmel Rd., 702 m, M;
1.6 km N Beloc, 702 m, 2M, 2 F; 1.6 km N Decouzé, 702 m, 2 M; 2.1 km S Decouzé, 640 m, M;
Sud: 14.1 km N Cavaillon, 366 m, 6 M, F; 26.1 km N Cavaillon, 610-671 m, 5 M, 3F; 40.0kmN
Cavaillon, 580 m, M; 6.6 km SW Paillant, 793 m, M; 6.7 km SW Paillant, 854 m, M; Republica
Dominicana: Pedernales: 0.6 km SE Los Arroyos, 1098 m, 7 M, 4 F; 1 km N Cabeza de Agua,
275 m, F (FG); El Mulito, 21 km N Pedernales, 275 m, 5 M; 1 km S La Altagracia, + 534m, M,
2 F (FG); Las Abejas, 12 km NW Aceitillar, 1129 m, 9 M (1 FG), 2 F (FG); Las Abejas, 11 km
NW Aceitillar, 1220 m, 2 M; Barahona: Polo, 702 m, 8 M (2 FG), 2 F; 3km NNE Polo, 854 m, 2
M, 2 F; 20 km SE Cabral, 946 m, M (FG); 22 km SW Barahona, 1098 m, 4M, 2 F (1 FG); 12km
SW Barahona, 427 m, M, 2 F; 8 km NW Paraiso, 153 m, 4 M (1 FG); 9 km NW Enriquillo, 671
m, 12M, 4F.

LITERATURE CITED

Bates, M. 1935. The satyrid genus Calisto. Occ. Papers Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 8:229-248.

Maerz, A., AND M. R. Pau. 1950. A dictionary of color. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York,
pp. vii, 1-23, 137-208, 56 pls.

MicHener, C. D. 1943. A review of the genus Calisto (Lepidoptera, Satyrinae). Amer. Mus.
Novitates 1236:1-6.

Mounrog, E. G. 1950. The systematics of Calisto (Lepidoptera, Satyrinae), with remarks on
the evolutionary significance of the genus. J. New York. Entomol. Soc. 58(4):211-240.

Ritty, N. D. 1975. A field guide to the butterflies of the West Indies. New York Times Book
Co., pp. 1-224.

18 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

ScHwartz, A. 1980. The herpetogeography of Hispaniola, West Indies. Stud. Fauna Curacao

and Carib. Is. 61(189):86-127.
. 1983. A new Hispaniolan Calisto (Satyridae). Bull. Allyn Mus. Entomol. 80:1-10.

Florida Sci. 49(1):11-18. 1986.

Accepted: September 14, 1984.

Biological Sciences

A NEW SUBSPECIES OF SYNAPTE MALITIOSA
(LEPIDOPTERA: HESPERIIDAE) FROM HISPANIOLA

() ALBERT SCHWARTZ AND ‘?)WILLIAM W. SOMMER

‘Miami-Dade Community College, North Campus, Miami, FL 33167,
and ‘?)215 Riverside Ave., Theresa, NY 13691

AssTract: A new subspecies of the skipper Synapte malitiosa is described, based on a series of
60 specimens from Hispaniola, West Indies.

ScHwaRtTz and coworkers (1985) first reported the occurrence of the skip-
per Synapte malitiosa Herrich-Schaffer (commonly called The Drab; Riley,
1975:181) on the Antillean island of Hispaniola. These workers studied seven

No. 1, 1986] SCHWARTZ AND SOMMER— A NEW SUBSPECIES FROM HISPANIOLA 19

specimens from three localities in the Republica Dominicana; two of these
localities are in the Provincia de Barahona, and the other in the Provincia de
la Altagracia, some 260 km to the east of the former. They stated, “We
suspect that the Hispaniolan Synapte are an undescribed subspecies,
endemic to that island” (Schwartz et al.) This conclusion was based on the
fact that the new material did not agree with plates of Synapte malitiosa
malitiosa in Brown and Heineman (1972) or in Riley (1975). The type-
locality of the species is Cuba, and there are 5 subspecies on the continental
mainland; S. m. malitiosa is known only from the islands of Cuba and
Jamaica.

Cuban specimens of this small, drab skipper are apparently rare in
American collections. Bates (1935) cited only 6 specimens from the provinces
of Oriente and Las Villas. We have been able to locate four of these (2 males,
2 females) in the collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Har-
vard University, and we have compared these Cuban topotypes with
Hispaniolan material. As suspected, the latter differ from the former.
Moreover, we now have many more Hispaniolan specimens (60 from 13
localities). Accordingly, we here propose that the Hispaniolan population be
called

Synapte malitiosa adoceta, new subspecies (Figs. 1 and 2).

I

Fic. 1. Synapte m. adoceta, holotype female, UP.

Dracnosis — Males: FW (forewing) length 13-16 mm (x = 14.0; N = 15); UPFW (upper
side forewing) dark brown, with a blackish diagonal bar paralleling the costal margin and
following the cell apically into the spaces from R1 to M3, where it is rather clearly defined, and
basally to the body, its posterior margin in Cu2-2A; along its posterior margin, a paler (tan) area
from Cul-Cu2 and filling Cu2-2A, but sharply contrasting along its anal edge with the dark
brown UPFW scaling. UPHW (upper side hindwing) uniformly dark brown, concolor with

20 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Fic. 2. Synapte m. adoceta, holotype female, UN.

UPFW scales. UNFW brown, with dark UPFW diagonal cell bar indicated but smudged, the
UNFW between the bar and the costal margin overlaid heavily with ochraceous scales, and a
small triangular patch of similarly colored scales in M3-Cul (apex of triangle) and Cul-Cu2 (base
of triangle); UNHW (under side hindwing) with an ochraceous wash but without dark edges or
any transverse markings, and thus unpatterned (one male with a very vague transverse brownish
UNHW bar).

Females: FW length 14-16 mm (x = 15.7; N = 12); UP like males, except one female has
the costal edge of the UPFW similarly colored (tan) as the postcellular bar. UNHW like males
and without pattern.

HOLOTYPE. REPUBLICA DOMINICANA: PROVINCIA DE LA ALTAGRACIA: 16 km
NE La Romana, 61 m, 17.vi.1981, female, W.W. Sommer (ex colln. W. W. Sommer, no. 683),
now in the collection of the Allyn Museum of Entomology, Florida State Museum.

PARATYPES (all from the Reptblica Dominicana and in the collection of Albert Schwartz
[AS] unless otherwise indicated): La Altagracia: 6694, 16 km NE La Romana, 61 m, 1 male,
30.vii.1981, FG; Sdnchez Ramirez: 12531, 1 km NE Las Lagunas, 183 m, 1 female, 3.iii.1984,
RWV,;; Santiago: 10861, Rio Bao, 8 km SE Montones Abajo, 488 m, 1 male, 1.viii.1983, AS; La
Vega: 10990, Buena Vista, 11 km NE Jarabacoa, 640 m, 1 male, 1.viii.1983, JWR; Independen-
cia: 10390, 10396, 10398, 10404, 7 km NE El Aguacate, 519 m, 2 males, 2 females, 14.vii.1983,
AS; 10435-38, 10444, 10446, 7 km NE El Aguacate, 519 m, 3 males, 3 females, 15.vii.1983, AS;
11119-23, 4-7 km NE El Aguacate, 519-732 m, 11.viii.1983, AS; 11538-41, 4-7 km NE El
Aguacate, 519-732 m, 3 males, 1 female, 11.x.1983, AS; 11660-11661, 7 km NE El Aguacate, 519
m, 1 male, 1 female, 15.x.1983, AS; Barahona: 11189, El] Limon, summit, Sierra Martin Garcia,
976-1037 m, 1 male, 13.viii.1983, PEA; 10335, west slope, Sierra Martin Garcia, 640 m, 1
female, 9.vii.1983, JWR; 11210A, west slope, Sierra Martin Garcia, 488-534 m, 1 female,
13. viii. 1983, PEA; 9655, Polo, 702 m, 1 female, 24.vii.1982, FG; FG 620, 12 km SW Barahona,
427 m, 1 male, 9.vii.1983, FG; 8401, 8403-04, FG 705-06, 8 km NW Paraiso, 153 m, 4 males, 1
female, 28.vii.1982, FG, AS; 11606-07, 11609-11, 11616-17, 11620, 8 km NW Paraiso, 153 m, 6
males, 2 females, 14.x.1983, JWR, AS; 13189, 18193-200, 8 km NW Paraiso, 153 m, 7 males, 2
females, 3.iv.1984, RWH, AS; 13283, 13285, 13291-92, 13296-97, 8 km NW Paraiso, 153 m, 5
males, 1 female, 6.iv.1984, AS; 10264, 9 km NW Enriquillo, 671 m, 1 female, 5.vii.1983, AS.

COMPARISONS: Synapte m. adoceta primarily requires comparison with S. m. malitiosa
from Cuba. (Brown and Heineman, 1972:396, listed the mainland subspecies as pecta Evans,
puma Evans, pericles Méschler, equa Evans, and antistia Plétz; these all differ from S. m.

22 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Howe, W. H. (ed.) 1975. The Butterflies of North America. Doubleday & Co., Inc., N.Y.: pp.
xiii + 633.

Pye, R. M. 1981. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Butterflies. A. A.
Knopf, New York, pp. 916.

Ritey, N. D. 1975. A Field Guide to the Butterflies of the West Indies. New York Times Book
Co., New York, pp. 224.

ScHwartz, A., W. W. SoMMER, AND F. Gaui. 1985. Synapte malitiosa (Lepidoptera, Hesperii-
dae) on Hispaniola. Florida Sci. 48(1):xx.

Florida Sci. 49(1):18-22. (1986).

Accepted: November 13, 1984.

Biological Science

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND BIASED PRIMARY SEX
RATIO OF THE EVENING BAT, NYCTICEIUS HUMERALIS

(1) JAMes R. BAIN AND (2) STEPHEN R. HUMPHREY

(1) Division of Medical Products, W. L. Gore & Associates, Inc.
1500 N. Fourth St., Flagstaff, AZ 86001 and
(2) Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611

Asstract: The social unit of Nycticeius humeralis is a group of philopatric females that mates
with a smaller, stable group of males. Young males disperse from the natal roost. Nondispersal of
young females leads to matrilineal recruitment. Nursery populations thus appear to be kin groups
in which kin selection could occur. Neonatal sex ratio is biased toward males. The two sexes of
adults differ in their investment in parental care and in the variation in their reproductive suc-
cess. These patterns are consistent with a model of natural selection of parental ability to vary the
sex ratio of offspring.

THE purpose of this paper is to present evidence (Bain 1981) for poly-
gyny, female philopatry, and biased neonatal sex ratio in the evening bat
(Nycticeius humeralis). Consistent female philopatry without apparent im-
migration of unrelated females should result in matrilineal inheritance.
Relatedness within nursery populations should establish demic microstruc-
ture across the species’ range (Wright, 1931, 1978), which could favor the
spread of behavioral traits favoring kin. Polygyny indicates that the sexes
differ in life history patterns and are subject to different selective pressures;
these differences could favor selection for an imbalanced sex ratio at birth
(Trivers and Willard, 1973).

No. 1, 1986] SCHWARTZ AND SOMMER— A NEW SUBSPECIES FROM HISPANIOLA 21

malitiosa and S. m. adoceta in details of pattern and coloration, especially on the UNHW;; see
Howe, 1975, Pl. 91, Fig. 37, and Pyle, 1981, Fig. 230.) Males of S. m. malitiosa and S. m.
adoceta are similar, except that the Cuban males are much paler (tannish brown) dorsally, most
probably due to fading (collected in 1930 and before). Male S. m. adoceta reach a FW length of
16 mm (14 mm in both Cuban males). Females of the two subspecies differ strikingly. Two
Cuban females are uniform pale brown above and with no indication of pattern. The UN (under
sides) are paler and patternless. Female S. m. adoceta are much darker and have the “male pat-
tern” of the FW well expressed. Hispaniolan females average longer FW lengths (14-16 mm in 10
specimens; x = 15.7) in contrast to 14 and,15 mm in two female Cuban S. m. malitiosa,
although the latter sample is very small and does not allow for better mensural comparison.

EtyMmo.ocy — The name adoceta is from the Greek for “unexpected;” the
generic name Synapte is feminine and adoceta is a modifying adjective.

REMARKS — There remains the problem of the difference between the
Riley (1975) plate (Pl. 23, Fig. 11) of a specimen of S. m. malitiosa from Rio
Cano, Cuba, and specimens from Cuba. The plate shows a male that is
boldly and contrastingly marked on the UPFW, and quite boldly marked on
the UN as well. The Cuban males we have examined are not contrastingly
colored, and none shows the paler anal fold area on the UNHW that the
Riley plate demonstrates. The ground color in the specimens likewise is more
dull (matte) than that in the plate. Although all the Riley hesperiid plates are
much too pale in ground colors, in the case of the Synapte illustration, the
condition is reversed, and the plate is much too contrasting when compared
directly with specimens. In fact, the Riley plate is much more different in
color and boldness of pattern from S. m. adoceta than the two Cuban males
examined. Riley (1975:181) also stated that “male only with a tapering dull
fulvous stripe from middle of inner margin to base of space 3 [ = M3-Cul].”
From this description, Hispaniolan skippers differ in that both sexes show
the same UPFW pattern, and the markings ascribed by Riley to males only
occur in both sexes of S. m. adoceta.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS — We wish to acknowledge the loan of Dominican Synapte to us by Frank
Gali, and we recognize once more the pleasure of his company in the field on Hispaniola. The
figures in the present paper are likewise Gali’s work, and we thank him for his patience. In addi-
tion to Gali, the senior author is in the debt of P. E. Amador, R. W. Henderson, J. W. Raburn,
and R. W. Wisor, all of whom were not only competent field companions but also secured
specimens of S. m. adoceta. Specimens of Cuban Synapte (as well as other comparative material)
were lent to us through the courtesy of Alfred Newton and Scott E. Miller of the Museum of
Comparative Zoology; without these rare specimens, the status of the Hispaniolan Synapte
would have remained uncertain.

SPECIMENS EXAMINED — (other than S. m. adoceta): Synapte m. malitiosa: Cuba: Provincia de
Oriente: Turquino mass, east Cuba, 1067 m, (female); Sierra Maestra, east Cuba, 305 m,

(female); “Cuba,” 2 males; S. m. pericles: Tobago I.: (3 males); Honduras: Rosario Mine (1
female).

LITERATURE CITED

Bates, M. 1935. The butterflies of Cuba. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 78(65):65-258.
Brown, F. W., AND B. HEINEMAN. 1972. Jamaica and Its Butterflies. E. W. Classey, Ltd., Lon-
don, pp. xv + 478.

No. 1, 1986] BAIN AND HUMPHREY — THE EVENING BAT 23

MATERIALS AND MerHops—Observations were made at two nursery roosts of N. humeralis.
The main one, studied from 1976 through 1981, occupied vertical crevices in the rafters of a pole
barn near Hague, Alachua County, Florida. The second was in a house attic and adjacent pole
barn near Lee, Madison County, Florida. This population was exterminated shortly after we
found it. Our results refer to the Hague population unless otherwise noted.

Bats were captured by hand or by gently extracting them from crevices with long, blunt steel
forceps. Captures were made in late afternoon. We measured postabsorptive mass with a triple-
beam balance. Individuals were classified as juveniles or adults on the basis of size, pelage, and
the degree of ossification of the phalangeal epiphyses. Bats were banded with numbered,
aluminum #2A lipped bat bands (Gey Band and Tag Company, Norristown, Pennsylvania
19401) for individual identification in the hand and with size X3 plastic bands (A. C. Hughes,
1 High Street, Hampton Hill, Middlesex, TW12 1NA, England) covered with reflective tape for
unobtrusive observation. Tape color and side of banding allowed recognition of sex and year-
class of roosting and flying bats illuminated with a rechargeable mining lamp. Usually >90% of
the bats were visible in the roost by this method.

ResuLtts—The Hague roost was occupied by a population of approxi-
mately 30 adult female N. humeralis for most of the year and was predictably
vacant only in mid-April. Reproductive females arrived during late April
and early May. Recaptures of pregnant adults that had been banded as juve-
niles the previous year confirmed the female philopatry known in northern
nurseries (Humphrey and Cope, 1970; Watkins and Shump, 1981). Mini-
mum annual survival rates were comparable to those published by Hum-
phrey and Cope (1970). Of the 33 adult females and 11 juvenile females
banded at Hague in 1976, 52% and 48%, respectively, were recaptured
there a year later. By 1978 the bats seemed wary and quickly flew when
disturbed, often avoiding capture. Nevertheless, seven females were cap-
tured in all 3 years from 1976 to 1978.

Young evening bats were born synchronously in late May. All females
sampled (n = 64) at the Hague nursery were reproductive. Palpation of preg-
nant females indicated twins in every case. Hague females known to be 1
year old in 1977 and 1978 had litters of the same size as those of their elders,
indicating no variation in age-specific natality. However, a Lee female gave
birth to triplets shortly after capture, before palpation was attempted.

Sex ratios of evening bats sampled within a few days after birth are sum-
marized in Table 1. Samples of older juveniles were excluded from the table
to preclude bias from differential preweaning mortality or dispersal of newly
flying young. The tabulated samples showed a consistent bias towards male
offspring (sign test). Deviation from the expected binomial distribution was
significant for the pooled samples and one individual sample, and probabili-
ties between 0.05 and 0.1 occurred for three other samples. In our only size-
able sample of the body mass of neonates, examined at Lee on 21 May 1977,
the mass of young females (X = 2.47 g) did not differ from mass of young
males (X = 2.45, t=0.13, P>0.05, d.f. =121).

After about 3 weeks of rapid growth, the young began to fly. A sudden
increase in routine counts of the evening flight was noted in the third week of
June. Inclusion of newly flying young in the flights was obvious from their
small size and lack of grace. For the next 3 weeks, foraging often took place

24 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 49

TABLE 1. Sex ratio at or near birth in Nycticeius humeralis. The litters reported by Gates and
Jones were born in captivity. Data are lacking from northern nurseries.

Number Number

of of Percent Sign

Source Location Date males females females P* test**

Hooper, 1939 Lee Co., 24 May 1938 53 39 42 0.06 +
Alabama

Gates, 1941 Rapides Parish, ca. 1-6 June 6 3 33 0.09 +
Louisiana 1940

Jones, 1967 ‘Franklin Co., 25 May-4 June 16 12 43 0.17 +
Mississippi 1965

This study Madison Co., 21 May 1977 71 56 44 0.08 +
Florida

This study Alachua Co., 27 May 1976 10 8 44 0.24 +
Florida

This study Alachua Co., 24 May 1977 15 6 29 0.01 +
Florida

Totals 171 124 42 0.01

*Probability of as much or more deviation from 0.5 frequency of males in a binomial distribution with a
sample size of n.
**For the sign test, + = more males than females.

in small groups, consisting of one large bat and one or two small bats. By the
first week of July, flight counts showed that the population had diminished
by nearly half, and it remained at this intermediate size of the rest of the
summer. Juvenile males examined at Hague on 14 June 1977 had descended
testes and epididymides swollen with stored sperm. These animals appeared
to be reproductively mature at an age of less than one month. Soon after
beginning to fly in late June, all juvenile males banded at Hague in 1976 and
1977 (n= 18) deserted the roost and were never seen again in the roost nor
foraging nearby. Similarly, no recaptures at natal roosts occurred of juvenile
males banded in other studies (Humphrey and Cope, 1970, n = 41); Easterla
and Watkins, 1970, n=297). By contrast, juvenile females remained at
Hague, foraging with their mothers after recruitment. They evidently con-
tinued to nurse for about 3 weeks longer, since milk could be expressed from
the mammae of captured adult females until mid-July.

Most adult female N. humeralis showed little loss of condition (Table 2)
during 3 weeks of lactation, the most expensive phase of mammalian repro-
duction (e.g., Migula, 1969). The two mothers showing greatest weight loss
in Table 2 looked emaciated on 5 November 1977, and their teeth were worn
almost to the gums. During the same period, other Hague adult females had
gained 10-20% in body mass. These two bats were never seen again. Their
extreme tooth wear may have contributed to weight loss during lactation
and failure to gain weight prior to winter torpor. The third female that lost
much weight during lactation, however, subsequently regained 29% of her
early summer weight by 5 November, survived the winter, and bore twins
the next summer.

No. 1, 1986] BAIN AND HUMPHREY — THE EVENING BAT 25

TABLE 2. Pair-matched observations of body mass (g) of adult female N. humeralis at Hague
on 14 June (lactation) and 6 July (late lactation/postlactation) 1977.

14 June 6 July Percent change
10.44 10.85 a Seo ees)
10.45 10.80 33:30
11.78 12.15 + 3.14
11.00 Nike + 1.91
10.50 10.67 + 1.62
11.14 11.27 + 1.17
11.35 11.45 + 0.88
10.55 10.62 + 0.66
10.21 10.20 — 0.01
10.26 10.24 — 0.19
10.17 9.80 — 3.64
10.55 9.81 — 7.01
11.05 10.13 — 8.33
10.47 9:25 — 11.65
X+SD 10.71 +0.48 10.60 + 0.77 — 1.01

In previous studies, adult male N. humeralis rarely have been found in
the northern half of the species’ range, but they have been noted commonly
in the southern half (see review of published data in Bain, 1981). Conse-
quently, discovery of a single adult male (male A) roosting at the small
Hague colony on 14 June 1977 aroused our interest. Five adult males were
captured at Hague during the next several years. None had been marked as
born at Hague. Each adult male roosted alone, never occurring among the
cluster of females and juveniles. Male A was present sporadically from the
time juvenile males were departing through early autumn. The other adult
males were first noted at the roost in early October 1977. Presence of these
other males at Hague depended on the absence of male A (Yates’ corrected
G =4.95, 0.05<P<0.01). In 42 inspections of the roost during autumn-
winter 1977-78, male A was the only male present on 14 occasions. On the 28
occasions when male A was absent, another male was present in 9 cases.
Other males never co-occurred with male A. We observed no aggressive in-
teractions between free-ranging males, but we seldom saw more than one at
a time. On the two occasions when more than one of males B-E roosted at
Hague, they were separated by a distance of approximately 20 m.

Mating apparently began in October and occurred through winter.
Before dawn on 2 December 1977, two banded N. humeralis, male A and an
adult female, were captured roosting together, away from the other bats.
Male A had scrotal testes and his penis was noticeably distended. The female
had protruding genitalia that were moist with what appeared to be semen;
the presence of sperm was not confirmed on this occasion. This female was
known to have given birth at Hague in 1976 and 1977. At no other time was
she seen roosting away from a cluster of females. During the night of 8
February 1981, a cluster of male C and two unbanded females were cap-

96 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

tured. At this time, the pole barn was not in regular use as a female dayroost,
and these bats had not been present earlier that afternoon. The genitalia of
the females were moist with semen. The male had scrotal testes, his penis
was distended, and his glans penis was exposed. We confirmed presence of
live spermatozoa from vaginal smears, which were suspended in physiologi-
cal saline, treated with methylcellulose and a Feulgen stain, and examined
with high power light microscopy. At this time, male C was at least 4.7 years
old. Mating was suspected from other observations in which we did not dis-
turb the animals.

During autumn all N. humeralis at Hague became obese, as reported by
Baker and coworkers (1968). The bats occasionally foraged during winter,
and they were torpid when the weather was cool. Weight loss of males dur-
ing winter was remarkable. Male C lost 40.5% of his body mass between 11
October 1977 (15.95 g) and 4 March 1978 (9.49 g). Males C and E (8.32 g)
appeared very emaciated when captured on 4 March 1978. Similarly, male
A lost 40.4% of his mass and became emaciated between 9 November 1977
(13.68 g) and 21 March 1978 (8.16 g). In less than 3 weeks of November
1977, male B lost 9.7% of his mass. These losses may have been affected by
the winter mating activities of males.

From December through January the number of female N. humeralis
roosting at Hague dwindled, so weight loss of females during winter could
not be compared with that of males. Single bats believed to be females
roosted in the pole barn in February and early March. Apparently the ani-
mals had not undertaken a lengthy migration, but instead were using an
alternate roost nearby. Local presence of evening bats was shown by their
occasional use of the pole barn as a dayroost, the observed copulation in
early February, and sporadic foraging in the vicinity of the pole barn on
warm evenings. Perhaps the bats chose a tree hollow or other enclosed, ther-
mally stable structure less exposed than the pole barn crevices, to endure late
winter. The nursery group returned in April.

Discusston—The natural history of the evening bat is poorly known.
Definitive documentation of this species’ dispersal and breeding pattern in
the field (whether by study of interpopulation movements or of genetic
markers) may be hindered by the difficulty of finding contiguous popula-
tions. Additionally, N. humeralis populations are small, so observations are
more likely to be anecdotal than quantitative. A third constraint on research
is this species’ sensitivity to disturbance in its roosts. Whenever possible, we
used visual observations rather than capturing the animals, hoping the
previously documented philopatry of females would prevent our work from
being disruptive. However, the main population we studied declined during
3 years of research, and in the fourth year the nursery roost was not in-
habited (though it was reoccupied subsequently). As a consequence of failure

No. 1, 1986] BAIN AND HUMPHREY — THE EVENING BAT 27

to find the alternate and neighboring roosts, small sample sizes, infrequent
sampling, and abandonment of the site, our data on the mating system of
this species are indicative rather than definitive.

Social organization: From the pattern of habitation at Hague, we infer
two features of the social organization of N. humeralis. First, males are poly-
gynous. Juvenile males disperse from the maternal activity-range soon after
they become volant. Panmixis is effected by juvenile males that subsequently
reproduce elsewhere. Technically, the mating system appears to be a form of
resource defense polygyny (Emlen and Oring, 1977), because males appear
to be associated more strongly with the roost than with females. Because N.
humeralis exhibits no paternal care of young, male fitness is a function of
how many females the male impregnates each year. The degree of control
achieved by male A was not ascertained, but at least two opportunities
existed for other males to breed. One was the irregular visits of other males;
the sexually active male C, for example, frequented the roost intermittently
from at least 1978 to 1981. Male A occupied the roost on 61% of the occa-
sions when any male was present, so other males had frequent access without
interference from male A. The other was apparent use of an alternate roost
by females during winter, indicating that another male could have been the
primary breeder there. Hence the ability of a single male N. humeralis to
limit contact of resident females with other males appears to be about the
same as in harems of the red deer (Cervus elaphus) and much less than in the
toque monkey (Macaca sinica), as described by Clutton-Brock and coworkers
(1982) and Dittus (1979).

Second, females are philopatric, returning to their natal roosts year after
year to produce offspring. This and previous studies of marked juvenile N.
humeralis (Humphrey and Cope, 1970; Easterla and Watkins, 1970;
Watkins and Shump, 1981) lacked evidence of females dispersing to repro-
duce elsewhere; first-year mortality was not appreciably less than adult mor-
tality, and influxes of unmarked 1-year-olds did not appear in the popula-
tions. Female philopatry and breeding at the natal roost indicate that re-
cruitment is matrilineal. Females mate with a small, stable group of immi-
grant males. After a nursery roost is occupied for a number of years, the fe-
males should be closely related—a kin group. This inference should be tested
by study of genetic markers. A population occupying a cavity in a mature
cypress tree (Taxodium distichum, a frequently reported species of roost
tree; Harper, 1927; Davis, 1944) may possess kin group continuity for
several centuries.

Female philopatry occurs in every well-studied colonial species of bat in
the eastern United States (e.g., Humphrey and Cope, 1976; Tuttle, 1976)
and is so commonplace a pattern that its occurrence in Myotis sodalis and
Eptesicus fuscus (J. B. Cope and S. R. Humphrey, unpublished data) has
been left out of published reports. Similarly, Humphrey and Kunz (1976)

28 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

omitted their observations of female philopatry and of the presence of one or
two adult males in nursery populations of Plecotus townsendii. As suggested
for N. humeralis, the best-documented cases of bat philopatry demonstrate
no recruitment of unrelated females. Among 2401 immature female Myotis
lucifugus banded in 50 nursery populations in Indiana, no subsequent recap-
tures in the maternity period occurred at other than the natal roost (Hum-
phrey and Cope, 1976). Among 4395 immature female Myotis grisescens
banded in 50 caves in the southeastern United States, recaptures showed no
exceptions to fidelity to maternity sites (Tuttle, 1974).

The matrilineal heritage of such species sets up the preconditions for kin
selection, and behaviors within entire kin groups should be examined for
cooperation or reciprocity. Watkins and Shump (1981) observed that al-
though N. humeralis mothers could discriminate their own offspring from
others, nursing became nonselective after the young became relatively
mobile. If such cooperation benefits kin, the underlying behaviors should
characterize a species if shifting-balance evolution (Wright, 1978) has oc-
curred. Hence natural selection on this basis may result in colony-wide or
species- wide behaviors such as selection of heat-trapping domes for nursery
roosts of M. grisescens (Tuttle, 1975), aggressive nursing from unrelated
mothers by young Tadarida brasiliensis (McCracken, 1984), and group
migration in T. brasiliensis (Constantine, 1967) and Myotis lucifugus (Zim-
merman, 1937).

Male-biased sex ratio: Female fitness in N. humeralis may depend on the
apportionment of reproductive effort in offspring of each sex. Whereas only
a small fraction of male offspring will transmit their genes to other colonies,
the few that do will have great impact; all female offspring that survive will
join and eventually replace their mothers in the bréeding population. Fisher
(1958: 158-160) argued that natural selection normally acts to maintain a 1:1
sex ratio of offspring. Subsequent refinements indicate that a parent could
instead make equal investments in male and female offspring, so an unequal
sex ratio could result (Wilson, 1975:317). The disparity in sex ratio at birth
of N. humeralis may be explicable in terms of the relative investment of
mothers in their male and female offspring.

The following facts and inferences bear on this question. (1) The sexes
are of equal mass at birth. (2) The sexes are born with an average ratio of 58
males to 42 females. Incidentally, the opposite interpretation by Watkins
(1972) of data from Humphrey and Cope (1970), suggesting that female off-
spring are more abundant than males is attributable to the late dates of the
samples in question. Differential dispersal presumably had altered the sex
ratios from the situation at birth. (3) Assuming that each female, regardless
of age, has one litter of two young, each 2.46 g in mass, each female will pro-
duce on the average 2.85 g of male offspring and 2.07 g of female offspring
annually, a 39% greater investment of biomass in male offspring at birth.

No. 1, 1986] BAIN AND HUMPHREY — THE EVENING BAT 29

(4) Maternal care prior to recruitment is probably equally apportioned by
sex. Though young females may experience slightly more rapid postnatal
growth, both sexes become volant at the same time and at a similar size
(Jones, 1967; Watkins and Shump, 1981; our observations). (5) However,
most male offspring disperse at the age of 3-4 weeks whereas female off-
spring have milk available to them for up to 3 weeks longer. Because lacta-
tion is the most expensive phase of reproduction for a female mammal, in-
vestment in the offspring may be equilibrated by the extended period of care
available to female offspring. Such care would tend to favor the daughters’
survival and their maturation to breeding condition by autumn. (6) The
slightly larger size of females among N. humeralis adults (our unpublished
data) may represent growth resulting from prolonged maternal care of
newly recruited female offspring.

Our observations are consistent with the variable maternal-condition
model of parental ability to vary the sex ratio of offspring (Trivers and
Willard, 1973). This model argues that in polygynous mammals, because a
son should gain relatively more than a daughter by being in good condition,
mothers in good condition should produce more sons whereas mothers in
poor condition should produce more daughters. (1) The sexes show a syste-
matic imbalance in loss of condition during their respective periods of maxi-
mum reproductive effort; adult males show extreme deterioration, and most
adult females show little or none. (2) Reproductive success of males is much
more variable than that of females. (3) Adult males invest no energy in pa-
rental care. (4) Neonatal sex ratio is consistently biased toward males.

The maternal-condition hypothesis needs to be tested rigorously before it
can be accepted. Specifically, data are needed on the sex ratio of offspring
produced by mothers whose body conditions are different. More to the
point, progress would be speeded by seeking a mechanism that enables fe-
males to control the sex of their embryos. Because litters of this species
almost invariably number two, differential fetal survival can be ruled out.
Perhaps differential fertilization occurs; litters should be examined for
clumping by sex, and the survival rate of spermatozoa stored in the uterine
mucosa between mating and ovulation should be examined. A focus on re-
productive mechanisms suggests that condition of overwintering females
may be more relevant to the model than our data on condition during lacta-
tion. Additionally, the reader is cautioned that the Trivers and Willard
model is really an ad hoc explanation of our results, and it appears to have no
general applicability to polygynous mammals. We invoke the model by con-
sidering the condition of mothers to be relatively invariant and higher than
would be expected for the average species. Though this could be the case in
view of the genetic implications of the evening bats’ mating system, it was
not envisioned in the model’s formulation. Despite polygyny and variable
habitat quality among territories of red deer and toque monkeys, neonatal
sex ratio does not differ from 50:50 (Clutton-Brock et al., 1982; Dittus,

30 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

1979). In white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), primary sex ratio shifts
in a pattern opposite that predicted by the model, from males toward fe-
males as fecundity rate, maternal age, and litter size increase (Verme, 1983).

Our data are consistent with but not particularly relevant to a second
model. The local resource-competition model (Clark, 1978) argues that, if
non-dispersing daughters compete with their mothers and each other, selec-
tion would favor a sex ratio biased toward sons, which by dispersing offer lit-
tle negative feedback to reproductive success. Unlike the previous model,
this one is supported by the relatively frequent male bias occurring in mam-
mal offspring (evidence in Clark, 1978), and by the fact that males are usu-
ally the dispersing sex of mammals.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS— We thank H. P. Ball, J. J. Belwood, D. A. Edwards, G. W. Foster,
M. Stroppel, K. T. Wilkins, M. L. Wygoda, K. L. Yarnell, and T. L. Zinn for their help in the
field. J. G. Robinson, J. F. Eisenberg, and G. R. Michener refined our thinking with helpful
criticisms of the manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

Bain, J. R. 1981. Roosting ecology of three Florida bats: Nycticeius humeralis, Myotis austrori-
parius, and Tadarida brasiliensis. Unpubl. M.S. thesis, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, 130 pp.

Baker, W. W., S. G. MARSHALL, AND V. B. Baker. 1968. Autumn fat deposition in the evening
bat (Nycticeius humeralis). J. Mammal. 49:314-317.

Cxiark, A. B. 1978. Sex ratio and local resource competition in a prosimian primate. Science
201:163-165.

Cxiutron-Brock, T. H., F. E. Guinness, AND S. D. ALBon. 1982. Red Deer: Behavior and
Ecology of Two Sexes. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago. 368 p.

ConsTANTINE, D. G. 1967. Activity patterns of the Mexican freetailed bat. Univ. New Mexico
Publ. Biol. 7:1-79.

Davis, W. B. 1944. Notes on Mexican mammals. J. Mammal. 25:370-403.

Dittus, W. P. J. 1979. The evolution of behaviors regulating density and age-specific sex ratios
in a primate population. Behaviour 69:265-302.

Easterta, D. A. AND L. Watkins. 1970. Nursery colonies of evening bats, (Nycticeius humeralis)
in northwestern Missouri and southwestern Iowa. Trans. Missouri Acad. Sci. 4:110-117.

EMLEN, S. T. AND L. W. Orne. 1977. Ecology, sexual selection, and the evolution of mating
systems. Science 197:215-223.

FisHER, R. A. 1958. The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection, ed. 2 rev. Dover, New York, 291 p.

Gates, W. H. 1941. A few notes on the evening bat, Nycticeius humeralis (Rafinesque). J. Mam-
mal. 22:53-56.

Harper, F’. 1927. The mammals of the Okefenokee Swamp region of Georgia. Proc. Boston Soc.
Nat. Hist. 38:191-396.

Hooper, E. T. 1939. Notes on the sex ratio in Nycticeius humeralis. J. Mammal. 20:369-370.

Humpurey, S. R. anv J. B. Cope. 1970. Population samples of the evening bat, Nycticeius
humeralis. J. Mammal. 51:399-401.

AND J. B. Cope. 1976. Population ecology of the little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus,
in Indiana and north-central Kentucky. Spec. Publ. Amer. Soc. Mammal. 4:1-81.
AND T. H. Kunz. 1976. Ecology of a Pleistocene relict, the western big-eared bat

(Plecotus townsendii), in the southern Great Plains. J. Mammal. 57:470-494.

Jones, C. 1967. Growth, development, and wing loading in the evening bat, Nycticeius humeralis
(Rafinesque). J. Mammal. 48:1-19.

McCracken, G. F. 1984. Communal nursing in Mexican free-tailed bat maternity colonies.
Science 223:1090-1091.

No. 1, 1986] TESTRAKE ET AL — BRYOPHYTES FROM MANGROVES 31

Micu.a, P. 1969. Bioenergetics of pregnancy and lactation in European common vole. Acta
Theriol. 14:167-179.

Trivers, R. L. anp D. E. Witiarp. 1973. Natural selection of parental ability to vary the sex
ratio of offspring. Science 179:90-92.

Turtte, M. D. 1974. Population ecology of the gray bat (Myotis grisescens). Ph.D. dissert., Univ.
Kansas, Lawrence, 109 pp.

1975. Population ecology of the gray bat (Myotis grisescens): factors influencing early
growth and development. Occas. Papers Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas 36: 1-24.

1976. Population ecology of the gray bat (Myotis grisescens): philopatry, timing and
patterns of movement, weight loss during migration, and seasonal adaptive strategies.
Occas. Papers Mus. Nat. Hist., Univ. Kansas 54:1-38.

VeRME, L. J. 1983. Sex ratio variation in Odocoileus: a critical review. J. Wildl. Manage.
47:573-582.
Warkins, L. C. 1972. Nycticeius humeralis. Mammalian Species 23:1-14.

AND K. A. SHump. 1981. Behavior of the evening bat, Nycticeius humeralis, at a nur-
sery roost. Amer. Midland Nat. 105:258-268.

Witson, E. O. 1975. Sociobiology: the New Synthesis. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass.,
697 pp.
Waricut, S. 1931. Evolution in Mendelian populations. Genetics 16:97-159.

1978. Evolution and the genetics of populations. Vol. 4. Variability within and

among natural populations. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, 580 pp.
ZIMMERMAN, F.. R. 1937. Migration of little brown bats. J. Mammal. 18:363.

Florida Sci. 49(1):22-31. 1986.

Accepted: February 21, 1985.

Biological Sciences

BRYOPHYTES FROM MANGROVES AND ADJACENT
SHORELINE PLANT COMMUNITIES OF
TAMPA BAY, FLORIDA

(DPD. TeStTrake,‘R. B. LassiTer,‘J. A. LAssITER, AND ‘?)D. A. BREIL

(1) Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620
and (2) Department of Natural Sciences, Longwood College, Farmville, VA 23901

Asstract: In several mangrove and shoreline plant communities in the Tampa Bay area
bryophytes were found in all of the sites examined. Thirty taxa of both mosses and liverworts
were collected from a variety of soil and corticolous substrates including Avicennia germinans
(L.) L., Conocarpus erecta L. and Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. f. The occurrence of
bryophytes in coastal plant communities which are influenced by maritime environmental condi-
tions is briefly reviewed.

32 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Mossss and liverworts constitute a relatively minor component of most
coastal ecosystems in Florida. Hoffman (1971) indicated that study of
ecological distributions of bryophytes seems pertinent, especially because
they are part of the biotic community. They can reflect variations in
microclimatic gradients not necessarily reflected by the rest of the vegeta-
tion. Hoffman and Kazmierski (1969) suggested that height variability and
degree of exposure of bryophytes may have significant environmental in-
dicator value. In addition these plants co-occur and interact with grasses
and forbs, and often form temporal associations in many mesic successional
communities (Crocker and Major, 1955; Drury, 1956; Viereck, 1966). They
may become the major component of the understory floor in some forest
communities (Foster and Morrison, 1976) and form pure stands in some
habitats (Harper, 1977). They also can represent a significant food resource
to wildlife. But most significantly, they are useful indicators of air pollution
levels (LeBlanc and DeSloover, 1970). Hoffman (unpublished) even suggests
that they may play a small but important role in the overall cycling of ra-
dionuclides in the biotic community.

Typically, bryophytes are not usually collected in shoreline plant com-
munities such as mangroves. Avid bryologists know that coastlines influ-
enced by sea breezes are not places to find lush samples of these miniature
plants. Even so, there have been a few mavericks and from their reports we
learn that some mosses and liverworts are tolerant of coastal environments.
Engel and Schuster (1973) noted some tidal zone hepatics from South Chile.
They suggested that drainage from forested areas directly above the beaches
and the high rainfall of the region are sources of fresh water for these plants,
keeping the salts washed from the thalli of the 36 taxa that they collected.
While information on salt spray and sand dune collections were included in
studies by Boerner and Forman (1975), reports of occurrence of bryophytes
in mangroves are scarcely found in the literature. Grolle (1967) reported a
few liverworts from the mangrove zone of Malaysia while Schuster (1980)
cited several collections that he made from coastal plant communities in
southern Florida. The bryophytes, which have been collected in mangrove
and adjacent shoreline plant communities from several sites in the Tampa
Bay area (Figure 1), are reported in this study initiated in 1980. All of the
samples have been documented in detail, numbered, and deposited in the
University of South Florida herbarium.

REsuLts— The mangrove and shoreline bryoflora of Tampa Bay is
patchy in distribution and represented by only 18 species of leafy liverworts
and 12 species of mosses. These collections are assembled according to site
which are briefly characterized by the dominant plant species. There ap-
pears to be a greater species richness of bryophytes in the shoreline plant
communities of the inter-bay area sites 4 and 5 (Table 1).

1. RATTLESNAKE Key (Manatee County). This beach hammock island is ap-
proximately 910 ha. It has some small oak groves, Quercus virginiana mill.,

No. 1, 1986]

TESTRAKE ET AL — BRYOPHYTES FROM MANGROVES

fests e
82°50 82°30

(

(
( . 28 —
Yb 2s ,

N BAY b
‘4 0 3°

esta hn aS 1
10K <a,
D230

Fic. 1. Collection sites (1-10) of bryophytes from mangrove and adjacent shoreline plant
communities of the Tampa Bay area.

containing cabbage palm, Sabal palmetto (Walt.) Lodd. ex Schultes, and
southern red cedar, Juniperus silicicola (Small) Bailey. Scrub thickets which
included sea grape, Coccoloba uvifera (L.) L., border “salt barrens.” Many
mangroves (Avicennia germinans (L.) L., Rhizophora mangle L. and
Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn f.) fringe the island as well.

Musc1

Bryum capillare Hedw. on Q. virginiana

33

34 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Isopterygium tenerum (Sw.) Mitt. on Q. virginiana and C. uvifera, on sandy
soil and rotten wood
Octoblepharum albidum Hedw. on S. palmetto

HEPATICAE

Cololejeunea minutissima ssp. myriocarpa (Nees & Mont.) Schust. on J. sili-
cicola and Q. virginiana

Lejeunea ulicina ssp. bullata (Tayl.) Schust. on J. silicicola

2. Maprra BickEL Mounp (Manatee County). This shell mound covers about
0.2 ha and is near a residential area. There are a few oak trees, Quercus vir-
giniana mill., gumbo limbo, Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg., and cabbage
palms, Sabal palmetto (Walt.) Lodd. ex Schultes present.

Musc1

Isopterygium tenerum (Sw.) Mitt. on dead oak
Octoblepharum albidum Hedw. on S. palmetto
Stereophyllum radiculosum (Hook.) Mitt. on dead oak

HEPATICAE

Acrolejeunea heterophylla (Evs.) Grolle & Gradst. on Q. virginiana
Cololejeunea minutissima ssp. myriocarpa (Nees & Mont.) Schust. on dead oak
Lejeunea laetevirens Nees & Mont. on dead oak

L. ulicina ssp. bullata (Tayl.) Schust. on dead oak

3. SNAKE Key (Hillsborough County). This is a tidal, coastal isLand (approx-
imately 0.1 ha) with few oak trees, Quercus virginiana mill., and some sea
grapes, Coccoloba uvifera (L.) L. Around its periphery are mangroves, Avi-
cennia germinans (L.) L., Rhizophora mangle L. and Laguncularia race-
mosa (L.) Gaertn. f.

Musci

Isopterygium tenerum (Sw.) Mitt. on dead S. palmetto
Octoblepharum albidum Hedw. on C. uvifera and dead S. palmetto
Syrrhopodon ligulatus Mont. on C. uvifera and dead S. palmetto

4, CocKROACH BAY ENVIRONMENTAL CENTER (Hillsborough County). This is
a preserve of approximately 150 ha containing some tidal ponds bordered
by mangroves, (Avicennia germinans (L.) L., Rhizophora mangle L.,
Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. f. and Conocarpus erecta L.) which
grade up to oaks (Quercus virginiana mill. and Q. nigra L.) and slash pine
(Pinus elliottii Engelm). These plant communities also include Sabal pal-
metto (Walt.) Lodd. ex Schultes and Juniperus silicicola (Small) Bailey. Bra-
zilian pepper, Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi, has invaded the entire area.

Musc1

Isopterygium tenerum (Sw.) Mitt. on S. palmetto, Q. virginiana, soil, rotten
wood

Octoblepharum albidum Hedw. on live and burned S. palmetto, C. erecta
and Q. virginiana and rotten wood

No. 1,

1986] TESTRAKE ET AL — BRYOPHYTES FROM MANGROVES 35

TaBLE 1. Sites in which bryophyte taxa were collected.

Bryophytes Sites

MUSCI
Bryum
B. sp.

Fissidens garberi
Haplocladium microphyllum
Isopterygium tenerum
Octoblepharum albidum

Philono

capillare xX

Ps ms
rs
m4
rs Ps p<

tis longiseta

Sematophyllum adnatum
Stereophyllum radiculosum
Syrrhopodon incompletus
Syrrhopodon ligulatus
Tortella flavovirens

HEPATICAE

Acrolejeunea heterophylla
Chonecolea doellingeri

Cololejeunea cardiocarpa
Cololejeunea minutissima

~ KM KM

Ps Ps

ca as a

ssp. myriocarpa Xx Xx
Cylindrocolea rhizantha
Frullania brittoniae
Frullania kunzei
Frullania inflata
Frullania squarrosa
Lejeunea cardoti
Lejeunea cladogyna
Lejeunea flava
Lejeunea glaucescens
Lejeunea laetevirens xX
Lejeunea minutiloba
Lejeunea ulicina
ssp. bullata XX
Leucolejeunea conchifolia
Mastigolejeunea auriculata

vaca

Mx

rs
ms
va

> >d
DS Dd Dd ee dd dD

mM

Sematophyllum adnatum (Mx.) E.G. Britt. on Q. virginiana, rotten wood
and dead J. silicicola
Syrrhopodon incompletus Schwaegr. on Quercus sp.

HEPATICAE

Acrolejeunea heterophylla (Evs.) Grolle & Gradst. on Q. virginiana, A. germi-
nans, C. erecta, J. silicicola, rotten and burned wood

Chonocolea doellingeri (Nees) Grolle on live and burned S. palmetto, Q. vir-
giniana and rotten wood

Cololejeunea minutissima ssp. myriocarpa (Nees & Mont.) Schust. on Q. vir-
giniana, S. palmetto, A. germinans, L. racemosa, S. terebinthifolius, J.
silicicola, living and dead C. erecta and rotten wood

Cylindrocolea rhizantha (Mont.) Schust. on Quercus sp., rotten wood, and
sandy soil

36

FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Frullania kunzei (Lehm. & Lindenb.) Lehm. & Lindenb. on Q. virginiana
and C. erecta

F. squarrosa (Reinw., Blume & Nees) Nees on J. silicicola

Lejeunea cardoti Steph. on L. racemosa subject to direct tidal action

L. cladogyna Evans on Q. virginiana

L. laetevirens Nees & Mont. on Q. virginiana, C. erecta, A. germinans, J.
silicicola

L. minutiloba Evans on J. silicicola and rotten wood

Leucolejeunea conchifolia Evans on Q. virginiana

Mastigolejeunea auriculata (Wills & Hook.) Schiffn. on C. erecta

5. Bic CockroacH Mounp Key (Hillsborough County). This shell mound is-
land is about 10 M high and approximately 0.4 ha and is dominated by a
few subtropical species including gumbo limbo, Bursera simaruba (L.)
Sarg., white stopper, Eugenia axillaris (Sw.) Willd. and wild lime, Zan-
thoxylum fagara (L.) Sarg.

MuscI

Bryum capillare Hedw. on shell, soil and rotten wood

Fissidens garberi Lesq. & James on Z. fagara, rotten wood, oyster shell, and
mixed soil

Haplocladium microphyllum (Hedw.) Broth. on rotten wood

Isopterygium tenerum (Sw.) Mitt. on rotten wood

Octoblepharum albidum Hedw. on rotten wood

Sematophyllum adnatum (Mx.) E.G. Britt. on rotten wood

Tortella flavovirens (Bruch ex F. Mill.) Broth. on soil

HEPATICAE

Cololejeunea minutissima ssp. myriocarpa (Nees & Mont.) Schust. on E. axil-
laris

Cylindrocolea rhizantha (Mont.) Schust. on Z. fagara and rotten wood

Frullania brittoniae Evans on B. simaruba

F. inflata Grott. on E. axillaris

Lejeunea cardoti Steph. on rotten wood

. cladogyna Evans on rotten wood

. glaucescens Gott. on Z. fagara

. laetevirens Nees & Mont. on E. axillaris

. minutiloba Evans on rotten wood, oyster shell and sandy soil

. ulicina ssp. bullata (Tayl.) Schust. on E. axillaris and sandy and shell soil

al alli ll

6. Litre MANATEE River (Hillsborough County). This site is represented by
an oak, Quercus virginiana mill., which has roots subject to direct tidal ac-

tion.

Muscl
Isopterygiun tenerum (Sw.) Mitt. on roots of Q. virginiana

HEPATICAE
Cololejeunea minutissima ssp. myriocarpa (Nees & Mont.) Schust. on Q. vir-
giniana roots

7. Buturroc Creek (Hillsborough County). This is a black water creek
which flows out of a riverine hardwood swamp into Hillsborough Bay. It

No. 1, 1986] TESTRAKE ET AL — BRYOPHYTES FROM MANGROVES 37

has sandy banks with some shrubs including Carolina willow, Salix caro-
liniana Michx., buttonbush, Cephalanthus occidentalis L., and Ludwigia
spp. Herbaceous vegetation consists of grasses, sedges, and leather fern,
Acrostichum sp. Sub-sites 1 and 2 are usually freshwater (0/00) while sub-
sites 3, 4 and 5 are occasionally of very low salinity waters (2/00-5/00). Over-
land runoff following heavy rains increases the water levels in the creek.
Only exceptional winds and tides might drive salty waters into the upper
reaches of this small estuary which is approximately 5 km from the bay. All
specimens were collected from a sandy soil substrate on the banks of this site.

Musc1

Bryum sp. Sub-site 2,3

Isopterygium tenerum (Sw.) Mitt. Sub-sites 1,3
Octoblepharum albidum Hedw. Sub-site 4
Philonotis longiseta (Mx.) E.G. Britt. Sub-site 2
HEPATICAE

Lejeunea cardoti Steph. Sub-site 2

L. cladogyna Evans Sub-site 1,2,3

L. flava (Sw.) Nees Sub-site 4

8. Upper Tampa Bay Park (Hillsborough County). Specimens were col-
lected from a narrow strip of low marsh dominated by black rush, Juncus
roemerianus Scheele, interspersed with a narrow zone of mangroves, pri-
marily Avicennia germinans (L) L. and Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn.
f. A few exotic plants, including Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi, were adja-
cent to a small oak, Quercus virginiana mill., hammock. Approximately
150 ha was surveyed for bryophytes.

Musc1
Isopterygium tenerum (Sw.) Mitt. on Q. virginiana
Octoblepharum albidum Hedw. on Q. virginiana

HEPATICAE

Cololejeunea cardiocarpa (Mont.) Steph. on S. terebinthifolius

C. minutissima ssp. myriocarpa (Nees & Mont.) Schust. on Quercus sp. and
S. terebinthifolius

Lejeunea cardoti Steph. on Quercus sp. and S. terebinthifolius

L. cladogyna Evans on Quercus virginiana

9. Maximo Point (Pinellas County). This small shell mound is now a park
of about 3 ha. The dominant plants consist of Quercus virginiana mill. and
Juniperus silicicola (Small) Bailey.

Musc1

Isopterygiun tenerum (Sw.) Mitt. on Q. virginiana

Octoblepharum albidium Hedw. on Q. virginiana

HEPATICAE

Acrolejeunea heterophylla (Evs.) Grolle & Gradst. on Q. virginiana and J.
silicicola

38 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Cololejeunea minutissima ssp. myriocarpa (Nees & Mont.) Schust. on J. sili-
cicola

Frullania kunzei (Lehm. & Lindenb.) Lehm. & Lindenb. on Q. virginiana

F. squarrosa (Reinw., Blume & Nees) Nees on Q. virginiana

L. cladogyna Evans on Q. virginiana

L. laetevirens Nees & Mont. on Q. virginiana

L. ulicina ssp. bullata (Tayl.) Schust. on Q. virginiana and J. silicicola

10. Mu.tet Key (Fort DeSoto State Park, Pinellas County). Several coastal
plant communities were sampled. The dominant species included cabbage
palms, Sabal palmetto (Walt.) Lodd. ex Schultes, scrub live oaks, Quercus
virginiana mill., and mangroves, Avicennia germinans (L.) L., Rhizophora
mangle L. and Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. f. The island is approxi-
mately 5000 ha.

MuscI
Isopterygiun tenerum (Sw.) Mitt. on Q. virginiana and S. palmetto
Sematophyllum adnatum (Mx.) E.G. Britt. on Q. virginiana

HEPATICAE
Acrolejeunea heterophylla (Evs.) Grolle & Gradst. on Q. virginiana

Discussion —In this study we have shown that bryophytes are com-
ponents of different microhabitats of coastal plant communities. Species
richness varies with the sites but those with the greatest richness are sites in
sheltered areas and yet open to some maritime influences. Whittier and
Miller (1976) reported the bryophytes of Merritt Island, Florida. They
recognized three major natural vegetational types from which they collected
bryophytes: areas dominated by grass, flatwoods to high shrubs, and areas
dominated by high shrubs to trees. They indicated that they found no
bryophytes in either the black or white mangrove associations. Woodbury
(1948) noted from Dade County the occurrence of several species of uniden-
tified leafy liverworts on mangroves but did not find any mosses. Data from
other studies of mosses from the Tampa Bay area (Wagner-Merner, et al.,
1973) did not show occurrences of these plants in this region. Lassiter and
Lassiter (unpublished data) found that species richness of bryophytes was
greater in mangrove communities in subtropical Florida when compared
with the Tampa Bay area.

A few commonly encountered bryophytes from inland Florida were
found to occur in our coastal sites (Reese, 1984; Crum and Anderson, 1981;
Breen, 1963). These included Isopterygium tenerum, Octoblepharum
albidum, Cololejeunea minutissima ssp. myriocarpa, Frullania kunzei, F.
squarrosa, and Lejeunea laetevirens. A rare find in one site was the moss,
Tortella flavovirens. The occurrence of Acrolejeunea heterophylla in these
coastal areas was unusual. Schuster (1980) collected this species from central
Florida but never reported it from coastal areas or on mangrove species. A
special collection was Chonecolea dollingeri on Quercus virginiana. Schuster

No. 1, 1986] TESTRAKE ET AL — BRYOPHYTES FROM MANGROVES 39

(1980) noted that it is restricted exclusively to the trunks of older trees of
Sabal palmetto. The occurrence of Cylindrocolea rhizantha in Florida has
been known from few collections (Schuster, 1980). The abundance of this
species at the sites from which it was collected seemed noteworthy.

Interestingly, Breil (1970) reports 143 species of liverworts which have
been found in Florida while Breen (1963) lists 245 species of mosses. Thus, it
seems that the distribution of these plants into coastal communities may
represent the limit of tolerances to conditions found in these environments.
Ecological studies on the life history, physiological ecology, and population
of individual bryophytes as well as life spans of these species (During, 1979)
are needed to understand the regulation of the distribution and abundance
of these taxa and their role in shore line communities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS — We express our appreciation to Dr. David Hartnett, University of
South Florida, for his assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. We thank Dr. William
Reese, University of Southwestern Louisiana, and Dr. Louis Anderson, Duke University, for help
in the identification of some of the mosses.

LITERATURE CITED

Boerner, R. E. AND R. T. Forman. 1975. Salt spray and coastal dune mosses. Bryologist. 78:
57-63.

BREEN, R. S. 1963. Mosses of Florida, An Illustrated Manual. Univ. Florida Press. Gainesville.

Breit, D. A. 1970. Liverworts of the mid-gulf coastal plain. Bryologist. 73:409-491.

Crocker, R. L. AND J. Major. 1955. Soil development in relation to vegetation and surface age
at Glacier Bay, Alaska. J. Ecology. 43:427-448.

Crum, H. A. AND L. E. ANpERSON. 1981. Mosses of Eastern North America. Columbia Univ.
Press, New York. Volumes I, II.

Drury, W. H., Jr. 1956. Bog flats and physiographic processes in the upper Kuskokwin River
region, Alaska. Gray Herbarium Contributions. 178:1-30.

Durine, H. J. 1979. Life strategies of bryophytes: a preliminary review. Lindbergia. 5:2-18.

ENGEL, J. J. AND R. M. Scuuster. 1973. On some tidal zone Hepaticae from South Chile, with
comments on marine dispersal. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 100:29-35.

Foster, N. W. anv I. K. Morrison. 1976. Distribution and cycling of nutrients in a natural
Pinus banksiana ecosystem. Ecology. 57:100-110.

GrROLLE, R. 1967. Lebermoose aus Neuguinea. 6. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 30:113-118.

Harper, J. L. 1977. Population Biology of Plants. Academic Press, New York.

HorFrMan, G. R. anp R. C. Kazmierskr. 1969. An ecologic study of bryophytes and lichens on
Pseudotsuga menziesii on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington. I. A description of the
vegetation. Bryologist. 72:1-19.

. 1971. An ecological study of epiphytic bryophytes and lichens on Pseudotsuga
menziesii on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington. II. Diversity of the Vegetation. Bry-
ologist. 74:413-427.

LEBLanc, F. anp D. DrSLoover. 1970. Relation between industrializations and the distribu-
tion of bryophytes. Canad. Jour. Bot. 48:1485-1496.

Reese, W. D. 1984. Mosses of the Gulf South. Univ. Louisiana Press, Baton Rouge.

ScHusTER, R. M. 1980. The Hepaticae and Anthocerotae of North America. Vol. IV. Columbia
Univ. Press, New York. ;

VierEck, L. A. 1966. Plant succession and soil development on gravel outwash of the Muldrow
Glacier, Alaska. Ecol. Monogr. 36:181-199.

Wacner-Merner, D. T., G. D. GrizPENBURG AND K. Tyson. 1973. Mosses of the Tampa Bay
Area. Univ. South Florida, Tampa.

40 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Wuirttier, H. O. anp H. A. Mitter. 1976. Merritt Island ecosystems studies, 2. Bryophytes of
Merritt Island. Florida Sci. 39:71-75.

Woobpsury, R. 1948. A Study of the Mosses of Dade County, Florida. M. A. Thesis. Univ.
Miami, Florida.

Florida Sci. 49(1):31-40. 1985.

Accepted: April 11, 1985.

Geological Sciences

PROPOSED SOLUTION-HOLE BRECCIA ORIGIN
FOR THE CARREFOUR RAYMOND MARBLE (HAITI)

DonaLp W. Lovejoy

Palm Beach Atlantic College, 1101 South Olive Avenue, West Palm Beach, Florida 33401

Asstract: The Carrefour Raymond Marble, which is mined in the vicinity of Jacmel, is one
of Haiti’s better known commercial marbles. Technically, it is not a marble because it has not
been metamorphosed. Rather, it is a limestone breccia composed of highly angular fragments of
white limestone in a reddish-brown calcareous matrix. The white limestone fragments have been
derived from the adjacent mountain front, which is composed of massive, gray-weathering
Eocene limestones. The marble’s matrix is composed of secondary calcite and a residual red clay
that was derived from the upland plateaus. It is proposed that the marble originated from clay
and limestone fragments accumulated in the solution holes of a karst topography. The resulting
limestone breccia was subsequently cemented by secondary calcite, leached from the surrounding
limestones by rain and underground water and then precipitated in the interstices of the breccia
during dry periods. The marine fossils that are occasionally found in the Carrefour Raymond
Marble are thought to have been derived from elevated marine terraces that once lay higher on
the mountainside.

THE Carrefour Raymond Marble is described by Lafalaise and Bouchereau
(1982) as one of Haiti's better known commercial marbles. It has an unusual
pinkish-brown color and is found on Haiti’s south coast, between the city of
Jacmel and the village of Carrefour Raymond (Fig. 1). The local inhabitants
mine it from small, shallow pits along the roadside using exceedingly primitive
methods.

The geology of Haiti is still imperfectly known. Nagle (1979) has called
Hispaniola (the island where Haiti is located) “the last Caribbean island havy-
ing ‘geologic frontiers’, i.e., great expanses of terrain unknown geologically.”

No. 1, 1986] LOVEJOY — CARREFOUR RAYMOND MABBLE (HAITI!) 4]

KILOMETERS

CaaS VA LOW Pl ay

72° 30°

RAVINE
188" GRIGRI
TINIE pe CARREFOUR

i. py RAYMOND.

NCIVADIER
COVE

CARIBBEAN SEA

Fic. 1. Location map of the study area showing the two localities where the Carrefour Ray-
mond Marble is mined from shallow pits.

Our present understanding of the geology of Haiti, which covers the western
third of Hispaniola, has been summarized by Maurrasse (1983).

In the area that lies between Jacmel and Carrefour Raymound an impres-
sive mountain front dominates the coastline. This mountain rises steeply to
elevations of 600 m and then extends inland as a high plateau topped by a peak
known as Cap Rouge (elevation 870 m). The mountain is composed of
massive, gray-weathering limestones of probable Eocene age (Pierre, 1982)
which dip seaward at angles varying from 20° to 30°.

At the foot of the mountain is a narrow, elevated marine terrace with a sea
cliff at its outer edge. This sea cliff has a height of 7 to 10 m and there is a well-
preserved, fossil Pleistocene coral reef “cap” along its upper edge, which at-
tests to dramatic and continuing uplift of this part of the coast. Dodge and
coworkers (1983) report that the northwestern peninsula of Haiti has the
fastest rate of uplift of any place in the Caribbean.

Between the coral reef cap and the mountain lies a marine terrace. This
marine terrace slopes gently upward toward the mountain and is mantled
with a veneer of Quaternary alluvium that has been derived from the moun-
tain and Plateau Cap Rouge beyond. Because of the richness of the soil and
the high annual rainfall, this terrace has been intensively cultivated for agri-

42 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

cultural purposes. Crops grown include pineapple, bananas, papaya,
mangoes, corn, and beans.

DESCRIPTION OF THE MArBLE—The Carrefour Raymond Marble is a cal-
careous rock consisting of angular white fragments in a reddish-brown
matrix. Fresh surfaces of the rock are pinkish-brown, and the colors of the
weathered surfaces vary from faded pink to light gray. In the technical sense
of the word, the rock is not a marble because it has not been metamorphosed.
Industrially it is known as a marble, however, because it has a crystalline
structure and is capable of being polished. From a petrologic point of view,
the rock is a limestone breccia made up of angular fragments of limestone in
a fine-grained calcareous matrix (Fig. 2).

‘ ge FE Sa rN 6) 4 & t. e Se P= ee}. |

Es wee ik Teg ast OBS a a oe. “A
Fic. 2. Characteristic appearance of the Carrefour Raymond Marble at the type locality
where it consists of angular, white limestone fragments in a fine-grained reddish-brown matrix.

Distribution—The type locality for the Carrefour Raymond Marble ex-
tends for 700 m along the Jacmel road, beginning at a point 500 m west of
the village of Carrefour Raymond. Jagged rock outcrops are present on both
sides of the road, and numerous small, shallow excavations may be seen from
which blocks of marble have been quarried and placed by the roadside. A
second locality where the marble is quarried is on the north side of the same
road about 600 m east of Civadier Cove. Here a bulldozed cut leads up the
hillside to a shallow excavation.

No. 1, 1986] LOVEJOY — CARREFOUR RAYMOND MABBLE (HAITI) 43

Distribution of the Carrefour Raymond Marble is very patchy. At the
type locality, the characteristic pinkish-brown rock alternates with massive,
gray-weathering limestone in many places. Nor are the two localities just
mentioned the only places where the Carrefour Raymond Marble is en-
countered. Patches of Carrefour Raymond Marble may be found scattered
throughout the study area in the gray-weathering limestones, particularly
along the base of the mountain and in stream valleys such as Ravine Grigri,
which descend from Plateau Cap Rouge.

Angular fragments—The angular fragments in the Carrefour Raymond
Marble are composed of white, very pure, finely crystalline to cryptocrystal-
line calcitic limestone. The limestone is hard and dense, with almost no
observable porosity under the binocular microscope, and the rock makes a
ringing sound when struck with a hammer. The limestone fragments show
no traces of bedding or macroscopic fossils, but under the polarizing micro-
scope a few ghost microfossils appear to be present.

These angular limestone fragments average 2.5-5 cm in diameter, with
many being substantially larger or smaller. Approximately 50% of the rock
is composed of such fragments, although their percentage may vary from as
high as 75% to as low as 10%. These fragments show little evidence of wear
and would be described as angular to subangular in the classifications of
most authors. Although these fragments are exceptionally well sorted with
respect to composition, they are extremely poorly sorted with respect to size.
There is no preferred direction of orientation for elongate fragments. The
fragments are identical in composition to the massive, gray-weathering lime-
stones that make up the mountain front, which is the source from which they
have most likely come.

Matrix—The matrix of the Carrefour Raymond Marble is variable in
color. At the type locality, it is pale reddish-brown but in many places it
becomes nearly white, making the marble almost indistinguishable from the
surrounding limestones. A matrix with a darker reddish-brown color may
also be observed, especially at the shallow pit east of Civadier Cove.

The composition of the matrix of the Carrefour Raymond Marble is finely
crystalline to microcrystalline calcite with appreciable amounts of red clay.
A solubility test using hydrochloric acid was made on a sample of the matrix
in order to determine the amount of calcite present. The sample tested was
taken from a block of marble ready for shipment along the side of the road at
the type locality. This block had the characteristic pinkish-brown color of
the Carrefour Raymond Marble.

Upon analysis the matrix proved to consist of 96.06% soluble material
(presumably all calcite) and 3.94% insoluble residue. The insoluble residue
was composed of finely-divided red clay. Next, the insoluble residue and the
filtrate were tested for the presence of iron. The tests gave positive results,
indicating that soluble and insoluble iron are both present in the marble.

44 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Under the binocular microscope the matrix of the marble was seen to
have a porosity averaging about 5%, the amount of pore space that remains
after initial openings have been mostly filled by the growth of secondary cal-
cite. With the polarizing microscope, a mosaic of interlocking calcite crystals
was clearly visible surrounding these pore spaces. Some pores seemed to have
a different origin, however. They resembled the external molds of micro-
scopic shells which were lined by the remains of whitish shell material.

The calcite matrix of the marble is believed to have been introduced by
rain and underground water, saturated with calcium carbonate by per-
colating through the surrounding limestones, and the red clay is believed to
have been washed down from the adjacent upland plateau. This plateau is
covered with a veneer of red lateritic soil, which is a typical residual product
of the prolonged weathering of limestones in a tropical climate.

Thickness and age—Thickness of the Carrefour Raymound Marble can-
not be determined with any accuracy at the type locality because the pits are
so shallow. Based on exposures in Ravine Grigri, however, it is believed that
the thickness of the marble is highly variable and does not exceeed 30 m. As
for the age of the Carrefour Raymond Marble, it is clearly younger than its
included fragments which are derived from the surrounding limestones of
probable Eocene age. Some of the marble may be of quite recent origin, in
fact, as of the processes that formed it seem to be still operating in the area
today.

ORIGIN OF THE MArBLE—The angular nature of the fragments found in
the Carrefour Raymond Marble indicates that they formed as a result of
breakage and not abrasion. Although these fragments may have been trans-
ported slightly since the time of their formation, they probably have not
moved far because so few of them have rounded edges. An obvious origin for
such a breccia would be faulting, but such an origin seems unlikely here be-
cause the marble bears no resemblance to the calcareous breccias known as
“Laboule sand”, which characterize faulted limestones elsewhere in Haiti.
Furthermore, the marble does not crop out in linear bands, which would be
expected if faulting were the cause. A more logical explanation seems to be
that the marble is a cemented solution-hole breccia. Such breccias have been
reported for other localities in Haiti by Woodring and coworkers (1924) and
Shrock (1946), and also in the Florida Keys by Multer (1977).

According to the solution-hole breccia theory, the marble originated in
the following way: first, the Eocene limestones were uplifted from the sea
floor subsequent to their deposition. Then a period of prolonged erosion
followed, resulting in the formation of deep, residual lateritic soils on the
uplands as the limestones underwent intensive weathering in the tropical
climate. Simultaneously, percolating rain and underground water created
an extensive karst topography on the mountain’s sides and at its base.

Next, angular fragments derived from the limestone collected in the sink-
holes and caves of the karst topography, forming a limestone breccia. As

No. 1, 1986] LOVEJOY — CARREFOUR RAYMOND MABBLE (HAITI) 45

these fragments accumulated, red clay was washed from the upland plateaus
to fill the interstices between them. Finally the resulting limestone breccia
was cemented by secondary calcite leached from the surrounding limestones
by rain and underground water and then precipitated in the interstices of
the breccia during dry periods.

The following lines of evidence support this theory:

(1) The present-day mountain front is riddled with solution pits,
sinkholes, fissures widened by solution, and underground caves, all of which
indicate that the lithologic, topographic, and climatic conditions necessary
for the development of karst topography are present in the area.

(2) The bottoms of the present-day sinkholes and caves contain numerous
jagged limestone fragments that have fallen into them. Thus one of the con-
ditions postulated for the origin of the Carrefour Raymond Marble is occur-
ring today.

(3) During heavy rains, waters charged with red clay can be seen des-
cending from the upland plateaus, indicating that another condition
postulated for the origin of the marble occurs today.

(4) Limestone breccias similar to the Carrefour Raymond Marble are
found in the Eocene limestones throughout the study area, as well as
elsewhere in Haiti. They are particularly common along the flanks of moun-
tains and in stream valleys coming down from laterite-covered plateaus,
which are those places where theory suggests such breccias would be found.

(5) The Carrefour Raymond Marble occurs in pod-shaped or lenticular
masses of the size that would be expected for accumulations in sinkholes,
caves, and fissures widened by solution. There are excellent examples of
small solution holes filled by the marble at the type locality (Fig. 3), and the
vertical limestone walls of Ravine Grigri display much larger sinkholes filled
with breccia in cross section.

(6) The limestone breccias found in the study area occur in all stages of
induration, varying from uncemented to totally cemented, which suggests
that some cementation stopped long ago, although other cementation con-
tinues up until the present day.

(7) Some of the sinkhole fillings exposed in Ravine Grigri have horizontal
laminations, possibly caused by the precipitation of calcium carbonate at
varying levels of the water table. Similar laminations can also be found at
the type locality, and stalactites are present at both locations, further sug-
gestive of calcium carbonate deposition by percolating rain and under-
ground water.

UNRESOLVED PRoBLEM—One question remaining is whether the Carre-
four Raymond Marble was formed above or below sea level. A formation
above sea level would certainly be consistent with the presence of karst to-
pography, calcium carbonate laminations, and stalactites. On the other
hand, marine fossils are occasionally found in the marble’s matrix at the type

46 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

locality. The fossils that have been observed so far include two kinds of
snails, some clamshell fragments, three rounded pieces of coral, and possibly
microfossils.

Fic. 3. Small solution holes partially filled by the Carrefour Raymond Marble are present at
the type locality on the south side of the Jacmel road.

The rounded pieces of coral provide important clues to the source of the
fossils in the matrix of the marble. Initially the coral fragments were part of
living coral heads that grew in the clear waters off shore. Next, as a result of
storm activity, they must have been broken off and carried into the surf zone
where they were rounded by abrasion. It seems unlikely they were carried to
their present position by waves, however, as the elevation of the Carrefour
Raymond Marble varies from 20-40 m above sea level at the place where the
rounded coral fragments are present in it. Nor do the massive, gray-
weathering Eocene limestones seem to be a likely source for the rounded
coral fragments. The Eocene limestones have yielded almost no recognizable
fossils in the study area thus far, and no coral fragments have ever been seen
in them.

Rather, the most logical source for the rounded coral fragments in the
Carrefour Raymond Marble seems to be marine terraces that were once
present higher on the mountainside. Unfortunately, evidence for such ter-
races has not yet been found in the study area. However, superb examples of

No. 1, 1986] LOVEJOY — CARREFOUR RAYMOND MABBLE (HAITI) 47

such terraces are prominently displayed just a few kilometers to the west at
Cap Jacmel, where they can be seen rising dramatically against the sky line
to heights of several hundred meters above sea level. It is hoped that addi-
tional field work will demonstrate that these terraces continue into the study
area.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— This research was conducted by the author and his students as part of
an on-going survey of the geology of Haiti’s south coast. Palm Beach Atlantic College has recently
established an overseas branch campus near Jacmel, and the author is indebted to college officials
for their support of his work. Michael S. Knapp analyzed the porosity of the marble, Scott F.
Argast studied it in thin section under the polarizing microscope, and Charles Lobdell made the
chemical analyses. Janet L. Glitz and Mamoru Oda assisted with the drafting.

LITERATURE CITED

Donce, R. E., R. G. Farrpanxs, L. K. BENNINGER, AND F. Maurrasse, 1983. Pleistocene sea
levels from raised coral reefs of Haiti. Science. 219:1423-1425.

LaFALAISE, B. AND C. BoucHEREAU. 1982. Potentiels de l'utilisation industrielles des pierres a
marbe en Haiti. Pp. 116-125. In: Maurrasse, F. (ed.) Transactions du I® Colloque sur la
Géologie dHaiti: 27-29 Mars 1980. Port-au-Prince.

MauprasseE, F. 1983. Survey of the geology of Haiti; Guide to the field excursions in Haiti; 3-8
March 1982. Miami Geol. Soc.

Mutter, H. G. 1977. Field Guide to Some Carbonate Rock Environments: Florida Keys and
Western Bahamas. Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co., Dubuque, Iowa.

Nac te, F. 1979. Preface. Pp. i-iii. In: Liz, B. AND F. Nac te (eds.) Hispaniola: Tectonic Focal
Point of the Northern Caribbean: Three Geologic Studies in the Dominican Republic.
Miami Geol. Soc.

Pierre, G. 1982 Les eaux dormantes de la République d’Haiti. Pp. 158-167. In: Maurrasse, F.
(ed.) Transactions du 1 Colloque sur la Géologie d’Haiti: 27-29 Mars 1980. Port-au-
Prince.

SHRock, R. R. 1946. Surficial breccia produced from chemical weathering of Eocene limestone
in Haiti, West Indies. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 55:107-110.

Woooprinc, W. P., J. S. BRown, anp W. S. BursBanx. 1924. Geology of the Republic of Haiti.
Lord Baltimore Press, Baltimore.

Florida Sci. 49(1):40-47. 1986.

Accepted: October 22, 1984.

Agricultural Sciences

CITRUS BLIGHT ASSESSMENT USING A
MICROCOMPUTER; QUANTIFYING DAMAGE USING
AN APPLE COMPUTER TO SOLVE REFLECTANCE
SPECTRA OF ENTIRE TREES

‘) HAVEN C. SWEET AND ‘?)GEORGE J. EDWARDS

(1) Department of Biological Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816
and (2) University of Florida, IFAS, Agricultural Research and Education Center,
Box 1088, Lake Alfred, FL 33850

Asstract: Management of citrus blight, a condition resulting in declining fruit production,
involves the rapid detection and removal of trees displaying early symptoms. Since the spectral
quality of light reflected from affected trees is modified as the disease progresses, spectra from
trees in different health states were analyzed using a least squares technique to determine if the
health class could be assessed by computer. The spectrum from a given tree was compared, using
an Apple computer, with a set of library spectra representing trees of different health classes. The
computed solutions indicated a very close agreement with field observations. In addition, the
computed results also indicated that many trees were heterogeneous, with portions of the crown
being in different health classes. Although the degree of heterogeneity was not assessed in the
field data, it was frequently observed in the diseased trees. These preliminary results indicate that
solving aerial spectral reflectance data may permit accurate classification of objects even when
dissimilar objects contribute to the spectrum.

Cirrus BLicHT, also referred to as Young Tree Decline (YTD), is a disease
of unknown etiology which strikes trees older than 5 years. Although the
trees are not killed by the blight, a tree displaying its first symptoms will pro-
gressively worsen until all of the vegetation is afflicted and the tree becomes
non-productive. This transition occurs within a few months if the plant is
young, and up to 5 years in mature trees (Smith and Reitz, 1977). The pro-
portion of trees contracting blight varies within a given grove from year to
year, and differs substantially between different locations across the state of
Florida. Annual losses range from 1% to highs of 10 to 22% of the grove.
Some regions lost over 70% of the trees in a 10 year period (Smith and Reitz,
1977):

The first blight symptoms appear localized on a single branch or one side
of the tree, but the condition gradually spreads across the entire crown
(Smith and Reitz, 1977). The afflicted areas may display symptoms of leaf
wilting, foliage dullness or a delayed flushing of new growth. Chlorophyll
breakdown then occurs in speckled areas across leaves, resembling the symp-
toms of zinc deficiency. New flushes of growth on the diseased portions of
the tree produce dwarfed leaves which are abnormally shaped and stand
erect on the branch. Fruits may be greatly reduced in size and of no commer-
cial value. Shedding of the chlorotic leaves results in death of smaller
branches and twigs, although the tree remains alive. (Knorr, 1973)

No. 1, 1986] SWEET AND EDWARDS — CITRUS BLIGHT ASSESSMENT 49

Citrus blight is neither preventable nor treatable, although trees
replanted where diseased individuals once stood do not seem more suscept-
ible to the disease (Smith and Reitz, 1977). Thus, management is limited to
the rapid detection and removal of declining trees so replacements can be
brought into productivity as soon as possible. Because there are approx-
imately 800,000 productive acres of citrus trees in Florida, it is obvious that
any large scale detection of blight during its early stages must involve the use
of remote sensing techniques. Edwards and co-workers (1975) demonstrated
that the reflectance of both individual leaves and the entire crown of a
mature tree increased in the visible and decreased in the infra-red as blight
progressively affected a tree.

Although the magnitude of the spectral shifts were large enough to per-
mit classification of a tree’s health using its spectra, the non-homogenous
manner in which trees contract blight presents a problem. A section of the
tree’s crown, or individual limbs, may be strongly affected while the re-
mainder of the tree is healthy. Using the computer at Purdue University’s
Laboratory for Applications of Remote Sensing, Edwards and co-workers
(1975) classified several hundred citrus trees according to Multispectral Sens-
ing (MSS) data. Each tree’s crown was represented by a set of 16 picture
elements (pixels), and each pixel was classified as to the apparent health class
of that region of the tree. Pixels from a single tree were often assigned dif-
ferent health classes, presumably due to the heterogeneous health condition
of parts within affected trees. Due to quantitative spectral changes occurring
as a tree declines in health, a single reflectance spectrum recorded from a
mixture of both healthy and very diseased limbs would not equal spectra
from trees which were completely healthy, very diseased, or uniformly
moderately diseased. The composite spectrum of a tree would inaccurately
indicate the tree’s condition, due to the false classification of the data into a
homogeneous health classification. This current study presents preliminary
findings on a better technique for classifying composite spectra.

MATERIALS AND METHops — A description of the methods used to take the spectral readings has
been previously published (Edwards et al., 1978) so they will be only briefly recounted here. A
Telespectroradiometer (TSR) (Spectral Data Corp., Hauppauge, N.Y.) was used to measure the
light reflected from 24 mature Hamlin and Valencia orange trees which had been budded on
rough lemon rootstock. The trees were growing within productive groves located in the Ridge
district of Florida.

The trees were rated according to the amount of blight using the technique described by Ab-
bitt (1977). Assessment was by a trained observer who classified the trees, as viewed from the
side, according to a scale of 0 to 3. Healthy trees were classed 0, while those with the first stages of
stress are given a 1; such plants may have symptoms of wilt, small leaves which stand in a rosette
pattern, and little new growth. Trees ranked 2 have the characteristics of those graded 1, but also
have a thinned canopy with some dead branches. Trees graded as a 3 have ceased fruit produc-
tion, have thin foliage and much dead wood. In this study, radiometric readings were not taken
on trees graded 3.

The TSR detector was suspended approximately 4.2 m above a tree’s crown using a 12 m ex-
tension ladder. Five measurements of the light reflected from different regions of each crown
were averaged after being referenced against a barium sulfate coated plate. The resulting percent
directional reflectance spectrum had 52 points, covering the range of 400 to 1075 mm. The total

50 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

surface sampled by the 5 scans was approximately 0.15 sq m of the tree’s crown. A total of 24
trees were measured; 4 were class 0, 11 were class 1, and 9 were class 2.

To analyze a spectral mixture, it is necessary to establish a library of reference spectra; each
spectrum should represent the pure reflectance of an object that might be represented in the com-
posite spectrum. In this study, reference spectra were developed for soil and tree classes 0, 1 and
2. The library spectra for the trees were developed using averages of either randomly selected, or
all, spectra from trees in a given health class. The reference spectrum for soil was generated by
averaging laboratory measurements of different soil types because field measurements of soil
were not available.

The spectral readings were analyzed on a 48K Apple II + computer using a Pascal program.
The program (Sweet, 1981) computed which reference spectra, and in what proportions, could
be summed to equal the reflectance from a tree of unknown health. Thus, a solution of 65% class
0 and 35% class 2 trees means the test spectrum approximates one expected from a tree displaying
disease over 1/3 of its crown, while the remainder was unaffected.

The program is comprised of several different sections. One set of routines store library and
test spectra on a floppy disk so the computer will operate while unattended. The heart of the pro-
gram is a least squares procedure developed by Trombka and Schmadebeck (1970) that computes
which proportions of the library spectra combine to best approximate the test spectrum.
However, when library elements are as highly correlated as they were in this study, replicate runs
usually produce variant solutions. To determine which solution is correct, the program forces
numerous solutions and selects one which best fits a set of selection criteria. Developed using
Landsat data, the selection procedure yields the solution which has an optimal combination of
low mathematical error, low residual between observed and computed spectra, and a total inten-
sity close to 100% . The entire program and selection criteria has been more thoroughly described
by Sweet (1981).

RESULTS AND Discussion — The Telespectroradiometer (TSR) readings of
citrus trees were more variable as the health of the trees deteriorated (i.e., as
the class increased from 0 to 2). In Table 1, each spectral point of every tree

TABLE 1. The mean absolute differences between each point of a spectrum and the average
of all other scans with the same health class.

Health Average SE of Least Greatest
Class Deviation Mean Difference Difference
0 9.4 cE 2 4.1 14.1
1 11.1 + 2.5 3.6 27.9
2 13.7 + 1.5 4.5 18.5

was subtracted from the corresponding point of the average spectrum for
that health class, and the absolute difference was converted to a percentage
before being averaged. The increased variability probably results from
greater quantities of dead or highly stressed branches (class 1 or 2 symptoms)
existing in an otherwise healthy tree. This normal progression of the disease
presents problems classifying trees since one portion may be healthy (class 0)
while some branches may be moderately diseased (class 2). In addition,
observers viewing the trees from the ground were unable to see the regions
sampled by the TSR, so their classifications may not have indicated the
variation.

The spectral characteristics of the three tree classes vary in both a quan-
titative and qualitative manner. Figure 1 shows the percentage difference

No. 1, 1986]

SWEET AND EDWARDS — CITRUS BLIGHT ASSESSMENT

100
80
60
% ee o ‘
40 Ss ens
D ‘ ini es
; ' ’ :
F iron == "CUASS) 2
20 6 r) Y
F 8. Ns ‘
E : :
R
E 0) ,
N ‘
GS o* oo
E 4 ook : i ae
-20 Mac 2ese7 7 Xe
-40
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

WAVELENGTH (nm)

Fic. 1. The percent difference between the reflectance spectrum of undamaged plants and
plants which exhibit class 1 (solid line) or class 2 (dashed line) disease symptoms.

between the average spectrum for the diseased classes and the average for
class 0. The drastic changes in the visible range indicate the loss of
chlorophyll, while the change in the infrared may be due to increased ex-

posure of soil or non-leaf tissue. These changes were also qualitative so that

51

52

FLORIDA SCIENTIST

[ Vol. 49

TaBLE 2. The agreement between solutions produced by the Apple computer and the
ground reference data. Library elements are comprised of an average of all scans in that grade.

Computed Grade (Normalized to 100%)

Scan Observed
# Grade 0 1 Soil
] 0 75 25
2 0 94 6
3 0 100
4 0 100
Mean 0 92.2 0 7.8 0
Computed Grade (Normalized to 100%)
Scan Observed
# Grade 0 1 2 Soil
5 1 20 80
6 1 76 24
7 1 97 3
8 1 96 4
9 1 100
10 1 37 63
ll 1 100
12 iI 100
13 1 91 9
14 ] 29 71
15 ] 100
Mean 1 7.8 82.8 8.7 0.6
Computed Grade (Normalized to 100%)
Scan Observed
# Grade 0 1 2 Soil
16 2 Uy 23
17 2 12 88
18 2 98 2
19 2 29 71
20 9, 56 44
21 2 ll 89
22 2 94 6
23 2 34 66
24 2 81 19
Mean 2 8.2 18.4 67.8 5.6

No. 1, 1986] SWEET AND EDWARDS — CITRUS BLIGHT ASSESSMENT 53

the spectrum of trees classified as 1 could not be simulated by averaging class
0 and class 2 trees; the mean of class 0 and 2 plants differed from class 1
plants by as much as 9% at 412 nm and as little as 0.8% at 1050 nm. Since
there are quantitative and qualitative spectral differences between different
classes, the least-squares techniques can be used to identify the various
health classes.

One constraint of the least-squares technique is that the library spectra
used to solve other spectra must be highly accurate (Trombka and
Schmadebeck, 1970). To test how the number of spectra averaged in the
library spectra affects accuracy, each spectrum of class 1 plant was solved
using library spectra for soil, class 0, and class 2 plants, along with a spec-
trum that contained the mean of from one to eleven class 1 plants. The
agreement between the computer solution for each class 1 spectrum and the
visual assessment of the plant was recorded for each of the eleven combina-
tions of library spectra. With only one exception, the solutions of class 1
plants steadily improved as the class 1 library included more scans (the
average agreement rose from 46% when 1 spectrum was in the library, to
84% with eleven averaged).

Since the library spectra are most accurate when they contain numerous
scans, the small data base available for this analysis created a major problem
that was compounded by the variability seen in class 1 and 2. Averaging only
half the scans per class was inadequate to produce a representative library
spectrum. Increasing the number of scans averaged in the library, however,
left too few trees to test the method’s accuracy. Although obtaining addi-
tional spectra was the obvious solution, the field work had been completed
many years prior to this analysis.

As a test of the computer program’s overall accuracy, all scans were
solved using 4 library spectra, each produced by averaging all spectra in that
class. As can be seen in Table 2, the results were reasonably accurate, with
twenty-two solutions indicating that at least 2/3 of the reflectance was de-
rived from the class indicated by the visual classification. Scan ten, rated 1
from the ground, was classed as a mixture of classes 0 and 2. Scan eighteen
also appeared to be an exception since the tree was rated as class 2 from the
ground while the computer solved the spectrum as being class 1. Whether
the fault is due to the program, the ground evaluator, or a discrepancy be-
tween the appearance of the tree as viewed from the side versus aerial view-
ing, it is not possible to say.

While the use of a ground based TSR unit is not a practical means of
searching for trees expressing citrus blight, this work has shown that an inex-
pensive personal computer can be used to classify trees containing a mixture
of health classes. If spectral data were gathered using remote sensing tech-
niques such as a Multi Spectral Scanner (MSS), then the automated
classification of individual trees, especially those exhibiting a mixture of
stress and non-stressed leaves, might be feasible.

54 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

LITERATURE CITED

AssiTT, B. 1977. Citrus grove mapping can enhance your grove returns. Citrus Ind. 58(10):
10-14.

Epwarps, G. J., T. A. WHEeaTon, T. Davis, C. H. BLazquez. 1978. Telespectroradiometer
study of citrus trees (Reflectance of young tree decline-affected and healthy Citrus tree
canopies using a mobile Telespectroradiometer data system): Proc. Int. Soc. Citriculture.
188-192.

, T. SCHEHL, AND E. P. DuCHarme. 1975. Multispectral sensing of Citrus young
tree decline. Photogram. Engr. Remote Sensing. 653-657.

Knorr, L. C. 1973. Citrus diseases and disorders. Univ. Press of Fla., Gainesville, Fla. 163 pp.

SmiTH, P. F. anv H. J. Rerrz. 1977. A review of the nature and history of citrus blight in Florida.
Proc. Int. Soc. Citriculture. 3:881-884.

Sweet, H. C. 1981. Use of an Apple computer to identify vegetation and assess the coverage
within single Landsat pixels. 7th Int. Symp. on Machine Processing of Remotely Sensed
Data. Purdue U. 695-701.

TROMBKA, J. I., AND R. L. SCHMADEBECK. 1970. A numerical least-square method for resolving
complex pulse-height spectra. In: BLACKBURN, J. A. (ed.). Spectral Analysis: Methods
and Techniques. 121-170.

Florida Sci. 49(1):48-54. 1986.

Accepted: March 15, 1985

REVIEW

Edward A. Fernald and Donald J. Patton (editors), Water Resources
Atlas of Florida, Institute of Science and Public Affairs, Florida State Uni-
versity, Tallahassee, 1984. Pp. xii +291. Price: $29.50 (+ $2.50 for
mailing).

WATER substance is surely the most popular, important chemical in our
lives. The melting points and boiling points are (fortunately) about 180°C
above the extrapolated values. It is one of the rare substances for which the
solid (fortunately) is less dense than the liquid. The bond angle is about 15°
larger than predicted from simple bonding theory (less if VSEPR theory is
used). For all its peculiarities, water is probably Florida’s most important
resource, and this atlas tells us why. The Atlas is divided into five sections—
Introduction, Florida’s Water: Its Occurrence and Modification, Water Ad-
ministration and Regional Management, Policy Issues, and Conclusions
(with Summary and Recommendations). A total of 21 chapters are written
by various experts. The Atlas is remarkably informative and well written. It
is packed with a wealth of information, it has beautiful and informative
charts, figures, and maps, as well as pithy and well-designed tables. At the
price it is a bargain, and it is reeommended to all because of the importance
of the subject and the range and usefulness of the information it contains.

No. 1, 1986] GILLETTE AND WHISLER — LATE PLEISTOCENE GLYPTODONT 55

The editors, (professors of geography at Florida State University) and the
authors, (experts from universities, government agencies and the private sec-
tor) are to be commended for their contribution.—Dean F. Martin, Univer-
sity of South Florida, Tampa.

Paleontology

NOTES AND COMMENTS ON THE LATE PLEISTOCENE
GLYPTODONT, GLYPTOTHERIUM FLORIDANUM
FROM FLORIDA

(Davin D. GILLETTE AND °?)PHILLIP M. WHISLER

(1) New Mexico Museum of Natural History, P.O. Box 7010, Albuquerque, New Mexico,
87194-7010 and (2) 158 Venice East Blvd, Venice, Florida 33595

Asstract: New specimens of Glyptotherium floridanum from the Florida peninsula confirm
the conspecific identity of the Rancholabrean population of glyptodonts across the Gulf Coast
and southern Atlantic coastal plain. Newly recognized osteological traits in the mandible of G.
floridanum include bulbous pits in the alveoli for the teeth, and grooves on the outer surface that
mark the position of hair follicles that were embedded in bone. The cervical vertebrae in the new
specimens are similar to those of G. floridanum from the Texas Gulf Coast, and distinct from
those of ancestral species. The caudal vertebrae and caudal armor were simple, like those of G.
texanum and G. arizonae, without development of extensive fusion of the terminal caudal rings
and without terminal spines at the tip of the armor.

Gryproponts have long been recognized as important and characteristic
members of the Pleistocene fauna of southern United States and Mexico.
In a recent review, Gillette and Ray (1981) presented a comprehensive ac-
count of the osteology, taxonomy, and certain aspects of the paleobiology of
Glyptotherium, the only genus that inhabited the United States.

Although related remotely to armadillos, glyptodonts were unique
among mammals for their thick bony carapace and caudal armor, with at-
tendant specializations. They dwarfed even the giant Pleistocene armadillos
(pampatheres); Glyptotherium arizonae approached the size and shape of a
Volkswagen “beetle”, and G. floridanum was only slightly smaller.

Skeletal elements from a new site in peninsular Florida that were re-
cently collected by one of us (PMW), add to knowledge concerning Glypto-
therium floridanum, the species that occupied Florida and the Gulf Coast
during the last of the Pleistocene, in the Rancholabrean land mammal age.
Description of these specimens and discussion of their implications regarding
the paleontology of Glyptotherium are the purpose of this report.

56 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 49

Previous WorkK—The history of research investigations on North American glyptodonts was
reviewed by Gillette and Ray (1981). The most important previous studies on the glyptodonts of
the American Southeast and the Gulf Coast were conducted by Simpson (1929a, 1929b), Holmes
and Simpson (1931), Lundelius (1972), and Ray (1965). Except for several occurrences of proble-
matical glyptodonts in faunas of Plio-Pleistocene age in Florida tentatively referred to G.
arizonae, all southeastern glyptodonts are referrable to G. floridanum. The nomenclatural
history of Glyptotherium was reviewed by Gillette and Ray (1981); until their revision, most
specimens from Florida were referred to Boreostracon floridanus Simpson 1929b; according to
Gillette and Ray, Boreostracon Simpson 1929 is a synonym of Glyptotherium.

MATERIALS AND METHOps— The fossils described in this report have been deposited in the
vertebrate paleontology collections of the Florida State Museum, UF-FSM 65637. They are a
portion of a larger private collection from the same site belonging to one of us (PMW). As of this
writing the larger collection contains 287 isolated scutes from the carapace; 29 isolated scutes
from the caudal armor; two sets each of two fused carapacial scutes; one set of four fused cara-
pacial scutes; and a set of five fused scutes from the caudal aperture of the carapace. From these
armor elements, 22 scutes from the carapace and 7 from the caudal armor have been deposited in
the Florida State Museum, in addition to fragmentary left and right mandibles, a shaft of the left
radius, a fragment of the right maxilla, the left half of the “cervical tube” (cervical vertebrae nos.
2-6), two ischiosacral vertebrae, an isolated caudal vertebra, and 3 fused caudal vertebrae from
the caudal tube.

