\ | ISSN: 0098-4590 ‘rlorida Scientist Volume 43 Winter, 1980 4 Cr\a; se No. 1 CONTENTS » Behavioral Patterns of Round-tailed Muskrats More eraaten (Neofiber alleni)........... Daniel G. Webster, Robert L. Evans and Donald A. Dewsbury 1 Vegetation of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge of Broward County, Florida Based on 1940 Imagery .............. a Bryan Steinberg Occurrence of Urnatella gracilis Leidy in the Remuera AMAL PIOTIGA .. 2. 6 ee ee ee 12 H. C. Hull, L. F. Bartos and R. A. Martz Use of Stromatoporoids as an Indicator of a Coral Reef Paleoenvironment ........ Hugh J. Mitchell-Tapping 14 The Diet of the Florida Pompano (Trachinotus carolinus) Mione tne ast Coast of Central Florida...................4...: 19 Thomas M. Armitage and William S. Alevizon Diurnal Variation of Selected Parameters Under Waterhyacinths and in Open Water ......... Thomas N. Cooley and Dean F. Martin 26 Economics of Energy Management Systems in State Buildings in Florida......... Y. A. Hosni, R. D. Doering and C. D. Cooper 33 Hyperostosis in Florida Fossil Fishes........ William J. Tiffany, II Robert E. Pelham and Frank W. Howell 44 Rare Occurrences of Large Mushrooms (Tricholoma sp.) LC 2 a ee F. I. Eilers, D. TeStrake Wagner-Merner and J. A. Kimbrough 50 (continued on back cover) QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FLORIDA SCIENTIST QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Copyright © by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 1980 Editors: WALTER K. TAyLor AND HENryY O. WHITTIER Department of Biological Sciences University of Central Florida Orlando, Florida 32816 The FLoripa ScIENTIsT is published quarterly by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc., a non-profit scientific and educational association. Membership is open to indi- viduals or institutions interested in supporting science in its broadest sense. Applica- tions may be obtained from the Executive Secretary. 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Officers for 1980 FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Founded 1936 President: Dr. JosepH L. SIMON Treasurer: Dr. ANTHONY F. WALSH LIF 169 Biology Department 5636 Satel Drive University of South Florida Orlando, Florida 32810 Tampa, Florida 33620 Executive Secretary: Dr. HARVEY A. MILLER President-Elect: Dr. Harvey A. MILLER Florida Academy of Sciences Florida Academy of Sciences 810 East Rollins Street 810 East Rollins Street Orlando, Florida 32803 Orlando, Florida 32803 Program Chairman: ERNEsT D. ESTEVEZ Secretary: Dr. Patrick J. GLEASON Environmental Studies Program 1131 North Palmway New College— USF Lake Worth, Florida 33460 Sarasota, Florida 33580 Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences, Inc. 810 East Rollins Street Orlando, Florida 32803 Printed by the Storter Printing Company Gainesville, Florida Florida Scientist QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Wa tter K. Taytor, Editor Henry O. Wuirtier, Editor Volume 43 Winter, 1980 No. 1 Behavioral Sciences BEHAVIORAL PATTERNS OF ROUND-TAILED MUSKRATS (NEOFIBER ALLENI) DANIEL G. WEBSTER, ROBERT L. EVANS, AND DONALD A. DEwSBuURY Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611 Asstract: A laboratory colony of round-tailed muskrats (Neofiber alleni) was established to study their behavioral patterns under relatively controlled conditions. When placed in running wheels, the animals ran a mean of 6634 revolutions per day, displaying a nocturnal/crepuscular pattern. The 2 prominent activity peaks occurred just before light onset and offset. The copulatory pattern of N. alleni is characterized by no locking, no intravaginal thrusting, multiple intromissions preceding ejaculation, and multiple ejaculations. Several patterns of agonistic behavior and scent marking are frequently displayed.° THE round-tailed muskrat or Florida water rat (Neofiber alleni) is endemic to Florida and southeastern Georgia. In summarizing available information on N. alleni, Birkenholz (1972) noted that “Little has been reported on the behavior of Neofiber.” The objective of the present research was to collect data on the behavioral patterns of this species under the relatively controlled conditions of the laboratory. SuBjEcTs—A colony of N. alleni was established from 2 breeding pairs provided by the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. These were captive-born animals from stock originally taken from sugar cane fields near Clewiston, Florida. Twelve litters pro- duced in our laboratory yielded 8 additional males and 10 additional fe- males available for study. Animals were housed individually in clear or opaque plastic cages measuring 38 X 20 X 48.5 cm, with San-i-cel as bedding. Purina laboratory animal chow and rabbit chow, together with water, were available at all times. In addition, the animals received weekly supplements of lettuce and occasional supplements of fruit. Lighting was provided by fluorescent lights on reversed photoperiods of 15:9 with light onset at 1800 hr during the early part of the research including °The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of charges from funds made available in support of the research which is the subject of this article. In accordance with 18 U.S.C. § 1734, this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” solely to indicate this fact. Z FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 tests of running activity, and 16:8 with light onset at 1730 hr during the later part of the study, including most other observations. Dim red lights shone at all times. Activiry CycLtes—Birkenholz (1963, 1972) regarded N. alleni as pri- marily nocturnal. While citing the reports of others, he noted in his own observations that in both captivity and the field, peak activity appears to occur shortly after dark, with sporadic activity through the night and only occasional diurnal activity. However, there have been no efforts to quan- tify the diurnal pattern of activity. The activity patterns of 2 male and 1 female N. alleni were studied. At 35 da of age the animals were placed in Wahmann Model LC34 running wheels connected to a bank of Stoelting Model 22411 printout counters. Every revolu- tion of the running wheels increased the reading on a counter by one unit; counters printed the cumulative totals hourly. Animals were permitted 2 weeks in the wheels to adapt to the testing conditions. Data were then collected for 14 consecutive da. Several additional animals were placed in the wheels, but died there. As some aspect of the test situation appeared deleterious to N. alleni, no further animals were tested. The diurnal pattern of wheel running in the 3 animals was highly similar. Therefore means were calculated for each hour and are presented in Fig. 1. 600 400 200 REVOLUTIONS PER HOUR 0.00 06.00 12.00 18.00 TIME OF DAY Fig. 1. Diurnal patterning of wheel running in 3 N. alleni. The figure shows the mean and standard error for the number of revolutions of the wheels per hour for the 24-hr clock. There are 2 activity peaks in these data, the larger one just prior to light offset and a slightly smaller one just prior to light onset. This might be described as a crepusular pattern. However, the animals were generally more active in darkness than in light. Even with the dramatic peak in the last hour before light offset, there was a mean of 177.5 revolutions/hr in light compared to 496.4 No. 1, 1980] WEBSTER, EVANS, AND DEWSBURY— MUSKRATS 3 in darkness, for a nocturnal ratio of 2.80. Therefore, the pattern might best be treated as nocturnal/crepuscular. There was a mean of 6634.2 revolutions/da in this study. The nocturnal/crepuscular pattern observed and quantified under controlled laboratory conditions is very similar to the pattern reported by Birkenholz (1963, 1972) on the basis of both laboratory and field observations. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the present pattern is the apparent anticipation of a change in lighting condition, with the animals displaying increases in activity shortly before rather than after the change in illumination. As there was no obvious external cue for this anticipation, the animals presumably use some kind of internal clock in timing such changes in activity. CopuLatory BEHAvioR—Although copulatory patterns have been described for a considerable number of species of muroid rodents (Dewsbury, 1975), no such information is available for N. alleni (Birkenholz, 1972). Information on the copulatory patterns of diverse, but closely related, species, such as the muroid rodents, can be of importance in understanding the adaptive significance of the great variety apparent in patterns of copulatory behavior. With the method of adaptive correlation, one might be able to correlate such variation with variation in ecological, morphological, and other behavioral characteristics (Dewsbury, 1975, 1978). Eight male and 11 female N. alleni were available for testing. Animals re- ceived 1-14 tests per individual. Only 3 males and 3 females copulated. The males that mated were 4-40 mo of age; females were 7-27 mo. Tests were conducted in clear plexiglass cylindrical test arenas, 52 cm in diameter and 46 cm high. These were illuminated by a single 40-watt red light bulb. Behavioral patterns were recorded on an Esterline-Angus operations re- corder. Females were injected with 0.1 mg estradiol benzoate 72 hr prior to testing and 1.0 mg progesterone 4-5 hr prior to testing. Tests for individual females were spaced at least 2 wk apart. Males were placed in the arena 40-60 min prior to each test to permit them to habituate. Arenas were washed with pine-scented detergent between tests of dif- ferent males, as appreciable scent marking occurred. Tests were initiated with the introduction of an injected female into the test arena. No sibling pairs were tested. Tests without copulation were terminated after one-half hour, or earlier if the female appeared in danger from an overly aggressive male. Tests with copulatory activity were permitted to continue until attainment of the standard satiety criterion of 30 min with no copulations (Dewsbury, 1975). The copulatory pattern of N. alleni is quite similar to that of laboratory rats, Rattus norvegicus (Beach and Jordan, 1956), marsh rice rats, Oryzomys palustris (Dewsbury 1970), and old-field mice, Peromyscus polionotus (Dewsbury, 1971). Three major patterns could be recognized using behavioral criteria. Mounts were scored when the male mounted the female and displayed pelvic thrusting, but apparently failed to gain vaginal penetration. Intromissions were scored when the male mounted the female and gained apparent vaginal penetration, but did 4 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 43 not ejaculate. Such occurrences are signalled, as in laboratory rats, by a rapid and very stereotyped pattern of dismounting. The male thrusts himself backward from the female and initiates a bout of genital grooming (see Beach and Jordan, 1956). As in laboratory rats, the duration of intromissions was quite brief—well under one second. Ejaculations were scored when the male attained vaginal penetration of longer duration than those of intromissions and dismounted either after falling on his side, hanging onto the female, or standing in an upright posture. That sperm transfer occurred with and only with those events scored as ejaculations was confirmed with vaginal smears taken after tests with and without such behavior. Mounts, intromissions, and ejaculations occur in series, with each series ending in ejaculation and separated from other series by a period of sexual inactivity. | As in laboratory rats, females displayed a pattern in which they would run a short distance from the male, stop, and permit him to mount. The receptive or lordotic posture entails a concave posture of the spine and may be observed in the absence of contact with the male in highly receptive females. The 3 pairs copulated in 3, 3, and 2 tests respectively, for a total of 8 tests with mating. These tests included a total of 17 ejaculatory series, for a mean of 2.1 ejaculations per test (range 1-3). The mean time from introduction of the female to the first intromission was 139 sec (range 35-311). The first ejaculation of a test was preceded by a mean of 7.8 intromissions (range 2-19). Second ejacula- tions were preceded by a mean of 6.4 intromissions (range 4-10), and third ejaculations by a mean of 6.0 intromissions (range 4-8). The number of mounts per series was 30.9 (range 0-109), 17.2 (range 1-37), and 8.5 (range 1-27) for the 3 series, respectively. The ejaculation latency may be defined as the time in sec from the first intromission of a series to the ejaculation terminating the series. The means for the 3 successive series were 302.8 (range 101-621), 428.2 (range 53-1354), and 183.5 (range 46-335). The mean interintromission intervals, time in sec between successive intromissions, were 51.3 (range 20.3-88.7), 65.3 (range 13.2-193.9), and 30.7 (range 9.2-47.9). The postejaculatory intervals, time from ejaculation to the next intromission, were 700.6 (range 538-1057) and 774.0 (range 592-973) following the first and second ejaculations, respectively. The copulatory pattern of N. alleni can be characterized as entailing no lock (mechanical tie between penis and vagina), no intravaginal thrusting, multiple intromissions prerequisite to ejaculation, and multiple ejaculations occurring in a single episode. This corresponds to pattern # 13 described by Dewsbury (1972). This is a very common muroid pattern; of the 31 species categorized by Dews- bury (1975), 10 displayed this pattern. Thus, although there is considerable vari- ation among the copulatory patterns of different species of muroid rodents (Dewsbury, 1975), the pattern of N. alleni is a very typical one and unremarkable. The most notable characteristics are the relatively small changes across suc- cessive series, which contrasts with many other species. For example, the number of intromissions required to reach each of the 3 ejaculations is approximately the same. AGONOSTIC BEHAVIOR—Agonistic behavioral patterns were frequently ob- No. 1, 1980] WEBSTER, EVANS, AND DEWSBURY — MUSKRATS 5 served in tests of copulatory behavior and were studied in 1 staged male-male encounter. Behavioral patterns were similar in both contexts. Males generally appeared dominant to females. A pattern apparently functioning as a threat display by males included a shuffling and stamping of the front feet in con- junction with a displacement of substrate material to the sides with the forepaws. Such behavior was apparent only in an aggressive context, generally prior to attack. Biting attacks were generally directed at the rear and flanks of the other animal. In the male-male encounter such biting occurred in conjunction with a pattern of shaking of the head and kicking with the rear legs, together functioning to throw the other animal from the attacker. Subordinate animals adopted a posture presumed to signal submission, in which the spine was curved convexly as the animal appeared to sit on its haunches orienting toward the opponent. SCENT MARKING—Urinary scent marking by males was observed both during tests of copulatory behavior and in the home cages. Of the 233 instances of scent marking observed during tests of copulatory behavior, only two occurred during ejaculatory series; the rest occurred before or after series. Three or 4 urine-marking patterns were apparent. The first pattern was one of raised-leg marking and resembled the urinary pattern of male dogs. This pat- tern often was displayed soon after the male encountered the female. The male would back up several steps, face the female, raise his leg, and mark. In a second pattern, the male displayed “standing on head,” as he planted the forepaws on the substrate and the hindpaws against the side of the test arena. In the third pattern, the male appeared to “mark” the female. The male crawled over the female’s head and, as his hind quarters passed over with one leg trailing, he would mark the female. In a fourth pattern, which was observed on only a few occasions, the males dragged their hindquarters over the substrate for short distances. It could not be determined with certainty whether or not any substance was actually deposited in association with this behavior. Because of its rarity and uncertain function, this pattern was not included in counts of the frequency of scent marking. How- ever, such patterns are often associated with scent marking in other species (Eisenberg and Kleiman, 1972). GENERAL Discuss1on—Round-tailed muskrats are not recommended as a lab- oratory animal. Because of their size, they require more space than many other rodent species. N. alleni are slow to reproduce compared to other species. Further, because of their prominent marking behavior they are difficult to keep clean. N. alleni do not adapt and perform in various testing situations as readily as many other species in testing situations such as the running wheels and the copulatory test situations used in the present research. Although not readily adaptable as a laboratory animal, N. alleni do display several interesting behavioral patterns. Of the 13 species of muroid rodents whose activity patterns in running wheels have been studied in this laboratory, N. alleni is the only species to display a nocturnal/crepuscular pattern; most other species are strictly nocturnal with a single activity peak. 6 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 The copulatory pattern of N. alleni is quite typical of muroid rodents. They differ from Microtus species in the absence of intravaginal thrusting, a pattern also reported among microtines for Clethrionomys (McGill, 1977). Patterns dis- played in scent marking are typically mammalian (Eisenberg and Kleiman, 1972). The relatively high levels of aggression and scent marking found in the laboratory are both consistent with the overall solitary pattern characterizing this species in the field, where houses are occupied by just one individual. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—Supported by Grant BNS78-05173 from the National Science Foundation. We thank David Decker and personnel at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Gainesville, Florida for providing breeding stock. Please address request for reprints to D. A. Dewsbury, Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611. LITERATURE CITED Beacu, F. A., anp L. Jorpan. 1956. Sexual exhaustion and recovery in the male rat. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. 8:121-133. BirnkENHOLZ, D. E. 1963. A study of the life history and ecology of the round-tailed muskrat (Neofiber alleni True) in North-Central Florida. Ecol. Monogr. 33:255-280. wes . 1972. Neofiber alleni. Mammal Spec. 15:1-4. Dewssury, D. A. 1970. Copulatory behavior of rice rats (Oryzomys palustris). Anim. Behav. 18:266- 275. _________.. 1971. Copulatory behavior of old-field mice (Peromyscus polionotus subgriseus). Anim. Behav. 19:192-204. . 1972. Patterns of copulatory behavior in male mammals. Q. Rev. Biol. 47:1-33. ___________. 1975. Diversity and adaptation in rodent copulatory behavior. Science, 190:947-954. _. 1978. Comparative Animal Behavior. McGraw-Hill. New York. KISENBERG, J. F’., anD D. G. KLerman 1972. Olfactory communication in mammals. Ann. Rev. Ecol. System. 3:1-32. McGiL, T. E. 1977. Reproductive isolation, behavioral genetics, and functions of sexual behavior in rodents. Pp. 73-109. In Rosenblatt, J. S. and Komisaruk, B. R. (eds.). Reproductive Be- havior and Evolution. Plenum. New York. Florida Sci. 43(1):1-6. 1980. FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES MEETING Plan to attend the 44th Annual Meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences on 23, 24, and 25 March 1980 at the University of South Florida, Tampa. Biological Sciences VEGETATION OF THE ATLANTIC COASTAL RIDGE OF BROWARD COUNTY, FLORIDA BASED ON 1940 IMAGERY’ BRYAN STEINBERG University of Florida Agricultural Research Center, 3205S. W. 70th Avenue, Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33314 Asstract: With the 1940 imagery and past vegetational studies in southern Florida as a base, the vegetation of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge of Broward County is mapped to show Strand, Tropical Hammock, Low Hammock, Mangrove, Swamp, Scrub, Pine Flatwoods, Dry Prairie, Wet Prairie and Marsh. Differences in vegetational types have characteristic species composition, ecology and soils.