Volume 38 Spring, 1975 No. 2 CONTENTS Distribution of the boring isopod Sphaeroma terebrans 2 SE ee David O. Conover and George K. Reid 65 The status of prehistoric sites in Pinellas County, LT sce cence ch ORI Sa J. Raymond Williams 73 Soil Aigae from North Central Florida................ J. R. Norton and J. S$. Davis 77 Firing of soft phosphate yields a bloated product .......... Frank N. Blanchard 82 ie premmumary list of Fijian MOSses ...............0..0.....c.c ee Henry O. Whittier 85 Carotenoids in color change of Pomacentrus variabilis.......... Hal A. Beecher 106 Life History patterns in the coastal shiner, Notropis petersoni, Fowler .................. Bruce C. Cowell and Clippert H. Resico, Jr. 113 Occurrence and possible establishment of Hoplias malabaricus (Characoidei; Erythrinidae) in Florida Dannie A. Hensley and Derril P. Moody 122 QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FLORIDA SCIENTIST QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Copyright © by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 1975 Editor: Harvey A. Miller Department of Biological Sciences Florida Technological University Orlando, Florida 32816 The Fioripa Scientist is published quarterly by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc., a non-profit scientific and educational association. Membership is open to individuals or institutions interested in supporting science in its broadest sense. Applications may be obtained from the Treasurer. Both individual and institutional members receive a subscription to the FLoripa Scientist. Direct subscription is available at $10.00 per calendar year. Original articles containing new knowledge, or new interpretation of knowledge, are welcomed in any field of Science as represented by the sections of the Academy, viz., Biological Sciences, Conservation, Earth and Planetary Sciences, Medical Sciences, Physical Sciences, Science Teaching, and Social Sciences. Also, contributions will be considered which present new applications of scientific knowledge to practical problems within fields of interest to the Academy. Articles must not duplicate in any substantial way material that is published elsewhere. Contributions from members of the Academy may be given priority. Instructions for preparation of manuscripts are inside the back cover. Officers for 1975 FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 President: Dr. WiLiiaM H. Tart Treasurer: Dr. THomas S. Hopkins Division of Research Faculty of Biology University of South Florida University of West Florida Tampa, Florida 33620 Pensacola, Florida 32504 President-Elect: Dr. Patrick J. GLEASON Editor: Dr. HARveEy A. MILLER L79-500 No. Congress Department of Biological Sciences West Palm Beach, Florida 33401 Florida Technological University Orlando, Florida 32816 Secretary: Dr. Invinc G. Foster Department of Physics Program Chairman: Dr. JosepH MuLSON Eckerd College Department of Physics St. Petersburg, Florida 33733 Rollins College Winter Park, Florida 32789 Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences 810 East Rollins Street Orlando, Florida 32803 Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida Florida Scientist QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Harvey A. Miller, Editor Vol. 38 Spring, 1975 No. 2 Biological Sciences DISTRIBUTION OF THE BORING ISOPOD SPHAEROMA TEREBRANS IN FLORIDA Davip O. CONOVER AND GEORGE K. REID . 16950 S. W. 264th Street, Homestead, Florida 33030 and — _- Collegium of Natural Sciences, Eckerd College, St. Petersburg, Florida 33733 Asstract: Distribution of the isopod Sphaeroma terebrans in Florida was recorded by measuring its relative density at 51 stations located around the State. The species was found continuously on the west coast from Tarpon Springs to Flamingo, and on the east coast, intermittently from New Smyrna Beach to Jupiter and continuously from Jupiter to Card Sound. The organism was absent from the Florida Keys. Sphaeroma was usually found in the prop roots of Rhizophora mangle but was also observed in branches and roots of Laguncularia racemosa, Avicennia nitida and at one location in Conocarpus erectus where exposed to water. THE PRESENCE of the wood-boring crustacean, Sphaeroma terebrans Bate, on the southwest coast of Florida has been reported recently by Rehm and Humm (1973). They described extensive damage to prop roots of the red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle, resulting from the boring activity of this isopod. The absence of the organism in the Florida Keys was also noted. Tabb and Manning (1961) reported its capture in a plankton net on the Gulf coast of Florida. Sphaeroma has also been reported in Brazil (Silva, 1965), Sydney, Australia (Iredale et al., 1932) and southeastern Asia (Chilton, 1926). John (1970) described the wood boring activity of S. terebrans in India. He reported that the burrows are not continually extended_and postulated that the organism burrows in search of shelter rather than for food. However, the animal is capable of digesting cellulose_(John, 1968).-We have studied the distribution. of Sphaeroma terebrans in Florida. MeETHODs AND MaTERIALS—Data were gathered at 51 stations located around the state where Rhizophora is found. A station usually consisted of a 20 ft length of shoreline or channel bank. After surveying a given area, a station was chosen that typified the habitat in that region. The relative density of Sphaeroma was deter- mined by the following procedure. The number of R. mangle roots which were submerged at least 6 in at the mean high water mark were counted along with the 66 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 number of roots severed due to decay resulting from Sphaeroma attack. The number of roots infested but not yet severed was also determined. The percentage of roots severed by Sphaeroma was calculated and rounded off to the nearest 10%. Sphaeroma activity was verified by the distinctive hole which was left and by visual observation of the animal itself. At least 100 roots were counted in all determinations. Also noted at each station were the substrate, water depth, current, turbidity, types of mangroves present, and organisms associated with the roots (if conspicuous). An effort was made to observe equal numbers of sites on channel banks where current was prominent and on shorelines where wave action predominated. 1- ——*: \N 51 + i \ 3 = f 50 = + 49 ( 48 = Dt ae 4? = 6 + 6 + 45 + Wy . . [hey \ 42 + Kl + 7 + Xs ho + Sat “{ or — 10 + 39 + ll + Le ee 13 + eo ) 38 + 14 + N See a $ Bas 16 + 36 + aby? sp ‘e + 18 = =a, K sera 20 - = BC 22 = = ; = a, -f 31 WV & 30 - aN oN 29 + 23 - 24—- 2 - G@—- 27 - 28 - Fig. 1. Distribution map for Sphaeroma terebrans in Florida. The numbers indicate stations where observations were made and correspond to Table 1. A “+” indicates that the species was found at that site and a “—” indicates that it was not. North River was selected to study the effect of decreasing salinity on popula- tion density of Sphaeroma. This stream extends in a fairly straight, northeasterly direction from north Whitewater Bay into the interior of the Everglades (Fig. 1, station 15). It is navigable for approximately 5 miles. In summer, water in the upper reaches of the river is almost entirely fresh due to the drainage of rain water from the everglades. Salinity and population density of Sphaeroma were measured at 0.5 mile intervals from the mouth of the waterway. Salinity was measured with a hydrometer. All field work was done during January, 1974. Resu.ts—The distribution of Sphaeroma terebrans in Florida is represented in Fig. 1 and Table 1. The species was found continuously on the West coast from No. 2, 1975] CONOVER AND REID—BORING ISOPOD 67 TABLE 1. The 51 stations for observation of Sphaeroma terebrans in Florida are listed, The station number corresponds to Fig. 1. Each station consisted of a 20 ft. length of shoreline bordering a large body of water or a channel bank. The organisms associated with the roots were noted only where abundant. Station fr. 2. 3. Oo oo nt OD 10. 1. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 1%. 18. 19. 20. Cedar Key— channel bank Bayport— channel bank Tarpon Springs— bay shoreline . Tarpon Springs— channel bank . St, Petersburg/ Maximo Park— channel bank . Manatee River— shoreline . Venice/Dona Bay— shoreline . Charlotte Harbor-— shoreline . Ft. Myers Beach— channel bank Vanderbilt Beach— channel bank Naples/Gordon River—shoreline Goodland— channel bank Everglades City— shoreline & channel bank Mouth of Shark river—channel bank Mouth of North River—shoreline Mid-Whitewater Bay island—shoreline Buttonwood Canal at Coot Bay-canal bank N. Florida Bay/ Christian Point-— shoreline N. Florida Bay/Dump Keys-—shoreline N. Florida Bay/ Crocodile Dragover-— shore Substrate marl marl Current mod. slight none mod. slight slight slight slight slight mod, slight strong mod. strong slight slight strong slight mod. mod. Turbidity slight clear clear slight slight clear heavy clear slight clear mod. slight heavy heavy slight slight heavy heavy mod. heavy Mangroves present Organisms assoc. w/roots oyst. barn. oyst. oyst. oyst. barn. % roots infested co) =) So © © -] i) oC & @ S§ & 5 100 90 80 100 100 100 100 100 68 TABLE 1 (Cont.). Station 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27, 28. 29, 30. 3l. 32. 33. 34, 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. Madeira Bay— shoreline N. Florida Bay/ McCormick Creek— shoreline Big Pine Key— bay shoreline Marathon— channel bank Lower Matecumbe Key-—channel bank Whale Harbor— channel bank Tavernier Creek— channel bank Key Largo- oceanside-shoreline N. Florida Bay—Long Sound-shoreline N. Key Largo/Barnes Sound-shoreline Barnes Sound/ mainland-shoreline N. Key Largo/ Steamboat creek Card Sound/ mainland-shoreline Entering Card Sound (Mainland )— canal bank Entering Biscayne Bay (mainland )—- canal Biscayne Bay/main- land-shoreland Biscayne Bay/main- land—shoreland Matheson Hammock— canal bank Ft. Lauderdale— Intracoastal Waterway Lantana— channel bank Jupiter Inlet- channel bank FLORIDA SCIENTIST g ¢ 2 = 4 ~ 4 Beg & & =) 8 eae H op) S cof (OC) coe! marl none heavy marl mod. heavy mud slight slight mud slight _ slight rock mod. clear mud rock mod. clear mud rock mod. _ clear mud mud none clear marl none. Clear mud slight slight mud slight clear rock mud mod. mod. mud slight clear mud slight — slight mud slight slight mud none _._— clear mud none clear sand rock slight slight mud rock slight clear mud mud strong clear sand mod. mod. Mangroves present red red red red red red red red black red white red red black red red red black white red red black white red red red white red black white red Organisms assoc. w/roots ia’) Qu % roots infested 21.N. Florida Bay/ i) Sores oS 2 & 70 SF Of On 1S 80 100 100 _ 100 100 100 100 100 % roots » severed i=) o.U6U6O]m]lUCOlCOSCOC BEC i) SoS 2] 2S & No. 2, 1975] CONOVER AND REID—BORING ISOPOD 69 TABLE | (Cont.). 2 & 2 S E AE tes = C=) a= pS ESS 2 ce foie - 3/8) 358 £28 8 ££ 382 5 =| a o Ane wy > a S30 O a as © ta eR = SO 42. Hutchinson’s Island/ mud 2 mod. heavy red 100 60 Indian River— shoreline 43. Hutchinson’s Island/ mud 1 = slight slight red barn. 0 0 Indian River— red alg. shoreline 44, Hutchinson’s Island/ mud 1 slight slight red barn. 0 0 Indian River— red alg. shoreline 45. Hutchinson’s Island/ mud 1 slight heavy red 80 30 Indian River— shoreline 46. Vero Beach/Indian mud 2 slight slight red barn. 90 60 River-shoreline sand black red alg. 47. Wabasso/Indian mud 2 slight © slight red barn. 0 0 River-shoreline sand black _ oyst. 48. Wabasso/Indian mud 3 _ slight © slight red barn. 0 0 River—canal bank sand oyst. 49. Merritt Island/ rock 2 _ slight _ slight red barn. 0 0 S. end—channel bank sand black red alg. mud 50. Merritt Island/ mud 1 slight mod. red barn. 0 0 N. end Banana River- black shoreline white 51. New Smyrna Beach- mud 1 mod. mod. red oyst. 90 40 channel bank shells black white Tarpon Springs to Flamingo, intermittently on the East coast from New Smyrna Beach to Jupiter and continuously on the East coast from Jupiter to Card Sound. Infestations were particularly extensive in the area from Naples to Whitewater Bay. The organism was not found in any location on the Florida Keys. The southern extremes of distribution on both coasts were abrupt. On the west coast, the isopod was present throughout Buttonwood Canal (station 17) but none was found along the shoreline of Florida Bay outside of the canal (station 18). On the East coast, Sphaeroma was present along the shoreline of Biscayne Bay but absent in Card Sound, 2 miles south. The species was found in the Card Sound Canal (station 34) but as the canal approached the sound the incidence of the organism decreased (beginning at approximately 1 mile from the sound). The only appearance of organism south of Card Sound was in Long Sound (station 29). At several locations the species was found in the branches and roots of the white mangrove, Laguncularia racemosa (Fig. 2), and the black mangrove, Avicennia nitida. Infestations were observed only where branches hung in deep water or where the roots had become exposed to open water. Sphaeroma was never found in the pneumatophores of Avicennia even though present on adjacent 70 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 Rhizophora prop roots. At one location (station 35), several burrows containing the isopod were found in a submerged branch of the buttonwood, Conocarpus erecta (Fig. 3). Fig. 2. (Lerr) The burrowing activity of S. terebrans in the white mangrove, Laguncularia racemosa is apparent in the above photograph. Sphaeroma individuals were found in both Lagun- cularia branches (left and right) and in a young tree (center). Specimens from the shoreline of Biscayne Bay (station 36). Fig. 3. (Ricut) The burrowing activity of S. terebrans in the buttonwood, Conocarpus erecta, can be seen in the branch extending downward in the center of the picture. Sphaeroma were observed in the burrows present. This specimen was located at a canal entering lower Biscayne Bay (station 35). Sphaeroma terebrans was rarely found in Rhizophora roots that were not submerged at least 6 in at the mean high water mark. In areas such as Shark River where at high tide an entire island might be covered with a ft of water or more, the species was found only on the fringe of the mangroves and infestations never extended further than 5 ft inland despite sufficient water depth. In addition, Sphaeroma was found only in waters that were directly subject to tides. Isolated ponds and marshes without direct connection to open water did not contain the animal in any area of the state. The relative density of Sphaeroma decreased as salinity decreased in North River (Table 2). The population of the isopod began to decrease significantly at a salinity of 9.3% and then cropped sharply below 4.9%o salinity (Fig. 4). Discussion—The abruptness of the southern endpoints of Sphaeroma dis- tribution and the complete absence of the animal in the Florida Keys are difficult to understand. Such distinct boundaries tend to argue against a predator being the No. 2, 1975] CONOVER AND REID—BORING ISOPOD 71 limiting factor for in predator-prey relationships the prey is not totally absent. John (1970) indicated that in India S. terebrans burrows in search of shelter and not primarily to obtain cellulose as food. This might account for the boring activity of the organism in the wood of all three species of “mangroves” where made available by exposure to water. It is plausible that the limiting factor could involve the extracellulose diet of the species. This might include diatoms and other organisms growing on the roots of the mangrove. This appears likely in view of the presence of the isopod only in waters subject to circulation to tides and on the outer fringe of a mangrove swamp. However, the boring activity of the species in Florida involves extensive hollowing (Rehm and Humm, 1973) indicating that cellulose might constitute a major portion of its diet. TABLE 2, Variation in the population density of Sphaeroma terebrans with decreas- ing salinity in North River, Everglades National Park. Distance from mouth of Percentage Percentage river Salinity of roots of roots (miles ) Joo infested severed 0.0 18.5 100 100 0.5 18.5 100 100 1.0 18.3 100 90 L5 en 90 90 2.0 14.8 90 90 25 13.7 90 90 3.0 11.4 90 90 Ay 9.3 90 50 4.0 6.2 70 10 4.5 4.9 70 10 5.0 3.4 10 0 72 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 Observations on the change in Sphaeroma population with decreasing salinity in North River show that the organism is capable of living actively at a salinity of 4.9% and probably lower. It appears unlikely that salinity is the factor that limits southern distribution of the species since much the same water circulates in areas of Biscayne Bay where the animal was present and Card Sound where the organism was absent. The data collected at each station (Table 1) show no indication that substrate, turbidity or current affects incidence. The presence of a heavy barnacle encrus- tration appeared to inhibit population density of Sphaeroma. ACKNOWLEDGMENT— The authors gratefully acknowledge the aid and consul- tation of Dr. Harold J. Humm, University of South Florida. LITERATURE CITED CuiLton, C. 1926. Zoological results of a tour in the far east. Rec. Indian Mus. 28:173-185. IREDALE, T., R. A. JOHNSON AND F. A. MCNEILL. 1932. Destruction of Timber by Marine Organisms in the Port of Sydney. Sydney Harbour Trust. Sydney. Joun, P. A. 1968. Habits, structure, and development of Sphaeroma terebrens (A wood-boring Isopod). Univ. Kerela Publ. 1:1-73. . 1970. Observations on the boring activity of Sphaeroma terebrans Spence Bate, a wood boring isopod. Zool. Anz. 185:379-387. ReuM, A. AND H. J. Hum. 1973. Sphaeroma terebrans: A threat to the mangroves of southwestern Florida. Science 182:173-74. Sitva, J. L. 1965. Microscopic structure of the setae of Brazilian species of Sphaeroma. An Congr. Latino Amer. Zool. 2:73-81. Tass, D. C., anp R. B. Manninc. 1961. A checklist of the flora and fauna of northern Florida Bay and adjacent brackish waters of the Florida mainland collected during the period July 1957 through September 1960. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Carib. 11:552-649. Florida Sci. 38(2): 65-72. 1975. Social Sciences THE STATUS OF PREHISTORIC SITES IN PINELLAS COUNTY, FLORIDA J. RayMonp WILLIAMS Department of Anthropology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 Asstract: Systematic survey of the Oldsmar and Pass-a-Grille Beach Quadrangles added 46 prehistoric sites to 72 already known. A plea is made for consideration of the sites as natural resources to be preserved. : Durinc part of the summer of 1974, I acted as a consultant to the Pinellas County Environmental Assessment Task Force to make an archaeological survey of the Pass-a-Grille Beach and the Oldsmar USGS Quadrangle map areas. This was only a small part of a large study by the Task Force on the effects of devel- opment in these two geographic areas. The Pass-a-Grille Beach Quadrangle area has been highly developed with few remaining unreformed land areas, while the Oldsmar Quadrangle area has not been highly developed at present, but is expected to be so in the future. My task was to locate as many prehistoric sites as possible on these two Quadrangles as well as to visit all the previously recorded sites and make a statement as to their present status in terms of degree of preservation or destruction. Information on the recorded sites was taken both from the files in the Department of Anthropol- ogy at the University of South Florida and from the Division of Archives, History, and Records Management in Tallahassee. There were 72 prehistoric sites recorded for the county. Because of some in- correct reporting of site locations, some sites have been assigned two numbers. These are not included in the total of 72, which represents individual sites. Table - 1 lists the location of sites, by USGS Quadrangle map. Four of the sites are known only to be in Pinellas County and some do not have specific locations and can be located only as to general Quadrangle area. Any other Quadrangle maps which might include some part of Pinellas County, but on which no sites are located, are not included in Table 1. Some sites were assigned numbers very early without proper reference to location—especially those referred to by Walker and Moore in the late Nine- teenth and early Twentieth centuries. These constitute a large part of the 9 sites which cannot be found. Table 2 attempts to show the status of the 19 recorded sites in the Pass-a- Grille Beach and the three recorded sites in the Oldsmar Quadrangle areas. The low number of reported sites in the Oldsmar Quadrangle area and the fact that all of the sites are preserved at least to some extent, compared to the 74 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 TABLE 1. Location of sites. Quadrangle Map Number of Sites Pass-a-Grille Beach 19 Bay Pines 13 Tarpon Springs 9 St. Petersburg 8 Safety Harbor 6 Clearwater 5 Dunedin 3 Oldsmar 3 Port Tampa 2 Unknown Quadrangle Map 4 TOTAL 72 percentage of preserved ones in the Pass-a-Grille area (only 10%), gives the first hint of the enormity of destruction of sites in the southern part of Pinellas County. New Sires—Thirty-three new sites were found in the Oldsmar USGS Quad- rangle map area. This increased by 1000% the number of known sites. Of these 33 sites, 10 have already been badly disturbed by development or construction, 7 have been somewhat disturbed due to similar activities, and 16 have not been disturbed by any modern commercial or artificial means. Thus, about 50% of them remain undisturbed. In the Pass-a-Grille Beach USGS Quadrangle map area, 13 new sites were located—an increase of 68% in the number of known sites. Seven of these were found in areas that were dredged and can be considered destroyed, 3 others can be said to be effectively destroyed and 3 are badly deteriorated by natural or modern commercial activities. None is in a good state of preservation. Table 3 summarizes the status of the new sites located. The 33 new sites in the Oldsmar area range from small camp sites to perma- nent villages. Surface collections turned up ceramics at only one site. If these surface collections are representative of other site materials, then almost all of the TABLE 2. Status of previously recorded sites. Site cannot Known to be Destroyed, Preserved be found. destroyed or but excavation to some Presumed to nearly destroyed work was done extent. be destroyed. | by development or beforehand. natural causes. Pass-a-Grille Beach 9 5 3 2 Oldsmar 0 0 0 3 No. 2, 1975] WILLIAMS—PREHISTORIC SITES 75 sites date from the Archaic period. Since no coastal area is involved in the Quadrangle map area, this is what would be expected of sites from an inland eco- system. Ten of the 13 sites found in the Pass-a-Grille Beach Quadrangle map area were shell middens. Again, if the collections made from these sites (most of them redeposited as a result of dredging activity) are representative, they date mainly from the Archaic to Perico Island periods in time. This type of site is what one would expect in this region also, given the extensive coastal zone. TABLE 3. Status of new sites located. Site is Site is Site is Site is destroyed badly somewhat undisturbed damaged disturbed Pass-a-Grille Beach 10 3 0 0 Oldsmar 0 10 a 16 SumMaRY—The location of 46 new prehistoric sites in these two Quadrangle map areas alone represents a 64% increase in the total number of sites known for Pinellas County. This shows what can be done to locate new sites by organized survey work. Even then, I would not consider it, by any means, a complete ac- counting of sites in either area. For example, some of the sites in the Oldsmar Quadrangle map area were found only because they had been disturbed. I would estimate that there may be two or three times (or up to 150 sites) in that Quad- rangle area. Because of heavy plant growth, or soil deposition, most of these re- main undetected. The majority of sites found in the Pass-a-Grille Beach Quad- rangle map area are found in redeposited fills from dredging. Due to the rising sea level during the entire prehistoric human occupation of Florida, the shallow areas of the Bays and Gulf would be expected to have numerous sites now under water and not yet located, or found only because of dredging activity. It is unfortunate that these sites are dredged before adequate archeological exploration. Several academic disciplines might use them for study because of the answers they give about past culture as well as environmental change. These sites are as important as any others and must be considered so by any Planning or Governmental agency when commercial activity is proposed. One could determine modern settlement patterns simply by considering the data on the status or degree of preservation of archeological sites in the Pass-a- Grille Beach and Oldsmar Quadrangle areas. In the Oldsmar area, only 3 sites were recorded. One is preserved in a park, another on Florida Power Company property and the third is in an area not yet developed. This sample is probably too small to use in statistical terms. However, when the state of preservation of the new sites is considered, it shows that among the 33 sites, 10 have been badly disturbed by development and construction, 7 have been somewhat disturbed for similar reasons, and 16, or about one-half of them, have not been disturbed by any modern commercial, artificial or natural means. 