All elements in the collection were recovered by underwater diving from a single locality in
Sarasota County, Florida, 3 km north of North Port. Exact locality information is on file at the
Florida State Museum. All bones in the collection could have come from the same individual.
They appear to have accumulated by erosion from an upper sandy layer at the site. The iden-
tification as Glyptotherium floridanum indicates Rancholabrean age for the specimens. Except
for fragmentary scraps of the giant tortoise Geochelone, no associated faunal material is known
from the site.

In the following descriptions, terminology and nomenclature follow Gillette and Ray (1981).
Measurements were taken with Helios dial calipers in metric units; all dimensions are straight
line diameters. Abbreviations are: UF-FSM, University of Florida, Florida State Museum;
USNM, United States National Museum, Smithsonian Institution Museum of Natural History;
TMM, Texas Memorial Museum, University of Texas; and mm, millimeters.

OstEoLocy—Carapacial armor—The dermal armor is typical for G. floridanum. The in-
terior scutes of the carapace (Figure 1) are small and mostly unfused; the central figures on the in-

Fic. 1. Isolated scute from the middle region of the carapace; (a) external surface; (b) edge
surface; and, (c) internal surface; bar scale = 1 cm.

No. 1, 1986] GILLETTE AND WHISLER — LATE PLEISTOCENE GLYPTODONT 57

terior scutes are approximately equal in size or slightly larger than the peripheral figures.
Marginal scutes, scutes from the posterior aperture (rear opening for the caudal armor and
vertebrae), and scutes of the caudal armor are not different from previous descriptions, and will
not be further discussed in this report.

ManpiBLE— Knowledge of mandibular osteology of G. floridanum has accumulated on frag-
mentary material from Texas and Florida. The outline of the border of the ascending ramus has
taxonomic value.

Fic. 2. Fragmentary left mandible, buccal (outer) view; inset shows details of hair follicle
pits; bar scale =5 cm.

58 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Edentulous left and right mandibles are represented in almost identical states of preservation
(Figure 2). No teeth are associated. For both fragments the anterior portion of the ascending
ramus is well preserved. The outer side of the rear portion of the horizontal ramus is present on
the left fragment, somewhat less on the right fragment. On the right mandible the alveolar
sockets extend to the gum line, and on the left fragment the alveoli extend to the base position on
the teeth for positions no. 4-7. The following description is based mainly on the left fragment,
which is somewhat more complete.

In G. floridanum the anterior margin of the ascending ramus is inclined at an angle of ap-
proximately 60° with respect to the occlusal surface of the teeth. In one mandible from Texas
(TMM 30967-1814), this inclination is clearly evident. In a specimen from Florida (USNM 11318)
the inclination seems to be almost vertical, although little of the anterior edge is preserved (see
Gillette and Ray, 1981, Figures 16 and 17). The new mandibles present more of the anterior
margin than the previously described material from Florida. The inclination of the anterior
border of the ramus, extending for nearly 52 mm, is approximately 60°. Thus there is no differ-
ence between the Texas mandible previously assigned to G. floridanum and the new specimens
with respect to this diagnostic trait.

The mandibles reveal several features not previously observed in Glyptotherium. At the base
of the alveoli for tooth positions N4, Ns, Ne, and Nz, there are distinctive bulbous pits that housed
nutritive tissues for these open-rooted, ever-growing teeth. On the outer surface of the ascending
ramus a pronounced muscle scar marks the insertion of the outer slips of the temporalis muscles
that enveloped the coronoid process. This construction was not observed by Gillette and Ray
(1981), who incorrectly reconstructed the temporalis with insertion restricted to the medial sur-
face of the coronoid process.

Distinctive rugosity marks the position of the deeper slips of the masseter complex in the
region posterior to the curvature between the ascending and horizontal rami. This rugosity is in-
clined obliquely upward from the rear, presumably indicating the disposition of the muscles at
this position.

A puzzling feature on the outer surface of both mandibles is the presence of numerous
grooves, approximately 1 mm deep, that communicate with small nutritive canals. The grooves
are horizontally oriented on the left mandible, and inclined upward and forward on the right
mandible at the upper edge of the alveoli for Ny and Ns. It appears that these grooves mark the
position of hairs that lined the lips, and that the pits were the hair follicles set in the bone. Be-
cause these bones are fragmentary, no dimensions can be taken; however their size is consistent
with the measurements that Gillette and Ray (1981, Table 2) provided for G. floridanum.
Similar grooves are present on the mandible from Ingleside, Texas (TMM 30967-1814); they slant
upward and forward, and occupy approximately the upper half of the horizontal ramus (Ernest
L. Lundelius, Jr., personal communication).

Cervical tube—Gillette and Ray (1981) asserted that the cervical tube of G. floridanum dif-
fers from that of G. arizonae in form and in having five instead of the six vertebrae in this element
as found in G. arizonae.

The new cervical tube resembles the specimen from Wolf City, Texas (USNM 6071), assigned
to G. floridanum. The new cervical tube is a nearly complete left side, including the composite
ankylosed transverse process which was not preserved in the Texas specimen. Like the tube from
Texas, the new cervical tube contains four external neural foramina, rather than five as in G.
arizonae. In all other aspects the new specimen closely resembles the one from Texas, lending
further support for the conspecific identity of the Rancholabrean Gulf Coastal population of
Glyptotherium.

Radius—Only the shaft is preserved for the left radius on the new specimen. The epiphyses
were unclosed on both extremities at death, indicating that the individual was not yet full grown,
although carapacial features indicate that it was a nearly mature adult.

The radius is comparatively small. Total length of the shaft is 112 mm.; minimum transverse
and anterior-posterior dimensions of the shaft are 18 mm and 12 mm, respectively. These figures
are approximately 2/3 of the corresponding dimensions of the Texas specimen (USNM 6071),
which was a full grown adult.

Ischiosacral vertebrae—The sacral complex in Glyptotherium is a massively developed ele-
ment adapted primarily for support of the carapace and consists of five to nine coalesced lumbar
vertebrae, eight to nine coalesced sacral vertebrae, and the paired ilia, ischia, and pubes. The
two posterior sacral vertebrae are free at the centrum, but the transverse processes are united
distally. These two elements (the ultimate and penultimate sacral vertebrae) articulate with the

No. 1, 1986] GILLETTE AND WHISLER— LATE PLEISTOCENE GLYPTODONT 59

= —

Fic. 3. Fragmentary right mandible, buccal (outer) view; bar scale =5 cm.

ischia, and are called “ischiosacral” vertebrae to distinguish them from more anterior ones. The
posterior ischiosacral vertebra articulates with the first caudal vertebra.

Both ischiosacral vertebrae are included in the new material. They are fragmentary, lacking
the transverse processes, and for the penultimate ischiosacral, the dorsal spine, but are similar in
all respects to those previously described from Florida and Texas. The transverse processes of the
terminal vertebra are considerably larger than those of the penultimate vertebra. The position
and degree of fusion of the transverse processes cannot be discerned. The centra are broken at
their common articulation; it appears that they were incompletely ankylosed at this joint.

As recognized by Gillette and Ray (1981) for taxonomic distinction in G. floridanum, the
transverse processes of both vertebrae are almost perpendicularly oriented with respect to the
long axis of the centrum, rather than obliquely downward as in the other species of Glyp-
totherium.

The only pertinent dimensions that can be taken for these two specimens are: inside dorsoven-

60 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

tral and transverse diameters of the neural arch of the anterior ischiosacral vertebra, 30.5 mm
and 21.2 mm, respectively; and, dorsoventral and transverse diameters of the posterior facet of
the centrum of the posterior ischiosacral vertebra, 55.1 mm and 82.1 mm, respectively.

Caudal vertebrae— Caudal vertebrae of Glyptotherium floridanum were previously known
only from two specimens from Texas and none have been described previously from eastern
North America. The two elements (caudal no. 6 and the three fused terminal vertebrae) de-
scribed below are the first from Florida, and with respect to the terminal vertebrae, this is the
first such description for the species.

The isolated caudal vertebra (Figure 4) appears to belong in serial position 5, 6, or 7; assign-
ment to the 6th position seems to be the best fit. The element is complete except for the right
metapophysis.

Dimensions for this vertebra, following the measurements defined by Gillette and Ray (1981,
Table 68), are (1) a-axis: anteroposterior diameter through centrum at base, 83 mm; (2) b-axis:
maximum transverse diameter of centrum at anterior extremity, 58 mm; (3) c-axis: maximum
dorsoventral diameter of centrum at anterior extremity, 55 mm; (4) d-axis: maximum transverse
diameter of centrum at posterior extremity, 63 mm; (5) e-axis: maximum dorsoventral diameter
of centrum at posterior extremity, 55 mm; (6) f-axis: maximum transverse diameter between
angles of transverse processes, 148 mm; (7) g-axis: maximum transverse diameter of anterior
xenarthral processes, 5 mm; (8) h-axis: maximum transverse diameter of posterior xenarthral pro-
cesses, 25 mm.

Fic. 4. Isolated caudal vertebra no. 5, 6, or 7; (a) dorsal; (b) anterior; and (c) left lateral
aspects; bar scale =5 cm.

No. 1, 1986] GILLETTE AND WHISLER — LATE PLEISTOCENE GLYPTODONT 61

Fic. 5. Three fused terminal caudal vertebrae; (a) anterior aspect of anterior— most
vertebrae; (b) right lateral aspect; and (c) ventral aspect. Vertical lines indicate positions of fused
joints; bar scale=5 cm.

These dimensions are consistent with assignment to caudal position no. 5 or 6 for G. flori-
danum, corresponding more closely to the Ingleside specimen than the Wolf City specimen for
which the vertebral assignments by Gillette and Ray were tentative.

The diameter between the extremities of the transverse processes (f-axis) indicates the inside
diameter of the ring of caudal armor that encased this vertebra. The dimension recorded here
(148 mm) is narrow compared to that of USNM 6071, position no. 6 (240 mm) and no. 7 (175
mm). If the position assignments for USNM 6071 are correct, it appears that in the Florida
specimen the caudal vertebra and the caudal armor were comparatively light.

Terminal caudal vertebrae, the last several in the caudal series that fit snugly into the tube of
caudal armor which protected the tip of the tail, were previously unknown for G. floridanum.
Until the new material came available for study, it was uncertain how many vertebrae were in-
corporated into the caudal tube and whether it was more elaborate than in ancestral species (G.
texanum and G. arizonae) in which it was simple. Indeed, North American glyptodonts have oc-
casionally been reconstructed with a set of spines forming a mace at the tip of the caudal armor,
like that in certain South American genera; with the new material from Florida for confirmation
it is now possible to state that no known species of glyptodonts in North America possessed ter-
minal spines on the caudal tube.

The terminal caudal vertebrae consist of three elements, each firmly ankylosed to the next
(Figure 5). Based on size comparisons and lack of reason to change position assignments of
Gillette and Ray (1981), it appears that these three elements are caudal vertebrae nos. 11, 12, and
13. The last vertebra, no. 13, is incompletely developed, a condition like that found in both G.
arizonae and G. texanum.

Dimensions for these three elements are: anteroposterior length at centrum base, 80.2 mm
(no. 11), 76.7 mm (no. 12), and 11.5 mm (no. 13); transverse diameter of the centrum, anterior
facet: 38.5 mm (no. 11), and approximately 33.0 mm (no. 12); total length for the fused set:
177.7 mm.

62 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

The anterior centrum for no. 11 remained unfused, although the articular surface is rugose
and irregular, indicating little mobility at this joint. At the anterior position the neural spine, the
zygapophyses, and the transverse processes are prominent. Their distal surfaces are rugose, in-
dicating nearly ankylosed union with the underside of the caudal ring that encased the joint at
this position. The neural canal is complete; its diameter is approximately 3.5 mm.

The haemal canal is also complete, with slightly larger diameter, approximately 3.7 mm. It is
housed by the chevron bones (haemal arches) that are prominent and solidly fused at the
posterior third of the centrum. The caudal extremity of the paired chevron bones extends beyond
the joint between vertebrae nos. 11 and 12. Total length for the chevron bones is 66.3 mm.

Caudal vertebra no. 12 lacks the neural spine; consequently the neural canal was open from
this position rearward. The zygapophyses and transverse processes are reduced. The haemal
canal is enclosed by the chevron bones, which are 37.2 mm long. The articular surfaces at both
ends are solidly ankylosed.

The terminal vertebra (no. 13) is incompletely developed; if it were disarticulated there
would be little hope of identifying it as a vertebral element. It is approximately 16 mm long, and
possesses prominent tuberosities at its tip and on the right side.

Conc.usions—The glyptodonts that occupied the Gulf Coast and the
southeastern Coastal Plain during the Rancholabrean land mammal age all
pertain to Glyptotherium floridanum. New specimens from peninsular
Florida demonstrate fundamental identity of the Florida glyptodonts with
the Texas glyptodonts of similar age.

The postulated evolutionary sequence in North America that originated
with G. texanum in the late Blancan, through G. arizonae in the Irvingto-
nian, and culminating with G. floridanum in the Rancholabrean (Gillette
and Ray, 1981) is strengthened by the new specimens.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—Curtis McKinney assisted in the collection and transportation of the
specimens for study. The Shuler Museum of Paleontology, Southern Methodist University; the
New Mexico Museum of Natural History; and the Florida State Museum assisted in the research
leading to this report. The illustrations were prepared by Linda Ashling, artist for the New
Mexico Museum of Natural History. Ernest L. Lundelius, Jr., S. David Webb, and an
anonymous reviewer critically read the manuscript and provided useful comments that have
been incorporated into the text.

LITERATURE CITED

Gittette, D. D., anv C. E. Ray. 1981. Glyptodonts of North America. Smithsonian Contr. to
Paleobiology. No. 40: vi + 255 pages.

Houmes, W. W. anv G. G. Simpson. 1931. Pleistocene exploration and fossil edentates in
Florida. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 59:383-418.

Lunpeuius, E. L., Jr. 1972. Fossil vertebrates from the Late Pleistocene Ingleside fauna, San
Patricio County, Texas. Rept. of Investigation, The Univ. of Texas Bur. Econ. Geology.
77: vit 74 pages.

Ray, C. E. 1965. A Glyptodont from South Carolina. Charleston Museum Leaflet 27, 12 pp.

Simpson, G. G. 1929a. The extinct land mammals of Florida. Ann. Rept. Fla. Geol. Surv.

. 229-279.

saiesane G. G. 1929b. Pleistocene mammalian fauna of the Seminole Field, Pinellas County,

Florida. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 56:561-599.

Florida Sci. 49(1):55-62. 1986.
Accepted: May 8, 1985.

No. 1, 1986] CARDER — BOOK REVIEW 63

REVIEW

G. A. Maul, Introduction to Satellite Oceanography, Martinus Nijhoff,
Dordrecht, 1985. Pp. x + 600.

THE increasing availability of ocean data collected by Earth-orbiting
satellites provides added incentive for ocean scientists to understand the
scientific principles relevant to making accurate ocean measurements from
space. Now a text is available which details the pertinent orbital mechanics
and electromagnetic theory from the visible to the microwave end of the
spectrum, with the governing equations for a given application typically
derived from Maxwell’s equations. The derivations can be followed by most
readers with a math background including differential equations. The text
should be especially interesting to physical oceanographers, for ocean wave
and thermal measurements using both optical and passive microwave
techniques are included, and active microwave determinations of wind
speed, water vapor, and ocean surface topography are discussed. A signifi-
cant portion of the book is devoted to the visible remote sensing of subsurface
reflectance, whether from the bottom or from particle constituents such as
phytoplankton or suspended sediments, and a brief discussion is presented of
passive microwave measurements of first and multi-year ice concentrations.
For the researcher, a sizable list of references is appended, but more
documentation in the text would be helpful. One serious shortcoming for a
book of this price is the poor quality of the graphics and printing. Several
color plates lack the dynamic range necessary for the reader to perceive the
features alluded to in the text. Nevertheless, the author makes a valuable
contribution by providing in one text the fundamentals required by most
oceanographers to critically read articles dealing with the remote assessment
of ocean and certain atmospheric properties. — Kendall L. Carder, Depart-
ment of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL
33701.

STONE CRAB SYMPOSIUM

A symposium on the biology and fishery of the commercially valuable
stone crab (Menippe mercenaria), sponsored jointly by the Florida Depart-
ment of Natural Resources, Florida Sea Grant Program, and Mote Marine
Laboratory, will be held at Mote Marine Laboratory in Sarasota, Florida on
April 24-25, 1986. The symposium coordinator, Theresa M. Bert, Florida
Department of Natural Resources, Bureau of Marine Research, 100 8th Ave.
S.E., St. Petersburg, FL 33701, (813) 896-8626, may be contacted for fur-
ther information.

64 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Outstanding Student Paper Awards, Awardees

Forty-ninth Annual Meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences,
Saint Leo College — 2-4 May 1985

Agricultural Sciences— Robert E. Buresh, University of Florida. Influence
of four antibiotics on the utilization of energy by turkey poults.

Anthropological Sciences — Jeffrey M. Mitchem, University of Florida. Some
alternative interpretations of Safety Harbor burial mounds.

Atmospheric, Oceanographic, Physical and Space Sciences — Kevin M. Bull,
Florida Institute of Technology. Early chemical diagenesis in Mid-
Atlantic Ridge sediments.

Biological Sciences— Debra L. Jennings, University of Tampa. Helminths
of the Mediterranean gecko, Hemidactylus turcicus turcicus, from
Tampa, Florida.

Gerald A. LeBlanc, University of South Florida. Modulation of
substrate-specific glutathione-S transferase activity in Daphnia magna
with concomitant effects on toxicity tolerance.

Suzanne Succop, University of Tampa. Fertilization and male fer-
tility in the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis.

Lee A. Swain, University of South Florida. Metabolism of nonpro-
tein amino acids in Calliandra tapirorum seedlings.

Engineering — Timothy Rudolph, Florida Institute of Technology. Produc-
tion of gasoline extenders derived from levulinic acid.

Environmental Chemistry — Mark S. Castro, Florida Institute of Technol-
ogy. Measurements of biogenic hydrogen sulfide emissions from selected
Florida wetlands.

Lawrence P. Pollack, Florida Institute of Technology. Hydrolysis
and degradation of aldicarb sulfone in estuarine environments.

Geology and Hydrology — Mark A. Culbreth, University of South Florida.
Significance of lineaments in Florida.

John W. Parker, University of South Florida. VLF resistivity signa-
ture of a fingered plume in a karstic aquifer.

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Volume 49 Spring, 1986 “Number 2

Biological Sciences

LENGTH, MASS, AND CALORIFIC RELATIONSHIPS
OF EVERGLADES ANIMALS

James A. KusHLAN"’, Scott A. VoorHEEs'??, WILLIAM F.. Lortus"?,
AND PauLa C. FROHRING‘"?

‘Department of Biology, East Texas State University, Commerce, Texas 75428,
‘2) American Home Products Corporation, 685 3rd Ave., New York, New York 10017, and
‘)Everglades National Park, P.O. Box 279, Homestead, Florida 33030

Asstract: Meristic and calorific relationships were determined for aquatic animals from
southern Florida. The relationships derived included wet mass to length (52 species, 2 families),
dry mass to length (17 species), dry mass to wet mass (17 species), and calorific value (44 taxa).
The analyses we present are the first available for most of the species. Such relationships can be
used in estimating standing stock and energy flow in aquatic systems.

KNOWLEDGE of the energy dynamics of populations is fundamental to
understanding how ecosystems function (Paine, 1971). However, energy
flow and energy standing stock are expensive and usually impractical to
measure directly in that each application would require extensive collections
and calorimetic determines (Richman and Slobodkin, 1960) of the specific
material under study. More commonly, studies approach the problem in-
directly by converting some measured property of the specimens to calorific
content using average caloric density of the study material or more typically,
of similar material described in the literature (Cummins and Wuycheck
1971). The most useful measured property is dry mass, which eliminates
variability owing to water content. Wet mass is often measured instead of
dry mass because it is easier and faster. When sample sizes are large or
weighing is impractical, linear measurements are usually taken. Linear
measurement may be total length or length of some body part. In many
studies, linear measurements are the only ones possible or practicable. As an
example, partially digested food items found in stomach samples are not
amendable to direct and accurate measurement of mass. Because of such cir-
cumstances, mass-length regressions have proven to be convenient
mechanisms for estimating mass. Once relationships among linear size, wet
mass, dry mass, and caloric density are known, energetic relationships can
then be explored.

66 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Mass-length relationships are available for some terrestrial and aquatic
organisms. Rogers and coworkers (1976, 1977), Smock (1980), and Sage
(1982) have provided data for invertebrates. Carlander (1969, 1977) has
compiled available relationships for freshwater fishes. Most information for
North American fishes is from temperate areas. It is expected that relation-
ships between mass and length would be different in subtropical climates
such as south Florida. In this paper, we present meristic and calorific rela-
tionships for aquatic animals associated with the Everglades. Future studies
can apply these relationships to estimate standing stock and energy flow in
the Everglades, associated estuaries, and in other similar situations for
which such relationships are not available.

MetTHops—Common and scientific names of the animals follow Robins et al. (1980), Collins
et al. (1978), Usinger (1973), Pennak (1978), and Voss (1976).

All specimens used in this study were collected in and near freshwater marshes and the
estuaries of the southern Florida Everglades (Tabb et al., 1962, Loftus and Kushlan, 1985).
Specimens were obtained during routine sampling programs and specific studies from 1977 to
1981 by using throw traps (Kushlan, 1981), rotenone, electrofishers, seines, cast nets, gill nets,
and dip nets. Because of the diversity of trapping methods used and the extensive collecting ef-
fort, it is expected that the sample size obtained for each species is a reflection of its relative
population level in the Everglades. Thus, the largest samples are of species that are most common
in the Everglades, and we generally have small sample sizes of species that are rare, even though
we specifically attempted to collect adequate numbers.

We preserved specimens in 10% formalin and stored them in 40% isopropanol prior to mea-
suring. No linear shrinkage occurred in formalin of four test fish species (N = 20 per species).

We measured lengths to the nearest 0.5 mm. We determined the standard length of all fishes,
except we measured total length of Lepisosteus platyrhincus and Amia calva. We measured the
snout-vent length of amphibians, the total length of insects, and total length of crustaceans from
the anterior point of rostrum to the terminus of the uropod. We measured the longest axis of the
operculum for snails and weighed the wet tissue mass excluding the shell. We also measured the
lengths of selected insect and crustacean body parts that were commonly found in predator
stomach samples and related these to the mass of entire specimens.

We measured wet mass to the nearest 0.001 g on a Mettler H-30 balance after blotting
specimens dry to remove excess liquid. We measured specimens having a mass greater than 160 g
on a top loading Torsion PL-800 balance. We determined dry mass by weighing the specimen on
the Mettler H-30 balance after drying at 50-60°C. for 24 hrs.

We obtained calorific values in triplicate from a single sample of many individuals using a
Parr adiabatic calorimeter, after drying to constant mass at 60°C. These values include ash
components.

Data TREATMENT— The mass-length relationshps of fishes (Ricker, 1975) and insects (Rogers
et al., 1977; Smock, 1980) fit a parabolic or power curve (Eqn. 1).

y= _x' 1
T<B5 (1)

Where Y = mass, X = length, and Bo and B, are constants for a population. This relationship
was linearized as log Y = log By + B,; log X. We derived our relationships by the least squares (LS)
regression method (Kleinbaum and Kupper, 1978) using the SPSS statistical package (Nie et al.,
1975) on a Univac 1100. We also generated scatter diagrams of length and weight data points for
each species. Although not included in this paper, they are available from the authors.

Ricker (1973) advocated use of the geometric mean functional regression (GMFR) method for
mass-length applications. Jolicoeur (1975) and Sprent and Dolby (1980) provided convincing
arguments against its use in favor of the standard LS method. If desirable, the GMF regression
can be derived from the data and statistics we present in this paper (Ricker, 1973).

Our symbolism follows Kleinbaum and Kupper (1978): Bo is the intercept; B, is the slope; N is
the number of observations; Y is the dependent variable; Y is the predicted value of Y; X is the in-

67

KUSHLAN, ET AL.—EVERGLADES ANIMALS

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70 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

dependent variable; Y is the mean of all inputed Y values; X is the mean of all inputed X values; S
is any standard deviation; Sy is the standard deviation of inputed X values; Sy is the standard
deviation of inputed Y values; Sp, is the standard error of the slope; SSE is residual sum of
squares, £(Y;-Y;)?; SSY-SSE is sum of squares due to regression; Sy; is the standard error of the
estimate (SSE/(N-2))’; MSE is the mean square error of the residuals, SSE/(N-2); r is the sample
correlation coefficient; and F is the value of the F ratio of the sums of squares. We used a = 0.01,
and all regressions were significant at that level.

RESULTS AND Discussion—We derived allometric relationships for 52
species and 2 family groups of Everglades animals (Table 1). Sample size ex-
ceeded 13,000 specimens for the most common species. For 6 other species,
we had over 1000 specimens each. However, for some rare species, we had
only a few specimens, and we urge caution in using the relationships derived
from these data. The distribution and range of sizes for specimens are repre-
sentative of the characteristic sizes of animals usually found in the Ever-
glades and adjacent estuaries. The minimum and maximum sizes used in
deriving the relationships (Table 1) should be considered by users. At either
end of the size distribution error increases, so we do not advocate extrapolat-
ing these relationships beyond the data used.

Wet Mass—Length Relationships—We derived 63 wet mass (Yj) to
length relationships for 53 species or higher taxa of Everglades animals
(Table 2). Most are exceptionally good fits, and only one had a correlation
coefficient below 0.90. As a result, estimates can be made of the wet mass of
additional specimens having lengths within the ranges of those presented for
each species in Table 1. Examination of plots of the residuals versus
predicted values showed no substantial deviations from assumptions of
homoscedasticity. Untransformed linear models in all cases gave poorer fits
than log transformed ones. It should be noted that retransformation of the
regression statistics must be done with caution (Beauchamp and Olson,
1973):

The slope B, of a transformed length-mass curve is theoretically about
3.0 for animals (Carlander, 1977) to the extent that weight varies roughly as
a cubic function of linear measurements. For our data, B, ranges from 1.2 to
5.0 for fishes. This variability suggests that B, may be interpretable in some
cases as a condition factor (LeCren, 1951; Zaret, 1980).

In some studies, it is difficult to identify a fish to species. Therefore, we
have derived relationships that combine certain similarly appearing species.
“Lepomis” (n=1193) included Lepomis gulosus, L. macrochirus, L.
microlophus, L. punctatus, and L. marginatus. “Sunfish” (n= 1527) in-
cluded the above species plus Enneacanthus gloriosus. “Fish” included the
common fishes of the Everglades (N = 44,724), i.e., the 6 species above, plus
Gambusia affinis, Poecilia latipinna, Cyprinodon variegatus, Fundulus con-
fluentus, Jordanella floridae, Heterandria formosa, Lucania goodei, and
Fundulus chrysotus.

Mass-length relationships for most species that we examined have been
unavailable previously. We know of published wet mass-length data for only
7 of our species: Ictalurus natalis (Carlander, 1969); Lepomis gulosus

ial

KUSHLAN, ET AL.—EVERGLADES ANIMALS

No. 2, 1986]

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[Vol. 49

FLORIDA SCIENTIST

72

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73

KUSHLAN, ET AL.—EVERGLADES ANIMALS

No. 2, 1986]

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74 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

(Carlander, 1977); Lepomis macrochirus (Carlander, 1977); Lepomis punc-
tatus (Caldwell et al., 1957); Micropterus salmoides (Carlander, 1977;
Beckman, 1945); Notemigonus crysoleucas (Carlander, 1977); and
Haemulon pulmieri (Manooch, 1976). Herke (1959) studied several of these
species in Florida. Eidman (1967) calculated regressions from Strongylura
spp. specimens from the Everglades estuary, but S. notata, the species we
analyzed, may have comprised only 20% of that sample (Roessler, 1970).
Comparison of the slopes and intercepts of our equations with those
previously available showed no consistently meaningful patterns. For the
most part, unknown variability in sampling, habitat, and other factors make
such comparisons of little value in the present context.

Dry Mass—We generated a relationship between dry mass (Y2) and the
length for 17 fish species (Table 1, 2). All regressions were significant and
can be used with confidence to predict dry mass from the applicable linear
measurement.

It is often desirable to estimate dry mass from wet mass of a specimen,
and we were able to derive such relationships for 17 Everglades fishes (Table
3). Sample sizes ranged to over 2000 individuals, but in several instances in-
cluded only a few specimens. We again urge caution in the application of
these latter equations. The relationship (Table 4) between wet and dry mass
is linear; transformations did not improve the fit. For most species, length
was a better estimator of dry mass than was wet mass, no doubt because of
the variable water content of wet specimens. For the fishes Lucania goodei,
Enneacanthus_ gloriosus, Lepomis gulosus, Lepomis marginatus, and
Lepomis microlophus, wet mass was a better estimator of dry mass than was
length.

Calorific Content—The energy content of an animal can be estimated
from dry weight by suitable conversion factors. We have determined the
calorific content of 44 animal taxa from southern Florida (Table 5). We have
also merged these into more encompassing taxa thereby providing values of
general utility. Calorific values for most taxa ranged from 3 keal/g of dry
weight to 6 kcal/g of dry weight. Values for molluscs were lower because of
the inclusion of shell material. Golley (1961) obtained similar results with
crabs. Overall, the caloric content of animals measured was 4.95 kcal/g of
dry weight, similar to the value generally used for animal material (Golley,
1961; Slobodkin, 1962).

Conc.Lusions—From 1977 to 1981, over 70,000 aquatic animals were
collected in the Everglades and estuarine habitats of southern Florida. The
meristic and calorific relationships determined were based on large sample
sizes for most of the 52 species. The strengths of the relationships presented
are the most complete available for nearly all of the species and the only ones
available for southern Florida. Use of the equations should be constrained by
the size ranges of the specimens used. Equations for the new species with
small sample sizes especially should be used cautiously, and their recalcula-
tion using additional specimens is desirable.

KUSHLAN, ET AL.—EVERGLADES ANIMALS

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[Vol. 49

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No. 2, 1986] KUSHLAN, ET AL.—EVERGLADES ANIMALS 77

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—The data analyzed in this paper were collected by a number of field
assistants including Scott Andree, Joanna Booser, Carol Hewes, Karen Kronner, Bill Phillips, Jef-
fery Seib, David Tomey, and Dorothy Voorhees. Several people played key roles in performing
preliminary analyses, in particular, Peter Schroeder, Dorothy Voorhees, Jeffery Seib, and Gary
Novotny. We thank especially Perry Haaland, Paulette Johnson, and Duane Meeter for statistical
guidance. Analyses were performed at the University of Miami Computer Center and the
Southeast Regional Data Center at Florida International University.

TABLE 5. Measured calorific values (keal/g dry weight) for various Everglades animals (ash in-
cluded), and mean values for groups.

Calorific value

Animals (Group Mean; S; N)
Annelida
Nereidae 3.15
Lumbricus sp. 3.15
All annelida (3.15; 0.00; 2)
Arthropoda
Araneida 5.31
Ligia sp. 5.30
Palaemonetes paludosus 4.70
Procambarus alleni 4.31
Uca sp. 3.62
Cardisoma guanhumi 2.82
Aratus pisonii 3.19
All Decapoda (3:73; 0:78;, 5)
All Crustacea (3.99; 0.95; 6)
Diplopoda 4.00
Ephemeroptera 5.86
Odonata 5.00
Periplantia americana 5.00
Belostoma sp. 5.20
Lethocerus americanus 5.82
Ranatra buenoi 5.30
Pelocoris sp. 5.44
All Hemiptera (5.44; 0.27; 4)
Dytiscus sp. (adult) 5.96
Dytiscus sp. (larva) 5.30
Tropisternus lateralis 5.30
Enochrus perplexus 5.80
Hydrophilus insularis 5.81
Neohydrophilus castus 5.30
Platynus floridanus 5.70
All Coleoptera (5.60; 0.29; 7)
Tabanus sp. (larva) 5.28
Chrysops flavidus (larva) 5.28
All Diptera (5.28; 0.00; 2)
All Insecta (5.46; 0.32; 16)
Mollusca
Pomacea paludosa 1.17
Helisoma sp. 1.61
Olivella sp. 1.10
Cerithidea sp. 1.10
Unionidae 1.50
All Gastropoda (1.25; 0.25; 4)
All Mollusca (1.30; 0.24; 5)

78 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

TABLE 5. Continued

Calorific value

Animals (Group Mean; S; N)
Osteichthys
Cyprinodon variegatus 4.66
Fundulus chrysotus 5.16
Fundulus confluentus 5.04
Jordanella floridae 5.00
Lucania goodei 5.50
Rivulus marmoratus 5.00
Gambusia affinis 5.51
Heterandria formosa 5.50
Enneacanthus gloriosus 5.00
Lepomis gulosus 4.96
All Osteichthys (5.13; 0.28; 10)
Amphibia
Rana grylio 4.62
Notopthalmus viridescens 5.10
All Amphibia (4.95; 0.34; 2)
Reptilia
Anolis carolinensis 5.12

LITERATURE CITED

BEAUCHAMP, J. J., AND J. S. Ouson. 1973. Corrections for bias in regression estimates after
logarithmic transformation. Ecology 54:1403-1407.

BecKMAN, W. C. 1945. The length-weight relationship, factors for conversions between stan-
dard and total lengths, and coefficients of condition for seven Michigan fishes. Trans. Am.
Fish. Soc. 75:237-256.

CaLpweLL, D. K., H. T. Opum, T. R. HEvuter, Jr., AND F. H. Berry. 1957. Populations of
spotted sunfish and Florida largemouth bass in a constant temperature spring. Trans. Am.
Fish. Soc. 85:120-134.

CarLANper, K. D. 1969. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology; Volume One. The Iowa State
Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa.

. 1977. Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology; Volume Two. The Iowa State
Univ. Press, Ames, Iowa.

Cummins, K. W., AND J. C. Wuycueck, 1971. Caloric equivalents for investigations in ecologi-
cal energetics. M.H. int. Ver. Limnol. 18.

Couns, J. T., J. E. Hucuey, J. L. Knicut, ano H. B. Smiru. 1978. Standard, common, and
current scientific names for North American amphibians and reptiles. Soc. Study of
Amphib. and Reptiles Herpetol. Cir. 7.

Erpman, M. 1967. Contribution to the biology of needlefishes, Strongylura spp., in south
Florida. Unpubl. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida.

Go. ey, F. B. 1961. Energy values of ecological material. Ecology 42:581-584.

Herke, W. H. 1959. Comparison of the length-weight relationship of several species of fish from
two different, but connected habitats. Proc. Ann. Conf. S.E. Assoc. Fish Wild. Comm.
13:299-313.

Joticogur, P. 1975. Linear regressions in fisheries research: some comments. J. Fish. Res. Board
Can. 32:1491-1494.

KLEINBAUM, D. G., AND L. L. Kupper. 1978. Applied regression analysis and other multivariate
methods. Duxbury Press, North Scituate, Massachusetts.

KusHLian, J. A. 1981. Sampling characteristics of enclosure fish traps. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.
110:557-562.

LeCren, E. D. 1951. The length-weight relationship and seasonal cycle in gonad weight and
condition in the perch (Perca fluviatilis). J. Anim. Ecol. 20:201-219.

Lorrus, W. F., anp J. A. KusHiLan. 1985. The freshwater fishes of southern Florida. Bull.
Florida State Mus.

No. 2, 1986] KUSHLAN, ET AL.—EVERGLADES ANIMALS 79

Manoocu, C. S., III. 1976. Age, growth, and mortality of the white grunt Haemulon plumieri
Lacepede (Pisces: Pomadasyidae) from North Carolina and South Carolina. Proc. Ann.
Conf. S. E. Assoc. Fish Wild. Agen. 30:58-70.

Ne, N. H., C. H. Hutt, J. G. Jenkins, K. STEINBRENNER, AND D. H. Bent. 1975. Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, New York.

Paine, R. T. 1971. The measurement and application of the calorie to ecological problems. Ann.
Rev. Ecol. Syst. 2:145-164.

Pennak, R. W. 1978. Freshwater Invertebrates of the United States. John Wiley and Sons, New
York, New York.

RICHMAN, S., AND B. SLoBODKIN. 1960. A micro-bomb colorimeter for ecology. Bull. Ecol. Soc.
Am. 41:88-89.

Ricker, W. E. 1973. Linear regressions is fishery research. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 30:409-434.

. 1975. Computation and interpretation of biological statistics of fish populations.

Fish. Res. Board Can. Bull. 191.

Rosins, C. R., R. M. Bartey, C. E. Bonn, S. R. Brooker, E. A. LAcHNerR, R. N. Lea, AND
W. B. Scortr. 1980. A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes from the United
States and Canada. 4th ed. Am. Fish. Soc. Special Publ. No. 12.

Roesster, M. A. 1970. Checklist of fishes in Buttonwood Canal, Everglades National Park,
Florida, and observations on the seasonal occurrence and life histories of selected species.
Bull. Mar. Sci. 20:860-893.

Rocers, L. E., R. L. BuscoBom, anp C. R. Watson. 1977. Length-weight relationships of
shrub-steppe invertebrates. Ann. Entom. Soc. Amer. 70:51-53.

, W. T. Hinps, ano R. L. BuscHBom. 1976. A general weight versus length rela-

tionship for insects. Ann. Entom. Soc. Amer. 69:387-389.

SacE, R. D. 1982. Wet and dry-weight estimates of insects and spiders based on length. Amer.
Midl. Nat. 108:407-411.

SLOBODKIN, L. B. 1962. Energy in animal ecology. Advan. Ecol. Res. 1:69-101.

Smock, L. A. 1980. Relationships between body size and biomass of aquatic insects. Freshwater
Biol. 10:22-28.

SPRENT, P., AND G. R. Do.sy. 1980. Query: the geometric mean functional relationship. Bio-
metrics 36:547-550.

Tass, D. C., D. L. DuBrow, ann R. B. MANNING. 1962. The ecology of northern Florida Bay
and adjacent areas. Florida Bd. Conserv., Tech. Ser. 39.

Usincer, R. L. 1973. Aquatic Insects of California. Univ. California Press, Berkeley, California.

Voss, G. L. 1976. Seashore life of Florida and the Caribbean. E. A. Seeman Publ., Inc., Miami,
Florida.

ZareT, T. M. 1980. Life history and growth relationships of Cichla ocellaris, a predatory South
American cichlid. Biotropica 12:144-157.

Florida Sci. 49(2): 65-79. 1986.
Accepted: April 22, 1985.

80 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

FIRST RECORDS OF THREE CLEARWING MOTHS (SYNANTHEDON
TABANIFORMIS, SYNANTHEDON PROXIMA, AND SYNANTHEDON
CASTANEAE) IN FLORIDA—Larry N. Brown, Department of Biology, University
of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620.

Asstract: While sampling various plant communities in north Florida for clearwing moths
(Family Sesiidae) in 1985, using sex-pheromone attractants, three new state records were cap-
tured. These are the tree borers, Synanthedon tabaniformis, Synanthedon proxima and Synanthe-
don castaneae.

SEVERAL synthetic pheromones developed by Tumlinson and co-workers
(1974) were used for sampling clearwing moths of the Family Sesiidae at nu-
merous locations in northern Florida during the spring months of 1985. One
hundred sticky traps were placed in trees at regular intervals in virtually all
the habitat types available. A total of twenty-four species were recorded in-
cluding three that represent new state records.

The species new to Florida are as follows:

Synanthedon tabaniformis (Rottemburg)—one specimen collected April
19, 1985 at Wakulla, Wakulla County, Florida, to the sex attractant EZ-3,13-
octadecadienyl alcohol in an area of dense second-growth hardwoods. Synan-
thedon tabaniformis is a borer in Populus trees, previously collected by Solo-
mon (1982) in west central Mississippi. Solomon’s records are the nearest
published localities to Florida where this species has been taken. Neither
Engelhardt (1946), nor Kimball (1965), nor Sharp and co-workers (1978) re-
corded S. tabaniformis in Florida.

Synanthedon proxima (Edwards)—one specimen collected May 1, 1985 on
the Choctawhatchee Rivers east of Ebro, Bay County, Florida, to the sex at-
tractant EZ-3,13-octodecadien-1-ol acetate in an area of mature floodplain
forest and willows. Synanthedon proxima is a borer in willows and has been
recorded prior to this only as far south as the Macon area in central Georgia
(J. W. Snow, pers. comm., U.S.D.A. Research Lab, Byron, Georgia).

Synanthedon castaneae (Busck)—one specimen collected May 1, 1985 at
Marianna, Jackson County, Florida, and one specimen collected May 2, 1985
near the Econfina River on State Highway 20, Bay County, Florida. Both
specimens came to the sex attractant EZ-3,13-octadecadienyl alcohol in an
area of mixed second-growth hardwoods. Synanthedon castaneae is known as
the chestnut borer, and is considered one of the rarest of all sesiids because its
primary food source, American chestnut, Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh.,
was largely eliminated decades ago throughout Eastern North America by the
chestnut blight (Engelhart, 1946).

Since the Florida chinquapin (Castanea pumila (L.) Mill. occurs through-
out the Florida Panhandle, and although planted Chinese chestnut and Euro-
pean chestnut are not common, it seems probable that S. castaneae uses these
trees of the same genus as substitute hosts. The chestnut borer was long
thought to be extinct, but specimens have recently been taken by J.W. Snow
and K. Scarborough (pers. comm.) using pheromones in Alabama, South Caro-
lina, and North Carolina. The nearest of these localities to the two new Florida

No. 2, 1986] BROWN—CLEARWING MOTHS 81

records is Troy in southeastern Alabama. Both Kimball (1965) and Sharp and
co-workers (1978) failed to record S. castaneae as a Florida resident.

Identification of the new clearwing records was confirmed by T.D. Eichlin,
Division of Plant Industry, California Department of Food and Agriculture,
Sacramento, California. These specimens were deposited in the author’s ento-
mological collections, Department of Biology, University of South Florida,
Tampa.

Additional field sampling using pheromones throughout northern Florida
in coming years will hopefully expand the known state ranges of these interest-
ing clearwing moths.

LITERATURE CITED

ENGELHARDT, G.P. 1946. The North American Clear-wing Moths of the Family Ageriidae.
Smithsonian Inst., U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 190, 222 pp.

KimBa i, C.P. 1965. Arthropods of Florida and Neighboring Land Areas, Vol. I, Lepidoptera. Fla.
Dept. Agric., Div. Plant Industry, 363 pp.

SHarp, J.L., J.R. McLaucuHuin, J. James, T.D. EIcHLIN, AND J.H. TuMLINsoN. 1978. Seasonal
occurrence of male Sesiidae in north central Florida determined with pheromone trapping
methods. Fla. Entomol. 61:245-50.

Sotomon, J.D., F.L. Ottverta, J.H. TUMLINson, AND R.E. Doo.itTrLe. 1982. Occurrence of
clearwing borers (Sesiidae) in west central Mississippi. J. Ga. Entomol. 17:4-12.

TuMLInson, J.H., C.E. Yonce, R.E. Doouittie, R.R. HEATH, C.R. GENTRY, AND E.R. Mitcu-
ELL. 1974. Sex-pheromones and reproductive isolation of the lesser peachtree borer and
peachtree borer. Science, 185:614-616.

Florida Sci. 49(2):80-81. 1986.
Accepted: June 12, 1985.

Environmental Chemistry

DO LAND’ CHARACTERISTICS APPE CE Hina
AND GASTROINTESTINAL CANCER DEATH
RATES AMONG FLORIDA COUNTIES?

1 2:
Marion L. Jackson”, CHANG S. Lr”, anp DEAN F. Martin™

‘Department of Soil Science, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences,

University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI 53706; (Director) Regional
Environmental Chemistry Laboratory, Institute of Environmental Chemistry,
Academia Sinica, P.O. Box 934, Peking, China; and ‘Chemical and
Environmental Management Services (CHEMS) Center, Department of Chemistry,
University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620 U.S.A.

Asstract: Inter-regional shipment of foods has generally been expected to erase geographical
differences in mineral nutrients in the food chain. Gradually, iodine supply and then selenium
(Se) have been recognized to vary geographically, with corresponding effects of deficiencies in
livestock and human beings in different countries, states, and counties through epidemiological
research. Such a study is reported herein for the 67 counties of Florida for the leading causes of
death, namely, heart failure and stomach and colorectal cancer. The 1979-1982 average varia-
tions between counties in age-adjusted heart death rates range more than 4-fold (155 to 639/
100,000/y in Alachua and Pinellas counties, respectively). Corresponding variations for 1979-
1981 for deaths from stomach and colorectal cancer range over 13-fold (14 to 189/100,000/y for
Columbia and Pinellas counties, respectively). A positive correlation (r = 0.73; p<0.001) occurs
between the two causes of death in the various counties (even though basically “competitive”).
This correlation suggests the involvement of land factors (soils, water, crops) causing the deaths
may vary in a somewhat common pattern. The counties with lower rates occur where soil clay
content, less porous limestone and topography hold back drainage water bearing Se and other
trace elements originating from the sea through rainfall. In contrast, those counties with high
death rates have more porous limestone and sandy quartzose bedrocks and soils low in clay with
topography favorable to free leaching of groundwater to the sea under the high rainfall of Flor-
ida. Mean blood Se (n=10) in Jacksonville, FL is 188 ng/ml which is intermediate among 22
urban centers of 22 states, ranging from 120 to 265 ng/ml. Other countries with 270 to 290 ng/ml
of blood Se have about one-fifth the digestive system cancer rates. There is an urgent need for
more blood Se and other trace element analyses for individuals in various localities in Florida,
with a view to potential need for supplementation.

VARIABILITY in land, including the supply of various trace elements in soil,
drainage, groundwater and rainfall are well known to geographers, soil scien-
tists, and chemists. Corresponding effects on the trace element contents in the
food-chain are also recognized. Although transshipment of foods has generally
been expected to even out geographical differences in mineral nutrients for
individuals, marked deficiencies in certain localities have long been reported
for livestock in western United States (Schwarz and Foltz, 1957) and human
beings in parts of China (Liu et al., 1981) and eastern Finland (Salonen et al.,
1982, 1984).

Selenium deficiencies in diets have been recognized as a cause of two im-
portant disorders. Deficiency of selenium in people (““Keshan disease’’) causes
heart death (cardiomyopathy) even in young persons 2 to 15 years of age

No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 83

(Yang, et al. 1982). White muscle disease in animals can be used as a geochemi-
cal indicator of a short supply of dietary selenium (Muth et al., 1959). The
disorders may arise because the element Se is sparse (0.05 mg/kg) in the litho-
sphere (Turekian and Wedepohl, 1961), revised downward from 0.09 mg/kg
(Goldschmidt, 1954) and because selenate (SeO, ) is soluble in calcareous soils,
such as are common in Florida. Selenate is, therefore, subject to leaching,
much as sulfate is. Relative to the trace amounts needed, selenate is supplied in
appreciable amounts in rainfall, which can be picked up from ocean spray
(Lag, 1984). Bioconcentration in the upper marine environment may involve
uptake of selenium in unicellular marine algae which has been documented
(Bottino et al., 1984) as has the importance of selenium-specific enzymes at
low selenium levels.

Variability in epidemiology of heart death rates (HDR) and digestive system
cancer deaths (CDR) have been found between states (U.S.A.) and in provinces
(China), as well as between counties of Wisconsin (Jackson et al., 1985). A
comparison of an inland, cold temperate state (Wisconsin) with an oceanic
mediterrean-subtropical state (Florida) appeared to be of interest.

Differences between local areas in disease attack rates were successfully
used in 1855 by J. Snow tracing cholera cases to a Broad Street water pump in
London (Sauer, 1980). Geochemical depletion of nutrients is now playing out a
corresponding area-related role in unfulfilled human requirements for traces
of chemical elements essential for life.

MeEtHops—Population and death rates (Florida Department of Health and Rehabilitation
Services, 1979-1982) for each county in Florida for each year 1979-1982 for heart deaths and

1979-1981 for stomach and colorectal cancer deaths were averaged, and the rates per 100,000
population in each county per year were derived.

The correlation coefficient for the two data sets was calculated, and the histograms were
plotted. The groups are arrayed for four rate ranges for the counties in Florida, with the two
middle sets approximately mean +0.5 standard deviation with a slight adjustment for skewness
toward the higher DR’s. A low rate set was obtained at a cut point approximately at —1.0 stand-
ard deviation below the mean.

The land characteristics such as coarseness, calcareous character, quartzosity, elevation and
degree of drainage (leaching) were obtained from published maps and reports cited in the discus-
sion.

RESULTS—Examining age-adjusted death rates for heart disease (1979-82)
for 67 Florida counties (Fig. 1; Table 1) shows two extremes. First, the highest
human heart death rates (HDR) occur in 23 counties (>410 deaths/100,000
persons/year), mainly across the south Florida peninsula (Palm Beach, map
code 60-Fig. 1; Broward, 62; Sarasota, 48; Osceola, 45; Pasco, 42; Hernando,
38; Citrus, 37; Lake, 40; Volusia, 66) in much the same pattern that white
muscle disease occurs in livestock (Kubota et al., 1967). The skewness to the
high HDR side (Fig. 2a) is indicated by the fact that 23 counties (Fig. 1), one-
third of all counties, range in age-adjusted HDR from 421 (Flagler, 33) to 639/
100,000/y (Pinellas, 65).

Secondly, lower HDR’s (< 250/100,000/y) occur in 9 counties of northwest-
ern and northeastern Florida (e.g. Bradford, 2; Baker, 13; Nassau, 14) near
Jacksonville for which reported bloodbank values (n= 10) of selenium is 188

84 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

FLORIDA

Age-Adjusted Death Rate of

Heart Disease, 1979= 1982

> 410 10°5 y-1

250— 300

< 250

L] ES IN

Fic. 1. Geographic distribution of various heart death rates (HDR) among Florida counties.

ng/ml (Allaway et al., 1968). While the value is limited, it is, nevertheless,
above the median of a selenium range 120 to 260 ng Se/ml in 22 localities of
the United States that was believed to run high enough to eliminate selenium
deficiency (Levander, 1982).

The lowest HDR group of the four sets of death rates (< 250/100,000/y) still
is much above zero, and the lowest set contains 10 counties that have an
appreciable HDR of 159 to 250/100,000/y (Table 1). A possible need for higher
blood Se is indicated from other studies (vide infra).

Cancer (stomach and colorectal) death rates (Table 1), though not available
as age-adjusted rates, also showed a pattern that was similar to HDR’s. Specifi-
cally, a skewness toward higher values (Fig. 2b), and the distribution by county
was similar (Fig. 4). The distribution in various counties of gastrointestinal
death rates (CDR, Fig. 4) was related to that of heart death rates (HDR, Fig. 1).
A defining equation (Fig. 5) has a relative standard error of the slope (0.003)
that is 1% of the slope. This, and the standard error of the estimate, S,, (28.2),
is consistent with relatively slight scattering. The regression coefficient is 0.73
(p<0.001).

No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 85

TaBLE 1. Death Rates for heart failure and stomach-and-colorectal cancer for Florida coun-
ties (continued).

Death Rates, deaths/10° persons/year

Map Stomach and Colorectal Age-Adjusted
County Code Cancer, 1979-1981 Heart deaths, 1979-1982
Alachua 31 53 154
Baker 13 65 225
Bay 16 63 279
Bradford 2 76 217
Brevard 46 99 293
Broward 42 143 459
Calhoun V7 118 383
Charlotte 55 176 637
Citrus 37 137 532
Clay Dl 60 268
Collier 61 95 333
Columbia 12 14 257
Dade 64 109 ST
De Soto 49 78 426
Dixie 29 25 279
Duval 26 9] 297
Escambia l 56 248
Flagler 33 100 42]
Franklin 20 182 319
Gadsden 7 62 284
Gilchrist 30 68 323
Glades 56 121 349
Gulf 19 113 314
Hamilton 1] 103 391
Hardee 49 66 324
Hendry 59 58 290
Hernando 38 148 473
Highlands 50 160 551
Hillsborough 43 98 299
Holmes 5 61 494
Indian River 47 145 394
Jackson 67 76 406
Jefferson 9 74 258
Lafayette 23 25 353
Lake 40 137 575
Lee 58 134 431
Leon 8 43 159
Levy 34 94 373
Liberty 18 164 397
Madison 10 106 419
Manatee 48 178 537
Marion 35 113 348
Martin 57 147 465
Monroe 63 80 278
Nassau 14 69 197
Okaloosa 3 48 200
Okeechobee 51 106 358
Orange 41 85 286
Osceola 45 122 497
Palm Beach 60 126 556
Pasco 42 182 555

Pinellas 65 189 639

86 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

TABLE 1. Continued

Death Rates, deaths/10° persons/year

Map Stomach and Colorectal Age-Adjusted

County Code Cancer, 1979-1981 Heart deaths, 1979-1982
Polk 44 94 353
Putnam 32 98 356

St. Johns 28 120 367

St. Lucie 52 120 427
Santa Rosa 25 4] 236
Sarasota 53 177 543
Seminole 36 76 235
Sumter 39 85 433
Suwannee 24 87 300
Taylor 22 90 310
Union 6 88 278
Volusia 66 154 546
Wakulla 21 54 248
Walton 4 42 440
Washington 15 102 506
Mean+=S.D. 101+42 369+115

N.B. Data for stomach-and-colorectal cancer are not age-adjusted values.

The value of age-sex-race adjusted data for cancer deaths was recognized,
but these were not available in this form at the time of the study. As a result of
cancer registry law (1978) which created the Florida Cancer Data System, a
sounder data base will be available. Hospitals are now required to report can-
cer diagnoses to the State (1981—), and the first installment of the data base
unit became available (King, 1985).

Discusslon—Some Factors: A number of factors, some interrelated, could
be advanced to explain the variations observed for age-adjusted heart death
rates and for cancer-death rates that we have noted. These include: age, nature
of the population, eating habits, composition of aquifers and drinking water
supply, and land factors.

Age and the nature of Florida’s population should be considered together.
Florida’s attractiveness for retirees is well known, and a considerable propor-
tion of Florida’s population was born elsewhere. In 1985, perhaps some 40
persons per hour were moving to Florida. Considering the majority of cancers
occur in the retirement age group and that the latency for many cancers is long
(10-40 years), exposure may have occurred elsewhere. More than 85% of re-
ported Florida cancer cases were for persons 55 and older, as compared with
the national average of 76% for the same group. In any event, the HDRs are
age adjusted, though it must be admitted that improvements in age-adjusted
values are in order, considering the rapid increase in Florida’s population.
When cancer rates that are age-sex-race adjusted are examined (King, 1985),
high-rate counties appear similar to those that we identified (Figs. | and 4).

Eating patterns may be significant, but these are beyond the scope of our
consideration, though the complexity may be recognized: amounts consumed,

No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 87

Middle of Number of
Interval Counties

150 | (a) HDR
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650

10°° vm

20 (b) CDR
40
60
80

100

120

140

160

180

0 2 10

Fic. 2. Histograms showing skewness toward higher (a) HDR and (b) CDR.

88 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

consumption of ethnic food, the tendency to prepare food versus eating out,
the tendency to grow one’s food, and so on. While it might seem evident that
home-grown food is more likely for rural counties than for urban ones, the
source of fresh food for urban counties should not be overlooked.

Water supply is an obvious factor to consider, and some data were summa-
rized by Swihart and co-workers (1984). Considering five major aquifers and
some 10 elements, chief variations are noted in the concentrations of arsenic,
nitrogen, and fluoride. Little difference was noted in the mean concentrations
of selenium in the Florida Aquifer, or the shallow sand aquifers of south cen-
tral Florida, or the sand and gravel aquifer of the northwest counties. In addi-
tion, no significant variation in selenium content of untreated public water
supplies was observed for 12 counties (Bay, Brevard, Collier, Gulf, Hendry,
Hillsborough, Lee, Manatee, Okeechobee, Palm Beach, Sarasota, and St.
Johns). These counties seem to cover an equal distribution (four in each of the
top three categories) of age-adjusted heart death rates (Fig. 1).

Land factors and HDR’s: The highest group of HDR’s (>410/100,000/y)
occurs for some 23 counties in south Florida peninsula. Vast areas of very
permeable Pleistocene and Holocene sands are involved (Vernon and Puri,
1964). Increase in pH in calcareous soils favors mobility of Se (as selenate).

‘ Hair Se Content
\ ug kg”?!

\ Oo 30-59
\ Oo 60-79
\ = 80 — 99
© 100-199
\ @ 200 —400+

DEATHS from Se Deficiency

4

CoP HUMAN

LIVESTOCK

Fic. 3. Relationship among cardiomyopathy of livestock and humans, Se content in human
hair, and geomorphology in Shaanxi Province, China.

No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 89

Availability is enhanced, but danger of depletion is also enhanced in the high
rainfall climate. Such high HDR counties as Holmes (5), Washington (15), and
Citrus (37), involve the very coarse calcareous and sandy Crystal River and
Williston (Eocene) and Chipola (Miocene) formations in western and central
Gulf coast Florida (Vernon and Puri, 1964).

The second group of low HDR’s (<250/100,000/y) generally occur in 9
counties of northwestern and northeastern Florida. An exception, a southern
county (Seminole, 36) involves many lakes, which indicate that leaching is cut
off from the Holocene and Pleistocene formations that have rapid drainage
and leaching to the east (Vernon and Puri, 1964). The western panhandle
counties (Escambia, 1; Santa Rosa, 25; Okaloosa, 3) lie mainly on the Plio-
Pleistocene Citronelle formation plateau (Vernon and Puri, 1964). This forma-
tion is somewhat clayey and is stabilized against erosion by sands and gravels.
Two counties near Tallahassee (Leon, 8; Wakulla, 21) involve lakes in highland
silty-clayey Miccosukee and argillaceous, marly Jackson Bluff formations of
the upper Miocene.

A somewhat more moderate area of HDR occurs in south central and ex-
treme southern counties (Glades, 56; Hendry, 59; Monroe, 63; Collier, 61;
Dade, 64). This area is known to have received substantial amounts of fine (5
micron diameter) dust from the Sahara (Prospero, 1981; Jackson et al., 1973),
which may help geochemically (trace-element content) and geophysically (de-
crease in permeability).

Geographic co-variance of CDR and HDR: The distribution in various
counties of gastrointestinal death rates (CDR, Fig. 4) relates to that of heart
death rates (HDR, Fig. 1). The defining equation is statistically significant
(Fig. 5), as noted earlier. Some land and food-chain characteristics that affect
both CDR and HDR are indicated. For example, counties with more clayey
marine bedrock (Vernon and Puri, 1964), as well as those with swampy re-
gions, have lower HDR and CDR’s (e.g., Santa Rosa, 25; Okaloosa, 3; Colum-
bia, 12; Baker, 13; and Nassau, 14) than those counties that have quartzose
bedrock and that are low lying, but with ready runoff to the Gulf of Mexico or
the Atlantic Ocean (e.g. Franklin, 20; Sarasota, 53; Palm Beach, 60; and Volu-
sia, 66).

Geography of cancer in Florida: High gastrointestinal cancer death rates
(CDR) occur on both the Atlantic and Gulf coast counties of Florida (Fig. 4).
The high permeability of the Pleistocene-Holocene, coarse calcareous and
quartzose sands occurring in 19 counties along the coasts (Vernon and Puri,
1964) is conducive to selenate leaching, as discussed with high HDR above.
Many high CDR counties on the Gulf border such as (Manatee, 48; Sarasota,
58; Pinellas, 65) are edged on the Gulf coast side by the porous, sandy overbur-
den of Hawthorne formation, which is rich in clay and dolomite.

Lower CDR counties occur in the central peninsular area (e.g. Alachua, 31;
Sumter, 39; Hendry, 59), with two exceptions (Lake, 40; Highlands, 50) with
the sandy Fort Preston formation (Miocene) and porous fresh water marls
(Holocene and Pleistocene), respectively. The low CDR of 58/100,000/y in
Hendry County (59) and nearby moderate rate counties to the south are associ-

90 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

FLORIDA

Stomach and Colorectal
3 Gd
Cancer DR 10° y7! d,

1979 — 1981

Wp,

4 8]
s > 122 53]
Ui) 90 — 121
60 — 89
ao

Fic. 4. Geographic distribution of various stomach and colorectal death rates (CDR) among
Florida counties.

ated with a moderately low HDR area to the south (Table 1; Fig. 1 and 4). The
situation possibly can be explained by the higher clay content with limestone
in the Caloosahatchee formation (Vernon and Puri, 1964) and the probable
effect of aerosol dustfall received in the southernmost counties, as documented
above for HDR. The phosphatic Bone Valley formation has lower CDR in
inland counties (Hardee, 49; De Soto, 54). The prodeltaic influence of the
Chattahoochee and St. Marks formations of the Tampa stage (Miocene) appear
to provide some benefits of lowered CDR, 98 and 94/100,000/y (Table 1) in
Hillsborough (43) and Polk (44) counties, respectively, among the 21 in this
class of 90 to 121 CDR (Fig. 4).

Comparisons of HDR and Se: Findings elsewhere of HDR and Se are of
interest. Florida is intermediate among the states of USA in chronic ischemic
HDR, with higher rates in the northern states east of the Mississippi River and
lower rates in the great plains states (Li and Jackson, 1985). Unfortunately, few
data on blood Se are available for Florida.

In contrast, the relationship between HDR and Se has been worked out in
China (Fig. 3). In an area of Shaanxi, deaths occur as a result of Se deficiency
in livestock with white muscle disease and in young people with ““Keshan

No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 9]

disease’ (Pathologic Research Group of Xian Medical College, 1965). Tradi-
tionally, various materials—sulfur ore, plant ash, or crude salts which have a
Se content of 0.7 mg/kg (evaporated water from a salt marsh of the Wei River
valley plain)—when dissolved in drinking water, suppressed the endemic dis-
ease (Li et al., 1972). Such Chinese traditional experiences and the successful
prevention of white muscle disease of livestock by Se supplementation, both in
the USA (Schwarz and Foltz, 1957) and China (Yang and Meng, 1963), en-
couraged Chinese researchers to test Se supplementation on the human popula-
tion in several Keshan disease areas, including Shaanxi (Liu, 1980). Supple-
mentation with Se (at one mg/week as Na,SeO, alleviated Keshan disease for
people treated (Xiu et al., 1982; Yang et al., 1982). The Se content of hair in
rural China (Wang, 1982), shown in Fig. 3, is related to blood Se (n=410;
r=0.94; p<0.001) as follows: (Blood Se, ng/ml) = 0.335 (Hair Se, ng/g) —9 (Li
and Jackson, 1985).

As a demonstration of the effects of geomorphology, people living on the
Wei River terrace (Fig. 3) do not have Keshan disease, which is a very serious
form of Se deficiency. The blood Se in Xian averaged (n= 27) 160412 ng/ml.
The eroded loessial hills grow Se-deficient food grain crops, with a result that
the human blood Se content (n= 90) is only 8 to 24 ng/ml, and Keshan disease
results (Li and Jackson, 1985). The available Se adsorbed on clay, Se in organic
matter, and soluble Se were carried from the hills to the river terraces (Jackson
and Lim, 1982). As seen from the Florida results, 160 ng/ml in blood of Xian,
China residents is insufficient to eliminate Se as a factor in lifetime HDR.

Other countries, e.g., Finland and New Zealand (Shamberger et al., 1978)
have been concerned about low food intake of Se, low blood Se levels and high

200

150

100

50

Colorectal Death Rate

150 250 350 450 550 650

Heart Death Rate

Fic. 5. Correlation of CDR with HDR in Florida counties (r=0.73; p<0.001),
y =3.6 + 0.264x. Squares indicate overlapping points.

92 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

HDR. An elaborate longitudinal study during 1972-1979 in eastern Finland
(Salonen et al., 1982) showed that having below 45 ng Se/ml serum (about 63
ng Se/ml blood; Robinson, 1982) was responsible for 22% of the HD in men
and women aged 35 to 59, in two counties known to have high HDR. The level
of Se in rainfall, as reflected by the Se concentration in the soil humus layer,
was shown to decrease by a factor of two with distance from the North Sea in
Norway and Sweden (Lag and Steinness, 1978). These soils are acid, which
favors selenite adsorption, in contrast with the calcareous Plio-Pleistocene de-
posits in coastal Florida (Vernon and Puri, 1964).

Land characteristics, selenium, and death rates: The unusual biological
circumstances that land characteristics might affect both of the two diseases
that are most frequently the cause of human death (HD, CD) appears to have
been elucidated in part. As noted earlier, the possible need for higher blood Se
has been indicated, though the situation is complex. The need for Se is inverse
to vitamin E intake within wide limits (Diplock, 1981). A daily intake of 400
IU. of vitamin E is at the mid-safe range (U.S. National Academy of Sciences,
1980).

It seems appropriate to review briefly the involvement of Se and land char-
acteristics. First, biogeochemistry and the biochemistry should be placed in
context. Life appears to have originated in proximity of ocean water in the
absence of free oxygen, but with photosynthesis, 3800 million years ago (Jack-
son and Lim, 1982). Oxidization of Fe’* and S~ of the ocean had to be accom-
plished before much free oxygen could accumulate in the atmosphere. Free
atmospheric oxygen built up during the last 5 to 10% of the time life has
existed. Land animals have developed only in the past 250 million years.

Next, it is helpful to review pertinent aspects of the biochemistry. The basic
structure of mammalian cell membranes, a lipid bilayer, which contains pro-
teins, is subject to a variety of favorable and unfavorable reactions. For exam-
ple, oxidation of red blood cell membranes causes cell collapse, leaving harm-
ful low-density lipoprotein residues. Plaque build-up in arteries results as
healing blood platelets are laid down. Cells of muscle, including heart muscle,
are affected by Se deficiency (cardiomyopathy, necrotic spots, etc.). The en-
zyme selenoglutathione peroxidase (Rotruck et al., 1973) supplemented by vi-
tamin E is needed by animal cells to maintain a favorable degree of deoxida-
tion. The prooxidant state promotes neoplastic tumors through DNA breakage
(Cerutti, 1985). Many CD and HD toxins occur in foods (Ames, 1983) and
operate through formation of oxygen radicals, thus requiring adequate deoxi-
dation capacity in the human system.

Blood Se may be implicated in the parallel CDR and HDR observed in
Florida (Fig. 5), if patterns observed in Finland apply. Specifically, the associa-
tion of HDR and blood Se was noted previously, and another study focused on
CDR and blood Se. In eastern Finland, when 128 sets of 31- to 59-year-old men
and women were paired for various characteristics, persons with less than 45
ng Se/ml of serum (about 70% blood Se; Robinson, 1982) had a relative cancer
risk of 3.6 (p<0.01) times persons with 54 ng Se/ml. These CDR results were

No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 93

based on 87 relatively young persons who developed cancer during the last
four years of the brief 7-year period of the experiment (Salonen et al., 1984).

The presence of adequate blood Se is more important for chemoprevention
of cancer than for chemotherapy (Thompson, 1984). Such potential carcino-
gens as benz(a)anthracene and benzo(c)phenanthrene require diols and an
epoxy group to be converted into the actual carcinogen, a reaction that selenite
has been found to prevent (Martin and Schillaci, 1984). Nitrosamine, the prod-
uct of oxidized nitrogen (nitrate, nitrite), is a potent carcinogen which is ren-
dered less potent by selenite (Thompson, 1984). Of course, reduction of the
oxidized forms of nitrogen can be achieved by reductase, a metalloenzyme
that requires molybdenum. This element has been found to be anticarcino-
genic when applied to soils as ammonium molybdate in certain areas of China
(Li et al., 1980).

It is worth remembering that Se is one of some 13 trace elements essential
to cell health of man (Mertz, 1981; Robinson, 1982). Florida land characteris-
tics could affect the amounts and ratios of Se and other essential trace elements
in the nutrition-chain. Calcareous soils, common in Florida (Vernon and Puri,
1964), are noted for fixation of Zn, Fe, Mn, and other trace elements (Peterson
et al., 1971), so that these soils may decrease the amounts of these elements
moving through the nutrition chain. Association of Cd with Zn in soils and
food crops (Sandstead et al., 1974) has made it impossible to calculate, singu-
larly, the Zn effects on health from expected Zn content of foods eaten, because
the carcinicity of Cd would interfere.

Even moderate zinc deficiency has been shown to have a negative effect on
immune responses, particularly those mediated by T lymphocytes (active
against infections, neoplasms, and autoimmunity) in human and animal exper-
iments (Beach et al., 1982). Gestational Zn deficiency (60 to 70% of adequate)
in mother mice resulted in persistence of immunodeficiency in offspring for
three generations. The offspring were fed adequate Zn from birth through F1,
F2, and F3 generations. Use of multielement nutrient balance with Zn supple-
mentation is the indicated best possibility for restoration and maintenance of
immunocompetence.

Finally, that depletion of Se—by plant uptake (which occurs though Se is
not essential in plants) and selective erosion in clay-adsorbed forms—leads to
inadequate levels for human health in the land-nutrition chain (Watkinson,
1974; Jackson and Lim, 1982) is becoming increasingly clear. Some biological
functions of selenium cannot be completely replaced by vitamin E (Combs et
al., 1975). Moreover, selenite has been found to exert a protective influence
against toxicity of mercury (Parizek and Ostadalova, 1967; Ganther, 1980),
and that of Cd and Ag as well through compounds such as CdSe. Micronutri-
ent interactions are common (Levander and Cheng, 1980).

While blood Se values for Florida are sparse, we may hope to compare
results for other locations as a guide to adequate levels. Linear regression of
—0.7 to —0.8 of blood Se with HDR and CDR (n= 19 to 27; p<0.001) have
been reported for various states and countries (Schrauzer et al., 1977; Sham-

94 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

berger et al., 1978; Jackson and Lim, 1982). Blood Se in 22 USA cities and
states ranged from 120 in Illinois to 256 ng/ml in Rapid City, SD, and gave a
negative regression (r= —0.70; p<0.01) with chronic ischemic heart deaths
(Li and Jackson, 1985). Mean values of 270 ng/ml occur in Japan and Puerto
Rico and 290 in Taiwan. Breast cancer death rates in these areas are one-fifth
of those in USA (Schrauzer et al., 1977). Extrapolation to zero breast cancer
gives blood Se at 350 ng/ml, a value far below toxic levels. The data for urban
areas in USA and China suggest that the scale for adequate blood Se should
extend at least as high as 300 to 350 ng/ml.

The importance of Se seems to be well documented, but there is an ever-
present concern over toxic levels. As noted, these are far above so-called “‘ade-
quate” levels. Slight toxicity at blood Se levels above 1000 ng/ml shows in the
fingernails (Jaffé et al., 1972), and Se toxicity becomes appreciable above 3000
ng/ml (Levander, 1982). Selenium does not accumulate in humans, but it is
excreted (n=53; r=0.77; p<0.001) at the intake rate and responds at a 10-day
half-residence time to a lowered intake rate for USA persons on arrival in New
Zealand (Griffiths and Thomson, 1974; Watkinson, 1974).

In summary, land characteristics including adaptability for different food
crops, variations in drinking water composition, food preferences by different
people, and interregional shipment from land areas low in one or more trace
elements may be among the causes of Florida county differences in HDR and
CDR, as between Wisconsin counties (Jackson et al., 1985) and between vari-
ous states (Jackson and Li, 1985). The fact that wide mortality differences
occur on local land areas is a central finding which gives promise to further
research for the causes for the differences.

ConcLusions—The wide variation of land characteristics among Florida
counties and in heart death rates and gastrointestinal cancer death rates offers
clues for study of the operation of the many diverse immediate disease causa-
tions. These two diseases lead to the majority (about 70%) of human deaths in
Florida and the USA.

Transshipment of food has normally been assumed to eliminate regional
nutritional differences. The geographic variability found, however, suggests
the importance of variations in essential trace elements that occur in soil and
water supplies, arise from clay content, amounts of calcareous and quartzose
sand, topography, permeability to year-round leaching under abundant rain-
fall, proximity to the ocean salt spray, and possibly other land factors of impor-
tance.

The relationships found here indicate the need for a much wider use of
accurate blood selenium and possibly other trace element concentration deter-
minations for diagnostic purposes. The likelihood of deficiencies has led to
availability and use of balanced trace nutrient element dietary supplements
“over the counter,’ under the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (1980) guide-
lines of recommended daily allowances (RDA).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—At the time this work was done, S. C. Li was Honorary Fellow at the
University of Wisconsin-Madison. Earlier in the work M. L. Jackson, Franklin Hiram King Profes-

No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 95

sor, was visiting scholar sponsored by Academia Sinica, in China. Special thanks are extended to
Gregory Ruark for his valuable assistance with the statistical analyses. Sincere appreciation to Ms.
C. M. Jackson for her efforts during the exchange of scholarships, and her editorial and typing
assistance with the manuscript. Finally, we are grateful to Dr. James N. Layne, Archbold Biologi-
cal Station, Lake Placid, FL, for serving as Consulting Editor.

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Tuompson, H.J. 1984. Selenium as an anticarcinogen. J. Agric. Food Chem. 32:422-425.

No. 2, 1986] JACKSON, ET AL.—LAND CHARACTERISTICS AND DEATH RATES 97

TuREKIAN, K.K. AND K.H. WeDEPOHL. 1961. Distribution of the elements in some major units of
the earth’s crust. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 72:175-192.

U.S. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 1980. Recommended dietary allowances (RDA). Washing-
ton, D.C.

VERNON, R.O. AnD H.S. Purr. 1964. Geological Map of Florida. Map Series 18. Florida Board of
Conservation, Pub. by Div. of Geol., Tallahassee, FL.

Wanc, M.Y. 1982. Geographical differentiation of selenium content in hair from children and
youngsters in China. Acta Nutrimenta Sinica. 4:201-207 (in Chinese).

WarTKINSON, J.H. 1974. The selenium status of New Zealanders. N. Z. Med. J. 80:202-205.

Xiu, G.L., W.L. Xrue, P.Y. ZHanc, C.F. Fenc, S.Y. Huone, anp W.S. Liane. 1982. Selenium
status and dietary selenium content of populations in the endemic or non-endemic areas of
Keshan disease. Acta Nutrimenta Sinica. 4:183-190 (in Chinese).

Yanc, Z.J. AND X.Q. MENc. 1963. On prevention of white muscle disease in lambs. Chinese Vet. J.
1:12-13 (in Chinese).

YANG, G.Q., G.Y. Wane, T.A. Yin, S.Z. Sun, R.H. ZHou, R.Y. Man, FY. Zuat, S.H. Guo, H.Z.
Wanc, AND D.Q. You. 1982. Relationship between the distribution of Keshan disease and
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Florida Sci. 49(2):82-97. 1986.
Accepted: July 15, 1985.

Anthropology

ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBINS IN TARPON SPRINGS
BLACKS AND GREEKS

Curtis W. WIENKER

Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620

Asstract: Tarpon Springs, Florida, consists of three major “enclaves”, blacks, Greeks, and
non-Greek Anglo-Americans. Hemoglobin data for the first two groups are presented. For 284
blacks, Hb allele frequencies are: A = 0.938, § = 0.051, C =0.011. For 70 Greeks, the frequency
of the thalassemia allele is 0.036. These blacks fit well with the genetic patterns displayed by
other black American groups. For Tarpon Springs Greeks the frequency of the thalassemia allele
is considerably lower than one would expect from a group primarily derived from the Dodeca-
nese Islands of the southern Aegean Sea. Redirected selection accounts for some of the difference.
Age analysis generally documents redirected selection favoring normal hemoglobin genotypes in
both Greeks and blacks. The Sewell Wright Effect and/or Founder’s Effect may account for the
rest. Genetic data also document a lack of admixture between these groups in Tarpon Springs,
but not in nearby Tampa.

Two of the best-known hereditary diseases are sickle cell anemia (SCA) and
beta thalassemia. Beta thalassemia occurs when the beta chain of hemoglobin
is missing from the hemoglobin molecule; its absence is hereditary. SCA occurs
when all red blood cells are sickle shaped; that abnormality is also hereditary.
These two diseases have identical genetic patterns. Both are genetically co-
dominant; each genotype yields a distinct phenotype. Individuals homozygous
for the detrimental allele (Hb° in the case of SCA, Hb™ in the case of beta
thalassemia) inherit one of those alleles from each parent. Typically homozy-
gotes die before completing the reproductive span. Heterozygous individuals
inherit a normal allele (Hb* or simply A) from one parent and a deleterious
allele (Hb’ or Hb", or simply S or Th) from the other parent. AS individuals are
typically clinically normal (Lin-Fu, 1972); ATh individuals may manifest mild
anemia (Rothwell, 1977). The “normal” genotype is Hb‘Hb’*, or more simply
AA, for both SCA and beta thalassemia. Such individuals inherit an A allele
from each parent.

The S allele and another infrequent, yet not-rare variant, Hb’ or C are
primarily confined to tropical African populations. Beta thalassemia alleles
are primarily confined to circum-Mediterranean populations.

Of all the genetic polymorphisms known to exist in Homo sapiens, the
abnormal hemoglobins have been the most widely studied from an evolution-
ary perspective. Livingstone’s classic work (1958) revealed the evolutionary
dynamics and anthropological correlates of the sickle cell allele.

Similarly, the evolutionary dynamics of beta thalassemia are now well un-
derstood. Cepellini’s (1955) work in Sardinia was among the first to document
the relationship between beta thalassemia and holoendemic malaria in the

No. 2, 1986] WIENKER— ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBINS 99

Mediterranean area. Fitness values of the beta thalassemia (Livingstone, 1969)
and sickle cell genotypes (Cavalli-Sforza and Bodmer, 1971) have also been
estimated. Livingstone’s (1967, 1973) two catalogs summarize the distribution
of the abnormal hemoglobins in populations all over the world.

However, there have been few published studies which focus on the fre-
quency of the beta thalassemia allele in Americans of Mediterranean descent.
The reason is that most Americans of Mediterranean descent frequently do not
live in immediately identifiable enclaves in the United States. To be sure, there
are some predominantly Mediterranean sections of major American cities,
such as the Italian neighborhood in Brooklyn.

Tarpon Springs, Florida, allows one to focus explicitly on culturally defin-
able populations specifically delineated within a small community. The first
Greeks arrived in Tarpon Springs in 1905; they were members of a sponging
boat (Bernard, 1965). The early Greek spongers brought with them a method
of obtaining sponges which revolutionized the sponging industry; it was the
soft diving suit. The introduction of motorized boats in 1918 further improved
the technology for obtaining sponges. The sponge industry prospered and more
Greek sponging crews and their families were brought to Tarpon Springs from
the same places from which their predecessors had come, the Dodecanese Is-
lands of the southern Aegean Sea, where sponge diving was an old and tradi-
tional economic pursuit.

The Greek community was well established by 1920. Frantzis (1962) indi-
cates that there were 3,500 Greeks in Tarpon Springs by 1935. Economic
factors associated with gradual overharvesting of sponges in the eastern Gulf
of Mexico, following ecological disasters coupled with the development of arti-
ficial sponges, curtailed the sponge industry in the mid-20th century, but the
Greek community continued to grow and maintain its ethnic identity through-
out that period.

In 1970, the population of Tarpon Springs was 7,081; 1,604 persons were
foreign born; most of them were undoubtedly Greek. In 1974 the Chamber of
Commerce of Greater Tarpon Springs (Slaight, 1974) estimated that its black
population included 2,150 individuals; there were 2,413 people of Greek an-
cestry within the city then.

The community of Tarpon Springs continues to be predominantly Greek in
cultural atmosphere. Buxbaum (1967) indicates that this Greek enclave is the
most traditional in the United States. There is an annually celebrated Dodeca-
nese Day, for instance. As well, the Greek Epiphany is annually celebrated; the
Archbishop of the Greek Orthodox Church always attends. In fact, the Greek
Orthodox Church is the predominant social institution within the Greek com-
munity. Many of the businesses in the community are and have been owned by
Greeks for more than two generations. The Greek community of Tarpon
Springs also continues to maintain close ties with its Dodecanese Islands home-
land.

The black population of Tarpon Springs is also socioculturally distinct.
Most blacks in Tarpon Springs reside in the same section of town and patronize
the same business establishments (some of which are black-owned); they inter-

100 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

act socially with nonblack residents of the community infrequently. The black
and Greek communities of Tarpon Springs are not only socioculturally iso-
lated; available evidence to be discussed later indicates that they are also ge-
netically isolated from each other.

MetuHops—The biological data were collected by the Pinellas County Health Department in
1974, as part of a genetic screening program focused on hemoglobinopathies. Two hundred eighty-
four blacks and 70 Greeks participated in the screening program at the Tarpon Springs Clinic of
the Pinellas County Health Department. Blood samples (5ml) were collected and were electropho-
retically (starch-gel) and densitometrically analyzed using standard techniques (Briere et al., 1965)
by the Pinellas County Health Department. Genotype, age, and sex of the participants were
gleaned from health department records. The fact that the nonblack participants in the program
were Greek was authenticated by checking individual surnames, or in the case of females, maiden
names.

Resutts—The genotypic breakdowns of the two ethnic groups are shown
in Table 1. For blacks, the frequency of the normal hemoglobin allele is 0.938;
the frequency of the S allele is 0.051 and that of the C allele is 0.011. For
Greeks, the frequency of the beta thalassemia allele is 0.036; the frequency of
the normal allele is 0.964.

Discussion—The abnormal hemoglobin configuration of the black popu-
lation of Tarpon Springs is congruent with data gathered from other black
American populations and summarized by Livingstone (1967, 1973); black
American sickle cell allele frequencies fall within the range of two to six per-
cent.

The genetic configuration of Tarpon Springs Greeks at the beta thalassemia
locus is consistent with the findings of Pearson and associates (1973) who
studied Greeks living in New Haven, Connecticut. In another study, Pearson
and associates (1975) focused on three Greek Orthodox parishes in Connecti-
cut and found the frequency of the beta thalassemia allele to be 0.062. Bartso-
cas (1976) suggests that the 1975 sample of Pearson and associates may have
been derived from regions in Greece having the highest frequency of the beta
thalassemia allele, including the Isle of Rhodes, which is by far the largest of
the Dodecanese Islands. Data summarized by Livingstone (1973) indicate that
the frequency of the beta thalassemia allele on the Isle of Rhodes ranges from
seven to nearly 14 percent. Hence, the frequency of the beta thalassemia allele
in Tarpon Springs Greeks appears to be exceptionally low, given their home-
land. Four possible hypotheses exist to explain that fact.

One is sampling error; this sample is exceptionally small, given the size of
the Tarpon Springs Greek population. A second hypothesis is a considerable
amount of non-Greek gene flow into the Tarpon Springs Greek gene pool.
Although data do not exist which allow testing of that hypothesis, my ethno-
graphic observations in Tarpon Springs and those of others (Bartsocas, 1976;
Xenides, 1922) who studied other United States Greek populations, suggest
that endogamy is virtually universal for Greek-American communities, includ-
ing that of Tarpon Springs and others in the United States. Raptis (cited in
Buxbaum (1967:266)) reports that 75 percent of Greek marriages in the United
States are endogamous. Data from the Greek Orthodox Church in Tarpon

No. 2, 1986] WIENKER— ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBINS 101

TABLE 1. Age distribution of hemoglobin and thalassemia genotypes of Tarpon Springs blacks
and Greeks.

Greeks (N = 70)

Genotype Age 0-14 15-45 454+ Total

AA Som 32 l 66
97.1 94.1 50.1 94.3

ATh 0 2 l 3
0.0 5.9 50.0 4.3

ThTh ] 0 0 l
2.9 0.0 0.0 1.4

Total 34 34 2 70
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Blacks (N = 284)

AA 97 155 2 254
94.2 88.6 33.3 89.4

AS 3 12 4 19
2.9 6.9 66.7 6.7

AC l 5 0 6
1.0 2.9 0.0 Dal

SS 2 3 0 5
1.9 1 0.0 1.8

Total 103 175 6 284
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

“First line =N, Second line = % of each entry.

Springs (Buxbaum, 1967) show greater than 80 percent Greek endogamy for
the years 1922-62. In fact, traditional arranged marriages still occur.

A third possible hypothesis is that selection for beta thalassemia has been
redirected in favor of the normal phenotype. An age analysis was performed
on the genotypic data for Tarpon Springs Greeks (Table 1). It basically indi-
cates that the frequency of the normal genotype has increased recently, when
one considers the current reproductive generation (age 15-45 years) and the
pre-reproductive generation (0-14 years). The same trend appears to character-
ize the post-reproductive generation (age 45+ years) and reproductive genera-
tion. However, the sample size of the former is too small to permit such a
conclusion. It is generally acknowledged that redirected selection is partially
responsible for the relatively low frequency of the sickle cell allele in black
Americans (Workman et al., 1963). That fact is also demonstrable by an age
analysis of the genotypic data from Tarpon Springs blacks shown in Table 1
(where sample sizes permit such a conclusion).

However, given the high frequency of the beta thalassemia allele on the Isle
of Rhodes, and the recent arrival of Greeks in Tarpon Springs, obviously redi-
rected selection can only have impacted the gene pool of Tarpon Springs
Greeks modestly—certainly not enough to account for the remarkably low
frequency of the beta thalassemia allele in Tarpon Springs versus that of Do-
decanese Islands Greeks.

Although the current Greek population of Tarpon Springs is sufficiently

102 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

large to preclude the current operation of genetic drift, the initial settlements
of handfuls of families in the early 20th century may have resulted in the
operation of the founders effect or in the operation of the Sewall Wright effect.
Those evolutionary mechanisms, in combination with redirected selection,
would appear to more completely explain the relatively low prevalence of the
beta thalassemia allele in the gene pool of Tarpon Springs Greeks.

It is also interesting to note that the genetic profiles of both blacks and
Greeks from Tarpon Springs document the lack of intermating between them.
There is no evidence of hemoglobin S or hemoglobin C alleles in the gene pool
of Tarpon Springs Greeks. There is also no evidence of the beta thalassemia
allele in the gene pool of Tarpon Springs Blacks.

In nearby Tampa, there is evidence of admixture between Greeks and
blacks. Data from the Hillsborough County Health Department reported by
Wienker (1984) did not include information on beta thalassemia in Tampa
blacks. Of 14,161 Tampa blacks screened for hemoglobinopathies in the mid-
1970s, 18 were beta thalassemia trait carriers. The frequency of the beta tha-
lassemia allele in the black Tampa gene pool is calculated to be 0.0013. Fre-
quencies of the beta thalassemia allele in other black American groups
summarized by Livingstone (1967, 1973) are also very low. The beta thalasse-
mia profile of black Tampa residents is completely consistent with that of
12,000 Mississippi blacks screened for hemoglobinopathies (Thompson et al.,
1965). Given the traditionally strong sanctions against intermating between
blacks and “‘whites” in the American South, especially in the more rural areas
(such as Tarpon Springs), it is not surprising to find stronger evidence for
admixture in urban areas where such unions would be less readily detected.

The data on the beta thalassemia configuration of Tarpon Springs Greeks
and the data on the configuration of hemoglobinopathies of Tampa and Tar-
pon Springs blacks indicate that sociocultural and historical factors have con-
tributed significantly to ongoing human evolution in these two groups. The
social and biological realms of humanity are inseparably intertwined.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—The assistance of C. Labance in the collection of data is gratefully ac-
knowledged, as are the comments of the anonymous reviewers.

LITERATURE CITED

Bartsocas, C.S. 1976. Thalassemia in Greek Americans. J. Pediat. 88:165.

BERNARD, H. 1965. Greek Sponge Boats in Florida. Anthrop. Quart. 38:4 1-54.

Briere, R., C. Timpron, AND J. Batsakis. 1965. Rapid qualitative and quantitative hemoglobin
fractionation. Amer. J. Clin. Path. 44:695-701.

Buxsaum, E. 1967. The Greek-American group of Tarpon Springs, Florida. University Micro-
films, Inc., Ann Arbor, MI.

CAvVALLI-SForzA, L., AND D. BopMer. 1971. Genetics, Evolution and Man. W.H. Freeman, San
Francisco, CA.

CEpELLINI, R. 1955. The usefulness of blood factors in racial anthropology. Amer. J. Phys. An-
throp. 13:389 (Abstract).

Frantzis, G. 1962. Strangers at Ithica. Great Outdoor Publishing Co., St. Petersburg, FL.

Lin-Fu, J. 1972. Sickle Cell Anemia. Rev. ed. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare,
Rockville, MD.

No. 2, 1986] WIENKER— ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBINS 103

LivincsTonE, F.B. 1958. Anthropological implications of sickle cell gene distribution in West
Africa. Amer. Anthrop. 60:533-562.
. 1967. Abnormal Hemoglobins in Human Populations. Aldine, Chicago, IL.
. 1969. Gene frequency clines of the B hemoglobin locus in various human populations
and their simulation of models involving differential selection. Hum. Biol. 41:223-36.
. 1973. Data on the abnormal hemoglobins and Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase
Deficiency in human populations, 1967-73. Tech. Rpt. No. 3, Contrib. to Hum. Biol. No. 1.
Museum of Anthropology, Univ. Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
Pearson, H., R. O'BRIEN, AND S. McInTosH. 1973. Screening for thalassemia trait by electronic
measurement of mean corpuscular volume. New Engl. J. Med. 288:35 1-54.
, D. Gumiotis, R. O’Brien, S. McINTosH, AND G. Aspnes. 1975. Thalassemia in
Greek Americans. J. Pediat. 86:917-18.
RoTHWELL, N.V. 1977. Human Genetics. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
SLAIGHT, C.F. 1974. Personal communication.
THompson, R., R. WARRINGTON, R. Opom, J. BELL, AND W. BELL. 1965. Interaction between
genes for delta thalassemia and hereditary persistence of foetal hemoglobin. Acta. Genet.
Stat. Med. 15:190-200.
Wienker, C.W. 1984. Some observations on abnormal hemoglobins in the Deep South. Florida
Scient. 47:8 1-87.
WorkMAn, P., AND A. Cooper. 1963. Selection, gene migration and polymorphic stability in a
U.S. white and negro population. Amer. ]. Hum. Gen. 15:429-37.
XENIDES, J. 1922. The Greeks in America. J.H. Doran, New York, NY.

Florida Sci. 49(2):98-103. 1986.
Accepted: July 26, 1985.

Atmospheric and Biological Sciences

FLORIDA'S FREEZES: AN ANALOG OF
SHORT-DURATION NUCLEAR WINTER EVENTS
IN THE TROPICS

RONALD L. Myers
Archbold Biological Station, P.O. Box 2057, Lake Placid, FL 33852

Asstract: Recently developed scenarios of nuclear winter effects originating from a nuclear
exchange in the north temperate zone point to localized periodic freezes reaching as far south as
the Tropic of Capricorn. The effects of freezes on Florida’s agriculture and natural ecosystems are
assessed as analogs of what might occur at lower latitudes should freezing temperatures from a
nuclear winter reach into the tropics. Vegetation damage, population fluctuations, restricted
distributions, fish kills, and crop losses are recurrent features associated with freezes in Florida.
However, Florida’s freezes can only serve as a partial analog because of bioclimatic dissimilarities
between tropical regions and the Florida peninsula. Florida, itself, would suffer severe environ-
mental consequences during a nuclear winter, yet certain features of its environment may permit
a relatively rapid recovery.

THE INTERNATIONAL scientific community was unprepared for the conclu-
sions presented by Crutzen and Birks (1982). Far more ominous than the dev-
astating effects of blast and radiation from a nuclear war would be the long-
term biological consequences of a nuclear war-induced winter caused by the
injection of large quantities of smoke and dust into the atmosphere. These
findings have since been augmented by more sophisticated models and sub-
jected to rigorous review, first by a panel of physicists and atmospheric scien-
tists, then by a group of biologists (Turco et al., 1983; Ehrlich et al., 1983).

In response to the sudden recognition of the nuclear winter problem, the
International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) and its Scientific Committee
on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) established the ENUWAR (Environ-
mental Consequences of Nuclear War) Project. The ENUWAR Steering Com-
mittee organized a series of workshops to identify critical issues relating to the
impact of nuclear war and is compiling the results into a SCOPE report due
out in June 1985. The report will draw on 1) global and ecosystem-level
models on responses to nuclear war and 2) experimental data bases of stresses
to ecological systems used as analogs to nuclear war stresses. The latter cate-
gory includes the evaluation of such analogs as volcanic eruptions (particu-
larly the 1815 Tambora eruption), periods of climatic stress present in the
historical record (e.g. the Little Ice Age of the 17th Century A.D.), meteorite
impacts, evidence from the paleoecological record, forest fires, the fire bomb-
ing of Dresden in 1945, the nuclear bomb experiences of Nagasaki and Hiro-
shima, Saharan dust storms, dust storms on Mars, and recent extreme climatic
events.

The possible use of recent extreme climatic events as analogs led to my
participation in a SCOPE workshop on the effects of nuclear war on tropical

No. 2, 1986] MYERS—FLORIDA S FREEZES 105

ecosystems held in Caracas, Venezuela, 10-12 April 1985. Several scenarios
have been developed on the pattern that a nuclear winter might take in tropi-
cal regions. Much depends on the size of the nuclear exchange, on the season of
year, and on a number of climatic variables. Worse case scenarios point to
below freezing temperatures in the tropics lasting from months to a year coup-
led with drastically reduced rainfall and light intensities. The results would be
devastating: a complete collapse of agriculture, total disruption of natural
ecosystems, and massive extinctions. Less severe scenarios suggest periodic
short-term freezes occurring in patches as the nuclear cloud breaks up over the
tropics. In attempting to understand the consequences of the latter set of sce-
narios, the periodic freezes that occur in Florida and other subtropical areas
such as Brazil might serve as analogs. Drawing on the Florida experience, this
paper assesses the appropriateness of these analogies. It was prepared at the
request of SCOPE and was presented for discussion in a slightly different form
at the Caracas SCOPE workshop.

Florida’s Geography and Climate—The 640 km long Florida peninsula
extends from a latitude of approximately 25° N to 31° N and separates the
subtropical Atlantic Ocean from the Gulf of Mexico. No point in the state is
more than 112 km from warm ocean waters, and no point on the peninsula is
higher than 105 m above msl. Owing to the circum-global subtropical subsid-
ence of hot dry air, most continental regions at the same latitude as Florida are
deserts. Florida, on the other hand, because of its peninsular configuration
enjoys a moist climate driven by a summer double sea-land breeze system that
produces one of the highest thunderstorm frequencies in the world
(Dohrenwend, 1976). Additional precipitation is contributed by winter frontal
systems and summer and fall tropical storms.

Because the Florida peninsula extends across 6 degrees of latitude its cli-
mate is not uniform. It lies in the transition zone between the temperate and
tropical circulation patterns. North Florida’s climate is controlled largely by
the former, south Florida’s by the latter. The vegetation of Florida, which
follows this climatic gradient, has been classified using several climate-based
systems (Hela, 1952; Dohrenwend and Harris, 1975; and Greller, 1980). Al-
though terminology and climatic parameters vary, each system generally di-
vides the State into 3 or 4 bioclimatic regions. For example, Dohrenwend and
Harris (1975), using the Holdridge Life Zone System (Holdridge, 1967), desig-
nate the northern third of the peninsula as Warm Temperate Moist Forest, the
southern third of the peninsula as Subtropical Moist Forest, and the central
third as a transition zone between the two. The Florida Keys lie in the Subtrop-
ical Dry Forest life zone (Figure 1).