° SOUTHERN FLORIDA’S VEGETATION was surveyed as early as the 1760's. Span- ish records of southern Florida’s vegetation before the English period (1763-1783) are few and lack detail. The first English surveys were by De Brahm (1773) and Romans (1775). They described some vegetation types (pinelands, hammocks, swamps, marshes), and physical coastal features (inlets and rivers). During the 1800's the need for military information in the Seminole Wars brought about the production of the first reasonably accurate vegetation maps of southern Florida (Bruff, 1846; Ives, 1856). Federal surveys delineating townships and ranges for southern Florida (MacKay, 1845; Williams, 1870; Fries, 1898) also described some vegetation characteristics as did the United States Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey (1883, 1884) of the area from the coastline west to the first coastal ridge. Contemporary methods of vegetation analysis were pioneered in the early 1900's. Harshberger (1914) and Harper (1927) produced the first ecological studies of the vegetation of southern Florida. Later, Davis (1943) stressed ecology, soils and topography and introduced remote sensing to vegetation analysis, Alex- ander (1958) published the only detailed vegetation analysis of a part of Broward County, a coastal section in Pompano Beach (T.49S, R. 43E, Sec. 6). Urbanization has caused the spread of exotic species into natural habitats. Currently Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi, Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. and Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) Blake are 3 exotic tree species which have in- vaded much of the native vegetation of Broward County. These species spread into any habitat that is disturbed. I have mapped the vegetation of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge of Broward County from the earliest imagery available (1940). The vegetation maps will aid in the assessment of human interference and exotic species spread into the natural habitat of the County. ‘Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Masters of Science degree at Florida Atlantic Uni- versity, Boca Raton, Florida 33431. * The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of charges from funds made available in support of the research which is the subject of this article. In accordance with 18 U. S.C. § 1734, this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” solely to indicate this fact. 8 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 MeEtTHOps—The vegetation maps were produced using standard stereo- scopic techniques with aerial photographs from the United States Department of Agriculture (1940, 1947, 1948, 1949). Ground truth surveys were made of the existent vegetation to aid in the interpretation of the vegetation from the photo- graphs. Changes which occurred before 1940 in the vegetation are not shown on the vegetation maps, but earlier studies which described vegetation features were compared with vegetation maps. Particularly useful early studies were by De- Brahm (1773), Romans (1775), MacKay (1845), Bruff (1846), Ives (1856), Williams (1870), United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (1883, 1884), Fries (1898), Harshberger (1914), Harper (1927), Davis (1943), and Alexander (1958). VEGETATION—Ten vegetation types are recognized. Strand: =Sea Beach Formation and Dune Formation (Harshberger, (1914); = “Strand” (Davis, 1943) but not Coastal Hammock (see below). Strand is the first vege- tation to occur inland from the ocean on beaches along the coasts. Soils are undifferen- tiated beach sands. The species are herbaceous to shrubby, salt tolerant, display varying degrees of succulence, and are often dispersed by the ocean. Species in the Strand are characteristically zoned: ZONE 1: Closest to the ocean this zone typically contains Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R. Brown, Canavalia maritima (Aubl.) Thouars., Iva. imbricata Walt. and Paspalum distichum L. ZONE 2: Uniola paniculata L., Tournefortia gnaphaloides (L.) R. Br., Suriana maritima L., Scae- vola plumieri Vahl. and Helianthus debilis Nutt. often occur in this dune stabilizer zone. ZONE 3: This zone consists mostly of thorny or prickly plants, commonly including Opuntia compressa (Salisb.) Macbride var. austrina (Small) L. Benson, Yucca aloifolia L., Cnidoscolus stimu- losus (Michx.) Engelm. & Gray and Agave decipiens Baker. ZONE 4: The zone farthest from the ocean contains thickets of shrubby plants such as Serenoa repens (Bartr.) Small, Coccoloba uvifera (L.) Chrysobalanus icaco L., Randia aculeata L., Sabal pal- metto (Walt.) Lodd ex Schultes and Scaevola plumieri Vahl. Strand vegetation occurred along the entire coast of Broward County (Maps I, 2, and 3). Tropical Hammock: =High Hammock Formation (Harshberger, 1914): includes Coastal Hammock of Davis (1943). These hammocks seem to be confined to areas where the temperature inside rarely, if ever, drops below freezing. Most commonly these habi- tats are coastal, probably because of the warming effect of the ocean. The soils are Palm Beach fine sand (U.S.D.A., 1946) and a variety of sands, loams and rocklands (Davis, 1943). Occasionally tropical hammocks are found inland at higher elevations on limestone outcrops or inland sand dunes. The characteristic species are: TreEs: Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg., Mastichodendron foetidissimum ( (Jacq). Cronquist, Sabal palmetto, Coccoloba diversifolia Jacq., Krugiodendron ferreum (Vahl) Urban, Metin toxiferum (L.) Krug & Urban, Zanthoxylum fagara (L.) Sarg. Simarouba glauca DC. J SuRuBs: Ardisia escallonioides Schlecht. & Cham., Eugenia axillaris (Sw.) Willd. Psychotria nervosa Sw., Amyris elemifera L., Coccothrinax argentata (Jacq.) Bailey. Herss: Rivina humilis L., Nephrolepis exaltata (L.) Schott. Vines: Smilax bona-nox L., Vitis shuttleworthii House. Epipuytes: Tillandsia fasciculata Sw. T. recurvata L., T. usneoides L., _Encyclia tampensis (Lindl.) Small. Tropical Hammock was common along the coast of Broward County between the ocean and the Intracoastal Waterway (Maps 1, 2, and 3). Inland tropical hammocks oc- curred in Broward County but less frequently (Maps 2 and 3). Low Hammock: Includes Oak Hammocks, Oak Cabbage Palm Hammocks and Cab- bage Palm Hammocks of Davis (1943). These hammocks are dominated by southern tem- perate tree species and are rarely flooded. Most Low Hammocks are elevated, but some- times they occur in depressions or in ecotones between Scrub and some other vegeta- No. 1, 1980] STEINBERG— ATLANTIC COASTAL RIDGE VEGETATION 9 tion of lower elevation (e.g., Marsh, Wet Prairie, Swamp, Mangrove). Some of the more common soils are Dade fine sand, St. Lucie fine sand (U.S.D.A., 1946) and Limestone outcrops. The typical dominant species are: TREES: Quercus virginiana Mill., Sabal palmetto, Ficus aurea Nutt., Celtis laevigata Willd., Morus rubra L. SHRuBs: Psychotria nervosa, P. sulzneri Small, Serenoa repens, Callicarpa americana L. Rhus copallina L. Herss: Thelypteris normalis (C. Chr.) Small, Nephrolepis exaltata, Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn, Blechnum serrulatum Richard. Vines: Smilax auriculata Walt., S. laurifolia L., Vitis rotundifolia Michx., V. shuttleworthii. Eprpnytes: Tillandsia usneoides, T. recurvata, T. fasciculata, Encyclia tampensis, Polypodium polypodioides (L.) Watt. Low Hammock was frequently associated with the Hillsboro River, Cypress Creek, Middle River and New River systems in Broward County (Maps 1, 2, and 3) as well as ecotones between Scrub and some vegetation of lower elevation. Pine Island Ridge is a distinctive stand of Low Hammock approximately 10-15 mi inland elevated above the Everglades on St. Lucie sands (Map 3). Mangrove: These are brackish to salt water swamps characteristic of protected coastal areas where there is shallow salt or brackish water little disturbed by wave action. The soils are Perrine Marl (U.S.D.A., 1946) and undifferentiated mangrove peats (Davis, 1943). The dominant species are trees or shrubs and may occur in zones. The outer zone is of Rhizophora mangle L. In back of this zone may occur a band of Avicennia germinans (L.) L. and Leguncularia racemosa Gaertn. f. The inner zone may contain Conocarpus erecta L. and Dalbergia ecastophyllum (L.) Benth. Mangroves were common in 1940 on both sides of the Intracoastal Waterway (Maps 1, 2, and 3). Most of these mangroves have replaced coastal fresh water systems (Marsh) present before the dredging of the Intracoastal Waterway and the opening of new inlets to the ocean (United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1883, 1884; Austin, 1976). Swamp: Includes all Swamp classifications of Harshberger (1914), Harper (1927) and Davis (1943). This is any stand of natural fresh water vegetation dominated by tree spe- cies, which is seasonally flooded or flooded most of the year. The most common soils are Lauderhill and Dania mucks (U.S.D.A., 1971), Davie mucky fine sand, and Pompano fine sand (U.S.D.A., 1946). The most common species are: TREES: Taxodium distichum (L.) Richard, Acer rubrum L., Persea borbonia (L.) Spreng. Salix caroliniana Michx., Ficus citrifolia Mill., Quercus laurifolia Michx., Magnolia virginiana L. SHRuBs: Psychotria nervosa, P. sulzneri, Myrsine guianensis (Aubl.) Kuntze, Myrica cerifera L., Baccharis halimifolia L. Herss: Sagittaria lancifolia L., Thalia geniculata L., Pontederia lanceolata Nutt., Nuphar luteum (L). Sibth. & Sm. spp. macrophyllum (Small) Beal., Crinum americanum L., Cladium jamaicensis Crantz., Lemna perpusilla Torr., Blechnum serrulatum, Osmunda regalis L., Nephrolepsis biserrata Schott. Vines: Smilax auriculata, S. laurifolia, Vitis shuttleworthii, V. rotundifolia, Parthenocissus quin- quefolia (L.) Planchon., Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze. Epipuytes: Tillandsia fasciculata, T. utriculata L., T. usneoides, T. setacea Sw., T. balbisiana Schultes, Epidendrum rigidum Jacq., E. anceps Jacq., Encyclia tampensis, Polypodium polypodioides, Campyloneurum phyllitidis (L.) Presl., Phlebodium aureum (L.) Sm. Swamp was common in Broward County along river systems (e.g., Cypress Creek, Middle River, and New River) and on the western section of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge south to New River (Maps 1 and 2). Scrub: =Sand Pine Scrub (Davis, 1943); = Pine Barrens (Romans, 1775). This is the characteristic vegetation of sand ridges of St. Lucie, Paola, and Pomello sands (U.S.G.S., 1973). Scrub is not known to occur at elevations less than 10-15 ft above sea level. Fire is important in maintaining Scrub and burning commonly occurs every 20-40 yr (Florida Department of Natural Resources, 1975). The species display xeric adaptions such as small 10 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 43 thick or succulent leaves, and specialized underground parts. Suckers are very common as a means of reproduction. The most common species are: Trees: Pinus clausa (Engelm.) Sarg. (sometimes not present). SHRUBS: Quercus virginiana var. geminata Sarg., Q. myrtifolia Willd., Q. chapmanii Sarg., Q. minima (Sarg.) Small., Serenoa repens, Ceratiola ericoides Michx., Ximenia americana L., Licania michauxii France., Lyonia ferruginea (Walt.) Nutt., L. lucida (Lam.) K. Koch, Vaccinium myrsinites Lam. Herss: Polygonella gracilis (Nutt.) Meissner, P. fimbriata (Ell.) Horton, P. polygama (Vent.) Engelm. & Gray, Palafoxia feayi Gray, Sisyrinchium solstiale Bicknell. Vines: Cassytha filiformis L., Smilax laurifolia. Epripuytes: Tillandsia recurvata, T. balbisiana. Scrub occurred in Broward County mostly west of the Intracoastal Waterway from the Palm Beach County line to Dade County and was transversed by Swamp and Marsh systems (Maps 1, 2, and 3). The largest Scrub ridge was transversed to the north by the Hillsboro River system and to the south by the Cypress Creek system (Map 1). Pine Flatwoods: = Slash Pine (Harshberger, 1914); = Flatwoods (Harper, 1927); = Dry Pineland and Wet Pineland (Long & Lakela, 1971). Pine Flatwoods occur where soils are moderately to well drained and are fairly uniform in elevation. This habitat was not common on the Atlantic Coastal Ridge of southern Florida (MacKay, 1845; Ives, 1856; Williams, 1870), even though previous authors believed Pine Flatwoods was the domi- nant vegetation in that area (Harper, 1927; Davis 1943). Pine Flatwoods may occur on Immokalee soil (Davis, 1943), but also occur on a variety of other soil types such as Arzell and Broward fine sands (Wet Prairie soils) and St. Lucie sands (Scrub soil). The presence of Pine Flatwoods in Wet Prairie is mostly due to drainage of soils since the turn of the century. Scrub may be replaced by Scrubby Flatwoods dominated by Pinus elliottii Engelm. and Quercus spp. if the burning cycle is increased. The normal burning cycle for Pine Flatwoods is from 3-7 yr (Hofstetter, 1974). In southern Florida Pine Flatwoods vegetation has the following common species: TREES: Pinus elliottii (at least 3 trees per acre). SHRUBS: Serenoa repens and Ilex glabra (L.) Gray (two most common shrubs), Lyonia ferruginea, Lyonia lucida, Befaria racemosa Vent. Heres: Coreopsis leavenworthii T & G, Heliotropium polyphyllum Lehmann, Hypericum tetra- petalum Lam., Satureja rigida Bartr. ex Benth. A few scattered stands of Pine Flatwoods occurred in Broward County in 1940 border- ing the Everglades (Map 2) and in the southern sections of the county 3-5 mi inland (Map Dry Prairie: =Palm Savana (Harper, 1927); = Palmetto Prairie, Kichler, 1964. Dry prairie is similar to Pine Flatwoods in soil and species composition except Pinus elliottii does not exceed 2 trees per acre (Harper, 1927). This vegetation commonly occurs as a result of overburning of Scrub or Pine Flat- woods vegetation. Except for lack of Pinus elliottii, the typical species of Dry Prairies are the same as Pine Flatwoods (See Pine Flatwoods) but Serenoa repens is the dominant species. In Broward County, Dry Prairie occurred in the northern section four to 6 mi inland (Map 1) and in the southern section 3-5 mi inland (Map 3). | Wet Prairie: Includes all Wet Prairie classifications of Davis (1943). This is low domi- nantly “grassy” vegetation of seasonally wet soils. Most commonly the soils are Arzell and Broward fine sands (U.S.D.A., 1946). A surface layer of muck up to a few inches deep may occur in wetter sites such as temporary ponds. Characteristically Wet Prairie lacks trees, but Pinus elliottii may be present in dryer sites and Taxodium distichum may be widely scattered in wetter sites. The typical species are: Suruss: Myrica cerifera, Baccharis halimifolia. Herss: Aristida patula Chapm. ex Nash, Spartina bakerii Merrill, Andropogon glomeratus (Walt.) BSP, Hypericum fasciculatum Lam., Oxypolis filiformis (Walt.) Britt., Pluchea rosea R. K. No. 1, 1980] _ STEINBERG— ATLANTIC COASTAL RIDGE VEGETATION ll Godfrey, Rhynchospora corniculata (Lam.) Gray, Flaveria linearis Lag., Eupatorium coeles- tinum L., Xyris jupicai Richard, Sabatia grandiflora (Gray) Small. Wet Prairie was common in Broward County interspersed with Marsh or Swamp bordering the Everglades and also was present in depressions within Scrub ridges (Maps F.2~and 3). Marsh: Includes Saw-grass Marshes, Flag Marshes, Aquatic-plant Marshes, Cat-tail Marshes, Spike-rush or Needle-grass Marshes, Mixed Herb and Shrub Marshes, Fern Marshes and Bulrush Marshes of Davis (1943). Marsh is treeless fresh water vegetation on soils that are seasonally wet or covered with water most of the year. This is the char- acteristic vegetation of the Everglades. Soils usually have a thick muck layer of a few to several feet. Some of these soils are Everglades peat, Okeelanta muck and Parkwood sandy loam (U.S.D.A., 1946). The most common species are: SHRuBS: Myrica cerifera, Salix caroliniana, Baccharis halimifolia, Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven, L. peruviana (L.) Hara. Herss: Cladium jamaicensis, Sagittaria lancifolia, Pluchea odorata Cassini, Pontederia lanceolata, Nuphar luteum, Nymphaea odorata Ait., Utricularia purpurea Walt., Blechnum serrulatum, Thelyp- teris totta, Sabatia grandiflora, Panicum hemitomon Schultes, Spartina bakerii. In Broward County, Marsh was common in transverse depressions which cut through the Scrub ridges and also in the section of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge bordering the Ever- glades (Maps 1, 2, and 3). Conc.usions—The origins of stands of the current vegetation become evi- dent when compared with the vegetation maps (Maps I, 2, and 3). Today much of coastal Broward County is urbanized with remnants of the vegetation remain- ing in scattered sites. These stands can be linked to pre-urban vegetation systems in the county. Scattered stands of Scrub vegetation (T.47S., R.42E., Secs. 1, 6; T.48S., R.42E., Secs. 6, 12, 13, 24, 25) are all part of one large scrub ridge (Map 3). Similarly scattered stands of Swamp (T. 498S., R.42E., Secs. 5, 9, 10, 11) are part of a swamp system associated with Cypress Creek. Successional changes in the vegetation since 1940 also became evident when the current vegetation is compared with the vegetation maps (Maps, 1, 2, and 3). Some of the changes in the vegetation which have occurred are Wet Prairie to Pine Flatwoods (T.48S., R.41E., Sec. 33), Scrub to Dry Prairie (T.48S., R.42E, Sec. 33), Scrub to Low Hammock or urbanized sections with Quercus virginiana and Pinus elliottii the dominant tree species (T.50 s., R.42 E., Sec. 4). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—I thank my major professor, Daniel F. Austin and my committee mem- bers: Robert B. Grimm, Roy R. Lemon, and Thomas T. Sturrock (Florida Atlantic University) for their help. The Joint Center for Environmental and Urban Problems provided financial assistance (Vegetation Maps as a Guide for Planning in South Florida, 1974-1975; D. F. Austin, principal in- vestigator). Funds for publication were kindly provided by the University of Florida, IFAS, Agricul- tural Research Center at Ft. Lauderdale. Fellow graduate students Donald R. Richardson and An- thony Arico gave much encouragement, David Schwartz of the Florida Department of Transporta- tion provided soil maps, and Robert V. Dowell of the University of Florida, assisted in the prepa- ration of the final draft of the manuscript. LITERATURE CITED ALEXANDER, T. R. 1958. Ecology of the Pompano Beach Hammock, Quart. J, Florida Acad. Sci. 21: 299-304. Austin, D. F. 1976. Mangroves as monitors of change in the Spanish River. Florida Environ. Urban Issues. 3(3):4-7, 15-16. 19) FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 BrowarD County Commission. 1975. Annual Report, Ft. Lauderdale. BrurF, J. G. 1846. The State of Florida. Map published by D. McClelland, Washington. Davis, J. H. 1943. The Natural features of Southern Florida. Florida Geol. Bull. 25:6-301. De Braum, J.W.G. 1773. Report of the General Survey in the Southern District of North America. L. Devorsey, Editor. Univ. S. Carolina Press, Columbia, 1971. FLoripA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL Resources. 1975. Florida Environmentally Endangered Lands Plan. Florida Dept. of Nat. Res. Tallahassee. Fries, J. D. 1898. United States Survey Plot of T.50S, R.41E. with the outlines of the sections estab- lished. Harper, R. M. 1927. Natural Resources of Southern Florida. Ann. Rept. Florida Geol. Sur. 18:22-206. HARSHBERGER, J. W. 1914. The Vegetation of South Florida. Trans. Wagner Free Institute of Sci- ence. Phil. 7:51-189. HorstTETTER, R. H. 1974. The Effect of Fire on Pineland and Sawgrass Communities of Southern Florida. In: Gleason, P. G., Environments of South Florida Present and Past. Mem. Miami Geol. Soc. 2:201-209. 2 Ives, J. G. 1856. Memoirs to Accompany a Military Map of Florida. Wynkoop Co., N.Y. Kicu er, A. W. 1964. Potential Natural Vegetation of the Conterminous United States. Amer. Geogr. Soc. Spec. Publ. No. 36, N.Y. Lonc, R. W., anp O. Lakexa. 1971. Flora of Tropical Florida. University of Miami Press, Coral Gables. MacKay, G. 1845. Survey Plots of T. 48S. R.41E., T.48S., R.42E., T.48S., R.43S., T.49S., R.42E., T.49S., R.43E., T.50S., R.42E., T.51S., R.42E. with the outline of the sections established. U.S.G.S. 1883. East Coast of Florida from Biscayne Bay Northward. Reg. No. 1510. . 1884. East Coast of Florida between Hillsboro and New River Inlets. Reg. No. 1657. . 1884. East Coast of Florida between South End of Lake Worth and Hillsboro Inlet. Reg. No. 1657. U.S.D.A. 1914, 1946, 1962, 1973 Soil Surveys, Broward County, Florida. . 1940, 1947, 1948, 1949. Aerial photographs, Broward County, Florida. U.S. Dept. oF INTERIOR. 1969, 1973. Topographic Quadrangles, Broward County, Florida. Wi.uiams, M. A. 1870. Survey Plots of T.48S., R.41E., T.48S., R.42E., T.48S., R.43E., T.49S., R.42E., T.49S., R.43E., T.50S., R.42E., T.51S., R.42E., with the outline of the section established. Florida Sci. 43(1):7-12. 