76 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 In the Pass-a-Grille Beach Quadrangle area, the opposite is true. Of 19 sites previously recorded, 9 cannot be located and are presumed destroyed, 5 are de- stroyed or nearly so, 3 are destroyed (although at least some degree of profes- sional excavation occurred prior to the destruction), and only 2 sites remain rela- tively well preserved. These 2 are the Princess Hirrighiga site (8-Pi-30 or 8-Pi- 108) and the Maximo Park Beach site (8-Pi-31), part of which will be destroyed in the future by I-75, although it has been archaeologically tested because of this. Of the 13 new sites, the 7 which were dredged could be considered destroyed, 3 have been totally destroyed and 3 are somewhat deteriorated. None is in a good state of preservation. Thus, only 2 of the 32 sites (or about 6%) now known to exist in the Pass-a-Grille Beach Quadrangle area are preserved or in a relatively good state of preservation, while 19 of 43 sites (about 44%) in the Oldsmar Quad- rangle area are relatively well preserved. Neither 6% nor 44% is good in terms of preservation, but the most important point is made in comparing the destruction of sites in an area that has been highly developed to one that has not. One might anticipate, then, that those archaeo- logical sites in the Oldsmar Quadrangle area will meet a fate similar to those in the Pass-a-Grille Beach area unless some degree of protection is afforded them or proper and scientific excavation can be allowed and funded—preferably the former. If any part of these areas is to be developed in the future, there should be a new intensive survey of that area using control methods that were not possible in this one. A much more extensive analysis of the sites could be made in a survey covering a smaller area with less sites. This analysis might even include very small test excavations. Any comprehensive planning should require knowledge of these all-too-few remaining sites. In fact, they should be thought of as an important, as well as val- uable, natural resource and cognizance of them taken in these terms. Archaeo- logical site location, excavation, interpretation and even reconstruction are all possibilities which should be given attention in any planning scheme prepared by any public or private agency or office. An attempt to preserve some record of prehistoric America, as well as public awareness or public education of pre- historic America are both factors infrequently considered in the past. Few sys- tematic surveys such as this one have been done; there have been few profes- sional excavations and reports on these excavations, and even fewer site recon- structions for public visitation and education. Florida Sci. 38(2): 73-76. 1975. Biological Sciences SOIL ALGAE FROM NORTH CENTRAL FLORIDA J. R. Norton’ anp J. S. Davis Department of Botany, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611 Asstract: A survey of the soil algae from 5 acid sands and one neutral sand in Alachua County during 1972 yielded 72 species. The genera Ulothrix, Stichococcus, Chlorella, Chlorococcum and Schizothrix were the most common, and they occurred in nearly every soil sample. Previous soil algae studies from Florida are few in number and they were published prior to the development of the modern methods and discoveries per- taining to edaphic algae. The present paper reports algae collected from several acid sands in Alachua County, Florida. The newer soil algal study and identification methods employ- ing detailed life cycle observations, and several culture techniques were used for this research. The blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) were identified by Dr. Fran- cis Drouet. Stupy AREAS AND METHops—Six soil types from 6 different sites in Alachua County were selected on the basis of their relative abundance and gradation in water drainage pattern. Areas chosen for soil sampling sites were undisturbed, and away from farms, pastures or clearings. Site number 1 was Leon fine sand, the most common and widespread soil in the county. This is a poorly drained acid sand (pH 4.2) with a distinctive or- ganic hardpan approximately 18 in. below the surface. The soil moisture content ranged from 0.81-13.04%. Predominant vegetation was slash pine (Pinus elliottii) and saw palmetto (Serenoa repens) which partially shaded the site. Site number 2 was in peaty muck. This soil is compact and fibrous, with pH 3.7, and almost always saturated, but seldom inundated with water. Predominant vegetation was baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) and cinnamon ferns (Osmunda cinnamomea). Six months after the study began, the area around the site burned resulting in the slow drying of the habitat. Site number 3 was in Blanton fine sand. It has a moderate drainage, with pH 5.2, and a moisture content ranging from 4.73-18.82%. The entire site was shaded by a large live oak (Quercus virginana) which had deposited a layer of leaves on the ground. Site number 4 was in Lakeland fine sand. This soil is an excessively drained, acid sand with an avg pH of 5.0. The sampling site was in full sunlight, the mois- ture content of the soil during sampling periods ranged from 3.14-6.31%. Scat- tered turkey oak (Quercus leavis) and long leaf pine (Pinus palustris) were the only trees present. The ground was covered with patches of lichen (Cladonia subtenious) and wiregrass (Aristida stricta). 'This study was part of the M.S. thesis of the senior author submitted to the graduate school of the Univer- sity of Florida. 78 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 Site number 5 was in Arrendondo loamy fine sand. This soil, composed of mixtures of fine sand, fine sandy clay and phosphatic Hawthorne limestone, is well drained and represents some of the most fertile farmland in the county. Pre- dominant vegetation was a typical oak-hickory climax forest. The soil is some- what acid with an avg pH of 5.6. This site was heavily shaded with a layer of leaves on the ground; the moisture content of the soil varied from 4.92-16.10%. Site number 6 was in Hernando fine sand. This site also burned during the course of the investigation, eliminating the understory and most of the leaves and litter covering the soil. This well drained, neutral soil (pH 6.8) is composed of a thin layer of sand overlying sandy clay loam or sandy clay residuum from limestone. This site was covered with a layer of leaves and twigs approximately 1 in. thick. The moisture content of the soil ranged from 3.33-22.69%. Four collections were made at each site during March, June, October and December, 1972. The uppermost in. of soil with the litter above it were re- moved with a clean and sterile shovel. The samples were transferred to sterile polyethylene bags and taken to the laboratory for study. After a thorough mixing, 10 g of soil from each sample were placed into 30 125-ml Erlenmeyer flasks containing 75 ml of sterile Bold’s medium (Parker and Bold, 1962) modified by adding sterile biotin (1.0 ug/l), thiamine (0.2 mg/]), vitamin B,, (1.0 pg/l) and 2.8 mg/] NaSiO,. Fifteen of the flasks were agitated vigorously on a shaker for 3 mo. Ten g amounts of soil from each sample were also placed in petri plates containing sterile modified Bold’s medium solidified with 1% Difco Ionagar. Concomitantly with the above methods, 100 g of soil from each collection were placed under filter paper moistened with modified Bold’s medium, and 100 g were introduced into wide-mouth 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks capped with aluminum foil containing sterile distilled water. All cultures were placed under fluorescent light continuously provided by Sylvania (cool white) tubes, at an intensity of 125-250 ft-C. Temperature fluctu- ated between 24-30°C, the usual temperature was 25°C. As the algal growth appeared in the cultures, the filamentous forms were isolated by direct picking under a binocular microscope and then transferred into petri plates containing solid modified Bold’s medium. The unialgal strains were placed in test tubes containing liquid or solid modified Bold’s medium for subsequent study. In order to isolate coccoid species, portions of the mixed cul- tures were streaked repeatedly onto petri plates of solid modified Bold’s medium until unialgal cultures were obtained. The algae were transferred into test tubes containing either liquid or solid modified Bold’s medium. All the unialgal cul- tures were maintained for study under the conditions previously specified. Study methods included close microscopic and macroscopic observations of each species as it was passed through its life cycle several times, the application of the criteria of Starr (1955) and Archibald and Bold (1970) for distinguishing among the zoospore-producing coccoid species of the Chlorophyta, and the use of keys and publications mostly provided by students of Dr. H. C. Bold of the University of Texas. Diatoms were cleaned and prepared for study by using Swift’s (1967) method. No. 2, 1975] NORTON AND DAVIS—SOIL ALGAE 79 The cleaned frustules were mounted in Permount and examined under phase- contrast at 1000 X magnification. I, KI solution was used to test for the presence of starch, to determine pyre- noid presence, and clarify nuclei. Sheath material on algal cells was determined by methylene blue stain. REsuLTs AND Discuss1on—Of the 72 species isolated and identified in this study (Table 1), the genera Ulothrix, Stichococcus, Chlorella, Chlorococcum and Schizothrix were the most common and occurred in nearly every soil sample. The number of species in each soil type included 39 from peaty muck, 22 from Hernando, 22 from Lakeland, 17 from Leon, 14 from Arredondo and 11 from Blanton. Most of these species were also common in the other soil algae studies from Florida. However, the number of taxa herein reported is over three times that found by Smith and Ellis (1943) from Alachua County, and twice the num- ber of Arvik (1971) from northwest Florida. Most of the algae recovered from our samples are usually associated with soil rather than aquatic habitats. However, the three Oedogonium species, Mi- TaBLe 1. Algal species from the soils of Alachua County, Florida. Abbreviations: A=Arrendondo loamy fine sand, B=Blanton fine sand, H=Hernando fine sand, La=Lakeland fine sand, Le=Leon fine sand, PM = peaty muck. CHLOROPHYTA A: ” Bint La Le PM Carteria cordiformis (Carter) Dill + Characium sp. + + Chlamydomonas sp. ste Chlamydomonas clathrata (Korsh.) Pascher + Chlorella vulgaris Beyerinck + + ts + Chlorococcum aplanosporum Arce & Bold aP +f Chlorococcum aureum Archibald & Bold an Chlorococcum citriforme Archibald & Bold ap ar Chlorococcum echinozygotum Starr +P Chlorococcum infusionum (Shrank) Menegh. ap 4p Chlorococcum minutum Starr qP Chlorococcum novaeangliae Archibald & Bold + Chloroccocum perplexum Archibald & Bold + + Cosmarium lunatum W. & G.S. West + Cylindrocystis brebissonii Menegh. + Hormidium flaccidum A. Braun ar Hormidium rivulare Kitz ate Hormidium sp. ar Microthanmion kitzingianum Prince Nannochloris bacillaris Naumann qe SP 4F Neochloris aquatica Starr ote Neochloris gelatinosa Herndon ats Neochloris terrestris Herndon ite Oedogonium foveolatum Wittrock Oedogonium itzigsohnii DeBary Oedogonium sp. ect Oocystis parva W. & G.S. West ate Stichococcus bacillaris Nag. gina acte get pte eats Trentepolia aurea (L.) Mart. Trochiscia sp. t Ulothrix sp. toe BASH YEE + + +++ +++ ++4+4 80 FLORIDA SCIENTIST TABLE 1 (Cont.). CHRYSOPHYTA Cryptomonas tenuis Pascher Eunotia flexuosa Breb. Eunotia major (W. Sm.) Rabh. var. major Eunotia mondon Cl. var. constricta Eunotia praerupta (Ehr.) Grun. var. bidens Eunotia rabenhorstii Grun. var. mondon Eunotia serra (Ehr.) Patr. var. diadema Eunotia zygodon Ehr. var. zygodon Fragillaria intermedia Ralfs Fragillaria virescens Ralfs Gleochrysis turfosa (Pascher) Bour. Hantzschia amphioxys (Ehr.) Grun. Navicula mobilensis A. Boyer Pinnularia borealis Ehr. var. borealis Pinnularia borealis Ehr. var. rectangularis Pinnularia brebissonii (Grun.) Cl. Pinnularia burkii Patr. Pinnularia nobilis Ehr. var. nobilis Stauroneis obtusa Ehr. var. obtusa Navicula mutica Kitz. Navicula mutica Kitz. var. stigma Navicula mutica Kitz. var. tropica Navicula muticoides Hust. Nitzschia palea (Kitz.) W. Sm. Ochromonas mutabilis Klebs Pinnularia biceps Greg. var. biceps CYANOPHYTA Anabaena inaequalis (Kutz.) Trevis. Anabaena oscillarioides Bory. Anacystis marina (Hansy.) Dr. & Daily Anacystis montana (Nag.) Dr. Arthrospira neapolitana (Kitz.) Dr. Calothrix parientina (Nag.) Thuret Coccochloris peniocystis Dr. & Daily Cylindrospermum trichotosporum Fremy Fischerella ambiguua (Nag.) Gom. Microcoleus vaginatus (Vauch.) Gom. Nostoc commune Vauch. Nostoc muscorum Ag. Oscillatoria retzii Ag. Oscillatoria submembranacea Ard. & Straff. Porphyrosiphon notarisii (Menegh.) Kitz. Schizothrix calcicola (Ag.) Gom. Stigonema ocellatum Thuret EUGLENOPHYTA Euglena sp. + +++ +++ ++++4+ [Vol. 38 +++ +++ +++ +++ + crothamnion, and some of the flagellates would seem to be clearly aquatic. The ability of these and other species to survive the repeated wetting and drying conditions common to north central Florida must be related to certain morpho- logical and physiological survival adaptations which they possess. The latter have been reviewed by Davis (1972), and Fogg (1970). Although most blue-green algae grow in neutral to alkaline environments (Holm-Hansen, 1968), the present study indicates that these algae do live in acid conditions. Nearly half of our 17 blue-green species occurred in soils which were No. 2, 1975] NORTON AND DAVIS—SOIL ALGAE 81 distinctly acid. Arvik’s (1971) list of soil-algae in which the blue-greens were the predominant group, further emphasizes the occurrence and abundance of the Cyanophyta in acid soils. LITERATURE CITED ARCHIBALD, P. A. anp H. C. Boip. 1970. Phycological Studies XI. The genus Chlorococcum Meneg- hini. Univ. Texas Publ. 7015. Austin, Texas. Arvik, J. H. 1971. Soil algae of northwest Florida. Quart. J. Florida Acad. Sci. 33:247-252. Davis, J. S. 1972. Survival records in the algae, and the survival role of certain pigments, fat, and mucilagenous substances. The Biologist 54:52-93. Foce, G. E. 1969. Survival of algae-under adverse conditions. Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol. 23:123-142. Hoim-Hansen, O. 1968. Ecology, physiology and biochemistry of blue-green algae. Ann. Rev. Mi- crobiol. 22:47-70. Parker, B. C. anp H. C. Botp. 1962. Some supplementary attributes in the classification of Chloro- coccum species. Arch. Microbiol. 42:267-288. Smitu, F. B. anp H. R. Exuis. 1943.-Preliminary report on the algal flora of some Florida soils. Proc. Florida Acad. Sci. 6:54-65. Starr, R. C. 1955. A comparative study of Chlorococcum Meneghini and other spherical, zoospore- producing genera of the Chlorococcales. Science Series No. 20. Indiana Univ. Press. Bloom- ington. Swirt, E. 1967. Cleaning diatom frustules with ultraviolet radiation and peroxide. Phycologia 6:161- 163. Florida Sci. 38(2): 77-81. 1975. Physical Sciences FIRING OF SOFT PHOSPHATE YIELDS A BLOATED PRODUCT FRANK N. BLANCHARD Department of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 Asstract: Soft phosphate, a mixture of carbonate-substituted fluorapatite, crandallite, wavellite, montmorillonite, kaolinite, and quartz, bloats when it is heated above 1100°C and is air quenched. It reaches a maximum volume (325% of the original volume) and a minimum specific gravity (0.6) at about 1300°C. Bloating results from evolution of gas from some constituent(s) of the mixture (pos- sibly the apatite or crandallite) as other constituents (probably the montmorillonite and kaolinite) begin to melt. SOFT PHOSPHATE is subject to bloating and here I describe and suggest pos- sible causes for the unusual bloating. Although uses of bloated soft phosphate have not been investigated as part of the study, possibilities include lightweight aggregate, an abrasive, a soil conditioner, and probably others. NATURE AND CoMPOSITION OF Sort PHospHATE—Phosphate rock accounts for a major fraction of the total value of minerals produced in Florida and this state leads the nation in output value of phosphate rock. A small fraction of the total value is from soft phosphate, a material which is used as a supplement to stock and poultry feed and for direct application to the soil. Soft phosphate (orig- inally tailings from the beneficiation of pebble phosphate) is a term used here for a mixture of several phosphate minerals, several clay minerals, quartz, and very | minor amounts of other minerals. Typical samples of soft phosphate, similar to the material used in the firing experiments, were found to contain 30 to 37% SiO,, 20 to 25% CaO, 18 to 21% P,O,, about 10% AI,O,, 2 to 3% Fe,O, and minor to trace amounts of other oxides. This information was obtained by x-ray fluorescence analysis of samples fused with lithium borate—lanthanum oxide and synthetic standards prepared in a sim- ilar manner (Norrish and Chappell, 1967, p. 206). X-ray diffraction showed the presence of apatite, crandallite, wavellite (in order of decreasing quantity), mont- morillonite and kaolinite (both detected with certainty only in the acid insoluble residue of the soft phosphate) and quartz. Refinement of lattice dimensions and measurement of refractive index indicated that the apatite is a carbonate-substi- tuted fluorapatite (comparison with data of Lehr, McClellan, and Smith, 1967). RESULTS OF Firinc ExPpERIMENTS—Over 100 firing experiments were carried out by slowly heating and flash heating, pelletized, extruded, and powdered soft phosphate and various mixtures of soft phosphate with other natural materials. The heated material was air quenched in some cases and slowly cooled in others, and was then tested for bulk specific gravity, weight loss, and volume change. Results of the experiments on the soft phosphate alone show that it bloats when it is heated to temperatures above about 1100°C and is air quenched. The volume of the material increases, the bulk specific gravity decreases, and the No. 2, 1975] BLANCHARD—FIRING OF SOFT PHOSPHATE 83 material becomes cellular during this cycle. The increase in volume (and de- crease in bulk specific gravity) begins at about 1100°C, becomes rapid between 1150°C and 1250°C, reaches a maximum at about 1300°C and then decreases between 1300°C and 1350°C. At about 1300°C the material reaches a maximum volume (325% of the original volume) and a minimum bulk specific gravity (about 0.6). Figure 1 shows thermogravimetric and thermovolumetric curves for a typical firing experiment. After heating to 1300°C and quenching, the material is slightly vitreous, and after 1350°C it is distinctly vitreous. The bloating ap- parently results from volatilization of certain constituents as the soft phosphate mixture becomes plastic and approaches melting. The color of the heated and quenched product changes with increasing temperature from flesh colored (1100°C) to red (1150°C) to gray (1200°C) to greenish gray (1250°C) to grayish green (1300°C) and to dark green (1350°C). There is little difference in bulk specific gravity between heating soft phos- phate as powder, pellets, bricks, or extruded material. Flash heating (room tem- perature to the maximum in a few minutes) in a container results in a product similar to that produced by slowly heating, except that the color is different (due to the reducing environment in the container). If the heated soft phosphate is cooled slowly (in the furnace) the resulting product is of higher specific gravity (less cellular), stronger, and redder in color. If the soft phosphate is heated in graphite containers the product is similar with that which is unconfined, except that the color is more of a grayish white due to the reducing environment. PossiBLE Causes oF BLoatinc—As melting is approached volatilization of some constituent(s) of the soft phosphate causes bloating. In view of the com- plex chemical and mineralogical composition of soft phosphate there are sev- eral possibilities for the identity of the bloater. It is well known that firing of some shales and clays results in a bloated product (such as is used in some lightweight aggregate), however, the actual cause of expansion and vesiculation is not com- pletely understood (Grim, 1962, pp. 352-355). Although most of the known bloaters are aggregates of clay, it is not possible on the basis of physical, chem- ical, or mineralogical criteria to predict which material will bloat and which will not. Because soft phosphate does contain significant amounts of mont- morillonite, this clay might be suspect as responsible for the bloating. However, soft phosphate also contains crandallite, which undergoes several changes, in- cluding evolution of water, at high temperatures (Blanchard, 1971). Moreover, the major constituent of soft phosphate (carbonate fluorapatite) contains fluo- rine, carbon dioxide, and hydroxyl, any of which may volatilize at high tempera- ture and contribute to the bloating. In a preliminary attempt to identify the bloater, x-ray diffraction tech- niques were used to identify the phases present in the heated and bloated ma- terial. After heating to 1100°C and quenching, the material showed definitive lines for apatite, quartz, and minor corundum (probably formed by recrystal- lization of amorphous Al,O, produced in the thermal decomposition of crandal- lite). No noticeable differences appeared in the 1150°C and 1200°C samples. 