Florida’s Freezes—Florida’s relatively moderate winter temperatures pro-
duce a strong incentive for growing citrus, tropical fruits, and sugar cane; for
the planting of tropical ornamentals; for the production of winter vegetable
crops to supply markets at higher latitudes; and for such commercial enter-
prises as the tropical fish and foliage plant industries. Florida, however, lies
outside the tropics and a large portion of the state experiences freezing temper-

106 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

atures every winter (Bradley, 1972). Frequency and severity of freezes dimin-
ish from north to south. Freezes in the subtropical zone of southern Florida are
relatively rare, but their impact when they do occur is quite severe. Freeze
probabilities from four locations, each in a different bioclimatic zone—Key
West, Homestead, Lake Alfred, and Lake City—illustrate the latitudinal distri-
bution of freeze probabilities (Table 1). The latitudinal gradient is modified by
such local effects as relative elevation, proximity to water bodies, and soil type.

WARM

TEMPERATE

MOIST

FOREST —s0°

GULF OF MEXICO

TRANSITION

ZONE

Zz

SUBTROPICAL
MOIST
FOREST/!

yj

SUBTROPICAL wy

DRY FOREST |
eo

ok
it

Fic. 1. Bioclimatic life zones in Florida based on the Holdridge (1967) Life Zone System.
Modified from Dohrenwend and Harris (1975).

— 25°

Two mechanisms produce the freezing conditions that occur in Florida: 1)
radiation frosts and 2) advective freezes. The first occurs when air tempera-
tures are at or above freezing. Radiative heat loss during still nights cools
ground and plant surfaces below the freezing point. This not only causes ice
crystals to form on these surfaces, provided the dew point is reached, but also
extracts heat from the stagnant air layer near the ground. The downhill drift of
this cold air concentrates more severe vegetation damage in low-lying areas.
Minimum temperature differences of 10° C have been recorded between high
and low ground at locations only several hundred meters apart (Johnson,
1970).

Advective freezes occur when continental arctic or polar air masses move

No. 2, 1986] MYERS—FLORIDA S FREEZES 107

across the Florida peninsula. Little or no temperature differentials between
high and low lying areas occur, although the freezing conditions are exacer-
bated by radiative cooling during the night. Advective freezes seldom last
more than 2 or 3 days at a time, and it is extremely rare for temperatures to
remain below freezing throughout the day at any place on the peninsula (Brad-
ley, 1972). The first night of a cold wave is usually quite windy, allowing
mixing and preventing temperature differentials from developing. By the sec-
ond night winds subside, permitting radiative cooling and the development of
marked temperature differentials mediated by a site’s elevation and proximity
to water (Butson, 1967; Johnson, 1970).

TABLE |. Probability that a given freezing temperature will be reached at four stations in
Florida, each located in a different bioclimatic zone. Adapted from Bradley (1983).

02¢ —2°C —4°C —~7°C —9°C
Key West Subtropical 0 0 0 0 0
(24°R533)5) Dry
Homestead Subtropical 0.700 0.133 0 0 0
(2503 0i4) Moist
Lake Alfred Transition 0.967 0.700 0.200 0.033 0.033
(28° 06’)
Lake City Warm 1.000 0.967 0.833 0.433 0.067
(SOxe Ss) Temperate

Johnson (1970) provides a summary of freeze occurrences noted in histori-
cal records. Prior to 1886, when a network of recording stations was estab-
lished, most reports of freezes and freeze damage were confined to the popu-
lated northern third of the state. Severe freezes occurred in January 1766,
February 1835, January 1857, December 1870, December 1880, January
1886, December 1894, February 1895, January 1898, and February 1899.
Probably the most severe freeze was in 1835 (Bradley 1972). Allegedly, this
freeze killed all the tropical vegetation in Florida (Davis, 1940). The St. Johns
River reportedly froze several meters outward from the shore, and tempera-
tures in Jacksonville dropped to —13° C (Johnson, 1970). Although Key West
has never officially recorded freezing temperatures, old-time residents assert
that frosts have occurred, and the freeze of 1906 reportedly caused ice to form
on standing water in Havana, Cuba, even though the official recorded temper-
ature was 12° C (Harper, 1927).

In the 20th century, severe freezes occurred in January 1905, December
1906, December 1909, February 1917, January 1928, December 1934, Janu-
ary 1940, February 1947, the winter of 1957-58, December 1962, November
1970, January 1971, January 1977, January 1981, January 1982, December
1983, and January 1985. Cold winters with some freezing temperatures oc-
curred interspersed among these severe freezes. Invariably, each severe freeze
is labeled “the freeze of the century” by the technical and popular presses.

108 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

100

80

60

40

PRESENCE (%)

20 |

Warm
Temperate

Transition Subtropical

LIFE. ZONE

Fic. 2. Presence of native temperate (open bars) and tropical (shaded bars) tree species in each
of Florida’s bioclimatic life zones. Species distributions determined from Little (1978).

A recent series of back-to-back severe winter freezes has led to speculation
that Florida’s climate is cooling. Dohrenwend and Harris (1975) conducted a
climatic change impact analysis of peninsular Florida life zones which illus-
trated broad vegetation shifts to the south during a long-term cooling trend.
Although there has been a noticeable shift by the citrus industry to the south
during the past few years (Small, 1985), recent freezes have been no more
severe than those in the past, and there is some evidence of clumping of cold
winters beyond that expected by random chance (Gerber, 1985). During the
past few years, we have been in one of these clumps of cold winters, giving the
appearance of a general cooling trend.

Freeze Effects on Natural Vegetation—Plant species of tropical origin are
found in Florida in each life zone; however, the number of tropical species

No. 2, 1986] MYERS—FLORIDA S FREEZES 109

diminishes from the subtropical zone through the broad transition zone in the
central part of the state (see Figure 1). Little (1978) lists 164 temperate tree
species and 97 tropical tree species in the state. Of the latter, only four extend
into the Warm Temperate Moist Forest life zone. They are Avicennia ger-
minans, Forestiera acuminata, Sapindus saponaria, and Ximenia americana.
Twenty-five more occur in the Transition Zone, although many are restricted
to more moderate coastal areas or around inland water bodies. Restricted to
the subtropical life zones are 67 species. Of these, 20 are confined to the Keys.
There is a concomitant north-south decrease in the number of temperate tree
species (Figure 2).

Approximately 61% of the entire flora in subtropical south Florida has a
tropical relationship, and almost all (91%) occur in the Caribbean area (Long
and Lakela, 1971). These tropical affinities make the south Florida vegetation
particularly susceptible to the relatively infrequent freezes. A destructive
freeze in 1899 reportedly killed full-grown mahogany trees in the Cape Sable
area. Craighead (1971) noted that in the Everglades the following tree species,
listed in order of most severely damaged, are affected by chilling: Hippomane
manchineel, Psidium guajava, Chrysobalanus icaco, Conocarpus erecta, Fi-
cus sp., Metopium toxifera, Laguncularia racemosa, Bursera simaruba,
Schinus terrebinthifolius, Ardisia escallonioides, and Rhizophora mangle.

Freeze patterns at the southern tip of Florida effectively limit tree size and
distribution, and cause the elimination of a number of tropical species only a
few kilometers north or inland. Many tree-dominated communities are
dwarfed by the periodic pruning caused by freezes, and many tropical species
with a shrub habit in Florida are large trees at lower latitudes. An example is
Trema micrantha, which is a pioneer rain forest tree of 30 m in Costa Rica, a
small tree in the Florida Keys, and a shrub at its northern extension (northern
Broward and Collier counties). Florida mangrove species follow this same pat-
tern of reduced stature with increasing latitude.

Most of the tropical woody species in Florida are wide-ranging colonizers
or early successional species from tropical dry and moist forest regions. Such
species are characterized by rapid growth, a high reproductive potential and
dispersal ability, a dry season period of dormancy, and the ability to readily
resprout from the root collar following damage. These traits permit them to
recover and persist in south Florida in spite of periodic freezes. In contrast,
species from less seasonal wet tropical environments are generally evergreen,
lack resting terminal buds, and possess less sprouting ability (Ewel, 1977). The
paucity of species in this category in Florida may be due in part to their
inability to withstand chilling stress or to resprout following damage.

Of the four mangrove species that occur in Florida, three find their most
northerly extensions here. Mangroves do not normally tolerate temperature
fluctuations exceeding 10° C or temperatures below freezing for any length of
time. Laguncularia and Conocarpus are the most susceptible to damage, fol-
lowed by Rhizophora. Avicennia is the most tolerant and extends into Texas
and Louisiana (Odum et al., 1982). Several recorded freezes have killed all the

110 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

mangroves in some localities (Davis, 1940). Avicennia is maintained as a shrub
at its higher latitudes, growing back from roots after freeze damage (Odum, et
al., 1982). Lugo and Zucca (1977) conclude that mangroves growing under
conditions of high-salinity stress are less tolerant of low temperatures, and that
Avicennia growing at high latitudes is found on low-salinity sites normally
occupied by other mangrove species at lower latitudes. Notwithstanding, Mc-
Millan (1975) has shown that Avicennia from northerly sites is more tolerant
of chilling than populations from tropical sites. Higher latitude populations
show tolerance to chilling at 2-4° C. Individuals from lower latitude popula-
tions are killed by these above-freezing temperatures. This suggests that freeze
damage incurred by Florida mangroves, and by perhaps other species of tropi-
cal origin, is less severe than what would occur to the same species during
similar freezing temperatures, perhaps caused by a nuclear winter, at more
tropical locations.

Tropical marine grasses are also affected by cold waves, and “‘winter-kills”’
in Florida have followed sudden drops in temperature (Phillips, 1960). McMil-
lan (1979) tested the chill tolerance of populations of turtle grass (Thalassia
testudium), manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme), and shoal grass (Halodule
wrightii) from St. Croix and Jamaica through Florida and Texas. Populations
from south Florida were intermediate in tolerance between plants from north
Florida and Texas and those from St. Croix and Jamaica. This also points to
possible severe damage to marine grasses should cold waves extend southward
during a nuclear winter.

Effects on Fauna—Since 1856, 16 cold-induced fish kills have been re-
ported from Florida marine waters, averaging one per decade. A fish kill from
a freeze in January 1977 in the Indian River Lagoon system along the central
Atlantic coast of Florida affected 30 fish species (Snelson and Bradley, 1978).
Similar fish kills have been reported at other locations during other freezes in
Florida (Storey and Gudger, 1936; Storey, 1937; Miller, 1940; Galloway,
1941), in Georgia (Dahlberg and Smith, 1970), and in Texas (Gunter, 1941).
Mortality seems to be concentrated among large fish species and among larger
individuals within a species (Snelson and Bradley, 1978), thus affecting com-
munity composition and population age structures. Fishes with tropical distri-
butions are more seriously affected than those with temperate distributions
(Storey and Gudger, 1936). The suddenness of the temperature drop seems to
have a greater impact than the actual temperature reached (Storey and
Gudger, 1936; Miller, 1940), and freezing air temperatures are not requisite
(Galloway, 1941). Kills also seem to be more severe in shallow water areas, and
are affected or modified by wind direction and velocity, and stage and range of
tides (Storey and Gudger, 1936). Along the Texas coast, fish kills due to cold
reportedly affected commercial fishing and up to three years were required to
recover pre-freeze catch levels (Gunter, 1941). But in Florida, Snelson and
Bradley (1978) point out that the effect of winter fish kills on commercial
fisheries in Brevard County is impossible to distinguish from a general long-
term decline in the fishery. Rinckey and Saloman (1964) maintain that fish
kills in the Tampa Bay area have little effect on local fish populations.

No. 2, 1986] MYERS—FLORIDA S FREEZES 111

Cold effects on coral reefs appear not to have been documented; however,
Bullock and Smith (1979) described the impact of winter cold fronts on shal-
low water reef communities off the coast of west-central Florida. Fish kills
occurred. Cold damage to the corals themselves was not apparent, but they
were damaged by heavy bottom surge during the passage of cold fronts.

Hypothermic stunning and kills of marine turtles (Caretta caretta and
Chelonia mydas) were reported in the Indian River Lagoon system during the
“Great Freeze of 1894-95” (Wilcox, 1896) and again in 1981 (Ehrhart, 1983).

Of Florida’s mammals, the West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus) is
probably the most severely impacted by cold. Manatees aggregate in warm-
water refuges during Florida’s cold snaps. Numerous reports exist of manatee
kills resulting from cold weather (Bangs, 1895; Cahn, 1940; Gunter, 1942;
Moore, 1951; Layne, 1965). Cold-related mortality is concentrated at, but not
restricted to, the northern limit of the manatee’s range in Florida, and it has
been suggested that the discharge of warm water from power plants may cause
manatees to winter in areas that they would normally avoid. During severe
winters these artificial refuges become too cold and fatalities occur (Van Meter,
1982). The minimum temperature suitable for manatees is about 20° C. Feed-
ing ceases at 10° C (Irvine, 1983). The cause of cold-induced mortality is not
known, but deaths during cold snaps have occurred when the water tempera-
ture dropped from 20° C to 8° C (Cahn, 1940).

Terrestrial vertebrates seem to tolerate Florida freezes relatively well, possi-
bly due to the fact that the mammals and herpetofauna are largely of temper-
ate origin. Those of tropical origin are for the most part restricted to extreme
southern Florida and the Keys. Although the south Florida avifauna is unaf-
fected by the very brief and infrequent cold spells, insectivorous birds from
central Florida northward suffer serious losses during freezes (Robertson and
Kushlan, 1984).

Freezes and Florida Agriculture—Although Florida agriculture is domi-
nated by the citrus industry, the state is also a major source of winter vegeta-
bles, strawberries, tropical fruits, cane sugar, cut flowers, nursery stock, and
foliage plants. Beef production and dairy farming are also major agricultural
activities, and Florida has some of the largest cattle ranches and dairy farms in
the nation.

Freeze damage is a continual problem faced by Florida agriculture. The
Florida citrus industry’s technical journals are replete with references such as
“arctic air blasts citrus belt—again”’. Anecdotal references to freezes and
freeze damage abound. Actual freeze damage is dependent on a number of
factors including lowest temperature reached, duration of below-freezing tem-
perature, phenological state of the trees, state of dormancy of the trees, and
whether the cold temperatures follow a warm period or are preceded by a
period of relative cold. Even during severe freezes, damage may be quite local.

Florida’s agriculture industry has had to deal with five major freezes in the
past eight years: January 1977, January 1981, January 1982, the infamous
Christmas freeze of 1983, and the January 20-22, 1985 freeze.

12 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

The freeze on January 13, 1981, particularly affected west-central Florida
(Stowers and LeVasseur, 1983). The lowest temperature was —13° C and the
longest hourly duration below —2° C was 14 hours. Although temperature
levels varied throughout the state, 48 of Florida’s 67 counties reported freeze
damage. The USDA estimated a $572,083,444 agricultural loss with the great-
est amount due to damage to the citrus groves. Most of the freeze-related
damage resulted from the duration of temperature at —2° C or below for more
than 4 hours. Long-term production decline was expected from trees with cold
injury, the damaged trees taking 3-5 years to recover. Other major effects were
a huge loss to vegetable crops and strawberries, a 7% loss of poultry, a loss of
improved pasture that required supplemental feeding of livestock, a large loss
to ornamental nursery stock, and a 75% to 100% loss of tropical fish stocks.

The 1983 Christmas freeze, although not as widespread as other freezes,
severely affected the northern half of the citrus belt. An arctic air mass moved
into Florida so rapidly that grove operators were given less than 12 hours
notice that freezing temperatures were imminent. On December 26, much of
central Florida recorded temperatures below —7° C (Penchansky, 1984).
Groves in Marion and Lake counties were devastated and the industry there
may not recover (Hardy, 1984). The southern citrus belt counties, Hardee,
Highlands, De Soto, St. Lucie, Martin, and Indian River, escaped serious dam-
age. What was so unusual about this freeze was that a very warm period prior
to the freezing temperatures did not permit sufficient winter hardening of the
trees. This sudden onset of freezing temperatures preceded by warm weather is
also blamed for the first recorded cold damage to native sand live oaks (Quer-
cus geminata) in the state (Perry, 1984). In general, evergreen species in the
warm temperate zone can tolerate freezing to —10° C to —15° C without
incurring damage (Sakai, 1980), but temperatures in north Florida reached
this threshold range on December 26 with Lake City reporting —13° C, Jack-
sonville —11° C, and Gainesville —9° C.

This year’s freeze (1985) set back groves that were recovering from the
damage incurred the previous year. Not since the winter of 1894-95 has the
citrus industry suffered the effects of back-to-back freezes of this magnitude
(Hardy, 1985).

ConcLus1on—Florida’s periodic freezes adequately demonstrate the re-
sponse of native tropical species and agricultural and horticultural crops to
chilling temperatures. For several reasons, however, the situation in Florida
cannot be used as a precise analog of what might occur in tropical regions
should cold air masses move into low latitude areas in response to the onset of
a nuclear winter. First, the native flora and fauna of Florida consists of many
temperate species which, if cold-hardened or acclimated, can withstand low
temperatures. Second, extant populations of tropical species, although suffer-
ing acute damage during freezes, have withstood the test of time and main-
tained viable populations. Third, these populations may have a greater toler-
ance to cold than more southerly populations of the same species. Fourth, the
major impact of freezes especially to agriculture, occurs in the bioclimatic
Transition Zone not in the more analogous Subtropical Zone. Last, Florida

No. 2, 1986] MYERS—FLORIDA S FREEZES 113

agriculture is finely tuned to deal with freezes. Cold hardy varieties have been
selected. Farmers rely on state-of-the-art freeze forecasting. Horticultural ac-
tivities are aggressively pursued that favor a gradual development of cold
hardiness during the winter. When a freeze is impending, Florida farmers can
use several defensive techniques such as irrigation, forcing air movement with
wind machines, smudge pots, and actual heating of the groves. None of these
measures would be readily available in the tropics. The damage to both natu-
ral ecosystems and agroecosystems in the tropics, even from a short Florida-
type freeze, would be far worse than anything we have experienced.

Florida, itself, would suffer horrendous consequences following a nuclear
exchange. Most likely, military installations in the state are targeted, and those
areas would be subjected to blast and acute radiation effects. The state’s agri-
culture would be destroyed by the ensuing nuclear winter. Its natural ecosys-
tems, however, may have the capacity to fare better than those of its tropical
neighbors during the nuclear winter, although much depends on the time,
extent, intensity, and duration of the extreme climatic events. Florida, at the
close of the Pleistocene, was cooler and dryer than at present (Watts, 1983;
Delcourt and Delcourt, 1983). Many extant species were present during that
period and may retain a high degree of resistance to drought and freezing
temperatures. Present-day biotic communities are subjected to recurring eco-
system-level stresses (e.g. fire, drought, flooding, freezes, hurricanes), and their
component species are adapted to these stresses. The effect of a prolonged
nuclear winter-induced freeze may be ameliorated by the ability of many plant
species to resprout following fire. The fossorial habit of many animals may
offer them some protection. The persistent soil seed banks formed by many
marsh species may aid the recovery of wetlands. Even some of the “weedy”
tropical species may be able to reinvade, provided sources remain. The poten-
tial exists for ecosystem reassemblage, albeit in a much impoverished condi-
tion. These attributes of resilience, however, offer little solace for the tragedy
that would be wrought by such an event.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—I thank SCOPE for providing funds to attend the Caracas workshop,
Archbold Biological Station for providing the time to prepare this review, and Fred Lohrer for his
assistance in obtaining library materials. Larry Battoe, Dorothy Carter, James Layne, Fred Lohrer,
Holly Tuck, and Petra Wood helped with useful criticism.

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Buxiockx, L.H. anp G.B. Smiru. 1979. Impact of winter cold fronts upon shallow-water reef
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AND L.D. Harris. 1975. A climatic change impact analysis of peninsular Florida life
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Florida Sci. 49(2):104-115. 1986.
Accepted: June 20, 1985.

Agricultural Science

RESPONSE OF CHICKS TO TWO DRINKING WATER
SODIUM LEVELS SUPPLIED FROM
THREE DIFFERENT SAS

B. L. Damron’ AND W. L. JoHNson”™”

(1) Department of Poultry Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611,
and (2) Spring Valley Farms, 611 Jay St., Oxford, AL 36203

ABSTRACT: Two 21-day experiments were conducted to examine the response of chicks to low-
level sodium supplementation in drinking water using sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, and
sodium acetate. Birds receiving each of the sources exhibited body weight responses from 25 and
75 ppm levels of sodium supplementation. The growth increase was statistically significant for
the 75 ppm treatments in chloride or bicarbonate form. Daily feed and water consumption
increased in concert with sodium supplementation.

AN IMPORTANT factor affecting the bird’s salt balance is the level of sodium
present in the drinking water. Kare and Biely (1948) found that the toxic ef-
fects of low-concentration sodium chloride given in drinking water were ap-
proximately equal to those of an equivalent intake in the diet. Sibbald and co-
workers (1962) stated that when a corn, soy, wheat-type diet contained no salt,
chicks up to 4 weeks of age required saline solutions between 2500 ppm and
5000 ppm sodium chloride to perform satisfactorily. A level of 2000 ppm
sodium chloride in the water was sufficient for birds 5 to 7 weeks of age. They
also concluded that chicks could tolerate water containing up to 5000 ppm
sodium chloride even when their feed contained an equal amount.

Ross (1979) investigated the effects of supplying sodium chloride in the
drinking water of broiler chicks. When the feed contained no added sodium,
levels of 50 to 100 ppm sodium in the drinking water supported body weight
gains equal to those provided by 0.05 and 0.10% sodium in the feed, respec-
tively. For this reason, Ross (1979) suggested that sodium in drinking water
was utilized more effectively by chicks than sodium in the feed. Pfander (1973)
stated that few water sources supply mean concentrations of elements that
meet even 10% of daily requirements. Only water with sodium chloride, mag-
nesium, and iodine in maximum concentration was mentioned as providing
over 100% of some species’ daily dietary need of the elements.

The National Research Council (1984) indicated that 0.15% sodium is re-
quired by most all classes of poultry. In work done by Ross (1977a), a signifi-
cant growth response was achieved with the addition of 0.2% sodium as so-
dium chloride or as a combination of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate to
diets which contained 0.13 or 0.14% sodium. A level of only 3 ppm sodium in
the drinking water was thought to be contributory to this deficient state.

Because the sodium level present in research water supplies is believed to be
an important variable for research involving sodium, the current experiments

No. 2, 1986] DAMRON AND JOHNSON—RESPONSE OF CHICKS TO SODIUM NG

were designed to determine the response of chicks to low-level sodium supple-
mentation of water with three different compounds.

MetHops—In duplicate experiments, day-old Hubbard feather-sexed broiler chicks were
housed in electrically heated Petersime battery brooders. Brooding temperature was maintained at
35°C for the first week and decreased 2.8°C per week thereafter until ambient temperature was
reached. Four males and four females were placed in each of 3 replicate pens and started on one of
16 experimental treatments. Diets consisted of a standard broiler starter corn-soy basal (Table 1),
with feed-grade sodium chloride added at levels of 0, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, and 0.20% of the diet. In a
2 x 5 factorial design, these diets were provided with either tap or deionized drinking water. Six
additional treatments arranged in a 2 x 3 factorial design consisted of feeding the basal diet with
no added sodium chloride and supplying deionized drinking water with either 25 or 75 ppm
sodium added from sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate or sodium acetate.

Drinking water was given continuously and consumption was measured using a variation of
the method described by Ross (1977b). Individual watering cups were attached to each pen and
connected by plastic tubing to 20 L plastic jugs supported on a platform above the batteries.
Gravity flow of water was adequate to operate the watering cups. The containers were vented to
allow water flow, but caps were left on to minimize evaporation. The weight of the jug plus water
was recorded at the beginning and end of the experiment with consumption determined by the
difference in weight. Leaks were adjusted for on a bird-day basis using values from other pens on
the same treatment.

At the end of the 21-day experiment, group body weights, and water and feed intake were
taken for each pen. Mortality was recorded on a daily basis throughout the experiment. Upon
termination of the study, fresh manure was allowed to collect on clean battery paper placed under
each pen for a 24-hour period. A large composite sample was then taken from each tray, homoge-
nized with a wooden spatula, and a subsample placed into an aluminum boat for weighing and
drying in a 105°C oven for 24 hours.

Samples of each experimental diet, along with samples of tap water were analyzed for sodium
using a Perkin-Elmer model 306 atomic absorption spectrophotometer (1976). Feed samples were
dried, ashed in a muffle furnace at 550°C for 8 hours, and were dissolved in hydrochloric acid.

All data were subjected to analysis of variance as described by Snedecor (1956) with significant
treatment differences determined by using Duncan’s multiple range test (1955).

TABLE 1. Basal diet composition’.

Ingredient Percentage
Yellow corn 54.60
Soybean meal (48.5% protein) 35.25
Limestone (38 % Ca) 1.06
Dicalcium phosphate (18.5% P; 22% Ca) 1.85
Microingredient mix” 0.50
DL-methionine 0.25
Animal fat 4.74
Sodium chloride or filler’ eS

‘Calculated to contain: 21.9% protein, 3080 Kcal/kg ME, 0.92% Ca, 0.71% P, 0.95% S.A.A., 1.12% lysine,
and.0.11% sodium.

*Supplied per kilogram of diet: 6600 I.U. vitamin A, 2200 I.C.U. vitamin D3, 500 mg choline chloride, 40
mg niacin, 4.4 mg riboflavin, 13 mg pantothenic acid, 22 mcg vitamin B,, 125 mg ethoxyquin, 20 mg iron, 2
mg copper, 200 meg cobalt, 1.1 mg iodine, 100 meg zinc, 71 mg manganese, and 2.2 mg menadione sodium
bisulfite.

3Sodium chloride added at levels of 0 to 1.75% in increments of 0.25%. Washed builders’ sand used in
combination with sodium chloride to fill 1.75 % of each diet.

RESULTS AND DiscussioN—Analysis of water samples during the experi-
ments indicated an average sodium content of 9 ppm. This level of sodium in
the drinking water is low; however, the design of this study was to determine if
this level did, in fact, have an effect on chick performance.

118 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

The sodium content of the diets can be seen in Table 2. Each value is an
average of two determinations. Addition of 0.05% sodium chloride to the diet
was equivalent to 196 ppm sodium. Analytical results generally agreed with
calculated values, both in amount and progression. Determinations for the
basal diet of Experiment 2 was lower than either calculated or Experiment |
determinations; however, this is considered an anomaly since subsequent addi-
tions of sodium chloride to this basal resulted in sodium levels close to those
calculated.

TABLE 2. Sodium analysis of feeds containing graded levels of sodium chloride.

pvrnstcy Calculated sodium Sodium by analysis
odium (ppm) (ppm)
Chloride
(%) Supplemental Total Experiment 1 Experiment 2
0 0 213 202 105

0.05 196 409 456 362
0.10 392 605 677 584
0.15 588 801 923 812
0.20 784 997 942 956

‘Calculations based on National Research Council (1984) published values.

There were significant differences between sexes in performance parame-
ters, but since no sex x treatment interaction was detected, only the combined
average body weights have been statistically evaluated (Tables 3 and 4). Treat-
ment x experiment interactions associated with some parameters prevented
the consolidation of experiments. A significant body weight difference resulted
from the addition of sodium chloride to the diet, regardless of water source
(Tables 3 and 4). Birds that received 0, 0.05, or 0.10% sodium chloride were
greatly reduced in size, but were active and exhibited classic gross signs of
sodium chloride deficiency by pursuing any object placed close to the cage
opening. Feathering was somewhat retarded and ruffled with shanks appear-
ing dehydrated.

Water source had an effect only at the 0.15% sodium chloride level in
Experiment | (Table 3), where birds receiving tap water were significantly
larger than those on deionized water. Birds receiving 25 or 75 ppm sodium
from sodium acetate in the drinking water were numerically larger than birds
being fed no supplemental sodium chloride and deionized or tap water, while
those getting 75 ppm from sodium chloride or sodium bicarbonate were signif-
icantly larger. There were no significant differences of body weight between
levels or sources of sodium in the water; however, birds which received 75 ppm
sodium were larger than those getting 25 ppm.

Daily feed, water, and sodium intakes were significantly increased in asso-
ciation with supplemental dietary sodium chloride. In Experiment 1, the
source of water did not alter this effect when the same dietary treatment was
given, and only in one instance in Experiment 2 (0.10% sodium chloride) was
water intake difference significant. The authors have no explanation for this

No. 2, 1986] DAMRON AND JOHNSON—RESPONSE OF CHICKS TO SODIUM 119

TABLE 3. Body weights, daily feed intake, daily water intake, daily sodium intake, moisture
content of manure, and mortality of chicks fed graded levels of dietary sodium chloride or various
sodium sources in the drinking water (Experiment 1).'

RG Re Average daily Average daily
BY eae Final body weight feed intake water intake
een (g) (g) (g)
chloride, Deionized Tap Deionized Tap Deionized Tap
(%) water water water water water water
0 104.2° 105.6" 11.88°° 11.16° 15.65" 14.68°
0.05 208.8° 208.8° 20.72° 20225 26.23" 27.99°
0.10 288.3" 294.7! 25.28° 24.98! 38.675 40.67!
0.15 405.1° 440.7! 31.63° 32.35° 49.94° 55.32"
0.20 479.7° 485.8% 32.58° 831536 63.02' 58.55"
Sodium
source
in drinking 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm
water’ Na Na Na Na Na Na
NaCl 122.4” 141.7” Sze? IY ies 7g 2027
NaHCO, WOL3= 139.6? Isp Ser 14.88°° 13.60" 18.65°°
NaOAc 125.7°° 136.8°° IS272 14:73 esi 18.457

'Mean values for the same parameter without common letters are significantly different (P <0.05) according to
Duncan's multiple range test.
?4]l treatments supplying sodium in drinking water were receiving no supplemental dietary salt.

Average daily

sodium intake Fecal moisture Mortality
Supplemental (mg) (%) (ben)
dietary
sodium Deionized Tap Deionized Tap Deionized Tap
chloride, water water water water water water
(%)

0 13 12 65.07" 61.2055 4 2
0.05 27 26 68.757 HO: 2 0
0.10 38 37 TDS Dk fae 0 l
0.15 53 55 US 76.90° 0 0
0.20 61 63 UME 75.43" l 0

Sodium
source
in drinking 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm
water Na Na Na Na Na Na
NaCl 16 18 64.93” 66.857" 3 D

NaHCO, 13 18 67.077" 63.95° 2 l
NaOAc 17 18 68-3104 65.19% 3 2

120 FLORIDA SCIENTIST

[Vol. 49

TABLE 4. Body weights, daily feed intake, daily water intake, daily sodium intake, moisture
content of manure, and mortality of chicks fed graded levels of dietary sodium chloride or various

sodium sources in the drinking water (Experiment 2).

Sian en eal Average daily Average daily
ee Final body weight feed intake water intake
sodium (g) (g) (g)
chloride, Deionized Tap Deionized Tap Deionized Tap
(%) water water water water water water
0 91.9" O72 10.60" 10.62" 13.88" 13.69"
0.05 NB LOr 184.6" 18.88" Pie DOS Tie 23°56"
0.10 218.8" 252i 19.68" 22.00" 23.84" 33.84°
0.15 394.55 391.¢° 29.14° 26.29° 44.98" 38.17"
0.20 443.6" 436.2" 28.89° 28.76° 43.17% 48.398
Sodium
source
in drinking 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm
water Na Na Na Na Na Na
NaCl 106.6" 14 13.14% 1:7.22° Selon 204 ee
NaHCO, 107.3" 135.5” 12.88" 16.64" S992 19.507
NaOAc 93.2" 130.4°° 12.39" 18:37 14.92" Oe

'Mean values for the same parameter without common letters are significantly different (P <0.05) according to

Duncan’s multiple range test.

’ All treatments supplying sodium in drinking water were receiving no supplemental dietary salt.

Average daily

sodium intake Fecal moisture Mortality
SHER aaa (mg) (%) (aumibee)
ietary
sodium Deionized Tap Deionized Tap Deionized Tap
chloride, water water water water water water
(%)
0 12 12 50.45" 60.63"” 5 4
0.0 25 22 68.960" 63.59" 3 5
0.10 29 33 68.425 68.460" 3 5
0.15 49 44 74.92" Tao l 2
0 54 54 TS De 78.46° l l
Sodium
source
in drinking 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm 25 ppm 75 ppm
water Na Na Na Na Na Na
NaCl 15 21 60.24" 64.90" 4 2
NaHCO, 15 20 62.54°" 63.41" l 3
NaOAc 14 22 56.54" 67.9755 4 2

No. 2, 1986] DAMRON AND JOHNSON—RESPONSE OF CHICKS TO SODIUM 12]

effect but feel that it is an anomaly. Except when supplying 25 ppm sodium
from sodium bicarbonate during Experiment 1, the addition of sodium to the
drinking water, regardless of source, was associated with a numerical increase
of daily feed intake over the basal and deionized or tap water. These intake
improvements were statistically significant in association with the 75 ppm
treatments of the second experiment.

Drinking water sodium had no significant effect on water intake when
compared in treatments with no supplemental sodium chloride and deionized
or tap water. There was, however, a numerical increase in water consumption
for those birds that received 75 ppm sodium from any one of the waterborne
sodium sources. As a result of this increased consumption and greater concen-
tration, the 75 ppm treatments were also associated with increased daily so-
dium intake.

Fecal moisture (Tables 3 and 4) increased as the level of sodium chloride in
the diet increased. Birds fed the same diet showed no differences when receiv-
ing either deionized or tap water. Source or level of sodium supplied in the
drinking water had no significant effect on moisture content of manure in
Experiment |. Moisture percentages associated with 75 ppm treatments of the
second experiment did differ statistically from the control.

Mortality was higher in Experiment 2 than in Experiment 1, as can be seen
in Tables 3 and 4. Decreased feed consumption and resulting reductions of
sodium intake may have affected mortality and hampered critical physiologi-
cal systems, especially for birds receiving the lower level of sodium chloride
supplementation.

ConcLusions—From these data it is evident that feed and water consump-
tion of chicks are greatly influenced by sodium levels at or below the dietary
requirement. The use of low-sodium (9 ppm) tap water such as that available
through the Gainesville Regional Utilities system was not related to any im-
proved performance over that noted with deionized water and does not appear
to be an important variable in practical experiments. Sodium supplied from
reagent sources in moderate amounts through the drinking water is available
for use by chicks and the fact that all three sources tested responded well
indicates that chloride level was not a limiting factor.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT— This paper is University of Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Jour-
nal Series No. 6473.

LITERATURE CITED

Duncan, D.B. 1955. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics 1]:1-42.

Kare, M.R., AND J. Brety. 1948. The toxicity of sodium chloride and its relation to water intake in
baby chicks. Poultry Sci. 27:751-758.

NATIONAL RESEARCH CouNcIL. 1984. Nutrient Requirements of Poultry, 8th ed. National Acad-
emy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.

PERKIN-ELMER. 1976. Analytical Methods for Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. Perkin-
Elmer Corp., Norwalk, CT.

PFANDER, W.H. 1973. Toxic substances in water. An. Nutr. Health 28(6):4-7.

122 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Ross, E. 1977a. Apparent inadequacy of sodium requirement in broiler chickens. Poultry Sci.
56:1153-1157.
. 1977b. An improved method for providing various solutions to individual pens in a
chick battery. Poultry Sci. 56:1273-1274.
. 1979. The effect of water sodium on the chick requirement for dietary sodium.
Poultry Sci. 58:626-630.
SipBALD, I.R., W.F. PEPPER, AND S.J. SLINGER. 1962. Sodium chloride in the feed and drinking
water of chicks. Poultry Sci. 41:541-545.
SNEDECOR, G.W. 1956. Statistical Methods, 5th ed. lowa State Univ. Press, Ames, IA.

Florida Sci. 49(2):116-122. 1986.
Accepted: August 12, 1985.

POULTRY WASTE LAGOON SEDIMENT AS A SOURCE OF CALCIUM
FOR LAYING HENS'—R. D. Miles, D. R. Sloan’, R. H. Harms, and J. E. Marion,
Poultry Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611.

ABSTRACT: An experiment was conducted to determine if calcium in the sediment, which
accumulates in poultry waste lagoons, could be used in laying hen diets as a source of calcium for
egg production. The sediment used for this study was obtained from two locations within a
lagoon, located on a layer farm in central Florida. The farm had been operational for approxi-
mately 10 years. Two hundred laying hens, in peak production, were fed either a corn-soybean
meal basal diet or the basal diet supplemented with the lagoon sediment. Based on the sediment’s
nutrient analysis it was added to the diet at a level to furnish approximately 50% of the total
calcium. No significant differences were observed between treatments in egg production, feed
consumption, feed efficiency, egg weight, or egg specific gravity. Thus, it was concluded that
poultry lagoon sediment can furnish calcium for laying hen feeds.

THE need for supplemental calcium in the diet of commercial, egg produc-
ing hens has been known. At the beginning of the 20th century it was a com-
mon practice to add calcium to layer feeds in order to maintain optimum
eggshell strength (Collier, 1892; Buckner and Martin, 1920; Halpin and Hayes,
1922). Of the many calcium sources the major calcium supplement used today
is ground limestone. Ground or granular oyster shells as well as dicalcium and
defluorinated phosphates also furnish calcium to the hen. Miles et al. (1982)
reported that a native Florida product, coquina shells, could serve as an ade-
quate calcium supplement for commercial laying hens. Although calcium
availability from organic feedstuffs vary, most of the inorganic calcium sup-
plements used in today’s poultry industry are satisfactory sources for available
calcium. Miller and Sunde (1975) reported that limestone, ground oyster shell,
screened pullet and hen size oyster shell, and screened coarse limestone were
suitable calcium sources for eggshell formation. Roland (1980) reviewed the
literature concerning calcium source, particle size, and requirement for the
laying hen. He concluded that the inclusion of large particle size calcium
sources such as hen or pullet size oyster shell or limestone, will result in im-
proved eggshell quality only if hens have an inadequate daily calcium intake.

‘Florida Agricultural Experiment Stations Journal Series No. 6689.
“Present address: Tampa Farm Service, P.O. Box 600, Dover, Florida 33527.

No. 2, 1986] MILES, ET AL.— CALCIUM FOR LAYING HENS 123

There are approximately 12 million commercial laying hens in Florida.
These hens produce approximately 2.4 million pounds of wet excreta daily.
With good management this excreta can be converted into a valuable resource.
Layer waste contains mostly excreta plus some other organic materials such as
feathers, broken eggs, and waste feed. The waste usually accumulates under
cages or is rotovated to insure that the moisture level is kept as low as possible.

Another method of handling poultry waste is to flush the fresh excreta into
an open lagoon. Bacterial action reduces the organic wastes to a smaller vol-
ume and the minerals accumulate at the bottom of the lagoon. We wanted to
determine if the inorganic sediment that accumulates in lagoons can be used
by the laying hen as a source of calcium.

MATERIALS AND METHOpS—The mineral sediment used for this experiment was obtained from
a lagoon on a Florida poultry farm that had been operational for about 10 years. Sediment was
obtained from two locations within the lagoon. When dried, the two samples were different colors.
One was dark gray (Sample 1), while the other was a lighter shade of gray (Sample 2). The two
samples were analyzed by a commercial laboratory; and the composition is shown in Table 1.
Sample | contained mostly calcium carbonate and sand (330 and 670 g/kg, respectively). Sample
2 consisted of approximately 750 g/kg calcium carbonate and 250 g/kg sand, respectively. The
variability in the two samples was probably due to the location from which each was collected in
the lagoon. The protein content of the two samples was similar (13.7 vs. 14.3) for samples | and 2,
respectively. Since crude protein was determined by the Kjeldahl method (%N x 6.25) it is not
known what percent of the nitrogen was from nonprotein nitrogen, since the major nitrogenous
metabolite of hens is uric acid.

An experiment was conducted for two, 28-day periods with a total of 200 White Leghorn hens
that had been in production for approximately 24 weeks. Hens were individually caged and fed a
commercial-type, corn-soybean meal basal diet. The supplemental calcium and phosphorus
sources in the basal diet were ground limestone and dicalcium phosphate, respectively (Table 2).
Before the mineral sediment was added to the diet, both sources were mixed (50/50) by weight. The
sediment mixture was then added at a level to furnish approximately 17 of the 34 g/kg total
calcium in the diet. Diets were isocaloric and isonitrogenous. Poultry oil was used to maintain
isocaloric diets, because the calcium content of the sediment mixture was only 19.4%. The lime-
stone that it replaced contained 38% calcium.

During the entire experiment, feed and water were offered ad libitum. Water was furnished to
the hens by a continual flow-through system for 15 minutes every 90 minutes. Natural and artifi-
cial lighting was used in open-type houses to furnish a 15 hr period of continuous light. All eggs
laid on day 14 of each 2-week period during the experimental period were collected for determina-
tion of egg weights and specific gravity.

RESULTS AND Discussion—Adding the lagoon sediment to the diet did not
significantly influence any parameter during the experimental period (Table
3). Hens fed the sediment in the diet had numerically higher feed consumption
and egg production. Feed efficiency (kg feed per dozen eggs) and egg weights
(grams) were essentially the same for each treatment.

The data collected in this study indicate that the laying hen can utilize the
calcium in lagoon sediment for egg production and maintenance of adequate
eggshell quality. Before lagoon sediment or any feed ingredient is added to the
diet, the nutrient analysis is needed so the diet can be balanced to meet the
hen’s nutrient requirements.

124 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

TABLE 1. Composition of dried lagoon mineral sediment used in laying hen study.

Air Dried Sample

] Zz

Analysis (light gray) (dark gray)
gikg

Crude protein’ 13.7 14.3
Moisture 76.0 86
Calcium 123.0° 266°
Phosphorus 4.1 6.7
Sodium 0.3 0.5
Potassium 0.6 0.4
Chloride 0.14 0.04
Copper 0.01 0.02
Iron 0.9 1.0
Magnesium 1.7 3.6
Manganese 0.06 0.11
Zinc 0.06 0.14
SiO, (sand) 574 198

'Pe ercent nitrogen times 6.25 (Kjeldahl procedure).
?As calcium carbonate.

TABLE 2. Composition of experimental diets used in lagoon sediment layer experiment.

Diets, g/kg
Ingredient Control Lagoon
Ground yellow corn (MDI 627.4
Dehulled soybean meal (48.5% crude protein) 187.4 195.7
Ground limestone 84.0 42.0
Dicalcium phosphate 6.5 6.5
lodized salt 4.0 4.0
Microingredients' 5.0 5.0
Poultryoilt Sere rset te Sa ALN aR EY aL RB US ieee Ala re eee eee 32.0
DL methionine 1.0 1.0
Magoon sediment") 77) 9° PN Vat hy NR ES A ek Ee ee 86.4
‘Total 1000 1000
Calculated analysis:
MEn, keal/kg 2841 2841
Protein, g/kg 153.5 153.5
Methionine + cystine, g/kg 6.2 6.2
Lysine, g/kg Goll Wot!
Calcium, g/kg 34 34
Total phosphorus, g/kg 4.5 4.5

‘Supplied per kilogram of diet: 6600 IU vitamin A; 2200 IU vitamin Dy; 2.2 mg menadione dimethylpyrimidinol
bisulfite; 4.14 mg riboflavin; 13.2 mg pantothenic acid; 39.6 mg niacin; 22 ng vitamin B;5; 125 mg ethoxy-
, quin, 60 mg manganese; 50 mg iron; 6 mg copper, 1.1 mg iodine; 35 mg zinc.

*Consisted of a 50/50 mixture by weight of each sediment source.

No. 2, 1986] MILES, ET AL.—CALCIUM FOR LAYING HENS 125

TaBLE 3. Performance of laying hens fed a corn-soybean meal control diet and one containing
lagoon sediment. '

Feed Egg Feed Egg Egg
Consumption Production Efficiency Specific Weight
Treatment (gm/hen/day) (%) (kg/doz) Gravity (g)
Control 98.9 81.9 1.43 1.0792 63.6
Lagoon 100.9 84.0 1.44 1.0775 63.1

'No significant differences were found due to treatment.

LITERATURE CITED

Buckner, G.D., AND J.H. Martin. 1920. Effects of calcium on the composition of the eggs and
carcass of laying hens. J. Biol. Chem. 41:195.

Cour, P. 1892. Oyster shells as food for laying hens. New York Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 35:1-10.

Hatin, J.G., AND J.B. Hayes. 1922. Feeding for eggs. Wisc. Ext. Sta. Circular. 141:7.

Mites, R.D., O.M. JuNqueIRA, AND R.H. Harms. 1982. Coquina shells as a supplemental cal-
cium source in layer hen diets. Florida Scient. 45(2):142-144.

Miter, P.C., anp M.L. SuNnpbe. 1975. The effect of various particle sizes of oyster shell and
limestone on performance of laying leghorn pullets. Poultry Sci. 54:1422-1432.

Roianp, D.A., Sr. 1980. Calcium source, particle size, and requirement for the laving hen. Proc.
Florida Nutrition Conf. Pp. 85-92.

Florida Sci. 49(2):122-125. 1986.
Accepted: September 25, 1985.

126 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

BURMANNIA FLAVA MART. IN FLORIDA—John Popenoe, Fairchild Tropical
Garden, 10901 Old Cutler Road, Miami, FL 33156.

AssTrRACT: Burmannia flava Mart. has been found for a third time in Southwestern Florida.

THE yellow burmannia, Burmannia flava Mart. is considered a rare species
in Florida. According to Ward (1978), it has only been found twice. The first
collection was made in 1916 by Jeannette Park Stanley in Lee County near
Fort Myers. The second collection was made in January 1946 by Leonard J.
Brass (#15874) in the Fakahatchee Strand west of Miles City in Collier County.
This species is also known from Cuba and Central America.

On November 11, 1984, J found a new station for this species in the Big
Cypress area of Collier County just east of Kissimmee Billy Strand and a little
north of Alligator Alley. It was in an area where | had previously seen Burman-
nia capitata (Walt.) Mart. The colony occupied 2 or 3 m’ and was in a meadow
which gradually sloped down to a marsh with standing water. Not far away
were pines (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) and palmettos (Serenoa repens (Bartr.)
Small).

The plants of B. flava were in various stages of development and some had
open flowers. They were growing among grasses and sedges about 20-cm tall,
and were not visible until standing directly over them. They could not be
positively identified until the grass was parted to see what was underneath
because the plants of B. flava are so small. Other plants in this association
included B. capitata, Utricularia simulans Pilger, U. subulata L., and Xyris
spp. In nearby areas that were more open there were plants of Drosera capil-
laris Poir and Utricularia cornuta Michx.

This new station for B. flava is some 30 km east of Fakahatchee Strand and
much farther from Fort Myers. The potential habitat for this species thus
includes perhaps 3000 km’° in Collier, Hendry, and Lee counties. There are
certainly many sites where it could occur. Like other species of Burmannia it
apparently develops in moist places after the high waters of summer have
receded, so it may be found only under certain moisture conditions and per-
haps for only a few weeks out of the year. I predict that with diligent searching
and some luck it eventually will be found in many places in this potential
habitat.

A specimen (Popenoe #2394) is on deposit at Fairchild Tropical Garden
and duplicates have been sent to herbaria at the University of Florida, the
University of South Florida, and the University of North Carolina. The collec-
tion was made with Juanita and Jennifer Popenoe, as well as Nixon Smiley.

LITERATURE CITED

Warp, D.B., editor. 1979. Rare and Endangered Biota of Florida, Vol. 5, Plants. Univer. Presses
Florida, Gainesville.

Florida Sci. 49(2):126. 1986.
Accepted: August 8, 1985.

No. 2, 1986] DOORIS—REVIEW D7

REVIEW

Katherine Carter Ewel and Howard T. Odum, eds. Cypress Swamps, Uni-
versity Presses of Florida, Gainesville, 1985. Pp. xviiit+ 472. Price: $25.00.

Any individual whose work involves aspects of the ecology of Florida will
want his or her own copy of Cypress Swamps. In one volume, the editors have
compiled 40 papers which provide as complete a picture as has ever been
drawn of this important community as it exists in Florida and in certain other
localities of the United States.

Included in the book are descriptions of cypress swamps from the physical,
chemical, and biological standpoints. Soils are discussed by Coultas and
Duever who make the important point that several different types of soils
support the development of cypress communities. Soils ranging in pH from less
than 4.0 to greater than 8.0 and varying considerably in organic content and
cation exchange capacity can be expected in cypress swamps, possibly explain-
ing why all cypress ponds do not react identically to stresses (eg., drying out)
placed upon them. Also germane to the question of stress response is the discus-
sion of the geohydrology of cypress swamps which is to be found primarily in
two papers, one by Spangler and the other by Heimburg. There appears to be
somewhat more uniformity with respect to the geohydrologic processes con-
tributing to the establishment of cypress swamps and which, in turn, control
their functioning. Although differences do exist with respect to the actual pres-
ence and the thickness of sands, clays, and dolomite beneath the cypress pond
basins, one common feature of cypress ponds is an organic layer of variable
thickness. This layer is important in providing a root-support matrix and, very
likely, in maintaining appropriate root moisture conditions during drought
periods. The geology and topography of cypress ponds are important factors to
the understanding of the role of these wetlands in local hydrology and in ex-
plaining the differences in stress responses among cypress ponds.

From the physiologic standpoint, excellent discussions are provided on the
cypress tree itself. In a total of four papers, subjects such as seed viability,
seedling survival, post-fire regeneration, and morphology are well covered. In
addition, throughout many of the other papers; further information in the
characteristics of Taxodium sp. is available to the careful reader.

The function of the cypress swamp as animal habitat is discussed. Verte-
brate species characteristic of cypress swamps are described by Harris and
Vickers and much needed data on cypress pond invertebrates is found in two
papers by Brightman, McMahon and Davis. From these papers, two important
points are clear. The first is that cypress ponds are extremely vital aquatic
communities, and the second point is that cypress ponds function in wildlife
population maintenance for several reasons, not the least of which is their
characteristic island-like occurrence among Florida’s flatwoods. This knowl-
edge is of particular significance in our state as vast areas of flatwoods are
undergoing residential development at a rapid pace.

128 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

As expected, much of the book is devoted to the subject of wastewater
disposal to wetlands. Compilation of data on this matter is quite timely as the
Department of Environmental Regulation will soon finalize specific rules gov-
erning such disposal facilities. Large-scale wastewater disposal to wetlands has
implications for Florida, and it may turn out that this book and the research in
it represents what will be considered the pivotal factors in the decisions on this
issue. Because of the treatment of this subject, Cypress Swamps will be of
particular interest to biologists in regulatory agencies and consulting firms.

There is no doubt that the book is a milestone in wetland ecology. Let us
hope that there will be additional volumes on this subject in the future.—
Patricia M. Dooris, Southwest Florida Water Management District, Brooks-
ville.

OBITUARY.

DAN MORSE, M.D., Research Associate in Physical Anthropology, the Florida
State University, died October 19, 1985, after a lengthy illness at his home in
Panacea, Florida. Born October 1, 1906, in Cleveland, Ohio, Dr. Morse re-
ceived his bachelor’s degree from Miami University of Ohio in 1928 and his
medical degree from Western Reserve University (now Case-Western) in 1932.
After serving in the army, he became medical director and superintendent of
the Peoria (Illinois) Municipal Tuberculosis Sanitarium, a post he held until his
retirement in 1971. In the same year he joined the Department of Anthropol-
ogy regularly teaching courses in palaeopathology and later developing a pro-
gram and publishing extensively in forensic anthropology. He was a consultant
to the Florida Department of Law Enforcement, a Diplomat of the American
Board of Forensic Anthropology, a member of the American Medical Associa-
tion, the American Association of Physical Anthropologists and the American
Academy of Forensic Sciences.—R.C. Dailey and J.A. Paredes, The Florida
State University, Tallahassee.

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_ CONTENTS

in Three Subtropical Seagrass Communities:
as Paul R. Jensen and Robert A. Gibson 129
ap: of Polk Mounty, Wlonda 2. oo

- Douglas L. Smith and Michael A. Graves 142
ashore Staphylinidae Cafius bistriatus

i H. Frank, T. G. Garlysle, and J. R. Rey 148

now Law ................NicholasG. Alexion 162
ver-Haired Bat, Lasionycteris

= in Florida. . oo ee Fee ae N. Brown 167

168
171
Patricia Ae Poo and Warren G. Abrahamson 176

Bie et ee ee Dean F Martin 19]

RNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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Volume 49 Summer, 1986 Number 3

Biological Sciences

PRIMARY PRODUCTION IN THREE SUBTROPICAL
SEAGRASS COMMUNITIES: A COMPARISON
OF FOUR AUTOTROPHIC COMPONENTS

PAuL R. JENSEN AND RoBeErt A. GIBSON
Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., RR 1, Box 196, Fort Pierce, FL 33450

AssTrRACT: A one-year study was conducted in which seagrass communities in Tampa Bay, the
Indian River Lagoon, and the Little Bahama Bank were monitored quarterly for primary pro-
duction, standing stock biomass, and nutrient concentrations. Primary production rates were
measured in situ for the following four community autotrophic components: seagrasses, their
associated epiphytic flora, phytoplankton and microbenthic algae. Photosynthetic rates were
compared both within and between locations to determine the relative significance of the pri-
mary producers, and the contribution by each to areal, i.e., community production (mg C
mh"). In general, all species of seagrasses, their associated epiphytic flora and microbenthic
algae produced at similar rates at all locations. The Indian River Lagoon had phytoplankton
primary production rates that were greater than both seagrass and microbenthic algal production
rates. Phytoplankton in Tampa Bay had primary production rates greater than all other commu-
nity photosynthetic components, and primary production rates by all photosynthetic components
in the nutrient-deplete Bahama Banks were similar. Therefore, the majority of the community
primary production, i.e., the production base, in Tampa Bay and the Indian River Lagoon is
contributed by phytoplankton. These areas are characterized by anthropogenic perturbations
and associated high nutrient concentrations. Historical data indicate that phytoplankton, turtle
grass and microbenthic algae were, at one time, equally productive in Tampa Bay. Increased
phytoplankton production has reduced the relative importance of seagrasses and microbenthic
algae to community production in this area. It is suggested that the relative contributions by the
components of the photosynthetic community are affected by nutrient availability. Nutrient en-
richment may induce a shift in the production base from benthic plants to phytoplankton. A shift
of this type may be interpreted as an ecological indicator of either eutrophication or environmen-
tal stress in a coastal marine environment.

SEAGRASS meadows are a common component of the world’s coastal ecosys-
tems. Since Petersen’s pioneering work in 1913, a great deal of information has
accumulated on various aspects of primary production in the seagrass commu-
nity. These works have established that seagrass meadows are among the most
productive marine ecosystems, supporting rich communities of both plant and
animal life (McRoy, 1974; Thayer et al., 1975; Jacobs, 1979).

130 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

It is generally accepted that seagrass meadows generate large quantities of
organic material (Thayer et al., 1975) which ultimately enter the detrital food
web. This high organic production can lead to the intuitive assumption that
seagrasses, being visually the most conspicuous autotrophic component in the
seagrass meadow, are the major contributors to primary production in these
systems. Seagrasses have been cited as being the major contributor to primary
production in certain seagrass meadows (Goering and Parker, 1972; Congdon
and McComb, 1979; Jacobs, 1979) but, nonetheless, it should not be con-
cluded a priori that seagrasses are the major contributors to primary produc-
tion in all seagrass meadows. The quantification of all autotrophic compo-
nents must be made to fully estimate the magnitude of each component to the
total productivity of the system.

The objectives of this research were to quantify seagrass community pri-
mary production rates from three geographically distinct locations, and to
examine these rates in terms of: (1) within and between location differences, (2)
relative contributions to community primary production, and (3) relationships
to local nutrient regimes.

MATERIALS AND METHops—Seagrass beds were chosen as study sites from three locations: (1)
Indian Cay, the Little Bahama Bank, Bahamas, (2) Link Port, the Indian River Lagoon, Florida,
and (3) Lassing Park, Tampa Bay, Florida (Fig. 1). These areas are on approximately the same
latitude (27-28 °N) yet exemplify distinct environments representing a range of nutrient regimes
and varying degrees of human interference. Tampa Bay is an industrialized estuarine system,
altered by dredge and fill operations, harbor and channel construction, and effluents from domes-
tic and industrial waste waters (Wilkens, 1979). The Indian River is a long narrow coastal lagoon,
experiencing variable flushing rates and mixing with oceanic waters. Increased organic load and
turbidity can be attributed to canal dredging and drainage from land development projects (John-
son, 1983). The effects of industrialization are less than in Tampa Bay. The Little Bahama Bank is a
broad shallow-shelf lagoon. It is a pristine environment, well flushed by oceanic waters, with low
nutrient concentrations and few anthropogenic influences.

During a one-year period each location was sampled quarterly to measure: primary production
rates of four selected autotrophic components, standing stock biomass, and physical and chemical
parameters. The community autotrophic components monitored were: (1) the three most abundant
seagrass species (Thalassia testudinum Banks ex Konig, Syringodium filiforme Kiitzing and Halo-
dule wrightii Asherson), (2) associated epiphytic flora, (3) phytoplankton, and (4) microbenthic
algae. The communities were all in ca. 1 m water depth and therefore were spatially defined as 1
m° of water overlying 1 m’ of seagrass meadow. The only major autotrophic components not
considered were the macroalgae, which are found either attached or free-floating, and the emer-
gent wetland vegetation.

Primary Production Measurements—Triplicate measurements were made between 0900 and
1400 hours of each sampling period to determine primary production rates of the selected compo-
nents. All primary production measurements were made at the collection sites using in situ radio-
isotope tracer techniques with 1 ml NaH'*CO, (Amersham Corp.) at concentrations between 8-14
»Ci/ml and incubation periods of 0.5 h. Equations 1-3 were used to calculate primary production:

phytoplankton production (mg C m°h') =

('*C assimilated) x ('*C available) x (1.05)

('*C added) x (time) x (volume filtered/chamber volume)

seagrass and epiphyte production (mg C m°*h')=

No. 3, 1986] JENSEN AND GIBSON—PRIMARY PRODUCTION 131

83 82 81 80 79

FLORIDA
ze ct
TAMPA \" VER

Q mM

LITTL
BAHAMA
BANK

eo

27

Fic. 1. Locations of seagrass meadow sampling sites.

132 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

('*C assimilated) x ('°C available) x (1.05) x (areal dry weight)

('*C added) x (time) x (sample dry weight) x (area)

microbenthic algal production (mg C m°h') =

('*C assimilated) x (!°C available) x (1.05)

('*C added) x (time) x (area of core)

Separate Plexiglas chambers were used for the in situ incubation of (1) seagrass blades plus
epiphytes and (2) microbenthic algae; phytoplankton were incubated in glass boiling flasks. The
seagrass-epiphyte chamber allows for the insertion of a seagrass blade, plus associated epiphytic
flora, into the chamber without removing the plant from the sediment. Chambers were filled with
filtered seawater prior to short shoot insertion and, after insertion, inoculated with carbon-14 to
allow isotopic uptake by both the seagrass and the associated epiphytes. Microbenthic algal photo-
synthetic rates were determined for the upper 2.5 cm of sediment using a 2.0 cm inner diameter
Plexiglas corer which also acted as the incubation chamber. Carbon-14 was added to the chamber
and the intact sediment core; the chamber was then sealed and returned to the sediment for
incubation. These chambers were designed to minimize disturbance of the sample population (see
Heffernan and Gibson, 1983, for detailed description of apparatus).

Incubation procedures and sample processing for seagrasses, epiphytes and microbenthic algae
were performed as described by Heffernan and Gibson (1983), with the substitution of 0.5 h for
3.0 h incubation periods. Following incubation periods, seagrass samples were rinsed with filtered
seawater to remove unincorporated carbon-14, and the epiphytes were separated from the seagrass
blades using the freeze-drying and scraping technique of Penhale (1977) under the low magnifica-
tion of a dissecting microscope. Macrofaunal components of the epiphyte population were re-
moved and discarded. Seagrass and epiphyte samples were solubilized for liquid scintillation
counting using a modification of the methods of Gange et al. (1979). Microbenthic algal photosyn-
thetic production was determined using a modification of previous methods (Van Raalte et al.,
1974) as follows: unincorporated carbon-14 was removed from the sediment by washing with 2 M
HCl. Sediment was centrifuged (12,000 g) and the supernatant discarded. The sample was then
digested for 12 h with 10 ml of 16 M HNO, . After a second centrifugation (12,000 g), 1 ml of
supernatant was buffered with 9 ml of 0.75 M tris buffer, then 1 ml of the buffered sample was
counted. Microbenthic algal productivity measurements were not made in the Bahamas due to the
high carbonate content of the sediment which inhibited the use of the acid hydrolysis portion of the
technique. Phytoplankton production was determined by filtering 250-ml volumes of water onto
47 mm diameter 0.4 um pore size polycarbonate filters (Nuclepore Corp.). Filters were fumed over
6 M HCI for 0.5 h to remove unincorporated carbon-14, dissolved with 1 ml NCS tissue solubilizer
(Amersham Corp.) and counted in 10 ml of liquid scintillation cocktail (ACS:toluene:water; 7:3:1).
The carbon-14 activity of all samples was measured using a Searle Analytic Mark III liquid scintil-
lation counter at counting efficiencies of 75-85%. Counts were corrected for background using the
external standards channels ratio method.

Light intensities within the chambers, as measured with a Biospherical Instruments PSL-10
light meter, were reduced by up to 15%. Similar reductions in production rates were not made
considering the high light levels associated with the sampling sites; e.g., Tampa Bay (July, 1982)
averaged 711+76 yE m’s' at incubation depth during the sampling period. This light intensity
corresponds to light-saturated photosynthetic rates in seagrasses (McRoy, 1974; Buesa, 1975;
Penhale, 1977; Drew, 1979; and Williams and McRoy, 1982) and light levels above saturation
have been shown to bring about only minor changes in seagrass photosynthetic rates (Williams and
McRoy, 1982).

Standing Stock—Seagrass standing stock biomass samples were taken using a modified post-
hole digger (Young, 1974-75). Three replicate seagrass plugs (225 cm’) were taken for each sea-
grass species from an area dominated by that species. The photosynthetic portion of the blades
from the species for which the sample was representative were separated, lyophilized and weighed.
Averages were taken to provide a yearly estimate of combined seagrass plus epiphyte standing
stock per square meter at each location. Individual seagrass and epiphyte standing stocks were

No. 3, 1986] JENSEN AND GIBSON—PRIMARY PRODUCTION 133

estimated using the percent seagrass and percent epiphyte of total seagrass plus epiphyte dry
weights as recorded during the freeze-drying and scraping process of the seagrass photosynthetic
rate determinations.

Seagrass and epiphyte primary production rates per square meter were calculated by multiply-
ing seagrass biomass by weight specific production rates. Species composition at each location was
considered in the estimation of combined areal production by the three seagrass species. Estimates
for Tampa Bay indicate that Thalassia testudinum, Halodule wrightii, and Syringodium filiforme
are responsible for 40, 40, and 20% of the seagrass cover respectively in this area (Lewis et al., in
press). Seagrass meadows in the Indian River are a mixture of 2.7% T. testudinum, 46% H.
wrightii, and 47% S. filiforme (Thompson, 1978). Areal photography coupled with ground sam-
pling was used to estimate the seagrass composition of the Little Bahama Bank to be 83% T.
testudinum, 7% H. wrightii, and 9% S. filiforme. The percent composition of each seagrass
species was multiplied by the areal primary production rate (mg C m~h’) for that species. The
resulting areal production rates for each species were then summed within each location, yielding
one primary production value for each location representing the contributions by the three sea-
grass species.

Water samples for nutrient analysis were filtered through 0.45 ym pore size membrane filters,
preserved with mercuric chloride and frozen. Samples were analyzed in duplicate for ammonia,
phosphate, silicate, and nitrate + nitrite using a modified Technicon technique on a Autoanalyzer
II (Zimmermann et al., 1977). Peak heights of samples and standards were corrected for synthetic
seawater and turbidity blanks prior to sample concentration calculation. Nutrient data were not
available for certain sampling periods.

ResuLts— There was no seasonal variability between the quarterly weight-
specific photosynthetic carbon uptake rates as measured for the three seagrass
species and their associated epiphytic flora (Fig. 2). This is due, in part, to the
within-season variability measured for each species. Yearly mean seagrass and
epiphyte weight-specific production rates were compared both within and be-
tween locations usinga Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric one-way analysis of var-
iance. The only statistically significant (P <0.05) results were: (1) the epiphytes
found on Halodule wrightii in Tampa Bay incorporated carbon at a greater
rate than the epiphytes on H. wrightii in the Bahamas, (2) the epiphytes on
Thalassia testudinum and Syringodium filiforme in the Bahamas produced at
a greater rate than the epiphytes on H. wrightii, and (3) the seagrass S. fili-
forme in the Bahamas produced at a lesser rate than its associated epiphytes.
In general, seagrasses and their associated epiphytes had statistically similar
yearly mean weight-specific production rates—independent of species and lo-
cation.

The yearly weight-specific carbon uptake rate for all epiphytic flora was
1.80+1.21 mg C gm dry wt'h’. This was higher than the mean seagrass car-
bon uptake rate for all species which was 0.40+0.28. Considering the total
seagrass plus epiphyte uptake, seagrasses accounted for 11 to 61% (K=22%)
of the total.

Photosynthetic carbon uptake rates for the seagrass communities are pre-
sented (Fig. 3) in terms of areal production (mg C m*h’ or mh’). The conver-
sion of seagrass and epiphyte weight specific carbon uptake rates to areal
carbon uptake rates is a function of biomass per unit area (Table 1). This
conversion was made for comparison with phytoplankton and microbenthic
algal production, allowing one number to represent the contribution by the
three seagrass species and one number for their associated epiphytic flora at

134

FLORIDA SCIENTIST

[Vol. 49

TaBLE 1. Yearly average standing stock biomass (g dry wt m” for seagrass species and associ-

ated epiphytic flora (IR = Indian River, TB = Tampa Bay).

Standing stock

(g dry wt m’)
Species Location seagrass epiphyte Reference
Thalassia testudinum Florida 325 - Phillips, 1960
Florida (TB) 81 - Pomeroy, 1960*
Florida (IR) 48.4 21.9 Jensen and Gibson, This work
Florida (TB) 48.8 18.7 , This work
Bahamas 5.3 - Patriquin, 1972
Bahamas 200 - Capone et al., 1979**
Bahamas 75.4 11.3 Jensen and Gibson, This work
Syringodium filiforme Texas 45 - McMahan, 1968
Florida (IR) 6.0 2.1 Jensen and Gibson, This work
Florida (TB) 20.9 6.4 , This work
Bahamas 7.6 0.8 , This work
Halodule beaudettei N. Carolina 200 - Brylinski, 1971
H. wrightii Florida (IR) DVT 8.8 Jensen and Gibson, This work
Florida (TB) 18.7 6.3 , This work
Bahamas 5.9 3.3 , This work
Zostera marina Alaska 180 = McRoy, 1966
N. Carolina 80 2.5 Penhale, 1977
Denmark = 2.3 Borum, 1980

*40 % of this standing stock is leaf material, actual standing stock = 32.4.
**Standing stock includes epiphytes.

each location (see Materials and Methods). The conversion results in a range of
quarterly rates from 7.01 to 30.2 (X=18.37) mg C m‘h’ for seagrasses and
10.5 to 27.1 (X=17.82) for epiphytes. There were no statistically significant
differences between the four seasons, with seagrasses accounting for 51% of
the total seagrass-epiphyte production. Seagrasses had a higher biomass per
unit area than epiphytes, accounting for their higher percent contribution to
total seagrass-epiphyte areal production as opposed to weight-specific produc-
tion. The significant (P<0.05) results of a nonparametric analysis of variance
comparing mean yearly areal production rates (Fig. 3) are: (1) phytoplankton
in Tampa Bay incorporate carbon at a greater rate than the other three auto-
trophic components, (2) phytoplankton in the Indian River Lagoon incorpo-
rate carbon at a greater rate than either microbenthic algae or seagrasses, and
(3) phytoplankton in Tampa Bay incorporate carbon at a greater rate than
phytoplankton on the Little Bahama Bank.

The total primary production in a cubic meter of seagrass bed, i.e., com-
munity production, and the percent of total production contributed by each of
the four autotrophic components is described in Table 2. Total production was
greatest in Tampa Bay and lowest on the Little Bahama Bank. Photosynthetic
carbon uptake by phytoplankton was greater than all other components in
Tampa Bay, and was greater than seagrasses and microbenthic algae in the
Indian River Lagoon.

135

JENSEN AND GIBSON—PRIMARY PRODUCTION

No. 3, 1986]

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136 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

THAL EPI SYR EPI HAL EPI
8.0
oO
a Oo
a
UG
he
= TAMPA BAY
= 10.0
= 8.0 Oo O
(@2)
Ss 6.0
= 4.0
0 x x
Zz 0.0
©
= INDIAN RIVER LAGOON
= 3.0
=>) °
S) Oo
na 2.0
a Oo
Xx
1.0
0.0

BAHAMAS

Fic. 2. Weight specific photosynthetic carbon uptake rates (mg C g dry wt ‘h') for seagrasses
(THAL = Thalassia testudinum, SYR = Syringodium filiforme, HAL= Halodule wrightii) and asso-
ciated epiphytic flora (EPI). Each box represents a quarterly carbon uptake rate; the symbol X
represents the yearly mean.

A description of the three locations in terms of temperature, salinity, and
nutrient concentrations (Table 3) indicates that the Little Bahama Bank is well
flushed with oceanic water and that Tampa Bay and the Indian River Lagoon
are brackish water environments, with Tampa Bay receiving the greatest
amount of freshwater input. The Indian River Lagoon is highest in SiO, and
NO,+NO,, and Tampa Bay is highest in PO,, probably due to the occurrence
of natural phosphate deposits and industrial runoff from local phosphate min-
ing operations. The Little Bahama Bank location had the lowest concentration
of all nutrients.

No. 3, 1986] JENSEN AND GIBSON—PRIMARY PRODUCTION 137

PHYTO MBA SG PEI
O
120.0 oO
tas
80.0 O Oo
O
40.0 OU
= x a
| 0.0 A
wv
TAMPA BAY
E 160.0 O
O
12050
£ 80.0 B
Z 40.0 =
rs O
= 010 =
O
A INDIAN RIVER LAGOON
O 60.0
Y 0
oO
40.0
20.0 x 0
rs
0.0

BAHAMAS

Fic. 3. Areal photosynthetic carbon uptake rates (mg C m~ h' or m° h') for community
photosynthetic components (PHYTO = phytoplankton, MBA=microbenthic algae, SG=sea-
grasses, EPI = associated epiphytic flora). Each box represents a quarterly carbon uptake rate; the
symbol X represents the yearly mean.

Primary production measurements were made using the carbon-14 tech-
nique of Steeman Nielsen (1952). This technique has the advantage of high
sensitivity, requires only short incubation periods, and is applicable to the four
autotrophic components in question. The major criticisms of the technique for
seagrasses are that labeled carbon can be released from the leaves (Sonder-
gaard, 1981), translocated to other areas of the plant or internally recycled
(Bittaker and Iverson, 1976) or exchanged between leaves and epiphytes
(Harlin, 1975), all leading to the underestimation of photosynthetic carbon
incorporation. In support of the technique, Penhale and Smith (1977) and

138 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Brylinski (1977) have independently shown the release of labeled dissolved
organic carbon to be low (1 to 4%) in comparison to total carbon incorpo-
rated. Brylinski (1971) found linear carbon-14 uptake by Thalassia testu-
dinum and Halodule wrightii for 0.5 h to 2.0 h incubation periods. Short
incubation periods (i.e., 0.5 h) minimize the loss of labeled carbon via respira-
tion, translocation, recycling and exchange, and therefore approximate a rate
of total carbon uptake between net and gross.

DiscussIoN— Yearly means of carbon-14 uptake rates were, in general, sta-
tistically similar for seagrasses, epiphytes, and microbenthic algae at all three
locations. This similarity of means is, in part, attributed to the variability
measured both within and between the quarterly production rates. Those
means which were not statistically similar reveal that phytoplankton produc-
tion in the Indian River Lagoon was greater than seagrass and microbenthic
algal production, and that phytoplankton production in Tampa Bay was
greater than all other components, resulting in this area having the highest
total community primary production per cubic meter. The Little Bahama
Bank location exhibited the lowest total community primary production of
any area.

Pomeroy (1960), working in the Boca Ciega Bay portion of Tampa Bay, in
water less than 2 m deep, found phytoplankton, turtle grass, and microbenthic
algae to be equally productive. Two decades later, the relative contribution by
phytoplankton to the Tampa Bay system has increased, reducing the relative
importance of seagrasses and microphytobenthos in community production.
This shift in production base towards phytoplankton is largely attributed to an
81% reduction of seagrass cover in Tampa Bay (Lewis et al., in press). Seagrass
meadows have been physically destroyed (e.g., dredge and fill operations) or
reduced via competitive interactions with micro- and macroalgae for the di-
minished irradiances experienced in an eutrophic environment. Though no
historical data are available for the Indian River Lagoon, it is speculated that a
similar shift in the production base has occurred in this area—also spurred by
reduced seagrass populations and the eutrophication process.

Biomass measurements indicate Thalassia testudinum beds have the high-
est standing stock (g dry wt m’). This is in agreement with other available data
that indicate Thalassia and Zostera are the genera that attain the highest bio-
mass (McRoy and McMillan, 1977). The yearly standing stock estimates are
lower than many reported in the literature with possible explanations being:
(1) lyophilization was used to obtain dry weights as opposed to oven drying, (2)
epiphytes were not included in the measurements, (3) only the above-ground
photosynthetic portion of the blades were considered, and (4) location depen-
dent density differentials. The sampling strategy was not designed to discern
seasonal trends in standing stocks though others have found them to exist
(Sand-Jensen, 1975; Aioi, 1980).

Epiphyte biomass, which comprised as much as 36% of the total standing
stock, supports the work of Capone and co-workers (1979) who found epi-
phytes to contribute 27-44% of the total biomass in the Bahamas. Tampa Bay

No. 3, 1986] JENSEN AND GIBSON—PRIMARY PRODUCTION 139

and the Indian River Lagoon had the highest epiphytic biomass; this conforms
to the correlation found between high epiphyte biomass and areas of high
nutrient concentration (Phillips et al., 1978; Borum and Wium-Andersen,
1980). Epiphyte and microbenthic algal production rates corroborate the im-
portance of these components as primary producers in the seagrass community
(Jones, 1968; Penhale, 1977; Borum and Wium-Andersen, 1980; Cattaneo and
Kalff, 1980). Seagrass weight specific production rates are lower than those
recorded by others (Buesa, 1975; Capone et al., 1979; Williams and McRoy,
1982), and can possibly be attributed to the separate consideration of epiphyte
and seagrass production. An overestimation of seagrass standing stock and
primary production rates may result from not considering these components
separately. Seagrass areal production rates (mg C mh’) also are lower than
those reported in the literature (Phillips, 1960; Pomeroy, 1960; McRoy, 1966;
Capone et al., 1979; Dillon, 1971; Penhale, 1977) and are attributed to the
standing stock estimates of which the production calculation is a direct func-

tion.
Macroalgae, at times, are visually the dominant autotrophic component in

the Indian River Lagoon. They occur in the form of seasonal aggregates of
drift algae which can obtain an average biomass of 164 g dry wt m™ over a
0.15 km’ seagrass meadow (Virnstein and Carbonara, in press). Quantifying
the contribution of this component is a difficult task, but one which needs to be
addressed for a comprehensive assessment of primary production in the Indian
River Lagoon.

A comparison of seagrass community primary production rates was made
between three locations in the Indian River Lagoon (Heffernan and Gibson,
1984). This study recorded large variabilities in primary production rates both
temporally and spatially within the lagoon. The location referred to as Link
Port was in closest proximity to the Indian River Lagoon site sampled by our
study. Comparison of the primary production rates measured between the two
studies, and within each study, for this location, indicates high variability and
necessitates the use of caution in defining relationships between seagrass com-
munity primary producers.

Investigations on coastal marine primary production have indicated sea-
grasses to be the major contributor to community primary production in some
areas (Jacobs, 1979; Cogdon, 1979; Goering and Parker, 1972). The presence
of seagrasses in a community should not lead, a priori, to the conclusion that
seagrasses are the major contributors to primary production in that commu-
nity. We emphasize the importance of examining all autotrophic components
in ascertaining the importance of any one as a primary producer in the sea-
grass community. In areas where seagrasses do not contribute significantly to
total primary production, they still provide many valuable community func-
tions, i.e., as substrata for epiphytic organisms which are a food source for
grazers (Fry, 1984), in reducing water currents and inducing sedimentation,
and in increasing sediment stability and promoting nutrient cycling (den Har-
tog, 1977; Zieman and Wetzel, 1980).

It is suggested that monitoring community primary production, both abso-

140 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

lute and relative, provides important ecological data which may be inter-
preted as an environmental indicator of community “health.” Disturbances
within a community may be associated with nutrient enrichments, resulting in
increased phytoplankton populations, reduced water column light transmit-
tance, and the inhibited growth of benthic macrophytes. The loss of benthic
plant cover, and its associated function in sediment stability, further increases
water column turbidity—hastening the eutrophication process. The response
of the photosynthetic community to this type of stress may be observed as a
shift in the production base, e.g., from seagrasses to phytoplankton. Documen-
tation regarding the magnitude or type of shift in primary production rates
may lend insight into the effects of anthropogenic perturbations on the coastal
marine environment.

LITERATURE CITED

Aor, K. 1980. Seasonal change in the standing crop of eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) in Odawa Bay,
central Japan. Aquat. Bot. 8:343-354.

Bitraker, H.F., AND R.L. Iverson. 1976. Thalassia testudinum productivity: A field comparison
of measurement methods. Marine Biol. 37:39-46.

Borum, J., AND S. WiuM-ANDERSEN. 1980. Biomass and production of epiphytes on eelgrass (Zos-
tera marina L.) in the Oresund, Denmark. Ophelia, Suppl. 1:57-64.

BryLinski, M. 1971. Release of dissolved organic matter by marine macrophytes. Ph.D. Dissert.,
Univ. of Georgia, Athens. 90 pp.

. 1977. Release of dissolved organic matter by some marine macrophytes. Marine
Biology. 39:213-220.

Buesa, R.J. 1975. Population biomass and metabolic rates of marine angiosperms on the north-
western Cuban shelf. Aquat. Bot. 1:11-23.

Capone, D.G., P.A. PENHALE, R.S. OREMLAND, AND B.F. Taytor. 1979. Relationship between
productivity and N,(C,H,) fixation in a Thalassia testudinum community. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 24:117-125.

CaTTANEO, A., AND J. KAtrr. 1980. The relative contribution of aquatic macrophytes and their
epiphytes to the production of macrophyte beds. Limnol. Oceanogr. 25:280-289.

Conopon, R.A., AND A.J. McComs. 1979. Productivity of Ruppia: seasonal changes and depen-
dence on light in an Australian estuary. Aquat. Bot. 6:121-132.

Ditton, C.R. 1971. A comparative study of the primary productivity of estuarine phytoplankton
and macrobenthic plants. Ph.D. Dissert., Dept. Botany, Univ. North Carolina, Chapel Hill.

112 Pp.
Drew, E.A. 1979. Physiological aspects of primary production in seagrasses. Aquat. Bot. 7:139-
150.

Fry, B. 1984. '°C/'’C ratios and the trophic importance of algae in Florida Syringodium filiforme
seagrass meadows. Marine Biol. 79:11-19.

GANGE, J.A., J. LAROCHELLE, AND A. CARDINAL. 1979. A solubilization technique to prepare algal
tissues for liquid scintillation counting, with reference to Fucus vesiculosus L. Phycologia.
18:168-170.

Goerinc, J.J., AND P.L. Parker. 1972. Nitrogen fixation by epiphytes on seagrasses. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 17:320-323.

Harroc, C. pEN. 1977. Structure, function, and classification in seagrass communities. Pp. 89-
121. In: McRoy, C.P., AND C. HELFFERICH (eds.), Seagrass Ecosystems: A Scientific Per-
spective. Marcel Dekker, New York.

Harun, M.H. 1975. Epiphyte-host relations in seagrass communities. Aquat. Bot. 1:125-131.

HEFFERNAN, J.J., AND R.A. Gipson. 1983. A comparison of primary production rates in Indian
River, Florida seagrass systems. Florida Scient. 45:124-132.

Jacogss, R.P.W.M. 1979. Distribution and aspects of the production and biomass of eelgrass,
Zostera marina L., at Roscoff, France. Aquat. Bot. 7:151-172.

Jounson, L.T. 1983. Perspectives on the future of the Indian River System. Florida Scient.
46:132-134.

No. 3, 1986] JENSEN AND GIBSON—PRIMARY PRODUCTION 141

Jones, J.A. 1968. Primary productivity by the tropical marine turtle grass, Thalassia testudinum
Konig, and its epiphytes. Ph.D. Dissert. Univ. Miami, Coral Gables. 196 Pp.

Lewis, R.R., M.J. Durako, M.D. MorFFLer, AND R.C. Puiutps. In press. Seagrass meadows of
Tampa Bay—a review. Proc. of the Tampa Bay Area Scientific Information Symposium
(BASIS). May, 1982.

McMaunan, C.A. 1968. Biomass and salinity tolerance of shoalgrass and manateegrass in lower
Laguna Madre, Texas. Wildl. Manage. 32:501-506.

McRoy, C.P. 1966. Standing stock and ecology of eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) in IZembek Lagoon,
Alaska. M.S. Thesis, Univ. Washington. 138 Pp.

. 1974. Seagrass productivity: carbon uptake experiments in eelgrass, Zostera marina.
Aquaculture. 4:131-137.

, AND C. McMiiuan. 1977. Production ecology and physiology of seagrasses. Pp. 53-
87. In: McRoy, C.P., AND C. HELFFERICH (eds.), Seagrass Ecosystems, A Scientific perspec-
tive. Marcel Dekker, New York.

Patriguin, D.G. 1972. The origin of nitrogen and phosphorus for growth of the marine angio-
sperm Thalassia testudinum. Marine Biol. 15:35-46.

PENHALE, P.A. 1977. Macrophyte-epiphyte biomass and productivity in an eelgrass (Zostera ma-
rina L.) community. J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. 26:211-224.

, AND W.O. Situ, Jr. 1977. Excretion of dissolved organic carbon by eelgrass (Zos-
tera marina) and its epiphytes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22:400-407.

PETERSEN, C.G.J. 1913. Om baendeltangens (Zostera marina) aarsproduktion i de Danske Far-
vande. Mindeskrift Hapetus Steenstrup. Cophenhagen.

Puiturs, G.L., D. Eminson, anp B. Moss. 1978. A mechanism to account for macrophyte
decline in progressively eutrophicated freshwaters. Aquat. Bot. 4:103-126.

Puitups, R.C. 1960. Observations on the ecology and distribution of the Florida seagrasses. Prof.
Papers Series No. 2, Florida State Board of Conservation. 72 Pp.

Pomeroy, L. R. 1960. Primary production of Boca Ciega Bay, Florida. Bulletin of Marine Science
of the Gulf and Caribbean. 10(1):1-10.

SAND-JENSEN, K. 1975. Biomass, net production and growth dynamics in an eelgrass (Zostera
marina L.) population in Vellerup Vig, Denmark. Ophelia. 14:185-201.

SonDERGAARD, M. 1981. Kinetics of extracellular release of '*C-labelled organic carbon by sub-
merged macrophytes. Oikos. 36:331-347.

STEEMAN NIELSEN, E. 1952. The use of radioactive carbon (C'*) for measuring organic production
in the sea. J. Cons. Perm. Int. Explor. Mer. 18:117-140.

Tuayer, G.W., D.A. WoLFE, AND R.B. WittiaMs. 1975. The impact of man on seagrass systems.
American Scient. 63:288-296.

TuHompson, M.J. 1978. Species composition and distribution of seagrass beds in the Indian River
Lagoon, Florida. Florida Scient. 41:90-96.

Van Raa.te, C., W.C. Stewart, AND I. VauieLa. 1974. A '*C technique for measuring algal
productivity in salt marsh muds. Bot. Mar. 27:180-183.

VIRNSTEIN, B., AND P.A. Carponara. In press. Seasonal abundance and distribution of drift algae
and seagrasses in the mid-Indian River Lagoon, Florida. Aquat. Bot.

Witkens, R.G. 1979. Environmental quality Hillsborough County, Florida. Hillsborough County
Environmental Protection Commission, Tampa, Florida. Pp. 225.

Wiuurams, S.L., AnD C.P. McRoy. 1982. Seagrass productivity: The effect of light on carbon
uptake. Aquat. Bot. 12:321-344.

Younc, D.K. 1974-1975. Indian River Coastal Zone Study Annual Report, Harbor Branch Con-
sortium. Compass Publications, Virginia. 1:92-93.

ZIEMAN, J.C., AND R.G. WerzeL. 1980. Productivity in seagrasses: Methods and rates. Pp. 87-
116. In: PuHttups, R.C., anp C.P. McRoy (eds.), Handbook of Seagrass Biology: An Ecosys-
tem Perspective, Garland Press, New York.

ZIMMERMANN, C.F., M. Price, AND J. MontTcoMEry. 1977. Operations, methods and quality
control of Technicon Autoanalyzer II systems for nutrient determinations in sea water.
Harbor Branch Foundation, Techn. Rept. No. 11.

Florida Sci. 49(3): 129-141. 1986.
Accepted: August 9, 1985.

Earth Sciences

A MAGNETIC ANOMALY MAP
OF POLK COUNTY, FLORIDA

Douc.tas L. SMITH AND MICHAEL A. GRAVES

Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611

Apstract: One hundred forty-five measurements of the earth’s magnetic intensity field in
Polk County, Florida, yielded residual anomalies ranging from —300 to +200 nanoTeslas. A
strong, northwest-trending negative anomaly is flanked on both sides by positive anomalies. The
contrast in magnetic patterns is attributed to magnetic effects from the truncated southern
boundary of the granitic Avalon Complex in the Florida basement. This boundary, and the
magnetic lineations associated with it, may be evidence of a major and presently inactive trans-
peninsular fault.

VALUES of the magnetic field in Florida as measured in a series of east-west
traverses across the Florida peninsula were first presented by Lee and co-
workers (1945). King (1959) compiled those and other data in a regional verti-
cal component magnetic map of Florida with a contour interval of 100 nano-
Teslas (1 nT =1 gamma=10° Gauss). The anomalies, based on an arbitrary
datum, ranged from 400 to 1700 nT.

A composite magnetic anomaly map of the United States (Zeitz, 1982)
incorporates newer aeromagnetic data with King’s (1959) data for Florida and
has a 200 nT contour. The two versions of the magnetic anomaly patterns for
Florida are similar and illustrate (Fig. 1) the more prominent regional anoma-
lies which characterize both the magnetic and gravity fields (Oglesby et al.,
1973) of Florida. The northern part of the Florida peninsula is distinguished
by northeasterly trending anomalies, and northwesterly trending patterns are
dominant in southern peninsular Florida. Because the thick sedimentary rock
sequence which forms the Florida peninsula is nonmagnetic and the gravity
and magnetic anomaly patterns are similar, the anomalies are attributed to
sources in the underlying basement.

This report describes a detailed investigation of the magnetic field and
anomalies in Polk County, Florida. Based on existing magnetic anomaly maps
and other evidence, the basement under this region may consist of an abrupt
transition between contrasting structural or rock types. The results of this
investigation thus contribute to the delineation of geologic boundaries within
the Florida basement.

SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY—Applin’s (1951) early description of the basement
rocks in Florida recognized a granitic mass located in the center of the Florida
peninsula and at depths of approximately 2 km. Later accounts of the Florida
basement (e.g., Barnett, 1975; Smith, 1982) included reports of additional
boreholes and proposed a general configuration of a Cambrian granitic batho-
lith (Avalon Complex) underlying the central part of the peninsula (Fig. 1). The
northern boundary of the granitic basement is described by Smith (1982) as an
onlap by Ordovician and Silurian sedimentary rocks of the Suwannee Basin.

No. 3, 1986] SMITH AND GRAVES— MAGNETIC ANOMALY MAP 143

84° Sis 8 0°

== 30"

PES)

26°

miles

Fic. 1. Regional magnetic map of Florida (after King, 1959). Contour interval 200 nT. Polk
County is depicted with heavy lines and the subsurface extent of the Avalon Complex is shown by
heavy dashed lines.

144 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

The southern boundary, however, is portrayed as a truncated margin with
Mesozoic volcanic rocks with both basaltic and rhyolitic compositions.

Barnett (1975) proposed a major right-lateral fault which extended north-
westward to the panhandle for the southern boundary of the batholoid. The
fault was later repositioned and named the Jay Fault by Smith (1983). Klitgord
and co-workers (1984) described the transition as a lithospheric transform
fault during the Jurassic Era.

The proposed boundary, regardless of its origin, marks the general juxtapo-
sition of the northwesterly trending anomalies with those trending northeast-
erly. The location is poorly resolved, although it is usually extended through
Polk County because the magnetic and gravity anomaly patterns appear to be
bounded there. Basement rocks in southern Lake County (north of Polk
County) are granitic (Applin, 1951) and core samples from adjacent (eastward)
Osceola County are also granitic (Barnett, 1975). A single deep well in south-
ern Polk County yielded altered diabase (Barnett, 1975) at a depth of 2.9 km.

MeEtTHOops—Some 145 measurements of the magnetic field in Polk County were made in March
and April, 1981, with a Geomagnetics G-816 portable proton precession magnetometer. Measure-
ment locations were selected to avoid magnetic interference from pipelines, powerlines, fences,
and other metallic structures. A centrally located base station was established and a general pat-
tern of four field stations per township was followed to obtain maximum coverage. The Avon Park
Bombing Range in the extreme southeastern portion of the county and certain swampy or other-
wise restricted areas were inaccessible and, thus, avoided.

Field station measurements taken each day were preceded and followed by base station mea-
surements. Several measurements at each site were taken until five consecutive instrument read-
ings (+1 nT) were obtained. All measurements were corrected for diurnal variations based on a
variation curve constructed with base station measurements. Secular variations were considered
negligible because the duration of the survey was relatively short. Large fluctuations (greater than
100 nT) were evident in measurements for one day and were attributed to a magnetic storm. Those
measurements were repeated.

ResuLts—Corrected values of the total field within the survey area at the
time of the survey ranged from 48,914 nT to 50,165 nT. A computer-derived
isomagnetic map (Fig. 2) was constructed with a SURFACE II graphics pro-
gram (Sampson, 1978). This map illustrates the total intensity of the earth’s
magnetic field within the study area without removal of a regional gradient.

A well-defined southeast-northwest trend is apparent (Fig. 2) with a re-
gional gradient of about 8 nT/mile. This trend is flanked to the north and the
south by relatively higher values. The north-trending positive anomaly in the
extreme northwestern corner of the county (Area A, Fig. 2) exceeds 50,150 nT
and probably extends northward into Sumter and Lake counties. A positive
anomaly in the southern portion of the county extends to the west-central
extremity (Area B). A zone of relatively low magnetic field values in the central
portion of the county is labeled Area C.

A residual anomaly map (Fig. 3) was developed with a SYMAP computer
graphics program (Dougenik and Sheehan, 1975) by identifying and removing
first- and second-order trend surfaces from the isomagnetic intensity map. The
coefficient of correlation exceeded 85%. This map is representative of anoma-
lous magnetic sources from the basement and is only minimally subject to
secular variations. ,

No. 3, 1986] SMITH AND GRAVES— MAGNETIC ANOMALY MAP 145

ISOMAGNETIC INTENSITY MAP
POLK COUNTY, FLORIDA

4 2 °

SCALE IN MILES

| bee
—

\
Pat AVON PARK IN
\ XS SS

SEN
BOMBING RANGE )
WOE RS Neal

Fic. 2. Isomagnetic intensity map of Polk County as derived from computer contouring. Areas
“A? “BY” and “C”’ are discussed in the text. Values are in hundreds of nanoTeslas (contour interval:
50 nT).

Three well-defined positive anomalies are recognized. A positive anomaly
(Area A, Fig. 3) in the northwest portion of the county exceeds + 200 nT and
probably extends northward. A composite feature containing the other two
positive anomalies extends from the east-central portion of the county (Area B)
to the southwest portion (Area C). This feature is divided by the northwest-
trending negative anomaly (-— 300 nT) (Area D) in the central portion of the
county.

The anomaly shapes and trends in Fig. 3 are consistent with those pre-
sented by King (1959) and Zeitz (1982), but provide greater detail and clarity
to the character of the magnetic field. The marked contrast between generally
positive anomalies in the northern and eastern portions (Areas A and B, Fig. 3)
of the county from the lower values in the southern portion is exaggerated by
the negative anomaly (Area D). This zone probably represents the boundary
between the truncated granitic rocks of the Avalon Complex to the north and
the deeper volcanic basement rocks underlying south Florida.

146 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

The most significant magnetic property of rocks is their susceptibility. In
general, the susceptibility of granitic rocks is much less than that of basaltic
rocks. Thus, if the identified linear zone is simply a fault boundary between
granitic and basaltic rocks, one would expect larger positive anomalies to the
south. Other factors, such as depth of the anomaly sources and direction (an-
gle) of magnetic polarization are also pertinent and could contribute to the
observed results. If the boundary was at one time a transform fault (Klitgord et
al., 1984), then different lithospheric blocks with potentially vastly different
magnetic characters would now be adjacent. A corresponding diversity in the
magnetic field would then be observed.

SuMMARY—This investigation of the magnetic field within Polk County,
Florida, has yielded, through individual field measurements of the total field
intensity, an isomagnetic contour map and a residual magnetic anomaly map.
The magnetic anomalies range from + 200 nT to — 300 nT and are dominated
by a northwest-trending linear feature across the central part of the county.

RESIDUAL MAGNETIC ANOMALY MAP
FROM SECOND-ORDER TREND SURFACE

POLK COUNTY, FLORIDA

AVON PARK
\

\
BOMBING RANGE
/ NS N

Fic. 3. Residual magnetic anomaly map of Polk County. Areas ‘‘A”’ to ““D”’ are discussed in the
text. Values are in nanoTeslas (contour interval: 50 nT).

No. 3, 1986] SMITH AND GRAVES— MAGNETIC ANOMALY MAP 147

The prominent contrast in magnetic patterns is attributed to the abrupt
truncated southern boundary of the granitic Avalon Complex within the Flor-
ida basement. The configuration of the major anomaly patterns is considered
to be evidence of a proposed major transpeninsular fault (Barnett, 1975;
Smith, 1982; Klitgord et al., 1984).

LITERATURE CITED

AppLIN, P.L. 1951. Preliminary report on buried pre-Mesozoic rocks in Florida and adjacent
states. U.S. Geol. Surv. Circ. 91, 28 Pp.

BaRNETT, R.S. 1975. Basement structure of Florida and its tectonic implications. Trans. Gulf
Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. 25:122-142.

DouceEnik, J., AND E.E. SHEEHAN. 1975. SYMAP User’s Reference Manual. Harvard College,
Cambridge, MA.