1980. OCCURRENCE OF URNATELLA GRACILIS LEIDY IN THE TAMPA BYPASS CANAL, FLORIDA~—H. C. Hull, L. F. Bartos and R. A. Martz, Southwest Florida Water Management District, Brooksville, Florida 33512 Asstract: The first occurrence of Urnatella gracilis Leidy in Florida is reported. Sub- strate utilization and physicochemical parameters are reported. * NUMEROUS SPECIMENS of Urnatella gracilis Leidy (Phylum Endoprocta) were collected in the Tampa Bypass Canal, Hillsborough Co., Florida, from August 1977 to September 1978. U. gracilis, the only reported fresh-water endoproct in North America, has not been reported previously from Florida. The organism occurs at scattered localities in the northeast United States (Pennak, 1953; Weise, 1961). It has also been collected in Oklahoma (Harrel and Wallis, 1967) and Texas (Weise, 1961; McCullough and Smith, 1975). *The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of charges from funds made available in support of the research which is the subject of this article. In accordance with 18 U. S. C. § 1734, this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” solely to indicate this fact. No. 1, 1980] HULL, BARTOS, AND MARTZ— Urnatella 13 The Tampa Bypass Canal is part of a system devised to prevent flooding of developed areas in Tampa and Temple Terrace, Florida. The canal (formerly Six-Mile Creek) is approximately 22.5 km long and connects the Hillsborough River with McKay Bay. Channelization was begun by the Army Corps of Engi- neers in 1966. The area (Section 3A), where U. gracilis is found, was completed in 1975. At the time of sampling, upstream earthen plugs separated the canal from the Hillsborough River prohibiting the direct migration of aquatic or- ganisms from one system to the other. However, some plugs have been removed recently and it is quite possible that U. gracilis will become established in the river. U. gracilis is characteristically found attached to rocks, sticks, and molluscan shells (Weise, 1961). Our findings agree, with utilized substrates including sub- merged wood, limestone rock, remnants of marine bivalves exposed by dredging and shells of living Pomacea paludosa and Goniobasis floridensis. In addition, colonies were found on decaying stalks of Typha sp. and even on a piece of hard plastic. Our study objective was to monitor revegetation following channelization within a defined section (3A) of the canal (Martz, 1977). The finding of U. gracilis was incidental to this and therefore information relative to its distribution and ecology is limited. The organism can inhabit moderately polluted waters, but conditions were not as degraded as reported for other U. gracilis occurrences (McCullough and Smith, 1975; Cox and McCullough, 1976). Study site physicochemical parameters included: temperature (10.0-29.0 °C), specific conductance (334-582 umho cm~' @ 25 °C), dissolved oxygen (3.4-13.6 ppm), percent oxygen saturation (43-155), pH (7.4-9.8) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (2.1-4.5 ppm). Concentrations of nitrate (0.0-0.47 ppm), nitrite (0.0-0.04 ppm), ammonia (0.02-0.14 ppm), ortho-phosphate (0.12-0.38 ppm), sul- fate (74-80 ppm) and chloride (29 ppm) were comparable to the lower range of values reported by McCullough and Smith (1975). Additional water quality data can be obtained from the authors. U. gracilis has been reported to feed upon various phytoplankton including Melosira varians (Weise, 1961). McCullough and Smith (1975) suggest that M. varians influences the distribution of U. gracilis. U.S. Geological Survey data in- dicates that Melosira sp. was present in only 1 of 3 sample collections during our study. This suggests that the relationship is not significant in this system. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—We appreciate the assistance of Jack D. McCullough of Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, Texas, who verified identification. LITERATURE CITED Cox, D., ano J. D. McCutLoucu. 1976. Urnatella gracilis Leidy from the Angelina River. Texas. Texas J. Sci. 27:489. Harre., R. C., anp C. S. Watuis. 1967. Urnatella gracilis Leidy (Endoprocta) new to Oklahoma. Southwest Nat. 12:203. Martz, R. A. 1977. Progress Report—Tampa Bypass Canal—Berm Revegetation Study. Environ. Sect. Tech. Report 1977-2. Southwest Florida Water Mgmt. Dist., Brooksville, Florida. 14 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 McCutvoucu, J. D., AND B. SmitH. 1975. Some ecological observations on Urnatella gracilis Leidy. Southwest. Nat. 20:171-176. Pennak, R. W. 1953. Fresh-water Invertebrates of the United States. McGraw-Hill, New York. WeIsE, J. G. 1961. The ecology of Urnatella gracilis Leidy: Phylum Endoprocta. Limnol. Oceanogr. 6:228-230. Florida Sci. 43(1):12-14. 1980. Earth Sciences USE OF STROMATOPOROIDS AS AN INDICATOR OF A CORAL REEF PALEOENVIRONMENT Hucu J. MITCcHELL-TAPPING Amoco Production Company, New Orleans, Louisiana 70150 AssTrRAct: It is proposed that the stromatoporoids, previously considered extinct, are equivalent to the silico-calcareous sponges, based on ultrastructure, existing today in the tropical reef environ- ment and that they can be used as a particular paleoenvironmental indicator of the reef crest and patch reef zones. The proposed reef interior environment explains the various shapes of the organism, bedding, and other structures found in the paleoenvironments of the stromatoporoids.° FoR MANY YEARS the stromatoporoids have been considered extinct, and their known paleoenvironmental relationship to the tabulate and colonial corals has been reported in many studies of ancient reef complexes (Bathurst, 1971). So much confusion has arisen concerning their origin and classification (plants, hy- drozoans, sponges, algae) that many researchers have shied away from using the stromatoporoids as an environmental indicator and have preferred to use other more proven genera. I propose that the stromatoporoids be used as an indicator of a very special kind of reef environment. There are very few published studies on the paleoenvironment of stromato- poroids and only a few concerning their systematics. Most articles concerning the systematics quote or misquote certain major works in the field. The most quoted work is that of a Belgian scientist, Dr. Marius Lecompte in “Treatise of Invertebrate Paleontology, Part F, Coelenterata (1956).” This work was based on stromatoporoids from the Devonian reefs of Belgium which he undertook to describe, locate, and reference in museums across Belgium and in his published papers (1951 and 1952). In the Treatise he considers the stromatoporoids to range from the Cambrian to Cretaceous, which is not generally accepted by some au- thors (St. Jean, 1967) who consider the range only as Middle Ordovician to the Upper Devonian. The stromatoporoid skeleton is regarded as made up of rods in * The costs of publication of this article were defraved in part by the payment of charges from funds made available in support of the research which is the subject of this article. In accordance with 18 U.$.C. § 1734, this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” solely to indicate this fact. No, 1, 1980] MITCHELL-—TAPPING— STROMATOPOROIDS 15 the Lecompte classification, but in some Mesozoic genera, there appear to be both vertical and radial pillars (St. Jean, 1967). In the family Actinostromatidae, he refers to the coenosteum as having hexactinellid shape which seems to infer that the stromatoporoids are sponges (a point that will be considered later). He also considers the group as having a close systematic affinity to the Foraminifera. Another classification, developed by Galloway (1957), followed that of Le- compte, but only confused the issue further by depending heavily on microscopic detail which confused skeletal and diagenetic fabrics, and failed to distinguish between organic cellular tissue and crystal mosaics. The first to attempt a serious classification of the stromatoporoids by exami- nation of the ultrastructure of these calcareous organisms was Stearn (1966). His own words describe the intricate nature of these data when he writes: “The small size and indifferent preservation of these microstructures seem to have discour- aged objectivity and encouraged idealization so that they have been described in terms of what they might have been rather than what they are now.” By the ex- amination of the ultrastructure of certain families, Stearn managed to clarify some of the confusion generated in the past, but at the same time observed some affinity of the group to the Porifera. Hartman and Goreau (1970) described a number of species of a remarkable and very little understood group of living sponges which are very much akin to certain stromatoporoid families. The Sclerospongia are unusual in the fact that they have a basal skeletal mass composed of aragonite instead of the more com- mon calcite. The overlying tissue contains siliceous spicules as well as spongin- like organic fibers. These siliceo-calcareous sponges had previously been ob- served in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, but the siliceous spicules found in them were considered derived from other species, because it was thought that no sponge or any organism can secrete both aragonite and opal. Another species was later discovered off Cuba, but was referred to the octocorals, which led Alexander Agassiz to speculate a relationship to the fossil tabulate corals or even to an extinct group of Bryozoa. Hartman (1966) described 6 new species of these sponges in detail, and in a joint paper with Goreau (1970) considered them in re- lation to the stromatoporoids and placed 4 of the new species in a new genera Stromataspongia. These species live in the fore-reef zone in the coral reefs off the north coast of Jamaica at depths between 5 and 95 m, generally on the walls and roofs of caves. They vary in color from beige to a brilliant red and are obli- gate symbionts with sepulid worms whose tubes are based in the aragonitic skele- ton of the sponge. Bathurst (1971) considers that certain families of the stromatoporoids might belong to the Porifera, but he strongly thinks that they are hydrozoans for the most part and others could be related to the Algae. The previous work concerning the paleoecology of the stromatoporoids has mainly been deduced from descriptions of various formations bearing reef-like environments. In his article on organic reefs, Cloud (1952) concludes that the stromatoporoids are cnidarians and play a part similar to the crustose coralline 16 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 algae (Lithothammon) in existing reefs, that is, in building reef structures. La- porte (1969), in recognizing transgressive carbonate sequences, calls the stro- matoporoids corals; and considers them as small encrusting tabular or digital- shaped corals with hemispherical heads. From evidence found in the rocks of the Manlius Formation he considers them typical of the subtidal beds, and are mainly found in the migrating tidal channels within a tidal-flat lagoon complex. In an examination of the Presqu’ile Dolostone in Canada, Beales (1971) considers the environment of the dolostones as a stromatoporoidal reef-—controlled barrier on the edge of an evaporite basin. This has led to the conclusion that the stro- matoporoids existed in a complex of supra-tidal shoals. Evidence presented by Boucot (1975), from the stromatoporoids found in the Silurian-Devonian Santa Lucia limestone complex, shows that the environment may have been very turbulent because the stromatoporoids occur as massive unbedded structures in a well-washed matrix. This evidence is strongly supported by Lowenstam (1950) and Textoris and Carozzi (1964) who have established that some Silurian reefs grew upwards into water sufficiently agitated to produce rolled stromatoporoids and corals. These rolled stromatoporoids were also found in the reef facies of the Silurian Gower Formation by Philcox (1971). Discussion—Johnson (1961) has pointed out that the coralline algae Litho- thamnium increases in diversity in higher latitudes and is not limited to shallow tropical waters, but can also occur in cold polar waters at relatively great depth (Lemoine, 1940). These observations would seem to negate that the stromatopo- roids are cnidarians as proposed by Cloud (1952) because existing evidence has shown that the stromatoporoids only exist in a tropical reef environment and that there is no reported warm shallow water variety of cnidarian. Laporte’s evidence of a migrating tidal channel in a lagoon complex is based on the reports of stromatoporoids being found in thick mud sequences, considered sub-tidal. On the contrary, Wallace (1972) in examining the stromatoporoids from the De- vonian Cantabrian Cordillera considers, on the evidence of a great amount of terrigenous material in the matrix, the stromatoporoids to have lived in a deeper and less turbulent environment. The suggestion that the stromatoporoids may be coelenterates is not gener- ally accepted because the research already completed on their ultrastructure does not show affinity to any of the corals. In fact, the evidence presented by the examination of the microstructure, such as the pores and black specks, may indi- cate that the presence of siliceous material could have been present in the struc- ture but may have been dissolved away during preservation. The interpretation of the original environment after post-depositional change has occurred has caused even further confusion (Beales, 1971) because the stromatoporoids have been considered supra-tidal on the basis of the cementation of white sparry dolo- mite, which is generally considered secondary diagenesis. It seems unlikely that the stromatoporoids should appear so suddenly in the Late Ordovician and disappear just as quickly in the Late Devonian. If one ex- amines the total number of researchers, about a score in the last 2 decades, a majority of them do not really consider the stromatoporoids in themselves but No. 1, 1980] MITCHELL-—TAPPING—STROMATOPOROIDS 17 only as one of many components-of the reef environment. Therefore, it is entirely possible that sufficient research has not yet been carried out both in the field, and of various existing collections held in many museums. The very small time range of the stromatoporoids may actually extend from the Early Paleozoic to the Cenozoic-Recent. The evidence for this may possibly lie in the environmental analysis of other genera, with greater time ranges, existing at the same time. In the Chazyan Complex (Middle Ordovician), sometimes called “the oldest coral reef’ (Raymond, 1924), the stromatoporoids are associated with red and blue- green algae, lithistid sponges, tabulate corals, and bryozoans in the Upper mem- bers. The mud present is a common constituent and the stromatoporoids appear as boulder rubble. Whereas on Anticosti Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence they appear as small high mounds in association with tabular corals, they appear as bedded on Baffin Island, Alaska. In the Silurian, there are many examples of the association of the tabulate corals with the stromatoporoids. In Gottland the association appears as a cres- cent-shaped reef, while in Britain in both the Wenlock and Woolhope reefs, the association grows in mounds approximately 20 m high with algae and masses of bryozoans present. In the Thornton reef, near Chicago, there appears to be an elliptical atoll with a lagoon having a coral reef on one side and a stromato- poroidal-rich reef on the other. High mounds composed of tabulate and rugose corals together with bryozoans and encrusting algae show a rapid replacement upwards by stromatoporoids in the Irondequoit Limestone of New York, which may indicate a rapid change in environment. In the Devonian, the stromatoporids are closely associated with coralline red algae and the corals. In the Ardennes in Belgium, stromatoporoid mounds appear as high as 200 m with a mud-rich matrix which may indicate a shallow agitated water zone (Lecompte, 1954). In Germany, the stromatoporoids and colonial corals form shelf margin reefs and isolated atolls. Other places such as Russia, West Pakistan, Northwest Africa, Morocco, Spanish Sahara, and Alberta show atolls composed of broken rounded stromatoporoids, indicating strong water agitation, and lagoons in which the stromatoporoid appear as slender, stick-like organisms. The largest reef in the Devonian is found in northwest Aus- tralia and is 19 km wide and 50 km long. This reef shows both massive, laminar and digitate stromatoporoids in association with colonial petrocorals, blue- green algae, sponges, Renaliis, and brachiopods. In all the above examples, the terminology of reef complex and reef environ- ment are considered differently. A reef environment is a concentration of car- bonate skeletons, usually in growth position, which significantly influences ad- jacent sedimentation because of its relief, while a reef complex is the result of sedimentation in an area of reef influence causing a topographic high. Thus, from the examination of the various environments of the different reef complexes, the stromatoporoids appear to be restricted to the reef environment but may be deposited in both the fore and the back reef zones. In considering the rolled or rounded appearance of some preserved stromatoporoids, one can sug- gest an explanation that the stromatoporoids are similar to those silico-calcareous 18 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 sponges that can be seen in reefs off Jamaica, St. Thomas and St. Croix. These organisms are found in caves and grottoes at various depths and grow on the roofs and walls and appear to have a rounded growth in some circumstances. If the sedimentation of the reef area is great and the existing environmental conditions are changed there is a chance that these rolled or rounded organisms may be pre- served. In the grottoes and caves other sponge forms are abundant together with coral-line algae and corals, are usually present on the walls and roof, while on the floor there is usually fine-grain to mud-sized sediment. This may explain the presence of a mud matrix in some specimens and the different wave energy en- vironments. ConcLusion—The stromatoporids may be considered as silico-calcareous sponges from environmental and ultrastructural characteristics. The absence of the preservation of the siliceous spicules is not of a great problem due to under- saturation in surface water in SiO, and because modern reef sediments contain very little amounts of Sponge spicules considering the very large quantities of living sponges present. Their environment is known to be the reef interior which would explain the bedding and other structures found in the paleo-environments. From these observations the stromatoporoids may be considered a very special particular paleoenvironmental indicator of the interior of a reef crest, patch reef, or a carbonate mound having relief, in a tropical area. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—This paper is published with permission of Amoco Production Company, but the views expressed herein are not necessarilv coincident with those of Amoco Production Com- pany. LITERATURE CITED Batuurst, R. G. C. 1971. Carbonate Sediments and their Diagenesis. Developments in Sedimen- tology, Vol. 12. Elsevier Publ., New York. Beaes, F. W. 1971. Cementation of white sparry Dolomite. Pp. 216-224. In, Bricker, O. P. (ed.). Carbonate Cements. Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore. Boucot, A. 1975. Evolution and Extinction Rate Controls. Elsevier Publ., New York. Coup, P. E. 1952. Facies relationships of organic reefs. Bull. Amer. Ass. Pet. Geol. 36:2125-2149. GatLoway, J. J. 1957. Structure and classification of the stromatoporoidea. Bull. Amer. Paleont. 37:341-470, Hartman, W. D. 1966. Ceratoporella, a living sponge with stromatoporoid affinities. Amer. Zool. 6:563-564. Hartman, W. D., anp Goreau, T. F. 1970. Jamaican coralline sponges: their morphology, ecology, and fossil relatives. Symp. Zool. Soc. London, 25:205-243. Jounson, J. H. 1961. Limestone-building Algae and Algal Limestones. Colorado Sch. Mines, Boulder, Colorado. Laporte, L. 1969. Recognition of a transgressive carbonate sequence. In, Friedman, G. M. (ed.). Depositional Environments in Carbonate Rocks. Soc. Econ. Paleo. Min. Spec. Publ. # 14. Lecompte, M. 1951. Les stromatoporoides du Devonien moyen et superieur du basin de Dinant. Inst. Roy. Soc. Nat. Belg. Mem. 116. . 1952. Les Stromatoporoides du Devonien Moyen et superieur du basin de Dinant. Inst. Roy. Soc. Nat. Belg. Mem. 117. . 1956. Stromatoporoidea. Pp. 107-144. In, Moore, R. C. (ed.). Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Part. F. Coelenterata. Geol. Soc. Amer., Boulder, Colorado. Lemoine, P. 1940. Les algues calcaires de la zone neritique. Sec. Biogeogr. Mem., #7, p. 75-138. Lowenstram, H. A. 1950. Niagaran reefs of the Great Lake area. J. Geol. 58:430-487. Puitcox, M. E. 1971. Growth forms and role of colonial coelenterates in reefs of the Gower Forma- tion Iowa. J. Paleo. 45:338-346. No. 1, 1980] MITCHELL-TAPPING—STROMATOPOROIDS 19 RayYMOnp, P. E. 1924. A calcareous beach at John O'Groats, Scotland. J. Sed. Pet. 2:63-67. STERN, C. 1966. The microstructure of stromatoporoids. Paleo. 9:74-124. Sr. JEAN, J. 1967. Maculate tissue in stromatoporoidea. Micropaleo 13:419-444. Textoris, D. A., AND Carozzi, A. V. 1964. Petrography and evaluation of Niagaran (Silurian) reefs, Indiana: Amer. Assn. Pet. Geol. Bull. 48:397-426. Wattace, P. 1972. Populations and paleoenvironments of the Devonian of the Cantabrian Cor- dillera, N. Spain. Int. Geol. Cong. 24th, Sec. 7. Paleo. Vol. 1:121-129. Florida Sci. 43(1):14-19. 