84 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 After heating to 1250°C the corundum lines disappeared. In the 1300°C sample the intensity of the quartz lines decreased and simultaneously lines for cristo- balite appeared. After heating to 1350°C the intensity of the quartz and cristo- balite lines were reduced and the intensity of the apatite lines decreased slightly. Changes in the x-ray patterns were greatest between 1250°C and 1300°C, which coincides with the greatest degree of bloating. Identification of the phases de- tectable by x-ray diffraction shows that apatite is still present at the highest tem- perature reached; whether or not the apatite has been modified in composition or structure in the bloating-temperature interval has not been investigated. In a further attempt to identify the cause of bloating, a sample of the HCl in- soluble residue of the soft phosphate was prepared and tested. X-ray analysis of this residue showed strong lines for montmorillonite, kaolinite, quartz, and a weak line for wavellite. Essentially all of the apatite, all or most of the crandal- lite, and some of the wavellite were removed from the original sample by acid di- gestion. Small pellets of the insoluble residue were fired at temperatures of 1100°C, 1200°C, and 1300°C. After heating to 1100°C and 1200°C and quench- ing the material was slightly vitreous and cracked. After heating to 1300°C and air quenching the product was more vitreous and in places wet-looking. None of these samples showed any significant bloating, either prior to 1100°C or from 1100°C to 1300°C. From this it appears that neither montmorillonite nor kaoli- nite are directly responsible for the bloating and furthermore it appears that either crandallite or apatite or both may be of critical importance to the bloating mechanism. Perhaps the montmorillonite and kaolinite become plastic at the same time that gas is evolved by either apatite or the decomposition products of crandallite. Further detailed studies are being planned to help elucidate the mechanism of bloating in soft phosphate. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS— This research was supported in part by the Soft Phos- phate Research Institute, Inc. A. F. Randazzo and F. M. Wahl reviewed the pre- liminary manuscript and made helpful suggestions. LITERATURE CITED BLaNcHarbD, F. N. 1971. Thermal analysis of crandallite. Quart. J. Florida Acad. Sci. 34:1-9. Grim, R. E. 1962. Applied Clay Mineralogy. McGraw-Hill. New York. Lenr, J. R., G. H. MCCLELLAN, anp J. P. Smit. 1967. Characterization of apatites in commercial phosphate rocks. Pp. x-x. In. International Colloquium on Solid Inorganic Phosphates. Tou- louse, France. May, 1967. Norrisu, K. anp B. W. Cuappe._. 1967. X-ray fluorescence spectrography. Pp. x-x. In Zussman 161-214. x. (ed.) Physical Methods in Determinative Mineralogy. Academic Press. London and New York. Florida Sci. 38(2): 82-84. 1975. Biological Sciences A PRELIMINARY LIST OF FIJIAN MOSSES Henry O. WHITTIER Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Technological University, Orlando, Florida 32816 Asstract: Review of the widely scattered literature on the Fiji and immediately related islands provides basic ecological information and catalogs 306 species and varieties of mosses in 106 genera and 39 families. Citation of collection localities creates baseline data for future studies. THE rapid expansion of knowledge of Pacific islands mosses has been sum- marized in part (Whittier and Whittier, 1974; Schultze-Motel, 1974b), and only a brief review is needed to show the present status of studies. The northwest cen- tral Pacific represented by Micronesia, has been the subject of recent study (Mil- ler, 1960a, 1968; Miller, Whittier and Bonner, 1963; Miller and Smith, 1968; Smith, 1969; Hoe and Inoue, 1973), and remains a major study area. Likewise, contemporary studies exist for the northeast central Pacific, the Hawaiian Archi- pelago (Miller, 1960b, 1967; Schultze-Motel, 1963; Crosby, 1965; Smith, 1967; Hormann, 1967; Hoe and Crum, 1971; Hoe, 1974). For southeastern Polynesia there also exist recent reports (Htrlimann, 1963; Whittier, 1968, 1973, 1975a, 1975b; Whittier and Whittier, 1974), and south central Polynesia has been the subject of recent and continuing studies (Hirlimann, 1965; Schultze-Motel, 1971, 1974a). Southwestern Polynesia remains the last major Pacific region (out- side Melanesia) which is being currently incorporated into our research. The Fijian mosses were last reviewed in comprehensive fashion by Dixon and Greenwood (1930), and Bartram (1936, 1944, 1948, 1950, 1956) has, together with Greenwood (1946) produced a sequence of additions to the flora. The pres- ent state of knowledge of the Fijian moss flora is far from complete, but this re- view of the existing literature and species records is the basic step necessary to further progress. It leads toward the assembly of a published Pacific Islands moss flora, and toward serious comparative insular ecological studies incorporating bryophytes in biogeographic analysis of the Pacific Islands. The Fiji Islands lie between 15°42’ S and 21° 02’ S latitude and between 176° 53’ E and 178° 12’ W longitude, between Samoa and New Caledonia. The island complex is represented by two large islands, Viti Levu (4,053 sq. mi.), and Vanua Levu (2,137 sq. mi.), two lesser islands, Taveuni and Kandavu, and nearly 260 small islands, mostly in the Lau Group to the southeast of Vanua Levu (Fig. 1). According to British Admiralty reports (1944), the total land area is approxi- mately 7,000 sq. mi. Included within the complex are the Yasawa Islands, to the north and west of Viti Levu. Only a few of the principle islands—Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, Taveuni, Kandavau, Ovalau, Ngau, Koro, Kambara, Moala, and Vanua Mbalavu, are represented in bryological reports, with most collections cited for the first five or six islands. 86 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 At the western perimeter of the Pacific islands, the Fiji group is geologically ancient and highly diverse. Exposed land areas are of primarily volcanic origins, formed both above and below the sea, but some regions are composed of lime- stones from coral formations, often appearing in complex relationships with the volcanic rocks. Slaty rocks occur in the middle of Viti Levu, representing vol- canic and other sediments metamorphosed by heat and pressure, possibly dating to the Mesozoic age, according to the British Admiralty Report (1944). Tertiary limestones, overlain by fossiliferous tuffs raised above sea level in Quaternary times, form a dramatic landscape on parts of Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Kan- davu. Taveuni is described as entirely volcanic in origin, possessing four large vol- canic cones, one with a crater lake, located along the central mountain ridge; no sedimentary rocks are reported. The entire Yasawa Group (with the exception of Yasawa i lau, cited in the Admiralty Report as possibly of elevated limestone), are volcanic. With the exception of Ovalau and Moturiki, which are mounted on the Viti Levu submarine plateau, Moala, Ngau, Ovalau, Kambara and the other scattered islands between Viti Levu and the Lau Archipelago are volcanic, aris- ing from the sea floor, from depths of 2,000 to 3,000 fathoms as the tops of in- dividual volcanic cones. Volcanic activity is currently represented only by hot springs on Vanua Levu and some of the smaller islands. On the lesser islands, e, w YASAWA Yasawa Be GROUP 4% 8 : ; THAKAUNDROVE Cs pone VANUA LEVU Vanua wana Tavua Nandarivatu £ y) KORO Q Namosau Mba Lautoka Q eOVALAU x VITI LEVU 2D LAU un LELE F ‘ Kambara ne pvu & Vunisea Fig. 1. Map of the Fiji Islands and related island groups showing principal islands and collec- tion localities cited in published reports. Redistricting and district name changes have occurred during intervening years; those shown here follow the British Admiralty Report (1944). No. 2, 1975] WHITTIER—FIJIAN MOSSES 87 limestone formations are most common as fringing reefs of recent origin, but in the Lau Group especially, they occur as elevated masses with volcanic rocks represented by diorites and olivine basalts, often in complex interrelationships. Here the rocks indicate geological affinities to the more centrally located Pacific Islands. Bryologically the best explored of the Fiji Islands are Viti Levu, and Vanua Levu. Both have long mountain ranges with peaks from 2,000 to 4,000 ft, and have undulating coastal plains with extensive hilly uplands or dissected plateaus rimmed by mountains. Kandavu and Taveuni are characterized by central moun- tain ridges arising directly from the coast, with limited or non-existent coastal plains. Major rivers appear on Viti Levu; those on Vanua Levu are simpler, more direct in their approach to the sea. On the smaller islands with central mountain ridges, limited streams and torrents radiate outward toward the sea. The Admiralty Report describes the Fijian climate as tropical and maritime, with prevailing winds from the east or southeast for most of the year, with di- urnal shifts to the north and northeast. Monsoonal winds or hurricanes approach from the northwest, affecting the group seriously less than once a year. Tem- peratures along the coast of Viti Levu seldom rise above 27°C (81°F) or fall below 23°C (73°F), occasionally exceeding 32°C (90°F) or approaching 16°C (60°F) along the coast. Temperatures at Nandarivatu (2,000 ft. elevation) are about 6°C (10°F) lower than on the coast. Rainfall (according to records kept at Suva between 1910 and 1938) averages 130 in a yr, with considerable varia- tion from month to month (from less than 6 in to more than 13 in) at Suva, and from yr to yr, to the extent that the rainfall in what would normally be one of the driest months may equal or exceed the rainfall in normally the wettest months. Rainfall distribution is markedly orographic, with the greatest amounts reported on the windward sides of the main islands, to the south and east of the mountain ranges. During November, December, and January, northwesterly winds deluge otherwise relatively dry areas (as at Nandarivatu) with rain. Hu- midity averages 72%, rising to 95 or 100% for brief periods. Although water is abundant on the high volcanic islands, small limestone islands have relatively low levels of precipitation. Soils are porous, and conditions on the low islands are xeric. The Fijian vegetation is described in the British Admiralty Report (1944), and by Degener (1949), with the most recent studies on phytogeographic affin- ities cited by van Balgooy (1971) who observed that the flora is derived pri- marily from Indomalaya and that it possesses strong ties to the floras of New Guinea, Tonga and Samoa. Van Balgooy described studies by A. C. Smith, who observed 70% species endemism among flowering plants, with the remaining 30% widely distributed. More importantly, at the generic level, of 445 genera accepted as native, 101 apparently do not occur east of Fiji. Of these, 13 are con- sidered to be endemic, but possess western affinities; 11 are to be found in Aus- tralia and New Caledonia; 43 occur also in Indomalaya, and 34 are widespread west of Fiji, but terminate there. Van Balgooy observes that a sharp phytogeo- graphic break occurs in or immediately east of the Fiji Islands. 88 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 Sea beaches are dominated by circumtropical or circumpacific tropical “weeds” such as Calophyllum inophyllum, Barringtonia asiatica, Thespesia pop- ulnea, Cordia, Scaevola, and Hibiscus tiliaceus. Mosses are limited to a few wide- spread taxa such as Calymperes tenerum, Syrrhopodon banksii, Leucobryum, and Brachymenium indicum. Mangrove swamps including both the Asiatic Rhi- zophora mucronata and the American R. mangle are extensive, but poor in bryo- phyte species. The wet windward side of Viti Levu is covered with evergreen rain forest, and the dry leeward side, the talasinga (sunburnt land), is nearly tree- less. Low to intermediate elevations in wetter regions are represented by such in- teresting mosses as Thyridium, Calymperes, Syrrhopodon, Orthorrhynchium, Ra- copilum and species of Fissidens. In drier sites and on exposed clay banks occur species of Campylopodium, Dicranella, Campylopus, Pogonatum and Pseudor- hacelopus. At moderately high elevations, conifers, rare or totally absent on Pa- cific islands to the east, are common. The rain forest extends in a reduced or di- minished structural form to the high valleys and to the tops of the ridges and the highest mountains, where it might be more appropriately termed cloud or elfin forest. Much has now been destroyed and replaced by secondary forest. Here the red-flowered Metrosideros is abundant, and in this less tropical mist or cloud forest, epiphytes such as orchids, ferns, fern allies and bryophytes abound, in- cluding moss taxa such as Spiridens, Acroporium, Papillaria, Calyptothecium, and Garovaglia, among others. Rhizogonium and Hypnodendron may be locally com- mon on rich humus or on decomposing wood, together with Thuidium and Hy- popterygium. Early expeditions and collectors have been documented in part by Merrill and Walker (1947), but a review of those known to include bryophytes is in order. Among the earliest collections are those of Rich and Wilkes, made during the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838-1842, and reported upon by Sulli- vant (1854, 1859). Thwaites’ collections, made in 1854, were reported by Mueller (1857) and later restudied by Dixon (Dixon and Greenwood, 1930), but specific Fijian localities were not cited in the reports. As a field collector on the H.M.S. HERALD Expedition, Milne made collections on Viti (?Viti Levu) and Gau (Ngau) in 1856. His collections were reported upon by Mitten (1861, 1871), and later restudied by Dixon (Dixon and Greenwood, 1930). In 1860, Graeffe collected mosses on Ovalau and Fiji (?Viti Levu); his collections were cited by Mueller (1874), and later reviewed by Dixon (Dixon and Greenwood, 1930). Seemann (1865-73) also made collections in the Fiji Islands in 1860. These were studied and reported upon by Mitten (1871). During the GazELLE Expedition, Naumann collected in Viti Levu between 1874 and 1876; his collections were cited by Mueller (1889). Gibbs collected on Viti Levu in 1907, and reported upon her own collections in 1909. A number of small collections were made by Murray, 1909 (Fiji), Greenwood, 1917-1927 (Viti Levu, Vanua Levu), Veitch, 1921 (Viti Levu), Peterson, 1924 (Vanua Levu), by Weber (without date), and by Tothill, 1927 (Vanua Balavu), and reported upon by Dixon and Greenwood (1930). Collections made by Gillespie, and by Smith (1933-34) are cited by Bartram (1936), who also reported upon later collections made by Smith in 1947-1948 (Bartram, 1950), and No. 2, 1975] WHITTIER—FIJIAN MOSSES 89 in 1953 (Bartram, 1956). Degener collected on Viti Levu and Vanua Levu in 1940. His general observations as a naturalist were published in 1949, and Bar- tram (1944) reported upon his moss collections. Greenwood made additional Fijian collections in 1941, and published the results of Dixon’s determinations in 1946. Subsequent collections were made in 1947 and reported upon by Bartram (1948). Collections made by Hurlimann in 1952 were determined by Bartram and subsequently published by Hiirlimann (1963). CATALOG OF FIJIAN MOSSES SPHAGNACEAE Sphagnum reichardti Hampe ex Warnst. Fiji: Mitten, 1871, as S. acutifolium Mitt.; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. S. seemannii C. Muell. Fit: Mitten, 1861, 1871, as S. cuspidatum sensu Mitt., not Ehrh. ex Hofm., fide Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874. Taveuni: Somo- somo, Bartram, 1936. S. vitianum Schimp. Viti: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. FISSIDENTACEAE Fissidens abbreviatus Mitt. in Seem. Vit1: Mitten, 1871. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as F. lautokensis, in part, fide Greenwood, 1946. F. altisetus Dix. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka; Loloti, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. F. brevilingulatus Bartr. Vit1 Levu: Mt. Victoria, Bartram, 1948. F. cuspidiferus Dix. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. F. daltoniaefolius C. Muell. Vitr Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Sin- gatoka, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu. Ova.au: Levuka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. F. dealbatus Hook. f. & Wils. Vir1 Levu: Tebenasola, Nausori highlands, Bartram, 1948. F. dixonianus Bartr. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka. Vanua Levu: Labasa. Ovatau: Levuka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as F. diversiretis Dix.; Bartram, 1948. F. fissicaulis C. Muell. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. F. glossobryoides Dix. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. F. lagenarius Mitt. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Greenwood, 1946. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Hirlimann, 1963. F. lautokensis Dix. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Mbatini, crest of range, Bartram, 1936. F. mangarevensis Mont. Vit1 Levu: Mueller, 1889, as F. samoanus; Lautoka; Loloti, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi, Bartram, 1956. Vanua Levu: Labasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Thakaundrove, Bartram, 1936. Taveuni: Mt. Manuka, Bartram, 1956. Ova au: Mt. Korotolutolu, Bartram, 1956. F. mangarevensis var. peracutis Dix. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. F. nagasakinus Besch. var. luzonensis Broth. Vit1 Levu: Tholo North, near Nan- darivatu, Bartram, 1944. F. nobilis Griff. Vir1 Levu: Tholo North, near Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1944, as F. fili- cinus. TAvEUNI: Mt. Manuka, Bartram, 1956, as F. filicinus. F. pellucinervis Dix. ex Bartr. Vit1 Levu: Nandarivatu; Mt. Victoria, Bartram, 1948; Hirlimann, 1963. F. peracuminatus Dix. Vanua Levu: Macuata Coast, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. F. perobtusus Dix. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka. Vanua Levu: Macuata Coast, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. 90 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 F. philonotulus Besch. Vrt1 Levu: Loloti. Vanua Levu: Labasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as F. lautokensis in part, fide Greenwood, 1946. F. pungens Hampe & C. Muell. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. F. scabrisetus Mitt. Vit1 Levu: Nandarivatu; Lautoka, Mt. Victoria. VanuA Levu: Mt. Labasa (Lambasa), Bartram, 1948. F. serrifolius Bartr. Vir1 Levu: Tumbenasdo (Nausori highlands), Bartram, 1948. F. sylvaticus Griff. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu; Lautoka; Namosi; Serua, Greenwood, 1946. F. sylvaticus var. mammosus Dix. ex Bartr. Vit1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1948. F. vitiensis Dix. VaNuA Levu: Macuata Coast, Wainikoro, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Ova au: Lovoni Valley, Bartram, 1956. F. zollingeri Mont. Vit Levu: Lautoka. Vanua Levu: Labasa; Macuata Coast, Waini- koro. OvaLaAu: Levuka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. DICRANACEAE Anisothecium pycnoglossum Broth. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu; Namosi; Serua, Greenwood, 1946, both as Dicranella pycnoglossa (Broth.) Broth. Braunfelsia edentula (Mitt.) Wijk & Marg. Vir1 Levu: Mt. Voma, Bartram, 1936, as B. scariosa (Wils.) Jaeg. Campylopodium euphorocladum (C. Muell.) Besch. Viti Levu: Navai, Bartram, 1948; Namosi, Korombasambasanga range, Greenwood, 1946, as C. integrum; Bartram, 1956, as C. integrum. OvaLau: Mueller, 1857, 1874, as Aongstroemia (Campylopodium) integra C. Muell.; Mitten, 1861, as Leptotrichum trichophylla; 1871, as Dicranella trichophylla; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as C. integrum. Campylopus flexipilus Dix. ex Bartr. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu; Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Bartram, 1948. C. samoanus Broth. in Rech. Vit1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946; Tailevu. Ova.au: Mt. Ndelaiovalu, summit, Bartram, 1956. C. umbellatus (Arnott) Par. Virr Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as C. richardii Brid. As noted previously (Whittier & Whittier, 1974) there is reason to treat these as separate entities pending further study. Dicranoloma blumii (Nees) Par. Vit1 Levu: Mba (Tholo North), Mt. Tomanivi, Bar- tram, 1950. D. braunii (C. Muell.) Par. Virr Levu: Tholo North, Mt. Victoria, Bartram, 1936, with the note, “The stems lack the filamentose propagula that are characteristic of D. braunii and the leaves end in long setaceous points. It (Gillespie no. 4114) may prove to be a form of D. blumei (sic!) (Nees) but is certainly not typical.” Nandarivatu, Mt. Loma Lega, Greenwood, 1946. Eucamptodontopsis pilifera (Mitt.) Broth. Fit: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as Eu- camptodon piliferus Mitt. Leucoloma tenuifolium Mitt. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu; Namosi, Greenwood, 1946; Namosi, between Korombasambasanga Range, Mt. Naitarandamu, Bartram, 1956. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Ndikeva; Natewa Peninsula, Uluingala. Taveuni: Somosomo, Bartram, 1936. Microdus flaccidulus (Mitt.) Besch. Viti: Mitten, 1861, as Leptotrichum; Mitten, 1871, as Dicranella; Suva, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: Macuata Coast, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Trematodon longicollis Michx. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as Trematodon sp., cf. T. suberectus Mitt.; Rewa, Bartram, 1944; Naitasiri, Bartram, 1948; Namosi, Korombasambasanga Range, Bartram, 1956. DITRICHACEAE Garckea comosa (Dozy & Molk.) Wijk & Marg. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka: Dixon & Green- wood, 1930, as G. phascoides (Hook.) C. Muell. Vanua Levu: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. No. 2, 1975] WHITTIER—FIJIAN MOSSES 9] LEUCOBRYACEAE Arthrocormus schimperi (Dozy & Molk.) Dozy & Molk. Koro: main ridge, Bartram, 1936. Exodictyon dentatum (Mitt.) Card. Vir1 Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Mbatini, Bartram, 1936; Tailevu, Ndakuivuna, Bartram, 1956; Serua; Namosi, Greenwood, 1946. Koro: main ridge, Bartram, 1936. Vanua MBa.avu: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. E. scabrum (Mitt.) Card. Vitr Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930 (=?E. blumii (Nees) Fleisch.). E. scolopendrium (Mitt.) Card. Viti: Mitten, 1861, as Syrrhopodon; 1871, as Octoble- pharum; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Leucobryum candidum (P. Beauv.) Wils. in Hook. var. pentastichum (Dozy & Molk.) Dix. Vanua Levu: Wainikoro, Macuata Coast, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Ova.au: mountains, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930.. Vit1 LEvu: Namosi, Wainimakutu. Ncau: Sa- waicke, Mt. Vonda, Bartram, 1956. KamBarA. Kanpavu: above Namalata and Ngaloa Bays, Bartram, 1936 (all as L. pentastichum). L. laminatum Mitt. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Ova.au: Mitten, 1861, 1871; Mueller, 1874. L. pungens C. Muell. Vit1 Levu: Bartram, 1936; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: Lambasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Ovatau: Tanalailai, Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. L. samoanum Fleisch. in Syd. nom. nud. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu; Namosi, Greenwood, 1946. L. sanctum (Brid.) Hamp. Viti Levu: Mitten, 1871; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Bar- tram, 1936; Namosi, Greenwood, 1946; Bartram, 1956; Serua, Bartram, 1956. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. L. scalare C. Muell. ex Fleisch. Vit1 Levu: Tholo North, Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1944; Tailevu, Ndakuivuna, Bartram, 1956. L. tahitense Aongstr. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka; Nandarivatu, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Greenwood, 1946. L. teysmannianum Dozy & Molk. Ova.au: Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Koro: main ridge, Bartram, 1936. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Mbatini; Mt. Kasi. Vanua MBALAVU: nN. limestone section, Bartram, 1936. Leucophanes candidum (Schwaeg.) Lindb. var. densifolium (Mitt.) Dix. Fij1: Mitten, 1861, as Leucophanes densifolius Mitt.; Mitten, 1871, as Octoblepharum densifolium; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as Laucophanes densifolium. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Natewa Peninsula, Bartram, 1936. L. pungens Fleisch. ex Dix. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu; Namosi; Serua, Greenwood, 1946. L. smaragdinum (Mitt.) Jaeg. Viti: Mitten, 1861, as Leucophanes; 1871, as Octoble- pharum; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. L. vitianum C. Muell. Ovauau: Tanalailai, Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Octoblepharum albidum (L.) Hedw. Viti Levu: Singatoka; Lautoka. OvaLau: Levuka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Taveuni: Wairiki, Mt. Manuka. Ncau: Sawaieke, Bartram, 1956. CALYMPERACEAE Calymperes albo-limbatum Dix. Vanua Levu: Lambasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. C. chamaeleonteum C. Muell. Vanua Levu: Lambasa; Wainikoro, Macuata Coast, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. C. longifolium Mitt. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Greenwood, 1946, as Syrrhopo- don longifolius (Mitt.) Dix. Vanua Levu: Wainikoro, Macuata Coast, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. C. marginatum Dix. Vit1 Levu: Namosi, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: interior, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. 92 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 C. molluccense Schwaegr. Vit1 Levu: Namosi, Greenwood, 1946; Suva, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vanua Levu: Wainikoro, Macuata Coast, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. C. porrectum Mitt. Vir1 Levu: Suva, Bartram, 1948. C. petiolatum Bartr. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove: Yanawai River, Bartram, 1944. C. samoanum Besch. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. C. serratum A. Braun ex C. Muell. Viti Levu: Mitten, 1871, as C. lorifolium Mitt.; Namosi, Greenwood, 1946, as C. lorifolium; Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. VANuA Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Mariko; Yanawai River region, Mt. Kasi, Bartram, 1936, as C. lorifolium. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as C. lorifolium; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. C. subulatum Bartr. VaNua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Ndikeva, Bartram, 1936. C. strictifolium (Mitt.) Roth. Vanua Levu: Lambasa; Wainikoro, Macuata Coast, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as C. tuberculosum (Ther. & Dix.) Broth. (Syrrhopodon tu- berculosus Ther. & Dix.). C. tahitense (Sull.) Mitt. Viti: Mitten, 1871; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Viti Levu: Lautoka. Vanua Levu: Lambasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Thakaundrove, s. slope, Valanga range, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Levuka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. C. tahitense var. truncatum Ther. & Dix. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Serua, Bartram, 1956. C. tenerum C. Muell. Vir1 Levu: Singatoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Narnosi, Greenwood, 1946. OvaLau: Levuka. Vanua MBaLavu: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Syrrhopodon albovaginatus Schwaegr. Vit1: Mitten, 1871; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. S. banksii C. Muell. Vrr1 Levu: Suva, Bartram, 1936. S. croceus Mitt. Vir1 Levu: Suva, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Tanalailai, Mueller, 1874, as Calymperes croceum; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. S. graeffeanus C. Muell. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Bartram, 1936. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Mariko, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Taveuni: lake e. of Somosomo, Bartram, 1936. S. greenwoodii Bartr. Viti Levu: Mt. Victoria, Bartram, 1948. S. laevigatus Mitt. Vir1 Levu: Namosi, Greenwood, 1930. OvaLau: Mitten, 1871; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. S. mamillatus C. Muell. Virr Levu: Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nan- darivatu, Gibbs, 1909; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Serua, Greenwood, 1946; Mt. Vic- toria, Hurlimann, 1963. Vanua Levu: Wainikoro, Macuata Coast; Lambasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Thakaundrove, Natewa Peninsula; Mt. Ndikeva; Ndrekeniwai valley; Mbua. Ovatau: Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. TavEuNr: between Somosomo and Wairiki. Kanpavu: above Namalata and Ngaloa Bays, Bartram, 1936. Ncau (plus collections from Viti Levu and Ovalau): Bartram, 1956. S. muelleri (Dozy & Molk.) Lac. Koro: e. slope, main ridge, Bartram, 1936. S. schiffnerianus (Fleisch.) Par. Virr Levu: Tholo East, Taunaisali, Wainisavulevu- Nubulolo divide, Bartram, 1944. S. smithii Bartr. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Ndikeva, Bartram, 1936. S. tristichus Nees ex Schwaegr. Fiji: Mitten, 1861. S. victorianus Bartr. Vit1 Levu: Mt. Victoria, Bartram, 1948. S. vitiensis Bartr. Vir1 Levu: Tailevu, e. of Wainimbuka River near Ndakuivuna, Bar- tram, 1956. Thyridium fasciculatum (Hook. & Grev.) Mitt. OvaALau: C. Mueller, 1874, as Codo- noblepharum (Thyridium); Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as Syrrhopodon (Thyridium). T. luteum Mitt. Viti Levu: Namosi, Greenwood, 1946, as Syrrhopodon. VANuA LEvu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Ndikeva; Mbua. Koro: e. slope main ridge, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mitten, 1871; Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, all the preceding as Syrrhopo- don. Taveuni (including collections without numbers or localities from Viti Levu and Ovalau): Bartram, 1956. T. parvifolium Bartr. Ovaxau: hills e. of Lovoni Valley, Bartram, 1956. No. 2, 1975] WHITTIER—FIJIAN MOSSES 93 POTTIACEAE Anoectangium tapes Besch. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Barbula leucobasis Dix. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. This species is properly described in Dixon & Greenwood (loc. cit.) and is not a nomen nudum as noted in Index Muscorum (1: 136). ?B. louisadum Broth. Vir1 Levu: Singatoka, near sea level, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930 (from an undeveloped plant). Hydrogonium consanguineum (Thwait. & Mitt.) Jaeg. Vir1 Levu: Tholo North, Tavua, Bartram, 1944, as Barbula. H. inflexum (Dub.) Chen. Viti Levu: Tholo North, Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1944, as Barbula; Namosi, Wainambua Valley, s. of Mt. Naitarandamu, Bartram, 1956, as Barbula. Hymenostomum edentulum (Mitt.) Besch. Vir1 Levu: Mt. Evans, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. Hyophila beruensis Dix. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Greenwood, 1946; Mt. Vic- toria, Hirlimann, 1963. H. involuta (Hook.) Jaeg. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as H. mi- cholitzii Broth. FULANGa: limestone formation, Bartram, 1936, as H. micholitzii. H. involuta var. sterilis Fleisch. Vir1 LEvu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. H. samoana Mitt. Firy1: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930 (? = H. involuta). H. vitiana (C. Muell.) Jaeg. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Pseudosymblepharis mauiensis (C. Muell.) Broth. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as Trichostomum mauiensis; Tholo North, Nauwanga, Bar- tram, 1944. Rhamphidium veitchii Dix. (R. veitschii sic!, Index Muscorum 5:878). Vit1 Levu: Nau- sori Mili, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu, Loma Lega Mt., Greenwood, 1946; Namosi, n. base of Korombasambasanga Range in Wainavindrau Creek drainage, Bar- tram, 1956. Trichostomum insulare (Besch.) Broth. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. BRYACEAE Brachymenium indicum (Dozy & Molk.) Bosch & Lac. Viti Levu: Serua, Bartram, 1956. OvaLau: Levuka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Ncau: e. of Herald Bay, on slopes of Mt. Vonda (Lion Peak), Bartram, 1956. B. indicum var. corrugatum Besch. Viti Levu: Singatoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. B. nepalense Hook. in Schwaegr. Vit1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Mt. Loma Lega, Green- wood, 1946. Bryum chrysoneuron C. Muell. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. B. nitens Hook. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Ba road, Bartram, 1948; Namosi, Wainam- bua Creek valley, s. of Mt. Naitarandamu, Bartram, 1956. B. pachytheca C. Muell. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. B. ramosum (Hook.) Mitt. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. Taveuni: Mt. Manuka, e. of Wairiki, Bartram, 1956. (The preceding as B. greenwoodii.) B. rectifolium Dix. ex Bartr. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Bartram, 1948. B. vitianum Dix. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930 (P= B. nitens, Bartram, 1948); Nandarivatu; Namosi, Greenwood, 1946. Mniobryum rubrum Dix. Fit: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Rhodobryum graeffeanum (C. Muell.) Par. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans; Mt. Victoria, Gibbs, 1909; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Bartram, 1936. VaNnua Levu: Thakaundrove, Natewa Peninsula, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Bryum; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. 94 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 MNIACEAE Plagiomnium rostratum (Schrad.) Koponen. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. RHIZOGONIACEAE Bryobrothera crenulata (Broth. & Par.) Ther. Vit1 Levu: Tholo North, Mt. Vic- toria, Bartram, 1936, as Calomnion dixoni. Hymenodon pilifer Hook. f. & Wils. (H. piliferus, Bartram, 1950) Vir1 Levu: Mba (Tholo North), summit Mt. Tomanivi (also Mt. Victoria), Bartram, 1948. Rhizogonium graeffeanum (C. Muell.) Jaeg. Viti Levu: Mt. Victoria, Bartram, 1948. R. setosum (Mitt.) Mitt. Vir1 Levu: Namosi, Greenwood, 1946; sl., Bartram, 1956. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Ncavu: Bartram, 1956, “Eight col- lections from Viti Levu, Ovalau, and Ngau. A common species in the local flora.” R. spiniforme (L.) Bruch. Viti Levu: Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909. R. spiniforme fo. samoana Mitt. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Nandarivatu (citing Gibbs, 1909), Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vanua Levu: Wainikoro, Macuata Coast, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Bartram, 1936. Kanpavu, Koro, and Moata: Bartram, 1936, “Speci- mens . . . indicate that this well-known species is distributed throughout the group;” Bartram, 1956, without specific locations. HyPNODENDRACEAE Hypnodendron flagelliferum Broth. & Watts. ?F 11: collector and locality unknown, Touw, 1971. H. dendroides (Brid.) Touw. Vit1 Levu: Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as Mniodendron tahiticum; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946, as M. tahiticum; Suva; Mt. Vic- toria, Touw, 1971. Vanua Levu: Mt. Ndikeva, Bartram, 1936, as M. tahiticum; Touw, 1971. H. subspininervium (C. Muell.) Jaeg. Vir1: Mitten, 1861, as Trachyloma arborescens; 1871, as Hypnodendron arborescens; Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, both as H. arborescens; Suva, Touw, 1971. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Mba- tini. TAVEUNI: Somosomo. Kandavu, Mt. Mbuke Levu, Bartram, 1936, as H. arborescens, 1956. OvaLau: Mt. Tanalailai, Mueller, 1857, 1874, as Hypnum subspininervium; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as H. arborescens; Bartram, 1956, as H. subspininervium; Mt. Ndelaiovalau, Bartram, 1956. Vomo: Touw, 1971. H. vitiense Mitt. Viti: Mitten, 1861, as Trachyloma junghuhniana; 1871; Nandari- vatu, Greenwood, 1946; Mt. Victoria, Touw, 1971. Taveuni: Somosomo, Bartram, 1956. Kanpavu: Touw, 1971. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Hypnum graeffeanum; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Touw, 1971. BARTRAMIACEAE Philonotis asperifolia Mitt. Vir1 Levu: Mt. Victoria, Gibbs, 1909; Dixon & Green- wood, 1930; Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Bartramia, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. P. hastata (Duby) Wijk & Marg. Vit1 Levu: Nausori, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as P. imbricatula; Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, as P. etessei; Nandarivatu’ Greenwood, 1946, as P. etessei. Fide Wijk et al. (Index Muscorum 4:34, 38). P. obtusifolia (Mitt.) Par. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. (?)Ysabel: Mitten, 1871, as Bartramia; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. P. pilifera Dix. ex Bartr. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu; Serua; Navai, Bartram, 1948; Na- mosi, n. base of Korombasambasanga Range, Wainavindrau Creek, Bartram, 1956. P. revoluta Bosch & Lac. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. P. viridifolia Bartr. Vanua Levu: Ndama River Valley, Bartram, 1936. No. 2, 1975] WHITTIER—FIJIAN MOSSES 95 SPIRIDENTACEAE Spiridens aristifolius Mitt. Viti: Mitten, 1871; Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vanua Levu: Natewa Peninsula, Uluingala. Taveuni: Somosomo, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mt. Tanalailai; Mt. Ndelai- ovalau, Bartram, 1956. S. balfourianus Grev. Viti: Mitten, 1871; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Viti Levu: Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909; Dixon & Greenwood, with the note, “It is very doubtful whether these (S. aristifolius, S. flagellosus and S. balfourianus) are anything more than forms of one and the same species,’ 1930. Ncau: Mt. Ndelaitho, Bartram, 1956. I have seen specimens assignable to these taxa, and believe they should be maintained separately pending further studies. S. flagellosus Schimp. Viti: Mitten, 1861, as S. reinwardtii; 1871; Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Sullivant, 1859, as S. reinwardtii, fide C. Mueller, 1874; Tanalailai, Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Bartram, 1956. Taveuni: Mt. Manuka, Bartram, 1936. ORTHOTRICHACEAE Macromitrium angulatum Mitt. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. M. beecheyanum Mitt. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Ndikeva, Bartram, 1936. M. incurvifolium (Hook. & Grev.) Schwaegr. Vit1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vanua Levu: Natewa Peninsula, Natewa. TAvEUNI: Somosomo, Bartram, 1936. M. involutifolium (Hook. & Grev.) Schwaegr. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. M. pilicalyx Dix. ex Bartr. Vit1 Levu: Nandarivatu; Mt. Loma Lega, Bartram, 1948. M. subtile Schwaegr. Ovatau: Mt. Korotolutolu, Bartram, 1956. M. tongense Sull. Viti Levu: Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vanua Levu: Macuata Coast, Wainikoro, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Thakaundrove, Bartram, 1936. VanuA MBALAvw: s. section. Moa.a: Naroi, Bartram, 1936. M. vitianum Bartr. Viti Levu: Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1948. SPECIAL Note: Macromitrium bescherellei Whittier nom. nov. for M. tahitense Broth. hom. illeg. non Nadeaud, in Musci in A. Engler and K. Prantl, “Die natirlichen Pflanzenfamilien” I. Abteil. 3; I. Hft.:486. 1903. Ed. 1. Leipzig. Discussion of this new name may be found in Whittier and Whittier, 1974, p. 435. Although not yet reported from Fiji, this interesting species is likely to occur as a component of the bryoflora. CRYPHAEACEAE Cyptodon gracilis (Mitt.) Broth. Virr: Mitten, 1871; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, both as Cryphaea. C. schleinitziana (C. Muell.) Fleisch. Vir1 Levu: Rewa, Mueller, 1889; Dixon & Green- wood, 1930, as Cryphaea. CyRTOPODACEAE Bescherellea cryphaeoides (C. Muell.) Fleisch. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Green- wood, 1946; Mba, Bartram, 1950. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Natewa Peninsula, Uluingala, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as ?Cyrtopus cryphaeoides C. Muell.; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. PTYCHOMNIACEAE Ptychomnion aciculare (Brid.) Mitt. Taveunt: Uluingalau, Bartram, 1936. 96 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 MYURIACEAE Myurium purpuratum (Mitt.) Broth. Viti Levu: Bartram, 1936. Piloecium pseudorufescens (Hampe) C. Muell. in Broth. Vanua Levu: Wainikoro, Macuata Coast, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Mbua, lower Wainunu River valley, Bar- tram, 1936. PTEROBRYACEAE Endotrichella graeffeana C. Muell. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946; Na- mosi, Wainavindrau Creek, near Wainimakutu, Bartram, 1956. Euptychium gunnii Broth. & Watts. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans. Vanua Levu: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. E. setigerum (Sull.) Broth. Fy: Sullivant, 1859, as Endotrichum; Mitten, 1861, as Meteorium. Vitt Levu: Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909, as Garovaglia; Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Ndikeva; Natewa Peninsula, Uluingala; Yanawai River, Mt. Kasi; Mt. Mbatini, Bar- tram, 1936. OvaLau: Mitten, 1871, as Garovaglia; Tanalailai, Mueller, 1874, as Pilotri- chum; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Tanalailai, Bartram, 1956. Garovaglia fissifolia Dix. ex Bartr. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1948. G. plicata (Brid.) Bosch & Lac. Fy: Sullivant, 1859, as Endotrichum densum Dozy & Molk. G. powellii Mitt. Vir1 Levu: Nandronga and Navosa, n. portion Rairaimatuku plateau (Tholo North), Bartram, 1950. G. smithii Bartr. Vanua Levu: Mathuata Range, Mathuata, n. of Natua, Bartram, 1950. Ncau: Herald Bay, inland from Sawaieke, Bartram, 1956. G. weberi Broth. Taveuni: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Pterobryella speciosissima (Sull.) C. Muell. Fiji: Sullivant, 1854, 1859, as Hypnum; Mitten, 1871, as Hypnodendron speciosissimum (Sull.) Mitt.; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Sullivant’s description of this species (1854, p. 5 of reprint) antedated Mueller’s de- scription of Pilotrichum longifrons (= Pterobryella) by five years. If Brotherus (Nat. Pfl. 1(3): 779. 1906, cf. Index Muscorum 4:228) was correct in assuming their synonymy, then Pterobryella longifrons must be treated as a synonym of P. speciosissima. Symphysodon rugicalyx (C. Muell.) Broth. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. S. vitianus (Sull.) Broth. Fit: Sullivant, 1854, 1859, as Pilotrichum; Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. Vir1 Levu: Rewa, Mueller, 1889, as Pilotrichum; Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi, Greenwood, 1946. Taveuni: Somosomo, lake e., Bar- tram, 1936. Ncau. Ova.au. Viti Levu: Bartram, 1956. Symphysodontella cylindracea (Mont.) Fleisch. Vanua Levu: Dixon & Green- wood, 1930; Thakaundrove, Mt. Ndikeva, Bartram, 1936. METEORIACEAE Aerobryopsis longissima (Dozy & Molk.) Fleisch. Fit: Mitten, 1861, as Meteorium. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. VaNnua Levu: Lambasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. A. striatula (Mitt.) Broth. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. A. vitiana (Sull.) Fleisch. Viti: Sullivant, 1859; Mitten, 1871, as Meteorium. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. Ova.au: Tanalailai, Mueller, 1874, as Neckera vitiana. TavEUNI: between Somosomo and Wai- riki, w. slope, Bartram, 1936. Floribundaria aeruginosa (Mitt.) Fleisch. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946; Tailevu, e. of Wainimbuka River, near Wailotua, Bartram, 1956. VaNua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Mariko, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Tanalailai, Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. F. floribunda (Dozy & Molk.) Fleisch. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Green- No. 2, 1975] WHITTIER—FIJIAN MOSSES 97 wood, 1930; Namosi Province, Mt. Naitarandamu, Bartram, 1936; Nandarivatu, Green- wood, 1946. Meteorium miquelianum (C. Muell.) Fleisch. in Broth. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Mt. Tomanivi (Mt. Victoria) Bartram, 1936; Nandari- vatu, Greenwood, 1946. Papillaria crocea (Hampe) Jaeg. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930; Tholo North, Nandarivatu, Nandrau trail, Bartram, 1936; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. P. intricatum (Mitt.) Jaeg. Viti: Mitten, 1861, as Trachypus helictophyllus Mont.; 1871, as Meteorium. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi Province, Naitrandamu, Bartram, 1936; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. P. pellucida Broth. & Watts. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. PHYLLOGONIACEAE Orthorrhynchium cylindricum (Lindb.) Broth. Viti: Mitten, 1871, as Phyllogonium angustifolium Schimp., fide Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi Province, Mt. Voma, Bartram, 1936. Ova.au: Mueller, 1874, as Phyllogonium (Cryptogonium) cylindricum Lindb.; Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. Vanua MBatavu: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930 (as Vanua Balavu). Catagonium gracile (Besch.) Broth. KamBara: limestone formation, Bartram, 1936. NECKERACEAE Calyptothecium seminerve Dix. ex Bartr. Virt Levu: Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1948. ?=C. urvilleanum (C. Muell.) Broth. C. tenuinerve Bartr. Viti Levu: Mt. Victoria, Bartram, 1948. P=C. crispulum (Bosch. & Lac.) Broth. C. urvilleanum (C. Muell.) Broth. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi, n. slope of Korombasambasanga Range, Wainavindrau Creek, Bartram, 1956. Ova.au: Mueller, 1874, as Neckera eugeniae Lindb. Himantocladium implanum (Mitt.) Fleisch. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930; Singatoka, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, s. slope, Valanga Range, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Neckera (Rhystophyllum) graeffeana, fide Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Koro: main ridge, e. slope, Bartram, 1936. Ncau: Herald Bay, hills e., inland from Sawieke, Bartram, 1956. Moa.a: Maloku, Bartram, 1936. H. loriforme (Bosch & Lac.) Fleisch. Vit1 Levu: Mitten, 1861, as Neckera flaccida; 1871, as Neckera; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Ncau (as Gau): Mitten, 187]; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Homaliodendron exiguum (Bosch. & Lac.) Fleisch. Vanua Levu: Lambasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as Homalia exigua Bosch & Lac. H. flabellatum (Sm.) Fleisch. Viti: Mitten, 1861, as Neckera dendroides; 1871, as Neckera. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vanua Levu: Dixon & Green- wood, 1930; Thakaundrove, Mt. Mbatini, Bartram, 1936. Taveuni: Mt. Manuka, e. of Wairiki, Bartram, 1956. OvaLau: Tanalailai, Mueller, 1874, as Neckera (Leiophyllum) australasica; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Neckeropsis lepineana (Mont.) Fleisch. Vir1 Levu: Mitten, 1861, 1871, Neckera; Lau- toka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Natewa Peninsula, Natewa, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Neckera. VaNuA MpBatavu: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930 (as Vanua Balavu). Pinnatella kuehliana (Bosch & Lac.) Fleisch. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Loloti, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Taveuni: Somosomo, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Hypnum (Porotrichum, Pinnatella) elegantissimum (Mitt.) C. Muell.; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. 98 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 P. nana (Williams) Bartr. Vitr Levu: Lautoka, Bartram, 1948 (includes Thamnium gracillimum Dix. in Bartr., nom. nud. in herbaria, in synonymy). P. vitiensis Bartr. Vir1 Levu: Mba (Tholo North), e. of Nandala Creek, 3 mi. s. of Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1950. Thamnium sublatifolium Dix. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. Koro: e. ridge, main slope, Bartram, 1936, as T. subulatifolium. HOOKERIACEAE Callicostella papillata (Mont.) Jaeg. Fit: Sullivant, 1854, as Hookeria oblongifolia; 1859, as Schizomitrium papillatum Mont. Viti: Mitten, 1871, as Hookeria. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans; Nandarivatu; Mt. Victoria, Gibbs, 1909, as C. oblongifolia; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Hirlimann, 1963. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Mba- tini; Korotini Range, below Navitho Pass; Mt. Mariko, Bartram, 1936, as C. papillata fo. longifolia Fleisch.; Natewa Peninsula, Bartram, 1936. Taveuni: Somosomo, Bar- tram, 1936. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Hookeria oblongifolia; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Koro: main ridge, e. slope, Bartram, 1936, who also reports seven collections from Viti Levu, Taveuni and Ovalau, without numbers or localities. C. papillata var. brevifolia Fleisch. Taveuni: Wairiki, e., between Mt. Manuka and Mt. Koroturanga, Bartram, 1956. C. vesiculata C. Muell. Vanua Levu: Lambasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. OvaLau: Mbureta and Lovoni River Valley, Bartram, 1956. Cyclodictyon blumeanum (C. Muell.) O. Kuntze. Vit1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909, as Hookeria graeffeana, fide Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Mt. Evans, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930; Namosi, Wainimakutu, Wainavindrau Creek, Bartram, 1956. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Mariko, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Hookeria graef- feana, fide Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. DIsTICHOPHYLLACEAE Distichophyllum flavescens (Mitt.) Par. Virr Levu: Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. Ova.au: Mueller, 1874, as Mniadelphus, fide Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. D. graeffeanum (C. Muell.) Broth. Vit1 Levu: Mueller, 1874, as Mniadelphus; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. D. limbatulum (C. Muell.) Par. Ovatau: Mueller, 1874, as Mniadelphus; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. D. lingulatum Bartr. Viti Levu: Mt. Victoria, Bartram, 1948. Vanua Levu: Thakaun- drove, sw. slope Mt. Mbatini. Koro: main ridge, e. slope, Bartram, 1936. D. samoanum Fleisch. var. brevipes Bartr. Vit1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Ba road; Mt. Loma Lega; Mt. Victoria, Bartram, 1948. D. torquatifolium Dix. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. D. vitianum (Sull.) Besch. Fi: Sullivant, 1854, 1859, as Mniadelphus. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi; Serua Hills, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Mbatini, s. slope; Korotini Range, below Navitho Pass, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mitten, 1871; Mueller, 1874, as Mniadelphus; Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. Kanpavu: Mt. Mbuke Levu, Bartram, 1936. DALTONIACEAE Daltonia contorta C. Muell. Vir1 Levu: Naitasiri, n. Rairaimatuku Plateau, between Mt. Victoria (Mt. Tomanivi) and Nasonggo (Tholo North), Bartram, 1950. PILOTRICHACEAE Chaetomitrium densum Dix. ex Bartr. Vir1 LEvu: Namosi, Hills Road, Navua to Suva, Bartram, 1948. No. 2, 1975] WHITTIER—FIJIAN MOSSES 99 C. depressum Mitt. Vanua Levu: Macuata Coast, Wainikoro, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Koro: main ridge, e. slopes, Bartram, 1936. C. rugifolium (Sull.) Mitt. Fiji: Sullivant, 1859, as Holoblepharum. Viti Levu: Mt. Naitarandamu, Namosi; Mt. Vakarongaseu; Mt. Loma Langa, Bartram, 1936; Nada- rivatu, Bartram, 1948. OvaLau: Mitten, 1871; Mueller, 1874, as Hookeria. LEUCOMIACEAE Leucomium aneurodictyon (C. Muell.) Jaeg. Fry: Sullivant, 1859, as Hookeria debilis Sull. Virr Levu: Rewa, Mueller, 1889, as Hypnum (Leucomium) debile; Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909, as Leucomium debile; Lautoka; Nausori, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as L. debile; Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: interior mountains, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as L. debile; Thakaundrove, Valanga Range, s. slope. Koro: main ridge, e. slope, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Hypnum debile; Mt. Ndelajovalau, summit and adjacent ridge; Hills w. of Lovoni Valley on ridge s. of Mt. Korolevu, Bartram, 1956. Neau: Mitten, 1871, as L. debile. HyYPOPTERYGIACEAE Hypopterygium debile Reichdt. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. H. nadeaudianum Besch. Viti Levu: Mt. Victoria, Bartram, 1948. H. rotulatum (Hedw.) Brid. var. oceanicum (Mitt.) Dix. Vit1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909, as H. oceanicum; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. H. tahitense Aongstr. VaNuA Levu: Takaundrove, Mt. Mariko, Bartram, 1936. H. vriesii Bosch & Lac. Vanua Levu: Mathuata, s. base of Mathuata Range, n. of Natua, Bartram, 1950. Lopidium semimarginatulum (C. Muell.) Wijk & Marg. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Hypopterygium; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as H. semi-marginatum (sic!); Greenwood, 1946, as H. semimarginatulum. L. struthiopteris (Brid.) Fleisch. Viti: Mitten, 1871, as Hypopterygium; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as Hypopterygium. RACOPILACEAE Powellia involutifolia Mitt. Vir1 Levu: Mba, Bartram, 1940; Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1948. Racopilum brevisetum Bartr. Vit1 Levu: Mt. Victoria, Bartram, 1948. R. convolutaceum (C. Muell.) Reichdt. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. R. cuspidigerum (Schwaegr.) Aongstr. Viti: Mitten, 1871, with the note “R. con- volutum (sic!), C. Mueller, Syn ii. p. 13?”; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. R. pacificum Besch. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. R. spectabile Reinw. & Hornsch. Vit: Mitten, 1861, 1871; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi, Wainambua Creek, s. of Mt. Naitarandamu, Bartram, 1956. Taveuni: lake e. of Somosomo, Bartram, 1936. THUIDIACEAE Claopodium nervosum (Harv.) Fleisch. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, as C. amblystegioides Dix.; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946; Tholo North, Nandala, near Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1944. Herpetineuron toccoae (Sull. & Lesq.) Card. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. Pelekium velatum Mitt. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka; Nausori, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vanua Levu: Lambasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Thakaundrove, Valanga range, s. slope, Bartram, 1936. P. bifarium (Bosch & Lac.) Fleisch. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as “Thuidium biparium (Dozy & Molk.) Bry. Jav.” 100 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 Thuidium cymbifolium (Dozy. & Molk.) Dozy & Molk. Viti: Mitten, 1861, as Leskea ramentosa; 1871, as Thuidium ramentosum; Mueller, 1874, as Hypnum (Tama- riscella) ramentosum (Mitt.) C. Muell. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930; Namosi, Mt. Voma, Bartram, 1936; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. TAvENUuI: between Mt. Manuka and Mt. Koroturanga, e. of Wairiki, Bartram, 1956. T. glaucinoides Broth. Viti: Mitten, 1861, as Leskea glaucina Mitt., fide Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka; Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. T. hyalopilum Dix. ex Bartr. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Bartram, 1948. T. meyenianum (Hampe) Bosch & Lac. Viti: Wakaya Island, Mitten, 1871, as T. ‘erosulum Mitt. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans; Singatoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: Macuata coast, Wainikoro, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. T. plumulosum (Dozy & Molk.) Dozy & Molk. Vanua Levu: Takaundrove, between Vatukawa and Wainingio Rivers, Ndrekeniwai valley, Bartram, 1936. Ova.au: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. T. samoanum Mitt. Viti: Mitten, 1871. Viti Levu: Mt. Victoria, Gibbs, 1909; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Ovatau: Mueller, 1874; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; summit Mt. Ndelaiovalau, Bartram, 1956. T. tahitense Broth. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. BRACHYTHECIACEAE Eurhynchium asperisetum (C. Muell.) Bartr. Vir1 Levu: Nandronga and Navosa, n. portion of Rairaimatuku Plateau, between Nandrau and Rewasau (formerly in Tholo North), Bartram, 1950. Rhynchostegiella smithii Bartr. Vir1 Levu: Mba, Mt. Evans range, n. portion be- tween Mt. Vatuyanitu and Mt. Natondra, Bartram, 1950. R. vitiensis Dix. Vit1 Levu: Loloti, Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Rhynchostegium javanicum (Bel.) Besch. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. R. selaginellifolium C. Muell. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. R. vitianum Bartr. & Dix. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Bartram, 1936. ENTODONTACEAE Campylodontium flavescens (Hook.) Bosch & Lac. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi, near Wainimakuto, Wainavindrau Creek, Bartram, 1956. Entodon solanderi (Aongstr.) Jaeg. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Loloti. OvaLau: Levuka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as E. hillebrandii C. Muell. SEMATOPHYLLACEAE Acanthocladium extenuatum (Brid.) Mitt. Vir1 Levu: Mt. Victoria, Bartram, 1948. Ova au: Levuka, Bartram, 1944. Acroporium breviscuspidatum Mitt. Vit1 Levu: Mt. Victoria, Gibbs, 1909, as Sema- tophyllum; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Mbatini; Mt. Mariko, Bartram, 1936. A. lamprophyllum Mitt. Vanua Levu: Mbua, Mt. Seatura, s. slope; Navotuvotu, summit Mt. Seatura. Taveunt: Mt. Uluingalau, summit; borders of lake e. of Somosomo, Bartram, 1936. A. lepinei (Besch.) Fleisch. Vir1 Levu: Mba (Tholo North), Mt. Tomanivi (Mt. Vic- toria); Ra, Mt. Namama, e. of Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1950, with the note: “... it isa question whether all three species are not forms of A. stramineum (Reinw. & Hornsch.) Fleisch,” referring to A. brevicuspidatum, A. lepinei and A. falcifolium Fleisch., the latter not yet reported from Fiji. A. perserratum Bartr. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Yanawai River region, Mt. Kasi, Bartram, 1936. No. 2, 1975] WHITTIER—FIJIAN MOSSES 101 A. subulatum (Hampe) Fleisch. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Greenwood, 1946. Clastobryella cuculligera (Lac.) Fleisch. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Mba (Tholo North), Mt. Tomanivi (Mt. Victoria) summit; Naitasiri, n. portion Rairaimatuku Plateau between Mt. Tomanivi and Nasonggo (Tholo North), Bartram, 1950. Glossadelphus plumosus Bartr. Vanua Levu: Mbua, lower Wainunu valley, Bartram, 1936. G. zollingeri (C. Muell.) Fleisch. var. filicaulis (Fleisch.) Fleisch. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Valanga Range, s. slope, Bartram, 1936. Meiothecium greenwoodii Dix. ex Bartr. Vir1 LEvu: Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1948. M. hamatum (C. Muell.) Broth. Vit1 Levu: Namosi, Mt. Naitarandamu; Mt. Vaka- rongaseu, Bartram, 1936. M. microcarpum (Hook.) Mitt. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka; Nausori, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi; Navua, Serua District, Greenwood, 1946. M. rechingeri Broth. in Rech. Vitr Levu: Namosi, hills, Navua to Suva, Greenwood, 1946. M. serrulatum Dix. Vanua Levu: Lambasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. M. stratosum Mitt. Vanua Levu: Mbua, Seatovo Range, s. portion, Bartram, 1936. Rhaphidostichum bunodicarpum (C. Muell.) Fleisch. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Natewa Peninsula, Uluingala; Mt. Ndikeva, Bartram, 1936. R. bunodicarpum var. scabriseta Bartr. TAvEuNI: Mt. Uluingalau, Bartram, 1936. R. luxurians (Dozy & Molk.) Fleisch. Taveuni: with fern, Bartram, 1936. R. theliporum (C. Muell.) Broth. Vanua Levu: Macuata Coast, Wainikoro, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as R. pallidifolium Dix., fide Bartram, 1936, and as R. theli- porum; Thakaundrove, Natewa Peninsula, w. of Mbutha Bay; Mathuata, Wainunu- Ndreketi divide, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Hypnum; Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Greenwood, 1946. Sematophyllum contiguum (Mitt.) Mitt. in Seem. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930, as Rhaphidostegium. S. incrassatum Bartr. VaNua Levu: Thakaundrove, Yanawai River region, Mt. Kasi, Bartram, 1936. Taxithelium herpetium (C. Muell.) Broth. Viti Levu: Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909, as Trichosteleum; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Koro: main ridge, e. slope, Bartram, 1936. T. kerianum (Broth.) Fleisch. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Savu Savu Bay region, Bartram, 1944. Bartram, 1956, “Three collections from Vit1 Levu, Ovatau, and Ta- VEUNI. T. lindbergii (Jaeg.) Ren. & Card. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans; Namosi, Navua to Suva, Greenwood, 1946; Namosi, near Namaumau, Bartram, 1956. Vanua Levu: Tha- kaundrove, Mt. Mariko. TavEunt: w. slope between Somosomo and Wairiki, Mt. Manuka, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Lovoni Valley, hills to east, Bartram, 1956. T. polyandrum Dix. Vrt1 Levu: Lautoka; Loloti, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. T. protensum Dix. Fiy1: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. T. samoanum (Mitt.) Mitt. in Seem. Vit1 Levu: Mt. Victoria, Gibbs, 1909, as Trichosteleum, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi, hills, Navua to Suva; Serua hills, Serua, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: Macuata Coast, Wainikoro, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Thakaundrove, Korotini Range, below Navitho Pass. Vanua MBALAvu: n. limestone section, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Hypnum powellianum; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. T. tenuisetum (Sull.) Mitt. in Seem. Vit1 Levu: Serua, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: Mbua, Wainunu River valley; Navotuvotu, summit Mt. Seatura; Seatovo Range, s. part. TAVEUNI: w. slope between Somosomo and Wairiki. Koro: e. slope, main ridge. VaNuA MBALavu: n. limestone section, Bartram, 1936. T. ventrifolium (C. Muell.) Broth. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Hypnum (Sigmatella) ventrifolium; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Trichosteleum angustifolium Bartr. Taveunt: Uluingalau, summit, Bartram, 1936. 102 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 T. angustirete Dix. ex Bartr. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1948, with a sug- gestion that this may not be distinct from T. hamatum. T. boschii (Dozy & Molk.) Jaeg. Vir1 Levu: Namosi, Navua to Suva, Greenwood, 1946; Bartram, 1956, “four collections from Viti Levu.” Vanua Levu: Lambasa; Macuata Coast, Wainikoro, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. T. boschii var. minus Dix. VANuA Levu: Lambasa; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Natewa Peninsula, Takaundrove, Uluingala, Bartram, 1936. T. fissum Mitt. Vanua Levu: Lambasa; Macuata Coast, Wainikoro, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. Taveuni: Mt. Manuka, e. of Wairiki, Bartram, 1956. T. hamatum (Dozy & Molk.) Jaeg. Viti: Mitten, 1871, as Sematophyllum borbonicum Bel. Vit1 Levu: Nandarivatu, near Nadala, Gibbs, 1909, as T. pickeringii; Loloti; Lau- toka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi, Navua to Suva, Greenwood, 1946. VaNua Levu: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Hypnum (Sigmatella) rhino- phyllum C. Muell., fide Dixon & Greenwood, 1930 and as H. pickeringi Sull., Bartram, 1936, “numerous collections from Vanua Levu and Taveun!;”’ 1956, “eleven collections from Viti Levu and Nacav,’ all without specific citations. T. monostichum (Thwaites & Mitt.) Broth. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Natewa Bay region, hills w. of Korotasere; Mt. Mariko; Yanawai River region, Mt. Kasi; Mbua, s. portion Seatovo Range; Mathuata, Wainunu-Ndreketi divide, Bartram, 1936. T. smithii Bartr. VaNnua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Mariko, Bartram, 1936. Trismegistia complanatula (C. Muell.) C. Muell. in Broth. Vit1 Levu: Suva, Bartram, 1936. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Hypnum (Trismegistia) complanatulum C. Muell. T. rigida (Mitt.) Broth. Vir1 Levu: Mitten, 1871, as Sematophyllum; Dixon & Green- wood, 1930, as T. rigida (Hornsch. & Reinw.) Broth. Wijkia papillata (Harv.) Crum. Vanua Levu: Macuata Coast, Wainikoro, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as Taxithelium papillatum (Harv.) Broth. Ovaxau: high ground, on stumps of trees, Mitten, 1871, as Sematophyllum; Mueller, 1874, as Hypnum (Sigmatella) stigmosum (Mitt.) C. Muell. Fiji: Sullivant, 1859, as Hypnum papillatum. PLAGIOTHECIACEAE Stereophyllum vitiense Dix. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. TRACHYPODACEAE Trachypus_ bicolor Reinw. & Horsch. Viti Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. LEMBOPHYLLACEAE Camptochaete porotrichoides (Besch.) Broth. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909, as Thamniella; Mt. Evans; Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. HYPNACEAE Ctenidiadelphus spinulosus (Broth.) Fleisch. Vir1 Levu: s. side, 15-18 miles along road w. of Suva, Bartram, 1944. Ectropotheciella distichophylla (Hampe) Fleisch. Vit1 Levu: Mba (Tholo North), Nandarivatu, Bartram, 1950. Ectropothecium adnatum Broth. in Schum. & Lauterb. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Singatoka, Singatoka River valley, Greenwood, 1946. Ta- VEUNI: valley between Mt. Manuka and Mt. Koroturanga, e. of Wairiki, Bartram, 1956. Ova.au: Levuka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. E. cyathothecium (C. Muell.) Broth. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka; Mt. Evans, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930; Namosi, n. base Korombasambasanga Range, in drainage of Wainavindrau Creek; Serua, hills between Waininggere and Waisese Creeks, between Ngaloa and Wainiyambia, Bartram, 1956. Vanua Levu: Macuata Coast, Wainikoro, Dixon & Green- wood, 1930; Thakaundrove, Natewa Peninsula, s. of Natewa; Yanawai R., Mt. Kasi; Mt. Ndikeva; Mbua, s. slope Mt. Seatura. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Hypnum (Cupressina) No. 2, 1975] WHITTIER—FIJIAN MOSSES 103 cyathothecium C. Muell.; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Mt. Korotolutolu, w. of Thawathi, Bartram, 1956. Koro: e. slope of main ridge. Vanua MBaLavu: Lomaloma, central vol- canic section. Moa.a: Naroi, Bartram, 1936. E. incubans (Reinw. & Hornsch.) Jaeg. Viti Levu: Serua, Greenwood, 1946. E. incubans (Reinw. & Hornsch.) Jaeg. var. scaberulum (Fleisch.) Dix. Fy: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. E. longicaule Bartr. Vanua Levu: Mbua, Navotuvotu, summit, Mt. Seatura, Bar- tram, 1936. Taveuni: Mt. Manuka, e. of Wairiki, Bartram, 1956. E. malacoblastum (C. Muell.) Jaeg. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Serua hills, Serua, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Ndikeva. Koro: coastal forest, e. coast, Bartram, 1936. E. molle Dix. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi, Wainambua Creek, s. of Mt. Naitarandamu, Bartram, 1956. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, crest of Korotini Range between Navitho Pass and Mt. Ndelaikoro, Mathuata Boundary; s. slope Korotini Range below Navitho Pass; Mt. Mariko; Mt. Ndikeva; Mbua, Navo- tuvotu, summit Mt. Seatura, Bartram, 1936. Ovatau: Mueller, 1874, as Hypnum; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. E. percomplanatum Broth. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka; Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946; Namosi Province, Naitaradamu, Bartram, 1936; Tailevu, Wailoltua, hills e. of Wainimbuka River, Bartram, 1956. Taveuni: Somo- somo, borders of lake, Bartram, 1936. E. complanatum var. falcatum Dix. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka; Mt. Evans, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu; Namosi, Navua to Suva, Greenwood, 1946. E. sodale (Sull.) Mitt. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nandarivatu, Greenwood, 1946. E. tutuilum (Sull.) Mitt. Vir1: Mitten, 1871; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Namosi, Navua to Suva, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. E. vitiense Dix. ex Bartr. Vir1 Levu: Nandarivatu; Mt. Lautoka, Bartram, 1948. Isopterygium albescens (Hook.) Jaeg. Viti: Mitten, 1871, as I. molliculum Sull., fide Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka; Loloti; Singatoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vanua Levu: Lambasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. OvaLau: Mueller, 1874, as Hypnum (Taxicaulis) lonchopelma C. Muell., fide Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Levuka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. KANpavu: Mt. Mbuke Levu, Bartram, 1936. I. byssicaule (C. Muell.) Jaeg. Vit1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909; Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. I. planifolium Fleisch. Vit1 Levu: Nandroga and Navosa, n. portion of Rairaimatuku Plateau, between Nandrau and Rewasau (Tholo North); Mba (Tholo North); Mt. To- manivi, w. and s. slopes, Bartram, 1950. Microctenidium leveilleanum (Dozy & Molk.) Fleisch. Vanua Levu: Thakaundrove, Mt. Ndikeva, Bartram, 1936. Taxiphyllum minutirameum (C. Muell.) Miller & Smith var. vitiense (Dix.) Whittier’ Viti Levu: Lautoka; Suva, Singatoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as Isopterygium; Na- mosi, near Namaumau, hills e. of Wainikoroiluva, Bartram, 1956, as Isopterygium. VANUA Levu: Lambasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930, as Isopterygium; Thakaundrove, Valanga range, s. slope, Bartram, 1936, as Isopterygium. 'Taxiphyllum minutirameum (C. Muell.) Miller & Smith var. vitiense (Dix.) Whittier comb. nov. BASIONYM: Isopterygium minutirameum (C. Muell.) Jaeg. var. vitiense Dix. in Dixon and Greenwood. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales 55:295. 