Kinc, E.R. 1959. Regional magnetic map of Florida. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Bull. 43:2844-
2854.

Kuircorp, K.D., P. PoPpENoE, AND H. ScHouTeEN. 1984. Florida: A Jurassic transform plate bound-
ary. J. Geophys. Res. 89:7753-7772.

Lee, F.W., J.H. Schwartz, AND S.J. HEMBERcER. 1945. Magnetic survey of the Florida peninsula.
U.S. Bur. Mines Rpt. 3810.

OctesBy, W.R., M.M. BALL, ANDS. Cuakxt. 1973. Bouguer anomaly map of the Florida peninsula
and adjoining continental shelves. Fla. Bur. Geol. Map Ser. 57.

SAMPSON, R.J. 1978. Surface II reference manual. Kansas Geol. Surv. Lawrence, KS.

SmitH, D.L. 1982. Review of the tectonic history of the Florida basement. Tectonophysics. 88:1-
DD

SmiTH, D.L. 1983. Basement model for the panhandle of Florida. Trans. Gulf. Coast Assoc. Geol.
Soc. 33:203-208.

Zettz, I. 1982. Composite magnetic anomaly map of the United States. U.S. Geol. Surv. Map GP-
954A.

Florida Sci. 49(3): 142-147. 1986.
Accepted: September 16, 1985.

Biological Sciences

BIOGEOGRAPHY OF THE SEASHORE
STAPHYLINIDAE CAFIUS BISTRIATUS AND
C. RUFIFRONS (INSECTA: COLEOPTERA):

J. H. Frank”, T. C. Cartysie” anp J. R. Rey”

“Entomology and Nematology Department, 3103 McCarty Hall, University of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida 32611; Insect Attractants, Behavior & Basic Biology Laboratory,
USDA-ARS, P.O. Box 14565, Gainesville, Florida 32604; ‘Florida Medical
Entomology Laboratory, 200 9th St. SE, Vero Beach, Florida 32962

ABSTRACT: A taxonomic and biogeographic analysis was made of populations of two Cafius
species from the coasts of the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and Atlantic North America. Cafius
bilineatus (Erichson), whose type locality is St. John’s, Antigua, is a synonym of C. bistriatus
(Erichson), whose type locality is Long Island, New York. Two subspecies of C. bistriatus are
recognized: C. b. bistriatus [new status] from the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and Atlantic North
America, and C. b. fulgens Frank [new subspecies] from the coasts of the Gulf of California, Baja
California, and the Salton Sea. The typical subspecies has two disjunct populations: a northern
population from Virginia northwards at least to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and a southern popu-
lation in the Caribbean, the southern part of the Gulf of Mexico, and lower peninsular Florida.
The principal habitat of C. bistriatus is stranded macrophytic algae. Distribution of this species
appears to be determined by the distribution of such algae, for they form the basal material of the
food chain in which Cafius adults and larvae exist as predators. Cafius rufifrons Bierig, whose
type locality is Havana, Cuba, is restricted to part of Cuba and extreme southern Florida; adults
differ in color and structure from those of C. bistriatus and are of smaller average size. Cafius
rufifrons and C. bistriatus occur in the same habitats in extreme southern Florida and the reason
for the very restricted distribution of C. rufifrons is not clear.

Carius is a genus of halophilous beetles found on sea beaches. About 50
species have been described and some of them have been assigned to inade-
quately delimited subgenera. Seven subgeneric names stand in the literature.
One of the subgenera, Remus, has been treated by some authors (e.g., Coiffait,
1974) as a separate genus, but evidence for this separation will not be clear
until a modern revision of all the species is completed.

Koch (1936) published a partial revision of the world’s species. Black-
welder (1943) revised the species of the West Indies, Coiffait (1974) those of
Europe and northern Africa, and Orth and Moore (1980) those of the Pacific
coast of North America. There has been no revision of the Cafius species of the
Atlantic coast of North America, nor has there been any comprehensive con-
sideration of distribution and ecology.

Two closely related species—C. bistriatus (Erichson) and C. rufifrons
Bierig—are sympatric in Cuba and southern Florida. The similar appearance
of the adults has contributed to lack of understanding of their distributions.
This paper presents the taxonomy and biogeography of these two species and

considers the conditions of existence in their habitat.
MATERIALS AND MerHops—A journey was made in August 1981 from northern New Jersey to
Florida, with frequent stops at sea beaches to collect adult Cafius. The beetles were sieved from

] : : 5 Z : Aine r nee nee: 3
University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Journal Series no. 6452.

No. 3, 1986] FRANK ET AL.— BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE 149

organic debris on the beaches and were found in and under such materials only when the materials
contained macrophytic algae.

Type specimens and other Cafius from the West Indies, North and South America, were exam-
ined from the following collections: AMNH (American Museum of Natural History, New York),
CNC (Canadian National Collection, Ottawa), FMNH (Field Museum of Natural History, Chi-
cago), JHFC (J. H. Frank Collection), and ZMHU (Zoologisches Museum der Humboldt Universi-
tat, Berlin).

Sex and size of all specimens were recorded. Two measurements were made in ocular units of a
stereoscopic microscope (where | unit=0.025 mm): maximal! head width and maximal pronotal
length. Multiplied together, these two measurements were used as an indicator of size for each
specimen. Total length of specimens was not measured because of the probability of variable
contraction in length after death. For each locality from which males were available, the aedeagus
was dissected from at least one male. Using a stereoscopic dissecting microscope, the structure of
the median lobe was noted and the distribution of peg setae (Hammond, 1972) on the paramere
was recorded.

Reddish color of the head was used as a diagnostic character of C. rufifrons by Orth and
Moore (1980) and microsculpture of the head and pronotum was used similarly by Bierig (1934)
and Blackwelder (1943), so special note was made of these characters. Specimens from all locali-
ties were compared in an attempt to find discontinuous variation or geographical trends in other
structures such as punctation, setation, and relative lengths of legs, antennae and mouthparts.
Specimens were sputter-coated with gold-palladium and examined at high magnification under a
Cambridge scanning electron microscope for resolution of details of microsculpture of the head
and aedeagal structure.

Key To Cafius or FLoripa, THE CARIBBEAN, AND GuLF oF MExIco—With recognition of the
presence of C. subtilis Cameron and C. caribeanus Bierig in southern Florida (Frank, 1985), the
same four species are known to occur on the coasts of Florida as in the West Indies. Their adults
may be distinguished as follows:

. Head with deeply impressed median line anteriorly....................-. C. caribeanus

(22 stead wathoutumpressed median line anteriorly ..52 ..505... 2025022 ences tote cas 2
2. Pronotum, laterally to impunctate median longitudinal line, covered with + evenly spaced
DUN CLURCS mee ad reset Sete sais s ceuea nae dns o tra ska wei Maeeoe oes C. subtilis

2’. Pronotum with impunctate median longitudinal line bordered on each side with a longitudi-
nal line of punctures separated narrowly from area of lateral punctures ............... 3

3. Aedeagal apex straight in lateral view (Fig. 1d); head not darker than pronotum (but in pale
specimens with dark band); microsculpture of head obsolescent (Fig. 3d)....... C. rufifrons

3’. Aedeagal apex recurved in lateral view (Fig. 1b); head darker than pronotum; microsculpture
olheackevicenty (Hig) ge rel reese.) isco ai cme pe ne eae ates C. bistriatus bistriatus

Another species, C. aguayoi Bierig, was described from Massachusetts (Bierig, 1934) and is re-
corded from Connecticut (Orth and Moore, 1980), but we have not studied it. Orth and Moore
(1980) found specimens of C. subtilis and C. aguayoi very similar, and they are not differentiated
in the key above. In other respects, the key will serve to identify Cafius adults from all parts of the
Atlantic coast of North America. There are no records of Cafius from the Atlantic coast of South
America.

Cafius bistriatus (ERICHSON)—Partial synonymy is as follows: 1. Philonthus bistriatus Erich-
son 1840: 502; Philonthus bistriatus Erichson, Schwarz 1878: 441; Cafius bistriatus (Erichson),
Horn 1884: 237; Wickham 1895: 293; Koch 1936: 187; Blackwelder 1943: 438: Orth and Moore
1980: 195, 199; Frank 1985:61.

2. Philonthus bilineatus Erichson 1840: 503; Cafius bilineatus (Erichson), Koch 1936: 187 [as
synonym of C. bistriatus]; Blackwelder 1943: 438; Orth and Moore 1980: 195, 199.

Type specimens and type locality—The holotype female of C. bistriatus, in ZMHU, is labelled:
/6152/Bistriatus Typus Er. p. 502 [red paper]/Long Isld. Zimmermann l|.g. [green paper]/ = bili-
neatus Er. sec. Fauvel/bistriatus Er. [green paper]/, with type locality Long Is., New York. Holo-
type female of C. bilineatus, in ZMHU, labelled: /6155/bilineatus Typus Er. p. 503 [red paper]/
Antigua Moritz l.g. [green paper]/Philonthus bilineatus Er./ = bistriatus Er./, with type locality St.
John’s, Antigua (not St. John in the U.S. Virgin Islands as supposed by previous authors).

Description of adult—Head black, body rufocastaneous; teneral specimens paler but head in
all specimens examined darker than pronotum. Head quadrate, not enlarged behind eyes; basal
angles moderately rounded; eyes separated from base by 1.3X their length; without median longi-

150 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

tudinal impression; surface covered with moderate umbilicate punctures except for hour-glass-
shaped area formed (anteriorly) by frons and (posteriorly) by vertex; entire surface covered with
granular (pebbled) microsculpture. Pronotum longer than broad, broadest at anterior angles,
slightly sinuate laterally; posterior angles rounded; with impunctate median longitudinal line bor-
dered on each side with a longitudinal row of punctures separated narrowly from area of lateral
punctures; punctures umbilicate; microsculpture as on head but less pronounced. Elytra 0.25-
0.3X longer than broad; densely, finely punctate; punctures with short, outstanding pubescence.
Winged. Abdomen punctate as elytra, but less densely. Tibiae setose and with stout spines; with
ctenidium at interior side of apex; the spines of mesotibiae in distinct double row along external
margin; anterior tarsi with articles I-IV expanded in both sexes. Apex of sternite VIII of male with
rounded emargination wider than deep and bordered with translucent membrane. Length about 5-
7 mm.

Aedeagus with median lobe and paramere broad (Fig. la, b). Distal third of median lobe pitted
with pores and apex recurved. Apex of paramere with spinous setae, and with side appressed
against the median lobe broadly furrowed longitudinally and with two rows of peg setae (Fig. 2).
Most specimens with peg setae totaling 6, 7, or 8, but some with 5. Peg setae arranged in combina-
tions (number in each row) 2-3, 3-3, 3-4, 4-4 (Fig. 2), or 5-3. No evidence of N-S or E-W geographi-
cal variation in number of peg setae. There was some evidence that peg setae varied with size of
individual as suggested in some Neobisnius species (Frank, 1981). But, when size of 10 specimens
with 6 peg setae each was compared with size of 7 others with 8 peg setae each (the 17 specimens
from 14 localities), the difference was not significant (t= 1.62, P >0.05).

la

Fic. 1. Shape of aedeagus: la. C. bistriatus (dorsal view); 1b. C. bistriatus (lateral view,
showing recurved apex); lc. C. rufifrons (dorsal view); 1d. C. rufifrons (lateral view, showing
straight apex). Scale line=0.75 mm. Note: for ontogenetic reasons, the dorsal side is considered to
be that which bears the paramere, though this side is rotated through 90° when at rest in the
abdomen.

No. 3, 1986] FRANK ET AL.— BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE 151

C. bistriatus bistriatus (ERICHSON), NEw Status—Vertex of head dull at low magnification;
microsculpture appearing granular at 70X, polygonal at 1750X (Fig. 3). Female C. b. bistriatus
examined (n=298, mean= 1473 + 189 SD) significantly larger than males (n=281, mean= 1322
+ 179 SD, t=9.88, P < <0.001). No apparent N-S or E-W size trend (Fig. 4). Largest male from
Maine, smallest from Virginia. Largest and smallest females from Florida.

Fic. 2. Apex of aedeagal paramere of C. bistriatus highly magnified, showing peg setae in a
broad longitudinal furrow of the surface facing the median lobe. Four pairs are shown, but the
number shows intraspecific variation. All specimens of C. rufifrons examined had three pairs of
peg setae.

Specimens examined— Atlantic coast localities from Quebec south to Virginia are lettered (a-q)
to identify them in Fig. 4. CANADA, QUEBEC, Gaspe-Ouest Co., 4 mi. S. of Riviere-a-Claude, 18-
VII-1972, J. M. Campbell (3: CNC, a), Gaspe-Est Co., Ste. Adelaide, 0.5 mi. W. of Sandy Beach
Station, 21-VIII-1953, E. L. Bousfield (1: CNC, b); NEW BRUNSWICK, Restigouche Co., River
Charlo, 24-VII-1972, J. M. Campbell (1: CNC, c); NOVA SCOTIA, Cape Breton Co., Big Bras
d’Or, 25-VII-1972, J. M. Campbell (40: CNC, d), Point Anconi, 13-VIII-1972, J. M. and B. A.
Campbell (103: CNC, e); NEW BRUNSWICK, Charlotte Co., Passamaquoddy Bay, Pottery Beach,
29-VII-1976, M. J. Dadswell (2: CNC, f); U.S.A., MAINE, Cumberland Co., Portland, 23-VII-
1966, E. J. Kiteley (1: CNC, g); MASSACHUSETTS, Barnstable Co., Cape Cod, 3-VII-1975, E. J.
Kiteley (2: CNC, h), Plymouth Co., Marion, ? date, F. C. Bowditch (1: ZMHU, i); NEW YORK,
Long Is., ? date, C. C. A. Zimmermann (1: ZMHU, j), Staten Is., 11-[V-1911, C. L. Pollard (1:
CNC, k); NEW JERSEY, Monmouth Co., Sandy Hook, 11-VIII-1981, J. H. Frank (27: JHFC, 1),
Ocean Co., Surf City, 11-VIII-1981, J. H. Frank (8: JHFC, m), Cape May Co., Cape May, 12-VIII-
1981, J. H. Frank (29: JHFC, n); MARYLAND, Worcester Co., Ocean City, 12-VIII-1981, J. H.
Frank (3: JHFC, o); VIRGINIA, ? loc. date and collector (1: FMNH, p), Northampton Co., Smith
Beach nr. Eastville, 13-VIII-1981, J. H. Frank (22: JHFC, q).

Localities in the Caribbean, Florida and Gulf of Mexico follow east-west and are lettered (a-s)
to identify them in Fig. 4. ANTIGUA, St. John’s, ? date, J. W. K. Moritz (1: ZMHU, a); U.S.
VIRGIN ISLANDS, ST. THOMAS, ? date, L. W. Schaufuss (1: ZMHU, b), O. Staudinger (1:
FMNH, b); VENEZUELA, FALCON, Chichiriviche, 15-VIII-1983, J. H. Frank (3: JHFC, c);
JAMAICA, ST. THOMAS PARISH, Prospect, 19-V-1971 and 16-XII-1971 (3: JHFC, d); CLAREN-
DON PARISH, Jackson’s Bay, 29-IX-1969 and 12-XII-1971, J. H. Frank (2: JHFC, e); U.S.A.,

152 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Fic. 3. Scanning electron micrographs of microsculpture of the vertex of the head: 3a. C. b.
bistriatus X 70 (vertex of head appears granular), 3b. C. b. bistriatus X 1750 (vertex of head with
polygonal microsculpture), 3c. C. rufifrons X 80 (vertex of head appears smooth), 3d. C. rufifrons
X 1750 (microsculpture of vertex is obsolescent). Scale line: 3a, 3c = 0.5 mm; 3b, 3d=0.01 mm.

No. 3, 1986] FRANK ET AL.— BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE 153

FLORIDA, Indian River Co., Vero Beach, 19-VIII-1978, J. H. Frank (8: JHFC, f), St. Lucie Co., 4
mi. N. of Fort Pierce, 8-I-1973, J. H. Frank (33: JHFC, g), Martin Co., E. shore of Indian River nr.
House of Refuge, 30-III-1975, J. H. Frank (12: JHFC, h), Dade Co., Cape Florida, 18-IV-1983, J.
H. Frank (33: JHFC, i), Monroe Co., Matecumbe Key, Caloosa Bay, 7-1-1973, J. H. Frank (5:
JHFC, j), Little Duck Key, 1-V-1974, J. H. Frank (108: JHFC, k), Summerland Key, 1-V-1974, J. H.
Frank (1: JHFC, 1), Dry Tortugas, Garden Key, 7-13-VI-1895, H. F. Wickham (1: AMNH, m), Dry
Tortugas, Loggerhead Key, 30-VI-1983, S. R. Sims (49: JHFC, m), Lee Co., S. end of Cape Coral
Bridge, 14-IV-1975, J. H. Frank (24: JHFC, n), Manatee Co., Palmetto, 19-II-1975, J. H. Frank (2:
JHFC, o), Taylor Co., Keaton Beach, 20-I-1980, M. C. Thomas (1: JHFC, p); MEXICO, QUIN-
TANA ROO, 70 km N. of Tulum, Punta Bete, 28-VII-1982, J. H. Frank (18: JHFC, q); CAM-
PECHE, near Sebaplaya, 23-IV-1966, G. E. Ball and D. R. Whitehead (17: JHFC, r); U.S.A.,
TEXAS, Kleberg Co., Padre Island National Seashore, 19-VII-1966, J. and W. Ivie, and 20-VI-
1975, R. Ortiz (8: AMNH, s).

Specimens reported by Blackwelder (1943) from the Bahamas and most of the larger West
Indian islands from Cuba to Trinidad were not re-examined. They are housed in the collections of
the U.S. National Museum of Natural History. Additional records from Florida are: Volusia and
St. Lucie Cos. (Schwarz, 1878), Palm Beach Co. (Hamilton, 1894), Dry Tortugas (Wickham,
1895a), and Key West (Frank, 1985). Records from the Bahamas and Newfoundland were given
by Wickham (1895b) and Smetana (1965) respectively.

Comments— Although the distribution of C. b. bistriatus appears to be disjunct (Fig. 5), no
consistent morphological differences were found between northern and southern examples.

C. bistriatus fulgens FRANK, NEw SuBspEciEs—Vertex of head glossy at low magnification;
microsculpture obsolescently granular at magnification of 70X. The epithet fulgens was selected
because of the glossy vertex of the head. Female C. b. fulgens (n=7) examined were slightly but
not significantly (t=2.32, P=0.06) smaller than females of C. b. bistriatus (n= 298). Male C. b.
fulgens (n=7) were very similar (t= 0.33, P=0.76) in size to male C. b. bistriatus (n= 281).

Specimens examined—Collection localities are lettered (a-b) to identify them in Fig. 4. U.S.A.,
CALIFORNIA, Imperial Co., Red Hill Marina, 28/29-VI-1978, C. v. Nidek (4: CNC, a); MEXICO,
BAJA CALIFORNIA SUR, Mulege, 3-X-1966, J. Klink (10: CNC, b).

Specimens reported from U.S.A. (California) and Mexico (Baja California Norte, Baja Califor-
nia Sur, and Sonora) by Orth and Moore (1980) were not re-examined. They are housed in the
collections of the University of California at Riverside.

Comments—The specimens from Mulege, Baja California Sur (7 females, 7 males) are desig-
nated the type series, and the largest male is designated holotype. The known distribution is shown
in Fig. 5 and includes an inland saline lake (the Salton Sea).

Cafius rufifrons Breric—The synonymy 1s as follows: Cafius rufifrons Bierig 1934: 68; Cafius
rufifrons Bierig, Koch 1936: 187; Blackwelder 1943: 438 [as synonym of Cafius bistriatus (Erich-
son)]; Orth and Moore 1980: 198 [removed from synonymy].

Type specimens and type locality—The type series of C. rufifrons, in FMNH, consists of one
specimen labelled: /Playa Marianao 8.IX.1929 Cuba/Taster dunkel/Field Mus. Nat. Hist. 1966. A.
Bierig Colln. Acc. Z-13812/ (male, dissected by a previous investigator, and the aedeagus in a
genitalia vial); one specimen with two labels as above (male, lacking the label “Taster dunkel’); and
three specimens labelled: /Playa Marianao 2.X1I.29 Habana Cuba/Field Mus. Nat. Hist. 1966. A.
Bierig Colln. Acc. Z-13812/ (two males and one female, the larger of the two males dissected, and
aedeagus mounted on the specimen card). It is not clear whether other specimens exist and
whether one of them may have been designated holotype. The type locality is Playa Marianao,

Havana Province, Cuba.
Description—Very similar to C. bistriatus except in the following respects. Head not darker

than pronotum: in most specimens head, thorax and abdomen rufous; in one specimen head,
thorax and abdomen unicolorously piceous. Rufous specimens have a more or less obvious infus-
cate transverse band across the vertex, producing a color pattern similar to that of Neobisnius
parcepunctatus Bernhauer (see Frank, 1981). Vertex of head glossy at low magnification, with
microsculpture appearing obsolescently granular at magnification of 80X, obsolescently polygo-
nal at magnification of 1750X (Fig. 3). Microsculpture of pronotum more strigulose and less
granular than in C. bistriatus.

Aedeagus with median lobe and paramere relatively narrow (Fig. lc, d). Distal third of median
lobe pitted with pores, and apex straight. Apex of paramere with spinous setae, and with side
appressed against median lobe broadly furrowed longitudinally and with two parallel rows of peg
setae as in C. bistriatus (Fig. 2), but with 6 peg setae in all specimens examined (3 in each row).

Female C. rufifrons examined (n=5, mean=1278+117 SD) were significantly larger than
males (n= 16, mean=1054+90 SD, t=3.92, P=0.011), and significantly smaller than female C.

FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

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No. 3, 1986] FRANK ET AL.—BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE LS)S)

b. bistriatus females (n= 298, t=3.63, P=0.022). Male C. rufifrons (n= 16) were significantly
smaller than male C. b. bistriatus (n=281, t= 10.72, P < <0.001). On average and when individ-
uals of the same sex were compared, adult C. rufifrons were smaller than adult C. b. bistriatus
Fig. 4), even when only sympatric C. b. bistriatus were used in comparison.

Specimens examined—cCollection localities are lettered (a-f) to identify them in Fig. 4. U.S.A.,
FLORIDA, Dade Co., Miami, VI/VIII-1936, A. Bierig (5: FMNH, a), Monroe Co., Key Largo, 14-
V-1977, J. H. Frank (2: JHFC, b), Matecumbe Key, Caloosa Bay, 7-I-1973, J. H. Frank (3: JHFC,
c), Little Duck Key, 1-V-1974, J. H. Frank (4: JHFC, d), Summerland Key, 1-V-1974, J. H. Frank
(2: JHFC, e); CUBA, HAVANA PROVINCE, Havana, Playa Marianao, IX/XI-1929, A. Bierig (5:
FMNH, f).

Comments— Apparently restricted to NW Cuba and extreme SE Florida (Fig. 5), and there
sympatric with C. b. bistriatus. Adults share with those of C. b. fulgens the distinctively glossy
vertex of the head.

HaBITAT AND CoMMuNITYy—The sorts of plant litter found stranded on
ocean shores are discussed by Perkins (1974). Among the litter of marine and
estuarine origin are seaweeds (wrack, kelp, and other macrophytic algae), sea-
grasses (Zostera and other genera, Zosteraceae), and cord-grasses or marsh-
grasses (Spartina, Gramineae). Such materials are absent, or occur sparsely or
in drifted piles with seasonal, local, regional, and latitudinal variation. They
are less frequent on tropical than on temperate shores (Perkins, 1974). They
may be found dry and above the high tide mark, in deep and wetly decompos-
ing piles at or above the high tide mark, at or close to the high tide mark and
kept moist by tides and sea spray, or in the intertidal zone where they are

@ Salton Sea

Fic. 5. Map showing known distribution of C. bistriatus bistriatus (areas with oblique shad-
ing), C. bistriatus fulgens (areas with coarse stippling) and C. rufifrons (area with fine stippling).

156 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

subject to movement by each tide. Rates of decomposition vary: algae break
down rapidly, Spartina slowly, and Zosteraceae very slowly (Perkins, 1974;
Josselyn and Mathieson, 1980).

Associated with wet, decomposing algae are bacteria and Actinomycetes
(Frankland, 1974), annelids, amphipods, mites and Collembola (Backlund,
1945), Diptera of several families but especially Anthomyiidae and Coelopidae
whose numbers sometimes reach epidemic proportions (Backlund, 1945;
Oldroyd, 1964; Dobson, 1976), and Coleoptera of several families but espe-
cially Hydrophilidae and Staphylinidae (Backlund, 1945; Doyen, 1976; Moore
and Legner, 1976). Predominant among the Staphylinidae are members of the
genus Cafius, whose adults and larvae are predatory upon dipterous maggots,
amphipods, and other members of the seaweed community (Egglishaw, 1965;
Evans, 1980). It has been conjectured that their feeding limits populations of
seaweed flies so that Cafius might conceivably be employed as biological con-
trol agents to prevent fly epidemics (Orth et al., 1978). Evans (1980) reported
that Pacific coast C. seminitens Horn scavenges occasionally on dead fish, and
C. bistriatus has also been found in fish carrion (Orth and Moore, 1980) and in
gull carrion (the specimen from Portland, Maine, examined); it may have been
dipterous larvae in the carrion which provided food.

Drifts of the brown algae Fucus and Laminaria have a rich and varied
fauna, but red algae are poisonous to most wrack animals, green algae form
only small and unimportant drifts, and the fauna of drifted Zosteraceae is
sparse (Remmert, 1965). Spartina, like Zosteraceae, has a sparse fauna (J. H.
Frank observations), and this may be a consequence of resistance of these
grasses to decomposition (Perkins, 1974). In 1981, Cafius was not found in
drifted Spartina and was found only on one occasion in drifted Zosteraceae,
when the Zosteraceae piles contained a scanty admixture of green algae. In
contrast, drifted piles of decaying brown algae seldom lacked Cafius adults
and larvae. Even thinly scattered, recently deposited strands of algae partially
buried in sand by wave action were found on occasion to harbor Cafius adults.
As a consequence of this association with algae, the apparent distribution and
abundance of the Atlantic, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico Cafius are closely
linked to the occurrence of drifted seaweed.

The Cafius/seaweed habitat association appears analogous to that between
predatory staphylinids normally inhabiting dung or bark and their respective
habitats (e.g., Valiela, 1974), and suggests the possibility of chemical attrac-
tion to the insects to the habitat. Populations of seaweed flies and Cafius are
harbored by drifted piles of Fucus and Laminaria which have a pungent and
distinctive seaweed odor. Piles of the alga Sargassum fluitans Borgessen found
abundantly in Gulf, Bay, and Walton Cos. of western Florida in September
1983 lacked a seaweed odor and lacked seaweed flies and Cafius (J. H. Frank
observations). However, it may be that Cafius adults occasionally take refuge
in other materials when suitable algae are not available. In this context, Evans
(1980) recorded the Pacific coast C. seminitens and C. luteipennis Horn as
inhabitants of drifted seaweed, yet the latter was on one occasion found nu-

No. 3, 1986] FRANK ET AL.—BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE LSS

merously under lumber stranded on a British Columbia beach (J. H. Frank
observation). Finally, the habitat of most Cafius species is inadequately re-
ported, so it may not yet be inferred that algae provide the principal habitat
for all of them.

ADAPTATIONS TO ENVIRONMENT—An important attribute for seashore in-
sects is the ability to avoid drowning. It was shown by Backlund (1944) that
adults of the European C. xantholoma (Gravenhorst) are extraordinarily resis-
tant to wetting. Adults shaken during 58 seconds each minute for an hour in a
bottle partially filled with water were able to surface whenever shaking
stopped. While shaking continued, the body was curved into an S-shape, trap-
ping two bubbles of air providing buoyancy and probably oxygen. Adults of
C. bistriatus behave similarly (J. R. Rey observation). Backlund (1944) also
recorded the ability of C. xantholoma adults take to flight from the water
surface.

Detection and colonization of piles of seaweed requires special abilities and
poses risks. The ability to fly permits encounter with seaweed piles. Adults of
both C. bistriatus and C. rufifrons are winged. On the Pacific seashore, mass
flights of beetles including C. luteipennis have been observed and generally
are in a direction parallel to the shore (Leech and Moore, 1971; Evans, 1980).
Such flights presumably allow dispersal but pose risks, analogous to those
facing insular insects, in that the insects may be blown off course by wind, to
areas where seaweed is not present, or to sparse accumulations of seaweed
high on the beach and liable to desiccation.

Is the risk of leaving a deep pile of decomposing seaweed worthwhile, as-
suming that such a pile is the site in which the insects developed and in which
more individuals could develop? In other insects, brachyptery is believed to
have arisen as a response to lack of advantage in leaving a favorable habitat
(McCoy and Rey, 1981). Visible flights surely are evidence that populations
have increased to high levels in favorable habitats, so that the individuals
dispersing may be expended against the possibility of discovery of unoccupied
habitat. Dispersal may relieve population pressure, if such occurs, in densely
occupied piles of seaweed as well as spread the risk of calamitous events.
Further, it may be that piles of seaweed which have been occupied for consid-
erable time are loaded with spores of Laboulbenia cafii Thaxter (Fungi, Asco-
mycetes), the only parasite recorded for Cafius (Frank, 1982), so that dispersal
reduces the risk of parasitism. In those areas where seaweed piles are of tempo-
rary occurrence, migration is necessary as it is for occupants of other tempo-
rary habitats (Southwood, 1962).

The habitat of Cafius may be considered as a mosaic of piles of stranded
seaweed, some existing almost permanently due to continued strandings at a
single locality, and others transient. To take maximal advantage of transient
piles, the ability of immature stages to develop rapidly would be advanta-
geous, as would multivoltinism. If larvae develop rapidly as in almost all other
Staphylinidae, observations of occurrence of C. xantholoma larvae through-
out the year by Backlund (1945) and Egglishaw (1965) suggest that
multivoltinism does occur.

158 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

The larva described by Moore (1975) as that of C. sulcicollis, but which
was stated by Orth and Moore (1980) to belong to C. bistriatus, probably is of
C. b. fulgens.

BIOGEOGRAPHIC CONCLUSIONS— Three capes (Fig. 5) on the Atlantic coast of
North America mark boundaries of biotic provinces (Stephenson and Stephen-
son, 1954). A warm-temperate (Carolinian) province extends from Cape
Canaveral (Florida) to Cape Hatteras (North Carolina). North of Cape Cod
(Massachusetts) is a cold water (Acadian) province, whereas the area between
Cape Cod and Cape Hatteras is a zone of overlap between the Acadian and
Carolinian provinces. The capes mark boundaries of distributions of algae,
molluscs, and other invertebrates (Pielou, 1979). A result of latitudinal shifts in
boundaries during geological time is that the littoral biota of the northern
shores of the Gulf of Mexico closely resembles that in the same latitude in the
Atlantic, though separated by the tip of peninsular Florida which now has a
tropical biota (Stephenson and Stephenson, 1950; Pielou, 1979).

Strandings of plant litter on shores depend in part upon the supply and in
part upon ocean currents, with litter accumulating on shores where tidal tur-
bulence is reduced (Perkins, 1974). In the Great Bay estuary of New Hamp-
shire and Maine, stranded seaweed occurs throughout the year (Josselyn and
Mathieson, 1980). In the Florida Keys, stranded seaweed has been encoun-
tered at each of four visits January 1973, May 1974, May 1977, May 1984)
whereas northward to Cape Canaveral seaweed has been found after storms
but is often absent from long stretches of beach (J. H. Frank observation). In
August 1981, stranded seaweed was found quite abundantly on New Jersey
shores, but was progressively sparser through Maryland and Virginia with
increasing admixture of sea-grasses, and the sea-grasses in turn became re-
placed on the coasts of North and South Carolina and Georgia by cordgrass
without any seaweed (J. H. Frank observation). The presence of Cafius on the
coast from New Jersey to Florida was found to match the distribution of
drifted seaweed.

Published information on the occurrence of drifted seaweed in the Carolin-
ian province seems to be lacking except for a short paper by Blomquist and
Pyron (1943) who recorded the sudden appearance of seaweed on beaches in
the vicinity of Beaufort, South Carolina, after a hurricane in August 1943.
Published information on drifted seaweed on the northern shores of the Gulf of
Mexico seems lacking, and no C. bistriatus specimens have been available
from that area: the closest collections were from the eastern (Taylor Co., Flor-
ida) and western (Padre Island, Texas) shores. Of the 17 collections of C.
bistriatus made in the West Indies by Blackwelder (1943) 16 were reported as
“under seaweed” and one as “under rubbish.”

Present evidence suggests that a barrier to the northward dispersal of C.
bistriatus may begin approximately in the vicinity of Cape Canaveral as a
consequence of the apparent rarity of drifted seaweed in the Carolinian prov-
ince. Ocean currents off Cape Canaveral (Pielou, 1979) would tend to carry
seaweed which had drifted up from the south out to sea. Likewise, ocean cur-
rents off Cape Hatteras (Pielou, 1979) would tend to carry seaweed which had

No. 3, 1986] FRANK ET AL.— BIOGEOGRAPHY OF SEASHORE STAPHYLINIDAE 159

drifted down from the north out to sea. If these two capes are barriers to the
stranding of seaweed and to the dispersal of C. bistriatus, then opportunities
for gene flow between northern populations (Virginia and northward) and
southern populations (southern Florida, Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico) must
be limited. Yet, there is no evidence of morphological differentiation between
these populations.

In contrast, specimens of C. b. fulgens from the Pacific coast are differenti-
ated in structure from C. b. bistriatus. Here, barriers to gene flow must be
even greater. The Atlantic marine fauna is younger than that of the Pacific
(Pielou, 1979), and more Cafius species are known from the Pacific than At-
lantic coasts of the Americas. It may be that populations ancestral to C. b.
bistriatus and C. b. fulgens inhabited the Pacific coast, that some individual(s)
migrated to the Gulf of Mexico or Caribbean giving rise to C. b. bistriatus,
while nonmigrating individuals gave rise to C. b. fulgens (Fig. 6). A vicariance
hypothesis also is plausible.

C. rufifrons is known only from Cuba and extreme southern Florida. Its
populations are small and do not extend northward to Cape Canaveral, so it
evidently is more restricted in habitat than is C. b. bistriatus. Its range, at
least in Florida, is likely to be restricted further with growth of the human
population accompanied by physical alteration of the coastline and use of
beach-sweeping machines to provide sand of pristine appearance. Beach-

Fic. 6. Suggested evolutionary pathway of C. rufifrons (R), C. bistriatus fulgens (BF), and C.
bistriatus bistriatus (BB1—north Atlantic populations, BB2—Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and Flor-
ida populations): 1. The common ancestor of C. rufifrons and C. bistriatus existed on the Pacific
coast; 2. Individual(s) migrated to the Caribbean, and differentiated in isolation, giving rise to C.
rufifrons, 3. The common ancestor of the two subspecies of C. bistriatus existed on the Pacific
coast; 4. Individual(s) migrated to the Caribbean and differentiated in isolation, giving rise to C. b.
bistriatus; 5. Populations remaining on the Pacific coast gave rise to C. b. fulgens; 6. Individual(s)
of C. b. bistriatus migrated to the north Atlantic but have not yet differentiated in structure; 7.
Populations remaining in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, and Florida have not yet differentiated
in structure.

160 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

sweeping machines are recognized to threaten eggs of marine turtles (Bloch,
1983) but effects on invertebrates have been ignored. Populations of C. rufi-
frons may represent descendants of an immigrant from the Pacific yet older
than the ancestor of C. b. bistriatus, having evolved in longer isolation in the
Caribbean.

Occurrence of C. rufifrons together with C. b. bistriatus in southern Flor-
ida and Cuba provides an opportunity for comparisons of phenology and be-
havior in a single locality. Such studies would be even more worthwhile if they

can elucidate the reason for the very limited distribution of C. rufifrons.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We are indebted to Manfred Uhlig (ZMHU, Berlin) for lending type spec-
imens of C. bistriatus and C. bilineatus, to Larry Watrous (FMNH, Chicago) for lending type
specimens of C. rufifrons, and to Milton Campbell (CNC, Ottawa) and Lee Herman (AMNH, New
York) for lending series of specimens of C. bistriatus. Dennis Hanisak (Fort Pierce) identified
samples of Sargassum fluitans, and S. R. Sims (Homestead) and M. C. Thomas (Gainesville) gave
specimens of C. bistriatus. Manuscript reviews were kindly made by Alés Smetana (Ottawa),
Milton Campbell, and Lee Herman. National Science Foundation grant NSF-INT-8212581 to J. H.
Frank for an unrelated project made possible the collection of C. b. bistriatus specimens in Vene-
zuela.

REFERENCES CITED

BackLunp, H. O. 1944. The ability of the shore beetle Cafius xantholoma Grav. to evade sea drift.
Kungl. Fysiograf. Sallskapets Lund Forhandl. 14:179-185.

. 1945. Wrack fauna of Sweden and Finland; ecology and chorology. Opusc. Ent.
Suppl. 5:1-237, pl. 1-6.

Breric, A. 1934. Neues aus der Staphyliniden-Gattung Cafius (Col.) nebst Beschreibung neuer
Arten aus Kuba und Nordamerika. Revta Ent., Rio de J. 4:65-70.

BLACKWELDER, R. E. 1943. Monograph of the West Indian beetles of the family Staphylinidae.
U.S. Natn. Mus. Bull. 182:i-vii, 1-658.

Biocu, J. 1983. Alliance hopes best-laid plans will save turtle eggs. Miami Herald, 7 January
1983, p. lb.

Biomeuist, H. L., AND J. H. Prron. 1943. Drifting ‘seaweed’ at Beaufort, North Carolina. Amer.
J. Bot. 30:28-32.

CorrraiT, H. 1974. Coléoptéres Staphylinidae de la région paléarctique occidentale. IH. Sous
famille Staphylininae, tribus Philonthini et Staphylinini. Nouv. Rev. Ent. 4 (suppl.): 1-593.

Dosson, T. 1976. Seaweed flies (Diptera: Coelopidae, etc.). Pp. 447-463. In: Cuene, L. (ed.),
Marine Insects. American Elsevier, New York.

Doyen, J. T. 1976. Marine beetles (Coleoptera, excluding Staphylinidae). Pp. 497-519. In:
CHENG, L. (ed.), Marine Insects. American Elsevier, New York.

EccuisHaw, H. J. 1965. Observations on the fauna of wrack beds. Trans. Soc. Brit. Ent. 16:189-
216.

Evans, W. G. 1980. Insecta, Chilopoda, and Arachnida: insects and allies. Pp. 641-658. In:
Morris, R. H., D. P. ABBott, AND E. C. HapDERLIE (eds.), Intertidal Invertebrates of Cali-
fornia. Stanford Univ. Press, Palo Alto, Calif.

Frank, J. H. 1981. A revision of the New World species of the genus Neobisnius (Coleoptera:
Staphylinidae: Staphylininae). Occas. Papers Florida State Colln. Arthropods 1:i-vii, 1-60.

. 1982. The parasites of the Staphylinidae (Coleoptera). A contribution towards an
encyclopedia of the Staphylinidae. Univ. Florida, Agr. Exp. Stn. Tech. Bull. 824:1-vii, 1-
118.

. 1985. Cafius caribeanus and C. subtilis in Florida and Venezuela (Coleoptera: Staphy-
linidae). Ent. News 96:61-62.

FRANKLAND, J. C. 1974. Decomposition of lower plants. Pp. 3-36. In: Dickinson, C. H., anpD G.
J. F. Pucu (eds.), Biology of Plant Litter Decomposition. Academic Press, London, vol. 1.

Hamixton, J. 1894. Coleoptera taken at Lake Worth, Florida. Can. Ent. 26:250-256.

Hammonp, P. M. 1972. The micro-structure, distribution and possible function of peg-like setae
in male Coleoptera. Ent. Scand. 3:40-54.

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Horn, G. H. 1884. Synopsis of the Philonthi of boreal America. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 11:177-
244.

JossELyN, M. N., AND A. C. Maruieson. 1980. Seasonal influx and decomposition of autochtho-
nous macrophyte litter in a north temperate estuary. Hydrobiologia 71:197-208.

Kocn, C. 1936. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der entomologischen Expeditionen Seiner Durch-
laucht des Fiirsten Alessandro C. della Torre e Tasso nach Aegypten und auf die Halbinsel
Sinai. XIII. Staphylinidae. Pubbl. Mus. Ent. Pietro Rossi, Duino 1:115-232.

Leecu, H. B., AnD I. Moore. 1971. Nearctic records of flights of Cafius and some related beetles
at the seashore (Col., Staphylinidae and Hydrophilidae). Wasmann J. Biol. 29:65-70.
McCoy, E. D., anp J. R. Rey. 1981. Patterns of abundance, distribution, and alary polymor-

phism among the salt marsh Delphacidae (Homoptera: Fulgoroidea) of northwest Florida.
Ecol. Ent. 6:285-291.
Moore, I. 1975. The larva of Cafius sulcicollis LeConte (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae). Pan-Pacific
Ent. 51:140-142.
, AND E. F. Lecner. 1976. Intertidal rove beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae). Pp. 521-
552. In: Cuenc, L. (ed.), Marine Insects. American Elsevier, New York.
Oxproyp, H. 1964. The Natural History of Flies. Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London.
OrtH, R. E., ANDI. Moore. 1980. A revision of the species of Cafius Curtis from the west coast of
North America with notes of the east coast species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae). Trans. San
Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. 19:181-211.
, AND T. W. FisHer. 1978. Year-round survey of Staphylinidae of a sandy beach in
southern California (Coleoptera). Wasmann J. Biol. 35:169-195.
Perkins, E. J. 1974. The marine environment. Pp. 683-721. In: Dickinson, C. H., anp G. J. F.
Puc (eds.), Biology of Plant Litter Decomposition. Academic Press, London, vol. 2.
Pretou, E. C. 1979. Biogeography. Wiley-Interscience, New York.
RemMest, H. 1965. Distribution and the ecological factors controlling distribution of the Euro-
pean wrack fauna. Acta Bot. Gothoburgensia 3:179-184.
Scuwarz, E. A. 1878. The Coleoptera of Florida. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 17:353-472.
Smetana, A. 1965. Staphylinini und Quediini (Col., Staphylinidae) von Newfoundland, Siidost-
Labrador und Nova Scotia. Acta Ent. Fennica 20:1-60.
SoutHwoop, T. R. E. 1962. Migration—an evolutionary necessity for denizens of temporary
habitats. Proc. 11th Int. Congr. Ent. (Vienna, 1960) 3:54-57.
STEPHENSON, T. A., AND A. STEPHENSON. 1950. Life between tide marks in North America. I. The
Florida Keys. J. Ecol. 38:354-402.
. 1954. Life between tide marks in North America. HIB. Nova Scotia and Prince
Edward Island: the geographical features of the region. J. Ecol. 42:46-70.
VauiELa, I. 1974. Composition, food webs and population limitation in dung arthropod com-
munities during invasion and succession. Amer. Midland Nat. 92:370-385.
WickuaM, H. F. 1895a. A note on the insects of the Tortugas. Ent. News 6:210-212.
. 1895b. Notes on a trip to the Bahama Islands. Can. Ent. 291-296.

Florida Sci. 49(3):148-161. 1986.
Accepted: August 28, 1985.

Medical Sciences

FLORIDA’S RIGHT-TO-KNOW LAW
NICHOLAS G. ALEXIOU

Department of Comprehensive Medicine, College of Medicine,
University of South Florida, Box 41, 12901 North 30th Street,
Tampa, Florida 33612

Asstract: Florida’s Right To Know Law is a landmark piece of 1985 legislation for its poten-
tial for prevention of accidents and illness that may be work related. For some scientists the law
will be an imposition on a free investigative spirit. For others, the law will merely reassure the
worker that he/she is practicing good health and laboratory safety for himself and those for whom
he/she is responsible. The best way to determine the steps needed to be compliant, is to review the
law itself at least once and then have a copy available for periodic referral purposes. The law
intent is to protect the health and safety of the worker through informed consent. Workplace
exposures to toxic and hazardous substance may cause disease or aggravate existing disease, and
should be taken seriously.

THE FLoripa Legislature recognized (Florida Statutes, 1985) that the work
environment is potentially hazardous to a wide variety of occupations and
professions by reason of exposure to hundreds of toxic and hazardous sub-
stances. The enactment of the law and the publication of the toxic substances
list assures the worker and the employer that the likelihood of acute or chronic
exposure will be minimized and the risk to workers from inhalation, absorp-
tion, ingestion, or from explosions, dangerous interactions of chemicals, fire,
and combustion, will be reduced. The law gives greater specificity to the gen-
eral mandate found in the Federal Occupational Safety and Health Act of
1970 (Federal Statutes, 1970), which required that employers provide a safe
and healthy workplace environment.

The law intended that each exposed worker be given sufficient information
about his or her exposure to enable them to decide on the advisability of ac-
cepting employment and continuation of employment and its inherent risks.
Workers, the law stated, had a “‘Right to Know” and to decide on the personal
costs involved in a particular workplace. Further, the law stated the workplace
could serve as an early warning function for the effects of release of the toxic
substances in the environment.

THE LAW AND THE FLoripA SCIENTIST—Science and scientists explore the
unknown and as such, scientists are particularly exposed to potential risks. The
best protection against accidents and toxic substance absorption is knowledge,
as imprecise as it may be. It is true that a particular scientist may be knowl-
edgeable in one area and layman in another. All scientists however, assume the
risks of their workplace substances and toxic chemicals, whether bottled on the
workbench shelf, arising from their procedures, stored in the supply cabinet in
bulk quantity for later use, and even in the methods of disposal. According to
the law, the employer has the responsibility to notify all workers. If the scien-
tist is an employee, his employer and/or supervisor is responsible for seeing to

No. 3, 1986] ALEXIOU—FLORIDA’S RIGHT-TO-KNOW LAW 163

it that the scientist is provided the pertinent information needed to insure
respect for the toxicity or hazardous nature of the materials that are found in
the work environment.

The scientist may be the employer or supervisor, in which case, that respon-
sibility becomes his/hers, for those workers, collaborators, or assistants in the
laboratories as well as those individuals, usually unseen, who clean and pre-
pare the laboratories for the next days work. The person who collects and
disposes the waste of the day must also be informed and protected. The person
who receives the waste is not usually thought of as falling under the responsi-
bility of the laboratory scientists, but even that person needs to be informed by
someone.

STEPS TO COMPLIANCE— The first mandate of the law, now in effect, is for
the employer to post a notice in a conspicuous place where notices are usually
placed, notifying the employers of their right to know. Posters are available for
each workplace from the Department of Labor and Employment Security, the
agency charged with the protection of workers in Florida.

The second step is to develop an inventory of toxic chemicals and sub-
stances purchased, used, and/or stored in the workplace. A quick check of the
list derived can identify which of the substances is included in the Florida
Toxic Substances List—also available from the Department of Labor and Em-
ployment Security. An important detail here is the definition of mixture. If the
concentration of the substance meets the law requirement in a 1% or greater
concentration, the law applies as to the duty of the employer.

Having identified the existence of the substance in the workplace, those
workers most likely to encounter the substance must be informed of their possi-
ble exposure. The recommended method of notification is to draw on the infor-
mation contained on the Material Safety Data Sheets that have been developed
and must be supplied by the producer or distributor of the substance. The
accuracy, content, and completeness of the information on those Material
Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) varies and may have no meaning to those with no
background or poor education. Here the law is specific. The necessary infor-
mation must be given, in terms the employee can understand. It does not
suffice to wave an MSDS sheet in front of the employee saying, “if you want to
know, here it is’. Indeed, a review of the law readily shows that the employer
is supposed to satisfy himself that the worker does know and signs that he has
been informed. To believe otherwise is to work with a false security that an
injured employee will not accuse the employer at some later date that he was
uninformed. Better to be safe and do what is necessary in education and rec-
ords maintenance to insure ones ability to dispose of false claims of neglect as
an employer.

Finally, the employer must inform the Community Emergency Services
personnel of the type, amount, and location of toxic substances in case of
emergency so that if needed, those responding will be prepared for an appro-
priate response in the correct location with the protective clothing, air supply,
and neutralizing chemicals needed to detoxify in case of spills or for fire con-
trol.

164 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

After that, there is the responsibility for continuing education, proper su-
pervisory vigilance, and periodic review of new substances coming into use,
training in safety procedures, in response to emergencies and spills, and in
maintenance of records. The usual cautions against smoking and eating in the
laboratories needs periodic reminding. Hoods, face masks, ventilation systems,
and laundry are part of any laboratory environmental maintenance program,
and should be properly managed. It makes good sense to designate a coordina-
tor of the entire health and safety program for a laboratory if possible, so that
one person can be expected to supervise the entire operation and ensure com-
pliance with this and other laws affecting the scientist in his workplace.

“Obtain a copy of the original paper” that is, the law, known as Florida
Right-To-Know Law, Chapter 442 Florida Statutes, January 1985. Personal
familiarity with the law or availability for reference purposes will save time
and help settle disputes.

Other important implications of the law include the following:

(a) The possibility that the Florida Law might be superseded by a single
Federal state applying to all states for purposes of uniformity. That possibility
was a consideration given thought by the framers of the legislation. The Fed-
eral legislation now pending, and being contested, is known as Hazard Com-
munication; Final Rule, Published in the Federal Register (OSHA, 1983), and
due to go into effect in steps on November 25, 1985, and May 25, 1986. The
news media will carry the outcome of the court proceedings and whether or
not the Florida Law will be superseded. Realizing this, however, the state
legislature included a very broad spectrum of workplaces and industries as
affected by the law—not restricted only to the manufacturing industry under
the Standard Industries Classification Codes (SIC) 20-39.

(b) The phrase which is part of the law suggests that the workplace could
“serve as an early warning function for the effect of release of toxic substance
in the environment,” is a worrisome afterthought. Hopefully, workers are not
to be thought of as canaries to be watched for early signs of mine gas accumu-
lation and as a warning system for miners to evacuate or as a biological warn-
ing system to the community of a pending disaster.

There are recorded environmental disasters that affect populations outside
the workplace where workers in the plant or industry are not necessarily af-
fected. One may recall the mercury poisoning in Minamata Bay, Japan and the
Bhopal, India release of methy] isocyanate gas. Rather it is hoped that environ-
mental monitoring devices will be added to the work environment to protect
and warn workers of build up of toxic concentrations, leaks, or spills that
might present a hazard to health and safety workers.

One hopes that monitoring the health of toxic substance exposed workers
will help develop a factual data base for cause and effect relationship to expo-
sures particularly if dose (concentration x time) can be established. That in-
formation base could then serve as a source of information for use in case of a
community spills or disasters.

That leads to consideration of the need for health surveillance of workers
exposed to particular toxic substances and therefore, the need for baseline and

No. 3, 1986] ALEXIOU—FLORIDA’S RIGHT-TO-KNOW LAW 165

periodic health assessments. These considerations are thought of in major pri-
vate industries and are almost totally ignored by educational, governmental,
and small industries. There is no current data base for work-related illnesses in
Florida because there is no reporting, as is commonplace with work-related
injuries and accidents. The courts have shown that work-related illnesses are
as compensable as injuries, if they can be established causally. (Does anyone
know the life expectancy of a bench organic chemist?)

(c) Establishing cause and effect relationship requires meeting the follow-
ing criteria:

1. has a disease condition been clearly established?

2. has it been shown that the disease results from the suspected agent(s)?

3. has exposure to the agent been demonstrated?

4. has the exposure to the agent been of sufficient degree and/or duration
to result in the condition?
have all non-occupational exposures to the agent been ruled out as caus-
ative?
6. have all special circumstances been weighed?

ut

CLINICAL REFERRAL CasEs—Two cases demonstrate the difficulty in estab-
lishing cause and effect relationship.

Case 1: A worker in a boat manufacturing plant was suddenly overcome
by his exposure to the solvents and paints while he was working in the hull of a
boat. He became dizzy, staggered, had cough from pulmonary irritation and
congestion, lost his concentration ability and memory, his handwriting deterio-
rated and he could no longer drive his car. Removal of the patient from the
source of exposure led to gradual restoration of function and abilities. While
work-related exposure seemed evident the toxic substance causality was less
certain. Other contributing causative factors or aggravating factors could
have included heat stroke or cerebrovascular accident, plus his own hobby of
maintaining his own boat and the use of paints and solvents in his avocation.

Case 2: A corrections officer used muriatic acid instead of bleach on a mop
he was using to clean the work floor. He was overcome by the resulting vapors
and sought compensation for his pulmonary symptoms and headaches ostensi-
bly from his work exposure. More than 13 years of cigarette smoking, work
dissatisfaction, and stress, were factors that had to be weighed in establishing a
diagnosis, cause, and effect relationship.

EARLY COMPLIANCE— When the law went into effect initially, the Depart-
ment of Labor and Employment Security began receiving up to 50 telephone
calls a day inquiring mostly about terms of the law. The Department had
established a toll-free phone number (1-800-367-4378) to respond to inquiries
about toxic substances and their health effects on exposed workers. One month
later, the number of calls had dropped to about 30 a day. Still the nature of the
calls suggested concern with industries trying to learn the terms of the law and
whether the law applied to them. Up to the time of printing there have been no
calls objecting to the Toxic Substance list as published and no recommenda-
tions for deletions or additions to the list.

166 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

A by-product of the law has been the emergence of a number of companies
who offer their services to help business and industries achieve compliance as
full time or part-time consultants. Publishers of Material Safety Data Sheets
(Keith and Walters, 1985) have begun extensive marketing on the completeness
of their lists for use by industries. Most industries have already posted the
Right-To-Know official poster to be placed in a conspicuous designated notices
area of the workplace. The degree of statewide compliance beyond that post-
ing of notice will only be determined, if a survey is conducted at some point, in
the near future, hopefully. Many workplaces with organized labor representa-
tion were in compliance even prior to the law. Non-unionized and smaller
industries will probably be slower to achieve compliance. In the nature of
things a number of workplaces will probably wait and see if there will be
enforcement of the law.

SuMManky: For some scientists any required task is onerous and ways might
be sought to circumvent compliance. Prudence, safety, and health suggest that
if nothing is done, someone sooner or later will be injured. Compliance with
this reasonable law is best in the long run (Table 1). If the assimilation of all the
terms of the law are too much to manage at once, then by all means do the
easiest things first, taking one bite at a time and working toward complete
adherence over some planned program to achieve compliance. Reporting of
work-related illnesses and injuries for scientists will improve the data base and
establish baseline levels for their occupational risks.

TaBie 1. Twenty Steps to Compliance

1. Determine who will oversee the program.
2. Select a person who has an understanding of the Right To Know Legislative Requirements.
3. Select a person with knowledge or information on existing training programs in his/her
organization.
4. If help is needed here, call a professional consultant in health and safety.
5. Obtain inventory of substances or agents used in the workplace.
6. Match substances in the workplace with Florida’s Toxic Substances List.
7. Identify locations where toxic substances are used and stored.
8. Identify workers who use or might use the substances.
9. Establish a training course on the substances based on MSDS or equivalent information
sheet.
10. Use up supplies that do not provide MSDS information and order NO MORE.
11. Purchase only substances from suppliers that will provide good MSDS information for
you.
12. Try an educational program—schedule a pilot test to see what complications arise.
13. You may want help from professional health and safety consultants.
14. Post the Notice of Right To Know Law.
15. Start the training with new employees, then old employees.
16. Have employees sign-off on completion of training and keep a record of instructors, dates,
times, and material used and signatures of trainees; get ready for next year.
17. Keep records to show inspectors.
18. Notify community resources (Fire Department).
19. Check program with your insurance carrier.
20. Develop a written company policy statement on Worker’s Right To Know for all workers to
see.

No. 3, 1986] BROW N—SILVER-HAIRED BAT 167

LITERATURE CITED

Fioripa Statutes. 1985. Florida Right To Know Law. Occupational Health and Safety, Chapter
442.

FEDERAL STATUTES. 1970. Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970. PL 91-596.

FEDERAL REGISTER. Friday, November 25, 1983. Part IV, Department of Labor, Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). Hazard Communication; Final Rule.

Kerry, L. H., anp D. B. Watters (Eds.). 1985. ‘““The Compendium of Safety Sheets for Research
and Industrial Chemicals’, VCH Publishers, Deerfield Beach, Florida.

Florida Sci. 49(3):162-167. 1986.
Accepted: November 27, 1985.

FIRST RECORD OF THE SILVER-HAIRED BAT, LASIONYCTERIS NOC-
TIVAGANS (LeConte) IN FLORIDA—Larry N. Brown, Department of Biology,
University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620.

Asstract: The first specimen of the silver-haired bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans, ever taken in
Florida was recorded near the Escambia River, 5 miles west of Jay in Santa Rosa County on
September 6, 1985. It is a young adult female taken in a mist net, and extends the known
geographical range of Lasionycteris noctivagans southward about 110 miles into a new state.

THE KNOWN geographical range of the silver-haired bat, Lasionycteris noc-
tivagans (Le Conte), Family Vespertilionidae, covers most of the northern two-
thirds of the United States, but excludes Florida. It is a migratory forest-dwell-
ing species, often associated with coniferous forests in the northern parts of its
range (Barbour and Davis, 1969). On September 6, 1985, a young adult fe-
male silver-haired bat was captured while I was collecting bats with a mist net.
The location was near the Escambia River, approximately 5 miles west of Jay,
Santa Rosa County, Florida. The habitat consisted of river floodplain hard-
woods with pine-oak forest on the surrounding uplands, bordering State Road
4. The specimen (skin and skull; #LNB-1716) is presently deposited in the
University of South Florida Zoological Collections. Its linear measurements
were as follows: Total length-93 mm, Tail length 39mm, Hindfoot-9 mm, Ear
length-15 mm.

In Georgia, Golley (1962) recorded the southern marginal records for L.
noctivagans to be Lamar and Jefferson Counties. In Alabama, the southern-
most locality for the silver-haired bat is reported by LaVal (1967) to be near
Autaugavulle in Autauga County. The new Florida record extends the known
range of L. noctivagans southward approximately 110 air miles.

Other species of bats collected at the same location and date were the
yellow bat (Lasiurus intermedius), seminole bat (Lasiurus seminolus), red bat
(Lasiurus borealis), and evening bat (Nycticeius humeralis).

168 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

The northern fringes of Hurricane Elena passed through the Florida Pan-
handle a few days prior to the collection date, but caused little damage to the
study area. It is not clear whether a large storm of this type would have any
affect on migratory movements or flight patterns of L. noctivagans, but that
possibility exists. More extensive bat sampling in the Florida Panhandle is
needed on a seasonal basis to define more clearly the habits of the bat fauna
living there.

LITERATURE CITED

Barsour, R. W. ann W. H. Davis. 1969. Bats of America. Univ. Press of Kentucky, Lexington,
Ky., 286 pp.

Go .Ley, F. B. 1962. Mammals of Georgia. Univ. Georgia Press, Athens, Ga. 218 pp.

LaVau, R. K. 1967. Records of bats from the southeastern United States, J. Mamm., 48:645-648.

Florida Sci. 49(3):167-168. 1986.
Accepted: November 6, 1985.

HUMPBACKED OYSTER TOADFISH, OPSANUS TAU (LINNAEUS), FROM
NORTH CAROLINA—Franx J. ScHwartz, Institute of Marine Sciences, University
of North Carolina, Morehead City, North Carolina 28557.

Asstract: A humpbacked oyster toadfish, Opsanus tau, is reported from North Carolina.
Although normal when captured in 1984, a severe dorsal and lateral spinal curvature developed
during retention in an artificial concrete tank. A six month interval elapsed between tank clean-
ing in January 1985 and the development of the deformity. Speculation suggests the deformity
was a response to drops in water temperatures following severe cold snaps in January and Febru-
ary 1985.

ANNUALLY thousands of the aglomerular oyster toadfish, Opsanus tau
(Linnaeus) that range from Maine to Cape Sable, Florida, serve as experimen-
tal subjects for behavior, movement, sound production, physiology, endocrine
analyses, insulin and diabetes investigations, and a host of other researches
(Hoar and Randall, 1969; Robinson, 1961; Robinson and Schwartz, 1965:
Schwartz and Bright, 1982). Surprisingly, while humpback deformities are
known for several species of fishes (Hansen, 1939; Hoff, 1970; Kroger and
Guthrie, 1973; Musick and Hoff, 1968), to date no deformed or humpbacked
oyster toadfish has been reported (Dawson, 1964, 1966, 1971; Dawson and
Heal, 1976). I, therefore, report on a humpbacked spinally deformed oyster
toadfish and suggest a possible answer to how it developed.

A 238 mm standard length (285 mm TL) oyster toadfish, exhibiting a
humpback condition (Fig. 1) was first noticed 15 July 1985 while seining for
the two dozen toadfish, that had been captured during the summer of 1984

No. 3, 1986] SCHW ARTZ— HUMPBACKED OYSTER TOADFISH

Fic. 1. Lateral X-ray view of humpbacked oyster toadfish illustrating humpback vertebral

deflections. Dense objects by head are props to keep fish upright.

Fic. 2. Dorsal X-ray view of spinal deformity.

170 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

and held in the Institute of Marine Sciences outdoor 125 x 10° 1 and 608 x
912 x 76 cm deep concrete tank. Unpolluted and unfiltered saline waters (18-
34 ppt) were constantly pumped from the adjacent Bogue Sound into the pond
where they were warmed or cooled seasonally by ambient air temperatures.

X-ray examination established that the humpback was not the result of an
abnormal internal growth but a dorsal and lateral spinal curvature deformity
(Fig. 2). The upward spinal curvature, anterior to the dorsal fin, had pushed
the large dorsal body muscles upward into a hump 24 mm high (Fig. 1).

To further complicate matters, this condition had to have developed be-
tween 11 January 1985 and the seine date for the concrete holding tank was
completely drained and cleaned on 11 January 1985. No shelters were placed
in the tank following cleaning. All two dozen toadfish, of various sizes, ap-
peared normal prior to refilling the cleaned tank. Thus, all toadfish had been
held together under the same environmental conditions prior to January and
up to July 1985, yet only one developed the humpback condition. The only
explanation of how the humpback condition developed is speculation that it
developed during the severe cold snaps of 20-23 January or 16 February 1985,
when naturally cooled tank waters plunged from 5-0°C. This seems unlikely
for throughout its range, oyster toadfish naturally tolerate 0-35°C waters,
succumbing only to waters of —1.5°C (personal observation). Likewise, simi-
lar annual pond draining and cleaning practices failed to produce hump-
backed toadfish.

Discussilon— Moore and Hixson (1977) noted that spinal deformities in
humpback white perch, Morone americana (Gmelin), were most likely caused
by responses to the environment rather than a result of genetics. Normal Tila-
pia melanotheron (Riippell) (= macrocephala) reared for two years in aquaria,
have developed pugheadedness following exposure to poor water conditions (S.
H. Vernick, pers. comm.). Perhaps malnutrition may have been an indirect
causal agent. The true cause remains unknown.

LITERATURE CITED

Dawson, C. E. 1964. A bibliography of anomalies of fishes. Gulf Res. Repts. 1(6):1-399.
. 1966. A bibliography of anomalies of fishes. Supplement 1. Gulf Res. Repts. 2(2):169-
176.
. 1971. A bibliography of anomalies of fishes. Supplement 2. Gulf Res. Repts. 3(2):215-
239.
, AND E. Heat. 1976. A bibliography of anomalies of fishes. Supplement 3. Gulf Res.
Repts. 5(2):35-41.
Hansen, D. J. 1939. Vertebral anomaly in Micropogon undulatus. Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci.
31(3):207-208.
Hoar, W. S., AND D. J. RANDALL (eds.). 1969. Fish Physiology, Vol. 1. Excretion, Ionic Regulation
and Metabolism. Academic Press, N. Y. 465 p.
Horr, J. G. 1970. Vertebral anomalies in a humpbacked specimen of Atlantic silverside, Menidia
menidia. Chesapeake Sci. 1 1(1):64-65.
Krocer, R. L., anp J. F. Gururie. 1973. Additional anomalous menhaden and other fishes.
Chesapeake Sci. 14(2):112-116.
Moorg, C. J., AND J. H. Hixson. 1977. Incidence of crooked vertebral columns in adult Potomac
River white perch, Morone americana. Copeia 1977(2):384-387.

No. 3, 1986] LAYNE ET AL.—NEW RECORDS FOR THE MOLE SNAKE 171

Musick, J. A., AND J. G. Horr. 1968. Vertebral anomalies in humpbacked specimens of menha-
den, Brevoortia tyrannus. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 97(3):277-287.

Rosinson, P. F. 1961. A bibliography of papers dealing with the oyster toadfish, Opsanus tau.
Chesapeake Biol. Lab., Solomons, Md., Contr. 183, 9 p.

, AND F. J. Scuwartz. 1965. A revised bibliography of papers dealing with the oyster

toadfish, Opsanus tau. Chesapeake Biol. Lab., Solomons, Md., Contr. 284, 18 p.

ScHwakrtz, F. J., anp B. B. Bricut. 1982. A bibliography of papers dealing with the oyster
toadfish, Opsanus tau, 1965 through April 1982. Inst. Mar. Sci., Univ. North Carolina
Spec. Publ., 33 p.

Florida Sci. 49(3):168-171. 1986.
Accepted: November 2, 1985.

Biological Sciences

NEW RECORDS FOR THE
MOLE SNAKE, LAMPROPELTIS CALLIGASTER,
IN PENINSULAR FLORIDA

James N. Layne, Timotuy J. WALSH”, AND PETER MEYLAN™”

) Archbold Biological Station, P. O. Box 2057, Lake Placid, FL 33852;
3032 N. W. 35th Avenue, Okeechobee, FL 33472; and °Florida State Museum,
Gainesville, FL 32611 (Present address: Department of Vertebrate Paleontology,
American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024)

(2)

Asstract: Two additional specimens of the mole snake, Lampropeltis calligaster, and reports
of 2 other individuals confirm the occurrence of this wide-ranging species in peninsular Florida.
Circumstances of capture and meristic data from the available specimens indicate that these
records represent native populations.

THE MOLE SNAKE, Lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata, is known
from only a few records in Florida’ and its distribution in the state is not well-
established. Carr (1940) reported a specimen in the Carnegie Museum (CM
1952) collected in 1899 from the “St. Johns River’, presumably northeast
Florida, and another in the University of Michigan collection (UM 77481)
from Leesburg, Lake County, in the central peninsula. Carr and Goin (1955)
gave the range as northern Florida southward in the peninsula to Lake County.
The range map of Wright and Wright (1957) shows the species as occurring
only in the panhandle, although northcentral Florida is included in the narra-
tive range description. Conant (1975) mapped the range as including extreme

l72 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

northeast Florida but mentioned only the panhandle in the description. The
range was stated by Stevenson (1976) as including northwestern Florida east to
Liberty County. Price (1977) indicated that the species is found throughout the
panhandle and northern peninsular Florida as far south as Alachua or Marion
counties. In addition, he cited 2 specimens in the Field Museum of Natural
History collection (FMNH 48265 and 48266) collected in Okeechobee County,
Florida, in May 1942 by Reid Paulk and suggested that these specimens might
represent an undescribed subspecies. Means (1978) cited records from Bay,
Calhoun, Liberty, and Walton counties in the panhandle and included the
isolated Lake County record in his distribution map. Blaney (1979), however,
questioned the Lake County record. Most recently, Ashton and Ashton (1981)
listed museum specimens from Bay, Calhoun, Gulf, and Madison counties but
did not cite either the northeast Florida, Lake County, or Okeechobee records.
Thus, the occurrence of Lampropeltis calligaster in the panhandle of Florida
from Liberty County west is well-documented, whereas its status in the penin-
sula is less certain. It is now possible to confirm the occurrence of native
populations in peninsular Florida.

Two specimens of Lampropeltis calligaster have been collected and 2 other
individuals reported in peninsular Florida in recent years. One specimen was
collected on Merritt Island, Brevard County, by Scott Maness on 8 May 1980.
The snake was found dead on State Road 402 near Oak Hammock Trail, Mer-
ritt Island National Wildlife Refuge. This specimen, now in the Florida State
Museum (UF 48182), is a male with a total length of 735 mm (640 mm SVL).
Scale rows are 21, 21, 19. It has a total of 75 dorsal blotches, 61 on the body
and 14 on the tail. The blotches are roughly rectangular, 1!/2 to 21/2 scales
long, and about 8 scales wide. There are 8 upper labials, with numbers 4 and 5
entering the orbits (both sides), and 9 lower labials. Ventrals and subcaudals
number 213 and 46, respectively. The ground color after preservation is gray-
brown; the dorsal blotches are clearly outlined in black middorsally but less
distinctly outlined laterally. The elongate blotches on the neck extend from the
parietals across 13 rows of dorsal scales.

The second specimen was collected on 16 April 1985 by T. J. Walsh in
Okeechobee County in the Basswood Estates subdivision (section 5, range 35E,
township 37S) 4.8 km NW of the junction of U.S. 441 and State Route 70 in the
city of Okeechobee. The snake was captured at 1730 EST on the grassy shoul-
der of a paved road after it was observed crawling out of a shallow ditch that
contained a small amount of water from a recent rain. The weather was clear
and air temperature was 26°C. The presettlement vegetation of the area was
probably native prairie with interspersed marshes and cabbage palm (Sabal
palmetto)—live oak (Quercus virginiana) hammocks. The snake was found in
a part of the subdivision with few houses and extensive grassy fields with
scattered trees and shrubs. The habitats in the immediate vicinity of the cap-
ture site included a low, moist vacant lot with tall grass and clumps of wax
myrtle (Myrica cerifera), Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius), and cab-
bage palms and a house lot with mowed lawn and shrubbery. Means (1978)
noted that specimens in the panhandle of Florida have been collected on roads

No. 3, 1986] LAYNE ET AL.—NEW RECORDS FOR THE MOLE SNAKE IL cs:

at dusk during late spring, early summer, and November in drier pine wood-
lands, early stage regenerating pine stands, and old-field habitats.

The specimen was a female with a total length of 660 mm and weight of 80
g. It had 21 dorsal scale rows, middorsal blotches with slightly convex to
straight (but not concave) anterior and posterior borders, and upper lateral
spots that tended to be vertically elongate. The ground color of the dorsum was
gray. The middorsal blotches, lateral blotches, and the elongate blotches on the
neck were dark chocolate-brown margined with black and outlined with a
light tan border about the same width as the black. Individual scales in the
spaces between the blotches were narrowly margined with light tan. Most of
the middorsal blotches were about 2 scales long and 9-10 scales wide. The
elongate blotches on the neck originated on the parietals and extended poste-
riorly over 12 scale rows. The expanded middle portion covered 4 scale rows
and the narrower posterior portion, 2 rows. A dark stripe extended along the
upper edge of the upper labials from slightly anterior to the eye to the rear
edge of the gape. These descriptive notes are based on examination of the live
specimen on 23 April, color slides made on that date, and portions of a shed
skin preserved in the Florida State Museum (UF 61053).

The snake was kept for observation at the Walsh home until 15 May, when
it was discovered missing from its cage in an unlocked garage attached to the
house. Evidence indicated that it had been stolen during the day while the
family was away. As so little is known about the life history and behavior of the
species in the southeast, it seems worthwhile to record observations made on
the snake in captivity. It was housed in a glass-fronted wooden cage (43 cm

Fic. 1. Mole Snake, Lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata, captured in Okeechobee
County, Florida, 16 April 1985. Photograph by Zed Postles.

174 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

high x 77 cm long x 43 cm wide) with an 8-cm layer of sand on the floor.
Water was continuously supplied in a small plastic dish, although the snake
was never observed drinking. During the day, the snake spent most of the time
resting under a plastic fern plant placed in the corner of the cage. It occasion-
ally retreated into a nearby short tunnel it had dug or coiled around a small I-
shaped piece of dead wood. At night it usually lay on the surface of the sand
stretched out along the front of the cage against the glass. On 2 occasions it
was found lying on the top edge of the cage under the lid, indicating some
tendency to climb. It ate an adult green anole, Anolis carolinensis, 2 days after
capture and on 13 May attempted to eat an adult white mouse. It seized the
mouse by the head and constricted it by wrapping coils around its body. After
the mouse was dead, it tried to swallow it head first, but the mouse apparently
was too large for it to handle and the snake eventually abandoned it. The snake
shed on 14 May, using rocks and pieces of wood to aid removal of the skin.
Some of the pieces of the skin were found in the tunnel mentioned above.

Paul Williams informed us (pers. comm.) of 2 additional records of mole
snakes from the Okeechobee area. He is the owner of a garden and pet supply
store in Okeechobee and has a good knowledge of Florida snakes. In spring
1984, he captured a specimen about 900 mm total length in the vicinity of the
North Elementary School in Okeechobee, approximately 3 km from the site at
which the specimen described above was collected. The snake was being har-
assed by a mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos) as it was crossing a paved road
about 0730 EST in a residential area surrounded by extensive open pasture-
land. The second specimen, about 460 mm total length, was found crawling
on a paved parking lot in front of a convenience store in town in the early
morning in summer 1984 and was brought to him for identification.

There appears to be little question that the 3 L. calligaster from Okeecho-
bee County reported here and the 2 cited by Price (1977) are from a natural
population. The characteristics of the Walsh specimen agree with those of the
eastern subspecies rhombomaculata, which, because of its secretiveness and
apparent rarity in Florida and elsewhere in the southeast, seldom finds its way
into captivity. In addition, 2 of the 3 recent Okeechobee records and, appar-
ently, the Merritt Island specimen came from undeveloped or thinly-settled

areas with extensive natural habitat.
Further evidence that the Merritt Island and southcentral Florida speci-

mens represent native populations is that they exhibit counts for meristic char-
acters that would be predicted based on clinal variation known to exist in L.
calligaster along the east coast. Price (1977) gave average ventral counts of
198 in the Washington, D.C. area and 207 in the piedmont of North Carolina;
whereas ventral counts for the Merritt Island (UF 48182) and the 2 FMNH
Okeechobee specimens (48265 and 48266) are 213, 211, and 209, respectively.
Similarly, total blotch counts for the 3 southcentral Florida specimens (75 for
the Merritt Island specimen and 73 and 80 for the Okeechobee specimens) are
higher than the averages given by Price (1977) for any of the 4 more northern
populations for which he provided data. Christman (1980) also noted that a
common trend in the 15 Florida snake species examined by him (not including

No. 3, 1986] LAYNE ET AL.—NEW RECORDS FOR THE MOLE SNAKE 175

L. calligaster) was an increase in ventral scale counts and number of blotches
from north to south.

Because of the paucity of records, the distribution of the mole snake in
Florida remains poorly understood. However, present evidence suggests that
the peninsular populations are localized and disjunct from one another and
from those in the panhandle.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— We thank John Wood of the Okeechobee office of the Florida Game and
Fresh Water Fish Commission for aid in measuring and weighing the specimen, Paul Williams for
providing information on other mole snakes captured in Okeechobee County, and Zed Postles for
allowing use of the photograph. We also thank Paul E. Moler for helpful comments on an earlier
draft of the manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

AsHTOoN, R. E., Jr., AND P. S. ASHTON. 1981. Handbook of Reptiles and Amphibians of Florida.
Part 1. The Snakes. Windward Publishing Inc., Miami, Florida.

Buaney, R. M. 1978. Lampropeltis calligaster. Cat. Amer. Amphibs. Rept. 229: 1-2.

Carr, A. F., Jr. 1940. A contribution to the herpetology of Florida. Univ. Fla. Publ. Biol. Sci. Ser.
3:1-118.

Carr, A., AND C. J. Goin. 1955. Guide to the reptiles, amphibians and fresh-water fishes of
Florida. Univ. Fla. Press, Gainesville.

CuHRISTMAN, S. P. 1980. Patterns of geographic variation in Florida snakes. Bull. Fla. Sta. Mus.
Biol. Sci. 25:157-256.

Conant, R. 1975. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of eastern and central North America.
Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston.

Means, D. B. 1978. Mole snake, Lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata (Holbrook). Pp. 58-60
in McDiarmid, R. W. (ed.) Amphibians and Reptiles. Vol. 3. Rare and Endangered Biota of
Florida. Univ. Presses of Florida, Gainesville:

Price, R. M. 1977. Systematics of the colubrid snake Lampropeltis calligaster (Harlan). Masters
thesis, New York University.

STEVENSON, H. M. 1976. Vertebrates of Florida. Univ. Presses of Florida, Gainesville.

Wricut, A. H., anp A. A. Wricut. 1957. Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada.
Comstock Publishing Assoc., Ithaca, New York.

Florida Sci. 49(3):171-175. 1986.
Accepted: November 28, 1985.

Biological Sciences

SUCCESSION IN FLORIDA SANDRIDGE
VEGETATION: ARETROSPEGRIVE STUD

Patricia A. PERONI AND WARREN G. ABRAHAMSON *

Department of Biology, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA 17837

Asstract: Aerial photography (1944-1981), field studies (1976-1983), survey records (1855-
1920), and timber cruise reports (1921-1922) provided information on past and present southern
Lake Wales Ridge vegetation at eight study sites which each included mesic and xeric vegetation
associations. Three findings were linked to reduced fire frequencies: 1) expansion of mesic broad-
leaved evergreen bayhead vegetation into adjacent flatwoods and some seasonal ponds, 2) sub-
stantial slash pine regeneration in flatwoods, and 3) increased growth of scrub oaks and hickory
in xeric sandhills accompanied by low slash and longleaf pine regeneration. Other xeric associa-
tions (i.e., scrubby flatwoods and sand pine and rosemary scrubs) remained relatively stable with
only one possible instance of sand pine loss due to a prolonged absence of fire. However, repeated
burns were responsible for losses of sand pine at two other sites. Successional changes in swales
and most seasonal ponds were minor and appeared to be controlled more by water levels than
fire.

A NUMBER Of studies address the effects of fire suppression on succession in
Florida sandridge vegetation (Laessle, 1958a, b, 1967; Monk, 1960, 1968;
Veno, 1976; Givens and co-workers, 1984; Abrahamson and co-workers,
1984b). However, these investigations are limited both by the long time peri-
ods necessary to document successional changes in such communities, and
because they were conducted under conditions of complete fire exclusion, a
situation rarely encountered outside of nature preserves. Also, with the excep-
tions of Givens et al. (1984) and Abrahamson et al. (1984b), little attention has
been devoted to the Lake Wales Ridge. This ridge constitutes a distinctive
floristic area within the Florida sandridge system (Abrahamson, 1984a). The
research presented here concentrates on the southern end of the Lake Wales
Ridge and provides successional information for a 40 year time period.

Increased human settlement, which began during the 1920’s, has drasti-
cally altered fire regimes on the southern Lake Wales Ridge. While certain
protected areas have remained fire free for over 50 years, the effects of human
activities on fire patterns are usually more complex. Human presence has in-
creased the number of fires ignited each year, but the net effect of land devel-
opment on this region’s fire regimes has been to limit the area burned per fire
(Peroni, 1983). This stems from both direct suppression efforts and cultural
barriers to fire (e.g., roads, citrus groves, housing projects), and means that any
given parcel of undeveloped land probably burns less frequently now than
during the first 20 to 30 years of this century. In addition, human activities
have created a second fire season during the dry winter portion of the year in

“To whom correspondence should be addressed.

No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION N70

addition to the natural summer wet season fires that originate from lightning
strikes (Abrahamson, 1984a).

In order to ascertain any long-term successional patterns occurring under
these altered fire patterns, our study used remote sensing, field investigations,
General Land Office Survey Records, and timber-cruise reports to trace vege-
tational changes of selected sites on the southern Lake Wales Ridge in High-
lands County, Florida. Since most of the study sites have not been completely
protected from fire during the past half century, a more realistic interpretation
of the effects of post-settlement fire regimes on succession is possible.

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA—The Lake Wales Ridge (Figure 1) is an an-
cient coastline formed during the Yarmouth and Sangamon inter-glacial stages
of the Pleistocene (MacNeil, 1950). The bedrock is largely limestone, and a
mixture of limestone, clays, gravel, marls, and sand, referred to as the Citro-

e ws Lake

Jackson
Lake Wales
RI dge
pees = Lake

Josephine

@
o*

Ties Lake

Ce June - in-Winter
AR Lake
: Placid

Fic. 1. Map of Highlands County, Florida showing the Lake Wales Ridge and locations of
study sites. Numbered sites were mapped in detail, but since only one site (#7) included the turkey
oak phase of southern ridge sandhills, we examined an additional 5 locations (lettered A-E) con-
taining turkey oak ridges or sandhills. Inset outline of Florida shows the relative location of High-
lands County.

178 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

nelle formation, forms the underlying material which is covered with thick
layers of sand. The topography is a mosaic of ridges and valleys with soil and
vegetation patterns also displaying this mosaic.

The presence of numerous endemic and 14 sensitive (i.e., endangered,
threatened, or rare) plant species as well as the unique features of several
vegetation associations distinguish the southern portion of the Lake Wales
Ridge from the more northerly sandridges (Ward, 1978; Johnson, 1981; Abra-
hamson et al., 1984b). The transition between the two areas occurs between
the towns of Avon Park and Sebring, Florida. For the purposes of this study, the
30 m contour is used to delimit the eastern and western extremes of the study
area, while the Highlands/Polk County boundary and the Highlands/Glades
County line mark the northern and southern limits, respectively (Figure 1).

The climate is warm, with a mean annual temperature of 22.3°C. The
highest monthly mean, August, is 27.5°C, while the lowest, 16.0°C, occurs in
January. Sixty-one percent (83 cm) of the annual precipitation (136 cm) falls
during the summer wet season from June through September (Abrahamson, et
al., 1984b).

Vegetation associations recognized in this study are those of Abrahamson et
al. (1984a) and Abrahamson (1984a, b). They include: southern ridge sand-
hills, sand pine and rosemary scrubs, scrubby flatwoods, flatwoods, swales,
bayheads, and seasonal ponds. Abrahamson (1984a, b) cites acid sands, fire,
and winter dry seasons as the major environmental factors affecting the evolu-
tion and ecology of southern Lake Wales Ridge plant species.

Modal fire frequencies vary greatly among these vegetation associations
with swales > flatwoods > southern ridge sandhills > seasonal ponds >
scrubby flatwoods > rosemary scrubs > sand pine scrubs > bayheads (Abra-
hamson et al., 1984b). Plant communities associated with higher fire frequen-
cies such as swales, flatwoods, and southern ridge sandhills tend to recover
rapidly after burns due to resprouting of shrubs and grasses and the survival of
south Florida slash pine (Pinus elliottii var. densa; Abrahamson, 1984a, b).
The scrub associations, however, are noted for longer intervals between fires,
as the dominant species, Florida rosemary (Ceratiola ericoides) and sand pine
(Pinus clausa), neither survive nor resprout after burns. Scrubs recover more
slowly from fires since these two species must reestablish themselves from
seeds (Johnson, 1982; Abrahamson et al., 1984b).

MetrHops—The approach used in this study is similar to that followed by Richardson (1977)
who determined the effects of drainage on vegetation in Palm Beach County, Florida. We selected
8 study sites using the following criteria: presence of natural vegetation, juxtaposition of several
different plant associations, availability of historical information, lack of major human distur-
bances, and systematic distribution of these sites over the southern Lake Wales Ridge. Site locations
are shown in Fig. 1.

Stereo pairs of aerial photographs flown in February, 1981 (Florida Department of Transporta-
tion, 1981) were used to tentatively map each site’s present vegetation. Extensive ground checks of
study sites conducted between February and May, 1983 allowed verification and refinement of
photographic interpretation and provided details not detected from aerial photographs. Field
work for sites 6 and 7, the Archbold Biological Station (ABS) locations, was less intensive since a
current, detailed vegetation map was available (Abrahamson et al., 1984a).

No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 179

The 1981 photography and ground observations were compared with stereo coverage from
flights in March, April, or October, 1944 (USDA, 1944), December, 1957 or January, 1958 (USDA,
1957/1958), and November, 1970 (Florida Department of Transportation, 1970). Stereo coverage
from the 1944 flight was available for only a portion of site 2 and was supplemented with photog-
raphy flown in April, 1952 (USDA, 1952a). For sites 6 and 7 additional photography flown in
February, 1940 (USDA, 1940) and April, 1952 (USDA, 1952b) was also examined. We particularly
looked for changes in boundaries of associations or major community components such as canopy,
shrub layers, and ground cover.

We drafted pairs of maps comparing 1944 and 1983 vegetation for each site. In the interest of
clarity, we omitted most cultural features (roads, drainage lines, etc.) from these maps. In some
cases, certain association boundaries were not apparent in either 1944 or 1981 aerial photographs
(e.g., some scrubs and more xeric flatwoods) while in a few other situations, mapping of 1944
vegetation patterns was complicated by the occurrence of fires just prior to the photography (e.g.,
it was often difficult to accurately determine boundaries between young rosemary scrubs and
recently sprouted scrubby flatwoods). Since the 1944 photographs could not be field checked, our
approach in such instances was conservative, and, unless historical evidence (i.e., surveyors’ notes,
timber cruise reports, tree cores, aging of rosemary shrubs, 1957/1958 and 1970 aerial photo-
graphs) indicated otherwise, we assumed that these boundaries had remained stable during the
study period. In addition, some corrections were made for distortion present in the 1944 aerial
photographs because the quality of stereo coverage was often less than that of more recent photog-
raphy. Such modifications were slight and were made only after carefully comparing relative
locations of landmarks and contours of association boundaries represented in 1944 photographs
with those present in 1981 photography.

A timber cruise conducted by A. E. Little in 1921 and 1922 included study sites 2, 3, 4, 6, 7,
and 8. Cruise reports provide counts of south Florida slash pine or longleaf pine (P. palustris)
measuring 20 cm or more in diameter for 16-ha parcels within 1.6 km square sections. In addition,
schematic maps noting locations of scrubs, scrubby areas, lakes, creeks, major ponds, turkey oak
sandhills, roads, rail lines, cultivated land, and buildings accompany timber stand data.

General Land Office surveys of the region were conducted in all study sites between 1859 and
1920 (Jackson, 1859/1860; Childs, 1870; Tannehill, 1871; Kimmell, 1917; Brown, 1920). Survey-
ors’ instructions required notations of vegetation changes along lines and general descriptions at
the end of each 1.6 km section line. As such, these records provide general, systematic descriptions
of each site’s vegetation prior to intensive human habitation and often record precise locations of
smaller, easily identified associations such as scrubs, seasonal ponds, and bayheads encountered
along section lines.

The only turkey oak phase of southern ridge sandhills included in the 8 original study sites was
located at site 7. Since site 7 had been completely protected from fire for nearly 60 years and,
unlike most areas in the region, had never been subjected to intensive logging, historical records
were scanned for notations of additional sandhills communities. Five locations noted in timber
cruise reports (Little, 1921/1922) as turkey oak ridges or sandhills were selected. These areas were
designated as sites A-E, and each was visited, described, and photographed. Descriptions of these
sites are provided by Peroni (1983) and their locations are recorded (Fig. 1).

ResuLts—Bayheads—In 1944, bayhead vegetation was present in or im-
mediately adjacent to 7 of the 8 original study sites. In all of these instances,
the bayhead species invaded contiguous flatwoods between 1944 and 1983.
This expansion was more pronounced at sites 1, 2, 3, and 8 than at sites 4, 5,
and 6 (Fig. 2, 3, 4, and 5). Data from survey records (Childs, 1870) and timber
cruise reports (Little, 1921/1922) for sites 3 and 8 (Fig. 3 and 5) indicate that
the most rapid invasion of flatwoods by bayhead vegetation has occurred
within this century, particularly since 1920.

Older portions of bayheads were dominated by red bay (Persea borbonia),
sweet bay (Magnolia virginica), loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus), dahoon
holly (Ilex cassine), and often wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera) with understories
composed primarily of saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) and cinnamon fern (Os-
munda cinnamonea). South Florida slash pine was rare in these older bay-

180 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

1944

:
°
TIGER BRANCH

CREEK

FL

LITTLE CHARLIE )

BOWLEGS CREEK

ns ®
-—— 250 BH
N
SITE 1
HIGHLANDS HAMMOCK STATE PARK

g

HAMMOCK

Y PRESS
SWAMP.

LITTLE CHARLIE
BOWLEGS CREEK

Fic. 2. Maps comparing 1944 and 1983 vegetation patterns at site 1, Highlands Hammock
State Park (T 34 S, R 28 E, Sec. 31, 32, 33, and T 35 S, R 28 E, Sec. 4, 5, and 6). Abbreviations as
follows: SSo = oak understory phase of sand pine scrub, SF = scrubby flatwoods, FL = flat-
woods, BH = bayhead, P = seasonal pond, and M = man-modified.

No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 181

Siero s EEISURES FAKES

SITE 4 LAKE PLACID

i172 50)m
Fic. 3. Maps comparing 1944 and 1983 vegetation patterns at site 2, Leisure Lakes (T 36 S, R
29E, Sec. 18), site 3, Lake June-in-Winter (T 36 S, R 29 E, Sec. 28), and site 4, Lake Placid (T 37 S,
R 29 E, Sec. 26). Abbreviations as in Fig. 2 plus SSr = rosemary scrub and SW = swale.

182 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

SiS
BEAR POINT T

LACIDH+H

HICKORY =
HAMMOCK CoH HH+ttHy

HICKORY
HAMMOCK

SITE -G \ABS= I NTRARIDGE. =VAERE

Fic. 4. Maps comparing 1944 and 1983 vegetation patterns at site 5, Bear Point (T 37 S, R 30
E, Sec. 29), and site 6, Archbold Biological Station-Intraridge Valley (T 38 S, R 30 E, Sec. 7).
Abbreviations as in Figs. 1-3 plus RSh = hickory phase southern ridge sandhills and RR = rail-
road right-of-way.

heads, and the few that were present usually fell into the larger size classes. No
pine regeneration was observed.

Younger portions of bayheads, recently invading flatwoods, usually dis-
played well developed south Florida slash pine canopies with bay species
present in the canopy, sub-canopy, and shrub layers. Sweet bay, red bay, and
loblolly bay seedlings were abundant, but south Florida slash pine seedlings
and saplings were rare. Bay species also invaded two seasonal ponds at site 6
(Fig. 4), the only site where seasonal ponds were present in large numbers, and
a freshwater marsh at site | (Fig. 2).

No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 183

The rate and extent of bayhead expansion showed a negative correlation
with fire frequency. Aerial photographs of flatwoods which burned infre-
quently (i.e., two fires or fewer) between 1944 and 1981 (sites 1, 3, 5, and 8)
show rapid invasion by bay species. This process was considerably slower at
site 2 where the flatwoods/bayhead area in the northeast quarter section sus-
tained repeated burns during the study period. The invasion of bay species into
the marsh at site 1 (Fig. 2) represents the only exception. Here, construction of
a drainage channel in the early 1930’s and the resulting drop in water levels,
not the reduced fire frequency, accounts for this bay invasion.

o Sw
[ SSr

Fale
SPECS SRENDRIE IRANGH SCALE

Fic. 5. Maps comparing 1944 and 1983 vegetation patterns at site 7, Archbold Biological
Station-Red Hill (T 38 S, R 30 E, Sec. 8), and site 8, Hendrie Ranch (T 39 S, R 30 E, Sec. 10).
Abbreviations as in Figs. 1-4 plus RSt = turkey oak phase southern ridge sandhills.

184 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Although bayhead expansion was most rapid when fire was completely
absent, bayhead species can resprout after low intensity burns. At sites 1, 2, 4,
and 6 all or portions of bayheads burned at least once between 1944 and 1983,
and, judging from aerial photographs, regenerated rapidly (within 10 yr or
less), presumably by resprouting.

Flatwoods— Aerial photographs of flatwoods in sites 1, 3, 4, and 6 show
substantial increases in south Florida slash pine densities. At sites 1 and 3
(Figs. 2 and 3) this development preceded expansion of bayhead vegetation
into flatwoods. Stenberg’s 1982 census of the south Florida slash pine at the
Archbold Biological Station quantifies this increase for site 6, recording 186%
more south Florida slash pine over 20 cm DBH at this site than Little’s cruise
in 1921 which occurred prior to logging of this stand. Only a cluster of 3
small, 16 ha parcels at this site had lower pine counts in 1982 than in 1921,
and these are located in a particularly xeric area that is known to have burned
twice from naturally-caused fires during the period 1967-1977 (Abrahamson,
1981).

Southern Ridge Sandhills— Major changes in southern ridge sandhills asso-
ciations were related to community structure and relative species abundance
rather than species composition per se. The understory of the turkey oak phase
southern ridge sandhill observed at site 7 (Fig. 5) in 1983 differed radically in
appearance from ground-level photographs of that area taken in the early
1930’s and Kimmell’s description of this site’s southern boundary in his 1917
survey notes. These early records indicated a low, open understory with even
wire grass cover (Aristida stricta), palmettos, scattered small oaks, and a south
Florida slash pine canopy. Harper’s (1927) and Small’s (1921) early descrip-
tions of the study area’s vegetation indicate that this rather open understory
was the typical structure for these associations at that time. However, Harper
(1927) did note that the sandhills vegetation in this region was somewhat more
scrubby in appearance (i.e., more and larger oaks present) than similar associ-
ations found on the northern portion of the Lake Wales Ridge.

In contrast to this open, grassy understory shown in 1930 photographs, our
1983 field investigation of the southern ridge sandhill at site 7 found an under-
story with a tall (up to 3m), dense shrub layer of myrtle oak (Q. myrtifolia),
sand live oak (Q. geminata), Chapman’s oak (Q. chapmanii), turkey oak (Q.
laevis), scrub hickory (Carya floridana), and palmettos with only scattered
patches of wiregrass.

This growth of turkey and scrub oaks (and in some cases scrub hickory) and
the loss of wiregrass and herbs was even more pronounced at the additional
turkey oak phase southern ridge sandhills sites, with turkey oaks reaching
heights of up to 5 m at sites A and E. These associations also had considerably
less dense south Florida slash and longleaf pine canopies than the sandhill at
site 7 that was not logged during the 1920’s and 1930’s when sites A-E were
cut. Present south Florida slash and longleaf pine densities at sites A-E are
lower than pre-logging conditions (Little, 1921/1922), and regeneration ap-
pears poor. Although Myers’ (1985) study of the pines at site 7 indicates better

No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 185

south Florida slash pine regeneration than that observed at sites A-E, distribu-
tion of that recruitment appears to be limited to only a few open areas.

Although many descriptions of the southern Lake Wales Ridge vegetation
note the absence of longleaf pine, particularly in sandhills, (Harper, 1927;
Small, 1921; Laessle, 1958a), we found this species present at low densities in
five of the six associations studied (site 7 and sites A, B, D, and E). Stenberg’s
1982 timber cruise of the Archbold Biological Station also records occasional
individual longleaf pine or small groves of these trees on or near hickory phase
southern ridge sandhills.

Scrubs—Sand pine and rosemary shrubs showed no consistent successional
patterns. At sites 1, 3, 6, 7, and 8 (Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5) the boundaries of these
associations remained particularly stable, with the exception of some sand
pine invasion of the adjoining southern ridge sandhill at site 7 and a rosemary
scrub at site 3 (Fig. 3).