1980. Biological Sciences THE DIET OF THE FLORIDA POMPANO (TRACHINOTUS CAROLINUS) ALONG THE EAST COAST OF CENTRAL FLORIDA THomas M. ARMITAGE (1) AND WILLIAM S. ALEVIZON (2) Virginia Institute of Marine Science, College of William and Mary, Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062 (1); Department of Biological Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida 32901 (2) Asstract: The diet of the Florida pompano (Trachinotus carolinus) was investigated by exam- ining stomach contents of adults from the Indian River and juveniles from the surf zone off Brevard County. Juveniles consumed primarily benthic crustaceans, mainly Emerita talpoida, and the bi- valve, Donax variabilis. The diet of the adults consisted mainly of bivalve molluscs in the families Tellinidae, Mactridae, and Arcidae. In comparison with juveniles, the adults displayed a decrease in the number of planktonic organisms that are selected as prey items. Availability of prey appears to be more important than caloric content of prey in determining the diet of T. carolinus. The diet of adult pompano may be more diverse in those individuals found near the inlet regions of the lagoon. Our findings differ from previous studies that have determined bivalves to be more important in the diet of juvenile Florida pompano and crustaceans to be dominant in the diet of adult Florida pom- pano. * ALTHOUGH a number of limited studies have been conducted on the diet of adult Trachinotus carolinus (Evermann and Marsh, 1902; Tracy, 1910; Miles, 1949; Gunter, 1945; Finucane, 1969), there is no information available from Flor- ida’s Indian River. Similarly, the diet of juvenile pompano has not been investi- gated on the east coast of Florida, although the diet of juveniles has recently been investigated in Louisiana (Bellinger and Avault, 1970), Georgia (Fields, 1962), and in Tampa Bay, Florida (Finucane, 1969). We describe the diet of adult Flor- ida pompano inhabiting the Indian River of Florida in the area of Brevard and Indian River counties, and of juveniles inhabiting nearshore waters in this region during their initial summer growth period. MeEtHops—Adult pompano were collected in the Indian River between Vero *The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of charges from funds made available in support of the research which is the subject of this article. In accordance with 18 U. S.C. § 1734, this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” solely to indicate this fact. 20 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 Beach and Cocoa from March through August 1978 at the sites indicated in Fig. 1. Although adults are present in the Indian River throughout the entire year, this study was designed to determine the diet of these fish during the period of their maximum abundance and activity in estuarine waters. Obtaining suitable numbers of specimens at other times of the year would be difficult because of local migratory patterns of these fish. Similarly, juveniles may be taken from the sandy shore beach habitat only during the period of time commencing in April and extending through late October. Adult fish were obtained from the catches of commercial fishing boats cruis- ing the Indian River during the hours between sunset and sunrise. A hand-held spotlight was used to detect areas of fish concentration. The “flight” of pompano exposed to a spotlight beam has been well documented (Phillips, 1952). This technique is used by commercial fishermen to locate fish. The fish were taken with a 10 cm mesh-layered pompano gill net. The nets were between 549 and 1,097 m in length; all were 1.2 m deep. Only mature specimens, longer than stan- dard length of 24 cm, were retained in the gill net. After the fish were removed from the gill net, the water temperature at the catch site, the locality of the catch site, and the standard length of each fish were recorded. To analyze the stomach contents, the entire digestive tracts were removed, immediately injected with 10% formalin, and separately placed in sealed vials. Juvenile pompano were collected during daylight hours within the period of their maximum recruitment upon beaches in the study area. A 13 m one-eighth- inch mesh nylon bag seine was used to obtain the juveniles during July and August. The digestive tract of each juvenile was injected with 10% formalin, and the entire fish was immediately preserved in 10% formalin. In the laboratory, the gut contents were removed by flushing with 50% etha- nol. Prey items were then separated, identified, and counted with a dissecting microscope. Prey items were segregated according to taxon for each sample period and dried at 60°C to a constant weight. The resultant groups of each type of prey item were then weighed. Thus, the relative utilization of the various types of prey items are expressed as proportions of the total diet in terms of dry weight. Although volumes are more commonly used in studies of fish diets, they are diffi- cult to estimate accurately. The relative caloric contribution of heavily utilized prey items by juveniles was determined by obtaining live representatives of these and measuring the caloric content of the entire animal, including shell, with a Parr 1214 oxygen bomb calorimeter. Because adults heavily utilized only a single type of prey item, caloric analysis of their diet was not performed. REsuLTs—A total of 176 mature individuals was obtained in 11 collections. To investigate local variation in the diet of the pompano caught in the study area, each collection was categorized as being obtained in 1 of 3 predetermined re- gions: the Banana River-Eau Gallie region, the Sebastian Inlet region, and the Sebastian-Vero Beach region. The fish collected ranged from 200-275 mm in standard length (mean=241 mm). Only 54 individuals had identifiable prey items in their digestive tracts, indicating that mature pompano may feed pri- marily during the daylight hours. No. 1, 1980] ARMITAGE AND ALEVIZON—FLORIDA POMPANO 21 ATLANTIC Eau Gallie tad “ ° BaG5 0%,” aes POR 8 wee! e s&s ate® Cnisrentirele Sebastian™ VERO BEACH Fic. 1. Map of study area. Numbers indicate collection sites. Bivalves were the dominant prey items of the adult fish (Table 1). This was consistent at all 3 regions of the study area. However, the utilization of many of the minor prey items differed between the 3 regions (Table 2). These data sug- gest that adult Florida pompano in this area forage primarily for bivalves. The differences observed probably reflect the differing availability of minor prey items at the 3 regions as a result of environmental differences, and possibly some seasonal effects. The dominant bivalves were of the genus Tellina, which com- prised 33% of the identifiable bivalves. Although about 38% of the bivalves were 22 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 TaBLE 1. Major prey items of juvenile and mature Trachinotus carolinus from the Central East- ern Coast of Florida for summer recruitment period, 1978. (a) (b) (c) Prey Item Fotal Percent Average Total Caloric (Frequency Dry of Total Caloric Contribution o Weight Dry Weight Value (a) X (c) Occurrence) (mg) of Diet (cal/mg) Juveniles (N = 51) Crustacea Emerita talpoida (38) 210 38.8% 3.064 693 Bivalvia Donax variabilis (16) 181 33.5% 2.255 408 Adults (N = 54) Bivalvia Tellina spp. (23) 2215 32.0% NA NA Unidentified Bivalves (43) 2570 37.1% NA NA Other Bivalve Species (34) 2008 29.0% NA NA TaBLE 2. Minor prey items of mature Trachinotus carolinus from the Indian River for summer spawning period, 1978 (N = 54). Average Length Frequency of Occurrence Prey Item of Prey in mm Banana River- Sebastian Vero Beach- Eau Gallie Inlet Sebastian Crustacea NA 2 2 ] Isopoda 4 0) 1 0 : Portunid Crab 70 0 1 () Shrimp 7 2 () 1 Gastropoda 9 2 fe 0 Insecta 5 1 () 0) Invertebrate Eggs NA 1 8 0 Polychaeta 5 4 4 0 Plant Matter 12 0 4 0) Sand and Mud NA 11 15 ll Parasitic Trematodes NA iy, iN 13 No. 1, 1980] ARMITAGE AND ALEVIZON—FLORIDA POMPANO 22 too fragmented for positive identification, most were probably Tellina species because they were in the same size range as the identifiable individuals. A total of 51 juveniles was obtained in 3 collections from the surf zone of Brevard County beaches. Fourteen juveniles were collected in July and 37 juve- niles were collected in August 1978. Specimens ranged from 10-65 mm in stan- dard length with a mean of 34.7 mm. Only | digestive tract of the 51 juveniles did not contain material that could be identified as food. Because juveniles were collected during the day, this is further evidence that Florida pompano feed pri- marily during daylight hours. Table 1 presents the major prey items taken from juvenile T. carolinus dur- ing the study period. The diet of juveniles consisted primarily of the crustacean, Emerita talpoida, and the Coquina clam, Donax variabilis. The dominance of these prey items probably reflects their availability in the shoreward margin of the surf zone. The dry weights of each of these 2 prey items were nearly equal (Table 1, column a). However, the caloric contribution of Emerita talpoida to the juvenile diet is considerably greater than that of Donax variabilis (Table 1, column d). Table 3 gives the minor prey items of juveniles for the entire spawning and recruitment period. A comparison of these data with the minor prey items of adult Indian River pompano (Table 2) indicates that, as juveniles grow to matur- ity and enter the Indian River, there is a dietary shift from crustaceans to bivalve molluscs. The minor prey items utilized by the juveniles were of greater diversity than those utilized by adult pompano (Tables 2 and 3). This can be primarily attributed to the greater diversity of crustaceans in the diet of juveniles. There was little difference in the size of prey items selected by juvenile and mature pompano (Tables 2 and 3). This is somewhat surprising because the mouth sizes of juvenile and adult pompano are quite different. Tasie 3. Minor prey items of juvenile Trachinotus carolinus off Brevard County for summer recruitment period, 1978 (N = 51). Average Length Frequency of Prey Item of Prey in mm Occurrence Crustacea NA 49 Amphipoda 6 13 Cirripedia 3 1 Isopoda 4 6 Shrimp 9 25 Shrimp Larvae 2 l Bivalvia 2 14 Gastropoda 1 l Insecta 10 4 Invertebrate Eggs NA 16 Polychaeta 4 9 Porifera 3 1 Sand and Mud NA 23 Parasitic Trematodes NA 15 24 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 43 Discusston—The diet of adult T. carolinus in the Indian River differs from that of adult T. carolinus in other regions. The dominant food item in this region is bivalve molluscs. In waters off of Rhode Island, Texas, and Louisiana, adult pompano eat primarily shrimp and fishes (Tracy, 1910; Miles, 1949; Gunter, 1945). However, Florida pompano in Tampa Bay, Florida and Puerto Rico eat primarily bivalves (Evermann and Marsh, 1902; Finucane, 1969). Adult T. carolinus in the Indian River may be characterized as generalized carnivores, feeding primarily upon infaunal bivalves. In the Sebastian Inlet, the diversity of prey items consumed by T. carolinus is considerably greater than that consumed by fish in the Banana River-Eau Gallie or Vero Beach-Sebastian re- gions. The inlet region probably supports a much richer fauna. However, it is possible that some of these observed differences in diet are related to seasonal fluctuations in prey abundance because collections in the 3 areas were made at different times. . Many adult fish had empty stomachs. Individuals, when gill netted, often re- gurgitate their stomach contents (Tabb, 1961). This may explain the large num- ber of empty stomachs. It may also be possible that T. carolinus feed primarily during daylight hours and that by the time they were taken, digestion had been completed. However, no relationship was found between time of capture and fullness of gut, which may indicate that the schooling adults have no regular diel feeding pattern, but feed irregularly in response to chance encounters of prey and/or some sort of social signal. All juveniles analyzed were taken during daylight hours, and most yielded full digestive tracts. The diet of juveniles in this region is similar to that of juveniles in other areas where the fish has been studied (Fields, 1962). However, our data show the rela- tive absence of a diversity of molluscs and the dominance of a single crustacean, Emerita talpoida. Bellinger and Avault (1970) have reported that numerous bi- valves, particularly the genera Dosinia, Donax, and Mulinia, are of importance in the diet of juvenile Florida pompano in Louisiana. Finucane (1969) reported that amphipods, larval and adult Diptera, and the mollusc Donax variabilis, all were important in the diet of very small juveniles caught in the Tampa Bay; larger juveniles ate mainly large crustaceans and molluscs. The diet of juveniles probably reflects the availability of prey items in the local habitat. Emerita talpoida and Donax variabilis, the most frequently ob- served prey items, are extremely common in the shoreward margin of the surf zone. The high frequency of Donax variabilis, an organism with a relatively low caloric content, in the diet of juvenile fish suggests that juvenile pompano do not preferentially select high calorie prey items. An optimal predator either meets its energy requirements in the least amount of feeding time or produces the greatest net energy gain for a given time spent feeding (Schoener, 1969). In areas of low food density, predators must spend great amounts of time finding edible foods. In areas of high food density, predators can become more selective, seek- ing only calorie-rich foods over an enlarged optimal foraging itinerary. It would appear that juvenile Florida pompano cannot afford to pass up an available food of relatively low caloric content (e.g., Donax variabilis). No. 1, 1980] ARMITAGE AND ALEVIZON— FLORIDA POMPANO 25 Factors other than food density may influence the foraging behavior of juve- niles. It is known that fish feeding upon sessile prey items, such as those utilized by the pompano, may forage over a wider area for food than fish that chase and capture their prey (MacArthur and Pianka, 1966). Interspecific competition may also influence foraging and prey selection. By removing food items and interfer- ing with access to resources, competitors should reduce the foraging itinerary of a predator (MacArthur and Pianka, 1966). Numerous Atlantic permit (Trachino- tus fulcatus) were caught concurrently with juvenile T. carolinus. Although the diet of the Atlantic permit was not investigated, Fields (1962) suggested that they eat many of the same items as the Florida pompano. Thus, the foraging behavior of Florida pompano is probably a compromise between many factors, including prey abundance, predators, and competition. The diet of adult pompano in the Indian River is of lower diversity than the diet of juvenile oceanic pompano in this area. These data differ from the results of other studies that have reported feeding to become more diversified as pom- pano mature, and pharyngeal plates supplant teeth as the primary oral feeding structures (Finucane, 1969). No differences in the average size of prey items taken by juveniles and adults were evident. However, adults may take consider- ably larger prey items than juveniles if these items are available. SuMMARY—l. The diet of juvenile Trachinotus carolinus on the beaches of Brevard County is dominated by crustaceans, particularly Emerita talpoida, and the bivalve Donax variabilis. 2. Prey items of juveniles are probably selected in proportion to their availability. 3. The diet of adult T. carolinus in the Indian River is dominated by bivalves, particularly those of the family Tellinidae. 4. As they mature and enter the Indian River, juveniles switch from a diet consisting primarily of bivalves and crustaceans to a diet consisting mainly of bivalves. There is a decrease in the number of planktonic foods selected as minor prey items by these fish. 5. The diet of adult Indian River pompano appears to be of greater diversity near the Sebastian Inlet region than in other areas of the river. 6. The large number of empty guts observed in samples of adults collected from the Indian River at night suggest that these fish feed mainly during daylight hours. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS— This research was performed in satisfaction of the Masters Degree thesis requirements at the Florida Institute of Technology. Support was provided by general research funds at the Florida Institute of Technology. We thank the commercial fishermen of the Indian River, Don Wilson, Richard Thomas, and others who donated their time and energy to this project. Thanks are also extended to Kerry Clark and Terrell Roberts for reviewing and improving the man- uscript. LITERATURE CITED BELLINGER, J. W., anv J. W. Avautt. 1970. Food habits of juvenile pompano (Trachinotus caro- linus), in Louisiana. Trans. of the Amer. Fish. Soc. 3:486-494. 20 for 1900, pt. 1. Pp. 49-350. Fieps, H. M. 1962. Pompanos (Trachinotus species) of the south Atlantic coast of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. Fish. Bull. 207: 189-222. Finucane, J. H. 1969. Ecology of the pompano (Trachinotus carolinus) and the permit (T. fulcatus) in Florida. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 98:478-486. 26 FLORIDA SCIENTIST | [Vol. 43 Gunter, G. 1945. Studies on marine fishes of Texas. Public. Inst. Mar. Sci. 1:1-190. MacArtuour, R. H., anp E. Pianka. 1966. On optimal use of patchy environment. Amer. Nat. 100:603-609. | Mies, D. W. 1949. A study of the food habits of fishes in the Aransas Bay area. Texas Game, Fish Commission Lab. Ann. Rept. for Fiscal Year 1948-49, Pp. 129-169. PuiLuips, C. 1952. An observation on the flight of the pompano. Copeia. 3:203. SCHOENER, T. W. 1969. Optimal size and specialization in constant and fluctuating environments: An Energy Time Approach Pp. 71-81. In: Woodwell, G. M., and H. H. Smith (eds.). Diver- sity and Stability in Ecological Systems. Brookhaven Symp. Biol. 22. Tass, D. C. 1961. A contribution to the biology of the spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus, of east central Florida. Florida Board of Cons. Tech. Series No. 35. Tracy, H. C. 1910. An annotated list of the fishes known to inhabit the waters of Rhode Island. Four- teenth Ann. Rep. of the Comm. of Inland Fisheries, Pp. 35-176. a Florida Sci. 43(1):19-26. 1980. Biological Sciences DIURNAL VARIATION OF SELECTED PARAMETERS UNDER WATERHYACINTHS AND IN OPEN WATER THOMAS N. Coo.ey (1) AND DEAN F. MarTIN (2) Departments of Biology (1) and Chemistry (2), University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 Asstract: Variation of physico-chemical characteristics of a water column is important in any study on nutrient trace metal-ion removal and lake restoration practices. Diurnal variation of selected parameters was studied under a waterhyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) mat as well as at an open water site in a lake in southwest Florida. Some similar trends were observed at both sites. Temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen peaked at 1400 hr, whereas inorganic carbon, iron, and PO,-P peaked between midnight and 0200 hr. Some site differences were also observed: (1) dissolved inorganic carbon was usually higher under the mat than at the open water site, (2) iron concentration exhibited a bimodal increase under the mat from 1400-2200 hr and 0200-0800 hr, but increased at the open water site from 2400-0600 hr, (3) PO,-P increased from 2200 hr to midnight under the mat, but increased from midnight until 0600 hr at the open water site. The correlations between the data for each site indi- cate that a more rapid turnover of iron occurs within the micro-environment of the waterhyacinth- covered water column. ° Because of forming dense, impenetrable mats, the waterhyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms) is currently considered to be the most serious aquatic weed problem worldwide (Pieterse, 1978). Dense stands of these plants obstruct navigation, obstruct irrigation canals and farmland drainage (Penfound and Earle, 1948), block water intake tubes in hydro-electric units (Evans, 1963), in- crease water loss through evapo-transpiration (Timmer and Weldon, 1967), and limit the recreational uses of water bodies. The determination of trace-metal uptake and storage by waterhyacinth is *The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of charges from funds made available in support of the research which is the subject of this article. In accordance with 18 U. S.C. § 1734, this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” solely to indicate this fact. No. 1, 1980] COOLEY AND MARTIN— WATERHYACINTHS n, important in any long-term study relative to the control of this aquatic plant as well as in the practice of lake restoration through trace-metal nutrient removal. Such information is significant, also, in studies of trace metal-ion removal from treated sewage effluent by these plants. Removal rates of nitrogen and phosphorus have been reviewed (Cooley and Martin, 1978). Only recently have concentrations and distributions of trace metals within waterhyacinth parts been reported (Cooley and Martin, 1977; Cooley and Martin, 1979). Iron accumulation has been shown to be very signifi- cant (Cooley and Martin, 1978), but the variation of iron in the environments supporting waterhyacinths has not been examined previously, although Ultsch (1973) and Ultsch and Anthony (1974) examined other parameters. The diurnal variation of some physico-chemical parameters has been exam- ined during the growing season with particular emphasis being placed on a com- parison of an open water site with a site covered by a waterhyacinth mat. In this manner, the effect of the waterhyacinths upon the physico-chemical character- istics of the water column including iron was evaluated. MarTeriaLs AND Metuops—The variation of selected physical and chemical characteristics at 2 sites in the USF 30th Street Lake, SR 581, Tampa, Hills- borough County, Florida was investigated on 7 July 1976. Site 1 was 10 m off- shore (ca. 2 m depth) in a dense mat of waterhyacinths, and site 2 was 20 m off- shore (ca. 3 m depth) in open water away from the mat. Duplicate water samples were collected in Cubitainers (Nalgene, 500 ml) every 2 hr beginning at 1200 hr for a 24 hr period. No precipitation occurred during our collection of data. One of each of the duplicate Cubitainers was acidified with 0.1 ml 1 M hydrochloric acid. Temperature and dissolved oxygen (D.O., YSI Model 57 dissolved oxygen meter) were measured on location at collection time. pH was measured in the laboratory with a Beckman Expandomatic SS-2. Water samples were filtered through a medium-pore fritted-glass filter before chemical analyses were per- formed. Total dissolved carbon and dissolved inorganic carbon were analyzed with a Beckman Model 915 total carbon analyzer using the non-acidified samples (US EPA, 1974). Total iron, phosphate-phosphorus, and nitrate-nitrite-nitrogen were analyzed with the Technicon Autoanalyzer II within 24 hr of collection, using both acidified and non-acidified samples for comparison (US EPA, 1974). RESULTS AND Discussion—We proposed: (1) to examine diurnal variation of physico-chemical parameters in a southwest Florida lake for comparison with observations by other workers, and (2) to compare and attempt to correlate physico-chemical parameters to identify major nutrient interactions. Our observations were similar to those of Bamforth (1962) and Ultsch (1973), even though the open water site in our study was devoid of macroscopic aquatic plant. For example, Ceratophyllum was present at the open water site used by both Ultsch (1973) and Ultsch and Anthony (1974). Similar results were obtained at both sites for temperature (Fig. 1), pH (Fig. 1), and dissolved oxygen (Fig. 2). A general increase in temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen occurred during the day, reaching a maximum about 1400-1600 hr and a minimum about 0600 hr. Ultsch (1973), also 28 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 found that surface temperature profiles were similar in both open water and waterhyacinth-covered areas of a pond (1.5 m, average depth). Dale and Gillespie (1976), on the other hand, found higher temperatures (from 4-11°C higher) at the surface 2 cm below a waterhyacinth mat than in open water. A general increase of pH occurred during the day from 0600-1600 hr, but pH values were lower beneath the waterhyacinth mat than in the open 0 3 1200 i800 2400 0600 i200 HOURS Fic. 1. Variation of dissolved organic carbon (C,), total dissolved carbon (C,), pH and temper- ature over a 24 hr interval at the USF 30th Street Lake for an open water site (2) and one covered by a waterhyacinth mat (1). No. 1, 1980] COOLEY AND MARTIN— WATERHYACINTHS 29 water. This agreed with observations by Bamforth (1962) and Ultsch (1973). Dissolved oxygen concentrations, on the other hand, were higher under the waterhyacinth mat than in open water from noon to 1800 hr. Ultsch (1973) described D.O. levels that were appreciably lower under the mat than in open water, although Bamforth (1962) indicated that an increase of D.O. was common during the day (in 0.5-1 m deep ponds). D.O. (ppm) PO,-P (ppb) Cj (ppm) 1200 1800 2400 0600 1200 HOURS Fic. 2. Variation of iron (acidified, Fe,), dissolved inorganic carbon (C,), dissolved phosphate- phosphorus (PO,-P) and dissolved oxygen (D.O.) over a 24 hr interval at the USF 30th Street Lake for an open water site (2) and one covered by a waterhyacinth mat (1). 