1930. The transfer of Isopterygium minutirameum to Taxiphyllum minutirameum by Miller and Smith (1968) necessitates the new combination: Taxiphyllum minutirameum var. vitiense (Dix.) Whittier. Since Miller and Smith neglected to provide the appropriate new combinations for two other varieties recog- nized for this species, it seems appropriate to do so here: Taxiphyllum minutirameum (C. Muell.) Miller & Smith var. brevifolium (Fleisch.) Whittier comb. nov. BasionyM: Isopterygium minutirameum (C. Muell.) Jaeg. var. brevifolium (Fleisch.) Bartr. Bishop Mus. Occ. Pap. 10(10):23. 1933. [=I. minutirameum fo. y brevifolium Fleisch. Musci d. Fl. Buitenzorg p. 1427, 1923.]; Taxiphyllum minutirameum (C. Muell.) Miller & Smith var. tonkinense (Besch.) Whittier comb. nov. Basionym: Isopterygium minutirameum (C. Muell.) Jaeg. var. tonkinense Besch. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 41:85. 1894. 104 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 T. taxirameum (Mitt.) Fleisch. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vesicularia anisothecia Dix. ex Bartr. Vir1 Levu: Mt. Lautoka; Lautoka, Mt. Evans; Naitasiri, near Nasinu, Bartram, 1948. V. calodictyon (C. Muell.) C. Muell. Viti Levu: Mt. Victoria; Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909, as Ectropothecium; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Nausori, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Singatoka River Valley, Singatoka, Greenwood, 1946. OvaLau: Lovoni Valley, hills e., Bartram, 1956. V. inflectens (Brid.) C. Muell. Vir1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vanua Levu: Mbua, upper Ndama River valley, Bartram, 1936. Matuxku: Mueller, 1889, as Hypnum (Vesicularia). V. reticulata (Dozy & Molk.) Broth. Vir1 Levu: Namosi, Wainavindrau Creek, near Wainimakutu, Bartram, 1956. V. vitiana Dix. Vit1 Levu: Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. Vanua Levu: Macuata Coast, Wainikoro, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Thakaundrove, Mt. Mariko; Mt. Mbatini; Mt. Ndikeva, Bartram, 1936. DIPHYSCIACEAE Diphyscium submarginatum Mitt. in Seem. Vitt: Mitten, 1871. Vit Levu: Mt. Vic- toria, Gibbs, 1909; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930. POLYTRICHACEAE Pogonatum graeffeanum (C. Muell.) Jaeg. Vit1 Levu: Nandarivatu, Gibbs, 1909; Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Greenwood, 1946; Lautoka, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Mt. Loma Lega; Namosi, Navua to Suva Road; Serua, Serua Hills, Greenwood, 1946. Bartram, 1956, citing without details “four collections from Viti Levu.” Ova.au: Mueller, 1874, as Polytrichum (Catharinella) graeffeanum C. Muell.; Dixon & Green- wood, 1930. Koro: Main ridge, e. slope, Bartram, 1936. P. junghuhnianum (Dozy & Molk.) Dozy & Molk. Viti LEvu: Mba (Tholo North), Mt. Nanggaranambuluta (Lomalangi), e. of Nandarivatu; Mt. Ndelainathovu, s. slopes on escarpment w. of Nandarivatu; Mt. Tomanivi (Mt. Victoria), s. and w. slopes, clay banks; Nggaliwana Creek valley, n. of sawmill at Navai, clay banks; Nandronga and Navosa, n. Rairaimatuku plateau between Nandrau and Nanga (formerly in Tholo North), Bartram, 1950. P. vitiense Mitt. in Seem. Viti: Mitten, 1871. Pseudorhacelopus philippinensis Broth. Vit1 Levu: Namosi, Navua to Suva; Serua, Serua Hills, Greenwood, 1946. Vanua Levu: Macuata Coast, Wainikoro; Lambasa, Dixon & Greenwood, 1930; Thakaundrove, Mt. Kasi, Yanawai River region, Bartram, 1936. P. philippinensis var. vitiensis Bartr. Virt LEvu: Yavuna to Tumbenasolo, Bartram, 1948. LITERATURE CITED Ba.cooy, M. M. J. van. 1971. Plant-geography of the Pacific, as Based on a Census of Phanerogam Genera. Groen en Zoon. Leiden. Bartram, E. B. 1936. Contributions to the mosses of Fiji. Occ. Pap. B. P. Bishop Mus. 11(20):1-30. f. 1-12. 1944. Additions to the mosses of Fiji. Bryologist 47:57-61. 1948. Additional Fijian mosses. Occ. Pap. B. P. Bishop Mus. 19:219-231. . 1950. Additional Fijian mosses II. Occ. Pap. B. P. Bishop Mus. 20:27-33. . 1956. Additional Fijian mosses III. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 46:392-396. British ADMIRALTY Report. 1944. Pacific Islands. Vol. III. Western Pacific (Tonga to the Solo- mon Islands). Geographical Handbook Series B. P. 519B. Naval Intelligence Division. No. 2, 1975] WHITTIER—FIJIAN MOSSES 105 Crossy, M. R. 1965. New records for Hawaiian island mosses. Bryologist 68:457-462. DecEneER, O. 1949. Naturalist’s South Pacific Expedition: Fiji. Paradise of the Pacific, Ltd. Hono- lulu. Dixon, H. N. 1937. Notulae Bryologicae I. J. Bot. Brit. For. 75:121-129. AND W. GREENWOOD. 1930. The mosses of Fiji. Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales. 55:261-302. 1. 8; 9. GIBBs, L. S. 1909. A contribution to the montane flora of Fiji (including cryptogams), with ecologi- cal notes. J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 39:130-140; 189-193. GREENWOOD, W. 1946. Notes on some Fijian mosses. Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales. 70:213-218. Hoe, W. 1974. Annotated checklist of Hawaiian mosses. Lyonia 1(1):1-45 (of reprint). AND H. Crum. 1971. Three new moss species from the Hawaiian Islands. Bryologist 74(4):484-489. AND H. Inoue. 1973. Bryophytes of the Gilbert Islands (Micronesia) collected by Dr. D. Herbst. J. Japanese Bot. 48(3):82-86. HOrmann, H. 1967. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der haufigsten Moose der Insel Lanai. Nova Hedwigia 14:343-378, t. 108. Hotrimann, H. 1963. Laubmoosfunde von den Fidschi- und Tonga-Inseln und von Tahiti. Bauhinia 2:167-176. . 1965. Weitere Laubmoose von den Tonga-Inseln. Bauhinia 2:289-294. MERRILL, E. D. anp E. H. Watker. 1947. A Botanical Bibliography of the Islands of the Pacific. U.S. Nat. Herb. Cont. 30(1):1-404. Miter, H. A. 1960a. A preliminary list of Micronesian bryophytes. Bryologist 63:116-125. . 1960b. Remarks on the succession of bryophytes on Hawaiian lava flows. Pacific Sci. 14:246-247. . 1967. Oddments of Hawaiian bryology. J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 30:271-276. 1968. Bryophyta of Guam and northern Micronesia. Micronesica 4:49-83. AND D. R. Situ. 1968. Mosses from Truk, Caroline Islands. Micronesica 4:213-237. H. O. WuitTIeR AND C. E. B. Bonner. 1963. Bryoflora of the Atolls of Micronesia. Beih. Nova Hedwigia 11:1-89. Mirten, W. 1861-62. Musci et Hepaticae Vitiensis. Bonplandia 9:365-367, 1861; 10:19, 1862. . 1868. A list of the Musci collected by the Rev. Thomas Powell in the Samoa or Navi- gator's Islands. J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 10:166-195. . 1871. Musci, Jungermanneae, Marchanteae. Pp. 378-419. pl. 97-98. In Seeman, B., Flora Vitiensis. L. Reeve & Co. London. MUELLER, C. 1857. Decas muscorum Oceani Pacifici. Bot. Zeit. Berlin. 15:777-782. . 1874. Musci Polynesiaci praesertim Vitiani et Samoani Graeffeani. J. Mus. Godeffroy 3(6):51-90. . 1889. Laubmoose (Musci Frondosi). In Die Forschungsreise $.M.S. GazELLE 4(5): Botanik 1-64. ScHULTzE-MorTeEL, W. 1963. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Laubmoose der Hawaii-Inseln. Will- denowia 3:97-107. . 1971. Vorlaufiges Verzeichnis der Laubmoose von Samoa. Bryologist 74:347-358. 1974a. Die Moose der Samoa-Inseln. Willdenowia 7:333-408. . 1974b. Systematik der Moose. Fortschr. d. Bot. 36:277-284. SEEMANN, B. 1865-1873. Flora Vitiensis: a description of the plants of the Viti or Fiji Islands with an account of their history, uses, and properties. Pp. i-xxxiii, 1-453, pl. 1-100. L. Reeve & Co. London. Situ, D. R. 1967. New localities for Hawaiian mosses. Bryologist 70:237-245. . 1969. Mosses of Micronesia. Pp. 174. Ph.D. Dissertation. Washington State Univer- sity. Pullman. . SuLLIvANT, W. S. 1854. Notices of some new species of mosses from the Pacific Islands in the col- lection of the United States Exploring Expedition under Captain Wilkes. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 3:73-81, 181-185 (3-16 of reprint). . 1859. Musci. United States Exploring Expedition . . . under the command of Charles Wilkes, U.S.N. 17:1-32. Touw, A. 1971. A taxonomic revision of the Hypnodendraceae (Musci). Blumea 19:211-354. Wuirttier, H. O. 1968. Mosses of the Society Islands: Preliminary Studies on Their Taxonomy, Ecology and Geography. Pp. 641. Ph.D. Dissertation. Columbia University. New York. 1973. Mosses of the Marquesas Islands, French Polynesia. Bryologist 76:174-177. . 1975a. Mosses of the Society Islands. Univ. Press of Florida. Gainesville. 106 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 . 1975b. The amphigenous moss flora of French Polynesia. Proceedings of the Interna- tional Bryological Colloquium, Lille, France, 1972. Bull. Soc. Bot. France. (in press) , AND B. A. Wuirtier. 1974. List of mosses of southeastern Polynesia. Bryologist 77: 427-446. Florida Sci. 38(2): 85-106. 1975. Biological Sciences CAROTENOIDS IN COLOR CHANGE OF POMACENTRUS VARIABILIS Hat A. BEECHER Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306 AssTRACT: Pomacentrus variabilis undergoes a morphological color change from bright blue and yellow as a juvenile (age 0) to a uniform dark color as an adult (age I+). Color change involves melanogenesis and a decrease in skin carotenoid concentration during the first autumn and winter; carotenoid content of the skin increases until the fish reach 40-60 mm SL, after which the total con- tent decreases. The carotenoid pigments in P. variabilis appear to be di-hydroxy a-carotenes. PIGMENTATION Of fishes has been the subject of considerable research, and has been reviewed recently by Crozier (1974). Integumentary pigments are often considered to be either stored or partially excreted compounds that have taken on a secondary importance as colored compounds. The role of pigmentation in concealment and protection, warning, territoriality, and pair formation has been discussed by many ecologists and ethologists (Clarke, 1970, 1971; Hamilton and Peterman, 1971; Peterman, 1971; Lorenz, 1962, 1966; Rasa, 1969, 1971). A change in coloration may be significant from several points of view, sug- gesting a change of metabolism, a change of behavior, or of ecological niche, or any combination of these. Color changes range from almost instantaneous to im- perceptibly slow and may be either temporary or irreversible. In many fish there is a gradual evolution of color pattern during ontogeny, while in a few species there are discrete color phases with irreversible color changes between them. The latter type of ontogenetic color change is common in the tropical marine fish family Pomacentridae. In Pomacentrus two color phases occur—one with brightly contrasting colors, the other of a uniform dark color. This report considers some aspects of the coloration and color change of P. variabilis. MeETHODs AND MatTertaLs—Pomacentrus variabilis was collected by anaes- thesia or dropnet in water less than 5 m deep along a jetty at Panama City, Flor- ida. Most of the smaller fish (<40 mm SL) were collected with quinaldine or rotenone. Larger specimens and a few smaller ones were captured by dropping a 2m or 3 m diameter circular net with small mesh size over fish attracted to the crushed sea urchins (Arbacia sp.) beneath the net. No. 2, 1975] BEECHER—CAROTENOIDS IN FISH COLOR CHANGE 107 Captured fish were transferred immediately to glass jars or plastic bags and were transported to the laboratory in Pensacola either alive or on ice. Each fish was individually numbered, wrapped in aluminum foil, and frozen at -9° to -11°C. The standard length of each fish was measured to the near- est mm. Skin of P. variabilis was examined quantitatively and qualitatively for carotenoids. Because of the small size (9-94 mm SL) of the fish, samples included more than one fish. Fish were skinned after thawing. The skin and fins were cut in small pieces and weighed on a Mettler H6 balance. This tissue was then extracted in 95% ethanol in the dark. Ethanol extraction was repeated until no more pig- ment could be extracted. Ethanol extracts and, subsequently, hexane solutions, were stored in the dark at -9° to-11°C under N,. After chilling, ethanol extract was filtered on a Fischer Filtrator through a chilled bed of diatomaceous earth on a scintered glass disc in a filter funnel. The filtered ethanol extract was then transferred into a mixture of hexanes (boiling range 65.9°-67.9°C). To determine the total carotenoid concentration of the skin, a 1.4 ml sample of the crude hexane fraction was scanned in a Cary 15 spectrophotometer between 600 and 350 nm. Using the weight of the tissue, the total volume of hex- ane, and the optical density (d) at the main absorption peak (1 cm light path), the concentration of carotenoids was calculated using the following equation: mg carotenoid _ dX vol(ml) x 100 x .0075 100 g of tissue > wt of tissue (g) The factor .0075 is the ratio of the molecular weight of a carotenoid ester, zea- xanthin dipalmitate (Isler and Schudel, 1963), to its molar extinction coefficient (Me This compound was chosen because it is an ester of a dihydroxy caro- tene as was found to be the case with most of the skin carotenoids. Some muscle and connective tissue probably adhered to the integument, and fin rays were also present, both contributing to an under-estimation of pigment concentration. After chromatography and saponification the quantities of the resultant frac- tions were determined by the procedure described above, using the factor .0043 as an estimator of ve since this figure corresponds to free zeaxanthin (Isler and Schudel, 1963), a dihydroxy carotene resembling those found to be the main components of the skin pigments of P. variabilis. Column chromatography, using a graded series of 0.1 to 5.0% methanol in hexane as an eluent, on a dry-packed MgO: diatomaceous earth (1:1 by wt) column was used for separation of the pigments either before or after saponifi- cation. The separate pigment bands were eluted with a methanol-hexane mix- ture and then washed into hexanes. Saponification was done in either ethanol or methanol for at least 12 hr at 108 FLORIDA SCIENTIST - [Vol. 38 room temperature in the dark with 1 ml 1ON NaOH for every 10 ml of alcoholic pigment solution. The saponified pigment was then transferred to hexanes. Partition coefficients with 95% methanol were determined for each saponi- fied fraction according to Petracek and Zechmeister (1956). Further purification and separation of the pigment was performed by thin layer chromatography in the dark, using silica gel H and a 30% acetone solution in hexane as an eluent. When possible, partition coefficients with 95% methanol were determined for fractions separated by thin layer chromatography. 1000 A A (MG/G SKIN) _ °o SKIN CAROTENOID CONCENTRATION TOTAL SKIN CAROTENOIDS (MG) x 102 Oo 20 40 60 80 100 STANDARD LENGTH MM STANDARD LENGTH MM Fig. 1. (left) Total carotenoid concentration in skin as a function of standard length. Triangles represent data from fish collected in 1972; circles represent 1971 collections. All samples were as- sayed for carotenoids during 1972. Fig. 2. (right) Total carotenoid content of skin as a function of standard length. Triangles— 1972 collections; circles—1971 collections. All samples were assayed for carotenoids during 1972. Resu.ts—In early June at the Panama City jetties, small (10 mm SL) brightly colored (blue dorsally and yellow or orange ventrally), juveniles of P. variabilis are very abundant in crevices between rocks and among the spines of sea urchins (Arbacia sp.). The newly metamorphosed juvenile damselfish first appear during May (Hastings, 1972; Haburay, et al., 1968). There is a steady increase in the mean standard length of 3 mm every 10 days, although the growth rate for a given individual is probably greater during the first two months after metamor-_ phosis. No. 2, 1975] BEECHER—CAROTENOIDS IN FISH COLOR CHANGE 109 In September some of the first-summer fish darken. By early November many of them assume an intermediate coloration. There is little correlation between size and color phase of first year fish during late fall. Pomacentrus variabilis leaves the Panama City jetty during the winter and some adults return in March or April (Hastings, 1972). Adults of P. variabilis are readily distinguished from juveniles by the dark color and large size of the adults. However, a few adults retain the bright two color pattern into the second year. The carotenoid concentration in the skin drops sharply from juveniles to larger adult P. variabilis. (Fig. 1). The total carotenoid content of the skin in- creases until the fish reaches a length of 40 to 60 mm, usually the first winter, after which it decreases (Fig. 2). However, while the carotenoid content increases up to that size, the amount of skin increases at a greater rate (Fig. 3), hence the decrease in carotenoid concentration. After P. variabilis attains 40-60 mm SL the carotenoid content, as well as the concentration in the skin, decrease. “ 1 | of Skin mg x 10. 3 > > > — Sa ee eae fel . — Carotenoid Content Total Si i ain) .0001 ,001 .01 a 1 10 Skin Weight (g) Fig. 3. Total carotenoid content of skin as a function of skin weight. Triangles—1972 collections; circles—1971 collections. All samples were assayed for carotenoids during 1972. Partial characterizations of the carotenoid fractions are shown in Table 1. Most of the pigments are probably dihydroxy carotenes. This conclusion is based on polarity as revealed by their partition ratio values between 95% meth- anol and hexane. The strictly hyperphasic behavior of the pigments prior to saponification indicates that they are present in the fish skin as esters. The visible spectra of most of the fractions indicate an a-carotene chromophore. There is no indication of astaxanthin, based on the lack of a red-orange muff at the inter- 110 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 TABLE 1. Properties of typical pigment fractions. Fraction' Color on % of total? Spectral properties Pre-hydrolysis Post-hydrolysis column in nm (hexanes) PR,, PR, Ae’ pale 1.6 412-415,436-439(452-454)465 - 42 31 yellow 58, 67 418,440-445(459-462)467-472 - 97 3 B yellow 11.5 415-418(422-423)439-442(456-458)469 100 16 0 84 C gold 16.5 420,443-446(459-462)470 - 21 79 D gold BES 420,445-446(462-464)472-475 - 13 87 E orange 20.6 425,446-450(465-469)472-476 - -7 Parent fraction Fraction’ % of total Spectral properties in nm (hexane) PR,; B B, 0.4 416-418(422-423)439-441(457)469 13 87 D D, 0.1 422,445-448(462-466)472-475 18 82 ‘Letters indicate degree of adsorption with A least adsorbed and E most strongly adsorbed. B, C, and D are very similar in adsorption. *This figure is an average except for E which was collected only once. °A consisted of multiple fractions separable by thin layer chromatography. These were not consistent and two different spectral patterns were shown by this feast adsorbed fraction. 4A PR,, ratio of 2 was obtained for this fraction, but the sample was only 2.0 ml. Ethanol bubbles contam- inated the cuvette. The sample was visually estimated to be at least a and perhaps more hypophasic. *Subscript indicates degree of adsorption on thin layer chromatography plate, with | least strongly adsorbed. face of NaOH-methanol and hexane after hydrolysis of the pigment, and the lack of any absorption maxima at 470 nm. Discussion—A gradual melanogenesis which accompanies aging is common in many fishes. This masks the color pattern found in young fish and results in a uniform dark coloration in older, larger fish. In a few families of fishes such as the Chaetodontidae, Labridae, Scaridae, and Acanthuridae (Bohlke and Chap- lin, 1968), a radical morphological color change occurs, in which one distinctive color pattern is kept through part of the life history, and is then changed for an equally distinctive color pattern in another part of the life history. Poma- centrus variabilis is apparently intermediate; there are two distinct color phases with a relatively short transition which occurs at the end of the first summer, but the process involved is largely melanogenetic (Beecher, 1973). Melanophore proliferation in P. variabilis is accompanied by a loss of carote- noids from the skin. Removal of scales from adult P. variabilis does not alter the color of the fish. This is unlike the male California sheephead (Pimelometo- No. 2, 1975] BEECHER—CAROTENOIDS IN FISH COLOR CHANGE 111 pon pulchrum) in which melanophores are closely associated with the scales and only mask the underlying erythrophores (Crozier, 1966). The situation with P. variabilis is thus similar to that of Hypsypops rubicunda, another poma- centrid, in which the darker phase has both a greater density of melanophores and less skin xanthophyll than the bright color phase (Kritzler, et al., 1950). The blue color of the dorsum of juvenile P. variabilis appears to be a struc- tural color produced by guanine platelets overlying a layer of melanin, as is found in juvenile Hypsypops rubicunda (Kritzler, et al., 1950). Breder (1948) noted that captive Pomacentrus leucostictus becomes brighter yellow when allowed to eat algae. Starck and Davis (1966) found that P. variabilis feeds chiefly on small demersal invertebrates but did not note size or color phase. Emery (1968) stated that P. variabilis eats mainly benthic food, of which the majority is algae. This agrees with Randall’s (1967) findings for adult P. vari- abilis (70-80 mm SL). In the adults studied by Randall, polychaetes (15.7% by vol) and crustaceans (14.1%) were the most important animal food. In juveniles examined by Emery (1968) the most important animal foods were harpacticoid copepods and nemertean worms, with polychaetes important at all stages of the life history. Aside from the importance of harpacticoids and nemerteans only to juveniles, the sole change in the diet during the life history of P. variabilis is that the diet diversifies with age. An Hawaiian damselfish, Pomacentrus jenkinsi, is similar in coloration to P. variabilis. As P. jenkinsi matures in about a year there is a corresponding change in color and diet (Rasa, 1969), but in this case the diet change is from mainly copepods and pelagic crustacea to mainly filamentous green algae and some crustacea and annelids (Fitzsimmons, 1965). As in the case of P. variabilis, adult P. jenkinsi are dirty brown. Although algae contain fucoxanthin, lutein, and zeaxanthin, as well as a-, B-, and e-carotene and other carotenoids in lesser amounts (Weedon, 1971), algae may not be responsible for the bright color of juvenile P. variabilis and the lack of color in adults since the relative amount of algae in the diet does not vary greatly between juveniles and adults. Only if carotenoid metabolism of the fish changed during maturation could algal pigments be responsible. Alternatively, the change in diet may be the reason for the color change, since after the juve- nile stage the pigments in harpacticoid copepods and nemertean worms are no longer in the diet. If, however, harpacticoid copepods and nemertean worms are assumed to be responsible for the bright yellow and orange-yellow of juvenile P. variabilis, then the carotenoids of these organisms need to be examined. According to Hsu, Chichester, and Davies (1970), keto-carotenoids are typical of marine inverte- brates. Fox (1953) noted the presence of carotenoids in many species of nemer- teans without further characterizing the pigments. A bathypelagic nemertean contains an acidogenic carotenoid similar to or identical with astaxanthin (Fox, 1954). Astaxanthin and a trace of carotene have been found in calanoid cope- pods (Fox, 1953), astaxanthin was found in the copepod Tigriopus fulvus (Good- win and Srisukh, 1949), and a tetrahydroxy carotene, crustaxanthin, has been found in the copepod Arctodiaptomus salinus (Bodea, et al., 1965), but the carot- 12 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 enoids of harpacticoid copepods are unknown. Much more information on the carotenoids in these two groups is necessary in order to substantiate or refute the hypothesis that the carotenoids in these groups are responsible for the bright yellow or yellow-orange ventral coloration of juvenile P. variabilis. The scant data available do not support this hypothesis or at least require a major modifi- cation stipulating that P. variabilis reduces the dietary carotenoids, as it should be noted that keto-carotenoids seem to be selectively excluded from the skin. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—This paper was adapted from an M.S. thesis at the University of West Florida. Dr. Thomas S. Hopkins of the University of West Florida, and Dr. George F. Crozier of the Marine Science Institute of the Univer- sity of Alabama provided guidance and encouragement and critically reviewed the thesis. Valuable assistance with the collection of specimens was given by Carroll Bernier and Dr. John Kerr. My wife, Brooke, provided indispensable as- sistance in collection of specimens, data collection, laboratory work, typing and valuable criticism. LITERATURE CITED Brecuer, H. A. 1973. Studies of the Color Phases of the Cocoa Damselfish, Pomacentrus variabilis (Pisces: Pomacentridae). 57 pp. M.S. Thesis. Univ. West Florida. Pensacola. Bopea, C., E. Nicoara, G. ILLyes, AND M. SERBAN. 1965. The carotenoids of Arctodiaptomus sa- linus. Rev. Roum. Biochim. 2:205-211. BouLkeE, J. E., anD C. C. G. Cuapuin. 1968. Fishes of the Bahamas and Adjacent Tropical Waters. Livingston Publ. Co. Wynnewood, Pa. BREDER, C. M., JR. 1948. Observations on coloration in reference to behavior in tide-pool and other marine shore fishes. Bull. Amer. Mus. Natur. Hist. 92:285-312. CuiarkE, T. A. 1970. Territorial behavior and population dynamics of a pomacentrid fish, the garibaldi, Hypsypops rubicunda. Ecol. Monogr. 40:189-212. . 1971. Territory boundaries, courtship, and social behavior in the garibaldi, Hypsypops rubicunda (Pomacentridae). Copeia 1971:295-299. Crozier, G. F. 1966. Features of Carotenoid Metabolism in Growth and Sexual Maturation of the Labrid Fish Pimelometopon pulchrum (Ayres). Ph.D. dissertation. Univ. California. San Diego. . 1974. Pigments of fishes. In: FLorkin, M., AND B. T. SCHEER (ed.) Chemical Zoology, vol. 8. Academic Press. New York. Emery, A. R. 1968. Comparative Ecology of Damselfishes (Pisces: Pomacentridae) at Alligator Reef, Florida Keys. Ph.D. dissertation. Univ. Miami. Coral Gables. Fitzsimmons, M. 1965. Gut Content Analysis of Fish from the Kapoho Tide Pools. M.S. Thesis. Univ. Hawaii. Honolulu. Fox, D. L. 1953. Animal Biochromes and Structural Colours. Cambridge Univ. Press. London. . 1954. An acidogenic carotenoid in a bathypelagic nemertean worm. Nature 173:583. Goopwin, T. W., ANp S. SrisukH. 1949. Some observations of astaxanthin distribution in marine crustacea. Biochem. J. 45:268-270. Hasuray, K., C. F. Crooke, anp R. Hastincs. 1968. Tropical marine fishes from Pensacola, Flor- ida. Quart. J. Florida Acad. Sci. 31:213-219. Hamixton, J. III, anp R. M. PeTerMan. 1971. Countershading in the colourful reef fish Chaetodon lunula: concealment, communication or both? Anim. Behav. 19:357-364. Hastincs, R. W. 1972. The Origin and Seasonality of the Fish Fauna on a New Jetty in the North- eastern Gulf of Mexico. Ph.D. dissertation. Florida State University. Tallahassee. Hsu, Wan-Jean, C. O. CHICHESTER, AND B. H. Davies. 1970. The metabolism of B-carotene and other carotenoids in the brine shrimp, Artemia salina. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 32:69-80. IsLeR, O., anp P. ScHupEL. 1963. Synthese und Markierung von Carotinen und Carotinoiden. Wiss. Veroff. Deutsch. Gesells. Ernahr. 9:54-104. Krirzier, H., D. L. Fox, C. L. Hupss, anp S. C. Crane. 1950. Carotenoid pigmentation of the pomacentrid fish, Hypsypops rubicunda. Copeia 1950(2):125-138. No. 2, 1975] BEECHER—CAROTENOIDS IN FISH COLOR CHANGE 113 Lorenz, K. 1962. The function of-colour in coral reef fishes. Proc. Roy. Inst. Great Britain 39: 282-296. __. 1966. On Aggression. Bantam Books, Inc. New York. PETERMAN, R. M. 1971. A possible fanction of coloration in coral reef fishes. Copeia-1971(2):320-331. PeTrackk, F. J., anp L. ZECHMEISTER. 1956. Determination of partition coefficients as a tool in pigment analysis. Anal. Chem. 28:1484-1485. RANDALL, J. E. 1967. Food habits of reef fishes of the West Indies. Stud. Trop. Oceanogr. 1967(5):665- 847. Rasa, O. A. 1969. Territoriality and the establishment of dominance by means of visual cues in Pomacentrus jenkinsi (Pisces: Pomacentridae). Z. Tierpsychol. 26:825-845. . 1971. Appetence for aggression in juvenile damsel fish. 70 pp. supplement to Z. Tier- psychol. Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin. Starck, W. A. II, anp W. P. Davis. 1966. Night habits of fishes of Alligator Reef, Florida. Ichthyol. Aquarium J. 38:313-355. WEEDON, B. C. L. 1971. Occurrence. p. 27-59. In: IsLEr, O. (ed.) Carotenoids. Birkhauser Verlag. Basel. Florida Sci. 38(2): 106-113. 1975. Biological Sciences LIFE HISTORY PATTERNS IN THE-COASTAL SHINER, NOTROPIS PETERSONI, FOWLER © Bruce C. COWELL AND CLipPERT H. REsico, JR. Department of Biology; University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 ABSTRACT: Spawning of Notropis petersoni in the upper Hillsborough River drainage, Florida, occurred March—September in water 19° to 27°C. Fecundity ranged from 110—694 mature ova (< 0.8 mm) per female and correlated with total length. Young-of-the-year from early spring spawning in 1972 (March or April) averaged 33.8 mm long by late June and reached adult size (+60 mm) by - October. Later spawned young-of-the-year grew similarly and by late December mean size of all young-of-the-year reached 59.0 mm; all were sexually mature at age 1; and post-spawning mortality occurred throughout the summer. Southern (Florida) and northernmost (North Carolina) populations of N. petersoni differ in growth rates, age structure, and life cycles. THE coastal shiner, Notropis petersoni Fowler, ranges from southeastern North Carolina south to central Florida and west to the Jordan River, Mississippi (Swift, 1970). Davis and Louder (1971) studied life history aspects-of a North Carolina population, but comparable data are lacking for southern populations. Cowell and Barnett (1974) and Beach (1974) reported—that the taillight shiner, Notropis maculatus (Hay), had a one-year life cycle in central Florida characterized by a protracted breeding season and rapid growth rates. They sug- gested that additional studies of other cyprinids in Florida might show similar results. This paper presents information on reproduction and growth of N. peter- soni in central Florida, and compares northern and southern populations. The study was conducted-at three locations in the Hillsborough River drain-— age, Hillsborough Co., Florida (Fig. 1). The Blackwater Creek and upper Hills- 114 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 borough River stations (Sec. 9, R. 21 E., T. 27 S.) were located in a hardwood hammock bounded by pine; each station was approximately 1 km above the con- fluence of the two streams. The lower Hillsborough River station (Sec. 33, R. 20 E., T. 27 S.) was located in a hardwood-cypress swamp. PASCO CQ TROUT CR LAKE THONOTOSASSA TO N TAMPA BAY @ FISH SAMPLING STATIONS ee Te Te Ie ees Ce 40°32 00 | 2 3-2 4 KILOMETERS MILES Fig. 1. Map of Hillsborough River drainage, Hillsborough Co., Florida, showing fish sampling stations. At the Blackwater station the creek is 8-10 m wide and is comprised of a series of shallow pools (1.2-3.0 m deep) connected by riffles (usually < 1 m deep). The bottom is rocky with limestone boulders, cobbles and gravel except in the deeper pools where it is covered by sand, silt and organic debris. Dense growths of Vallisneria neotropicalis and Potamogeton illinoensis occur in currents, Egeria densa is found in eddies, and many of the larger rocks are covered by moss (Fissidens debilis). Water levels and discharge rates at this station vary markedly during the year. Discharge ranges from a minimum of 0.02 m*/sec during the winter to 32.6 m*/sec in late summer with an annual mean of 2.86 m*/sec (U.S.G.S., 1970). The river at the upper Hillsborough station is 10-20 m wide. There are sev- eral large pools (2.0-4.0 m deep), a few riffle areas (<1 m deep), and long stretches of river channel (generally >3.0 m deep). Large limestone boulders surround the pools and cobbles and gravel occur in the riffles. The bottom of the pools is covered by thick layers (30-50 cm) of sand, silt and organic debris. Mud and sand bottom occurs in the river channel: Potamogeton illinoensis and Vallis- neria neotropicalis occur in the pools and mosses (F. debilis and Leptodictyum No. 2, 1975] COWELL AND RESICO—COASTAL SHINER 115 riparium) occur on the rocks in the riffles. The river channel is essentially de- void of aquatic vascular plants. Water level fluctuations are not as marked at this station because of the constant discharges (1.3-1.7 m’/sec) of Crystal Springs, a few km upstream. There are no rocky areas in the river at the lower Hillsborough station. The channel is 5-10 m wide and the bottom is mud and sand. The V. neotropicalis occurs in the channel and Ludwigia repens, Sagittaria lancifolia, Polygonum punctatum and Paspalum fluitans are found along the shoreline. Water depth averages 2.5 m during most of the year, but at high water during late summer, the river leaves the channel and flows through the extensive cypress swamp. The water at all three stations is clear during the dry season (November to May). In the rainy season (June to October) it is heavily stained by tannins from the swamps. Water temperatures during the study period ranged from 16.5° to 27°C in Blackwater Creek and from 19° to 26°C in the Hillsborough River. MATERIALS AND MretTHops—Monthly collections of Notropis petersoni were made from March 1972 through October 1973 at Blackwater Creek; from September 1972 through October 1973 at the upper Hillsborough River station; and from June 1973 through October 1973 at the lower Hillsborough River station. Monthly intervals were selected because more frequent sampling might have resulted in depletion of local populations. A total of 1,019 fish was col- lected during the study. Fish were collected with a 20 ft (6 m), 1/8-inch (3.2 mm) mesh, Ace bag seine and with dip nets of two mesh sizes (6.0 and 1.0 mm). Specimens were fixed in 10% formalin and were later washed and transferred to 40% isopropyl alcohol. On several occasions larval fish were collected in insect drift nets (0.47 mm mesh) which were set biweekly in Blackwater Creek. The larval fish were preserved in 5% neutral formalin. Total length, weight, and sex were recorded for each fish. The ovaries of all females larger than 25 mm were removed, blotted on paper towels, weighed, and gonadosomatic indices [(gonad weight/body weight) < 100] were calculated. Growth was determined by the length-frequency method. Counts of mature ova (>0.8 mm) were made on 28 specimens, all with gonadosomatic indices greater than 6.0%, collected throughout the breeding period (late February through September). Resutts—Reproduction: Notropis petersoni in central Florida become sex- ually mature at approximately one year. Mature females ranged from 43-73 mm long and averaged 58.5 mm; males ranged from 39-67 mm and averaged 56.1 mm. A t test of the difference between these means was significant (P <0.05). Breed- ing males have a double row of tubercles midventrally along the mandibles, a row of lateral mandibular tubercles, and a row of large tubercles anteriorly on the snout. Smaller tubercles are found below the orbits, on the branchiostegal rays, and on the pectoral fin rays in some specimens. Females have some poorly developed lateral mandibular tubercles. Females larger than 50 mm usually could be distinguished from males by greater body weight and body depth, but these characters were unreliable in smaller specimens. 116 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 The sex ratio of 668 N. petersoni collected from all three sampling sites be- tween September 1972 and September 1973 was 2.0 females to 1 male. However, comparison of the upper Hillsborough and Blackwater Creek sampling stations showed apparent differences. Female to male ratios for 407 specimens from the upper Hillsborough station and 261 specimens from Blackwater Creek were 1.8 to 1 and 2.3 to 1 respectively. Egg counts were made from 28 mature females collected between February and September 1973. Two sizes of ova were found in the ovaries, but only fully yolked ova (> 0.8 mm) were counted. The number of mature ova per female ranged from 110 to 694 and correlated positively with total length (r= + 0.49). The mean number of mature ova, with 95% confidence intervals, found in ten 50-59 mm fish was 185 +25, and in eighteen 60-70 mm fish was 329 +64. The mean number of ova for the 28 fish examined was 278 + 41 and the mean gonado- somatic index was 8.62%. Spawning of N. petersoni in the upper Hillsborough River drainage oc- curred from early March to late August or early September at water tempera- tures ranging from 19°-27°C. Mature females with gonadosomatic indices of greater than 6.0% and ripe males were taken on every collecting date during this interval. Partially and/or completely spent fish were found from April through October. However, comparisons of percentages of reproductively mature individuals and of monthly mean gonadosomatic indices of females from the two principle collecting sites (Blackwater Creek and upper Hillsborough River) showed marked differences during the breeding season (Fig. 2). In Blackwater Creek reproductively mature females were collected throughout the interval and com- prised 40% of the total catch, but at the upper Hillsborough site mature females were collected on only two occasions (March and June) and comprised only 15% of the total catch at this station. Mean gonadosomatic indices at the Black- water Creek station were higher in all months except June than those from the upper Hillsborough station; the February-August mean values were 5.5% and 3.3% respectively. These differences between sampling stations are probably not attributable to sampling error since the reproducibility of results between years in Blackwater Creek (see Fig. 2, March-September data for 1972 and 1973) indicates that our sampling technique and sample size were adequate. A reasonable interpretation of the differences in reproductive condition between stations seems to be that the Blackwater Creek station represents a principal spawning location and that spawning does not occur frequently at the upper Hillsborough station; fish from the latter station apparently move else- where in the river to spawn. We have no data on movement but collections and visual observations of larval and juvenile fish tend to corroborate the assump- tion. Larval N. petersoni (6-10 mm) were collected from the Blackwater Creek station on several occasions, and throughout the summer juveniles, ranging from 14-20 mm, were observed close to the bottom among rocks at the shallow margins of pools. Specimens smaller than 20 mm were never collected or observed at the upper Hillsborough station. No. 2, 1975] COWELL AND RESICO—COASTAL SHINER Le MARCH | 1972 1973 N=24 JANUARY 18 10 N=35 ) lariat Tingle otk es FEBRUARY 28 MAY 4 N=40 N=20 Ie 5 o) MARCH 30 IS N=20 10 N=58 33.8 5 (0) APRIL 25 I N=60 JULY 25 39: io N=34 | (e) AUGUST 22 42.9 5 MAY 23 N=32 Wek ite) SEPTEMBER 20 7.2 6 N=162 OCTOBER 22 51.2 5 I N=109 1 a =! ee L J L AUGUST 28 Percent of Catch N=48 = NOVEMBER 20 53.0 : N=68 (e) OCTOBER 8 ! N=53 42.0 DECEMBER 21 59.0 6 N=39 1 20 30 40 50 60 70 Total Length in MM Fig. 2. Reproductive condition of adult, female Notropis petersoni collected in two central Flor- ida streams during 1972-1973. The height of the histogram indicates the monthly mean gonado- somatic index; percentages of reproductively inactive, developing and/or declining, and mature individuals are indicated by closed, lined, and open boxes respectively; the number of females in each collection is given above the histogram. Between-station differences in mean length of individuals were also ob- served. Specimens at the upper Hillsborough station averaged 3 to 10 mm longer than those from Blackwater Creek during the summer, fall, and early winter. In late winter and spring, at the onset of breeding, mean differences were smaller (< 4 mm) and were not significant. These differences were attrib- uted to greater recruitment of young-of-the-year at the Blackwater Creek station. Because of the differences between stations in mean lengths and repro- ductive condition, data were pooled to show seasonal variation of the entire population (Fig. 2). Pooling was based upon approximately equal unit effort of fishing at each location. The pooled data show an extended breeding season of approximately 6 months duration with concentrated spawning activity during the spring and early summer months. Limited data from the lower Hillsborough collecting sites showed similar trends, but there was no separation of individuals 118 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 based on reproductive condition or size. Observations of actual spawning were not made. Age, Growth, and Mortality: Age and growth of N. petersoni were de- termined from length-frequency histograms because scales and otoliths did not show annulus formation. Reproductive condition (gonadosomatic index and egg development of females and testes development of males) was used to separate young-of-the-year from adults when lengths overlapped. Inspection of the histograms (Fig. 3) shows that the population at any time of the year was composed primarily of young-of-the-year and/or yearling fish; a small proportion of the population may be older fish. During both years, young- of-the-year were first recruited into the population in June and subsequently comprised the majority of the population. Additional recruitment was noted in September and October. Growth and maturation of N. petersoni were rapid. In 1972 spawning was initiated in late March or early April and on 12 April we collected 23 larval fish (in drift nets) ranging from 6.5 to 7.5 mm total length. In late June young-of-the- year fish ranged from 22 to 43 mm and averaged 33.8 mm (Fig. 3). These fish averaged 39.4 mm in July; 42.9 mm in August; 47.2 mm in September; 51.2 mm in October; 53.0 mm in November; and 59.0 mm in December. However, esti- mates of growth based upon changes in mean size are biased low because of re- cruitment of young-of-the-year throughout the summer and fall. This was espec- ially evident in September and October when young-of-the-year, determined from reproductive condition, ranged from 25-60 mm in total length. The larger individuals presumably represented offspring of the late March spawning, in- dicating that growth to 60 mm can be attained in 6-7 months. The progeny of later spawnings (i.e., those represented by September and October recruitment) also showed rapid growth throughout the fall (Fig. 3). Mini- mum lengths of young-of-the-year in November and December were 39 and 48 mm respectively. Slow growth of smaller individuals during the winter and early spring is suggested by comparisons of minimum sizes and percent compo- sition of smaller individuals, but there were no significant changes in popula- tion mean lengths as monthly means ranged from 58.3 to 60.9 mm. Similar recruitment patterns and growth were observed in 1973 (Fig. 3). Re- cruitment first occurred in June when young-of-the-year fish averaged 35.0 mm in total length. Young-of-the-year averaged 38.5 mm in August and 42.0 mm in early October when additional recruitment was noted. Mortality of adult N. petersoni was inferred from monthly changes in the size composition (length frequency) of the catch. These data suggest massive post- spawning mortality during the summer months. In both years, percentages of adults in the population and total numbers of adults collected per month de- clined markedly in June and July. August collections still contained up to 20% yearling or older fish, but collections from September through December con- tained few or no adults. Separation of young-of-the-year and older fish was not possible after December when lengths overlapped and no differences in repro- ductive condition existed. | No. 2, 1975] COWELL AND RESICO—COASTAL SHINER 119 BLACKWATER CREEK 8 7 6 5 4 3 os [Sl o x< =. HILLSBOROUGH RIVER > >7 m6 > = 5 So 4 = °o i= ° 2 3 Eo eae 5 ES = SHON OL Fk WA J E 2 g POOLED SAMPLES wo = a 74 3.0 INACTIVE 5 5 == 3.0-6.0=DEVELOPING and/or DECLINING =4 ars? 6.0= MATURE 3 2 l 1972 I973 Fig. 3. Length-frequency histograms of Notropis petersoni from the Hillsborough River drainage, Florida, March 1972 through October 1973. Data from all three collecting sites have been pooled. Monthly mean lengths of young-of-the-year specimens are indicated by arrows (see text). Discussion—The data reported above show that the coastal shiner, Notropis petersoni, in central Florida has a protracted breeding season, rapid growth rate, and probably a one-year life cycle. However, at the northernmost limit of the species in North Carolina, the breeding season is shorter, growth rates are considerably slower, and the duration of the life cycle is approximately three years (Davis and Louder, 1971). Table 1 compares age, reproduction and growth statistics for the two populations. 120 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 The differences between the two populations most likely are attributable to warmer water temperatures in Florida, especially during the fall and winter months, which lead to more rapid growth rates. However, Davis (personal com- munication) has indicated that the trophic state of Lake Waccamaw, North Carolina is comparatively poor and that fish growth is generally slow. Fish from the Hillsborough River drainage were more than twice as large at the end of the first year of life and were all sexually mature; North Carolina fish did not attain comparable length or sexual maturity until the third year of life. The age structure of the populations also reflects the differences in growth rate. The Hillsborough River population was composed of young-of-the-year and/or adults of age class I, whereas the North Carolina population was comprised of young-of-the-year and age classes I, II, and III. With the differences in age structure and longevity of the populations it would be of interest to examine fecundity. The mean numbers of eggs, with 95% confidence intervals, for fish 50-70 mm long from Florida and North Carolina populations were: 278+ 41 and 523451 respectively. However, the data are TaBLE 1. Comparisons of age, reproduction and growth statistics for Notropis petersoni from the Hillsborough River drainage, Florida, with the lower Cape Fear and Waccamaw drainages, North Carolina. These locations approximate southern and northernmost geographic limits of the species. Hillsborough River Cape Fear and Waccamaw Statistic drainage, Florida drainages, North Carolina’ Age structure of young-of-the-year and/or young-of-the-year, and the population Age I+ Ages I, II, Ill Approximate age of I Ill sexual maturity Size range of mature 39-73 45-81 fish (mm) Sex ratio (female: male) 2:1 1.4:1 Fecundity Data not comparable Spawning time March-September April-July in lakes May-August in streams Temperature range 19-27 16.7-25.6 during spawning (C) Length of young-of-the- 20 19 year at recruitment (mm) Time of recruitment June-October September Range in length at end 48-68 21-26 of first year of life (mm) Mean length at age I (mm) 59.0 24.2 ‘Data from Davis and Louder (1971). No. 2, 1975] COWELL AND RESICO—COASTAL SHINER 121 not comparable as our counts were made only on mature ova (> 0.8 mm) whereas the North Carolina data represent total counts (J. R. Davis, personal communi- cation). Moreover, there is no information from either study on the number of times a female spawns during the breeding season. Spawning occurred over a 6-7 month interval in Florida (March through September) but only for 4 months in North Carolina (April to mid-July in lakes and May through August in the cooler streams). Temperature ranges during spawning were comparable (Table 1). The literature on other species of Notropis in peninsular Florida also indi- cates extended breeding seasons and short life cycles. Cowell and Barnett (1974) found that N. maculatus breeds from late March to early October and has a one- year life cycle. Marshall (1946) and McLane (1955) indicated that N. chalybaeus breeds from March to late September or early October, and Marshall’s data on early growth of young-of-the-year suggest rates comparable to those observed for N. petersoni. Additional studies of these species in more northern locations may show marked differences similar to those reported in this paper. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—We wish to thank Mr. Robert Thomas, owner of 2- Rivers Ranch, for permission to work on his property. Dr. Charles E. King and Mr. Stephen T. Ross reviewed the manuscript and offered valuable suggestions. LITERATURE CITED Beacu, M. L. 1974[1975]. Food habits and reproduction of the taillight shiner, Notropis maculatus (Hay), in central Florida. Florida Sci. 37:5-16. CoweE LL, B. C., anv B. S. Barnett. 1974. The life history of the taillight shiner, Notropis maculatus, in central Florida. Amer. Midl. Nat. 91:282-293. Davis, J. R., anp D. E. Louver. 1971. Life history and ecology of the cyprinid fish Notropis peter- soni in North Carolina waters. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 100:726-733. MarsHaLl, N. 1946. Studies on the life history and ecology of Notropis chalybaeus (Cope). Quart. J. Florida Acad. Sci. 9:163-188. McLane, W. M. 1955. The fishes of the St. Johns River system. 361 p. Ph.D. thesis. University of Florida. Gainesville. Swirt, C. C. 1970. A review of the eastern North American cyprinid fishes of the Notropis texanus species group (subgenus Alburnops), with a definition of the subgenus Hydrophlox, and ma- terials for a revision of the subgenus Alburnops. 515 p. Ph.D. thesis. Florida State Univ. Talla- hassee. Univ. Microfilms. Ann Arbor, Mich. (Diss. Abstr. 31B(5):3081). U.S. GeoLocicaL Survey. 1970. Water resources data for Florida. 1968. Part I, Vol. 1. 275 p. Washington, D.C. Florida Sci. 38(2): 113-121. 1975. Conservation OCCURRENCE AND POSSIBLE ESTABLISHMENT OF HOPLIAS MALABARICUS (CHARACOIDEI;, ERYTHRINIDAE) IN FLORIDA! DaANNIE A. HENSLEY AND DERRIL P. Moopy Florida Department of Natural Resources, Marine Research Laboratory, St. Petersburg, Florida 33701; and 7210 N. 11th Street, Tampa, Florida 33604 AsstRact: Hoplias malabaricus has been released and has reproduced in the Tampa Bay area. It is possible, but improbable, that the only population of this species in the area was exterminated. A summary of the life history and ecological data on this species is presented. It appears unlikely that nonbiotic or biotic factors will prevent its dispersal in southern Florida. Because of its large size and voracious piscivorous feeding behavior, a primary concern is its effects on freshwater game fish populations. Durinc October 1974, one of us (DPM) began receiving specimens of the South American erythrinid Hoplias malabaricus (Bloch) from residents near the Little Manatee River on Florida’s west coast (Fig. 1). Approximately 20 speci- mens were brought to our attention. In an effort to gather more data on the dis- tribution and reproductive status of this introduction, we questioned the resi- dents who collected the original specimens and found that all had been collected in a system of drainage ditches and ponds 1.9 km south of the Little Manatee River on U. S. Hwy 301. From December 1974 to February 1975, several trips were made to this area and most of the ponds and ditches were sampled with seines. Water levels were low at this time, leaving only shallow weed-choked pools and isolated deeper ponds. Many areas in the ditches where H. malabaricus was reported to have been previously collected were dry. Specimens were found in one relatively deep pond (approximately 4 m). This pond was repeatedly sampled using a seine and finally an ichthyocide; 37 additional specimens (126- 325 mm SL) were collected. We questioned the owner of another small pond and found that he had first noticed this species in his pond in the summer months of 1974. He stated that he had seen many of the fish near the surface of the pond until several weeks before we had sampled it. Two temperature readings of 18.5° and 19.5°C were taken on two separate days at the pond where H. malabaricus was collected. Surface temperatures at other ponds within the area varied from 20° to 23°C. Histological examination was undertaken on the gonads of 16 specimens. Of the males examined, two (144 and 151 mm SL) were immature, seven (185- 220 mm SL) were newly active, five of these apparently active for the first time, and one (214 mm SL) was spent; one male (182 mm SL) had unusual development ‘Contribution Number 260, Florida Department of Natural Resources Marine Research Laboratory. No. 2, 1975] HENSLEY AND MOODY—HOPLIAS MALABARICUS IN FLORIDA 123 and was difficult to categorize. The series of females examined contained two (188 and 194 mm SL) inactive and probably immature, one (324 mm SL) ripe, and one (184 mm SL) apparently spent. One specimen (169 mm SL) was undif- ferentiated. Gonadal analysis indicates that this species can reach spawning con- dition in this area, and the large number of specimens collected and known to have been collected (approximately 60) probably indicates that spawning has oc- curred. Of the specimens obtained by seining, three had prey items in their stomachs. Two contained one specimen of Lepomis gulosus each. The third contained one specimen each of Lepomis sp., Jordanella floridae, and Gambusia affinis. The two L. gulosus were in good condition and SL measurements were made. One of the H. malabaricus (192 mm SL) had taken an 84 mm SL L. gulosus; the other (205 mm SL) contained a 117 mm SL L. gulosus. Most of the specimens dis- sected for stomach analysis contained fat deposits in the mesenteries, and many contained larval nematodes (Heterocheilidae). Fig. 1. Hoplias malabaricus, 194 mm SL, female. Although weights and counts of the fishes were not recorded when the pond was poisoned, H. malabaricus appeared to rank first in weight and second only to Lepomis spp. in number of individuals. Another notable observation was the high incidence of specimens (centrarchids and small H. malabaricus) with in- jured caudal regions. We noticed no such injuries in fishes taken in seine hauls from nearby ponds where H. malabaricus was absent. Several specimens main- tained in aquaria were frequently observed to attack Lepomis spp. and Microp- terus salmoides at least half as large as they were. The prey were most frequently attacked in the region of the caudal peduncle. Discussion—The genus Hoplias is in need of revision as it is widely distrib- uted and much geographic variation exists. Azevedo, Vaz, and Parreira (1965) have recognized four species, but further study may reduce this number (Weitz- man, 1964; Mago Leccia, 1970). Hoplias malabaricus is distinguished from H. microlepis by the presence of 9 scale rows across the caudal peduncle between the lateral lines, H. microlepis having 11. However, Breder (1927) and Bussing (1966) present evidence that intergradation may occur between these forms. The number of scale rows across the caudal peduncle between the lateral lines were counted on 33 specimens collected in this study; all but one having nine, 124 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 the exception having eight. All specimens are deposited at the Florida Depart- ment of Natural Resources Marine Research Laboratory, the United States Na- tional Museum of Natural History, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Com- mission, and the Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Atlantic University. Hoplias malabaricus occurs on the Pacific slope of Central and South Amer- ica from the Rio Bayano in Panama (Loftin, 1965) to the Rio Esmeraldas system in northern Ecuador (Ovchynnyk, 1968). Along the Atlantic slope it occurs from the San Blas coast in Panama (Loftin, 1965) to the Rio Salada near Buenos Aires (Ringuelet, Aramburu, and Aramburu, 1967). Hoplias malabaricus is common within its range. It is particularly adapted to survive in areas with well-marked wet and dry seasons with the consequent rapid changes in water levels, although it is also commonly found in areas where these seasonal changes are not so pronounced. Much of the recent litera- ture on South American freshwater fishes has emphasized their adaptive strat- egies with regard to seasonal flooding (see especially Lowe, 1964; Knéppel, 1970; and Roberts, 1972), as this is the most outstanding nonbiotic characteristic of many of these river systems. In general terms, although details vary from one river system to another, extensive swamps are formed in the savanna areas dur- ing the rainy season. At this time many of the fishes move from the riverine areas, spread out over the savannas and spawn; food is plentiful and young fishes be- come abundant. As the wet season comes to a close, fishes tend to move back into more permanent tributaries and channels. However, many become isolated in ponds and pools of tributaries which have ceased to flow. If these areas are large enough, a community is established until the following wet season. The dry season represents a period of environmental stress for many fishes in these river systems, especially in isolated areas. During this season food becomes scarce, at least for nonpredators, water levels continue to drop, and oxygen levels decline. Predation pressure and crowding become extreme near the end of the dry season. Lowe (1964) in her study of the fishes of the Rupununi savanna of Guyana found H. malabaricus and Acestrorhynchus spp. to be the most common species in isolated savanna ponds. These species were not only commonly found in these ponds, but were caught in considerable numbers and made up the greatest bio- mass of fishes caught. Bonetto, Dioni, and Pignalberi (1969) found H. malabaricus to be the second fish species by weight in isolated basins in the Middle Parana River system. Previous studies allow some general statements to be made concerning the ecology and life history of this species: 1. Feeding: Adults are large, reaching 627 mm (Ringuelet et al., 1967), and known to be primarily piscivorous, although some crustaceans are also eaten (Breder, 1927; Ringuelet et al., 1967). Stomach analyses of young individuals have shown that they eat microcrustaceans, algae, aquatic insects, fine sand, and coarse bottom litter (Ringuelet et al., 1967; Knoppel, 1970). The feeding behavior of the adult is voracious, with the prey usually being attacked in the mid-body or peduncular regions, shaken violently, and then swallowed head first (Breder, 1927; Ringuelet et al., 1967; personal observation). This species feeds diurnally. No. 2, 1975] HENSLEY AND MOODY—HOPLIAS MALABARICUS IN FLORIDA 125 Although the terms trophic “specialist” and “generalist” have been applied to various South American fishes (Knéppel, 1970; Roberts, 1972), it seems pre- mature to categorize most of them until more quantitative data are obtained during wet and dry seasons. Lowe (1964) has made the point that many of these fishes probably specialize to a greater extent in the rainy season and become less selective in the dry season. However, H. malabaricus can probably be cate- gorized as a trophic generalist relative to some of the more obviously specialized South American species. Chance appears to be a major factor in determining the composition of the ichthyofaunas of streams, ponds, and pools as water levels drop at the start of the dry season (Roberts, 1972). Being a generalized piscivore in such situations has obvious advantages. Stomach analyses of H. mala- baricus have not been thorough, but the following fishes have been recorded as prey items: Basilichthys, Acestrorhamphus jenynsi, Pseudocurimata gilberti, Cichlaurus facetus, Cichla ocellaris, Crenicichla, Astyanax, and small characoids of 20-30 mm SL (Breder, 1927; Lowe, 1964; Ringuelet et al., 1967; Knéppel, 1970). 2. Reproduction: This species matures at about 150-250 mm (Moreira, 1919; Lowe, 1964). It pairs at spawning and builds a nest in the form of a shallow depression in the bottom by removing all leaves and debris. Nests are constructed in shallow water of 25-30 cm in depth. The female does not lay all of the eggs at the same time, but lays 2,500-3,000 eggs over 15 days. Ovaries of 25-30 cm females contain at least 20,000 eggs which mature in succession. Eggs are 2.0-2.5 mm in diameter. After deposition, eggs agglutinate into an irregular mass. Incubation takes about 4 days at 19°-25°C. The female vacates the nest, leaving the male to guard the eggs. Larvae are 6-8 mm long at hatching. Resorp- tion of the yolk sac takes about 10-11 days (summarized from Moreira, 1919). Breder and Rosen (1966) cite Azevedo and Gomez as giving a much shorter in- cubation time of 52 hr at 26°C. Ringuelet et al. (1967) described the size of the nest as being 15-20 cm in diameter. Lowe (1964) and others have termed H. malabaricus a “partial-spawner’’ as it produces relatively few young at a time at frequent intervals. This is in con- trast to “total-spawners” in which all eggs ripen and are shed at once. Total- spawning species appear to be more closely linked with the hydrological regime. They spawn at the beginning of the rains while dispersing over the savannas. Partial-spawning species such as H. malabaricus and Arapaima gigas are less de- pendent upon rains to initiate spawning although they still breed mainly in the wet season. Lowe (1964) found most female H. malabaricus distended with ripe or ripening ova just before the start of the rainy season. However, she found some females ripening in December, a time of slight rains in the savannas she studied, and suggested that this may be an adaptation to take advantage of two rainy seasons. Length-frequency analyses of small individuals also suggested that spawning is not contemporaneous in all individuals of a particular area. Water levels in the rainy season vary from year to year and there are frequently times when the rains cease after false starts. Many fishes, especially the total-spawners, may lose whole batches of eggs as water levels drop. Partial-spawners may have a distinct advantage in such situations. 126 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 3. Habitat: The species is generally distributed within its range, being com- monly found in swamps, savanna ponds, river pools, and slow moving streams (Carter and Beadle, 1931; Lowe, 1964; Ringuelet et al., 1967; Bonetto et al., 1969; David W. Greenfield, personal communication). Many of the areas are very shallow, contain large amounts of vegetation, and are subject to deoxygenation, especially late in the dry season. This species is able to survive in poorly oxyge- nated water by surfacing and drawing the oxygenated surface water over its gills (Carter and Beadle, 1931; Willmer, 1934). Lowe (1964) found this species in waters ranging from clear to muddy and stagnant. Moe (1964) cites Menezes as giving a temperature range for a locality on the Paranahiba River (approximately 7° south latitude) of 20.0°-32.2°C. Moreira (1919) gives a temperature range for a stream in Rio de Janeiro of 19°-30°C. Bo- netto et al. (1969) found a pH range for various localities in the Middle Parana River Valley of 5.9-8.5, stating that values are frequently in the acid range due to low buffering capacity and high amounts of CO,. Although characoids are pri- mary division freshwater fishes (Myers, 1938), H. malabaricus appears to be more salt-tolerant than other characoids and is commonly found near the mouths of rivers draining into the sea (Eigenmann, 1912; Breder, 1927; Dahl, 1971). Moe (1964) has reviewed the possibility of the piranhas, Serrasalmus nat- tereri, S. piraya, S. ternetzi, and S. niger, becoming established in Florida. Toler- ance for reduced water temperatures is probably the most critical factor for the establishment of a tropical exotic fish species in Florida. He concludes that piranhas, at least from the southern and probably the middle portions of their ranges, would be able to tolerate southern Florida’s winter temperatures. Since the southern range of H. malabaricus on the Atlantic slope of South America is approximately the same as that of S. nattereri, Moe’s reasoning would apply to H. malabaricus. An indication of water temperatures can be obtained from air temperatures. In this regard, Moreira’s (1919) temperature range for a stream in Rio de Janeiro (19°-30°C) is close to the air temperatures for this locality (Table 1). As indicated in Table 1, air temperatures for the Tampa Bay area and southern Florida in general are most similar to those of Paraguay. Furthermore, these air temperatures suggest the southern limit of this species probably has winter water temperatures lower than those of southern Florida. Moe (1964) has cited examples of exotic fishes established in Florida which were able to survive lower temperatures than those encountered in their native ranges. In addition, he and others (Courtenay and Robins, 1973) have warned that Florida’s abundant springs and relatively deep man-made canals can mitigate short-term temperature drops and are potential havens for tropical fishes. Therefore, we do not believe that temperature offers an effective barrier to the establishment of this species in southern Florida. | If the criteria for success are abundance and wide distribution, H. malabari- cus is a very successful species in the river systems of South America. It appears to owe much of this success to its generalized piscivorous feeding habits, a certain degree of plasticity in the temporal aspects of its breeding behavior, nest build- ing, and the ability to inhabit a wide range of habitats and to survive under condi- No. 2, 1975] HENSLEY AND MOODY—HOPLIAS MALABARICUS IN FLORIDA 127 TaBLeE 1. Long-term mean average air temperatures (°C) for coldest and warmest months of the year and annual averages for various South American and southern Florida localities.’ Locality Warmest Coldest Annual Average Florida Miami Airport 28.3 20.4 24.3 Belle Glade 27.0 Wei DHSS Tampa Airport? 27.8 16.4 22.4 South America Rio de Janeiro 25.68 20.4 23:3 Paraguay 27.2 17.8 23.3 Uruguay Pallet 10.0 - Buenos Aires 23.1 9.4 16.1 'Table modified from Moe (1964). ?U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Local climatological data annual summary with comparative data, Tampa, Florida (1972). National Climatic Center, Asheville, N.C. *Encyclopedia Britannica World Atlas. 1951. Edited by W. Yust. Chicago, II. tions of intense crowding and food shortages. The freshwater fish fauna of South America is the most diverse in the world, the number of piscivorous species being particularly high. The success of H. malabaricus within this area implies adapta- tions to competition and predation by other piscivores. By contrast, Florida’s ichthyofauna is depauperate, not highly adapted to competition and predation, and unlikely to pose any obstacle to the establishment and dispersal of H. mala- baricus. ConcLusion—Enforcement of existing restrictions on the importation of un- desirable fishes is a difficult task, and occurrence of a breeding population of H. malabaricus indicates that such enforcement is inadequate. Specimens of this species could have been identified at the point of importation since it resembles no other characoid commonly imported. There is little doubt concerning the origin of this species in the Tampa Bay area, an area replete with fish farms and importers. Since aquarists are not known to have any interest in this fish, it seems obvious that specimens were inadvertently included in shipments from South America and released by the importer. Because H. malabaricus is a highly successful, generalized species with vora- cious piscivorous food habits, we feel it has the potential for causing serious prob- lems in Florida. If this species is established, predicting its precise effects on the native fauna is difficult since subtle and dynamic factors may be involved for which we have no information. However, an obvious and simplistic concern should be its possible effects on freshwater sport fish populations. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—We wish to thank James Seagle, Andrew Feinstein, Richard Dietz, Charles Futch, William Lyons, Dion Powell, and Dr. John C. Briggs for assistance in field work. Jean Williams, Rena Futch, and James A. Huff provided gonadal analysis. Drs. Walter R. Courtenay, Jr., John C. Briggs, and David W. Greenfield provided valuable discussion. Critical review of the manu- script was furnished by Charles Futch, Gerard Bruger, Gregory Smith, and Dr. Walter R. Courtenay, Jr. 128 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 38 LITERATURE CITED AzEvEDO, P. pe, J. O. Vaz, AND W. B. Parrerra. 1965. Redescricdo de trairao, Hoplias lacerdae (Ribeiro). An. 2° Congr. Latinoamer. Zool. Sao Paulo 2:101-106. BonetTOo, A., W. Dront, AND C. PIGNALBERI. 1969. Limnological investigations on biotic communities in the Middle Parana River Valley. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 17:1035-1050. Breper, C. M. 1927. The fishes of the Rio Chucunaque drainage, eastern Panama. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 57:91-176. , AND D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of Reproduction in Fishes. T. F. H. Publications, Jersey City. Bussinc, W. A. 1966. New species and new records of Costa Rican freshwater fishes with a tenta- tive list of species. Rev. Biol. Trop. 2:205-249. Carter, G. S., anp L. C. BEADLE. 1931. The fauna of the swamps of the Paraguayan Chaco in rela- tion to its environment.—II. Respiratory adaptations in the fishes. J. Linn. = Zool. 37: 327-367. CourTEnay, W. R., JR., AND C. R. Rosins. 1973. 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Osteology and relationships of South American characid fishes of sub- families Lebiasininae and Erythrininae with special reference to subtribe Nannostomina. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 116:127-170. WiiM_er, E. N. 1934. Some observations on the respiration of certain tropical fresh-water fishes. J. Exp. Biol. 11:283-306. Florida Sci. 38(2): 122-128. 1975. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Rapid, efficient, and economical transmission of knowledge by means of the printed word requires full cooperation between author and editor. Revise copy before submission to insure logical order, conciseness, and clarity. Manuscripts should be typed double-space throughout, on one side of numbered sheets 82 by 11 inch, smooth, bond paper. A Carzon Copy will facilitate review by referees. Marceins should be 1% inches all around. Footnotes should be avoided. Give ACKNOWLEDGMENTS in the text. Appress should be given following the author’s name. Asstracts should be typed double-spaced immediately following the address. 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