Results from site 5 (Fig. 4), Bear Point, are more difficult to interpret. A
portion of this site currently is covered with scrub hickory, sand live oak,
myrtle oak, Chapman’s oak, and silk bay (Persea humilis), 3-5 m in height.
Laessle described this association as a hickory “hammock”’ when he studied
the site in the early 1960’s and speculated that it was an example of sand pine
scrub which had succeeded to xeric hammock due to fire suppression (Laessle,
1961, 1967). However, evidence of sand pine at this site is limited to recollec-
tions of longtime area residents (Devane, pers. comm.; Edgemon, pers.
comm.), and, even assuming that sand pine was present at some earlier time,
more information on this species density would be necessary to conclude that
sand pine scrub best described this site’s vegetation. Notes from Childs’ and
Kimmell’s surveys in 1870 and 1917 suggest that sand pine was not abundant
in the vicinity of this site. The current hickory “hammock” situation also
could have developed from a stand similar to a hickory phase southern ridge
sandhill.

In two instances repeated fires led to reductions in sand pine densities. At
site 2 (Fig. 3), the young sand pine scrub present south of the bayhead/flat-
woods area in 1944 failed to regenerate after a fire which occurred sometime
between 1944 and 1952. Asa result, an area toward the middle of the scrub is
presently dominated by south Florida slash pine and is best described as a
scrubby flatwoods. At site 4 (Fig. 3), the scrubby flatwoods which currently
surrounds the rosemary scrub may have been another young sand pine scrub
in 1944. Sand pine densities never recovered to levels shown in 1944 aerial
photographs after a burn that occurred just prior to the 1957 photography.

Seasonal Ponds—Except for the development of two bayhead associations
at site 6 (Fig. 4), changes observed in seasonal ponds were limited to invasion
by south Florida slash pine. This pine invasion did not correspond with known
fire histories at site 6 (Abrahamson, 1981), but a survey of 41 ponds indicated
that such developments tended to occur in ponds with lower water tables.

Swales—Swale vegetation was present only at site 4 (Figure 3) and re-
mained particularly stable during the study period. Aerial photographs and
field checks indicated no invasion by south Florida slash pine or palmettos.

186 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Boundaries with flatwoods remained relatively intact, but appear more
sharply in 1981 photographs, probably due to increased growth of palmettoes

in flatwoods.
Discussion—Ecologists have generally viewed fire as a disturbance which

serves to slow or set back succession, and in cases where such disturbances
occur frequently, prevent vegetational succession altogether (Odum, 1983).
Abrahamson’s (1984a, b) five year study of fire recovery in southern ridge
sandhills (scrub hickory phase), scrubby flatwoods, flatwoods, swales, and sea-
sonal ponds on the southern Lake Wales Ridge clearly indicates that fire is not
a succession initiating disturbance in the classical Clementsian sense for these
vegetation associations. However, total exclusion of fire, or as is more com-
monly the case, reductions in burning frequencies may favor certain succes-
sional patterns. Within associations, species may respond differently to release
from fire, and changes in relative species abundance and community structure
may result. Less frequent burning could allow invasion of an association by
plant species less adapted to fire but better able to tolerate shading. In particu-
lar, species from adjoining associations may be able to invade in such situa-
tions if past fire patterns represent the primary environmental factor responsi-
ble for separating these plant communities. Under these circumstances one
would predict that such changes would occur most rapidly in those plant
communities that have been historically associated with high fire frequencies,
including flatwoods, southern ridge sandhills, and swales. Extreme instances
of fire exclusion could also affect the composition of communities associated
with long fire-free intervals, such as scrubs, since the obligate seeding species,
sand pine and rosemary, require intense, but infrequent burns to regenerate in
dense stands (Abrahamson et al., 1984b).

The expansion of bayhead vegetation into contiguous, mesic flatwoods is
this study’s most consistent finding. This pattern includes: (1) growth of dense
south Florida slash pine canopies with (2) subsequent loss of pine recruitment
and the invasion and growth of red bay, sweet bay, loblolly bay, and dahoon
holly and associated species from adjoining bayheads. As the south Florida
slash pine die, they are replaced by bay species; thus, these associations eventu-
ally take on the appearance of a broad leaved evergreen forest.

Abrahamson’s (1984b) analysis of south Florida slash pine fire mortality
plus coincidence of areas of lower pine densities with repeated fires in sites 2
and 6 suggest that reduced fire frequencies permit increased south Florida
slash pine recruitment leading to the development of these dense canopies.
Individuals of the more shade tolerant bayhead species, such as red bay, sweet
bay, loblolly bay, and dahoon holly are able to exploit this environment and
eventually replace flatwoods vegetation.

Since several of the bayheads investigated sustained burns during the study
period and recovered relatively rapidly, without passing through preliminary
flatwoods phases, total fire suppression may not be as important to the devel-
opment of bayhead vegetation in flatwoods as reduced fire frequencies.
Although some critical period of fire suppression may be necessary for transi-
tion from flatwoods to bayhead, infrequent subsequent burns are possible.

No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 187

Our observations of bayhead vegetation invading mesic flatwoods on the
southern Lake Wales Ridge are consistent with findings reported for similar
areas located elsewhere in the southeastern United States. Hartman (1949)
cited encroachment of bayhead vegetation into pine flatwoods as one justifica-
tion for prescribed burning in the South. Laessle (1958b) made similar obser-
vations in wetter, fire protected pine flatwoods of the Welaka Preserve in north-
ern Florida, while Monk (1968) predicted a variety of developmental
possibilities for Florida’s flatwoods, including succession to bayheads.

The most marked changes occurring in turkey oak phase southern ridge
sandhills during this century are those of community structure and relative
species abundance. Most notable is the growth and expansion of oaks at the
expense of wiregrass and herbs, lending these associations appearances of in-
cipient xeric hammocks. Losses from south Florida slash or longleaf pine cano-
pies at sites A-E were much greater than those observed at the turkey oak phase
southern ridge sandhill at site 7, which has long been protected from both fire
and logging. These losses probably resulted from intensive logging and a subse-
quent lack of regeneration at sites A-E.

Laessle (1967) maintained that fire suppression would allow scrub species
to invade sandhills, but with eventual development into some type of evergreen
hardwood association, or hammock as such communities are referred to
throughout the southeastern United States. Monk (1960, 1968) and Veno
(1976) made similar predictions or observations. The turkey oak phase south-
ern ridge sandhills examined in this study do appear to be developing struc-
tures similar to those of hardwood hammocks, a trend that will continue under
conditions of low fire frequencies.

The effects of fire on these present southern ridge sandhills are unknown at
this time. We might expect that a single burn would not be sufficient to return
these communities to their pre-settlement conditions. Scrub hickories and ever-
green oaks have established extensive root systems that would allow these
plants to sprout rapidly after a burn, and, with the exception of the sandhill at
site 7, seed sources for south Florida slash and longleaf pine are not abundant.
In addition, wiregrass and herb populations may be too depleted to become
well established in these associations even after a fire. Myers (1985) speculates
that a fire in a southern ridge sandhills such as the one at site 7 would allow
regeneration of sand pine which have already invaded from adjoining scrubs.

Virtually no changes in swales were detected by this study. Association
boundaries, especially of surrounding flatwoods, remained stable, and no ap-
preciable invasion by south Florida slash pine or saw palmetto was noted.
These observations suggest that the periodic high water tables and frequent
conditions of standing water in swales, even in the absence of frequent fire,
play important roles in maintaining this association and excluding species
such as south Florida slash pine and saw palmetto. Abrahamson (1984a, b),
however, noted short-lived increases in species diversity after fires in swales
due to increased densities of many herb and forb species. His data suggest that
reduced fire frequencies in swale associations may lead to decreases in diver-

188 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

sity by allowing establishment and growth of extensive cover by cutthroat
grass and shrubs such as Lyonia lucida.

Bayheads expanded into portions of two poorly drained seasonal ponds, a
development that is probably related to reduced fire frequencies, but not total
fire exclusion. Invasion of several seasonal ponds by south Florida slash pine is
the only other change in these associations detected in this study. Restriction of
such invasion to drier ponds suggests that drainage and soil characteristics
may regulate this phenomenon to a greater degree than fire. Abrahamson’s
(unpublished data) monitoring of south Florida slash pine in several seasonal
ponds at Archbold Biological Station clearly shows that high water tables can
kill slash pine seedlings and saplings during prolonged wet periods. In drier
ponds with dense grass cover, however, Abrahamson’s data (unpublished) sug-
gests that fire plays a large role in limiting invasion by south Florida slash
pine.

In scrub associations we predict extirpation of the dominants, sand pine
and rosemary, after long periods without fire on the basis of an observed lack
of regeneration. Laessle (1958a, b, 1967), Monk (1968), and Veno (1976) all
predicted eventual succession of scrubs to xeric hammocks with sufficient fire
suppression. Many of the scrubs encountered in this study regenerated after
fires that occurred approximately 40-60 years ago. As such, the time interval
we can reliably comment on (ca. 1920-1983) does not deviate greatly from
estimates of this association’s typical range of fire frequency, 30-80 years (Web-
ber, 1935; Richardson, 1977).

Extirpation of sand pine with subsequent development of xeric hammock
vegetation may have occurred at site 5, but the data are inconclusive. Even if
sand pine scrub vegetation had been present there at some earlier time, devel-
opment of the current vegetation may reflect an extreme situation at this site.
The peninsular location of site 5 greatly reduces the chances of fires burning
into this area, and, early agricultural development of land adjoining the point
(ca. 1920) probably served to further protect it from fire. To make broad gener-
alizations for all southern Lake Wales Ridge scrubs from the unclear develop-
ment, and unique situation at site 5 is unwise. In fact, the question of total fire
exclusion in most scrub communities may be largely academic. Even with fire
protection, the chance of a fire occurring in an area increases over time (an
observation also made by Veno, 1976), and although fire frequencies for the
study area may be relatively low at present, it probably takes only one good
burn in 80 years to regenerate and maintain scrub vegetation. A similar argu-
ment may explain the absence of major successional developments in the
scrubby flatwoods studied.

Richardson (1977) found that frequent burning rather than an absence of
fire resulted in the loss of sand pine from scrubs. Our observations from sites 2
and 4 support this idea, since sand pine regenerated poorly after fires in the
1940’s and 1950’s. Johnson (1982) has made a similar argument for rosemary
scrubs, noting that fire frequencies of less than 10-15 years would preclude
rosemary regeneration since these shrubs do not reach reproductive maturity
before that time.

No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 189

ConcLusion—Succession in southern Lake Wales Ridge sandhills and
mesic flatwoods is controlled primarily by fire regimes. In both associations,
less frequent burning during the past 40 to 60 years has led to a loss of south
Florida slash pine and an increase in hardwoods, although in flatwoods this
development was preceded by the growth of dense south Florida slash pine
canopies. These findings are consistent with predictions based on data from
more northerly Florida sandridges and other areas in the state (Laessle, 1958b;
Monk, 1960, 1968; Veno, 1976). However, the species composition of these
communities is not presently (and may never be) identical to that found in
similar associations in northern Florida, possibly due to a lack of sufficiently
proximate seed sources for species such as laurel oak, Quercus hemisphaerica,
and Magnolia grandiflora.

In contrast, water regimes appear to prevent invasion of swales by south
Florida slash pine even under conditions of infrequent fire. Evidence from
seasonal ponds suggests that south Florida slash pine invasion is dependent
upon both low water tables and reduced fire frequencies.

Little change was detected in the scrub and scrubby flatwoods associations.
Although the life histories of the scrub dominants, sand pine and rosemary,
clearly indicate that fire is necessary to maintain these communities, the time
intervals necessary to directly test this hypothesis apparently are greater than
those used in this study.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— This study was supported by the Biology Department of Bucknell Uni-

versity and Archbold Biological Station. We thank Ann Johnson and Ron Myers for their helpful
comments on an earlier draft of this paper.

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. 1984b. Species responses to fire on the Florida Lake Wales Ridge: a five-year study.
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, A. F. JOHNSON, AND J. N. Layne. 1984a. Archbold Biological Station vegetation map.
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CF] 2-33, 2-34, 2-35.
. 1944, Aerial photographs of Highlands County, FL. Numbers CYW-3C-164, -3C-165,
-3C-166, -3C-168, -3C-169, -4C-76, -4C-77, -4C-78, -6C-22, -6C-102, -6C-103, -6C-104,
-6C-168, -6C-169, -6C-170, -7C-22, -7C-23, -7C-24, -7C-25, -7C-51, -7C-52, -7C-53, -7C-
104, -7C-105, -7C-106.
. 1952a. Aerial photographs of Highlands County, FL. Numbers CYW-1H-35, -1H-36,
-1H-37, -2H-24, -2H-25.
. 1952b. Florida: Highlands Soil Conservation District, Highlands County, physical
land conditions.
. 1957/1958. Aerial photographs of Highlands County, FL. Numbers CY W-1V-23, -1V-
24, -1V-25, -1V-26, -1V-27, -1V-68, -1V-69, 1-V-70, -1V-136, -1V-137, -1V-138, -1V-167,

No. 3, 1986] PERONI AND ABRAHAMSON—SANDRIDGE VEGETATION 191

-1V-168, -1V-169, -1V-170, -1V-171, -1V-172, -2V-83, -2V-84, -2V-85, -2V-132, -2V-133,
-2V-188, -2V-189, -2V-190.

Veno, P. A. 1976. Successional relationships of five Florida plant communities. Ecology 57:498-
508.

Warp, D. B., ed. 1978. Rare and Endangered Biota of Florida: Vol. 5: Plants. University Presses of
Florida, Gainesville, FL.

Wesser, H. J. 1935. The Florida scrub, a fire-fighting association. Amer. J. Bot. 22:344-361.

Florida Sci. 49(3):176-191. 1986.
Accepted: November 19, 1985.

REVIEW

Lawrence H. Keith and Douglas B. Walters (Editors), Compendium of
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MATERIAL Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a term that will become increas-
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Basically, then, this Compendium is designed to provide the detailed infor-
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192 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

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CONTENTS

_ Marc P. Hayes, J. Alan Pounds, and Douglas C. Robinson 193
ets of the December 1983 and January 1985 Freezing Air

erie yeiiesne Sable tet ie) ecw evel tet git eo ep ee ne je5 8 8 acile ee

199
213

ee M. ee Stephen B. Linda, and Daniel E. Canfield, Jr.
sitional History of Three Pleistocene Bluffs in Northeastern
ee eas Se Colette M. Kussel and Douglas S. Jones 242
Pegs of a Localized Jack Dempsey,

ee er te fe. eS -.. . Dawn P. Jennings ZOD
The Chadwick Beach Cotton Mouse ( Rodentia: Peromyscus

a Robert W. Repenning and Stephen R. Humphrey 259
rt of a New Bat (Chiroptera: Artibeus jamaicensis)

ie rere States is ParOncOUS ... 2... 6. ee

Stephen R. Humphrey and Larry N. Brown 262

ee Daniel B. Ward 264

Fae aie es ie a at Oe tee ent Pet ae eee Pea To i De eee ee Te ee Se
eae es ee et ee se ss we he te ee wl
Se ee ee 8 ee ee ee ee ee ee le ee ee lh le

Soe 6 ee ee ee ee eee ee ee ee ee ke ee ee

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Volume 49 Autumn, 1986 Number 4

Biological Sciences

En
Ise

THE FRINGE-LIMBED TREE FROG,
HYLA FIMBRIMEMBRA (ANURA:HYLIDAE):
NEW RECORDS FROM. GOSTA RICA

Marc P. Hayes’, J. ALAN Pounps” AND Douc.as C. ROBINSON”

rH Department of Biology, P.O. Box 249118, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL 33124 USA;
“Department of Zoology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA; and
‘Escuela de Biologia, Universidad de Costa Rica, Ciudad Universitaria,
San José, Costa Rica, Centro America

Asstract: The third and fourth known metamorphosed specimens of the fringe-limbed hylid
frog, Hyla fimbrimembra, are reported. The first report of colors in life are provided for one of
these specimens, a juvenile female from near Monteverde, Costa Rica; this includes a distinct
brown-green metachrosis of its lichen-like color-pattern. Summarized are morphometric data on
the four known metamorphosed individuals, all females, which range in body size from a 30.5-
mm juvenile to an 86.5-mm adult. Available data suggest that the species is a nocturnally active,
cloud forest form.

THE fringe-limbed treefrogs of the New World tropics are among the most
infrequently encountered and least understood anurans (Savage, 1981; Wilson
et al., 1985). Hyla fimbrimembra Taylor, a species in this distinctive assem-
blage, was previously known from only two individuals taken from the for-
ested slopes of Volcan Pods (Duellman, 1970), although Savage (1981) recently
allocated a tadpole from the same region to this species. Data on the color and
pattern of these individuals in life are limited. In this paper, we report on two
additional specimens from Costa Rica, one for which substantial data on color
in life exist.

One specimen, a juvenile female (CRE 4643), was found by Kaius He-
lenurn along the Pantanoso Trail in the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve in
the Cordillera de Tilaran, Provincia de Puntarenas, whereas the other (UCR
5976), an adult female, was taken from the southern slopes of Cerro Turu in
the Cordillera Central, Provincia de Heredia. These localities are approxi-
mately 70 km west and 25 km southeast, respectively, of the only known rec-
ords from Poas.

194 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 49

CRE 4643 was found on 8 February 1984 at 1500 h sitting on an epiphyte
1.2 m above the ground in a posture similar to the water-conserving posture
described for Hyla chrysoscelis (Ralin, 1981). The weather was cloudy, but
without the mist often present locally during the dry season (November-April).
UCR 5976 was found at 1030 h 2 m above the ground on a branch in a patch
of forest surrounded by pasture (Federico Valverde, pers. comm.).

The Pantanoso locality is on the continental divide, whereas the Cerro Turt
locality is on the Pacific slope of the Cordillera Central. Both localities lie
within the Lower Montane Rainforest life zone of Holdridge (Hartshorn,
1983). The vegetation at the former locality consists of a wind-influenced asso-
ciation termed Windward Cloud Forest (Lawton and Dryer, 1980). This forest
rarely exceeds 20 m in height, and epiphytes are a prominent feature. The
previously reported H. fimbrimembra, including the tadpole (Savage, 1981),
also were found in cloud forest near Isla Bonita (hereafter referred to as IB),
Provincia de Alajuela, Costa Rica (Table 1), also in the Lower Montane Rain-
forest life zone.

Morphological features of CRE 4643 and UCR 5976 match the four char-
acteristics that, according to Duellman (1970), differentiate H. fimbrimembra
from other fringe-limbed hylids: a curved fold above the tympanum, skin folds
below the cloaca, and sharply scalloped fringes and narrow dark transverse
bands on the limbs.

Taylor (1948) described the first two known specimens of H. fimbrimem-
bra as different species, H. richardi (Field Museum of Natural History [FM]
191783) and H. fimbrimembra (FM 191784). He based that assessment on co-
ossification of the skull, pustular skin and dark-colored digital disks of the
larger individual. The smaller individual lacked these three characteristics,
but possessed distinctly tuberculate skin. However, Duellman (1970) synony-
mized the larger (H. richardi Taylor) with H. fimbrimembra because ontoge-
netic variation in the related H. valancifer suggested that tuberculation dimin-
ishes as individuals attain larger size and because increasing co-ossification is
a known ontogenetic trait among frogs possessing this condition. CRE 4643
supports Duellman’s interpretation of an ontogenetic transition. Intermediate
in size between the juvenile and adult specimens from IB (Table 1), it is also
intermediate in tuberculation and co-ossification. Tubercules are restricted to
the flanks instead of being scattered over the entire dorsum as in the IB juvenile
(see Taylor, 1948: Fig. 2); co-ossification is poorly developed in the frontoparie-
tal region in contrast to the well-developed condition of the IB adult. However,
CRE 4643 possesses darkened digital disks and pustular skin as described for
the IB adult. The pustular skin condition of this specimen is most pronounced
in the head region.

The IB juvenile also differs from the adult in having more conspicuous
bands on the limbs, small dark flecks on the flanks, and pale-colored edges on
the upper lip and chin (Taylor, 1948; Duellman, 1970). Again, CRE 4643
appears intermediate, possessing moderately conspicuous bands on the limbs
and only a few dark flecks on the flanks, though it approaches the IB adult in
the latter characteristic, being dark-colored along the upper and lower lips.

No. 4, 1986] HAYES ET AL—TREE FROG 195

UCR 5976 does not differ significantly from the IB adult in any of the afore-
mentioned features.

In life, CRE 4643 has a lichen-like color pattern consisting of a melange of
yellows, greens and browns and exhibits metachrosis. A diffuse reticulum of
green and brown was present over the body to varying degrees depending on
the color phase. In the paler phase, the predominant color was yellow-cream to
beige, and the reticulum was restricted to the back of the head and upper
dorsum. More green was present anteriorly, whereas more brown was present
on the lower back and upper surfaces of the hind limbs. In the darker color
phase, the overall impression was that of a green frog with a more lichen-like
pattern because the reticulum expanded, obscuring much of the paler ground
color. Duellman (1960) described similar metachrosis in a juvenile of the re-
lated H. valancifer. UCR 5976 was recorded as being “‘yellowish-white”’ in
life.

Comparison of our color notes with those of Taylor (1948) is difficult, in
part because Taylor provided few details, but also because evaluation of hues is
subjective. Were it not that Taylor specified that some of his color descriptions
were from life, we would suspect them to be based on preserved individuals
because the lavender-brown to blue-black hues noted by Taylor are the pre-
dominant colors we observed in CRE 4643 after its preservation in alcohol.

In the following comparison, color descriptions of Taylor which parallel
ours are indicated by parentheses. The diffuse reticulum of CRE 4643 in life is
more suggestive of Taylor’s description of the IB adult (nearly uniform laven-
der brown with very indistinct darker markings) than that of the IB juvenile
(brownish gray above, the extremities more ashen gray). The dark upper sur-
faces of the digital disks, dark edging to the upper and lower lips, mottled
throat, and lavender brown [in alcohol] venter and undersides of the thighs
also more closely resemble the IB adult (disks on all fingers and toes blue-
black; edge of the lower jaw bluish-black; a narrow line of black on edge of
upper lip; throat yellow-brown with fine purple reticulation; venter and under-
sides of thighs lavender brown with cream marks) than the IB juvenile (chin
and venter white with strong lavender reticulations on chin [in life]; dorsal
surface of disks cream [in alcohol)]).

CRE 4643 approaches the IB juvenile in color of the vent region. Taylor
indicated that the juvenile had “*. . . a pure white mark with two small black
spots above. . .” around the vent, but noted the IB adult lacked the light mark
at the vent. Taylor’s white mark probably refers to the anal ornamentation of
white guanine which Duellman (1970) found in many hylid frogs. In CRE
4643, a thin, white, transverse line is present just above the vent. Below the
vent, vertically oriented anal folds are also heavily guanified. Ornamentation
extends laterally from the edges of the folds and expands sharply at about half
their length, placing the darker areas to each side of the folds in sharp contrast.

CRE 4643 also possesses guanine on the heels, limb fringes, and tibiae. The
posterior surface of the heels are capped with guanine, a condition which
probably corresponds to Taylor’s (1948) “tip of heel white” for the IB juvenile,
a feature he did not mention for the IB adult. Taylor also made no mention of

196 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

white on the limb fringes of the IB specimens. However, his description for the
adult, after preservation, states, “*. . . fringe on the limbs colored like body. . .”,
which suggests they were not guanified in life. The leg fringes of CRE 4643 are
dotted with guanine so that the tips of the fringe serrations appear white. In
contrast, the forelimb fringes have more ornamentation; the forearm fringe
appears as an irregular white line that becomes discontinuous on the outer
manus. The posterior half of each tibia possesses a few (three or four) small,
guanified tubercles, a condition not mentioned by Taylor for the IB specimens.

TABLE 1. Measurements in mm of known specimens allocated to Hyla fimbrimembra. Values
in italics beneath body measurements are ratios of the respective measurements to SVL. Left (L)
and right (R) tibia and foot measurements are given; the measurement of the right element is used
in calculation of ratios. Taylor’s (1948) measurements are in parentheses; the side of his symmetric
measurements was unspecified. Taylor listed his foot measurements as “‘foot”’ and “‘foot and toe”
for the Isla Bonita adult and juvenile, respectively; their dimensions suggest both correspond to the
foot (heel to the tip of the fourth toe) measurement used here. Head length, foot and SVL were
measured to the nearest 0.5 mm with a 15 cm rule; tibia and head width were measured to the
nearest 0.1 mm with dial calipers. Collection symbolic codes are FM (Field Museum of Natural
History), CRE (Costa Rica Expeditions: University of Miami) and UCR (Universidad de Costa
Rica).

Head Head
Specimen Sex Sve Tibia Foot Width Length
FM 191783 F 71.0 31218 54.0L 27.0 2355
36.7R 55.0R
(71) (37) (53) (28) (23)
0.517 0.775 0.380 0.330
FM 191784 F 30.5 16.8L 24.0L 11.3 11.0
16.5R 24.5R
(31) (17) (24.6) (12.5) (11)
0.541 0.803 0.370 0.361
CRE 4643 F 47.5 27.0L SinOle 19.9 15.5
26.8R 37.5R
0.564 0.789 0.419 0.326
UCR 5976 F 86.5 46.4L 66.3L 33.5 27.0
46.0R 66.6R
0.532 0.770 0.387 0.312

CRE 7015 Tadpole = 2 f :

We doubt that Taylor overlooked similar guanification in his specimens, but
because guanine may disappear with preservation (Starrett and Savage, 1973),
an assessment of ontogenetic change in its distribution awaits acquisition of
additional living material.

Previous authors have not given descriptions of the eyes of H. fimbrimem-
bra. CRE 4643 had a horizontal pupil that in bright light was asymmetrically
diamond-shaped. In life, the iris was red-orange. Typically, adults of other
fringe-limbed hylids have an iris which is brown (H. thysanota Duellman),

No. 4, 1986] HAYES ET AL— TREE FROG 197

dark brown (H. valancifer Firschein and Smith), dark brown with gold fleck-
ing (H. salvaje Wilson, McCranie and Williams), gold with brown reticula-
tions (H. minera Wilson, McCranie and Williams) or bronze with reddish-
brown reticulations (H. miliaria [Cope]; Duellman, 1970; Wilson et al., 1985).
Only in H. valancifer has iris color been reported in a juvenile, where it is
reddish-brown. These data suggest an ontogenetic change in iris color among
fringe-limbed hylids.

Morphometric data for known specimens of H. fimbrimembra are given in
Table 1. Some of the tibia- and head width-to-body length ratios vary in a
fashion inconsistent with increasing body size among the four metamorphosed
individuals, indicating considerable variation. Partial dissection of metamor-
phosed H. fimbrimembra indicates that all are females and that CRE 4643 is
prereproductive.

Data on the ecology of H. fimbrimembra are limited to collection circum-
stances of the four known individuals. The juvenile reported by Taylor (1952)
was found at night, clinging to a small plant in the spray of a waterfall,
whereas the adult he reported was found during the day beneath the bark of a
standing dead tree (Duellman, 1970). Parallel data for the Cerro Turti frog are
unavailable. These observations and the inactive condition of CRE 4643 at
time of collection suggest the species is nocturnal. The only known tadpole
(Savage, 1981) was collected in a small borrow-pit ditch (Norman Scott, pers.
comm.).

CRE 4643 is deposited in the Costa Rica Expeditions (CRE) collections at
the University of Miami, whereas UCR 5976 is in the herpetological collection
of the Escuela de Biologia, Universidad de Costa Rica. Color slides of the
former individual are in the possession of the senior author.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— Steve Adolph, Douglas Futuyma, Kaius Helenurn and members of Orga-
nization for Tropical Studies course 84-1 generously provided slides or supplementary information
on CRE 4643. Wilfred Guindon (Tropical Science Center) gave permission to take the frog, Nor-
man J. Scott (USFWS, Albuquerque, New Mexico) provided information on the tadpole collection
site, Harold K. Voris (Field Museum, Chicago) allowed us to examine the types of H. fimbrimem-
bra and H. richardi, and gave permission to confirm the sex of the IB juvenile by dissection, and
Federico Valverde assisted us in obtaining data on the UCR specimen. Judith L. Bronstein, Craig
Guyer, David M. Hillis, Anne E. Mahler, and Jay M. Savage kindly reviewed the manuscript. MPH
was supported by a Maytag fellowship and JAP by a research assistantship from the Universities of
Miami and Florida, respectively. This is contribution No. 188 from the Program in Tropical Biol-
ogy, Ecology and Behavior at the University of Miami.

LITERATURE CITED

Duettman, W. E. 1960. Redescription of Hyla valancifer. Studies of American hylid frogs, III.

Herpetologica 16:55-57.
. 1970. The hylid frogs of Middle America. Vol. 1. Monogr. Mus. Nat. Hist. Univ.

Kansas No. 1.

HartsHorn, G. S. 1983. Chapter 7: Plants: Introduction, Pp. 118-183. In D. H. JANZEN (ed.).
Costa Rican Natural History. Univ. Chicago Press.

Lawton, R. O. anp V. Dryer. 1980. The vegetation of the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve.
Brenesia. 18:101-116.

198 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 49

Rain, D. B. 1981. Ecophysiological adaptation in a diploid-tetraploid complex of treefrogs (Hyli-
dae). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. (A) 68:175-179.
SavacE, J. M. 1974. Type localities for species of amphibians and reptiles described from Costa
Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 22:71-122.
. 1981. The tadpole of the Costa Rican fringe-limbed tree-frog, Hyla fimbrimembra.
Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 93:1177-1183.
Srarrett, P. H. anp J. M. Savace. 1973. The systematic status and distribution of Costa Rican
glass-frogs, genus Centrolenella (family Centrolenidae) with description of a new species.
Bull. So. Calif. Acad. Sci. 72:57-78.
TayLor, E. H. 1948. Two new hylid frogs from Costa Rica. Copeia 1948:233-238.
. 1952. A review of the frogs and toads of Costa Rica. Univ. Kansas Sci. Bull. 35:577-
942.
Witson, L. D., J. R. McCranir ANp K. L. Witiiams. 1985. Two new species of fringe-limbed
hylid frogs from Nuclear Middle America. Herpetologica 41:141-150.

Florida Sci.49(4):193-198. 1986.
Accepted: October 30, 1985.

APPENDIX— List of specimens examined.

Localities are listed alphabetically by province and locality specifics, respectively. Collection
symbolic codes are those used in Table |. Elevations in meters are in parentheses. Elevations for the
two types follow Savage (1974).

COSTA RICA: Alajuela: Volcan Poas, Isla Bonita—FM 191783 (1200 m) [Type of H. richardi], 3.2
km w Isla Bonita—FM 191784 (1300 m)[Type of H. fimbrimembra], La Cinchona area
[vicinity of Isla Bonita]—CRE 7015 (1360m)[tadpole], Heredia: s Cerro Turt, ca. 5 km nne
San Isidro de Heredia—UCR 5976 (1600 m), Puntarenas: Reserva de Monteverde, Sendero
Pantanoso—CRE 4643 (1550 m).

While this manuscript was in press, Craig Guyer (Univ. Miami) collected two adult specimens
of Hyla fimbrimembra during a survey of Braulio Carrillo National Park in Costa Rica. He kindly
allowed us to comment on these specimens. Both individuals possessed dark brown irises with a
reddish-copper hue, supporting our suggestion that iris color changes ontogenetically. Addition-
ally, neither adult possessed guanine on the heels, limb fringes, and tibiae, suggesting that guanine
ornamentation is lost during ontogeny.

Biological Sciences

EFFECTS OF THE DECEMBER 1983 AND
JANUARY 1985 FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES
ON SELECT AQUATIC POIKILOTHERMS AND PLANT
SPECIES OF MERRITT ISLAND, FLORIDA

Mark J. PROVANCHA, PAUL A. SCHMALZER AND CARLTON R. HALL

The Bionetics Corporation, Mail Code BIO-2, John F. Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899

AssTRActT: Freezing air temperatures during the periods 25-26 December 1983 and 20-23
January 1985 resulted in hypothermal stress and mortality of several aquatic poikilotherms in the
upper Indian River lagoon system, Brevard County, Florida. Twenty-three species of fish repre-
senting 15 families were found stressed or dead in the 1983 freeze and nine species representing 8
families were observed in the 1985 freeze. One hundred and fifty-two sea turtles were rescued
from lagoonal waters in January 1985 of which 145 were Chelonia mydas (green turtle), and 7
were adult Caretta caretta (Atlantic loggerhead). Numerous indigenous plant species of tropical
and subtropical origin were extensively damaged. These included Avicennia germinans, Laguncu-
laria racemosa, and Rhizophora mangle. Exotic plant species such as Schinus terebinthifolius,
Casuarina equisetifolia, and Melaleuca quinquenervia were also damaged.

CONSECUTIVE yearly freezes severe enough to induce hypothermal stress
and mortality among aquatic poikilotherms and to simultaneously cause sub-
stantial damage to numerous native and exotic plant species are unprece-
dented for the central east coast of peninsular Florida. On 25 December 1983,
just past midnight, a massive cold front moved across the Merritt Island region
of central coastal Brevard County. Early morning air temperatures on 26 De-
cember reached a low of —5.5°C. Nearly 13 months later, between 20-23
January 1985, another intense freeze dropped air temperatures to a low of
—6.6°C. This paper addresses the impacts of these two freeze events on
aquatic poikilotherms and plant species of Merritt Island, Florida.

Historically, most documentation of the effects of freezing and subfreezing
temperatures on the biota of coastal peninsular Florida have concentrated on
describing those effects on the aquatic fauna inhabiting the waters of the Gulf
coast and the Florida Keys (Packard, 1871; Willcox, 1887; Finch, 1917; Sto-
rey and Gudger, 1936; Miller, 1940; Galloway, 1941; Rinckey and Saloman,
1964). The effects of freezing air temperatures on the aquatic fauna in Brevard
County have been addressed (Bangs, 1895; Snelson and Bradley, 1978;
Ehrhart, 1979). Finch (1917) stated that both coasts of Florida were affected
by the cold wave of 2-4 February 1917, but mentioned general localities only
for the west coast. Snelson and Bradley (1978), via personal communications
with Brevard County residents, indicated that some fish were apparently af-
fected by the cold winter of 1957-58 and that a substantial number were
adversely affected in the 1962 cold wave as were sea turtles (pers. comm. Dr.
L.M. Ehrhart, University of Central Florida).

200 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Climate is known to control the distribution of organisms through average
conditions or through periodic extremes such as freezes (Walter, 1979) and is
probably most evident in transition zones between two different climatic re-
gions. Briggs (1974) identified the fauna of the Indian River lagoon system,
adjacent to Merritt Island, as characteristic of a transition zone between a
subtemperate and a subtropical zone. Gilmore and co-workers (1978) identi-
fied stenothermic tropical Caribbean fishes as being sympatric with euryther-
mic temperate Carolinian species in some of Florida’s estuaries including
Tampa Bay, Sanibel Island and the Indian River lagoon. Stenothermic tropical
and subtropical fishes were identified as the heaviest impacted species during
the January 1977 freeze (Gilmore et al., 1978). Storey (1937) reviewed the
ranges of fish that were adversely affected by freezing temperatures and identi-
fied species of tropical origin as “‘always hurt” in the proximity of Sanibel
Island. Ehrhart (1979 and pers. comm.) identified the tropical green turtle as
always impacted by hard freezes and prolonged periods of low air tempera-
tures as documented for 1962, 1977, 1978, 1981, and 1985. Rinckey and
Saloman (1964) suggested that the quick drop in water temperature in Tampa
Bay had the greatest impact on tropical and subtropical fish species.

Greller (1980) mapped Merritt Island as a transition zone between a Tem-
perate Broad-leaved Evergreen Forest and a Tropical Forest. Previous botani-
cal studies of Merritt Island (Sweet, 1976; Poppleton et al., 1977; Sweet et al.,
1979; Stout, 1980) have indicated the presence of species of tropical and sub-
tropical distribution. The transitional characteristics of the terrestrial vegeta-
tion are illustrated by the distribution of tree species. Species reaching their
northern limits of distribution on the coast between Merritt Island and St.
Augustine include Avicennia germinans (black mangrove), Laguncularia
racemosa (white mangrove), Myrcianthes fragans (nakedwood) and Rhi-
zophora mangle (red mangrove) (Little, 1978). Certain introduced species in-
cluding Casuarina equisetifolia (Australian pine), Schinus terebinthifolius
(Brazilian pepper) and Melaleuca quinquenervia (melaleuca) originate from
tropical and subtropical areas and are cold sensitive.

Few papers have discussed effects of freezing temperatures on flora while
describing faunal responses for any given locality in coastal peninsular Flor-
ida. Storey and Gudger (1936) briefly described firsthand accounts of the de-
struction of vegetation, principally mangroves, on Sanibel Island with the as-
sistance of reliable, long time residents. Miller (1940) briefly noted that
obvious damage was done to native trees and introduced tropical plants from
Miami to Key West. His discussion included key mahogany, royal palm, guava
and red mangrove. Gilmore and co-workers (1978) mentioned the devastating
effects of the freeze on red mangrove in the vicinity of Fort Pierce. Snelson and
Bradley (1978) indicated that numerous subtropical components of the biota
were affected but provided specific information only on fish. Stowers and
LeVasseur (1983) noted damage to citrus, vegetable crops and mangroves but
not fauna in west-central Florida from the January 198] freeze. Caprio and
Taylor (1984) noted freeze damage to certain forbs and graminoids in the
Everglades from the January 1981 freeze but not to other components of the

No. 4, 1986] PROVANCHA ET AL.—FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES 201

biota. The 1894-95 freeze caused extensive mortality to mangroves throughout
the Indian River area (Bangs, 1895; Davis, 1940).

MATERIALS AND MetHops— This work was conducted to document, in part, natural changes in
Merritt Island ecosystems as part of the long term environmental monitoring and research pro-
gram at the John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC) (NASA, 1982). A reconnaissance survey on 27
December 1983 revealed that a moderate fish-kill occurred following the passage of an intense
cold front. Surveys were made along the northern shorelines of NASA Causeway and Highway
528, both of which span the Banana River (Fig. 1). In addition, observations were made at Banana
Creek and Kennedy Parkway, the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) Turning Basin, and a boat
ramp located 2.8 km east of the VAB Turning Basin. All three sites have been dredged (3-9 m) and
are havens and sometimes “death traps” (Tabb, 1966; Moore, 1976; Gilmore et al., 1978; Snelson
and Bradley, 1978) for fish seeking refuge from abnormally cold water temperatures.

Representative specimens of each species impacted were collected, if possible, and were identi-
fied, measured and weighed. Water temperature was measured using a Yellow Springs Instrument
(YSDT) Model 33.

Surveys for the January 1985 freeze were conducted at the same locations as identified for
1983 with additional observations made along NASA Causeway and the Indian River, numerous
deep drainage ditches, mosquito control impoundments and open water areas of the upper Banana
River. Search and rescue missions for stressed lagoonal sea turtles were conducted by personnel of
the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) at the Merritt Island National Wildlife Ref-
uge.

Water temperature, salinity and conductivity were measured using YSI Models 33 and 51B.
Continuous (0.5 h interval) measurements of water temperatures were made at two locations using
Hydrolab 2020 series data sondes. One site was an impounded lagoon, typically less than 0.5 m in
depth. The second site was a small, somewhat protected lagoon located at the northern terminus of
the Banana River. Both instruments were immersed approximately 15 cm beneath the water’s
surface. Water temperature data were reduced to depict a profile beginning on 20 January at
midnight and continuing through 24 January 1985. Meteorological data were collected at a Per-
manent Air Monitoring Station (PAMS) located on KSC (Fig. 1).

Effects of the two freezes on terrestrial vegetation were evaluated during fieldwork for on-
going long term vegetation studies. No attempt was made to quantify vegetation damage from
these events; however, various communities including dunes, strand, hammocks, scrub, cattail
marshes, sand cordgrass marshes and mangrove swamps were examined after each freeze event.

ResuLtts—Meteorological and Hydrographic Data: Yearly climatological data for KSC and
Cape Canaveral have been collected since 1957. A monthly summary of data for December,
January, and February is presented in Table | (Eastern Space and Missile Center, 1982).

A comparative statistical summary of ambient air temperatures for December 1983 and Janu-
ary 1985 respectively, are as follows; extreme maximum 32.2 and 26.6°C, mean maximum 23.7
and 19.1°C, overall mean 16.3 and 12.2°C, mean minimum 11.6 and 6.1°C and extreme mini-
mum —5.5°C and —6.6°C. Daily air temperatures for December 1983 and December 1984
through January 1985 are presented (Fig. 2, 3, and 4).

TABLE 1. Historical air temperature data for John F. Kennedy Space Center and Cape
Canaveral Air Force Station 1957-1982.*

Temperatures, °C

Extreme Mean Overall Mean Extreme

Month Maximum Maximum Mean Minimum Minimum
Dec. 29.4 ale 16.7 ilsz —3.9
Jan. 28.9 20.7 15.6 itl =P
Feb. 30.6 20.6 15.6 10.6 —3.9

“Source: Eastern Space and Missile Center, 1982.

202 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

SS
BANANA CREEK
Sea oor

i)

Fic. 1. Map of the John F. Kennedy Space Center and vicinity.

No. 4, 1986] PROVANCHA ET AL.—FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES 203

—— MEAN
---- MAXIMUM
MINIMUM

omens 872 S98 lousy 19-2123: 25. 27°29 31
DAY OF MONTH

Fic. 2. Daily mean, maximum, and minimum air temperatures recorded at John F. Kennedy
Space Center (KSC), Florida for December 1983.

TEMPERATURE (°C)

—— MEAN
---- MAXIMUM
MINIMUM

Seema ae Cee ineSe tel 1Q0 225,25) (27, 29 31
DAY OF MONTH

Fic. 3. Daily mean, maximum, and minimum air temperatures recorded at John F. Kennedy
Space Center (KSC), Florida for December 1984.

204 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

35
30
25
“ns
O
5-20
tS
=
BA
ta
QO. 5
>
PEO
—5 —— MEAN
---- MAXIMUM
10 MINIMUM

1-3 5°97 9 11.1315 17 19 21 239 25R27e2 oman
DAY OF MONTH

Fic. 4. Daily mean, maximum, and minimum air temperatures recorded at John F. Kennedy
Space Center (KSC), Florida for January 1985.

Water temperatures were recorded at three general locations on 27 December 1983. These
were the NASA Causeway Bridge and the Banana River, (9.0°C surface and 10.0°C at 5 m), the
VAB Turning Basin, (13.0°C surface and 14.5°C at 4 m) and Banana Creek and Kennedy Parkway,
(8.0-8.5°C surface). Surface temperatures recorded on 29 December at these same three locations
were 13.0°C, 17.0°C and 18.0°C, respectively. Surface water temperatures in the VAB Turning
Basin approximately one week prior to the freeze measured 20.0°C.

On 20 January 1985, water temperatures at the NASA Causeway bridge and the Banana River
measured 15. ee at the surface as well as at 5 m. Salinity measured 16.5 ppt. Surface water
temperatures on 22 January 1985 along the north and south sides of NASA Causeway and Banana
River measured oe C and 2.8°C, respectively. Water depths at these two sites were 0.5 m and
salinities measured 17.0 ppt. At the NASA Causeway bridge, water temperatures were 8.0°C
surface and 9.0°C at 5 m. Water temperature recorded for the Indian River along the north side of
NASA Causeway was 4.5°C and salinity measured 22 ppt. At Banana Creek surface and bottom (2
m) temperatures were 8.0 and 7.5°C, respectively.

Impounded water north of Launch Complex 39B reached a low of 2.8°C at 1000 h on 22
January (Fig. 5). Water temperature at this same location two days earlier was 15.0°C. The effects
of rapid cooling were not nearly as dramatic at the open lagoonal station where a minimum
temperature of 8.0°C was reached on 23 January. Three days earlier readings were near 14.5°C.

FisHEs: A total of 23 species of fishes representing 15 families were observed and/or collected
during field surveys following these two freezes. All have been previously documented from this
region (Snelson, 1983). Listed below are those species affected by the December 1983 and January
1985 freezes. Notes on location, the freeze in which they were observed and length-weights are
presented.

DASYATIDAE

Dasyatis sayi (bluntnose sting ray). What appeared to be either a large juvenile or adult speci-
men was observed motionless in approximately six centimeters of water adjacent to the northwest
shore of Highway 528 Causeway and the Banana River. This specimen was not collected and
therefore an accurate account of its condition could not be determined. Typically, large juveniles

bo
—
Tt

No. 4, 1986] PROVANCHA ET AL.—FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES

25

N
io)

TEMPERATURE (°C)

oO

---- IMPOUNDMENT
ORE 2824-5648) 160) 7.2" 1849.96" “108 120
HOURS

Fic. 5. Water temperature profile of a lagoonal station at the northern terminus of the Banana
River and a shallow water mosquito impoundment for January 1985.

and adults are found in water deeper than 2.0 m (Snelson and Williams, 1981) and the occurrence
of one in water just a few centimeters deep was unusual. Observed in the 1983 freeze, this speci-
men was the only cartilagenous species encountered during either freeze event.

ELOPIDAE

Elops saurus (ladyfish). One specimen (25.7 cm SL; 184 g) was collected along the north shore
of NASA Causeway and the Banana River in December 1983. Several dead individuals of the same
approximate size were observed in the general vicinity. Snelson and Bradley (1978) described this
species as possessing tropical and subtropical affinities and recorded a few dead, ranging between
18-41 cm SL, in the January 1977 cold spell.

ALBULIDAE

Albula vulpes (bonefish). This species is of tropical-subtropical distribution and is rare in the
upper Indian River lagoon system. One specimen (12.6 cm SL; 31 g) was collected in the 1983
freeze along the northwest shore of NASA Causeway and the Banana River. This represents only
the third specimen documented from this area. This particular fish was observed dead on top of a
floating mat of seagrass.

CLUPEIDAE

Brevoortia spp. (menhaden). One adult individual was observed along NASA Causeway and
the Banana River in the 1983 freeze but was not retrievable.

ARIIDAE

Arius felis (sea catfish). In 1983, thousands of dead juveniles were observed floating in Banana
Creek near Kennedy Parkway. No specimens were collected but the size class appeared extremely
homogeneous (approximately 15 cm TL). Dead adults were observed along the northwest shore of
Highway 528 Causeway and the Banana River in the proximity of the Canaveral Barge Canal
several days following the freeze. Approximately 95% or more of the estimated 200,000 fish that
floated to the surface were sea catfish (pers. comm. Mike Willard, Brevard County Biologist). In
1985, both moribund and dead specimens were collected at Banana Creek as well as the north
shoreline of NASA Causeway and the Indian River. Specimens collected from the Indian River

206 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

measured between 26.7-32.5 cm TL and weighed from 113-276 g. Individuals collected from
Banana Creek revealed a mixture of size classes measuring between 10.5-34.0 cm TL and weigh-
ing between 11-341 g. This species was observed in fewer numbers in the 1977 freeze (Snelson and
Bradley, 1978).

Bagre marinus (gafftopsail catfish). One specimen (17.2 cm SL; 84 g) was collected along
NASA Causeway and the Banana River in 1983 and another (20.5 cm TL; 62 g) along NASA
Causeway and the Indian River in 1985. Contrastingly, Snelson and Bradley (1978) identified this
species as the second most abundant fish killed in the VAB Turning Basin with the predominant
size class measuring between 20-25 cm SL.

BELONIDAE

Strongylura spp. (needlefish). One dead specimen was observed in Banana Creek in 1983. It
appeared to be about 25 cm TL. Snelson and Bradley (1978) described Strongylura notata as
moderately impacted by the 1977 freeze.

CENTROPOMIDAE

Centropomus undecimalis (snook). Observed only in December 1983, this tropical-subtropical
species was modestly impacted. One dead individual was observed along the northern shoreline of
Highway 528 Causeway near the Canaveral Barge Canal. Approximately 20 specimens, measur-
ing 76 cm TL or greater (pers. comm. Mike Willard, Brevard County Biologist), were observed
dead in the Canaveral Barge Canal several days following the freeze.

CARANGIDAE

Caranx spp. (jack). A single specimen, estimated at 30 cm TL, was observed dead in Banana
Creek at Kennedy Parkway in December 1983. In January 1985, dead specimens of Caranx hippos
(jack crevalle) were commonly found, but only at Banana Creek. Individuals ranged from 30.3-
41.3 cm TL and weighed between 337-675 g.

Chloroscombrus chrysurus (Atlantic bumper). One dead specimen (17 cm SL; 91 g) was col-
lected in 1983 on the northern shore of NASA Causeway and the Banana River.

Trachinotus falcatus (permit). Moribund or dead specimens were common along the NASA
Causeway and the Banana River in 1983. Moribund individuals exhibited a severe loss of equilib-
rium. Sixteen specimens were collected. Body lengths ranged from 20.4-37.5 cm SL and weights
ranged between 319-1844 g. Snelson and Bradley (1978) found dead permit to be very abundant in
the VAB Turning Basin.

GERREIDAE

Eucinostomus harengulus (spotfin mojarra). Eleven specimens (7.2-11.8 cm SL; 17-50 g) were
collected in 1983 along the northeast shore of NASA Causeway and the Banana River in extremely
shallow water. Some individuals were observed floating on seagrass mats while others were actu-
ally entangled within the mats.

Eucinostomus gula (silver jenny). One dead specimen (9.2 cm SL; 328 g) was collected in 1983
at the northeast shore of NASA Causeway and the Banana River.

Diapterus olisthostomus (Irish pompano). Seventeen dead specimens (4.6-10.7 cm SL; 5-47 g)
were collected along the north shore of NASA Causeway and the Banana River in 1983. These
individuals were associated with mats of uprooted and broken seagrass.

Diapterus plumieri (striped mojarra). Several dead adult individuals were observed in very
shallow water along the northwest shoreline of Highway 528 Causeway and the Banana River in
1983. Specimens were not collected; however, they appeared to be approximately 20 cm TL. A
single specimen, measuring 30.5 cm TL and weighing 430 g, was collected from Banana Creek in
January 1985.

SCIAENIDAE

Cynoscion nebulosus (spotted seatrout). One dead specimen'(approximately 30 cm TL) was
seen along the north shore of Highway 528 Causeway and the Banana River in 1983. In 1985, a
dead individual (30.5 cm TL; 243 g) was collected along NASA Causeway and the Indian River.

Bairdiella chrysoura (silver perch). This species was observed in 1983 along Highway 528
Causeway and the Banana River. All specimens were dead and estimated to be about 10 em TL.

EPHIPPIDAE

Chaetodipterus faber (spadefish). This species was observed in the Banana River during both
freezes. Individuals were observed both dead or with impaired swimming. In 1983, individuals

ranged from 11.1-26.8 cm SL and weighed from 93-1012 g. Those collected in 1985 ranged from
15.6-38.2 cm TL and weighed from 112-1275 g.

~l

No. 4, 1986] PROVANCHA ET AL.—FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES 20

MUuGILIDAE

Mugil cephalus (striped mullet). A single dead specimen was observed along the north shore of
Highway 528 Causeway and the Banana River in 1983. This specimen was not collected but was
associated with numerous other species affected by the freeze.

BALISTIDAE

Aluterus schoepfi (orange filefish). One dead individual was collected in 1983 along NASA
Causeway and the Banana River approximately one kilometer east of the bridge. This specimen
measured 36.1 cm SL and weighed 869 g.

Monacanthus hispidus (planehead filefish). This species was commonly observed along the
north shore of NASA Causeway and the Banana River in the 1983 freeze. All individuals encoun-
tered were dead. Five specimens were collected that ranged from 16.2-24.8 cm SL and weighed
between 149-542 g. In 1985, a single specimen (21.5 cm TL; and 159 g) was collected dead at the
same location as those in the 1983 freeze.

TETRAODONTIDAE

Sphoeroides nephelus (southern puffer). Specimens collected in 1983 ranged from 16.8-17.7
em SL and weighed between 162-217 g. In 1985, individuals collected measured between 20-27
cm TL and weighed between 140-370 g. This species was observed frequently along NASA Cause-
way and the Banana River. Individuals were encountered moribund or dead during both freezes.

DIODONTIDAE

Chilomycterus schoepfi (striped burrtish). In 1983, five individuals collected along NASA
Causeway and the Banana River ranged from 16-18.9 cm SL and weighed between 239-326 g. In
1985, individuals measured from 15.6-26.5 cm TL and weighed between | 1 2-487 g.

SEA TuRTLEs: Stunned sea turtles were observed on 22 January 1985. A total of 145 Chelonia
mydas (green turtle) were collected by members of the USFWS. Fourteen were “dead on arrival.”
Eleven of the 145, described as large juveniles, were released into a nearby power plant thermal
discharge. One hundred and twenty small juveniles were transported to Sea World, Inc. in Or-
lando, Florida where they were maintained until lagoonal water temperatures were above lethal
limits. Seven adult Caretta caretta (Atlantic loggerhead) were also rescued and released in the
power plant discharge (pers. comm. Dr. L.M. Ehrhart, University of Central Florida).

VEGETATION: Vegetation damage from the 25-26 December 1983 freeze was extensive. Along
roadsides, dikes and groves, Brazilian pepper and Australian pine were damaged; extensive defo-
liation occurred and small to large branches on many trees were killed. Many individuals re-
sprouted in spring and summer from the larger branches or trunks. Melaleuca was similarly
damaged. These species suffered comparable damage during the January 1985 freeze.

Black, white and red mangroves fringing the Banana River, Banana Creek, Indian River and
Mosquito Lagoon were adversely affected by the 1983 freeze. Leaves and small to large branches
were killed. Some individuals resprouted while others were entirely destroyed by the freeze. Dam-
age from the 1985 freeze was similar. Much of the regrowth which followed the 1983 freeze was
killed as were some branches previously unaffected. In some places, branches near the water
survived while those higher on the plant were killed indicating microclimatic amelioration of the
freezing temperatures near the water.

In the coastal dune and coastal strand vegetation, Coccoloba uvifera (sea grape), Chrysobala-
nus icaco (coco-plum), Scaevola plumieri (beachberry), Hymenocallis latifolia (spider lily), Rapa-
nea punctata (rapanea) and Ipomoea pes-caprae (railroad vine) were affected by the 1983 freeze.
Sea grape, beachberry and coco-plum were generally killed back to the large stems or to ground
level. Leaves of the spider lily and railroad vine were frozen. Rapanea suffered less severe but still
obvious leaf damage. All species resprouted after the freeze. Carissa grandiflora (natal plum), an
introduced African species present in some disturbed areas of coastal strand, was damaged. Dam-
age from the 1985 freeze effected these same species in dune and strand communities. In addition,
Helianthus debilis (beach sunflower) and Heterotheca subaxillaris (camphorweed) suffered some
leaf damage from this freeze.

Hammock species affected by the 1983 freeze included Nectandra coriacea (lancewood), rapa-
nea, Ardisia escallonioides (marlberry) and Psychotria nervosa and P. sulzneri (wild coffee). Typi-
cally, leaves and small stems of the sensitive species were killed but they later resprouted from the
larger stems or from ground level. Nephrolepis cordifolia (Boston fern), common in the understory
of hammocks, was partially defoliated by the freeze but resprouted from the rhizomes. Regrowth
of these species was killed back by the 1985 freeze; however, new regrowth has occurred.

208 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Other species affected by the 1983 and 1985 freezes included Acrostichum danaeifolium
(leather fern), common in brackish marshes on Merritt Island. Leaves of this fern were killed but it
resprouted from the rhizomes. The 1985 freeze caused extensive die back of Typha domingensis
and T. latifolia (cattail) which occupy numerous marshes on Merritt Island as well as drainage
canals. The cattails have since resprouted from their rhizomes. Such damage was not noted after
the 1983 freeze.

Damage to a number of herbaceous species was noted after the 1985 freeze; these included
Bidens alba (beggar’s tick), Hydrocotyle sp. (pennywort), Phytolacca americana (pokeweed), Ri-
vina humilis (rouge plant) and Vigna luteola (cowpea). The introduced grass, Arundo donax (giant
reed), was killed back by the freeze but has since resprouted. During mild winters these species
continue growing. Freeze-damaged leaves were observed on the shrubs Iva frutescens (marsh
elder), Lantana camara (shrub lantana) and Mentzelia floridana (poorman’s patch).

Citrus groves on Merritt Island were also affected by the 1983 freeze. Those north of Haulover
Canal appeared to be more damaged than those in the central or southern part of the island. The
1985 freeze produced a similar pattern of damage; greater defoliation of citrus was evident in the
northern part of Merritt Island.

Discussion—The ecological effects of the December 1983 and January
1985 freeze indicate the importance of such events in regulating species and
community distributions associated with both aquatic and terrestrial systems.
Hard freezes do not occur every year on Merritt Island. As a result, cold sensi-
tive species generally have a period of recovery between freeze events. To our
knowledge, two consecutive hard freezes like those observed the past two win-
ters are unprecedented for east coastal peninsular Florida. Snelson and Brad-
ley (1978), upon reviewing historical data from peninsular Florida, indicated
that intervals between winters harsh enough to cause substantial mortality
among fish populations ranged from 3 to 18 years and averaged 10 years
between episodes. However, the upper Indian River lagoon has experienced
three major freeze events (January 1977, December 1983, and January 1985)
in the past eight years.

The 1983 freeze broke a 27-year record of —3.9°C with a low of —5.5°C
on 26 December. The January 1985 freeze produced a low of —6.6°C. The
1983 event appeared to have been more acute in rapidity of temperature de-
cline. Temperatures declined from a daytime high of 20.0°C on 24 December
at 1400 h to 0.0°C on the 25th at 0300 h. Storey and Gudger (1936) indicated
that in the 1928 freeze, overnight temperatures dropped from 21.0°C to 0.0°C
resulting in an extensive amount of damage. The severity of impact of a single
cold spell on estuarine organisms or on terrestrial flora may vary with one or a
combination of several factors including the minimum temperature obtained,
the duration of this temperature and the rapidity of the temperature drop
(Snelson and Bradley, 1978). The two successive freezes differed in some of
these factors. Given this, it is difficult to determine ‘which freeze was more
severe.

Open lagoonal water temperatures were several degrees higher in 1983
than observed in 1977. Snelson and Bradley (1978) suggested that most open
lagoonal organisms were subjected to water temperatures of 4-6°C for at least
48 h. The lowest lagoonal water temperature observed for December 1983 was
9.0°C and we believed that this was maintained for no longer than 36 h. Based
on the recorded water temperature data as well as specific point readings

No. 4, 1986] PROVANCHA ET AL.—FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES 209

along the causeways, we feel that water temperature was maintained between
5-10°C for at least 48 hin 1985.

The “refuge death trap” (Tabb, 1966; Moore, 1976; Gilmore et al., 1978;
Snelson and Bradley, 1978) was only evident in 1983 at the Canaveral Barge
Canal and at Banana Creek and Kennedy Parkway. Apparently, thousands of
young sea catfish became trapped in a dredged section near the bridge span-
ning Banana Creek. Evidence of the phenomenon at the Canaveral Barge
Canal was not obvious until a few days after the freeze when water tempera-
tures began to rise and dead fish appeared at the surface.

Of the 23 species of fish affected by the two freezes, all but five (Dasyatis
sayi, Albula vulpes, Chloroscombrus chrysurus, Chaetodipterus faber and
Aluterus schoepfi) were recorded in the 1977 freeze. Nine species, Arius felis,
Chilomycterus schoepfi, Caranx hippos, Sphoeroides nephelus, Chaetodip-
terus faber, Monacanthus hispidus, Bagre marinus, Cynoscion nebulosus and
Diapterus plumieri, were encountered during both freezes. Storey (1937) iden-
tified the first two of these nine species as “‘always hurt.” We found Arius felis,
Chilomycterus schoepfi and Sphoeroides nephelus to have the greatest num-
ber of individuals affected during each freeze.

Our observations concur with previous authors in describing fish affected
by hypothermia. Species such as Trachinotus falcatus and Monacanthus hispi-
dus were commonly seen at the surface swimming on their sides while Chilo-
mycterus schoepfi and Sphoeroides nephelus were typically in an upright posi-
tion floating near the surface with relatively little fin movement. Other species
maintained an upright position while swimming but appeared very lethargic.
We believe that many of these individuals could have survived had they not
washed up on the northern shoreline of the causeways or became stranded in
extremely shallow water. Some species such as Eucinostomus gula, E.
harengulus and Diapterus olisthostomos became entangled or washed up onto
floating mats of seagrass while in this condition and apparently suffocated as a
result. Predation by birds was also observed to produce high mortality of

stressed and stranded individuals.
The occurrence of stunned sea turtles in the Indian River lagoon system is

not uncommon during extreme cold periods. In fact, cold-water stunning of
lagoonal sea turtles may occur, to some degree, every winter (Ehrhart, 1979).
Previous cold stunnings of sea turtles in the upper Indian River lagoon oc-
curred in 1962, January 1977, January 1978, and January 1981 (Snelson and
Bradley, 1978; Ehrhart 1979 and pers. comm.). In 1977, a massive rescue
operation, orchestrated by Dr. L.M. Ehrhart of the University of Central Flor-
ida, resulted in the collection of 100 greens, 1 Lepidochelys kempi (Kemp’s
ridley) and 41 loggerheads. Water temperatures dropped from 11.5°C on 13
January 1977 to 4°C on 20 January. Between 15 and 21 January 1978, 5
greens were rescued as was | loggerhead. Water temperatures ranged between
8-10°C (Ehrhart, 1979). On 13 January 1981 water temperatures surveyed at
Haulover Canal measured 3.5°C. By 20 January, a total of 163 turtles had
been collected. Of the 88 greens captured, 76 survived. Seventy of the 74
loggerheads collected survived as did 1 Kemp’s ridley (pers. comm. Bill

210 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Leenhouts, USFWS and Dr. L.M. Ehrhart, University of Central Florida). Data
strongly indicate that the tropical green turtle is more cold sensitive than the
loggerhead (Ehrhart, 1979). Though the December 1983 freeze may be re-
garded as a hard freeze, its impact on lagoonal turtles was not apparent. We
believe that this was due to two main reasons: |) the freeze was not preceded
by enough cold weather (Fig. 2) as observed in January 1985 (Fig. 4) and 2)
that the freeze was immediately followed by a significant warming trend (Fig.
2). As a result, lagoonal sea turtles were not approaching a state of hypother-
mia when the freeze occurred in 1983 as they probably were in 1985.

The effects of periodic freezes on Merritt Island is clearly evident when
viewing particular plant species such as red and black mangrove. These spe-
cies reach large tree status in certain areas in southern Florida (Davis, 1940;
Tomlinson, 1980) but are shrubs in the northern limits of their ranges due to
periodic freezes.

The extent of damage to mangrove vegetation produced by the 1983 freeze
suggested that several years would be required for the mangroves to return to
their pre-freeze stature and distribution. The 1985 freeze killed much of the
1984 regrowth, increasing the time required for recovery to pre-1983 condi-
tions. Mortality to mangroves on Merritt Island due to hard freezes is not
unprecedented. Davis (1940) indicated that extensive mortality to mangroves
on the island occurred from the 1894-95 freeze when air temperatures reached
—5°C. Mangroves occupy approximately 1530 ha (3780 ac) on KSC and are
important in providing rookery sites for wading birds as well as good habitat
for numerous fish species. The two successive freezes have substantially,
though probably temporarily, affected these communities, reducing cover and
biomass production until recovery occurs.

Most plant species adversely affected by the freeze have resprouted from
undamaged parts such as large stems, roots and rhizomes. Even where some
individuals were killed others in the population survived. Stout (1980) noted
that the 1976-77 freeze damaged Ardisia and Psychotria in hammocks on
Canaveral National Seashore in Volusia County and that these species recov-
ered by sprouting. However, for cold-sensitive plant species at the margin of
their range and present in small populations, a single freeze or the cumulative
effect of a number of freezes may result in the elimination of such plant spe-
cies. Poppleton (1981) reported that the 1977 freeze killed the population of
Tournefortia gnaphalodes (sea lavender) which occurred on a dune north of
Playalinda Beach on Canaveral National Seashore.

The December 1983 and January 1985 freezes were severe enough to cause
substantial damage to local terrestrial vegetation, especially of tropical and
subtropical distributions. Some of these plants will require years without se-
vere freezes to regain their pre-freeze status. Fish, however, did not seem to be
as severely affected as observed in January 1977. At that time, a greater num-
ber of individuals covering a much larger portion of the Indian River lagoonal
system were affected. The impact to the lagoonal sea turtle population was as
dramatic as in 1977 and 1981.

No. 4, 1986] PROVANCHA ET AL.—FREEZING AIR TEMPERATURES 211

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— This study was conducted through NASA Contract No. NAS10-10285
under the direction of Dr. William M. Knott, III, Biological Sciences Officer and Dr. Albert M.
Koller, Jr., Chief Environmental Sciences Operation and Research Branch, The Biomedical Office,
John F. Kennedy Space Center. We thank Dr. Ross Hinkle, Director, Environmental Monitoring/
Research Program and Jane A. Provancha who initiated post-freeze investigations and Lee A.
Maull who assisted in terrestrial vegetation sampling. Atmospheric data was provided by John H.
Drese. We gratefully acknowledge Alice Hudson and Tami Skidmore for typing this manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

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Briccs, J. C. 1974. Marine Zoogeography. McGraw Hill Book Co., New York. 425p.

Caprio, A. C. AND D. L. Taytor. 1984. Effects of frost on a subtropical Muhlenbergia prairie in
south Florida. Florida Scient. 47:27-32.

Davis, J. H. 1940. The ecologic and geologic role of mangroves in Florida. Carn. Inst. Wash. Pub.
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EASTERN SPACE AND MIssILE CENTER. 1982. Weather Meteorological Handbook ESMC Pamphlet
105-1. Department of the Air Force, Eastern Space and Missile Center, Patrick Air Force
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Enruart, L. M. 1979. A continuation of base-line studies for environmental monitoring Space
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Fincu, R. H. 1917. Fish killed by the cold wave of February 2-4, in Florida. Monthly Weather
Rev. 45:171-172.

Gatioway, J. C. 1941. Lethal effects of the cold winter of 1939-1940 on marine fishes at Key
West, Florida. Copeia 1941:118-119.

Gitmore, R. G., L. H. BuLLock, anp F. H. Berry. 1978. Hypothermal mortality in marine fishes
of south-central Florida January, 1977. Northeast Gulf Sci. 2:77-97.

GreELLER, A. M. 1980. Correlation of some climatic statistics with distribution of broadleaved
forest zones in Florida, U.S.A. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 107:189-219.

Litt_e, Jr., E. L. 1978. Atlas of United States trees. Vol. 5. Florida. USDA Misc. Pub. No. 1361.
Washington, D.C.

Miter, E. M. 1940. Mortality of fishes due to cold on the south east Florida coast, 1940. Ecology
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Moore, R. H. 1976. Observations on fishes killed by cold at Port Aranzas, Texas, 11-12 January
1973. Southwest Nat. 20:461-466.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION. 1982. Long-term environmental monitoring
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PACKARD, Jr., A. S. 1871. An account of a recent trip to Key West and the Tortugas, Florida. Bull.
Essex (Mass.) Inst. 2:44.

PoppLeton, J. 1981. The occurrence and ecology of potentially endangered, threatened and rare

plants on Merritt Island, St. John’s and Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge. Part I,
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, A. G. SHuEy AND H. A. Sweer. 1977. Vegetation of Central Florida’s east coast: a
checklist of the vascular plants. Florida Scient. 40:362-389.
Rinckey, G. R. anp C. H. Satoman. 1964. Effect of reduced water temperature on fishes of
Tampa Bay, Florida. Quart. J. Florida Acad. Sci. 27:9-16.
SNELSON, Jr., F. F. 1983. Ichthyofauna of the northern part of the Indian River lagoon system,
Florida. Florida Scient. 46:187-206.
, AND S. E. WituiaMs. 1981. Notes on the occurrence, distribution, and biology of
elasmobranch fishes in the Indian River lagoon, Florida. Estuaries 4:1 10-120.
, AND W. K. Brap ey, Jr. 1978. Mortality of fishes due to cold on the east coast of
Florida, January, 1977. Florida Scient. 41:1-12.
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Island, Florida. Ecology 18:10-26.

212 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

, AND E. W. Gupcer. 1936. Mortality of fishes due to the cold at Sanibel Island, Florida,
1886-1936. Ecology 17:640-648.

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Stowers, Jr., D. M., AND M. LeVasseEur. 1983. The Florida freeze of 13 January 1981: An impact
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Sweet, H. C. 1976. A study of a diverse coastal ecosystem of the Atlantic coast of Florida:
Botanical studies of Merritt Island. Final report to NASA/KSC. 258 pp.

, J. E. Poppteton, A. G. SHuey AND T. O. PEopLes. 1979. Vegetation of central Flor-
ida’s east coast: The distribution of six vegetation complexes on Merritt Island and Cape
Canaveral Peninsula. Remote Sensing of Environment 9:93-108.

Tass, D. C. 1966. The estuary as a habitat for spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus. Amer. Fish
Soc. Spec. Publ., No. 3:59-67.

TomMuinson, P. B. 1980. The biology of trees native to tropical Florida. Harvard University Print-
ing Office. Allston, Massachusetts. 488 pp.

Wacter, H. 1979. Vegetation of the earth and ecological system of the geo-biosphere, edition 2,
Springer-Verlag, New York. 274 pp.

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Florida Sci. 49(4): 199-212. 1986.
Accepted: November 15, 1985.

Biological Sciences

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HYDROLOGY AND
VEGETATIONAL PATTERN WITHIN THE FLOODPLAIN
MARSH OF A SUBTROPICAL, FLORIDA LAKE

Epcar F. Lowe

Department of Water Resources, St. Johns River Water Management District,
P.O. Box 1429, Palatka, Florida 32078-1429

Asstract— The floodplain marsh of Blue Cypress Lake, in east-central Florida, was exam-
ined to determine the spatial pattern of the vegetation and its relationship to hydrologic condi-
tions. Visual observation and direct gradient analysis of shoreline vegetation indicated six floristic
zones. The sequences of biomass maxima of common species and their distributional limits with
respect to elevation suggested that this zonation was a result of a complex-gradient in long-term
hydrologic factors caused by topographic relief. Beyond the lake shore, on the marsh flat, the
zoned pattern was replaced by a mozaic of communities similar to those of large areas of the
Everglades. That portion of the mozaic accounted for by communities dominated by Cladium
jamaicense (sawgrass) and Panicum hemitomon (maidencane) apparently did not result from
hydrologic factors. This was suggested by the sharp borders typically found between these two
communities and by the low topographic relief, and consequent uniformity of hydrologic condi-
tions, of the marsh flat. Fire may be the major effector of pattern for these communities by the
following mechanism. Maidencane, and it’s associated species, rapidly colonize areas where
dense stands of sawgrass were destroyed by intense fire and then inhibit establishment of sawgrass
seedlings. Sawgrass reclaims these areas, through vegetative reproduction, as a slowly moving
front which monopolizes space and light.

WETLANDS protection has recently come to the forefront of environmental
concern (Horwitz, 1978; McCormick, 1978), particularly in those states, such
as Florida, where the rate of anthropogenic alteration of wetlands has been
high (Frayer et al., 1983). The primary problem to be addressed by such con-
cern is the destruction of wetlands through drainage. A secondary problem is
disruption of the natural functions of wetlands through more subtle alteration
of the surface water hydrology. This problem is secondary in that the effects of
changes in the hydrologic regime are much less severe than those of drainage.
Nevertheless, alteration of the hydrologic regime as, for example, through re-
duction of the water budget or stablization of water levels, has figured promi-
nently in the ecological decline of many undrained Florida wetlands. Most
notable of these is the Everglades. There, alteration of the hydrology caused
broad changes in the distribution and species composition of plant communi-
ties (Alexander, 1971; Alexander and Crook, 1974); a reduction in the abun-
dance of endangered species, such as the snail kite (Sykes, 1983) and wood
stork (Kushlan et al., 1975; Ogden et al., 1978); and a general decline in
wading bird populations (Robertson and Kushlan, 1974; Kushlan and White,
1977). Such observations make it clear that in order to protect wetland func-
tions we must not only prevent wetland destruction but also scientifically man-

214 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

age wetlands, particularly with respect to surface water levels and flow rates,
in all but the most pristine circumstances.

Several salient and beneficial ecological functions of wetlands—primary
production, water quality maintenance, and provision of fish and wildlife hab-
itat—are largely implemented by the vegetation (Gaudet, 1974; Good et al.,
1978; Greeson et al., 1979). The character of the vegetation, in turn, is primar-
ily determined by the hydrologic characteristics of a wetland (Rumberg and
Sawyer, 1965; Odum, 1978; Gosselink and Turner, 1978; van der Valk and
Bliss, 1971; van der Valk and Davis, 1976; Sjoberg and Danell, 1983; Tallis,
1983). A detailed understanding of the relationship between hydrology and the
species composition and community structure of wetlands vegetation, there-
fore, appears to be essential to sound wetland management.

In a management context our understanding of the ecological effects of
hydrology is still coarse. In fact, as pointed out by Gosselink and Turner
(1978), “‘solid quantitative information about the hydrodynamic characteris-
tics of different wetlands is surprisingly difficult to find?’ Wetland ecologists
have typically inferred hydrology, by measuring either the distance of a site
from the permanent water body (Mandossian and McIntosh, 1960; Beschel
and Webber, 1962) or the elevation (or depth, a transformation of elevation) of
the site (Nicholson and Aroyo, 1975; van der Valk and Davis, 1976; Barnes,
1978; Menges and Waller, 1983), or they have reduced hydrology to a class
variable (eg. permanetly flooded vs. periodically flooded—Sjoberg and Danell,
1983; flooded vs. drawndown—van der Valk, 1981; controlled flooding vs.
permanently flooded vs. natural flooding—Conner et al., 1981). When hydrol-
ogy is inferred, the ecological information obtained is not easily applied to the
management of other wetlands since there is considerable variation among
wetlands in the relationship between ecologically potent hydrologic parame-
ters, such as mean depth and hydroperiod, and their topographic correlates,
distance and elevation. When hydrologic conditions are broadly classified,
many wetlands will lie wholly, or largely, within one of the classes utilized.
Their management will be little improved by the information obtained. For
these reasons, wetland management is often poorly supported by ecological
understanding.

In order to refine our understanding of the importance of hydrologic fac-
tors in shaping wetland structure and function, wetland ecologists must com-
bine the techniques of quantitative ecology with those of the hydrologist. As
suggested by Gosselink and Turner (1978), ““we should pay much more atten-
tion to the hydrologic regime.’ In this study I use a simple analysis of hydro-
logic data in order to elucidate the basis for the spatial pattern of vegetation on
the floodplain of Blue Cypress Lake, in east-central Florida (Fig. 1). I believe
the work is illustrative of a type of research required as a basis for sound
wetland management.

Blue Cypress Lake was selected for the study because it will soon be af-
fected by a regional water management plan and because daily records of
surface water elevations are available from 1956 to the present. It is a shallow,
subtropical (sensu Beaver, Crisman, and Bays, 1981) lake which lies in a region

No. 4, 1986] LOWE—HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION

VOLUSIA

L. Horney, YY

S
SEMINOLE &

q L Hell’n
Blazes

10 Miles

UPPER ST. JOHNS RIVER BASIN

Fic. 1. The Upper Basin of the St. Johns River.

bo
Ol

216 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

8 O—O MEDIAN
O---O0 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM
Bee
oan ‘of
oe a
7.5 Tey,
=
Zi
o
ra
Ss
W
4
WwW 6.5
6
5.5

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

MONTH

Fic. 2. Variation in the median, maximum, and minimum water elevation (above mean sea
level) of Blue Cypress Lake by month. Based upon elevation records from April 1956-January
1982.

of seasonal rainfall. Average annual rainfall is 130 cm and because approxi-
mately 66 percent of the rainfall occurs during June-October (St. Johns River
Water Management District, 1980) the water elevation of the lake fluctuates
approximately | m ina typical year. Annual minimum elevations have ranged
from 5.6-7.1 m above mean sea level and usually occur in May or June while
annual maximums have ranged from 7.0-8.1 m and generally occur in Septem-
ber or October (Fig. 2). The lake lies within an extensive, floodplain marsh.
Most of the floodplain marsh lies between 6.7-7.3 m and, therefore, experi-
ences both inundation and drawndown during a typical year. Variation in
hydroperiod (days inundated per year) in the marsh is considerable ranging
from continuous inundation below 5.6 m, to approximately 300 days at 6.7 m,
to about 90 days at 7.3 m. When this study was initiated, I suspected that this
spatial variation in hydrologic conditions, caused by topographic relief,
largely accounted for the pattern of the floodplain vegetation. It seems, how-
ever, that disturbance, probably due to fire, is the primary cause of pattern for
a major portion of the floodplain.

Metrnops—The vegetational pattern was characterized through both extensive and intensive
sampling of the floodplain marsh of Blue Cypress Lake (23°43'36”N, 80°45'12” W, Fig. 1).

Extensive data were provided by color infra-red aerial photographs obtained and intrepreted by

No. 4, 1986] LOWE—HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION 217

ELEVATION (M)

0 25 50 75 100 §6€6[12506—C 150s s«&175)=—200 «262250 250) 278
DISTANCE (M)

Fic. 3. Variation in median ground elevation with distance along the belt transect. Boxes
indicate the ranges of distance and elevation encompassed by samples for each station. Circles
indicate the median distance and elevation of samples in each station.

the remote sensing department of the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT). Aerial tran-
sects of the marsh were flown at 6,000 feet elevation on March 20, 1981. Photographs were
obtained with a Zeiss RMK camera (certified by the National Bureau of Standards) loaded with
Kodak type 2443 color aerial infra-red film. Stereo pair transparencies at a scale of 1:12,000 were
examined with a stereo viewer to delineate vegetation and land-use signatures. The interpreted
photographs were then digitized and polyconic projections of the area surveyed were plotted
through use of the Intergraph Interactive Computer Graphics System. The areal extent of each
signature was also determined via Intergraph software. Finally, the signatures were color-coded to
excentuate vegetational patterns. The color-coded map is available for examination at the St. Johns
River Water Management District headquarters in Palatka, Florida.

In order to verify FDOT’s interpretation of the vegetation signatures, several examples of the
most prevalent communities were examined during November 9-11. At each site, the most com-
mon species were listed and dominance was assessed through subjective estimates of cover. In
addition, five measurements of water depth were obtained. Land elevation was obtained by sub-
tracting water depth from the elevation of the lake’s surface, which was measured by a continuous
recorder (described below).

Intensive data were obtained from a belt transect which extended approximately 270 m into
the marsh from the southeastern shore of the lake. The transect consisted of five contiguous sta-
tions and a sixth station approximately 200 m into the marsh beyond the fifth station. All stations
except station 2, which measured 20 m x 20 m, had dimensions of 10 m by 40 m and each station
lay within or spanned a visually distinct zone of vegetation. Sampling locations within each station
were determined by considering the two dimensions of each station to be x and y coordinates
marked at meter intervals. Random number pairs indicating locations on the coordinate grid were
generated by a computer program which utilized the random number generator of Prime (Prime
Computer, Inc. 1977). These procedures yielded a stratified random sampling design; a design
highly recommended for studies of aquatic plant biomass (Nichols, 1982).

218 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

100
_ 90
#
5
= 80
ie
a
=
>
=
70
Ww
(oe)
>
oO
5 60
=}
(e]
uJ
ar
ire
50
40

5.5 6 6.5 7
ELEVATION (M)

Fic. 4. Percentage of days (frequency of inundation) that the ground elevations of the samples
were equaled or exceeded by water elevations of the lake during October 1, 1971-September 30,
1981.

TaBLe |. Mean percentage of the total above-ground dry biomass for the fifteen species most
common on the transect.

STATION

SPECIES l 2 3 4 5 6

Cladium jamaicense 0.0 5.0 6.6 51.6 40.0 90.9
Osmunda regalis 0.0 0.0 16.4 el 51.8 3.5
Panicum hemitomon 99.2 36.4 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0
Kosteletzyka virginica 0.0 0.0 0.4 18.5 0.2 0.0
Polygonum punctatum 0.0 9:2 0.7 0.5 0.1 0.0
Ipomoea alba 0.0 1.3 32.4 0.4 0.0 0.0
Eupatorium capillifolium 0.5 29.5 0.0 1.6 0.0 0.0
Amaranthus australis 0.0 12.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cephalanthus occidentalis 0.0 0.0 Uodl 0.1 0.0 4.9
Calystegia sepium 0.0 0.0 29.8 0.0 0.0 0.0
Ludwigia alata 0.0 Hos} 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0
Peltandra virginica 0.0 0.0 4.2 0.3 0.0 0.1
Boehmeria cylindrica 0.0 0.0 0.0 eS 0.0 0.0
Blechnum serrulatum 0.0 0.0 0.0 3.4 13 0.0

Lachnanthes caroliniana 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

No. 4, 1986] LOWE—HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION 219

Because of variation in size and density of vegetation among the stations, samples were ob-
tained using quadrats of differing sizes and shapes. For station 1, a 0.25-m diameter circle was
sampled; for station 2, a 0.50-m diameter circle was sampled; and for station 3-6, a square measur-
ing 0.50 m on each side was sampled. A square quadrat was used for stations 3-6 so that a three-
sided sampler could be inserted into the dense vegetation at ground level and the fourth side be
added after the sampler was in place. Within each quadrat, all macrovegetation was removed to
ground level and placed in plastic bags for transport to the laboratory. The elevation of the ground
surface within each quadrat was determined by standard surveying techniques using the lake
elevation indicated by a staff gauge at Middleton’s Fish Camp as the reference elevation. Depend-
ing on the variability and density of the vegetation, 10-20 locations were sampled within each
station. Samples were collected between June 25, 1981 and February 12, 1982. Due to a drought,
water level was low (5.7 m) when sampling began. Water level reached a minimum of 5.6 m on
July 16 and a maximum of 7.1 m on November 13. Ninety-one samples were taken, spanning an
elevational range of 5.6-7.1 m (Fig. 3). ;

In the laboratory, samples were sorted by species and desiccated in an oven at 100° C for 24-48
h to determine dry weight biomass. For large samples, subsamples were desiccated to determine
coefficients for converting wet weight totals to dry weights. Species identifications were according
to Godfrey and Wooten (1979, 1981) for monocots and dicots, Lakela and Long (1976) for ferns,
and Radford, Ahles, and Bell (1968) for gymnosperms.

Data from the transect were analyzed on two levels. First, the data were segregated by station
to provide baseline descriptions of community structure for each vegetational zone. In this analy-
sis, means and variances for dry biomass and percentage of the total dry biomass (relative biomass)
were calculated for each species for each station. Second, the entire data set was used to perform a
direct gradient analysis using relative frequency of inundation (percent of time an elevation was
equaled or exceeded by the lake elevation) as the environmental gradient.

Relative frequency of inundation is a parameter which is commonly used by surface water
hydrologists and engineers. It was selected as a simple indicator of variation in a variety of hydro-
logic parameters such as mean depth, mean annual maximum depth, and hydroperiod. In addi-
tion, because annual maximum depths are typically shallow (<1 m) for most of the floodplain
marsh it was felt that spatial variation in the duration of inundation was the best measure of the
most potent ecological effect of inundation, the creation of anaerobic soil conditions (Ponnam-
peruma, 1972; Wharton et al., 1982). The samples obtained in this study spanned a range of
frequency of inundation of 46-100 percent (Fig. 4.).

The progression of plant associations along the environmental gradient (the coenocline) was
examined through construction of an association table in which samples were sorted by elevation
and species by their median elevation of occurrence. The distributions of species along the coeno-
cline were examined more closely by a graphical examination of the relationship between fre-
quency of inundation and dry biomass. In this portion of the gradient analysis, the median biomass
of a selected species, determined for data grouped over one percent intervals of frequency of
inundation, was plotted against frequency of inundation. Before plotting, each series of medians
was smoothed using running medians according to the 4253H, twice procedure of Velleman and
Hoaglin (1981). Values between the smoothed points were interpolated by a local procedure
(Akima, 1970). Lake elevation data utilized for gradient analyses were those obtained by a contin-
uous recorder (USGS #02231400) located at the lakeward end of the canal extending from Middle-
ton’s Fish Camp. Only those data for the previous ten years (October 1971-September 1981) were
used to insure that the time-scale of the hydrologic data would be pertinent to existing spatial
patterns in the vegetation.

REsuLTs—Station 1, the lowest and most lakeward station (Fig. 3), was
strongly dominated by Panicum hemitomon Schultes (hereafter maidencane)
which exhibited a mean relative biomass of 99% (Table 1), a high frequency of
occurrence (85%; Table 2) and a high mean biomass (284 g dry wt./m’; Table
3). Station 2, which was higher than station 1, was also dominated by maiden-
cane; but its dominance, as indicated by mean biomass (179 g dry wt./m’),
mean relative biomass (36%), and frequency of occurrence (65%), was lower
than in station 1. In addition to maidencane, station 2 contained substantial
amounts of Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Small, Amaranthus australis
(Gray) Sauer., and Polygonum punctatum E11. E. capillifolium and A. aus-

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FLORIDA SCIENTIST

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No. 4, 1986] LOWE—HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION 22)

tralis were present because water levels were low due to the intense drought.
Once water levels returned to normal these species, and the vines which domi-
nated station 3, were eliminated. Station 3 spanned the berm of the lake and
had the highest median elevation. There, the herbaceous vines Ipomoea alba
L. and Calystegia sepium (L.) R. Brown accounted for the greatest portion of
the biomass (117 g dry wt./m’, 62%) and, through the exclusion of light, were
killing understory species such as Cladium jamaicense Crantz (hereafter saw-
grass). During the study, the height of sawgrass in station 3 declined as it died
and collapsed under the weight of the vines. By the time normal water levels
eliminated the vines, most culms of sawgrass in station 3 appeared dead. Sta-
tion 4 lay behind the lake’s berm and at a lower elevation than station 3.
Sawgrass dominated station 4, exhibiting a mean biomass of 798 g dry wt./m”
and mean relative biomass of 52%. Station 5 had a median elevation only
slightly higher than that for station 4. Sawgrass probably dominated (sensu
Hurlbert, 1971) station 5 but Osmunda regalis (Willd.) Gray had the highest
mean relative biomass (52%). Station 6, which was farthest from the lake’s
shore, was a nearly monospecific stand of sawgrass with a relatively high
mean biomass (492 g dry wt./m’*) and high mean percentage of the total bio-
mass (91 %) and freqency of occurrence (100%).

The distribution of species with respect to elevation and frequency of inun-
dation (Fig. 5) indicates that the shoreline zonation represented by the stations
reflected a hydrologic gradient caused by topographic relief. The minimum
elevation supporting maidencane (5.9 m) marked the lakeward border of
emergent vegetation and corresponded to an inundation frequency of 96 per-
cent. From 5.9 m to approximately 6.4 m (91% inundation) only maidenance
was represented in the samples. This corresponds to the nearly monotypic
stand of station 1. The landward edge of the maidencane monoculture corre-
sponded closely to the mean annual minimum elevation of the lake (6.5 m);
above this point species density (number of species per unit area) increased
markedly. Over the elevational range of station 2, 6.4-6.7 m (91-81% inunda-
tion), an additional 18 species occurred. The addition of species caused me-
dian species density to increase over the same range of elevation from | to >4
(Fig. 6). Some of this increase may reflect the increase in sample area, but the
use of a larger quadrat within station | would have yielded very few, if any,
additional species due to the extremely monotypic nature of the stand. Station
3 was centered about the berm of the lake, which had a mean elevation ap-
proximately equal to the mean annual elevation of the lake (7.0 m; 61% inun-
dation frequency). Together, the first three stations formed a coencoline along
the moderate slope of the shore to the lake’s berm. Zones 4-6 lay behind the
berm, where wave action would be negligible, and were dominated by saw-
grass. Before the drought sawgrass probably also dominated station 3, but the
mortality which resulted from the profuse growth of vines allowed by the
drought may result in its density in this zone being low for a considerable time.
Sawgrass was distributed from approximately 6.7 m (80% inundation) to the
maximum elevation sampled (7.1 m, 46% inundation). Coincident with the
appearance of sawgrass the species assemblage changed rather abruptly. Of

999 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

HEMITOMON —"—C. JAMAICENSE

. ALBA —— 0. REGALIS
. SEPIUM

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PERCENTAGE OF MAXIMUM BIOMASS

60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
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P. PUNCTATUM —— K. VIRGINICA

100
80
60

40

PERCENTAGE OF MAXIMUM BIOMASS

20

60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
FREQUENCY OF INUNDATION (%)

(b)

Fic. 6. Variation in (a and b) median above-ground biomass of common species, (c) median
total above-ground biomass, and (d) median species density with respect to frequency of inunda-
tion (percent). Medians were smoothed by running medians according to the 4253H, Twice proce-
dure of Velleman and Hoaglin (1981). Intermediate values were interpolated using the local proce-
dure of Akima (1970).

LOWE— HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION

No. 4, 1986]

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224 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

TaBLe 2. Frequency of occurrence (percent) for the fifteen species most common on the
transect.

STATION
SPECIES ] 2 3 4 5 6
Cladium jamaicense 0 5 100 90 80 100
Osmunda regalis 0 0 90 90 80 45
Panicum hemitomon 85 65 0 25 0 0
Kosteletzyka virginica 0 0 40 60 50 9
Polygonum punctatum 0 55 10 25 10 0
Ipomoea alba 0 30 90 15 0 0
Eupatorium capillifolium 10 55 20 10 0 0
Amaranthus australis 0 70 0 0 0 0
Cephalanthus occidentalis 0 0 30 10 30 36
Calystegia sepium 0 0 70 0 0 0
Ludwigia alata 0 30 0 0 10 0
Peltandra virginica 0 0 10 20 0 9
Boehmeria cylindrica 0 0 0 30 0 0
Blechnum serrulatum 0 0 0 20 10 0
Lachnanthes caroliniana 0 25 0 0 0 0

TABLE 3. Mean above-ground dry biomass (g/m?) for the fifteen species most common on the
transect and for all species combined.

STATION
SPECIES ] 2 3 4 5 6
Cladium jamaicense 0.0 20.9 24.3 797.9 182.4 492.2
Osmunda regalis 0.0 0.0 42.2 48.8 104.2 ils}
Panicum hemitomon 284.2 178.8 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.0
Kosteletzyka virginica 0.0 0.0 DED 138.2 0.8 0.0
Polygonum punctatum 0:08 39.7% 1.4 4.6 0.2 0.0
Ipomoea alba 0.0 2.2 59.9 1&3 0.0 0.0
Eupatorium capillifolium 2.7 196.2 0.0 11.4 0.0 0.0
Amaranthus australis 0.0 Spee 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Cephalanthus occidentalis 0.0 0.0 56.0 2.0 0.0 29.2
Calystegia sepium 0.0 0.0 56.9 0.0 0.0 0.0
Ludwigia alata 0.0 6.9 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0
Peltandra virginica 0.0 0.0 9.5 12 0.0 0.5
Boehmeria cylindrica 0.0 0.0 0.0 53.9 0.0 0.0
Blechnum serrulatum 0.0 0.0 0.0 Saal 10.6 0.0
Lachnanthes caroliniana 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
All Species 288.6 498.8 1204.9 2083.2 1124.0 3160.1

the 20 species recorded from 5.9-6.7 m, only 7 remained at 6.9 m (75% inun-
dation) and the distributions of none extended to 7.0 m (61% inundation). The
disappearance of these species from higher elevations was probably due to
monopolization of space and light by sawgrass. Species which occurred with
sawgrass were either able to grow above it (eg. Kosteletzkya virginica (L.)
Presl.) or tolerate shading (eg. O. regalis). They were prevalent in stations 4
and 5, where sawgrass grew as large, widely spaced tussocks; but were virtu-

No. 4, 1986] LOWE— HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION 225

ally absent in station 6, where sawgrass density was so great that there was
little space for other species. The increasing dominance of sawgrass, due to
changing growth form, probably accounted for the decline in species density
from approximately 6.9 m (75% inundation) to 7.1 m (46% inundation).

Data for a continuous variable, such as biomass, are superior to presence-
absence data in delineating the distribution of a species in that they indicate
not only distributional limits but also distributional optima, the optima being
those points where maxima are attained. In this work, for each species ade-
quately sampled the distribution of biomass was roughly Gaussian and indi-
cated a marked optimum with respect to frequency of inundation (Fig. 6).
Proceeding down the inundation gradient, successive optima occured for
Ludwigea alata Ell. (88%), maidencane (87%), P. punctatum and E. capillifo-
lium (84%), O. regalis (77%), I. alba (70%), C. sepium (72%), and sawgrass
(<60%). Total biomass reached a broad maximum from 80-85% inundation
and showed a smaller peak at approximately 73% inundation. The overall
maximum for total biomass indicated for less than 60% inundation was due to
two large samples of sawgrass and, owing to the small number of samples in
this range, should be considered very tentative. Sincock (1958) did find, how-
ever, that sawgrass attained its highest frequency of occurrence in the basin at
elevations with a frequency of inundation of approximately 45%.

Aerial photographs showed that the zonation of the lake shore was re-
placed on the marsh flat by a mozaic primarily comprised of five communi-
ties: 1) wet prairie, 2) dense sawgrass, 3) myrtle head, 4) sawgrass/willow
association and 5) slough (Fig. 7). These communities covered 9,653 ha (92%)
of the marsh.

Wet prairie was the most abundant community of the marsh (3,894 ha,
37% of marsh area). In most areas, maidencane was the dominant species in
terms of relative cover. In some areas other common species, such as Sagittaria
lancifolia L. and Cephalanthus occidentalis L., shared dominance with
maidencane. Other species which were commonly observed in wet prairie
were Peltandra virginica (L.) Kunth, Crinum americanum L., Lachnanthes
caroliniana (Lam.) Dandy, Erianthus strictus Baldwin., Pontederia cordata L.,
P. punctatum, Nymphaea odorata Aiton, Bidens mitis (Michaux) Sherff., Cy-
perus haspan L., and Pluchea longifolia Nash. This community is apparently
quite similar to the wet prairies dominated by maidencane which occupy large
areas of the northern Everglades (Loveless, 1959; Goodrick, 1974). As has
been observed in the Everglades, the transition between wet prairie and the
next community discussed, dense sawgrass, was typically abrupt.

The dense sawgrass community, which consisted of almost pure stands of
Sawgrass, was second to wet prairie in its areal extent (2,402 ha, 23% of the
marsh). No emergent macrophyte other than sawgrass was abundant but some
species, such as S. lancifolia, P. virginica, O. regalis, S. caroliniana, and C.
occidentalis, occurred with low densities. This community was examined in
detail on the transect (station 6). It commonly exhibited a broad, graded transi-
tion to the sawgrass/willow association apparently correlated with increasing
frequency and depth of inundation.

226 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

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southeast shore of Blue Cypress Lake. Modified from infra-red, aerial photographs obtained and
interpreted by the Florida Department of Transportation. Photographs taken from an altitude of
6,000 feet on March 20, 1981.