30 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 Five constituents (total dissolved carbon and dissolved organic carbon, dis- solved inorganic carbon, acidified iron, and dissolved orthophosphate-phos- phorus exhibited a common pattern, irrespective of site (Figs. 1 and 2). Concen- trations of these constituents generally increased from midnight until dawn, after which time the concentrations decreased. However, some site differences were observed for each of 5 constituents. Total dissolved carbon (Fig. 1) and dissolved inorganic carbon (Fig. 2) concen- trations were greater beneath the mat between midnight and early morning, but were greater at the open water site during the afternoon. A bimodal increase of iron concentration (Fig. 2) occurred beneath the waterhyacinth mat from 1400- 2200 hr and from 0200-0800 hr. A more erratic pattern for iron concentration occurred during the day at the open water site. A clear, increasing trend was noted, however, between 2400 and 0600 hr. A lag between sites for increasing dissolved PO,-P was observed (Fig. 2). At the site with waterhyacinths, PO,-P in- creased between 2200 hr and midnight, followed by a slow but steady decrease until early morning. In the open water site, however, PO,-P increased from mid- night until 0600 hr before sharply decreasing after dawn. As expected, dissolved inorganic carbon was commonly higher under the mat than at the open water site (Ultsch, 1973). The decline of dissolved inorganic carbon during the day under the waterhyacinth mat has been explained, in part, by Ultsch and Anthony (1974). Two explanations account for this observation: (1) dissolved carbon dioxide may be driven off by a rise in temperature, or (2) there may be uptake of dissolved carbon dioxide by the waterhyacinth roots. The latter explanation has been effectively examined using radio-tracer studies by Ultsch and Anthony (1974) and can account for 11% of the total carbon fixed by waterhyacinths. The general decline of iron, inorganic carbon and PO,-P concentrations dur- ing the afternoon was in accord with the results obtained by Bamforth (1962), although these parameters declined between 1000 and 1400 hr under the water- hyacinth mat as opposed to a general decline over the length of the day. Data correlations at the 2 sites are in Table 1. Significant correlations were indicated between temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen for both sites (P < 0.005). A strong negative correlation, however, was found for these 3 param- eters with inorganic and total carbon (Site 1: P< 0.005 for all 3; Site 2: tempera- ture,/P, not significant; pH, P< 0.01; D.O., P<0.005). One very important dif- ference emerged. For site 1, the correlation coefficient between D.O. and in- organic carbon was -0.923 (P<0.005), whereas for site 2 the correlation was + 0.769 (P< 0.005). This was strongly indicative of increased rates of respiration and CO, uptake from the water column under the waterhyacinth mat and no apparent uptake of inorganic carbon at site 2 (open water). Positive correlations occurred between PO,-P and inorganic and total car- bon (no site differences). At the open water site, negative correlations were found for PO,-P with D.O. and pH. All other significant correlations were distinctive for each site indicating differences between waterhyacinth-covered and non- covered areas. These differences existed primarily for the iron samples of site 2. 3] COOLEY AND MARTIN—WATERHYACINTHS No. 1, 1980] ‘$600 S0°0 ‘P ‘10°0 S00 ‘S00'0 10°0 :4 ‘C00'0 SLOG ing domestic hot water in all State buildings. Funds have been allocated by the Legislature to implement the top-ranked projects recommended in that report (Evans and Doering, 1977). In our study we addressed the application of Energy Management Systems via retrofit installation in all State buildings (Doering et al., 1978). The objective was to determine the feasibility of EMS control relative to the energy savings which might be effected in the Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning system operations and the subsequent cost savings in energy and demand charges. De- mand charges here refer to the peak power demand, KW, over any 30 min period which a facility may experience during the month. The power companies typi- cally bill on this basis in addition to energy usage, KWH, to reclaim a return on their equipment investment. In some areas the demand portion of the bill may equal or exceed the actual energy usage portion. | The study results were based on specific projects. Those recommended were ranked in order of their economic desirability and described in detail to support engineering design for implementation. This information will be disseminated by the State Energy Office to the Departments so that the more desirable projects could be included in a budget request to the Legislature. IDENTIFICATION OF CANDIDATE PRojECTS—A major objective of our project was to identify specific State facilities with high potential for application of EMS. Prior to evaluating the facilities, a classifications was made by type of EMS. This resulted in identification of 2 primary systems: a fully-automated com- puter-controlled system which would be more applicable to multi-building facil- ities such as universities, and a semi-automated “time-clock” type of system which would be applicable to small single-building facilities, | The first step in identifying candidate projects was to obtain the basic data on each facility. These data included annual energy consumption, major types of energy supply, and general type of facility. A computer-generated State report, “Monthly Energy Consumption Report” was used to determine monthly energy consumption rates for each State facility by department. These range from a low No. 1, 1980] HOSNI, DOERING, AND COOPER— ENERGY SYSTEMS BIE, 10° BTU/yr for a small, single office building to over 10'* BTU/yr for the Univer- sity of Florida. Because of the mass of data available for over 500 different facilities, some type of preliminary screening was required. The initial screening required that the facility have an energy consumption of greater than 2 x 10° BTU/yr. This reduced the number of facilities substantially; however, more than 100 facilities remained. The second step was to obtain more detailed information on each re- maining facility including the costs for each energy source by type, architectural layout of the building, energy usage requirement of the building, and a brief de- scription of the operation. These data were obtained by personal and telephone interviews with personnel at the different facilities. Energy indicators were then developed for each of the remaining facilities such as energy consumption and/or cost per unit of conditioned area or number of occupants, as well as total cost of energy. At this point, specific facilities had been identified and the project team re- quested the help of various EMS suppliers within the State. Each major supplier (Robertshaw, Honeywell, IBM, and Johnson Controls) was asked to survey up to 8 of the remaining facilities. These facilities were chosen on the basis of energy indicators and relative suitability for incorporation of EMS. The results of this analysis were combined with site visits to the more promising facilities to pro- duce a final list of those State facilities with the highest potential for EMS. Lire CycLe Cost Mopet—An EMS saves money by reducing the annual utility operational costs; however, an increased capital investment is required for installation of the equipment. Accordingly, to evaluate the system on an eco- nomic basis, one must involve the concept of determining if the additional capi- tal investment required to reduce the operational costs over the useful life of the system is justified. It must also be recognized that the costs of many of the elements relating to maintenance and operations are time dependent (i.e., the cash flows occur at dif- ferent times). Recognition that these cost elements are time dependent then re- quires that the LCC model have the capability of discounting the cash flow by the time value of money to assure that alternate systems are compared on an equitable basis. By this method, all cash flows can be converted to a point in time for comparison and evaluation. Our study uses the Present Worth method in which all cash flows are discounted to the present time considering inflation, energy cost escalation, and time value of money. In any LCC analysis, some assumptions are necessary on fuel cost escalations, inflation rates, and cost of money over the life of the equipment. Such long range forecasting is difficult and uncertain; however, in agreement with other existing studies (Energy Research and Development Administration Report, 1976) and from information obtained during this study, the following typical economic parameters were assumed. Certain of these values, maintenance, real fuel cost escalation, and cost of money were then allowed to vary over a fixed percentage to determine their impact on the project payout period as part of a sensitivity analysis. 36 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 43 L: Life of Equipment (30 yr) e: Fuel Escalation Rate (10%/yr) i: General Inflation Rate (6%/yr) r: Interest Rate (6%/yr) CI: Equipment Initial Cost ($) Cm: Annual Maintenance Cost = 10% of (CI) escalating annually at the inflation rate. This includes cost of replacing equipment necessary to obtain a 30-yr life. As: Annual Savings in energy cost, ($/yr) On this basis, the present worth of the 2 basic alternative systems (i.e., exist- ing and EMS controlled) can be compared via the LCC Model. If the net life- time savings attributable to the proposed EMS augmented systems exceeded its initial cost within the facilities lifetime, it was identified as a feasible economic project. The concept of an economically feasible EMS project can then be expressed: cp=b as teh Gn eee > (1+i)K(1+r)* (1+i)«(1 +r) k=1 A better comparative measure for screening the projects would be to deter- mine the payback period. This would permit them to be ranked in order of pay- back period with those having the shortest period being the most desirable. For this approach equation 2 would be solved for the value of k where the net income present worth from the project equaled the capital investment. L L Ce eS Ss wae (2) Eat (1+r1)* aa (lee The economic analysis of EMS for State buildings was investigated using equation 2 with selected economic parameters as defined. MAINTENANCE Costs—These costs represent a critical variable in determin- ing the economic feasibility of a candidate project because they act to directly reduce the projected savings with which to justify the investment. Unfortunately, there are limited data available in the literature to support either a specific per- centage or actual dollar value for the annual cost of maintenance. This reflects the fact that the EMS concept is relatively new and none have been installed long enough to yield good operation/ maintenance data base. Information on service agreements offered by the major EMS vendors is avail- able and was used as a bench mark in evaluating maintenance costs. These agree- ments include preventive as well as emergency maintenance costs, but typically exclude maintenance tasks which may result from negligence or misuse of equip- No. 1, 1980] HOSNI, DOERING, AND COOPER—ENERGY SYSTEMS 37 ment. The costs of such general maintenance agreements are based on a scale which increases each year of system life to reflect the gradual deterioration of the equipment. Where such maintenance agreements were found in the EMS survey, the data were reduced to a percentage of the installed EMS cost, using the average of the first several years as maintenance costs. The results ranged from 5%-7%, depend- ing on the contracted coverage. It must also be noted, however, that installation of EMS will inherently in- crease the maintenance costs associated with the Air Handler Units (AHU) and other equipment under control. This is a result of the increased start/stop fre- quency of the equipment which may accelerate the wear-out of motors, drives, starters, and bearings. Theoretically, the motors, starters, and bearings would not be significantly affected as long as their specified service conditions, such as temperature, are not exceeded. The V-belt drives, however, generally are not designed for the frequent start/stop operations which would be required by EMS cycling control and belt and sheaves may fail much sooner than under normal operations. Although this problem could be corrected by compensating design, most EMS are installed on existing HVAC systems where the drives were not designed for frequent start/stop duty. Accordingly, the additional maintenance costs incurred in drive repair would be correctly charged to the EMS. The decision to use 10% of the EMS first cost as first year maintenance cost represented consideration of the survey data adjusted to reflect some additional operating system replacement costs. Capita Cost EstimatTion—The capital investment requirements used in the LCC evaluations of candidate EMS projects were based on 2 methods of cost estimation. For initial screening evaluations, the estimate was generated on the basis of a cost per square feet of area for the building under consideration. It was recognized that this method reflected a generalized system concept and, as such, sacrificed some accuracy; however, it could be used with the limited data base available from the building accounting records. Those candidate projects which passed the initial screening were subse- quently re-examined at a working design level. This included detailed estimates of expected energy savings by specific HVAC systems, generation of descriptive EMS design configurations and control point analysis based on site inspections. At this point unit cost data in $/point by function and basic control system costs were used to generate capital estimates for the EMS configurations. These were used as inputs to the LCC model for evaluation of tradeoffs to determine the most feasible EMS design for a particular facility. These designs were developed within the EMS guideline specification requirements presented as part of this study for the 2 major systems design configurations described in earlier discus- sion. The primary sources of cost data were the 4 control companies identified earlier as having installed operating EMS within the State. With the coopera- tion of their engineering personnel the task team was able to assemble cost data on a variety of projects and reconstruct the cost elements in terms of the basis of 38 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 fixed and variable costs. The fixed costs represented those which must be sus- tained regardless of the system size and would be represented by Control Con- sole, Printer Terminal and Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Display. The variable costs in this instance would be defined as the monitor and control point hardware, data collection terminals and data transmission system which would vary with the EMS size. Each contractor provided data on his system by these cost ele- ments. These were subsequently studied and a composite set of cost elements was then developed to be used in the study. Table 2 summarizes the unit values of capital costs per building area. The lower limit unit cost reflects a basic or fixed cost of the EMS with a minimum of 5 monitor/control point per air handling unit. The upper limit value included TABLE 2. EMS capital cost estimates by building area. Cost Element Low Average High Total System $.40/ $.64/ $1.70/ sq.ft. sq.ft. sq.ft. not only HVAC EMS control, but also fire, safety and security alarm monitoring systems. These systems typically add to the incremental cost per point because of the security/reliability requirements of the signal transmissions. Because we were concerned with EMS only at this time, the lower and average unit costs were used; however, the upper limit cost was included so that planning estimates could be generated by physical plant engineering personnel who might be re- quested to evaluate a total monitoring system. Table 3 presents more detailed capital cost data which would be appropriate for estimating an EMS project which had passed the initial LCC economic screening evaluation. At this point the building facility HVAC system would be subjected to an on-site survey to identify the basic monitor/control system and point requirements. Again the costs reflect the assumption of a basic system as identified by the fixed cost elements with a range of value of account for varia- tions in the system. The variable costs likewise are presented to describe some variation in quality and also by function with which the points are associated. The on-site evaluation and cost estimates were made with the help of the EMS contractors. Specified cost information was developed by project for a turn- key installation. This information was subsequently used to enhance/upgrade the cost data presented in Tables 2 and 3. Economic EvALuaTION Factrors—There are a number of key variables which are necessary for conducting a LCC analysis. These include identifying the rate of return which is acceptable, estimate of useful life, salvage value, projected inflation rate, energy cost and escalation, installed cost and operations/mainte- nance costs. The estimates of capital, operating/maintenance costs and useful life will vary with the system design and installation, and should be determined and verified using an engineering approach. The remaining variables, however, No. 1, 1980] HOSNI, DOERING, AND COOPER—ENERGY SYSTEMS 39 TaBLE 3. EMS capital cost estimate by major functional element. Cost Element Low Average High as FIXED COSTS BY SYSTEM Control Console $40,000 $50,000 Printer 5,000 6,000 CRT 5,000 8,500 TOTAL 50,000 64,500 VARIABLE COSTS BY CONTROL POINT Stop/Start $600 600 700 Alarm Contact 325 350 400) Temp. Indicator «600 625 700 Humidity Indicator 725 750 800 Remote Control Point Adjust /Indicator 625 640 700 generally reflect policy decisions or political and economic factors which cannot be readily determined. Initially a literative search was conducted on energy cost projections with primary emphasis on government sources. It was reasoned that these sources would best reflect the long range policies which impact on the escalation of energy cost and inflation. The most productive source turned out to be ERDA Economic Analysis Report. It was determined that for the South Atlantic Region (Florida) that the real increase in fuel price would be about 4% compounded annually. This reflected an average projected 6% inflation rate and 10% fuel escalation factor. Service life of the proposed EMS installations was assumed to be 30 yr to cor- respond with accounting procedures relating to State buildings. Generally, this length of life is such that a change of +5 yr will leave minimal impact on