No. 4, 1986] LOWE— HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION 227

Sawgrass usually dominated the sawgrass/willow association which cov-
ered 13% of the marsh (1,363 ha). In this community, sawgrass was typically
taller and more clumped in its distribution than in the dense sawgrass commu-
nity. The clumped distribution left open areas between the large tussocks
which allowed a greater variety of species than in dense sawgrass. Species
which commonly occurred in addition to those found in dense sawgrass stands
included S. caroliniana, K. virginica, Boehmeria cylindrica (L.) Swartz,
Blechnum serrulatum L. C. Rich, Ludwigia alata Ell., and Acer rubrum L.
This community is represented by stations 4 and 5 of the transect. It exhibited
a smooth transition to myrtle head which appearently corresponded to a gradi-
ent of decreasing depth and frequency of inundation.

Sawgrass was common in the myrtle head community but did not domi-
nate due to the presence of larger, woody species. This community, typically
dominated by some combination of Myrica cerifera L., S. caroliniana, C.
occidentalis, and A. rubrum, accounted for 15% of the marsh (3917 acres)
and was associated with raised areas, transitional areas from marsh to forest,
and disturbed areas such as the borders of canals.

There was a gentle decline in elevation of the marsh from west to east. As a
result, mean depth and hydroperiod probably also increased in this direction.
This was probably the basis for the replacement of typical marsh flat com-
munities by the slough community on the east side of the marsh. The slough
community, typically domianted by Nymphaea odorata Aiton and Utricularia
spp., was distributed over 4% (409 ha) of the marsh. Other species which
commonly occurred in the slough community were S. lancifolia, maidencane
and Limnobium spongia (Bosc.) Steudel.

Discussilon—The seminal premise of this work was that the spatial hetero-
geneity of vegetation in the upper St. Johns Marsh is largely determined by
spatial variation in hydrologic conditions due to topographic relief. This sup-
position is supported by the relationships between frequency of inundation,
elevation and vegetation observed on the shore of the lake. Numbers and kinds
of species varied continuously with both elevation and frequency of inunda-
tion as did the above-ground biomass of individual species. This resulted in a
zoned pattern in the vegetation correlated with hydrologic features of the lake
shore. An implication of these relationships is that modification of the hydrol-
ogy of the marsh would alter the spatial pattern of the vegetation. This conclu-
sion is supported by studies in other areas, including long-term observations of
the effects of hydrologic changes in the Everglades (Craighead, 1971; Alexan-
der and Crook, 1974) and quantitative sampling of a wetland coencoline in
lowa before and after a change in water levels (van der Valk and Davis, 1976).

If hydrologic conditions do determine much of the spatial pattern of wet-
land vegetation, then the relationship between pattern and hydrology is partic-
ularly important in large wetlands, such as the St. Johns Marsh, where most
acreage lies within the narrow range of elevation of the marsh flat (6.7-7.3 m
in the area studied). The movement of species into or out of this elevational
range, or a change in dominance within this range, would result in vegeta-

228 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

tional changes over thousands of acres. Considering the central role of vegeta-
tion in the implementation of wetland functions, this would be expected to
have profound ecological effects. Conclusions regarding the importance of
hydrology in shaping vegetation patterns, however, must be tempered by three
major considerations.

First, the distribution of a species reflects spatial variation in both the
abiotic and biotic environment. Because of the importance of variation in the
competitive balance among species, alteration of the species assemblage would
modify the distributions of individual species. For example, the prevalence of
maidencane over large areas of the marsh flat shows that its ecological ampli-
tude is broader than was indicated by its distribution on the shore and suggests
that maidencane was absent in areas with low frequencies of inundation on the
shore due to competitive exclusion by sawgrass. Apparently, maidencane be-
comes established in these drier areas if competition with sawgrass can be
avoided as, for instance, in areas where fire has eliminated sawgrass. Due to
species interactions such as this, much additional work is necessary to rigor-
ously delineate the distributions of species along the hydrologic gradient.

Second, the suite of environmental factors which is most important in shap-
ing vegetation patterns probably varies both within and among species. In this
context, frequency of inundation is an indicator of a variety of environmental
factors. A gradient in frequency of inundation is, thus, a complex gradient
(sensu Whittaker, 1967), along which many factors vary together, as opposed
to a factor-gradient, along which a single factor varies. The lakeward distribu-
tion of maidencane, for example, may be primarily determined by depth or
wave action rather than frequency of inundation, per se. In the absence of
wave action, sawgrass may be capable of extending its distribution to areas
with higher frequencies of inundation and supplanting maidencane as the
dominant species.

Last, although the distributions of vegetatively reproducing perennials,
such as maidencane and sawgrass, probably reflect long-term hydrologic pa-
rameters, such as hydroperiod or mean depth, the distributions of other species
may depend upon extreme events of relatively short duration. This is particu-
larly true for species which cannot survive both soil exposure and inundation
as adults. For these species, hydrologic conditions act as an “‘environmental
sieve’ (van der Valk, 1981). As fluctuation between the alternative states of
exposure and inundation occurs, the nature of the sieve changes and species
enter, or are eliminated from the wetland environment. Hydrologic conditions
thus determine the suite of species present in a wetland at any given time. As
emphasizd by van der Valk (1981), species which can not survive both inunda-
tion and drawdown rely on seed banks or seed dispersal for maintenance of
their populations. For many of these species (eg. E. capillifolium, A. australis)
the influence of hydrology on temporal patterns of abundance is probably
more important than its influence on spatial patterns. Long-term hydrology
may, however, cause spatial gradients in seed bank density and viability which
are later expressed in the spatial patterns of adult populations. The fact that

No. 4, 1986] LOWE—HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION 229

the landward limit of the maidencane monoculture corresponded with the
mean annual minimum elevation of the lake, and that the heavy growth of
vines of station 3 was centered about the berm of the lake, strongly suggests a
spatial structuring of the seed bank.

Despite these caveats, I believe that the distributions of species on the shore
indicate a major role for long-term hydrologic factors in the control of spatial
pattern. The relative importance of hydrology in determination of vegeta-
tional patterns, however, would be expected to decline as the depth and dura-
tion of inundation decline and the physiological stresses caused by inundation
become less severe. Thus, as one moves away from the shore and up the
elevational gradient onto the marsh flat, the relative importance of hydrology
in shaping vegetational patterns would probably diminish. More importantly,
hydrology can not account for spatial patterns perpendicular to hydrologic
gradients. Because topographic relief is very slight on the marsh flat, the vege-
tational pattern is nearly perpendicular to hydrologic gradients except in areas
where topographic relief is greater than that which is typical as, for example,
near levees, tree islands, and the lake shore. These considerations suggest that
on most of the marsh flat hydrologic factors could explain only broad, graded
patterns in the vegetation, such as the gradual west to east transition in domi-
nance from emergent to floating-leaved species. Hydrologic factors, therefore,
provide an unlikely basis for much of the mosaic of the marsh flat where
transitions between communities, especially between dense sawgrass and wet
prairie, were often abrupt. The importance of non-hydrologic factors on the
flat is further indicated by the fact that the distributions of many species over-
lapped broadly with respect to frequency of inundation, but showed little, or
no overlap spatially. This was especially true for maidencane and sawgrass,

which were nearly mutually exclusive.
For these reasons, it appears that the mosaic formed by dense sawgrass and

wet prairie was caused by non-hydrologic factors. Variation in soils apparently
did not cause this pattern because all areas sampled had deep peat soils. A
more likely cause is fire. Although there are no data on the frequency with
which the St. Johns Marsh near Blue Cypress Lake has burned, it did burn as
recently as 1959 (Herke, 1959). Given the strong similarity between the St.
Johns marsh and the Everglades, where fire is a frequent and ecologically
potent event (Wade et al., 1980; Taylor, 1981), it is reasonable to assume that
fire has been a significant factor in development of vegetational patterns in the
marsh.

Fire may be particularly important for maidencane and other species of the
wet prairie which apparently exist in the marsh primarily where competition
with sawgrass can be avoided. On the lake shore, wave action may prevent
colonization by sawgrass whereas on the marsh flat severe fire may be re-
quired to eliminate sawgrass from an area and allow prairie species access to
it. It seems likely that prairie species rapidly colonize severely burned areas
and then inhibit the establishment of sawgrass seedlings. Sawgrass would re-
claim these areas slowly, through vegetative propagation, as a moving front
which monopolizes space and light.

230 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

This explanation for development of the mosaic of sawgrass and prairie
communities is supported by several lines of evidence: 1) Although sawgrass is
morphologically adapted to withstand fire (Forthman, 1973) and in some ar-
eas may require fire to maintain its dominance (Wade et al., 1980), severe
burns can kill the meristems and thus eliminate it from an area. Fire has, in
fact, been a major factor in reduction of sawgrass populations in the Ever-
glades (Craighead, 1971) and in the Upper Basin of the St. Johns River (per-
sonal observation). 2) Maidencane is well adapted to survive fire. In the Ever-
glades, Loveless (1959) observed rapid resprouting of maidencane only 3-4
days after burning and Tilmant (1975, in Wade et al., 1980) found that six
months after a fire the total cover in a maidencane marsh was 77 percent,
compared to only 27 percent in an adjacent stand of sawgrass. Perhaps more
importantly, maidencane prairies are less likely to be severely burned than are
sawgrass communities. During the 1971 drought in the Everglades, wet prai-
ries did not burn at the same time there were intense fires in stands of sawgrass
(Goodrick, 1974). Goodrick (1974) suggested this was due to the low fuel con-
tent of wet prairies and pointed out their importance as fire breaks and refu-
gia. The prescribed fires studied by Forthman (1973) also “stopped (without
suppression) when they reached areas without heavy sawgrass fuel’’. The jux-
taposition of unburned prairies with severly burned areas would promote
rapid colonization of the burned area by prairie species. 3) The very low densi-
ties of sawgrass in prairies indicate that seed dispersal is a largely ineffective
means for colonization of the prairie by sawgrass. Studies in the Everglades
have, in fact, directly demonstrated that sawgrass does not typically rely on
seed dispersal (Alexander, 1971). Moreover, when seedlings of sawgrass do
become established on newly burned areas, they frequently die during the next
dry season (Craighead, 1971). 4) Field observations indicate that the elevations
of maidencane prairies are often slightly lower (1 to several inches) than the
elevations of adjacent sawgrass stands. This would be expected if sawgrass was
eliminated from the area by a fire sufficiently severe to burn the peat. The
sharp borders between sawgrass stands and wet prairie communities and the
slight difference in their elevations have also been observed in the Everglades
(Wade et al., 1980: Olmstead et al., 1980).

If fire is, indeed, the primary effector of the distributional pattern formed
by maidencane prairie and sawgrass communities, it would account for a
large portion (ca. 50%) of the spatial heterogeneity of the marsh flat. It should
be remembered, however, that the frequency and intensity of fire, and the suite
of species upon which it acts, are largely determined by hydrologic conditions.
Moreover, it can not yet be discounted that the small difference in hydroperiod
implied by elevational differences between the two communities is the primary
cause of the mozaic.

The conclusions which can be drawn from this work regarding the relative
roles of fire and hydrology in shaping vegetational patterns must be tentative.
Additional work is needed to adequately delineate the ecological amplitudes
and optima of the species sampled and conclusions regarding fire were largely
hypothetical. The scientific literature provides little help in more rigorously

No. 4, 1986] LOWE—HYDROLOGY AND VEGETATION 231

defining the effects of fire or hydrology on spatial patterns. Of the few other
studies which have examined the effects of hydrology on the vegetational pat-
terns of Florida wetlands, only two (Sincock, 1958; Pesnell and Brown, 1977)
directly addressed the problem via gradient analysis. Quantitative, synecologi-
cal study of the effects of fire in Florida wetlands is equally rudimentary
(Wright and Bailey, 1982; Hall, 1983). Because the ecological values of wet-
lands are largely based upon their vegetation it is extremely important that
managers of wetlands better understand the factors which regulate species
distributions. Investigation of the nature and causes of vegetation pattern,
therefore, remains an area of research vital to sound management of the wet-
land resources of Florida.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—David Girardin, Joel Steward, Marvin Williams and Palmer Kinser as-
sisted in the field. Palmer Kinser and David Girardin also helped in species identifications. Wayne
King and Joe Woodard helped develop FORTRAN programs for generation of random number
pairs and interpolation of serial data. Figure 7 was digitized and plotted by Marvin Williams and
Greeneville Hall. All other figures were prepared by Bruce Ford. Drafts of the manuscript were
critically read by Jerry Brooks, Greeneville Hall, Palmer Kinser, Dr. Theodore Rochow, and an
anonymous reviewer. Their comments significantly contributed to its improvement. To all of these
individuals I extend my sincere thanks.

LITERATURE CITED

Axima, H., 1970. A new method of interpolation and smooth curve fitting based on local proce-
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Florida Sci. 49(4):213-233. 1986.
Accepted: December 13, 1985.

Biological Sciences

PERIPHYTIC ALGAL GROWTHIN A HYPEREUDROEEIE
FLORIDA LAKE FOLLOWING A
WINTER DECLINE IN PHYTOPLANKTON

LyNN M. Hopcson”), STEPHEN B. LinDA®, AND DANIEL E. CANFIELD, JR.

Dept. of Natural Sciences, Northern State College, Aberdeen, $.D. 57401"
Center for Aquatic Weeds, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL. 32611)

Asstract: Lake Wauberg, Florida, has a long history of blue-green algal dominance through-
out the year, with annual mean Secchi depths of 0.5 m. Growth of periphytic algal species on
submersed glass slides was negligible in winter under the usual bloom conditions. In February,
1981, the phytoplankton population drastically decreased in biomass. Secchi depth rose to 3.0 m,
and periphytic algal standing crops on glass slides dramatically increased. As the phytoplankton
populations recovered, periphytic algal standing crop decreased. A succession of green algae in
February, green algae and cryptomonad in March, and blue-green algae by April, 1982, was
observed as the phytoplankton recovered pre-collapse densities. The periphyton succession was
dominated by green algae in March, green algae and diatoms in April-May, and by blue-green
algae in June and July. Phytoplankton diversity decreased during the recovery period, and was
negatively correlated with total biovolume. Periphyton diversity increased as the phytoplankton
recovered and periphyton biovolume decreased to annual mean levels.

THE RELATIONSHIP between planktonic and periphytic algal communities
in lakes is unclear. In most studies which include both communities (e.g.,
Fitzgerald 1969, Cattaneo and Kalff 1980, Moss 1981), it is difficult to inter-
pret interactions between phytoplankton and periphyton apart from the effects
of submersed macrophytes. However, in a study of epiphyte seasonality,
Jorgensen (1957) noted that maxima of epiphytes on Phragmites spp. never
coincided with those of phytoplankton, and suggested that phytoplankton in-
hibited epiphytes. Conversely, Moss (1976) noted the epiphyte biomass per unit
biomass of macrophyte substrate remained unchanged as phytoplankton con-
centration increased.

Lake Wauberg is a hypereutrophic, phytoplankton-dominated Florida lake
virtually free from submersed macrophytes, but with a fringe of emergent
vegetation. Annual mean Secchi disc depths are 0.5 m to 0.9 m (Carr 1934,
Canfield 1981) and annual mean chlorophyll a concentrations exceed 37 mg/
m’ (Canfield 1981). In February, 1981, the phytoplankton disappeared and
resulted in a mean Secchi disc depth of 3.0 m. This major phytoplankton
decline presented an opportunity to examine the concomitant responses of
periphyton, phytoplankton, and water chemistry.

Stupy Sire—Lake Wauberg (29° 32’N, 82°18’W) is a naturally hypereutrophic, soft water

lake in Alachua County. The lake has an area of 101 ha, and a mean depth of 3.8 m, with a central
depth of about 4.5 m. The lake bottom is a loosely consolidated organic muck, and seems to have
changed little in the last 50 years (Carr, 1934). Direct rainfall and surface/subsurface flows which

have passed through slightly calcareous, phosphatic sands are the major sources of water

No. 4, 1986] HODGSON ET AL.—PERIPHYTIC ALGAL GROWTH 235

(Canfield, 1981). The only surface outlet is a slough on the east shore which empties into a large
sawgrass pond. Canfield (1981) reported a mean pH of 7.8, alkalinity of 21 mg/] as CaCOs, total
hardness of 22.1 mg/l as CaCO3, nitrogen of 2109 mg/m3, phosphorus of 79.9 mg/m3, and chloro-
phyll a of 110 mg/m?.

Lake Wauberg has a narrow fringe of floating-leaved and emergent macrophytes, mainly
Nuphar luteum, Panicum spp. and Typha spp.; but has virtually no submersed macrophytes. Carr
(1934) recorded Secchi disc depths ranging from 0.1 to 1.45 m, and consistent blue-green domi-
nance of the phytoplankton. Similarly, Canfield (1981) reported an annual mean Secchi disc depth
of 0.4 m and Hodgson and Linda (1982) found the phytoplankton to be dominated by filamentous
blue-green algae in both summer and winter.

MATERIALS AND MetHops—Phytoplankton and periphytic algae were sampled in February,
1980, and January of 1981, prior to the phytoplankton collapse. Subsequent to the collapse,
weekly sampling of phytoplankton, periphytic algae, and water chemistry was initiated on Feb.
26, 1981, and continued to May 6, 1981, when sampling frequency was reduced to biweekly.
Sampling continued until July 15, 1981.

Three to five subsurface water samples (0.5 m) were taken on each sampling date for chemical
analyses and phytoplankton quantification. Chemical analyses were performed on unfiltered wa-
ter, except where otherwise noted. Total phosphorus concentrations were determined using the
procedures of Murphy and Riley (1962) after persulfate digestion (Menzel and Corwin, 1965).
Total nitrogen concentrations were determined using a modified Kjeldahl technique (Nelson and
Sommers, 1975). An Orion model 601A pH meter was used to measure pH. Specific conductance
was measured by use of a Yellow Springs Instrument Company model 31 conductivity meter. Total
and phenolphthalein alkalinity were determined by titration with 0.02 N sulfuric acid (A.P.H.A.
1976). Color determination was made by use of the platinum cobalt method and Nessler tubes
(A.P.H.A. 1976) on water filtered through a Gelman type A-E glass fiber filter. Chlorophyll a
concentrations were determined spectrophotometrically (A.P.H.A. 1976), and calculated by the
use of equations in Lind (1974). Corrections for phaeophytin had no effect on results and are not
reported here. Cell counts were performed to determine phytoplankton taxonomic composition
and abundance. Samples preserved with Lugol’s solution were concentrated, as needed, by low
speed (7000 rpm) centrifugation and subsamples placed in a Palmer cell. At least 20 haphazard
microscopic fields, or fields sufficient to count at least 100 cells, whichever was greater, were
examined per sample. A Nikon phase contrast microscope at 400 x was used to identify algae to
genus, and to determine cell dimensions. Biovolumes were calculated by approximation to the
nearest geometrical shape (Edler, 1979). Relative abundances were then calculated based on
biovolume (rather than cell counts). A modified Shannon-Weaver diversity index (H) was calcu-
lated (Smith, 1980).

Glass slide periphyton samplers (Wildco, Saginaw, MI) were used to collect periphyton for
estimates of standing crop and productivity. Four samplers consisting of eight 76.2 mm x 25.4
mm microscope slides were placed in the lake, approximately 30 m from shore. Samplers were
suspended in the top 10 cm of water. Two sets of samples were set out at overlapping two week
intervals so that 2 samplers were collected each week; thus each sampler was in the water 14 days.
Chlorophyll a concentrations on slides were determined as a measure of periphyton biomass.
Three pairs of glass slides from each sampler were placed in 90% acetone with 1 g MgCOs,
sonicated for | min (80% power on a Fisher Sonic Dismembrator, Model 300), and incubated in a
freezer overnight. Chlorophyll a concentrations were then determined spectrophotometrically
(A.P.H.A. 1976 & Lind 1974). Direct cell counts were performed on the remaining two slides to
determine taxonomic composition and abundance. Slides were cleaned on one side, and placed
directly under the microscope. At least 100 cells were counted on each of two slides for each
station. Quantification was based on the number of microscope fields, of known area, counted.
Algae were identified to genus, and cell dimensions determined. Biovolume determination and
community analyses were performed as for phytoplankton. For ease in comparing our data to
those of others, please note that on our biovolume figures, 10!3 um3 x m-3 = 104 ul x m-3 = 10
all <i e

Data were analyzed by use of the Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, Inc.) and comput-
ing facilities of the Northeast Regional Data Center (University of Florida).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION—A negative relationship between planktonic and
attached algae is shown by graphs of phytoplankton and periphyton chloro-
phyll a (Fig. 1). The February decline in phytoplankton was accompanied by a

236 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Zeu2010 ZOE
ol ol
< x
O50 1S ©
ce
° Cc
x g
(= ~
® c
row a
5 100 10 -=
= : o
~>
c a
Qa

50 5

0 0

FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL

Fic. 1: Phytoplankton (A) chlorophyll a (mg x m~3) and 14-day periphyton (O) chlorophyll a
(mg x m~2) for each collecting date in 1981. Vertical standard error bars are added if larger than
the symbol size. *mean value from Canfield (198 1) for 2-21-80.

ten-fold increase in periphytic algae. Phytoplankton rapidly recovered during
March, reached a peak in April, then dropped to normal levels. Phytoplankton
and periphytic algal biovolume also indicated a negative relationship between
these two communities (Fig. 2). On Feb. 4, before the phytoplankton collapse,
virtually no algal cells were observed growing on glass slides. Later in Febru-
ary, as phytoplankton biovolume decreased by 2 orders of magnitude, periphy-
tic algal biovolume showed its highest value (1.3 x 10'? um’ x m~’). Through
March and April, periphytic algal biovolume decreased as phytoplankton
increased.

The chlorophyll @ peak of April 1 (Fig. 3) was comprised of small-celled
Cryptomonas spp. and Actinastrum spp., and was not reflected in a major
biovolume peak. The biovolume peak of May 20 corresponded to a smaller
chlorophyll a peak. On this date, the large-celled blue-green alga, Anacystis
sp., accounted for 93% by volume of the phytoplankton. Although there was
no statistically significant negative correlation between planktonic and
periphytic algal chlorophyll values, there was a significant negative correla-
tion between phytoplankton and periphytic algal biovolume values (r= — 0.54;

No. 4, 1986] HODGSON ET AL.—PERIPHYTIC ALGAL GROWTH Dor

P<0.05; Fig. 2). Periphyton and phytoplankton communities were distinct,
with few taxa in common (Hodgson & Linda, 1982).

Prior to the February collapse, phytoplankton were dominated by the fila-
mentous blue-green Aphanizomenon sp. (probably A. americanum) with
much smaller volumes of Cryptomonas spp., and Sphaerocystis sp. (Fig. 4).
During the February collapse, the remnant phytoplankton community was
dominated by green algae, primarily Coelastrum spp. and Oocystis spp., with
smaller volumes of diatoms and colonial and filamentous blue-green algae. In
March, as the phytoplankton recovered, blooms of green algae, including Sch-
roederia setigera, small green coccoids, and cryptomonads occurred. It was
not until April that blue-green algae regained their dominance; with Anacystis
spp. becoming abundant. By mid-July, when sampling ended, the filamentous
blue-greens Anabaenopsis philipinensis and Lyngbya spp. had also become
abundant, but the previous dominant, Aphanizomenon sp., had not reap-
peared.

During the phytoplankton collapse in February, and during its recovery,
periphytic algae were dominated by the filamentous green algae Stigeoclo-
nium stagnatile and Coleochaete spp., palmelloid green coccoids, and a pen-
nate diatom Gomphonema sp. (Fig. 5). By the end of May, however, attached

5
120

105

Periphyton biovolume (0)

Phytoplankton biovolume (4)

MAR APR MAY JUN JUL

Fic. 2: Phytoplanktic algae (A) biovolume (um? x 10!3 x m~3) and periphyton (O) biovolume
(um? x 10!3 x m~?) for each collecting date. Data are presented as in Fig. 1.

238 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

200

175

150

125

100

Biovolume (4)

Chlorophyll

ZS

50

ES)

FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL

Fic. 3: Phytoplankton biovolume (A) (um? x 10!3 x m3) and chlorophyll a (O) (mg x m-3)
for each collecting date. Data are presented as in Fig. 1.

filamentous blue-green algae, primarily Calothrix spp. and Lyngbya spp., had
become important and dominated the periphyton from mid-June through July.

There was no significant correlation of total phytoplankton biovolume or
periphyton chlorophyll a@ with any measured water chemistry parameter.
There was a significant correlation (r= 0.65; p<0.05) between phytoplankton
chlorophyll a and total nitrogen, as expected from many studies including
those of Canfield (1981). The only parameter significantly correlated with
periphyton biovolume was color (r= 0.71; p<0.05).

Correlation coefficients of the relative abundance of a given phylum (and
the biovolume of that phylum) with water chemistry values were calculated in
order to detect significant relationships of water chemistry parameters with
the observed succession. The only measured parameter with which phyto-
plankton composition was significantly correlated was, again, color. Green
algae were positively correlated with color (r=0.76; p<0.01), while blue-
green algae were negatively correlated (r= — 0.64; p<0.05).

The relative abundance of green algae in the periphyton was correlated
with color (r=0.88; p<0.01) as was the phytoplankton. The relative abun-
dance of blue-green algae, however, was positively correlated with specific

No. 4, 1986] HODGSON ET AL.—PERIPHYTIC ALGAL GROWTH 239

100

80

60

Phytoplankton relative abundance (%)

FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL

Fic. 4: Relative abundances of phyla (%) in the phytoplankton for each collecting date.
g=greens (Chlorophyta), b=blue-greens (Cyanobacteria), c=cryptomonads (Cryptophyta);
d= diatoms (Bacillariophyta).

conductance (r=0.91; p<0.01) and negatively correlated with total nitrogen
(r= —0.64, p<0.05). Diatom relative abundance was negatively correlated
with pH (r= -—0.91, p<0.05). The biovolumes of these phyla were signifi-
cantly correlated with the same parameters as their relative abundances.
Winter color values for Lake Wauberg, as reported by Canfield (1981),
were low (15 mg/l Pt). Color increased following the phytoplankton collapse,
ranging from 20 to 25 mg/] Pt. in March and early April. Also at that time, an
increased relative abundance of cryptomonads, an algal group thought to in-
crease as dissolved organic materials increase (Schwartz et al., 1981), was
observed. Color values decreased as the phytoplankton recovered, and by June
again averaged 15 mg/l Pt. If increased color can be caused by the decomposi-
tion of algae, the correlation of color with the composition of the phyto-
plankton community and with periphytic algal biovolume may simply be re-

940 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

100

80

60

40

20

Periphyton relative abundance (%)

FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL

Fic. 5: Relative abundances of phyla (%) in the periphytic algae for each collecting date. Data
are presented as in Fig. 4.

lated to the correlation of color with post-collapse date (r=0.75, p<0.01).
Statewide, color is correlated with both algal biomass and Secchi disc depths
(Canfield and Hodgson, 1981).

For both periphyton and phytoplankton communities, Shannon-Weaver
(H) diversity was lowest when biovolumes were highest. However, this relation-
ship was statistically significant only for phytoplankton (r=0.82, p<0.0001).
Biovolume peaks in phytoplankton were due to blooms of a single genus, Ana-
cystis spp., in April and May. Peaks in periphytic algal biovolume were due to
several genera of green algae, primarily the filamentous Stigeoclonium
stagnatile or the cluster-forming coccoid, Askenasyella sp.

Because of the limited nature of this data, we can reach no conclusions of
cause and effect. We present these correlations primarily to suggest hypotheses
for further research on the relationship of water chemistry parameters to the
composition of algal communities.

No. 4, 1986] HODGSON ET AL.—PERIPHYTIC ALGAL GROWTH 241

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—Funding for this project was provided in part by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, ARS Cooperative Agreement No. 58-7B30-0-177. This paper is Journal Series no.
7071 of the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station. The authors express their thanks to Drs. W.
T. Haller and K. A. Langeland for their advice and criticisms, and to Denise Guerin and Mary
Rutter for assistance in the field and laboratory.

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CANFIELD, D. E., JR. AND L. M. Hopcson. 1981. Prediction of Secchi disc depths in Florida lakes:
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CatTTANEo, A. AND J. KAtrr. 1980. The relative contribution of aquatic macrophytes and their
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Firzcerap, G. P. 1969. Some factors in the competition or antagonism among bacteria, algae,
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Hopcson, L. M. ann S. B. Linpa. 1982. Interactions among phytoplankton, periphyton, and
submersed macrophyte communities. Final report, U.S.D.A., December, 1982.

JORGENSEN, E. G. 1957. Diatom periodicity and silicon assimilation. Dansk. Bot. Ark. 18:1-54.

Linp, O. T. 1974. Handbook of Common Methods in Limnology. Mosby Co. St. Louis. 154 pp.

MENZEL, D. W., AND N. Corwin. 1965. The measurement of total phosphorus in seawater based
on the liberation of organically bound fractions by persulfate oxidation. Limnol. Oceanogr.
10:280-232.

Moss, B. 1976. The effects of fertilization and fish on community structure and biomass of
aquatic macrophytes and epiphytic algal populations: an ecosystem experiment. J. Ecol.
64:313-342.

Moss, B. 1981. The composition and ecology of periphyton communities in freshwaters. II. Inter-
relationships between water chemistry, phytoplankton populations and periphyton popula-
tions in a shallow lake and associated experimental reservoirs (““Lund Tubes’’). Br. Phycol. J.
16:59-76.

Muppuy, J. AND J. P. Ritey. 1962. A modified single solution method for the determination of
phosphate in natural waters. Anal. Chim. Acta. 27:31-36.

NeEtson, D. W. anp L. E. Sommers. 1975. Determination of total nitrogen in natural waters. J.
Environ. Qual. 4:465-468.

Scuwartz, S. S., D. W. BLINN, AND G. JoHNSON. 1981. The physico-chemical and planktonic
response of an algicide-treated shallow mountain lake in Arizona. Int. Revue Ges. Hydro-
biol. 66:249-262.

Smit, R. L. 1980. Ecology and Field Biology. Harper & Row, N.Y. 835 pp.

Florida Sci. 49(4):234-241. 1986.
Accepted: December 3, 1985

Geological Sciences

DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF THREE PEEISMOGHNTD
BLUFFS IN NORTHEASTERN FLORIDA

CoLetTTE M. KussEL” AND Douc.as S. JONES®

(1) Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611;
(2) Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611

Asstract: Three bluffs exposing Pleistocene sediments occur along the Bells and St. Marys
rivers in northeasternmost Florida. These are of close proximity and similar elevation, but possess
different sedimentary features. To reconstruct the paleoenvironment of deposition represented by
these exposures, detailed studies of the sediment characteristics, sedimentary structures, and fossil
assemblages at each site were undertaken. The results suggest deposition occurred in a marine to
marginal marine setting with sedimentation proceeding along a prograding shoreline during
marine regression. The sedimentary sequences are interpreted to represent an ancient barrier
island complex. Trace fossils, particularly Ophiomorpha nodosa, and sedimentary structures per-
mit the recognition of barrier island, tidal inlet, and salt marsh paleoenvironments. The marine
terrace elevations have potential significance for better interpreting the sea level and tectonic
history of Florida.

THREE bluffs exposing Pleistocene sediments occur along the Bells and St.
Marys rivers in the northeastern corner of Nassau County, Florida (Fig. 1).
They are in close proximity and of similar elevation, but exhibit different
sedimentary features. Bells Bluff is characterized by offshore, shoreface, fore-
shore, and backshore biogenic and sedimentary structures. It has been the
subject of intensive study by geologists from the University of Georgia and it
has been described as representing a complete marine regressive sequence (Ho-
ward and Scott, 1983). Northwest of Bells Bluff (0.4 km) is the southern expo-
sure of Roses Bluff. This exposure contains sand and clay units with biogenic
structures including Ophiomorpha nodosa, Thallasinoides, and escape struc-
tures. The southern exposure of Roses Bluff extends approximately 0.8 km
along Bells River and is separated from the northern exposure of Roses Bluff by
an area of low-lying land. Northern Roses Bluff consists of three Ophiomorpha
units separated by two cross-bedded units. Reids Bluff is west of Roses Bluff
(2.5 km). It consists of a lower flaser bedded, burrowed unit and an upper clay
unit containing the bivalved mollusks Crassostrea virginica and Mercenaria
mercenaria.

The purpose of this investigation is to describe in detail the sedimentary
sequence at each of these notable exposures. The descriptions are assembled
into a unified depositional model to permit reconstruction of the paleoenviron-
mental conditions responsible for the formation of the various sedimentary
units exposed in these Pleistocene sediments.

GroLocic SErtinc—The study area (Fig. 1) is situated east of a 9-15 m
scarp which forms the eastern edge of the Duval Upland. To the west of the
Duval Upland lies Trail Ridge and the Northern Highland, respectively. Trail

No. 4, 1986] KUSSEL AND JONES—PLEISTOCENE BLUFFS 243

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244 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 49

Ridge is believed to be a relict barrier or spit that may have formed at the crest
of a marine transgression from erosion of the Northern Highland (Pirkle et al.,
1974).

The age of Trail Ridge has been debated. Proposed ages include Miocene
(Alt and Brooks, 1965; Alt, 1974), no older than Pliocene (Pirkle and Yoho,
1970; Pirkle et al., 1970) and Pleistocene (Cooke, 1939). The recent discovery
of shallow marine fossils in Trail Ridge, however, indicates that it is no older
than late Pliocene or Pleistocene (Pirkle and Czel, 1983).

East of Trail Ridge are a series of marine terraces which become succes-
sively lower to the east. Trail Ridge represents a Wicomico shoreline (29-31 m).
Five other ancient shorelines present in Florida include: Penholoway (21-23
m), Talbot (12-14 m), Pamlico (7 m), Princess Anne (4 m), and Silver Bluff (1.5
m) (Hoyt, 1969). The highest shoreline is believed to be the oldest, with subse-
quent terraces formed by progressive lowering of the sea level through the
Pleistocene (Hoyt, 1969). The total height of the bluffs in the study area varies
between 15-17 m above sea level, with former sea level stands thought to
correspond to a Pamlico shoreline.

The present coastline is characterized by barrier islands broken by tidal
inlets. These islands, termed the Sea Islands, extend from North Carolina to
Talbot Island, Florida. Behind the barriers lie protected salt-marshes and tidal
flats. The general coastal region is dominated by semidiurnal tides with an
average range of 2 m. A southerly longshore current predominates.

MetHops—The exposures at South Roses, North Roses and Reids Bluff were visited from land
and by boat on several occasions during 1983-84 (Kussel, 1984). The sedimentary sequence at
each exposure was photographed, measured and described. Sediment and fossil samples were
collected and studied from each unit. The results were compared with the Bells Bluff sequence
previously described by Howard and Scott (1983).

To determine the direction of the paleocurrent, the azimuth reading of the maximum dip of the
crossbedding was measured. One measurement was taken on each set within a crossbedded unit
using a Brunton Compass. The data were plotted on an equal area circular diagram. A vector
mean was computed for each unit following the procedure of Potter and Pettijohn (1977).

Resutts—Depositional History—Observations at Roses, Reids, and Bells
Bluffs suggest several different but closely related environments of deposition.
Open marine, tidal inlet, and salt-marsh paleoenvironments were identified.
These are associated with an ancient barrier island complex. Modern analogs
to these paleoenvironments can be observed along the present Florida and
Georgia coastlines.

BeLus BLurr—The authors concur with Howard and Scott’s (1983) conclu-
sion that Bells Bluff represents a regressive sequence. Comparison of the sedi-
mentary structures and fossil fauna with the adjacent modern marine environ-
ment reveals a complete sequence from offshore through backshore facies (Fig.
2). Results of the present study show that Roses and Reids Bluffs also express a
regressional sequence of a prograding shoreline.

Nortu Roses BLurr—The north Roses Bluff exposure is located 1.6 km
directly north of Bells Bluff (Fig. 1), following the north-south trend of the

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246 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

present coastline. It might be expected that the same sequence of facies would
be found at Roses Bluff. In fact, the sequence is much different (Fig. 2), even
though both the Bells Bluff and Roses Bluff exposures probably formed along
the same paleoshoreline. Bells Bluff represents an open marine paleoenviron-
ment, while the sequence of facies at Roses Bluff is interpreted as a southerly
migrating tidel channel. The following units are recognized at north Roses
Bluff:

Densely Burrowed Facies—Present within this unit is the trace fossil
Ophiomorpha nodosa, typically 3-4 cm in diameter and up to | m in length
(Fig. 3). Specimens exhibit the characteristic knobby exterior and have hori-
zontal bifurcations. The burrows stand out in relief from the surrounding sand
unit. This is probably a result of the replacement by iron of the original collo-
phane believed to have cemented the burrows. The burrows are sand filled and
dark in color, due to differential iron staining.

Along the Georgia and Florida coasts, the burrow of the marine decapod
Callianassa major, is believed to be the modern analog of the Ophiomorpha
trace (Weimer and Hoyt, 1964). Callianassa major burrows have generally
been accepted as shoreline indicators. Their primary occurrence is in the
sandy, open marine littoral to shallow neritic environment. The highest con-
centration of burrows is at mean sea level. However, these burrows are not
restricted to this type of environment. They have been reported on protected

Fic. 3. Ophiomorpha nodosa (burrow width typically 3-4 cm) in burrowed facies at north
Roses Bluff.

No. 4, 1986] KUSSEL AND JONES—PLEISTOCENE BLUFFS 247

beaches, sandy tidal flats and shoals (Frey, 1970), tidal deltas (Warme, 1971),
and offshore bars (Weimer and Hoyt, 1964).

The lowermost unit lacks any bedding structures. This is due to the density
of Ophiomorpha nodosa burrows. Burrow densities as high as 96/m* have been
encountered and modern populations of Callianassa have been shown to over-
turn 17% of the upper meter of sediment each year (Hill and Hunter, 1976).
Although no sedimentary structures are present, a relatively shallow marine
paleoenvironment can be implied by the presence of these trace fossils.

Also present within this unit are lenses of granule size quartz grains and
clay rip-up clasts. Deposits such as these form from storm activity or higher
energy currents. Clay rip-up clasts imply the proximity of a clay source area.

Lower Crossbedded Facies—This facies consists of large-scale trough
crossbedded sand. Crossbedded sets are up to 60 cm thick. The crossbedding
has a dominant southern paleocurrent direction with a vector range from
126° to 221° and a mean of 195°. Bed form and larger grain sizes in this unit
indicate a high energy environment.

Present-day longshore transport is also to the south along the Atlantic coast
of Florida. A similar system is likely to have formed the bedding structure of
the lower crossbedded facies. Longshore currents provide the velocity and di-
rection necessary to produce large-scale crossbedding. Longshore unidirec-
tional crossbedding in such settings has been reported by many investigators
(e.g. Davidson-Arnott and Greenwood, 1976; 1974; Hoyt and Henry, 1967;
Howard and Reineck, 1981).

Fossils of small bivalve shells are found in alternating beds in this unit. The
single convex-up valves are extremely weathered with no original shell mate-
rial remaining and are present as friable, iron concentration casts. Identifica-
tion is difficult because of poor preservation. The casts range in size from 1-2
cm. These small shell casts may represent the coquina clam, Donax, or possi-
bly Mulinia. Both are shallow burrowing forms characteristic of a shallow
marine, soft substrate environment.

Burrowed Facies—This unit is very similar to the densely burrowed facies.
Bedding structures have been destroyed by the burrowing of Callianassa ma-
jor. The burrow density is less than the lower densely burrowed facies, averag-
ing 32 burrows/m’. It contains no clay clasts, or lenses of granule size quartz.
These three lowest units at north Roses Bluff represent an offshore to shoreface
paleoenvironment.

Upper Crossbedded Facies—The upper crossbedded facies consists of
trough crossbedded sands containing shells similar to the lower crossbedded
facies. Sets range from 60-120 cm in thickness. The paleocurrent direction of
this unit shows a dominant southern component, with a vector range from 97°
to 242° and a mean of 176°.

From its position in the stratigraphic sequence, its paleocurrent direction,
and bedding, a shoreface environment is implied for this unit. The shoreface
region is the area that is always submerged and usually made up of longshore
bars and troughs. Currents parallel the shoreline in the direction of the long-
shore current. Longshore currents with velocities as great as 1 m/sec, form

248 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

large-scale crossbedded sands. The size and direction of the beds in this unit
indicate formation by longshore transport.

Planar to Crossbedded Facies—The bedding in this unit ranges from hori-
zontal laminated, to herringbone, to trough crossbedded. The unit is inter-
preted as representing the foreshore to backshore region of the beach. The
foreshore is the area between mean low water and mean high water and is
dominated by wave processes. Sedimentary structures are formed by breaking
waves, swash, and backwash. Laminated low-angle bedding, crossbedding,
and megaripple bedding have been reported in the foreshore (Thompson,
1937; McKee, 1957; Hoyt and Weimer, 1963; Hoyt and Henry, 1967; Howard
and Reineck, 1981). The backshore is the flatlying region seaward of the dune
and landward of the berm crest, the swash limit. Sediment in this area is
transported by wind and washover. Horizontal and low-angle crossbedding
characterize the backshore.

Dune Facies—This facies lacks sedimentary structures and fossils. From its
position in the stratigraphic column and geomorphic expression, it is believed
to represent a Pleistocene dune. Howard and Scott (1983) report a Pleistocene
dune overlain by a Holocene dune at Bells Bluff. This may also be the case at
Roses Bluff.

SouTH Roses BLuFF—Closely associated with the north Roses Bluff tidal
inlet migrational sequence is the south Roses Bluff sequence. Located approxi-
mately 0.5 km south of north Roses Bluff (Fig. 1), this exposure contains very
different facies. The lower units of the sequence are believed to be of an inlet-
fill origin as evidenced by the upwardly increasing clay concentration. The
overlying sandy units represent a return to typical barrier island shoreface,
foreshore, and dune deposition.

Shell and Sand Facies—The lower unit has no preserved bedding struc-
tures. It contains a large concentration of unoriented shells. The bivalves
Diwaricella dentata, an unidentified mactrid, and the gastropods Terebra dis-
locata, and an unidentified naticid are all present. These are small, delicate,
shallow marine forms, moderately well preserved and largely unbroken, im-
plying only minor transport. Crassostrea virginica is also present, but valves
are typically broken, implying substantial transportation, perhaps from an
adjacent estuary.

Bioturbated Burrowed Facies—This unit overlies the shell and sand facies.
It is extremely bioturbated and contains a high percentage of clay, with clay
content increasing upward. Thallasinoides type burrows are present through-
out this unit. These are 2-4 cm in diameter and 0.5-1 m in length. This type of
burrow occurs in units with a considerable amount of clay. Due to the size
similarity between these burrows and those of Ophiomorpha and to the prox-
imity of the Ophiomorpha burrows, these structures probably also represent
burrows of Callianassa sp. Differences in burrow structures, such as the lack
of a knobby exterior, may reflect the substrate in which the burrow was con-
structed. Elevation (as measured in meters above the adjacent sea level datum)
and characteristics of this unit are equivalent to the bioturbated and laminated
facies at Bells Bluff (Howard and Scott, 1983).

No. 4, 1986] KUSSEL AND JONES—PLEISTOCENE BLUFFS 249

Clay Facies—The clay facies is a thin homogeneous bed of clay. The unit is
0.3 m thick and thinly laminated. X-ray diffraction analysis indicates it is
composed of kaolinite, montmorillonite, and palygorskite. This combination
of clay minerals suggests a mixture of terrestrial and marine components, per-
haps in an estuarine setting. No biogenic structures or fossils are present.

Laminated to Crossbedded Facies—The shoreface region of the beach is
comprised of horizontal to low-angle bedded sands and trough crossbedded
sands. Bioturbation is reduced or absent, and no burrows are present.

Burrowed Facies—This is a sandy unit with no distinguishable bedding. It
has a high content of Ophiomorpha nodosa burrows, which accounts for the
lack of physical sedimentary structures. The presence of Ophiomorpha no-
dosa and its stratigraphic position identify this as the foreshore. Trace fossils
resembling escape structures of some unknown invertebrate animal are present
at the top of the unit and appear as downward pointed “nested cones”’ (Fig. 4).
The structures are 15-20 cm across at the top, and 15-20 cm in depth. The
surrounding sediment laminae are flexed downward. This implies rapid depo-
sition and probably records a catastrophic event such as a major storm.

Laminated to Massive Facies—Backshore to dunal regions are represented
in the laminated to massive facies. Horizontal bedding to small scale crossbed-
ding characterize the backshore of the beach. Crossbedding sets here are 10-20
cm in thickness. This type of bedding is found in the lower part of the unit. The

Fic. 4. Escape structure (arrow) in burrowed facies at south Roses Bluff. Note hammer for
scale.

250 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

upper unit has no bedding structure and probably represents the overlying
dune.

Reps BLurr—Reids Bluff is located directly west of Roses Bluff (Fig. 1).
This is landward of Roses Bluff and is interpreted as an estuarine paleoenviron-
ment inland of the ancient barrier island complex. The following facies can be
identified:

Clay Flaser Sparsely Burrowed Facies—The lower unit at Reids Bluff rep-
resents a tidal flat/tidal creek paleoenvironment. Flaser bedding is formed in
such regions (Howard and Frey, 1973; Reineck and Singh, 1975). The bedding
seen here is simple flaser bedding; clay flasers are concave-up and isolated
within the sand. Structures of this type are formed by alternation of current
activity with periods of quiescence. The biogenic structures in this facies in-
clude Callianassa major burrows and Skolithos. Chamberlain (1978) de-
scribed the Skolithos trace as “‘any simple, even width vertical tube. Diameter
varies from 2-10 mm. Walls are usually smooth, but may be segmented or
striated.’ The diameter of these burrows in the study area ranges from 2-5 mm.
Polychaete worms represent the most probable organism to have formed these
structures. Howard and Frey (1973) report Callianassa major inhabiting the
channel side of point bars in Georgia estuaries. Vertical polycheate-type bur-
rows and Callianassa burrows represent the Skolithos ichnofacies, a nonma-
rine to marginal marine shallow water environment (Seilacher, 1967).

Clay-Oyster Facies—The presence of the bivalves Crassostrea virginica
and Mercenaria mercenaria suggests an estuarine paleoenvironment. These
forms occur presently in salt-marsh/tidal flat environments. The accumulation
of parallel laminated clay and silt also indicates a lower energy environment
than the previous unit. The sequence at this exposure indicates shallowing
water by migration and/or regression of a salt marsh.

Dunal Facies—This unit has no identifiable physical evidence of biogenic
sedimentary structures. Once again on the basis of stratigraphic position and
geomorphic expression, it is interpreted as an ancient dune.

CORRESPONDENCE OF ELEVATION—Comparison of the stratigraphic col-
umns of the four exposures (Fig. 2) illustrated a correspondence of unit eleva-
tions. It is most obvious at 2.5 m, 5.0 m, and 8.7 m. This may suggest deposi-
tion at the same water depth and, therefore, also at the same time. Assuming a
similar tidal range as is present today (2 m), a sea level stand of approximately
7.5 m above modern mean sea level is indicated by the exposures.

No structures were found in the upper unit of Reids Bluff and therefore no
correlation could be made between Reids Bluff and the other three bluffs at the
8.7 m elevation.

Conc.Lusions—The marine to marginal marine environment can be very
complex, containing numerous subenvironments. In addition to the dune-to-
offshore regions, longshore bars, spits, tidal inlets, tidal deltas, and river deltas
may be present. Identification of these subenvironments in ancient sediments is
difficult.

While formulating a model, several alternative depositional environments

No. 4, 1986] KUSSEL AND JONES—PLEISTOCENE BLUFFS 251

were considered. Longshore bars and tidal deltas are relatively small, transient
features of the marine environment. This reduces the possibility of their preser-
vation. Even if they were present in ancient sediments, their identification
would be difficult. During and after formation, barrier islands and spits are
exposed to similar processes. Distinguishing between these two features also
poses problems as both contain similar sedimentary structures and organisms.

A model focused upon deltaic sedimentation was considered. This type of
sedimentary regime is usually associated with relatively rapid deposition.
However, the high concentration of Callianassa burrows is not compatible
with this type of deposition. Vertical dwelling burrows are generally found in
eroding or stable sedimentary environments.

The depositional model proposed is that of a barrier island complex, com-
prised of barrier island, tidal inlet, and tidal flat/salt-marsh deposits (Fig. 5).
The sequence at the exposures probably represents sedimentation along a pro-
grading shoreline during marine regression. A littoral to shallow sublittoral
environment is indicated by the presence of Callianassa major burrows. Bar-
rier island sedimentation is represented at north Roses and Bells Bluffs. Bells
Bluff exhibits a characteristic barrier island regressional sequence. North
Roses Bluff is a remnant of a tidal inlet that has migrated southward. Paleocur-
rent direction is predominantly to the south with directions ranging from 90 to
270° (Kussel, 1984). This large variation indicates a southerly longshore cur-
rent influenced by strong ebb and flood tidal currents. Crossbedding current
directions paralleling the shoreline along tidal inlets have been reported by
Hayt and Henry (1967), who, in a study of Sapelo Island, Georgia, found
crossbedding to dip in the direction of island migration.

South Roses Bluff represents an inlet fill sequence formed in response to sea
level lowering. This is observed in the increasing clay content upward in the
lower units. Interbedded sand and clay have been interpreted as precluding
inlet fill (Carter, 1978). The overlying units return to barrier island deposition,
with foreshore, shoreface, backshore, and dunes represented.

Reids Bluff possesses the characteristic sedimentary structures and faunal
assemblages of the tidal flat/salt-marsh of the barrier complex. The occurrence
of dune sediments at a lower elevation than at the other exposures may be
explained in one of two ways. If this is purely a regressional sequence, dune
sands may have been blown in from the barrier island to the east. Conversely,
the dune sands may have been deposited from a landward migrating barrier
island during a previous trangression.

The sequence of facies at the exposures was formed at a sea level stand
significantly higher than present. Based on the highest occurrence of Cal-
lianassa major burrows, a sea level of 7.5 m above present mean sea level is
indicated. Hails and Hoyt (1972) suggested a date of 110,000 years B.P. for
Bells Bluff based on regional correlation. This age corresponds roughly with
the last interglacial, 125,000 years B.P. Sea level elevation for the last intergla-
cial probably did not exceed 2-9 m above present sea level (Williams et al.,
1981).

Most of the six shorelines in Florida are at elevations higher than the esti-

[Vol. 49

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mated sea level for the Plio-Pleistocene. As shown by Winker and Howard
(1977), these ancient shorelines show different amounts of warping. Anoma-
lous elevation and warping of the shorelines indicates some vertical tectonism
has taken place in northeast Florida after deposition. Vertical tectonism has
been suggested by many investigators. The deep-sea oxygen isotope record
(Shackleton and Opdyke, 1976) and coastal plain paleoenvironmental records
(Cronin et al., 1976) indicate sea level alone is not responsible for the elevation
of the ancient shorelines.

Several mechanisms for uplift have been proposed including lithospheric
flexure from sediment loading and hydroisostasy. Recently, it has been sug-
gested that the northern Florida peninsula has undergone uplift as a result of
the formation of karst terrains (Opdyke et al., 1984). Although ancient sea
level stands recorded in the bluffs of the study area are within the accepted
range of sea levels for the late Pleistocene, they still may be useful in interpret-
ing and timing the rate of tectonism in this region of Florida.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—We thank Mr. H. T. Belcher and Mr. A. Crews for field assistance
and ITT Rayonier for permission to conduct this study along the St. Marys and Bells rivers. Mr.
Kurt Auffenburg of the Florida State Museum helped identify some of the shell material and Drs.
R. Lindquist and E. C. Pirkle kindly reviewed an earlier version of the manuscript. This study was
funded in part by a Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid of Research (to C. M. K.) and formed the basis for a
thesis submitted to the Department of Geology, University of Florida, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the M.S. degree.

LITERATURE CITED

Aut, D. 1974. Arid climate control of Miocene sedimentation and origin of modern drainage,
southeastern United States. Pp. 21-29. In: Oaks, R. Q., Dubar, J. R. (eds.). Post-Miocene
Stratigraphy, Central and Southern Atlantic Coastal Plain. Utah State Univ. Press, Logan.

, AND H. K. Brooks. 1965. Age of the Florida marine terraces. J. Geol. 73:406-411.

Carter, C. H. 1978. A regressive barrier and barrier-protected deposit: Depositional environ-
ments and geographic settings of the Tertiary Cohansey Sand. J. Sed. Petrol. 48:933-950.

CHAMBERLAIN, C. K. 1978. Recognition of trace fossils in cores. Pp. 119-166. In: Basan, P. B.
(ed.). Trace Fossil Concepts (SEPM Short Course no. 5). Soc. of Econ. Paleontolog. and
Mineralog. Tulsa.

Cooke, C. W. 1939. Scenery of Florida interpreted by a geologist. Florida Geol. Survey Bull. 17.

Cronin. T. M., B. J. Szaso, T. A. Acer, J. E. Haze, anp J. P. Owens. 1981. Quaternary
climates and sea levels of the U.S. Atlantic Coastal Plain. Science. 211:233-239.

Davipson-Arnott, R. G. D., AND B. GREENWoop. 1976. Facies relationships on a barred coast,
Kouchibouguac Bay, New Brunswick, Canada. Pp. 149-168. In: Davis, R.A. Jr, and R. L.
Ethington (eds.). Beach and Nearshore sedimentation (SEPM) Spec. Pub. 24. Society of
Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, Tulsa.

. 1974. Bedforms and structures associated with bar topography in the shallow-water
wave environment, Kouchibouguac Bay, New Brunswick, Can. J. Sed. Petrol. 24:698-704.

Fok, R. L. 1980. Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks. Hemphill Publishing Co., Austin.

Frey, R. W. 1970. Environmental significance of recent marine lebenspuren near Beaufort, North
Carolina. J. Paleontol. 44:507-519.

Haits, J. E., anp J. H. Hoyt. 1972. The nature and occurrence of heavy minerals in Pleistocene
and Holocene sediments of the lower Georgia Coastal Plain. J. Sed. Petrol. 42:646-660.

Hin, G. W., anv R. E. Hunter, 1976, Interaction of biological and geological processes in the
beach and nearshore environment, Northern Padre Island, Texas. Pp. 169-187. In: Davis,
R. A. Jr., AND R. L. ETHINGTON (eds.). Beach and Nearshore Sedimentation (SEPM Spec.
Pub. 24). Soc. of Econ. Paleontolog. Mineralog., Tulsa.

254 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

Howarp, J. D., AND R. W. Frey. 1973. Charteristic physical and biogenic sedimentary structures
in Georgia estuaries. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. Bull. 57:1169-1184.

AND H. E. Retneck. 1981. Depositional facies of high energy beach-to-offshore se-
quences: Comparison with low energy sequences. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. Bull. 65:807-
830.

AND R. M. Scorr. 1983. Comparison of Pleistocene and Holocene barrier island beach-
to-offshore sequences, Georgia, and northeast Florida coasts, U.S.A. Sediment. Geol.
34:167-183.

Hoyt, J. H. 1969. Late Cenozoic structural movements, northern Florida. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol.
Soc. Trans. 19:1-9.

AND V. J. Henry. 1967. Influence of island migration on barrier island sedimentation.
Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 78:77-86.

AND R. J. WEIMER. 1963. Comparison of modern and ancient beaches, Central Georgia
coast. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. Bull. 47:529-531.

KusseL, C. M. 1984. Depositional history of three Pleistocene bluffs in northeast Florida. M.S.
thesis, Univ. Florida, Gainesville.

MckKeg, E. D. 1957. Primary structures in some recent sediments. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol.
Bull. 41:1704-1714.

Oppyke, N. D., D. P. SPANGLER, D. L. Smirn, D. S. Jones, R. C. Linpeuist. 1984. Origin of the
epeirogenic uplift of Pliocene-Pleistocene beach ridges in Florida and development of the
Florida karst. Geology. 12:226-228.

Pirkie, F. L., AND L. J. Czet. 1983. Marine fossils from region of Trail Ridge, a Georgia-Florida
landform. Southeastern Geol. 24:31-38.

Pinkie, E. C., W. A. PirKLE, AND W. H. Youo. 1974. The Green Cove Springs and Boulougne
heavy-mineral sand deposits of Florida. Econ. Geol. 69:1129-1137.

AND W. H. Youo. 1970. The heavy mineral ore body of Trail Ridge, Florida. Econ.
Geol. 65:17-30.

W. H. Youo, anp C. W. Henpry. 1970. Ancient sea level stands in Florida. Florida
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SHACKLETON, N. J., AND N. D. Oppyke. 1976. Oxygen isotope and paleomagnetic stratigraphy of
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AND J. D. Hay (eds.). Investigation of Late Quaternary Paleoceanography and Paleoclima-
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THompson, W. O. 1937. Original structures of beaches, bars, and dunes. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.
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Ware, J. E. 1971. Paleoecological Aspects of a Modern Coastal Lagoon. University of California
Publication in Geological Sciences, v. 87, Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley.

Weimer, R. J., AND J. H. Hoyt. 1964. Burrows of Callianassa major Say, geological indicators of
littoral and shallow neritic environments. J. Paleontol. 38:76 1-767.

Wiuuiams, D. F., W. S. Moore, AND R. H. Fitton. 1981. Role of glacial Arctic Ocean ice sheets
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Florida Sci. 49(4):242-254. 1986.
Accepted: April 15, 1986

Biological Sciences

CriawAclE RI ZATION OF A LOCALIZED JACK DEMPSEY,
CICHLASOMA OCTOFASCIATUM, POPULATION
IN ALACHUA COUNTY, FLORIDA

Dawn P. JENNINGS

National Fishery Research Laboratory,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 7920 N.W. 71st Street, Gainesville, Florida 32606

ABSTRACT: The Jack Dempsey, Cichlasoma octofasciatum, native to southern Mexico, Gua-
temala, Yucatan and Honduras, is reportedly established in Dade, Hillsborough and Brevard
counties, Florida. In 1982, a population was found in a creek on the University of Florida cam-
pus, Alachua County, Florida. Collections and observations during 1982-1985 document this
population’s status and provide information on the biology of this species. This population repre-
sents the northernmost distribution known for Cichlasoma species in Florida.

TuHE Jack Dempsey, Cichlasoma octofasciatum (=C. biocellatum), is an
exotic cichlid endemic to the Atlantic slope drainages from Rio Paso San Juan,
Veracruz, Mexico, and the Yucatan Peninsula, to the Rio Ulua basin in north-
western Honduras (Miller 1966). Within its native range, it inhabits pools,
backwaters, margins of rivers and streams, limestone sinkholes, coastal
marshes, ditches, and isolated lowland lakes (R. R. Miller, unpublished data,
cited in Courtenay et al. 1981).

Reproducing populations have been reported in three Florida counties: in
Black Creek and Snapper Creek, Dade County (Courtenay et al. 1974; Hogg
1976a,b); in a roadside ditch near effluent from a tropical fish farm in Ruskin,
Hillsborough County (Courtenay et al. 1974); and in canals from Satellite
Beach to Canova Beach, Brevard County (Dial and Wainright 1983). An iso-
lated population of Jack Dempseys was eradicated in 1977 by biologists of the
Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission from a rockpit in southern
Levy County (Levine et al. 1979). This was then the northernmost record
(29.19 N, 82.40 W) for the species. In July 1982, however, a population of Jack
Dempseys was discovered in an unnamed creek on the University of Florida
campus, Gainesville, Alachua County, Florida (Shafland 1982). The popula-
tion was monitored from July 1982 through July 1985 to document winter
survival and to obtain information on certain life history characteristics.

Srupy AREA—The creek, 1.1 km long, originates from a drainage field on the northeast side of
the University campus and meanders southwest, eventually emptying into Lake Alice, a 16.2
hectare University wildlife sanctuary. About 0.3 km of the upper reaches is characterized by a
substrate of solid limerock and large rubble, and includes many large rocks that divert water to
form small pools. Canopy cover is extensive and emergent aquatic vegetation is scarce or lacking.
The slope in this section averages about 3%, and the water velocity is 3 to 5 cm/second in the
channel and about 19 cm/second in riffles. The width ranges from 0.5 to 4.0 m, and the depth

varies from 6 to 20 cm in the channel to 50 cm in the pools. Downstream, for the remaining 0.8
km, the creek gradient is flat and flow is less than 3 cm/second. Canopy cover is reduced and

256 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

riparian-zone and emergent vegetation is extensive. About 0.4 km of this section has a substrate of
sand and small rubble. The width is 1.5 to 8.0 m., and the depth varies from 5 to 30 cm. Below this
section, the creek widens to an average of about 12 m where it receives effluent from the Univer-
sity’s heating plant and sewage treatment lagoon, then narrows to about 6 m before reaching Lake
Alice. The depth in this section is about 0.6 to 2.0 m. Sampling was limited to 0.7 km of the upper
reaches of the creek; the lower reaches were not suitable for wading and were not accessible by
boat.

MetHops—The distribution of the Jack Dempsey was determined by visual observation and
collection with a backpack electrofisher. The electroshocking unit was most effective at 0.8 amp
and a frequency of 75 pulses per second. Electrofishing and visual observations were conducted
seasonally to document the presence of Jack Dempseys in the creek before and after periods of low
water temperature. Samples were collected in 1982 on 8 July, 22 September, 30 November, and 2
and 4 December; in 1983 on 19 January and 25 May; in 1984 on 28 June, 24 July and 4 October;
and in 1985 on 18 June and 26 July. Visual observations were conducted more frequently, particu-
larly in the sections of the creek not sampled by electrofishing. Specimens collected were measured
(total length, mm), marked (by clipping the right pelvic fin in 1982 and the left pelvic fin in
subsequent years), and released. A length-frequency distribution was developed for each sampling
period by plotting numbers of fish caught by 10-mm length groups.

Stomach and intestinal contents of 30 specimens collected in September, 1982 were preserved
in 95% ethanol and examined under compound and dissecting microscopes. Percent frequency of
occurrence of each food item was obtained by dividing the number of fish containing a specific
item by the total number of fish examined. Food organisms were identified to the lowest taxon
feasible.

Water temperature was measured at times of collection with a hand-held thermometer and
periodically during winter with a maximum-minimum thermometer.

REsuLTs—Sampling and visual observations indicated that Jack Dempseys
were distributed throughout the creek. Most specimens were collected in the
deeper pools or in areas with undercut banks, characterized by a combination
of limerock, sand, and rubble substrate. Associated species collected in these
areas included Gambusia affinis, Poecilia latipinna, Xiphophorus variatus,
Lepomis gulosus and Heterandria formosa.

A total of 147 Jack Dempseys (46-137 mm) were collected and released in
1982. Eighteen live fish were collected in January 1983, when minimum wa-
ter temperature in the sampling area was 10-11°C. Fourteen of these fish,
including 2 recaptures, appeared to be normal; 4 others, however, showed
signs of stress (such as swimming on the side or moribund behavior) and had
infected or partly missing fins. Three others were found that had recently
died—probably victims of thermal stress. In May 1983, five Jack Dempseys
(74-91 mm) were collected, indicating that at least a part of the population
survived through the winter.

In 1984, a total of 264 Jack Dempseys (37-154 mm) including 8 recaptures
from 1984 and | from 1982, were collected. In 1985, 156 fish (42-155 mm)
were collected, including 1 recapture from 1985 and 1 from 1984. Length-
frequency distributions for collections during 1984 revealed only one size
group in June ranging from 75 to 145 mm. In July and October, however,
bimodal distributions were observed. Size groups ranged from 45 to 65 mm
and 75 to 155 mm in July and from 35 to 65 mm and 85 to 125 mm in
October. A similar biomodal distribution was observed during July 1985; size
groups ranged from 45 to 65 mm and 85 to 145 mm.

Stomach and intestinal contents of 6 large (112-135 mm) and 24 small (44-

No. 4, 1986] JENNINGS— JACK DEMPSEY POPULATION 257

TABLE |. Percent frequency of occurrence of stomach and intestinal contents in 6 large and 24
small Jack Dempseys from Gainesville, Florida, September 1982. (The guts of 3 small fish were
empty).

Item Size Group
112-135 mm 44-68 mm

Insecta
Diptera larvae = 25
Diptera adults 33 04
Trichoptera larvae — 04
Coleoptera larvae = 08
Coleoptera adults 17 04
Hymenoptera adults 50 29
Unidentified — 25
Fish
Gambusia affinis ikZ/ —
Unidentified _ 08
Crustacea
Decapoda 17 —
Miscellaneous
Plant material 33 13
Gravel 33 38
Debris 33 39

68 mm) Jack Dempseys indicated that fish of both sizes fed predominantly on
adult ants (Hymenoptera) that had fallen into the creek (Table 1). The small
fish also ate larvae of Diptera (principally Chironomidae), Coleoptera, and
Trichoptera. Large Jack Dempseys fed secondarily on adult Diptera and Colep-
tera. Both size groups fed on fish, but only large Jack Dempseys ate crayfish.
Plant material (primarily algae) was found in the diet of both size groups, and
gravel and debris was common. Guts of 3 of the 24 small fish examined were
empty.

Discuss1oN— Winter survival of Jack Dempseys in the creek was evidenced
by recaptures of marked fish over successive years, and collections of fish of
different size groups, which presumably represent different year classes. Re-
production and recruitment were also evidenced by the occurrence of another
size group (45-65 mm) in the July 1984 and July 1985 collections. The absence
of these small fish prior to July may indicate that spawning occurred during
the spring. Axelrod and Schultz (1978) reported the optimum spawning tem-
perature for the Jack Dempsey as 25.6°C, which concurs with recorded water
temperatures in the creek during May and June.

Results of the food habits analysis indicated that the Jack Dempsey was
omnivorous, and fed opportunistically on invertebrates, fish, and vegetation.
This observation agrees with the feeding behavior of this species in its native
habitat (Barlow 1974), as well as in Florida. Hogg (1976a) found that stomach
contents from Jack Dempseys collected in Dade County, Florida, included al-
gae, crayfish exoskeletons, mollusk shell fragments, and various unidentified
material. Levine et al. (1979) found a predominance of animal matter in the
diet of Jack Dempseys taken from a rock pit in Levy County. Adults ate primar-

258 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

ily snails, whereas shrimp and midges constituted 80 percent of the volume of
the stomach contents of juveniles. The omnivorous, opportunistic feeding be-
havior of the Jack Dempsey should enhance its survival in areas where it is
introduced.

Range expansion of the Jack Dempsey in Florida is perhaps limited most by
temperature. Shafland and Pestrak (1982) reported that reduced feeding oc-
curred at 16°C, feeding ceased at 13.2°C, and equilibrium was lost at 9°C.
The mean lower lethal limit for the Jack Dempsey was 8°C.

In January 1983, dead and moribund fish were observed when the creek
temperature was 10-11°C and minimum air temperature was —2.2°C.
Sources of warmer water, however, were at the head of the creek and at an
underground drain from the University’s heating plant, near the sewage treat-
ment lagoon. Although minimum water temperatures were not measured in
1984 and 1985, minimum air temperatures were —2.8°C and —12.2°C, re-
spectively (Gainesville Regional Airport Flight Service Station surface weather
observations). The January 1985 temperature is considered as a record-low for
the Gainesville area.

Although the ultimate lower incipient lethal temperature—the lowest tem-
perature that can be survived indefinitely (Fry 1947)—for the Jack Dempsey is
unknown, it has survived in this creek for at least 3 years during this study. The
effects of diurnal temperature fluctuations may reduce thermal stress during
short periods of cold weather, or the fish may seek thermal refuge in warm-
water effluent from underground drains. Since this system is relatively small
and isolated, the status of the Jack Dempsey population should be classified as
localized, according to the introduced species terminology by Shafland and
Lewis (1984). This population now represents the northernmost (29.40 N,
82.20 W) distribution known for Cichlasoma species in Florida.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—I thank Joseph A. Boccardy, Richard L. Cailteux, Matthew A. Clemons,
Michael L. Jennings, James A. McCann, Scott A. McCann, Jerry D. Wiechman, and Alexander V.
Zale for their assistance in the field, and James P. Clugston, Harold L. Schramm, Jr. and Paul L.
Shafland for critically reviewing the manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

AXELROD, H. R., anv L. P. Scnuttz. 1978. Handbook of tropical aquarium fishes. Tropical Fish
Hobbyist Publications, Neptune City, New Jersey. 718 p.

Bartow, G. W. 1974. Contrasts in social behavior between Central American cichlid fishes and
coral reef surgeon fishes. Am. Zoolog. 1 1:9-34.

Courtenay, W. R., Jr., H. F. SAHLMAN, W. W. Mitey II, anp D. J. HerREMA. 1974. Exotic fishes
in fresh and brackish waters of Florida. Biol. Conserv. 6(4):29 1-302.

, J. N. Tayzor, R. S. Diat, S. C. WarnricHT, AND J. A. McCann. 1981. Status and

impact of exotic fish presently established in U. S. waters. Inhouse report, Nat. Fish. Res.
Lab., Gainesville, Fl.

Dia R. S., ano S. C. Wainricut. 1983. New distributional records for non-native fishes in
Florida. Florida Scient. 46(1):1-8.

Fry, F. E. J. 1947. Effects of the environment on animal activity. Univ. Toronto Studies Biol. Ser.
55:1-62.

Hocc, R. G. 1976a. Ecology of fishes of the family Cichlidae introduced into the freshwaters of
Dade County, Florida. Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. Miami, Coral Gables. 142 p.

~

No. 4, 1986] JENNINGS— JACK DEMPSEY POPULATION 259

, 1976b. Established exotic fishes in Dade County, Florida. Florida Scient. 39(2):97-103.
Levine, D. S., J. T. KRumMMnricu, AND P. L. SHAFLAND. 1979. Renovation of a borrow pit in Levy
County, Florida containing Jack Dempseys (Cichlasoma octofasciatum). Non-Native Fish
Res. Lab., Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm., Boca Raton, Florida. Contribution
No. 21, 6 p.
Miiter, R. R. 1966. Geographical distribution of Central American freshwater fishes. Copeia
1966(4):773-802.
SHAFLAND, P. L. 1982. Non-Native Fish Res. Lab., Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm.,
Boca Raton, Florida, personal communication.
, AND J. M. Pestrax. 1982. Lower lethal temperatures for fourteen non-native fishes in
Florida. Environ. Biol. Fish. 7(2):149-156.
, AND W. M. Lewis. 1984. Terminology associated with introduced organisms. Fisheries
(Bethesda) (4):17-18.

Florida Sci. 49(4)255-259. 1986.
Accepted: April 21, 1986

THE CHADWICK BEACH COTTON MOUSE (Rodentia: Peromyscus

gossypinus restrictus) MAY BE EXTINCT—Robert W. Repenning” and Stephen
R. Humphrey,” (1) Florida Department of Natural Resources, Pine Island Sound
Aquatic Preserve, P.O. Box 591, Bokeelia, FL 33922 and (2) Florida State Museum,
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611

Asstract: The Chadwick Beach cotton mouse appears to be extinct. The known specimens
were from the coastal forest and adjacent grasslands of Manasota Key. This habitat has been
heavily impacted by construction of human residences. However, a mechanism that would have
made the remaining woodlots uninhabitable for cotton mice has not been demonstrated.

THE Chadwick Beach cotton mouse (Peromyscus gossypinus restrictus)
was described on the basis of 15 specimens taken at Chadwick Beach, near
Englewood, Sarasota County (Howell 1939). They occurred in the sea oats
(Uniola paniculata) along the beach and in the adjacent cabbage palm (Sabal
palmetto) forest. No specimens of the Chadwick Beach cotton mouse appear to
have been collected since the type series was taken (Layne et al. 1977).

The purpose of this project was to determine the population status and
distribution of the Chadwick Beach cotton mouse. Concern about this mam-
mal was justified by its restricted distribution, genetic uniqueness, and conver-
sion of its habitat to human uses. The subspecies is listed as a Species of Special
Concern by the State of Florida (Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commis-
sion 1985) and is being considered for possible listing under the federal Endan-
gered Species act (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1985).

MeETHOopDs—Sampling for the Chadwick Beach cotton mouse was conducted on Manasota Key
in Sarasota and Charlotte counties, Florida, during 1-19 October 1984 and 16-23 March 1985.
Sherman livetraps were placed in lines or grids with an inter-trap distance of 10 m. Rolled oats was
used as bait. Captures were expressed in terms of adjusted trapnights, computed as total trapnights

260 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

minus one-half the number of traps found sprung in the morning, under the assumption that the
average trap was sprung midway through the night. Eight sites (Fig. 1) were sampled along the
Key from a city park in Venice (Site A) south to Englewood Beach (Site K). Other public lands
sampled were Casperson Beach County Park (Site B) and Blind Pass Beach County Park (Site I).
Three mainland sites (Sites C-E) also were trapped to obtain comparative data.

RESULTS AND Discusston—During the first sampling period, a total of 980
adjusted trapnights on the Key resulted in no captures of Peromyscus gossy-
pinus, though three other species of rodents were captured (Table 1). On the
mainland, two of the three sites yielded P. gossypinus. During the second sam-
pling period, an additional 741 trapnights on the Key, distributed among Sites
G, I, and J, resulted in capture of only a single spotted skunk (Spilogale
putorius).

Based on these results, the Chadwick Beach cotton mouse appears to be
extinct. The primary need for further research is additional survey work in the

VENICE

GULF OF MEXICO

Kilometers

Fic. |. Distribution of trapping sites on Manasota Key and the adjacent mainland, Sarasota
County, Florida.

No. 4, 1986] REPENNING AND HUMPHREY—COTTON MOUSE EXTINCT? 261

TABLE 1. Rodents captured on Manasota Key (sites A-B, F-K) and the adjacent mainland (sites
C-E), 1-19 October 1984 and 16-23 March 1985.

Adjusted

trap Mus Rattus Sigmodon Oryzomys Peromyscus Spilogale Trap
Site nights musculus rattus hispidus palustris gossypinus putorius success
A 127 0 0 4 0 0 0 0.03
B 121 0 0 6 0 0 0 0.05
C 90 0 0 2 0 ] 0 0.03
D 46 0 0 8 4 ] 0 0.28
Ie 22 0 0 12 3 0 0 0.12
F 122 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00
G 172 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00
H 120 3 3 0 0 0 0 0.05
I 318 2 0 0 0 0 1 0.01
Jj 638 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.00
K 104 ] 0 2 0 0 0 0.03
Total 1980 6 3 34 7 2 1 0.03

hope of reversing this conclusion. A taxonomic review of this population might
be interesteing in view of the qualitative nature of the comparisons in the type
description. Because so few specimens of this subspecies are available, such a
review would require a major statistical comparison with other subspecies in
the region. In view of the apparent extinction of the population, such an exer-
cise would be strictly academic.

The place name “Chadwick Beach” no longer occurs on maps, but conver-
sation with local residents and real estate businessmen revealed its location to
be near the southern end of the Key in Englewood Beach. Manasota Key is a
peninsula, not an island. However, the primary habitat of this subspecies is
essentially insular, because the coastal forest is very narrow at the neck of the
peninsula. The maritime forest is a very narrow strip at the northern end of
Manasota Key, becoming wider southward. The forest edge is affected by the
harsh coastal environment and is composed only of cabbage palms, which are
relatively tolerant of salt and wind. At Site A, only this narrow association
occurs. Where the forest widens farther south, its interior reflects a succes-
sional history and is dominated by live oaks (Quercus virginiana) and south-
ern red cedar (Juniperus silvicola). The greatest tree-species and structural
diversity now occurs at the southern end of Sarasota County, at and near Site J.

The sea oats strip along Manasota Bay has been reduced to a few remnants,
mostly in publicly owned parks dedicated to beach recreation. Landward,
numerous remnants of the coastal forest remain, divided into many, small,
privately owned parcels developed for residences and vacation homes. Some of
the larger lots in Sarasota County were developed by clearing vegetation for
house sites but leaving forest to buffer neighboring properties. The southern-
most portion of forest, in Charlotte County, has been completely destroyed by
human construction. Despite the substantial loss of habitat, we judged that
remnant woodlots in Sarasota County could support populations of cotton
mice. Hence the final mechanism of extinction has not been documented. Pos-

262 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

sibly predation by the large number of house cats (Felis catus) associated with
the continuously-distributed human residences may render the remaining
woodlots uninhabitable by cotton mice.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— This study was funded by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and admin-
istered through the Florida Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit. We are grateful for
leadership by David J. Wesley and Michael Bentzein and facilitation by H. Franklin Percival. We
also appreciate the cooperation and interest of Don A. Wood of the Florida Game and Fresh Water
Fish Commission. Mark E. Ludlow ably assisted with field work.

LITERATURE CITED

FLORIDA GAME AND FresH WATER FisH Commission. 1985. Official lists of endangered and poten-
tially endangered fauna and flora in Florida. Tallahassee. 21 p.

Howe t, A. H. 1939. Descriptions of five new mammals from Florida. J. Mammal. 20:363-365.

Layne, J. N., J. A. Sratycup, G. E. WooLFENDEN, M. N. McCautey, AND D. J. WorxEy. 1977.
Fish and wildlife inventory of the seven-county region included in the central Florida phos-
phate industry areawide environmental impact study. Archbold Biological Station, Lake
Placid, Florida. 1279 p.

U.S. Fish AND WILDLIFE SERVICE. 1985. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; review of
vertebrate wildlife; notice of review. Fed. Reg. 50:37958-37967.

Florida Sci. 49(4):259-262. 1986.
Accepted: April 4, 1986.

REPORT OF A NEW BAT (CHIROPTERA: ARTIBEUS JAMAICENSIS) IN

THE UNITED STATES IS ERRONEOUS-—Stephen R. Humphrey! and Larry
N. Brown?,—"Florida State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
and */Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. ~*

Asstract: The report of a resident population of the Jamaican fig-eating bat (Chiroptera,
Phyllostomidae: Artibeus jamaicensis) in Florida by Lazell and Koopman (1985) is unsubstanti-
ated. The photograph on which this report is based is of a phyllostomid bat, but it cannot be
identified. No population has been found.

LAZELL AND KoopMAN (1985) reported the occurrence of a resident popu-
lation ofthe Jamaican fig-eating bat (Artibeus jamaicensis) in Key West, Mon-
roe County, Florida. This report is erroneous in two respects.

First, the species is misidentified. The photograph on which the record is
based is not of A. jamaicensis nor any other member of the subfamily Steno-
derminae. It does appear to be a member of the family Phyllostomidae, but its
identity can not be determined. These judgments are based on several charac-
teristics visible in the published photograph. (1) Contrary to the statement of
Lazell and Koopman (1985), it is not clear from the photo that a tail is absent.
It shows what may be either a short tail or a fold of the interfemoral mem-
brane. A. jamaicensis is tailless. (2) the rostrum is not foreshortened, as in A.

*Present address: Environmental Studies, Inc., P.O. Box 14244, Tallahassee, FL 32317.

WRONG BAT 263

No. 4, 1986] HUMPHREY AND BROWN

jamaicensis, which is specialized for eating figs and other fruits of similar size
and shape (Bonaccorso 1979). (3) The two white stripes on the crown, charac-
teristic of Artibeus, appear to be absent. This evidence is not foolproof alone,
because these marks are indistinct on a small minority of specimens. (4) As
noted by Lazell and Koopman, the 61-mm estimate of forearm length taken
from the photograph is slightly large for A. jamaicensis, although it is in the
documented range of variation. (5) The elongate rostrum, lack of crown-
stripes, estimated length of the forearm, unspecialized ears, possible presence
of a short tail, and overall appearance of the animal suggest a number of the
primitive subfamily Phyllostominae, but any identification is speculative with-
out a specimen to examine.

Second, no substantial evidence of a resident population exists. Such evi-
dence should demonstrate the presence of more than one animal on some regu-
lar basis, such as breeding or overwintering. Instead, the record is of a single
animal of uncertain tenure. Year-round residence of A. jamaicensis is highly
unlikely, given its relatively specialized dietary requirements (Fleming et al.
1972, Gardner 1977, Bonaccorso 1979, Bonaccorso and Humphrey 1985) and
the implications of the highly seasonal climate of the Lower Keys (Thomas
1974) for fruit availability. The possibility of year-round residence is less re-
mote (though still unlikely) for a phyllostomine species, because the more om-
nivorous diet of that subfamily favors opportunism (Fleming et al. 1972,
Gardner 1977, Bonaccorso 1979, Humphrey et al. 1983).

The most parsimonious interpretation is that this animal was an unidenti-
fied member of the family Phyllostomidae and that it recently had immigrated
from the Neotropics or flown off a passing ship.

We thank Hecter T. Arita, Robert J. Baker, Frank J. Bonaccorso, and Merlin
D. Tuttle for discussing this question with us.

LITERATURE CITED

Bonaccorso, F. J. 1979. Foraging and reproductive ecology in a Panamanian bat community.
Bull. Florida State Museum, Biol. Sci. 24:359-408.

, AND S. R. Humpurey. 1985. Fruit bat niche dynamics: their role in maintaining
tropical forest diversity. Pp. 169-183 in A. C. Chadwick and S. L. Sutton (eds.), Tropical
Rain Forest: The Leeds Symposium. Leeds Phil. Lit. Soc., United Kingdom.

FLEMING, T. H., E. T. Hooper, anp D. E. Witson. 1972. Three Central American bat communi-
ties: structure, reproductive cycles, and movement patterns. Ecology, 53:555-569.

Garpner, A. L. 1977. Feeding habits, Pp. 293-350 in Baker, R. J., J. K. Jones, JR., AND C. D.
Carter (eds.), Biology of bats of the New World family Phyllostomatidae. Part II. Texas
Tech Univ., Lubbock, The Museum, Spec. Publ. No. 13, 364 p.

Humpurey, S. R., F. J. Bonaccorso, ano T. L. Zinn. 1983. Guild structure of surface-gleaning
bats in Panama. Ecology. 64:284-294.

Laze.L, J. D., JR. aND K. F. Koopman 1985. Notes on bats of Florida’s Lower Keys. Florida
Scient. 48:37-41.

Tuomas, T. M. 1974. A detailed analysis of climatological and hydrological records of South
Florida with reference to man’s influence upon ecosystem evolution. Pp. 82-122 in GLEa-
son, P. J. (ed.), Environments of South Florida: Present and Past. Memoir 2, Miami Geol.
Soc., 452 p.

Florida Sci. 49(4):262-263 1986.
Accepted: February 18, 1986.

264 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

REVIEW

Andre F. Clewell, Guide to the Vascular Plants of the Florida Panhandle,
University Presses of Florida, Gainesville, 1985. Pp. 605. Price: $30.

THE Flora of Florida—the book—is yet to be written. The flora of Flor-
ida—the subject—remains imperfectly known and incompletely documented.
Florida’s approximately 3500 native and naturalized vascular species, the
largest number to be found in any state east of the Mississippi River (with
nearly 10% of that number endemic), and the minimal level of published
floristic wisdom available for transfer from adjacent states and the West In-
dies, have left Florida underrepresented on the list of publications by which a
state’s plants may be identified. The need for such studies, coupled with the
elongate geography of Florida and the floristic disparity to be found from one
end of the state to the other, has encouraged the preparation of local or district
“floras” or guides which, step by step, are bringing the knowledge of Florida’s
“flora” (the plants, that is) to the level of completeness and accuracy that is
already met in many other states.

Each successive publication in this process attains a higher level of preci-
sion and user satisfaction. First, Long and Lakela’s 1971 A Flora of Tropical
Florida, though hurriedly written and wholly lacking in creditable distribu-
tional information, addressed the southernmost three counties of the Florida
peninsula. Then Wunderlin’s 1982 tidy but overly brief Guide to the Vascular
Plants of Central Florida extended coverage through 30 additional counties of
the peninsula. And now, Andre F. Clewell has given us an eminently respect-
able and satisfying treatment of the plants of the Florida panhandle.

Clewell includes within his coverage 2359 species in 181 families. He gives
an introduction that contains a helpful discussion of the many distinctive Flor-
ida habitats such as steepheads, hammocks, shell middens, flatwoods, and
scrub. He provides a conventional glossary and accompanies it with ten pages
of diagnostic illustrations especially useful to the novice. Though the species
are not illustrated or mapped, a number of the difficult genera and families
(e.g., Xyris, Compositae, Gramineae) are provided with additional diagnostic
drawings.

The body of Clewell’s Guide is clearly an extension of the tried and true
format previously employed in Wunderlin’s Guide—a product of the same
Press—but with welcome additions and modifications. Families are arranged
alphabetically within pteridophytes, gymnosperms, monocots, and dicots.
Each family is given a brief description—lacking in Wunderlin. The keys are
stepped, making them easier to follow than the space-saving bracketed keys of
Wunderlin. The species of each genus are then listed in alphabetical sequence,
with each accompanied by a common name, habitat and range, and synon-
ymy, as appropriate.

Among the more interesting novelties is Clewell’s practice of prefacing the
treatment of many genera with one or more recent references. There is, how-

No. 4, 1986] WARD—BOOK REVIEW 265

ever, no indication of the extent to which these cited studies have been con-
sulted or followed. At times, as in Galactia, Ilex, Rhexia, and Xyris, the refer-
ence is seemingly provided only as background, while in other cases, as in
Asimina, Cenchrus, and Eleocharis, Clewell’s treatment is a close paraphras-
ing of the cited reference.

Clewell has followed Wunderlin in providing an index to families on the
rear endleaf, a simple but convenient touch. He has also continued the practice
of a general index to scientific names in which authorities are given. The book
is well bound, compact, and highly legible with boldfaced scientific names and
clear type.

A few species have crept into this compilation that do not occur in the
state. Vitis cinerea, reported for two mid-panhandle counties, seems not to be
native, the plants in Florida herbaria so named being V. vulpina. Viola cucul-
lata, reported in an appended “Additional Taxa” and previously not known
south of northernmost Georgia, is included upon the authority of an annotator
of three specimens that lack the characteristic clavate haris on the lateral
petals of that species and are better placed under V. affinis.

One may occasionally disagree with Clewell’s recognition of species. Frax-
inus pauciflora is surely indistinguishable at the specific level from F. caroli-
niana, while Vaccinium elliottii is sharply distinct in the field from V. corym-
bosum, s. 1. Portulaca amilis, a newly introduced purslane with rose-colored
flowers, will be misidentified by Clewell’s key that requires it to have yellow
petals.

Very few misprints have evaded the editorial and review process. One
which materialized in a final stage of revision is especially worth noting since
it occurs in a species to which Dr. Clewell and the present reviewer have
devoted much recent joint study. It appears to credit the West Florida Cham-
aecyparis thyoides var. henryae to Linnaeus, rather than to the 1962 publisher
of the taxon, Dr. Hui-Lin Li. When confronted with this lapsus, Dr. Clewell
wryly suggested that “L.’ was perhaps not an error, for how else could one
abbreviate Li?

Dr. Clewell is second only to Robert K. Godfrey in his qualifications to
write a book such as this. Indeed, they were colleagues for sixteen years at
Florida State University and shared many of the same collections and conclu-
sions as to species characteristics and distribution. It is thus appropriate that
this excellent summation of the plants of Florida’s panhandle has been dedi-
cated to “Dr. Bob.’

Completion of a definitive “flora” of Florida’s entire flora is still an inde-
terminate number of years in the future. But publication of Clewell’s panhan-
dle Guide moves us a giant step along the path toward that goal.—Daniel B.
Ward, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611.'

'This paper is Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series No.
TUM

FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF REVIEWERS

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the service and cooperation of the following persons who gave
generously of their time and expertise in reviewing manuscripts for Volume 48 of the Florida

Scientist.

Warren Abrahamson
Jay N. Allen, Jr.

J. S. Ashe

Monnie Beach
Ronnie C. Best

S.C. Bloch

Larry C. Brown
Bruce C. Cowell

C. J. Dawes

Marion T. Doig, III
Patricia M. Dooris
Theodore Fleming
David C. Hartnett
Harold J. Humm
Stephen R. Humphrey
J. E. Jones

John M. Lawrence
James N. Layne
James D. Lazell
Roy Leep

Leslie S. Lieberman
Edgar F. Lowe
Kumar Mahadavan
Barbara B. Martin
David J. Martsolf
George A. Maul

Russ Mizell

Paul E. Moler

Ralph E. Moon

Henry R. Mushinsky
Ronald L. Myers
Norman L. Oleson
John Osborne
Theodore F. Rochow
Harold L. Schramm, Jr.
Paul Shafland

Warren S. Silver
Joseph L. Simon

D. R. Sloan

J. D. Soloman

Wilton W. Sturgess, III
William H. Taft
Walter K. Taylor
Diane TeStrake

Sam B. Upchurch
Richard P. Wain

Ian Watson

David S. Webb

Curtis W. Wienker
Charles A. Woods
Richard C. Wunderlin

~l

No. 4, 1986] W ARD— BOOK REVIEW 26

Outstanding Student Paper Awards, Awardees

Fiftieth Annual Meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences,
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida—10-12 April 1986

Agricultural Sciences—W. W. Fiebig, University of Florida, Soil Compaction
and Subsoiling: Is it Profitable for the Farmer?

Anthropological Sciences—Jeffrey M. Mitchem, University of Florida, Archae-
ological Evidence of Early 16th Century Contact Between Spanish Explor-
ers and Safety Harbor Indians.

Biological Sciences—Gerald A. LeBlanc, University of South Florida, Charac-
terization of Multiple Glutathione S-Transferases in Daphnia magna.

Environmental Chemistry—Mikie Perez-Cruet, University of South Florida,
Structure and Function of Red Tide Toxins Associated with Respiratory
Problems.

Geology and Hydrology Science—Eric R. Brown, University of Florida, Car-
bonate Eolianites of San Salvador, Bahamas.

Mathematics and Computer Sciences—Nathan Herer, Florida Institute of
Technology, Non-continuous Inspection; Exponential Parameter Estima-
tion and Impact on Availability Calculations.

Physical and Space Science—Lawrence A. Wise, Jacksonville University, A
Technique for Measuring the Absorption Coefficients of Optical Fibers
from 60 K to Room Temperature.

Sigma Xi Graduate Student Award—Gerald A. LeBlanc (Biological Sciences)

American Association for the Advancement of Science Awards—(1) Eric R.
Brown (Geology and Hydrology Science); (2) M. J. Perez-Cruet (Environ-
mental Chemistry)

268 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 49

CITATION FOR E. DWIGHT ADAMS

The 1986 Florida Academy of Sciences Medalist is Dr. E. Dwight Adams,
Professor of Physics, University of Florida.

In his letter reporting the decision of the Honors Committee, Professor
Yngve Ohrn, the Chairman, noted the “long and distinguished research activ-
ity of Professor Adams in experimental low temperature physics. His work
which enjoys worldwide recognition, has been crucial to the uncovering of
new phenomena at the subatomic level which has led to our current under-
standing of the strange behavior of some materials close to the absolute zero of
temperature.”

ERRATA

Kushlan, J.A., S. A. Voorhees, W. F. Loftus, and P. C. Frohring. 1986.
Length, mass, and calorific relationships of Everglades animals. Florida
Scient. 49(2) 65-79.

Inadvertently several errors were made, and we regret any inconven-
ience that may have been caused.

P. 76. TABLE 4. Relationship of dry mass (Y) in g, to wet mass (X) of
Everglades animals described by the equation Y = B, + B,X'

P. 76. Second column is B, and third column is B,

P. 66. caps and bars were omitted from symbols in the Data Treatment
section that should read:

Data TREATMENT—The mass-length relationship of fishes (Ricker, 1975) and insects (Rogers et
al., 1977; Smock, 1980) fit a parabolic or power curve (Eqn. 1):
A B,
, = r l
33 ;
Our symbolism follows Kleinbaum and Kupper (1978): Bo is the intercept; B, is the slope; N is
the number of observations; Y is the dependent variable; Y is the predicted value of Y; X is the in-
dependent variable; Y is the mean of all inputed Y values; X is the mean of all inputed X values; S$
is any standard deviation; Sy is the standard deviation of inputed X values; Sy is the standard
deviation of inputed Y values; Sp, is the standard error of the slope; SSE is residual sum of
squares, L(Y;-Y;)?; SSY-SSE is sum of squares due to regression; Sy,x is the standard error of the
estimate (SSE/(N-2))’*; MSE is the mean square error of the residuals, SSE/(N-2); r is the sample
correlation coefficient; and F is the value of the F ratio of the sums of squares. We used a = 0.01,
and all regressions were significant at that level.

Florida Scientist

QUARTERLY JOURNAL
of the
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME 49

DEAN F. MarTIN
Editor

BARBARA B. MARTIN
Co-Editor

Published by the

FLoRIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, INC.
Orlando, Florida
1986

The Florida Scientist continues the series formerly issued as the
Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences. The Annual
Program Issue is published independently of the journal and is issued
as a separately paged Supplement.

Copyright© by the FLoripa ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, INc. 1986

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 49

NuMBER |

A Comparison of Fatty Acids and Sterols in Two Significant

Florida Marine Algae, Ptychodiscus brevis and

Nannochloris sp. ..............Abdelhamid Hamdy and Dean F. Martin
Food and Young Juvenile Lemon Sharks, Negaprion

brevirostris (Poey), Near Sand Key, Western Florida Bay

FROMM tar JEOUIVOINS. S a:el beo dee ocace ORR NCO Eo Oc Ie te pe Reena ee
The Status of Calisto hysius batesi (Lepidoptera, Satyridae)
with the Description of a New Species of Calisto from

li Sppatntolabey.<cattets Sle aad oss en Juan Carlos Correa and Albert Schwartz
A New Subspecies of Synapte malitiosa (Lepidoptera:
Iespeniidae)itrom Hispaniola 2.22558. 2.0 .. woe eee 1 oI Albert Schwartz

and William W. Sommer
Social Organization and Biased Primary Sex Ratio of
the Evening Bat, Nycticeius humeralis
50:5 6.00: b Rana ae een eer James R. Bain and Stephen R. Humphrey
Bryophytes from Mangroves and Adjacent Shoreline Plant
Commiunitiesioflanpa, Bay, Plorida. 1.5.2 6 xc. oj ens ole ee sense eee
D. TeStrake, R. B. Lassiter, J. A. Lassiter and D. A. Breil
Proposed Soltuion-Hole Breccia Origin for the Carrefour
RaymonceMarble(Haiti) «223. ...2. 2000+. eeees os Donald W. Lovejoy
Citrus Blight Assessment Using a Microcomputer: Quantifying
Damage Using an Applie Computer to Solve Reflectance
Speetnarollmntiredrees|....5...-- Haven C. Sweet and George J. Edwards
INGRATENN aoc oli USES Cue eae ei a a oe ec ee es a Dean F. Martin
Notes and Comments on the Late Pleistocene Glyptodont,
Clyptothenum floridanum trom Florida’ ==)... 2-225 5.2 0+ -e2e ees a
David D. Gillette and Phillip M. Whisler
INGEN 9 6 on acd of eis NCS ore eR Ean Kendall L. Carder
Signe Grab syvimpositimyAnnoucement +9). 0% oe a. oe hae) seuss ee ee
Ountstaudingstudent:/Paper Awardees, 1985. (52.6. 0. eee ee te eee

NUMBER 2

Length, Mass, and Calorific Relationship of
ByvergladessAnimals' 5 s2-5-5--0-- 4: James A. Kushlan, Scott A. Voorhees,
William F. Loftus, and Paula C. Frohring
First Records of Three Clearwing Moths (Synanthedon
Tabaniformis, Synanthedon Proxima and Synanthedon

Castancac)mbloridal sen. oie aoe ae ee Larry N. Brown
Do Land Characteristics Affect Heart and Gastrointestinal
Death Rates Among Florida Counties? .............. Marion L. Jackson,

Chang S Li, and Dean F. Martin
Abnormal Hemoglobins in Tarpon Springs Blacks

BANG! (GEE 16 fod Sak Mi ta a I a a Curtis W. Wienker
Florida’s Freezes: An Analog of Short-Duration Nuclear
WintemeventsunmtheIropics 6 ana. o)-6- ao aan e Ronald L. Myers

Response of Chicks to Two Drinking Water Sodium Levels
Suppiediiromebhree Different Salts. posses. eos eee estore oe
B. L. Damron and W. L. Johnson
Poultry Waste Lagoon Sediment as a Source of Calcium
ir ILAKiinyer la ern Patrons Oro Cen el oan eee R. D. Miles, D. R. Sloan,
R. H. Marms, and J. E. Marion

104

ZZ

Burmannia Flava'Martintbloridatan ian aoe eee John Popenoe 126
Review Se aie ge ein ind a8 1 Gye tele Ge ge eae ooo STR 127

NuMBER 3

Primary Production in Three Subtropical Seagrass Communities:
A Comparison of Four Autotrophic'Components....... 3.1.35 eee
Paul R. Jensen and Robert A. Gibson 129
A Magnetic Anomaly Map of Polk County, Florida ...-:.. 2.5940 5neeeeee
Douglas L. Smith and Michael A. Graves 142
Biogeography of the Seashore Staphylinidae Cafius bistriatus
and C. rufifrons (Insecta: Coleoptera) ~. 5). 4.015 «3 oe eee
J. H. Frank, T. C. Carlysle, and J. R. Rey 148

Florida's Right-to-Know, Law ...9sme pein aa Nicholas G. Alexiou 162
First Record of the Silver-Haired Bat, Lasionycteris

nociivagans\lkeConte)in‘Mlomdas.... 4-4 os Seana nee Larry N. Brown 167
Humpbacked Oyster Toadfish, Opsanus tau (Linnaeus), from

North:@arolina 3. 1: sc.c2 f2a5 abo ene 2 Se Frank J. Schwartz 168
New Records for the Mole Snake, Lampropeltis calligaster, in

Penninsular Florida ................ James N. Layne, Timothy J. Walsh,

and Peter Meylan Lal

Succession in Florida Sandridge Vegetation: A Retrospective
StUGy sore niece iarempeiae ee Patricia A. Peroni and Warren G. Abrahamson 176
REVIEW arc ie hana ercheaeae in 2) esd oagin Susie tagyacle eet ee eee Dean F. Martin LOW

NuMBER 4

The Fringe-Limbed Tree Frog, Hyla fimbrimembra (Anura: Hylidae)
New Recordsifrom Costa:‘Rica = 2... 2.4.45. 6h. 5 040.) ee
Marc P. Hayes, J. Alan Pounds, and Douglas C. Robinson 193
Effects of the December 1983 and January 1985 Freezing Air
Temperatures on Select Aquatic Poikilotherms and Plant
Species of Merritt Island, Florida ........-3.....-.. 5 eee
Mark J. Provancha, Paul A. Schmalzer, and Carlton R. Hall 199
The Relationship Between Hydrology and Vegetational Pattern
Within the Floodplain Marsh of a Subtropical Florida Lake ............
Edgar F. Lowe 213
Periphytic Algal Growth in a Hypereutrophic Florida Lake
Following a Winter Decline in Phytoplankton ............ seeeeReeee
Lynn M. Hodgson, Stephen B. Linda, and Daniel E. Canfield, Jr. 234
Depositional History of Three Pleistocene Bluffs in Northeastern
Florida, :.i/x fa eee Colette M. Kussel and Douglas S. Jones 242
Characterization of a Localized Jack Dempsey,
Cichlasoma octofasciatum, Population in Alachua County,
Bloridavgusst Satie See en eee IR ee Dawn P. Jennings 255
The Chadwick Beach Cotton Mouse (Rodentia: Peromyscus
gossypinus restrictus) May be Extinct .. << ........4.+.5 2 ue eee
Robert W. Repenning and Stephen R. Humphrey 259
Report of a New Bat (Chiroptera: Artibeus jamaicensis)
in the United States isErroneous .............:.... 40 pee
Stephen R. Humphrey and Larry N. Brown 262

REVIGW yo Aus caryi ss Sulece Shela ages ttc oita mean peer ee eee Daniel B. Ward 264
Acknowledgment of Reviewers: 4...) 0.....0.0...+.0 600. eee 266
Outstanding Student Paper Awardees, 1986 ........5.........00) Gee 267
Citation for E: Dwight-Adamsigt. «4.5. 00. ote «cece» «ein oe eee 268
Brrata® ss.cendte Gt 1g Sve. ctbas eect sake oes feet oucro tens selon a aoe 268

Index; Volumeé:49' 5.55. fhe Wats & tase ae eee ee 269

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INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS FOR 1986-87

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Membership applications, subscriptions, renewals, changes of address, and orders
for back numbers should be addressed to the Executive Secretary, Florida Academy of
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.|,,30TH ANNUAL MEETING
Siq/+

a

Florida Scientist

Program Issue

Volume 49 Supplement 1

FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES |
1985-1986 OFFICERS |

President... .. . . Richard L. Turner, Florida Institute of Technology
President-Elect . . . . Pangratios Papacosta, Stetson University
Past-President. . .. . James N. Layne, Archbold Biological Station
Secretary ..... .- . Patrick J. Gleason, So. Fla. Water Management District
Treasurer .... . . - Anthony F. Walsh, Orlando Regional Medical Center
Executive Secretary . . (Acting) Joyce E. Powers, Orlando Science Center
Editor. ...... . . Dean F. Martin, University of Souith) Pillorida
Co-Editor .... . . . Barbara B. Martin, University of South Florida
Program Chairman. . . . Ernest D. Estevez, Mote Marine Laboratory
Local Arrangements. . . Leslie Sue Lieberman, University of Florida
Jr. Academy Coordinator Dorothy Henley, Cardinal Gibbons High School
Honors. . . »« « « « « « Karen C. Steidinger, Fla. Dept. of Natural Resources
Visiting Scientist
Coordinator. . .. . . Bruce Winkler, University of Tampa
Awards. . ..... . . dames G. Potter, Florida Institute of Technology
Councillors... . . . George M. Dooris, St. Leo College

M. Yasar Iscan, Florida Atlantic University

Charles J. Mott, St. Petersburg Jr. College

Anthony Paredes, Florida State University

Section Chairs

Agricultural Sciences....... Peter J. Stoffella, IFAS, University of Florida
Anthropological Sciences.... W. Jerald Kennedy, Florida Atlantic University
Atmospheric and Oceanographic

SCTENCES a. .\sdveercsee st oc eeeeeee ROMAld P. Reichard, Florida Institute of Technology
Biological Sciences......... Edgar F. Lowe, St. Johns River Water Mgt. District
Computer & Math Sciences.... Frederick B. Buoni, Florida Institute of Technology
Engineering Sciences........ R.G. Barile, Florida Institute of Technology
Environmental Chemistry..... William T. Cooper, Florida State University
Endangered Biota.......e.e.e.. Herbert W. Kale, II, Florida Audubon Society
Geology & Hydrology......... Robert 0. Clark, University of South Florida

Medical Sciences.........-.. Ann C. Vickery, University of South Florida
Physical & Space Sciences... E. Ronald Kirkland, Orlando, Florida

Science Teaching.......-..+- Phillip Horton, Florida Institute of Technology
Social Sciences...........-. Gordon Patterson, Florida Institute of Technology
Urban & Regional Planning... Wayne E. Daltry, SW Fla. Regional Planning Council

FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

The purposes of the Florida Academy of Sciences are to promote scientific
research, to stimulate interest in the sciences, to encourage the diffusion of
scientific knowledge, to sponsor good scientific teaching, to foster public and)
governmental understanding and appreciation of the sciences and the industries.
that apply them, to assist in the formulation of long-range plans together with
a time sequence of priorities for the disposition of both natural and technical
resources, to promote ethical application of the sciences to the service of
humanity, to bring suitable recognition for scientific achievement, to arrange!
meetings for the presentation and exchange of scientific findings and to publish
a journal together with such other scientific works as may further the purposes)
of the Academy.

1986 Supplement j Program Issue

1986 PROGRAM ISSUE

THE FIFTIETH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

in conjunction with the
Florida Anthropological Society

American Association of Physics Teachers
(Florida Section)

and the
Florida Junior Academy of Sciences
and Science Talent Search

Featuring a Program on the
History of Florida Sciences,

Two Plenary Addresses

"The Wedding of Science and Technology: A Very Modern Marriage"
by Dr. Melvin Kranzberg

and

"An Asteroid Impact in Southern Florida and
the Origins of the Everglades”
by Dr. Edward J. Petuch

and A Symposium

"Conserving Gene Pools of Florida's Endemic Plants”
sponsored by Bok Tower Gardens
and the
Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals

J. WAYNE REITZ UNION
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
April 10-12, 1986

Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences
Volume 49 Supplement 1

ISSN: 0098-4590
Price: $3.50

published by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc.
810 East Rollins Street, Orlando, Florida 32803

Florida Scientist ii Volume 49°

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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Meeting Information
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History of Science Program. ....)00 ccd: cereclcceseccccecs oe 0:0 06 eletesvereVAIDIRT
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Urban and Regional Planning... . oc... «css .0c sieeve o's cieelnicrtee « (URP) ener
American Association of Physics Teachers.......cccccccccee s (APT) .o243

1985 Student Paper Certificate ReCipients........ ccc cece eee eee 0 45
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1986 Supplement iii Program Issue

MEETING INFORMATION

Registrants for meetings of the Senior Academy, Junior Academy, Florida
Anthropological Society, and American Association of Physics Teachers are
welcome to attend all sessions of all organizations.

Meeting Location

The University of Florida is located in Gainesville, approximately 2 miles
east of Interstate 75, not far from the state's geographic center. The
University was established in 1853 and awarded its first degree in 1882.
The coeducational state university is Florida's largest, with a 1985
enrollment of 36,500.

The Florida Academy of Sciences was established 50 years ago at the
University of Florida. An organizational meeting in February 1936 and an
inaugural meeting of the Academy in May 1936 were held at the Gainesville
campus.

Registration

All participants are required to register. A Registration Desk for the
Senior Academy, Junior Academy and the Anthropological Society will be
Operated in the West Gallery of the J. Wayne Reitz Union from 7:30 AM to
5:00 PM on Thursday, April 10, and from 7:30 AM to 3:00 PM on Friday, April
hike

The Academy registration fee is $15.00 for members, $20.00 for non-members,
and $5.00 for students. Members receive the Florida Scientist Program Issue
by mail, as will others registered by March 3. A late registration fee of
$2.00 will be assessed everyone except students registering after January
17. Extra programs cost $3.50.

Lodging

No reservations can be made through the Academy. The following hotels are
within 2 miles of the University campus and require a credit card number or
one night prepayment for reservations. Special conference rates are
available at some hotels if you identify yourself with the Florida Academy
of Sciences.

Bambi Motel: 2119 SW 13th Street; 34 rooms; (904)376-2622.

Best Western: 1900 SW 13th Street; 100 rooms; (904)372-1800.
Casa Loma Lodge: 2000 SW 13th Street; 53 rooms; (904)372-3654.
Econo Lodge: 2644 SW 13th Street; 53 rooms; (904)373-7816.
Florida Motel: 2603 SW 13th Street; 20 rooms; (904)376-3742.

Gainesville Hilton: 2900 SW 13th Street; 197 rooms; (904)377-4000.
Holiday Inn -
University Center: 1200 W. University Avenue; 167 rooms; (904)376-1661.

Sands Motel: 2307 SW 13th Street; 20 rooms; (904)372-2045.
University Inn: 1901 SW 13th Street; 100 rooms; (904)376-2222.

Banquet and Meals

A Golden Anniversary Reception for the Florida Academy of Sciences will be
Sponsored by the Florida State Museum on Thursday night, April 10th, at the
Museum from 6:00-8:00 PM. All meeting participants are invited to attend.
Tickets are $4.00 and may be purchased at registration or at the door.
Beer, wine, soft drinks, stuffed croissants (tuna, chicken, shrimp), puffed
shells, cheeses, nuts, and vegetables will be served.

Florida Scientist iv Volume 49

The Academy Social and Banquet will be held on Friday evening (April 11) at
the J. Wayne Reitz Union Hall. Dinner follows a cash bar with pretzels and
includes rolls, tossed green salad, breast of chicken with apricot glaze and
apple almond stuffing, roasted English potatoes, fresh broccoli, carrot
cake, and wine, coffee, or tea. Guest speaker for the Banquet is Dr. Edward
J. Petuch, Florida International University, whose presentation will be "An
Asteroid Impact in Southern Florida and the Origin of the Everglades". All
participants are invited. Tickets are $12.00. Only a few tickets may be
available at registration, so order yours now by registering early.

Morning Coffee Breaks Thursday through Saturday include coffee, tea,
doughnuts, and fresh muffins.

Other Meals are available at campus cafeterias and numerous restaurants in
the campus area.

Field Trips
1. DEVIL'S MILLHOPPER STATE GEOLOGICAL SITE (self-guided).

The Devil's Millhopper is a deep, steep-walled sinkhole with sides
supporting a lush growth of ferns and other plants uncommon to peninsular
Florida. Small waterfalls and seeps trickle down the banks, flow across the
level floor, and disappear into the upper levels of the Florida aquifer.
The shade, moisture, and cool, stable temperature have permitted the
survival of northern species in this jocation since the retreat of the
full-glacial Wisconsin climatic depression. The Millhopper may be entered
by a boardwalk stairway to the bottom. A trail through oak - pine woodland
circles around the Hopper, beginning and ending at a small visitor's center
where a ranger is on duty. The Millhopper is northwest of Gainesville,
approximately 3.5 miles from the campus. From the campus, drive west on
Florida 26 to 43rd Street, north one mile, then west (following roadside
Signs) one-fourth mile. Parking is available. Trails and facilities are
open from 9:00 AM until sundown daily. There is no charge.

2. SAN FELASCO HAMMOCK (Leader: Dr. Daniel B. Ward).

The San Felasco State Preserve is a 6,300 acre tract of diversified forested
land approximately 6 miles northwest of Gainesville. It is owned by the
state of Florida and is held as a conservation preserve. It is the largest
protected stand of climax mesic hammock in the state. Though a portion of
the Hammock has been logged selectively in years past, a portion is still
virgin. Several giant live oaks, among the largest in Florida, attest to
the stature of the original forest. Twelve plant communities are
recognized: mesic hammock, lowland oak hammock, longleaf pine - turkey oak
sandhill, southern red oak forest, longleaf pine flatwoods, bayhead swamp,
bald cypress - mixed hardwood swamp, water elm - pop ash swamp, freshwater
marsh, ponds, cleared fields, and wooded pastures. The vascular flora
consists of 590 species in 120 families including many rare and endangered
plants. Wildlife is abundant, and armadillo, deer, otter, turkey, and
wildcats, or their tracks, may be seen. A large turkey vulture and black
vulture roosting area occupies part of a swampy basin. The diversity of the
Hammock reflects the Karst topography of northwestern Alachua County, with
rolling hills, bluffs, stream valleys, flat-bottomed prairies, and numerous
sinkholes. In addition to its function as a conservation preserve, it
serves aS a major aquifer recharge area and as a study area for numerous
wildlife and natural area studies. Public access is restricted. Time of
Meeting: Saturday, April 12, 8:30 AM. Place of Meeting: Paring lot south
of the Reitz Union. Requirements: Some walking required; bring
moisture-tolerant shoes and insect repellent. Transportation will be
provided but extra cars may be needed. Anticipated duration: 3 hours.
There is no charge.

1986 Supplement V Program Issue

ANNOUNCEMENTS

FAS Council Meeting

There will be a meeting of the Academy Council on Wednesday morning, April
10, beginning at 9:30 AM in Reitz Union 337. All 1985-1986 Section Officers
Should attend.

Florida Junior Academy of Sciences

The Opening Session of the FJAS begins at 1:00 PM on Thursday, April 10, in
the McCarty Hall Auditorium. McCarty Hall is adjacent to Reitz Union,
behind the Constans Theatre. Judges will meet at 11:00 AM on Thursday in
the Reitz Union "400" Room. Members of the Senior Academy are invited to
serve as judges. For more information contact Mrs. Dorothy Henley at
(305)491-2900 or at the meeting.

Symposium

The Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals (FCREPA) and
Bok Tower Gardens will cosponsor a symposium, "Conserving Gene Pools of
Florida's Endemic Plants” on Friday, April 11, from 8:30 AM until noon,
in Reitz Union 122-123. Jonathan Shaw, Bok Tower Gardens, will preside.
Twelve presentations are planned.

Plennary Sessions

We Academy History Program, Thursday, April 10, 1:30 PM in Reitz Union
361-3603. Dr. Melvin Kranzberg, past president of Sigma Xi and Callaway
Professor of the History of Technology at Georgia Institue of Technology,
will give a special address, "The Wedding of Science and Technology: A Very
Modern Marriage’. This lecture will be open to the public.

2. Annual Business Meeting, Friday, April 11, 1:30 PM in the Reitz Union
Auditorium (second floor). Dr. Richard L. Turner, 1985-1986 Academy
President, will preside. Section officers and committees should prepare to
report at this time.

3. Academy Banquet, Thursday, April 11, 7:00 PM. Dr. Richard L. Turner,
president. The Academy Medal for 1986 will be awarded by Dr. Yngve Ohrn,
1984 Medalist, and a special banquet address will be given by Dr. Edward J.
Petuch, "An Asteroid Impact in Southern Florida and the Origin of the
Everglades’. The banquet is open to all meeting participants. Tickets are
available by mail and may be purchased at registration on Thursday.

Sigma Xi Centennial

The Centennial Anniversary of Sigma Xi in 1986 coincides with the Florida
Academy's Golden Anniversary. The University of Florida Chapter of Sigma Xi
plans to award a prize for the best graduate student paper presented at the
FAS Annual Meeting. A cash prize and certificate will be presented at the
Sigma Xi Danquet.

Florida Scientist vi Volume 4

Stand Ins and Cancellations

If the author or a coauthor of a scheduled paper cannot present the paper
due to illness, unforseen conflict, or other circumstance, the author should
arrange for a colleague to read the abstracted paper. If a reader cannot be
enlisted, the paper should be cancelled. The Academy should be notified
concerning a reader or an an intent to cancel. Early notification will
allow inclusion of the change in a program supplement and will spare the
author of the cancelled paper the embarrassment of an apparent no-show.

Contact (in preferred order): E£.D. Estevez, Program Chair (813:388-4441);
Joyce Powers at the Academy Office (305:896-7151); the appropriate Section
Chair; or the presider of the session.

Audio-Visual Aids

Carousel slide projectors will be available in each session. Each Section
Officer is asked to bring at least one carousel projector to the meeting.
Overhead projectors are available on special request to the _ Local
Arrangements Committee or appropriate section chair.

Handicap Access

All meeting rooms and areas are accessible by ramps or elevators. Every
building is provided with passageways and facilities suitable for
wheelchairs. Persons with special needs should contact Dr. Leslie
Lieberman, Chairman of Local Arrangements (904:392-2031).

Smoking Policy

The University of Florida and the Florida Academy of Sciences prohibit
smoking in all interior spaces.

Parking

Metered parking is available at the Reitz Union. Check with the
Registration Staff to see if temporary parking passes are being distributed.
These passes will enable holders to park on most lots during the Academy
Meeting.

Video/Science Research

Drs. JoAnn Myer Valenti and Terry Snell of the University of Tampa will be
videotaping portions of the meetings as part of a video/science research
project. They are looking for volunteers from among those of you who are
planning to present papers at the April 1986 Meeting. If you are interested
in having a video record of your work included in a television series
project, please contact Dr. Valenti at the University of Tampa, 401 West
Kennedy Boulevard, Tampa, FL 33606, or phone (813)253-3333, Ext. 412.

Local Arrangements

Academy meeting arrangements at the University of Florida are coordinated by
Dr. Leslie Sue Lieberman, Department of Anthropology, who may be consulted
on special meeting needs by calling (904)392-2031.

1986 Supplement vii Program Issue

Nominations for Academy Offices

The Academy Nominating Committee invites recommendations for the 1986-1987
term of office for President-Elect, the 1986-1988 Councillor-at-Large, and
tne 1986-1989 Program Chairman. Duties of each office are described in the
Academy Charter and Bylaws, last published in the 1985 Meeting Program Issue
of the Florida Scientist (Volume 48 Supplement). Nominations should include
the nominee's name, address, and telephone number, as well as a letter
describing his or her scientific background, Academy involvement, other
qualifications, and supporting information. Nominations should be sent to
Carl Luer, FAS Nominating Committee Chairman, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1000
City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 335/77.

Executive Secretary Sought

The FAS Executive Committee desires nominations for the non-salaried
position of Executive Secretary. Responsibilities of the Executive
Secretary shall be to facilitate the execution of tne duties held by the
Council and such other services as shall aid in the advancement of the
objectives of the Academy. In addition, the Executive Committee has
proposed that another major duty of the Executive Secretary will be to
Supervise the operation of the main office of the Academy, which is located
in Orlando at the present time. Candidates should have been active FAS
members; scientists in good standing in an academic or other position; have
demonstrated qualities of management; and be able to commute to Orlando on
an irregular basis. Nominations should be sent to Pangratios Papacosta,
Stetson University, Box 8342, Deland, FL 32720.

Acknowledgements

Production of the Program Issues for 1984-1986 were made possible by staff
and material support from Mote Marine Laboratory. Artwork and indexing for
the 1986 issue were provided by Greg Blanchard and Bruce Fortune. The
Academy and Program Chairman extend special thanks to Laurie E. Fraser for
expert text processing during the past three years.

FLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

The Florida Anthropological Society (FANS) meets in conjunction with the
Florida Academy of Sciences in 1986. Registrations for the two organizations
are separate, but FANS members are invited to attend the public lecture by Dr.
Kranzberg, the Golden Jubilee Reception (both Thursday), and the Banquet
(Friday). Tickets for the reception and banquet are available at
registration. FANS members will be interested in the Banquet Address, "An
Asteroid Impact in Southern Florida, and the Origin of the Everglades", by Dr.
E.J. Petuch. Other Academy activities of interest to FANS members include the
Anthropological Science Sessions (on Friday) and Business Meeting (on
Saturday); an educational exhibit on the cultural history of Marion County;
and a special slide presentation on sinkholes in Florida.

The FANS Council will meet in Reitz Union 349 on Friday, April 11, beginning
at 3:00 PM. The FANS Board Meeting will begin at 5:00 PM in the same room.
On Saturday, April 12, all FANS activities will take place in the Reitz Union
Auditorium.

Volume 49

Florida Scientist Vili

HISTORY OF SCIENCE PROGRAM

ap Plenary Session, Thursday April 10 & C
1:15 PM Reitz Union 361-363

P. Papacosta, Stetson University, presiding

Introduction of Plenary Address, R.L. Turner, 1985-1986 FAS President

"The Wedding of Science and Technology: A Very Modern Marriage", by Dr.
Melvin Kranzberg, Callaway Professor of the History of Technology, Georgia
Institute of Technology.

Contributed Papers and Exhibits

Dr. Kranzberg's lecture will be followed by other speakers and exhibits. A
Special presentation, "One Hundred Years of Agriculture", will be made by
the Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, which recently celebrated
its Golden Anniversary at the University of Florida. Exhibits on Marion
County's archaeology, history of the phosphate industry, and the state's
programs of parks and recreations will be included.

Golden Jubilee Reception, Thursday April 10
6:00 PM Florida State Museum

The Academy's 50th Anniversary will be celebrated by a Golden Jubilee

Reception hosted by, the Florida State Museum from 6:00-8:00 PM on Thursday

evening, April 10, at the Museum. All members are invited. The Museum's

exhibit on Halley's Comet will be featured and food and drinks will be
served. Tickets cost $4.00 and may be purchased at registration.

HONOR ROLL
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Charter Members (Since 1936)

RUTH S. BREEN
CHARLOTTE B. BUCKLAND
T.D. CARR
H.H. HOBBS, JR.

W. LEE TANNER

Twenty Five Year Members
(Since 1961)

Stanley S. Ballard Taylor R. Alexander
Ruth S. Breen Frederick H. Berry
IDs, Cann Charlotte B. Buckland
J.C. Dickinson, ur. Louella M. Dambaugh
Margaret Gilbert Wilhelmina F. Dunning
Keith L. Hansen L.C. Gilman
James G. Houser H.H. Hobbs, ur.
Alfred P. Mills James N. Layne
Lewis D. Ober Harold L. Moody
John S. Ross Richard C. Robins
Claude E. Swindell, Jr. James Soule
Dan A. Thomas W. Lee Tanner

Ralph W. Yerger Druid Wilson

1986 Supplement ix Program Issue

FIFTY YEARS AGO

"Opportunities for Research in Florida”
Address by
Herman Kurz, Retiring President

From Volume 1: Proceedings of the Florida Academy of Sciences for 1936.

Conclusion

Corporations, like Bell Telephone, Dupont, Eastman Kodak, Ford Motor Company,
General Electric, General Motors, and the United States Steel Corporation, have
on their scientific staffs certain men who are permitted to investigate within
reason any problem or any phase of a problem that they wish to. Nothing is said
or asked about the immediate application of such scientific data or discoveries.
Their superiors feel that any basic information will some day be useful in some
way.

-In support of the foregoing, I give the substance of a paragraph from a
communication of Dr. Hawkins, Executive Engineer of General Electric Company.
He states that although a study of oil films on water contributed to the
flotation process in mining, opened up a new branch of chemistry and earned a
Nobel prize, this oil film study brought nothing of direct consequence or
utility to the General Electric Company. "However," he concludes, "we are not
worried." So these men investigate fundamentals in a field out of sheer
scientific curiosity. To the speaker it appears that institutions of learning
in the State might encourage similar attacks on problems of a _ fundamental
nature. A reasonable amount of work devoted to such problems would help to make
more effective teachers and at the same time to blaze the trail for and be of
assistance to the practical scientist who is expected to show results that can
be measured in dollars. Problems of the type I have surveyed, have been made by
scholars from other parts of the United States; visiting geologists,
anthropoiogists, zoologists, botanists, ornithologists, and naturalists, have
come, made discoveries, and incidentally taken away forever many valuable
specimens and deposited them in museums far removed from here. There is nothing
unethical in our accepting and using the contributions of outsiders. It is,
however, to be regretted that we have not in turn been able to produce a more
nearly commensurate amount of native research. Not only is it desirable, but
from an ethical point of view, imperative that Florida reciprocate on a large
scale in advancing the productive front of scientific investigation. Men
-concerned with fundamental scientific researches and those interested in
industry and natural resources expect the institutions of learning of the State
to participate, yes, even to lead in creative scholarship.

@

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Florida Scientist x Volume 49

2)

A SYMPOSIUM ON PLANT CONSERVATION

Sponsored by the
Bok Tower Gardens
and the
Florida Committee on Rare and
Endangered Plants and Animals
Organized by
Robin B. Huck and Jonathan Shaw

CONSERVING GENE POOLS OF FLORIDA'S ENDEMIC PLANTS

Friday April 11, 1986
Reitz Union 122-123
University of Florida

8:30 AM

Moderated by Jonathan Shaw, Bok Tower Gardens

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
Francis R. Thibodeau

E. Dennis Hardin

N. Caire
BIOLOGY AND HABITAT PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ROLES
Elaine M. Norman Michael L. Green
Robin B. Huck Carol Lotspeich
Lewis Yarlett David Martin
A. Herndon Steve Gatewood

Andre F. Clewell Henry 0. Whittier

1986 Supplement xi Program Issue

PROGRAM SUMMARY
All rooms are in the J. Wayne Reitz Union unless otherwise noted.

THURSDAY MORNING, APRIL 10, 1986

i SUmAMMReG TH sitna ction (to S00 CPM): as ciec ccc cc cows cccsces West Gallery
Sepa wAMEGEONOGYN& HY GGONOGY Ax sc. «cles c.cicic s cece cicres cece ce 35)
SES OMAMm BASE COUN GHEMMBEMIN Gites cre cc icccicie oS ire elcicicie eivioe ee 337
HO BOOBAMESGIIENCeMACACHTING “Axe cc cin cciss ccc stns cs esc cise eecies 356
UEAOOMAMEIASHIUAGES MCCTING.: 0 cccccsccccccrccccsccneesc "400" Room
THURSDAY AFTERNOON, APRIL 10, 1986
WATT SP ME EUASMODEMMNG) SOSSTONncis calc sicleiers cle c1eelerele.¢ © ole ele oie McCarty Auditorium
pS PM em AS SI TSTIORY GP ROGRAM verte cio crs sieve crerels 00 sie sisi sis'e's ere 361-363
A OOMPMEGeONOGYNe HY GROWOGY, Bisciccrciciciccie cicee ce sie wicle cies os. 357
Medical Science Business Meeting.........cccccees 356
Urban & Regional Planning Business Meeting....... 355
THURSDAY EVENING, APRIL 10, 1986
SEOOREMERASS GOLDEN JUBINERES RECEPMITONG ss c.scccccercc cess Florida State Museum
FRIDAY MORNING, APRIL 11, 1986
Pe SUmAMERegStration (to 3s00PM) .o.c c ccc c cs coceeecscses West Gallery
SHOOMAMMBAGBIICUINELTGCSIAG cree cyeictelsia ste es als c'crec'ce Qerees sive cwees 337
S33 OMAMEEOAS@AWaIRGS sCOGEMOMNViciccjc ccc occ cree sciences sce sees Auditorium
EnvaGonmenitallChemmlSitipy Ax ace:c occ oc 6 ole clele,o 6 ce olsicle 347
Fae Cranes Eos re Nene SVM DO SHUM creterere: crave) cet tev evaleis ciate e-elersvelcrele 122-123
SR OOMAMMATIENEODONMOGY tAltracnc cs cciols ceterers wisia eevee slclwis'e ee clele ave 361
BIHOMOGiVAEAleracstAcvaleverswe overercieists s sielale es ceewisiieiecie ee were B60
BONO Ger Bereterevcversieteverevorievs cisvcicvexcie ois suelo ole siareve e-eielovevs B65
9:30 AM Atmospheric & Oceanographic A*...... ccc ccc c cece 346
OA OOMAMESO CHOMOGYMAZ seve cicccievelexc.cieveve.s eieis.c leleevetere\0.o s//e'e elereve ays 355
LO ESIS MAM MAG VailCUIINCU TC i BE a reveiercve «cic cl eve e wierele\oro\siere\s/e\siere e1e cie/eie/eus 337
FRIDAY AFTERNOON, APRIL 11, 1986
che P Mis RAS BUSINESS MEETING. 3.00 occ 06 Siatafelstaveve cluiareleve iets. sieves Auditorium
Zeal mp MG ERC Re ES PoAsIPADeI: SOSSIONA src ccs cies cie cclee'se o.0% 122-123
2245) PMpAtmospheric & Oceanographic Bo... 22... 2s. ccc cee 346
BRYISHICSI& = SpaGee SCIENCES: Abie. ccicicicca cine cic cee + aie B71
SHOOMPMPAMENROPON OG *Bateccccs ccicinecrccoic cos clos cle cle sic ses cele sce 361
BsOMOG VRID Atecass cernrereyat ms rarevasercrotel Nove ciertie eel wisieve wiaie Siete e oie B65
PMIGWIMCCIMIN GE Alctereyclerctots cctiereis cic = vel sie oie oleretereiers c eieveves B70
Eilat Anithropollogiicalll Society ‘Council; 2.665 os 349
SVL im Mpa HOMO GiVes Greve s)sveietc cvs eteve c clererelevcle sic si einciciclcle w cies eie.s' B60
5:00 PM Fla. Anthropological Society Board............... 349
FRIDAY EVENING, APRIL 11, 1986
OU MPMBAGADEMY SO GIA ANDEBAN QUEM i siercrerc\clesere'e #clele cle ole o cie'e Ballroom
SATURDAY, APRIL 12, 1986
SESUMAMMAAPTOSESSTON Ay (IBEUNGH)\. o:s:sc.coc.c o.c00 cies occ eeis woe Cafeteria
San Felasco Hammock Field Trip.....cccccecees slehiee SOUT OLA
9:00 AM Anthropology Business Meeting......cscecccecccees 361
BEORTDARANTHROPOLO GIGAIS YS O GIEMN errs w1eite\clslsterere eres ce Auditorium
SE SmANWAAP TM BUSINESS MCCILING!. <)-\21s:elc cle clei olc's'e slelsleeloiwie cee 6 363
9:30 AM Computers & Mathematics Business Meeting......... 362
10:00 AM Computers & Mathematics A......... 56060 SOCOCODOIO 362
AAPAMOSE SISO NM Biers crovete store taterolele io ole lolerete evels Siete leisy: clavelors 363
ZS OE PMBARPTeSCSSIONGryatere eke aleve cuetctoter> w\cve/sic/eys s/s BG OOCD OCS 363

* Business meeting follows this session.
*xParking lot immediately south of Reitz Union.

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‘

FAS ANS POSTER Enzyme Polymorphisms in Bananas and Plantains. ROBERT L. JARRET
AND RICHARD E. LITZ, University of Florida,IFAS, Tropical Research and Education
Center, 18905 SW 280th St., Homestead, FL 33031

SESSION A
R. MILES, University of Florida, presiding

8:00 AM AGR-1 Influence of Leafminer Ponulations om Seed Yield of Cowpea. R.C.
BULLOCK AND ?. J. STOFFELLA, Univ. of Florida IFAS AREC, P. O. Box 28, *t. Pierce,
FL 33454. The influence of several nooulation levels of leafminer (Liriomyza
sativa Blanchard) on seed yield of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) cv
California blackeye #5 was evaluated during the 1985 spring season. Your soray
regimes of Trigard-~ (cyromazine), providing a) full season control, (b) vrotec-
tion up to flower bud initiation, (c) protection from flower bud to pod fill, (d)
protection after attagk of dicot leaves by leafminer, were comparéd to a full

i

season of Avermectin and a non-sprayed control. These soray regimes were used
to determine the growth phase at which spraying for leafminer control can be re=
stricted to achieve an optimm crop yield. Regardless of leafminer population
pressure and protection provided by the chemical treatments, seed yields were not
significantly different.

8:15 AM AGR-2 Soil Compaction and Subsoiling: Is It Profitable For The Farmer?
'W.W. FIEBIG, B.T. FRENCH, AND E.C. FRENCH, Dept. of Agronomy, University of Florida,
'Gainesville. Tillage pans occur in many soils of the SE and usually decrease crop
yields, especially in years with reduced rainfall. Many North Florida farmers are
faced with tillage pans in their fields but due to horsepower requirements and cost
of commercial equipment, subsoiling has not been an appropriate approach to the
tillage pan problem for the small farmer. Some of the objectives of this interdis-—
ciplinary research are to develop low energy and low cost subsoiling equipment, to
determine crop responses to in-row subsoiling, and to compare conventional tillage
systems to subsoiling and slit-tillage systems in attempting to increase crop
yields with minimal costs. Subsoiling equipment has been designed, built, and
tested on-station and on-farm. Preliminary results show decreased horsepower
requirements, low cost, and suitability of subsoiling the sandy soils of North
Florida. Preliminary results with corn indicate significant yield increases due

to in-row subsoiling systems.

1986 Supplement Program Issue
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
FRIDAY 8:00 AM Reitz 337

8:30 AM AGR-3 Effect of winter supplementation and estrous synchronization
on pregnancy in beef heifers. S.D. EUBANKS, P.C. GENHO, W.E. KUNKLE, D.L.
PITZER AND A.C. WARNICK. Univ. of FL and Deseret Ranches of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 32611. Five hundred twenty-nine weanling crossbred beef
heifers were randomly assigned to four winter nutritional treatments
beginning in November 1984. Two estrous synchronization treatments using SMB
Progestin implants (Ceva Labs) were given in March 1985. Heifers were
artificially inseminated at the induced estrus. Pregnancy diagnosis was done
on June 28, to determine % and age of fetus. There were differences (P<.10)
in winter nutrition treatments on pregnancy rate while there were no
significant effect of SMB treatment or implant infection on pregnancy rate.
There was no significant effect of any treatment effect upon earliness of
pregnancy.

Florida Scientist Som Volume 49

8:45 AM AGR-4 Reaction of the Tropical Forage Legume Hairy Indigo Subjected to
Water Stress. U.H. WINZER, S.L. ALBRECHT, AND J.M. BENNETT, Agronomy Dept., IFAS,
University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. In Florida, crops are often exposed to
periods of drought during the growing season. In this experiment the drought
tolerance of the forage legume Hairy indigo (Indigofera hirsuta L.) was investi-
gated. Plants were drought stressed by withholding water and nitrogenase activi-
ty, leaf water potentials and diffusive resistance were measured. Plants continued
growth throughout the drought period and increased root:shoot ratio above that of
well-watered plants. Diffusive resistance was more sensitve to drought than either
leaf water potential or nitrogenase activity. Leaf water potentials in the
stressed plants maintained control levels until the ninth day after withholding
water and then declined to as low as -2.18 MPa. Nitrogenase activity decreased
with declining leaf water potential. Results indicate that Hairy indigo was very
tolerant to drought. The effects of plant water status on nitrogenase activity in
water stressed plants will be discussed.

9:00 AM AGR-5 Production by a crossbred dairy herd in Sudan. MICHAEL
E. MCGLOTHLEN, CHARLES J. WILCOX AND FAROUK M. EL AMIN. Dairy Sci.
Dept., Univ. of FL, Gainesville 32611. Both reproductive performance
and milk production have been recorded for a large dairy herd in the
Nile valley. The herd was formed by obtaining Butana cows which were
bred to imported British bulls. Some Butana and crossbred bulls have
also been used, producing a herd in which the cows range from pure
native to 95% exotic. Average milk production of the 5/8 to 3/4
exotic cows is more than twice that of the pure native cows. Days
open tends to increase with exotic breeding, indicating a reproductive
advantage for the native animals. The expected advantage of the Fl
cows due both to selected sires and heterosis ts not observed. Falf
Holstein and Guernsey cows have higher average milk production than
half Ayrshire, and half Guernsey tend to be open longer, so Holstein
may be the best exotic breed for crossbreeding.

9:15 AM AGR-6 Early Root Development of Cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.)
DARLA J. FOUSEK and PETER J. STOFFELLA, University of Florida, IFAS/AREC, P.O. Box
PAA Mee lsteneSy: 18th S\SVAsyh..

Early root morphological characteristics were evaluated in four cowpea
cultivars 'Elite', 'Mississippi Cream', ‘California Blackeye #5' and 'Crimson
Purplehull'. Seeds were incubated for 9 days at 25°C on water saturated filter
paper in closed petri dishes. Beginning at radical emergeace, root variables
were measured every 24 hours. Times of lateral, adventitious and tap root
emergence were not significantly different among cultivars. Although all
cultivars produced basically the same total number of roots, location of these
roots on the root system varied. ‘California Blackeye #5' and 'Elite' produced
a greater number of adventitious roots than 'Mississippi Cream' or ‘Crimson’.
"Mississippi Cream’ had the fastest rate of tap root growth and the longest final
tap root length. These results indicate early root morphological differences
among cowpea cultivars.

9:30 AM AGR-7 The Effects of Energy Level, Fat Source, Vitamins and Protein
Concentration on the Growth and Feed Efficiency of Broilers Fed Alternate Grains.
D. E. BELL, J. E. MARION, R. D. MILES AND R. H. HARMS, University of Florida, IFAS
Poultry Science Department, Gainesville, Florida 32611. A series of earlier trials
has demonstrated that when broiler diets are properly balanced, triticale, wheat
and milo can produce weight gains and feed conversions comparable to those from
corn diets. This series of four trials was designed to further compare the perfor=
mance of these feedstuffs and to investigate the cause of performance variations
sometimes observed. Triticale performed as well as corn at both 20 and 23% protein
levels in diets substituting triticale for 25, 50 or 100% of the corn. The use of
higher levels of Vitamin E and Choline did not improve growth for birds fed either
corn or triticale. The two feedstuffs performed equally. Broilers fed corn, tri-
ticale, wheat or milo performed better with corn oil than with animal fat as a
source of dietary fat. The birds fed triticale, wheat or milo grew as well or bet-
ter than those fed corn.

1986 Supplement == Program Issue

9:45 AM AGR-8 Differences in Drought Resistance Among Soybean Cultivars.

J.D. RAY, J.M. BENNETT, AND K.J. BOOTE, Agronomy Dept., IFAS, Univ. of Florida,
Gainesville 32611. Twenty-eight soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) cultivars from
maturity groups V-VIII and representative of recent and old genetic material were
grown in the field under well-watered and water deficit conditions. The objective
of the study was to determine if differential responses to water stress existed
among the various cultivars. Measurements of leaf stomatal resistance and leaf-air
temperatures and ratings of leaf wilting collected during periods of water stress
Suggested that a range of stress sensitivities existed among the cultivars studied.
At maturity, measurements of seed yield and yield components also revealed signifi-
cant differences in the responses of the cultivars to water stress. Seed yield re-
ductions ranging from 7% to 44% among cultivars as a result of the imposed water
stress were observed. Results from this study suggest that drought resistance dif-
ferences among soybean cultivars exist and should be more fully examined in future
research.

FRIDAY 10:15 AM Reitz 337
SESSION B
'R. BULLOCK, University of Florida, presiding

“10:15 AM AGR-9 Influence of Concentrated Tobacco Leaf Protein Extract in Broiler

Ditces ahs DMS, DR. CAMPBELL, C. BE. WHITE: AND J. R.. RICH. Depts. of Poultry
Sci. and Animal Sci., Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. Tobacco protein
extract (TPE) was obtained from the AREC in Live Oak, Florida. Two experiments
were conducted for 3 weeks each using day old broiler chicks housed in Petersime
batteries. Dietary levels of TPE in exp. 1 were O, 5, 10 and 15%. In exp. 2 mari-
gold petal extract served as a control pigment source and furnished 12, 18 and 24
mg xanthophyll/kg. TPE was added at levels to furnish the same xanthophyll con-
centration. When TPE was added from 5-15% a sig. (P <.05) linear growth depression
resulted. However, feed intake and conversion were not influenced. In experiment
2, TPE resulted in a growth depression and poorer feed conversion. Pigmentation
data indicated that TPE was an acceptable pigment source when compared to marigold
petal extract.

10:30 AM AGR-10 Effect of Boiling Time and Salt Concentration on the composition of
Boiled Peanut Seed. VIJAYA B. MURUGESU and SHEIKH M. BASHA; Division of Agricultural
Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, FL 32307. Boiled peanuts were widely
consumed by both the rural and urban population. However, little scientific infor-
mation is available on the effect of boiling conditions on the nutritional quality of
peanut seed. This study examines the effect of varying boiling periods and salt con-
centrations on the peanut seed composition. For this purpose 150 g of green peanuts
(cv. Florunner) were boiled for various intervals (10 min. to 2 hr.) in the presence
of 3% (w/v) salt. For the salt concentration study, peanuts were boiled in presence

of 1% to 5% (w/v) salt for 50 min. Boiled peanuts were shelled, seeds were lyophi-

lyzed and ground into a meal. The meals were defatted with hexane and are being
analyzed for free sugars, free amino acids, total carbohydrates, protein content and
composition and minerals. In addition, the boiled water is also being tested to
identify the seed leachates. Supported by a grant from the USDA/SEA/CSRS.

10:45 AM AGR-11 — Response to Oral Ivermectin in Equids When Administered as a
Drench or by Nasogastric Intubation. RICHARD ASQUITH AND JAN KIVIPELTO, Animal
Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, 32611. A field
trial to demonstrate efficacy and acceptability of oral ivermectin liquid when
administered as a drench or by naso-gastric intubation produced no adverse re-
actions. Of 120 horses on trial 2 were negative when the results were expressed
as eggs per gram (EPG) of feces on the day of treatment. On day 14 after treat-
ment all 30 control animals had positive EPG counts. The 90 ivermectin treated
horses all had zero EPG. Two treatment contrasts were each tested against
controls (Friedman's test) and both were significant (P<.01). The oral drench
formulation was well accepted by the animals and wastage was not a problem with
this delivery system.

Florida Scientist -4- Volume 49

11:00 AM AGR-12 Resistance Characteristics of Pigeonpea Cultivars to Selected
Species and Races of Root-knot (Meloidogyne spp.) Nematode. K.M. MOORE, K.L.
BUHR, AND J.R. RICH, Agronomy Dept., University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611,
and Agricultural Research Center, Live Oak, 32060. Screenings comiucted in a
controlled greenhouse environment indicated several cultivars of pigeonpea
(Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) to be resistant to two species of root-knot nematode,
Meloidogyne javanica, amd M. incognita race 3. Three pigeonpea cultivars, each
representing a different level of resistance, were evaluated to determine the
nature of their resistance reaction. Seedlings of each cultivar were divided into
two groups, one inoculated with M. javanica and the other inoculated with M.
incognita, amd were grown in a greenhouse. The mumber of nematodes present in the

root systems at various intervals after the initial inoculation was used to.

measure the nematodes' ability to locate, penetrate, amd establish feeding sites
at various levels of plant resistance. The number of eggs per egg mass ws
determined in an effort to establish a possible resistance mechanism.

11:15 AM AGR-13 Observations on Development of Parasites in Foals Nursing Dams
Treated with Ivermectin or Conventional Oral Anthelmintics. JAN KIVIPELTO AND
RICHARD ASQUITH, Animal Science Department, University of Florida, Gainesville,
Florida, 32611. Pregnant mares were divided into two treatment groups (ivermectin
and conventional oral anthelmintics) and treated at two month intervals. The
first treatments were administered during the fourth month of gestation and the
last prior to 12 weeks postparturition. Parasitic egg per gram counts (EPGs)
were determined on the mares monthly and on the subsequent foals weekly. The
final EPGs on mares and foals were determined when foals were 12 weeks old. When
compared with foals of mares treated with conventional oral anthelmintics, foals
of ivermectin treated mares showed fewer Strongyloides westeri and strongyle EPGs
in all 12 weeks tested.

11:30 AM AGR-14 Effectiveness of Organic Addition in reducing P Adsorption on
Ferric Hydroxide. G.W. EASTERWOOD AND J.B. SARTAIN, Soil Science Dept., University
of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. Topsoil of an Orangeburg (fine, loamy, siliceous,
thermic, Typic Paleudult) series possessing mineralogy of kaolinite, gibbsite,
quartz, and a 14 A intergrade was used in a glasshouse experiment to determine the
effectiveness of hydroponically grown clover in reducing P adsorption on freshly
precipitated amorphous Fe(OH) 3 added to the soil. A 3%3*2 factorial experiment of
0, 50, and 100 mg Ke! Pi Ope Sle oisn cand a/esMo: ha! dried and ground clover; and 0
and 5.6 g Kg Fe as Fe(OH)3, respectively, was prepared with 3 replications. The
soil was limed to pH,6.3. Zea mays L. was grown for 53 days. On the iron treated
soil at the 0 mg Kg’ P rate, organic addition did not increase maize dry matter
yield, but a linear increase in yield of 250% compared to the control treatment
was observed within the 50 and 100 mg Kg ~ P treatments with increasing organic
addition.

FRIDAY 11:45 PM Reitz 337
BUSINESS MEETING: Agricultural Science
P.J. STOFELLA, University of Florida, presiding

FRIDAY 1:30 PM REITZ AUDITORIUM
ACADEMY BUSINESS MEETING
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

FRIDAY 7:00 PM REITZ BALLROOM
ACADEMY SOCIAL AND BANQUET
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

1986 Supplement 13) Program Issue

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

FRIDAY 9:00 AM Reitz 361
SESSION A: Archaeology and Ethnohistory
B. SIGLER-EISENBERG, University of Florida, presiding

9:00 AM ANS-1 An Underwater Archeological Survey of Biscayne National Park.
DAVID ALLEN FRANTZ, Department of Anthropology, Florida State University,
Tallahassee, Florida, 32306. In 1984 the National Park Service Southeastern
Archeological Center in conjunction with the Florida State University's Department
of Anthropology and Marine Lab Academic Diving Program conducted an underwater
archeological investigation of Biscayne National Park in an effort to inventory
the historic shipwreck sites. This paper is designed to give a brief synoposis
of the research objectives, survey methods and preliminary results of the 1984
field season. Particular attention will be paid to the survey method which was

'a three fold process and included the use of a Geometrics 866 proton precession
Magnetometer and Furuno Compact LORAN navigation system.

9:20 AM ANS-2 Spanish Missions in La Florida: Apalachee versus Apalachicola.
Judith E. Fandrich, Florida State University, Department of Anthropology, G-24
Bellamy, Tallahassee, 32306. The Spanish missionary effort in La Florida began

in 1546. The Franciscan friars, who arrived in St. Augustine in 1573, successful-
‘ly established a chain of missions in La Florida. The friars succeeded in convert-
‘ing all the Apalachee to Christianity. They failed with the Apalachicola. The
Apalachee and the Apalachicola shared many of the same traditions and were known

to be trading at least until 1701. The missionaries’ strategy in converting
'Indians was uniform. This paper examines theories that may explain why the re-
sults of the missionaries’ proselytizing were so different.

9:40 AM ANS-3 Archaeological Evidence of Early Sixteenth Century Contact
between Spanish Explorers and Safety Harbor Indians. JEFFREY M. MITCHEM, Florida
State Museum, University of Florida, Gainesville 32611. Archaeological research in
_west peninsular Florida has led to the discovery of a number of sites containing
Spanish artifacts dating to the early sixteenth century (A.D. 1500-1560). These
sites are of special interest because written accounts of the expeditions of
Narvaez (1528) and de Soto (1539) indicate that both groups of Spaniards passed
through western peninsular Florida. Archaeological evidence will be summarized and
evaluated in terms of whether actual contact or second-hand trade is most probable
for each site. Ethnohistoric evidence will be compared to the archaeological data.

10:00 AM BREAK

10:20 AM ANS-4 Community Patterning in Seventeenth Century Spanish Mission Sites
ROCHELLE A. MARRINAN, Department of Anthropology, Florida State University,
Tallahassee, Florida 32306-2923. The Florida State University excavation program
at the Seventeenth Century Franciscan mission San Pedro y San Pablo de Patale is
in its third year. Broad-scale examination of community patterning has been one
emphasis of the excavation program designed for this site. This paper presents the
results of fieldwork and a review of ethnohistoric information related to the
mission community, particularly the West Florida mission system.

Florida Scientist -6- Volume 49 |

10:40 AM ANS-5 The Development of Prehistoric Land-Use Patterns Within the
Upper St. Johns River Basin. BRENDA SIGLER-EISENBERG, Department of Anthropology,
Florida State Museum, Gainesville 32611. Almost 3000 years ago aboriginal groups,
thought to be ancestral to the historic Ais, began fishing the sloughs, streams,
lakes and marshes of the Upper St. Johns River basin. Following the initial
occupation an increase in rainfall, the primary source of water in the Upper Basin, |
appears to have created generally higher water conditions. Drawing on data from
the Gauthier site (8Br193) and a recently completed regional settlement pattern
Study, the internal dynamics of cultural development are examined within the
ecological context of the evolving wetlands environment of central-east Florida.
Emphasis is placed on changes in subsistence strategies and the economic,
ecological, and social factors that influenced settlement patterns from the late
Orange through Malabar II periods.

11:00 AM ANS-6 Islamic Slavery During the Age of Exploration. J.M. LEADER,
Dept. of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville 32611. Misguided attempts
to fit Islamic slavery within the constraints of Western Europe experience have
greatly distorted the reality of slavery in Islam. Islamic slavery is dissimilar
to the system of slavery practiced in the West. This paper uses the Quran, Sunni
Madhaib, and Hadith to examine the reality of Islamic slavery. The author wishes

to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. Charles H. Fairbanks, Dr. J. T. Milanich,

Dr. T. H. Gaster, and Ms. Nawal Ammar.

FRIDAY 3:00 PM Reitz 361
SESSION B: Cultural and Physical Anthropology
J.A. PAREDES, Florida State University, presiding

3:00 PM ANS-7 Fieldwork among the Mundurucu Indians: A Tale of Serendipity
and Perserverance. S. BRIAN BURKHALTER. Department of Anthropology, University

of South Florida, Tampa 33620. Often beset with surprises, the anthropological
fieldworker must make the best of what happens despite how disrupted original
research plans may be. Much can be learned even in trying curcumstances. In my own
In my own fieldwork among the Mundurucu Indians of the Brazilian Amazon, basic
research directions were influenced by unforeseen events. Encounters with
government agents, missionaries, a self-proclaimed Indian chief, the Brazilian
army and air force, thieves, dishonest merchants, and malaria raised intriguing
problems, but also yielded insights into reservation politics and needs. Dealing
with the unexpected is not just an inconvenience, it is basic to the discipline--
for, if all could be anticipated, what purpose would fieldwork serve?

3:20 PM ANS-8 Dugout Canoes vs. Fiberglass Boats in St. Lucia's Fishing
Industry. DONNA DAVIS, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306.
The fishermen of St. Lucia, West Indies, have traditionally used dugout canoes
made from the gommier tree. Environmental and economic pressures have begun

to limit the use of these trees for boatbuilding. In addition, the government

is promoting the adoption of fiberglass boats in an effort to modernize the

St. Lucian fishing industry. An examination of existing canoe building practices
suggests some of the reasons for resistance to fiberglass boats.

1986 Supplement i Program Issue

3:40 PM ANS-9 Folk Demography in St. Vincent, West Indies, JEAN GEARING, Dept.
of Anthropology, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. This paper discusses the
folk perceptions of racial categories and sex ratios held by residents of St.
Vincent, West Indies. Racial categories are surprisingly diverse for a total
population of 100,G00 and reflect the importance of migration in the island's
complex social history. Data was elicited using ethnosemantic techniques. Racial
categories are based upon physical appearance, socioeconomic status, ethnic

| affiliation and family history. Socioeconomic variables can outweigh physical

apdearance in the assignation of individuals to particular categories. Racial
categories do net correspond to those of the Census of the West Indies. Data from
recent censuses are used to illustrate some of the problems resulting from this
discrepancy. Sex ratios have been distorted by heavy male outmigration between 1830
and 1945. Recent increases in female migration have restored the balance, but
popular perceptions remain skewed. The influence of these folk perceptions on
sexual behavior and mating patterns will be discussed briefly.

4:00 PM ANS-10 Annual Changes in Skin Pigmentation. C.W. § WIENKER, UNIVERSITY
OF SOUTH FLORIDA, TAMPA, FL 33620. Skin pigmentation measurements were taken from
24 healthy adult Anglo-American males and 16 females, with an Evans EEL Model 90
reflectance spectrophotometer, from the inner aspect of the upper left arm and from
the middle of the forehead. Measurements at each site were taken at approximate 4
to 5 week intervals during the course of a calendar year. At the arm site, males
were not significantly different from females. This unexpected finding may be due
to behavioral phenomena. The same factors may account for significant differences
between the sexes at the forehead site. Systematic seasonal pattern changes are
evident in both males and females. Biological and ecological factors may account
for these patterns.

FRIDAY 4:20 PM Reitz 361
ANTHROPOLOGY STUDENT PAPER AWARDS
C.W. WIENKER, University of South Florida, presiding

SATURDAY 9:00 AM Reitz 361
BUSINESS MEETING: Anthropological Science
W.J. KENNEDY, Florida Atlantic University, presiding

ATMOSPHERIC AND OCEANOGRAPHIC SCIENCES

FRIDAY 9:30 AM Reitz 346
SESSION A: Physical and Meterological
F. MORRIS, South Florida Water Management District, presiding

9:30 AM AOS-1 Microseisms Observed During the Passage of Hurricane Gloria, 1985.
KENT K. HATHAWAY, S.L. COSTA AND H.C. MILLER*, Department of Oceanography and Ocean
Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901 (and* CERC-FRF, Duck,
NC 27949). Simultaneous recordings of microseisms and ocean waves were made on 26-
27 Sept. 1985 as a hurricane passed the Coastal Engineering Researcn Center's Field
Research Facility (CERC-FRF) at Duck, NC. Microseismic amplitude increased mere
than an order of magnitude between 1000 (EST) 26 Sept and 0800 27 Sept. The micro-
seisms had periods of 4.5 to 5.5 seconds, approximately half that of the ocean

Florida Scientist =8- Volume 49

waves. Maximum wave height and storm surge occurred about 0200 on the 27th. Max-
imum microseismic activity was observed at least six hours later. This lag supports
the concept of secondary microseisms produced by the non-linear interaction of ocean
waves. Long period primary microseisms (12 to 16 seconds) were observed in two
records, both during high tidal elevations. The first two authors have found
similar correlations between tide height and the production of primary microseisms
in northern California and on the Atlantic coast of Florida.

9:45 AM AOS-2 Tidal Wave Propagation in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida.
VIRENDER K. BHOGAL AND S.L. COSTA, Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering,
Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901. The Indian River Lagoon is
subjected to, and responds to, physical forces in ways that are still poorly under-
stood. In order to better understand, monitor, and predict the effects of anthro-
pogenic influences on this estuarine/lagoon system a thorough analysis of its
hydrodynamics is mandatory. Ocean tides at inlets are important driving forces.
Tidal propagation along the lagoon is modified by changes in width, depth, friction,
and riverine flows. Tidal intrusion is evident from Sebastian Inlet at least as far
north as the Melbourne causeway (35 km). Tidal phase lag and attenuation vary along
the axis of the lagoon. Phase and amplitude changes demonstrate that most of the
tidal energy is lost through the inlet and continuously degrades in a predictable
fashion as the wave progresses upstream. The lagoon tide is highly asymmetric, as
expected. Changes in freshwater discharge to the lagoon and wind stress appear to
dominate tidal effects as distance from the inlet increases.

10:00 AM AOS-3 What is the cause of an inconsistent flow
pattern/water level relationship in the Indian River lagoon?
PATRICK A. PITTS, Harbor Branch Foundation, RR 1 Box 196, Fort
Pierce FL 33450. A 224-day current meter record from the Indian
River lagoon, Florida, was used to charaterize flow patterns
along the Intracoastal Waterway near the Sebastian Inlet. Incon-
sistent flow occurred during the late fall when the current meter
indicated a flow of water toward the north into the lagoon while
corresponding lagoonal water levels dropped appreciably. lLocal
rainfall, windstress, freshwater runoff, and evaporation rates
were examined in order to determine a cause for this anomaly.
Preliminary analysis indicates that the inflow is a partial com-
pensation for reduced precipitation during the fall while water
loss due to evaporation remained high throughout the study period.

10:15 AM AOS-4 Flushing Characteristics of Banana River Lagoon
NED P. SMITH, Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., R.R. 1, Box 196,

Fort Pierce, Florida 33450. Water level records and windstress
data are combined with recording current meter data to determine
the forcing mechanism most responsible for the exchange of water
between Indian River lagoon and Banana River lagoon, and the time
scales over which it occurs. Data from a 55-day study period in
early 1983 are used to infer volume transport into and out of the
lagoon. The water level record shows tidal variations as prominent
features, explaining approximately half of the total variance. The
displacement of water calculated from the long-channel component of
the flow, however, reveals the tide as a minor perturbation of a
predominantly wind-driven flow. A net outflow from the lagoon is
interrupted every week or two, as the windstress vector reverses
and drives Indian River lagoon water back past the study site.
This process, coupled with the export of fresh water, is responsible
for maintaining water quality in Banana River lagoon.

10:30 AM BREAK

1986 Supplement == Program Issue

10:45 AM AOS-5 Lagoon Inlet Driving Forces, RONNAL P. REICHARD, Florida Institute
of Technology, Melbourne 32901. The primary hydrodynamic driving force for a lagoon
inlet is the pressure gradient caused by tidal elevation differences between the
inlet and the ocean. Tidal elevation data sets were collected near each end of three
lagoon inlets, Ft. Pierce, St. Lucie, and Jupiter, located in East Central Florida.
Bottom pressure sensors were used to measure the ocean tides, and water level
recorders were used to measure the lagoon tides. The data sets were each analyzed
for astronomical tide constituents. The differences in the constituents at either
end of the inlets provided information on the inlet hydrodynamics. The astronomical
tides were removed from the data sets to obtain residual tide heights, primarily
caused by meteorlogical forces, including fresh water runoff. This data provided
information on the effects of meteorlogical forces and fresh water runoff on the
inlet hydrodynamics. Tidal elevation difference records were calculated and analyzed
to indicate the temporal variations of inlet hydrodynamics.

11:00 AM AOS-6 Rainfall and Runoff for the St. Lucie Estuary Model, FREDERICK W.
MORRIS, South Florida Water Management District, West Palm Beach, FL, 33402.
Rainfall data from 1936 to 1983 in five basins of the St. Lucie River, and discharge
data for three tributary canals, were analyzed to develop daily runoff for
calibration and verification of a longitudinal salinity model of the estuary.
Normal, dry, and wet conditions were defined for each month of the year, enabling
the effects of discharges from a large flood control canal to be evaluated for these
conditions. Probability of exceedence of rainfall for dry, normal, and wet
conditions was quantified.

11:15 AM AOS-7 An Analysis of the Impact of a Ten-Year Storm Event on the
Population of the Clam Mercenaria mercenaria, Indian River. DIANE D. BARILE, WARREN
F., RATHJEN, PETER BARILE AND JOEL STEWART, Marine Resources Council, F.1.T., 2915
Vassar St., Melbourne. A ten-year regional rainfall produced abnormal surface water
runoff and flooding and large freshwater flows into the Indian River Lagoon. Control
structures on major drainage systems were opened to alleviate flood conditions
increasing peak flows from two major streams. A joint study has been designed to
document the rainfall distribution during the storm, runoff patterns from the
freshwater streams, salinity fluctuations in the lagoon during and following the
storm and a limited analysis of water quality. Special emphasis is placed on the
effects on clam Mercenaria mercenaria responses and related fishery. This paper
describes the process for responding to research needs related to such episodic
events.

11:30 AM AOS-8 An Analysis of Variances from the Traditional Summer Precipitation
Patterns in the West Central Florida Region (1978-1984). DEWEY M STOWERS AND

NEVA DUNCAN TABB, University of South Florida, Tampa 33620. The traditional
precipitation pattern resulting from summer convectional thunderstorms over west
central Florida as established by the Byers Report (1949) and other studies

remained essentially intact until 1977. By 1978 this pattern showed definite signs
of weakening and by 1980 significant variances were observed. The current study
examines the precipitation variances over the region from 1978-1984. An analysis

of the meteorological causes for these anomalies is presented to illustrate the
possible impact upon the climate of west central Florida.

FRIDAY 11:45 AM Reitz 346
BUSINESS MEETING: Atmospheric and Oceanographic Sciences
R.P. REICHARD, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

Florida Scientist =\0= Volume 4

FRIDAY 2:45 PM Reitz 346
SESSION B: Geological and Chemical
J. TREFRY, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

2:45 PM AOS-9 A geomorphic and stratigraphic history of the flood tidal delta
at Sebastian Inlet, Florida. KAREN MONROE AND DONALD Kk. STAUBLE, Dept. of
Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL
32901. Sebastian Inlet is a man-made inlet cut across the barrier island
separating the Atlantic Ocean from the Indian River Lagoon, 72.4 km south of Cape
Canaveral. The first attempt to open the inlet was made in 1886 but closed soon
after. The first channel cut across the island in a northwesterly direction and
opened and closed several times. A large flood tidal delta developed landward of
this opening. In 1948 a new channel was dredged and reoriented into the present
southwesterly orientation. An extensive flood tidal delta developed behind this
channel also and has grown with the tidal flow ever since. These changes have been
documented in several series of aerial photographs since 1943. Cores taken in the
delta show a vertical distribution of changes between the finer grained estuarine
and coarser tidally derived sands. Stratigraphic sequences also show the extent of
of sand bypassing the sand trap area and previous dredging in the inlet channels.

3:00 PM AOS-10 Monitoring of an inlet sand bypass system, Sebastian Inlet,
Florida. GEORGE de VASSAL AND DONALD kK. STAUBLE, Dept. of Oceanography and Ocean
Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. Inlets along

the Florida coast have been identified as a maior cause of interruption in tne
longshore cGrift of sediment, resulting in erosion on the downdrift beacnes. Sand
bypass/beach nourishment projects have become a common practice for restoration of
these vadly eroded beaches Lo inhance recreational use and provide storm protection
to upland property. In 1985, a sund vbypass dredge and fill project began at
Sebastian Inlet, on Florida's east coast, 72.4 km south of Cape Canaveral. The
project consists of dredging of a sand trap near the inlet flood tidal delte,
filling a holding basin on shore and trucking the fill to the oceanside beach.
Major environmental concerns have been addressed on the impact of the project on
the local Anastasia rock reef system starting within 30 m offshore, a habitat for
numerous biological organisms. Monitoring of turbidity, fill grain size and beach
profiles provides data on project impact and future inlet bypass project design.

3:15 PM AOS-11 Sediment grain size distribution in the Indian River Lagoon,
Florida. DAVID TIERNAN AND DONALD K. STAUBLE, Dept. of Oceanography and Ocean
Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FI. 32901. The Indian
River is a narrow estuarine lagoon system extending 253 km along the east central
Florida coast from Volusia to Palm Beach counties. The width varies from a few
meters to 8.9 km and the depth from 0.3 m along the edges to 4 m in the
Intracoastal Waterway. Potential sources for input of sediment into the lagoon are
creeks, sewage outflow, construction and other surface runoff and inlets. Wind
driven currents and causeways also influence the complexity of the sediment
distribution. Grain size analysis of selected bottom sediment samples have been
done at a variety of locations within the lagoon to incorporate the different
factors that may influence the sediment distribution. The grain size distribution
in an estuary can act as an indicator of the depositional energy levels,
circulation patterns and water flow velocites. Data from this study will have
universal application to the studies of processes in low energy coastal lagoons.

1986 Supplement aii Program Issue

3:30 PM AOS-12 Marine Pollution in Florida: The Historical Perspective.
JOHN G. WINDSOR, JR., Department of Oceanography and Ocean Engineering, Florida
Institute of Technology, Melbourne, 32901. In this fiftieth year of the Florida
Academy of Science, a review of major pollution concerns of the past will be
presented. The state of Florida has always been home to many oceanographic
researchers and some of the areas of research over the past fifty years which were
related to specific pollution concerns will be reviewed. Some of the past
practices, which are no longer of permitted will also be described, e.g., the
disposal of waste motor oil by government organization on a river bank or to
coastal waters. Although the perception of Florida coastal waters is of decreasing
water quality, are there any estuarine or coastal waters which are less
environmentally stressed than they were twenty-five years ago? With increasing
populations in coastal areas, will it be possible to maintain the status quo? Some
of the specific geographic areas which will be discussed include Escambia Bay,
Tampa Bay, Biscayne Bay, St. Johns River and Indian River Lagoon.

3:45 PM BREAK

4:00 PM AOS-13 Tracking Sewage Effluents in Coastal Waters by Chemical
Monitoring. STEWART HOLM AND JOHN G. WINDSOR, JR., Department of Oceanography and
Ocean Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, 32901. The
discharge of sewage effluent to coastal waters contributes to eutrophication.
Traditional methods of determining the areas impacted by sewage effluents, e.g.,
distribution of nutrients or coliform bacteria, sometimes yield confusing results
in the typical, poorly flushed, southeastern coastal lagoon. Constitutents unique
to sewage effluent would be useful as indicators of areas impacted by sewage.

Secondarily—treated sewage effluent was collected at an outfall near Cocoa,
Florida and chemically characterized. Receiving waters were then analyzed to
determine which of the chemical components in the effluent would be suitable for
tracking the effluent. The saturated hydrocarbon fraction and the sterol fraction
of the extracts appeared to be of greatest utility in tracking the effluents and
these fractions were determined for water, suspended matter and sediment.
Concentration profiles decrease rapidly from the outfall.

4:15 PM AOS-14 Organic-Rich Sediments in Florida's Coastal Estuaries. MICHAEL A.
SISLER, CLAUDIA J. GLASCOCK AND JOHN H. TREFRY, Department of Oceanography and Ocean
Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901. The accumulation of
Organic and inorganic sediment in the Indian River Lagoon, east Central Florida, is
accelerated by the activities of mankind. The resultant organic-rich sediment, some-
times called "muck", originates from decaying plant debris and uncontrolled soil
runoff. Muck layers vary in thickness from centimeters near Sebastian Inlet to
meters near Crane Creek and are composed of fine-grained biogenic and alumino-
silicate components. The biogenic fraction of the muck gives the sediment a rich
black color and is an indicator of high plant productivity, most often fertilized by
sewage nutrients. The aluminosilicate contribution can result from poor soil reten-
tion controls during construction, farming or other activities. The muck layer is
not the natural bottom to many areas of the system and is underlain by sand and
shell fragments at most sites. Muck plays a role in the high turbidity of the
lagoon and is a storage reservoir for pollutant Pb, Hg and Cu.

4:30 PM AOS-15 The Chemistry of Sediment Interstitial Water from the Indian
River Lagoon, Florida. DEYU GU, Third Institute of Oceanography, National
Bureau of Oceanography, Xiamen, Fujian, People's Republic of China, NENAD
IRICANIN AND JOHN H. TREFRY, Department of Oceanography & Ocean Engineering,
Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901. The chemistry of intersti-
tial water provides a useful tool for determining the biogeochemical reactions
and processes which occur in estuarine sediments. Study of an organic-rich
deposit from Eau Gallie Harbor, a tributary of the Indian River Lagoon,

Florida Scientist als Volume 49

Florida, shows a classic picture of interstitial water chemistry in anoxic
sediments. Interstitial water nitrate was depleted throughout the sediment
column and complete sulfate reduction was observed by a depth of just 9 cm,
showing highly reducing, anoxic conditions. Interstitial water chlorinity
decreased sharply with depth suggesting subsurface occurrence or intrusion of
groundwater. Dissolved sulfide concentrations were quite high and are believed
to play a primary role in controlling interstitial water metal concentrations.

4:45 PM A0S-16 Red Tide Toxin Analysis from a Ptychodiscus brevis Bloom. J.R.
KUCKLICK, R.C. BROWN, C. CANONICO and R.H. PIERCE. Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600
City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. A 1985 bloom of red tide along the Gulf of
Mexico and Sarasota Bay gave Mote Marine Laboratory scientists their first
Opportunity to collect toxins from water and air. Toxins were recovered from
seawater using solvent extraction. Column chromatography utlizing XAD-2 resin was
investigated as an alternate toxin collection method. Aerosols (airbone) toxins
produced by surf action were collected on shore using a standard high volume
airborne particulate sampling device. Identification and concentrations of the two
major toxins, T-ALD and T-ALC, were determined by high performance liquid 6
chromatography. Seawater samples of the P. brevis bloom contained 63 + 27 ug/10
cells of the T-ALD and 7 + 2 ug/10° cells of the T-ALC. Both T-ALD and T-ALC were
collected with XAD-2 resin cartridges. High volume air sampler collections of
airborne toxins recovered the T-ALD and T-ALC in nearly equal concentrations (1:1);
the ratio of T-ALD/T-ALC was approximately 9:1 in the surf during collection.

FRIDAY 7:00 PM REITZ BALLROOM
ACADEMY SOCIAL AND BANQUET
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE

FRIDAY 9:00 AM Reitz B60
SESSION A: Zoology
J.M. LAWRENCE, University of South Florida, presiding

9:00 AM BI0-1 The effect of age on Male and Female Fertility in the Rotifer
Brachionus plicatilis. M.J. CHILDRESS and T.W. SNELL, Division of Science,
University of Tampa, Tampa, FL 33606. We examined the loss of fertility with age
in both male and female rotifers. 100% of females hatching from resting eggs were
susceptible to fertilization until age 4 hr. After 4 hr, female susceptibility

to fertilization declined non-linearly for the remaining lifespan. A second-order
polynomial provided the best fit to the data (R2 = 0.936, P = 0.004). The age at
which 50% of the rotifers remained susceptible to fertilization was termed life-
time fertility (LF59) and for females was 7.9 hr. Only 83% of newborn males were
capable of fertilization. This capacity for fertilization was maintained until
age 8 hr, after which it declined linearly (R2 = 0.861, P = 0.003). The LF59 for
males was 18.8 hr. The mean number of motile sperm transferred in a single
copulation was 2.3 + 0.35, a number closely corresponding to the mean number of
resting eggs produced by a fertilized female.

1986 Supplement IS = Program Issue

9:15 AM BI0-2 Biochemical Composition of Sexual and Asexual Eggs of the Rotifer
Brachionus plicatilis. E.M. BOYER and T.W. SNELL, Division of Science, University
of Tampa, Tampa, FL 33606. Sexual (resting) and asexual eggs produced by the
rotifer B. plicatilis differ in number, composition, egg shell structure and
capacity for dormancy. We compared the biochemical composition of these eggs using
quantitative tests for total protein, lipid, carbohydrate and ash content. The
protein content of resting eggs and asexual eggs was 0.183 and 0.179 ug/egg, res-
pectively. Although these values are not significantly different (t = 0.24,

P = 0.83), polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis with silver stain for total protein
revealed qualitative differences in one major band. The lipid content of resting
eges was 0.130 ug/egg, 1.7 times greater than that of asexual eggs (t = 2.56,

P = 0.03). Thin-layer chromatography of the lipid fraction revealed no qualitative
differences between egg types. The caloric cost of producing sexual vs. asexual
eggs will be contrasted

9:30 AM BIO-3 The Occurrence of Seminal Receptacles in the Onuphia Polychaete
Kinbergonuphis simoni. HWEY LIAN HSIEH AND JOSEPH L. SIMON, Department of Biology,
University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. Kinbergonuphis simoni, a common
dioecious tube dwelling intertidal polychaete in Tampa Bay, releases fertilized
eggs within the tube of the female parent where all of development takes place.
Laboratory observations showed that isolated females continued to produce up to
two successive broods of young, indicating that sperm storage organs must be pre-
sent. Examination of histological sections revealed the presence of one pair of
bi- or trifurcate seminal receptacles located in the dorsolateral body wall near
the posterior margin of each genital segment adjacent to the nephridial openings.
There is no indication of spermatophores and the method of sperm transfer is
unknown.

9:45 AM BI0-4 Characterization of Multiple Glutathione S-Transferases in
Daphnia magna. GERALD A. LEBLANC and BRUCE J. COCHRANE, Biology Dept., Univ. of

South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. Several proteins exhibiting glutathione

S-transferase activity were purified from the crustacean, Daphnia magna, using
affinity chromatography. These proteins were represented by three bands on
SDS-polyarcylamide gel elctrophoresis and had molecular weights ranging from 27,500
to 30,000 daltons. Electrophoretic separation of the proteins under nondenaturing
conditions revealed six proteins. All 6 proteins exhibited glutathione
S-transferase activity and had molecular weights ranging from 55,000 to 61,700
daltons. These results suggest that the six active glutathione S-transferases in D.
magna are homo- or hetero-dimers formed from the three protein subunits.

Competitive binding studies revealed that chlorinated phenolic compounds exhibited

high binding affinity toward glutathione S-transferases 4, 5, and 6 but not toward
1, 2, and 3, suggesting functional diversity exists among these enzymes.

10:00 AM BIO-5 Organic and Inorganic Content of Emerita talpoida (Decapoda: An-

omura) during Embryogenesis. Q.S.W. FONG and R.L. TURNER, Dept. Biol. Sci., Fla.
Inst. Technol., Melbourne 32901. Studies of nutrient utilization during embryogene-
sis reveal 2 patterns based on habitat rather than systematic position of aquatic
organisms: marine planktonic and freshwater eggs, which use protein for develop-
ment; marine demersal eggs, which use lipid for embryonic development. This study
determined if the mole crab, an intertidal brooder, uses lipid as an energy source
for embryogenesis. The content (pg/egg) of dry matter, ash, carbohydrate, lipid,
and protein was determined from oviposition to hatching. Dry weight remained con-
stant, and ash increased during development. Carbohydrate and protein contents were
unchanged for the first 3 embryonic stages and decreased in the newly hatched zoea.
Lipid content decreased throughout development. Results show that embryonic mole
crabs mainly use lipid as an energy source, comprising 58% of the weight reduction
in measured organic components; protein contributes 33%. This pattern of utiliza-
tion agrees with published studies on other decapods but not on cirripedes.

Florida Scientist -14- Volume 49

10:15 AM BI0-6 Annual Cycles of the Gonads and Pyloric Caeca of Luidia clathrata
(Echinodermata: Asteroidea) in Tampa Bay (1971-1985). J.M. LAWRENCE, P.F. DEHN,

AND S.A. WATTS, Dept. of Biology, Univ. of South Florida, Tampa. 33620. The gonads
and pyloric caeca of L. clathrata usually undergo annual cycles. Maximal indices”
(g wet organ weight/g wet body weight) were 6 for the gonad and 14 for the pyloric
caeca. The pyloric caeca index did not always decrease during the period of
increase in gonad index. Years in which there was no cycle in the pyloric caeca
index were years in which the cycle in the gonad index was reduced. Variation in
the temperature, salinity, and solutes (organic and inorganic) probably
have a direct and an indirect control (food availability) of the gonad and pyloric

caeca cycles.

10:30 AM BREAK

10:45 AM BI0-7 Velvet Ants: Adaptations of a Group of Professional Parasitoids.
M. A. Deyrup, Archbold Biological Station, Box 2057, Lake Placid 33852. Velvet
Ants (Mutillidae) seem to show adaptations correlated with exploitation of ground-
burrowing, aggressive, highly dispersed hosts. The armored body protects the
parasitoid during invasion of burrows of biting and stinging hosts; similar thick-
ened exoskeleton occurs in some unrelated parasitoids of the same hosts. Wingless-
ness in females occurs in mutillids and some unrelated parasitoids of subterranean

hosts. Apterygyny appears to have led to phoretic copulation in at least 2 mutillid |

lineages. Phoretic copulation may have led to selection for large male size.
Hosts are usually highly dispersed and individual hosts suitable for a short time;
this requires protracted foraging in exposed sites, and may have selected for long
life span and an extraordinary combination of defenses} including massive exoskel-
eton, potent sting, alarm squeaking, membership in mimetic complexes, evasive
tactics, and feigning death.

11:00 AM BI0-8 Early Stages in the Embryonic Development of the Clearnose Skate,
Raja eglanteria. PATRICIA BLUM and CARL A. LUER. Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City
Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. While the later phases of embryonic development
have been observed for several species of elasmobranch fish, detailed descriptions
of the early stages are rare. Unlike their shark relatives, the clearnose skate
will breed in captivity and lay eggs which can be examined to characterize early
post-fertilization changes. The skate egg is markedly telolecithal with cleavage
being confined to a small cap of cytoplasm. This area develops into a distinct
blastodisc which can be seen as early as one or two days after laying. The
confluence of cells along one edge of the blastodisc is apparent by that time with
a recognizable primitive streak visible by day four. The cells continue to migrate
with clear differentiation into embryonic regions occurring over the next few days.
By day ten only the middle third of the embryo is attached to the yolk mass; eye
buds are visible; and movement is detectable, especially in the head region.

11:15 AM BIO-9 A Comparative Study of the Structure and Morphology of the Hyoid
Bone with Special Regard to Marine Mammals. GRACE ROEGNER, A. BEULIG and G.W.
PATTON, New College of the Univ. of South Florida, 5700 N. Tamiami Trail, Sarasota,
FL 33580 and Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577.
Though present in all vertebrates, the hyoid bone differs markedly in structure in
each taxonomic group. A literature survey was performed to compare the specific
shapes, orientations, and functions of the hyoid in fish, amphibians, reptiles,
birds, and mammals. While giving insight into the evolution of this second
visceral arch, the study suggested that the primary function of the apparatus was
feeding, noting distinct differences in the structure of the hyoid in aquatic and
terrestrial animals. This aspect was investigated in marine mammals by extensively
describing and measuring the hyoid bones of the pygmy sperm whale (Kogia
breviceps), a dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and a manatee (Trichechus manatus). The
hypothesis that a possible secondary function in fish and some mammals could be

acoustic transmission is discussed.

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1986 Supplement l= Program Issue

11:30 AM BI0-10 A Model System to Test the Reactivity of Poly d, 1-
lactide Microspheres in the Mouse Lung. Sylvia E. Coleman and C. Ian
Hood, VA Medical Center, Gainesville, Florida 32602. In evaluating

the reactivity of medically useful biomaterials, the granulomatous
response in the lung to intravenously injected microspheres of the
drug transporting agent poly d, l-lactide (45 to 53pm) has been com-
pared with a model system using divinyl benzene copolymer beads

C258 z0 53 pm). Time periods from 24 hours to 6 weeks were tested, and
after 48 hours the mean area of granulomas formed around the poly d,
l-lactide microspheres was 5244 pm 2 in comparison to 7501 pm 2 for the
copolymer beads. The difference in areas gradually decreased after
this time. Ultrastructurally, more polymorphonuclear leukocytes
remained in granulomas associated with the poly d, l-lactide. The
results indicated a minimal inflammatory response to the microspheres.

11:45 AM BIO-11 Ultrastructural Changes within the Nephron Cells in Streptozotocin

Induced Diabetic Rats.ALICIA A. ZUNIGA,Florida International Univ. ,Dept.Biol.Science,
Miami,FL 33199.Streptozotocin-diabetic rats were employed to study the cellular chan-
ges associated with diabetes mellitus.Six females and six males weighing 80-100 grs.
were fasted overnight and injected in the tail vein with a fresh solution of strepto-
zotocin in acetate buffer pH 4.5 to the amount of 6.5 mg/100 gr.Diabetic rats and un-
injected controls with the same initial weight, were fed ad libitum until killed 4-6
weeks later.Urine was collected daily for measurement of glucose.Using Osmium-ferric-
yanide to demonstrate glycogen,diabetic rats showed progressive infiltration of gly-
cogen in proximal and distal tubules.Several facts were identified:1)presence of ro-
und vesicles with double membranes containing glycogen,2) cytoplasmic regions protect-
ing organelles as Golgy complex and mitochondria from glycogen invasion,3) perinuclear
areas free of glycogen infiltration.The results indicate that the close association
of membranes suggest either engulfment of glycogen or release of glycogen from mem-
branes-bound compartments or vacuoles within the cytoplasmic matrix.

FRIDAY 1:30 PM REITZ AUDITORIUM
ACADEMY BUSINESS MEETING
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

FRIDAY 9:00 AM Reitz B65
SESSION B: Marine Ecology
P. CARLSON, Florida Department of Natural Resources, presiding

9:00 AM BI0-12 A Comparison of Commercially Prepared Medias for the Elevated
Temperature Coliform Plate Test (ETCP). Audrey Meyers, Michael Robbins, K.L. Kas-
weck. Shellfish Testing Services Inc., Melbourne, FL 32901 and Department of Bio-
logical Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. A study
was conducted to determine the differences between Modified MacConkey Agar (Gibco)
and Modified MacConkey Agar (BBL) for the detection of E. coli in water samples
from shellfish waters. The method used was the same one used for shellfish testing.
This method is the Elevated Temperature Coliform Plate method (ETCP) in the pres-
ence and absence of glycine. Phosphate buffer saline (PBS) and flourescent trypo-
nemal antibody (FTA) buffers were also used as variables. From the results ob-
tained, Modified MacConkey Agar (Gibco) showed to be more efficient for the ETCP
test. Results will be presented and discussed.

Florida Scientist —l6- Volume 49

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9:15 AM BI0-13 Vertical Behavior of Ptychodiscus brevis: Geotactic and Thermoc! ine}
Responses. C. HEIL, Dept. of Marine Science, Univ. of So. Florida, 140 7th Ave. S.,
St. Petersburg, 33701. Aspects of the vertical behavior of \RiiychodiliscustbrewiIsswelge
investigated in a series of large (1.4m) vertical and horizontal column experiments.
Although P. brevis displays a daylight pattern in vertical columns suggestive of a
Typical dinoflagellate phototactic response, experimental data suggests the impor-
tance of a geotactic component. All vertical column populations displayed signi fi-
cant cell movement toward or away from the surface 1 hr prior to the start of The
light and dark cycles respectively. Horizontal column populations, under identical
light and temperature conditions, demonstrate a light cycle response away from the
light source and a vertical response suggestive of geotaxis and large volume culture)
pattern formation rather than positive phototaxis. Homogenous column populations
exposed to a 5°C thermocline initially demonstrate avoidance of the area of maximum
Temperature change. Populations were subsequently restricted to a shallow surface
layer by the thermocline throughout the light cycle.

9:30 AM BI0-14 The Response of Chaetoceros socialis to Variations in Light and
Salinity. G. A. VARGO, Dept. of Marine Science, Univ. of South Florida, 140 7th Ave. —
S., St. Petersburg, 33701. Chaetoceros socialis is a minor component of the coastal
and estuarine phytoplankton community in south Florida waters although this cosmo-
politan, neritic species forms dense, prolonged blooms in temperate and polar re-
gions. Its minor role in these sub-tropical estuaries does not conform to the
responses of unialgal cultures which can achieve doubling rates of 3 d Yaar

Although growth was saturated at light intensities greater than 80uEm s at 34")
with a 12:12 photoperiod, division rates of 1.0 day were maintained at 3uEm ‘s
Growth rates increased with increasing daylength but the efficiency of light utili-—
zation, expressed as growth and as yield per unit irradiance, was higher at shorter
day lengths. Additionally, growth rates for populations that were adapted to or not |
adapted to salinities over a range of 10°/,, to 40°/,. were equivalent, falling
within a range of 1.5 to 2.2 divisions day . Thus C. socialis can maintain high
gfowth rates over a range of natural light and salinity conditions.

9:45 AM BI0-15 Distribution of Sea Urchins, Sand Dollars, and Heart Urchins off
the Atlantic Coast of Florida. R.L. TURNER, Department of Biological Sciences,
Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne 32901(*), D.A. BRUZEK, Mote Marine Labo-
ratory, Sarasota 33577, S.E. LOCHMANN*, and C.M. NORLUND*. Nearly 27,000 specimens
of 25 species of echinoid echinoderm were collected by dredge or trawl at 356 sta-
tions on the shelf and slope along the east coast of Florida during SEAMAP cruises
of 1983-1985. The collections include 2 warm-temperate, 2 eurythermal wide-ranging,
and 16 West Indian-Caribbean species of 38 shelf species listed by Serafy (1979:
Hourglass Echinoidea) for the region but only 1 of 23 slope species. Additionally,
the collections extend Serafy's ranges for four West Indian-Caribbean shelf species
and one slope species. Bathymetric relationships described by Serafy for Gulf-coast
echinoids generally hold for the Atlantic coast. The distributions of seven species
and perhaps two others are disjunct at Cape Canaveral. The disjunct distributions
are probably due to current-temperature patterns rather than substratum. Supported
by Fla. DNR, F.I.T., Harbor Branch Found./Inst., Mote Mar. Lab., NMFS, Smithsonian.

10:00 AM BI0-16 Distribution and Abundance of Benthic Invertebrates in the Myakka
River. J.K. CULTER. Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, FL
33577. Nineteen locations were sampled for benthic epifauna and infauna along a
40km section of the lower Myakka River during September 1985. Samples were
collected by diver core, bucket dredge, trawl, and from incidental salt marsh
collections. A total of 156 discrete taxa were identified, the majority of which
were crustaceans (52), followed by molluscs (50), polychaetes (34), oligochaetes
(5) and miscellaneous groups (15). Faunal densities ranged from 247 to 14,890
organisms/m™ at five quantitatively sampled stations. Shannon Weaver Diversity (H')
ranged from 1.17 to 3.00 (nats). Based upon the data collected for this study
(analysis of fauna, mollusc remains and hydrographic data), as well as historical
hydrographic data, the study region was found to be a dynamic area which may
frequently exhibit pronounced alterations in benthic faunal structure due to
salinity fluctuations.

1986 Supplement =I /s Program Issue

10:15 AM BIO-17 The Effect of Power Plant Effluent on Oyster Associated Fauna
Communities. JAY GORZELANY and JAY SPRINKEL, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City
Island Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. The oyster fauna from 9 stations in the vicinity
of Florida Power Corporation's Crystal River Power Plant were examined in order to
address thermal impacts of the once-through condenser cooling systems of Units l,
2, and 3. Stations were established both in the area under direct influence of
thermal effluent and also to the north and south as controls. Direct effects due
to thermal effluent were a reduction in both abundance and diversity in oyster
associated fauna, as well as a change in community composition. Although thermal
effluent appears to have significantly altered the oyster communities, the effects
do not appear to be widespread and are limited to the immediate vicinity of the
power plant's discharge canal.

10:30 AM BREAK

10:45 AM BI0-18 Dispersed-Oil Effects on Three Florida Seagrasses. A. THORHAUG
AND J. MARCUS, Greater Caribbean Energy and Environment Foundation, 1121 Crandon
Blvd., Key Biscayne, Florida, 33149. The effects of several dispersants commonly
used in Florida oil spill clean up planning have been laboratory tested on a major
habitat from west and east Florida coasts: seagrasses. Variables were time and
concentration. Results to date show the seagrasses Syringodium filiforme and
Halodule wrightii more sensitive to dispersed oil than Thalassia testudinum.
Sensitivity for short-term exposure (10 hr) for Halodule and Syringodium was at

75 ppm, whereas Thalassia was 125 ppm. Differences and similarities between
effects of several dispersants will be discussed.

11:00 AM BI0-19 Rheotaxic and Diel Behavioral Responses of Marsh
Transient Species in East Central Florida. DEREK M. TREMAIN, Harbor
Branch Foundation, Inc., RR 1, Box 196, Ft. Pierce, Florida 33450.
The rheotaxic and diel behavioral responses of three marsh transient
fish species--snook, Centropomus undecimalis, striped mullet, Mugil
cephalus, and white mullet, Mugil curema—and one portunid crab,
Callinectes spp, were examined from 2020 collections taken at three
impounded marsh study sites. Overall data show that Mugil curema
migrations between the marsh and estuary occur primarily during the
day and against the direction of current flow. Conversely,
Callinectes spp migrations occur mainly at night and with the
Current. Neither Centropomus nor Mugil cephalus show a significant
difference in diel behavior; however, nightime migrations of
Centropomus occurred primarily with the current, and daytime migra-
tions of M. cephalus occurred primarily against current flow. Some
variability in these trends occurred at the different study sites.

11:15 AM BI0-20 Faunal movement in a closed versus open impounded salt
marsh. DOUGLAS M. SCHEIDT, Harbor Branch Foundation, Inc., RR 1, Box 196,
Ft. Pierce, Florida 33450. A two-year study was conducted on an impounded
salt marsh in east central Florida. During the first year the water level
in the impoundment was regulated from April-January by flapgates. During
the second year the water level was only regulated from April-September.
The effects of these different management strategies upon faunal movement
were compared for both years over the same June-January period. There was
a quantitative difference in faunal composition between the two years.
Special emphasis was placed on fish species of commercial and sport value.
The total number of snook (Centropomus undecimalis) collected increased the
second year.

Florida Scientist lief Volume 49

11:30 AM BI0-21 Trophic analysis of six species of fishes collected from
a subtropical salt marsh from east central Florida. J. L. FYFE, Harbor
Branch Foundation, RR 1, Box 196, Fort Pierce, FL 33450. Six species

Gambusia affinis, Poecilia latipinna, Mugil cephalus, M. curema and | Elops

Saurus) were collected i jn an impoundment from March 1982 through February
T983. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of the contents of the entire
alimentary tract were conducted following dissection. Detrital algal
conglomerates made up the major food items for the sheepshead minnow,
mullets and sailfin molly. Copepods, insects and arthropods were the major
food sources for the mosquitofish and ladyfish of less than 100 mm. Larger
ladyfish became primarily piscivorous. As these fishes comprised 86.7% of
the total biomass collected; these data provide a basis for estimation of
the magnitude and pathways for trophic energy transfer in this ecosystem.

FRIDAY 3:45 PM Reitz B60
SESSION C: Botany
W.L. STERN, University of Florida, presiding

3:45 PM BIO-22 Effect of Volume and Seed Number in Radicle Elongation Bioassays.
J. WEIDENHAMER, T. MORTON AND J. ROMEO, Dept. of Biology, Univ. of S. Fla., Tampa
33620. In phytotoxin bioassays, radicle growth inhibition depends on test solution
volume and seed number. Cucumber seeds were germinated: 25 seeds/5 ml solution,

5 seeds/5 ml and 25 seeds/95 ml in modified Petri dishes. Ferulic acid concentra-
tions ranged from 0 to 2.0 mM. For 2.0 mM ferulic acid, radicle lengths as % of
control after 48 hours were 71%, 49% and 48%, respectively. Ferulic acid remaining
in solution was 8%, 49% and 91%. Similar trends, lesser in magnitude, were noted
at lower concentrations. Similar results were obtained for mung bean with ferulic
acid and for cucumber with vanillic acid, caffeic acid and juglone. Striking re-
sults were seen with 0.1 mM juglone, where radicle lengths were 102% of control
with 25 seeds/5 ml and 57% with 5 seeds/5 ml. These results show that solution
volume and seed number are important factors in allelopathy bioassays. Lower phyto-
toxin concentrations may produce greater inhibitory effects if the amount available
for uptake is greater. Possible implications to field studies will be discussed.

4:00 PM BI0-23 Character States of Systematic Value in Pacific Marchantiae.

TERRI L. ROBERTS, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Central Florida,
Orlando, Florida 32816. The liverwort genus Marchantia has not been studied
throughout its range in the Pacific Islands for over 50 years. Marchantiae from
Hawaii, Micronesia, French Polynesia, Samoa, Fiji, Vanuatu and New Caledonia are
under study. The species exhibit character states with limited ranges of variation.
Median scale appendages, gemma cup margins, thallus margins, cell configurations and
other characters have proven useful for differentiating species. For example, among |
the known Hawaiian species are found the two subgenera of Marchantia. Marchantia
antigua and M. marginata both show scale appendages that have widely ovate to
orbicular shapes, serrate margins, and obtuse tips, placing them in subgenus
Harchantia. Marchantia crenata, M. cuspidisquama and M. furciloba all have scale

appendages with ovate shapes, entire margins, and acuminate tips which is
characteristic of subgenus Chlamidium. (funded in part by N.S.F. grant

BSR 8215056, H.A. Miller, principal investigator)

1986 Supplement -19- Program Issue

4:15 PM B10-24 Unusual Bryophytes from Vanuatu. HARVEY A. MILLER, Department of
Biological Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando. Florida 32816. Two
seasons of field work in tne kepublic of Vanuatu (formerly New Hebrides) in the
southwest Pacific resulted in discovery of many bryophytes previously unknown from
that region. Mosses most tolerant of volcanic ash belong to Epipterygium and
Trematoden. The mostly South American genus Arachniopsis is represented by a single
epecies previously known only from Borneo and West Irian. Several species of
Telaranea, some new to science, have already been identified. Zoopsis, a strange
thread-iike thallose leafy liverwort, is represented by two species. Spiridens,
the largest epiphytic moss in the world, is a conspicuous component of the veget-
ation of the lower cloud forests. Pleurozia gigantea, an insectivorous leafy
liverwort, Mastigophora diclados and several other genera of Hepaticae constitute
the greatest part of the woody vegetation in old world tropical rain and cloud
forests. (Sponscred py N.S.F. Grant BSR 8215056)

4:30 PM BI0-25 Localization of the mevalonic pathway in floral scent glands of
Stanhopea anfracta (Orchidaceae). K. J. CURRY AND W. L. STERN, Dept. of Botany,
University of Florida, Gainesville 32611. The floral scent glands of Stanhopea
produce a fragrance composed of terpenoids and aromatics which attract pollinators.
The terpenoid component is composed of isoprene units synthesized via the mevalonic
pathway. The localization technique employed involves the formation of an electron
dense precipitate of uranyl ferrocyanide at the point in the mevalonic pathway where
an acetyl group from acetyl CoA is transferred to acetoacetyl CoA. Using this
technique on the osmephore of S. anfracta results in a precipitate between the inner
and outer mitochondrial membranes, in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, just outside
the plasmalemma, and, to a lesser extent, between the inner and outer membranes and
granal membranes of the amyloplasts.