bene- fits of savings that far in the future. Clearly, the useful life of the system is keyed to the life of the facility such that, if it is less, then it will impose a limiting con- straint. This was considered in each of the systems which were specifically rec- ommended for installation. The rationale for economically evaluating a proposed system was based on its payout period; if less than the projected useful life, it was designated a feasible project. The shorter the payout period, the more desirable the project on an economic basis. The primary discount rate as defined by cost of money was assumed to be 6% in the study on the basis that the EMS projects resulting from the study would be funded from bonding revenues. The 6% was chosen because it was known that the legal limit of interest paid on State bonds was 6-1/8%; higher rates required special legislative approval. SENSITIVITY ANALYsis—The economic analysis was based on a set of assump- tions pertaining to the economic parameters used in the LCC model. Although these assumptions are believed reasonable, deviations from assumed values would 40 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 cause the predicated payout period to differ from the calculated estimates. Addi- tionally, variations in the capital cost and projected saving could occur due to specific field conditions. It must be recognized that these events could combine to present a decision risk to the State. If the relative impact of the variables were determined, how- ever, then the risk can be defined and integrated into the decision process. Accordingly, a sensitivity analysis was performed to measure the potential risk inherent in the basic economic analysis and subsequent recommendations. Each of the major economic factors was allowed to vary in discrete steps while the others were held constant and the impact measured for a typical project. These series of values were used in the LCC model and the resulting new savings recorded as a function of project payback period to determine the effect of varia- tions of each parameter. Those having the most impact on payback, or in other words, those to which the payback was most sensitive would be those having the lowest percent values as presented in Table 4. ; On this basis, the analysis showed that the payback period was most sensitive to projected savings contributed by the EMS installation, especially in office buildings and correctional institutions. Next to savings, the payback is sensitive to the Energy Cost, followed by the Initial Investment with the model very sensitive in the case of correctional in- stitutions if a fully automated EMS is planned. The model is least sensitive to the Fuel Escalation rate, and the Maintenance Cost as percentage of Initial Invest- ment. Although this analysis was based on data from a single case study from each facility category, the results can be used to make observations on other similar State facilities because the relative effect of variations in the factors will cause a similar economic impact pattern. For each facility, however, only the most active or sensitive factor need be examined. A suspected combination of 2 factors, how- ever, in opposing or reinforcing directions should be closely examined if the pay- out is marginal at the base conditions. CANDIDATE PROJECTS PROFILE—On the basis of the economic evaluation, a list of candidate projects was prepared for each department concerned with the fa- cilities at the State level. The projects were categorized by universities, com- munity colleges, office buildings, correctional institutes and health and rehabili, tative services. Each project was described in terms of its physical size, annual energy consumption and cost, and derived factors which were designed to mea- sure its energy intensiveness. The makeup of these factors varied in terms of the primary function performed by the facility. For example, it might be energy per unit area, energy per individual serviced or similar factor which could best de- scribe the operation of the facilities and be used to measure to track the improve- ment in energy consumption on the future. Table 5 summarizes these factors and the range of value for candidate projects by facility category. Complete details on individual projects are in the final report submitted to the State Energy Of- fice. Most of the facilities operated by the State are office buildings. After the ini- 4] HOSNI, DOERING, AND COOPER—ENERGY SYSTEMS No. 1, 1980] SE 6G 80 ial 6 IWdS uoTN} ASU] OF GG CT OF jl ATITONG ACV™ [BUOTe1I0F) cL L9 (al GE ial IWAS SIDIAIBS VARIG 69 GS CG cE €T ATION ML9¢ “eyoy pue yee 68 OF a re 9I INS sada][o_D AyuNwuWOD SIE OS eG 8E cI ATIONG - ACS? pue saljIstaAlus) 6P BS 80 61 OT IWdS 6Y OS v1 SE IT ATTONd tial sSuIp[Ng 20130 ALVY YVAA Wad SONIAVS LNAWLSAANI LSOO Ad AL (14/$) AYOORLVO ALITIOVA AONVNALNIVW NOLLVTVOSA adaLoaloud TVILINI AOYANA SWH LSOO AOYANGA TWnd TIVONNYV ACGALS ASVO YUVAA ANO JO GOMWMAd MOVAAVd NI JONVHO LOFAAT OL SAN TVA ACALLS ASVO AO % SV SNOLLVINVA ‘potiad yougaed yoalod 07 payejes stoqowresed japow DOT Ul UOneNeA “fF ATAV], 42 FLORIDA SCIENTIST | [Vol. 43 TABLE 5. Energy consumption factors by type of facility, FY 77-78. FACTOR VALUES: TYPE FACILITY UNITS LOW AVG HIGH Office Buildings 10* BTU/Ft?/yr 4 10 30 Universities 10* BTU/Ft?/yr 6 22 32 Community Colleges 10* BTU/Ft?/yr 4 8 16 Health/Rehabilitative 10* BTU/Patient/yr 3000 12000 18000 Services Correctional 10* BTU/Inmate/yr 1500 5500 12600 Institutions tial screening tests, over 300 office buildings were reduced to 36. As described earlier, more data were obtained for each of these 36 facilities and an additional screening was performed based on annual energy cost and energy consumption factor. Fourteen candidate projects remained after these evaluations. All 28 community colleges were considered as candidates for computer based automated EMS and 12 were recommended for immediate EMS installations. In the case of multiple campuses, the system was considered initially for central monitoring and alternately by individual campus if distance and data transmis- sion links were infeasible. Six colleges presently have automated EMS in opera- tion. The survey of universities closely paralleled that of the community colleges. In this instance, however, all universities either had computer based EMS sys- tems or were in some phase of procurement/installation. All of these systems provided peak power demand control as well as energy management. Addition- ally, many included auxiliary systems such as security and fire monitoring and some utilized the computer to monitor and schedule maintenance programs. There are 87 facilities under the Department of Health and Rehabilitative Services (HRS) within Florida. The initial screening, however, reduced the list to 15 candidate health facilities. The cost per patient was chosen as an energy consumption factor, because energy demand in health facilities is primarily pa- tient dependent. Each of these facilities was surveyed first by telephone inter- view and then on-site to determine the feasibility of an EMS installation. Three health facilities were recommended for centralized Conte based EMS and 3 were recommended for localized control. The Department of Offender Rehabilitation (DOR) operates 55 facilities, but only 9 facilities have annual energy cost exceeding $100,000. The facilities under this department are similar to the health facilities in their energy requirement profit (i.e., they operate 24 hr/day, 365 day/yr and are occupant dependent in their energy consumption factor. The only difference between DOR and the HRS facilities is that the former provide less service to the inmate, resulting in less energy per occupant. It was also noted during the survey that some of the prisons had computer based security systems, which might be modified to incorporate No. 1, 1980] _ HOSNI, DOERING, AND COOPER—ENERGY SYSTEMS 43 EMS Programs if adequate sensors, controls, and software were provided. A tota] of 3 correctional institutes was recommended for EMS installation. Conc.iusions—(1) Typically all EMS projects which are physically feasible (i.e., can be installed with a reasonable effort) show payback periods in the range of 2-5 yr. (2) Computer based EMS are more viable where a group of buildings are in- volved, such as on a campus or prison, and where other functions such as safety and fire detection can be incorporated. | (3) In smaller, single function buildings, the localized control EMS is more de- sirable. (4) Installing centralized computer based EMS in old buildings is generally not advisable due to high cost associated with hardware and interface problems. (5) Large savings in energy can typically be effected through upgrading existing equipment/system operating efficiency. 3 (6) Additional supervision of energy usage by the facilities management and up- grading of facilities maintenance programs would also effect major energy Savings In many instances. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—We acknowledge the Florida State Department of Administration/State Energy Office for their financial support of this project and the technical assistance of the EMS vendors. LITERATURE CITED Fiorina ENercy CommirTTEE. 1974. Energy in Florida. Report to the Governor and Legislature. Evans, R. D., anp R. Doerinc. 1977. An analysis of solar water heating installations in State build- ings. Report to Florida State Energy Office, STAR Project 76021. DoeRING, R., Y. Hosni, AND D. Cooper. 1978. Energy management for State buildings. Report to Florida State Energy Office, STAR Project 77-7023. THompson, R. D. 1977. Florida Statistical Abstract. Univ. Presses of Florida, Gainesville. ENERGY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION. 1976. An economic analysis of solar water and space heating, DSE-2322-1. Florida Sci. 43(1):33-43. 1980. 44 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 Biological Sciences HYPEROSTOSIS IN FLORIDA FOSSIL FISHES WiLurM J. Tirrany III (1), Robert E. PELHAM (1) AND Frank W. HowELt (2) (1) Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 City Island Park, Sarasota, Florida 33577 and (2) College of Natural Sciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 AssTract: Fossilized fish hyperostoses (Tilly bones) are commonly found in Pliocene and Pleis- tocene deposits throughout Florida; however, the Caloosahatchee marl formation in the vicinity of Port Charlotte is an exceptionally rich source. Neither the function nor the developmental history of Tilly bones are well known. Likewise, the taxonomic affinities of those fossilized bones are poorly understood. Further investigation of fossilized fish hyperostoses could provide a better understand- ing of prehistoric environmental conditions in Florida.° THE OCCURRENCE Of unusual fossil fish bones from various collection sites around Florida has been recognized for several decades. These bones are unusual in that they exhibit a swollen or inflated appearance (see Figs. 1-3). Many of these fossils are readily identifiable as fish bones because they re- tain familiar components (e.g., vertebrae), but some, due to their swollen nature, have defied identification. This condition has led to much confusion surrounding their general development, role, and affinities. Correctly termed hyperostoses, these fossil bones have long been improperly identified. For example, a wide range of descriptions exists for these hyperosto- ses, including the following: seeds; swim bladders; small mammal brains; floata- tion devices in sharks; cancerous tumors (osteomas); etc. Unidentified hyper- ostoses collected in Florida can be found in museums nationwide, displayed with limited collecting data such as site description and date. In an attempt to clarify some of the misconceptions surrounding the nature of hyperostoses, Tilly Edinger at Harvard’s Museum of Comparative Zoology undertook the tremendous task of compiling descriptive data from private and museum collections worldwide. Unfortunately, Dr. Edinger died before her epic task could be completed. As a result of her involvement in this work, these hy- perostoses are now commonly referred to as Tilly Bones. BackcRounD—Accounts of inflated or swollen bones from fishes have ap- peared irregularly in the literature since the late 17th century. The majority of these reports were European. The most comprehensive summary relating to hy- perostotic growth in fishes published prior to the 20th century was that of Ger- vais (1875). It was also at this time that interest in hyperostoses in American fishes was first recorded (ref. Hicks, 1969). Subsequently, similar reports from other continents appeared (e.g., Barnard, 1948; Gopinath, 1951; and Murty, 1967). Recently, Konnerth (1966) and Olsen (1969) presented articles on hyper- ostotic fish bones, specifically geared to the interests of the general reader. Al- °The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of charges from funds made available in support of the research which is the subject of this article. In accordance with 18 U. S.C. § 1734, this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” solely to indicate this fact. No. 1, 1980] _ TIFFANY, PELHAM, AND HOWELL— HYPEROSTOSIS 45 though references dealing exclusively with fossil hyperostoses are few, and most accounts are incidental, several are available which mention hyperostoses from either living or fossil Florida fishes (Hav, 1917; Hicks, 1969; Olsen, 1969; Swift and Wing, 1968; and Wing, 1975). DESCRIPTION AND TAXONOMIC AFFINITIES—Figs. 1-3 illustrate some of the more common fossil fish hyperostoses found in Florida. The exact taxonomic affinities of all the bones are not listed, as they are not yet documented in the literature. However, bones illustrated in Fig. 1 are known to be from Caranx sp. (a jack) from personal experience with living specimens and from a compari- son with illustrations and descriptions in limited published accounts (e.g., Fier- stine, 1968; and Starks, 1911). Similarly shaped hyperostotic bones are known to Be le ae: mM Beales ce f - Pe 4 Je eX f ; * ee eee a f ‘ 4 M4 } s (hae eae fe: we ve f Pele oy a % & fe ae aaa oe 7 Fic. 1. Fossil hyperostoses from Caranx sp.: (a) dorsal fin basal hyperostosis, side view; (b) same, dorsal view; (c) same, ventral view; (d) vertebral hyperostosis, Type A; (e) vertebral hyperostosis, Type B; (f) vertebral hyperostosis, Type C. 46 FLORIDA SCIENTIST Fic, 2. Unidentified fossil fish hyperostoses: (a) Type D, side view; (b) same, dorsal view; (c) same, ventral view; (d) Type E, side view; (e) same, ventral view. occur in the spadefish, Chaetodipterus sp. The cleithrum in jacks is also known to exhibit hyperostosis (see Wing, 1975 for an illustration). Several other fossil tvpes from Florida are pictured by Olsen (1969). Bones which seem to be more favorable to hyperostotic growth include many skull elements such as the occipital region; vertebral elements such as the interneurals and interhemals; dorsal fin basal supports; and pelvic and pectoral girdle processes. Inclusion here of a species list of all fish known to exhibit hyperostotic growth would not necessarily be useful because their occurrence is recorded worldwide, and many species do not inhabit Florida waters. However, a presen- tation of the families to which these fishes belong is included below, as all the families (with one exception) are represented by some Florida species. A knowl- edge of which families include fish with hyperostoses should help in the identifi- No. 1, 1980] TIFFANY, PELHAM, AND HOWELL—HYPEROSTOSIS 47 @) | 2 Fic. 3, Unidentified fossil fish hyperostoses: (a) Type F, side view; (b) same, view from end: (c) Type G, side view; (d) same, view from end; (e) Type H, dorsal view; (f) same, side view. cation of fossil hyperostoses found in Florida. As Konnerth (1966) has indicated, a museum reference collection of skeletonized fish would also be an invaluable aid for identification of these fossils. Breder (1952), referring to several previous studies, lists the following families of fishes which commonly exhibit hyperostotic growth: Carangidae (jacks); Chae- todipteridae (now Chaetodontidae, butterfly fishes); Hippoglossidae (now in- cludes Bothidae, lefteye flounders, and Pleuronectidae, righteye flounders); Monocanthidae (now Balistidae, triggerfishes and filefishes); and Sparidae (por- gies). Fierstine (1968) lists several of the same families as well as Ephippidae (spadefishes); Sciaenidae (drums); and Trichiuridae (cutlassfishes). Konnerth (1966) and Olsen (1969) list individual species which fall into previously men- tioned families as well as the family Gadidae (codfishes). Only 1 freshwater spe- 48 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 cies, the rainbow trout (family Salmonidae), is known to exhibit hyperostotic growth (McCrimmon and Bidgood, 1965). Of all these families, only the Salmoni- dae is not represented by living Florida species. Swift and Wing (1968) list several families of fishes represented by fossil remains in Florida, including the Carangi- dae, Ephippidae and Sciaenidae. They further relate that fossil “inflated bones” from carangids and ephippids are found in Florida. LocaTion SirEs—Although hyperostoses from recently dead fishes are quite commonly found intertidally along Florida’s coastlines, fossils are usually ob- tained inland from Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits. Unfossilized hyperostoses also can be found in archaeological sites (e.g., Indian middens) along the coast- line (Olsen, 1969). Spoil banks, phosphate and shell pits, and river banks cutting through Plio- cene and Pleistocene fossil deposits are the best general locations for finding fos- silized hyperostoses. Areas documented to contain these fossils include the St. John’s River (Hicks, 1969); Vero (Hay, 1917); and Port Charlotte (pers. experi- ence). All hyperostoses pictured herein were obtained from spoil mounds in south Sarasota County. The spoil was produced as a result of dredging the Cocco-Plum Waterway which cuts through Caloosahatchee marl formations (Pleistocene Series). The hyperostoses were found in association with a variety of fossil fauna, including various mollusc shells, shark and ray teeth, sea turtle scutes, horse teeth, and dugong skeletal material. | Function—The function of hyperostotic bones in fishes remains to be deter- mined. In fact, there is still controversy as to whether or not these hyperostoses are abnormal and originate pathologically. For example, induction of hypero- stosis by parasitic invasion or as a result of malignancy has been suggested (Bhatt and Murti, 1960). Presently, the consensus of opinion is that the bones are not pathological and cannot be considered abnormal, due to consistency of occur- rence within certain species (Breder, 1952; Fierstine, 1969). Konnerth (1966) further suggests that they are not pathological because they arise through the process of aging rather than disease. Gopinath (1951) has suggested that hyperostotic growth may arise as a need to dynamically balance fishes as their body to head weight ratios change with age. Gregory (1933) also stated that swollen vertebral bones may compensate for large cranial development in some fishes. Breder (1952), on the other hand, presented convincing counterpoints to the suggestions of Gopinath (1951) and Gregory (1933), and he further stated that these growths are filled with fat, and therefore their specific gravity would not make them suited for either balance or floatation. Fierstine (1968), working on carangids, hypothesized that hyperostoses found in the basal bones of the dorsal fins may aid in erecting those fins. He also stated that this hypothesis would not explain the role of other hyperostotic bone ele- ments. Discuss1on—A thorough review of the literature dealing with present-day and fossil fish hyperostoses, or Tilly Bones, has revealed that virtually nothing is known about their functional or developmental role. Little more is known about No. 1, 1980] TIFFANY, PELHAM, AND HOWELL—HYPEROSTOSIS 49 their taxonomic affinities unless removed directly from living species. Very few of the fossil hyperostoses have been conclusively identified to species. It is desirable to develop more information regarding these bones, besides the obvious reasons of scientific curiosity. A study of fossil Tilly Bones can pro- duce a considerable amount of information about prehistoric environmental re- lationships of an area, including a characterization of the general faunal aspects of the region and the feeding habits of previous inhabitants (if found in associa- tion with ancient dwellings). To make these hyperostoses useful tools for diag- nosing the previous natural history of an area, they must first be identified. This will require extensive organization of existing specimens with pertinent collec- tion data. It will also require a systematic study of living species of fishes in an attempt to locate hyperostoses and thereby establish their taxonomic affinities. The tremendous task begun several years ago by Tilly Edinger still remains for future investigators. It is hoped that this brief account will develop interest in potential Tilly Bone specialists. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—Contribution no. 114 from the Tallahassee, Sopchoppy, and Gulf Coast Marine Biological Association. We thank Andrew Konnerth for his instrumental help in this in- vestigation. The following individuals were also very helpful in providing information, literature, and advice: Stanley Olsen, Harry Fierstine, Charles Breder, Fred Berry, Ross Morrell, Frank Wil- liams, and Bruce MacFadden. Special thanks are given to Marie Purchine for initiating interest in this project and for providing fossil hyperostoses. Jean Blackburn provided the figures for this man- uscript, while Donna Johnson aided in its preparation. We gratefully acknowledge Patti Jaros for her help in collecting specimens. LITERATURE CITED BarNarD, K. H. 1948. Further notes on South African marine fishes. Ann. So. African Mus. 36:341- 406. Buatt, Y. M., anp N. N. Murti. 1960. Hyperostosis in Trichiurus haumela (Forskal). J. Univ. Bom- bay. 28:84-89. BREDER, C. M., JR. 1952. The problem of directives to cellular proliferation as illustrated by onto- genetic processes in certain fishes. Growth. 16:189-198. FrersTINe, H. L. 1968. Swollen dorsal fin elements in living and fossil] Caranx (Teleostei: Caran- gidae). Cont. Sci. Los Angeles Co. Mus. 137:1-10. Gervais, M. P. 1875. De l’hyperostose chez homme et chez les animaux. J. Zool. 4:272-284. Gopinath, K. 1951. On a peculiar bone formation in the supraoccipital crest of some carangid fishes. J. Zool. Soc. India. 3:267-276. Grecory, W. K. 1933. Fish skulls: A study of the evolution of natural mechanisms. Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. 23:75-481. Hay, O. P. 1917. Vertebrata mostly from Stratum No. 3, at Vero, Florida, together with descriptions of new species. Fla. St. Geol. Surv. Ann. Rpt. 9:43-68. Hicks, E. S. 1969. Notes from around the state. Plast. Jack. 10:4-6. KonNERTH, A. 1966. Tilly bones. Oceanus. 12:6-9. McCrimmon, H. R., anv B. Brpcoop. 1965. Vertebrae in the rainbow trout with particular reference to electrofishing. Trans. Fish. Soc. 94:84-88. Morty, V. S. 1967. Notes on hyperostosis in the fish Drepane punctata (Linnaeus). J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. India. 9:323-326. OLseEN, S. J. 1969. Hyperostosic fish bones from archaeological sites. Archaeol. Soc. N. J. Bull. No. 24:17-19. Starks, E. C. 1911. The osteology and relationships of the fishes belonging to the Family Carangidae. Stanford Univ. Publ., Univ. Series 5:27-49. Swirt, C., and E. Winc. 1968. Fossil bony fishes from Florida. Plast. Jack. 7:1-10. Wine, E. S. 1975. Prehistoric use of anima] resources in Florida. Plast. Jack. 24:1-16. Florida Sci. 43(1):44-49. 1980. 50 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 RARE OCCURRENCES OF LARGE MUSHROOMS (TRICHOLOMA SP.) IN FLORIDA—F. I. Eilers, D. Te Strake Wagner—Merner, Department of Biology, Uni- versity of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 and J. A. Kimbrough, Department of Botany, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32601 Asstract: Several occurrences of an unknown species of Tricholoma were recorded during the summer of 1978. Pileus diameters of mature basidiocarps ranged from 20-75 cm. Habitat features are characterized. Aspects of growth and development under natural conditions are discussed.° Durinc mid-summer of 1978 several collections of large mushrooms were brought to the authors at both the University of South Florida and the Univer- sity of Florida. These unusually large specimens (up to 75 cm) appear to be an unknown species of Tricholoma. Because large fungal fruiting bodies typically capture public awareness, one might expect them to be readily reported. Prior to these several reports, however, the last noted occurrence of this fungus was in 1973 when a single specimen was found with none previous to this being noted. Because of the apparerit record size and rare occurrence of these mushrooms, we have attempted to present and discuss some salient features of their biology. Sire DescripTions—The first fruiting bodies of this fungus were found on sub- merged wood adjacent to a parking lot in 1973 in Gainesville (Site I). Then in July, 1978, a specimen occurred on what appeared to be decaying roots at the edge of a lawn near Gainesville (Site II). During the same month in 1978 a col- lection was made from Site III (Fig. 1) that was reclaimed from phosphate strip- mining in 1977. Subsequent to that reclamation, the area was seeded in Bahia grass and lightly fertilized with International Materials Corporation, “Rainbow Brand” fertilizer (10-10-10). Finally, in September, 1978, three additional col- lections were made. A single specimen was found in Hudson near the edge of a wooded area in proximity to a parking lot (Site IV). Another was reported from Odessa (Site V) adjacent to a cement block foundation of an outbuilding located in a grassy, one acre field and the last was collected in Tavares (Site VI) from soil near oak trees. DESCRIPTION OF FuNGus—Of the mushrooms collected, the specimens from sites I, II, III and VI (Figs. 2-5) have the following general character- istics: cap 20-75 cm in dia, slightly convex-depressed with dark, short pu- bescence in center, otherwise smooth, dry, creamy brownish, margin in- rolled, flesh firm, white. Gills cream, 1.5-2.5 cm wide, 9-10 per cm in dia, solid, 15-21 cm long. Stalk with swollen base, flesh white, slightly watery (but soft in cap) surface fibrillose. Spores hyaline, smooth, non-animeloid in Meltzer’s solution, ellipsoid to ovoid 5.5 ym X 7.2 wm, white spore print. Clamp connections present. Taste bland, but odor offensive like fish meal. Fruiting bodies clustered. The mushroom collected at Hudson bears close resemblance to those just described, but it differs in that the surface of the pileus was entirely covered by the dark, short pubescence. Since this speci- men was aged, other features were indistinct. Collections from Sites I, II, °The costs of, publication of this article were defraved in part by the payment of charges from funds made available in support of the research which is the subject of this article. In accordance with 18 U.S.C. § 1734, this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” solely to indicate this fact. No. 1, 1980] EILERS, WAGNER-MERNER, AND KIMBROUGH—-MUSHROOMS 51 III and VI have been deposited in the Herbarium at the University of Flor- ida, Gainesville. Discussion—Based on nutritional requirements, species of mushrooms gen- erally are restricted to specific habitats which supply those nutrients essential for their growth and development. This seems to be the case with this unusual Tricholoma. Specimens were found in areas which appeared to have been dis- turbed, often with considerable shifting of the substrate: reclaimed strip-mines, Yj Z Qu NGG KA_K[}# AA WG MMS strip-mined area (Site III) at Bartow, Fig. 1 (upper left). Reclaimed phosphate Fig. 2 (upper right). Tricholoma sp. in situ at Bartow. Fig. 3 (lower). Enlarged view of Tricholoma sp. from Site III. \\ Florida. 52 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 edges of parking lots and building sites. These locations appear to be charac- teristic of early stages of succession which typically feature grasses. Although some Tricholoma species are associated with wood decay, and this was noted at Sites I and IJ, there was little evidence of wood substrates at the other collection locations. However, at Sites III, IV and V there was no explora- tion for subsurface pieces of wood deposited at these places by disturbance. Be- cause the soils in these areas are primarily sandy and minimally contain organic materials, it would seem unlikely that they could supply nutrients, especially carbon, for growth and development of these unusually large mushrooms. . Figs. 4 (upper) and 5 (lower). Details of large fruiting bodies of Tricholoma sp. No. 1, 1980] EILERS, WAGNER-MERNER, AND KIMBROUGH—MUSHROOMS 953 Grasses, particularly Bahia grass, at Site III, might provide the major source of carbon for these soils. Thus, it is unknown whether the fungus derives carbon and other nutrients from decaying plant material or is mycorrhizal with the living vegetation. Growth and development in mushrooms are known to be finely timed and regulated by environmental factors (Taber, 1966). The infrequent appearance of these mushrooms suggests that several optimal environmental conditions must be present for fruiting. These are at present unknown. Two possibilities are temper- ature and rainfall. Both temperature and rainfall patterns varied from the pre- vious summer, but were well within the range considered normal for Florida. However, these norms are usually expressed on a state-wide or region-wide basis. It is well known that thunderstorm occurrence, which supplies the majority of the rain in the summer, can be very erratic. Thus, one might speculate that local- ized heavy rain, coupled with a slight elevation in temperature, along with other factors such as lack of biotic competition due to the early state of succession could be the unique conditions necessary for fruiting. The spore to spore development of the mushrooms found at the Bartow site can be inferred from the information provided by the strip-mine reclaimer. The time from bulldozing the area level to the appearance of the first basidiocarp was approximately 14 mo, and one must assume that ample mycelia could de- velop in this time to result in final mushroom formation. Actual basidiocarp en- largement was observed by the collectors in several instances (Sites III, V) and took from 2-4 wk to reach what was described as maturity. It may be that these critical environmental factors were optimal only during this lengthy develop- mental stage and resulted in mushrooms that were abnormally large. In addition to toxins, many fungi may concentrate metal ions to levels which can be toxic if the fungus is eaten (Byrne et al., 1976). Because some of these mushrooms were found on reclaimed phosphate soils which have been suggested to have increased background alpha radiation, the fruiting bodies of the fungus from Site III were analyzed for this radioactive component. A gross alpha count for isotopes in the natural 238 series (radium) was found not to vary from back- ground radiation readings. Consequently, this species of Tricholoma appears not to concentrate radium (pers. comm. J. N. Allen). Unusually large basidiocarps have been found in a number of agaric and bolete genera such as Clitocybe, Tricholoma, Leucopaxillus, Cortinarius, and Boletus. Heim (1957) records Clitocybe candida Bres. (= Leucopaxillus candidus (Bres.) Singer) as attaining a pileus dia of up to 63 cm and a 27 cm stipe. In this regard, the Lake County collection (Site VI) in which the specimen reached 75 cm in dia is a record worth noting. Microscopic and microchemical features are currently being examined and compared with other taxa to confirm if it is a new species. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—We thank John N. Allen, International Materials and Chemical Corpora- tion, Bartow, Florida, for providing us with specimens and technical assistance. For their assistance in providing specimens we thank Terry Van Vert and Keith Holngren. 54 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 LITERATURE CITED Byrne, A., R. Ravnik, AND L. Kosta. 1976. Trace element concentrations in higher fungi. Sci. Total Env. 6:65-78. Hem, Rocer. 1957. Les Champignons d'Europe. N. Boubie et Cie, Paris. Taser, W. A. 1966. Morphogenesis in Basidiomycetes. Pp. 387-412. In Ainsworth, G. C. and Suss- man, A. S. The fungi, an advanced treatise, Vol. I]: The fungal organism. Academic Press, New York and London. Florida Sci. 43(1):50-54. 1980. NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF FOUR CARIDEAN SHRIMPS (CRUSTACEA: DECAPODA) IN THE NORTHEASTERN GULF OF MEX- ICO—M. R. Dardeau, D. L. Adkison, J. K. Shaw and T. S. Hopkins, Dauphin Island Sea Laboratory, P. O. Box 386, Dauphin Island, Alabama 36528 Apstract: We report northward range extensions of Gnathophyllum modestum Hay and Lys- mata intermedia (Kingsley) of 203 and 445 km, respectively. A new bathymetric record (91 m) is recorded for L. amboinensis (DeMan). The continuous distribution of Trachycaris restrictus (A. Milne-Edwards) in the Gulf of Mexico is clarified by heretofore obscured data on geographic station locations. * ALTHOUGH the marine decapod Crustacea in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico have been surveyed by Wass (1955), Hulings (1961), Abele (1970), Lyons et al. (1971), Soto (1972) and Hopkins et al. (1977) and collections made by the R/V Oregon in the Gulf were recorded by Chace (1956), our knowledge of the Deca- poda in this area is still incomplete. We report on recent collections from the continental shelf of the northern Gulf of Mexico made by the Bureau of Land Management and the University of South Alabama. The collections have (a) pro- vided new range extensions for Gnathophyllum modestum Hay and Lysmata in- termedia (Kingsley), (b) established a new bathymetric range for L. amboinen- sis (DeMan), and (c) clarified the distribution of Trachycaris restrictus (A. Milne- Edwards) in the northern Gulf. Collections were made by SCUBA divers or by using a 9.1 m semi-balloon trawl or a rigid iron frame Capetown dredge lined with 1.3 * 1.3 cm vinyl clad hardware cloth. Synonymies are restricted to original descriptions and any no- menclatural revisions. Carapace length (c.].) was measured dorsally from the posterior margin of the orbits to the posterior margin of the carapace. The speci- mens are deposited in the invertebrate collections at Dauphin Island Sea Labora? tory (DISL), Dauphin Island, Alabama and the University of South Alabama (USA), Mobile, Alabama. FAMILY GNATHOPHYLLIDAE Gnathophyllum modestum Hay Gnathophyllum modestum Hay, 1917:72. Materia ExamInep: | male (with branchial bopyrid isopod); c.l. = 3.6 mm; 29°45/30” N, 86°00'30” W; 41 m; 21 April 1974; Capetown dredge; R/V Bellows; DISL. *The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of charges from funds made available in support of the research which is the subject of this article. In accordance with 18 U. S. C. § 1734, this article must therefore be hereby marked “‘advertisement” solely to indicate this fact. ge. - No. 1, 1980] DARDEAU ET AL.—CARIDEAN SHRIMP 55 Type Loca.iry: Beaufort, North Carolina. Remarks: This species was previously known only from Beaufort, North Carolina (Hay, 1917), Biscayne Bay, Florida (Manning, 1963) and the Florida Middle Ground (Hopkins et al., 1977). A single male specimen was taken approximately 75 km southwest of Panama City, Florida in 41 m of water. This represents a northwestward range exten- sion from the Florida Middle Ground of approximately 203 km and a bathymetric ex- tension of 14 m. FAMILY HIPPOLYTIDAE Lysmata intermedia (Kingsley) Hippolysmata intermedia Kingsley, 1878:90. Lysmata intermedia—Sivertsen, 1933:5, pl. 2, figs. 9-15. MATERIAL EXAMINED: | ovigerous female; c.l. = 4.5 mm; 28°29’45” N, 84°19’30” W; 37 m; 25 July 1975; trawl; R/V Bellows; DISL. Type Locatity: Dry Tortugas, Florida. Remarks: Chace (1972, p. 128) reports the distribution of this species as “Florida Keys to Tobago and Curagao; Azores; Galapagos Islands; to a depth of 22 meters.” L. inter- media has since been reported from the Indian River region in central eastern Florida (Gore, Scotto and Becker, 1978). The Florida Middle Ground specimen, the first record from the northern Gulf of Mexico, represents a range extension northward from the Flor- ida Keys of 445 km, and a bathymetric extension of 15 m. Lysmata amboinensis (DeMan) Hippolysmata vittata amboinensis DeMan, 1888:495. Hippolysmata amboinensis—DeMan, 1907:426. Hippolysmata grabhami Gordon, 1935:;319, figs. 10, 11. Lysmata grabhami—Chace, 1972:128. Lysmata amboinensis—Hayashi, 1975:286-288, figs. 1, 2. MATERIAL EXAMINED: | female; c.]. = 9.5 mm; 28°25’45” N, 84°55’30” W; 91 m; 20 Oc- tober 1975; trawl; R/V Gyre; DISL. Type Loca.ity: Amboina, Indonesia. REMARKS: Based on a re-examination of DeMan’s and Gordon’s types, Hayashi (1975) placed Hippolysmata grabhami, the specific name under which previous western At- lantic specimens were reported, in the synonymy of Lysmata amboinensis. A circum- tropical species, L. amboinensis was previously recorded from the northern Gulf of Mex- ico (Chace, 1956). Our specimen, taken near the Florida Middle Ground, extends the known bathymetric range from 55 to 91 m. Trachycaris restrictus (A, Milne-Edwards) Hippolyte restrictus A. Milne-Edwards, 1878:231. Platybema rugosus Bate, 1888:579. Platybema rugosum—Bate, 1888:pl. CIV, fig. 2. Trachycaris rugosum—Calman, 1906:33. Trachycaris restrictus—Holthuis, 1949:233, figs. 2, 3. MATERIAL EXAMINED: | ovigerous female; c.]. = 3.5 mm; 29°56’00” N, 86°06’30” W; 38 m; 3 April 1974; diver collected; R/V Bellows; DISL. 1 ovigerous female; c.]. = 3.6 mm; | juvenile; c.l. = 3.1 mm; 30°07’30” N, 86°45’00” W; 46 m; 8 March 1977; Cape- town dredge; R/V Rounsefell; USA. Type Loca.iry; Cape Verde Islands. Remarks: Although it is clear that Trachycaris restrictus is found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean (Holthuis, 1949), the status of the species in the Gulf of Mexico has been perplexing. Chace (1972, p, 142) reported its distribution as “Bermudas to Estado do 56 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 Para, Brazil; eastern Atlantic from the Canary Islands to Saint Helena Island. . . .”” More recently, Hopkins et al. (1977) reported T. restrictus from the Florida Middle Ground as a new distribution record from the northeastern Gulf of Mexico. However, Rathbun (1901) had previously established the presence of T. restrictus (as Platybema rugosum Bate) in the northern Gulf, but reported it only as “Gulf of Mexico, 25-38 fathoms, sta- tions 2369 to 2374 (Albatross) and stations 5073 and 5093 (Grampus).” Corresponding longitudes and latitudes were not given, no doubt obscuring the fact that the Albatross stations were in the northern Gulf. To correct this oversight, the corresponding coordi- nates are given in Table 1. The above localities, with our material, thus establishes a continuous range for T. restrictus from the southeastern Gulf of Mexico northward to Cape San Blas, Florida. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS—We are grateful to D. L. Felder, R. H. Gore and R. W. Heard for com- ments on early drafts of the manuscript. F. A. Chace, Jr. verified identification of specimens and A. C. Child kindly provided Albatross and Grampus station data. This paper represents M.E.S.C. contribution no. 24. TABLE 1. Station coordinates of U.S.F.C. Steamer Albatross, and U.S.F.C. Schooner Grampus, for specimens of Trachycaris restrictus referred to in the text. Albatross Station 2369 29°16’30"N, 85°32’00’"W 2370 29°18'15”"N, 85°32’00’"W 2371 29°17'00’N, 85°30’45’"W 2372 29°17'30"N, 85°29'30” W 2373 29°14’00"N, 85°29'15” W 2374 29°11’30’N, 85°29’00”W Grampus Station 5073 25°23’00’N, 83°28’00’ W 5093 25°54'02”"N, 83°09’00’ W LITERATURE CITED ABELE, L. G. 1970. The marine decapod Crustacea of the northeastern Gulf of Mexcn Masters thesis. Florida State Univ., Tallahassee. BaTE, C. S. 1888. Report on the Crustacea Macrura collected by H.M.S. Challenger during itieiy years 1873-76. Rept. Voy. Challenger, Zool. 24:1-942. Caiman, W. T. 1906. Notes on some genera of the crustacean family Hippolytidae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7)17:29-34. Cuace, F. A., Jr. 1956. Pp. 5-23. In: Springer, S. and Bullis, H. (eds.). Collections by the Oregon in the Gulf of Mexico. U. S. Bur. Comm. Fish., Sp. Sci. Rept., Fish. 196. . 1972. The shrimps of the Smithsonian-Bredin Caribbean Expeditions with a summary of the West Indian shallow-water species (Crustacea: Decapoda: Natantia). Smithson. Con? trib. Zool. 98:1-179. DeEMan, J. G. 1888. Bericht iiber die von Herrn Dr. J. Brock im indischen Archipel gesammelten Decapoden und Stomatopoden. Arch. Naturgesch. 53:215-600. . 1907. On a collection of Crustacea, Decapoda and Stomatopoda, chiefly from the in- land Sea of Japan; with descriptions of new species. Trans. Linn. Soc. London Zool. 9:387- 454. Gorpon, I. 1935. On new or imperfectly known species of Crustacea Macrura. J. Linn. Soc. Lon- don Zool. 39:307-351. Gore, R. H., L. E. Scorro, anp L. J. BecKER. 1978. Studies on decapod Crustacea from the Indian River region of Florida. IV. Community composition, stability, and trophic partitioning in decapod crustaceans inhabiting some subtropical sabellariid worm reefs. Bull. Mar. Sci. 28:221-248. Hay, W. P. 1917. Preliminary descriptions of five new species of crustaceans from the coast of North Carolina. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington. 30:71-73. No. 1, 1980] DARDEAU ET AL.—CARIDEAN SHRIMP 57 Hayasui, K.-I. 1975. Hippolysmata grabhami Gordon, a synonym of Lysmata amboinensis (DeMan) (Decapoda: Caridea: Hippolytidae). Publ. Seto Mar. Biol. Lab. 22:285-297. Ho.tnuts, L. B. 1949. The caridean Crustacea of the Canary Islands. Zool. Med. Rijksmus. Nat. Hist. Leiden. 30:227-255. Hopkins, T. S., D. R. Biizzarp, S. A. BRAWLEY, S. A. EARLE, D. E. Grimm, D. K. GILBERT, P. G. Jounson, E. H. Livineston, C. H. Lutz, J. K. SHaw, anv B. B. SHaw. 1977. A preliminary characterization of the biotic components of composite strip transects on the Florida Middle- grounds, northeastern Gulf of Mexico. Proc., 3rd Int. Coral Reef Symp., 1, Miami. Pp. 31-37. Hu tines, N. C. 1961. The barnacle and decapod fauna from the nearshore area of Panama City, Florida. Quart. J. Florida Acad. Sci. 24:215-222. KincsLey, J. S. 1878. Notes on the North American Caridea in the Museum of the Peabody Academy of Science at Salem, Mass. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. 30:89-98. Lyons, W. G., S. P. Coss, D. K. Camp, J. A. Mountain, T. SavaceE, L. Lyons, anv E. A. JoYce, JR. 1971. Preliminary inventory of marine invertebrates collected near the electrical generating plant, Crystal River, Florida, in 1969. Florida Dept. Nat. Resources Mar. Res. Lab., Prof. Pap. Ser. 14:1-45. Manninc, R. B. 1963. The east American species of Gnathophyllum (Decapoda: Caridea), with the description of a new species. Crustaceana. 5:47-63. Mitne-Epwarps, A. 1878. Description de quelques especés nouvelles de crustacés provenant du voyage aux Iles du Cap-Vert de MM. Bouvier et de Cessac. Bull. Soc. Philomathique, Paris. 7:225-232. RaTHBUN, M. J. 1901. The Brachyura and Macrura of Porto Rico. Investigations of the aquatic re- sources and fisheries of Porto Rico by the United States Fish Commission Steamer Fish Hawk. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. (for 1900). 20:1-127. SIVERTSEN, E. 1933. Littoral Crustacea Decapoda from the Galapagos Islands. Part VII, vol. 38. Pp. 1-23. In: The Norwegian Zoological Expedition to the Galapagos Islands, 1925, con- ducted by Alf Wollebaek. Medd. Zool. Mus. Oslo. Soro, L. A. 1972. Decapod shelf-fauna of the northeastern Gulf of Mexico, distribution and zoogeog- raphy. Masters thesis. Florida State Univ., Tallahassee. Wass, M. L. 1955. The decapdd crustaceans of Alligator Harbor and adjacent inshore areas of north- western Florida. Quart. J. Florida Acad. Sci. 18:129-176. Florida Sci. 43(1):54-57. 1980. MOUTHBROODING AND COURTSHIP BEHAVIOR IN A NEOTROPI- CAL CICHLID, GEOPHAGUS HONDAE—W. Kk. Bradley, Jr.', Department of Bio- logical Sciences, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816 Asstract: Observations of 4 spawnings of Geophagus hondae revealed a ritualized spawn- ing sequence. The female began mouthbrooding of eggs immediately after egg deposition. * MOovuTHBROODING of eggs and young is well documented for cichlids of Africa (Breder and Rosen, 1966; Fryer and Iles, 1972). Less is known of mouthbrooding in Neotropical cichlids. Reid and Atz (1958) reported delaved mouthbrooding be- havior in Geophagus jurapari and reviewed the previous literature. Since then, few observations have been published on the subject except in aquarium hobby magazines. Breder and Rosen (1966) reviewed reproduction literature, and found only G. jurapari reported definitely to exhibit mouthbrooding. Sprenger (1971) reported mouthbrooding in an unidentified Geophagus species later identified as G. steindachneri (Loiselle, 1974). Losielle (pers. comm.) noted that G. crassilabris ‘Current address: 826 S. 13th St., Palatka, FL 32077. “The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of charges from funds made available in support of the research which is the subject of this article. In accordance with 18 U.S.C. 1734, this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” solely to indicate this fact. 58 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 is a sophisticated mouthbrooder (immediately picking up the eggs after spawn- ing) and G. auticeps is a primitive mouthbrooder in the mode of G. jurapari. G. surinamensis has been reported to exhibit delayed mouthbrooding (Gold- stein, 1973; Mendenhall, 1977; Sprenger, 1977). Geophagus pellengrini and G. steindachneri exhibit immediate mouthbrooding (Sprenger, 1971; Goldstein, 1973; Winkler and Specian, 1977), although detailed observations of spawning were not reported. Gosse (1975) placed G. steindachneri in the synonomy of G. hondae although Loiselle (1978) preferred retention of the former name. For the purpose of this paper, I will follow Gosse (1975). MATERIALS AND METHODS—My observations are based on 4 separate spawn- ings by 2 different pairs of fish. Spawnings I, II, and III were by a pair of fish pur- chased from a tropical fish store. Spawning IV was by a pair of fish reared from spawning II. Spawning occurred in 38 | (spawning I and II), 95 | (spawning II), and 133 | (spawning III) aquaria. Only the spawning fish were present in spawn- ings I and II, while other cichlids were in the tanks during spawnings IT and IV. No young were obtained from spawnings IV. The female was removed from the 95 | aquarium after spawning IJ and placed in a 38 | aquarium with no other fish present. In all cases the male was removed after spawning. ResuLts—Courtship behavior involved a ritualized display. The male as- sumed a head—down attitude, with the tail slightly elevated; the mouth, bran- chiostegals, and fins were fully extended with accompanying head shaking and quivering of his entire body (body quiver display). Body quivering continued in- termittently throughout the courtship-spawning sequence. The display was di- rected at the female and initially occurred at any point in the tank. Later, the male used this display at the spawning site such that the protruded mouth touched the substrate. The female exhibited a similar display at the spawning site. Spawning sites were largely selected and prepared by the males with the ex- ception of spawning III, in which the female did not spawn at the site “selected” by the male, but “chose” an alternate site. Preparation of the site involved re- moval of gravel from a flat smooth surface (spawnings I, II, III) or construction of a conical depression in the gravel (spawning IV). The depression constructed in spawning IV was approximately 25-40 mm deep and 75-100 mm in dia at the rim. It was constructed by the male, who removed mouthfuls of gravel from the center. The shape of the depression was due to gravel falling into the space cre- ated by gravel removal from a single spot. The spawning sequence began with the male and female roughly perpendicu- lar to each other facing the spawning site. Spawning consisted of the female moving forward over the site and releasing ova. As she backed up to her initial position, she picked up the eggs in her mouth. The male passed in front of her, presumably releasing sperm, and then retreated to his initial position. Occa- sionally the pair would assume a head-to-head position and both would exhibit the body quiver display. Fertilization apparently occurred in the mouth of the female because she nor- mally retrieved the eggs before the male passed in front of her (and over the No. 1, 1980] | BRADLEY — Geophagus 59 spawning site). Occasionally, 1 or 2 eggs were not retrieved by the female until after the male had passed over the spawning site. Generally the female deposited 4-5 eggs on each trip over the spawning site; however, the number of eggs per trip ranged from 0-10. The eggs were elliptical and 2-3 mm long. The female retained the egg/young in her buccal cavity for 9 (spawning I), 20 (spawning IJ), and 17 da (spawning III) from the time spawning occurred, until she first released the young. The post-larvae were 3-5 mmTL when first released. The female was able to ingest food throughout the oral incubation period without releasing the eggs or young. The female was removed shortly after first releasing the young, therefore it is not known how long she would have continued to take them into her mouth after they had first been released. The male did not collect or participate in brooding eggs. In spawnings ob- served prior to those reported here, the male was kept with the female after spawning. In those cases, the eggs and young were eaten by one or both parents. Sprenger (1971) and Winkler and Specian (1977) have reported this species as mouthbrooding and spawning over smooth surfaces. However, they apparently did not observe the sequence typical of the spawnings I observed. In the absence of a horizontal smooth surface, which appeared to be a preferred spawning site, a conical depression was constructed in gravel and spawning occurred there. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS~—I thank Dr. F. F. Snelson, Jr. for his review of the manuscript. LITERATURE CITED Brepver, C. M., anp D. E. Rosen. 1966. Modes of Reproduction in Fishes. T. F. H. Publ., Jersev City, New Jersey. - Fryer, G., anp T. D. Lives. 1972. The Cichlid Fishes of the Great Lakes of Africa: Their Biology and Evolution. T. F. H. Publ., Neptune Citv, New Jersey. Go.psTEIN, R. D. 1973. Cichlids of the World. T. F. H. Publ., Neptune Citv, New Jersev. Gosse, J. P. 1975. Revision du genre Geophagus (Pisces cichlidae). Mem. Academie Royale des Sciences d’Outre-Mer. (Bruxelles 19). LoIsELLe, P. B. 1974. The identity of the Redhump Geophagus. Buntb. Bull. No. 40:9-22. . 1978. (Review of Gosse, J. P. 1975--Revision du genre Geophagus (Pisces cichlidae). Mem. Acad. Royal Sciences d’Outre-Mer. (Bruxelles 19). Buntb. Bull. No. 63:18. MENDENHALL, C. 1977. Geophagus surinamensis observations on breeding. Buntb. Bull. No. 63:28-30. Rep, M. J., anp J. W. Artz. 1958. Oral incubation in the cichlid fish Geophagus jurapari Heckel. Zoologia. 43:77-88. SPRENGER, K. 1971. The Redhump Geophagus. Buntb. Bull. No. 26:15-17. WINCLER, S., AND T. SpECIAN. 1977. Geophagus steindachneri Eigenmann and Hildebrand. Ameri- can Cichlid Assoc. Cichlid Index. 2:1-3. Florida Sci. 43(1):57-59. 1980. 60 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 DIATOMS FROM THE BIG WEKIWA RIVER IN CENTRAL FLORIDA— Jerrell J. Daigle and Barbara L. Luttrell, Biology Department, Orange County Pollution Control, 2008 E. Michigan Avenue, Orlando, Florida 32806. Asstract: Forty-four species and 6 varieties of diatoms (Bacillariophyta) collected from the upper Big Wekiwa River in Central Florida are listed.° UntTiL RECENTLY, little Was known about the diatoms (Bacillariophyta) of the Big Wekiwa River, a highly mineralized, spring-fed, calcareous river originating in northwest Orange County in Central Florida. Since 1972, our biology staff has collected diatoms using modified samplers (Weber, 1966) and prepared them for microscopic analysis as outlined by Patrick -(1966). Some 44 species and 6 varieties from the periphytic and phytoplanktonic communities were identified as shown below using the works of Tiffany and Britton (1971), Hustedt (1930), and Patrick {1966). All diatom slides are deposited in the Orange County Pollution Control De- partment reference collection. CENTRALES Cyclotella meneghiniana Kutz. Melosira distans (Ehr.) Kutz. M. varians Ag. Melosira sp. PENNALES Achnanthes lanceolata (Breb.) Grun. A. lanceolata var. dubia Grun. Amphipleura lindheimeri Grun. Amphiprora ornata Bai. Amphora coffeaeformis Ag. A. ovalis Kutz. Cocconeis disculus (Sch.) Cl. C. fluviatilis Wal. Cymbella prostrata (Berk.) Cl. Cymbella sp. Diatoma vulgare Bory Diploneis smithii (Breb.) Cl. Epithemia zebra (Ehr.) Kutz. Fragilaria construens (Ehr.) Grun. Fragilaria sp. Frustulia rhomboides (Ehr.) DeT. Gomphonema acuminatum var. coronatum (Ehr.) Rabh G. parvulum (Kutz.) Grun. Gyrosigma acuminatum (Kutz.) Rabh. Hantzschia pseudomarina Hust. Navicula capitata (Ehr.) N. capitata var. hungarica (Grun.) Ross *The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of charges from funds made available in support of the research which is the subject of this article. In accordance with 18 U.S. C. § 1734, this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” solely to indicate this fact. No. 1, 1980] | DAIGLE AND LUTTRELL— DIATOMS N. cryptocephala Kutz. N. cuspidata (Kutz.) Kutz. N. gastrum (Ehr.) Kutz. N. reinhardtii (Grun.) Grun. Nitzschia acicularis (Kutz.) Wm. Sm. N. amphibia Grun. N. filiformis Wm. Sm. N. paleacea Grun. N. parvula Lew. N. tryblionella Hantz. Pinnularia sp. Stauroneis sp. Surirella angustata (Kutz.) S. robusta Ehr. S. robusta var. splendida (Ehr.) V.H. Synedra fasciculata (Ag.) Kutz. S. goulardi Breb. S. rumpens var. familiaris (Kutz.) Hust. S. ulna (Nitz.) Ehr. S. ulna var. oxyrhynchus (Kutz.) V.H. Tabellaria fenestrata (Lyngb) Kutz. Tabellaria sp. Terpsinoe americana (Bai.) Ralfs LITERATURE CITED 61 Hustept, F. 1930. Die Susswasser-Flora Mitteleuropas. University Microfilms reprint, Ann Arbor, Michigan. PaTRICK, R., AND REIMER, C. W. 1966. The Diatoms of the United States. Monograph. 13:1-688, Acad. of Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. TirFany, L. H., aNp Britton, M. E. 1971. The Algae of Illinois. Reprint. Hafner Publishing Cos New York. Weber, C. I. 1966. Methods of collection and analysis of plankton and periphyton samples in the water pollution surveillance system. Appl. and Devel. Rept. No. 19, Federal Water Pollu- tion Control Admin., Div. Pollution Surveil., Cincinnati, Ohio. Florida Sci. 43(1):60-61. 1980. 62 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [Vol. 43 OCCURRENCE OF FUNGI (THRAUSTOCHYTRIACEAE) IN THE GUT OF LYTECHINUS VARIEGATUS (LAMARCK) (ECHINODER- MATA: ECHINOIDEA)—D. TeStrake Wagner-Merner and J. M. Lawrence, Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620 Asstract: Four species in the Thraustochytriaceae occur consistently in the guts of Lyte- chinus variegatus from the Tampa Bay area. Some aspects of the biology of these fungi are dis- cussed. * KNOWLEDGE of microorganisms and their suggested role in biodegrada- tion of the contents of guts of echinoids is limited to the occurrence of bac- teria (Lawrence, 1975). Although digestive enzymes occur in echinoids (An- derson, 1966), enzymes which partially hydrolize algae and sea grasses may be supplied by the bacteria occurring in the echinoid guts (Prim and Law- rence, 1975). These authors suggest that bacteria and fungal enzymes may be important in extra-organismal digestion of plant detritus, particularly plant walls. In contrast to the bacteria, there is no evidence that fungi occur in echinoid guts. The existence of fungi from marine environments has been documented by Johnson and Sparrow (1961), including the occurrence of Trichomycetes and yeasts from the digestive tracts of a number of invertebrates (Pitts and Cowley, 1974). Members of the Thraustochytriaceae occur in littoral waters in large numbers and they are very common on algal surfaces (Vishniac, 1955). Isolations were made from the guts of individuals of Lytechinus variagatus (Lamarck) collected from Pass-a-Grille Channel, St. Petersburg Beach, Florida in 1976, 1977, and 1978. Samples of the gut contents from the echinoids were added to sterile sea water baited with pine pollen. Cultures were incubated for 48 hr before identification. Species of Thraustochytrium (T. proliferum Sparrow, T. roseum Goldstein, T. aggregatum Ulken) and Schizochytrium aggregatium Goldstein and Belsky were found consistently. These zoosporic marine organ- isms are members of the Thraustochytriaceae, a group traditionally con- sidered among the water molds (Saproleginales). This represents the first report of the thraustochytrids from the guts of any invertebrates. The Thraustochytriaceae dissolve pollen wall material as well as lower animal tissues (Perkins, 1973) and decompose moribund materials in the photic zone (Bremer, 1976). The frequent isolation of these organisms from the surfaces of particulate organic material or surfaces of macrophytes correlates with the nutritional behavior of lower fungi and distinguishes them from the bacteria and yeasts which are associated with high concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (Bahnweg, 1973). It has been observed, however, that thraustochytrids are not abundant when bacteria are numerous on animal cell surfaces (Perkins, 1973). The role of the ectoplasmic net in the nutrition of these organisms is not well “The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of charges from funds made available in support of the research which is the subject of this article. In accordance with 18 U.S.C. 8 1734, this article must therefore be hereby marked “advertisement” solely to indicate this fact. No. 1, 1980] WAGNER-MERNER AND LAWRENCE— FUNGI 63 understood. It may be involved in the presence or absence of bacteria in de- trital surface films, or the bacterial presence may affect the presence of the fungi. LITERATURE CITED ANDERSON, J. M. 1966. Aspects of nutritional physiology Pp. 329-357. In Boolootian, R. A. (ed.) Physiology of Echinodermata. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Baunwec, G. 1973. The occurrence, distribution and taxonomy of fungi: in particular lower phycomycetes, in the Subantarctic and Artic marine ecosystems. Ph.D. dissert. Univ. Michi- gan, Ann Arbor. Bremer, G. B. 1976. The ecology of marine lower fungi. Pp. 313-333. In Jones, E.B.G. (ed.). Recent Advances in Aquatic Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Jounson, T. W., JR., AND F. K. Sparrow, Jr. 1961. Fungi in Oceans and Estuaries. J. Cramer. Weinheim. Lawrence, J. M. 1975. On the relationships between marine plants and sea urchins. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 13:213-286. Perkins, F. O. 1973. Observations of thraustochytriaceous (Phycomycetes) and labyrinthulid (Rhizo- podea) ectoplasmic nets on natural and artificial substrates—an electron microscope study. Canadian J. Bot. 51:485-491. Pitts, G. Y., anp G. T. Cowtey. 1974. Mycoflora of the habitat and midgut of the fiddler crab, Uca pugilator. Mycologia. 66:669-675. Prim, P., anp J. M. Lawrence. 1975. Utilization of marine plants and their constituents by bacteria isolated from the gut of echinoids (Echinodermata). Marine Biol. 33:167-173. VisHniac, H. S. 1955. Marine mycology. Trans. New York Acad. Sci. ser. I 17:352-360. Florida Sci. 43(1):62-63. 1980. REVIEW ROBERT K. GODFREY AND JEAN W. Wooten. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Southeastern United States: Monocotyledons. Pp. i-xii; 1-712. 398 figs. (June 18, 1979), University of Georgia Press. Athens. Price: $30.00. FLoripa needs a definitive and up-to-date manual of the flora. Although God- frey and Wooten have not met that need in full, we have been presented with a most valuable contribution which can only bring a Florida floristic manual closer to realization. Parochial considerations aside, geographic coverage of the south- ern states so that the area treated is contiguous with the 1972 Correll and Correll Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Southwestern United States is especially useful for botanists, environmentalists and others of a growing citizenry concerned with aquatic and wetlands resources. The authors have made “many arbitrary choices” and “‘personal biases were indulged” in selecting plants to be included, but a rough count of 31 families, 177 genera and 742 species revealed that the guidelines were liberally interpreted. The 398 figures derived from many sources, including some original art, are remarkably uniform considering the several ar- tists involved, both in presentation and high quality. One could only wish that at 64 FLORIDA SCIENTIST [ Vol. 43 least one species had been illustrated for each of the 36 genera not figured. The keys are written to be used and the authors, to their credit, have not hesitated to have a taxon “key out” in more than one place. Use of vegetative characters for the marine plants is most welcome. The treatments of Xyridaceae and Erio- caulaceae were contributed by Dr. Robert Kral, Lemnaceae by Mr. Howard L. Clark, and Orchidaceae by Dr. Donovan S. Correll. The Introduction includes a brief description of habitats with reference to additional information and a care- fully restrained review of “Environmental Perspectives” with respect to human impact and with a plea for protection or for “management practices, imitative of natural conditions.” A glossary and indices to common and scientific names complete the book. The text is well printed, despite the use of more white space than necessary in some places, and sewn fascicles are sturdily bound. Normally one does not read a flora because it is comprised of sterile state- ments of diagnostic features—not so with Godfrey and Wooten. Amongst the formal statements we find pithy comments such as “we are unable to delimit clear-cut segregate taxa” (Andropogon virginicus) or “our description of Iris hexagona may be too narrowly drawn . . .” which present to the user field obser- vations and insights which are based on broad experience and so often not avail- able to assist when satisfying determinations are difficult. This book deserves an enthusiastic review because it meets high standards as well as being so immensely useful for the Florida botanist. We can only ask that the volume on dicotyledons follow on very soon for those of us who are but partially appeased and want the “whole loaf.” Even at $30.00, purchase of Godfrey and Wooten represents a buck well spent.—Harvey A. Miller, University of Central Florida, Orlando 32816. INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS Individuals who publish in the Florida Scientist must be active members in the Florida Academy of Sciences. 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FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS Archbold Expeditions Manatee Junior College Barry College Miami-Dade Community College Eckerd College Stetson University Edison Community College University of Central Florida Florida Atlantic University University of Florida Florida Institute of Technology University of Miami Florida Southern College University of South Florida Florida State University University of Tampa Gulf Breeze Laboratory University of West Florida Jacksonville University John Young Museum and Planetarium Membership applications, subscriptions, renewals, changes of address, and orders for back numbers should be addressed to the Executive Secretary, Florida Academy of Sciences, 810 East Rollins Street, Orlando, Florida 32803. SONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES TTT Notes on the Distribution of Four Caridean Shrimps (Crustacea: Decapoda) in the Northeastern Gulf of Mexico....... M. R. Dardeau, D. L. Adkison, J. K. Shaw and T. S. 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