4:45 PM BI0-26 Osmophores of Stanhopea (Orchidaceae). W. L. STERN AND K. J.
CURRY, Dept. of Botany, University of Florida, Gainesville 32611. Species of the
Neotropical orchid genus Stanhopea produce a fragrance of terpenoids and aromatics
which attract euglossine bee pollinators. The secretory tissue, called an
osmophore, is located in the adaxial, papillate region of a sac formed at the
proximal portion of the flower’s lip. Osmophore cells are more densely cytoplasmic
than those in the subtending tissue. The osmophore includes all the cells of the
papillae and those directly below, gradually grading into ground parenchyma.
Numerous amyloplasts and mitochondria are seen in these cells from the earliest bud
stages we examined through anthesis. Smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum are
abundant, but dictyosomes are uncommon. Mitochondria of osmophore cells appear toa
be randomly distributed during bud stages, but tend to be aligned near the
plasmalemma at anthesis. Lipid droplets increase in number from bud through
anthesis. The tissue is highly vacuolate at post-anthesis.

FRIDAY 7:00 PM REITZ BALLROOM
ACADEMY SOCIAL AND BANQUET
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

SATURDAY 8:30 AM PARKING LOT SOUTH OF REITZ UNION
SAN FELASCO HAMMOCK FIELD TRIP

D.B. WARD, University of Florida, leading

Florida Scientist -20- Yolume 49

FRIDAY 3:00 PM Reitz B65
SESSION D: Freshwater and Terrestrial Ecology
P. DOORIS, Southwest Florida Water Management District, presiding

3:00 PM BI0-27 Macrolichens as a Potential Indicator of Air Quality in Central
Florida: A Baseline Study. HARRY V. NEAL JR., Dept. of Biological Sciences, Univ.
of Central Florida, Orlando 32816. Coal-fired power plants and other industries
provide air pollution sources which have seriously impacted regional biotas. Con-
struction of the Curtis H. Stanton Energy Center, a coal-fired power plant project-
ed to go 'on line’ in July 1987 in Central Florida, creates a new potential problem.
Worldwide studies support the fact that air pollution can be monitored with lichen
species. Taxa previously used as bioindicators and or taxa having this potential
occur naturally in Central Florida. In the four counties most likely to be affected
(Brevard, Orange, Osceola and Seminole) lichen monitoring sites have been selected
for the collection of information reflecting species diversity, frequency and over-
all vitality for baseline data and future analysis. The final objective is provi-
sion of baseline data to anyone interested in monitoring effects of a pollution
source on an area without previous documented pollution problems.

3:15 PM BI0-28 "Corbicula manilensis, Potential Bio-indicator of Lead and Copper
Pollution." C.G. ANNIS JR. AND T.V. BELANGER, Dept. of Environmental Science and
Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. The potential
of the Asiatic clam, Corbicula manilensis, as a bio-indicator of lead and copper
was evaluated from cage experiments during an 11 month period in the upper and
middle St. Johns River, FL. Copper showed the highest concentrations in the
tissues, ranging from 20 to 62 ug/g, and had concentration factors on the order of
102. Lead concentrations were much lower in magnitude in the tissues (0.9 - 3.5
ug/g) and had concentration factors on the order of 104. The shells yielded very
low concentrations of copper, however, and lead was below detectable limits

(1 - 3 ug/g). Data from this study indicate that the tissues of the Asiatic clam
may be a reliable short-term indicator of lead and copper pollution, whereas the
shells may not. Corbicula growth rates were also computed from the cage experi-
ments and the growth rates were compared with other data reported throughout the
Wisi :

3:30 PM BIO0-29 "Oxygen Budgets of the Everglades." J.R. PLATKO II AND T.V.
BELANGER, Dept. of Env. Science, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne,

FL 32901. Three areas of Water Conservation Area 2A in the Florida Everglades
were investigated in order to quantify the sources and sinks of dissolved oxygen.
The northern section, characterized by nutrient rich water and dominated by cat-
tails, exhibited different oxygen dynamics than pristine sawgrass stands and
intermittent sloughs. It was found that community metabolism was generally
negative for all sites as values ranged from 0.31 to -1.06 g 0>'/m2-day. Sediment
oxygen demand seemed to be the major 07 sink at all three sites. The primary
source of oxygen was reaeration, as plankton production at both the cattail and
Sawgrass sites was low. A thick benthic algal mat was primarily responsible

for production within the slough, however. Diurnal 02 flux was greatest at the
slough and minimal in the nutrient enriched waters of the cattail site.

3:45 PM BIO-30 Nutrient Release from Montverde Histosols in the Upper St. Johns
River Basin. Joel S. Steward. St. Johns River Water Management District, Palatka,
32078. Soluble N and P release rates were measured by leaching intact soil cores of
virgin and cultivated histosols (peat) from the upper St. Johns River basin. Poten-_~
tial annual losses of total soluble N and P from drained virgin peat were between

176 to 344 Kg N/ha/yr and 3.2 to 5.0 kg P/ha/yr. The potential losses from culti-
vated muck were between 1560 to 2040 Kg N/hr/yr and 27 to 43 Kg P/ha/yr. The N and

P in both drained virgin and cultivated histosols were released primarily as nitrate

1986 Supplement =i Program Issue

and ortho-P. Flooding the cultivated histosols decreased the apparent production
rate of nitrate from 0.50 to 0.01 pe N/em of soil/day in 3 weeks or less. However,
in 3 months or less ammonification and P solubilization rates increased an order of
magnitude to nearly 0.10 wg/cm /day for NH,-N and P. The results of this study may
be used to evaluate or develop water management strategies in reducing nutrient
loading to receiving waters.

4:00 PM BI0-31 Effect of Sewage Effluent Removal on Water Quality in Lake
Howell, Florida. PATRICIA L. SMITH AND JOHN A. OSBORNE. St. Johns River Water
Management District, Orlando, Florida 32817; Department of Biological Sciences,
University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816. In April, 1983, sewage
effluent discharge from the Maitland and Winter Park sewage treatment plants was
diverted from Lake Howell, via the Iron Bridge sewage treatment plant. The
sewage treatment plants for the cities of Winter Park and Maitland had been
discharging into Lake Howell since 1927 and 1962, respectively. These point
sources had contributed 95% of the total phosphorous and 69% of the total
nitrogen budgets for Lake Howell. Physicochemical parameters were monitored
monthly in Lake Howell from two years between January, 1983 through December,
1984. Annual mean values for chlorophyll , pH, visible light penetration and
water temperature were found to be higher during the second year (1984). Annual
mean values for alkalinity, dissolved oxygen and pheophytin (non-functional
chlorophyll) were higher during 1983. =

4:15 PM BI0-32 The effects of off-road vehicle (ORV) traffic on floodplain vege-
tation of the Upper St. Johns River. DAVID L. GIRARDIN and EDGAR F. LOWE, St.
Jonns River Water Management District, Palatka, FL 32078. The vegetational charac-
teristics of well established trails used year after year, of recent trails, and of
untraveled areas were examined to determine both the long-term and short-term
effects of ORV traffic in the three major communities of the floodplain: maiden-
Cane wet prairie, sawgrass wet prairie, and myrtle head island. In all three
communities, both short-term and long-term traffic increased species diversity, as
measured by species richness (total number of species) and species density

(number of species/sample), and decreased the abundance of dominant species. In
myrtle head island and sawgrass wet prairie, physiognomy was severely altered as

a result of these compositional changes. These data indicate that ORV traffic has
adversely affected landscape (gamma) diversity by progressively reducing the
acreage of myrtle head island and sawgrass wet prairie.

4:30 PM BI0-33 Vegetation Pattern and Succession in Sub-tropical
Coastal Ecosystems (John D. MacArthur Beach State Park), Palm Beach
County, Florida. GRACE BLANCHARD IVERSON, Dept. of Biol. Sciences,
Fla. Atlantic Univ., Boca Raton, FL 33431. This study documents and
interprets the vegetation pattern of the last known continuum of
native ecosystems formerly Characteristic of the high-energy coast

of Florida within the sub-tropics. The 2.4 km transect from Atlantic
Ocean to lagoon conditions of Lake Worth includes beach and strand,
tropical hammock, oak-cabbage palm low hammock of different origins,
former Florida scrub, fresh water swamp, and mangrove swamp. Extend-
ing observations northward permitted a rare and final opportunity to
enhance and support this interpretation, and to further document

some of the last examples of the region's Florida scrub.

FRIDAY 4:45 PM Reitz B65
BUSINESS MEETING: Biological Sciences
E.F. LOWE, St. Johns River Water Management District, presiding

Florida Scientist -22- Volume 49

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

SATURDAY 9:30 AM Reitz 362
BUSINESS MEETING: Computer Science and Mathematics
F.B. BUONI, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

SATURDAY 10:AM Reitz 362
SESSION A: Computer Science and Mathematics
F.B. BUONI, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

10:00 AM CSM-1 Mathematical Principles of the Mind. DAVID
LAWSON, Stetson University, Department of Mathematics and
Computer Science, DeLand 32724. There is reason to believe that
Stephen Grossberg has discovered mathematical principles which
underlie the brain's behavior. The proposed model is able to
explain learning, memory and behavior. For example, a computer
simulation of a brain using Grossberg's principles has been able
to reproduced Hubel and Weisel's Nobel Prize winning research on
the visual cortex of the cat.

10:15 AM CSM-2 Mind Design: A Computer Simulation of Grossberg's Equations.
BARRY PEKIN AND MELISSA TITSHAW, students at Stetson University, DeLand
32724. An innovative research tool designed to further advance exploration
into the frontiers of the mind. The set of programs allow the user to
custom create neurological brain models to his own specifications and to
examine, test, teach, and revise each model as his research continues,
Simulation of previous research is possible; the user is also encouraged

to design his own means of interconnection in hope of imitating the internal
workings of the brain. The programs incorporate mathematical concepts set

forth by Stephen Grossberg in Studies of the Mind and Brain and are available
for use on a VAX 11/750. =

10:30 AM CSM-3 Mathematical Modeling of Underground Coal Gasification.
L.V. FAUSETT, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Florida Institute
of Technology, Melbourne, 32901. Modeling of the complex physical

and chemical reactions involved in underground coal gasification leads
to many varied mathematical problems. Models have been developed by
researchers at the University of Wyoming, University of West Virginia,
University of Texas, and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The
simplifying assumptions of the models differ, as do the mathematical
difficulties encountered in the solution of the models. In one model
the system of partial differential equations is simplified to a system
of ordinary differential equations in a moving reference frame. These
equations form a stiff boundary value problem which may be solved by
the technique of multiple shooting. Difficulties in the matching of
forward and reverse shooting solutions can be overcome by replacing
the reverse shooting solution by an approximate analytical solution.

1986 Supplement -23- Program Issue

10:45 AM CSM-4 General Algorithm for the Development of Detailed Algorithms
for the Extraction of Integer Roots. GEORGE K. KOSTOPOULOS, Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton,
Florida. The determination of roots has puzzled the mathematicians of all eras.
The advent of computers, and especially microcomputers, has open new horizons to
numerical analysis favoring algorithms of iterative nature rather than look-up
tables. In this paper an original method for the design of root-computing
algorithms is presented. The method is applicable to all numerical systems and
leads to the design of algorithms for the extraction of any integer roots. It is
simple and can be easily programmed into a loop where each iteration produces one
digit of the sought-after root extending into the fractional part of the root. The
method's iterative nature makes it practical for use in microcomputers eliminating
the need for tables, or other approximate methods. Its hardware implementation in
the binary system for the square and cube root is relatively simple allowing a high
speed root derivation wherever this requirement is needed.

11:00 AM BREAK

11:15 AM CSM-5 Autonomous Navigation ina 2-D Maze. M.H. THURSBY Florida institute
of Technology, 150 W. University Blvd. Melbourne, Fla. 32901. Navigation in an unknown
environment is a muitifacited problem, encornpassing many disciplines inciuding
exploration, data collection, map making, path analysis and optimal and achievable
route determination. These elements are present in a two dimensiona! maze in a form
more easily analyzed than in three dimensional free space. The algorithms discovered
for 2-D maze solutions can be extended to problem with more complex spatial
arrangements. The purpose of this paper to present work underway in the Autonomous
Vehicle Laboratory at F.1.T. on the analysis of autonomous robot activities in a 2-D
maze. The work presented here is the simulation of the maze and the evaluation of
several exploration algorithms devised to create a map of the maze. The use of a desk
top personal computer with strong graphics capabilities for this analysis allows for a
more interractive synthesis of solutions to the maze navigation probiern.

11:30 AM CSM-6 Non-continuous inspection: Exponential Parameter Estimation and
Impact on Availability Calculations. NATHAN HERER, Dept. of Mathematical Sciences
and Computer Science, Fla. Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. This
paper considers the problem of estimating the exponential parameter for the case of
non-continuous inspection. The inspection is performed periodically with fixed or
varied intervals of time between inspection and failures are detected only at the
time of first inspection after occurrence. Existing methods for related problems
are described and the method of maximum likelihood is applied in order to estimate
the MIBF. The estimators for both fixed interval and varied interval cases are
derived and are compared to results obtained by computer simulation.

11:45 AM CSM-7 Design As a Multiobjective Decision Process. FREDERICK B.
BUONI, Dept. of Mathematical Sciences and Computer Science, Fla. Institute of
Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. The process of design can be considered in the
framework of a constrained multiobjective optimization formulation of a decision
process. System specifications may be considered to establish the objectives, and
constraints may be established by physical laws, financial considerations,
interface requirements, and performance goal. It is shown how the methods of
operations research can be applied to the design problem using this framework.

Florida Scientist -24- Yolume 49

ENGINEERING SCIENCE

FRIDAY 3:00 PM Reitz B70
SESSION A
R.G. BARILE, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

3:00 PM ENG-1 Tubular Flow Reactor Residence Time Distribution. J.N.Linsley,
Department of Chemcial Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne,
Florida 32901. To compliment the residence time distribution functions (RTD's)
for the continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR), the laminar flow reactor (LFR),
and the plug flow reactor (PFR), a new residence time distribution function for
the turbulent flow reactor (TFR) is developed. A review of the best available
turbulent velocity profile data and turbulent velocity ratio data for pipe flow is
performed. These data are used to evaluate the constants in a new empirical tur-
bulent velocity profile correlation. This new correlation is then used to derive
a new turbulent flow reactor residence time distribution. Additional work on an
older TFR RTD using an older turbulent velocity profile correlation is also
performed. The results of this study augment the available tools for the analysis
and design of chemical reactors experiencing deviations from ideal flow
conditions.

3:15 PM ENG-2 Energy storage for Air Conditioning. Muserref Wiggins, Florida
Institute of Technology, 150 W. University Blvd., Melbourne, Florida 32901. Ice or
chilled water prepared during off-peak hours can be stored to use for air con-
ditioning during on-peak hours of the day. This will help to reduce the electrical
demand and offer a substantial amount of savings. The potential for short term
load leveling in Florida for residential and commercial buildings has been in-
vestigated. A computer program, called COLD, has been generated which can easily be
used to study the different parameters involved in cold storage. The advantage of
ice storage over chilled water storage is in aggreement with the previous results.
The low demand services offer the highest savings overall and the savings for all
Time-of Use (TOU) rates are linearly related to the cooling load.

The author would like to thank the Florida Solar Energy Center for both technical
and financial support of this work.

3:30 PM ENG-3 Operation of Evaporative Coolers at Close Approach. D.S. SCOTT
and S.C. KRANC. College of Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL,
33620. While evaporative closed circuit coolers are widely used. in practice, there
is only limited performance information available in the open literature. In
particular, operation at the extreme of close approach is of interest in the present
paper. A small test facility was constructed and operated under a variety of
conditions. Data from these tests were analyzed and compared to existing models to
assess performance predictions, particularly at close approach. In general the
models examined were adequate for heat transfer to spray water from the process
stream but failed to accurately predict heat transfer to the air stream.

3:45 PM BREAK

4:00 PM ENG-4 Electrochemical Impedance Corrosion Measurements of Reinforcing
Bars in Concrete, and Aluminum Alloys. ALBERTO A. SAGUES, Department of Civil
Engineering and Mechanics, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620.
Reinforcing steel bars, imbedded in concrete, and Types 3003 and 5052 Aluminum were
exposed for over 1800 h to simulated natural waters of controlled pH and electrical
conductivity. A.C. electrode impedance measurements were conducted for all samples
in the frequency range 5 mHz to 10 kHz. Low amplitude cyclic voltammetry measure-
ments were also conducted for the reinforcing bar samples. Evaluations of corrosion
rates based on model assumptions for each material are presented.

<< ~~ — — ==> - = —_ = —— ~ —————— = ——— —

1986 Supplement = 25 Program Issue

4:15 PM ENG-5 A Method of Estimating the Mass Transfer Coefficient of Water
| Vapor in Lakes. Heck, H.H., P.A. Jennings, and G. Lagonikas, Florida Institute of
_ Technology, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Melbourne, FL
32901. At present the method to determine the mass transfer coefficient is the
energy budget method. This method usually requires time periods of a year. The
evaporation rates obtained are plotted against the product of the wind speed and
the vapor pressure driving force. The slope of best fitting line is the mass
transfer coefficient (N) in the following equation: E=Nu(eg-e9). Extensive applica-
tion of the Energy Budget Method enabled the direct correlation of lake area and
the mass transfer coefficient (N). An alternative method for determining the mass
transfer coefficient (N) is suggested, using the Thornwaite-Holzman equation,
instead of the Energy Budget Method. Application of the Thornwaite-Holzman equa-
tion requires one day. The present drawback is verifying the Thornwaite-Holzman
equation so it can be used to calibrate the mass transfer coefficient.

4:30 PM ENG-6 Space Station Common Module Thermal Management. R.G. BARILE,
Chemical Engineering, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida, and JAMES
OWEN, Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama. A laboratory test bed
representing the Space Station thermal removal system has been designed and computer
simulated. Components of the test bed include a body-mounted radiator exterior loop,
an interior loop servicing cabin air-conditioners and cold plates, interface heat
exchangers to the central bus, and provisions for testing new advanced technologies,
e.g. radiators, thermal storage, and refrigeration, as they are developed. Together,
these components represent the thermal removal subsystem for a typical common module.
The apparatus will be mounted in the Sunspot I Chamber at Marshall Space Flight
Center, heated with lamps, and tested in vacuum with liquid-nitrogen cooled walls.

In the computer simulation, key input variables were solar radiation and cold plate
loads. Results indicate temperatures in the loops will be nominal when the radiation
and other loads are in the 25 to 75Z range. Below 25%, radiator freezeup occurs, and
above 75Z, cabin air temperature is excessive. Additional hardware is proposed.

FRIDAY 4:45 PM Reitz B70
BUSINESS MEETING: Engineering
R.G. BARILE, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

FRIDAY 7:00 PM REITZ BALLROOM
ACADEMY SOCIAL AND BANQUET
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

SATURDAY 8:30 AM PARKING LOT SOUTH OF REITZ UNION
SAN FELASCO HAMMOCK FIELD TRIP
D.B. WARD, University of Florida, leading

Florida Scientist -26- Volume 49

ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

FRIDAY 8:30 AM Reitz 347
SESSION A
W.T. COOPER, Florida State University, presiding

8:30 AM ENV-1 Large Diameter Open Tubular Columns in Gas Chromatographic
Analysis. MEHRZAD F. MEHRAN, Florida International University, Tamiami Campus,
Miami, 33199. [Large diameter open tubular columns provide the packed column
chromatographer with a simple route to higher resolution gas chromatography. They
can be operated in a high-flow (lower resolution) mode that permits their direct
substitution for a packed column, or they can be operated in a low-flow (higher
resolution) mode that maximizes separation at the cost of longer analysis times.
Inlet design and column installation can influence both the chromatographic re-
sults and quantitative reliability. Make-up gas is not required in the high-flow
mode, and its benefits in the low-flow mode are restricted to enhanced detector
sensitivity, provided the outlet end of the column resides in the detector jet
(FID). The columns seem fully compatible with all common modes of detection.

This research was supported in part by the Drinking Water Research Center, Florida

International University and by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Grant No.
R-811473-01-0.

8:45 AM ENV-2 Characterization of Geological Surfaces by Heterogeneous
Gas-Solid Chromatography. SCOTT P. BOUDREAU and W.T. COOPER, Chemistry Dept., Fla.
State Univ., Tallahassee, FL 32306. Any study of the fate of organic compounds,
including pollutants, in the environment is complicated by the inherent
heterogeneity of the surfaces onto which these compounds come into contact. A major
goal of our research effort is the development of chromatographic methods which
yield solute-surface interaction energies from which the nature and quantity of
surface active sites of heterogeneous geological surfaces can be inferred. The
technique, termed "heterogeneous gas-solid chromatography", involves
chromatographic analysis of geologically important surface with solute probes
capable of specific chemical interactions. The subsequent data analysis, in the
form of energy distribution functions, readily leads to relative "polarity" scales
that yield quantitative information about the specific chemistry of each surface.

9:00 AM ENV-3 Trace Metal and Synthetic Organic Concentrations in Selected
Florida Bays and Estuaries. J.D. Ryan, K.C. Carman, F.G. Lewis, and F. Dobbs,
Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, 2600 Blair Stone Rd.,
Tallahassee, FL 32301. Concentrations of trace metals and synthetic organic
compounds were examined from sediments of 13 major Florida bays and estuaries.
Log-transformed metal-to-aluminum ratios were developed to distinguish natural
versus anthropogenic metal inputs in both aluminosilicates (panhandle) and
carbonate (peninsular) systems of the state. Consequently, a uniform approach
for determining metal enrichment in Florida was established. While results
indicated that most areas had levels close to natural values, some estuaries
contained enriched concentrations. The highest metal and synthetic organic
concentrations were found in the Miami River and Biscayne Bay. These

contaminants enter the river and bay from numerous nonpoint sources originating
from the City of Miami.

1986 Supplement -27- Program Issue

9:15 AM ENV-4 Determination of Copper, Chromium and Zinc in the Sediments of
Canals Receiving Electronic Component Industry Effluent.L. ZEDIKER HOOPER AND
M.L. SOHN, Environmental Science Dept. and Chemistry Dept., Florida Institute of
Technology, Melbourne, FL 32901. Copper, chromium and zinc levels in the sediments
of tributaries of Turkey Creek, Palm Bay, FL, were determined by flame AAS. The
canals investigated received metal contaminated effluent from a local electronic
component manufacturer. Water samples from the discharge outfalls were also
analyzed for metal levels. Several significant negative correlations were found
between metal concentrations and distance from discharge sites. Significant
positive correlations were established between all three metals and total organic
carbon. Variations in the concentrations of Zn and Cu, and Zn and Cr, were
positively correlated with eachother.

9:30 AM ENV-5 Nutrient Removal Aspects of a Wet Detention System for Treating
Stormwater Runoff at a Single Family Residential Site. JEFFREY D. HOLLER, South
Florida Water Management District, P.O. Box V, West Palm Beach, FL 33402. Water
quality studies were conducted by the South Florida Water Management District at
Springhill subdivision in suburban Lake Worth, Florida, for the purpose of assessing
the effectiveness of a grassed swale/wet detention system to reduce nitrogen and
phosphorus concentrations in stormwater runoff. In addition to routine bi-weekly
surface water monitoring, five discrete storm events were sampled from June through
December 1985. Ortho-phosphorus, total phosphorus, and nitrite + nitrate nitrogen
detention pond effluent concentrations were reduced 78, 68, and 89 percent, respect-
ively from stormwater runoff influents for the combined events. Ammonium and total
Kjeldahl nitrogen species present in detention pond effluents were 45 and 30 percent
greater than influent concentrations. Comparisons are made between Springhill]
results and a previous District study conducted at Timbercreek in Boca Raton, as
well as several regional studies presented in the National Urban Runoff Program.

9:45 AM BREAK

10:15 AM ENY-6 Behavior of Aldicarb and Related Compounds in Florida's Aquatic
Environment. JOSEPH J. DELFINO, Dept. of Environmental Engineering Sciences,
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611. Aldicarb is a widely used pesticide
in Florida and is an effective nematocide, especially for citrus and potato crops.
In soil, aldicarb can be microbially oxidized to the sulfoxide and sulfone. If
aldicarb enters groundwater prior to oxidation, hydrolysis to the oxime will occur
but its rate is pH dependent. Should aldicarb, the sulfoxide and/or sulfone enter
surface waters (as has been observed in the Caloosahatchee River), prior to
further reaction (oxidation or hydrolysis), toxic effects can occur in the food
chain (documented for zooplankton). Photochemical degradation reactions can
ameliorate some of the toxicity toward aquatic organisms. Preliminary evidence
indicates that photodegradation occurs relatively rapidly for aldicarb, but less
so for the sulfoxide and least rapidly for aldicarb sulfone.

10:30 AM ENV-7 Solid-state 13c NR Studies of Microbial t1-13¢] Acetate
Metabolism in the Presence of Phenol. ANN S. HEIMAN AND WILLIAM T. COOPER,
Florida State University, Department of Chemistry, Tallahassee, FL 32306-3006.
The presence of readily degradable, naturally occurring substrates in the
environment can influence microbial biodegradation of organic pollutants. We
have looked at the influences of natural versus organic pollutant substrate
concentration on microbial uptake and metabolism by a pseudomonad soil isolate
capable of utilizing either acetate or phenol as sole sources of carbon and
energy. Solid state NMR analysis revealed that when [1-C(13)] acetate was
present in five-fold excess it was preferentially metabolized. Acetate carbon
was incorporated into a number of sites including carbonyl BLOUDS.s peptide
linkages, some aromatic carbon, carbohydrates, methylene and methyl groups
consistent with an operative glyoxylate pathway. Difference spectra revealed
that phenol did not repress the glyoxylate Bachuays

Florida Scientist 23 — Volume 49

10:45 AM ENY-8 Structure and Function of Red Tide Toxins Associated with Respi-
ratory Problems. MIKIE J. PEREZ-CRUET, JOSEPH J. KRZANOWSKI, AND DEAN F. MARTIN.
Univ. of South Florida, Tampa 33620. The ability of the toxins of Ptychodiscus
brevis to cause respiratory distress is of interest. A laboratory system has been
used to measure canine tracheal smooth muscle contractile response to P. brevis
toxins (PBTX). The neurological activity of crude red tide toxins have been en-
hanced thru purification by carbon-18 high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).
Other fractions have been separated from the crude toxin that do not have neurolog-
ical activity. Three primary peaks are seen in the HPLC chromatogram: one has |
neurological activity and two do not. Also tachyphylaxis (rapidly developing |
tolerance) is observed with the active fraction at high concentrations.

11:00 AM ENV-9 Estimates of HF Fluxes from Phosphate Settling Ponds. Howard
Moore. Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199. Phosphate ore in
Central Florida contains approximately 3.8ZF as CaFz. It is released as HF by the |
acid treatment process and large portion of it was originally released directly to
the atmosphere. Now it is scrubbed from the stack effluents and transported to
settling ponds along with other waste by-products. These ponds contain 0.5 to
1.80ZF and have pH values between 1 and 2. Thus they may act as a source of atmo-
spheric HF. Theoretical estimates of HF fluxes from such ponds will be presented.
The importance in understanding this source lies in the injurious effect flourida-
tion can have on cattle (fluorosis) and plants (leaf necrosis).

11:15 AM ENV-10 Potential Management of Filamentous Algae by Photodynamic
Action. BARBARA B. MARTIN AND DEAN F. MARTIN, CHEMS Center, Department of
Chemistry, University of South Florida, Tampa, 33620. Filamentous algae

species comprised the sixth most abundant aquatic plants encountered in Florida

in 1984. Lyngbya species may be the most troublesome because of the tenacity,
resistance to herbicide treatment, and the tendency to evolve troublesome
compounds. Preliminary experiments indicate the possibility of control of Lyngbya
sp. by selective photodynamic action. Various dyestuffs are considered, and a
mode of action is described.

FRIDAY 11:30 AM Reitz 347
BUSINESS MEETING: Environmental Chemistry
W.T. COOPER, Florida State University, presiding

FRIDAY 1:30 PM REITZ AUDITORIUM
ACADEMY BUSINESS MEETING
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

FRIDAY 7:00 PM REITZ BALLROOM
ACADEMY SOCIAL AND BANQUET
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

SATURDAY 8:30 AM PARKING LOT SOUTH OF REITZ UNION
SAN FELASCO HAMMOCK FIELD TRIP
D.B. WARD, University of Florida, leading

1986 Supplement -29- Program Issue

GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL SCIENCES

THURSDAY 8:15 AM Reitz 357
SESSION A
R.O. CLARK, University of South Florida, presiding

8:15 AM GHY-1 Florida Petroleum Production and Exploration by JACQUELINE M.
LLOYD, Florida Geological Survey, 903 W. Tennessee St., Tallahassee, FL 32304

There are two oil producing areas in Florida. One is the Sunniland trend area
in soutn Florida. The Sunniland trend includes 13 oil fields in a northwest-soutn-
east orientation in Lee, Hendry, Collier, and Dade counties. Production is princi-
pally from rudistid reefs found in the upper Sunnilanu Fm. of Early Cretaceous age.

Florida's other producing area is in the western panhandle in Escambia and
Santa Rosa counties and includes four oi] fields. Production is from Jurassic-age
Smackover dolomites and limestones and iiorphlet sands.

The history and geology of typical 011 fields for each of these areas is pre-
sented. A summary of production data is presented and indicates the dominance of
northwest Florida in the state's 011 production. A discussion of nistorical and re-
cent exploration in Florida indicates the greatest potential areas for new dis-
coveries are the offshore portion of the Soutn Florida Basin and the areas in
northwest Fiorida wnich are underlain by the Smackover Formation.

8:30 AM GHY-2 Okeechobee County Airport Landfill Study. JEFFRY W. HERR, South Florida Water
Management District, P.O. Box V, West Palm Beach, FL 33402. The Okeechobee County Airport Landfill is
a 40 acre unlined landfill that was in operation from 1960 to.1980. The landfill accepted a wide variety of
wastes that were disposed of in trenches excavated below the water table. There are residential areas
within a mile of the landfill, some of which are not connected to a public water supply system. The study
of the landfill involved the installation of 14 single and cluster monitor wells, sampling and analyzing 21
monitor wells for organic and inorganic pollutants, measurement of groundwater levels, geologic
descriptions of well cuttings, and soil resistivity surveys at 230 locations using Geonics EM-31 and EM-34
non-contacting terrain conductivity meters. Water quality analyses showed that benzene concentration
exceeded the State of Florida primary drinking water standards in 10 of the 21 wells sampled. The
chromium concentration also exceeded the primary standard in one of 21 monitor wells. Concentrations
for total dissolved solids, iron, and manganese exceeded secondary drinking water standards in several
samples. The data collected from the study shows the groundwater quality to be degraded in the vicinity
of the landfill with a broad leachate plume moving to the southwest, south and southeast.

8:45 AM GHY-3 The lithostratigraphic relationships of the Chattahoochee, St.
Marks and Torreya formations, eastern Florida panhandle by Thomas M. Scott, Florida
Geological Survey, 903 W. Tennessee St., Tallahassee, FL 32304. The type locality
of the Chattahoochee Formation occurs on the western flank of the Gulf Trough while
the type locality of the St. Marks lies on the eastern flank. These units inter-
finger over a broad area in Gadsden and Leon counties, Florida.

The axis of the Gulf Trough is approximately conincident with the contact be-
tween these formations. East of the axis, St. Marks lithologies dominate the sec-
tion while Chattahoochee lithologies predominate to the west. The Torreya Formation
of the Hawthorn Group overlies the Chattahoochee and St. Marks formations throughout
much of the eastern Florida panhandle.

Lithologically, the Chattahoochee consists of silty to sandy dolomite. The St.
Marks consists of slightly sandy limestone. The overlying Torreya Formation con-
sists of limestones, sands, and clays. The Torreya becomes less calcareous and is
more clastic-rich upsection.

Florida Scientist =305 Volume 49

9:00 AM GHY-4 Carbonate EHolianites of San Salvador, Bahamas, E.R.BROWN AND A.F.
RANDAZZO, Univ. of Fl. Dept. of Geol.,Gainesville 32611, Recognition of ancient
carbonate eolianites is challenging because they can be readily confused with aa
lain deposits. This study of carbonate eolianites from San Salvador, Bahamas
evaluated those geologic features which best characterize the eolian environment.
The effect of diagenesis on the preservation of these features was also addressed.
Any lithologic feature considered individually might be ambiguous, but when a combi-|
nation of features is considered, along with information about facies relationships |
and deposit geometry the eolian nature of these sediments can be recognized. On San |
Salvador, the prominent occurrence of large-scale cross-stratification with well-
developed subaerial or vadose indicators such as calcrete, rhizoliths, Cerion, and
needle fiber, meniscus, and gravitational cements make identification of eolian
deposits relatively effective. These same criteria can be used to recognize ancient |
eolianites in the rock record, if diagenesis is not too extreme. |

9:15 AM GHY-5 Macrofaunal Changes Across the Cretaceous-Tertiary |
Boundary, Lowndes Co., Alabama. JONATHAN R. BRYAN, Dept.Geology, Univ. |
Florida. Florida State Museum, Museum Road, Gaines visimey Pi aeotn..
Recent paleomagnetic and micropaleontologic work indicate that the
Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary near Braggs,AL is one of the most com-
plete and nearly transitional K-T sections in the world (Worsely,1974,
Jones et al,1985). Most macrofaunal taxa are represented at Braggs,
including, porifera,coelenterata, bryozoa,annelida,mollusca,arthropoda,
echinodermata,and vertebrata. Many Cretaceous forms (ammonites, bac-
ulites,some bivalves) do apparently become extinct, although some
forms (some oysters,bryozoa,fish) go through the boundary. This
selective removal of some species may be directly or indirectly re-
lated to the late Cretaceous plankton collapse. Taphonomic and
stratigraphic difficulties (poor preservation, facies changes,and
degree of resolution) prohibit dogmatic conclusions.

9:30 AM BREAK

9:45 AM GHY-6 Background Radioactivity of Geologic Formations in North
Florida. CHARLES BROWNING, and DOUGLAS SMITH, Dept. of Geology, Univ. of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 32611. As part of a study of natural radioactivity in northern
Florida, more than 150 samples from surface and near-surface formations were
analyzed by gamma ray spectrometry to determine concentrations of the radioisotopes
K-40, U-238, and Th-232. Baseline values are lowest in limestone formations, and
the phosphatic member of the Hawthorn Formation exhibits the highest values.
Characteristic concentrations of uranium are found in the Hawthorn Formation
whereas thorium is detected in association with some post-Miocene sand deposits.
Distinctive ranges of natural background radioactivity can be identified for
surficial exposures of the various geologic formations present in north Florida.
Recognition of these values contributes to assessments of the environmental
effects of development and mining.

10:00 AM GHY-7 The origin of olivine-plagioclase coronas in the Gladesville
gabbro, central Georgia Piedmont. ROBERT J. HOOPER, Dept. of Geology, Univ. of
South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. Multilayered comp] ex coronas containing two or
sometimes three shells are ubiquitously developed in the Gladesville gabbro,
wherever olivine is in contact with plagioclase. Corona mineral paragenesis between
Olivine and plagioclase is; 1 - orthopyroxene, 2 - amphibole or amphibole-spinel
symplectite, 3 - clinopyroxene-spinel symplectite. Corona opx is locally in

1986 Supplement =siilo Program Issue

symplectitic intergrowth with magnetite; symplectites embay and locally partially to
totally replace olivine. Plagioclase, and primary opx and cpx are heavily clouded.
All primary and corona minerals contain optical evidence for unrecovered strain.
Shell thicknesses vary independently with respect to the size of the olivine nucleii.
Mineral analyses confirm the general replacement of olivine by opx, and plagioclase
by amphibole-spinel. The coronas are considered to be the product of syn-kinematic,
sub-solidus, fluid driven reaction at elevated temperatures and pressures in the
PT-regime that represents the cooling of the pluton.

10:15 AM GHY-8 In Search of the Base of the Kiaman Superchron in Western North
America. G.J. MAGNUS AND N.D. OPDYKE, University of Florida, 1112 Turlington,
Gainesville 32611. Samples for paleomagnetic study were collected from 55 sites
within the Minturn Formation near Salida, Colorado in an attempt to locate the base
of the Kiaman Superchron. Irving (1966) places the base of the interval at the
Paterson Toscanite in the Upper Carboniferous section of the Hunter Valley, New
South Wales. Previous work in Western North America (Miller and Opdyke, 1985)
suggests that the base of the interval is located within or below the Minturn
section. Normal polarity zones, which mark the base of the Kiaman, were not found
in this section after the samples were thermally demagnetized. Reversed polarities
were consistent throughout the section studied. A conglomerate test was conducted
to determine the acqusition time of magnetization, and the results are undiagnostic
at present. These findings indicate that the base of the Kiaman does not exist
within the Minturn Formation at this site; therefore, it is important that
stratigraphically lower sections be examined.

10:30 AM GHY-9 An Investigation of the Devonian of North America. W.C. HUTCHINGS
AND N.D. OPDYKE, Geol. Dept., 1112 Turlington Hall, Univ. of Fla., Gainesville,

FL 32611. Samples were studied from Devonian rocks from the Gaspe Peninsula of
Canada, West Virginia (11 sites), and Wyoming (1 site). The Gaspe sites (31 sites)
were taken from both igneous and sedimentary rocks. The paleomagnetic pole position
for the Devonian of Gaspe Peninsula is latitude 46.2°N and longitude 114.8°E

(a95 = 8.5°). The pole positions for the Catskill and Beartoothe Butte formations
are latitude 37.7°N, longitude 132.3°E (a95 = 5.6°) and latitude 22.9°N, longitude
91° (095 = 19.4°), respectively, Field tests indicate that the component is stable
and of Devonian age. These results are consistent with the Kent and Opdyke
hypothesis (1978) of left-lateral strike slip displacement of the New England-
Canadian Maritime Province with respect to cratonic North America.

10:45 AM GHY-10 Morphology of the west Branch of the Sacandaga River, Upper New
York State. DONALD W. LOVEJOY, Palm Beach Atlantic College, 1101 South Olive Avenue,
West Palm Beach, FL 33401. The West Branch of the Sacandaga River follows a nearly
circular course which encloses the Silver Lake Wilderness Area of the Adirondack
Mountains. This study deals with the 18-kilometer segment of the West Branch from
its lower falls to the junction with the main Sacandaga River south of Wells. In
this segment the West Branch is a typical Adirondack stream---wide and shallow for
the transportation of a coarse bedload. Channel width varies from a minimum of 4 m
at the falls to a maximum of 59 m. The longitudinal profile is concave upward, the
channel is gently sinuous with many bars, and the drainage density is exceedingly
low. The stream stage is youthful, and terrace deposits suggest that the stream is
"graded" below the falls. Historical records indicate that stream discharge
increases more than one hundred fold during spring thaws and intense storms.
Anomalous channel sections, where boulders are totally lacking, may owe their
origin to the formation of giant whirlpools during these times of peak discharge.

THURSDAY 11:00 AM Reitz 357
BUSINESS MEETING: Geology and Hydrology
R.O. CLARK, University of South Florida, presiding

Florida Scientist =32— Yolume 49

THURSDAY 4:00 PM Reitz 357
SESSION B: Sinkholes
F.B. KUGAWA, University of Central Florida, presiding

4:00 PM GHY-11: Sinkholes in Florida: a geologic hazard. MThis 52 minute
slide and tape presentation was produced by and can be borrowed or purchased
from the Florida Sinkhole Research Institute, Orlando, FL. The show examines
sinkhole damage and liability; limestone formation and dissolution; styles of
sink formation in uncovered and covered areas of Florida; triggering of
sinkholes by changes in the water table and artesian aquifers; a detailed
analysis of the formation of a huge sinkhole at Winter Park in 1981, and the
relation of sinkholes to lake level and management.

MEDICAL SCIENCE

THURSDAY 4:00 PM Reitz 356
BUSINESS MEETING: Medical Science
A.C. VICKERY, University of South Florida, presiding

PHYSICAL AND SPACE SCIENCES

FRIDAY 2:45 PM Reitz B71
SESSION A
J.S. BROWDER, Jacksonville University, presiding

2:45 PM PSS-1 Mean Field Solutions for Lattice Gas Models. J. D. Patterson,
Dept. of Physics and Space Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL
32901. The lattice gas model is closely linked to the Ising model. It was
introduced by Yang and Lee in 1952. In more recent years it has been applied to
the problem of calculating hydrogen concentrations at different sites in metal
hydrides. In this paper, using the grand canonical ensemble, we summarize the
calculation of hydrogen concentrations, Gibbs and Helmholtz free energies and other
relevant thermodynamic quantities. As a check, by using a simple finite site model
it is possible to obtain exact solutions and compare these to mean field solutions
for the same case.

3:00 PM PSS-2 A Simple Formula for The Energy Levels of Negative Atomic Ions

And Neutral Atoms. TAE S. SUH AND A.E.S. GREEN, Radiological Physics Group, Nuclear
Engineering Sciences Dept., University of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. Recently we
used a modified Morse potential eigenvalue formula to develop "Eigenvalue Formula
for Short Range Potentials" (Phys. Rev. A in press) which applies to widely differ-
ing shaped potentials. Here we adapt this result to the systematics of the energy
levels of negative atomic ions. We accomplish this by transforming the modified
Morse potential eigenvalue formula for potentials of fixed shaped but with varying
strengths to potentials with varying shapes and varying strengths. Next we use this
negative ion result to develop a universal approximate formula for the independent
particle model energy levels of electrons in neutral atoms. For outer electronic
excitation of any individual atom the formula is comparable to the well known Ryd-
berg formula but only requires one adjusted parameter per atom whereas with the Ry-
dberg formula uses separate screening constants for each angular momentum series.
Our formula is also applicable to inner state excitation.

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1986 Supplement -33- Program Issue

3:15 PM PSS-3. Analytic Electron Impact Cross Sections for Water Vapor. A.E.S.
GREEN AND DAYASHANKAR, Radiological Physics Group, Dept. of Nuclear Engineering
Sciences, Univ. of Florida, Gainesville, 32611. Water is the simplest natural
tissue-like material and hence has been widely used as a surrogate in studies of
the biological effects of radiation. In 1971 the University of Florida Radiological
Physics Group assembled a detailed atomic cross section set for water vapor. This
set has been widely used but frequently with individual group modifications. Thus,
it is difficult to determine whether the results of energy degradation calculations
of the various groups differ because of the differing bookkeeping procedures or the
differing inputs. In the present work we propose a revised set of cross sections
for electrons of energy from below 1 eV to 1 MeV using modified analytic forms
which take on the proper behavior in the relativistic domain yet behave in a reaso-
nable fashion all the way to threshold. Using these forms we reconcile the relati-
vistic water vapor cross sections assembled by Martin Berger of the National Bureau
of Standards with the Florida group cross sections below 10 keV.

3:30 PM PSS-4 Star Alignment and the North Temple Mound at the Crystal River
State Archaeological Site, Crystal River, Fl, CHARLES J. MOTT, Division of Natural
Sciences, St. Petersburg Junior College, 2465 Drew Street, Clearwater, Fl 33575.

Viewed from a key location on the ramp, allignments over the north temple mound
indicates the heliacal rising points of two stars at the times of the summer
solstice and vernal equinox.

The mound is a truncated pyramid with its long axis oriented NW-SE with a SW
sloping ramp that is situated asymetrically and perpendicular to the long axis of
the mound.

The western edge of the mound, when viewed from the ramp, marks the position of
the N celestial pole in 1300 AD; the eastern edge of the mound, when viewed from
the same point, marks the summer solstice sunrise position.

3:45 PM BREAK

4:00 PM PSS-5 A Half-Century of Energy Use in Florida. RALPH A. LLEWELLYN, De-
partment of Physics, University of Central Florida, Orlando 32816.

The past fifty years have seen energy consumption in Florida rise to a level exceed-
ing that of most countries. Although petroleum has been the dominant energy source
over that period, several dramatic changes have occurred in the relative mix of
primary fuels. Notable examples among these have been the wane and wax of solar
energy and the rise of nuclear power. Changing patterns of end use consumption

have made Florida the most electricity-dependent state in the nation. The 1986
installed capacity of the state's electric utility industry is more than double the
total horsepower of all prime movers in the United States 100 years ago, when draft
animals (a renewable source) provided half of the total. This paper traces patterns
of energy end use consumption over the past 50 years.

4:15 PM PSS-6 Low Cost Diode Pumped Solid State Laser. TIMBENDY AND ROBERT.
IACOVAZZI, undrgrads, Univ. of Central Fla. Phys. Dept. Orlando, 32816. This paper describes
the constsruction and operation of a low cost incoherent diode pumped Nd:Yag laser as a
testbed for further research on diode pumped solid state systems. The system comprises a
cooled radial array of thirtysix icoherent near infrared light emitting diodes radiating into a
small, low gain Nd:Yag rod near the .810 microns Nd absorption maximum. Two flat mirrors
having reflectivity maximums at 1.06 microns form an approximately thirteen centimeter
long Fabry-Perot cavity. The diodes are operated in series from about one hundred
milliamperes continuously to an approximately several microsecond wide pulse of a few
hundred milliampers. Total infrared input is expected to be a few hundred milliWatts. We
wish to express our gratitude to Litton Laser Systems and to Laser Photonics, Inc. whose
assistance made this possible.

Florida Scientist -34- Volume 49

4:30 PM PSS-7 Radioactivity in Particulate Aerosols: A Baseline Study.

EDGAR R. VARGAS AND RALPH A. LLEWELLYN. Physics Department, University of Central
Florida, Orlando 32816. A year-long study has been conducted to measure the pre-
sence of radionuclides in particulate aerosols colllected in eastern Orange County,
Florida. The study was done as a part of a larger program designed to collect
physical air quality baseline information in advance of industrial development
planned for that area over the next decade.

4:45 PM PSS-8 A Technique for Measuring the Absorption Coefficients of Optical
Fibers from 60K to Room Temperature. LAWRENCE A. WISE, HAROLD C. BASS, AND WAYNE
SHEFFIELD, JR., Physics Department, Jacksonville University, Jacksonville, FL,
32211. A cryostat has been completed for investigating the attenuation properties
of optical fibers at temperatures from 60-300K. By using two optical fibers made
of the same material with differing lengths, it is possible to determine the ab-
sorption coefficient of that material. This technique will use both coherent and
incoherent light sources in order to study a range of wavelengths. A working equa-—
tion will be derived and the experimental procedure discussed. This undergraduate
research project was supported in part by a Bendix Award from the Society of
Physics Students.

FRIDAY 5:00 PM Reitz B71
BUSINESS MEETING: Physical and Space Sciences
E.R. KIRKLAND, Winter Park High School, presiding

FLORIDA COMMITTEE ON RARE AND
ENDANGERED PLANTS AND ANIMALS

FRIDAY 8:30 AM Reitz 122-123

SESSION A: Symposium

“Conserving Gene Pools of Florida's Endemic Plants"
J. SHAW, Bok Tower Gardens, presiding

Plant Conservation: An Overview of Goals and Objectives

8:45 AM REB-1 A National Strategy for Conserving Endangered Plants. FRANCIS R.
THIBODEAU, The Center for Plant Conservation, 125 The Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA
02130. There are more than 3,000 native U.S. plant taxa at risk of extinction,
220 in Florida alone. These plants are one of our national treasures, and a po-
tential source of new medicines, improved crops and other commercial products.
Traditional approaches to their management stress habitat conservation which is
and must remain a primary element of conservation strategy. Habitat conservation
needs a complement that can move rapidly, one that brings plants together with re-
searchers and the public. Ex situ conservation (i.e., in botanical gardens and
seed banks) completes a full national strategy. Bok Tower Gardens and Fairchild
Tropical Garden are joined with 16 other facilities nationwide, through The Center
for Plant Conservation, to build together a full national collection of endangered
plant species.

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1986 Supplement =o 5 Program Issue

9:05 AM REB-2 Status report: Florida Endemic Plants. HARDIN, E.D. AND N.
CAIRE, Florida Natural Areas Inventory, 254 E. 6th Ave., Tallahassee, 32303. A
list of Florida endemic terrestrial and freshwater vascular plant taxa was
annotated with estimated abundance and distribution and with current legal status.
Florida Natural Areas Inventory data files, recent plant manuals, taxonomic
literature and experienced field botanists were consulted in developing the list.
Endemic taxa, known only from within state boundaries, numbered 220 while nearly
endemic taxa, with about 90% of their range in Florida, numbered 52. The list
includes 64 plant families; those with high numbers were Asteraceae (46 taxa),
Fabaceae (25 taxa), Poaceae (25 taxa), Lamiaceae (19 taxa) and Euphorbiaceae (18
taxa). Regions of endemism within the state can be identified from the list and
include the Apalachicola River Basin, the Central Ridge, Tropical Florida and the
Coast. The list is dynamic but can set conservation priorities, provide a base
line for monitoring, and stimulate taxonomic, systematic and ecological research.

Species Biology and Habitat Concerns: Key to Plant Conservation

9:20 AM REB-3 Deeringothamnus and Nemastylis: Two Paths towards Extinction.
ELIANE M. NORMAN, Department of Biology, Stetson University, DeLand, FL 32720. Both
species of Deeringothamnus, members of the Custard Apple Family, are extremely rare
and are being proposed as endangered. One species occupies a small area of Volusia
county flatwoods. The other is restricted to similar habitats in Charlotte and Lee
counties. They rarely set mature fruits. These plants cannot be transplanted due
to their stout tap root. The only way that they can be preserved is by land
acquisition and management. Nemastylis floridana, a bulbous member of the Iris
family inhabits a few areas of moist flatwoods from Flagler to Broward counties and
has been considered threatened. Habitat destruction and succession are its chief
enemies. It produces many flowers and a large quantity of seeds. It probably
could be introduced into appropriate habitats from cultivation.

9:35 AM REB-4 Species Biology of Endangered Dicerandra (Labiatae): The Key to
Conservation. ROBIN B. HUCK, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.
Three of the five species of Dicerandra in Florida are listed as endangered and
threatened: D. cornutissima, D. frutescens and D. immaculata. An understanding of
the species biology of these obligate outcrossers is essential to implementation of
a program to conserve them. The use of the life cycle model as proposed by Massey
and Whitson (1980) aids in understanding the biological patterns of reproduction,
dispersion, establishment and maintenance of Dicerandra. Apparent pollinators of
Dicerandra are the Apidae of the Hymenoptera, yet in the southern part of the range,
D. frutescens shows a shift to the Halictidae as well as the Bombyliidae. Dispersal
of nutlets, establishment of individuals and maintenance of populations are tied to
ecological considerations of water relations, soil type, habitat and disturbance.

9:50 AM REB-5 Cutthroat grass Panicum obscissum Swallen. an endemic grass spe-
cies of Central Florida. LEWIS L. YARLETT, Senior Scientist, Environmental Services
& Permitting, Inc., P.O. Box 5489, Gainesville, FL 32602. Cutthroat grass is a
distinct species of Panicum in the subfamily Festucoideae of the grass family
Gramineae. Species within the genus are further characterized by practical external
morphological criteria in the subgenus Eupanicum which does not produce autumnal or
vernal growth forms or basal rosettes. Spikelets lack an extended bristle and are
all fertile. Basic chromosome number is x = 9. Cutthroat grass was first collected
by C.V. Piper in 1917 near the present Indian Lakes Estates in eastern Polk County.
It is very site-specific, occurring only on moisture-receiving “seepy slopes" on the
eastern and western slopes of the southern extension of the Central Florida ridge.
Cutthroat grass is a dominant herbaceous species under a forest canopy of slash pine

Florida Scientist -36- Volume 49

Pinus elliottii Englem. Associated grass species is creeping bluestem, Schizachy-—
rium stoloniferum (Nash) Hitchc. The sites upon which cutthroat occur have been
drastically reduced by changes in land use, cultivation, and development activities.
The only known protected stand of cutthroat is in the Highlands Hammock State Park.
Cutthroat grass is a potentially threatened species and a gene pool of an endemic
Florida grass.

10:05 AM BREAK

10:20 AM REB-6 Habitat Requirements of Endemic Plant Taxa in Southern Florida.
A. HERNDON. South Florida Research Center, Everglades National Park, Homestead,

FL 33030. Fifty-nine of the sixty-five endemic plant taxa in southern Florida
inhabit sites characterized by high light levels. The greatest number of endemic
taxa is found in the Miami Rock Ridge pinelands (32 in total, with 17 restricted to
the pinelands). Ten additional endemic taxa are found in wet pinelands and
Muhlenbergia prairies (none are restricted to prairies). These sites burn
frequently and the endemics show many adaptations to fire. High light intensities
at ground level are maintained in pineland by the fires, which remove overlying
litter and kill the above-ground stems of hardwoods. Low-level human disturbances,
including hiking and removal of plant debris from the ground surface, often have
the same effect and are beneficial to the endemics. Without regular burning, the
endemic species are shaded out and eventually eliminated.

10:35 AM REB-7 Preservation and restoration of Florida's pinelands and
endemics. ANDRE F. CLEWELL. A. F. Clewell, Inc., 1345 University Parkway, Sarasota
34243. Pinelands, particularly longleaf pine sandhills, longleaf and slash pine
flatwoods, and associated herb bogs, covered most of Florida in Territorial days.
Hundreds of vascular plant species constituted these communities, many of them
restricted to pinelands, including endemics. Pinelands have been maligned by land
use without regulation. Most pinelands today have been modified, often
irretrievably, from grazing, soil disturbance, and fire suppression. Restoration
research has barely begun and is hampered by low reproductive capacity of dominant
species in the undergrowth. Emphasis on saving our less "fragile" wetlands has
diverted attention from preservation and good stewardship of Florida's rapidly
vanishing pinelands. Sand pine scrub is being restored in experimental plots, but
the cost may be prohibitive for large areas.

Role of Public and Private Organizations in Plant Conservation

10:50 AM REB-8& Protecting Endemic Species. MICHAEL L. GREEN, The Nature
Conservancy, 1331 Palmetto Ave. Suite 205, Winter Park, FL 32789. The Nature
Conservancy (TNC) is a national non-profit organization dedicated solely to the
protection of natural diversity. The Florida Chapter of TNC has acquired over
170,000 acres of Florida's natural heritage in over 76 projects. TNC concentrates
on selecting, as precisely as possible, jeopardized areas of the greatest ecologi-
cal value. TNC's State Natural Heritage Programs provide scientific information
as to what species and communities are rare, where they exist, and what they need
to survive. These facts enable TNC to set conservation priorities. The Florida
Natural Areas Inventory, our state's Heritage program, has identified several
areas of the state which are high in endemism. The major regions are: the
Apalachicola River area, the Lake Wales Ridge area, the Florida Keys, cave and
sinkhole systems, and the coastal areas of Florida. The acquisition dept. of the
Florida State Office of TNC maintains a priority project list of sites often in
areas identified high in endemism which help drive our conservation efforts.

1986 Supplement =i Program Issue

11:00 AM REB-9. The Native Plant Society - Reaching Out.
CAROL LOTSPEICH, Lotspeich and Associates (Title only).

11:10 AM REB-10. The Recovery Plan Process -- Citizen Involvement.
DAVID MARTIN, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Title only).

11:20 AM REB-11. Role of the Department of Natural Resources.
STEVE GATEWOOD, Florida Department of Natural Resources (Title only).

11:30 AM REB-12 Native Plant Gene Pool Conservation: Roles of Florida Universi-
ties and Colleges. HENRY 0. WHITTIER, Department of Biological Sciences, Universi-
ty of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816. Florida habitat destruction acceler-
ates reduction, degradation and potential extinction of unique species gene pools.
The 450 mile north-south axis of the Florida peninsula, Gulf of Mexico and Gulf
Stream moderation provide warm-temperate to tropical climatic regimes. Mid-Meiocene
North Florida, mid-Florida ridge ancient islands, and successive post-glacial coast
lines formed new habitats and pathways for immigration, evolution and adaptive radi-
ation of 3500-4000 higher plants (300 native trees) with relatively high endemism.
Fifteen to 20 tree and shrub species are ‘rare and local’ in northwest Florida, 10-
15 in central Florida, and 20-25 for south Florida. Larger numbers of herbaceous
species are similarly restricted. Conservation of habitat-threatened, rare or en-
dangered plant gene pools must include coordinated support for the university and
college botanical gardens, arboreta and environmental preserves representing thou-
sands of acres of varied plant communities and habitat diversity distributed over FL

FRIDAY 2:15 PM Reitz 122-123
SESSION B: Contributed Papers
I.J. STOUT, University of Central Florida, presiding

2:15 PM REB-13 Invertebrates Characteristic of Florida Terrestrial Ecosystems.
LINDA C. DUEVER, Florida Conservation Foundation, Rt. 1, Box 860, Micanopy, FL
32667. A synthesis of information assembled from literature and interviews for the
author's forthcoming book, Natural Florida: A Guide to Ecosystems. Preliminary
lists of abundant, endemic, and/or Conspicuous invertebrates representative of
coastal dunes, scrubs, sandhills, upland forests, flatwoods, and prairies will be
presented for audience comment. Other ecosystem lists and similar plant, mammal,
bird, reptile, amphibian, and fish data will be available for discussion
afterwards.

2:30 PM REB-14 Aerial Surveys for Manatees (Trichechus manatus) Between Anna

_ Maria and Venice (Florida). G.W. PATTON, Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island

_ Park, Sarasota, FL 33577. Almost no manatees were believed to exist in the

_ Bradenton to Venice portion of Florida's west coast for the first half of this
century. Three aerial survey manatee programs conducted in the study area during
the 1970's compiled non-winter sightings of only 20 animals. A study was undertaken

| to provide data for determination of the status of manatees and important sites.
From Jan-Dec 1985, 25 flights (a total of 81 hrs) resulted in 138 sightings
totalling 314 manatees in herds of 1-12 animals; 8% were calves. A distinct

_ southward migration trend was evident for December. Five areas of regular or
recurring non-winter use were identified: the southeast corner of Anna Maria sound;

a large area "inside" Longboat Pass; the area between Coon Key and City Island;
"inside" Midnight Pass; and the Roberts Bay situated east of Siesta Key.

Recommendations for protective measures are made.

Florida Scientist -38- Volume 49 }

2:45 PM REB-15 Acoustic Communication by Panthera igris. Harry Hollien, Inst.
Advanced Study Comm. Processes, Univ. Florida, Gainesville, 32611. A series of

calls of communicative function have been isolated, recorded and acoustically it
analyzed for four adult captive tigers. Procedure was to induce or observe a call [fi
resulting from a known or identifiable stimulus. A minimum of three equivalent |
repetitions of the S/R paradigm was required for validation; both intra and inter- |

species responses were contrasted where relevant. The calls fall (roughly) into

four classes: 1) recognition, 2) social intercourse, 3) mating and 4) stress/anger.
In all, a repertoire of 10 communicative acts have been identified and acoustically
specified. There probably are 2-4 more but these, as yet, have not been experi- }
mentally verified. Evidence of a signature pattern to an individual animal's call
was sought but not found. The research was supported by the Wildlife Retirement
Village, Walso, FL. The author also wishes to thank Gene and Rusty Schuler, Kevin
Hollien, Mike Green and Tracy Gillis for their assistance.

3:00 PM REB-16 Demography of an isolated population of gopher tortoise,
Gopherus polyphemus. TERRY J. DOONAN AND I. JACK STOUT, Department of Biological
Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, 32816. Development of a parcel
of land in Seminole County provided an opportunity to conduct a census of gopher
tortoises as part of a removal-relocation study. A complete ground survey of the
19.43 ha tract revealed 91 burrows. Among the burrows, 40 were judged to be
active, 18 inactive, and 33 old. The Auffenberg-Frantz (1982) correction factor
(.614) suggested 56 tortoises on the site or 2.88/ha. In fact, 46 tortoises were
found on the site (2.37/ha). A line transect estimate was also obtained. The
population structure was compared to data from south Florida (Kushlan and
Mazzotti, 1984) and north Florida (Alford, 1980). Lastly, spacing of the tortoises
and their distribution on the site was examined relative to size class and sex.
This work was supported by a grant from Hardy/Leib Development Corporation.

3:15 PM REB-17 The Role of Juveniles and Subadults in the Ecologic Geography of
Florida Loggerheads and Green Turtles: Evidence from the Central Region of the In-
dian River. L.M. EHRHART AND B.E. WITHERINGTON, Univ. of Central Florida, Orlando
32816. Large-mesh nets were used to study loggerhead and green turtle populations
in the Central Region of the Indian River in the summers of 1982-85. For 61 green
turtles captured, mean straight-line carapace length (CLs) was 44.3 cm, the largest
was 64 cm CLs and over 75% were smaller than 50 cm. Mean CLs for 118 loggerheads was
64.3 cm and over 95% were larger than 50 cm. These size structures are identical to
those of loggerhead and green turtle populations known from the Northem Region of
the system (Mosquito Lagoon) and further clarify our understanding of the structure
of marine turtle populations in the system as a whole. Because recent evidence sug-
gests similar growth rates in the two species, these results imply that loggerheads
and green turtles are using the developmental habitats of the Indian River system at
different life history stages. The stages appear to be differentiated by important
milestones (migrations) in the species' ecologic geography.

3:30 PM REB-18 An Analysis of Reproductive Success in the Marine Turtle Nesting
Aggregation at Melbourne Beach, Florida, 1985. B.E. WITHERINGTON AND L.M. EHRHART,
Univ. of Central Florida, Orlando 32816. Results of a marine turtle nesting study
undertaken in 1985 on a 21 km stretch of beach from Melbourne Beach to Sebastian
Inlet, Fla. indicate that impressive nesting success accompanies unusually high
nesting densities there. A complete census revealed 10,193 loggerhead, 281 green
turtle and 2 leatherback nests. Clutches of 100 loggerhead and 27 green turtles
were counted and monitored throughout their incubation. Hatchlings emerged from
84.3% of loggerhead and 80.0% of green turtle nests not affected by a severe Sept.
storm. Mean emerging success (rate of hatchlings emerging) of these nests was
63.6% for loggerheads and 56.6% for green turtles. Loss of hatchlings post-emerg-
ence was minimal except for clutches disoriented by beachfront lighting. A mid-
Sept. storm destroyed @ 20% and 25% of the total loggerhead and green turtle nesting
effort. Depredation of nests affected emerging success only moderately. Supported
by the Fla. G&FWFC Nongame Wildlife Program, contract no. GRC-84-018.

1986 Supplement -39- Program Issue

3:45 PM REB-19 Cryogenic Preservation of Budgerigar Semen. TIM HARGROVE,
Fl. Atl. Univ., Biol. Sci. Dept., Boca Raton, FL 33431. Survival of many
threatened and/or endangered avian species may depend on captive propagation and
the maintenance of an adequate gene pool. Semen preservation can play a very
important role in this type of endeavor. However, it has been mainly limited to
domesticated species. Preservation of psittacine semen has not been accomplished
until now. My results indicate that, for budaerigar semen, a diluting solution
consisting of sodium glutamate, fructose, and magnesium and potassium acetate
with a dilution ratio of 1:2, 10% DMSO (v/v), and holding and equilibration
times of 30 or 45 minutes each provide the greatest number (up to 75%) of motile
cells upon thawing.

4:00 PM REB-20 Florida Scrub Jay Population Changes at the Merritt Island
National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, WILLARD P. LEENHOUTS AND LARRY R. SALATA,
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, P. O. Box 6504, Titusville, Florida. Fifteen
0.8 km transects were ramdomly established and censused along existing roads
and firebreaks in 4 Florida scrub jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens coerulescens)
habitat types in 1979. The 15 transects were identically censused again in
1985. The mean population for all 15 transects significantly decreased (Pé0.05)
from 9.02 to 5.49 birds per transect. Mean populations in pineless flatwoods
and pine flatwoods significantly decreased from 6.29 to 3.72 and 11.75 to 4.00
birds per transect respectively, but mean populations in coastal scrub and
coastal strand habitat did not significantly change. Mean transect populations
associated with severe or moderate wild or prescribed fire effects significantly
decreased from 9.19 to 5.17 and 7.69 to 3.58 birds per transect respectively,
but mean populations associated with little or no fire effects did not
Significantly change.

4:15 PM REB-21 Status of the Wood Stork Population in North and Central
Florida. J.A. Rodgers, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, 4005 S.
Main St., Gainesville, FL 32601. As part of a more comprehensive study on the
reproductive success of the wood stork (Mycteria americana), data was collected
on the population size/stability of 14 colonies in north and central Florida
during 1981-1985. Individual colonies ranged in size from 29-456 pairs (X+SD=
126 .4+92.5 Pairs), but exhibited considerable interyear-intracolony variation
in size (coefficient of variability ranged from 11.3-158.9%). The total 14
colony population averaged 1768 .8+303 .6 pairs/year. While there was much
interyear-intracolony variation during the 5-year period, the north-central
Florida population appears relatively stable (coefficient of variability=17.2%).

FRIDAY 4:30 PM Reitz 122-123
BUSINESS MEETING: Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals
H.W. KALE, II, Florida Audubon Society, presiding

FRIDAY 7:00 PM REITZ BALLROOM
ACADEMY SOCIAL AND BANQUET
R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

SATURDAY 8:30 AM PARKING LOT SOUTH OF REITZ UNION
SAN FELASCO HAMMOCK FIELD TRIP
D.B. WARD, University of Florida, leading

Florida Scientist -40- Volume 49

SCIENCE TEACHING

THURSDAY 10:00 AM Reitz 356
SESSION A
P. HORTON, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

10:00 AM TCH-1 Inservice Science Teacher Education: New Intiatives.

BARBARA S. SPECTOR, Ph.D., Executive Director of the Florida Association for the
Education of Teachers in Science, University of South Florida, College of Education’
EDU 308G, Tampa, 33620, AND DANIEL H. CLARK, Hernando County School District, 919
U.S. Highway 41 North, Brooksville, 33512. What have we learned about the post-
baccalaureate education of teachers in science from the millions of dollars Florida |
invested under the 1983 Educational Reform Act, the 1984 Omnibus Act, their
continuance in 1985, and the Title II federal dollars to institutions of higher
education? A preliminary study comparing and contrasting the more than 100 diverse
initiatives which were supported will be described.

10:15 AM TCH-2 Energy Systems and the Environment: Model Instructional
Material for Secondary Schools. C. BERSOK and E. ODUM, Center for Wetlands, Univ.
of Fla., Gainesville, 32611. The University of Florida and the Florida Solar
Energy Center hosted an NSF funded institute for 22 Florida secondary science
teachers. Teachers learned a systems approach to environmental education that
infuses content from social sciences like economics and geography into traditional
science courses. Through the use of symbols, diagrams, models, computer
simulations and traditional laboratory and field experiences, systems ecology can
be introduced into a variety of science classes. Examples of the systems
"language," eco-system models and computer simulations will be presented.

Examples of the instructional materials currently being field-tested will also

be available.

j

10:30 AM TCH-3 The Medaka Embryo (Oryzias latipes) as an Indicator of Environ-
mental Insults for Environmental Science (non-majors) Classes. E.L. RHAMSTINE
AND D. GABBARD, Valencia Community College, 1800 S. Kirkman Rd. Orlando, 32811.
The non-science major in Environmental Science courses is rarely provided first-
hand observations of the teratogenic effects of common environmental insults.
Large class size and other technical impediments thwart efforts to provide these
students with this valuable experience. Use of the medaka embryo and a micro-
scope-video projection system now permits this activity in large classes. The
first phase of this effort at Valencia has been the production of an introduc-—
tory video tape to familarize the student with normal embryonic development and
several selected teratogenic effects. A segment of this tape is demonstrated.
(Supported in part by the Valencia Community College Foundation, Inc. and
department resources.)

10:45 AM TCH-4 Shipboard Operations for the Motivation of Community

College Students in the Natural Sciences. WILLIAM TRANTHAM, Florida
Keys Community College, Key West, Florida 33040. This paper will

discuss the utilization of the State Oceanographic Ship Bellows to
familiarize students with surface, deep water and bottom sampling
techniques under varying sea conditions in Dry Tortugas National
Park and the Florida Straits.

Research supported by the Florida Public Post Secondary Education
Project Grant, Excellence in Math, Science and Computer Education.

a ti

1986 Supplement -41- Program Issue

11:00 AM TCH-5 Living and Working in an Undersea Classroom. WILLIAM
TRANTHAM, Florida Keys Community College, Key West, Florida 33040.
This paper will discuss the psychological aspects as well as the
motivational benefits of faculty student interaction in an undersea

laboratory.

Research supported by the Florida Public Post Secondary Education
Project Grant, Excellence in Math, Science and Computer Education.

THURSDAY 11:30 AM Reitz 356
BUSINESS MEETING: Science Teaching
P. HORTON, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

THURSDAY 1:15 PM REITZ AUDITORIUM
ACADEMY HISTORY PROGRAM
P, PAPACOSTA, Stetson University, presiding

THURSDAY 6:00 PM FLORIDA STATE MUSEUM
FAS GOLDEN JUBILEE RECEPTION

SOCIAL SCIENCE

FRIDAY 10:00 AM Reitz 355
SESSION A
G. PATTERSON, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

10:00 AM SOC-1 Solar Energy: Its Technical Potential and Social
Implications. D.E. LAHART, Florida Solar Energy Center, 300 State
Road 401, Cape Canaveral, 32920.

The application of renewable energy technologies must be pre-
ceeded by an educated citizenery that understands both the limita-
tions and the potential of renewables and appreciates the social
conseguences of their use. This presentation examines the Florida
potential of various renewable energy technologies including solar
thermal applications, wind, biomass and photovoltaic electric sys-
tems.

The social and ethical implications of centralized vs. decen-
tralized power production will be discussed. The key role social
scientists play in fostering the transition to renewables will be
emphasized throughout the presentation.

10:15 AM SOC-2 Psychology and History. GORDON PATTERSON, Fla. Inst.
of Tech., Melbourne, 32901. This paper analyzes the work of Erik
Erikson. Erikson began his psychoanalytic career as a student of
Anna Freud. In the nineteen forties he pioneered the application of
psychoanalytic theory to children's disorders. In 1950, he published
Childhood and Society. In this book and his subsequent publications

Erikson has developed an epigenetic theory of the human life cycle.
Erikson argues that individuals pass through eight’ stages of

Florida Scientist =4Z= Volume 49

development. Fach stage contributes to the development of the
individual's identity. Erikson's theories are particularly
interesting to historians. This paper describes the development of
Erikson's theories and assesses some of the problems involved in
applying them to the study of history.

10:30 AM SOC-3 The Debt of Science to Literature.HORST FREYHOFER, Fla. Inst. of
Tech., Melbourne, 32901. This paper presents an inquiry into the debt of science to
literature, especially in the area of the formulation and verification of hypotheses.
Facts, it is argued, are not given before but determined by and during the process
of hypothesis formulation. Understanding the principles guiding such formulation
will enhance understanding of structure and function of hypotheses, facts, as well
as their relationships. Facts emerge from undifferentiated experience and become
objects of cognition and description primarily through analogies with facts known
and described already. Such analogies can be classified according to the degree of
precision, scope, coherence, and verifiability they can give to the description of
facts and their shared attributes, i.e., hypotheses. Only four basic analogies
qualify as adequate cognitive instruments for science: similarity, the machine, the
organic process, and the historic event. By linking these analogies structurally to
familiar figures of speech, the classic tropes, namely metaphor, metonomy, synec-—
doche, and irony, it can be argued that all knowledge ultimately is poetic.

10:45 AM SOC-4 ='"'Melancholy Streets'" the London of Thomas Dekker". RUDOLPH
STOECKEL, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, 32901. Between 1500 and 1600
the population of London grew from 75,000 to 200,000. The effects of the urban-
ization of many traditional crafts caused tensions between the entrepreneurial
merchants and master craftsmen on the one hand, and the apprentices and journeymen
on the other. Symptoms of these social conflicts appear in the works of Thomas
Dekker (1572-1632) even in an apparently joyous romantic comedy such as The
Shoemaker's Holiday. This paper will examine Dekker's use of language as it isolates
and identifies the various groups within the world of Renaissance craft. I will
suggest that Dekker's art differs from that of a satirist like Jonson's in that

Dekker is more narrowly critical of social injustice while Jonson tends to satirize
mankind.

FRIDAY 11:00 AM Reitz 355
BUSINESS MEETING: Social Sciences
G. PATTERSON, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

FRIDAY 1:30 PM REITZ AUDITORIUM
ACADEMY BUSINESS MEETING

R.L. TURNER, Florida Institute of Technology, presiding

URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING

THURSDAY 4:00 PM Reitz 355
BUSINESS MEETING: Urban and Regional Planning
W.E. DALTRY, Southwest Florida Regional Planning Council, presiding

;

)

:

1986 Supplement -43- Program Issue

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF PHYSICS TEACHERS

SATURDAY 8:30 AM Reitz Union
SESSION A: Brunch

SATURDAY 9:15 AM Reitz 363
BUSINESS MEETING: Florida Section, American Association of Physics Teachers
E.R. KIRKLAND, Winter Park High School, presiding

SATURDAY 10:00 AM Reitz 363
SESSION B
J.S. BROWDER, Jacksonville University, presiding

10:00 AM APT-1 Involving Physics Students in Their Own Learning. BETTY VALE and

MARIE AUFFANT, West Orange High School, 1625 S. Beulah Rd., Winter Garden, FL
32787, and MARY MELVIN, Colonial High School, 6100 Oleander Dr., Orlando, FL 32807.

Learning strategies for improving comprehension will be explored and demonstrated.
Examptes and procedures used in a high school physics classroom will be presented.
Handouts for each strategy will be distributed.

10:30 AM APT-2 = Certification Recommendations for High School Physics Teachers.
J.J. BRENNAN, University of Central Florida, Orlando, 32816 AND, JANE S. BRAY,
Boone High School, 2000 S. Mills, Orlando, 32806 AND, ALEXANDER K. DICKERSON,
Seminole Community College, Sanford, 32771 AND, RONALD KIRKLAND, Winter Park
High School, 2100 Summerfeld, Orlando, 32750. The recommendations of the
Standards Committee of the Florida AAPT to the Florida Department of Education
for high school physics certification will be discussed. I. For Teachers of

A. P. Physics: The 1984 NSTA Standards for Physics Teachers. II. For teachers
of Non-A.P. Physics courses: 1. 25 semester hours of physics courses, at least
90% of the contact hours are to be physics laboratory experiences. Two
semesters of Calculus, one semester of Statistics, one semester of Computer
Programming. 2. 15 semester hours of education: Classroom management; Teaching
Analysis; Test Preparation and Evaluation; Educational Psychology and/or Learning
Theories; a Physics Methods Course. 3. Practice teaching.

10:45 AM APT-3 Foundations of Physics - the Old Cavendish Laboratory. ROBERT G.
CARSON, Physics Department, Rollins College, Winter Park, FL 32789. The Cavendish
Laboratory was established at the University of Cambridge in England in response to
a feeling that more practical (experimental) work should be available to complement
the reading (theoretical study) done by students for a degree in physics. The Lab
opened in 1874 with James Clerk Maxwell as its head. A new Cavendish Laboratory
was built two miles from the campus and opened in 1974. Here we present a brief
overview of the impact the Old Cavendish had on fundamental physics (up to the

_ Second World War) via its illustrious crew - professors, visiting scientists, and
_ research students alike. Original equipment such as J. J. Thomson's e/m tube,

Wilson's cloud chamber, Aston's mass spectrograph, and Chadwick's neutron chamber

_ will be illustrated with slides taken by the author when he recently visited the

Old Cavendish Museum. Some anecdotes about the great physicists of that era will
also be shared. Those truly were the days of "string and sealing wax instruments"
when compared with our modern computer-controlled lab equipment.

11:00 AM BREAK

Florida Scientist -44- Volume 49

11:15 AM APT-4 Constructing a Physics Problem Book via Microcomputer. ROBERT G.
CARSON, Physics Department, Rollins College, Winter Park, FL 32789. Introductory
physics courses for physical science majors and engineers necessarily require
problem-solving skills which are evaluated with exams. Objective-type exams can
cause security problems because of multiple-section courses, storehouses of older
exams, etc. which can be offset if a simple-to-use source of similar problems
exists allowing the construction of (nearly) equivalent exams. I am addressing y)
this task by using a 512K Apple Macintosh microcomputer along with assorted software
(BASIC, MacDraw, Filevision, etc.) to construct a book of model problems with many |
different data inputs and corresponding results (incorrect answer choices based on
anticipated student errors as well as the correct answer). The use of computer ;
drawing tools allows the design of accompanying diagrams which can easily be photo- |
copied from the problems book. Strategies used, stumbling blocks encountered, and
progress made will be presented.

11:30 AM APT-5 A Formal Study Group Program in a Large Nonmajors Physics Course.
Jay S. Bolemon, Department of Physics, and Sara M. Bennett*, Department of Psychology,
UCF, Orlando, FL 32816. As noted in a previous paper,** student performance in fresh
man physics classes may be a function of class size. Students (and many instructors)
feel large classes de-personalize the learning process and help to cause underachieve-
ment. In an attempt to rehumanize the learning process and improve student perform—
ance in a large nonmajors physics course, the authors initiated a group-study program
These groups were led by A or B students in the class, and meetings were scheduled
prior to each exam. Another experiment is proceeding in the current semester. Study
groups may replace to some extent the feeling of participation and personal attentiony
real or imagined, that students feel they lose in large classes. We will present the
measured and perceived results from the Fall semester. i
*Graduate student. ‘
** "Experiences with Student and Instructor Performances as a Function of Class Size
in Elementary Physics Courses", J.S. Bolemon and W.J. Wilson, AAPT Announcer 14, p. 7

11:45 AM APT-6 Progress Report of Video and Computer Graphics at Valencia
Community College. BEN LYND, WILLIAM McCORD, LOWELL SEACAT, WILLIAM STILLWELL.
Valencia Community College, Orlando, Florida 32802. Utilization of interfacing
computer-graphics with video scenes in the production of physics instructional
video-tapes is discussed. A tentative evaluation of our current progress and an
outline of our future goal in this endeavor will be presented.

Ra ae

12:00 PM APT-7 Computerized Test Bank, LOWELL SEACAT AND WILLIAM STILLWELL.
This presentation will explore the potential of microcomputers for the admin-
istration of, the grading of, and the recording of test grades of students.

The design of software that will embody the security of test questions, the
random selection of test questions, and the weighting of test questions will
be discussed.

SATURDAY 2:45 PM Reitz 363
SESSION C
J.S. BROWDER, Jacksonville University, presiding

2:45 PM APT-8 Microcomputer data collection and display for the physics
laboratory or lecture. JAMES E. HOWARD, Winter Park High School, 2100
Summerfield Road, Winter Park 32792. This paper will consist of the use

of the Apple Ile microcomputer in the collection of voltage, current,
temperature and magnetic field strength both individually and in pairs. The
collection in pairs allows the direct display of watts and joules as well as

mena

1986 Supplement -45- Program Issue

the above variables versus time. Experimental suggestions will be made as

to heating, electrical,magnetic, diffraction, pressure, and resonance.
Various possible data displays include real-time graphs, columns, and large
digits on the monitor. The hardware/software used with the Apple Ile is the
Educational Ziectronics Measurement Module currently available from Central
Scientific Company.

3:00 PM APT-9 Use of Videotapes to help students learn physics. Alexander K.
Dickison, Seminole Community College, Sanford, FL 32771. Often students who miss
a lecture or problem session in University Physics find it extremely difficult to
ferret out the important concepts or approaches from the textbook. Therefore, they
fall behind which eventually may lead to withdrawal from the course. To try to
help these students, an hour lecture and an hour problem session were videotaped
for each unit in the course. These tapes are made available to students in the
library for two-day use at home and in the open laboratory for use there. Our
experiences and student reaction will be described.

3:15 PM APT-10 Index of Refraction by Graphical Extrapolation. JANN

» Fr. GCOFHL, Jn., Department of Physical and *fathematical Sciences, Barry

Uniinvenscptesmae sclanmd - Shores) 33161 . \ variation of the method used bv
Pore eBlnekensderfer (Rhvetes Teacher 23, 545 (Dec. 1985): to find the
InNiGexwOtwemetraet lon of water is presented, The present method doesn't
relv on apparent denth estimation. A theoretical iustification of the
extrapolation is given.

el,
7

RECIPIENTS OF OUTSTANDING STUDENT PAPER AWARDS
1985 Meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences

Agricultural Sciences: Robert —£. Buresh, University of Florida: Influence
of four antibiotics on the utilization of energy by turkey poults.

Anthropological Sciences: Jeffrey M. Mitchem, University of Florida: Some
alternative interpretations of Safety Harbor burial mounds.

Atmospheric, Oceanographic, Physical and Space Sciences: Kevin M. Bull,
Florida Institute of Technology: Early chemical diagenesis in Mid-Atlantic
Ridge sediments.

Biological Sciences: Debra L. Jennings, University of Tampa: Helminths of
the Mediterranean gecko, Hemidactylus turcicus turcicus, from Tampa, Florida;
Gerald A. LeBlanc, University of South Florida: Modulation of
substrate-specific glutathione-S transferase activity in Daphnia magna with
concomitant effects on toxicity tolerance; Suzanne Succop, University of Tampa:
Fertilization and male fertility in the rotifer Brachionus plicatilis. Lee A.
Swane, University of South Florida: Metabolism of nonprotein amino acids in

Calliandra tapirorum seedlings.

‘Engineering: Timothy Rudolph, Florida Institute of Technology: Production of

gasoline extenders derived from levulinic acid.

Environmental Chemistry: Mark S. Castro, Florida Institute of Technology:
Measurements of biogenic hydrogen sulfide emissions from selected Florida
wetlands; Lawrence P. Pollack, Florida Institute of Technology: Hydrolysis and
degradation of aldicarb sulfone in estuarine environments.

Geology and Hydrology: Mark A. Culbreth, University of South Florida:
Significance of lineaments in Florida; John W. Parker, University of South

#Florida: VLF resistivity signature of a fingered plume in a karstic aquifer.

Florida Scientist -46- Volume 49

AUTHOR INDEX

Authors of all invited and contributed papers are listed below.

Section codes and paper numbers follow each entry. Lower case "p
signifies a poster presentation.

Albrecht SL AGR-4 Davis D ANS-8
Annis, ur. CG B10-28 Dayashankar PSS-3
Asquith R AGR-13 De Vassal G AOS-10
Asquith R AGR-11 Dehn P F BIO-6
Auffant M APT-1 Delfino J J ENV-6
Barile D D AOS-7 Deyrup MA BIO-7
Barile P AOS-7 Dickerson A K APT-2
Barile RG ENG-6 Dickison A K APT-9
Basha S M AGR-10 Dobbs F ENY-3
Bass HC PSS-8 Doonan T J REB-16
Belanger T V BI0-29 Duever LC REB-13
Belanger T V BI0-28 Easterwood G W AGR-14
Bell DE AGR-7 Ehrhart L M REB-17
Bendy T PSS-6 Ehrhart LM REB-18
Bennett J M AGR-4 El] Amin F M AGR-5
Bennett J M AGR-8 Eubanks S D AGR-3
Bennett S M APT-5 Fila. Sinks2Insite GHY-11
Bersok C TCH=2 Fandrich J E ANS-2
Beulig A BI0-9 Fausett L V CSM-3
Bhogal V K AOS-2 Fiebig W W AGR-2
Blum P BIO-8 Fong Q S BIO-5
Bolemon J S$ APT-5 Fousek D J AGR-6
Boote K J AGR-8 Frantz DA ANS-1
Boudreau S P ENV-2 French B T AGR-2
Boyer E M BI0-2 French E C AGR-2
Bray J S APT-2 Freyhofer H S0C-3
Brennan J J APT-2 Fyfe JL BI0-21
Brown E R GHY -4 Gabbard D TCH=3
Brown RC AOS-16 Gatewood S REB-11
Browning C GHY-6 Gearing J ANS-9
Bruzek D A BIO-15 Genho P C AGR-3
Bryan JR GHY-5 Girardin DL BIO-32
Buhr K L AGR-12 Glascock C J AOS-14
Bullock RC AGR-1 Goehl, Jr. J F APT-10
Buoni F B CSM-7 Gorzelany J BIO-17
Burkhalter S B ANS-7 Green AE PSS-2
Caire N REB-2 Green AE PSS-3
Campbell DR AGR-9 Green ML REB-8
Canonico C AOS-16 Gu D AOS-15
Carman K C ENV-3 Hardin E D REB-2
Carson R G APT-4 Hargrove T REB-19
Carson RG APT-3 Harms RH AGR-7
Childress M J BIO-1 Hathaway K K AOS-1
Clewell A F REB-7 Heck H H ENG-5
Cochrane B J BIO-4 HeiieG BI0-13
Coleman S E BIO-10 Heiman A S ENV-7
Cooper WT ENV-2 Herer N CSM-6
Cooper WT ENV-7 Herndon A REB-6
Costa SL AOS-2 Herr JW GHY-2
Costa SL AOS-1 Holler JD ENV-5
Culter JK BIO-16 Hollien H REB-15
Curry K J BIO-26 Holm S AOS-13

Curry K J BIO-25 Hood C I BIO-10

1986 Supplement -47- Program Issue

Hooper R J GHY-7 Mott C J PSS-4
Hooper Z ENY-4 Murugesu V B AGR-10
Howard J E APT-8 Neal, Jr. H Y BI0-27
Hsieh HL BI0-3 Norlund C M BIO-15
Huck R B REB-4 Norman E M REB-3
Hutchings W C GHY-9 Odum E TCH-2
Iacovazzi R PSS-6 Opdyke N D GHY-8
Iricanin N AOS-15 Opdyke N D GHY-9
Iverson GB BIO-33 Osborne JA BIO-31
Jarret RL ANS-p Owen J ENG-6
Jennings P A ENG-5 Patterson G SOC-2
Kasweck K L BI0-12 Patterson J D PSS-1
Kirkland R APT-2 Patton G W BIO-9
Kivipelto J AGR-13 Patton G W REB-14
Kivipelto J AGR-11 Pekin B CSM-2
Kostopoulos G K CSM-4 Perez-Cruet M J ENV-8
Kranc S C ENG-3 Pierce RH AOS-16
Krzanowski J J ENV-8 Pitts PA AOS-3
Kucklick J R AOS-16 Pitzer DL AGR-3
Kunkle WE AGR-3 Platko II JR B10-29
Lagonikas G ENG-5 Randazzo A F GHY-4
Lahart DE SOC-1 Rathjen W F AOS-7
Lawrence J M BIO-6 Ray J D AGR-8
Lawson D CSM-1 Reichard R P AOS-5
LeBlanc G A B10-4 Rhamstine E L TCH-3
Leader J M ANS-6 Rich JR AGR-12
Leenhouts W P REB-20 Rich JR AGR-9
Lewis F G ENY-3 Robbins M BI0-12
Linsley JN ENG-1 Roberts T L B10-23
PTEZ ROE ANS-p Rodgers JA REB-21
Llewellyn RA PSS-5 Roegner G BI0-9
Llewellyn RA PSS-7 Romeo J BI0-22
Lloyd JM GHY-1 Ryan J D ENY-3
Lochmann S E BIO-15 Sagues AA ENG-4
Lotspeich C REB-9 Salata L R REB-20
Lovejoy D W GHY-10 Sartain JB AGR-14
Lowe E F BI0-32 Scheidt D M B10-20
Luer CA BI0-8 Scott D S$ ENG=3
Lynd B APT-6 Scott T M GHY-3
Magnus G J GHY-8 Seacat L APT-7
Marcus J BI0-18 Seacat L APT-6
Marion J E AGR-7 Sheffield, Jr. W PSS-8
Marrinan R A ANS-4 Sigler-Eisenberg B ANS-5
Martin B B ENV-10 Simon JL BIO-3
| Martin D REB-1O Sisler MA AOS-14
Martin D F ENV-10 Smith D GHY-6
Martin D F ENY-8 Smith N P AOS-4
McCord W APT-6 Smith PL B10-31
| McGlothlen ME AGR-5 Snell T W BI0-2
Mehran M ENV-1 Snell T W BIO-1
Melvin M APT-1 Sohn ML ENY-4
| Meyers A BI0-12 Spector BS TCH-1
| Miles R D AGR-7 Sprinkel J BI0-17
Miles R D AGR-9 Stauble D K AOS-9
| Miller HA B10-24 Stauble D K AOS-10
| Miller H C AQS-1 Stauble D K AOS-11
| Mitchem J M ANS-3 Stern WL BI0-26
Monroe K AOS-9 Stern WL BI0-25
Moore H ENV-9 Steward J S BI0-30
Moore K M AGR-12 Stewart J AOS-7
Morris F W AOS-6 Stillwell W APT-7

Morton T BI0-22 Stillwell W APT-6

Florida Scientist

Stoeckel R
Stoffella P J
Stoffella P J
Stout I J

Stowers DM

Suhigies

Tabb N D
Thibodeau F R
Thorhaug A

Thursby MH

Tiernan D
Titshaw M
Trantham W
Trantham W
Trefry JH
Trefry JH

Tremain D M

Turner RL
Turner RL

-48- Volume 49
SOC-4 Vale B APA
AGR-6 Vargas E R PSS-7
AGR-1 Vargo GA BIO-14
REB-16 Warnick AC AGR-3
AOS-8 Watts S A BI0-6
PSS=zZ Weidenhamer J BI0-22
AOS-8 White CE AGR-9
REB-1 Whittier H 0 REB-12
BIO-18 Wienker C W ANS~-10
CSM-5 Wiggins M ENG-2
AOS-11 Wilcox C J AGR-5
CSM-2 Windsor, Jr. JG AOS-13
TCH-4 Windsor, Jr. J G AOS-12
TCH-5 Winzer UH AGR-4
AOS-15 Wise LA PSS-8
AOS-14 Witherington BE REB-18
BIO-19 Witherington BE REB-17
BIO-15 Yarlett LL REB-5
BI0-5 Zuniga A A BIO-11
ENTERTAINMENT

These evening events on campus or in Gainesville are scheduled for April 10-12
and are open to the public. Tickets are available at the box offices or at the

door.

On Campus

April
April
April
April
April
April
April

April

In Gainesville

10,
10,
11,
it
11;
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:00
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15

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April 10 & 11,

April 12, 5:00

PM - University Jazz Band, University Auditorium

& 9:30 PM - Film: Pink Floyd-The Wall, Reitz Union Auditorium
& 9:30 PM - Film: Pink Floyd-The Wall, Reitz Union Auditorium
PM-1:00 AM - Live Band: Kraz, Reitz Union/Orange & Brew

PM - Play: Imaginary Invalid, Reitz Union/Constans Theater
PM-1:00 AM - Live Band: Kraz, Reitz Union/Orange & Brew

PM - Play: Imaginary Invalid, Reitz Union/Constans Theater

PM - University Choir, University Auditorium

8:15 PM - Play: The Little Shop of Horrors,
Hippodrome Theater, (25 SE 2nd Place, 377-4477).

PM & 8:30 PM - Play: The Little Shop of Horrors,
Hippodrome Theater

April 10, 11, 12, 8:00 PM - Play: The Seven Year Itch, Gainesville Community

Playhouse (4039 NW 16th Boulevard).

THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

History

Florida's oldest, the University of Florida traces its beginnings to the
takeover of the private Kingsbury Academy in Ocala by the state-funded East
Florida Seminary in 1853. The Seminary was moved to Gainesville following
the Civil War. It was consolidated with the state's land grant Florida
Agricultural College, then in Lake City, to become the University of Florida
in Gainesville in 1906, with an initial enrollment of 102. Until 1946, UF
was for men only and one of only three state colleges. Others were Florida
State College for Women (now FSU) and Florida A&M. Since 1947, when the
student body numbered 8,177 men and 601 women, UF has grown to more than
35,000, largest in the South and 10th largest in the nation.

Programs

Along with Ohio State and Minnesota, UF offers more academic programs ona
single campus than any of the nation's other universities. It has 20
colleges and schools and 81 interdisciplinary research and education
centers, bureaus and institutes. These bring together faculty and student
scholars from various academic programs to provide research and
developmental services in all areas of state interest. One hundred and
fourteen majors are offered in 52 undergraduate degree programs. The
Graduate School coordinates 106 master's and 58 doctoral programs in 87
academic departments. Professional post-baccalaureate degrees are offered
in law, dentistry, medicine and veterinary medicine.

Faculty

A distinguished faculty of 2,500 attracted more than $83 million in research
and training grants in 1983-84. More than 1,200 were grant awardees and 70
percent of the faculty's grant proposals were successful. Sixteen faculty
members have been selected to the National Academies of Science and/or
Engineering, the Institute of Medicine or a counterpart in a foreign nation.
A very small sampling of honored faculty includes Pulitzer Prize winners in
editorial writing and poetry, co-inventor of the jet engine, pioneer in and
writer of the leading textbook on econometrics, winner of the National
Science Teacher Association top award for leadership, three winners of
NASA's top award for research, one of the four charter members of the Solar
Hall of Fame, winner of the Smithsonian Institution's award for
conservation, first winner. of the Audubon Society's Hal Bourland Award,
winner of the American Chemical Society's award as polymer scientist of the
year, an art faculty with 80 percent of its members in Who's Who in American
Art, and the winner of the Academy of Pharmaceutical Sciences achievement
award for the advancement of industrial pharmacy.

Students

University of Florida students --numbering 35,365 fall semeter, 1983-- came
from 102 countries (1,522 foreign students), all 50 states and every one of
the 67 counties in Florida. Ratio of men to women was 58-42. One-third
were freshmen and sophomores and 43 percent, juniors and seniors, about
one-third of them transfers from Florida's community colleges. Four teen
percent -4,714- were graduate students, and 1,998 were in medicine,
veterinary medicine, or dentistry. Black enrollment totalled 1,835.
Eighty-seven percent of the entering freshmen are above the national mean of
scores on standard entrance exams taken by college bound students. With 394
enrolled throughout its undergradute classes, UF last year ranked fifth in
the nation among public universities in the number of new National Merit and
Achievement Scholars in attendance.

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